---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,transcriber's ,note3 ,this version of the text cannot represent certain typographical effects4 ,italics are delimited with the #8' character as italic4 ,the original text was printed in two columns1 which cannot be replicated here4 ,as is common in dictionaries1 each column is headed with a three-letter indication of the first and last articles on that page4 ,this feature is not feasible here4 ,minor errors1 attributable to the printer1 have been corrected4 ,please see the transcriber's note at the end of this text for details regarding the handling of any textual issues encountered during its preparation4 ,there are several unusual ,greek characters employed in this text3 ligature of #8' stigma1 a ligature of #8' a cursive variant of #8'1 almost always used as the first character of a word4 a cursive variant of #8'1 used in any position other than the first character1 which appears as #8'4 ,a ,,biblical ,,and ,,theological ,,dictionary3 -------------- ,,explanatory ,,of ,,the ,,history1 ,,manners1 ,,and ,,customs ,,of ,,the ,,jews1 ,,and ,,neighbouring ,,nations4 ,,with ,,an ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,most ,,remarkable ,,places ,,and ,,persons ,,mentioned ,,in ,,sacred ,,scripture2 ,an ,exposition ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,doctrines ,,of ,,christianity2 ,,and ,,notices ,,of ,,jewish ,,and ,,christian ,,sects ,,and ,,heresies4 ,,by ,,richard ,,watson4 ,,revised ,,by ,,the ,,american ,,editors4 ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4--,,chrysostom4 ,an intimate acquaintance with the ,holy ,scriptures is a secure haven1 and an impregnable bulwark1 and an immovable tower1 and imperishable glory1 and impenetrable armour1 and unfading joy1 and perpetual delight1 and whatever other excellence can be uttered4 ,illustration ,,new-,,york1 ,,published ,,by ,b4 ,,waugh ,,and ,t4 ,,mason1 ,,for ,,the ,,methodist ,,episcopal ,,church1 ,,at ,,the ,,conference ,,office1 #ad ,,crosby-,,street4 ------- ,j4 ,collord1 ,printer4 #ahcb4 8,entered according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahcb1 by ,b4 ,,waugh and ,t4 ,,mason1 in the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of the ,southern ,district of ,new-,york40 ,,preface ,,by ,,the ,,author4 ------- ,in the following ,dictionary1 compiled from the best sources ancient and modern1 with the addition of many original articles1 the selections have been made with reference to what was thought most useful2 and thus many things of minor importance1 usually found in similar works1 have been excluded4 ,every article too1 taken from preceding ,dictionaries1 has been carefully weighed1 and in a great number of instances modified1 corrected1 or enlarged2 and numerous other writings variously illustrative of the ,holy ,scriptures have been made to contribute a portion of their information under different heads4 ,this general acknowledgment renders a particular reference to the works made use of unnecessary4 ,the fact is1 that many of the most valuable of them are compilations from preceding compilations1 and so have no title to be referred to as original authorities2 while in other instances the articles in this ,dictionary have been collected from several sources1 and so altered1 or combined with original corrections or enlargements1 that it would be difficult to assign each portion to its proper original4 ,where1 however1 any particulars of fact or history required confirmation1 the authority has been given4 ,it will be observed that all the places and persons mentioned in the ,bible have not been noticed1 for this would only have made the same unprofitable display of proper names which is seen in several other ,dictionaries2 but those have been selected on which any thing important for the right understanding of the ,scriptures seemed1 more or less1 to depend4 ,the same rule has been observed as to the natural history of the ,bible1 on which department great light has been thrown by ,dr4 ,harris1 whose learned work has been rather freely used4 ,the leading sects and heresies1 ancient and modern1 have also been introduced2 but with no design to embody a complete account of religious opinions3 those only1 therefore1 have been inserted with which it is most necessary that the theological student should have a general acquaintance4 ,all that is important in those useful modern works which have been published upon the manners and customs of the east will be found embodied under different heads so far as it tends to elucidate the sacred volume2 and many interesting extracts are given from the most intelligent of our modern travellers in ,palestine1 and neighbouring countries1 pointing out the present condition of places celebrated in sacred geography1 and especially when the account illustrates and renders remarkable the fulfilment of prophecy4 ,at the close of the whole1 a complete alphabetical list of proper names occurring in the ,bible1 with their significations and right pronunciation1 is appended4 ,,london1 ,august #bj1 #ahca4 ,,advertisement ,,to ,,the ,,american ,,edition4 ,no other improvements have been attempted in this edition of ,mr4 ,watson's ,biblical and ,theological ,dictionary1 than adding a few notes in relation to some matters existing in this country1 which had escaped the attention of the author1 and rendering those passages and phrases into ,english which had been left untranslated4 ,such translations are included in brackets4 ,it may be proper to remark1 that only that part of the work from the eight hundred and forty second page has been printed under the superintendence of the present editor2 the former part having passed through the press previous to the last general conference4 ,it is not necessary to say any thing in commendation of this work4 ,whatever merit1 however1 may be attached to others of a similar character which have preceded it1 we think it will be conceded by all1 that ,mr4 ,watson1 by furnishing this ,dictionary1 has supplied a desideratum1 in the department of ,biblical and ,theological literature1 which had long been felt1 and for doing which the religious community will not be backward in acknowledging its obligations4 ,n4 ,,bangs4 ,,new-,,york1 ,sept4 #be1 #ahcb4 ,illustration3 ,the ,,world1 as ,peopled by ,,the ,,descendants ,,of ,,noah ,shewing the ,countries possessed by ,,shem1 ,,ham ,,japhet and their posterity ,a ,,biblical ,,and ,,theological ,,dictionary4 ,,aaron1 the son of ,amram and ,jochebed1 of the tribe of ,levi4 ,aaron was three years older than his brother ,moses2 and when ,god appeared in the burning bush1 ,moses having excused himself from the undertaking committed to him1 by urging that he was slow of speech1 ,aaron1 who was an eloquent man1 was made his interpreter and spokesman2 and in effecting the deliverance of the ,hebrews we therefore find them constantly associated4 ,during the march of the children of ,israel through the wilderness1 ,aaron and his sons were appointed by ,god to exercise for ever the office of priests in the tabernacle4 ,moses having ascended the mountain to receive the law from ,god1 ,aaron1 his sons1 and seventy elders1 followed him1 ,exod4 xxiv1 #a1 #b1 #i-aa2 not indeed to the summit1 but 8afar off10 8and they saw the ,god of ,israel10 that is1 the glory in which he appeared1 8as it were the paved work of a sapphire stone1 and as it were the body of heaven for clearness20--a clear and dazzling azure1 a pure1 unmingled splendour like that of the heavens4 8,and upon the nobles of ,israel10 ,aaron1 his sons1 and the seventy elders1 8he laid not his hand10--they were not destroyed by a sight which must have overwhelmed the weakness of mortal men had they not been strengthened to bear it2 8and they did eat and drink10--they joyfully and devoutly feasted before the ,lord1 as a religious act1 upon the sacrifices they offered4 ,after this they departed1 and ,moses remained with ,god on the very summit of the mount forty days4 ,during this period1 the people1 grown impatient at the long absence of ,moses1 addressed themselves to ,aaron in a tumultuous manner1 saying1 8,make us gods which shall go before us3 for1 as for this ,moses1 the man that brought us up out of the land of ,egypt1 we wot not what is become of him40 ,aaron sinfully yielded to the importunities of the people2 and having ordered them to bring the pendants and the ear-rings of their wives and children1 he melted them down1 and then made a golden calf1 probably in imitation of the ,egyptian ,apis1 an ox or calf dedicated to ,osiris4 ,in this instance the image was dedicated to ,jehovah the true ,god2 but the guilt consisted in an attempt to establish image worship1 which1 when even ultimately referring to ,god1 he has forbidden4 ,neither are images to be worshipped1 nor the true ,god by images2--this is the standing unrepealed law of ,heaven4 ,the calf was called a golden calf1 as being highly ornamented with gold4 ,having finished the idol1 the people placed it on a pedestal1 and danced around it1 saying1 8,these be thy gods1 ,o ,israel20 or1 as it is expressed in ,nehemiah1 8,this is thy ,god10 the image or symbol of thy ,god1 8which brought thee up out of the land of ,egypt40 ,moses1 having hastened from the mount by the command of ,god1 testified to the people1 by breaking the tables of the law in their presence1 that the covenant between ,god and them was now rendered of none effect through their offence4 ,he also indignantly reproved ,aaron1 whose sin indeed had kindled against him the anger of the ,lord1 so that he would 8have destroyed him but that ,moses prayed for him40 ,after the tabernacle was built1 ,moses consecrated ,aaron to the high priesthood with the holy oil1 and invested him with his priestly robes1--his garments 8of glory and beauty20 but ,aaron's weakness was again manifested in concurring with ,miriam1 his sister1 to censure and oppose ,moses1 through envy4 ,aaron1 as being the elder brother1 could not perhaps brook his superiority4 ,what the motive of ,miriam might be does not appear2 but she being struck with leprosy1 this punishment1 as being immediately from ,god1 opened ,aaron's eyes2 he acknowledged his fault1 and asked forgiveness of ,moses both for himself and his sister4 ,aaron himself became also the object of jealousy2 but two miraculous interpositions confirmed him in his office of high priest1 as of ,divine appointment4 ,the first was the destruction of ,korah1 who sought that office for himself1 and of the two hundred and fifty ,levites who supported his pretensions1 ,num4 xvi4 ,the second was the blossoming of ,aaron's rod1 which was designed 8to cause the murmurings of the ,israelites against him to cease10 by showing that he was chosen of ,god4 ,moses having1 at the command of ,god1 taken twelve rods of an almond tree from the princes of the twelve tribes1 and ,aaron's separately1 he placed them in the tabernacle before the sanctuary1 after having written upon each the name of the tribe which it represented1 and upon the rod of ,aaron the name of ,aaron4 ,the day following1 when the rods were taken out1 that of ,aaron 8was budded1 and brought forth buds1 and bloomed blossoms1 and yielded almonds40 ,this rod therefore was laid up by the ark1 to perpetuate the remembrance of the miracle1 and to be a token of ,aaron's right to his office4 ,aaron married ,elisheba1 the daughter of ,amminadab1 of the tribe of ,judah1 by whom he had four sons1 ,nadab and ,abihu1 ,eleazar and ,ithamar1 ,exodus vi1 #bc4 ,the two first were killed by fire from heaven1 as a punishment for presuming to offer incense with strange fire in their censers1 ,lev4 x1 #a1 #b4 ,from the two others the succession of high priests was continued in ,israel4 ,the account of the death of ,aaron is peculiarly solemn and affecting4 ,as he and ,moses1 in striking the rock at ,meribah1 ,num4 xvi1 had not honoured ,god by a perfect obedience and faith1 he in his wrath declared unto them that they should not enter into the promised land4 ,soon after1 the ,lord commanded ,moses1 8,take ,aaron1 and ,eleazar his son1 and bring them up to mount ,hor2 and strip ,aaron of his garments10--his splendid pontifical vestments1--8and put them upon ,eleazar1 his son2 and ,aaron shall be gathered unto his people1 and shall die there40 ,this command was carried into effect in the presence of all ,israel1 who were encamped at the foot of the mountain2 and his son being invested with the father's priestly dress1 ,aaron died1 and all the people mourned for him thirty days4 ,his sepulchre was left unmarked and unknown1 perhaps to prevent the superstitious reverence of future ages4 ,in ,deuteronomy it is said that ,aaron died at ,mosera2 because that was the name of the district in which mount ,hor was situated4 #b4 ,the ,,priesthood being established in ,aaron and his family1 the nature of this office among the ,israelites1 and the distinction between the high priest and the other priests1 require here to be pointed out4 ,before the promulgation of the law by ,moses1 the fathers of every family1 and the princes of every tribe1 were priests4 ,this was the case both before and after the flood2 for ,cain and ,abel1 ,noah1 ,abraham1 ,job1 ,abimelech1 ,laban1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 themselves offered their own sacrifices4 ,but after the ,lord had chosen the family of ,aaron1 and annexed the priesthood to that line1 then the right of sacrificing to ,god was reserved to that family only4 ,the high priesthood was confined to the first-born in succession2 and the rest of his posterity were priests simply so called1 or priests of the second order4 ,both in the high priest and the second or inferior priests1 two things deserve notice1--their consecration and their office4 ,in some things they differed1 and in others agreed4 ,in their consecration they differed thus3 the high priest had the chrism1 or sacred ointment1 poured upon his head1 so as to run down to his beard1 and the skirts of his garment1 ,exod4 xxx1 #bc2 ,lev4 viii1 #ab2 ,psa4 cxxxiii1 #b4 ,but the second priests were only sprinkled with this oil1 mixed with the blood of the sacrifice1 ,lev4 viii1 #cj4 ,they differed also in their robes1 which were a necessary adjunct to consecration4 ,the high priest wore at the ordinary times of his ministration in the temple1 eight garments2--linen drawers--a coat of fine linen close to his skin--an embroidered girdle of fine linen1 blue and scarlet1 to surround the coat--a robe all of blue with seventy-two bells1 and as many embroidered pomegranates upon the skirts of it2 this was put over the coat and girdle--an ephod of gold1 and of blue1 purple1 scarlet1 and fine linen1 curiously wrought1 on the shoulders of which were two stones engraved with the names of the twelve tribes2 this was put over the robe1 and girt with a curious girdle of the same--a breastplate1 about a span square1 wrought with gold1 blue1 purple1 scarlet1 and fine linen1 and fastened upon the ephod by golden chains and rings2 in this breastplate were placed the urim and thummim1 also twelve several stones1 containing the names of the twelve tribes--a mitre of fine linen1 sixteen cubits long1 to wrap round his head--and lastly1 a plate of gold1 or holy crown1 two fingers broad1 whereon was engraved1 8,holiness to the ,lord20 this was tied with blue lace upon the front of the mitre4 ,beside these garments1 which he wore in his ordinary ministration1 there were four others1 which he wore only upon extraordinary occasions1 viz4 on the day of expiation1 when he went into the holy of holies1 which was once a year4 ,these were3 linen drawers--a linen coat--a linen girdle--a linen mitre1 all white1 ,exod4 xxviii2 ,lev4 xvi1 #d4 ,but the inferior priests had only four garments3 linen drawers--a linen coat--a linen girdle--a linen bonnet4 ,the priest and high priest differed also in their marriage restrictions2 for the high priest might not marry a widow1 nor a divorced woman1 nor a harlot1 but a virgin only2 whereas the other priests might lawfully marry a widow1 ,lev4 xxi1 #g4 ,in the following particulars the high priest and inferior priests agreed in their consecration3 both were to be void of bodily blemish--both were to be presented to the ,lord at the door of the tabernacle--both were to be washed with water--both were to be consecrated by offering up certain sacrifices--both were to have the blood of a ram put upon the tip of the right ear1 the thumb of the right hand1 and the great toe of the right foot1 ,exod4 xxix1 #bj4 ,in the time of consecration1 certain pieces of the sacrifice were put into the priest's hand1 which was called 8filling his hand20 hence the ,hebrew phrase1 8to fill the hand10 signifies consecration4 ,in the discharge of their offices1 the high priest differed from the other priests in these particulars3 the high priest only1 and that but once a year1 might enter into the holy of holies--the high priest might not mourn for his nearest relations by uncovering his head1 or tearing any part of his garments1 except the skirt2 whereas the priest was allowed to mourn for these six1--father1 mother1 son1 daughter1 brother1 and sister if she had no husband1 ,lev4 xxi1 #b1 #aj1 #aa2 but they agreed in these respects3 they both burnt incense and offered sacrifices--they both sounded the trumpet1 either as an alarm in war1 or to assemble the people and their rulers--they both slew the sacrifices--both instructed the people--and both judged of leprosy4 ,for the more orderly performance of these offices1 the high priest had his sagan1 who1 in case of the high priest's pollution1 performed his duty4 ,the high priest and his sagan resembled our bishop and his suffragan4 #c4 ,aaron was a ,,type of ,christ1 not personally1 but as the high priest of the ,jewish church4 ,all the priests1 as offering gifts and sacrifices1 were in their office types of ,christ2 but ,aaron especially1 #a4 ,as the high priest4 #b4 ,in entering into the holy place on the great day of atonement1 and reconciling the people to ,god2 in making intercession for them1 and pronouncing upon them the blessing of ,jehovah1 at the termination of solemn services4 #c4 ,in being anointed with the holy oil by effusion1 which was prefigurative of the ,holy ,spirit with which our ,lord was endowed4 #d4 ,in bearing the names of all the tribes of ,israel upon his breast and upon his shoulders1 thus presenting them always before ,god1 and representing them to him4 #e4 ,in being the medium of their inquiring of ,god by urim and thummim2 and of the communication of his will to them4 ,but though the offices of ,aaron were typical1 the priesthood of ,christ is of a different and higher ,,order than his1 namely1 that of ,,melchizedeck4 ,see ,,calf1 ,,priest1 ,,type1 ,,ephod1 ,,breastplate1 ,,urim4 ,,ab1 in the ,hebrew chronology1 the eleventh month of the civil year1 and the fifth of the ecclesiastical year1 which began with ,nisan4 ,this month answered to the moon of ,july1 comprehending part of ,july and of ,august1 and contained thirty days4 ,the first day of this month is observed as a fast by the ,jews1 in memory of ,aaron's death2 and the ninth1 in commemoration of the destruction of the temple by ,nebuchadnezzar1 in the year before ,christ #ehg4 ,josephus observes1 that the burning of the temple by ,nebuchadnezzar happened on the same day of the year on which it was afterward burned by ,titus4 ,the same day was remarkable for ,adrian's edict1 which prohibited the ,jews to continue in ,judea1 or to look toward ,jerusalem and lament its desolation4 ,the eighteenth day is also kept as a fast1 because the sacred lamp was extinguished on that night1 in the reign of ,ahaz4 ,on the twenty-first1 or1 according to ,scaliger1 the twenty-second day1 was a feast called ,xylophoria1 from their laying up the necessary wood in the temple3 and on the twenty-fourth1 a feast in commemoration of the abolishing of a law by the ,asmoneans1 or ,maccabees1 which had been introduced by the ,sadducees1 and which enacted1 that both sons and daughters should alike inherit the estate of their parents4 ,,abaddon1 ,heb4 corresponding to ,apollyon1 ,gr4 that is1 ,destroyer1 is represented1 ,rev4 ix1 #aa1 as king of the locusts1 and the angel of the bottomless pit4 ,le ,clerc and ,dr4 ,hammond understand by the locusts in this passage1 the zealots and robbers who infested and desolated ,judea before ,jerusalem was taken by the ,romans2 and by ,abaddon1 ,john of ,gischala1 who having treacherously left that town before it was surrendered to ,titus1 came to ,jerusalem and headed those of the zealots who acknowledged him as their king1 and involved the ,jews in many grievous calamities4 ,the learned ,grotius concurs in opinion1 that the locusts are designed to represent the sect of the zealots1 who appeared among the ,jews during the siege1 and at the time of the destruction of ,jerusalem4 ,but ,mr4 ,mede remarks1 that the title ,abaddon alludes to ,obodas1 the common name of the ancient monarchs of that part of ,arabia from which ,mohammed came2 and considers the passage as descriptive of the inundation of the ,saracens4 ,mr4 ,lowman adopts and confirms this interpretation4 ,he shows that the rise and progress of the ,mohammedan religion and empire exhibit a signal accomplishment of this prophecy4 ,all the circumstances here recited correspond to the character of the ,arabians1 and the history of the period that extended from ,a4 ,d4 #efh to ,a4 ,d4 #fge4 ,in conformity to this opinion1 ,abaddon may be understood to denote either ,mohammed1 who issued from the abyss1 or the cave of ,hera1 to propagate his pretended revelations1 or1 more generally1 the ,saracen power4 ,mr4 ,bryant supposes ,abaddon to have been the name of the ,ophite deity1 the worship of whom prevailed very anciently and very generally4 ,,abana4 ,naaman1 the leper1 on being directed to wash in the river ,jordan1 says1 #b ,kings v1 #ab1 8,are not ,abana and ,pharpar1 rivers of ,damascus1 better than all the waters of ,israel80 ,probably the ,abana is a branch of the ,barrady1 or ,chrysorrhoas1 which derives its source from the foot of mount ,libanus1 eastward2 runs round and through ,damascus1 and continues its course till lost in the wilderness1 four or five leagues south of the city4 ,benjamin of ,tudela will have that part of ,barrady which runs through ,damascus to be the ,abana1 and the streams which water the gardens without the city1 to be ,pharpar2 but perhaps the ,pharpar is the same with ,orontes1 the most noted river of ,syria1 which1 taking its rise a little to the north or north-east of ,damascus1 glides through a delightful plain1 till1 after passing ,antioch1 and running about two hundred miles to the north-west1 it loses itself in the ,mediterranean sea1 #b ,kings v1 #ab4 ,,abba1 a ,syriac word1 which signifies father4 ,the learned ,mr4 ,selden1 from the ,babylonian ,gemara1 has proved that slaves were not allowed to use the title abba in addressing the master of the family to which they belonged4 ,this may serve to illustrate ,rom4 viii1 #ae1 and ,gal4 iv1 #f1 as it shows that through faith in ,christ all true ,christians pass into the relation of sons2 are permitted to address ,god with filial confidence in prayer2 and to regard themselves as heirs of the heavenly inheritance4 ,this adoption into the family of ,god1 inseparably follows our justification2 and the power to call ,god our ,father1 in this special and appropriative sense1 results from the inward testimony given to our forgiveness by the ,holy ,spirit4 ,st4 ,paul and ,st4 ,mark use the ,syriac word abba1 a term which was understood in the synagogues and primitive assemblies of ,christians2 but added to it when writing to foreigners the explanation1 father4 ,figuratively1 abba means also a superior1 in respect of age1 dignity1 or affection4 ,it is more particularly used in the ,syriac1 ,coptic1 and ,ethiopic churches as a title given to their bishops4 ,the bishops themselves bestow the title abba more eminently upon the bishop of ,alexandria1 which occasioned the people to give him the title of baba1 or papa1 that is1 grandfather2 a title which he bore before the bishop of ,rome4 ,,abednego1 the ,chaldee name given by the king of ,babylon's officer to ,azariah1 one of ,daniel's companions1 ,dan4 i1 #g4 ,this name imports the servant of ,nago1 or ,nego1 which is supposed to signify the sun1 or morning star1 so called from its brightness4 ,abednego was thrown into a fiery furnace1 at ,babylon1 with his two companions ,shadrach and ,meshach1 for refusing to adore the statue erected by the command of ,nebuchadnezzar4 ,god suffered them not to be injured by the flames2 but made the whole to redound to his own glory1 and the shame of the idols of ,babylon4 ,one like unto the ,son of ,god1 or a ,divine person1 probably the ,angel of the ,divine presence himself1 appeared in the midst of them2 and they came out of the furnace1 which had been heated seven times hotter than usual1 so completely preserved from the power of the flames1 that not even 8the smell of fire had passed upon them40 ,this was an illustrious instance of the courageous and hallowed spirit of martyrdom2 and the interposition was no doubt designed to encourage the ,jews while in captivity1 living among idolaters1 to hold fast their religion4 ,it is an instance also of those gracious visitations to the old ,heathen world1 by which it was loudly called from its idolatries1 and aroused to the acknowledgment of the true and only ,jehovah1 who1 in various ways1 8left not himself without witness0 among them4 ,a great temporary effect was produced by this and other miracles related in the book of ,daniel2 but the people relapsed again into idolatry1 and justly brought upon themselves all those wasting judgments which in succession swept over the mightiest and most ancient states4 ,,abel4 ,he was the second son of ,adam and ,eve1 and born probably in the second or third year of the world2 though some will have it that he and ,cain were twins4 ,his name signifies vapour1 vanity1 and might be given either because our first parents now began so to feel the emptiness and vanity of all earthly things1 that the birth of another son reminded them painfully of it1 although in itself a matter of joy2 or it was imposed under prophetic impulse1 and obscurely referred to his premature death4 ,his employment was that of a shepherd2 ,cain followed the occupation of his father1 and was a tiller of the ground4 ,whether they remained in their father's family at the time when they brought their offerings to the ,lord1 or had establishments separate from that of ,adam1 does not clearly appear4 ,abel was probably unmarried1 or had no children2 but ,cain's wife is mentioned4 8,at the end of the days10--which is a more literal rendering than 8in process of time10 as in our translation1 that is1 on the ,sabbath1--both brothers brought an offering to the ,lord4 ,cain 8brought of the fruit of the ground20 ,abel 8the firstlings of his flock1 and of the fat thereof40 8,and the ,lord had respect to ,abel and to his offering2 but unto ,cain and his offering he had not respect40 ,as ,cain afterward complains that 8he should be hid from the face or presence of the ,lord10 it is probable that the worship of the first family was performed before some visible manifestation of the glory of ,god1 which thus consecrated a particular place for their services4 ,some have thought that this was at the east gate of ,eden1 where 8,cherubim and a flaming sword were placed20 but this was a vengeful manifestation1 and could only have inspired a dread of ,god inconsistent with the confidence and hope with which men through the promise of redemption were now encouraged to draw nigh to him4 ,the respect which ,god was pleased to show to ,abel's offering1 appears from the account to have been sensibly declared2 for ,cain must have known by some token that the sacrifice of ,abel was accepted1 the absence of which sign1 as to his own offering1 showed that it was rejected4 ,whether this was by fire going forth from 8the presence of the ,lord10 to consume the sacrifice1 as in later instances recorded in the ,old ,testament1 or in some other way1 it is in vain to inquire2--that the token of acceptance was a sensible one is however an almost certain inference4 ,the effect of this upon ,cain was not to humble him before ,god1 but to excite anger against his brother2 and1 being in the field with him1 or1 as the old versions have it1 having said to him1 8,let us go out into the field10 8he rose up against ,abel his brother1 and slew him20 and for that crime1 by which the first blood of man was shed by man upon the earth1--a murder aggravated by the relationship and the 8righteous0 character of the sufferer1 and having in it also the nature of religious persecution1--he was pronounced by the ,lord 8cursed from the earth40 #b4 ,as the sacrifice of ,abel is the first on record1 and has given rise to some controversy1 it demands particular attention4 ,it was offered1 says ,st4 ,paul1 8in faith10 and it was 8a more excellent sacrifice0 than that of ,cain4 ,both these expressions intimate that it was ,,expiatory and ,,prefigurative4 ,as to the matter of the sacrifice1 it was an animal offering4 8,cain brought of the fruit of the ground2 and ,abel also brought of the firstlings of his flock1 and of the fat thereof20 or1 more literally1 8the fat of them10 that is1 according to the ,hebrew idiom1 the fattest or best of his flock2 and in this circumstance consisted its specific character as an act of faith4 ,this is supported by the import of the phrase1 1 used by the ,apostle in the ,epistle to the ,hebrews1 when speaking of the sacrifice of ,abel4 ,our translators have rendered it1 8a more excellent sacrifice40 ,wickliffe translates it1 as ,archbishop ,magee observes1 uncouthly1 but in the full sense of the original1 8a much more sacrifice20 and the controversy which has arisen on this point is1 whether this epithet of 8much more10 or 8fuller10 refers to quantity or quality2 whether it is to be understood in the sense of a more abundant1 or of a better1 a more excellent sacrifice4 ,dr4 ,kennicott takes it in the sense of measure and quantity1 as well as quality2 and supposes that ,abel brought a double offering of the firstlings of his flock1 and of the fruit of the ground also4 ,his criticism has been very satisfactorily refuted by ,archbishop ,magee4 ,the sacrifice of ,abel was that of animal victims1 and it was indicative not of gratitude but of 8faith30 a quality not to be made manifest by the quantity of an offering1 for the one has no relation to the other4 #c4 ,this will more fully appear if we consider the import of the words of the ,apostle1--8,by ,,faith ,abel offered unto ,god a more excellent sacrifice than ,cain1 by which he obtained ,,witness that he was ,,righteous1 ,god testifying of his gifts2 and by it1 he1 being dead1 yet speaketh40 ,now what is the meaning of the ,apostle1 when he says that it was witnessed or testified to ,abel that he was righteous8 ,his doctrine is1 that men are sinners2 that all1 consequently1 need pardon2 and to be declared1 witnessed1 and accounted righteous1 are1 according to his style of writing1 the same as 8to be justified1 pardoned1 and dealt with as righteous40 ,thus he argues that ,abraham believed ,god1 8and it was accounted to him for righteousness10--8that faith was reckoned to ,abraham for righteousness10--8that he received the sign of circumcision1 a seal10 a visible confirmatory1 declaratory1 and witnessing mark 8of the righteousness which he had by faith40 ,in these cases we have a similarity so striking1 that they can scarcely fail to explain each other4 ,in both1 sinful men are placed in the condition of righteous men2 the instrument1 in both cases1 is faith2 and the transaction is1 in both cases also1 publicly and sensibly witnessed1--as to ,abraham1 by the sign of circumcision2 as to ,abel1 by a visible acceptance of his sacrifice1 and the rejection of that of ,cain4 ,abel had faith1 and he expressed that faith by the kind of sacrifice he offered4 ,it was in this way that his faith 8pleased ,god20 it pleased him as a principle1 and by the act to which it led1 which act was the offering of a sacrifice to ,god different from that of ,cain4 ,cain had not this faith1 whatever might be its object2 and ,cain1 accordingly1 did not bring an offering to which ,god had 8respect40 ,that which vitiated the offering of ,cain was the want of this faith2 for his offering was not significant of faith3 that which 8pleased ,god10 in the case of ,abel1 was his faith2 and he had 8respect0 to his offering1 because it was the expression of that faith2 and upon his faith so expressing itself1 ,god witnessed to him 8that he was righteous40 ,so forcibly do the words of ,st4 ,paul1 when commenting upon this transaction1 show1 that ,abel's sacrifice was accepted1 because of its immediate connection with his faith1 for by faith he is said to have offered it2 and whatever it might be1 which made ,abel's offering differ from that of ,cain1 whether abundance1 or kind1 or both1 this was the result of his faith4 ,so evident also is it from the ,apostle1 that ,abel was witnessed to be 8righteous10 not with reference to any previous 8habit of a religious life10 as some say1 but with reference to his faith2 and to this faith as expressing itself by his offering 8a more excellent sacrifice40 #d4 ,if1 then1 the faith of ,abel had an immediate connection with his sacrifice1 and both with his being accepted as 8righteous10--that is1 justified1 in ,st4 ,paul's use of the term1--to what had his faith respect8 ,the particular object of the faith of the elders1 celebrated in ,hebrews xi1 is to be deduced from the circumstances mentioned as illustrative of the existence and operation of this great principle1 and by which it manifested itself in them4 ,let us explain this1 and then ascertain the object of ,abel's faith also from the manner of its manifestation1--from the acts in which it embodied and rendered itself conspicuous4 ,faith1 in this chapter1 is taken in the sense of affiance in ,god1 and1 as such1 it can only be exercised toward ,god1 as to all its particular acts1 in those respects in which we have some warrant to confide in him4 ,this supposes revelation1 and1 in particular1 promises or declarations on his part1 as the ground of every act of affiance4 ,when1 therefore1 it is said that 8by faith ,enoch was translated that he should not see death10 it must be supposed that he had some promise or intimation to this effect1 on which1 improbable as the event was1 he nobly relied2 and in the result ,god honoured his faith in the sight of all men4 ,the faith of ,noah had immediate respect to the threatened flood1 and to the promise of ,god to preserve him in the ark which he was commanded to prepare4 ,the chapter is filled with other instances1 expressed or implied2 and from the whole1 as well as from the nature of things1 it will appear1 that1 when the ,apostle speaks of the faith of the elders in its particular acts1 he represents it as having respect to some promise1 declaration1 or revelation of ,god4 ,this revelation was necessarily antecedent to the faith2 but it is also to be observed1 that the acts by which the faith was represented1 whenever it was represented by particular acts1 and when the case admitted it1 had a natural and striking conformity and correspondence to the previous revelation4 ,so ,noah built the ark1 which indicated that he had heard the threat of the world's destruction by water1 and had received the promise of his own preservation1 and that of his family1 as well as that of a part of the beasts of the earth4 ,when ,abraham went into ,canaan at the command of ,god1 and upon the promise that that country should become the inheritance of his decendants1 he showed his faith by taking possession of it for them in anticipation1 and his residence there indicated the kind of promise which he had received4 ,thus these instances show1 that when the faith which the ,apostle commends exhibited itself in some particular act1 that act had a correspondency to the previous promise or revelation which was the ground of faith4 ,we must therefore interpret the acts of ,abel's faith so as to make them also correspond with an antecedent revelation4 ,his faith had respect to some previous revelation1 and the nature of the revelation is to be collected from the significant manner in which he declared his faith in it4 ,now that which ,abel did 8by faith10 was1 generally1 to perform an act of solemn worship1 in the confidence that it would be acceptable to ,god4 ,this supposes a revelation1 immediate or by tradition1 that such acts of worship were acceptable to ,god1 or his faith could have had no warrant1 and would not have been faith1 but fancy4 ,but the case must be considered more particularly4 ,his faith led him to offer 8a more excellent sacrifice0 than that of ,cain2 but this as necessarily implies1 that there was some antecedent revelation to which his faith1 as thus expressed1 had respect1 and on which that peculiarity of his offering1 which distinguished it from the offering of ,cain1 was founded2 a revelation which indicated that the way in which ,god would be approached acceptably1 in solemn worship1 was by animal sacrifices4 ,without this1 the faith to which his offering1 which was an offering of the firstlings of his flock1 had a special fitness and adaptation1 could have had no warrant in ,divine authority4 ,but this revelation must have included1 in order to its being the ground of faith1 as 8the substance of things hoped for10 a promise of a benefit to be conferred1 in which promise ,abel might confide4 ,but if so1 then this promise must have been connected1 not with the worship of ,god in general1 or performed in any way whatever indifferently1 but with his worship by animal oblations2 for it was in this way that the faith of ,abel specially and distinctively indicated itself4 ,the antecedent revelation was1 therefore1 a promise of a benefit to be conferred1 by means of animal sacrifice2 and we are taught what this benefit was1 by that which was actually received by the offerer1--8,he obtained witness that he was righteous20 which must be interpreted in the sense of a declaration of his personal justification1 and acceptance as righteous1 by the forgiveness of his sins4 ,the reason of ,abel's acceptance and of ,cain's rejection is hereby made manifest2 the one1 in seeking the ,divine favour1 conformed to his established and appointed method of being approached by guilty men1 and the other not only neglected this1 but profanely and presumptuously substituted his own inventions4 #e4 ,it is impossible1 then1 to allow the sacrifice of ,abel1 in this instance1 to have been an act of ,,faith1 without supposing that it had respect to a previous revelation1 which agreed with all the parts of that sacrificial action by which he expressed his faith in it4 ,had ,abel's sacrifice been eucharistic merely1 it would have expressed gratitude1 but not faith2 or if faith in the general sense of confidence in ,god that he would receive an act of grateful worship1 and reward the worshippers1 it did not more express faith than the offering of ,cain1 who surely believed these two points1 or he would not have brought an offering of any kind4 ,the offering of ,abel expressed a faith which ,cain had not2 and the doctrinal principles which ,abel's faith respected were such as his sacrifice visibly embodied4 ,if it was not an eucharistic sacrifice1 it was an expiatory one2 and1 in fact1 it is only in a sacrifice of this kind1 that it is possible to see that faith exhibited which ,abel had1 and ,cain had not4 ,if then we refer to the subsequent sacrifices of expiation appointed by ,divine authority1 and their explanation in the ,new ,testament1 it will be obvious to what doctrines and principles of an antecedent revelation the faith of ,abel had respect1 and which his sacrifice1 the exhibition of his faith1 proclaimed3 confession of the fact of being a sinner1--acknowledgment that the demerit and penalty of sin is death1--submission to an appointed mode of expiation1--animal sacrifice offered vicariously1 but in itself a mere type of a better sacrifice1 8the ,seed of the woman10 appointed to be offered at some future period1--and the efficacy of this appointed method of expiation to obtain forgiveness1 and to admit the guilty into the ,divine favour4 8,abel10 ,dr4 ,magee justly says1 8in firm reliance on the promise of ,god1 and in obedience to his command1 offered that sacrifice which had been enjoined as the religious expression of his faith2 whilst ,cain1 disregarding the gracious assurances that had been vouchsafed1 or at least disdaining to adopt the prescribed mode of manifesting his belief1 possibly as not appearing to his reason to possess any efficacy or natural fitness1 thought he had sufficiently acquitted himself of his duty in acknowledging the general superintendence of ,god1 and expressing his gratitude to the ,supreme ,benefactor1 by presenting some of those good things which he thereby confessed to have been derived from his bounty4 ,in short1 ,cain1 the first-born of the fall1 exhibits the first fruits of his parents' disobedience1 in the arrogance and self-sufficiency of reason rejecting the aids of revelation1 because they fell not within its apprehension of right4 ,he takes the first place in the annals of ,deism1 and displays1 in his proud rejection of the ordinance of sacrifice1 the same spirit which1 in later days1 has actuated his enlightened followers1 in rejecting the sacrifice of ,christ40 ,abel was killed about the year of the world1 #acj4 ,,abel-,,misraim1 the floor of ,atad1 beyond the river ,jordan1 where ,joseph1 his brethren1 and the ,egyptians mourned for the death of ,jacob1 ,gen4 l1 #aa4 ,on this occasion the funeral procession was1 at the command of ,joseph1 attended by 8all the elders of ,egypt1 and all the servants of ,pharaoh1 and all his house1 and the house of his brethren1 chariots and horsemen1 a very great company20 an affecting proof1 as it has been remarked1 of ,joseph's simplicity and singleness of heart1 which allowed him to give to the great men of ,egypt1 over whom he bore absolute rule1 an opportunity of observing his own comparatively humble origin1 by leading them in attendance upon his father's corpse to the valleys of ,canaan1 the modest cradle of his race1 and to their simple burial places4 ,,abel-,,shittim1 a city situate in the plains of ,moab1 beyond ,jordan1 opposite to ,jericho1 ,num4 xxv1 #a1 c2 xxiii1 #di2 ,joshua xi1 #a4 ,eusebius says it stood in the neighbourhood of mount ,peor4 ,moses encamped at ,abel-,shittim some time before the ,hebrew army passed the ,jordan4 ,here the ,israelites fell into idolatry1 and worshipped ,baal-peor1 for which ,god punished them by the destruction of twenty-four thousand persons in one day4 ,,abiah1 the second son of the prophet ,samuel1 and brother of ,joel4 ,samuel having entrusted to his sons the administration of public justice1 and admitted them to a share in the government1 they behaved so ill1 that the people demanded a king1 #a ,sam4 viii1 #b4 ,a4 ,m4 #biji4 ,,abiathar1 the son of ,ahimelech1 and the tenth high priest among the ,jews1 and fourth in descent from ,eli1 #b ,sam4 viii1 #ag2 #a ,chron4 xviii1 #af4 ,when ,saul sent to ,nob to murder all the priests1 ,abiathar escaped the massacre1 and fled to ,david in the wilderness4 ,there he continued in the quality of high priest2 but ,saul1 out of aversion to ,ahimelech1 whom he imagined to have betrayed his interests1 transferred the dignity of the high priesthood from ,ithamar's family into that of ,eleazar1 by conferring this office upon ,zadok4 ,thus there were1 at the same time1 two high priests in ,israel1 ,abiathar with ,david1 and ,zadok with ,saul4 ,in this state things continued1 until the reign of ,solomon1 when ,abiathar1 being attached to the party of ,adonijah1 was1 by ,solomon1 divested of his priesthood1 ,a4 ,m4 #bihi2 and the race of ,zadok alone performed the functions of that office during the reign of ,solomon1 to the exclusion of the family of ,ithamar1 according to the word of the ,lord to ,eli1 #a ,sam4 ii1 #cj1 c4 ,,abib1 the name of the first ,hebrew sacred month1 ,exod4 xiii1 #d4 ,this month was afterward called ,nisan2 it contained thirty days1 and answered to part of our ,march and ,april4 ,abib signifies green ears of corn1 or fresh fruits1 according to ,jerom's translation1 ,exod4 xiii1 #d1 and to the ,,lxx4 ,it was so named because corn1 particularly barley1 was in ear at that time4 ,it was an early custom to give names to months1 from the appearances of nature2 and the custom is still in force among many nations4 ,the year among the ,jews commenced in ,september1 and consequently their jubilees and other civil matters were regulated in this way1 ,lev4 xxv1 #h-aj2 but their sacred year began in ,abib4 ,this change took place at the redemption of ,israel from ,egypt1 ,exod4 xii1 #b1 8,this shall be to you the beginning of months40 ,ravanelli observes1 that as this deliverance from ,egypt was a figure of the redemption of the church of ,jesus ,christ1 who died and rose again in this month1 it was made the 8beginning of months10 to lead the church to expect the acceptable year of the ,lord4 ,on the tenth day of this month the paschal lamb was taken2 and on the fourteenth they ate the passover4 ,on the seven succeeding days they celebrated the feast of unleavened bread1 on the last of which days they held a solemn convocation1 ,exod4 xii1 xiii4 ,on the fifteenth they gathered the sheaf of the barley first fruits1 and on the following day presented an offering of it to the ,lord1 which having done they might begin their harvest1 ,lev4 xxiii4 ,,abihu1 the son of ,aaron1 the high priest1 was consumed1 together with his brother ,nadab1 by fire sent from ,god1 because he had offered incense with strange fire1 instead of taking it from the altar1 ,lev4 x1 #a1 #b4 ,this calamity happened ,a4 ,m4 #bead2 within eight days after the consecration of ,aaron and his sons4 ,some commentators believe that this fire proceeded from the altar of burnt offerings2 others1 that it came from the altar of incense4 ,several interpreters1 as the ,rabbins1 ,lyra1 ,cajetan1 and others1 are of opinion1 that ,nadab and ,abihu were overtaken with wine1 and so forgot to take the sacred fire in their censers4 ,this conjecture is founded on the command of ,god delivered immediately afterward to the priests1 forbidding them the use of wine during the time they should be employed in the service of the temple4 ,another class allege1 that there was nothing so heinous in their transgression1 but it was awfully punished1 to teach ministers fidelity and exactness in discharging their office4 ,it had a vastly more important meaning1--this instance of vengeance is a standing example of that divine wrath which shall consume all who pretend to serve ,god1 except with incense kindled from the one altar and offering by which he for ever perfects them that are sanctified4 ,,abijah1 the son of ,jeroboam1 the first king of the ten tribes1 who died very young1 #a ,kings xiv1 #a1 c1 ,a4 ,m4 #cjdf4--b4 ,the son of ,rehoboam1 king of ,judah1 and of ,maachah1 the daughter of ,uriel1 who succeeded his father1 ,a4 ,m4 #cjdf1 #b ,chron4 xi1 #bj2 xiii1 #b1 c4 ,the ,rabbins reproach this monarch with neglecting to destroy the profane altar which ,jeroboam had erected at ,bethel2 and with not suppressing the worship of the golden calves there after his victory over that prince4 ,,abilene1 a small province in ,clo ,syria1 between ,lebanon and ,antilibanus4 ,of this place ,lysanias was governor in the fifteenth year of ,tiberius1 ,luke iii1 #a4 ,abela1 or ,abila1 the capital1 was north of ,damascus1 and south of ,heliopolis4 ,,abimelech4 ,this seems to have been the title of the kings of ,philistia1 as ,csar was of the ,roman emperors1 and ,pharaoh of the sovereigns of ,egypt4 ,it was the name also of one of the sons of ,gideon1 who became a judge of ,israel1 ,judges ix2 and of the ,jewish high priest1 who gave ,goliath's sword1 which had been deposited in the tabernacle1 and part of the shew bread1 to ,david1 at the time this prince was flying from ,saul1 #a ,sam4 xxi1 #a4 ,,abiram1 the eldest son of ,hiel1 the ,bethelite4 ,joshua having destroyed the city of ,jericho1 pronounced this curse3 8,cursed be the man1 before the ,lord1 that riseth up and buildeth this city1 ,jericho3 he shall lay the foundation thereof in his first-born1 and in his youngest son shall he set up the gates of it10 ,joshua vi1 #bf4 ,hiel of ,bethel1 about five hundred and thirty-seven years after this imprecation1 having undertaken to rebuild ,jericho1 whilst he was laying the foundation of it1 lost his eldest son1 ,abiram1 #a ,kings xvi1 #cd2 and ,segub1 the youngest1 when they set up the gates of it3 a remarkable instance of a prophetic denunciation fulfilled1 perhaps on a person who would not credit the tradition1 or the truth of the prediction4 ,so true is the word of the ,lord2 so minutely are the most distant contingencies foreseen by him2 and so exact is the accomplishment of ,divine prophecy6 #b4 ,,abiram1 the son of ,eliab1 of the tribe of ,reuben1 was one of those who conspired with ,korah and ,dathan against ,moses in the wilderness1 and was swallowed up alive1 with his companions1 by the earth1 which opened to receive them1 ,num4 xvi4 ,,abishag1 a young woman1 a native of ,shunam1 in the tribe of ,issachar4 ,david1 at the age of seventy1 finding no warmth in his bed1 was advised by his physicians to procure some young person1 who might communicate the heat required4 ,to this end ,abishag was presented to him1 who was one of the most beautiful women in ,israel1 #a ,kings i1 #c2 and the king made her his wife4 ,after his death1 ,adonijah requested her in marriage1 for which he lost his life2 ,solomon perceiving in this a design upon the crown also4 ,adonijah was his elder brother1 an intriguing man1 and had aspired to be king before the death of ,david1 and had had his life spared only upon the condition of his peaceable conduct4 ,by this request he convinced ,solomon1 that he was still actuated by political views1 and this brought upon him the punishment of treason4 ,,abishai1 the son of ,zeruiah1 ,david's sister1 who was one of the most valiant men of his time1 and one of the principal generals in ,david's armies4 ,,ablution1 purification by washing the body1 either in whole or part4 ,ablutions appear to be almost as ancient as external worship itself4 ,moses enjoined them2 the ,heathens adopted them2 and ,mohammed and his followers have continued them3 thus they have been introduced among most nations1 and make a considerable part of all superstitious religions4 ,the ,egyptian priests had their diurnal and nocturnal ablutions2 the ,grecians1 their sprinklings2 the ,romans1 their lustrations and lavations2 the ,jews1 their washings of hands and feet1 beside their baptisms2 the ancient ,christians used ablution before communion1 which the ,romish church still retains before the mass1 sometimes after2 the ,syrians1 ,copts1 c1 have their solemn washings on ,good ,friday2 the ,turks their greater and less ablutions1 c4 ,lustration1 among the ,romans1 was a solemn ceremony by which they purified their cities1 fields1 armies1 or people1 after any crime or impurity4 ,lustrations might be performed by fire1 by sulphur1 by water1 and by air2 the last was applied by ventilation1 or fanning the thing to be purified4 ,all sorts of people1 slaves excepted1 might perform some kind of lustration4 ,when a person died the house was to be swept in a particular manner2 new married persons were sprinkled by the priest with water4 ,people sometimes1 by way of purification1 ran several times naked through the streets4 ,there was scarcely any action performed1 at the beginning and end of which some ceremony was not required to purify themselves and appease the gods4 ,,abner was the uncle of king ,saul1 and the general of his army4 ,after ,saul's death1 he made ,ishbosheth king2 and for seven years supported the family of ,saul1 in opposition to ,david2 but in most of his skirmishes came off with loss4 ,while ,ishbosheth's and ,david's troops lay near each other1 hard by ,gibeon1 ,abner challenged ,joab to select twelve of ,david's warriors to fight with an equal number of his4 ,joab consented3 the twenty-four engaged2 and fell together on the spot4 ,a fierce battle ensued1 in which ,abner and his troops were routed4 ,abner himself was hotly pursued by ,asahel1 whom he killed by a back stroke of his spear4 ,still he was followed by ,joab and ,abishai1 till he1 who in the morning sported with murder1 was obliged at even to entreat that ,joab would stay his troops from the effusion of blood1 #b ,sam4 ii4 ,not long after1 ,abner1 taking it highly amiss for ,ishbosheth to charge him with lewd behaviour toward ,rizpah1 ,saul's concubine1 vowed that he would quickly transfer the whole kingdom into the hands of ,david4 ,he therefore commenced a correspondence with ,david1 and had an interview with him at ,hebron4 ,abner had just left the feast at which ,david had entertained him1 when ,joab1 informed of the matter1 warmly remonstrated1 asserting1 that ,abner had come as a spy4 ,on his own authority he sent a messenger to invite him back1 to have some farther communication with the king2 and when ,abner was come into ,joab's presence1 the latter1 partly from jealousy lest ,abner might become his superior1 and partly to revenge his brother ,asahel's death1 mortally stabbed him in the act of salutation4 ,david1 to show how heartily he detested the act1 honoured ,abner with a splendid funeral1 and composed an elegy on his death1 #b ,sam4 iii4 ,,abomination4 ,this term was used with regard to the ,hebrews1 who1 being shepherds1 are said to have been an abomination to the ,egyptians2 because they sacrificed the animals held sacred by that people1 as oxen1 goats1 sheep1 c1 which the ,egyptians esteemed unlawful4 ,this word is also applied in the sacred writings to idolatry and idols1 not only because the worship of idols is in itself an abominable thing1 but likewise because the ceremonies of idolaters were almost always of an infamous and licentious nature4 ,for this reason1 ,chrysostom affirms1 that every idol1 and every image of a man1 was called an abomination among the ,jews4 ,the 8abomination of desolation0 foretold by the ,prophet ,daniel1 x1 #bg1 xi1 #ca1 is supposed by some interpreters to denote the statue of ,jupiter ,olympius1 which ,antiochus ,epiphanes caused to be erected in the temple of ,jerusalem4 ,the second of the passages above cited may probably refer to this circumstance1 as the statue of ,jupiter did1 in fact1 8make desolate10 by banishing the true worship of ,god1 and those who performed it1 from the temple4 ,but the former passage1 considered in its whole connection1 bears more immediate reference to that which the evangelists have denominated the 8abomination of desolation10 ,matt4 xxiv1 #ae1 #af2 ,mark xiii1 #ad4 ,this1 without doubt1 signifies the ensigns of the ,roman armies under the command of ,titus1 during the last siege of ,jerusalem4 ,the images of their gods and emperors were delineated on these ensigns2 and the ensigns themselves1 especially the eagles1 which were carried at the heads of the legions1 were objects of worship2 and1 according to the usual style of ,scripture1 they were therefore an abomination4 ,those ensigns were placed upon the ruins of the temple after it was taken and demolished2 and1 as ,josephus informs us1 the ,romans sacrificed to them there4 ,the horror with which the ,jews regarded them1 sufficiently appears from the account which ,josephus gives of ,pilate's introducing them into the city1 when he sent his army from ,csarea into winter quarters at ,jerusalem1 and of ,vitellius's proposing to march through ,judea1 after he had received orders from ,tiberius to attack ,aretas1 king of ,petra4 ,the people supplicated and remonstrated1 and induced ,pilate to remove the army1 and ,vitellius to march his troops another way4 ,the ,jews applied the above passage of ,daniel to the ,romans1 as we are informed by ,jerome4 ,the learned ,mr4 ,mede concurs in the same opinion4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 ,obs4 on ,daniel ix1 xii1 observes1 that in the sixteenth year of the emperor ,adrian1 ,b4 ,c4 #acb1 the ,romans accomplished the prediction of ,daniel by building a temple to ,jupiter ,capitolinus1 where the temple of ,god in ,jerusalem had stood4 ,upon this occasion the ,jews1 under the conduct of ,barchochab1 rose up in arms against the ,romans1 and in the war had fifty cities demolished1 nine hundred and eighty-five of their best towns destroyed1 and five hundred and eighty thousand men slain by the sword2 and in the end of the war1 ,b4 ,c4 #acf1 they were banished from ,judea upon pain of death2 and thenceforth the land remained desolate of its old inhabitants4 ,others again have applied the prediction of ,daniel to the invasion and desolation of ,christendom by the ,mohammedans1 and to their conversion of the churches into mosques4 ,from this interpretation they infer1 that the religion of ,mohammed will prevail in the east one thousand two hundred and sixty years1 and be succeeded by the restoration of the ,jews1 the destruction of antichrist1 the full conversion of the ,gentiles to the church of ,christ1 and the commencement of the millennium4 ,in general1 whatever is morally or ceremonially impure1 or leads to sin1 is designated an abomination to ,god4 ,thus lying lips are said to be an abomination to the ,lord4 ,every thing in doctrine or practice which tended to corrupt the simplicity of the ,gospel is also in ,scripture called abominable2 hence ,babylon is represented1 ,rev4 xvii1 #d1 as holding in her hand a cup 8full of abominations40 ,in this view1 to 8work abomination10 is to introduce idolatry1 or any other great corruption1 into the church and worship of ,god1 #a ,kings xi1 #g4 ,,abram1 1 a high father2 and ,,abraham1 1 father of a great multitude1 the son of ,terah1 born at ,ur1 a city of ,chaldea1 ,a4 ,m4 #bjjh4 ,the account of this eminent patriarch occupies so large a part of the book of ,genesis1 and stands so intimately connected with both the ,jewish and ,christian dispensations1--with the one by a political and religious1 and with the other by a mystical1 relation1--that his history demands particular notice4 ,our account may be divided into his personal history1 and his typical1 and mystic character4 ,i4 ,abraham's ,,personal history4 #a4 ,chaldea1 the native country of ,abraham1 was inhabited by a pastoral people1 who were almost irresistibly invited to the study of the motions of the heavenly bodies1 by the peculiar serenity of the heavens in that climate1 and their habit of spending their nights in the open air in tending their flocks4 ,the first rudiments of astronomy1 as a science1 is traced to this region2 and here1 too1 one of the earliest forms of idolatry1 the worship of the host of heaven1 usually called ,tsabaism1 first began to prevail4 ,during the three hundred and fifty years which elapsed between the deluge and the birth of ,abraham1 this and other idolatrous superstitions had greatly corrupted the human race1 perverted the simple forms of the patriarchal religion1 and beclouded the import of its typical rites4 ,the family of ,abraham was idolatrous1 for his 8fathers served other gods beyond the flood10 that is1 the great river ,euphrates2 but whether he himself was in the early period of his life an idolater1 we are not informed by ,moses4 ,the ,arabian and ,jewish legends speak of his early idolatry1 his conversion from it1 and of his zeal in breaking the images in his father's house2 but these are little to be depended upon4 ,before his call he was certainly a worshipper of the true ,god2 and that not in form only1 but 8in spirit and in truth40 ,whilst ,abraham was still sojourning in ,ur1 8the ,god of glory0 appeared to him1 and said unto him1 8,get thee out of thy country and from thy kindred1 and go into the land which ,i shall show thee20 and so firm was his faith in the providence and care of ,god1 that although the place of his future abode was not indicated1 nor any information given of the nature of the country1 or the character of its inhabitants1 he nevertheless promptly obeyed1 and 8went out1 not knowing whither he went40 ,terah his father1 ,nahor his brother1 and ,lot his nephew1 the son of ,haran his deceased brother1 accompanied him2 a circumstance which indicates that if the family had formerly been idolatrous it had now received the faith of ,abraham4 ,they first migrated to ,haran1 or ,charran1 in ,mesopotamia1 a flat1 barren region westward of ,ur2 and after a residence there of a few years1 during which ,terah had died1 ,abraham left ,haran to go into ,palestine1 taking with him ,sarah his wife1 who had no child1 and ,lot1 with his paternal property4 ,nahor appears to have been left in ,haran4 ,to this second migration he was incited also by a ,divine command1 accompanied by the promises of a numerous issue1 that his seed should become a great nation1 and1 above all1 that 8in him all the families of the earth should be blessed20 in other words1 that the ,messiah1 known among the patriarchs as the promised 8seed of the woman10 should be born in his line4 ,palestine was then inhabited by the ,canaanites1 from whom it was called ,canaan4 ,abraham1 leading his tribe1 first settled at ,sechem1 a valley between the mountains ,ebal and ,gerizim1 where ,god appeared to him and promised to give him the land of ,canaan1 and where1 as in other places in which he remained any time1 he built an altar to the ,lord4 ,he then removed to a hilly region on the north of ,jericho2 and as the pastures were exhausted1 migrated southward1 till a famine drove him into ,egypt1 probably the earliest1 certainly the most productive1 corn country of the ancient world4 #b4 ,here it may be observed1 that the migrations of ,abraham and his sons show the manner in which the earth was gradually covered with people4 ,in those ages some cities had been built1 and the country to some extent about them cultivated2 but wide spaces of unoccupied land lay between them4 ,a part of society following therefore the pastoral life1 led forth their flocks1 and1 in large family tribes1 of which the parent was the head1 uniting both the sovereign power and the priesthood in himself1 and with a train of servants attached to the tribe by hereditary ties1 pitched their camps wherever a fertile and unappropriated district offered them pasture4 ,a few of these nomadic tribes appear to have made the circuit of the same region1 seldom going far from their native seats2 which would probably have been the case with ,abraham1 had he not received the call of ,god to depart to a distant country4 ,others1 more bold1 followed the track of rivers1 and the sweep of fertile valleys1 and at length some built cities and formed settlements in those distant regions2 whilst others1 either from attachment to their former mode of life1 or from necessity1 continued in their pastoral occupations1 and followed the supplies afforded for their flocks by the still expanding regions of the fertile earth4 ,wars and violences1 droughts1 famines1 and the constant increase of population1 continued to impel these innumerable1 but at first1 small streams of men into parts still more remote4 ,those who settled on the sea coast began to use that element1 both for supplying themselves with a new species of food1 and as a medium of communication by vessels with other countries for the interchange of such commodities as their own lands afforded with those offered by maritime states1 more or less distant4 ,thus were laid the foundations of commerce1 and thus the maritime cities were gradually rendered opulent and powerful4 ,colonies were in time transported from them by means of their ships1 and settled on the coasts of still more distant and fertile countries4 ,thus the migrations of the three primitive families proceeded from the central regions of ,armenia1 ,mesopotamia1 and ,assyria2 and in succession they established numerous communities1--the ,phenicians1 ,arabians1 ,egyptians1 ,ethiopians1 and ,lybians southward2--the ,persians1 ,indians1 and ,chinese eastward2--the ,scythians1 ,celts1 and ,tartars northward2--and the ,goths1 ,greeks1 and ,latins westward1 even as far as the ,peruvians and ,mexicans of ,south ,america1 and the ,indians of ,north ,america4 #c4 ,abraham1 knowing the dissolute character of the ,egyptians1 directed ,sarah to call herself his sister1 which she was1 although by another mother2 fearing that if they knew her to be his wife1 they would not only seize her1 but kill him4 ,this circumstance indicates the vicious state of morals and government in ,egypt at this early period4 ,in this affair ,abraham has been blamed for want of faith in ,god2 but it was perhaps no more than an act of common prudence1 as the seraglio of the ,egyptian monarch was supplied by any means1 however violent and lawless4 ,sarah1 upon the report of her beauty1 was seized and taken into his harem2 and ,god sent great plagues upon his house1 which1 from their extraordinary character1 he concluded to be divine judgments4 ,this led to inquiry1 and on discovering that he was detaining another man's wife by violence1 he sent her back1 and dismissed ,abraham laden with presents4 #d4 ,after the famine ,abraham returned to ,canaan1 and pitched his tents between ,bethel and ,hai1 where he had previously raised an altar4 ,here1 as his flocks and herds1 and those of ,lot1 had greatly increased1 and strifes had arisen between their herdsmen as to pasturage and water1 they peaceably separated4 ,lot returning to the plain of the ,jordan1 which before the destruction of ,sodom was as 8the garden of ,god10 and ,abraham to ,mamre1 near ,hebron1 after receiving a renewal of the promise1 that ,god would give him the whole land for a possession4 ,the separation of ,abraham and ,lot still farther secured the unmingled descent of the ,abrahamitic family4 ,the territories of the kings of the cities of the plain were a few years afterward invaded by a confederacy of the petty kings of the ,euphrates and the neighbouring countries1 and ,lot and his family were taken prisoners4 ,this intelligence being brought to ,abraham1 he collected the men of his tribe1 three hundred and eighteen1 and falling upon the kings by night1 near the fountains of ,jericho1 he defeated them1 retook the spoil1 and recovered ,lot4 ,on his return1 passing near ,salem1 supposed to be the city afterward called ,jerusalem1 he was blessed by its king ,melchizedec1 who was priest of the most high ,god2 so that the knowledge and worship of ,jehovah had not quite departed at that time from the ,canaanitish nations4 ,to him ,abraham gave a tithe of the spoil4 ,the rest he generously restored to the king of ,sodom1 refusing1 in a noble spirit of independence1 to retain so much as a 8shoe lachet10 except the portion which1 by usage of war1 fell to the young native sheiks1 ,aner1 ,eschal1 and ,mamre1 who had joined him in the expedition4 #e4 ,after this he had another encouraging vision of ,god1 ,gen4 xv1 #a2 and to his complaint that he was still childless1 and that his name and property would descend to the stranger ,eliezer1 who held the next rank in his tribe1 the promise was given1 that he himself should have a son1 and that his seed should be countless as the stars of heaven4 ,and it is emphatically added1 8,he believed in the ,lord1 and he counted it to him for righteousness40 ,he was then fully assured1 that he stood before ,god1 a pardoned and accepted man1 8whose iniquities were forgiven10 and to whom 8the ,lord did not impute sin40 ,still the fulfilment of the promise of a son was delayed2 and ,sarah1 perhaps despairing that it would be accomplished in her person1 and the revelation which had been made merely stating that this son should be the fruit of ,abraham's body1 without any reference to her1 she gave to him1 according to the custom of those times1 one of her handmaids1 an ,egyptian1 to be his secondary wife1 who brought forth ,ishmael4 ,children born in this manner had the privileges of legitimacy2 but fourteen years afterward1 when ,abraham was a hundred years old1 and ,sarah ninety1 the ,lord appeared to him again1 established his covenant with him and with his seed1 changed his name to ,abraham1 8the father of many nations10 promised that ,sarah herself should bring forth the son to whom the preceding promises had referred2 instituted circumcision as the sign of the covenant2 and changed the name of his wife from ,sarai1 my princess1 to ,sarah1 the princess1 that is1 of many people to descend from her4 #f4 ,at this time ,abraham occupied his former encampment near ,hebron4 ,here1 as he sat in the door of his tent1 three mysterious strangers appeared4 ,abraham1 with true ,arabian hospitality1 received and entertained them4 ,the chief of the three renewed the promise of a son to be born from ,sarah1 a promise which she received with a laugh of incredulity1 for which she was mildly reproved4 ,as ,abraham accompanied them toward the valley of the ,jordan1 the same divine person1 for so he manifestly appears1 announced the dreadful ruin impending over the licentious cities among which ,lot had taken up his abode4 ,no passage1 even in the sacred writings1 exhibits a more exalted view of the divine condescension than that in which ,abraham is seen expostulating on the apparent injustice of involving the innocent in the ruin of the guilty3 8,shall the city perish1 if fifty1 if forty-five1 if forty1 if thirty1 if twenty1 if ten righteous men be found within its walls80 8,ten righteous men shall avert its doom40 ,such was the promise of the celestial visitant2 but the guilt was universal1 the ruin inevitable2 and the violation of the sacred laws of hospitality and nature1 which ,lot in his horror attempted to avert by the most revolting expedient1 confirmed the justice of the divine sentence4 #g4 ,sarah having conceived1 according to the divine promise1 ,abraham left the plain of ,mamre1 and went south to ,gerar1 where ,abimelech reigned2 and again fearing lest ,sarah should be forced from him1 and himself be put to death1 her beauty having been1 it would appear1 preternaturally continued1 notwithstanding her age1 he here called her1 as he had done in ,egypt1 his sister4 ,abimelech took her to his house1 designing to marry her2 but ,god having1 in a dream1 informed him that she was ,abraham's wife1 he returned her to him with great presents4 ,this year ,sarah was delivered of ,isaac2 and ,abraham circumcised him1 according to the covenant stipulation2 and when he was weaned1 made a great entertainment4 ,sarah1 having observed ,ishmael1 son of ,hagar1 mocking her son ,isaac1 said to ,abraham1 8,cast out this bondwoman and her son1 for ,ishmael shall not be heir with ,isaac40 ,after great reluctance1 ,abraham complied2 ,god having informed him that this was according to the appointments of his providence1 with respect to future ages4 ,about the same time1 ,abimelech came with ,phicol1 his general1 to conclude an alliance with ,abraham1 who made that prince a present of seven ewe lambs out of his flock1 in confirmation that a well he had opened should be his own property2 and they called the place ,beer-sheba1 or 8the well of swearing10 because of the covenant there ratified with oaths4 ,here ,abraham planted a grove1 built an altar1 and for some time resided1 ,gen4 xx1 xxi4 #h4 ,more than twenty years after this1 7,a4 ,m4 #bacc17 ,god1 for the final trial and illustration of ,abraham's faith1 directed him to offer up his son ,isaac4 ,abraham took his son1 and two servants1 and went toward mount ,moriah4 ,when within sight of the mountain1 ,abraham left his servants1 and ascended it with his son only2 and there having bound him1 he prepared for the affecting sacrifice2 but when he was about to give the blow1 an angel from heaven cried out to him1 8,lay not thine hand upon the lad1 neither do thou any thing to him4 ,now ,i know that thou fearest ,god1 since thou hast not withheld thine only son from me40 ,abraham1 turning1 saw a ram entangled in the bush by his horns2 and he offered this animal as a burnt offering1 instead of his son ,isaac4 ,this memorable place he called by the prophetic name1 ,jehovah-jireh1 or the ,lord will see--or provide1 ,gen4 xxii1 #a-ad1 having respect1 no doubt1 to the true sacrifice which1 in the fulness of time1 was to be offered for the whole world upon the same mountain4 #i4 ,twelve years afterward1 ,sarah1 wife of ,abraham1 died in ,hebron4 ,abraham came to mourn and to perform the funeral offices for her4 ,he addressed the people at the city gate1 entreating them to allow him to bury his wife among them2 for1 being a stranger1 and having no land of his own1 he could claim no right of interment in any sepulchre of that country4 ,he1 therefore1 bought of ,ephron1 one of the inhabitants1 the field of ,machpelah1 with the cave and sepulchre in it1 at the price of four hundred shekels of silver1 about forty-five pounds sterling4 ,and here ,abraham buried ,sarah1 with due solemnities1 according to the custom of the country1 ,gen4 xxiii4 ,this whole transaction impressively illustrates the dignity1 courtesy1 and honour of these ancient chiefs2 and wholly disproves the notion that theirs was a rude and unpolished age4 #aj4 ,abraham1 having grown old1 sent ,eliezer1 his steward1 into ,mesopotamia1 with directions to obtain a young woman of his own family1 as a wife for his son ,isaac4 ,eliezer executed his commission with fidelity1 and brought back ,rebecca1 daughter of ,bethuel1 grand-daughter of ,nahor1 and1 consequently1 ,abraham's niece1 whom ,isaac married4 ,abraham afterward married ,keturah2 by whom he had six sons1 ,zimran1 ,jokshan1 ,medan1 ,midian1 ,ishbak1 and ,shuah2 who became heads of different people1 which dwelt in ,arabia1 and around it4 ,he died1 aged a hundred and seventy-five years1 and was buried1 with ,sarah his wife1 in the cave of ,machpelah1 which he had purchased of ,ephron1 ,gen4 xxiv1 xxv1 ,a4 ,m4 #bahc1 before ,christ #ahba4 ,,ii4 ,from the personal history of ,abraham we may now proceed to the consideration of the ,,typical circumstances which were connected with it4 #a4 ,abraham himself with his family may be regarded as a type of the church of ,god in future ages4 ,they indeed constituted ,god's ancient church4 ,not that many scattered patriarchal and family churches did not remain3 such was that of ,melchizedec2 and such probably was that of ,nahor1 whom ,abraham left behind in ,mesopotamia4 ,but a visible church relation was established between ,abraham's family and the ,most ,high1 signified by the visible and distinguishing sacrament of circumcision1 and followed by new and enlarged revelations of truth4 ,two purposes were to be answered by this1--the preservation of the true doctrine of salvation in the world1 which is the great and solemn duty of every branch of the church of ,god1--and the manifestation of that truth to others4 ,both were done by ,abraham4 ,wherever he sojourned he built his altars to the true ,god1 and publicly celebrated his worship2 and1 as we learn from ,st4 ,paul1 he lived in tents in preference to settling in the land of ,canaan1 though it had been given to him for a possession1 in order that he might thus proclaim his faith in the eternal inheritance of which ,canaan was a type2 and in bearing this testimony1 his example was followed by ,isaac and ,jacob1 the 8heirs with him of the same promise10 who also thus 8confessed that they were strangers and pilgrims10 and that 8they looked0 for a continuing and eternal city in heaven4 ,so also now is the same doctrine of immortality committed to the church of ,christ2 and by deadness to the world ought its members to declare the reality of their own faith in it4 #b4 ,the numerous natural posterity promised to ,abraham was also a type of the spiritual seed1 the true members of the church of ,christ1 springing from the ,messiah1 of whom ,isaac was the symbol4 ,thus ,st4 ,paul expressly distinguishes between the fleshly and the spiritual seed of ,abraham2 to the latter of which1 in their ultimate and highest sense1 the promises of increase as the stars of heaven1 and the sands of the sea shore1 are to be referred1 as also the promise of the heavenly ,canaan4 #c4 ,the intentional offering up ,isaac1 with its result1 was probably that transaction in which ,abraham1 more clearly than in any other1 8saw the day of ,christ1 and was glad40 ,he received ,isaac from the dead1 says ,st4 ,paul1 8in a figure40 ,this could be a figure of nothing but the resurrection of our ,lord2 and1 if so1 ,isaac's being laid upon the altar was a figure of his sacrificial death1 scenically and most impressively represented to ,abraham4 ,the place1 the same ridge of hills on which our ,lord was crucified2 the person1 an only son1 to die for no offence of his own2 the sacrificer1 a father2 the receiving back1 as it were1 from death to life2 the name impressed upon the place1 importing1 8the ,lord will provide10 in allusion to ,abraham's own words to ,isaac1 8the ,lord will provide a lamb for a burnt offering20 all indicate a mystery which lay deep beneath this transaction1 and which ,abraham1 as the reward of his obedience1 was permitted to behold4 8,the day0 of ,christ's humiliation and exaltation was thus opened to him2 and served to keep the great truth in mind1 that the true burnt offering and sacrifice for sin was to be something higher than the immolation of lambs and bulls and goats1--nay1 something more than what was merely human4 #d4 ,the transaction of the expulsion of ,hagar was also a type4 ,it was an allegory in action1 by which ,st4 ,paul teaches us to understand that the son of the bondwoman represented those who are under the law2 and the child of the freewoman those who by faith in ,christ are supernaturally begotten into the family of ,god4 ,the bondwoman and her son being cast out1 represented also the expulsion of the unbelieving ,jews from the church of ,god1 which was to be composed of true believers of all nations1 all of whom1 whether ,jews or ,gentiles1 were to become 8fellow heirs40 ,,iii4 ,but ,abraham appears before us invested with a ,,mystic character1 which it is of great importance rightly to understand4 #a4 ,he is to be regarded as standing in a federal or covenant relation1 not only to his natural seed1 but specially and eminently to all believers4 8,the ,gospel10 we are told by ,st4 ,paul1 8was preached to ,abraham1 saying1 ,in thee shall all nations be blessed40 8,abraham believed in ,god1 and it was accounted to him for righteousness20 in other words1 he was justified4 ,a covenant of gratuitous justification through faith was made with him and his believing descendants2 and the rite of circumcision1 which was not confined to his posterity by ,sarah1 but appointed in every branch of his family1 was the sign or sacrament of this covenant of grace1 and so remained till it was displaced by the sacraments appointed by ,christ4 ,wherever that sign was it declared the doctrine1 and offered the grace1 of this covenant--free justification by faith1 and its glorious results--to all the tribes that proceeded from ,abraham4 ,this same grace is offered to us by the ,gospel1 who become 8,abraham's seed10 his spiritual children with whom the covenant is established1 through the same faith1 and are thus made 8the heirs with him of the same promise40 #b4 ,abraham is also exhibited to us as the representative of true believers2 and in this especially1 that the true nature of faith was exhibited in him4 ,this great principle was marked in ,abraham with the following characters3--,an entire unhesitating belief in the word of ,god2--an unfaltering trust in all his promises2--a steady regard to his almighty power1 leading him to overlook all apparent difficulties and impossibilities in every case where ,god had explicitly promised2--and habitual and cheerful and entire obedience4 ,the ,apostle has described faith in ,heb4 xi1 #a2 and that faith is seen living and acting in all its energy in ,abraham4 ,a few miscellaneous remarks are suggested by some of the circumstances of ,abraham's history3-- #a4 ,the ancient method of ratifying a covenant by sacrifice is illustrated in the account given in ,gen4 xv1 #i1 #aj4 ,the beasts were slain and divided in the midst1 and the persons covenanting passed between the parts4 ,hence1 after ,abraham had performed this part of the ceremony1 the symbol of the ,almighty's presence1 8a smoking furnace1 and a burning lamp1 passed between the pieces10 verse #ah1 and so both parties ratified the covenant4 #b4 ,as the beauty of ,sarah1 which she retained so long as quite to conceal her real age from observers1 attracted so much notice as to lead to her forcible seizure1 once by ,pharaoh in ,egypt1 and again by ,abimelech in ,palestine1 it may appear strange1 that1 as in the east women are generally kept in seclusion1 and seldom appear without veils1 she exposed herself to observation4 ,but to this day the ,arab women do not wear veils at home in their tents2 and ,sarah's countenance might have been seen in the tent by some of the officers of ,pharaoh and ,abimelech1 who reported her beauty to their masters4 #c4 ,the intentional offering up of ,isaac is not to be supposed as viewed by ,abraham as an act sanctioned by the ,pagan practice of human sacrifice4 ,the immolation of human victims1 particularly of that which was most precious1 the favourite1 the first-born child1 appears to have been a common usage among many early nations1 more especially the tribes by which ,abraham was surrounded4 ,it was the distinguishing rite among the worshippers of ,moloch2 at a later period of the ,jewish history1 it was practised by a king of ,moab2 and it was undoubtedly derived by the ,carthaginians from their ,phenecian ancestors on the shores of ,syria4 ,where it was an ordinary usage1 as in the worship of ,moloch1 it was in unison with the character of the religion1 and of its deity4 ,it was the last act of a dark and sanguinary superstition1 which rose by regular gradation to this complete triumph over human nature4 ,the god1 who was propitiated by these offerings1 had been satiated with more cheap and vulgar victims2 he had been glutted to the full with human suffering and with human blood4 ,in general it was the final mark of the subjugation of the national mind to an inhuman and domineering priesthood4 ,but the ,mosaic religion held human sacrifices in abhorrence2 and the ,god of the ,abrahamitic family1 uniformly beneficent1 had imposed no duties which entailed human suffering1 had demanded no offerings which were repugnant to the better feelings of our nature4 ,the command to offer ,isaac as 8a burnt offering10 was for these reasons a trial the more severe to ,abraham's faith4 ,he must therefore have been fully assured of the divine command2 and he left the mystery to be explained by ,god himself4 ,his was a simple act of unhesitating obedience to the command of ,god2 the last proof of perfect reliance on the certain accomplishment of the divine promises4 ,isaac1 so miraculously bestowed1 could be as miraculously restored2 ,abraham1 such is the comment of the ,christian ,apostle1 8believed that ,god could even raise him up from the dead40 #d4 ,the wide and deep impression made by the character of ,abraham upon the ancient world is proved by the reverence which people of almost all nations and countries have paid to him1 and the manner in which the events of his life have been interwoven in their mythology1 and their religious traditions4 ,jews1 ,magians1 ,sabians1 ,indians1 and ,mohammedans have claimed him as the great patriarch and founder of their several sects2 and his history has been embellished with a variety of fictions4 ,one of the most pleasing of these is the following1 but it proceeds upon the supposition that he was educated in idolatry3 8,as ,abraham was walking by night from the grotto where he was born1 to the city of ,babylon1 he gazed on the stars of heaven1 and among them on the beautiful planet ,venus4 #8,behold1' said he within himself1 #8the ,god and ,lord of the universe6' but the star set and disappeared1 and ,abraham felt that the ,lord of the universe could not thus be liable to change4 ,shortly after1 he beheld the moon at the full3 #8,lo1' he cried1 #8the ,divine ,creator1 the manifest ,deity6' but the moon sank below the horizon1 and ,abraham made the same reflection as at the setting of the evening star4 ,all the rest of the night he passed in profound rumination2 at sunrise he stood before the gates of ,babylon1 and saw the whole people prostrate in adoration4 #8,wondrous orb1#8 he exclaimed1 #8thou surely art the ,creator and ,ruler of all nature6 but thou1 too1 hastest like the rest to thy setting6--neither then art thou my ,creator1 my ,lord1 or my ,god6'0 ,,abrahamites1 reported heretical sects of the eighth and ninth centuries1 charged with the ,paulician errors1 and some of them with idolatry4 ,for these charges we have1 however1 only the word of their persecutors4 ,also the name of a sect in ,bohemia1 as late as #aghb1 who professed the religion of ,abraham before his circumcision1 and admitted no scriptures but the decalogue and the ,lord's prayer4 ,as these were persecuted1 they too were probably misrepresented1 and especially as their conduct is allowed to have been good1 even by their enemies4 ,,absalom1 the son of ,david by ,maachah1 daughter of the king of ,geshur2 distinguished for his fine person1 his vices1 and his unnatural rebellion4 ,of his open revolt1 his conduct in ,jerusalem1 his pursuit of the king his father1 his defeat and death1 see #b ,sam4 xvi-xviii1 at large4 ,,absolution1 in the church of ,rome1 is a sacrament1 in which the priests assume the power of forgiving sins4 ,the rite of absolution in the church of ,england is acknowledged to be declarative only--8,almighty ,god hath given power and commandment to his ministers to declare and pronounce to his people1 being penitent1 the absolution and remission of their sins3 ,he pardoneth10 c4 ,in this view it is innocent2 and although any private ,christian has a right to declare and pronounce the same doctrine to his neighbour1 the official publication of the grace of the ,gospel is the public duty of its ministers in the congregation1 since they are ,christ's 8ambassadors40 ,,abstinence1 forbearance of any thing ,it is generally used with reference to forbearance from food under a religious motive4 ,the ,jewish law ordained that the priests should abstain from the use of wine during the whole time of their being employed in the service of the temple1 ,lev4 x1 #i4 ,the same abstinence was enjoined upon the ,nazarites1 during the time of their ,nazariteship1 or separation1 ,num4 vi1 #c4 ,the ,jews were commanded to abstain from several sorts of animals4 ,see ,,animal4 ,the fat of all sorts of animals that were sacrificed was forbidden to be eaten1 ,lev4 iii1 #ag2 vii1 #bc2 and the blood of every animal1 in general1 was prohibited under pain of death4 ,indeed blood was forbidden by the ,creator1 from the time of the grant of the flesh of beasts to man for food2 this prohibition was continued under the ,jewish economy1 and transmitted to the ,christian church by ,apostolic authority1 ,acts xv1 #bh1 #bi4 7,see ,blood47 ,the ,jews also abstained from the sinew which is upon the hollow of the thigh1 ,gen4 xxxii1 #be2 because of the shrinking of the sinew of ,jacob's thigh when touched by the angel1 as though by that the part had been made sacred4 ,among the primitive ,christians1 some denied themselves the use of such meats as were prohibited by the law2 others treated this abstinence with contempt4 ,st4 ,paul has given his decision on these questions in his epistles1 #a ,cor4 viii1 #g-aj2 ,rom4 xiv1 #a-c4 ,the council of ,jerusalem1 which was held by the ,apostles1 enjoined the ,christian converts to abstain from meats strangled1 from blood1 from fornication1 and from idolatry1 ,acts xv1 #bj4 ,the spiritual monarchy of the western world introduced another sort of abstinence which may be termed ritual1 and which consists in abstaining from particular meats at certain times and seasons1 the rules of which are called rogations4 ,the ancient ,lent was observed only a few days before ,easter4 ,in the course of the third century1 it extended at ,rome to three weeks2 and before the middle of the succeeding age1 it was prolonged to six weeks1 and began to be called quadragesima1 or the forty days' fast4 ,,abyss1 or ,,deep1 1 without bottom4 ,the chaos2 the deepest parts of the sea2 and1 in the ,new ,testament1 the place of the dead1 ,rom4 x1 #g2 a deep place of punishment4 ,the devils besought ,jesus that he would not send them into the abyss1 a place they evidently dreaded1 ,luke viii1 #ca2 where it seems to mean that part of ,hades in which wicked spirits are in torment4 ,see ,,hell4 ,in the opinion of the ancient ,hebrews1 and of the generality of eastern people at this day1 the abyss1 the sea1 or waters1 encompassed the whole earth4 ,this was supposed to float upon the abyss1 of which it covered a small part4 ,according to the same notion1 the earth was founded on the waters1 or at least its foundations were on the abyss beneath1 ,psalm xxiv1 #b2 cxxxvi1 #f4 ,under these waters1 and at the bottom of this abyss1 they represented the wicked as groaning1 and suffering the punishment of their sin4 ,the ,rephaim were confined there1 those old giants1 who1 whilst living1 caused surrounding nations to tremble1 ,prov4 ix1 #ah2 xxi1 #af1 c4 ,lastly1 in these dark dungeons the kings of ,tyre1 ,babylon1 and ,egypt are described by the ,prophets as suffering the punishment of their pride and cruelty1 ,isaiah xxvi1 #ad2 ,ezek4 xxviii1 #aj1 c4 ,these depths are figuratively represented as the abodes of evil spirits1 and powers opposed to ,god3 8,i saw10 says ,st4 ,john1 8a star fall from heaven unto the earth1 and to him was given the key of the bottomless pit4 ,and he opened the bottomless pit2 and there arose a smoke out of it1 as the smoke of a great furnace2 and the sun and the air were darkened by reason of the smoke of the pit4 ,and there came out of the smoke locusts upon the earth4 ,and they had a king over them1 which is the angel of the bottomless pit10 ,rev4 ix1 #a1 #b1 #aa4 ,in another place1 the beast is represented as ascending out of the bottomless pit1 and waging war against the two witnesses of ,god1 ,rev4 xi1 #g4 ,lastly1 ,st4 ,john says1 8,i saw an angel come down from heaven1 having the key of the bottomless pit1 and a great chain in his hand4 ,and he laid hold on the dragon1 that old serpent1 which is the devil1 and ,satan1 and bound him a thousand years1 and cast him into the bottomless pit1 and shut him up1 and set a seal upon him1 that he should deceive the nations no more till the thousand years should be fulfilled3 and after that he must be loosed a little season10 ,rev4 xx1 #a-c4 ,,abyssinian ,,church1 a branch of the ,coptic church1 in ,upper ,ethiopia4 ,the ,abyssinians1 by the most authentic accounts1 were converted to the ,christian faith about the year #ccj2 when ,frumentius1 being providentially raised to a high office1 under the patronage of the queen of ,ethiopia1 and ordained bishop of that country by ,athanasius1 patriarch of ,alexandria1 established ,christianity1 built churches1 and ordained a regular clergy to officiate in them4 ,the ,abyssinian ,christians themselves1 indeed1 claim a much higher antiquity1 having a tradition1 that the doctrine of ,christ was first introduced among them by ,queen ,candace1 ,acts viii1 #bg2 or even preached there by the ,apostles ,matthew and ,bartholomew2 but the former is supported by no collateral evidence1 and the latter is in opposition to high authority4 ,some of them claim relation to the ,israelites1 through the queen of ,sheba1 so far back as the reign of ,solomon4 ,the ,abyssinian ,christians have always received their abuna1 or patriarch1 from ,alexandria1 whence they sprang1 and consequently their creed is ,monophysite1 or ,eutychian2 maintaining one nature only in the person of ,christ1 namely1 the divine1 in which they considered all the properties of the humanity to be absorbed2 in opposition to the ,nestorians4 ,on the power of the ,saracens prevailing in the east1 all communication being nearly cut off between the eastern and western churches1 the ,abyssinian church remained unknown in ,europe till nearly the close of the fifteenth century1 when ,john ,,ii1 of ,portugal1 accidentally hearing of the existence of such a church1 sent to make inquiry4 ,this led to a correspondence between the ,abyssinians and the church of ,rome2 and ,bermudes1 a ,portuguese1 was consecrated by the pope patriarch of ,ethiopia1 and the ,abyssinians were required to receive the ,roman ,catholic faith1 in return for some military assistance afforded to the emperor4 ,instead of this1 however1 the emperor sent for a new patriarch from ,alexandria1 imprisoned ,bermudes1 and declared the pope a heretic4 ,about the middle of the sixteenth century1 the ,jesuits attempted a mission to ,abyssinia1 in the hope of reducing it to the pope's authority2 but without success4 ,in #aehh a second mission was attempted1 and so far succeeded as to introduce a system of persecution1 which cost many lives1 and caused many troubles to the empire4 ,in the following century1 however1 the ,jesuits were all expelled1 ,abyssinia returned to its ancient faith1 and nothing more was heard of the church of ,abyssinia1 till the latter part of the last century4 ,after the expulsion of the ,jesuits1 all ,europeans were interdicted2 nor does it appear that any one dared to attempt an entrance until the celebrated ,mr4 ,bruce1 by the report of his medical skill1 contrived to introduce himself to the court1 where he even obtained military promotion2 and was in such repute1 that it was with great difficulty he obtained leave to return to ,england4 ,encouraged1 perhaps1 by this circumstance1 the ,moravian brethren attempted a mission to this country1 but in vain4 ,they were compelled to retreat to ,grand ,cairo1 from whence1 by leave of the patriarch1 they visited the ,copts at ,behrusser1 and formed a small society2 but in #aghc1 they were driven thence1 and compelled to return to ,europe4 ,more recently1 however1 the late king of ,abyssinia 7,itsa ,takley ,gorges7 addressed a letter to ,mr4 ,salt1 the ,british consul in ,egypt1 and requested copies of some parts of both the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 ,copies of the ,psalms1 in ,ethiopic1 as printed by the ,british and ,foreign ,bible ,society1 were also sent to him4 ,,academics1 a name given to such philosophers as adopted the doctrines of ,plato4 ,they were so called from the ,academia1 a grove near ,athens1 where they frequently indulged their contemplations4 ,academia is said to derive its name from one ,academus1 a god or hero so called4 ,thus ,horace1-- ,atque inter sylvas ,academi qurere verum4 ,and in the groves of ,academus to search for truth4 ,the academics are divided into those of the first academy1 who taught the doctrines of ,plato in their original purity2 those of the second or middle academy1 who differed materially from the first1 and inclined to skepticism2 and those of the new academy4 ,the middle school laid it down as a principle1 that neither our senses1 nor our reason1 are to be trusted2 but that in common affairs we are to conform to received opinions4 ,the new academy maintained that we have no means of distinguishing truth1 and that the most evident appearances may lead us into error2 they granted the wise man opinion1 but denied him certainty4 ,they held1 however1 that it was best to follow the greatest probability1 which was sufficient for all the useful purposes of life1 and laid down rules for the attainment of felicity4 ,the difference betwixt the middle academy and the new seems to have been this1 that though they agreed in the imbecility of human nature1 yet the first denied that probabilities were of any use in the pursuit of happiness2 and the latter held them to be of service in such a design3 the former recommended a conformity with received opinions1 and the latter allowed men an opinion of their own4 ,in the first academy1 ,speusippus filled the chair2 in the second1 ,arcesilaus2 and in the new or third academy1 ,carneades4 ,,accad1 one of the four cities built by ,nimrod1 the founder of the ,assyrian empire4 7,see ,nimrod47 8,and the beginning of his kingdom was ,babel1 and ,erech1 and ,accad1 and ,calneh1 in the land of ,shinar10 ,gen4 x1 #aj4 ,thus it appears that ,accad was contemporary with ,babylon1 and was one of the first four great cities of the world4 ,it would scarcely be expected that any thing should now remain to guide us in our search for this ancient city1 seeing that ,babylon itself1 with which it was coeval1 is reduced to heaps2 and that it is not mentioned under its ancient name by any profane author4 ,but the discoveries of modern travellers may be brought to aid us in our inquiry4 ,at the distance of about six miles from the modern town of ,bagdad1 is found a mound1 surmounted by a tower-shaped ruin1 called by the ,arabs ,tell ,nimrood1 and by the ,turks ,nemrood ,tepasse2 both terms implying the ,hill of ,nimrod4 ,this gigantic mass rises in an irregularly pyramidal or turreted shape1 according to the view in which it is taken1 one hundred and twenty-five or one hundred and thirty feet above the gently inclined elevation on which it stands4 ,its circumference1 at the bottom1 is three hundred feet4 ,the mound which constitutes its foundation is composed of a collection of rubbish1 formed from the decay of the superstructure2 and consists of sandy earth1 fragments of burnt brick1 pottery1 and hard clay1 partially vitrified4 ,in the remains of the tower1 the different layers of sun-dried brick1 of which it is composed1 may be traced with great precision4 ,these bricks1 cemented together by slime1 and divided into courses varying from twelve to twenty feet in height1 are separated from one another by a stratum of reeds1 similar to those now growing in the marshy parts of the plain1 and in a wonderful state of preservation4 ,the resemblance of this mode of building to that in some of the structures at ,babylon1 cannot escape observation2 and we may reasonably conclude it to be the workmanship of the same architects4 ,the solidity and the loftiness of this pile1 unfashioned to any other purpose1 bespeak it to be one of those enormous pyramidal towers which were consecrated to the ,sabian worship2 which1 as essential to their religious rites1 were probably erected in all the early cities of the ,cuthites2 and1 like their prototype at ,babylon1 answered the double purpose of altars and observatories4 ,here then was the site of one of these early cities4 ,it was not ,babylon2 it was not ,erech2 it was not ,calneh4 ,it might be too much to say that therefore it must be ,accad2 but the inference is at least warrantable2 which is farther strengthened by the name of the place1 ,akarkouff2 which bears a greater affinity to that of ,accad than many others which are forced into the support of geographical speculations1 especially when it is recollected that the ,syrian name of the city was ,achar4 ,,access1 free admission1 open entrance4 ,our access to ,god is by ,jesus ,christ1 the way1 the truth1 and the life1 ,rom4 v1 #b2 ,eph4 ii1 #ah4 ,under the law1 the high priest alone had access into the holiest of all2 but when the veil of the temple was rent in twain1 at the death of ,christ1 it was declared that a new and living way of access was laid open through the veil1 that is to say1 his flesh4 ,by his death1 also1 the middle wall of partition was broken down1 and ,jew and ,gentile had both free access to ,god2 whereas1 before1 the ,gentiles had no nearer access in the temple worship than to the gate of the court of ,israel4 ,thus the saving grace and lofty privileges of the ,gospel are equally bestowed upon true believers of all nations4 ,,accho1 afterward called ,ptolemais1 and now ,akka by the ,arabs1 and ,acre by the ,turks4 ,it was given to the tribe of ,asher1 ,judges i1 #ca4 ,christianity was planted here at an early period1 and here ,st4 ,paul visited the saints in his way to ,jerusalem1 ,acts xxi1 #g4 ,it is a seaport of ,palestine1 thirty miles south of ,tyre1 and1 in the first partition of the holy land1 belonged to the tribe of ,asher2 but this was one of the places out of which the ,israelites could not drive the primitive inhabitants4 ,in succeeding times it was enlarged by the first ,ptolemy1 to whose lot it fell1 and who named it after himself1 ,ptolemais4 ,this city1 now called ,acre1 which1 from the convenience of its port1 is one of the most considerable on the ,syrian coast1 was1 during almost two centuries1 the principal theatre of the holy wars1 and the frequent scene of the perfidies and treacheries of the crusaders4 ,among its antiquities1 ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke describes the remains of a very considerable edifice1 exhibiting a conspicuous appearance among the buildings on the north side of the city4 8,in this structure the style of the architecture is of the kind we call ,gothic4 ,perhaps it has on that account borne among our countrymen the appellation of #8,king ,richard's ,palace1' although1 in the period to which the tradition refers1 the ,english were hardly capable of erecting palaces1 or any other buildings of equal magnificence4 ,two lofty arches1 and part of the cornice1 are all that now remain to attest the former greatness of the superstructure4 ,the cornice1 ornamented with enormous stone busts1 exhibiting a series of hideous distorted countenances1 whose features are in no instances alike1 may either have served as allusions to the decapitation of ,st4 ,john1 or were intended for a representation of the heads of ,saracens suspended as trophies upon the walls40 ,maundrell and ,pococke consider this building to have been the church of ,st4 ,andrew2 but ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke thinks it was that of ,st4 ,john1 erected by the ,knights of ,jerusalem1 whence the city changed its name of ,ptolemais for that of ,st4 ,john d',acre4 ,he also considers the style of architecture to be in some degree the original of our ornamented ,gothic1 before its translation from the holy land to ,italy1 ,france1 and ,england4 ,mr4 ,buckingham1 who visited ,acre in #ahaf1 says1 8,of the ,canaanitish ,accho it would be thought idle perhaps to seek for remains2 yet some presented themselves to my observation so peculiar in form and materials1 and of such high antiquity1 as to leave no doubt in my own mind of their being the fragments of buildings constructed in the earliest ages4 8,of the splendour of ,ptolemais1 no perfect monument remains2 but throughout the town are seen shafts of red and grey granite1 and marble pillars4 ,the ,saracenic remains are only to be partially traced in the inner walls of the town2 which have themselves been so broken down and repaired1 as to leave little visible of the original work2 and all the mosques1 fountains1 bazaars1 and other public buildings1 are in a style rather ,turkish than ,arabic1 excepting only an old1 but regular and well-built khan or caravanserai1 which might perhaps be attributed to the ,saracen age4 ,the ,christian ruins are altogether gone1 scarcely leaving a trace of the spot on which they stood40 ,acre has been rendered famous in our own times by the successful resistance made by our countryman ,sir ,sydney ,smith1 aided by the celebrated ,djezzar ,pasha1 to the progress of the ,french under ,buonaparte4 ,since this period1 the fortifications have been considerably increased2 and although to the eye of an engineer they may still be very defective1 ,acre may be considered as the strongest place in ,palestine4 ,mr4 ,conner says1 on the authority of the ,english consul1 that there are about ten thousand inhabitants in ,acre1 of whom three thousand are ,turks1 and the remainder ,christians1 chiefly ,catholics4 ,,accubation1 the posture used at table by the ancients4 ,the old ,romans sat at meat as we do1 till the ,grecian luxury and softness had corrupted them4 ,the same custom1 of lying upon couches at their entertainments1 prevailed among the ,jews also in our ,saviour's time2 for having been lately conquered by ,pompey1 they conformed in this1 and in many other respects1 to the example of their masters4 ,the manner of lying at meat among the ,romans1 ,greeks1 and more modern ,jews1 was the same in all respects4 ,the table was placed in the middle of the room1 around which stood three couches covered with cloth or tapestry1 according to the quality of the master of the house2 upon these they lay1 inclining the superior part of their bodies upon their left arms1 the lower part being stretched out at full length1 or a little bent4 ,their heads were supported and raised with pillows4 ,the first man lay at the head of the couch2 the next man lay with his head toward the feet of the other1 from which he was defended by the bolster that supported his own back1 commonly reaching over to the middle of the first man2 and the rest after the same manner4 ,the most honourable place was the middle couch--and the middle of that4 ,favourites commonly lay in the bosom of their friends2 that is1 they were placed next below them3 see ,john xiii1 #bc1 where ,st4 ,john is said to have lain in our ,saviour's bosom4 ,the ancient ,greeks sat at the table2 for ,homer observes that when ,ulysses arrived at the palace of ,alcinous1 the king dispatched his son ,laodamas to seat ,ulysses in a magnificent chair4 ,the ,egyptians sat at table anciently1 as well as the ,romans1 till toward the end of the ,punic war1 when they began to recline at table4 ,,accursed1 in the ,scriptures1 signifies that which is separated or devoted4 ,with regard to persons1 it denotes the cutting off or separating any one from the communion of the church1 the number of the living1 or the privileges of society2 and also the devoting an animal1 city1 or other thing to destruction4 ,anathema was a species of excommunication among the ,jews1 and was often practised after they had lost the power of life and death1 against those persons who1 according to the ,mosaic law1 ought to have been executed4 ,a criminal1 after the sentence of excommunication was pronounced1 became anathema3 and they had a full persuasion that the sentence would not be in vain2 but that ,god would interfere to punish the offender in a manner similar to the penalty of the law of ,moses3 a man1 for instance1 whom the law condemned to be stoned1 would1 they believed1 be killed by the falling of a stone upon him2 a man to be hanged1 would be choked2 and one whom the law sentenced to the flames1 would be burnt in his house1 c4 ,maranatha1 a ,syriac word1 signifying the ,lord cometh1 was added to the sentence1 to express their persuasion that the ,lord ,god would come to take vengeance upon that guilt which they1 circumstanced as they were1 had not the power to punish1 #a ,cor4 xvi1 #bb4 ,according to the idiom of the ,hebrew language1 accursed and crucified were synonymous terms4 ,by the ,jews every one who died upon a tree was reckoned accursed1 ,deut4 xxi1 #bc4 ,excommunication is a kind of anathema also among some ,christians2 and by it the offender is deprived1 not only of communicating in prayers and other holy offices1 but of admittance to the church1 and of conversation with the faithful4 ,the spirit of ,judaism1 rather than that of the ,gospel1 has in this been imitated2 for among the ,hebrews1 they who were excommunicated could not perform any public duty of their employments2 could be neither judges nor witnesses2 neither be present at funerals1 nor circumcise their own sons1 nor sit down in the company of other men1 nearer than within the distance of four cubits4 ,if they died under excommunication1 they were denied the rites of burial2 and a large stone was left on their graves1 or a heap of stones was thrown over them1 as over ,achan1 ,joshua vii1 #bf4 ,the ,apostolical excommunication was simply to deny to the offender1 after admonition1 the right of partaking of the ,lord's ,supper1 which was excision from the church of ,christ4 ,,aceldama1 a piece of ground without the south wall of ,jerusalem1 on the other side of the brook ,siloam4 ,it was called the ,potter's ,field1 because an earth or clay was dug in it1 of which pottery was made4 ,it was likewise called the ,fuller's ,field1 because cloth was dried in it4 ,but it having been afterward bought with the money by which the high priest and rulers of the ,jews purchased the blood of ,jesus1 it was called ,aceldama1 or the ,field of ,blood4 ,,achaia4 ,this name is used to denote the whole of ,greece1 as it existed as a ,roman province2 or ,achaia ,proper1 a district in the northern part of the ,peloponnesus1 on the bay of ,corinth1 and in which the city of that name stood4 ,it appears to have been used in the former sense in #b ,cor4 xi1 #aj2 and in the latter1 in ,acts xix1 #ba4 ,,achan1 the son of ,carmi1 of the tribe of ,judah1 who having taken a part of the spoils of ,jericho1 against the injunction of ,god1 who had accursed or devoted the whole city1 was1 upon being taken by lot1 doomed to be stoned to death4 ,the whole history is recorded1 ,joshua vii4 ,it would appear that ,achan's family were also stoned2 for they were led out with him1 and all his property1 8,and all ,israel stoned him with stones1 and burned them with fire1 after they had stoned them with stones40 ,some of the critics have made efforts to confine the stoning to ,achan1 and the burning to his goods2 but not without violence to the text4 ,it is probable1 therefore1 that his family were privy to the theft1 seeing he hid the accursed things which he had stolen in the earth1 in his tent4 ,by concealment they therefore became partakers of his crime1 and so the sentence was justified4 ,,achmetha4 ,see ,,ecbatana4 ,,achor1 ,valley of1 between ,jericho and ,ai4 ,so called from the trouble brought upon the ,israelites by the sin of ,achan2 ,achor in the ,hebrew denoting trouble4 ,,achzib1 a city on the coast of the ,mediterranean1 in the tribe of ,asher1 and one of the cities out of which that tribe did not expel the inhabitants1 ,judges i1 #ca4 ,it was called ,ecdippa by the ,greeks1 and is at present termed ,zib4 ,it is situated about ten miles north of ,accho1 or ,ptolemais4 ,mr4 ,buckingham1 who passed by this place1 says that it is small1 and situated on a hill near the sea2 having a few palm trees rearing themselves above its dwellings4 ,,acra1 4 ,this ,greek word signifies1 in general1 a citadel4 ,the ,syrians and ,chaldeans use 1 in the same sense4 ,king ,antiochus gave orders for building a citadel at ,jerusalem1 north of the temple1 on an eminence1 which commanded the holy place2 and for that reason was called ,acra4 ,josephus says1 that this eminence was semicircular1 and that ,simon ,maccabus1 having expelled the ,syrians1 who had seized ,acra1 demolished it1 and spent three years in levelling the mountain on which it stood2 that no situation in future should command the temple4 ,on mount ,acra were afterward built1 the palace of ,helena2 ,agrippa's palace1 the place where the public records were lodged2 and that where the magistrates of ,jerusalem assembled4 ,,acrabatene1 a district of ,juda1 extending between ,shechem 7now ,napolose7 and ,jericho1 inclining east4 ,it was about twelve miles in length4 ,the ,acrabatene had its name from a place called ,akrabbim1 about nine miles from ,shechem1 eastward4 ,this was also the name of another district of ,judea on the frontier of ,idumea1 toward the northern extremity of the ,dead ,sea4 ,,acts ,,of ,,the ,,apostles4 ,this book1 in the very beginning1 professes itself to be a continuation of the ,gospel of ,st4 ,luke2 and its style bespeaks it to be written by the same person4 ,the external evidence is also very satisfactory2 for besides allusions in earlier authors1 and particularly in ,clement of ,rome1 ,polycarp1 and ,justin ,martyr1 the ,acts of the ,apostles are not only quoted by ,irenus1 as written by ,luke the evangelist1 but there are few things recorded in this book which are not mentioned by that ancient father4 ,this strong testimony in favour of the genuineness of the ,acts of the ,apostles is supported by ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,tertullian1 ,jerome1 ,eusebius1 ,theodoret1 and most of the later fathers4 ,it may be added1 that the name of ,st4 ,luke is prefixed to this book in several ancient ,greek manuscripts of the ,new ,testament1 and also in the old ,syriac version4 #b4 ,this is the only inspired work which gives us any historical account of the progress of ,christianity after our ,saviour's ascension4 ,it comprehends a period of about thirty years1 but it by no means contains a general history of the church during that time4 ,the principal facts recorded in it are1 the choice of ,matthias to be an ,apostle in the room of the traitor ,judas2 the descent of the ,holy ,ghost on the day of pentecost2 the preaching1 miracles1 and sufferings of the ,apostles at ,jerusalem2 the death of ,stephen1 the first martyr2 the persecution and dispersion of the ,christians2 the preaching of the ,gospel in different parts of ,palestine1 especially in ,samaria2 the conversion of ,st4 ,paul2 the call of ,cornelius1 the first ,gentile convert2 the persecution of the ,christians by ,herod ,agrippa2 the preaching of ,paul and ,barnabas to the ,gentiles1 by the express command of the ,holy ,ghost2 the decree made at ,jerusalem1 declaring that circumcision1 and a conformity to other ,jewish rites and ceremonies1 were not necessary in ,gentile converts2 and the latter part of the book is confined to the history of ,st4 ,paul1 of whom ,st4 ,luke was the constant companion for several years4 #c4 ,as this account of ,st4 ,paul is not continued beyond his two years' imprisonment at ,rome1 it is probable that this book was written soon after his release1 which happened in the year #fc2 we may therefore consider the ,acts of the ,apostles as written about the year #fd4 #d4 ,the place of its publication is more doubtful4 ,the probability appears to be in favour of ,greece1 though some contend for ,alexandria in ,egypt4 ,this latter opinion rests upon the subscriptions at the end of some ,greek manuscripts1 and of the copies of the ,syriac version2 but the best critics think1 that these subscriptions1 which are also affixed to other books of the ,new ,testament1 deserve but little weight2 and in this case they are not supported by any ancient authority4 #e4 ,it must have been of the utmost importance in the early times of the ,gospel1 and certainly not of less importance to every subsequent age1 to have an authentic account of the promised descent of the ,holy ,ghost1 and of the success which attended the first preachers of the ,gospel both among the ,jews and ,gentiles4 ,these great events completed the evidence of the divine mission of ,christ1 established the truth of the religion which he taught1 and pointed out in the clearest manner the comprehensive nature of the redemption which he purchased by his death4 cumenius calls the ,acts1 the 8,gospel of the ,holy ,ghost20 and ,st4 ,chrysostom1 the 8,gospel of our ,saviour's resurrection10 or the ,gospel of ,jesus ,christ risen from the dead4 ,here1 in the lives and preaching of the ,apostles1 we have the most miraculous instances of the power of the ,holy ,ghost2 and in the account of those who were the first believers1 we have received the most excellent pattern of the true ,christian life4 ,,adam1 the name given to man in general1 both male and female in the ,hebrew ,scriptures1 ,gen4 i1 #bf1 #bg2 v1 #a1 #b2 xi1 #e2 ,josh4 xiv1 #ae2 #b ,sam4 vii1 #ai2 ,eccl4 iii1 #ba2 ,jer4 xxxii1 #bj2 ,hosea vi1 #g2 ,zech4 xiii1 #g3 in all which places mankind is understood2 but particularly it is the name of the first man and father of the human race1 created by ,god himself out of the dust of the earth4 ,josephus thinks that he was called ,adam by reason of the reddish colour of the earth out of which he was formed1 for ,adam in ,hebrew signifies red4 ,god having made man out of the dust of the earth1 breathed into him the breath of life1 and gave him dominion over all the creatures of this world1 ,gen4 i1 #bf1 #bg2 ii1 #g4 ,he created him after his own image and resemblance2 and having blessed him1 he placed him in a delicious garden1 in ,eden1 that he might cultivate it1 and feed upon its fruits1 ,gen4 ii1 #h2 but under the following injunction3 8,of every tree of the garden thou mayest freely eat3 but of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil1 thou shalt not eat of it2 for in the day thou eatest thereof1 thou shalt surely die40 ,the first thing that ,adam did after his introduction into paradise1 was to give names to all the beasts and birds which presented themselves before him1 ,gen4 ii1 #ai1 #bj4 ,but man was without a fellow creature of his own species2 wherefore ,god said1 8,it is not good for man to be alone2 ,i will make him a help meet for him40 ,and the ,lord caused a deep sleep to fall upon ,adam1 and while he slept1 he took one of his ribs1 8and closed up the flesh instead thereof20 and of that substance which he took from man made he a woman1 whom he presented to him4 ,then said ,adam1 8,this is now bone of my bone1 and flesh of my flesh3 she shall be called woman1 because she was taken out of man10 ,gen4 ii1 #ba1 c4 ,the woman was seduced by the tempter2 and she seduced her husband to eat of the forbidden fruit4 ,when called to judgment for this transgression before ,god1 ,adam attempted to cast the blame upon his wife1 and the woman upon the serpent tempter4 ,but ,god declared them all guilty1 and punished the serpent by degradation2 the woman by painful childbearing and subjection2 and the man by agricultural labour and toil2 of which punishments every day witnesses the fulfilment4 ,as their natural passions now became irregular1 and their exposure to accidents was great1 ,god made a covering of skins for ,adam and for his wife2 and expelled them from the garden1 to the country without2 placing at the east of the garden cherubims and a flaming sword1 which turned every way1 to keep the way of the tree of life4 ,it is not known how long ,adam and his wife continued in paradise3 some say1 many years2 others1 not many days2 others1 not many hours4 ,adam called his wife's name ,eve1 which signifies 8the mother of all living40 ,shortly after1 ,eve brought forth ,cain1 ,gen4 iv1 #a1 #b4 ,it is believed that she had a girl at the time1 and that1 generally1 she had twins4 ,the ,scriptures notice only three sons of ,adam3 ,cain1 ,abel1 and ,seth2 and omits daughters2 except that ,moses tells us1 8,adam begat sons and daughters20 no doubt many4 ,he died1 aged nine hundred and thirty1 ,b4 ,c4 #cjgd4 ,upon this history1 so interesting to all ,adam's descendants1 some remarks may be offered4 #a4 ,it is disputed whether the name ,adam is derived from red earth4 ,sir ,w4 ,jones thinks it may be from ,adim1 which in ,sanscrit signifies1 the first4 ,the ,persians1 however1 denominate him ,adamah1 which signifies1 according to ,sale1 red earth4 ,the term for woman is ,aisha1 the feminine of ,aish1 man1 and signifies1 therefore1 maness or female man4 #b4 ,the manner in which the creation of ,adam is narrated indicates something peculiar and eminent in the being to be formed4 ,among the heavenly bodies the earth1 and above all the various productions of its surface1 vegetable and animal1 however perfect in their kinds1 and beautiful and excellent in their respective natures1 not one being was found to whom the rest could minister instruction2 inspire with moral delight2 or lead up to the ,creator himself4 ,there was1 properly speaking1 no intellectual being2 none to whom the whole frame and furniture of material nature could minister knowledge2 no one who could employ upon them the generalizing faculty1 and make them the basis of inductive knowledge4 ,if1 then1 it was not wholly for himself that the world was created by ,god2 and if angels were not so immediately connected with this system1 as to lead us to suppose that it was made for them2 a rational inhabitant was obviously still wanting to complete the work1 and to constitute a perfect whole4 ,the formation of such a being was marked1 therefore1 by a manner of proceeding which serves to impress us with a sense of the greatness of the work4 ,not that it could be a matter of more difficulty to ,omnipotence to create man than any thing beside2 but principally1 it is probable1 because he was to be the lord of the whole and therefore himself accountable to the original proprietor2 and was to be the subject of another species of government1 a moral administration2 and to be constituted an image of the intellectual and moral perfections1 and of the immortality1 of the common ,maker4 ,every thing therefore1 as to man's creation1 is given in a solemn and deliberative form1 and contains also an intimation of a ,trinity of ,persons in the ,godhead1 all equally possessed of creative power1 and therefore ,divine1 to each of whom man was to stand in relations the most sacred and intimate3--8,and ,god said1 ,let ,,us make man in our image1 after our likeness2 and let them have dominion10 c4 #c4 ,it may be next inquired in what that image of ,god in which man was made consists4 ,it is manifest from the history of ,moses1 that human nature has two essential constituent parts1 the ,,body formed out of prexisting matter1 the earth2 and a ,,living ,,soul1 breathed into the body by an inspiration from ,god4 8,and the ,lord ,god formed man out of the dust of the ground1 and breathed into his nostrils 7or face7 the breath of life1 7lives17 and man became a living soul40 ,whatever was thus imparted to the body of man1 already 8formed10 and perfectly finished in all its parts1 was the only cause of life2 and the whole tenor of ,scripture shows that this was the rational spirit itself1 which1 by a law of its ,creator1 was incapable of death1 even after the body had fallen under that penalty4 ,the 8image0 or likeness of ,god in which man was made has1 by some1 been assigned to the body2 by others1 to the soul4 ,it has1 also1 been placed in the circumstance of his having 8dominion0 over the other creatures4 ,as to the body1 it is not necessary to prove that in no sense can it bear the image of ,god2 that is1 be 8like0 ,god4 ,an upright form has no more likeness to ,god than a prone or reptile one2 ,god is incorporeal1 and cannot be the antitype of any thing material4 ,equally unfounded is the notion that the image of ,god in man consisted in the 8dominion0 which was granted to him over this lower world4 ,limited dominion may1 it is true1 be an image of large and absolute dominion2 but man is not said to have been made in the image of ,god's dominion1 which is an accident merely1 for1 before creatures existed1 ,god himself could have no dominion3--he was made in the image and likeness of ,god himself4 ,still farther1 it is evident that man1 according to the history1 was made in the image of ,god in order to his having dominion1 as the ,hebrew particle imports2 and1 therefore1 his dominion was consequent upon his formation in the 8image0 and 8likeness0 of ,god1 and could not be that image itself4 ,the notion that the original resemblance of man to ,god must be placed in some one essential quality1 is not consistent with holy writ1 from which alone we can derive our information on this subject4 ,we shall1 it is true1 find that the ,bible partly places it in what is essential to human nature2 but that it should comprehend nothing else1 or consist in one quality only1 has no proof or reason2 and we are1 in fact1 taught that it comprises also what is so far from being essential that it may be both lost and regained4 ,when ,god is called 8the ,father of spirits10 a likeness is suggested between man and ,god in the spirituality of their nature4 ,this is also implied in the striking argument of ,st4 ,paul with the ,athenians3 8,forasmuch1 then1 as we are the ,,offspring of ,god1 we ought not to think that the ,godhead is like unto gold1 or silver1 or stone1 graven by art and man's device20--plainly referring to the idolatrous statues by which ,god was represented among ,heathens4 ,if likeness to ,god in man consisted in bodily shape1 this would not have been an argument against human representations of the ,deity2 but it imports1 as ,howe well expresses it1 that 8we are to understand that our resemblance to him1 as we are his offspring1 lies in some higher1 more noble1 and more excellent thing1 of which there can be no figure2 as who can tell how to give the figure or image of a thought1 or of the mind or thinking power80 ,in spirituality1 and1 consequently1 immateriality1 this image of ,god in man1 then1 in the first instance1 consists4 ,nor is it any valid objection to say1 that 8immateriality is not peculiar to the soul of man2 for we have reason to believe that the inferior animals are actuated by an immaterial principle40 ,this is as certain as analogy can make it3 but though we allow a spiritual principle to animals1 its kind is obviously inferior2 for that spirit which is incapable of induction and moral knowledge1 must be of an inferior order to the spirit which possesses these capabilities2 and this is the kind of spirit which is peculiar to man4 ,the sentiment expressed in ,wisdom ii1 #bc1 is an evidence that1 in the opinion of the ancient ,jews1 the image of ,god in man comprised immortality also4 8,for ,god created man to be immortal1 and made him to be an image of his own eternity30 and though other creatures were made capable of immortality1 and at least the material human frame1 whatever we may think of the case of animals1 would have escaped death1 had not sin entered the world2 yet1 without admitting the absurdity of the 8natural immortality0 of the human soul1 that essence must have been constituted immortal in a high and peculiar sense which has ever retained its prerogative of continued duration amidst the universal death not only of animals1 but of the bodies of all human beings4 ,there appears also a manifest allusion to man's immortality1 as being included in the image of ,god1 in the reason which is given in ,genesis for the law which inflicts death on murderers3 8,whoso sheddeth man's blood1 by man shall his blood be shed3 for in the image of ,god made he man40 ,the essence of the crime of homicide is not confined here to the putting to death the mere animal part of man2 and it must1 therefore1 lie in the peculiar value of life to an immortal being1 accountable in another state for the actions done in this1 and whose life ought to be specially guarded for this very reason1 that death introduces him into changeless and eternal relations1 which were not to be left to the mercy of human passions4 ,to these we are to add the intellectual powers1 and we have what divines1 in perfect accordance with the ,scriptures1 have called1 8the ,,natural image of ,god in his creatures10 which is essential and ineffaceable4 ,man was made capable of knowledge1 and he was endowed with liberty of will4 ,this natural image of ,god was the foundation of that ,,moral image by which also man was distinguished4 ,unless he had been a spiritual1 knowing1 and willing being1 he would have been wholly incapable of moral qualities4 ,that he had such qualities eminently1 and that in them consisted the image of ,god1 as well as in the natural attributes just stated1 we have also the express testimony of ,scripture3 8,lo this only have ,i found1 that ,god made man ,,upright2 but they have sought out many inventions40 ,there is also an express allusion to the moral image of ,god1 in which man was at first created1 in ,colossians iii1 #aj3 8,and have put on the new man1 which is renewed in knowledge1 after the image of ,him that created him20 and in ,ephesians iv1 #bd3 8,put on the new man1 which after ,god is created in righteousness and true holiness40 ,in these passages the ,apostle represents the change produced in true ,christians by the ,gospel1 as a 8renewal of the image of ,god in man2 as a new or second creation in that image20 and he explicitly declares1 that that image consists in 8knowledge10 in 8righteousness10 and in 8true holiness40 ,this also may be finally argued from the satisfaction with which the historian of the creation represents the ,creator as viewing the works of his hands as 8very good10 which was pronounced with reference to each of them individually1 as well as to the whole3 8,and ,god saw every thing that he had made1 and behold it was very good40 ,but1 as to man1 this goodness must necessarily imply moral as well as physical qualities4 ,without them he would have been imperfect as man2 and had they1 in their first exercises1 been perverted and sinful1 he must have been an exception1 and could not have been pronounced 8very good40 ,the goodness of man1 as a rational being1 must lie in devotedness and consecration to ,god2 consequently1 man was at first holy4 ,a rational creature1 as such1 is capable of knowing1 loving1 serving1 and living in communion with the ,most ,holy ,one4 ,adam1 at first1 did or did not exert this capacity2 if he did not1 he was not very good1--not good at all4 #d4 ,on the intellectual and moral endowments of the progenitor of the human race1 erring views appear to have been taken on both sides4 ,in knowledge1 some have thought him little inferior to the angels2 others1 as furnished with but the simple elements of science and of language4 ,the truth seems to be that1 as to capacity1 his intellect must have been vigorous beyond that of any of his fallen descendants2 which itself gives us very high views of the strength of his understanding1 although we should allow him to have been created 8lower than the angels40 ,as to his actual knowledge1 that would depend upon the time and opportunity he had for observing the nature and laws of the objects around him2 and the degree in which he was favoured with revelations from ,god on moral and religious subjects4 ,on the degree of moral excellence also in the first man1 much license has been given to a warm imagination1 and to rhetorical embellishment2 and ,adam's perfection has sometimes been fixed at an elevation which renders it exceedingly difficult to conceive how he could fall into sin at all4 ,on the other hand1 those who either deny or hold very slightly the doctrine of our hereditary depravity1 delight to represent ,adam as little superior in moral perfection and capability to his descendants4 ,but1 if we attend to the passages of holy writ above quoted1 we shall be able1 on this subject1 to ascertain1 if not the exact degree of his moral endowments1 yet that there is a certain standard below which they cannot be placed4--,generally1 he was made in the image of ,god1 which1 we have already proved1 is to be understood morally as well as naturally4 ,now1 however the image of any thing may be limited in extent1 it must still be an accurate representation as far as it goes4 ,every thing good in the creation must always be a miniature representation of the excellence of the ,creator2 but1 in this case1 the 8goodness10 that is1 the perfection1 of every creature1 according to the part it was designed to act in the general assemblage of beings collected into our system1 wholly forbids us to suppose that the image of ,god's moral perfections in man was a blurred and dim representation4 ,to whatever extent it went1 it necessarily excluded all that from man which did not resemble ,god2 it was a likeness to ,god in 8righteousness and true holiness10 whatever the degree of each might be1 and excluded all admixture of unrighteousness and unholiness4 ,man1 therefore1 in his original state1 was sinless1 both in act and in principle4 ,hence it is said that 8,god made man ,,upright40 ,that this signifies moral rectitude cannot be doubted2 but the import of the word is very extensive4 ,it expresses1 by an easy figure1 the exactness of truth1 justice1 and obedience2 and it comprehends the state and habit both of the heart and the life4 ,such1 then1 was the condition of primitive man2 there was no obliquity in his moral principles1 his mind1 or affections2 none in his conduct4 ,he was perfectly sincere and exactly just1 rendering from the heart all that was due to ,god and to the creature4 ,tried by the exactest plummet1 he was upright2 by the most perfect rule1 he was straight4 ,the 8knowledge0 in which the ,apostle ,paul1 in the passage quoted above from ,colossians iii1 #aj1 places 8the image of ,god0 after which man was created1 does not merely imply the faculty of understanding1 which is a part of the natural image of ,god2 but that which might be lost1 because it is that in which we may be 8renewed40 ,it is1 therefore1 to be understood of the faculty of knowledge in right exercise2 and of that willing reception1 and firm retaining1 and hearty approval1 of religious truth1 in which knowledge1 when spoken of morally1 is always understood in the ,scriptures4 ,we may not be disposed to allow1 with some1 that ,adam understood the deep philosophy of nature1 and could comprehend and explain the sublime mysteries of religion4 ,the circumstance of his giving names to the animals1 is certainly no sufficient proof of his having attained to a philosophical acquaintance with their qualities and distinguishing habits1 although we should allow their names to be still retained in the ,hebrew1 and to be as expressive of their peculiarities as some expositors have stated4 ,sufficient time appears not to have been afforded him for the study of the properties of animals1 as this event took place previous to the formation of ,eve2 and as for the notion of his acquiring knowledge by intuition1 this is contradicted by the revealed fact1 that angels themselves acquire their knowledge by observation and study1 though no doubt1 with great rapidity and certainty4 ,the whole of this transaction was supernatural2 the beasts were 8brought0 to ,adam1 and it is probable that he named them under a ,divine suggestion4 ,he has been also supposed to be the inventor of language1 but his history shows that he was never without speech4 ,from the first he was able to converse with ,god2 and we may1 therefore1 infer that language was in him a supernatural and miraculous endowment4 ,that his understanding was1 as to its capacity1 deep and large beyond any of his posterity1 must follow from the perfection in which he was created2 and his acquisitions of knowledge would1 therefore1 be rapid and easy4 ,it was1 however1 in moral and religious truth1 as being of the first concern to him1 that we are to suppose the excellency of his knowledge to have consisted4 8,his reason would be clear1 his judgment uncorrupted1 and his conscience upright and sensible40 ,the best knowledge would1 in him1 be placed first1 and that of every other kind be made subservient to it1 according to its relation to that4 ,the ,apostle adds to knowledge1 8righteousness and true holiness20 terms which express1 not merely freedom from sin1 but positive and active virtue4 ,sober as these views of man's primitive state are1 it is not1 perhaps1 possible for us fully to conceive of so exalted a condition as even this4 ,below this standard it could not fall2 and that it implied a glory1 and dignity1 and moral greatness of a very exalted kind1 is made sufficiently apparent from the degree of guilt charged upon ,adam when he fell3 for the aggravating circumstances of his offence may well be deduced from the tremendous consequences which followed4 #e4 ,the salvation of ,adam has been disputed2 for what reason does not appear1 except that the silence of ,scripture1 as to his after life1 has given bold men occasion to obtrude their speculations upon a subject which called for no such expression of opinion4 ,as nothing to the contrary appears1 the charitable inference is1 that as he was the first to receive the promise of redemption1 so he was the first to prove its virtue4 ,it is another presumption1 that as ,adam and ,eve were clothed with skins of beasts1 which could not have been slain for food1 these were the skins of their sacrifices2 and as the offering of animal sacrifice was an expression of faith in the appointed propitiation1 to that refuge we may conclude they resorted1 and through its merits were accepted4 #f4 ,the ,rabbinical and ,mohammedan traditions and fables respecting the first man are as absurd as they are numerous4 ,some of them indeed are monstrous1 unless we suppose them to be allegories in the exaggerated style of the orientals4 ,some say that he was nine hundred cubits high2 whilst others1 not satisfied with this1 affirm that his head touched the heavens4 ,the ,jews think that he wrote the ninety-first ,psalm1 invented the ,hebrew letters1 and composed several treatises2 the ,arabians1 that he preserved twenty books which fell from heaven2 and the ,musselmen1 that he himself wrote ten volumes4 #g4 ,that ,adam was a type of ,christ1 is plainly affirmed by ,st4 ,paul1 who calls him 8the figure of him who was to come40 ,hence our ,lord is sometimes called1 not inaptly1 the ,second ,adam4 ,this typical relation stands sometimes in ,,similitude1 sometimes in ,,contrast4 ,adam was formed immediately by ,god1 as was the humanity of ,christ4 ,in each the nature was spotless1 and richly endowed with knowledge and true holiness4 ,both are seen invested with dominion over the earth and all its creatures2 and this may explain the eighth ,psalm1 where ,david seems to make the sovereignty of the first man over the whole earth in its pristine glory1 the prophetic symbol of the dominion of ,christ over the world restored4 ,beyond these particulars fancy must not carry us2 and the typical ,,contrast must also be limited to that which is stated in ,scripture1 or supported by its allusions4 ,adam and ,christ were each a public person1 a federal head to the whole race of mankind2 but the one was the fountain of sin and death1 the other of righteousness and life4 ,by ,adam's transgression 8many were made sinners10 ,rom4 v1 #ad-ai4 ,through him1 8death passed upon all men1 because all have sinned0 in him4 ,but he thus prefigured that one man1 by whose righteousness the 8free gift comes upon all men to justification of life40 ,the first man communicated a living soul to all his posterity2 the other is a quickening ,spirit1 to restore them to newness of life now1 and to raise them up at the last day4 ,by the imputation of the first ,adam's sin1 and the communication of his fallen1 depraved nature1 death reigned over those who had not sinned after the similitude of ,adam's transgression2 and through the righteousness of the ,second ,adam1 and the communication of a divine nature by the ,holy ,spirit1 favour and grace shall much more abound in ,christ's true followers unto eternal life4 ,see ,,redemption4 ,,adama1 one of the five cities which were destroyed by fire from heaven1 and buried under the waters of the ,dead ,sea1 ,gen4 xiv1 #b2 ,deut4 xxix1 #bc4 ,it was the most easterly of all those which were swallowed up2 and there is some probability that it was not entirely sunk under the waters2 or that the inhabitants of the country built a new city of the same name upon the eastern shore of the ,dead ,sea3 for ,isaiah1 according to the ,septuagint1 says1 8,god will destroy the ,moabites1 the city of ,ar1 and the remnant of ,adama40 ,,adamant1 1 1 ,ecclus4 xvi1 #af4 ,a stone of impenetrable hardness4 ,sometimes this name is given to the diamond2 and so it is rendered1 ,jer4 xvii1 #a4 ,but the ,hebrew word rather means a very hard kind of stone1 probably the smiris1 which was also used for cutting1 engraving1 and polishing other hard stones and crystals4 ,the word occurs also in ,ezek4 iii1 #i1 and ,zech4 vii1 #ab4 ,in the former place the ,lord says to the ,prophet1 8,i have made thy forehead as an adamant1 firmer than a rock20 that is1 endued thee with undaunted courage4 ,in the latter1 the hearts of wicked men are declared to be as adamant2 neither broken by the threatenings and judgments of ,god1 nor penetrated by his promises1 invitations1 and mercies4 ,see ,,diamond4 ,,adamites1 sects reputed to have professed the attainment of a perfect innocence1 so that they wore no clothes in their assemblies4 ,but ,lardner doubts their existence in ancient1 and ,beausobre in modern1 times4 ,,adar1 the twelfth month of the ecclesiastical1 and the sixth of the civil1 year among the ,hebrews4 ,it contains but twenty-nine days1 and answers to our ,february1 and sometimes enters into ,march1 according to the course of the moon1 by which they regulated their seasons4 ,,adarconim1 1 a sort of money1 mentioned #a ,chron4 xxix1 #g1 and ,ezra viii1 #bg4 ,the ,vulgate translates it1 golden pence1 the ,,lxx1 pieces of gold4 ,they were darics1 a gold coin1 which some value at twenty drachms of silver4 ,,ader4 ,jerom observes1 that the place where the angels declared the birth of ,jesus ,christ to the shepherds1 was called by this name1 ,luke ii1 #h1 #i4 ,the empress ,helena built a church on this spot1 the remains of which are still visible4 ,,adder1 a venomous serpent1 more usually called the viper4 ,in our translation of the ,bible we find the word adder five times2 but without sufficient authority from the original4 1 in ,gen4 xlix1 #ag1 is probably the cerastes2 a serpent of the viper kind1 of a light brown colour1 which lurks in the sand and the tracks of wheels in the road1 and unexpectedly bites not only the unwary traveller1 but the legs of horses and other beasts4 ,by comparing the ,danites to this artful reptile1 the patriarch intimated that by stratagem1 more than by open bravery1 they should avenge themselves of their enemies and extend their conquests4--1 in ,psalm lviii1 #d2 xci1 #ac1 signifies an asp4 ,we may perhaps trace to this the ,python of the ,greeks1 and its derivatives4 7,see ,asp47--1 found only in ,psalm cxl1 #c1 is derived from a verb which signifies to bend back on itself4 ,the ,chaldee ,paraphrasts render it 1 which we translate elsewhere1 spider3 they may therefore have understood it to have been the tarantula4 ,it is rendered asp by the ,septuagint and ,vulgate1 and is so taken1 ,rom4 iii1 #ac4 ,the name is from the ,arabic achasa4 ,but there are several serpents which coil themselves previously to darting on their enemy2 if this be a character of the asp1 it is not peculiar to that reptile4--1 or 1 ,prov4 xxiii1 #cb2 ,isaiah xi1 #h2 xiv1 #bi2 lix1 #e2 and ,jer4 viii1 #ag1 is that deadly serpent called the basilisk1 said to kill with its very breath4 ,see ,,cockatrice4 ,in ,psalm lviii1 #e1 reference is made to the effect of musical sounds upon serpents4 ,that they might be rendered tame and harmless by certain charms1 or soft and sweet sounds1 and trained to delight in music1 was an opinion which prevailed very early and universally4 ,many ancient authors mention this effect2 ,virgil speaks of it particularly1 n4 vii1 v1 #gej4 ,quin et ,marrubia venit de gente sacerdos1 ,fronde super galeam et felici comptus oliva1 ,archippi regis missu fortissimus ,umbro2 ,vipereo generi1 et graviter spirantibus hydris ,spargere qui somnos cantuque manuque solebat1 ,mulcebatque iras1 et morsus arte levabat4 8,umbro1 the brave ,marrubian priest1 was there1 ,sent by the ,marsian monarch to the war4 ,the smiling olive with her verdant boughs ,shades his bright helmet and adorns his brows2 ,his charms in peace the furious serpent keep2 ,and lull the envenom'd viper's race to sleep3 ,his healing hand allay'd the raging pain1 ,and at his touch the poisons fled again40 ,pitt4 ,mr4 ,boyle quotes the following passage from ,sir ,h4 ,blunt's ,voyage into the ,levant3-- 8,many rarities of living creatures ,i saw in ,grand ,cairo2 but the most ingenious was a nest of serpents1 of two feet long1 black and ugly1 kept by a ,frenchman1 who1 when he came to handle them1 would not endure him1 but ran and hid in their hole4 ,then he would take his cittern and play upon it4 ,they1 hearing his music1 came all crawling to his feet1 and began to climb up him1 till he gave over playing1 then away they ran40 ,the wonderful effect which music produces on the serpent tribes1 is confirmed by the testimony of several respectable moderns4 ,adders swell at the sound of a flute1 raising themselves up on the one half of their body1 turning themselves round1 beating proper time1 and following the instrument4 ,their head1 naturally round and long like an eel1 becomes broad and flat like a fan4 ,the tame serpents1 many of which the orientals keep in their houses1 are known to leave their holes in hot weather1 at the sound of a musical instrument1 and run upon the performer4 ,dr4 ,shaw had an opportunity of seeing a number of serpents keep exact time with the ,dervishes in their circulatory dances1 running over their heads and arms1 turning when they turned1 and stopping when they stopped4 ,the rattlesnake acknowledges the power of music as much as any of his family2 of which the following instance is a decisive proof3 ,when ,chateaubriand was in ,canada1 a snake of that species entered their encampment2 a young ,canadian1 one of the party1 who could play on the flute1 to divert his associates1 advanced against the serpent with his new species of weapon3 on the approach of his enemy1 the haughty reptile curled himself into a spiral line1 flattened his head1 inflated his cheeks1 contracted his lips1 displayed his envenomed fangs1 and his bloody throat1 his double tongue glowed like two flames of fire2 his eyes were burning coals2 his body1 swollen with rage1 rose and fell like the bellows of a forge2 his dilated skin assumed a dull and scaly appearance2 and his tail1 which sounded the denunciation of death1 vibrated with so great rapidity as to resemble a light vapour4 ,the ,canadian now began to play upon his flute1 the serpent started with surprise1 and drew back his head4 ,in proportion as he was struck with the magic effect1 his eyes lost their fierceness1 the oscillations of his tail became slower1 and the sound which it emitted became weaker1 and gradually died away4 ,less perpendicular upon their spiral line1 the rings of the fascinated serpent were by degrees expanded1 and sunk one after another upon the ground1 in concentric circles4 ,the shades of azure1 green1 white1 and gold1 recovered their brilliancy on his quivering skin1 and slightly turning his head1 he remained motionless1 in the attitude of attention and pleasure4 ,at this moment1 the ,canadian advanced a few steps1 producing with his flute sweet and simple notes4 ,the reptile1 inclining his variegated neck1 opened a passage with his head through the high grass1 and began to creep after the musician1 stopping when he stopped1 and beginning to follow him again1 as soon as he moved forward4 ,in this manner he was led out of their camp1 attended by a great number of spectators1 both savages and ,europeans1 who could scarcely believe their eyes1 when they beheld this wonderful effect of harmony4 ,the assembly unanimously decreed1 that the serpent which had so highly entertained them1 should be permitted to escape4 ,many of them are carried in baskets through ,hindostan1 and procure a maintenance for a set of people who play a few simple notes on the flute1 with which the snakes seem much delighted1 and keep time by a graceful motion of the head1 erecting about half their length from the ground1 and following the music with gentle curves1 like the undulating lines of a swan's neck4 ,but on some serpents1 these charms seem to have no power2 and it appears from ,scripture1 that the adder sometimes takes precautions to prevent the fascination which he sees preparing for him3 8for the deaf adder shutteth her ear1 and will not hear the voice of the most skilful charmer40 ,the threatening of the ,prophet ,jeremiah proceeds upon the same fact3 8,i will send serpents0 7cockatrices7 8among you1 which will not be charmed1 and they shall bite you40 ,in all these quotations1 the sacred writers1 while they take it for granted that many serpents are disarmed by charming1 plainly admit that the powers of the charmer are in vain exerted upon others4 ,it is the opinion of some interpreters1 that the word 1 which in some parts of ,scripture denotes a lion1 in others means an adder1 or some other kind of serpent4 ,thus1 in the ninety-first ,psalm1 they render it the basilisk3 8,thou shalt tread upon the adder and the basilisk1 the young lion and the dragon thou shalt trample under foot40 ,indeed1 all the ancient expositors agree1 that some species of serpent is meant1 although they cannot determine what particular serpent the sacred writer had in view4 ,the learned ,bochart thinks it extremely probable that the holy ,psalmist in this verse treats of serpents only2 and1 by consequence1 that both the terms and mean some kind of snakes1 as well as and 2 because the coherence of the verse is by this view better preserved1 than by mingling lions and serpents together1 as our translators and other interpreters have commonly done2 nor is it easy to imagine what can be meant by treading upon the lion1 and trampling the young lion under foot2 for it is not possible in walking to tread upon the lion1 as upon the adder1 the basilisk1 and other serpents4 ,to ,,adjure1 to bind by oath1 as under the penalty of a fearful curse1 ,joshua vi1 #bf2 ,mark v1 #g4 #b4 ,to charge solemnly1 as by the authority1 and under pain1 of the displeasure of ,god1 ,matt4 xxvi1 #fc2 ,acts xix1 #ac4 ,,adonai1 one of the names of ,god4 ,this word in the plural number signifies my ,lords4 ,the ,jews1 who either out of respect or superstition1 do not pronounce the name of ,jehovah1 read ,adonai in the room of it1 as often as they meet with ,jehovah in the ,hebrew text4 ,but the ancient ,jews were not so scrupulous4 ,neither is there any law which forbids them to pronounce any name of ,god4 ,,adonis4 ,the text of the ,vulgate in ,ezek4 viii1 #ad1 says1 that the ,prophet saw women sitting in the temple1 and weeping for ,adonis2 but according to the reading of the ,hebrew text1 they are said to weep for ,thamuz1 or ,tammuz1 the hidden one4 ,among the ,egyptians ,adonis was adored under the name of ,osiris1 the husband of ,isis4 ,but he was sometimes called by the name of ,ammuz1 or ,tammuz1 the concealed1 probably to denote his death or burial4 ,the ,hebrews1 in derision1 sometimes call him the dead1 ,psalm cvi1 #bh2 ,lev4 xix1 #bh2 because they wept for him1 and represented him as dead in his coffin2 and at other times they denominate him the image of jealousy1 ,ezek4 viii1 #c1 #e1 because he was the object of the jealousy of ,mars4 ,the ,syrians1 ,phnicians1 and ,cyprians1 called him ,adonis2 and ,calmet is of opinion that the ,ammonites and ,moabites designated him by the name of ,baal-peor4 ,the manner in which they celebrated the festival of this false deity was as follows3 ,they represented him as lying dead in his coffin1 wept for him1 bemoaned themselves1 and sought for him with great eagerness and inquietude4 ,after this1 they pretended that they had found him again1 and that he was still living4 ,at this good news they exhibited marks of the most extravagant joy1 and were guilty of a thousand lewd practices1 to convince ,venus how much they congratulated her on the return and revival of her favourite1 as they had before condoled with her on his death4 ,the ,hebrew women1 of whom the ,prophet ,ezekiel speaks1 celebrated the feasts of ,tammuz1 or ,adonis1 in ,jerusalem2 and ,god showed the ,prophet these women weeping for this infamous god1 even in his temple4 ,fabulous history gives the following account of ,adonis3 ,he was a beautiful young shepherd1 the son of ,cyniras1 king of ,cyprus1 by his own daughter ,myrrha4 ,the goddess ,venus fell in love with this youth1 and frequently met him on mount ,libanus4 ,mars1 who envied this rival1 transformed himself into a wild boar1 and1 as ,adonis was hunting1 struck him in the groin and killed him4 ,venus lamented the death of ,adonis in an inconsolable manner4 ,the eastern people1 in imitation of her mourning1 generally established some solemn days for the bewailing of ,adonis4 ,after his death1 ,venus went to the shades1 and obtained from ,proserpine1 that ,adonis might be with her six months in the year1 and continue the other six in the infernal regions4 ,upon this were founded those public rejoicings1 which succeeded the lamentations of his death4 ,some say that ,adonis was a native of ,syria2 some1 of ,cyprus2 and others1 of ,egypt4 ,,adoption4 ,an act by which one takes another into his family1 owns him for his son1 and appoints him his heir4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans had many regulations concerning adoption4 ,it does not appear that adoption1 properly so called1 was formerly in use among the ,jews4 ,moses makes no mention of it in his laws2 and the case of ,jacob's two grandsons1 ,gen4 xlviii1 #ad1 seems rather a substitution4 #b4 ,adoption in a theological sense is that act of ,god's free grace by which1 upon our being justified by faith in ,christ1 we are received into the family of ,god1 and entitled to the inheritance of heaven4 ,this appears not so much a distinct act of ,god1 as involved in1 and necessarily flowing from1 our justification2 so that1 at least the one always implies the other4 ,nor is there any good ground to suppose that in the ,new ,testament the term adoption is used with any reference to the civil practice of adoption by the ,greeks1 ,romans1 or other ,heathens1 and therefore it is not judicious to illustrate the texts in which the word occurs by their formalities4 ,the ,apostles in using the term appear to have had before them the simple view1 that our sins had deprived us of our sonship1 the favour of ,god1 and the right to the inheritance of eternal life2 but that1 upon our return to ,god1 and reconciliation with him1 our forfeited privileges were not only restored1 but greatly heightened through the paternal kindness of ,god4 ,they could scarcely be forgetful of the affecting parable of the prodigal son2 and it is under the same view that ,st4 ,paul quotes from the ,old ,testament1 8,wherefore come out from among them1 and be ye separate1 saith the ,lord1 and touch not the unclean thing1 and ,i will receive you1 and ,i will be a ,father unto you1 and ye shall be my sons and daughters1 saith the ,lord ,almighty40 ,adoption1 then1 is that act by which we who were alienated1 and enemies1 and disinherited1 are made the sons of ,god1 and heirs of his eternal glory4 8,if children1 then heirs1 heirs of ,god and joint heirs with ,christ20 where it is to be remarked1 that it is not in our own right1 nor in the right of any work done in us1 or which we ourselves do1 though it should be an evangelical work1 that we become heirs2 but jointly with ,christ1 and in his right4 #c4 ,to this state belong1 freedom from a servile spirit1 for we are not servants but sons2 the special love and care of ,god our heavenly ,father2 a filial confidence in him2 free access to him at all times and in all circumstances2 a title to the heavenly inheritance2 and the ,spirit of adoption1 or the witness of the ,holy ,spirit to our adoption1 which is the foundation of all the comfort we can derive from those privileges1 as it is the only means by which we can know that they are ours4 #d4 ,the last mentioned great privilege of adoption merits special attention4 ,it consists in the inward witness or testimony of the ,holy ,spirit to the sonship of believers1 from which flows a comfortable persuasion or conviction of our present acceptance with ,god1 and the hope of our future and eternal glory4 ,this is taught in several passages of ,scripture3-- ,rom4 viii1 #ae1 #af1 8,for ye have not received the spirit of bondage again to fear1 but the ,spirit of adoption1 whereby we cry1 ,abba1 ,father4 ,the ,spirit itself beareth witness with our spirit that we are the children of ,god40 ,in this passage it is to be remarked1 #a4 ,that the ,holy ,spirit takes away 8fear10 a servile dread of ,god as offended4 #b4 ,that the 8,spirit of ,god0 here mentioned1 is not the personified spirit or genius of the ,gospel1 as some would have it1 but 8the ,spirit itself10 or himself1 and hence he is called in the ,galatians1 8the ,spirit of his ,son10 which cannot mean the genius of the ,gospel4 #c4 ,that he inspires a filial confidence in ,god1 as our ,father1 which is opposed to 8the fear0 produced by the 8spirit of bondage40 #d4 ,that he excites this filial confidence1 and enables us to call ,god our ,father1 by witnessing1 bearing testimony with our spirit1 8that we are the children of ,god40 ,gal4 iv1 #d-f1 8,but when the fulness of the time was come1 ,god sent forth his ,son1 made of a woman1 made under the law1 to redeem them that were under the law1 that we might receive the adoption of sons2 and because ye are sons1 ,god hath sent forth the ,spirit of his ,son into your hearts1 crying1 ,abba1 ,father40 ,here also are to be noted1 #a4 ,the means of our redemption from under 7the curse of7 the law1--the incarnation and sufferings of ,christ4 #b4 ,that the adoption of sons follows upon our actual redemption from that curse1 or1 in other words1 upon our pardon4 #c4 ,that upon our being pardoned1 the 8,spirit of the ,son0 is 8sent forth into our hearts10 producing the same effect as that mentioned in the ,epistle to the ,romans1 viz4 filial confidence in ,god1--8crying1 ,abba1 ,father40 ,to these texts are to be added all those passages1 so numerous in the ,new ,testament1 which express the confidence and the joy of ,christians2 their friendship with ,god2 their confident access to him as their ,god2 their entire union and delightful intercourse with him in spirit4 ,this has been generally termed the doctrine of assurance1 and1 perhaps1 the expressions of ,st4 ,paul1 8the full assurance of faith10 and 8the full assurance of hope10 may warrant the use of the word4 ,but as there is a current and generally understood sense of this term1 implying that the assurance of our present acceptance and sonship implies an assurance of our final perseverance1 and of an indefeasible title to heaven2 the phrase1 a comfortable persuasion1 or conviction of our justification and adoption1 arising out of the ,spirit's inward and direct testimony1 is to be preferred4 ,there is1 also1 another reason for the sparing and cautious use of the term assurance1 which is1 that it seems to imply1 though not necessarily1 the absence of all doubt1 and shuts out all those lower degrees of persuasion which may exist in the experience of ,christians4 ,for1 our faith may not at first1 or at all times1 be equally strong1 and the testimony of the ,spirit may have its degrees of clearness4 ,nevertheless1 the fulness of this attainment is to be pressed upon every one3 8,let us draw near10 says ,st4 ,paul to all ,christians1 8with full assurance of faith40 ,it may serve1 also1 to remove an objection sometimes made to the doctrine1 and to correct an error which sometimes pervades the statement of it1 to observe that this assurance1 persuasion1 or conviction1 whichever term be adopted1 is not of the essence of justifying faith2 that is1 justifying faith does not consist in the assurance that ,i am now forgiven1 through ,christ4 ,this would be obviously contradictory4 ,for we must believe before we can be justified2 much more before we can be assured1 in any degree1 that we are justified3--this persuasion1 therefore1 follows justification1 and is one of its results4 ,but though we must not only distinguish1 but separate1 this persuasion of our acceptance from the faith which justifies1 we must not separate it1 but only distinguish it1 from justification itself4 ,with that come in as concomitants1 adoption1 the 8,spirit of adoption10 and regeneration4 ,,adoration1 the act of rendering divine honours2 or of addressing ,god or any other being as supposing it to be ,god4 7,see ,worship47 ,the word is compounded of ad1 8to10 and os1 8mouth20 and literally signifies to apply the hand to the mouth2 manum ad os admovere1 8to kiss the hand20 this being in eastern countries one of the great marks of respect and submission4 ,to this mode of idolatrous worship ,job refers1 xxxi1 #bf1 #bg4 ,see also #a ,kings xix1 #ah4 ,the ,jewish manner of adoration was by prostration1 bowing1 and kneeling4 ,the ,christians adopted the ,grecian1 rather than the ,roman1 method1 and always adored uncovered4 ,the ordinary posture of the ancient ,christians was kneeling2 but on ,sundays1 standing4 ,,adoration is also used for certain extraordinary acts of civil honour1 which resemble those paid to the ,deity1 yet are given to men4 ,we read of adorations paid to kings1 princes1 emperors1 popes1 bishops1 abbots1 c1 by kneeling1 falling prostrate1 kissing the feet1 hands1 garments1 c4 ,the ,persian manner of adoration1 introduced by ,cyrus1 was by bending the knee1 and falling on the face at the prince's feet1 striking the earth with the forehead1 and kissing the ground4 ,this was an indispensable condition on the part of foreign ministers and ambassadors1 as well as the king's own vassals1 of being admitted to audience1 and of obtaining any favour4 ,this token of reverence was ordered to be paid to their favourites as well as to themselves1 as we learn from the history of ,haman and ,mordecai1 in the book of ,esther2 and even to their statues and images2 for ,philostratus informs us that1 in the time of ,apollonius1 a golden statue of the king was exposed to all who entered ,babylon1 and none but those who adored it were admitted within the gates4 ,the ceremony1 which the ,greeks called 1 ,conon refused to perform to ,artaxerxes1 and ,callisthenes to ,alexander the ,great1 as reputing it impious and unlawful4 ,the adoration performed to the ,roman and ,grecian emperors consisted in bowing or kneeling at the prince's feet1 laying hold of his purple robe1 and then bringing the hand to the lips4 ,some attribute the origin of this practice to ,constantius4 ,they were only persons of rank or dignity that were entitled to the honour4 ,bare kneeling before the emperor to deliver a petition1 was also called adoration4 ,it is particularly said of ,dioclesian1 that he had gems fastened to his shoes1 that divine honours might be more willingly paid him1 by kissing his feet4 ,and this mode of adoration was continued till the last age of the ,greek monarchy4 ,when any one pays his respects to the king of ,achen in ,sumatra1 he first takes off his shoes and stockings1 and leaves them at the door4 ,the practice of adoration may be said to be still subsisting in ,england1 in the custom of kissing the king's or queen's hand4 ,adoration is also used in the court of ,rome1 in the ceremony of kissing the pope's feet4 ,it is not certain at what period this practice was introduced into the church3 but it was probably borrowed from the ,byzantine court1 and accompanied the temporal power4 ,dr4 ,maclaine1 in the chronological table which he has subjoined to his translation of ,mosheim's ,ecclesiastical ,history1 places its introduction in the eighth century1 immediately after the grant of ,pepin and ,charlemagne4 ,baronius traces it to a much higher antiquity1 and pretends that examples of this homage to the vicars of ,christ occur so early as the year #bjd4 ,these prelates finding a vehement disposition in the people to fall down before them1 and kiss their feet1 procured crucifixes to be fastened on their slippers2 by which stratagem1 the adoration intended for the pope's person is supposed to be transferred to ,christ4 ,divers acts of this adoration we find offered even by princes to the pope2 and ,gregory ,,xiii1 claims this act of homage as a duty4 ,adoration properly is paid only to the pope when placed on the altar1 in which posture the cardinals1 conclavists1 alone are admitted to kiss his feet4 ,the people are afterward admitted to do the like at ,st4 ,peter's church2 the ceremony is described at large by ,guicciardin4 ,adoration is more particularly used for kissing one's hand in presence of another as a token of reverence4 ,the ,jews adored by kissing their hands1 and bowing down their heads2 whence in their language kissing is properly used for adoration4 ,this illustrates a passage in ,psalm ii1 8,kiss the ,son lest he be angry20--that is1 pay him homage and worship4 ,it was the practice among the ,greek ,christians to worship with the head uncovered1 #a ,cor4 xi2 but in the east the ancient custom of worshipping with the head covered was retained4 ,,adrammelech1 the son of ,sennacherib1 king of ,assyria4 ,the king returning to ,nineveh1 after his unhappy expedition made into ,judea against king ,hezekiah1 was killed by his two sons1 ,adrammelech and ,sharezer1 whilst at his devotions in the temple of his god ,nisroch1 ,isaiah xxxvii1 #ch2 #b ,kings xix4 ,it is not known what prompted these two princes to commit this parricide2 but after they had committed the murder1 they fled for safety to the mountains of ,armenia1 and their brother1 ,esarhaddon1 succeeded to the crown4 ,,adrammelech was also one of the gods adored by the inhabitants of ,sepharvaim1 who were settled in the country of ,samaria1 in the room of the ,israelites1 who were carried beyond the ,euphrates4 ,the ,sepharvaites made their children pass through the fire in honour of this idol1 and another1 called ,anammelech1 #b ,kings xvii1 #ca4 ,the ,rabbins say1 that ,adrammelech was represented under the form of a mule2 but there is much more reason to believe that ,adrammelech meant the sun1 and ,anammelech the moon2 the first signifying the magnificent king1 the second the gentle king1--many eastern nations adoring the moon as a god1 not as a goddess4 ,,adramyttium1 a city on the west coast of ,mysia1 in ,lesser ,asia1 over against the isle of ,lesbos4 ,it was in a ship belonging to this place1 that ,st4 ,paul sailed from ,cesarea to proceed to ,rome as a prisoner1 ,acts xxvii1 #b4 ,it is now called ,edremit4 ,,adria4 ,this name1 which occurs in ,acts xxvii1 #bg1 is now confined to the gulf lying between ,italy on the one side1 and the coasts of ,dalmatia and ,albania on the other4 ,but in ,st4 ,paul's time it was extended to all that portion of the ,mediterranean between ,crete and ,sicily4 ,thus ,ptolemy says that ,sicily was bounded on the east by the ,adriatic1 and ,crete in a similar manner on the west2 and ,strabo says that the ,ionian ,gulf was a part of what1 in his time1 was called the ,adriatic ,sea4 ,,adullam1 a city in the tribe of ,judah1 to the west of ,hebron1 whose king was slain by ,joshua1 ,josh4 xii1 #ae4 ,it is frequently mentioned in the history of ,saul and ,david2 and is chiefly memorable from the cave in its neighbourhood1 where ,david retired from ,achish1 king of ,gath1 when he was joined by the distressed and discontented1 to the number of four hundred1 over whom he became captain1 #a ,sam4 xxii1 #a4 ,judas ,maccabeus encamped in the plain of ,adullam1 where he passed the ,sabbath day1 #b ,mac4 xii1 #ch4 ,eusebius says that1 in his time1 ,adullam was a very great town1 ten miles to the east of ,eleutheropolis4 ,,adultery1 the violation of the marriage bed4 ,the law of ,moses punished with death both the man and the woman who were guilty of this crime1 ,lev4 xx1 #aj4 ,if a woman was betrothed to a man1 and was guilty of this infamous crime before the marriage was completed1 she was1 in this case1 along with her paramour1 to be stoned1 ,deut4 xxii1 #bb-bd4 ,when any man among the ,jews1 prompted by jealousy1 suspected his wife of the crime of adultery1 he brought her first before the judges1 and informed them that1 in consequence of his suspicions1 he had privately admonished her1 but that she was regardless of his admonitions4 ,if before the judges she asserted her innocency1 he required that she should drink the waters of jealousy1 that ,god might by these means discover what she attempted to conceal1 ,num4 v1 #ab1 c4 ,the man then produced his witnesses1 and they were heard4 ,after this1 both the man and the woman were conveyed to ,jerusalem1 and placed before the sanhedrim2 the judges of which1 by threats and other means1 endeavoured to confound the woman1 and make her confess4 ,if she persisted in denying the fact1 she was led to the eastern gate of the court of ,israel1 stripped of her own clothes1 and dressed in black1 before great numbers of her own sex4 ,the priest then told her1 that if she was really innocent1 she had nothing to fear2 but if guilty1 she might expect to suffer all that the law had denounced against her1 to which she answered1 8,amen1 amen40 ,the priest then wrote the terms of the law in this form3--8,if a strange man hath not come near you1 and you are not polluted by forsaking the bed of your husband1 these bitter waters1 which ,i have cursed1 will not hurt you3 but if you have polluted yourself by coming near to another man1 and gone astray from your husband1--may you be accursed of the ,lord1 and become an example for all his people2 may your thigh rot1 and your belly swell till it burst2 may these cursed waters enter into your belly1 and being swelled therewith1 may your thighs putrefy48 ,after this1 the priest filled a pitcher out of the brazen vessel1 near the altar of burnt offerings1 cast some dust of the pavement into it1 mingled something with it as bitter as wormwood1 and then read the curses1 and received her answer of ,amen4 ,another priest1 in the meantime1 tore off her clothes as low as her bosom--made her head bare--untied the tresses of her hair--fastened her clothes1 which were thus torn1 with a girdle under her breasts1 and then presented her with the tenth part of an ephah1 or about three pints1 of barley meal4 ,the other priest then gave her the waters of jealousy1 or bitterness1 to drink2 and as soon as the woman had swallowed them1 he gave her the meal in a vessel like a frying-pan into her hand4 ,this was stirred before the ,lord1 and part of it thrown into the fire of the altar4 ,if the wife was innocent1 she returned with her husband1 and the waters1 so far from injuring her1 increased her health1 and made her more fruitful2 but if she was guilty1 she grew pale immediately1 her eyes swelled2 and1 lest she should pollute the temple1 she was instantly carried out1 with these symptoms upon her1 and died instantly1 with all the ignominious circumstances related in the curses4 ,on this law of ,moses1 ,michalis has the following remarks3-- 8,this oath was1 perhaps1 a relic of some more severe and barbarous consuetudinary laws1 whose rigours ,moses mitigated2 as he did in many other cases1 where an established usage could not be conveniently abolished altogether4 ,among ourselves1 in barbarous times1 the ordeal1 or trial by fire1 was1 notwithstanding the parity of our married people1 in common use2 and this1 in point of equity1 was much the same in effect1 as if the husband had had the right to insist on his wife submitting to the hazardous trial of her purity1 by drinking a poisoned potion2 which1 according to an ancient superstition1 could never hurt her if she was innocent4 ,and1 in fact1 such a right is not altogether unexampled2 for1 according to ,oldendorp's ,history of the ,mission of the ,evangelical ,brethren1 in the ,caribbee ,islands1 it is actually in use among some of the savage nations in the interior parts of ,western ,africa4 8,now1 when in place of a poisoned potion like this1 which very few husbands can be very willing to have administered to their wives1 we see1 as among the ,hebrews1 an imprecation-drink1 whose avenger ,god himself promises to become1 we cannot but be struck with the contrast of wisdom and clemency which such a contrivance manifests4 ,in the one case1 7and herein consists their great distinction17 innocence can only be preserved by a miracle2 while1 on the other1 guilt only is revealed and punished by the hand of ,god himself4 8,by one of the clauses of the oath of purgation1 7and had not the legislator been perfectly assured of his divine mission1 the insertion of any such clause would have been a very bold step indeed17 a visible and corporeal punishment was specified1 which the person swearing imprecated on herself1 and which ,god himself was understood as engaging to execute4 ,to have given so accurate a definition of the punishment that ,god meant to inflict1 and still more one that consisted of such a rare disease1 would have been a step of incomprehensible boldness in a legislator who pretended to have a divine mission1 if he was not1 with the most assured conviction1 conscious of its reality4 8,seldom1 however1 very seldom1 was it likely that ,providence would have an opportunity of inflicting the punishment in question4 ,for the oath was so regulated1 that a woman of the utmost effrontery could scarcely have taken it without changing colour to such a degree as to betray herself4 8,in the first place1 it was not administered to the woman in her own house1 but she was under the necessity of going to that place of the land where ,god in a special manner had his abode1 and took it there4 ,now1 the solemnity of the place1 unfamiliarized to her by daily business or resort1 would have a great effect upon her mind4 ,in the next place1 there was offered unto ,god what was termed an execration offering1 not in order to propitiate his mercy1 but to invoke his vengeance on the guilty4 ,here the process was extremely slow1 which gave her more time for reflection than to a guilty person could be acceptable1 and that1 too1 amidst a multitude of unusual ceremonies4 ,for the priest conducted her to the front of the sanctuary1 and took holy water1 that is1 water out of the priests' laver1 which stood before it1 together with some earth off its floor1 which was likewise deemed holy2 and having put the earth in the water1 he then proceeded to uncover the woman's head1 that her face might be seen1 and every change on her countenance during the administration of the oath accurately observed3 and this was a circumstance which1 in the east1 where the women are always veiled1 must have had a great effect2 because a woman1 accustomed to wear a veil1 could1 on so extraordinary an occasion1 have had far less command of her eyes and her countenance than a ,european adulteress1 who is generally a perfect mistress in all the arts of dissimulation1 would display4 ,to render the scene still more awful1 the tresses of her hair were loosened1 and then the execration offering was put into her hand1 while the priest held in his the imprecation water4 ,this is commonly termed the bitter water2 but we must not understand this as if the water had really been bitter2 for how could it have been so8 ,the earth of the floor of the tabernacle could not make it bitter4 ,among the ,hebrews1 and other oriental nations1 the word bitter was rather used for curse3 and1 strictly speaking1 the phrase does not mean bitter water1 but the water of bitternesses1 that is1 of curses4 ,the priest now pronounced the oath1 which was in all points so framed that it could excite no terrors in the breast of an innocent woman2 for it expressly consisted in this1 that the imprecation water should not harm her if she was innocent4 ,it would seem as if the priest here made a stop1 and again left the woman some time to consider whether she would proceed with the oath4 ,this ,i infer from the circumstance of his speech not being directly continued in verse #bast1 which is rather the apodosis of what goes before2 and from the detail proceeding anew in the words of the historian1 ,then shall the priest pronounce the rest of the oath and the curses to the woman2 and proceed thus4--,after this stop he pronounced the curses1 and the woman was obliged to declare her acquiescence in them by a repeated ,amen4 ,nor was the solemn scene yet altogether at an end2 but rather1 as it were commenced anew4 ,for the priest had yet to write the curses in a book1 which ,i suppose he did at great deliberation2 having done so1 he washed them out again in the very imprecation water1 which the woman had now to drink2 and this water being now presented to her1 she was obliged to drink it1 with this warning and assurance1 in the name of ,god1 that if she was guilty1 it would prove within her an absolute curse4 ,now1 what must have been her feelings1 while drinking1 if not conscious of purity8 ,in my opinion she must have conceived that she already felt an alteration in the state of her body1 and the germ1 as it were1 of the disease springing within her4 ,conscience and imagination would conspire together1 and render it almost impossible for her to drink it out4 ,finally1 the execration offering was taken out of her hand1 and burnt upon the altar4 ,i cannot but think that1 under the sanction of such a purgatorium1 perjury must have been a very rare occurrence indeed4 ,if it happened but once in an age1 ,god had bound himself to punish it2 and if this took place but once1 7if but one woman who had taken the oath was attacked with that rare disease which it threatened17 it was quite enough to serve as a determent to all others for at least one generation40 ,this procedure had also the effect of keeping in mind1 among the ,jews1 ,god's high displeasure against this violation of his law2 and though some lax moralists have been found1 in modern times1 to palliate it1 yet the ,christian will always remember the solemn denunciations of the ,new ,testament against a crime so aggravated1 whether considered in its effects upon the domestic relations1 upon the moral character of the guilty parties1 or upon society at large1--8,whoremongers and adulterers ,god will judge40 ,,adultery1 in the prophetic scriptures1 is often metaphorically taken1 and signifies idolatry1 and apostasy from ,god1 by which men basely defile themselves1 and wickedly violate their ecclesiastical and covenant relation to ,god1 ,hos4 ii1 #b2 ,ezek4 xvi4 ,,advocate1 1 a patron1 one who pleads the cause of any one before another4 ,in this sense the term is applied to ,christ our intercessor1 #a ,john ii1 #a4 ,it signifies also a comforter1 and an instructer2 and is used of the ,holy ,spirit1 ,john xiv1 #af1 and xv1 #bf4 ,,adytum is a ,greek word1 signifying inaccessible1 by which is understood the most retired and secret place of the ,heathen temples1 into which none but the priests were allowed to enter4 ,the adytum of the ,greeks and ,romans answered to the sanctum sanctorum of the ,jews1 and was the place from whence oracles were delivered4 ,,ra1 a series of years1 commencing from a certain point of time called an epocha3 thus we say1 the ,christian ra2 that is1 the number of years elapsed since the birth of ,christ4 ,the generality of authors use the terms ra and epocha in a synonymous sense2 that is1 for the point of time from which any computation begins4 ,the ancient ,jews made use of several ras in their computation2 sometimes they reckoned from the deluge1 sometimes from the division of tongues2 sometimes from their departure out of ,egypt2 and at other times from the building of the temple2 and sometimes from the restoration after the ,babylonish captivity3 but their vulgar ra was from the creation of the world1 which falls in with the year of the ,julian period #iec2 and consequently they supposed the world created #bid years sooner than according to our computation4 ,but when the ,jews became subject to the ,syro-,macedonian kings1 they were obliged to make use of the ra of the ,seleucid in all their contracts1 which from thence was called the ra of contracts4 ,this ra begins with the year of the world #cfib1 of the ,julian period #ddjb1 and before ,christ #cab4 ,the ra in general use among the ,christians is that from the birth of ,jesus ,christ1 concerning the true time of which chronologers differ2 some place it two years1 others four1 and again others five1 before the vulgar ra1 which is fixed for the year of the world #djjd3 but ,archbishop ,usher1 and after him the generality of modern chronologers1 place it in the year of the world #djjj4 ,the ancient ,heathens used several ras3 #a4 ,the ra of the first olympiad is placed in the year of the world #cbbh1 and before the vulgar ra of ,jesus ,christ #ggf4 #b4 ,the taking of ,troy by the ,greeks1 in the year of the world #bhbj1 and before ,jesus ,christ #ahhd4 #c4 ,the voyage undertaken for the purpose of bringing away the golden fleece1 in the year of the world #bgfj4 #d4 ,the foundation of ,rome1 in #bhef4 #e4 ,the ra of ,nabonassar1 in #cbeg4 #f4 ,the ra of ,alexander the ,great1 or his last victory over ,darius1 in #cfgd1 and before ,jesus ,christ #ccj4 ,,aerians1 a sect which arose about the middle of the fourth century1 being the followers of ,arius1 7who must be distinguished from ,arius and ,atius17 a monk and a presbyter of ,sebastia1 in ,pontus4 ,he is charged with being an ,arian1 or ,semi-,arian2 but the heaviest accusation against him is an attempt to reform the church2 and1 by rejecting prayers for the dead1 with certain fasts and festivals then superstitiously observed1 to reduce ,christianity as nearly as possible 8to its primitive simplicity2 a purpose1 indeed1 laudable and noble10 says ,dr4 ,mosheim1 8when considered in itself3 though the principles from whence it springs1 and the means by which it is executed1 are sometimes1 in many respects1 worthy of censure1 and may have been so in the case of this reformer40 ,this gentle rebuke probably refers to a report that the zeal of ,arius originated in his being disappointed of the bishopric of ,sebastia1 7conferred on ,eustathius17 which led him to affirm that the ,scriptures make no distinction between a presbyter and a bishop1 which he founded chiefly on #a ,tim4 iv1 #ad4 ,hence he is considered by many1 as the father of the modern ,presbyterians4--8,for this opinion1 chiefly10 says ,dr4 ,turner1 8he is ranked among the heretics1 by ,epiphanius1 his contemporary1 who calls it a notion full of folly and madness4 ,his followers were driven from the churches1 and out of all the towns and villages1 and were obliged to assemble in the woods1 caverns1 and open defiles40 ,,aetians1 another branch 7as it is said7 of ,arians1 so called from ,atius1 bishop of ,antioch1 who is also charged with maintaining 8faith without works10 as 8sufficient to salvation10 or rather justification2 and with maintaining 8that sin is not imputed to believers40 ,it is added1 that he taught ,god had revealed to him things which he had 8concealed from the ,apostles20 which1 perhaps1 is only a misrepresentation of what he taught on the doctrine of divine influences4 ,,affinity4 ,there are several degrees of affinity1 wherein marriage was prohibited by the law of ,moses3 thus the son could not marry his mother1 nor his father's wife1 ,lev4 xviii1 #g1 c4 ,the brother could not marry his sister1 whether she were so by the father only1 or only by the mother1 and much less if she were his sister both by the same father and mother4 ,the grandfather could not marry his granddaughter1 either by his son or daughter4 ,no one could marry the daughter of his father's wife2 nor the sister of his father or mother2 nor the uncle1 his niece2 nor the aunt1 her nephew2 nor the nephew1 the wife of his uncle by the father's side4 ,the father-in-law could not marry his daughter-in-law2 nor the brother the wife of his brother1 while living2 nor even after the death of his brother1 if he left children4 ,if he left no children1 the surviving brother was to raise up children to his deceased brother by marrying his widow4 ,it was forbidden to marry the mother and the daughter at one time1 or the daughter of the mother's son1 or the daughter of her daughter1 or two sisters1 together4 ,it is true the patriarchs1 before the law1 married their sisters1 as ,abraham married ,sarah1 who was his father's daughter by another mother2 and two sisters together1 as ,jacob married ,rachel and ,leah2 and their own sisters1 both by father and mother1 as ,seth and ,cain4 ,but these cases are not to be proposed as examples2 because in some they were authorized by necessity2 in others1 by custom2 and the law as yet was not in being4 ,if some other examples may be found1 either before or since the law1 the ,scripture expressly disapproves of them2 as ,reuben's incest with ,balah1 his father's concubine2 and the action of ,amnon with his sister ,tamar2 and that of ,herod ,antipas1 who married ,herodias1 his sister-in-law1 his brother ,philip's wife1 while her husband was yet living2 and that which ,st4 ,paul reproves and punishes among the ,corinthians1 #a ,cor4 v1 #a4 ,,agabus1 a prophet1 and as the ,greeks say1 one of the seventy disciples of our ,saviour4 ,he foretold that there would be a great famine over all the earth2 which came to pass accordingly1 under the emperor ,claudius1 in the fourth year of his reign1 ,a4 ,d4 #dd1 ,acts xi1 #bh4 ,ten years after this1 as ,st4 ,paul was going to ,jerusalem1 and had already landed at ,csarea1 in ,palestine1 the same prophet1 ,agabus1 arrived there1 and coming to visit ,st4 ,paul and his company1 he took this ,apostle's girdle1 and binding himself hand and feet1 he said1 8,thus saith the ,holy ,ghost1 ,so shall the ,jews at ,jerusalem bind the man that owneth this girdle1 and shall deliver him into the hands of the ,gentiles10 ,acts xxi1 #aj4 ,we know no other particulars of the life of ,agabus4 ,the ,greeks say that he suffered martyrdom at ,antioch4 ,,agag4 ,this seems to have been a common name of the princes of ,amalek1 one of whom was very powerful as early as the time of ,moses1 ,num4 xxiv1 #g4 ,on account of the cruelties exercised by this king and his army against the ,israelites1 as they returned from ,egypt1 a bloody and long contested battle took place between ,joshua and the ,amalekites1 in which the former was victorious1 ,exod4 xvii1 #h-ac4 ,at the same time1 ,god protested with an oath to destroy ,amalek1 verses #ad-af2 ,deut4 xxv1 #ag-ai1 ,a4 ,m4 #beac4 ,about four hundred years after this1 the ,lord remembered the cruel treatment of his people1 and his own oath2 and he commanded ,saul1 by the mouth of ,samuel1 to destroy the ,amalekites4 ,saul mustered his army1 and found it two hundred thousand strong1 #a ,sam4 xv1 #a1 c4 ,having entered into their country1 he cut in pieces all he could meet with from ,havilah to ,shur4 ,agag their king1 and the best of their cattle1 were however spared1 an act of disobedience on the part of ,saul1 probably dictated by covetousness4 ,but ,agag did not long enjoy this reprieve2 for ,samuel no sooner heard that he was alive1 than he sent for him2 and notwithstanding his insinuating address1 and the vain hopes with which he flattered himself that the bitterness of death was past1 he caused him to be hewed to pieces in ,gilgal before the ,lord1 saying1 8,as1 1 in the same identical mode as1 thy sword hath made women childless1 so shall thy mother be childless among women40 ,this savage chieftain had hewed many prisoners to death2 and1 therefore1 by command of the ,judge of the whole earth1 he was visited with the same punishment which he had inflicted upon others4 ,,agap4 ,see ,,love ,,feast4 ,,agar1 mount ,sinai1 so called1 ,gal4 iv1 #bd1 #be4 ,but this reading is doubtful1 many ,,mss4 having the verse1 8for this ,sinai is a mountain of ,arabia40 ,some critics however contend for the reading of the received text1 and urge that ,agar1 which signifies 8a rocky mountain10 is the ,arabic name for ,sinai4 ,,agate1 1 ,exod4 xxviii1 #ai2 xxxix1 #ab4 ,in the ,septuagint 1 and ,vulgate1 achates4 ,a precious stone1 semi-pellucid4 ,its variegations are sometimes most beautifully disposed1 representing plants1 trees1 rivers1 clouds1 c4 ,its ,hebrew name is1 perhaps1 derived from the country whence the ,jews imported it2 for the merchants of ,sheba brought to the market of ,tyre all kinds of precious stones1 ,ezek4 xxvii1 #bb4 ,the agate was the second stone in the third row of the pectoral of the high priest1 ,exod4 xxviii1 #ai1 and xxxix1 #ab4 ,,age1 in the most general sense of the term1 denotes the duration of any substance1 animate or inanimate2 and is applied either to the whole period of its existence1 or to that portion of it which precedes the time to which the description of it refers4 ,in this sense it is used to signify either the whole natural duration of the ,,life of man1 or any interval of it that has elapsed before the period of which we speak4 ,when age is understood of a certain portion of the life of man1 its whole duration is divided into four different ages1 viz4 infancy1 youth1 manhood1 and old age3 the first extending to the fourteenth year2 the second1 denominated youth1 adolescence1 or the age of puberty1 commencing at fourteen1 and terminating at about twenty-five2 manhood1 or the virile age1 concluding at fifty2 and the last ending at the close of life4 ,some divide the first period into infancy and childhood2 and the last likewise into two stages1 calling that which succeeds the age of seventy-five1 decrepit old age4 ,age is applicable to the duration of things inanimate or factitious2 and in this use of the term we speak of the age of a house1 of a country1 of a state or kingdom1 c4 ,,age1 in chronology1 is used for a century1 or a period of one hundred years3 in which sense it is the same with seculum1 and differs from generation4 ,it is also used in speaking of the times past since the creation of the world4 ,the several ages of the world may be reduced to three grand epochas1 viz4 the age of the law of nature1 called by the ,jews the void age1 from ,adam to ,moses4 ,the age of the ,jewish law1 from ,moses to ,christ1 called by the ,jews the present age4 ,and the age of grace1 from ,christ to the present year4 ,the ,jews call the third age1 the age to come1 or the future age2 denoting by it the time from the advent of the ,messiah to the end of the world4 ,the ,romans distinguished the time that preceded them into three ages3 the obscure or uncertain age1 which reached down as low as ,ogyges king of ,attica1 in whose reign the deluge happened in ,greece2 the fabulous or heroic age1 which ended at the first olympiad2 and the historical age1 which commenced at the building of ,rome4 ,among the poets1 the four ages of the world are1 the golden1 the silver1 the brazen1 and the iron age4 ,age is sometimes used among the ancient poets in the same sense as generation1 or a period of thirty years4 ,thus ,nestor is said to have lived three ages1 when he was ninety years old4 ,the period preceding the birth of ,jesus ,christ has been generally divided into six ages4 ,the first extends from the creation to the deluge1 and comprehends #afef years4 ,the second age1 from the deluge to ,abraham's entering the land of promise1 ,a4 ,m4 #bjhb1 comprehends #dbf years4 ,the third age from ,abraham's entrance into the promised land to the ,exodus1 ,a4 ,m4 #beab1 includes #dcj years4 ,the fourth age1 from the ,exodus to the building of the temple by ,solomon1 ,a4 ,m4 #biib1 contains #dhj years4 ,the fifth age from the foundation of ,solomon's temple to the ,babylonish captivity1 ,a4 ,m4 #cdaf1 comprehends #dbd years4 ,the sixth age1 from the ,babylonish captivity to the birth of ,jesus ,christ1 ,a4 ,m4 #djjj1 the fourth year before the vulgar ra1 includes #ehd years4 ,those who follow the ,septuagint1 or ,greek version1 divide this period into seven ages1 viz4 #a4 ,from the creation to the deluge1 #bbfb years4 #b4 ,from the deluge to the confusion of tongues1 #gch years4 #c4 ,from this confusion to the calling of ,abraham1 #dfj years4 #d4 ,from this period to ,jacob's descent into ,egypt1 #bae years2 and from this event to the ,exodus1 #dcj years1 making the whole #fde years4 #e4 ,from the ,exodus to ,saul1 #ggd years4 #f4 ,from ,saul to ,cyrus1 #ehc years4 #g4 ,from ,cyrus to the vulgar ra of ,christians1 #ech years2 the whole period from the creation to this period containing #fjjj years4 ,,agrippa1 surnamed ,herod1 the son of ,aristobulus and ,mariamne1 and grandson of ,herod the ,great1 was born ,a4 ,m4 #ciig1 three years before the birth of our ,saviour1 and seven years before the vulgar ra4 ,after the death of his father ,aristobulus1 ,josephus informs us that ,herod1 his grandfather1 took care of his education1 and sent him to ,rome to make his court to ,tiberius4 ,agrippa1 having a great inclination for ,caius1 the son of ,germanicus1 and grandson of ,antonia1 chose to attach himself to this prince1 as if he had some prophetic views of the future elevation of ,caius1 who at that time was beloved by all the world4 ,the great assiduity and agreeable behaviour of ,agrippa so far won upon this prince1 that he was unable to live without him4 ,agrippa1 being one day in conversation with ,caius1 was overheard by one ,eutychus1 a slave whom ,agrippa had emancipated1 to say that he should be glad to see the old emperor take his departure for the other world and leave ,caius master of this1 without meeting with any obstacle from the emperor's grandson1 ,tiberius ,nero4 ,eutychus1 some time after this1 thinking he had reason to be dissatisfied with ,agrippa1 communicated the conversation to the emperor2 whereupon ,agrippa was loaded with fetters1 and committed to the custody of an officer4 ,soon after this1 ,tiberius dying1 and ,caius ,caligula succeeding him1 the new emperor heaped many favours and much wealth upon ,agrippa1 changed his iron fetters into a chain of gold1 set a royal diadem on his head1 and gave him the tetrarchy which ,philip1 the son of ,herod the ,great1 had been possessed of1 that is1 ,batana and ,trachonitis4 ,to this he added that of ,lysanias2 and ,agrippa returned very soon into ,judea1 to take possession of his new kingdom4 ,the emperor ,caius1 desiring to be adored as a god1 commanded to have his statue set up in the temple of ,jerusalem4 ,but the ,jews opposed this design with so much resolution1 that ,petronius was forced to suspend his proceedings in this affair1 and to represent1 in a letter to the emperor1 the resistance he met with from the ,jews4 ,agrippa1 who was then at ,rome1 coming to the emperor at the very time he was reading the letter1 ,caius told him that the ,jews were the only people of all mankind who refused to own him for a deity2 and that they had taken arms to oppose his resolution4 ,at these words ,agrippa fainted away1 and1 being carried home to his house1 continued in that state for a long time4 ,as soon as he was somewhat recovered1 he wrote a long letter to ,caius1 wherein he endeavoured to soften him2 and his arguments made such an impression upon the emperor's mind1 that he desisted1 in appearance1 from the design which he had formed of setting up his statue in the temple4 ,caius being killed in the beginning of the following year1 ,a4 ,d4 #da1 ,agrippa1 who was then at ,rome1 contributed much by his advice to maintain ,claudius in possession of the imperial dignity1 to which he had been advanced by the army4 ,the emperor1 as an acknowledgment for his kind offices1 gave him all ,judea1 and the kingdom of ,chalcis1 which had been possessed by ,herod his brother4 ,thus ,agrippa became of a sudden one of the greatest princes of the east1 and was possessed of as much1 if not more territory1 than had been held by ,herod the ,great1 his grandfather4 ,he returned to ,judea1 and governed it to the great satisfaction of the ,jews4 ,but the desire of pleasing them1 and a mistaken zeal for their religion1 induced him to put to death the ,apostle ,james1 and to cast ,peter into prison with the same design2 and1 but for a miraculous interposition1 which1 however1 produced no effect upon the mind of the tyrant1 his hands would have been imbrued in the blood of two ,apostles1 the memory whereof is preserved in ,scripture4 ,at ,csarea1 he had games performed in honour of ,claudius4 ,here the inhabitants of ,tyre and ,sidon waited on him to sue for peace4 ,agrippa being come early in the morning into the theatre1 with a design to give them audience1 seated himself on his throne1 dressed in a robe of silver tissue1 worked in the most admirable manner4 ,the rising sun darted his golden beams thereon1 and gave it such a lustre as dazzled the eyes of the spectators2 and when the king began his speech to the ,tyrians and ,sidonians1 the parasites around him began to say1 it was 8the voice of a god and not of man40 ,instead of rejecting these impious flatteries1 ,agrippa received them with an air of complacency2 and the angel of the ,lord smote him because he did not give ,god the glory4 ,being therefore carried home to his palace1 he died1 at the end of five days1 racked with tormenting pains in his bowels1 and devoured with worms4 ,such was the death of ,herod ,agrippa1 ,a4 ,d4 #dd1 after a reign of seven years4 ,he left a son of the same name1 and three daughters--,bernice1 who was married to her uncle ,herod1 her father's brother2 ,mariamne1 betrothed to ,julius ,archelaus2 and ,drusilla1 promised to ,epiphanius1 the son of ,archelaus1 the son of ,comagena4 ,,agrippa1 son of the former ,agrippa1 was at ,rome with the emperor ,claudius when his father died4 ,the emperor1 we are told by ,josephus1 was inclined to give him all the dominions that had been possessed by his father1 but was dissuaded from it1 ,agrippa being only seventeen years of age2 and he kept him therefore at his court four years4 ,three years after this1 ,herod1 king of ,chalcis1 and uncle to young ,agrippa1 dying1 the emperor gave his dominions to this prince1 who1 notwithstanding1 did not go into ,judea till four years after1 ,a4 ,d4 #ec2 when1 ,claudius taking from him the kingdom of ,chalcis1 gave him the provinces of ,gaulonitis1 ,trachonitis1 ,batana1 ,paneas1 and ,abylene1 which formerly had been in the possession of ,lysanias4 ,after the death of ,claudius1 his successor1 ,nero1 who had a great affection for ,agrippa1 to his other dominions added ,julias in ,pera1 and that part of ,galilee to which ,taricha and ,tiberias belonged4 ,festus governor of ,judea1 coming to his government1 ,a4 ,d4 #fj1 king ,agrippa and ,bernice1 his sister1 went as far as ,csarea to salute him2 and as they continued there for some time1 ,festus talked with the king concerning the affair of ,st4 ,paul1 who had been seized in the temple about two years before1 and within a few days previous to his visit had appealed to the emperor4 ,agrippa wishing to hear ,paul1 that ,apostle delivered that noble address in his presence which is recorded1 ,acts xxvi4 ,,agur4 ,the thirtieth chapter of ,proverbs begins with this title3 8,the words of ,agur1 the son of ,jakeh20 and the thirty-first1 with 8the words of king ,lemuel20 with respect to which some conjecture that ,solomon describes himself under these appellations2 others1 that these chapters are the productions of persons whose real names are prefixed4 ,scripture history1 indeed1 affords us no information respecting their situation and character2 but there must have been sufficient reason for regarding their works in the light of inspired productions1 or they would not have been admitted into the sacred canon4 ,they are called ,massa1 a term frequently applied to the undoubted productions of the prophetic ,spirit2 and it is not improbable that the authors meant1 by the adoption of this term1 to lay claim to the character of inspiration4 ,a succession of virtuous and eminent men1 favoured with divine illuminations1 flourished in ,judea till the final completion of the sacred code2 and1 most likely1 many more than those whose writings have been preserved4 ,agur may then have been one of those prophets whom ,divine providence raised up to comfort or admonish his chosen people2 and ,lemuel may have been some neighbouring prince1 the son of a ,jewish woman1 by whom he was taught the ,massa contained in the thirty-first chapter4 ,these1 of course1 can only be considered as mere conjectures2 for1 in the absence of historic evidence1 who can venture to pronounce with certainty8 ,the opinion1 however1 that ,agur and ,lemuel are appellations of ,solomon1 is sanctioned by so many and such respectable writers1 that it demands a more particular examination4 ,the knowledge of names was anciently regarded as a matter of the highest importance1 in order to understand the nature of the persons or things which they designate2 and1 in the opinion of the rabbins1 was preferable even to the study of the written law4 ,the ,heathens paid considerable attention to it1 as appears from the ,cratylus of ,plato2 and some of the ,christian fathers entertained very favourable notions of such knowledge4 ,the ,jewish doctors1 it is true1 refined upon the subject with an amazing degree of subtilty1 grounding upon it many ridiculous ideas and absurd fancies2 yet it is unquestionable that many of the proper names in ,scripture are significant and characteristic4 ,thus the names ,eve1 ,cain1 ,seth1 ,noah1 ,abraham1 ,israel1 c1 were imposed by reason of their being expressive of the several characters of the persons whom they represent4 ,reasoning from analogy1 we may infer that all the proper names in the ,old ,testament1 at their original imposition1 were intended to denote some quality or circumstance in the person or thing to which they belong2 and though many1 from transference1 have ceased to be personally characteristic1 yet are they all significative4 ,as the custom of imposing descriptive names prevailed in the primitive ages1 it is not impossible that ,agur and ,lemuel may be appropriated to ,solomon1 and ,jakeh to ,david as mystic appellations significative of their respective characters4 ,it is even some confirmation of this opinion1 that ,solomon is denominated ,jedidiah 7beloved of the ,lord7 by the ,prophet ,nathan2 and that in the book of ,ecclesiastes1 he styles himself ,koheleth1 or the ,preacher4 ,nevertheless1 this hypothesis does not appear to rest upon a firm foundation4 ,it is foreign to the simplicity of the sacred penmen1 and contrary to their custom in similar cases1 to adopt a mystic name1 without either explaining it1 or alleging the reasons for its adoption4 ,in the names ,eve1 ,cain1 ,seth1 ,noah1 c1 before alluded to2 in the appellation ,nabal2 in the enigmatical names in the first chapter of ,hosea2 in the descriptive names given to places1 as ,beersheba1 ,jehovah-jireh1 ,peniel1 ,bethel1 ,gilgal2 and in many other instances1 the meaning of the terms is either explained1 or the circumstances are mentioned which led to their selection4 ,when ,solomon is called ,jedidiah1 it is added that it was 8because of the ,lord20 and when he styles himself ,koheleth1 an explanatory clause is annexed1 describing himself 8the son of ,david1 the king of ,jerusalem40 ,but if ,solomon be meant by the titles ,agur and ,lemuel1 he is so called without any statement of the reasons for their application1 and without any explanation of their import2 a circumstance unusual with the sacred writers1 and the reverse to what is practised in the book of ,proverbs1 where his proper name1 ,solomon1 is attributed to him in three different places4 ,nor is anything characteristic of the ,jewish monarchs discoverable in the terms themselves4 ,jakeh1 which denotes obedient1 is no more applicable to ,david than to ,nathan1 or any other personage of eminent worth and piety among the ,israelites4 ,the name of ,agur is not of easy explanation2 some giving it the sense of recollectus1 that is1 recovered from his errors1 and become penitent2 an explanation more applicable to ,david than to ,solomon4 ,simon1 in his lexicon1 says it may perhaps denote 8him who applies to the study of wisdom20 an interpretation very suitable to the royal philosopher1 but not supported by adequate authority2 and in his ,onomasticon he explains it in a different manner4 ,others suppose that it means collector2 though it has been argued1 that1 as it has a passive form1 it cannot have an active sense4 ,but this is not a valid objection1 as several examples may be produced from the ,bible of a similar form with an active signification4 ,if such be its meaning1 it is suitable to ,solomon1 who was not the collector or compiler1 but the author1 of the ,proverbs4 ,with respect to the name ,lemuel1 it signifies one that is for ,god1 or devoted to ,god2 and is not1 therefore1 peculiarly descriptive of ,solomon4 ,it appears1 then1 that nothing can be inferred from the signification of the names ,agur and ,lemuel in support of the conjecture1 that they are appellations of ,solomon4 ,the contents1 likewise1 of the two chapters in question strongly militate against this hypothesis4 ,when all these circumstances are taken into consideration1 together with the extreme improbability that ,solomon should be denominated three times by his proper name1 and afterward1 in the same work1 by two different enigmatical names1 we are fully warranted in rejecting the notion1 that the wise monarch is designed by the appellations ,agur and ,lemuel4 ,and it seems most reasonable to consider them as denoting real persons4 ,,ahab1 the son and successor of ,omri4 ,he began his reign over ,israel1 ,a4 ,m4 #cjhf1 and reigned #bb years4 ,in impiety he far exceeded all the kings of ,israel4 ,he married ,jezebel1 the daughter of ,ethbaal1 king of ,zidon1 who introduced the whole abominations and idols of her country1 ,baal and ,ashtaroth4 #b4 ,,ahab the son of ,kolaiah1 and ,zedekiah the son of ,maaseiah1 were two false prophets1 who1 about ,a4 ,m4 #cdjf1 seduced the ,jewish captives at ,babylon with hopes of a speedy deliverance1 and stirred them up against ,jeremiah4 ,the ,lord threatened them with a public and ignominious death1 before such as they had deceived2 and that their names should become a curse2 men wishing that their foes might be made like ,ahab and ,zedekiah1 whom ,nebuchadnezzar king of ,babylon roasted in the fire1 ,jer4 xxix1 #ba1 #bb4 ,,ahasuerus was the king of ,persia1 who advanced ,esther to be queen1 and at her request delivered the ,jews from the destruction plotted for them by ,haman4 ,archbishop ,usher is of opinion that this ,ahasuerus was ,darius ,hystaspes2 and that ,atossa was the ,vashti1 and ,artystona the ,esther1 of the ,scriptures4 ,but1 according to ,herodotus1 the latter was the daughter of ,cyrus1 and therefore could not be ,esther2 and the former had four sons by ,darius1 besides daughters1 born to him after he was king2 and therefore she could not be the queen ,vashti1 divorced from her husband in the third year of his reign1 nor he the ,ahasuerus who divorced her4 ,besides1 ,atossa retained her influence over ,darius to his death1 and obtained the succession of the crown for his son1 ,xerxes2 whereas ,vashti was removed from the presence of ,ahasuerus by an irrevocable decree1 ,esther i1 #ai4 ,joseph ,scaliger maintains that ,xerxes was the ,ahasuerus1 and ,hamestris his queen1 the ,esther1 of ,scripture4 ,the opinion is founded on the similitude of names1 but contradicted by the dissimilitude of the characters of ,hamestris and ,esther4 ,besides1 ,herodotus says that ,xerxes had a son by ,hamestris that was marriageable in the seventh year of his reign2 and therefore she could not be ,esther4 ,the ,ahasuerus of ,scripture1 according to ,dr4 ,prideaux1 was ,artaxerxes ,longimanus4 ,josephus positively says that this was the person4 ,the ,septuagint1 through the whole book of ,esther1 uses ,artaxerxes for the ,hebrew ,ahasuerus wherever the appellation occurs2 and the apocryphal additions to that book every where call the husband of ,esther ,artaxerxes2 and he could be no other than ,artaxerxes ,longimanus4 ,the extraordinary favour shown to the ,jews by this king1 first in sending ,ezra1 and afterward ,nehemiah1 to relieve this people1 and restore them to their ancient prosperity1 affords strong presumptive evidence that they had near his person and high in his regard such an advocate as ,esther4 ,ahasuerus is also a name given in ,scripture1 ,ezra iv1 #f1 to ,cambyses1 the son of ,cyrus2 and to ,astyages1 king of the ,medes1 ,dan4 ix1 #a4 ,,ahava4 ,the name of a river of ,babylonia1 or rather of ,assyria1 where ,ezra assembled those captives whom he afterward brought into ,judea1 ,ezra viii1 #ae4 ,the river ,ahava is thought to be that which ran along the ,adabene1 where a river ,diava1 or ,adiava1 is mentioned1 and on which ,ptolemy places the city ,abane or ,aavane4 ,this is probably the country called ,ava1 whence the kings of ,assyria translated the people called ,avites into ,palestine1 and where they settled some of the captive ,israelites1 #b ,kings xvii1 #bd2 xviii1 #cd2 xix1 #ac2 xvii1 #ca4 ,ezra1 intending to collect as many ,israelites as he could1 who might return to ,judea1 halted in the country of ,ava1 or ,aahava1 whence he sent agents into the ,caspian mountains1 to invite such ,jews as were willing to join him1 ,ezra viii1 #af4 ,the history of ,izates1 king of the ,adiabenians1 and of his mother ,helena1 who became converts to ,judaism some years after the death of ,jesus ,christ1 sufficiently proves that there were many ,jews still settled in that country4 ,,ahaz succeeded his father ,jotham1 as king of ,israel1 at the age of twenty years1 reigned till the year before ,christ1 #gbf1 and addicted himself to the practice of idolatry4 ,after the customs of the ,heathen1 he made his children to pass through fire2 he shut up the temple1 and destroyed its vessels4 ,he became tributary to ,tiglath-pileser1 whose assistance he supplicated against the kings of ,syria and ,israel4 ,such was his impiety1 that he was not allowed burial in the sepulchres of the kings of ,israel1 #b ,kings xvi2 #b ,chron4 xxviii4 ,,ahaziah1 the son of ,ahab1 king of ,israel4 ,ahaziah reigned two years1 partly alone1 and partly with his father ,ahab1 who appointed him his associate in the kingdom a year before his death4 ,ahaziah imitated his father's impieties1 #a ,kings xxii1 #eb1 c1 and paid his adorations to ,baal and ,ashtaroth1 the worship of whom had been introduced into ,israel by ,jezebel his mother4 ,the ,moabites1 who had been always obedient to the kings of the ten tribes1 ever since their separation from the kingdom of ,judah1 revolted after the death of ,ahab1 and refused to pay the ordinary tribute4 ,ahaziah had not leisure or power to reduce them1 #b ,kings i1 #a1 #b1 c1 for1 about the same time1 having fallen through a lattice from the top of his house1 he was considerably injured1 and sent messengers to ,ekron to consult ,baalzebub1 the god of that place1 whether he should recover1 #b ,kings i1 #a-ag4 ,elijah met the messengers1 and informed them he should certainly die2 and he died accordingly4 #b4 ,,ahaziah1 king of ,judah1 the son of ,jehoram and ,athaliah4 ,he succeeded his father in the kingdom of ,judah1 ,a4 ,m4 #caai2 being in the twenty-second year of his age1 #b ,kings viii1 #bf1 c2 and he reigned one year only in ,jerusalem4 ,he walked in the ways of ,ahab's house1 to which he was related1 his mother being of that family4 ,joram1 king of ,israel1 #b ,kings viii1 going to attack ,ramoth ,gilead1 which the kings of ,syria had taken from his predecessors1 was there dangerously wounded1 and carried by his own appointment to ,jezreel1 for the purpose of surgical assistance4 ,ahaziah1 ,joram's friend and relation1 accompanied him in this war1 and came afterward to visit him at ,jezreel4 ,in the meantime1 ,jehu1 the son of ,nimshi1 whom ,joram had left besieging the fortress of ,ramoth1 rebelled against his master1 and set out with a design of extirpating the house of ,ahab1 according to the commandment of the ,lord1 #b ,kings ix4 ,joram and ,ahaziah1 who knew nothing of his intentions1 went to meet him4 ,jehu killed ,joram dead upon the spot3 ,ahaziah fled1 but ,jehu's people overtook him at the going up of ,gur1 and mortally wounded him2 notwithstanding which1 he had strength enough to reach ,megiddo1 where he died4 ,his servants1 having laid him in his chariot1 carried him to ,jerusalem1 where he was buried with his fathers1 in the city of ,david4 ,,ahijah1 the prophet of the ,lord1 who dwelt in ,shiloh4 ,he is thought to be the person who spoke twice to ,solomon from ,god1 once while he was building the temple1 #a ,kings vi1 #aa1 at which time he promised him the divine protection2 and again1 #a ,kings xi1 #aa1 after his falling into his irregularities1 with great threatenings and reproaches4 ,ahijah was one of those who wrote the history or annals of this prince1 #b ,chron4 ix1 #bi4 ,the same prophet declared to ,jeroboam1 that he would usurp the kingdom1 #a ,kings xi1 #bi1 c2 and1 about the end of ,jeroboam's reign1 he also predicted the death of ,abijah1 the only pious son of that prince1 as is recorded #a ,kings xiv1 #b1 c4 ,ahijah1 in all probability1 did not long survive the delivery of this last prophecy2 but we are not informed of the time and manner of his death4 ,,ahikam1 the son of ,shaphan1 and father of ,gedaliah4 ,he was sent by ,josiah1 king of ,judah1 to ,huldah the prophetess1 #b ,kings xxii1 #ab1 to consult her concerning the book of the law1 which had been found in the temple4 ,,ahimaaz1 the son of ,zadok1 the high priest4 ,ahimaaz succeeded his father under the reign of ,solomon4 ,he performed a very important piece of service for ,david during the war with ,absalom4 ,while his father ,zadok was in ,jerusalem1 #b ,sam4 xv1 #bi1 ,ahimaaz and ,jonathan continued without the city1 xvii1 #ag1 near ,en-,rogel1 or the fountain of ,rogel2 thither a maid servant came to tell them the resolution which had been taken in ,absalom's council3 whereupon they immediately departed to give the king intelligence4 ,but being discovered by a young lad who gave information concerning them to ,absalom1 that prince sent orders to pursue them3 ,ahimaaz and ,jonathan1 fearing to be taken1 retired to a man's house at ,baharim1 in whose court-yard there was a well1 wherein they concealed themselves4 ,after the battle1 in which ,absalom was overcome and slain1 xviii1 ,ahimaaz desired leave of ,joab to carry the news thereof to ,david4 ,but instead of him ,joab sent ,cushi to carry the news1 and told ,ahimaaz that he would send him to the king upon some other occasion2 but soon after ,cushi was departed1 ,ahimaaz applied again to ,joab1 praying to be permitted to run after ,cushi2 and1 having obtained leave1 he ran by the way of the plain1 and outran ,cushi4 ,he was succeeded in the priesthood by his son ,azariah4 ,,ahimelech4 ,he was the son of ,ahitub1 and brother of ,ahia1 whom he succeeded in the high priesthood4 ,he is called ,abiathar1 ,mark ii1 #bf4 ,during his priesthood the tabernacle was at ,nob1 where ,ahimelech1 with other priests1 had their habitation4 ,david1 being informed by his friend ,jonathan that ,saul was determined to destroy him1 thought it prudent to retire4 ,he therefore went to ,nob1 to the high priest ,ahimelech1 who gave him the shew bread1 and the sword of ,goliath4 ,one day1 when ,saul was complaining of his officers1 that no one was affected with his misfortunes1 or gave him any intelligence of what was carrying on against him1 #a ,sam4 xxii1 #i1 c1 ,doeg related to him what had occurred when ,david came to ,ahimelech the high priest4 ,on this information1 ,saul convened the priests1 and having charged them with the crime of treason1 ordered his guards to slay them1 which they refusing to do1 ,doeg1 who had been their accuser1 at the king's command became their executioner1 and with his sacrilegious hand massacred no less than eighty-five of them2 the ,septuagint and ,syriac versions make the number of priests slain by ,doeg three hundred and five4 ,nor did ,saul stop here2 but1 sending a party to ,nob1 he commanded them to slay men1 women1 and children1 and even cattle1 with the edge of the sword4 ,only one son of ,ahimelech1 named ,abiathar1 escaped the carnage and fled to ,david4 ,,ahithophel1 a native of ,giloh1 who1 after having been ,david's counsellor1 joined in the rebellion of ,absalom1 and assisted him with his advice4 ,hushai1 the friend of ,david1 was employed to counteract the counsels of ,ahithophel1 and to deprive ,absalom1 under a pretence of serving him1 of the advantage that was likely to result from the measures which he proposed4 ,one of these measures was calculated to render ,david irreconcilable1 and was immediately adopted2 and the other to secure1 or to slay him4 ,before the last counsel was followed1 ,hushai's advice was desired2 and he recommended their assembling together the whole force of ,israel1 putting ,absalom at their head1 and overwhelming ,david by their number4 ,the treacherous counsel of ,hushai was preferred to that of ,ahithophel2 with which the latter being disgusted he hastened to his house at ,giloh1 where he put an end to his life4 ,he probably foresaw ,absalom's defeat1 and dreaded the punishment which would be inflicted on himself as a traitor1 when ,david was resettled on the throne4 ,a4 ,m4 #biha4 ,b4 ,c4 #ajbc4 #b ,sam4 xv1 xvii4 ,,aholibah4 ,this and ,aholah are two feigned names made use of by ,ezekiel1 xxiii1 #d1 to denote the two kingdoms of ,judah and ,samaria4 ,aholah and ,aholibah are represented as two sisters of ,egyptian extraction4 ,aholah stands for ,samaria1 and ,aholibah for ,jerusalem4 ,the first signifies a tent1 and the second1 my tent is in her4 ,they both prostituted themselves to the ,egyptians and ,assyrians1 in imitating their abominations and idolatries2 for which reason the ,lord abandoned them to those very people for whose evil practices they had shown so passionate an affection4 ,they were carried into captivity1 and reduced to the severest servitude4 ,,ai1 called by the ,,lxx1 ,gai1 by ,josephus ,aina1 and by others ,ajah1 a town of ,palestine1 situate west of ,bethel1 and at a small distance north-west of ,jericho4 ,the three thousand men1 first sent by ,joshua to reduce this city1 were repulsed1 on account of the sin of ,achan1 who had violated the anathema pronounced against ,jericho1 by appropriating a part of the spoil4 ,after the expiation of this offence1 the whole army of ,israel marched against ,ai1 with orders to treat that city as ,jericho had been treated1 with this difference1 that the plunder was to be given to the army4 ,joshua1 having appointed an ambush of thirty thousand men1 marched against the city1 and by a feigned retreat1 drew out the king of ,ai with his troops2 and upon a signal given by elevating his shield on the top of a pike1 the men in ambush entered the city and set fire to it4 ,thus the soldiers of ,ai1 placed between two divisions of ,joshua's army1 were all destroyed2 the king alone being preserved for a more ignominious death on a gibbet1 where he hung till sunset4 ,the spoil of the place was afterward divided among the ,israelites4 ,the men appointed for ambush are1 in one place1 said to be thirty thousand1 and in another five thousand4 ,for reconciling this apparent contradiction1 most commentators have generally supposed1 that there were two bodies placed in ambuscade between ,bethel and ,ai1 one of twenty-five thousand and the other of five thousand men2 the latter being probably a detachment from the thirty thousand first sent1 and ordered to lie as near to the city as possible4 ,masius allows only five thousand men for the ambuscade1 and twenty-five thousand for the attack4 ,,aichmalotarch1 signifies the prince of the captivity1 or chief of the captives4 ,the ,jews pretend that this was the title of him who had the government of their people during the captivity of ,babylon2 and they believe these princes or governors to have been constantly of the tribe of ,judah1 and family of ,david4 ,but they give no satisfactory proof of the real existence of these ,aichmalotarchs4 ,there was no prince of the captivity before the end of the second century1 from which period the office continued till the eleventh century4 ,the princes of the captivity resided at ,babylon1 where they were installed with great ceremony1 held courts of justice1 c1 and were set over the eastern ,jews1 or those settled in ,babylon1 ,chalda1 ,assyria1 and ,persia4 ,thus they affected to restore the splendour of their ancient monarchy1 and in this view the following account may be amusing4 ,the ceremonial of the installation is thus described3 ,the spiritual heads of the people1 the masters of the learned schools1 the elders1 and the people1 assembled in great multitudes within a stately chamber1 adorned with rich curtains1 in ,babylon1 where1 during his days of splendour1 the ,resch-,glutha fixed his residence4 ,the prince was seated on a lofty throne4 ,the heads of the schools of ,sura and ,pumbeditha on his right hand and left4 ,these chiefs of the learned men then delivered an address1 exhorting the new monarch not to abuse his power2 and reminded him that he was called to slavery rather than to sovereignty1 for he was prince of a captive people4 ,on the next ,thursday he was inaugurated by the laying on of hands1 and the sound of trumpets1 and acclamations4 ,he was escorted to his palace with great pomp1 and received magnificent presents from all his subjects4 ,on the ,sabbath all the principal people being assembled before his house1 he placed himself at their head1 and1 with his face covered with a silken veil1 proceeded to the synagogue4 ,benedictions and hymns of thanksgiving announced his entrance4 ,they then brought him the book of the law1 out of which he read the first line1 afterward he addressed the assembly1 with his eyes closed out of respect4 ,he exhorted them to charity1 and set the example by offering liberal alms to the poor4 ,the ceremony closed with new acclamations1 and prayers to ,god that1 under the new prince1 he would be pleased to put an end to their calamities4 ,the prince gave his blessing to the people1 and prayed for each province1 that it might be preserved from war and famine4 ,he concluded his orisons in a low voice1 lest his prayer should be repeated to the jealous ears of the native monarchs1 for he prayed for the restoration of the kingdom of ,israel1 which could not rise but on the ruins of their empire4 ,the prince returned to his palace1 where he gave a splendid banquet to the chief persons of the community4 ,after that day he lived in a sort of stately oriental seclusion1 never quitting his palace1 except to go to the schools of the learned1 where1 as he entered1 the whole assembly rose and continued standing1 till he took his seat4 ,he sometimes paid a visit to the native sovereign in ,babylon 7,bagdad47 ,this probably refers to a somewhat later period4 ,on these great occasions his imperial host sent his own chariot for his guest2 but the prince of the captivity dared not accept the invidious distinction1 he walked in humble and submissive modesty behind the chariot4 ,yet his own state was by no means wanting in splendour3 he was arrayed in cloth of gold2 fifty guards marched before him2 all the ,jews who met him on the way paid their homage1 and fell behind into his train4 ,he was received by the eunuchs1 who conducted him to the throne1 while one of his officers1 as he marched slowly along1 distributed gold and silver on all sides4 ,as the prince approached the imperial throne1 he prostrated himself on the ground1 in token of vassalage4 ,the eunuchs raised him and placed him on the left hand of the sovereign4 ,after the first salutation1 the prince represented the grievances1 or discussed the affairs1 of his people4 ,the court of the ,resch-,glutha is described as splendid4 ,in imitation of his ,persian master1 he had his officers1 counsellors1 and cup-bearers2 and rabbins were appointed as satraps over the different communities4 ,this state1 it is probable1 was maintained by a tribute raised from the body of the people1 and substituted for that which1 in ancient times was paid for the temple in ,jerusalem4 ,his subjects in ,babylonia were many of them wealthy4 ,,aijalon1 a city of the ,canaanites2 the valley adjoining to which is memorable in sacred history from the miracle of ,joshua1 in arresting the course of the sun and moon1 that the ,israelites might have sufficient light to pursue their enemies1 ,joshua x1 #ab1 #ac4 ,aijalon was afterward a ,levitical city1 and belonged to the tribe of ,dan2 who did not1 however1 drive out the ,amorite inhabitants1 ,judges i1 #ce4 ,,air1 that thin1 fluid1 elastic1 transparent1 ponderous1 compressible body which surrounds the terraqueous globe to a considerable height4 ,in ,scripture it is sometimes used for heaven2 as1 8the birds of the air20 8the birds of heaven40 ,to 8beat the air10 and 8to speak to the air10 #a ,cor4 ix1 #bf1 signify to fatigue ourselves in vain1 and to speak to no purpose4 8,the prince of the power of the air0 is the head and chief of the evil spirits1 with which both ,jews and ,heathens thought the air was filled4 ,,alabaster1 1 the name of a genus of fossils nearly allied to marble4 ,it is a bright elegant stone1 sometimes of a snowy whiteness4 ,it may be cut freely1 and is capable of a fine polish2 and1 being of a soft nature1 it is wrought into any form or figure with ease4 ,vases or cruises were anciently made of it1 wherein to preserve odoriferous liquors and ointments4 ,pliny and others represent it as peculiarly proper for this purpose2 and the druggists in ,egypt have1 at this day1 vessels made of it1 in which they keep their medicines and perfumes4 ,in ,matt4 xxvi1 #f1 #g1 we read that ,jesus being at table in ,bethany1 in the house of ,simon the leper1 a woman came thither and poured an alabaster box of ointment on his head4 ,st4 ,mark adds1 8,she brake the box10 which merely refers to the seal upon the vase which closed it1 and kept the perfume from evaporating4 ,this had never been removed1 but was on this occasion broken1 that is1 first opened4 ,,albigenses4 ,see ,,waldenses4 ,,aleph1 1 the name of the first letter in the ,hebrew alphabet1 from which the alpha of the ,syrians and ,greeks was formed4 ,this word signifies1 prince1 chief1 or thousand1 expressing1 as it were1 a leading number4 ,,alexander1 commonly called the ,great1 son and successor of ,philip1 king of ,macedon1 is denoted in the prophecies of ,daniel by a leopard with four wings1 signifying his great strength1 and the unusual rapidity of his conquests1 ,dan4 vii1 #f2 and by a one-horned he-goat running over the earth so swiftly as not to touch it1 attacking a ram with two horns1 overthrowing him1 and trampling him under foot1 without any being able to rescue him1 ,dan4 viii1 #d-g4 ,the he-goat prefigured ,alexander2 the ram1 ,darius ,codomannus1 the last of the ,persian kings4 ,in the statue beheld by ,nebuchadnezzar in his dream1 ,dan4 ii1 #ci1 the belly of brass was the emblem of ,alexander4 ,he was appointed by ,god to destroy the ,persian empire1 and to substitute in its room the ,grecian monarchy4 ,alexander succeeded his father ,philip1 ,a4 ,m4 #cffh1 and ,b4 ,c4 #ccf4 ,he was chosen1 by the ,greeks1 general of their troops against the ,persians1 and entered ,asia at the head of thirty-four thousand men1 ,a4 ,m4 #cfgj4 ,in one campaign1 he subdued almost all ,asia ,minor2 and afterward defeated1 in the narrow passes which led from ,syria to ,cilicia1 the army of ,darius1 which consisted of four hundred thousand foot1 and one hundred thousand horse4 ,darius fled1 and left in the hands of the conqueror1 his camp1 baggage1 children1 wife1 and mother4 ,after subduing ,syria1 ,alexander came to ,tyre2 and the ,tyrians refusing him entrance into their city1 he besieged it4 ,at the same time he wrote to ,jaddus1 high priest of the ,jews1 that he expected to be acknowledged by him1 and to receive from him the same submission which had hitherto been paid to the king of ,persia4 ,jaddus refusing to comply under the plea of having sworn fidelity to ,darius1 ,alexander resolved to march against ,jerusalem1 when he had reduced ,tyre4 ,after a long siege1 this city was taken and sacked2 and ,alexander entered ,palestine1 ,a4 ,m4 #cfgb1 and subjected it to his obedience4 ,as he was marching against ,jerusalem1 the ,jews became greatly alarmed1 and had recourse to prayers and sacrifices4 ,the ,lord1 in a dream1 commanded ,jaddus to open the gates to the conqueror1 and1 at the head of his people1 dressed in his pontifical ornaments1 and attended by the priests in their robes1 to advance and meet the ,macedonian king4 ,jaddus obeyed2 and ,alexander perceiving this company approaching1 hastened toward the high priest1 whom he saluted4 ,he then adored ,god1 whose name was engraven on a thin plate of gold1 worn by the high priest upon his forehead4 ,the kings of ,syria who accompanied him1 and the great officers about ,alexander1 could not comprehend the meaning of his conduct4 ,parmenio alone ventured to ask him why he adored the ,jewish high priest2 ,alexander replied1 that he paid this respect to ,god1 and not to the high priest4 8,for10 added he1 8whilst ,i was yet in ,macedonia1 ,i saw the ,god of the ,jews1 who appeared to me in the same form and dress as the high priest at present1 and who encouraged me and commanded me to march boldly into ,asia1 promising that he would be my guide1 and give me the empire of the ,persians4 ,as soon1 therefore1 as ,i perceived this habit1 ,i recollected the vision1 and understood that my undertaking was favoured by ,god1 and that under his protection ,i might expect prosperity40 ,having said this1 ,alexander accompanied ,jaddus to ,jerusalem1 where he offered sacrifices in the temple according to the directions of the high priest4 ,jaddus is said to have showed him the prophecies of ,daniel1 in which the destruction of the ,persian empire by ,alexander is declared4 ,the king was therefore confirmed in his opinion1 that ,god had chosen him to execute this great work4 ,at his departure1 ,alexander bade the ,jews ask of him what they would4 ,the high priest desired only the liberty of living under his government according to their own laws1 and an exemption from tribute every seventh year1 because in that year the ,jews neither tilled their grounds1 nor reaped their fruits4 ,with this request ,alexander readily complied4 ,having left ,jerusalem1 ,alexander visited other cities of ,palestine1 and was every where received with great testimonies of friendship and submission4 ,the ,samaritans who dwelt at ,sichem1 and were apostates from the ,jewish religion1 observing how kindly ,alexander had treated the ,jews1 resolved to say that they also were by religion ,jews4 ,for it was their practice1 when they saw the affairs of the ,jews in a prosperous state1 to boast that they were descended from ,manasseh and ,ephraim2 but when they thought it their interest to say the contrary1 they failed not to affirm1 and even to swear1 that they were not related to the ,jews4 ,they came1 therefore1 with many demonstrations of joy1 to meet ,alexander1 as far almost as the territories of ,jerusalem4 ,alexander commended their zeal2 and the ,sichemites entreated him to visit their temple and city4 ,alexander promised this at his return2 but as they petitioned him for the same privileges as the ,jews1 he asked them if they were ,jews4 ,they replied1 they were ,hebrews1 and were called by the ,phnicians1 ,sichemites4 ,alexander said that he had granted this exemption only to the ,jews1 but that at his return he would inquire into the affair1 and do them justice4 ,this prince having conquered ,egypt1 and regulated it1 gave orders for the building of the city of ,alexandria1 and departed thence1 about spring1 in pursuit of ,darius4 ,passing through ,palestine1 he was informed that the ,samaritans1 in a general insurrection1 had killed ,andromachus1 governor of ,syria and ,palestine1 who had come to ,samaria to regulate some affairs4 ,this action greatly incensed ,alexander1 who loved ,andromachus4 ,he therefore commanded all those who were concerned in his murder to be put to death1 and the rest to be banished from ,samaria2 and settled a colony of ,macedonians in their room4 ,what remained of their lands he gave to the ,jews1 and exempted them from the payment of tribute4 ,the ,samaritans who escaped this calamity1 retired to ,sichem1 at the foot of mount ,gerizim1 which afterward became their capital4 ,lest the eight thousand men of this nation1 who were in the service of ,alexander1 and had accompanied him since the siege of ,tyre1 if permitted to return to their own country1 should renew the spirit of rebellion1 he sent them into ,thebais1 the most remote southern province of ,egypt1 where he assigned them lands4 ,alexander1 after defeating ,darius in a pitched battle1 and subduing all ,asia and the ,indies with incredible rapidity1 gave himself up to intemperance4 ,having drunk to excess1 he fell sick and died1 after he had obliged 8all the world to be quiet before him10 #a ,macc4 i1 #c4 ,being sensible that his end was near1 he sent for the grandees of his court1 and declared that 8he gave the empire to the most deserving40 ,some affirm that he regulated the succession by a will4 ,the author of the first book of ,maccabees says1 that he divided his kingdom among his generals while he was living1 #a ,macc4 i1 #g4 ,this he might do2 or he might express his foresight of what actually took place after his death4 ,it is certain1 that a partition was made of ,alexander's dominions among the four principal officers of his army1 and that the empire which he founded in ,asia subsisted for many ages4 ,alexander died1 ,a4 ,m4 #cfhd1 and ,b4 ,c4 #cbc1 in the thirty-third year of his age1 and the twelfth of his reign4 ,the above particulars of ,alexander are here introduced because1 from his invasion of ,palestine1 the intercourse of the ,jews with the ,greeks became intimate1 and influenced many events of their subsequent history4 ,on the account above given of the interview between ,alexander and the ,jewish high priest1 by ,josephus1 many doubts have been cast by critics4 ,but the sudden change of his feelings toward them1 and the favour with which the nation was treated by him1 render the story not improbable4 ,,alexandria1 a famous city of ,egypt1 and1 during the reign of the ,ptolemies1 the regal capital of that kingdom4 ,it was founded by ,alexander the ,great3 who being struck with the advantageous situation of the spot where the city afterward stood1 ordered its immediate erection2 drew the plan of the city himself1 and peopled it with colonies of ,greeks and ,jews3 to which latter people1 in particular1 he gave great encouragement4 ,they were1 in fact1 made free citizens1 and had all the privileges of ,macedonians granted to them2 which liberal policy contributed much to the rise and prosperity of the new city2 for this enterprising and commercial people knew much better than either the ,greeks or the ,egyptians how to turn the happy situation of ,alexandria to the best account4 ,the fall of ,tyre happening about the same time1 the trade of that city was soon drawn to ,alexandria1 which became the centre of commercial intercourse between the east and the west2 and in process of time grew to such an extent1 in magnitude and wealth1 as to be second in point of population and magnificence to none but ,rome itself4 ,alexandria owed much of its celebrity as well as its population to the ,ptolemies4 ,ptolemy ,soter1 one of ,alexander's captains1 who1 after the death of this monarch1 was first governor of ,egypt1 and afterward assumed the title of king1 made this city the place of his residence1 about ,b4 ,c4 #cjd4 ,this prince founded an academy1 called the ,museum1 in which a society of learned men devoted themselves to philosophical studies1 and the improvement of all the other sciences2 and he also gave them a library1 which was prodigiously increased by his successors4 ,he likewise induced the merchants of ,syria and ,greece to reside in this city1 and to make it a principal mart of their commerce4 ,his son and successor1 ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 pursued the designs of his father4 ,in the hands of the ,romans1 the successors of the ,macedonians in the government of ,egypt1 the trade of ,alexandria continued to flourish1 until luxury and licentiousness paved the way1 as in every similar instance1 for its overthrow4 ,alexandria1 together with the rest of ,egypt1 passed from the dominion of the ,romans to that of the ,saracens4 ,with this event1 the sun of ,alexandria may be said to have set3 the blighting hand of ,islamism was laid on it2 and although the genius and the resources of such a city could not be immediately destroyed1 it continued to languish until the passage by the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 in the fifteenth century1 gave a new channel to the trade which for so many centuries had been its support2 and at this day1 ,alexandria1 like most eastern cities1 presents a mixed spectacle of ruins and wretchedness1--of fallen greatness and enslaved human beings4 ,some idea may be formed of the extent and grandeur of ,alexandria1 by the boast made by ,amrou3 8,i have taken10 said he1 8the great city of the west4 ,it is impossible for me to enumerate the variety of its riches and beauty4 ,i shall content myself with observing1 that it contains four thousand palaces1 four thousand baths1 four hundred theatres or places of amusement1 twelve thousand shops for the sale of vegetable foods1 and forty thousand tributary ,jews40 ,it was in ,alexandria chiefly that the ,grecian philosophy was engrafted upon the stock of ancient oriental wisdom4 ,the ,egyptian method of teaching by allegory was peculiarly favourable to such a union3 and we may well suppose that when ,alexander1 in order to preserve by the arts of peace that extensive empire which he had obtained by the force of arms1 endeavoured to incorporate the customs of the ,greeks with those of the ,persian1 ,indian1 and other eastern nations1 the opinions as well as the manners of this feeble and obsequious race would1 in a great measure1 be accommodated to those of their conquerors4 ,this influence of the ,grecian upon the oriental philosophy continued long after the time of ,alexander1 and was one principal occasion of the confusion of opinions which occurs in the history of the ,alexandrian and ,christian schools4 ,alexander1 when he built the city of ,alexandria1 with a determination to make it the seat of his empire1 and peopled it with emigrants from various countries1 opened a new mart of philosophy1 which emulated the fame of ,athens itself4 ,a general indulgence was granted to the promiscuous crowd assembled in this rising city1 whether ,egyptians1 ,grecians1 ,jews1 or others1 to profess their respective systems of philosophy without molestation4 ,the consequence was1 that ,egypt was soon filled with religious and philosophical sectaries of every kind2 and particularly1 that almost every ,grecian sect found an advocate and professor in ,alexandria4 ,the family of the ,ptolemies1 as we have seen1 who after ,alexander obtained the government of ,egypt1 from motives of policy encouraged this new establishment4 ,ptolemy ,lagus1 who had obtained the crown of ,egypt by usurpation1 was particularly careful to secure the interest of the ,greeks in his favour1 and with this view invited people from every part of ,greece to settle in ,egypt1 and removed the schools of ,athens to ,alexandria4 ,this enlightened prince spared no pains to raise the literary1 as well as the civil1 military1 and commercial credit of his country4 ,under the patronage first of the ,egyptian princes1 and afterward of the ,roman emperors1 ,alexandria long continued to enjoy great celebrity as the seat of learning1 and to send forth eminent philosophers of every sect to distant countries4 ,it remained a school of learning1 as well as a commercial emporium1 till it was taken1 and plundered of its literary treasures by the ,saracens4 ,philosophy1 during this period1 suffered a grievous corruption from the attempt which was made by philosophers of different sects and countries1 ,grecian1 ,egyptian1 and oriental1 who were assembled in ,alexandria1 to frame1 from their different tenets1 one general system of opinions4 ,the respect which had long been universally paid to the schools of ,greece1 and the honours with which they were now adorned by the ,egyptian princes1 induced other wise men1 and even the ,egyptian priests and philosophers themselves1 to submit to this innovation4 ,hence arose a heterogeneous mass of opinions1 under the name of the ,eclectic philosophy1 and which was the foundation of endless confusion1 error1 and absurdity1 not only in the ,alexandrian school1 but among ,jews and ,christians2 producing among the former that specious kind of philosophy1 which they called their ,cabala1 and among the latter innumerable corruptions of the ,christian faith4 ,at ,alexandria there was1 in a very early period of the ,christian ra1 a ,christian school of considerable eminence4 ,st4 ,jerome says1 the school at ,alexandria had been in being from the time of ,st4 ,mark4 ,pantnus1 placed by ,lardner at the year #aib1 presided in it4 ,st4 ,clement of ,alexandria succeeded ,pantnus in this school about the year #aij2 and he was succeeded by ,origen4 ,the extensive commerce of ,alexandria1 and its proximity to ,palestine1 gave an easy entrance to the new religion1 and when ,adrian visited ,egypt1 he found a church composed of ,jews and ,greeks1 sufficiently important to attract the notice of that inquisitive prince4 ,the theological system of ,plato was introduced into both the philosophical and ,christian schools of ,alexandria2 and of course many of his sentiments and expressions were blended with the opinions and language of the professors and teachers of ,christianity4 ,alexandria was the source1 and for some time the principal stronghold1 of ,arianism2 which had its name from its founder1 ,arius1 a presbyter of the church of this city1 about the year #cae4 ,his doctrines were condemned by a council held here in the year #cbj2 and afterward by a general council of three hundred and eighty fathers1 held at ,nice1 by order of ,constantine1 in #cbe4 ,these doctrines1 however1 which suited the reigning taste for disputative theology1 and the pride and self-sufficiency of nominal ,christians1 better than the unsophisticated simplicity of the ,gospel1 spread widely and rapidly notwithstanding4 ,arius was steadfastly opposed by the celebrated ,athanasius1 bishop of ,alexandria1 the intrepid champion of the catholic faith1 who was raised to the archiepiscopal throne of ,alexandria in #cbf4 ,this city was1 in #dae1 distinguished by a fierce persecution of the ,jews by the patriarch ,cyril4 ,they who had enjoyed the rights of citizens1 and the freedom of religious worship1 for seven hundred years1 ever since the foundation of the city1 incurred the hatred of this ecclesiastic2 who1 in his zeal for the extermination of heretics of every kind1 pulled down their synagogues1 plundered their property1 and expelled them1 to the number of forty thousand1 from the city4 ,it was in a ship belonging to the port of ,alexandria1 that ,st4 ,paul sailed from ,myra1 a city of ,lycia1 on his way to ,rome1 ,acts xxvii1 #e1 #f4 ,alexandria was also the native place of ,apollos4 ,,alexandrian ,,library4 ,this celebrated collection of books was first founded by ,ptolemy ,soter1 for the use of the academy1 or society of learned men1 which he had founded at ,alexandria4 ,beside the books which he procured1 his son1 ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 added many more1 and left in this library at his death a hundred thousand volumes2 and the succeeding princes of this race enlarged it still more1 till at length the books lodged in it amounted to the number of seven hundred thousand volumes4 ,the method by which they are said to have collected these books was this3 they seized all the books that were brought by the ,greeks or other foreigners into ,egypt1 and sent them to the academy1 or museum1 where they were transcribed by persons employed for that purpose4 ,the transcripts were then delivered to the proprietors1 and the originals laid up in the library4 ,ptolemy ,euergetes1 for instance1 borrowed of the ,athenians the works of ,sophocles1 ,euripides1 and schylus1 and only returned them the copies1 which he caused to be transcribed in as beautiful a manner as possible2 the originals he retained for his own library1 presenting the ,athenians with fifteen talents for the exchange1 that is1 with three thousand pounds sterling and upwards4 ,as the museum was at first in the quarter of the city called ,bruchion1 the library was placed there2 but when the number of books amounted to four hundred thousand volumes1 another library1 within the ,serapeum1 was erected by way of supplement to it1 and1 on that account1 called the daughter of the former4 ,the books lodged in this increased to the number of three hundred thousand volumes2 and these two made up the number of seven hundred thousand volumes1 of which the royal libraries of the ,ptolemies were said to consist4 ,in the war which ,julius ,csar waged with the inhabitants of ,alexandria1 the library of ,bruchion was accidentally1 but unfortunately1 burnt4 ,but the library in ,serapeum still remained1 and there ,cleopatra deposited the two hundred thousand volumes of the ,pergamean library with which she was presented by ,marc ,antony4 ,these1 and others added to them from time to time1 rendered the new library more numerous and considerable than the former2 and though it was plundered more than once during the revolutions which happened in the ,roman empire1 yet it was as frequently supplied with the same number of books1 and continued1 for many ages1 to be of great fame and use1 till it was burnt by the ,saracens1 ,a4 ,d4 #fdb4 ,abulpharagius1 in his history of the tenth dynasty1 gives the following account of this catastrophe3 ,john ,philoponus1 surnamed the ,grammarian1 a famous ,peripatetic philosopher1 being at ,alexandria when the city was taken by the ,saracens1 was admitted to familiar intercourse with ,amrou1 the ,arabian general1 and presumed to solicit a gift1 inestimable in his opinion1 but contemptible in that of the barbarians2 and this was the royal library4 ,amrou was inclined to gratify his wish1 but his rigid integrity scrupled to alienate the least object without the consent of the caliph4 ,he accordingly wrote to ,omar1 whose well known answer was dictated by the ignorance of a fanatic3 8,if these writings of the ,greeks agree with the ,koran1 or book of ,god1 they are useless1 and need not be preserved2 if they disagree1 they are pernicious1 and ought to be destroyed40 ,the sentence of destruction was executed with blind obedience3 the volumes of paper or parchment were distributed to the four thousand baths of the city2 and such was their number1 that six months were barely sufficient for the consumption of this precious fuel4 ,,algum1 or 1 #a ,kings x1 #aa1 #ab4 ,this is the name of a kind of wood1 or tree1 large quantities of which were brought by the fleet of ,solomon from ,ophir1 of which he made pillars for the house of the ,lord1 and for his own palace2 also musical instruments4 ,see ,,almug4 ,,allegory1 a figure in rhetoric1 whereby we make use of terms which1 in their proper signification1 mean something else than what they are brought to denote2 or it is a figure whereby we say one thing1 expecting it shall be understood of another1 to which it alludes2 or which1 under the literal sense of the words1 conceals a foreign or distant meaning4 ,an allegory is1 properly1 a continued metaphor1 or a series of several metaphors in one or more sentences4 ,such is that beautiful allegory in ,horace1 lib4 i1 ,od4 #ad4 8,o navis1 referent in mare te novi ,fluctus10 c4 ,o ship1 shall new billows drive thee again to sea1 c4 ,where the ship is usually held to stand for the republic2 waves1 for civil war2 port1 for peace and concord2 oars1 for soldiers2 and mariners for magistrates4 ,thus1 also1 in ,prior's ,henry and ,emma1 ,emma describes her constancy to ,henry in the following allegorical manner3-- 8,did ,i but purpose to embark with thee ,on the smooth surface of a summer's sea1 ,while gentle zephyrs play with prosperous gales1 ,and fortune's favour fills the swelling sails2 ,but would forsake the ship1 and make the shore1 ,when the winds whistle1 and the tempests roar80 ,cicero1 likewise1 speaking of himself1 in ,pison4 c4 #i1 tom4 vi1 p4 #ahg1 uses this allegorical language3 8,nor was ,i so timorous1 that1 after ,i had steered the ship of the state through the greatest storms and waves1 and brought her safe into port1 ,i should fear the cloud of your forehead1 or your colleague's pestilential breath4 ,i saw other winds1 ,i perceived other storms1 ,i did not withdraw from other impending tempests2 but ,i exposed myself singly to them for the common safety40 ,here the state is compared to a ship1 and all the things said of it under that image1 are expressed in metaphors made use of to denote the dangers with which it had been threatened4 ,we have also a very fine example of an allegory in ,psalm lxxx2 in which the people of ,israel are represented under the image of a vine1 and the figure is supported throughout with great correctness and beauty4 ,whereas1 if1 instead of describing the vine as wasted by the boar from the wood1 and devoured by the wild beasts of the field1 the ,psalmist had said1 it was afflicted by ,heathens1 or overcome by enemies1 which is the real meaning1 the figurative and the literal meaning would have been blended1 and the allegory ruined4 ,the learned ,bishop ,lowth1 ,de ,sacr ,poesi ,hebrorum1 ,prl4 #aj1 #aa1 has specified three forms of allegory that occur in sacred poetry4 ,the first is that which rhetoricians call a continued metaphor4 ,when several metaphors succeed each other1 they alter the form of the composition2 and this succession has very properly1 in reference to the etymology of the word1 been denominated by the ,greeks 1 an allegory2 although ,aristotle1 instead of considering it as a new species of figure1 has referred it to the class of metaphors4 ,the principle of allegory in this sense of the term1 and of the simple metaphor1 is the same2 nor is it an easy matter to restrict each to its proper limit1 and to mark the precise termination of the one1 and the commencement of the other4 ,this eminently judicious critic observes1 that when the ,hebrew poets use the congenial figures of metaphor1 allegory1 and comparison1 particularly in the prophetic poetry1 they adopt a peculiar mode of doing it1 and seldom regulate the imagery which they introduce by any fixed principle or standard4 ,not satisfied with a simple metaphor1 they often run it into an allegory1 or blend with it a direct comparison4 ,the allegory sometimes follows1 and sometimes precedes the simile3 to this is added a frequent change of imagery1 as well as of persons and tenses2 and thus are displayed an energy and boldness1 both of expression and meaning1 which are unconfined by any stated rules1 and which mark the discriminating genius of the ,hebrew poetry4 ,thus1 in ,gen4 xlix1 #i1 8,judah is a lion's whelp20 this metaphor is immediately drawn out into an allegory1 with a change of person3 8,from the prey1 my son1 thou art gone up10 that is1 to the mountains1 which is understood2 and in the succeeding sentences the person is again changed1 the image is gradually advanced1 and the metaphor is joined with a comparison that is repeated4 8,he stoopeth down1 he coucheth as a lion2 ,and as a lioness2 who shall rouse him80 ,a similar instance occurs in the prophecy1 recorded in ,psalm cx1 #c1 which explicitly foretels the abundant increase of the ,gospel on its first promulgation4 ,this kind of allegory1 however1 sometimes assumes a more regular and perfect form1 and then occupies the whole subject and compass of the discourse4 ,an example of this kind occurs in ,solomon's well known allegory1 ,eccles4 xii1 #b-f1 in which old age is so admirably depicted4 ,there is also1 in ,isaiah xxviii1 #bd-bi1 an allegory1 which1 with no less elegance of imagery1 is more simple and regular1 as well as more just and complete1 both in the form and the method of treating it4 ,another kind of allegory is that which1 in the proper and more restricted sense1 may be called a parable2 and consists of a continued narration of some fictitious event1 accommodated1 by way of similitude1 to the illustration of some important truth4 ,the ,greeks call these allegories or apologues1 and the ,latins fabul1 or fables4 7,see ,parable47 ,the third species of allegory1 which often occurs in the prophetic poetry1 is that in which a double meaning is couched under the same words1 or when the same discourse1 differently interpreted1 designates different events1 dissimilar in their nature1 and remote as to time4 ,these different relations are denominated the literal and mystical senses4 ,this kind of allegory1 which the learned prelate calls mystical1 seems to derive its origin from the principles of the ,jewish religion2 and it differs from the two former species in a variety of respects4 ,in these allegories the writer may adopt any imagery that is most suitable to his fancy or inclination2 but the only proper materials for this allegory must be supplied from the sacred rites of the ,hebrews themselves2 and it can only be introduced in relation to such things as are immediately connected with the ,jewish religion1 or their immediate opposites4 ,the former kinds partake of the common privileges of poetry2 but the mystical allegory has its foundation in the nature of the ,jewish economy1 and is adapted solely to the poetry of the ,hebrews4 ,besides1 in the other forms of allegory1 the exterior or ostensible imagery is mere fiction1 and the truth lies altogether in the interior or remote sense2 but in this allegory each idea is equally agreeable to truth4 ,the exterior or ostensible image is itself a reality2 and although it sustains another character1 it does not wholly lay aside its own4 ,there is also a great variety in the use and conduct of the mystical allegory2 in the modes in which the corresponding images are arranged1 and in which they are obscured or eclipsed by one another4 ,sometimes the obvious or literal sense is so prominent and conspicuous1 both in the words and sentiments1 that the remote or figurative sense is scarcely permitted to glimmer through it4 ,on the other hand1 the figurative sense is more frequently found to beam forth with so much perspicuity and lustre1 that the literal sense is quite cast into the shade1 or becomes indiscernible4 ,sometimes the principal or figurative idea is exhibited to the attentive eye with a constant and equal light2 and sometimes it unexpectedly glares upon us1 and breaks forth with sudden and astonishing coruscations1 like a flash of lightning bursting from the clouds4 ,but the mode or form of this figure which possesses the chief beauty and elegance1 is1 when the two images1 equally conspicuous1 run1 as it were1 parallel throughout the whole poem1 mutually illustrating and correspondent to each other4 ,the learned author has illustrated these observations by instances selected from ,psalms ii1 and lxxii4 ,he adds1 that the mystical allegory is1 on account of the obscurity resulting from the nature of the figure1 and the style of the composition1 so agreeable to the nature of the prophecy1 that it is the form which it generally1 and indeed lawfully1 assumes1 as best adapted to the prediction of future events4 ,it describes events in a manner exactly conformable to the intention of prophecy2 that is1 in a dark1 disguised1 and intricate manner1 sketching out1 in a general way1 their form and outline2 and seldom descending to a minuteness of description and exactness of detail4 ,,alleluia1 or ,,hallelu-,,jah1 1 praise the ,lord2 or1 praise to the ,lord3 compounded of 1 praise ye1 and 1 the ,lord4 ,this word occurs at the beginning1 or at the end1 of many ,psalms4 ,alleluia was sung on solemn days of rejoicing3 8,and all her streets shall sing ,alleluia10 says ,tobit1 speaking of the rebuilding of ,jerusalem1 ,tob4 xiii1 #ah4 ,st4 ,john1 in the ,revelation1 xix1 #a1 #c1 #d1 #f1 says1 8,i heard a great voice of much people in heaven1 who cried1 ,alleluia2 and the four living creatures fell down1 and worshipped ,god1 saying1 ,alleluia40 ,this expression of joy and praise was transferred from the synagogue to the church4 ,at the funeral of ,fabiola1 8several psalms were sung with loud alleluias10 says ,jerom1 in ,epitaphio ,paul1 8,the monks of ,palestine were awaked at their midnight watchings1 with the singing of alleluias40 ,it is still occasionally used in devotional psalmody4 ,,almah1 1 a ,hebrew word signifying properly a virgin1 a young woman unacquainted with man4 ,in this sense it occurs in the famous passage of ,isaiah1 vii1 #ad3 8,behold a virgin shall conceive and bear a son40 ,the ,hebrew has no term that more properly signifies a virgin than almah4 ,st4 ,jerom1 in his commentary on this passage1 observes1 that the ,prophet declined using the word bethaul which signifies any young woman1 or young person1 but employed the term almah1 which denotes a virgin never seen by man4 ,this is the import of the word almah1 which is derived from a root which signifies to conceal4 ,it is very well known1 that young women in the east do not appear in public1 but are shut up in their houses1 and their mothers' apartments1 like nuns4 ,the ,chaldee paraphrast and the ,septuagint translate almah 8a virgin20 and ,akiba1 the famous rabbin1 who was a great enemy to ,christ and ,christians1 and lived in the second century1 understands it in the same manner4 ,the ,apostles and ,evangelists1 and the ,jews of our ,saviour's time1 explained it in the same sense1 and expected a ,messiah born of a virgin4 ,the ,jews1 that they may obscure this plain text1 and weaken this proof of the truth of the ,christian religion1 pretend that the ,hebrew word signifies a young woman1 and not a virgin4 ,but this corrupt translation is easily confuted4 #a4 ,because this word constantly denotes a virgin in all other passages of ,scripture in which it is used4 #b4 ,from the intent of the passage1 which was to confirm their faith by a strange and wonderful sign4 ,it surely could be no wonder1 that a young woman should conceive a child2 but it was a very extraordinary circumstance that a virgin should conceive and bear a son4 ,,almighty1 an attribute of the ,deity1 ,gen4 xvii1 #a4 ,the ,hebrew name1 1 ,shaddai1 signifies also all-sufficient1 or all-bountiful4 ,see ,gen4 xxviii1 #c2 xxxv1 #aa2 xliii1 #ad2 xlix1 #be4 ,of the omnipotence of ,god1 we have a most ample revelation in the ,scriptures1 expressed in the most sublime language4 ,from the annunciation by ,moses of a divine existence who was 8in the beginning10 before all things1 the very first step is to the display of his almighty power in the creation out of nothing1 and the immediate arrangement in order and perfection1 of the 8heaven and the earth20 by which is meant1 not this globe only with its atmosphere1 or even with its own celestial system1 but the universe itself2 for 8he made the stars also40 ,we are thus at once placed in the presence of an agent of unbounded power2 for we must all feel that a being which could create such a world as this1 must1 beyond all comparison1 possess a power greater than any which we experience in ourselves1 than any which we observe in other visible agents1 and to which we are not authorized by our observation or knowledge to assign any limits of space or duration4 #b4 ,that the sacred writers should so frequently dwell upon the omnipotence of ,god1 has important reasons which arise out of the very design of the revelation which they were the means of communicating to mankind4 ,men were to be reminded of their obligations to obedience2 and ,god is therefore constantly exhibited as the ,creator1 the ,preserver1 and ,lord of all things4 ,his solemn worship and fear were to be enjoined upon them2 and1 by the manifestation of his works1 the veil was withdrawn from his glory and majesty4 ,idolatry was to be checked and reproved1 and the true ,god was therefore placed in contrast with the limited and powerless gods of the ,heathen3 8,among the gods of the nations1 is there no god like unto thee2 neither are there any works like thy works40 ,finally1 he is exhibited as the object of trust to creatures constantly reminded by experience of their own infirmity and dependence2 and to them it is essential to know1 that his power is absolute1 unlimited1 and irresistible1 and that1 in a word1 he is 8mighty to save40 #c4 ,in a revelation which was thus designed to awe and control the wicked1 and to afford strength of mind and consolation to good men under all circumstances1 the omnipotence of ,god is therefore placed in a great variety of impressive views1 and connected with the most striking illustrations4 ,it is declared by the fact of creation1 the creation of beings out of nothing2 which itself1 though it had been confined to a single object1 however minute1 exceeds finite comprehension1 and overwhelms the faculties4 ,this with ,god required no effort3 8,he spake and it was done1 he commanded and it stood fast40 ,the vastness and variety of his works enlarge the conception3 8,the heavens declare the glory of ,god1 and the firmament showeth his handy work40 8,he spreadeth out the heavens1 and treadeth upon the waves of the sea2 he maketh ,arcturus1 ,orion1 and ,pleiades1 and the chambers of the south2 he doeth great things1 past finding out1 yea1 and wonders without number4 ,he stretcheth out the north over the empty place1 and hangeth the earth upon nothing4 ,he bindeth up the waters in the thick clouds1 and the cloud is not rent under them2 he hath compassed the waters with bounds until the day and night come to an end40 ,the ease with which he sustains1 orders1 and controls the most powerful and unruly of the elements1 arrays his omnipotence with an aspect of ineffable dignity and majesty3 8,by him all things consist40 8,he brake up for the sea a decreed place1 and set bars and doors1 and said1 ,hitherto shalt thou come and no farther1 and here shall thy proud waves be stayed40 8,he looketh to the end of the earth1 and seeth under the whole heaven1 to make the weight for the winds1 to weigh the waters by measure1 to make a decree for the rain1 and a way for the lightning of the thunder40 8,who hath measured the waters in the hollow of his hand1 meted out heaven with a span1 comprehended the dust of the earth in a measure1 and weighed the mountains in scales1 and the hills in a balance40 ,the descriptions of the divine power are often terrible3 8,the pillars of heaven tremble1 and are astonished at his reproof2 he divideth the sea by his power40 8,he removeth the mountains1 and they know it not2 he overturneth them in his anger2 he shaketh the earth out of her place1 and the pillars thereof tremble2 he commandeth the sun and it riseth not1 and sealeth up the stars40 ,the same absolute subjection of creatures to his dominion is seen among the intelligent inhabitants of the material universe2 and angels1 mortals the most exalted1 and evil spirits1 are swayed with as much ease as the most passive elements3 8,he maketh his angels spirits1 and his ministers a flame of fire40 ,they veil their faces before his throne1 and acknowledge themselves his servants3 8,it is he that sitteth upon the circle of the earth1 and the inhabitants thereof are as grasshoppers10 8as the dust of the balance1 less than nothing and vanity40 8,he bringeth princes to nothing40 8,he setteth up one and putteth down another20 8for the kingdom is the ,lord's1 and he is governor among the nations40 8,the angels that sinned he cast down to hell1 and delivered them into chains of darkness1 to be reserved unto judgment40 ,the closing scenes of this world complete these transcendent conceptions of the majesty and power of ,god4 ,the dead of all ages rise from their graves at his voice3 and the sea gives up the dead which are in it4 ,before his face heaven and earth fly away2 the stars fall from heaven1 and the powers of heaven are shaken4 ,the dead1 small and great1 stand before ,god1 and are divided as a shepherd divideth the sheep from the goats4 ,the wicked go away into everlasting punishment1 but the righteous into life eternal4 #d4 ,of these amazing views of the omnipotence of ,god1 spread almost through every page of the ,scriptures1 the power lies in their truth4 ,they are not eastern exaggerations1 mistaken for sublimity4 ,every thing in nature answers to them1 and renews from age to age the energy of the impression which they cannot but make on the reflecting mind4 ,the order of the astral revolutions indicates the constant presence of an invisible but incomprehensible power4 ,the seas hurl the weight of their billows upon the rising shores1 but every where find a 8bound fixed by a perpetual decree40 ,the tides reach their height2 if they flowed on for a few hours1 the earth would change places with the bed of the sea2 but1 under an invisible control1 they become refluent4 ,the expression1 8,he toucheth the mountains and they smoke10 is not mere imagery3--every volcano is a testimony of its truth2 and earthquakes proclaim1 that1 before him1 8the pillars of the world tremble40 ,men collected into armies1 or populous nations1 give us vast ideas of human power2 but let an army be placed amidst the sand storms and burning winds of the desert1 as1 in the east2 or1 before 8his frost10 as in our own day in ,russia1 where one of the mightiest armaments was seen retreating before1 or perishing under1 an unexpected visitation of snow and storm2 or let the utterly helpless state of a populous country which has been visited by famine1 or by a resistless pestilential disease1 be reflected upon2 and we feel that it is scarcely a figure of speech to say1 that 8all nations before him are less than nothing and vanity40 #e4 ,nor1 in reviewing this doctrine of ,scripture1 ought the great practical uses made of the omnipotence of ,god1 by the sacred writers1 to be overlooked4 ,by them nothing is said for the mere display of knowledge1 as in ,heathen writers2 and we have no speculations without a subservient moral4 ,to excite and keep alive in man the fear and worship of ,god1 and to bring him to a felicitous confidence in that almighty power which pervades and controls all things1 are the noble ends of those ample displays of the omnipotence of ,god1 which roll through the sacred volume with a sublimity that inspiration only could supply4 8,declare his glory among the ,heathen1 his marvellous works among all nations2 for great is the ,lord1 and greatly to be praised4--,glory and honour are in his presence1 and strength and gladness in his place4--,give unto the ,lord1 ye kindreds of the people1 give unto the ,lord glory and strength2 give unto the ,lord the glory due unto his name4--,the ,lord is my light and my salvation2 whom shall ,i fear8--,the ,lord is the strength of my life2 of whom shall ,i be afraid8 ,if ,god be for us1 who then can be against us8 ,our help standeth in the name of the ,lord1 who made heaven and earth4--,what time ,i am afraid1 ,i will trust in thee40--,thus1 as one observes1 8our natural fears1 of which we must have many1 remit us to ,god1 and remind us1 since we know what ,god is1 to lay hold on his almighty power40 #f4 ,ample1 however1 as are these views of the power of ,god1 the subject is not exhausted4 ,as1 when the ,scriptures speak of the eternity of ,god1 they declare it so as to give us a mere glimpse of that fearful peculiarity of the divine nature1 that ,god is the fountain of being to himself1 and that he is eternal1 because he is the 8,i ,,am20 so we are taught not to measure ,god's omnipotence by the actual displays of it which we see around us4 ,these are the manifestations of the fact1 but not the measure of the attribute2 and should we resort to the discoveries of modern philosophy1 which1 by the help of instruments1 has so greatly enlarged the known boundaries of the visible universe1 and add to the stars which are visible to the naked eye1 those new exhibitions of the divine power in the nebulous appearances of the heavens which are resolvable into myriads of distinct celestial luminaries1 whose immense distances commingle their light before it reaches our eyes2 we thus almost infinitely expand the circle of created existence1 and enter upon a formerly unknown and overwhelming range of divine operation4 ,but still we are only reminded1 that his power is truly almighty and measureless--8,lo1 all these are parts of his ways2 but how little a portion is known of him1 and the thunder of his power who can understand80 ,it is a mighty conception that we form of a power from which all other power is derived1 and to which it is subordinate2 which nothing can oppose2 which can beat down and annihilate all other power whatever2 which operates in the most perfect manner1 at once1 in an instant1 with the utmost ease2 but the ,scriptures lead us to the contemplation of greater and even unfathomable depths4 ,the omnipotence of ,god is inconceivable and boundless4 ,it arises from the infinite perfection of ,god1 that his power can never be actually exhausted2 and1 in every imaginable instant in eternity1 that inexhaustible power of ,god can1 if it please him1 be adding either more creatures to those in existence1 or greater perfection to them2 since 8it belongs to self-existent being1 to be always full and communicative1 and1 to the communicated contingent being1 to be ever empty and craving40 #g4 ,one limitation of the divine power it is true we can conceive1 but it detracts nothing from its perfection4 ,where things in themselves imply a contradiction1 as that a body may be extended and not extended1 in a certain place and not in it1 at the same time2 such things cannot be done by ,god1 because contradictions are impossible in their own nature4 ,nor is it any derogation from the divine power to say1 they cannot be done2 for as the object of the understanding1 of the eye1 and the ear1 is that which is intelligible1 visible1 and audible2 so the object of power must be that which is possible2 and as it is no prejudice to the most perfect understanding1 or sight1 or hearing1 that it does not understand what is not intelligible1 or see what is not visible1 or hear what is not audible2 so neither is it any diminution to the most perfect power1 that it does not do what is not possible4 ,in like manner1 ,god cannot do any thing that is repugnant to his other perfections3 he cannot lie1 nor deceive1 nor deny himself2 for this would be injurious to his truth4 ,he cannot love sin1 nor punish innocence2 for this would destroy his holiness and goodness3 and therefore to ascribe a power to him that is inconsistent with the rectitude of his nature1 is not to magnify but debase him2 for all unrighteousness is weakness1 a defection from right reason1 a deviation from the perfect rule of action1 and arises from a want of goodness and power4 ,in a word1 since all the attributes of ,god are essentially the same1 a power in him which tends to destroy any other attribute of the divine nature1 must be a power destructive of itself4 ,well1 therefore1 may we conclude him absolutely omnipotent1 who1 by being able to effect all things consistent with his perfections1 showeth infinite ability1 and1 by not being able to do any thing repugnant to the same perfections1 demonstrates himself subject to no infirmity4 #h4 ,nothing certainly in the finest writings of antiquity1 were all their best thoughts collected as to the majesty and power of ,god1 can bear any comparison with the views thus presented to us by divine revelation4 ,were we to forget1 for a moment1 what is the fact1 that their noblest notions stand connected with fancies and vain speculations which deprive them of their force1 still their thoughts never rise so high2 the current is broken1 the round of lofty conception is not completed1 and1 unconnected as their views of divine power were with the eternal destiny of man1 and the very reason of creation1 we never hear in them1 as in the ,scriptures1 8the ,,thunder of his power40 ,,almond ,,tree1 4 ,arabic1 lauz4 ,translated hazel1 ,gen4 xxx1 #cg2 1 rendered almond1 ,gen4 xliii1 #aa2 ,exod4 xxv1 #cc1 #cd2 xxxvii1 #ai1 #bj2 ,num4 xvii1 #h2 ,eccles4 xii1 #e2 and ,jer4 i1 #aa4 ,the first name may be that of the tree2 the other1 that of the fruit1 or nut4 ,a tree resembling the peach tree in its leaves and blossoms1 but the fruit is longer and more compressed1 the outer green coat is thinner and drier when ripe1 and the shell of the stone is not so rugged4 ,this stone1 or nut1 contains a kernel1 which is the only esculent part4 ,the whole arrives at maturity in ,september1 when the outer tough cover splits open and discharges the nut4 ,from the circumstance of its blossoming the earliest of any of the trees1 beginning as soon as the rigour of winter is past1 and before it is in leaf1 it has its ,hebrew name shakad1 which comes from a verb signifying to make haste1 to be in a hurry1 or to awake early4 ,to the forwardness of the almond tree there seems to be a reference in ,jeremiah3 8,the word of the ,lord came unto me1 saying1 ,jeremiah1 what seest thou8 ,and ,i said1 ,i see a rod of an almond tree4 ,then said the ,lord unto me1 ,thou hast well seen3 for ,i will hasten my word to perform it20 or rather1 8,i am hastening1 or watching over my word to fulfil it10 ,jer4 i1 #aa1 #ab4 ,in this manner it is rendered by the ,seventy2 and by the ,vulgate1 ,vigilabo ego super verbum meum4 ,i will watch over my word4 ,this is the first vision with which the ,prophet was honoured2 and his attention is roused by a very significant emblem of that severe correction with which the ,most ,high was hastening to visit his people for their iniquity2 and from the species of tree to which the rod belonged1 he is warned of its near approach4 ,the idea which the appearance of the almond rod suggested to his mind1 is confirmed by the exposition of ,god himself3 8,i am watching over1 or on account of1 my word to fulfil it20 and this double mode of instruction1 first by emblem1 and then by exposition1 was certainly intended to make a deeper impression on the mind both of ,jeremiah and of the people to whom he was sent4 ,it is probable that the rods which the princes of ,israel bore1 were scions of the almond tree1 at once the ensign of their office1 and the emblem of their vigilance4 ,such1 we know from the testimony of ,scripture1 was the rod of ,aaron2 which renders it exceedingly probable1 that the rods of the other chiefs were from the same tree4 ,the hoary head is beautifully compared by ,solomon to the almond tree1 covered in the earliest days of spring with its snow white flowers1 before a single leaf has budded3 8,the almond tree shall flourish1 and the grasshopper shall be a burden1 and desire shall fail10 ,eccl4 xii1 #e4 ,man has existed in this world but a few days1 when old age begins to appear1 sheds its snows upon his head1 prematurely nips his hopes1 darkens his earthly prospects1 and hurries him into the grave4 ,,almug ,,tree1 a certain kind of wood1 mentioned #a ,kings1 x1 #aa2 #b ,chron4 ii1 #h2 ix1 #aj1 #aa4 ,jerom and the ,vulgate render it1 ligna thyina1 and the ,septuagint 1 wrought wood4 ,several critics understand it to mean gummy wood2 but a wood abounding in resin must be very unfit for the uses to which this is said to be applied4 ,celsus queries if it be not the sandal2 but ,michaelis thinks the particular species of wood to be wholly unknown to us4 ,dr4 ,shaw supposes that the almug tree was the cypress2 and he observes that the wood of this tree is still used in ,italy and other places for violins1 harpsichords1 and other stringed instruments4 ,,aloe1 1 a plant with broad leaves1 nearly two inches thick1 prickly and serrated4 ,it grows about two feet high4 ,a very bitter gum is extracted from it1 used for medicinal purposes1 and anciently for embalming dead bodies4 ,nicodemus is said1 ,john xix1 #ci1 to have brought one hundred pounds' weight of myrrh and aloes to embalm the body of ,jesus4 ,the quantity has been exclaimed against by certain ,jews1 as being enough for fifty bodies4 ,but instead of it might originally have been written 1 ten pounds' weight4 ,however1 at the funeral of ,herod there were five hundred 1 spice bearers2 and at that of ,r4 ,gamaliel1 eighty pounds of opobalsamum were used4 ,the wood which ,god showed ,moses1 that with it he might sweeten the waters of ,marah1 is called alvah1 ,exod4 xv1 #be4 ,the word has some relation to aloe2 and some interpreters are of opinion that ,moses used a bitter sort of wood1 that so the power of ,god might be the more remarkable4 ,mr4 ,bruce mentions a town1 or large village1 by the name of ,elvah4 ,it is thickly planted with trees2 is the oasis parva of the ancients2 and the last inhabited place to the west that is under the jurisdiction of ,egypt4 ,he also observes that the ,arabs call a shrub or tree1 not unlike our hawthorn1 either in wood or flower1 by the name of elvah4 8,it was this10 say they1 8with which ,moses sweetened the waters of ,marah2 and with this1 too1 did ,kalib ,ibn el ,walid sweeten those of ,elvah1 once bitter1 and give the place the name of this circumstance40 ,it may be that ,god directed ,moses to the very wood proper for the purpose4 ,m4 ,neibuhr1 when in these parts1 inquired after wood capable of this effect1 but could gain no information of any such4 ,it will not1 however1 from hence follow that ,moses really used a bitter wood2 but1 as ,providence usually works by the proper and fit means to accomplish its ends1 it seems likely that the wood he made use of was1 in some degree at least1 corrective of that quality which abounded in the water1 and so rendered it potable4 ,this seems to have been the opinion of the author of ,ecclesiasticus1 xxxviii1 #e4 ,that other water1 also1 requires some correction1 and that such a correction is applied to it1 appears from the custom in ,egypt in respect to that of the ,nile1 which1 though somewhat muddy1 is rendered pure and salutary by being put into jars1 the inside of which is rubbed with a paste made of bitter almonds4 ,the first discoverers of the ,floridas are said to have corrected the stagnant and fetid water they found there1 by infusing in it branches of sassafras2 and it is understood that the first inducement of the ,chinese to the general use of tea1 was to correct the water of their ponds and rivers4 ,the ,,lign-,,aloe1 or agallochum1 ,num4 xxiv1 #f2 ,psalm xlv1 #i2 and ,cantic4 iv1 #ad4 1 masculine1 1 whose plural is 1 is a small tree about eight or ten feet high4 ,that the flower of this plant yielded a fragrance1 is assured to us in the following extract from ,swinburne's ,travels1 letter xii3 8,this morning1 like many of the foregoing ones1 was delicious4 ,the sun rose gloriously out of the sea1 and all the air around was perfumed with the effluvia of the aloe1 as its rays sucked up the dew from the leaves40 ,this extremely bitter plant contains under the bark three sorts of wood4 ,the first is black1 solid1 and weighty2 the second is of a tawny colour1 of a light spongy texture1 very porous1 and filled with a resin extremely fragrant and agreeable2 the third kind of wood1 which is the heart1 has a strong aromatic odour1 and is esteemed in the east more precious than gold itself4 ,it is used for perfuming habits and apartments1 and is administered as a cordial in fainting and epileptic fits4 ,these pieces1 called calunbac1 are carefully preserved in pewter boxes1 to prevent their drying4 ,when they are used they are ground upon a marble with such liquids as are best suited to the purpose for which they are intended4 ,this wood1 mentioned ,cantic4 iv1 #ad1 in conjunction with several other odoriferous plants there referred to1 was in high esteem among the ,hebrews for its exquisite exhalations4 ,the scented aloe1 and each shrub that showers ,gum from its veins1 and odours from its flowers4 ,thus the son of ,sirach1 ,ecclesiasticus xxiv1 #ae3 8,i gave a sweet smell like the cinnamon and aspalathus4 ,i yielded a pleasant odour like the best myrrh2 like galbanum and onyx1 and fragrant storax1 and like the fume of frankincense in the tabernacle40 ,it may not be amiss to observe that the ,persian translator renders ahalim1 sandal wood2 and the same was the opinion of a certain ,jew in ,arabia who was consulted by ,neibuhr4 ,,alpha1 the first letter of the ,greek alphabet2 ,omega being the last letter4 ,hence ,alpha and ,omega is a title which ,christ appropriates to himself1 ,rev4 i1 #h2 xxi1 #f2 xxii1 #ac2 as signifying the beginning and the end1 the first and the last1 and thus properly denoting his perfection and eternity4 ,,alpheus1 father of ,james the less1 ,matt4 x1 #c2 ,luke vi1 #ae4 ,alpheus was the husband of ,mary1 believed to have been sister to the mother of ,christ2 for which reason1 ,james is called the ,lord's brother2 but the term brother is too general in its application to fix their relation1 though the fact is probable4 ,many are of opinion that ,cleopas1 mentioned ,luke xxiv1 #ah1 is the same as ,alpheus2 ,alpheus being his ,greek name1 and ,cleopas his ,hebrew1 or ,syriac name1 according to the custom of this province1 7or of the time17 where men often had two names2 by one of which they were known to their friends and countrymen1 by the other to the ,romans or strangers4 #b4 ,,alpheus1 father of ,levi1 or ,matthew1 whom ,jesus took to be an ,apostle and ,evangelist1 ,mark ii1 #ad4 ,,altar4 ,sacrifices are nearly as ancient as worship1 and altars are of almost equal antiquity4 ,scripture speaks of altars1 erected by the patriarchs1 without describing their form1 or the materials of which they were composed4 ,the altar which ,jacob set up at ,bethel1 was the stone which had served him for a pillow2 ,gideon sacrificed on the rock before his house4 ,the first altars which ,god commanded ,moses to raise1 were of earth or rough stones2 and it was declared that if iron were used in constructing them they would become impure1 ,exod4 xx1 #bd1 #be4 ,the altar which ,moses enjoined ,joshua to build on ,mount ,ebal1 was to be of unpolished stones1 ,deut4 xxvii1 #e2 ,josh4 viii1 #ca2 and it is very probable that such were those built by ,samuel1 ,saul1 and ,david4 ,the altar which ,solomon erected in the temple was of brass1 but filled1 it is believed1 with rough stones1 #b ,chron4 iv1 #a-c4 ,it was twenty cubits long1 twenty wide1 and ten high4 ,that built at ,jerusalem1 by ,zerubbabel1 after the return from ,babylon1 was of rough stones2 as was that of ,maccabees4 ,josephus says that the altar which in his time was in the temple was of rough stones1 fifteen cubits high1 forty long1 and forty wide4 ,among the ,romans altars were of two kinds1 the higher and the lower2 the higher were intended for the celestial gods1 and were called altaria1 from altus2 the lower were for the terrestrial and infernal gods1 and were called ar4 ,those dedicated to the heavenly gods were raised a great height above the surface of the earth2 those of the terrestrial gods were almost even with the surface2 and those for the infernal deities were only holes dug in the ground called scrobiculi4 ,before temples were in use the altars were placed in the groves1 highways1 or on tops of mountains1 inscribed with the names1 ensigns1 or characters of the respective gods to whom they belonged4 ,the great temples at ,rome generally contained three altars2 the first in the sanctuary1 at the foot of the statue1 for incense and libations2 the second before the gate of the temple1 for the sacrifices of victims2 and the third was a portable one for the offerings and sacred vestments or vessels to lie upon4 ,the ancients used to swear upon the altars upon solemn occasions1 such as confirming alliances1 treaties of peace1 c4 ,they were also places of refuge1 and served as an asylum and sanctuary to all who fled to them1 whatever their crimes were4 ,the principal altars among the ,jews were those of incense1 of burnt-offering1 and the altar or table for the shew bread4 ,the altar of incense was a small table of shittim wood covered with plates of gold4 ,it was a cubit long1 a cubit broad1 and two cubits high4 ,at the four corners were four horns4 ,the priest1 whose turn it was to officiate1 burnt incense on this altar1 at the time of the morning sacrifice between the sprinkling of the blood and the laying of the pieces of the victim on the altar of burnt-offering4 ,he did the same also in the evening1 between the laying of the pieces on the altar and the drink-offering4 ,at the same time the people prayed in silence1 and their prayers were offered up by the priests4 ,the altar of burnt-offering was of shittim wood also1 and carried upon the shoulders of the priests1 by staves of the same wood overlaid with brass4 ,in ,moses's days it was five cubits square1 and three high3 but it was greatly enlarged in the days of ,solomon1 being twenty cubits square1 and ten in height4 ,it was covered with brass1 and had a horn at each corner to which the sacrifice was tied4 ,this altar was placed in the open air1 that the smoke might not sully the inside of the tabernacle or temple4 ,on this altar the holy fire was renewed from time to time1 and kept constantly burning4 ,hereon1 likewise1 the sacrifices of lambs and bullocks were burnt1 especially a lamb every morning at the third hour1 or nine of the clock1 and a lamb every afternoon at three1 ,exod4 xx1 #bd1 #be2 xxvii1 #a1 #b1 #d2 xxxviii1 #a4 ,the altar of burnt-offering had the privilege of being a sanctuary or place of refuge4 ,the wilful murderer1 indeed1 sought protection there in vain2 for by the express command of ,god he might be dragged to justice1 even from the altar4 ,the altar or table of shew bread was of shittim wood also1 covered with plates of gold1 and had a border round it adorned with sculpture4 ,it was two cubits long1 one wide1 and one and a half in height4 ,this table stood in the sanctum sanctorum1 holy of holies1 and upon it were placed the loaves of shew bread4 ,after the return of the ,jews from their captivity1 and the building of the second temple1 the form and size of the altars were somewhat changed4 ,sacrifices according to the laws of ,moses1 could not be offered except by the priests2 and at any other place than on the altar of the tabernacle or the temple4 ,furthermore1 they were not to be offered to idols1 nor with any superstitious rites4 ,see ,lev4 xvii1 #a-g2 ,deut4 xii1 #ae1 #af4 ,without these precautionary measures1 the true religion would hardly have been secure4 ,if a different arrangement had been adopted1 if the priests had been scattered about to various altars1 without being subjected to the salutary restraint which would result from a mutual observation of each other1 they would no doubt some of them have willingly consented to the worship of idols2 and others1 in their separate situation1 would not have been in a condition to resist the wishes of the multitude1 had those wishes been wrong4 ,the necessity of sacrificing at one altar1 7that of the tabernacle or temple17 is frequently and emphatically insisted on1 ,deut4 xii1 #ac1 #ad2 and all other altars are disapproved1 ,lev4 xxvi1 #cj1 compare ,joshua xxii1 #i-cd4 ,notwithstanding this1 it appears that1 subsequently to the time of ,moses1 especially in the days of the kings1 altars were multiplied2 but they fell under suspicions1 although some of them were perhaps sacred to the worship of the true ,god4 ,it is1 nevertheless1 true1 that prophets1 whose characters were above all suspicion1 sacrificed1 in some instances1 in other places than the one designated by the laws1 #a ,sam4 xiii1 #c-ad2 xvi1 #a-e2 #a ,kings xviii1 #ba-dj4 ,,amalekites1 a people whose country adjoined the southern border of the land of ,canaan1 in the north-western part of ,arabia ,petra4 ,they are generally supposed to have been the descendants of ,amalek1 the son of ,eliphaz1 and grandson of ,esau4 ,but ,moses speaks of the ,amalekites long before this ,amalek was born2 namely in the days of ,abraham1 when ,chedorlaomer1 king of ,elam1 devastated their country1 ,gen4 xiv1 #g2 from which it may be inferred that there was some other and more ancient ,amalek1 from whom this people sprang4 ,the ,arabians have a tradition that this ,amalek was a son of ,ham2 and when we consider that so early as the march from ,egypt the ,amalekites were a people powerful enough to attack the ,israelites1 it is far more probable that they should derive their ancestry from ,ham1 than from the then recent stock of the grandson of ,esau4 ,it may also be said1 that the character and fate of this people were more consonant with the dealings of ,providence toward the families of the former4 ,this more early origin of the ,amalekites will likewise explain why ,balaam called them the 8first of the nations40 ,they are supposed by some to have been a party or tribe of the shepherds who invaded ,egypt1 and kept it in subjection for two hundred years4 ,this will agree with the ,arabian tradition as to their descent4 ,it also agrees with their pastoral and martial habits1 as well as with their geographical position2 which was perhaps made choice of on their retiring from ,egypt1 adjoining that of their countrymen the ,philistines1 whose history is very similar4 ,it also furnishes a motive for their hostility to the ,jews1 and their treacherous attempt to destroy them in the desert4 ,the ground of this hostility has been very generally supposed to have been founded in the remembrance of ,jacob's depriving their progenitor of his birthright4 ,but we do not find that the ,edomites1 who had this ground for a hatred to the ,jews1 made any attempt to molest them1 nor that ,moses ever reproaches the ,amalekites for attacking the ,israelites as their brethren2 nor do we ever find in ,scripture that the ,amalekites joined with the ,edomites1 but always with the ,canaanites and the ,philistines4 ,these considerations would be sufficient1 had we no other reasons for believing them not to be of the stock of ,esau4 ,they may1 however1 be deduced from a higher origin2 and viewing them as ,cuthite shepherds and warriors1 we have an adequate explanation both of their imperious and warlike character1 and of the motive of their hostility to the ,jews in particular4 ,if expelled with the rest of their race from ,egypt1 they could not but recollect the fatal overthrow at the ,red ,sea2 and if not participators in that catastrophe1 still1 as members of the same family1 they must bear this event in remembrance with bitter feelings of revenge4 ,but an additional motive is not wanting for this hostility1 especially for its first act4 ,the ,amalekites probably knew that the ,israelites were advancing to take possession of the land of ,canaan1 and resolved to frustrate the purposes of ,god in this respect4 ,hence they did not wait for their near approach to that country1 but came down from their settlements1 on its southern borders1 to attack them unawares at ,rephidim4 ,be this as it may1 the ,amalekites came on the ,israelites1 when encamped at that place1 little expecting such an assault4 ,moses commanded ,joshua1 with a chosen band1 to attack the ,amalekites2 while he1 with ,aaron and ,hur1 went up the mountain ,horeb4 ,during the engagement1 ,moses held up his hands to heaven2 and so long as they were maintained in this attitude1 the ,israelites prevailed1 but when through weariness they fell1 the ,amalekites prevailed4 ,aaron and ,hur1 seeing this1 held up his hands till the latter were entirely defeated with great slaughter1 ,exod4 xvii4 ,the ,amalekites were indeed the earliest and the most bitter enemies the ,jews had to encounter4 ,they attacked them in the desert2 and sought every opportunity afterward of molesting them4 ,under the judges1 the ,amalekites1 in conjunction with the ,midianites1 invaded the land of ,israel2 when they were defeated by ,gideon1 ,judges vi1 vii4 ,but ,god1 for their first act of treachery1 had declared that he would 8utterly put out the remembrance of ,amalek from under heaven20 a denunciation which was not long after accomplished4 ,saul destroyed their entire army1 with the exception of ,agag their king2 for sparing whom1 and permitting the ,israelites to take the spoil of their foes1 he incurred the displeasure of the ,lord1 who took the sceptre from him4 ,agag was immediately afterward hewn in pieces by ,samuel1 #a ,sam4 xv4 ,it is remarkable1 that most authors make ,saul's pursuit of the ,amalekites to commence from the lower ,euphrates1 instead of from the southern border of the land of ,canaan4 7,see ,havilah47 ,david a few years after1 defeated another of their armies2 of whom only four hundred men escaped on camels1 #a ,sam4 xxx2 after which event1 the ,amalekites appear to have been obliterated as a nation4 ,,amasa1 the son of ,ithra and ,abigail1 ,david's sister1 whom ,absalom1 when he rebelled against his father1 appointed general of his army1 #b ,sam4 xvii1 #be4 ,amasa having thus received the command of ,absalom's troops1 engaged his cousin ,joab1 general of ,david's army1 and was worsted4 ,but1 after the defeat of ,absalom's party1 ,david1 being angry at ,joab for killing ,absalom1 pardoned ,amasa1 and gave him the command of his own army4 ,upon the revolt of ,sheba1 the son of ,bichri1 ,david gave orders to ,amasa to assemble all ,judah and march against ,sheba4 ,amasa not being able to form his army in the time prescribed1 ,david directed ,abishai to pursue ,sheba with the guards4 ,joab1 with his people1 accompanied him2 and these troops were scarcely got as far as the great stone in ,gibeon1 before ,amasa came and joined them with his forces4 ,then said ,joab to ,amasa1 8,art thou in health1 my brother80 and took him by the beard with his right hand to kiss him2 and treacherously smote him under the fifth rib1 so that he expired4 ,,amaziah1 one of the kings of ,judah1 #b ,chron4 xxiv1 #bg1 son of ,joash1 succeeded his father ,a4 ,m4 #cafe1 ,b4 ,c4 #hci4 ,he was twenty-five years of age when he began to reign1 and reigned twenty-nine years at ,jerusalem4 8,he did good in the sight of the ,lord1 but not with a perfect heart40 ,when settled in his kingdom1 he put to death the murderers of his father1 but avoided a barbarous practice then too common1 to destroy also their children2 in which he had respect to the precept1 8,the fathers shall not be put to death for the children1 neither shall the children be put to death for the fathers2 every man shall be put to death for his own sin10 ,deut4 xxiv1 #af2 #b ,chron4 xxv1 #a-c4 ,in the muster which ,amaziah made of his people1 he found three hundred thousand men able to bear arms4 ,he hired1 besides1 one hundred thousand men of ,israel2 for which he paid the king of ,israel a hundred talents1 about thirty-four thousand pounds ,english4 ,his design was to employ these troops against ,edom1 which had revolted from ,judah1 in the reign of ,joram1 about fifty-four years before1 #b ,kings1 viii1 #bj4 ,but a prophet of the ,lord came to him1 and said1 8,o king1 let not the army of ,israel go with thee2 for the ,lord is not with ,israel40 ,amaziah1 hereupon1 sent back those troops2 and they returning1 strongly irritated against ,amaziah1 dispersed themselves over the cities of ,judah1 from ,bethoron to ,samaria1 killed three thousand men1 and carried off a great booty1 to make themselves amends for the loss of the plunder of ,edom4 ,amaziah1 with his own forces gave battle to the ,edomites in the ,valley of ,salt1 and defeated them2 but having thus punished ,edom1 and taken their idols1 he adored them as his own deities4 ,this provoked the ,lord1 who permitted ,amaziah to be so blinded as to believe himself invincible4 ,he therefore sent to defy the king of ,israel1 saying1 8,come1 let us look one another in the face40 ,the motive of this challenge was probably to oblige ,joash1 king of ,israel1 to repair the ravages which his troops had committed on their return homewards4 ,joash answered him by the fable of the cedar of ,lebanon1 and the thistle trodden down by a beast1 #b ,kings xiv1 #h1 #i4 ,but ,amaziah1 deaf to these reasonings1 advanced to ,bethshemesh1 and was defeated and taken prisoner there1 by ,joash1 who carried him to ,jerusalem4 ,joash ordered the demolition of four hundred cubits of the city wall1 carried to ,samaria all the gold and silver1 the rich vessels of the house of ,god1 the treasuries of the royal palace1 and the sons of those among his own people who had been hostages there4 ,amaziah reigned after this1 fifteen or sixteen years at ,jerusalem1 but returned not to the ,lord4 ,he endeavoured to escape from a conspiracy to ,lachish2 but was assassinated4 ,he was buried with his ancestors in the city of ,david1 and ,uzziah1 or ,azariah1 his son1 about sixteen years of age1 succeeded him4 ,,ambassador1 a messenger sent by a sovereign1 to transact affairs of great moment4 ,ministers of the ,gospel are called ambassadors1 because1 in the name of ,jesus ,christ the ,king of kings1 they declare his will to men1 and propose the terms of their reconciliation to ,god1 #b ,cor4 v1 #bj2 ,eph4 vi1 #bj4 ,eliakim1 ,shebna1 and ,joah1 the servants of king ,hezekiah1 were called 8ambassadors of peace40 ,in their master's name they earnestly solicited a peace from the ,assyrian monarch1 but were made 8to weep bitterly0 with the disappointment and refusal1 ,isaiah xxxiii1 #g4 ,,amber1 1 ,ezek4 i1 #d1 #bg2 viii1 #b4 ,the amber is a hard inflammable bitumen4 ,when rubbed it is highly endowed with that remarkable property called electricity1 a word which the moderns have formed from its ,greek name 4 ,but the ancients had also a mixed metal of fine copper and silver1 resembling the amber in colour1 and called by the same name4 ,from the version of ,ezekiel i1 #d1 by the ,,lxx1 1 8,and in the midst of it as the appearance of electrum in the midst of the fire10 it appears that those translators by 1 could not mean amber1 which grows dim as soon as it feels the fire1 and quickly dissolves into a resinous or pitchy substance2 but the mixed metal above mentioned1 which is much celebrated by the ancients for its beautiful lustre1 and which1 when exposed to the fire like other metals1 grows more bright and shining4 ,st4 ,jerom1 ,theodoret1 ,st4 ,gregory and ,origen think1 that1 in the above cited passages from ,ezekiel1 a precious and highly polished metal is meant4 ,,amen4 1 in ,hebrew1 signifies true1 faithful1 certain4 ,it is used likewise in affirmation2 and was often thus employed by our ,saviour3 8,amen1 amen10 that is1 8,verily1 verily40 ,it is also understood as expressing a wish1 8,amen6 so be it60 or an affirmation1 8,amen1 yes1 ,i believe it30 ,num4 v1 #bb4 ,she shall answer1 8,amen6 ,amen60 ,deut4 xxvii1 #ae1 #af1 #ag1 c4 8,all the people shall answer1 ,amen6 ,amen60 #a ,cor4 xiv1 #af4 8,how shall he who occupieth the place of the unlearned1 say1 ,amen6 at thy giving of thanks8 seeing he understandeth not what thou sayest40 8,the promises of ,god are ,amen in ,christ20 that is1 certain1 confirmed1 granted1 #b ,cor4 i1 #bj4 ,the ,hebrews end the five books of ,psalms1 according to their distribution of them1 with 8,amen1 amen20 which the ,septuagint translate1 1 1 and the ,latins1 ,fiat1 fiat4 ,the ,gospels1 c1 are ended with ,,amen4 ,the ,greek1 ,latin1 and other churches1 preserve this word in their prayers1 as well as alleluia and hosanna4 ,at the conclusion of the public prayers1 the people anciently answered with a loud voice1 8,amen60 and ,jerom says1 that1 at ,rome1 when the people answered1 8,amen60 the sound was like a clap of thunder1 in similitudinem clestis tonitrui ,amen reboat4 ,amen rings again like a peal of thunder4 ,the ,jews assert that the gates of heaven are opened to him who answers1 8,amen60 with all his might4 ,the ,jewish doctors give three rules for pronouncing the word3 #a4 ,that it be not pronounced too hastily and rapidly1 but with a grave and distinct voice4 #b4 ,that it be not louder than the tone of him that blesses4 #c4 ,that it be expressed in faith1 with a certain persuasion that ,god would bless them1 and hear their prayers4 ,,amen is a title of our ,lord1 8,the ,amen1 the true and faithful witness10 ,rev4 i1 #ad4 ,,amethyst4 1 ,exod4 xxviii1 #ai2 and xxix1 #ab2 and once in the ,new ,testament1 ,rev4 ,,xxi1 #bj1 4 ,a transparent gem1 of a colour which seems composed of a strong blue and deep red2 and1 according as either prevails1 affords different tinges of purple1 sometimes approaching to violet1 and sometimes even fading to a rose colour4 ,the stone called amethyst by the ancients was evidently the same with that now generally known by this name2 which is far from being the case with regard to some other gems4 ,the oriental is the hardest1 scarcest1 and most valuable4 ,it was the ninth stone in the pectoral of the high priest1 and is mentioned as the twelfth in the foundations of the ,new ,jerusalem4 ,,amminadab1 or ,,abinadab1 a ,levite1 and an inhabitant of ,kirjath-jearim1 with whom the ark was deposited after it was brought back from the land of the ,philistines1 #a ,sam4 vii4 ,this ,amminadab dwelt in ,gibeath1 that is to say1 in the highest part of the city of ,kirjath-jearim4 #b4 ,the chariots of ,amminadab are mentioned1 ,canticles vi1 #ab1 as being extremely light4 ,he is thought to have been some celebrated charioteer1 whose horses were singularly swift4 ,,ammon1 or ,,hammon1 or ,,jupiter-,,ammon1 an epithet given to ,jupiter in ,lybia1 where was a celebrated temple of that deity under the denomination of ,jupiter ,ammon1 which was visited by ,alexander the ,great4 ,the word ,amoun1 which imports 8shining10 according to ,jablonski1 denoted the effects produced by the sun on attaining the equator1 such as the increase of the days2 a more splendid light2 and1 above all1 the fortunate presage of the inundation of the ,nile1 and its consequent abundance4 ,ammon is by others derived from ,ham1 the son of ,noah1 who first peopled ,egypt and ,lybia1 after the flood2 and1 when idolatry began to gain ground soon after this period1 became the chief deity of those two countries1 in which his descendants continued4 ,a temple1 it is said1 was built to his honour1 in the midst of the sandy deserts of ,lybia1 upon a spot of good ground1 about two leagues broad1 which formed a kind of island or oasis in a sea of sand4 ,he was esteemed the ,zeus of ,greece1 and the ,jupiter of ,latium1 as well as the ,ammon of the ,egyptians4 ,in process of time1 these two names were joined2 and he was called ,jupiter ,ammon4 ,for this reason the city of ,ammon1 ,no-ammon1 or the city of ,ham1 was called by the ,greeks ,diospolis1 or the city of ,jupiter4 ,plutarch says1 that of all the ,egyptian deities which seemed to have any correspondence with the ,zeus of ,greece1 ,amon or ,ammon was the most peculiar and appropriate4 ,from ,egypt his name and worship were brought into ,greece2 as indeed were almost all the names of all the deities that were there worshipped4 ,jupiter ,ammon1 or the ,egyptian ,jupiter1 was usually represented under the figure of a ram2 though in some medals he appears of a human shape1 having only two ram's horns growing out beneath his ears4 ,the ,egyptians1 says ,proclus1 in the ,timus of ,plato1 had a singular veneration for the ram1 because the image of ,ammon bore its head1 and because this first sign of the zodiac was the presage of the fruits of the earth4 ,eusebius adds1 that this symbol marked the conjunction of the sun and moon in the sign of the ram4 #b4 ,,ammon1 or ,,ben-,,ammi1 the son of ,lot1 by his youngest daughter1 ,gen4 xix1 #ch4 ,he was the father of the ,ammonites1 and dwelt on the east side of the ,dead ,sea1 in the mountains of ,gilead4 ,,ammonians1 the disciples of ,ammonius ,saccas1 of the ,alexandrian school4 ,his character was so equivocal1 that it is disputed whether he was a ,heathen or a ,christian4 ,mr4 ,milner calls him 8a ,pagan ,christian10 who imagined 8that all religions1 vulgar and philosophical1 ,grecian and barbarous1 ,jewish and ,gentile1 meant the same thing in substance4 ,he undertook1 by allegorizing and subtilizing various fables and systems1 to make up a coalition of all sects and religions2 and from his labours1 continued by his disciples1--some of whose works still remain1--his followers were taught to look on ,jew1 philosopher1 vulgar1 ,pagan1 and ,christian1 as all of the same creed10 and worshippers of the same ,god1 whether denominated 8,jehovah1 ,jove1 or ,lord40 ,,ammonites1 the descendants of ,ammon1 the son of ,lot4 ,they took possession of the country called by their name1 after having driven out the ,zamzummims1 who were its ancient inhabitants4 ,the precise period at which this expulsion took place is not ascertained4 ,the ,ammonites had kings1 and were uncircumcised1 ,jer4 ix1 #be1 #bf1 and seem to have been principally addicted to husbandry4 ,they1 as well as the ,moabites1 were among the nations whose peace or prosperity the ,israelites were forbidden to disturb1 ,deut4 ii1 #ai1 c4 ,however1 neither the one nor the other were to be admitted into the congregation to the tenth generation1 because they did not come out to relieve them in the wilderness1 and were implicated in hiring ,balaam to curse them4 ,their chief and peculiar deity is1 in ,scripture1 called ,moloch4 ,chemosh was also a god of the ,ammonites4 ,before the ,israelites entered ,canaan1 the ,amorites conquered a great part of the country belonging to the ,ammonites and ,moabites2 but it was retaken by ,moses1 and divided between the tribes of ,gad and ,reuben4 ,previous to the time of ,jephthah1 ,b4 ,c4 #aahh1 the ,ammonites engaged as principals in a war1 under a king whose name is not given1 against the ,israelites4 ,this prince1 determining to recover the ancient country of the ,ammonites1 made a sudden irruption into it1 reduced the land1 and kept the inhabitants in subjection for eighteen years4 ,he afterward crossed ,jordan with a design of falling upon the tribes of ,judah1 ,benjamin1 and ,ephraim4 ,the ,israelites resisted the invader2 and1 assembling at ,mizpeh1 chose ,jephthah for their general1 and sent an expostulatory message to the king of the ,ammonites1 ,judges x1 xi4 ,the king replied1 that those lands belonged to the ,ammonites1 who had been unjustly dispossessed of them by the ,israelites1 when they came out of ,egypt1 and exhorted ,jephthah to restore them peaceably to the lawful owners4 ,jephthah remonstrated on the injustice of his claim2 but finding a war inevitable1 he fell upon the ,ammonites near ,aroer1 and defeated them with great slaughter4 ,on this occasion the ,ammonites lost twenty cities2 and thus an end was put1 after eighteen years' bondage1 to the tyranny of ,ammon over the ,israelites beyond ,jordan4 ,in the days of ,saul1 #a ,sam4 xi1 ,b4 ,c4 #ajie1 the old claim of the ,ammonites was revived by ,nahash their king1 and they laid siege to the city of ,jabesh4 ,the inhabitants were inclined to acknowledge ,nahash as their sovereign2 but he would accept their submission only on condition that every one of them should consent to lose his right eye1 and that thus he might fix a lasting reproach upon ,israel3 but from this humiliating and severe requisition they were delivered by ,saul1 who vanquished and dispersed the army of ,nahash4 ,upon the death of ,nahash1 ,david sent ambassadors to his son and successor ,hanun1 to congratulate him on his accession2 but these ambassadors were treated as spies1 and dismissed in a very reproachful manner1 #b ,sam4 x4 ,this indignity was punished by ,david with rigour4 ,rabbah1 the capital of ,hanun1 and the other cities of ,ammon1 which resisted the progress of the conqueror1 were destroyed and razed to the ground2 and the inhabitants were put to death or reduced to servitude4 ,in the reign of ,jehoshaphat the ,ammonites united with their brethren1 the ,moabites1 and the inhabitants of ,mount ,seir1 against the king of ,judah2 but they were completely routed4 ,they were afterward overthrown by ,uzziah1 king of ,judah1 and made tributary1 #b ,chron4 xxvi1 #h2 and rebelling in the reign of his son ,jotham1 they were reduced to the necessity of purchasing peace at a very dear rate4 ,after the tribes of ,reuben1 ,gad1 and the half tribe of ,manasseh1 were carried into captivity by ,tiglath ,pileser1 ,b4 ,c4 #gdj1 the ,ammonites and ,moabites took possession of the cities belonging to these tribes1 and were reproached for it by ,jeremiah1 xlix1 #a4 ,their ambassadors were exhorted to submit to ,nebuchadnezzar1 and threatened1 on their refusal1 with captivity and slavery1 ,jer4 xxvii1 #b1 #c1 #d4 ,the ,prophet ,ezekiel1 xxv1 #d-aj1 denounces their entire destruction1 and informs them1 that ,god would deliver them up to the people of the east2 and that the ,ammonites should no more be mentioned among the nations3 and this punishment they were to suffer for insulting the ,israelites on account of their calamities1 and the destruction of their temple by the ,chaldeans4 ,this malediction began to be inflicted upon them in the fifth year after the taking of ,jerusalem1 when ,nebuchadnezzar made war against all the people around ,judea1 ,a4 ,m4 #cdbj or #cdba1 ,b4 ,c4 #ehc4 ,it is probable that ,cyrus granted to the ,ammonites and ,moabites liberty to return into their own country1 whence they had been removed by ,nebuchadnezzar2 for they were exposed to the revolutions that were common to the people of ,syria and ,palestine1 and were subject sometimes to the kings of ,egypt1 and sometimes to the kings of ,syria4 ,polybius informs us1 that ,antiochus the ,great took ,rabboth1 or ,philadelphia1 the capital of the ,ammonites1 demolished the walls1 and put a garrison into it1 ,a4 ,m4 #chjf1 ,b4 ,c4 #aih4 ,during the persecutions of ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 the ,ammonites manifested their hatred to the ,jews1 and exercised great cruelties against such of them as lived in their parts4 ,at length their city ,jaser1 and the neighbouring town1 fell a prey to the ,jews1 who smote the men1 carried their wives and children into captivity1 and plundered and burned the city4 ,thus ended their last conflict with the descendants of ,israel4 ,ammon was1 however1 a highly productive and populous country when the ,romans became masters of all the provinces of ,syria2 and several of the ten allied cities1 which gave name to the celebrated ,decapolis1 were included within its boundaries4 ,even when first invaded by the ,saracens1 this country1 including ,moab1 was enriched by the various benefits of trade1 covered with a line of forts1 and possessed some strong and populous cities4 ,volney bears witness1 8that in the immense plains of the ,hauran1 ruins are continually to be met with1 and that what is said of its actual fertility perfectly corresponds with the idea given of it in the ,hebrew writings40 ,the fact of its natural fertility is corroborated by every traveller who has visited it4 ,and 8it is evident10 says ,burckhardt1 8that the whole country must have been extremely well cultivated in order to have afforded subsistence to the inhabitants of so many towns10 as are now visible only in their ruins4 ,while the fruitfulness of the land of ,ammon1 and the high degree of prosperity and power in which it subsisted long prior and long subsequent to the date of the predictions1 are thus indisputably established by historical evidence and by existing proofs1 the researches of recent travellers 7who were actuated by the mere desire of exploring these regions and obtaining geographical information7 have made known its present aspect2 and testimony the most clear1 unexceptionable1 and conclusive1 has been borne to the state of dire desolation to which it is and has long been reduced4 ,it was prophesied concerning ,ammon1 8,son of man1 set thy face against the ,ammonites1 and prophesy against them4 ,i will make ,rabbah of the ,ammonites a stable for camels and a couching place for flocks4 ,behold1 ,i will stretch out my hand upon thee1 and deliver thee for a spoil to the ,heathen2 ,i will cut thee off from the people1 and cause thee to perish out of the countries2 ,i will destroy thee4 ,the ,ammonites shall not be remembered among the nations4 ,rabbah0 7the chief city7 8of the ,ammonites shall be a desolate heap4 ,ammon shall be a perpetual desolation10 ,ezek4 xxv1 #b1 #e1 #g1 #aj2 xxi1 #cb2 ,jer4 xlix1 #b2 ,zeph4 ii1 #i4 ,ammon was to be delivered to be a spoil to the ,heathen--to be destroyed1 and to be a perpetual desolation4 8,all this country1 formerly so populous and flourishing1 is now changed into a vast desert40 7,seetzen's ,travels47 ,ruins are seen in every direction4 ,the country is divided between the ,turks and the ,arabs1 but chiefly possessed by the latter4 ,the extortions of the one1 and the depredations of the other1 keep it in 8perpetual desolation10 and make it 8a spoil to the ,heathen40 8,the far greater part of the country is uninhabited1 being abandoned to the wandering ,arabs1 and the towns and villages are in a state of total ruin40 7,ibid47 8,at every step are to be found the vestiges of ancient cities1 the remains of many temples1 public edifices1 and ,greek churches40 7,burckhardt's ,travels47 ,the cities are left desolate4 8,many of the ruins present no objects of any interest4 ,they consist of a few walls of dwelling houses1 heaps of stones1 the foundations of some public edifices1 and a few cisterns filled up2 there is nothing entire1 though it appears that the mode of building was very solid1 all the remains being formed of large stones4 ,in the vicinity of ,ammon there is a fertile plain interspersed with low hills1 which for the greater part are covered with ruins40 7,burckhardt's ,travels in ,syria47 ,while the country is thus despoiled and desolate1 there are valleys and tracts throughout it which 8are covered with a fine coat of verdant pasture1 and are places of resort to the ,bedouins1 where they pasture their camels and their sheep40 7,buckingham's ,travels in ,palestine47 8,the whole way we traversed10 says ,seetzen1 8we saw villages in ruins1 and met numbers of ,arabs with their camels10 c4 ,mr4 ,buckingham describes a building among the ruins of ,ammon1 8the masonry of which was evidently constructed of materials gathered from the ruins of other and older buildings on the spot4 ,on entering it at the south end10 he adds1 8we came to an open square court1 with arched recesses on each side1 the sides nearly facing the cardinal points4 ,the recesses in the northern and southern wall were originally open passages1 and had arched door ways facing each other2 but the first of these was found wholly closed up1 and the last was partially filled up1 leaving only a narrow passage1 just sufficient for the entrance of one man and of the goats1 which the ,arab keepers drive in here occasionally for shelter during the night40 ,he relates that he lay down among 8flocks of sheep and goats10 close beside the ruins of ,ammon2 and particularly remarks that1 during the night1 he 8was almost entirely prevented from sleeping by the bleating of flocks40 ,so literally true is it1 although ,seetzen1 and ,burckhardt1 and ,buckingham1 who relate the facts1 make no reference or allusion whatever to any of the prophecies1 and travelled for a different object than the elucidation of the ,scriptures1--that 8the chief city of the ,ammonites is a stable for camels1 and a couching place for flocks40 8,the ,ammonites shall not be remembered among the nations40 ,while the ,jews1 who were long their hereditary enemies1 continue as distinct a people as ever1 though dispersed among all nations1 no trace of the ,ammonites remains2 none are now designated by their name1 nor do any claim descent from them4 ,they did exist1 however1 long after the time when the eventual annihilation of their race was foretold2 for they retained their name1 and continued a great multitude until the second century of the ,christian ra4 7,justin ,martyr47 8,yet they are cut off from the people4 ,ammon has perished out of the countries2 it is destroyed40 ,no people is attached to its soil2 none regard it as their country and adopt its name3 8,and the ,ammonites are not remembered among the nations40 8,rabbah0 7,rabbah ,ammon1 the chief city of ,ammon7 8shall be a desolate heap40 ,situated1 as it was1 on each side of the borders of a plentiful stream1 encircled by a fruitful region1 strong by nature and fortified by art1 nothing could have justified the suspicion1 or warranted the conjecture in the mind of an uninspired mortal1 that the royal city of ,ammon1 whatever disasters might possibly befal it in the fate of war or change of masters1 would ever undergo so total a transmutation as to become a desolate heap4 ,but although1 in addition to such tokens of its continuance as a city1 more than a thousand years had given uninterrupted experience of its stability1 ere the prophets of ,israel denounced its fate2 yet a period of equal length has now marked it out1 as it exists to this day1 a desolate heap1 a perpetual or permanent desolation4 ,its ancient name is still preserved by the ,arabs1 and its site is now 8covered with the ruins of private buildings--nothing of them remaining except the foundations and some of the door posts4 ,the buildings1 exposed to the atmosphere1 are all in decay10 7,burckhardt's ,travels in ,syria17 so that they may be said literally to form a desolate heap4 ,the public edifices1 which once strengthened or adorned the city1 after a long resistance to decay1 are now also desolate2 and the remains of the most entire among them1 subjected as they are to the abuse and spoliation of the wild ,arabs1 can be adapted to no better object than 8a stable for camels40 ,yet these broken walls and ruined palaces1 says ,mr4 ,keith1 which attest the ancient splendour of ,ammon1 can now be made subservient1 by means of a single act of reflection1 to a far nobler purpose than the most magnificent edifices on earth can be1 when they are contemplated as monuments on which the historic and prophetic truth of ,scripture is blended in one bright inscription4 ,,amorites1 the descendants of ,amori1 or ,hmorri1 or ,amorrhus1 ,gen4 x1 #af1 the fourth son of ,canaan1 whose first possessions were in the mountains of ,judea1 among the other families of ,canaan3 but1 growing strong above their fellows1 and impatient of confinement within the narrow boundaries of their native district1 they passed the ,jordan1 and extended their conquests over the finest provinces of ,moab and ,ammon2 seizing and maintaining possession of that extensive and almost insulated portion of country included between the rivers ,jordan1 ,jabbok1 and ,arnon4 ,this was the kingdom1 and ,heshbon the capital1 of the ,amorites1 under ,sihon their king1 when the ,israelites1 in their way from ,egypt1 requested a passage through their country4 ,this request1 however1 ,sihon refused2 and came out against them with all his force1 when he was slain1 his people extirpated1 and his kingdom taken possession of by the ,israelites4 ,it was subsequently divided between the tribes of ,reuben and ,gad1 ,num4 xiii1 #bi2 xxi1 #ac1 #be2 ,joshua v1 #a2 xi1 #c2 ,judges xi1 #ai1 #bb4 ,,amos1 the fourth of the minor prophets1 who in his youth had been a herdsman in ,tekoa1 a small town about four leagues southward of ,jerusalem4 ,he was sent to the people of ,samaria1 to bring them back to ,god by repentance1 and reformation of manners4 ,hence it is natural to suppose that he must have been born within the territories of ,israel1 and that he only retired to ,tekoa1 on being expelled from ,bethel by ,amaziah1 the priest of the calves at ,bethel4 ,he frequently complains of the violence offered him by those who endeavoured to impose silence on him4 ,he boldly inveighs against the crying sins of the ,israelites1 such as idolatry1 oppression1 wantonness1 and obstinacy4 ,nor does he spare the sins of ,judah1 such as their carnal security1 sensuality1 and injustice4 ,he utters frequent threatenings against them both1 and predicts their ruin4 ,it is observable in this prophecy1 that1 as it begins with denunciations of judgment and destruction against the ,syrians1 ,philistines1 ,tyrians1 and other enemies of the ,jews1 so it concludes with comfortable promises of the restoration of the tabernacle of ,david1 and the establishment of the kingdom of ,christ4 ,amos was called to the prophetic office in the time of ,uzziah1 king of ,judah1 and ,jeroboam1 the son of ,joash1 king of ,israel4 ,some writers1 in adverting to the condition of ,amos1 have1 with a minute affectation of criticism1 pretended to discover a certain rudeness and vulgarity in his style2 and even ,jerom is of opinion that he is deficient in magnificence and sublimity4 ,he applies to him the words which ,st4 ,paul speaks of himself1 that he was rude in speech1 though not in knowledge2 and his authority1 says ,bishop ,lowth1 8has influenced many commentators to represent him as entirely rude1 and void of elegance2 whereas it requires but little attention to be convinced that he is not a whit behind the very chiefest of the prophets20 equal to the greatest in loftiness of sentiment1 and scarcely inferior to any in the splendour of his diction1 and in the elegance of his composition4 ,mr4 ,locke has observed1 that his comparisons are chiefly drawn from lions1 and other animals1 because he lived among1 and was conversant with1 such objects4 ,but1 indeed1 the finest images and allusions1 which adorn the poetical parts of ,scripture1 in general are drawn from scenes of nature1 and from the grand objects that range in her walks2 and true genius ever delights in considering these as the real sources of beauty and magnificence4 ,the whole book of ,amos is animated with a fine and masculine eloquence4 ,,amulet1 a charm or supposed preservative against diseases1 witchcraft1 or any other mischief4 ,they were very frequent among the ,jews1 the ,greeks1 and the ,romans1 and were made of stone1 metal1 animal substances1 or1 in short1 any thing which a weak imagination suggested4 ,the ,jews were very superstitious in the use of amulets1 but the ,mishna forbids them1 unless received from some person of whose cures1 at least1 three instances could be produced4 ,the phylacteries worn by the ,pharisees and others of the ,jewish nation were a sort of amulets4 ,amulets among the ,greeks were called1 1 1 1 1 1 and 4 ,the ,latins called them amuleta1 appensa1 pentacula1 c4 ,remains of this superstition continue among ignorant people even in this country1 which ought to be strongly discountenanced as weak or wicked4 ,the word amulet is probably derived from amula1 a small vessel with lustral water in it1 anciently carried in the pocket for the sake of purification and expiation4 ,,amyraldism1 a name given by some writers to the doctrine of universal grace1 as explained and asserted by ,amyraldus1 or ,moses ,amyraut1 and his followers1 among the reformed in ,france1 toward the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,this doctrine principally consisted of the following particulars1 viz4 that ,god desires the happiness of all men1 from which none are excluded by a divine decree2 that none can obtain salvation without faith in ,christ2 that ,god refuses to none the power of believing1 though he does not grant to all his assistance1 that they may improve this power to saving purposes2 and that many perish through their own fault4 ,those who embraced this doctrine were called ,universalists1 although1 it is evident that they rendered grace universal in words1 but partial in reality1 and are chargeable with greater inconsistencies than the ,supralapsarians4 ,amyraldus is said to have formed his system with a view of producing a reconciliation between the ,lutherans and ,calvinists4 ,this theory was supported in ,england by ,baxter4 ,see ,,baxterianism4 ,,anabaptists1 a name given to those ,christians who maintain that baptism ought always to be performed by immersion2 that it ought not to be administered to children before the age of discretion2 and that at this age it ought to be readministered to those who have been baptized in their infancy4 ,they affirm that the administration of this sacrament is neither valid nor useful1 if it be done by sprinkling only1 and not by immersion2 or if the persons who receive it be not in a condition to give the reasons of their belief4 ,the ,anabaptists of ,germany brought the name into great odium by their turbulent conduct2 but by the people of this persuasion generally1 the conduct of these fanatics was at all times condemned4 ,in ,england they form a most respectable1 though not a very numerous body4 ,the word ,anabaptist is compounded of 1 new1 and 1 a baptist2 and has been indiscriminately applied to people of very different principles4 ,many of them object to the name1 because the baptism of infants by sprinkling is1 in their opinion1 no baptism2 and others hold nothing in common excepting some one or other of the above mentioned opinions concerning baptism4 ,see ,,baptism4 ,,anagogical4 ,this is one of the four senses in which ,scripture may be interpreted1 viz4 the literal1 allegorical1 anagogical1 and tropological4 ,the anagogical sense is given when the text is explained with regard to the end which ,christians should have in view1 that is1 eternal life3 for example1 the rest of the ,sabbath1 in the anagogical sense1 corresponds to the repose of everlasting blessedness4 ,,anak1 ,,anakim1 famous giants in ,palestine4 ,anak1 father of the ,anakim1 was son of ,arba1 who gave his name to ,kirjath-,arba1 or ,hebron4 ,anak had three sons1 ,sheshai1 ,ahiman1 and ,talmai1 whose descendants were terrible for their fierceness and stature4 ,the ,hebrew spies reported that in comparison of those monstrous men1 they themselves were but grasshoppers4 ,some have thought that the name ,phnician1 given to the ,canaanites1 and particularly to the ,sidonians1 was originally from ,bene-,anak1 sons of ,anak4 ,caleb1 assisted by the tribe of ,judah1 took ,kirjath-,arba1 and destroyed the ,anakim1 ,a4 ,m4 #beei4 ,josh4 xv1 #ad2 ,judg4 i1 #bj4 ,,analogy ,,of ,,faith4 ,this has been often and largely descanted upon as an important rule for interpreting ,scripture1 founded1 as it is said1 upon ,rom4 xii1 #f1 8,let us prophesy according to the proportion0 7analogy7 8of faith40 ,the principle of this rule has been thus stated3 ,it is evident the ,almighty doth not act without a design in the system of ,christianity1 any more than in the works of nature4 ,now this design must be uniform2 for as in the system of the universe every part is proportioned to the whole1 and made subservient to it1--so1 in the system of the ,gospel1 all the various truths1 doctrines1 declarations1 precepts1 and promises must correspond with1 and tend to1 the end designed4 ,for instance1 supposing the glory of ,god in the salvation of sinners by free grace be the grand design1--then1 whatever doctrine1 assertion1 or hypothesis agrees not with this1 it is to be considered as false4 ,the effect however of this view of the case appears to be often delusive4 ,if nothing more be meant than that1 what is obscure in a revelation should be interpreted by that which is plain1 the same rule applies to all sober interpretations of any book whatever2 but if we call our opinions1 perhaps hastily taken up1 or admitted on some authority without examination by the light of ,scripture1 8the analogy of faith10 we shall greatly err4 ,on this subject ,dr4 ,campbell remarks3-- 8,in vain do we search the ,scriptures for their testimony concerning ,christ1 if1 independently of these ,scriptures1 we have received a testimony from another quarter1 and are determined to admit nothing as the testimony of ,scripture which will not perfectly quadrate with that formerly received4 ,this was the very source of the blindness of the ,jews in our ,saviour's time4 ,they searched the ,scriptures as much as we do2 but1 in the disposition they were in1 they would never have discovered what that sacred volume testifies of ,christ4 ,why8 because their great rule of interpretation was the analogy of the faith2 or1 in other words1 the system of the ,pharisean scribes1 the doctrine then in vogue1 and in the profound veneration of which they had been educated4 ,this is that veil by which the understandings of that people were darkened1 even in reading the law1 and of which the ,apostle observed1 that it remained unremoved in his day1 and of which we ourselves have occasion to observe1 that it remains unremoved in ours4 ,and is it not precisely in the same way that the phrase is used by every sect of ,christians1 for the particular system or digest of tenets for which they themselves have the greatest reverence8 ,the ,latin church1 and even the ,greek1 are explicit in their declarations on this article4 ,with each1 the analogy of the faith is their own system alone4 ,and that different parties of ,protestants1 though more reserved in their manner of speaking1 aim at the same thing1 is undeniable2 the same1 ,i mean1 considered relatively to the speakers2 for1 absolutely considered1 every party means a different thing4 #8,but1' say some1 #8is not this mode of interpretation warranted by ,apostolical authority8 ,does not ,paul1 ,rom4 xii1 #f1 in speaking of the exercise of the spiritual gifts1 enjoin the prophets to prophesy 1 according to the proportion of faith1 as our translators render it1 but as some critics explain it1 according to the analogy of the faith8' ,though this exposition has been admitted into some versions1 and adopted by ,hammond and other commentators1 and may be called literal1 it is suited neither to the ordinary meaning of the words1 nor to the tenor of the context4 ,the word strictly denotes proportion1 measure1 rate1 but by no means that complex notion conveyed in the aforesaid phrase by the term analogy1 which has been well observed by ,whitby to be particularly unsuitable in this place1 where the ,apostle treats of those who speak by inspiration1 not of those who explain what has been thus spoken by others4 ,the context manifestly leads us to understand 1 verse #f1 as equivalent to 1 verse #c4 ,and for the better understanding of this phrase1 the measure of faith1 it may be proper to observe1 #a4 ,that a strong conviction of any tenet1 from whatever cause it arises1 is in ,scripture sometimes termed faith4 ,thus in the same epistle1 ,rom4 xiv1 #bb1 the ,apostle says1 #8,hast thou faith8 have it to thyself before ,god4' ,the scope of his reasoning shows that nothing is there meant by faith1 but a conviction of the truth in regard to the article of which he had been treating1 namely1 the equality of days and meats1 in point of sanctity1 under the ,gospel dispensation4 ,the same is evidently the meaning of the word1 verse #bc1 #8,whatsoever is not of faith1 is sin2' where1 without regard to the morality of an action abstractly considered1 that is concluded to be sin which is done by one who doubts of its lawfulness4 #b4 ,as to spiritual gifts1 prophecy and inspiration in particular1 they appear to have been accompanied with such a faith or conviction that they came from the ,spirit1 as left no room for hesitation4 ,and indeed it is easy to perceive that something of this kind was absolutely necessary to enable the inspired person to distinguish what proceeded from the ,spirit of ,god1 from what was the creature of his own imagination4 ,the prophets of ,god were not acted upon like machines in delivering their predictions1 as the diviners were supposed to be among the ,heathen1 but had then1 as at other times1 the free use of their faculties1 both of body and mind40 ,this caution is therefore with great propriety given them by the ,apostle1 to induce them to be attentive in prophesying1 not to exceed the precise measure allowed them1 7for different measures of the same gift were committed to different persons17 and not to mingle aught of their own with the things of ,god's ,spirit4 ,let him prophesy according to the proportion in which he has received this gift1 which is in proportion to his faith4 ,though a sense somewhat different has been given to the words by some ancient ,greek expositors1 none of them seems to have formed a conception of that sense1 which1 as was observed above1 has been given by some moderns4 ,this has1 nevertheless1 a sound and sober principle included in it1 although capable of great abuse4 ,undoubtedly there is a class of great and leading truths in the ,scriptures so clearly revealed as to afford principles of interpretation in doubtful passages1 and these are so obvious that persons of sound minds and hearts will not need those formal rules for the application of the analogy of faith to interpretation1 which have been drawn up by several writers1 and which when not misleading1 are generally superfluous4 ,,ananias was the son of ,nebedus1 high priest of the ,jews4 ,according to ,josephus1 he succeeded ,joseph1 the son of ,camith1 in the forty-seventh year of the ,christian ra2 and was himself succeeded by ,ishmael1 the son of ,tabus1 in the year #fc4 ,quadratus1 governor of ,syria1 coming into ,juda1 on the rumours which prevailed among the ,samaritans and ,jews1 sent the high priest ,ananias to ,rome1 to vindicate his conduct to the emperor4 ,the high priest justified himself1 was acquitted1 and returned4 ,st4 ,paul being apprehended at ,jerusalem by the tribune of the ,roman troops that guarded the temple1 declared to him that he was a citizen of ,rome4 ,this obliged the officer to treat him with some regard4 ,as he was ignorant of what the ,jews accused him1 the next day he convened the priests1 and placed ,st4 ,paul in the midst of them1 that he might justify himself4 ,st4 ,paul began as follows3 8,men and brethren1 ,i have lived in all good conscience before ,god until this day40 ,he had scarcely spoken this1 when the high priest1 ,ananias1 commanded those who were near him to smite him on the face4 ,the ,apostle immediately replied1 8,god shall judge thee1 thou whited wall2 for1 sittest thou to judge me after the law1 and commandest me to be smitten contrary to the law80 ,they that stood by said1 8,revilest thou ,god's high priest80 ,and ,paul answered1 8,i wist not1 brethren1 that he was the high priest2 for it is written1 ,thou shalt not speak evil of the ruler of thy people10 ,acts xxii1 #bc1 #bd2 xxiii1 #a-e2 by which words many suppose that the ,apostle spake in bitter irony2 or at least that he considered ,ananias as a usurper of the office of the priesthood4 ,after this1 the assembly being divided in opinion1 ,st4 ,paul was sent by the tribune to ,csarea1 that ,felix1 governor of the province1 might take cognizance of the affair4 ,when it was known that the ,apostle had arrived at ,csarea1 ,ananias the high priest1 and other ,jews1 went thither to accuse him2 but the affair was adjourned1 and ,st4 ,paul continued two years in prison in that city1 ,acts xxiv4 ,the ,apostle's prediction that ,god would smite ,ananias1 was thus accomplished3 ,albinus1 governor of ,juda1 being come into that country1 ,ananias found means to gain him by presents2 and ,ananias1 by reason of this patronage1 was considered as the first man of his nation4 ,however1 there were in his party some violent persons1 who plundered the country1 and seized the tithes of the priests2 and this they did with impunity1 on account of the great credit of ,ananias4 ,at the same time1 several companies of assassins infested ,juda1 and committed great ravages4 ,when any of their companions fell into the hands of the governors of the province1 and were about to be executed1 they failed not to seize some domestic or relation of the high priest ,ananias1 that he might procure the liberty of their associates1 in exchange for those whom they detained4 ,having taken ,eleazer1 one of ,ananias's sons1 they did not release him till ten of their companions were liberated4 ,by this means their number considerably increased1 and the country was exposed to their ravages4 ,at length1 ,eleazer1 the son of ,ananias1 heading a party of mutineers1 seized the temple1 and forbade any sacrifices for the emperor4 ,being joined by the assassins1 he pulled down the house of his father ,ananias1 with his brother1 hid himself in the aqueducts belonging to the royal palace1 but was soon discovered1 and both of them were killed4 ,thus ,god smote this whited wall1 in the very beginning of the ,jewish wars4 #b4 ,,ananias1 one of the first ,christians of ,jerusalem1 who being converted1 with his wife ,sapphira1 sold his estate2 7as did the other ,christians at ,jerusalem1 under a temporary regulation that they were to have all things in common27 but privately reserved a part of the purchase money to himself4 ,having brought the remainder to ,st4 ,peter1 as the whole price of the inheritance sold1 the ,apostle1 to whom the ,holy ,ghost had revealed this falsehood1 rebuked him severely1 as having lied not unto men but unto ,god1 ,acts v4 ,at that instant1 ,ananias1 being struck dead1 fell down at the ,apostle's feet2 and in the course of three hours after1 his wife suffered a similar punishment4 ,this happened1 ,a4 ,d4 #cc1 or #cd4 ,it is evident1 that in this and similar events1 the spectators and civil magistrates must have been convinced that some extraordinary power was exerted2 for if ,peter had himself slain ,ananias1 he would have been amenable to the laws as a murderer4 ,but1 if by forewarning him that he should immediately die1 and the prediction came to pass1 it is evident that the power which attended this word of ,peter was not from ,peter1 but from ,god4 ,this was made the more certain by the death of two persons1 in the same manner1 and under the same circumstances1 which could not be attributed to accident4 #c4 ,ananias1 a disciple of ,christ1 at ,damascus1 whom the ,lord directed to visit ,paul1 then lately converted4 ,ananias answered1 8,lord1 ,i have heard by many of this man1 how much evil he hath done to thy saints at ,jerusalem2 and how he hath authority from the chief priests to bind all that call upon thy name40 ,but the ,lord said unto him1 8,go thy way1 for he is a chosen vessel unto me40 ,ananias1 therefore1 went to the house in which ,god had revealed unto him that ,paul was1 and putting his hands on him1 said1 8,brother ,saul1 the ,lord ,jesus who appeared unto thee in the way1 hath sent me that thou mightest receive thy sight1 and be filled with the ,holy ,ghost10 ,acts ix1 #aj-ab1 c4 ,we are not informed of any other circumstance of the life of ,ananias4 ,,anathema1 from 1 signifies something set apart1 separated1 or devoted1 ,mic4 iv1 #ac1 or the formula by which this is effected4 ,to anathematize is generally understood to denote the cutting off or separating any one from the communion of the faithful1 the number of the living1 or the privileges of society2 or the devoting of an animal1 city1 or other thing1 to destruction4 ,see ,,accursed4 ,,anathema ,,maranatha4 8,if any man love not the ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 let him be ,anathema ,maranatha10 #a ,cor4 xvi1 #bb4 ,why these two words1 one ,greek and the other ,syriac1 were not translated1 is not obvious4 ,they are the words with which the ,jews began their greater excommunication1 whereby they not only excluded sinners from their society1 but delivered them up to the divine cherem1 or anathema1 that is1 to misery in this life1 and perdition in the life to come4 8,let him be ,anathema0 is1 8,let him be accursed40 ,maranatha signifies1 8,the ,lord cometh10 or1 8will come20 that is1 to take vengeance4 ,see ,see ,,accursed4 ,,andrew1 an ,apostle of ,jesus ,christ1 a native of ,bethsaida1 and the brother of ,peter4 ,he was at first a disciple of ,john the ,baptist1 whom he left to follow our ,saviour1 after the testimony of ,john1 8,behold the ,lamb of ,god which taketh away the sin of the world10 ,john i1 #bi1 and was the first disciple received by our ,saviour4 ,andrew then introduced his brother ,simon1 and they went with him to the marriage in ,cana1 but afterward returned to their ordinary occupation1 not expecting1 perhaps1 to be farther employed in his service4 ,however1 some months after1 ,jesus meeting them1 while fishing together1 called them to a regular attendance upon him1 and promised to make them fishers of men1 ,matt4 iv1 #ai4 ,after our ,saviour's ascension1 tradition states that ,andrew was appointed to preach in ,scythia and the neighbouring countries4 ,according to ,eusebius1 after this ,apostle had planted the ,gospel in several places1 he came to ,patr1 in ,achaia1 where1 endeavouring to convert the pro-consul geas1 he was1 by that governor's orders1 first scourged1 and then crucified4 ,the time of his suffering martyrdom is not known2 but all the ancient and modern martyrologies of the ,greeks and ,latins agree in celebrating his festival on the #cjth of ,november4 ,his body was embalmed1 and decently interred at ,patr1 by ,maximilla1 a lady of great quality and estate4 ,it was afterward removed to ,constantinople1 by ,constantine the ,great1 who buried it in the great church which he had built to the honour of the ,apostles4 ,it is not known for what reason painters represent ,st4 ,andrew's cross like an ,x4 ,peter ,chrysologus says that he was crucified upon a tree2 and the spurious ,hippolytus assures us that it was an olive tree4 ,nevertheless1 the tradition which describes him to have been nailed to a cross is very ancient4 ,,angel1 a spiritual1 intelligent substance1 the first in rank and dignity among created beings4 ,the word angel1 1 is not properly a denomination of nature but of office2 denoting as much as nuncius1 messenger1 a person employed to carry one's orders1 or declare his will4 ,thus it is ,st4 ,paul represents angels1 ,heb4 i1 #ad1 where he calls them 8ministering spirits20 and yet custom has prevailed so much1 that angel is now commonly taken for the denomination of a particular order of spiritual beings1 of great understanding and power1 superior to the souls or spirits of men4 ,some of these are spoken of in ,scripture in such a manner as plainly to signify that they are real beings1 of a spiritual nature1 of high power1 perfection1 dignity1 and happiness4 ,others of them are distinguished as not having kept their first station1 ,jude #f4 ,these are represented as evil spirits1 enemies of ,god1 and intent on mischief4 ,the devil as the head of them1 and they as his angels1 are represented as the rulers of the darkness of this world1 or spiritual wickednesses1 or wicked spirits1 1 ,eph4 vi1 #ab2 which may not be unfitly rendered1 8the spiritual managers of opposition to the kingdom of ,god40 ,the existence of angels is supposed in all religions1 though it is incapable of being proved a priori4 ,indeed1 the ancient ,sadducees are represented as denying all spirits2 and yet the ,samaritans1 and ,caraites1 who are reputed ,sadducees1 openly allowed them3 witness ,abusaid1 the author of an ,arabic version of the ,pentateuch2 and ,aaron1 a ,caraite ,jew1 in his comment on the ,pentateuch2 both extant in manuscript in the king of ,france's library4 ,in the ,alcoran we find frequent mention of angels4 ,the ,mussulmen believe them of different orders or degrees1 and to be destined for different employments both in heaven and on earth4 ,they attribute exceedingly great power to the angel ,gabriel1 as that he is able to descend in the space of an hour from heaven to earth2 to overturn a mountain with a single feather of his wing1 c4 ,the angel ,asrael1 they suppose1 is appointed to take the souls of such as die2 and another angel1 named ,esraphil1 they tell us1 stands with a trumpet ready in his mouth to proclaim the day of judgment4 ,the ,heathen philosophers and poets were also agreed as to the existence of intelligent beings1 superior to man2 as is shown by ,st4 ,cyprian in his treatise of the vanity of idols2 from the testimonies of ,plato1 ,socrates1 ,trismegistus1 c4 ,they were acknowledged under different appellations2 the ,greeks calling them dmons1 and the ,romans genii1 or lares4 ,epicurus seems to have been the only one among the old philosophers who absolutely rejected them4 ,authors are not so unanimous about the nature as about the existence of angels4 ,clemens ,alexandrinus believed they had bodies2 which was also the opinion of ,origen1 ,csarius1 ,tertullian1 and several others4 ,athanasius1 ,st4 ,basil1 ,st4 ,gregory ,nicene1 ,st4 ,cyril1 ,st4 ,chrysostom1 c1 held them to be mere spirits4 ,it has been the more current opinion1 especially in later times1 that they are substances entirely spiritual1 who can1 at any time1 assume bodies1 and appear in human or other shapes4 ,ecclesiastical writers make a hierarchy of nine orders of angels4 ,others have distributed angels into nine orders1 according to the names by which they are called in ,scripture1 and reduced these orders into three hierarchies2 to the first of which belong seraphim1 cherubim1 and thrones2 to the second1 dominions1 virtues1 and powers2 and to the third1 principalities1 archangels1 and angels4 ,the ,jews reckon four orders or companies of angels1 each headed by an archangel2 the first order being that of ,michael2 the second1 of ,gabriel2 the third1 of ,uriel2 and the fourth1 of ,raphael4 ,following the ,scripture account1 we shall find mention made of different orders of these superior beings2 for such a distinction of orders seems intimated in the names given to different classes4 ,thus we have thrones1 dominions1 principalities1 or princedoms1 powers1 authorities1 living ones1 cherubim1 and seraphim4 ,that some of these titles may indicate the same class of angels is probable2 but that they all should be but different appellations of one common and equal order is improbable4 ,we learn also from ,scripture1 that they dwell in the immediate presence of ,god2 that they 8excel in strength20 that they are immortal2 and that they are the agents through which ,god very often accomplishes his special purposes of judgment and mercy4 ,nothing is more frequent in ,scripture than the missions and appearances of good and bad angels1 whom ,god employed to declare his will2 to correct1 teach1 reprove1 and comfort4 ,god gave the law to ,moses1 and appeared to the old patriarchs1 by the mediation of angels1 who represented him1 and spoke in his name1 ,acts vii1 #cj1 #ce2 ,gal4 iii1 #ai2 ,heb4 xiii1 #b4 ,though the ,jews1 in general1 believed the existence of angels1 there was a sect among them1 namely1 the ,sadducees1 who denied the existence of all spirits whatever1 ,god only excepted1 ,acts xxiii1 #h4 ,before the ,babylonish captivity1 the ,hebrews seem not to have known the names of any angel4 ,the ,talmudists say they brought the names of angels from ,babylon4 ,tobit1 who is thought to have resided in ,nineveh some time before the captivity1 mentions the angel ,raphael1 ,tob4 iii1 #ag2 xi1 #b1 #g2 and ,daniel1 who lived at ,babylon some time after ,tobit1 has taught us the names of ,michael and ,gabriel1 ,dan4 viii1 #af2 ix1 #ba2 x1 #ba4 ,in the ,new ,testament1 we find only the two latter mentioned by name4 ,there are various opinions as to the time when the angels were created4 ,some think this took place when our heavens and the earth were made4 ,for this opinion1 however1 there is no just foundation in the ,mosaic account4 ,others think that angels existed long before the formation of our solar system2 and ,scripture seems to favour this opinion1 ,job xxxviii1 #d1 #g1 where ,god says1 8,where wast thou when ,i laid the foundations of the earth8--and all the sons of ,god shouted for joy40 ,though it be a universal opinion that angels are of a spiritual and incorporeal nature1 yet some of the fathers1 misled by a passage in ,gen4 vi1 #b1 where it is said1 8,the sons of ,god saw the daughters of men1 that they were fair1 and they took them wives of all which they chose10 imagined them to be corporeal1 and capable of sensual pleasures4 ,but1 without noticing all the wild reveries which have been propagated by bold or ignorant persons1 let it suffice to observe1 that by 8the sons of ,god0 we are evidently to understand the descendants of ,seth1 who1 for the great piety wherein they continued for some time1 were so called2 and that 8the daughters of men0 were the progeny of wicked ,cain4 ,as to the doctrine of tutelary or guarding angels1 presiding over the affairs of empires1 nations1 provinces1 and particular persons1 though received by the later ,jews1 it appears to be wholly ,pagan in its origin1 and to have no countenance in the ,scriptures4 ,the passages in ,daniel brought to favour this notion are capable of a much better explanation2 and when our ,lord declares that the 8angels0 of little children 8do always behold the face of ,god10 he either speaks of children as being the objects of the general ministry of angels1 or1 still more probably1 by angels he there means the disembodied spirits of children2 for that the ,jews called disembodied spirits by the name of angels1 appears from ,acts xii1 #ae4 ,on this question of guardian angels1 ,bishop ,horsley observes3 8,that the holy angels are often employed by ,god in his government of this sublunary world1 is indeed to be clearly proved by holy writ4 ,that they have power over the matter of the universe1 analogous to the powers over it which men possess1 greater in extent1 but still limited1 is a thing which might reasonably be supposed1 if it were not declared4 ,but it seems to be confirmed by many passages of holy writ2 from which it seems also evident that they are occasionally1 for certain specific purposes1 commissioned to exercise those powers to a prescribed extent4 ,that the evil angels possessed before their fall the like powers1 which they are still occasionally permitted to exercise for the punishment of wicked nations1 seems also evident4 ,that they have a power over the human sensory1 which they are occasionally permitted to exercise1 and by means of which they may inflict diseases1 suggest evil thoughts1 and be the instruments of temptation1 must also be admitted4 ,but all this amounts not to any thing of a discretional authority placed in the hands of tutelar angels1 or to an authority to advise the ,lord ,god with respect to the measures of his government4 ,confidently ,i deny that a single text is to be found in holy writ1 which1 rightly understood1 gives the least countenance to the abominable doctrine of such a participation of the holy angels in ,god's government of the world4 ,in what manner then1 it may be asked1 are the holy angels made at all subservient to the purposes of ,god's government8 ,this question is answered by ,st4 ,paul in his ,epistle to the ,hebrews1 in the last verse of the first chapter2 and this is the only passage in the whole ,bible in which we have any thing explicit upon the office and employment of angels3 #8,are they not all1' saith he1 #8ministering spirits1 sent forth to minister for them that shall be heirs of salvation8' ,they are all1 however high in rank and order1 nothing more than #8ministering spirits1' or1 literally1 #8serving spirits2' not invested with authority of their own1 but #8sent forth1' occasionally sent forth1 to do such service as may be required of them1 #8for them that shall be heirs of salvation4'0 ,the exact number of angels is no where mentioned in ,scripture2 but it is always represented as very great4 ,daniel1 vii1 #aj1 says of the ,ancient of ,days1 8,a fiery stream came from before him2 thousand thousands ministered unto him1 and ten thousand times ten thousand stood before him40 ,jesus ,christ says1 that his heavenly ,father could have given him more than twelve legions of angels1 that is1 more than seventy-two thousand1 ,matt4 xxvi1 #ec2 and the ,psalmist declares1 that the chariots of ,god are twenty thousand1 even thousands of angels1 lxviii1 #ag1 ,these are all intended not to express any exact number1 but indefinitely a very large one4 ,though all the angels were created alike good1 yet ,jude informs us1 verse #f1 that some of them 8kept not their first estate1 but left their own habitation10 and these ,god hath 8reserved in everlasting chains under darkness1 unto the judgment of the great day40 ,speculations on the cause and occasion of their fall are all vain and trifling4 ,milton is to be read on this subject1 as on others1 not as a divine1 but as a poet4 ,all we know1 is1 that they are not in their first 8estate10 or in their original place2 that this was their own fault1 for 8they left their own habitation20 that they are in chains1 yet with liberty to tempt2 and that they are reserved to the general judgment4 ,dr4 ,prideaux observes1 that the minister of the synagogue1 who officiated in offering the public prayers1 being the mouth of the congregation1 delegated by them1 as their representative1 messenger1 or angel1 to address ,god in prayer for them1 was in ,hebrew called sheliack-zibbor1 that is1 the angel of the church2 and that from hence the chief ministers of the seven churches of ,asia are in the ,revelation1 by a name borrowed from the synagogue1 called angels of those churches4 ,,the ,,angel ,,of ,,the ,,lord1 or the ,angel ,jehovah1 a title given to ,christ in his different appearances to the patriarchs and others in the ,old ,testament4 ,when the ,angel of the ,lord found ,hagar in the wilderness1 8she called the name of ,,jehovah that spake to her1 ,thou ,god seest me40--,,jehovah appeared unto ,abraham in the plains of ,mamre4 ,abraham lifted up his eyes1 and three men1 three persons in human form1 8stood by him40 ,one of the three is called ,jehovah4 ,and ,,jehovah said1 8,shall ,i hide from ,abraham the thing that ,i do80 ,appearances of the same personage occur to ,isaac and to ,jacob under the name of 8the ,god of ,abraham1 and of ,isaac40 ,after one of these manifestations1 ,jacob says1 8,i have seen ,god face to face20 and at another1 8,surely the ,lord 7,,jehovah7 is in this place40 ,the same ,jehovah was made visible to ,moses1 and gave him his commission2 and ,god said1 8,i ,,am ,,that ,i ,,am2 thou shalt say to the children of ,israel1 ,i ,,am hath sent me unto you40 ,the same ,,jehovah went before the ,israelites by day in a pillar of cloud1 and by night in a pillar of fire2 and by ,him the law was given amidst terrible displays of power and majesty from ,mount ,sinai4 8,i am the ,lord 7,,jehovah7 thy ,god1 which have brought thee out of the land of ,egypt1 out of the house of bondage3 ,thou shalt have no other gods before me10 c4 ,the collation of a few passages1 or of the different parts of the same passages1 of ,scripture1 will show that ,jehovah1 and 8the ,angel of the ,lord10 when used in this eminent sense1 are the same person4 ,jacob says of ,bethel1 where he had exclaimed1 8,surely ,jehovah is in this place20 8,the ,angel of ,god appeared to me in a dream1 saying1 ,i am the ,god of ,bethel40 ,upon his death bed he gives the names of ,god and ,angel to this same person3 8,the ,god which fed me all my life long unto this day1 the ,angel which redeemed me from all evil1 bless the lads40 ,so in ,hosea xii1 #b1 #e1 it is said1 8,by his strength he had power with ,god2 yea1 he had power over the ,angel1 and prevailed40 8,we found him in ,bethel1 and there he spake with us1 even the ,lord ,god of ,hosts2 the ,lord is his memorial40 ,here the same person has the names1 ,god1 ,angel1 and ,lord ,god of ,hosts4 8,the ,angel of the ,lord called to ,abraham a second time from heaven1 and said1 ,by myself have ,i sworn1 saith the ,lord1 7,,jehovah17 that1 since thou hast done this thing1 in blessing will ,i bless thee40 ,the ,angel of the ,lord appeared to ,moses in a flame of fire2 but this same ,angel 8called to him out of the bush1 and said1 ,i am the ,god of thy fathers1 the ,god of ,abraham1 the ,god of ,isaac1 and the ,god of ,jacob2 and ,moses hid his face1 for he was afraid to look upon ,god40 ,to omit many other passages1 ,st4 ,stephen1 in alluding to this part of the history of ,moses1 in his speech before the council1 says1 8,there appeared to ,moses in the wilderness of ,mount ,sinai1 an ,angel of the ,lord in a flame of fire10 showing that that phraseology was in use among the ,jews in his day1 and that this ,angel and ,jehovah were regarded as the same being2 for he adds1 8,moses was in the church in the wilderness with the ,angel which spoke unto him in ,mount ,sinai40 ,there is one part of the history of the ,jews in the wilderness1 which so fully shows that they distinguished this ,angel of ,jehovah from all created angels1 as to deserve particular attention4 ,in ,exodus xxiii1 #bj1 ,god makes this promise to ,moses and the ,israelites3 8,behold1 ,i send an ,angel before thee to keep thee in the way1 and to bring thee into the place which ,i have prepared4 ,beware of him1 and obey his voice2 provoke him not2 for he will not pardon your transgressions1 for my name is in him40 ,of this ,angel let it be observed1 that he is here represented as the guide and protector of the ,israelites2 to him they were to owe their conquests and their settlement in the promised land1 which are in other places often attributed to the immediate agency of ,god2 that they are cautioned to 8beware of him10 to reverence and stand in dread of him2 that the pardoning of transgressions belongs to him2 finally1 8that the name of ,god was in him40 ,this name must be understood of ,god's own peculiar name1 ,,jehovah1 ,i ,,am1 which he assumed as his distinctive appellation at his first appearing to ,moses2 and as the names of ,god are indicative of his nature1 he who had a right to bear the peculiar name of ,god1 must also have his essence4 ,this view is put beyond all doubt by the fact1 that ,moses and the ,jews so understood the matter2 for afterward when their sins had provoked ,god to threaten not to go up with them himself1 but to commit them to 8an angel who should drive out the ,canaanite10 c1 the people mourned over this as a great calamity1 and ,moses betook himself to special intercession1 and rested not until he obtained the repeal of the threat1 and the renewed promise1 8,my presence shall go with thee1 and ,i will give thee rest40 ,nothing1 therefore1 can be more clear than that ,moses and the ,israelites considered the promise of the ,angel1 in whom was 8the name of ,god10 as a promise that ,god himself would go with them4 ,with this uncreated ,angel1 this presence of the ,lord1 they were satisfied1 but not with 8an angel0 indefinitely1 who was by nature of that order of beings usually so called1 and therefore a created being2 for at the news of ,god's determination not to go up with them1 ,moses hastens to the tabernacle to make his intercessions1 and refuses an inferior conductor3--8,if thy presence go not with me1 carry us not up hence40 ,the ,jews held this ,word1 or ,angel of the ,lord1 to be the future ,messiah1 as appears from the writings of their older rabbins4 ,so that he appears as the ,jehovah of all the three dispensations1 and yet is invariably described as a separate person from the unseen ,jehovah who sends him4 ,he was then the ,word to be made flesh1 and to dwell for a time among us1 to open the way to ,god by his sacrifice1 and to rescue the race1 whose nature he should assume1 from sin and death4 ,this he has now actually effected2 and the ,patriarchal1 ,mosaic1 and ,christian religions are thus founded upon the same great principles1--the fall and misery of mankind1 and their deliverance by a ,divine ,redeemer4 ,,angelics1 worshippers of angels4 ,those who consider this as a sect of the ,apostolic age1 think ,st4 ,paul1 ,coloss4 ii1 #ah1 cautions ,christians against a superstitious reverence of these celestial agents of the ,deity1 which they conceive to have been borrowed from the idolatrous reverence paid by the ,heathen to genii and demons4 ,the ,jews of that time are also accused of worshipping angels1 and probably this superstition might through them influence the ,judaizing members of some of the ,apostolic churches4 ,this idolatry may now be too justly charged upon the ,romish and some other corrupt churches4 ,,anger1 a resentful emotion of the mind1 arising upon the receipt1 or supposed receipt1 of an affront or injury2 and also simple feeling of strong displacency at that which is in itself evil1 or base1 or injurious to others4 ,in the latter sense it is not only innocent but commendable4 ,strong displeasure against evil doers1 provided it be free from hatred and malice1 and interferes not with a just placableness1 is also blameless1 ,eph4 iv1 #bf4 ,when it is vindictive against the person of our neighbour1 or against the innocent creatures of ,god1 it is wicked1 ,matt4 v1 #bb4 ,when anger1 hatred1 wrath1 and fury1 are ascribed to ,god1 they denote no tumultuous passion1 but merely his holy and just displeasure with sin and sinners2 and the evidence of it in his terrible threatenings1 or righteous judgments1 ,psalm vi1 #a1 and vii1 #aa4 ,we must1 however1 take care that we refine not too much4 ,these are ,scriptural terms1 and are often used of ,god2 and though they express not a tumultuous1 much less an unjust1 passion1 there is something in ,god which answers to them4 ,in him they are principles arising out of his holy and just nature2 and for this reason they are more steady and uniform1 and more terrible1 than if they were emotions1 or as we say passions4 ,nor can we rightly regard the severity of the judgments which ,god has so often executed upon sin without standing in awe of him1 8as a consuming fire0 to the ungodly4 ,,animal1 is an organized and living body1 endowed with sensation4 ,minerals are said to grow or increase1 plants to grow and live1 and animals alone to have sensation4 ,the ,hebrews distinguished animals into pure and impure1 clean and unclean2 or those which might be eaten and offered1 and those whose use was prohibited4 ,the sacrifices which they offered1 were1 #a4 ,of the beeve kind2 a cow1 bull1 or calf4 ,the ox could not be offered1 because it was mutilated2 and when it is said oxen were sacrificed1 we are to understand bulls1 ,lev4 xxii1 #ah1 #ai4 ,calmet thinks1 that the mutilation of animals was neither permitted1 nor used1 among the ,israelites4 #b4 ,of the goat kind2 a he-goat1 a she-goat1 or kid1 ,lev4 xxii1 #bd4 #c4 ,of the sheep kind2 a ewe1 ram1 or lamb4 ,when it is said sheep are offered1 rams are chiefly meant1 especially in burnt-offerings and sacrifices for sin2 for as to peace-offerings1 or sacrifices of pure devotion1 a female might be sometimes offered1 provided it was pure1 and without blemish1 ,lev4 iii1 #a4 ,besides these three sorts of animals1 used in sacrifices1 many others might be eaten1 wild or tame2 as the stag1 the roe-buck1 and in general all that have cloven feet1 or that chew the cud1 ,lev4 ix1 #b1 #c1 c4 ,all that have not cloven hoofs1 and do not chew the cud1 were esteemed impure1 and could neither be offered nor eaten4 ,the fat of all sorts of animals sacrificed was forbidden to be eaten4 ,the blood of all kinds of animals generally1 and in all cases1 was prohibited on pain of death1 ,lev4 iii1 #ag2 vii1 #bc-bg4 ,neither did the ,israelites eat animals which had been taken and touched by a devouring or impure beast1 as a dog1 a wolf1 a boar1 c1 ,exodus xxii1 #c2 nor of any animal that died of itself4 ,whoever touched its carcass was impure until the evening2 and till that time1 and before he had washed his clothes1 he did not return to the company of other ,jews1 ,lev4 xi1 #ci1 #dj2 xvii1 #ae2 xxii1 #h4 ,fish that had neither fins nor scales were unclean1 ,lev4 xi1 #bj4 ,birds which walk on the ground with four feet1 as bats1 and flies that have many feet1 were impure4 ,the law1 however1 excepts locusts1 which have their hind feet higher than those before1 and rather leap than walk4 ,these were clean1 and might be eaten1 ,lev4 xi1 #ba1 #bb1 as they still are in ,palestine4 ,the distinction between clean and unclean animals has been variously accounted for4 ,some have thought it symbolical1 intended to teach the avoidance of those evil qualities for which the unclean animals were remarkable2 others1 that1 in order that the ,hebrews might be preserved from idolatry1 they were commanded to kill and eat many animals which were sacred among the ,egyptians1 and were taught to look with abhorrence upon others which they reverenced4 ,others have found a reason in the unwholesomeness of the flesh of the creatures pronounced by the law to be unclean1 so that they resolve the whole into a sanative regulation4 ,but it is not to be forgotten that this division of animals into clean and unclean existed both before the law of ,moses1 and even prior to the flood4 ,the foundation of it was therefore clearly sacrificial2 for before the deluge it could not have reference to health1 since animal food was not allowed to man prior to the deluge2 and as no other ground for the distinction appears1 except that of sacrifice1 it must therefore have had reference to the selection of victims to be solemnly offered to ,god1 as a part of worship1 and as the means of drawing near to him by expiatory rites for the forgiveness of sins4 ,some it is true1 have regarded this distinction of clean and unclean beasts as used by ,moses by way of prolepsis1 or anticipation1--a notion which1 if it could not be refuted by the context1 would be perfectly arbitrary4 ,not only are the beasts1 which ,noah was to receive1 spoken of as clean and unclean2 but it will be noticed1 that1 in the command to take them into the ark1 a difference is made in the number to be preserved--the clean being to be received by sevens1 and the unclean by two of a kind4 ,this shows that this distinction among beasts had been established in the time of ,noah2 and thus the assumption of a prolepsis is refuted4 ,the critical attempts which have been made to show that animals were allowed to man for food1 previous to the flood1 have wholly failed4 ,a second argument is furnished by the prohibition of blood for food1 after animals had been granted to man for his sustenance along with the 8herb of the field40 ,this prohibition is repeated by ,moses to the ,israelites1 with this explanation3--8,i have given it upon the altar to make an atonement for your souls40 ,from this it has indeed been argued1 that the doctrine of the atoning power of blood was new1 and was then1 for the first time1 announced by ,moses1 or the same reason for the prohibition would have been given to ,noah4 ,to this we may reply1 #a4 ,that unless the same be supposed as the ground of the prohibition of blood to ,noah1 as that given by ,moses to the ,jews1 no reason at all can be conceived for this restraint being put upon the appetite of mankind from ,noah to ,moses4 #b4 ,that it is a mistake to suppose1 that the declaration of ,moses to the ,jews1 that ,god had 8given them the blood for an atonement10 is an additional reason for the interdict1 not to be found in the original prohibition to ,noah4 ,the whole passage in ,lev4 xvii1 is1 8,and thou shalt say to them1 ,whatsoever man there be of the house of ,israel1 or of the strangers that sojourn among you1 that eateth any manner of blood1 ,i will even set my face against that soul that eateth blood1 and ,i will cut him off from among his people3 ,,for ,,the ,,life of the flesh is in the blood2 and ,i have given it upon the altar1 to make atonement for your souls3 for it is the ,,blood 7or ,,life7 that maketh atonement for the soul40 ,the great reason1 then1 of the prohibition of blood is1 that it is the ,,life2 and what follows respecting atonement is exegetical of this reason2 the life is in the blood1 and the blood or life is given as an atonement4 ,now1 by turning to the original prohibition in ,genesis1 we find that precisely the same reason is given3 8,but the flesh with the blood1 which is the life thereof1 shall ye not eat40 ,the reason1 then1 being the same1 the question is1 whether the exegesis added by ,moses must not necessarily be understood in the general reason given for the restraint to ,noah4 ,blood is prohibited for this cause1 that it is the life2 and ,moses adds1 that it is 8the blood10 or life1 8which makes atonement40 ,let any one attempt to discover any cause for the prohibition of blood to ,noah1 in the mere circumstance that it is 8the life10 and he will find it impossible4 ,it is no reason at all1 moral or instituted1 except that as it was life substituted for life1 the life of the animal in sacrifice for the life of man1 and that it had a sacred appropriation4 ,the manner1 too1 in which ,moses introduces the subject is indicative that1 although he was renewing a prohibition1 he was not publishing a 8new doctrine20 he does not teach his people that ,god had then given1 or appointed1 blood to make atonement2 but he prohibits them from eating it1 because he had made this appointment1 without reference to time1 and as a subject with which they were familiar4 ,because the blood was the life1 it was sprinkled upon1 and poured out at1 the altar3 and we have in the sacrifice of the paschal lamb1 and the sprinkling of its blood1 a sufficient proof1 that1 before the giving of the law1 not only was blood not eaten1 but was appropriated to a sacred sacrificial purpose4 ,nor was this confined to the ,jews2 it was customary with the ,romans and ,greeks1 who1 in like manner1 poured out and sprinkled the blood of victims at their altars1 a rite derived1 probably1 from the ,egyptians1 as they derived it1 not from ,moses1 but from the sons of ,noah4 ,the notion1 indeed1 that the blood of the victims was peculiarly sacred to the gods1 is impressed upon all ancient ,pagan mythology4 ,if1 therefore1 the distinction of animals into clean and unclean existed before the flood1 and was founded upon the practice of animal sacrifice1 we have not only a proof of the antiquity of that practice1 but that it was of divine institution and appointment1 since almighty ,god gave laws for its right and acceptable performance4 ,still farther1 if animal sacrifice was of divine appointment1 it must be concluded to be typical only1 and designed to teach the great doctrine of moral atonement1 and to direct faith to the only true sacrifice which could take away the sins of men2--8the ,lamb slain from the foundation of the world10--the victim 8without spot10 who suffered the just for the unjust1 that he might bring us to ,god4 ,see ,,sacrifices4 ,,anise1 an annual umbeliferous plant1 the seeds of which have an aromatic smell1 a pleasant warm taste1 and a carminative quality4 ,but by 1 ,matt4 xxiii1 #bc1 the dill is meant4 ,our translators seem to have been first misled by a resemblance of the sound4 ,no other versions have fallen into the mistake4 ,the ,greek of anise is 2 but of dill1 4 ,,anna1 the daughter of ,phanuel1 a prophetess and widow1 of the tribe of ,asher1 ,luke ii1 #cf1 #cg4 ,she was married early1 and had lived only seven years with her husband4 ,being then disengaged from the ties of marriage1 she thought only of pleasing the ,lord2 and continued without ceasing in the temple1 serving ,god night and day1 with fasting and prayer1 as the ,evangelist expresses it4 ,however1 her serving ,god at the temple night and day1 says ,dr4 ,prideaux1 is to be understood no otherwise than that she constantly attended the morning and evening sacrifice at the temple2 and then with great devotion offered up her prayers to ,god2 the time of morning and evening sacrifice being the most solemn time of prayer among the ,jews1 and the temple the most solemn place for this devotion4 ,anna was fourscore years of age when the holy virgin came to present ,jesus in the temple2 and entering accidentally1 while ,simeon was pronouncing his thanksgiving1 she likewise began to praise ,god1 and to speak of the ,messiah to all those who waited for redemption in ,jerusalem4 ,we know nothing more either of the life or death of this holy woman4 ,,annas1 or ,,ananus1 as ,josephus calls him1 was the son of ,seth1 and high priest of the ,jews4 ,he succeeded ,joazar1 the son of ,simon1 enjoyed the high priesthood eleven years1 and was succeeded by ,ishmael1 the son of ,phabi4 ,after he was deposed1 he still preserved the title of high priest1 and had a great share in the management of public affairs4 ,he is called high priest in conjunction with ,caiaphas1 when ,john the ,baptist entered upon the exercise of his mission2 though ,calmet thinks that at that time he did not1 strictly speaking1 possess or officiate in that character1 ,luke iii1 #b4 ,on the contrary1 ,macknight and some others are of opinion1 that at this time ,caiaphas was only the deputy of ,annas4 ,he was father-in-law to ,caiaphas2 and ,jesus ,christ was carried before him1 directly after his seizure in the garden of ,olives1 ,john xviii1 #ac4 ,josephus remarks1 that ,annas was considered as one of the happiest men of his nation1 for five of his sons were high priests1 and he himself possessed that great dignity many years4 ,this was an instance of good fortune which1 till that time1 had happened to no person4 ,,anoint1 to pour oil upon1 ,gen4 xxviii1 #ah2 xxxi1 #ac4 ,the setting up of a stone and anointing it by ,jacob1 as here recorded1 in grateful memory of his celestial vision1 probably became the occasion of idolatry in succeeding ages1 and gave rise to the erection of temples composed of shapeless masses of unhewn stone1 of which so many astonishing remains are scattered up and down the ,asiatic and the ,european world4 ,under the law persons and things set apart for sacred purposes were anointed with the holy oil2 which appears to have been a typical representation of the communication of the ,holy ,ghost to ,christ and to his church4 ,see ,exod4 xxviii1 xxix4 ,hence the ,holy ,spirit is called an unction or anointing1 #a ,john ii1 #bj1 #bg2 and our ,lord is called the 8,messiah10 or 8,anointed ,one10 to denote his being called to the offices of mediator1 prophet1 priest1 and king1 to all of which he was consecrated by the anointing of the ,holy ,ghost1 ,matt4 iii1 #af1 #ag4 ,when we hear of the anointing of the ,jewish kings1 we are to understand by it the same as their inauguration2 inasmuch as anointing was the principal ceremony on such an occasion1 #b ,sam4 ii1 #d2 v1 #c4 ,as far as we are informed1 however1 unction1 as a sign of investiture with the royal authority1 was bestowed only upon ,saul and ,david1 and subsequently upon ,solomon and ,joash1 who ascended the throne under such circumstances1 that there was danger of their right to the succession being forcibly disputed1 #a ,sam4 x1 #bd2 #b ,sam4 ii1 #d2 v1 #a-c2 #a ,chron4 xi1 #a1 #b2 #b ,kings xi1 #ab-bj2 #b ,chron4 xxiii1 #a-ba4 ,the ceremony of regal anointing needed not to be repeated in every instance of succession to the throne1 because the unction which the first one who held the sceptre in any particular line of princes had received was supposed to suffice for the succeeding incumbents in the same descent4 ,in the kingdom of ,israel1 those who were inducted into the royal office appear to have been inaugurated with some additional ceremonies1 #b ,kings ix1 #ac4 ,the private anointings which we learn to have been performed by the prophets1 #b ,kings ix1 #c1 comp4 #a ,sam4 x1 #a2 xvi1 #a-ac1 were only prophetic symbols or intimations that the persons who were thus anointed should eventually receive the kingdom4 ,the holy anointing oil which was made by ,moses1 ,exod4 xxx1 #bb-cc1 for the maintaining and consecrating of the king1 the high priest1 and all the sacred vessels made use of in the house of ,god1 was one of those things1 as ,dr4 ,prideaux observes1 which was wanting in the second temple4 ,the oil made and consecrated for this use was commanded to be kept by the children of ,israel1 throughout their generations1 and therefore it was laid up in the most holy place of the tabernacle and the first temple4 ,,anom,,ans1 the name by which the pure ,arians were called in the fourth century1 in contradistinction to the ,semi-,arians4 ,the word is formed from the ,greek 1 different4 ,for the pure ,arians asserted1 that the ,son was of a nature different from1 and in nothing like1 that of the ,father2 whereas the ,semi-,arians acknowledged a likeness of nature in the ,son1 at the same time that they denied1 with the pure ,arians1 the consubstantiality of the ,word4 ,the ,semi-,arians condemned the ,anomans in the council of ,seleucia2 and the ,anomans1 in their turn1 condemned the ,semi-,arians in the councils of ,constantinople and ,antioch1 erasing the word like out of the formula of ,rimini and ,constantinople4 ,,answer4 ,beside the common usage of this word1 in the sense of a reply1 it has other significations4 ,moses1 having composed a thanksgiving1 after the passage of the ,red ,sea1 ,miriam1 it is said1 answered1 8,sing ye to the ,lord0 c1--meaning1 that ,moses1 with the men on one side1 and ,miriam1 with the women on the other side1 sung the same song1 as it were1 in two choruses1 or divisions2 of which one answered the other4 ,num4 xxi1 #ag1 8,then ,israel sung this song1 ,spring up1 ,o well1 answer unto it20 that is1 sing responsively1 one side 7or choir7 singing first1 and then the other4 #a ,sam4 xxix1 #e1 8,is not this ,david of whom they sung one to another in dances1 saying1 ,saul hath slain his thousands1 and ,david his ten thousands80 ,they sung this song to his honour in distinct choruses4 ,this word is taken likewise for1 to accuse or to defend any one1 judicially4 ,gen4 xxx1 #cc1 8,my righteousness shall answer for me20 it shall be my advocate before thee4 ,deut4 xxxi1 #ba1 8,the song which thou shalt compose and teach them shall testify 7answer7 against them as a witness40 ,isaiah says1 8,the show of their countenance will testify 7answer7 against them20 their impudence will be like a witness and an accuser4 ,hosea1 v1 #e1 8,the pride of ,israel doth testify 7answer7 to his face40 ,to answer1 is likewise taken in a bad sense2 as when it is said that a son answers his father insolently1 or a servant his master4 ,rom4 ix1 #bj1 8,who art thou that repliest against ,god80 that is1 to contest or debate with him4 ,john xviii1 #bb1 8,answerest thou the high priest so80 ,st4 ,paul declares that he 8had in himself the answer 7or sentence7 of death20 #b ,cor4 i1 #i2 like a man who has had notice of condemnation1 he had a certain assurance of dying4 ,to answer is also used in ,scripture for the commencement of a discourse1 when no reply to any question or objection is intended4 ,this mode of speaking is often used by the evangelists1 8,and ,jesus answered and said40 ,it is a ,hebrew idiom4 ,,ant1 1 in the ,turkish and ,arabic1 neml1 ,prov4 vi1 #f2 xxx1 #be4 ,it is a little insect1 famous from all antiquity for its social habits1 its economy1 unwearied industry1 and prudent foresight4 ,it has afforded a pattern of commendable frugality to the profuse1 and of unceasing diligence to the slothful4 ,solomon calls the ants 8exceeding wise2 for though a race not strong1 yet they prepare their meat in the summer40 ,he therefore sends the sluggard to these little creatures1 to learn wisdom1 foresight1 care1 and diligence4 8,go to the ant2 learn of its ways1 be wise2 ,it early heaps its stores1 lest want surprise4 ,skill'd in the various year1 the prescient sage ,beholds the summer chill'd in winter's rage4 ,survey its arts2 in each partition'd cell ,economy and plenty deign to dwell40 ,that the ant hoarded up grains of corn against winter for its sustenance1 was very generally believed by the ancients1 though modern naturalists seem to question the fact4 ,thus ,horace says1 8------,sicut ,parvula 7nam exemplo est7 magni formica laboris ,ore trahit quodcunque potest1 atque addit acervo ,quem struit1 haud ignara ac non incauta futuri2 ,qu1 simul inversum contristat aquarius annum1 ,non usquam prorepit1 et illis utitur ante ,qusitis sapiens40 ,sat4 i1 l4 i1 v4 #cc4 8,for thus the little ant 7to human lore ,no mean example7 forms her frugal store1 ,gather'd with mighty toil on every side1 ,nor ignorant nor careless to provide ,for future want2 yet1 when the stars appear ,that darkly sadden the declining year1 ,no more she comes abroad1 but wisely lives ,on the fair stores industrious summer gives40 ,the learned ,bochart1 in his ,hierozoicon1 has displayed his vast reading on this subject1 and has cited passages from ,pliny1 ,lucian1 lian1 ,zoroaster1 ,origen1 ,basil1 and ,epiphanius1 the ,jewish rabbins and ,arabian naturalists1 all concurring in opinion that ants cut off the heads of grain1 to prevent their germinating2 and it is observable that the ,hebrew name of the insect is derived from the verb 1 which signifies to cut off1 and is used for cutting off ears of corn1 ,job xxiv1 #bd4 ,the following remarks are from 8the ,introduction to ,entomology10 by ,kirby and ,spence3 8,till the manners of exotic ants are more accurately explored1 it would be rash to affirm that no ants have magazines of provisions2 for1 although1 during the cold of our winters in this country1 they remain in a state of torpidity1 and have no need of food1 yet in warmer regions1 during the rainy seasons1 when they are probably confined to their nests1 a store of provisions may be necessary for them4 ,even in northern climates1 against wet seasons1 they may provide in this way for their sustenance and that of the young brood1 which1 as ,mr4 ,smeatham observes1 are very voracious1 and cannot bear to be long deprived of their food2 else why do ants carry worms1 living insects1 and many other such things1 into their nests8 ,solomon's lesson to the sluggard has been generally adduced as a strong confirmation of the ancient opinion3 it can1 however1 only relate to the species of a warm climate1 the habits of which are probably different from those of a cold one2 so that his words1 as commonly interpreted1 may be perfectly correct and consistent with nature1 and yet be not at all applicable to the species that are indigenous to ,europe40 ,the ant1 according to the royal preacher1 is one of those things which are little upon the earth1 but exceeding wise4 ,the superior wisdom of the ant has been recognised by many writers4 ,horace in the passage from which the preceding quotation is taken1 praises its sagacity2 ,virgil celebrates its foresight1 in providing for the wants and infirmities of old age1 while it is young and vigorous3-- ----atque inopi metuens formica senect4 ,and the ant dreading a destitute old age4 ,and we learn from ,hesiod1 that among the earliest ,greeks it was called ,idris1 that is1 wise1 because it foresaw the coming storm1 and the inauspicious day1 and collected her store4 ,cicero believed that the ant is not only furnished with senses1 but also with mind1 reason and memory3--,in formica non modo sensus sed etiam mens1 ratio1 memoria4 ,the ant possesses not only senses1 but also mind1 reason1 memory4 ,the union of so many noble qualities in so small a corpuscle1 is indeed one of the most remarkable phenomena in the works of nature4 ,,anthropomorphites1 a sect of ancient heretics1 who were so denominated from two ,greek words 1 man1 and 1 shape4 ,they understood every thing spoken in ,scripture in a literal sense1 and particularly that passage of ,genesis in which it is said1 8,god made man after his own image40 ,hence they maintained1 that ,god had a human shape4 ,,anthropopathy1 a metaphor by which things belonging to creatures and especially to man are ascribed to ,god4 ,instances of this abound in the ,scriptures1 by which they adapt themselves to human modes of speaking1 and to the limited capacities of men4 ,these anthropopathies we must however interpret in a manner suitable to the majesty of the divine nature4 ,thus1 when the members of a human body are ascribed to ,god1 we must understand by them those perfections of which such members in us are the instruments4 ,the eye1 for instance1 represents ,god's knowledge and watchful care2 the arm1 his power and strength2 the ears1 the regard he pays to prayer and to the cry of oppression and misery1 c4 ,farther1 when human affections are attributed to ,god1 we must so interpret them as to imply no imperfection1 such as perturbed feeling in him4 ,when ,god is said to repent1 the antecedent1 by a frequent figure of speech1 is put for the consequent2 and in this case we are to understand an altered mode of proceeding on the part of ,god1 which in man is the effect of repenting4 ,,antichrist1 compounded of 1 contra1 against1 and 1 ,christ1 in a general sense1 denotes an adversary of ,christ1 or one who denies that the ,messiah is come4 ,in this sense1 ,jews1 infidels1 c1 may be said to be antichrists4 ,the epithet1 in the general sense of it1 is also applicable to any power or person acting in direct opposition to ,christ or his doctrine4 ,its particular meaning is to be collected from those passages of ,scripture in which it occurs4 ,accordingly1 it may either signify one who assumes the place and office of ,christ1 or one who maintains a direct enmity and opposition to him4 ,the ,fathers all speak of antichrist as a single man2 though they also assure us1 that he is to have divers precursors1 or forerunners4 ,yet many ,protestant writers apply to the ,romish church1 and the pope who is at the head of it1 the several marks and signatures of antichrist enumerated in the ,apocalypse1 which would imply antichrist to be1 not a single person1 but a corrupt society1 or a long series of persecuting pontiffs1 or rather1 a certain power and government1 that may be held for many generations1 by a number of individuals succeeding one another4 ,the antichrist mentioned by the ,apostle ,john1 first ,epistle ii1 #ah1 and more particularly described in the book of ,revelation1 seems evidently to be the same with the man of sin1 c1 characterized by ,st4 ,paul in his ,second ,epistle to the ,thessalonians1 chap4 ii2 and the whole description literally applies to the ,papal power4 ,a late writer1 after collecting the principal prophecies relating to antichrist1 infers from them that a power1 sometimes represented as the little horn1 the man of sin1 the antichrist1 the beast1 the harlot1 the star falling from heaven1 the false prophet1 the dragon1 or as the operation of false teachers1 was to be expected to arise in the ,christian world to persecute and oppress1 and delude the disciples of ,christ1 corrupt the doctrine of the primitive church1 enact new laws1 and establish its dominion over the minds of mankind4 ,he then proceeds to show1 from the application of prophecy to history1 and to the remarkable train of events that are now passing in the world1 how exactly ,popery1 ,mohammedanism1 and ,infidelity1 correspond with the character given in ,scripture of the power of antichrist1 which was to prevail a certain time for the especial trial and punishment of the corrupted church of ,christ4 ,upon this system1 the different opinions of the ,protestants and ,papists1 concerning the power of antichrist1 derived from partial views of the subject1 are not wholly incompatible with each other4 ,with respect to the commonly received opinion1 that the church of ,rome is antichrist1 ,mede and ,newton1 ,daubuz and ,clarke1 ,lowman and ,hurd1 ,jurieu1 ,vitringa1 and many other members of the ,protestant churches who have written upon the subject1 concur in maintaining1 that the prophecies of ,daniel1 ,st4 ,paul1 and ,st4 ,john1 point directly to this church4 ,this was likewise the opinion of the first reformers2 and it was the prevalent opinion of ,christians1 in the earliest ages1 that antichrist would appear soon after the fall of the ,roman empire4 ,gregory the ,great1 in the sixth century1 applied the prophecies concerning the beast in the ,revelation1 the man of sin1 and the apostasy from the faith mentioned by ,st4 ,paul1 to him who should presume to claim the title of universal priest1 or universal bishop1 in the ,christian church2 and yet his immediate successor1 ,boniface ,,iii1 received from the tyrant ,phocas the precise title which ,gregory had thus censured4 ,at the synod of ,rheims1 held in the tenth century1 ,arnulphus1 bishop of ,orleans1 appealed to the whole council1 whether the bishop of ,rome was not the antichrist of ,st4 ,paul1 8sitting in the temple of ,god10 and perfectly corresponding with the description of him given by ,st4 ,paul4 ,in the eleventh century1 all the characters of antichrist seemed to be so united in the person of ,pope ,hildebrand1 who took the name of ,gregory ,,vii1 that ,johannes ,aventinus1 a ,romish historian1 speaks of it as a subject in which the generality of fair1 candid1 and ingenuous writers agreed1 that at that time began the reign of antichrist4 ,and the ,albigenses and ,waldenses1 who may be called the ,protestants of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries1 expressly asserted in their declarations of faith1 that the church of ,rome was the whore of ,babylon4 ,the ,papists imagine they view in the prophetical picture of antichrist1 imperial ,rome1 elated by her victories1 exulting in her sensuality and her spoils1 polluted by idolatry1 persecuting the people of ,god1 and finally falling like the first ,babylon2 whilst a new and holy city1 represented by their own communion1 filled with the spotless votaries of the ,christian faith1 rises out of its ruins1 and the victory of the cross is completed over the temples of ,paganism4 ,this scheme has had its able advocates1 at the head of whom may be placed ,bossuet1 bishop of ,meaux1 ,grotius1 and ,hammond4 ,some writers have maintained1 that ,caligula was antichrist2 and others have asserted the same of ,nero4 ,but in order to establish the resemblance1 they violate the order of time1 disregard the opinions of the primitive ,christians1 and overlook the appropriate descriptions of the ,apostles4 ,after the point had been maturely debated at the council of ,gap1 held in #afjc1 a resolution was taken thereupon to insert an article in the confession of faith1 whereby the ,pope is formally declared to be antichrist4 ,pope ,clement ,,viii was stung with this decision2 and even king ,henry ,,iv1 of ,france was not a little mortified1 to be thus declared1 as he said1 an imp of antichrist4 ,in the book of ,daniel it is foretold1 that this power should exercise dominion until a time and times1 and the dividing of time1 ,dan4 vii1 #be4 ,this expression is generally admitted to denote #abfj years4 ,the ,papal power was completely established in the year #gee1 when it obtained the exarchate of ,ravenna4 ,some1 however1 date the rise of antichrist in the year of ,christ #fjf2 and ,mede places it in #def4 ,if the rise of antichrist be not reckoned till he was possessed of secular authority1 his fall will happen when this power shall be taken away4 ,if his rise began1 according to ,mede in #def1 he must have fallen in #agaf2 if in #fjf1 it must be in #ahff2 if in #gee1 in #bjae4 ,if1 however1 we use prophetical years1 consisting of three hundred and sixty days1 and date the rise of antichrist in the year #gee1 his fall will happen in the year of ,christ #bjjj4 ,every thing however in the state of the world betokens a speedy overthrow of the ,papal and ,mohammedan powers1 both of which have indeed been already greatly weakened4 ,,anti-,,libanus4 ,the ,greeks give this name to that chain of mountains east of ,libanus1 which1 properly speaking1 forms1 together with ,libanus1 but one ridge of mountains1 extending from north to south1 and afterward from south to north1 in the shape almost of a horse shoe1 for the space of about fourscore leagues4 ,the western part of these mountains was called ,libanus2 the eastern was called ,antilibanus2 the former reached along the ,mediterranean1 from ,sidon1 almost to ,arada1 or ,symira4 ,the ,hebrew text never mentions ,antilibanus2 but uses the general name ,libanus3 and the coins struck at ,laodicea and ,hierapolis1 have the inscription1 8cities of ,libanus10 though they belong rather to ,antilibanus4 ,the ,septuagint1 on the contrary1 puts ,antilibanus often instead of ,libanus4 ,the valley which separates ,libanus from ,antilibanus is very fruitful3 it was formerly1 on the side of ,syria1 inclosed with a wall1 whereof there are now no traces4 ,strabo says1 that the name of ,clo-,syria1 or 8the hollow ,syria10 belongs principally to the valley between ,libanus and ,antilibanus4 ,,antinomians are those who maintain that the law is of no use or obligation under the ,gospel dispensation1 or who hold doctrines that clearly supersede the necessity of good works and a virtuous life4 ,the ,antinomians took their origin from ,john ,agricola1 about the year #aech1 who taught that the law was in no wise necessary under the ,gospel2 that good works do not promote our salvation1 nor ill ones hinder it2 that repentance is not to be preached from the decalogue1 but only from the ,gospel4 ,this sect sprung up in ,england during the protectorate of ,oliver ,cromwell2 and extended their system of libertinism much farther than ,agricola1 the disciple of ,luther4 ,some of their teachers expressly maintained1 that as the elect cannot fall from grace nor forfeit the divine favour1 the wicked actions they commit are not really sinful1 nor are to be considered as instances of their violation of the divine law2 and that consequently they have no occasion either to confess their sins1 or to break them off by repentance4 ,according to them1 it is one of the essential and distinctive characters of the elect1 that they cannot do any thing which is displeasing to ,god4 ,luther1 ,rutherford1 ,schlusselburgh1 ,sedgwick1 ,gataker1 ,witsius1 ,bull1 ,williams1 c1 have written refutations2 ,crisp1 ,richardson1 ,saltmarsh1 c1 defences1 of the ,antinomians2 ,wigandus1 a comparison between ancient and modern ,antinomians4 ,the doctrine of ,agricola was in itself obscure1 and is thought to have been represented worse than it really was by ,luther1 who wrote against him with acrimony1 and first styled him and his followers ,antinomians4 ,agricola1 in defending himself1 complained that opinions were imputed to him which he did not hold4 ,the writings of ,dr4 ,crisp in the seventeenth century are considered as highly favourable to ,antinomianism1 though he acknowledges that1 8in respect of the rules of righteousness1 or the matter of obedience1 we are under the law still1 or else10 as he adds1 8we are lawless1 to live every man as seems good in his own eyes1 which no true ,christian dares so much as think of40 ,the following sentiments1 however1 among others1 are taught in his sermons3 8,the law is cruel and tyrannical1 requiring what is naturally impossible40 8,the sins of the elect were so imputed to ,christ1 as that though he did not commit them1 yet they became actually his transgressions1 and ceased to be theirs40 8,the feelings of conscience1 which tell them that sin is theirs1 arise from a want of knowing the truth40 8,it is but the voice of a lying spirit in the hearts of believers1 that saith they have yet sin wasting their consciences1 and lying as a burden too heavy for them to bear40 8,christ's righteousness is so imputed to the elect1 that they1 ceasing to be sinners1 are as righteous as he was1 and all that he was40 8,an elect person is not in a condemned state while an unbeliever2 and should he happen to die before ,god call him to believe1 he would not be lost40 8,repentance and confession of sin are not necessary to forgiveness4 ,a believer may certainly conclude before confession1 yea1 as soon as he hath committed sin1 the interest he hath in ,christ1 and the love of ,christ embracing him40 ,these dangerous sentiments1 and others of a similar bearing1 have been fully answered by many writers2 but by none more ably than by the ,rev4 ,john ,fletcher1 in his 8,checks to ,antinomianism40 ,,antioch1 a city of ,upper ,syria1 on the river ,orontes1 about twenty miles from the place where it discharges itself into the ,mediterranean4 ,it was built by ,seleucus ,nicanor1 about three hundred years before ,christ2 and became the seat of empire of the ,syrian kings of the ,macedonian race1 and afterward of the ,roman governors of the eastern provinces2 being very centrally and commodiously situated midway between ,constantinople and ,alexandria1 about seven hundred miles from each1 in #cg #ag north latitude1 and #cf #de east longitude4 ,no city perhaps1 ,jerusalem excepted1 has experienced more frequent revolutions1 or suffered more numerous and dire calamities1 than ,antioch2 as1 besides the common plagues of eastern cities1 pestilence1 famine1 fire1 and sword1 it has several times been entirely overthrown by earthquakes4 ,in #cfb1 the emperor ,julian spent some months at ,antioch2 which were chiefly occupied in his favourite object of reviving the mythology of ,paganism4 ,the grove at ,daphne1 planted by ,seleucus1 which1 with its temple and oracle1 presented1 during the reigns of the ,macedonian kings of ,syria1 the most splendid and fashionable place of resort for ,pagan worship in the east1 had sunk into neglect since the establishment of ,christianity4 ,the altar of the god was deserted1 the oracle was silenced1 and the sacred grove itself defiled by the interment of ,christians4 ,julian undertook to restore the ancient honours and usages of the place2 but it was first necessary to take away the pollution occasioned by the dead bodies of the ,christians1 which were disinterred and removed6 ,among these was that of ,babylas1 a bishop of ,antioch1 who died in prison in the persecution of ,decius1 and after resting near a century in his grave within the walls of ,antioch1 had been removed by order of ,gallus into the midst of the grove of ,daphne1 where a church was built over him2 the remains of the ,christian saint effectually supplanting the former divinity of the place1 whose temple and statue1 however1 though neglected1 remained uninjured4 ,the ,christians of ,antioch1 undaunted by the conspiracy against their religion1 or the presence of the emperor himself1 conveyed the relics of their former bishop in triumph back to their ancient repository within the city4 ,the immense multitude who joined in the procession1 chanted forth their execrations against idols and idolaters2 and on the same night the image and the temple of the ,heathen god were consumed by the flames4 ,a dreadful vengeance might be expected to have followed these scenes2 but the real or affected clemency of ,julian contented itself with shutting up the cathedral1 and confiscating its wealth4 ,many ,christians1 indeed1 suffered from the zeal of the ,pagans2 but1 as it would appear1 without the sanction of the emperor4 ,in #abfh1 ,antioch was taken by ,bibars1 or ,bondocdar1 sultan of ,egypt4 ,the slaughter of seventeen thousand1 and the captivity of one hundred thousand of its inhabitants1 mark the final siege and fall of ,antioch2 which1 while they close the long catalogue of its public woes1 attest its extent and population4 ,from this time it remained in a ruinous and nearly deserted condition1 till1 with the rest of ,syria1 it passed into the hands of the ,ottoman ,turks1 with whose empire it has ever since been incorporated4 ,to distinguish it from other cities of the same name1 the capital of ,syria was called ,antiochia apud ,daphnem1 or ,antioch near ,daphne1 a village in the neighbourhood1 where was a temple dedicated to the goddess of that name2 though1 in truth1 the chief deity of the place was ,apollo1 under the fable of his amorous pursuit of the nymph ,daphne2 and the worship was worthy of its object4 ,the temple stood in the midst of a grove of laurels and cypresses1 where every thing was assembled which could minister to the senses2 and in whose recesses the juvenile devotee wanted not the countenance of a libertine god to abandon himself to voluptuousness4 ,even those of riper years and graver morals could not with safety breathe the atmosphere of a place where pleasure1 assuming the character of religion1 roused the dormant passions1 and subdued the firmness of virtuous resolution4 ,such being the source1 the stream could scarcely be expected to be more pure2 in fact1 the citizens of ,antioch were distinguished only for their luxury in life and licentiousness in manners4 ,this was an unpromising soil for ,christianity to take root in4 ,but here1 nevertheless1 it was planted at an early period1 and flourished vigorously4 ,it should be observed1 that the inhabitants of ,antioch were partly ,syrians1 and partly ,greeks2 chiefly1 perhaps1 the latter1 who were invited to the new city by ,seleucus4 ,to these ,greeks1 in particular1 certain ,cypriot and ,cyrenian converts1 who had fled from the persecution which followed the death of ,stephen1 addressed themselves2 8and a great number believed1 and turned unto the ,lord40 ,when the heads of the church at ,jerusalem were informed of this success1 they sent ,barnabas to ,antioch1 who encouraged the new disciples1 and added many to their number2 and finding how great were both the field and the harvest1 went to ,tarsus to solicit the assistance of ,paul4 ,both this ,apostle and ,barnabas then taught conjointly at ,antioch2 and great numbers were1 by their labours during a whole year1 added to the rising church1 ,acts xi1 #ai-bf2 xv1 #bb-ce4 ,here they were also joined by ,peter1 who was reproved by ,paul for his dissimulation1 and his concession to the ,jews respecting the observance of the law1 ,gal4 ii1 #aa-ad4 ,antioch was the birthplace of ,st4 ,luke and ,theophilus1 and the see of the martyr ,ignatius4 ,in this city the followers of ,christ had first the name of ,christians given them4 ,we have the testimony of ,chrysostom1 both of the vast increase of this illustrious church in the fourth century1 and of the spirit of charity which continued to actuate it4 ,it consisted at this time of not less than a hundred thousand persons1 three thousand of whom were supported out of the public donations4 ,it is painful to trace the progress of declension in such a church as this4 ,but the period now referred to1 namely1 the age of ,chrysostom1 toward the close of the fourth century1 may be considered as the brightest of its history subsequent to the ,apostolic age1 and that from which the church at ,antioch may date its fall4 ,it continued1 indeed1 outwardly prosperous2 but superstition1 secular ambition1 the pride of life2 pomp and formality in the service of ,god1 in place of humility and sincere devotion2 the growth of faction1 and the decay of charity2 showed that real religion was fast disappearing1 and that the foundations were laid of that great apostasy which1 in two centuries from this time1 overspread the whole ,christian world1 led to the entire extinction of the church in the east1 and still holds dominion over the fairest portions of the west4 ,antioch1 under its modern name of ,antakia1 is now but little known to the western nations4 ,it occupies1 or rather did till lately occupy1 a remote corner of the ancient enclosure of its walls4 ,its splendid buildings were reduced to hovels2 and its population of half a million1 to ten thousand wretched beings1 living in the usual debasement and insecurity of ,turkish subjects4 ,such was nearly its condition when visited by ,pocock about the year #agch1 and again by ,kinneir in #ahac4 ,but its ancient subterranean enemy1 which1 since its destruction in #ehg1 never long together withheld its assaults1 has again triumphed over it3 the earthquake of the #acth of ,august1 #ahbb1 laid it once more in ruins2 and every thing relating to ,antioch is past4 ,,antioch1 of ,pisidia4 ,beside the ,syrian capital1 there was another ,antioch visited by ,st4 ,paul when in ,asia1 and called1 for the sake of distinction1 ,antiochia ad ,pisidiam1 as belonging to that province1 of which it was the capital4 ,here ,paul and ,barnabas preached2 but the ,jews1 jealous1 as usual1 of the reception of the ,gospel by the ,gentiles1 raised a sedition against them1 and obliged them to leave the city1 ,acts xiii1 #ad1 to the end4 ,there were several other cities of the same name1 sixteen in number1 in ,syria and ,asia ,minor1 built by the ,seleucid1 the successors of ,alexander in these countries2 but the above two are the only ones which it is necessary to describe as occurring in ,scripture4 ,,antiochus4 ,there were many kings of this name in ,syria1 much celebrated in the ,greek1 ,roman1 and ,jewish histories1 after the time of ,seleucus ,nicanor1 the father of ,antiochus ,soter1 and reckoned the first king of ,syria1 after ,alexander the ,great4 #a4 ,,antiochus ,,soter was the son of ,seleucus ,nicanor1 and obtained the surname of ,soter1 or ,saviour1 from having hindered the invasion of ,asia by the ,gauls4 ,some think that it was on the following occasion3 ,the ,galatians having marched to attack the ,jews in ,babylon1 whose army consisted only of eight thousand men1 reinforced with four thousand ,macedonians1 the ,jews defended themselves with so much bravery1 that they killed one hundred and twenty thousand men1 #b ,mac4 viii1 #bj4 ,it was perhaps1 too1 on this occasion1 that ,antiochus ,soter made the ,jews of ,asia free of the cities belonging to the ,gentiles1 and permitted them to live according to their own laws4 #b4 ,,antiochus ,,theos1 or1 the ,god1 was the son and successor of ,antiochus ,soter4 ,he married ,berenice1 daughter of ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 king of ,egypt4 ,laodice1 his first wife1 seeing herself despised1 poisoned ,antiochus1 ,berenice1 and their son1 who was intended to succeed in the kingdom4 ,after this1 ,laodice procured ,seleucus ,callinicus1 her son by ,antiochus1 to be acknowledged king of ,syria4 ,these events were foretold by ,daniel3 8,and in the end of years10 the king of ,egypt1 or of the south1 and the king of ,syria1 or of the north1 8shall join themselves together2 for the king's daughter of the south shall come to the king of the north to make an agreement3 but she shall not retain the power of the arm2 neither shall he stand1 nor his arm3 but she shall be given up1 and they that brought her1 and he that begat her1 and he that strengthened her in these times10 ,dan4 xi1 #f4 #c4 ,,antiochus ,,the ,,great was the son of ,seleucus ,callinicus1 and brother to ,seleucus ,ceraunus1 whom he succeeded in the year of the world #cgha1 and before ,jesus ,christ #bbc4 ,he made war against ,ptolemy ,philopator1 king of ,egypt1 but was defeated near ,raphia1 #c ,mac4 i4 ,thirteen years after1 ,ptolemy ,philopator being dead1 ,antiochus resolved to become master of ,egypt4 ,he immediately seized ,clo-,syria1 ,phenicia1 and ,judea2 but ,scopas1 general of the ,egyptian army1 entered ,judea while ,antiochus was occupied by the war against ,attalus1 and retook those places4 ,however1 he soon lost them again to ,antiochus4 ,on this occasion happened what ,josephus relates of this prince's journey to ,jerusalem4 ,after a victory which he had obtained over ,scopas1 near the springs of ,jordan1 he became master of the strong places in ,clo-,syria and ,samaria2 and the ,jews submitted freely to him1 received him into their city and furnished his army plentifully with provisions4 ,in reward for their affection1 ,antiochus granted them1 according to ,josephus1 twenty thousand pieces of silver1 to purchase beasts for sacrifice1 one thousand four hundred and sixty measures of meal1 and three hundred and seventy-five measures of salt to be offered with the sacrifices1 and timber to rebuild the porches of the ,lord's house4 ,he exempted the senators1 scribes1 and singing men of the temple1 from the capitation tax2 and he permitted the ,jews to live according to their own laws in every part of his dominions4 ,he also remitted the third part of their tribute1 to indemnify them for their losses in the war2 he forbade the ,heathens to enter the temple without being purified1 and to bring into the city the flesh of mules1 asses1 and horses to sell1 under a severe penalty4 ,in the year of the world #chae1 ,antiochus was overcome by the ,romans1 and obliged to cede all his possessions beyond ,mount ,taurus1 to give twenty hostages1 among whom was his own son ,antiochus1 afterward surnamed ,epiphanes1 and to pay a tribute of twelve thousand ,euboic talents1 each fourteen ,roman pounds in weight4 ,to defray these charges1 he resolved to seize the treasures of the temple of ,belus1 at ,elymais2 but the people of that country1 informed of his design1 surprised and destroyed him1 with all his army1 in the year of the world #chag1 and before ,jesus ,christ #ahg4 ,he left two sons1 ,seleucus ,philopator1 and ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 who succeeded him4 #d4 ,,antiochus ,,epiphanes1 the son of ,antiochus the ,great1 having continued a hostage at ,rome fourteen years1 his brother ,seleucus resolved to procure his return to ,syria1 and sent his own son ,demetrius to ,rome in the place of ,antiochus4 ,whilst ,antiochus was on his journey to ,syria1 ,seleucus died1 in the year of the world #chbi4 ,when1 therefore1 ,antiochus landed1 the people received him as some propitious deity come to assume the government1 and to oppose the enterprises of ,ptolemy1 king of ,egypt1 who threatened to invade ,syria4 ,for this reason ,antiochus obtained the surname of ,epiphanes1 the illustrious1 or of one appearing like a god4 ,antiochus quickly turned his attention to the possession of ,egypt1 which was then enjoyed by ,ptolemy ,philometor1 his nephew1 son to his sister ,cleopatra1 whom ,antiochus the ,great had married to ,ptolemy ,epiphanes1 king of ,egypt4 ,he sent ,apollonius1 one of his officers1 into ,egypt1 apparently to honour ,ptolemy's coronation1 but in reality to obtain intelligence whether the great men of the kingdom were inclined to place the government of ,egypt in his hands during the minority of the king his nephew1 #b ,mac4 iv1 #ba1 c4 ,apollonius1 however1 found them not disposed to favour his master2 and this obliged ,antiochus to make war against ,philometor4 ,he came to ,jerusalem in #chca1 and was received there by ,jason1 to whom he had sold the high priesthood4 ,he designed to attack ,egypt1 but returned without effecting any thing4 ,the ambition of those ,jews who sought the high priesthood1 and bought it of ,antiochus1 was the beginning of those calamities which overwhelmed their nation under this prince4 ,jason procured himself to be constituted in this dignity in the stead of ,onias ,,iii2 but ,menelaus offering a greater price1 ,jason was deprived1 and ,menelaus appointed in his place4 ,these usurpers of the high priesthood1 to gratify the ,syrians1 assumed the manners of the ,greeks1 their games and exercises1 and neglected the worship of the ,lord1 and the temple service4 ,war broke out between ,antiochus ,epiphanes and ,ptolemy ,philometor4 ,antiochus entered ,egypt in the year of the world #chcc1 and reduced almost the whole of it to his obedience1 #b ,mac4 v1 #c-e4 ,the next year he returned2 and whilst he was engaged in the siege of ,alexandria1 a false report was spread of his death4 ,the inhabitants of ,jerusalem testifying their joy at this news1 ,antiochus1 when returning from ,egypt1 entered this city by force1 treated the ,jews as rebels1 and commanded his troops to slay all they met4 ,eighty thousand were killed1 made captives1 or sold on this occasion4 ,antiochus1 conducted by the corrupt high priest ,menelaus1 entered into the holy of holies1 whence he took and carried off the most precious vessels of that holy place1 to the value of one thousand eight hundred talents4 ,in the year #chce1 ,antiochus made a third expedition against ,egypt1 which he entirely subdued4 ,the year following1 he sent ,apollonius into ,judea1 with an army of twenty-two thousand men1 and commanded him to kill all the ,jews who were of full age1 and to sell the women and young men1 #b ,mac4 v1 #bd1 #be4 ,these orders were too punctually executed4 ,it was on this occasion that ,judas ,maccabus retired into the wilderness with his father and his brethren1 #b ,mac4 v1 #bi4 ,these misfortunes were only preludes of what they were to suffer2 for ,antiochus1 apprehending that the ,jews would never be constant in their obedience to him1 unless he obliged them to change their religion1 and to embrace that of the ,greeks1 issued an edict1 enjoining them to conform to the laws of other nations1 and forbidding their usual sacrifices in the temple1 their festivals1 and their ,sabbath4 ,the statue of ,jupiter ,olympus was placed upon the altar of the temple1 and thus the abomination of desolation was seen in the temple of ,god4 ,many corrupt ,jews complied with these orders2 but others resisted them4 ,mattathias and his sons retired to the mountains4 ,old ,eleazar1 and the seven brethren1 suffered death with great courage at ,antioch1 #b ,mac4 vii4 ,mattathias being dead1 ,judas ,maccabus headed those ,jews who continued faithful1 and opposed with success the generals whom king ,antiochus sent into ,judea4 ,the king1 informed of the valour and resistance of ,judas1 sent new forces2 and1 finding his treasures exhausted1 he resolved to go into ,persia to levy tributes1 and to collect large sums which he had agreed to pay to the ,romans1 #a ,mac4 iii1 #e-ca2 #b ,mac4 ix1 #a1 c2 #a ,mac4 vi1 #a1 c4 ,knowing that very great riches were lodged in the temple of ,elymas1 he determined to carry it off2 but the inhabitants of the country made so vigorous a resistance1 that he was forced to retreat toward ,babylonia4 ,when he was come to ,ecbatana1 he was informed of the defeat of ,nicanor and ,timotheus1 and that ,judas ,maccabus had retaken the temple of ,jerusalem1 and restored the worship of the ,lord1 and the usual sacrifices4 ,on receiving this intelligence1 the king was transported with indignation2 and1 threatening to make ,jerusalem a grave for the ,jews1 commanded the driver of his chariot to urge the horses forward1 and to hasten his journey4 ,however1 divine vengeance soon overtook him3 he fell from his chariot1 and bruised all his limbs4 ,he was also tormented with such pains in his bowels1 as allowed him no rest2 and his disease was aggravated by grief and vexation4 ,in this condition he wrote to the ,jews very humbly1 promised them many things1 and engaged even to turn ,jew1 if ,god would restore him to health4 ,he earnestly recommended to them his son ,antiochus1 who was to succeed him1 and entreated them to favour the young prince1 and to continue faithful to him4 ,he died1 overwhelmed with pain and grief1 in the mountains of ,paratacene1 in the little town of ,tabes1 in the year of the world #chdj1 and before ,jesus ,christ #afd4 #e4 ,,antiochus ,,eupator1 son of ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 was only nine years old when his father died and left him the kingdom of ,syria4 ,lysias1 who governed the kingdom in the name of the young prince1 led against ,judea an army of one hundred thousand foot1 twenty thousand horse1 and thirty elephants1 #a ,mac4 vi2 #b ,mac4 xiii4 ,he besieged and took the fortress of ,bethsura1 and thence marched against ,jerusalem4 ,the city was ready to fall into his hands when ,lysias received the news that ,philip1 whom ,antiochus ,epiphanes had entrusted with the regency of the kingdom1 had come to ,antioch to take the government1 according to the disposition of the late king4 ,he therefore proposed an accommodation with the ,jews1 that he might return speedily to ,antioch and oppose ,philip4 ,after concluding a peace1 he immediately returned into ,syria1 with the young king and his army4 ,in the meantime1 ,demetrius ,soter1 son of ,seleucus ,philopator1 and nephew to ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 to whom by right the kingdom belonged1 having escaped from ,rome1 came into ,syria4 ,finding the people disposed for revolt1 ,demetrius headed an army1 and marched directly to ,antioch1 against ,antiochus and ,lysias4 ,however1 the inhabitants did not wait till he besieged the city2 but opened the gates1 and delivered to him ,lysias and the young king ,antiochus ,eupator1 whom ,demetrius caused to be put to death1 without suffering them to appear in his presence4 ,antiochus ,eupator reigned only two years1 and died in the year of the world #chdb1 and before ,jesus ,christ #afb4 #f4 ,,antiochus ,,theos1 or the ,divine1 the son of ,alexander ,balas1 king of ,syria1 was brought up by the ,arabian prince ,elmachuel1 or1 as he is called in the ,greek1 ,simalcue1 #a ,mac4 xi1 #ci1 #dj1 c4 ,demetrius ,nicanor1 king of ,syria1 having rendered himself odious to his troops1 one ,diodotus1 otherwise called ,tryphon1 came to ,zabdiel1 a king in ,arabia1 and desired him to entrust him with young ,antiochus1 whom he promised to place on the throne of ,syria1 which was then possessed by ,demetrius ,nicanor4 ,after some hesitation1 ,zabdiel complied with the request2 and ,tryphon carried ,antiochus into ,syria1 and put the crown on his head4 ,the troops dismissed by ,demetrius1 came and joined ,tryphon1 who1 having formed a powerful army1 defeated ,demetrius1 and forced him to retreat to ,seleucia4 ,tryphon seized his elephants1 and rendered himself master of ,antioch1 in the year of the world #chei1 and before ,jesus ,christ #ade4 ,antiochus ,theos1 to strengthen himself in his new acquisition1 sent letters to ,jonathan ,maccabus1 high priest and prince of the ,jews1 confirming him in the high priesthood1 and granting him four toparchies1 or four considerable places1 in ,judea4 ,he also received ,jonathan into the number of his friends1 sent him vessels of gold1 permitted him to use a gold cup1 to wear purple1 and a golden buckle2 and he gave his brother1 ,simon ,maccabus1 the command of all his troops on the coast of the ,mediterranean1 from ,tyre to ,egypt4 ,jonathan1 engaged by so many favours1 declared resolutely for ,antiochus1 or rather for ,tryphon1 who reigned under the name of this young prince2 and on several occasions1 he attacked the generals of ,demetrius1 who still possessed many places beyond ,jordan and in ,galilee1 #a ,macc4 xi1 #fc1 c2 xii1 #bd1 #cd4 ,tryphon1 seeing young ,antiochus in peaceable possession of the kingdom of ,syria1 resolved to usurp his crown4 ,he thought it necessary1 in the first place1 to secure ,jonathan ,maccabus who was one of the most powerful supporters of ,antiochus's throne4 ,he came1 therefore1 with troops into ,judea1 invited ,jonathan to ,ptolemais1 and there1 on frivolous pretences1 made him prisoner4 ,however1 ,simon1 ,jonathan's brother1 headed the troops of ,judea1 and opposed ,tryphon1 who intended to take ,jerusalem4 ,tryphon1 being disappointed1 put ,jonathan to death at ,bassa or ,bascama1 and returned into ,syria1 where1 without delay1 he executed his design of killing ,antiochus4 ,he corrupted the royal physicians1 who1 having published that ,antiochus was tormented with the stone1 murdered him1 by cutting him without any necessity4 ,thus ,tryphon was left master of ,syria1 in the year of the world #chfa1 and before ,jesus ,christ #adc4 #g4 ,,antiochus ,,sidetes1 or ,soter the ,saviour1 or ,eusebes the pious1 was the son of ,demetrius ,soter1 and brother to ,demetrius ,nicanor4 ,tryphon1 the usurper of the kingdom of ,syria1 having rendered himself odious to his troops1 they deserted him1 and offered their services to ,cleopatra1 the wife of ,demetrius ,nicanor4 ,she lived in the city of ,seleucia1 shut up with her children1 while her husband ,demetrius was a prisoner in ,persia1 where he had married ,rodeguna1 the daughter of ,arsaces king of ,persia4 ,cleopatra1 therefore sent to ,antiochus ,sidetes1 her brother-in-law1 and offered him the crown of ,syria1 if he would marry her2 to which ,antiochus consented4 ,this prince was then at ,cnidus1 where his father1 ,demetrius ,soter had placed him with one of his friends4 ,he came into ,syria1 and wrote to ,simon ,maccabus1 to engage him against ,tryphon1 #a ,macc4 xv1 #a1 #b1 #c1 c4 ,he confirmed the privileges which the kings of ,syria had granted to ,simon1 permitted him to coin money with his own stamp1 declared ,jerusalem and the temple exempt from royal jurisdiction1 and promised other favours as soon as he should obtain peaceable possession of the kingdom which had belonged to his ancestors4 ,antiochus ,sidetes having married his sister-in-law1 ,cleopatra1 in the year of the world #chfe1 the troops of ,tryphon resorted to him in crowds4 ,tryphon1 thus abandoned1 retired to ,dora1 in ,phnicia1 whither ,antiochus pursued him with an army of #abj1jjj foot1 #hjj horse1 and a powerful fleet4 ,simon ,maccabus sent ,antiochus two thousand chosen men1 but the latter refused them and revoked all his promises4 ,he also sent ,athenobius to ,jerusalem to oblige ,simon to restore to him ,gazara and ,joppa1 with the citadel of ,jerusalem2 and to demand of him five hundred talents more1 as reparation for injuries the king had suffered1 and as tribute for his own cities4 ,at the same time he threatened to make war upon him1 if he did not comply4 ,simon showed ,athenobius all the lustre of his wealth and power1 told him he had in his possession no place which belonged to ,antiochus1 and said that the cities of ,gazara and ,joppa had greatly injured his people1 and he would give the king for the property of them one hundred talents4 ,athenobius returned with great indignation to ,antiochus1 who was extremely offended at ,simon's answer4 ,in the meantime1 ,tryphon having escaped privately from ,dora1 embarked in a vessel and fled4 ,antiochus pursued him1 and sent ,cendebeus with troops into the maritime parts of ,palestine1 and commanded him to rebuild ,cedron1 and fight the ,jews4 ,john ,hircanus1 son of ,simon ,maccabus1 was then at ,gaza1 and gave notice to his father of the coming of ,cendebeus4 ,simon furnished his sons1 ,john ,hircanus and ,judas with troops1 and sent them against ,cendebeus1 whom they routed in the plain and pursued to ,azotus4 ,antiochus followed ,tryphon1 till he forced him to kill himself in the year of the world #chfi4 ,after this1 ,antiochus thought only of reducing to his obedience those cities which1 in the beginning of his father's reign1 had shaken off their subjection4 ,simon ,maccabus1 prince and high priest of the ,jews1 being treacherously murdered by ,ptolemy1 his son-in-law1 in the castle of ,docus1 near ,jericho1 the murderer immediately sent to ,antiochus ,sidetes to demand troops1 that he might recover for him the country and cities of the ,jews4 ,antiochus came in person with an army1 and besieged ,jerusalem1 which was bravely defended by ,john ,hircanus4 ,the siege was long protracted2 and the king divided his army into seven parts1 and guarded all the avenues of the city4 ,it being the time for celebrating the feast of tabernacles1 the ,jews desired of ,antiochus a truce for seven days4 ,the king not only granted this request1 but sent them bulls with gilded horns1 and vessels of gold and silver filled with incense1 to be offered in the temple4 ,he also ordered such provisions as they wanted1 to be given to the ,jewish soldiers4 ,this courtesy of the king so won the hearts of the ,jews1 that they sent ambassadors to treat of peace1 and to desire that they might live according to their own laws4 ,antiochus required that they should surrender their arms1 demolish the city walls1 pay tribute for ,joppa and the other cities they possessed out of ,judea1 and receive a garrison into ,jerusalem4 ,to these conditions1 except the last1 the ,jews consented2 for they could not be induced to see an army of strangers in their capital1 and chose rather to give hostages and five hundred talents of silver4 ,the king entered the city1 beat down the breast work above the walls1 and returned to ,syria1 in the year of the world #chgj1 and before ,jesus ,christ #acd4 ,three years after1 ,antiochus marched against the ,persians1 or ,parthians1 and demanded the liberty of his brother ,demetrius ,nicanor1 who had been made prisoner long before by ,arsaces1 and was detained for the purpose of being employed in exciting a war against ,antiochus4 ,this war1 therefore1 ,antiochus thought proper to prevent4 ,with an army of eighty thousand1 or1 as ,orosius says1 of one hundred thousand men1 he marched toward ,persia1 and no sooner appeared on the frontiers of that country1 than several eastern princes1 detesting the pride and avarice of the ,persians1 came and surrendered4 ,antiochus defeated his enemies in three engagements1 and took ,babylon4 ,he was accompanied in these expeditions by ,john ,hircanus1 high priest of the ,jews1 who1 it is supposed1 obtained the surname of ,hircanus from some gallant action which he performed4 ,as the army of ,antiochus was too numerous to continue assembled in any one place1 he was obliged to divide it1 to put it into winter quarters4 ,these troops behaved with so much insolence1 that they alienated the minds of all men4 ,the cities in which they were1 privately surrendered to the ,persians2 and all resolved to attack1 in one day1 the garrisons they contained1 that the troops being separated might not assist each other4 ,antiochus at ,babylon obtained intelligence of this design1 and1 with the few soldiers about him1 endeavoured to succour his people4 ,he was attacked in the way by ,phraates1 king of ,persia1 whom he fought with great bravery2 but being at length deserted by his own forces1 according to the generality of historians1 he was overpowered and killed by the ,persians or ,parthians4 ,appian1 however1 says that he killed himself1 and lian1 that he threw himself headlong from a precipice4 ,this event took place in the year of the world #chgd1 and before ,jesus ,christ #acj4 ,after the death of ,sidetes1 ,demetrius ,nicanor1 or ,nicetor1 reascended the throne of ,syria4 ,,antip,,dobaptists1 a denomination given to those who object to the baptism of infants4 ,the word is derived from 1 against1 1 1 a child1 1 ,i baptize4 ,see ,,baptism4 ,,antipas1 ,antipas-,herod1 or ,herod-,antipas1 was the son of ,herod the ,great1 and ,cleopatra of ,jerusalem4 ,herod the ,great1 in his first will1 declared him his successor in the kingdom2 but he afterward named his son ,archelaus king of ,judea1 and gave to ,antipas only the title of tetrarch of ,galilee and ,pera4 ,archelaus going to ,rome1 to persuade the emperor to confirm his father's will1 ,antipas also went thither4 ,the emperor bestowed on ,archelaus one moity of what had been assigned him by ,herod1 with the quality of ethnarch1 and promised to grant him the title of king when he had shown himself deserving of it by his virtues4 ,to ,antipas1 ,augustus gave ,galilee and ,pera2 and to ,philip1 ,herod's other son1 the ,batana1 ,trachonitis1 and ,auranitis1 with some other places4 ,antipas1 returning to ,judea1 took great pains in adorning and fortifying the principal places of his dominions4 ,he married the daughter of ,aretas1 king of ,arabia1 whom he divorced about ,a4 ,d4 #cc1 that he might marry his sister-in-law1 ,herodias1 the wife of his brother ,philip1 who was still living4 ,john the ,baptist1 exclaiming against this incest1 was seized by order of ,antipas1 and imprisoned in the castle of ,machrus4 ,josephus says1 that ,antipas caused ,john to be taken1 because he drew too great a concourse after him2 and ,antipas was afraid he should use his influence over the people to induce them to revolt4 ,but ,josephus has reported the pretence for the true cause4 ,the evangelists1 who were better informed than ,josephus1 as being eye witnesses of what passed1 and particularly acquainted with ,john and his disciples1 assure us1 that the true reason of imprisoning ,john was the aversion of ,herod and ,herodias against him1 on account of his liberty in censuring their scandalous marriage1 ,matt4 xiv1 #c1 #d2 ,mark vi1 #ad1 #ag1 #ah2 ,luke iii1 #ai1 #bj4 ,when the king was celebrating his birth day1 with the principal persons of his court1 the daughter of ,herodias danced before them1 and pleased him so well that he swore to give her whatever she should ask4 ,she consulted her mother1 who advised her to ask the head of ,john the ,baptist4 ,returning1 therefore1 to the hall1 she addressed herself to the king1 and said1 8,give me here ,john ,baptist's head in a charger40 ,the king was afflicted at this request2 but in consideration of his oath1 and of the persons at table with him1 he sent one of his guards1 who beheaded ,john in prison4 ,the head was brought in1 and given to the young woman1 who delivered it to her mother1 ,matt4 xiv1 #e1 #f1 c4 ,aretas1 king of ,arabia1 to revenge the affront which ,herod had offered to his daughter1 declared war against him1 and vanquished him in a very obstinate contest4 ,josephus tells us1 that the ,jews attributed the defeat of ,herod to the death of ,john the ,baptist4 ,in the year of the ,christian ra #ci1 ,herodias being jealous of the prosperity of her brother ,agrippa1 who from a private person had become king of ,judea1 persuaded her husband1 ,herod-,antipas1 to visit ,rome1 and desire the same dignity of the emperor ,caius4 ,she resolved to accompany him2 and hoped that her presents and appearance would contribute to procure the emperor's favour4 ,however1 ,agrippa obtaining intelligence of this design1 wrote to the emperor and accused ,antipas4 ,the messenger of ,agrippa arrived at ,bai1 where the emperor was1 at the very time when ,herod received his first audience4 ,caius1 on the delivery of ,agrippa's letters1 read them with great earnestness4 ,in these letters1 ,agrippa accused ,antipas of having been a party in ,sejanus's conspiracy against ,tiberius1 and said that he still carried on a correspondence with ,artabanus1 king of ,partha1 against the ,romans4 ,as a proof of this1 he affirmed that ,antipas had in his arsenals arms for seventy thousand men4 ,caius being angry1 demanded hastily of ,antipas1 if it were true that he had such a quantity of arms8 ,the king not daring to deny it1 was instantly banished to ,lyons in ,gaul4 ,the emperor offered to forgive ,herodias1 in consideration of her brother ,agrippa2 but she chose rather to follow her husband1 and to share his fortune in banishment4 ,this is that ,antipas1 who1 being at ,jerusalem at the time of our ,saviour's passion1 ridiculed ,jesus whom ,pilate had sent to him1 dressed him in worn-out royalty1 and sent him back to ,pilate as a mock king1 whose ambition gave him no umbrage1 ,luke xxiii1 #g1 #aa4 ,the year of the death of ,antipas is unknown2 but it is certain that he1 as well as ,herodias1 died in exile4 ,josephus says1 that he died in ,spain1 whither ,caius1 on his coming into ,gaul the first year of his banishment1 might order him to be sent4 #b4 ,,antipas1 the faithful martyr or witness mentioned in the book of ,revelation1 ii1 #ac4 ,he is said to have been one of our ,saviour's first disciples1 and to have suffered martyrdom at ,pergamus1 of which he was bishop4 ,his ,acts relate that he was burnt in a brazen bull4 ,though ancient ecclesiastical history furnishes no account of this ,antipas1 yet it is certain that1 according to all the rules of language1 what is said concerning him by ,st4 ,john must be understood literally1 and not mystically1 as some interpreters have done4 ,,antipatris1 ,acts xxiii1 #ca1 a town in ,palestine1 anciently called ,caphar-,saba1 according to ,josephus2 but named ,antipatris by ,herod the ,great1 in honour of his father ,antipater4 ,it was situated in a pleasant valley1 near the mountains1 in the way from ,jerusalem to ,csarea4 ,josephus places it at about the distance of seventeen miles from ,joppa4 ,to this place ,st4 ,paul was brought in his way to the governor of ,judea at ,csarea1 ,acts xxiii1 #ca4 ,,antitype1 that which answers to a type or figure4 ,a type is a model1 mould1 or pattern2 that which is formed according to it is an antitype4 ,see ,,type4 ,,antonia1 one of the towers of ,jerusalem1 called by ,herod after ,m4 ,antony4 ,the ,romans generally kept a garrison in this tower2 and from thence it was that the tribune ran with his soldiers to rescue ,st4 ,paul out of the hands of the ,jews1 who had seized him in the temple1 and designed to have murdered him1 ,acts xxi1 #ca1 #cb4 ,,ape1 1 and 1 cephus1 #a ,kings x1 #bb2 #b ,chron4 ix1 #ba4 ,this animal seems to be the same with the ceph of the ,ethiopians1 of which ,pliny speaks1 l4 viii1 c4 #ai3 8,at the games given by ,pompey the ,great10 says he1 8were shown cephs brought from ,ethiopia1 which had their fore feet like a human hand1 their hind legs and feet also resembled those of a man40 ,the ,scripture says that the fleet of ,solomon brought apes1 or rather monkeys1 c1 from ,ophir4 ,the learned are not agreed respecting the situation of that country2 but ,major ,wilford says that the ancient name of the ,river ,landi sindh in ,india was ,cophes4 ,may it not have been so called from the inhabiting its banks8 ,we now distinguish this tribe of creatures into #a4 ,monkeys1 those with long tails2 #b4 ,apes1 those with short tails2 #c4 ,baboons1 those without tails4 ,the ancient ,egyptians are said to have worshipped apes2 it is certain that they are still adored in many places in ,india4 ,maffeus describes a magnificent temple dedicated to the ape1 with a portico for receiving the victims sacrificed1 supported by seven hundred columns4 8,with glittering gold and sparkling gems they shine1 ,but apes and monkeys are the gods within40 ,figures of apes are also made and reverenced as idols1 of which we have several in ,moore's 8,hindoo ,pantheon20 also in the avatars1 given in ,maurice's 8,history of ,india10 c4 ,in some parts of the country the apes are held sacred1 though not resident in temples2 and incautious ,english gentlemen1 by attempting to shoot these apes1 7rather1 perhaps1 monkeys17 have been exposed1 not only to all manner of insults and vexations from the inhabitants of the villages1 c1 adjacent1 but have even been in danger of their lives4 ,,apharsachites1 a people sent by the kings of ,assyria to inhabit the country of ,samaria1 in the room of those ,israelites who had been removed beyond the ,euphrates1 ,ezra v1 #f4 ,they1 with the other ,samaritans1 opposed the rebuilding of the walls of ,jerusalem1 ,ezra iv1 #i4 ,,apis1 a symbolical deity worshipped by the ,egyptians4 ,it was an ox1 having certain exterior marks1 in which animal the soul of the great ,osiris was supposed to subsist4 ,the ox was probably made the symbol of ,osiris because he presided over agriculture4 ,,apocalypse1 1 signifies revelation4 ,it is1 however1 particularly applied to the ,revelations which ,st4 ,john had in the isle of ,patmos1 whither he had been banished4 ,the testimonies in favour of the book of the ,revelation being a genuine work of ,st4 ,john the ,evangelist are very full and satisfactory4 ,andrew1 bishop of ,csarea in ,capadocia1 in the fifth century1 assures us that ,papias acknowledged the ,revelation to be inspired4 ,but the earliest author now extant who mentions this book is ,justin ,martyr1 who lived about sixty years after it was written1 and he ascribes it to ,st4 ,john4 ,so does ,irneus1 whose evidence is alone sufficient upon this point2 for he was the disciple of ,polycarp1 who was the disciple of ,john himself2 and he expressly tells us that he had the explanation of a certain passage in this book from those who had conversed with ,st4 ,john the author4 ,these two fathers are followed by ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,theophilus of ,antioch1 ,tertullian1 ,origen1 ,cyprian1 ,lactantius1 ,jerome1 ,athanasius1 and many other ecclesiastical writers1 all of whom concur in considering the ,apostle ,john as the author of the ,revelation4 ,some few persons1 however1 doubted the genuineness of this book in the third and fourth centuries2 but since that time it has been very generally acknowledged to be canonical2 and1 indeed1 as ,mr4 ,lowman observes1 8hardly any one book has received more early1 more authentic1 and more satisfactory attestations40 ,the omission of this book in some of the early catalogues of the ,scriptures1 was probably not owing to any suspicion concerning its authenticity or genuineness1 but because its obscurity and mysteriousness were thought to render it less fit to be read publicly and generally4 ,it is called the ,revelation of ,john the ,divine2 and this appellation was first given to ,st4 ,john by ,eusebius1 not to distinguish him from any other person of the same name1 but as an honourable title1 intimating that to him was more fully revealed the system of divine counsels than to any other prophet of the ,christian dispensation4 ,st4 ,john was banished to ,patmos in the latter part of the reign of ,domitian1 and he returned to ,ephesus immediately after the death of that emperor1 which happened in the year #if2 and as the ,apostle states1 that these visions appeared to him while he was in that island1 we may consider this book as written in the year #ie or #if4 ,in the first chapter1 ,st4 ,john asserts the divine authority of the predictions which he is about to deliver2 addresses himself to the churches of the ,proconsular ,asia2 and describes the first vision1 in which he is commanded to write the things then revealed to him4 ,the second and third chapters contain seven epistles to the seven churches in ,asia2 namely1 of ,ephesus1 ,smyrna1 ,pergamus1 ,thyatira1 ,sardis1 ,philadelphia1 and ,laodicea1 which relate chiefly to their then respective circumstances and situation4 ,at the fourth chapter the prophetic visions begin1 and reach to the end of the book4 ,they contain a prediction of all the most remarkable revolutions and events in the ,christian church from the time of the ,apostle to the final consummation of all things4 ,an attempt to explain these prophecies does not fall within the design of this work2 and therefore those who are disposed to study this sublime and mysterious book are referred to ,mede1 ,daubuz1 ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 ,lowman1 ,bishop ,newton1 ,bishop ,hurd1 and many other excellent commentators4 ,these learned men agree in their general principles concerning the interpretation of this book1 although they differ in some particular points2 and it is not to be expected that there should be a perfect coincidence of opinion in the explanation of those predictions which relate to still future times2 for1 as the incomparable ,sir ,isaac ,newton observes1 8,god gave these and the prophecies of the ,old ,testament1 not to gratify men's curiosity1 by enabling them to foreknow things1 but that after they were fulfilled they might be interpreted by the event1 and his own prescience1 not that of the interpreters1 be then manifested thereby to the world40 8,to explain this book perfectly10 says ,bishop ,newton1 8is not the work of one man1 or of one age2 but probably it never will be clearly understood1 till it is all fulfilled40 ,it is graciously designed1 that the gradual accomplishment of these predictions should afford1 in every succeeding period of time1 additional testimony to the divine origin of our holy religion4 ,,apocrypha1 books not admitted into the sacred canon1 being either spurious1 or at least not acknowledged to be divine4 ,the word ,apocrypha is of ,greek origin1 and is either derived from the words 1 because the books in question were removed from the crypt1 chest1 ark1 or other receptacle in which the sacred books were deposited whose authority was never doubted1 or more probably from the verb 1 to hide or conceal1 because they were concealed from the generality of readers1 their authority not being recognised by the church1 and because they are books which are destitute of proper testimonials1 their original being obscure1 their authors unknown1 and their character either heretical or suspected4 ,the advocates of the church of ,rome1 indeed1 affirm that some of these books are divinely inspired2 but it is easy to account for this3 the apocryphal writings serve to countenance some of the corrupt practices of that church4 ,the ,protestant churches not only account those books to be apocryphal and merely human compositions which are esteemed such by the church of ,rome1 as the ,prayer of ,manasseh1 the third and fourth books of ,esdras1 the addition at the end of ,job1 and the hundred and fifty-first ,psalm2 but also the books of ,tobit1 ,judith1 the additions to the book of ,esther1 ,wisdom1 ,ecclesiasticus1 ,baruch the ,prophet1 with the ,epistle of ,jeremiah1 the ,song of the ,three ,children1 the ,story of ,susanna1 the ,story of ,bel and the ,dragon1 and the first and second books of ,maccabees4 ,the books here enumerated are unanimously rejected by ,protestants for the following reasons3-- #a4 ,they possess no authority whatever1 either external or internal1 to procure their admission into the sacred canon4 ,none of them are extant in ,hebrew2 all of them are in the ,greek language1 except the fourth book of ,esdras1 which is only extant in ,latin4 ,they were written for the most part by ,alexandrian ,jews1 subsequently to the cessation of the prophetic spirit1 though before the promulgation of the ,gospel4 ,not one of the writers in direct terms advances a claim to inspiration2 nor were they ever received into the sacred canon by the ,jewish church1 and therefore they were not sanctioned by our ,saviour4 ,no part of the apocrypha is quoted1 or even alluded to1 by him or by any of his ,apostles2 and both ,philo and ,josephus1 who flourished in the first century of the ,christian ra1 are totally silent concerning them4 #b4 ,the apocryphal books were not admitted into the canon of ,scripture during the first four centuries of the ,christian church4 ,they are not mentioned in the catalogue of inspired writings made by ,melito bishop of ,sardis1 who flourished in the second century1 nor in those of ,origen in the third century1 of ,athanasius1 ,hilary1 ,cyril of ,jerusalem1 ,epiphanius1 ,gregory ,nazianzen1 ,amphilochius1 ,jerom1 ,rufinus1 and others of the fourth century2 nor in the catalogue of canonical books recognised by the council of ,laodicea1 held in the same century1 whose canons were received by the catholic church2 so that as ,bishop ,burnet well observes1 we have the concurring sense of the whole church of ,god in this matter4 ,to this decisive evidence against the canonical authority of the apocryphal books1 we may add that they were never read in the ,christian church until the fourth century2 when1 as ,jerom informs us1 they were read 8for example of life1 and instruction of planners2 but were not applied to establish any doctrine40 ,and contemporary writers state1 that although they were not approved as canonical or inspired writings1 yet some of them1 particularly ,judith1 ,wisdom1 and ,ecclesiasticus1 were allowed to be perused by catechumens4 ,as a proof that they were not regarded as canonical in the fifth century1 ,augustine relates1 that when the book of ,wisdom and other writings of the same class were publicly read in the church1 they were given to the readers or inferior ecclesiastical officers1 who read them in a lower place than those which were universally acknowledged to be canonical1 which were read by the bishops and presbyters in a more eminent and conspicuous manner4 ,to conclude3 notwithstanding the veneration in which these books were held by the western church1 it is evident that the same authority was never ascribed to them as to the ,old and ,new ,testament until the last council of ,trent1 at its fourth session1 presumed to place them all 7except the ,prayer of ,manasseh and the third and fourth books of ,esdras7 in the same rank with the inspired writings of ,moses and the ,prophets4 ,,apollinarians1 or ,apollinarists1 or1 as they are called by ,epiphanius1 ,dimarit1 a sect who derive their principal name from ,apollinaris1 bishop of ,laodicea1 in the fourth century4 ,apollinaris strenuously defended the divinity of ,christ against the ,arians2 but by indulging too freely in philosophical distinctions and subtleties1 he denied in some measure his humanity4 ,he maintained that the body which ,christ assumed was endowed with a sensitive1 and not a rational1 soul2 and that the divine nature performed the functions of reason1 and supplied the place of the intellectual principle in man4 ,hence it seemed to follow1 that the divine nature in ,christ was blended with the human and suffered with it the pains of crucifixion and death4 ,apollinaris and his followers have been charged with other errors by certain ancient waiters2 but it is not easy to determine how far their charge is worthy of credit4 ,the doctrine of ,apollinaris was first condemned by a council at ,alexandria in #cfb1 and afterward in a more formal manner by a council at ,rome in #cge1 and by another council in #cgh1 which deposed ,apollinaris from his bishopric4 ,in short1 it was attacked at the same time by the laws of the emperors1 the decrees of councils1 and the writings of the learned2 and sunk by degrees under their united force4 ,,apollos was a ,jew of ,alexandria1 who came to ,ephesus in the year of our ,lord #ed1 during the absence of ,st4 ,paul1 who had gone to ,jerusalem1 ,acts xviii1 #bd4 ,he was an eloquent man1 and mighty in the ,scriptures2 but he knew only the baptism of ,john1 and was not fully informed of the higher branches of ,gospel doctrine4 ,however1 he acknowledged that ,jesus ,christ was the ,messiah1 and declared himself openly as his disciple4 ,at ,ephesus1 therefore1 he began to speak boldly in the synagogue1 and demonstrated by the ,scriptures that ,jesus was the ,christ4 ,aquila and ,priscilla1 having heard him there1 took him with them1 and instructed him more fully in the ways of ,god4 ,some time after1 he was inclined to go into ,achaia1 and the brethren wrote to the disciples there1 desiring them to receive him4 ,he was very useful at ,corinth1 where he watered what ,st4 ,paul had planted1 #a ,cor4 iii1 #f4 ,it has been supposed1 that the great admiration of his disciples for him tended to produce a schism4 ,some said1 8,i am of ,paul20 some1 8,i am of ,apollos20 and others1 8,i am of ,cephas40 ,but this division1 which ,st4 ,paul mentions and reproves in his ,first ,epistle to the ,corinthians1 did not prevent ,paul and ,apollos1 personally1 from being closely united in the bonds of ,christian charity and affection4 ,apollos1 hearing that the ,apostle was at ,ephesus1 went to meet him1 and was there when ,st4 ,paul wrote the ,first ,epistle to the ,corinthians2 in which he observes1 that he had earnestly entreated ,apollos to return to ,corinth3 but though he had not prevailed with him1 ,apollos gave him room to hope that he would visit that city at a favourable opportunity4 ,some have supposed1 that the ,apostle names ,apollos and ,cephas1 not as the real persons in whose name parties had been formed in ,corinth1 but that1 in order to avoid provoking a temper which he wished to subside1 he transfers 8by a figure0 to ,apollos and himself what was really meant of other parties1 whom from prudence he declines to mention4 ,however this might be1 the reluctance of ,apollos to return to ,corinth seems to countenance the general opinion4 ,st4 ,jerom says that ,apollos was so dissatisfied with the division which had happened on his account at ,corinth1 that he retired into ,crete with ,zeno1 a doctor of the law2 but that the evil having been corrected by the letter of ,st4 ,paul to the ,corinthians1 ,apollos returned to that city1 of which he afterward became bishop4 ,the ,greeks say that he was bishop of ,duras2 some1 that he was bishop of ,iconium1 in ,phrygia2 and others of ,csarea4 ,,apollyon4 ,see ,,abaddon4 ,,apologies1 in ecclesiastical history1 were defences 7so the ,greek word means7 of ,christianity1 presented to ,heathen emperors1 by the ,christian fathers1 who were therefore called ,apologists4 ,the first was presented to the emperor ,adrian1 by ,quadratus1 ,a4 ,d4 #abf1 a fragment of which is preserved by ,eusebius2 but another1 presented soon after to the same1 by ,aristides1 a converted ,athenian philosopher1 is totally lost4 ,justin ,martyr wrote two apologies2 the latter 7to the ,roman senate7 is imperfect at the beginning2 but the former1 addressed to ,antoninus ,pius1 is preserved entire1 and was published in ,english1 in #agji1 by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,reeves1 together with one by ,tertullian1 the ,octavius 7a dialogue7 of ,minucius ,felix1 and the ,commentary of ,vincentius ,lirinensis1 with notes and preliminary dissertations to each1 in #b vols4 #hvo4 ,the ,apologies are curious and valuable remains of antiquity1 as showing what were the objections of the ,heathens1 and the manner in which they were rebutted by the early ,christians4 ,,apostasy1 a deserting or abandoning of the true religion4 ,the word is borrowed from the ,latin apostatare1 or apostare1 to despise or violate any thing4 ,hence apostatare leges anciently signified to transgress the laws4 ,the ,latin apostatare1 again1 comes from 1 from1 and 1 ,i stand4 ,among the ,romanists1 apostasy also signifies the forsaking of a religious order1 whereof a man had made profession1 without a lawful dispensation4 ,the ancients distinguished three kinds of apostasy3 the first1 a supererogatione1 is committed by a priest1 or religious1 who abandons his profession1 and returns to his lay state2 the second1 a mandatis ,dei1 by a person of any condition1 who abandons the commands of ,god1 though he retains his faith2 the third1 a fide1 by him who not only abandons his works1 but also the faith4 ,there is this difference between an apostate and a heretic2 that the latter only abandons a part of the faith1 whereas the former renounces the whole4 ,the primitive ,christian church distinguished several kinds of apostasy4 ,the first was that of those who relapsed from ,christianity into ,judaism2 the second1 that of those who blended ,judaism and ,christianity together2 and the third was that of those who1 after having been ,christians1 voluntarily relapsed into ,paganism4 ,,apostle1 1 one of the twelve disciples of ,jesus ,christ1 commissioned by him to preach his ,gospel1 and propagate it to all parts of the earth4 ,the word originally signifies a person delegated or sent2 from 1 mitto2 in which sense it occurs in ,herodotus1 and other profane authors4 ,hence1 in the ,new ,testament1 the term is applied to divers sorts of delegates2 and to the twelve disciples by way of eminence4 ,they were limited to the number twelve1 in allusion to the twelve tribes of ,israel4 ,see ,matt4 xix1 #bh2 ,luke xxii1 #cj2 ,rev4 xxi1 #ab-ad2 and compare ,exod4 xxiv1 #d2 ,deut4 i1 #bc2 and ,josh4 iv1 #b1 #c4 ,accordingly care was taken1 on the death of ,judas1 to choose another1 to make up the number1 ,acts i1 #ba1 #bb1 #bf4 ,of the first selection and commission of the twelve ,apostles1 we have an account1 ,luke vi1 #ac1 c2 ,matt4 x1 #a1 c4 ,having chosen and constituted twelve persons1 under the name of ,apostles1 our blessed ,lord determined that for some time they should be continually with him1 not only to attend upon his public ministry1 but to enjoy the benefit of his private conversation1 that he might furnish them the better for the great work in which they were to be employed2 and that1 at length1 after suitable preparation1 he might1 with greater advantage1 send them abroad to preach his ,gospel1 and thus make way for his own visits to some more distant parts1 where he had not yet been2 and to enable them more effectually to do this1 he endowed them with the power of working miracles1 of curing diseases1 and casting out demons4 ,about the commencement of the third year of his ministry1 according to the common account of its duration1 he sent them out two by two1 that they might be assistants to each other in their work2 and commanded them to restrict their teaching and services to the people of ,israel1 and to avoid going to the ,gentiles or to the ,samaritans2 to declare the approach of the kingdom of heaven1 and the establishment of the ,gospel dispensation2 to exercise the miraculous powers with which they had been endowed gratuitously2 and to depend for their subsistence on the providence of ,god1 and on the donations of those to whom they ministered4 ,their names were1 ,simon ,peter2 ,andrew1 his brother2 ,james the greater1 the son of ,zebedee2 and ,john his brother1 who was the beloved disciple2 ,philip of ,bethsaida2 ,bartholomew2 ,thomas1 called ,didymus1 as having a twin brother2 ,matthew or ,levi1 who had been a publican2 ,james1 the son of ,alpheus1 called ,james the less2 ,lebbeus1 surnamed ,thaddeus1 and who was also called ,judas or ,jude1 the brother of ,james2 ,simon1 the ,canaanite1 so called1 as some have thought1 because he was a native of ,cana1 or1 as ,dr4 ,hammond thinks1 from the ,hebrew 1 signifying the same with ,zelotes1 or the ,zelot1 a name given to him on account of his having before professed a distinguishing zeal for the law2 and ,judas ,iscariot1 or a man of ,carioth1 ,josh4 xv1 #be1 who afterward betrayed him1 and then laid violent hands on himself4 ,of these1 ,simon1 ,andrew1 ,james the greater1 and ,john1 were fishermen2 ,matthew1 and ,james the son of ,alpheus1 were publicans2 and the other six were probably fishermen1 though their occupation is not distinctly specified4 ,after the resurrection of our ,saviour1 and not long before his ascension1 the place of ,judas the traitor was supplied by ,matthias1 supposed by some to have been ,nathanael of ,galilee1 to whom our ,lord had given the distinguishing character of an 8,israelite indeed1 in whom there was no guile20 and the twelve ,apostles1 whose number was now completed1 received a new commission1 of a more extensive nature than the first1 to preach the ,gospel to all nations1 and to be witnesses of ,christ1 not only in ,jerusalem1 in all ,judea1 and in ,samaria1 but unto the uttermost parts of the earth2 and they were qualified for the execution of their office by a plenteous effusion of miraculous powers and spiritual gifts1 and particularly the gift of tongues4 ,in consequence of this commission1 they preached first to the ,jews1 then to the ,samaritans1 and afterward to the idolatrous ,gentiles4 ,their signal success at ,jerusalem1 where they opened their commission1 alarmed the ,jewish sanhedrim1 before which ,peter and ,john were summoned1 and from which they received a strict charge never more to teach1 publicly or privately1 in the name of ,jesus of ,nazareth4 ,the noble reply and subsequent conduct of the ,apostles are well known4 ,this court of the ,jews was so awed and incensed1 as to plot the death of the twelve ,apostles1 as the only effectual measure for preventing the farther spread of ,christianity4 ,gamaliel interposed1 by his prudent and moderate counsel2 and his speech had so good an effect upon the sanhedrim1 that1 instead of putting ,peter and ,john to death1 they scourged them1 renewed their charge and threats1 and then dismissed them4 ,the ,apostles1 however1 were not discouraged nor restrained2 they counted it an honour to suffer such indignities1 in token of their affection to their ,master1 and zeal in his cause2 and they persisted in preaching daily in the courts of the temple1 and in other places1 that ,jesus of ,nazareth was the promised and long expected ,messiah4 ,their doctrine spread1 and the number of converts in ,jerusalem still increased4 ,during the violent persecution that raged at ,jerusalem1 soon after the martyrdom of ,st4 ,stephen1 several of the leading men among the ,christians were dispersed2 some of them travelled through the regions of ,judea and ,samaria1 and others to ,damascus1 ,phnicia1 the ,island of ,cyprus1 and various parts of ,syria2 but the twelve ,apostles remained1 with undaunted firmness1 at ,jerusalem1 avowing their attachment to the persecuted interest of ,christ1 and consulting how they might best provide for the emergencies of the church1 in its infant and oppressed state4 ,when the ,apostles1 during their abode at ,jerusalem1 heard that many of the ,samaritans had embraced the ,gospel1 ,peter and ,john were deputed to confer upon them the gift of the ,holy ,spirit2 for to the ,apostles belonged the prerogative of conferring upon others spiritual gifts and miraculous powers4 ,in their return to ,jerusalem1 from the city of ,samaria1 they preached the ,gospel in many ,samaritan villages4 ,the manner of its being sent to ,ethiopia1 by the conversion of the eunuch who was chief treasurer to ,candace1 queen of the country1 is related in ,acts viii1 #bf1 c4 ,after the ,christian religion had been planted in ,jerusalem1 ,judea1 and ,samaria1 and sent into ,ethiopia1 one of the uttermost parts of the earth1 ,acts i1 #h2 and after it had been preached about eight years to the ,jews only1 ,god1 in his wise and merciful providence1 disposed things for the preaching of it among the ,gentiles4 ,csarea was the scene in which the ,apostle ,peter was to open his commission for this purpose2 and ,cornelius1 one of the devout ,gentiles1 and a man distinguished by his piety and charity1 was the first proselyte to ,christianity4 ,after ,peter had laid the foundation of a ,christian church among the devout ,gentiles1 others imitated his example1 and a great number of persons of this description embraced the ,christian faith1 more especially at ,antioch1 where the disciples1 whom their enemies had hitherto called ,galileans1 ,nazarenes1 and other names of reproach1 and who1 among themselves1 had been called 8disciples10 8believers10 8the church10 8the saints10 and 8brethren10 were denominated1 probably not without a divine direction1 ,christians4 ,when ,christianity had been preached for about eight years among the ,jews only1 and for about three years more among the ,jews and devout ,gentiles1 the next stage of its progress was to the idolatrous ,gentiles1 in the year of ,christ #dd1 and the fourth year of the emperor ,claudius4 ,barnabas and ,saul were selected for this purpose1 and constituted in an extraordinary manner ,apostles of the ,gentiles1 or uncircumcision4 ,barnabas was probably an elder of the first rank2 he had seen ,christ in the flesh1 had been an eye witness of his being alive again after his crucifixion1 and had received the ,holy ,spirit on the day of ,pentecost1 as being one of the hundred and twenty4 ,saul also1 since his conversion had preached as a superior prophet1 about seven years to the ,jews only1 and about two years more to the ,jews and devout ,gentiles4 ,they had both been born in ,gentile countries2 and therefore may be supposed to have had more respect and affection for the ,gentiles than most of the ,jews1 who were natives of ,judea4 ,saul had been converted1 and had hitherto preached chiefly on ,gentile ground2 and he had joined with ,barnabas in teaching devout ,gentiles for a whole year1 at ,antioch in ,syria2 by all which previous steps they were regularly conducted to the last gradation1 or the conversion of the idolatrous ,gentiles4 ,but it was necessary1 in order to the being an ,apostle1 to have seen our ,lord ,jesus ,christ alive after his crucifixion1 for the ,apostles were in a peculiar manner the witnesses of his resurrection4 ,some have supposed that ,saul saw the person of ,jesus1 when he was converted1 near the city of ,damascus2 but others1 who conceive from the history of this event1 that this could not have been the case1 as he was instantly struck blind1 are of opinion that the season1 when his ,apostolic qualification and commission were completed1 was that mentioned by himself1 ,acts xxii1 #ag1 when he returned to ,jerusalem the second time after his conversion1 saw the ,lord ,jesus ,christ in person1 and received the command to go quickly out of ,jerusalem1 that he might be sent unto the ,gentiles4 ,see also ,acts xxvi1 #af-bj1 where he gives an account of the object of his commission4 ,he also received a variety of gifts and powers1 which1 superadded to his own genius and learning1 as well as fortitude and patience1 eminently qualified him for the office of an ,apostle1 and for that particular exercise of it which was assigned to him4 ,st4 ,paul is frequently called the ,apostle1 by way of eminence2 and the ,apostle of the ,gentiles1 because his ministry was chiefly employed for the conversion of the ,gentiles1 as that of ,st4 ,peter was for ,jews1 who is therefore styled the ,apostle of the circumcision4 ,the ,apostles having continued at ,jerusalem twelve years after the ascension of ,christ1 as tradition reports1 according to his command1 determined to disperse themselves in different parts of the world4 ,but what were the particular provinces assigned to each1 does not certainly appear from any authentic history4 ,socrates says1 that ,thomas took ,parthia for his lot2 ,matthew1 ,ethiopia1 and ,bartholomew1 ,india4 ,eusebius gives the following account3 8,thomas1 as we learn by tradition1 had ,parthia for his lot2 ,andrew1 ,scythia2 ,john1 ,asia1 who having lived there a long time1 died at ,ephesus4 ,peter1 as it seems1 preached to the dispersed ,jews in ,pontus and ,galatia1 ,bithynia1 ,cappadocia1 and ,asia2 at length1 coming to ,rome1 he was crucified with his head downward1 as he had desired4 ,what need ,i to speak of ,st4 ,paul1 who fully preached the ,gospel of ,christ1 from ,jerusalem to ,illyricum1 and at last died a martyr at ,rome1 in the time of ,nero80 ,from this passage we may conclude1 that at the beginning of the fourth century1 there were not any certain and well attested accounts of the places out of ,judea1 in which several of the ,apostles of ,christ preached2 for if there had1 ,eusebius must have been acquainted with them4 ,the stories that are told concerning their arrival and exploits among the ,gauls1 the ,english1 the ,spaniards1 the ,germans1 the ,americans1 the ,chinese1 the ,indians1 and the ,russians1 are too romantic in their nature1 and of too recent a date1 to be received by an impartial inquirer after truth4 ,these fables were for the most part forged after the time of ,charlemagne1 when most of the ,christian churches contended about the antiquity of their origin1 with as much vehemence as the ,arcadians1 ,egyptians1 and ,greeks disputed formerly about their seniority and precedence4 ,it appears1 however1 that all of the ,apostles did not die by martyrdom4 ,heraclion1 cited by ,clemens ,alexandrinus1 reckons among the ,apostles who did not suffer martyrdom1 ,matthew1 ,thomas1 ,philip1 and ,levi1 probably meaning ,lebbeus4 ,to the ,apostles belonged the peculiar and exclusive prerogative of writing doctrinal and preceptive books of authority in the ,christian church2 and it sufficiently appears that no epistles or other doctrinal writings of any person who was of a rank below that of an ,apostle1 were received by ,christians as a part of their rule of faith4 ,with respect to the writings of ,mark and ,luke1 they are reckoned historical1 not doctrinal or dogmatical2 and ,augustine says1 that ,mark and ,luke wrote at a time when their writings might be approved not only by the church1 but by ,apostles still living4 ,the appellation of ,apostles was also given to the ordinary travelling ministers of the church4 ,thus ,st4 ,paul1 in the ,epistle to the ,romans1 xvi1 #g1 says1 8,salute ,andronicus and ,junia1 my kinsmen and fellow prisoners1 who are of note among the ,apostles40 ,in this inferior sense the appellation is applied1 by ,clement of ,alexandria1 to ,barnabas2 who was not an ,apostle in the highest sense of the word1 so as the twelve and ,paul were ,apostles4 ,tertullian calls all the seventy disciples ,apostles2 and ,clement calls ,barnabas ,apostolical merely in another place1 and says that he was one of the seventy1 and fellow labourer of ,paul4 ,these1 says ,dr4 ,lardner1 are the highest characters which he really intends to give to ,barnabas1 and what he means when he styles him ,apostle2 therefore he need not be supposed to ascribe to ,barnabas that large measure of inspiration and high authority1 which was peculiar to the ,apostles1 strictly and properly so called4 ,in a similar subordinate form1 ,st4 ,clement of ,rome is called ,apostle4 ,timothy also is called by ,salvian1 ,apostle1 meaning merely ,apostolical1 or a companion and disciple of ,apostles4 ,apostle was likewise a title given to those sent by the churches1 to carry their alms to the poor of other churches4 ,this usage they borrowed from the synagogues1 who called those whom they sent on this message1 by the same name2 and the function or office itself 1 that is1 mission4 ,thus ,st4 ,paul1 writing to the ,philippians1 tells them1 that ,epaphroditus1 their ,apostle1 had ministered to his wants1 chap4 ii1 #be4 ,it is applied in like manner to those persons who first planted the ,christian faith in any place4 ,apostle is also used among the ,jews1 for a kind of officer anciently sent into the several parts and provinces in their jurisdiction1 by way of visiter1 or commissary2 to see that the laws were duly observed1 and to receive the moneys collected for the reparation of the temple1 and the tribute payable to the ,romans4 ,these apostles were a degree below the officers of the synagogues1 called patriarchs1 and received their commissions from them4 ,some authors observe1 that ,st4 ,paul had borne this office2 and that it is this he alludes to in the beginning of the ,epistle to the ,galatians3 as if he had said1 ,paul1 no longer an apostle of the synagogue1 nor sent by men to maintain the law of ,moses1 but now an ,apostle and envoy of ,jesus ,christ1 c4 ,st4 ,jerom1 though he does not believe that ,st4 ,paul had been an apostle of this kind1 yet imagines that he alludes to it in the passage just cited4 ,,apostles' ,,creed4 ,see ,,creed4 ,,appellatio1 an appeal4 ,the ,sempronian law secured this privilege to the ,roman citizens1 that they could not be capitally convicted1 but by the suffrage of the people2 and in whatever provinces they happened to reside1 if the governor showed a disposition to condemn them to death1 to scourge1 or deprive them of their property1 they had liberty to appeal from his jurisdiction to the judgment of the people4 ,this law1 which was enacted under the republican form of government1 continued in force under the emperors2 so that if any freeman of ,rome thought himself ill used and aggrieved by the presidents in any of the provinces1 he could1 by appeal1 remove his cause to ,rome1 to the determination of the emperor4 ,a number of persons1 we are told1 were delegated by ,augustus1 all of consular rank1 to receive the appeals of the people in the provinces4 ,these observations will explain the nature of ,st4 ,paul's appeal in the ,acts of the ,apostles4 ,,appii ,,forum1 a place about fifty miles from ,rome1 near the modern town of ,piperno on the road to ,naples4 ,it probably had its name from the statue of ,appius ,claudius1 a ,roman consul1 who paved the famous way from ,rome to ,capua1 and whose statue was set up here4 ,to this place some ,christians from ,rome came to meet ,st4 ,paul1 ,acts xxviii1 #ae4 ,,apple ,,tree1 1 ,prov4 xxv1 #aa2 ,cant4 ii1 #c1 #e2 vii1 #h2 viii1 #e2 ,joel i1 #ab4 ,as the best apples of ,egypt1 though ordinary1 are brought thither by sea from ,rhodes1 and by land from ,damascus1 we may believe that ,judea1 an intermediate country between ,egypt and ,damascus1 has none that are of any value4 ,can it be imagined1 then1 that the apple trees of which the ,prophet ,joel speaks1 i1 #ab1 and which he mentions among the things that gave joy to the inhabitants of ,judea1 were those that we call by that name8 ,our translators must surely have been mistaken here1 since the apples which the inhabitants of ,judea eat at this day are of foreign growth1 and at the same time but very indifferent4 ,there are five places1 beside this in ,joel1 in which the word occurs2 and from them we learn that it was thought the noblest of the trees of the wood1 and that its fruit was very sweet or pleasant1 ,cant4 ii1 #c2 of the colour of gold1 ,prov4 xxv1 #aa2 extremely fragrant1 ,cant4 vii1 #h2 and proper for those to smell that were ready to faint1 ,cant4 ii1 #e4 ,we may be sure that the taphuach was very early known in the holy land1 as it is mentioned in the book of ,joshua as having given name to a city of ,manasseh and one of ,judah4 ,several interpreters and critics render 1 ,lev4 xxiii1 #dj1 branches1 or fruit1 of the beautiful tree2 and understand it of the citron2 and it is known that the ,jews still make use of the fruit of this tree at their yearly feast of tabernacles4 ,citron trees are very noble1 being large1 their leaves beautiful1 ever continuing on the trees1 of an exquisite smell1 and affording a most delightful shade4 ,it might well1 therefore1 be said1 8,as the citron tree is among the trees of the wood1 so is my beloved among the sons40 ,this is a delicate compliment1 comparing the fine appearance of the prince1 amid his escort1 to the superior beauty with which the citron tree appears among the ordinary trees of the forest2 and the compliment is heightened by an allusion to the refreshing shade and the exhilarating fruit4 ,the exhilarating effects of the fruit are mentioned ,cant4 ii1 #e1 8,comfort me with citrons40 ,egmont and ,heyman tell us of an ,arabian who was in a great measure brought to himself1 when overcome with wine1 by the help of citrons and coffee4 ,to the manner of serving up these citrons in his court1 ,solomon seems to refer1 when he says1 8,a word fitly spoken is like golden citrons in silver baskets20 whether1 as ,maimonides supposes1 in baskets wrought with open work1 or in salvers curiously chased1 it nothing concerns us to determine2 the meaning is1 that an excellent saying1 suitably expressed1 is as the most acceptable gift in the fairest conveyance4 ,so the rabbins say1 that the tribute of the first ripe fruits was carried to the temple in silver baskets4 ,,apries1 a king of ,egypt1 called in the sacred writings ,pharaoh ,hophrah1 ,jer4 xliv1 #cj4 ,apries was the son of ,psammis1 and grandson of ,necho1 or ,nechao1 who waged war against ,josiah1 king of the ,jews4 ,he reigned twenty-five years1 and was long considered as one of the happiest princes in the world2 but having equipped a fleet for the reduction of the ,cyrenians1 he lost in this expedition almost the whole of his army4 ,the ,egyptians resolved to make him responsible for this ill success1 rebelled1 and pretended that he undertook the war only to get rid of his subjects1 and that he might govern the remainder more absolutely4 ,apries deputed ,amasis1 one of his officers1 to suppress the rebellion1 and induce the people to return to their allegiance4 ,but1 while ,amasis was haranguing them1 one of the multitude placed a diadem about his helmet1 and proclaimed him king4 ,the rest applauded him2 and ,amasis having accepted their offer1 continued with them1 and confirmed them in their rebellion4 ,amasis put himself at the head of the rebels1 and marched against ,apries1 whom he defeated and took prisoner4 ,amasis treated him with kindness2 but the people were not satisfied till they had taken him from ,amasis and strangled him4 ,such was the end of ,apries1 according to ,herodotus4 ,jeremiah threatened this prince with being delivered into the hands of his enemies1 as he had delivered ,zedekiah1 king of ,judah1 into the hands of ,nebuchadnezzar1 king of ,babylon4 ,apries had made a league with ,zedekiah1 and promised him assistance1 ,ezek4 xvii1 #ae4 ,zedekiah1 therefore1 relying on his forces1 revolted from ,nebuchadnezzar1 in the year of the world #cdad1 and before ,jesus ,christ #eij4 ,early in the year following1 ,nebuchadnezzar marched against ,hezekiah2 but as other nations of ,syria had shaken off their obedience1 he first reduced them to their duty1 and toward the end of the year besieged ,jerusalem1 #b ,kings xxv1 #e2 #b ,chron4 xxxvi1 #ag2 ,jer4 xxxix1 #a2 lii1 #d4 ,zedekiah defended himself in ,jerusalem1 long and obstinately1 that he might give time to ,pharaoh ,hophrah1 or ,apries1 to come to his assistance4 ,apries advanced with a powerful army2 and the king of ,babylon raised the siege1 and marched to meet him4 ,but ,apries not daring to hazard a battle against the ,chaldeans1 retreated into ,egypt1 and abandoned ,zedekiah4 ,ezekiel reproaches ,egypt severely with this baseness1 and says that it had been a staff of reed to the house of ,israel1 and an occasion of falling2 for when they took hold of it by the hand1 it broke and rent all their shoulder4 ,he therefore prophesies that ,egypt should be reduced to a solitude1 and that ,god would send against it the sword1 which would destroy in it man and beast1 ,ezek4 xxix4 ,this was afterward accomplished1 first1 in the time of ,apries2 and secondly1 in the conquest of ,egypt by the ,persians4 ,,aquila4 ,this person was a native of ,pontus in ,asia ,minor1 and was converted by ,st4 ,paul1 together with his wife ,priscilla1 to the ,christian religion4 ,as ,aquila was by trade a tentmaker1 ,acts xviii1 #b1 #c1 as ,st4 ,paul was1 the ,apostle lodged and wrought with him at ,corinth4 ,aquila came thither1 not long before1 from ,italy1 being obliged to leave ,rome upon the edict which the emperor ,claudius had published1 banishing the ,jews from that city4 ,st4 ,paul afterward quitted ,aquila's house1 and abode with ,justus1 near the ,jewish synagogue at ,corinth2 probably1 as ,calmet thinks1 because ,aquila was a converted ,jew1 and ,justus was a convert from ,paganism1 that in this case the ,gentiles might come and hear him with more liberty4 ,when the ,apostle left ,corinth1 ,aquila and ,priscilla accompanied him as far as ,ephesus1 where he left them with that church while he pursued his journey to ,jerusalem4 ,they rendered him great service in that city1 so far as to expose their own lives to preserve his4 ,they had returned to ,rome when ,st4 ,paul wrote his ,epistle to the ,romans1 xvi1 #d1 wherein he salutes them with great kindness4 ,lastly1 they were come back to ,ephesus again1 when ,st4 ,paul wrote his ,second ,epistle to ,timothy1 iv1 #ai1 wherein he desires him to salute them in his name4 ,what became of them after this time is not known4 ,,ar1 the capital city of the ,moabites1 situated in the hills on the south of the river ,arnon4 ,this city was likewise called ,rabbah or ,rabbath ,moab1 to distinguish it from the ,ammonite ,rabbah4 ,it was afterward called by the ,greeks ,areopolis2 and is at present termed ,el-,rabba4 ,see ,,moab4 ,,arabia4 ,a vast country of ,asia1 extending one thousand five hundred miles from north to south1 and one thousand two hundred from east to west2 containing a surface equal to four times that of ,france4 ,the near approach of the ,euphrates to the ,mediterranean constitutes it a peninsula1 the largest in the world4 ,it is called ,jezirat-el-,arab by the ,arabs2 and by the ,persians and ,turks1 ,arebistan4 ,this is one of the most interesting countries on the face of the earth4 ,it has1 in agreement with prophecy1 never been subdued2 and its inhabitants1 at once pastoral1 commercial1 and warlike1 are the same wild1 wandering people as the immediate descendants of their great ancestor ,ishmael are represented to have been4 ,arabia1 or at least the eastern and northern parts of it1 were first peopled by some of the numerous families of ,cush1 who appear to have extended themselves1 or to have given their name as the land of ,cush1 or ,asiatic ,ethiopia1 to all the country from the ,indus on the east1 to the borders of ,egypt on the west1 and from ,armenia on the north to ,arabia ,deserta on the south4 ,by these ,cushites1 whose first plantations were on both sides of the ,euphrates and ,gulf of ,persia1 and who were the first that traversed the desert of ,arabia1 the earliest commercial communications were established between the east and the west4 ,but of their ,arabian territory1 and of the occupation dependent on it1 they were deprived by the sons of ,abraham1 ,ishmael1 and ,midian2 by whom they were obliterated in this country as a distinct race1 either by superiority of numbers after mingling with them1 or by obliging them to recede altogether to their more eastern possessions1 or over the ,gulf of ,arabia into ,africa4 ,from this time1 that is1 about five hundred and fifty years after the flood1 we read only of ,ishmaelites and ,midianites as the shepherds and carriers of the deserts2 who also appear to have been intermingled1 and to have shared both the territory and the traffic1 as the traders who bought ,joseph are called by both names1 and the same are probably referred to by ,jeremiah1 xxv1 as 8the mingled people that dwell in the desert40 ,but ,ishmael maintained the superiority1 and succeeded in giving his name to the whole people4 ,arabia1 it is well known1 is divided by geographers into three separate regions1 called ,arabia ,petra1 ,arabia ,deserta1 and ,arabia ,felix4 ,the first1 or ,arabia ,petra1 is the north-western division1 and is bounded on the north by ,palestine and the ,dead ,sea1 on the east by ,arabia ,deserta1 on the south by ,arabia ,felix1 and on the west by the ,heroopolitan branch of the ,red ,sea and the ,isthmus of ,suez4 ,the greater part of this division was more exclusively the possession of the ,midianites1 or land of ,midian2 where ,moses1 having fled from ,egypt1 married the daughter of ,jethro1 and spent forty years keeping the flocks of his father-in-law3 no humiliating occupation in those days1 and particularly in ,midian1 which was a land of shepherds2 the whole people having no other way of life than that of rearing and tending their flocks1 or in carrying the goods they received from the east and south into ,phenicia and ,egypt4 ,the word flock1 used here1 must not convey the idea naturally entertained in our own country of sheep only1 but1 together with these or goats1 horned cattle and camels1 the most indispensable of animals to the ,midianite4 ,it was a mixed flock of this kind which was the sole care of ,moses1 during a third part of his long life2 in which he must have had abundance of leisure1 by night and by day1 to reflect on the unhappy condition of his own people1 still enduring all the rigours of slavery in ,egypt4 ,it was a similar flock also which the daughters of ,jethro were watering when first encountered by ,moses2 a trifling event in itself1 but important in the history of the future leader of the ,jews2 and showing1 at the same time1 the simple life of the people among whom he was newly come1 as well as the scanty supply of water in their country1 and the strifes frequently occasioned in obtaining a share of it4 ,through a considerable part of this region1 the ,israelites wandered after they had escaped from ,egypt2 and in it were situated the mountains ,horeb and ,sinai4 ,beside the tribes of ,midian1 which gradually became blended with those of ,ishmael1 this was the country of the ,edomites1 the ,amalekites1 and the ,nabathi1 the only tribe of pure ,ishmaelites within its precincts4 ,but all those families have long since been confounded under the general name of ,arabs4 ,the greater part of this district consists of naked rocks and sandy and flinty plains2 but it contained also some fertile spots1 particularly in the peninsula of ,mount ,sinai1 and through the long range of ,mount ,seir4 ,illustration3 ,map of the ,,journeyings ,,encampments of the ,,israelites from ,,egypt ,,to ,,canaan ,through the ,desert of ,arabia ,petra ,the second region1 or ,arabia ,deserta1 is bounded on the north and north-east by the ,euphrates1 on the east by a ridge of mountains which separates it from ,chaldea1 on the south by ,arabia ,felix1 and on the west by ,syria1 ,judea1 and ,arabia ,petra4 ,this was more particularly the country first of the ,cushites1 and afterward of the ,ishmaelites2 as it is still of their descendants1 the modern ,bedouins1 who maintain the same predatory and wandering habits4 ,it consists almost entirely of one vast and lonesome wilderness1 a boundless level of sand1 whose dry and burning surface denies existence to all but the ,arab and his camel4 ,yet1 widely scattered over this dreary waste1 some spots of comparative fertility are to be found1 where1 spread around a feeble spring of brackish water1 a stunted verdure1 or a few palm trees1 fix the principal settlement of a tribe1 and afford stages of refreshment in these otherwise impassable deserts4 ,here1 with a few dates1 the milk of his faithful camel1 and perhaps a little corn1 brought by painful journeys from distant regions1 or plundered from a passing caravan1 the ,arab supports a hard existence1 until the failure of his resources impels him to seek another oasis1 or the scanty herbage furnished on a patch of soil by transient rains2 or else1 which is frequently the case1 to resort1 by more distant migration1 to the banks of the ,euphrates2 or1 by hostile inroads on the neighbouring countries1 to supply those wants which the recesses of the desert have denied4 ,the numbers leading this wandering and precarious mode of life are incredible4 ,from these deserts ,zerah drew his army of a million of men2 and the same deserts1 fifteen hundred years after1 poured forth the countless swarms1 which1 under ,mohammed and his successors1 devastated half of the then known world4 ,the third region1 or ,arabia ,felix1 so denominated from the happier condition of its soil and climate1 occupies the southern part of the ,arabian peninsula4 ,it is bounded on the north by the two other divisions of the country2 on the south and south-east by the ,indian ,ocean2 on the east by part of the same ocean and the ,persian ,gulf2 and on the west by the ,red ,sea4 ,this division is subdivided into the kingdoms or provinces of ,yemen1 at the southern extremity of the peninsula2 ,hejaz1 on the north of the former1 and toward the ,red ,sea2 ,nejed1 in the central region2 and ,hadramant and ,oman1 on the shores of the ,indian ,ocean4 ,the four latter subdivisions partake of much of the character of the other greater divisions of the country1 though of a more varied surface1 and with a larger portion capable of cultivation4 ,but ,yemen seems to belong to another country and climate4 ,it is very mountainous1 is well watered with rains and springs1 and is blessed with an abundant produce in corn and fruits1 and especially in coffee1 of which vast quantities are exported4 ,in this division were the ancient cities of ,nysa1 ,musa or ,moosa1 and ,aden4 ,this is also supposed to have been the country of the queen of ,sheba4 ,in ,hejaz are the celebrated cities of ,mecca and ,medina4 ,arabia ,felix is inhabited by a people who claim ,jotkan for their father1 and so trace their descent direct from ,shem1 instead of ,abraham and ,ham4 ,they are indeed a totally different people from those inhabiting the other quarters1 and pride themselves on being the only pure and unmixed ,arabs4 ,instead of being shepherds and robbers1 they are fixed in towns and cities2 and live by agriculture and commerce1 chiefly maritime4 ,here were the people who were found by the ,greeks of ,egypt enjoying an entire monopoly of the trade with the east1 and possessing a high degree of wealth and consequent refinement4 ,it was here1 in the ports of ,saba1 that the spices1 muslins1 and precious stones of ,india1 were for many ages obtained by the ,greek traders of ,egypt1 before they had acquired skill or courage sufficient to pass the straits of the ,red ,sea2 which were long considered by the nations of ,europe to be the produce of ,arabia itself4 ,these articles1 before the invention of shipping1 or the establishment of a maritime intercourse1 were conveyed across the deserts by the ,cushite1 ,ishmaelite1 and ,midianite carriers4 ,it was the produce partly of ,india1 and partly of ,arabia1 which the travelling merchants1 to whom ,joseph was sold1 were carrying into ,egypt4 ,the balm and myrrh were probably ,arabian1 as they are still the produce of the same country2 but the spicery was undoubtedly brought farther from the east4 ,these circumstances are adverted to1 to show how extensive was the communication1 in which the ,arabians formed the principal link3 and that in the earliest ages of which we have any account1 in those of ,joseph1 of ,moses1 of ,isaiah1 and of ,ezekiel1 8the mingled people0 inhabiting the vast ,arabian deserts1 the ,cushites1 ,ishmaelites1 and ,midianites1 were the chief agents in that commercial intercourse which has1 from the most remote period of antiquity1 subsisted between the extreme east and west4 ,and although the current of trade is now turned1 caravans of merchants1 the descendants of these people1 may still be found traversing the same deserts1 conveying the same articles1 and in the same manner as described by ,moses6 ,the singular and important fact that ,arabia has never been conquered1 has already been cursorily adverted to4 ,but ,mr4 ,gibbon1 unwilling to pass by an opportunity of cavilling at revelation1 says1 8,the perpetual independence of the ,arabs has been the theme of praise among strangers and natives2 and the arts of controversy transform this singular event into a prophecy and a miracle in favour of the posterity of ,ishmael4 ,some exceptions1 that can neither be dissembled nor eluded1 render this mode of reasoning as indiscreet as it is superfluous4 ,the kingdom of ,yemen has been successively subdued by the ,abyssinians1 the ,persians1 the ,sultans of ,egypt1 and the ,turks2 the holy cities of ,mecca and ,medina have repeatedly bowed under a ,scythian tyrant2 and the ,roman province of ,arabia embraced the peculiar wilderness in which ,ishmael and his sons must have pitched their tents in the face of their brethren40 ,but this learned writer has1 with a peculiar infelicity1 annulled his own argument2 and we have only to follow on the above passage1 to obtain a complete refutation of the unworthy position with which it begins3 8,yet these exceptions10 says ,mr4 ,gibbon1 8are temporary or local2 the body of the nation has escaped the yoke of the most powerful monarchies3 the arms of ,sesostris and ,cyrus1 of ,pompey1 and ,trajan1 could never achieve the conquest of ,arabia2 the present sovereign of the ,turks may exercise a shadow of jurisdiction1 but his pride is reduced to solicit the friendship of a people whom it is dangerous to provoke1 and fruitless to attack4 ,the obvious causes of their freedom are inscribed on the character and country of the ,arabs4 ,many ages before ,mohammed1 their intrepid valour had been severely felt by their neighbours1 in offensive and defensive war4 ,the patient and active virtues of a soldier are insensibly nursed in the habits and discipline of a pastoral life4 ,the care of the sheep and camels is abandoned to the women of the tribe2 but the martial youth1 under the banner of the emir1 is ever on horseback and in the field1 to practise the exercise of the bow1 the javelin1 and the scimitar4 ,the long memory of their independence is the firmest pledge of its perpetuity2 and succeeding generations are animated to prove their descent1 and to maintain their inheritance4 ,their domestic feuds are suspended on the approach of a common enemy2 and in their last hostilities against the ,turks1 the caravan of ,mecca was attacked and pillaged by four score thousand of the confederates4 ,when they advance to battle1 the hope of victory is in the front1 in the rear the assurance of a retreat4 ,their horses and camels1 who in eight or ten days can perform a march of four or five hundred miles1 disappear before the conqueror2 the secret waters of the desert elude his search2 and his victorious troops are consumed with thirst1 hunger1 and fatigue1 in the pursuit of an invisible foe1 who scorns his efforts1 and safely reposes in the heart of the burning solitude4 ,the arms and deserts of the ,bedouins are not only the safeguards of their own freedom1 but the barriers also of the happy ,arabia1 whose inhabitants1 remote from war1 are enervated by the luxury of the soil and climate4 ,the legions of ,augustus melted away in disease and lassitude2 and it is only by a naval power that the reduction of ,yemen has been successfully attempted4 ,when ,mohammed erected his holy standard1 that kingdom was a province of the ,persian empire2 yet seven princes of the ,homerites still reigned in the mountains2 and the vicegerent of ,chosroes was tempted to forget his distant country and his unfortunate master40 ,yemen was the only ,arabian province which had the appearance of submitting to a foreign yoke2 but even here1 as ,mr4 ,gibbon himself acknowledges1 seven of the native princes remained unsubdued3 and even admitting its subjugation to have been complete1 the perpetual independence of the ,ishmaelites remains unimpeached4 ,for this is not their country4 ,petra1 the capital of the ,stony ,arabia1 and the principal settlement of the ,nabathi1 it is true1 was long in the hands of the ,persians and ,romans2 but this never made them masters of the country4 ,hovering troops of ,arabs confined the intruders within their walls1 and cut off their supplies2 and the possession of this fortress gave as little reason to the ,romans to exult as the conquerors of ,arabia ,petra1 as that of ,gibraltar does to us to boast of the conquest of ,spain4 ,the ,arabian tribes were confounded by the ,greeks and ,romans under the indiscriminate appellation of ,saracens2 a name whose etymology has been variously1 but never satisfactorily1 explained4 ,this was their general name when ,mohammed appeared in the beginning of the seventh century4 ,their religion at this time was ,sabianism1 or the worship of the sun1 moon1 c2 variously transformed by the different tribes1 and intermingled with some ,jewish and ,christian maxims and traditions4 ,the tribes themselves were generally at variance1 from some hereditary and implacable animosities2 and their only warfare consisted in desultory skirmishes arising out of these feuds1 and in their predatory excursions1 where superiority of numbers rendered courage of less value than activity and vigilance4 ,yet of such materials ,mohammed constructed a mighty empire2 converted the relapsed ,ishmaelites into good ,musselmen2 united the jarring tribes under one banner2 supplied what was wanting in personal courage by the ardour of religious zeal2 and out of a banditti1 little known and little feared beyond their own deserts1 raised an armed multitude1 which proved the scourge of the world4 ,mohammed was born in the year #efi1 of the noble tribe of the ,koreish1 and descended1 according to eastern historians1 in a direct line from ,ishmael4 ,his person is represented as beautiful1 his manners engaging1 and his eloquence powerful2 but he was illiterate1 like the rest of his countrymen1 and indebted to a ,jewish or ,christian scribe for penning his ,koran4 ,whatever the views of ,mohammed might have been in the earlier part of his life1 it was not till the fortieth year of his age that he avowed his mission as the ,apostle of ,god3 when so little credit did he gain for his pretensions1 that in the first three years he could only number fourteen converts2 and even at the end of ten years his labours and his friends were alike confined within the walls of ,mecca1 when the designs of his enemies compelled him to fly to ,medina1 where he was favourably received by a party of the most considerable inhabitants1 who had recently imbibed his doctrines at ,mecca4 ,this flight1 or ,hegira1 was made the ,mohammedan ra1 from which time is computed1 and corresponds with the #afth of ,july1 #fbb1 of the ,christian ra4 ,mohammed now found himself sufficiently powerful to throw aside all reserve2 declared that he was commanded to compel unbelievers by the sword to receive the faith of one ,god1 and his prophet ,mohammed2 and confirming his credulous followers by the threats of eternal pain on the one hand1 and the allurements of a sensual paradise on the other1 he had1 before his death1 which happened in the year #fcb1 gained over the whole of ,arabia to his imposture4 ,his death threw a temporary gloom over his cause1 and the disunion of his followers threatened its extinction4 ,any other empire placed in the same circumstances would have crumbled to pieces2 but the ,arabs felt their power2 they revered their founder as the chosen prophet of ,god2 and their ardent temperament1 animated by a religious enthusiasm1 gave an earnest of future success1 and encouraged the zeal or the ambition of their leaders4 ,the succession1 after some bloodshed1 was settled1 and unnumbered hordes of barbarians were ready to carry into execution the sanguinary dictates of their prophet2 and1 with 8the ,koran1 tribute1 or death10 as their motto1 to invade the countries of the infidels4 ,during the whole of the succeeding century1 their rapid career was unchecked2 the disciplined armies of the ,greeks and ,romans were unable to stand against them2 the ,christian churches of ,asia and ,africa were annihilated2 and from ,india to the ,atlantic1 through ,persia1 ,arabia1 ,syria1 ,palestine1 ,asia ,minor1 ,egypt1 with the whole of northern ,africa1 ,spain1 and part of ,france1 the impostor was acknowledged4 ,constantinople was besieged2 ,rome itself was plundered2 and nothing less than the subjection of the whole ,christian world was meditated on the one hand and tremblingly expected on the other4 ,all this was wonderful2 but the avenging justice of an incensed ,deity1 and the sure word of prophecy1 relieve our astonishment4 ,it was to punish an apostate race1 that the ,saracen locusts were let loose upon the earth2 and the countries which they were permitted to ravage were those in which the pure light of revelation had been most abused4 ,the eastern church was sunk in gross idolatry2 vice and wickedness prevailed in their worst forms2 and those who still called themselves ,christians trusted more to images1 relics1 altars1 austerities1 and pilgrimages1 than to a crucified ,saviour4 ,about a hundred and eighty years from the foundation of ,bagdad1 during which period the power of the ,saracens had gradually declined1 a dreadful reaction took place in the conquered countries4 ,the ,persians on the east1 and the ,greeks on the west1 were simultaneously roused from their long thraldom1 and1 assisted by the ,turks1 who1 issuing from the plains of ,tartary1 now for the first time made their appearance in the east1 extinguished the power of the caliphate1 and virtually put an end to the ,arabian monarchy in the year #icf4 ,a succession of nominal caliphs continued to the year #abeh3 but the provinces were lost2 their power was confined to the walls of their capital2 and they were in real subjection to the ,turks and the ,persians until the above year1 when ,mostacem1 the last of the ,abbassides1 was dethroned and murdered by ,holagou1 or ,hulaku1 the ,tartar1 the grandson of ,zingis4 ,this event1 although it terminated the foreign dominion of the ,arabians1 left their native independence untouched4 ,they were no longer1 indeed1 the masters of the finest parts of the three great divisions of the ancient world3 their work was finished2 and returning to the state in which ,mohammed found them three centuries before1 with the exception of the change in their religion1 they remained1 and still remain1 the unconquered rovers of the desert4 ,it is not the least singular circumstance in the history of this extraordinary people1 that those who1 in the enthusiasm of their first successes1 were the sworn foes of literature1 should become for several ages its exclusive patrons4 ,almansor1 the founder of ,bagdad1 has the merit of first exciting this spirit1 which was encouraged in a still greater degree by his grandson ,almamon4 ,this caliph employed his agents in ,armenia1 ,syria1 ,egypt1 and at ,constantinople1 in collecting the most celebrated works on ,grecian science1 and had them translated into the ,arabic language4 ,philosophy1 astronomy1 geometry1 and medicine1 were thus introduced and taught2 public schools were established2 and learning1 which had altogether fled from ,europe1 found an asylum on the banks of the ,tigris4 ,nor was this spirit confined to the capital3 native works began to appear2 and by the hands of copyists were multiplied out of number1 for the information of the studious1 or the pride of the wealthy4 ,the rage for literature extended to ,egypt and to ,spain4 ,in the former country1 the ,fatimites collected a library of a hundred thousand manuscripts1 beautifully transcribed1 and very elegantly bound2 and in the latter1 the ,ommiades formed another of six hundred thousand volumes2 forty-four of which were employed in the catalogue4 ,their capital1 ,cordova1 with the towns of ,malaga1 ,almeria1 and ,murcia1 produced three hundred writers2 and seventy public libraries were established in the cities of ,andalusia4 ,what a change since the days of ,omar1 when the splendid library of the ,ptolemies was wantonly destroyed by the same people6 ,a retribution1 though a slight one1 was thus made for their former devastations2 and many ,grecian works1 lost in the original1 have been recovered in their ,arabic dress4 ,neither was this learning confined to mere parade1 though much of it must undoubtedly have been so4 ,their proficiency in astronomy and geometry is attested by their astronomical tables1 and by the accuracy with which1 in the plain of ,chaldea1 a degree of the great circle of the earth was measured4 ,but it was in medicine that1 in this dark age1 the ,arabians shone most3 the works of ,hippocrates and ,galen had been translated and commented on2 their physicians were sought after by the princes of ,asia and ,europe2 and the names of ,rhazis1 ,albucasis1 and ,avicenna are still revered by the members of the healing art4 ,so little1 indeed1 did the physicians of ,europe in that age know of the history of their own science1 that they were astonished1 on the revival of learning1 to find in the ancient ,greek authors those systems for which they thought themselves indebted to the ,arabians6 ,the last remnant of ,arabian science was found in ,spain2 from whence it was expelled in the beginning of the seventeenth century1 by the intemperate bigots of that country1 who have never had any thing of their own with which to supply its place4 ,the ,arabians are the only people who have preserved their descent1 their independence1 their language1 and their manners and customs1 from the earliest ages to the present times2 and it is among them that we are to look for examples of patriarchal life and manners4 ,a very lively sketch of this mode of life is given by ,sir ,r4 ,k4 ,porter1 in the person and tribe of an ,arab sheik1 whom he encountered in the neighbourhood of the ,euphrates4 8,i had met this warrior10 says ,sir ,r4 ,k4 ,p41 8at the house of the ,british resident at ,bagdad2 and came1 according to his repeated wish1 to see him in a place more consonant with his habits1 the tented field2 and1 as he expressed it1 #8at the head of his children4' ,as soon as we arrived in sight of his camp1 we were met by crowds of its inhabitants1 who1 with a wild and hurrying delight1 led us toward the tent of their chief4 ,the venerable old man came forth to the door1 attended by his subjects of all sizes and descriptions1 and greeted us with a countenance beaming kindness2 while his words1 which our interpreter explained1 were demonstrative of patriarchal welcome4 ,one of my ,hindoo troopers spoke ,arabic2 hence the substance of our succeeding discourse was not lost on each other4 ,having entered1 ,i sat down by my host2 and the whole of the persons present1 to far beyond the boundaries of the tent1 7the sides of which were open17 seated themselves also1 without any regard to those more civilized ceremonies of subjection1 the crouching of slaves1 or the standing of vassalage4 ,these persons1 in rows beyond rows1 appeared just as he had described1 the offspring of his house1 the descendants of his fathers1 from age to age2 and like brethren1 whether holding the highest or the lowest rank1 they seemed to gather round their common parent4 ,but perhaps their sense of perfect equality in the mind of their chief could not be more forcibly shown1 than in the share they took in the objects which appeared to interest his feelings2 and as ,i looked from the elders or leaders of the people1 seated immediately around him1 to the circles beyond circles of brilliant faces1 bending eagerly toward him and his guest1 7all1 from the most respectably clad to those with hardly a garment covering their active limbs1 earnest to evince some attention to the stranger he bade welcome17 ,i thought ,i had never before seen so complete an assemblage of fine and animated countenances1 both old and young3 nor could ,i suppose a better specimen of the still existing state of the true ,arab2 nor a more lively picture of the scene which must have presented itself1 ages ago1 in the fields of ,haran1 when ,terah sat in his tent door1 surrounded by his sons1 and his sons' sons1 and the people born in his house4 ,the venerable ,arabian sheik was also seated on the ground with a piece of carpet spread under him2 and1 like his ancient ,chaldean ancestor1 turned to the one side and the other1 graciously answering or questioning the groups around him1 with an interest in them all which clearly showed the abiding simplicity of his government1 and their obedience4 ,on the smallest computation1 such must have been the manners of these people for more than three thousand years2 thus1 in all things1 verifying the prediction given of ,ishmael at his birth1 that he1 in his posterity1 should #8be a wild man1' and always continue to be so1 though #8he shall dwell for ever in the presence of his brethren4' ,and that an acute and active people1 surrounded for ages by polished and luxurious nations1 should from their earliest to their latest times1 be still found a wild people1 dwelling in the presence of all their brethren1 7as we may call these nations17 unsubdued and unchangeable1 is1 indeed1 a standing miracle3 one of those mysterious facts which establish the truth of prophecy40 ,but although the manners of the ,arabians have remained unaltered through so many ages1 and will probably so continue1 their religion1 as we have seen1 has sustained an important change2 and must again1 in the fulness of time1 give place to a faith more worthy of the people4 ,st4 ,paul first preached the ,gospel in ,arabia1 ,gal4 i1 #ag4 ,christian churches were subsequently founded1 and many of their tribes embraced ,christianity prior to the fifth century2 most of which appear to have been tinctured with the ,nestorian heresy4 ,at this time1 however1 it does not appear that the ,arabians had any version of the ,scriptures in their own language1 to which some writers attribute the ease with which they were drawn into the ,mohammedan delusion2 while the 8,greeks1 ,syrians1 ,armenians1 ,abyssinians1 ,copts1 and others10 who enjoyed that privilege1 were able to resist it4 ,,aram1 the fifth son of ,shem1 ,gen4 x1 #bb4 ,he was the father of the ,syrians1 who from him were called ,aramans1 or ,aramites4 ,,ararat1 a mountain of ,asia1 in ,armenia1 on which the ark of ,noah rested after the cessation of the deluge4 ,concerning the etymology of the name1 ,dr4 ,bryant observes1 that it is a compound of ,ar-,arat1 and signifies 8the mountain of descent10 being equivalent to 1 of the ,hebrews4 ,of the precise situation of this mountain1 different accounts have been given4 ,some have supposed that it was one of the mountains which divide ,armenia on the south from ,mesopotamia1 and that part of ,assyria inhabited by the ,curds1 from whom those mountains took the name of ,curdue1 or ,cardu2 by the ,greeks denominated ,gordyi4 ,it is called by the ,arabs ,al-,judi1 and also ,thamanin4 ,in confirmation of this opinion1 it is alleged that the remains of the ark were to be seen on these mountains2 and it is said1 that ,berosus and ,abydenus both declare1 that such a report existed in their time4 ,epiphanius pretends1 if we may credit his assertion1 that the relics of the ark were to be seen in his day2 and we are farther told1 that the emperor ,heraclius went from the town of ,thamanin1 up the mountain ,al-,judi1 and saw the place of the ark4 ,others maintain1 that mount ,ararat was situated toward the middle of ,armenia1 near the river ,araxes1 or ,aras1 about twelve miles from it1 according to ,tournefort1 above two hundred and eighty miles distant from ,al-,judi1 to the north-east4 ,ararat seems to be a part of that vast chain of mountains called ,caucasus and ,taurus2 and upon these mountains1 and in the adjacent country1 were preserved more authentic accounts of the ark than in almost any other part of the world4 ,the region about ,ararat1 called ,araratia1 was esteemed among the ancients as nearly a central part of the earth2 and it is certainly as well calculated as any other for the accommodation of its first inhabitants1 and for the migration of colonies1 upon the increase of mankind4 ,the soil of the country was very fruitful1 and especially of that part where the patriarch made his first descent4 ,the country also was very high1 though it had fine plains and valleys between the mountains4 ,such a country1 therefore1 must1 after the flood1 have been the soonest exsiccated1 and1 consequently1 the soonest habitable4 ,the mountain which has still the name of ,ararat1 has retained it through all ages4 ,tournefort has particularly described it1 and from his account it seems to consist chiefly of freestone1 or calcareous sandstone4 ,it is a detached mountain in form of a sugar loaf1 in the midst of a very extensive plain1 consisting of two summits2 the lesser1 more sharp and pointed2 the higher1 which is that of the ark1 lies north-west of it1 and raises its head far above the neighbouring mountains1 and is covered with perpetual snow4 ,when the air is clear1 it does not appear to be above two leagues from ,erivan1 and may be seen at the distance of four or five days' journey4 ,its being visible at such a distance1 however1 is ascribed not so much to its height1 as to its lonely situation1 in a large plain1 and upon the most elevated part of the country4 ,the ascent is difficult and fatiguing4 ,tournefort attempted it2 and1 after a whole day's toil1 he was obliged1 by the snow and intense cold1 to return without accomplishing his design1 though in the middle of summer4 ,on the side of the mountain that looks toward ,erivan1 is a prodigious precipice1 very deep1 with perpendicular sides1 and of a rough1 black appearance1 as if tinged with smoke4 ,the summit of ,ararat has never been reached1 though several attempts have been made2 and if the ark rested on the summit1 it is certain that those who have spoken of its fragments being seen there in different ages1 must have been imposed upon4 ,it is1 however1 not necessary to suppose that the ark rested upon either of its tops2 and that spot would certainly be chosen which would afford the greatest facility of descent4 ,sir ,robert ,ker ,porter is among the modern travellers who have given us an account of this celebrated mountain3--8,as the vale opened beneath us in our descent1 my whole attention became absorbed in the view before me4 ,a vast plain1 peopled with countless villages2 the towers and spires of the churches of ,eitch-mai-adzen1 arising from amidst them2 the glittering waters of the ,araxes1 flowing through the fresh green of the vale2 and the subordinate range of mountains1 skirting the base of the awful monument of the antediluvian world4 ,it seemed to stand a stupendous link in the history of man1 uniting the two races of men before and after the flood4 ,but it was not until we had arrived upon the flat plain1 that ,i beheld ,ararat in all its amplitude of grandeur4 ,from the spot on which ,i stood1 it appeared as if the hugest mountains of the world had been piled upon each other1 to form this one sublime immensity of earth1 and rock1 and snow4 ,the icy peaks of its double heads rose majestically into the clear and cloudless heavens2 the sun blazed bright upon them2 and the reflection sent forth a dazzling radiance1 equal to other suns4 ,this point of the view united the utmost grandeur of plain and height4 ,but the feelings ,i experienced while looking on the mountain1 are hardly to be described4 ,my eye1 not able to rest for any length of time upon the blinding glory of its summits1 wandered down the apparently interminable sides1 till ,i could no longer trace their vast lines in the mists of the horizon2 when an inexpressible impulse1 immediately carrying my eye upward again1 refixed my gaze upon the awful glare of ,ararat2 and this bewildered sensibility of sight being answered by a similar feeling in the mind1 for some moments ,i was lost in a strange suspension of the powers of thought40 ,the separate peaks are called ,great and ,little ,ararat1 and the space between them is about seven miles4 8,these inaccessible summits10 continues ,sir ,r4 ,k4 ,porter1 8have never been trodden by the foot of man since the days of ,noah1 if even then2 for my idea is1 that the ark rested in the space between these heads1 and not on the top of either4 ,various attempts have been made in different ages to ascend these tremendous mountain-pyramids1 but in vain3 their form1 snows1 and glaciers1 are insurmountable obstacles3 the distance being so great from the commencement of the icy region to the highest points1 cold alone would be the destruction of any person who should have the hardihood to persevere4 ,on viewing mount ,ararat from the northern side of the plain1 its two heads are separated by a wide cleft1 or rather glen1 in the body of the mountain4 ,the rocky side of the greater head runs almost perpendicularly down to the north-east1 while the lesser head rises from the sloping bottom of the cleft1 in a perfectly conical shape4 ,both heads are covered with snow4 ,the form of the greater is similar to the less1 only broader and rounder at the top2 and shows to the north-west a broken and abrupt front1 opening1 about half way down1 into a stupendous chasm1 deep1 rocky1 and peculiarly black4 ,at that part of the mountain1 the hollow of the chasm receives an interruption from the projection of minor mountains1 which start from the sides of ,ararat like branches from the root of a tree1 and run along1 in undulating progression1 till lost in the distant vapours of the plain40 ,dr4 ,shuckford argues that the true ,ararat lies among the mountains of the north of ,india2 but ,mr4 ,faber has answered his reasoning1 and proved by a comparison of geographical notices incidentally mentioned in the ,old ,testament1 that the ,ararat of ,armenia is the true ,ararat4 ,,archangel1 according to some1 means an angel occupying the eighth rank in the celestial order or hierarchy2 but others reckon it a title only applicable to our ,saviour2 ,jude #i2 ,dan4 xii1 #a2 #a ,thess4 iv1 #af4 ,on this point ,bishop ,horsley has the following observations3--8,it has been for a long time a fashion in the church to speak very frequently and familiarly of archangels as beings of an order with which we are perfectly well acquainted4 ,some say there are seven of them4 ,upon what solid ground that assertion stands1 ,i know not2 but this ,i know1 the word #8archangel' is not to be found in any one passage of the ,old ,testament3 in the ,new ,testament it occurs twice1 and only twice4 ,one of the two passages is in the ,first ,epistle to the ,thessalonians2 where the ,apostle1 among the circumstances of the pomp of our ,lord's descent from heaven to the final judgment1 mentions #8the voice of the archangel2' the other passage is in the ,epistle of ,st4 ,jude1 where the title of archangel is coupled with the name of #8,michael the archangel4' ,this passage is so remarkably obscure that ,i shall not attempt to draw any conclusion from it but this1 which manifestly follows1 be the particular sense of the passage what it may3 since this is one of the two texts in which alone the word #8archangel' is found in the whole ,bible2 since in this one text only the title of archangel is coupled with any name2 and since the name with which it is here coupled is ,michael2 it follows undeniably that the archangel ,michael is the only archangel of whom we know any thing from holy writ4 ,it cannot be proved from holy writ1 and1 if not from holy writ1 it cannot be proved at all1 that any archangel exists but the one archangel ,michael1 and this one archangel ,michael is unquestionably the ,michael of the book of ,daniel4 8,i must observe by the way1 with respect to the import of the title of archangel1 that the word1 by etymology1 clearly implies a superiority of rank and authority in the person to whom it is applied4 ,it implies a command over angels2 and this is all that the word of necessity implies4 ,but it follows not1 by any sound rule of argument1 that1 because no other superiority than that of rank and authority is implied in the title1 no other belongs to the person distinguished by the title1 and that he is in all other respects a mere angel4 ,since we admit various orders of intelligent beings1 it is evident that a being highly above the angelic order may command angels4 8,to ascertain1 if we can1 to what order of beings the archangel ,michael may belong1 let us see how he is described by the ,prophet ,daniel1 who never mentions him by that title2 and what action is attributed to him in the book of ,daniel and in another book1 in which he bears a principal part4 8,now ,daniel calls him #8one of the chief princes1#8 or #8one of the capital princes1' or #8one of the princes that are at the head of all3' for this ,i maintain to be the full and not more than the full import of the ,hebrew words4 ,now we are clearly got above the earth1 into the order of celestials1 who are the princes that are first1 or at the head of all8 ,are they any other than the three persons in the ,godhead8 ,michael1 therefore1 is one of them2 but which of them8 ,this is not left in doubt4 ,gabriel1 speaking of him to ,daniel1 calls him #8,michael your prince1' and #8the great prince which standeth for the children of thy people2#8 that is1 not for the nation of the ,jews in particular1 but for the children1 the spiritual children1 of that holy seed the elect people of ,god2 a description which applies particularly to the ,son of ,god1 and to no one else2 and in perfect consistence with this description of ,michael in the book of ,daniel1 is the action assigned to him in the ,apocalypse1 in which we find him fighting with the old serpent1 the deceiver of the world1 and victorious in the combat4 ,that combat who was to maintain8 in that combat who was to be victorious1 but the seed of the woman8 ,from all this it is evident1 that ,michael is a name for our ,lord himself1 in his particular character of the champion of his faithful people1 against the violence of the apostate faction and the wiles of the devil40 ,to this opinion there is nothing irreconcilable in the 8voice of the archangel0 mentioned in #a ,thess4 iv1 #af3 since the 8shout10 the 8voice10 the 8trump of ,god10 may all be the majestic summons of the ,judge himself4 ,at the same time we must feel that the reasoning of ,bishop ,horsley1 though ingenious1 is for from being conclusive against the existence of one or more archangels4 ,,archbishop1 a bishop of the first class1 who superintends the conduct of other bishops4 ,archbishops were not known in the east till about the year #cbj2 and though there were some soon after this1 who had the title1 yet it was only a personal honour1 by which the bishops of considerable cities were distinguished4 ,it was not till of late that archbishops became metropolitans1 and had suffragans under them4 ,athanasius appears to have been the first who used the title archbishop1 which he gave occasionally to his predecessor4 ,gregory ,nazianzen1 in like manner1 gave it to ,athanasius2 not that either of them was entitled to any jurisdiction1 or even any precedency1 in virtue of this title4 ,among the ,latins1 ,isidore ,hispalensis is the first who speaks of archbishops4 ,,archelaus1 son of ,herod the ,great1 and ,maltace1 his fifth wife4 ,herod having put to death his sons ,alexander1 ,aristobulus1 and ,antipater1 and expunged out of his will ,herod ,antipas1 whom he had declared king1 he substituted ,archelaus1 and gave ,antipas the title of tetrarch only4 ,after the death of ,herod1 ,archelaus ordered that king's will to be read1 wherein he1 ,archelaus1 was declared king1 on condition that ,augustus consented4 ,hereupon the assembly cried1 8,long live king ,archelaus60 and the soldiers promised the same fidelity to him as they had shown to his father4 ,archelaus buried his father magnificently1 came to ,jerusalem1 and there mourned seven days1 according to custom4 ,he then gave a splendid entertainment to the people1 went to the temple1 harangued the multitude1 promised them good treatment1 and declared he would not assume the title of king till the emperor had confirmed it1 ,a4 ,m4 #djja2 ,b4 ,c4 #c4 ,the people1 notwithstanding1 tumultuously demanded the execution of those who advised ,herod to slay certain zealots1 who had pulled down a golden eagle from one of the temple gates4 ,they also required ,archelaus to divest ,joazar of the high priesthood2 and they vehemently reproached the memory of the late king4 ,archelaus sent troops to suppress the mutineers1 and killed near three thousand of them about the temple4 ,after this he embarked at ,csarea for ,rome1 to procure from ,augustus the confirmation of ,herod's will4 ,antipas1 his brother1 went to ,rome likewise1 to dispute his title1 pretending that ,herod's first will should be preferred to his last1 which he alleged to have been made by him when his understanding was not sound4 ,the two brothers1 ,archelaus and ,antipas1 procured able orators to display their pretensions before the emperor2 and when they had done speaking1 ,archelaus threw himself at ,augustus's feet4 ,augustus gently raised him1 said he would do nothing contrary to ,herod's intention or his interest1 but refused to decide the affair at that time4 ,some time afterward1 the ,jews sent a solemn embassy to ,rome1 to desire ,augustus would permit them to live according to their own laws1 and on the footing of a ,roman province1 without being subject to kings of ,herod's family1 but only to the governors of ,syria4 ,augustus heard them1 and likewise heard ,archelaus in reply2 then broke up the assembly without declaring himself4 ,after some days1 he sent for ,archelaus1 gave him the title1 not of king1 but of ethnarch1 with one moiety of the territories which his father ,herod had enjoyed2 promising him the crown likewise1 if his good conduct deserved it4 ,archelaus returned to ,judea1 and1 under pretence that he had countenanced the seditious against him1 he deprived ,joazar of the high priesthood1 and gave that dignity to his brother ,eleazar4 ,he governed ,judea with so much violence1 that1 after seven years1 the chiefs of the ,samaritans and ,jews accused him before ,augustus4 ,the emperor immediately sent for his agent at ,rome1 and without condescending to write to ,archelaus he commanded the agent to depart instantly for ,judea1 and order ,archelaus to ,rome1 to give an account of his conduct4 ,on his arrival at ,rome1 the emperor called for his accusers1 and permitted him to defend himself2 which he did so insufficiently1 that ,augustus banished him to ,vienne1 in ,gaul1 where he continued in exile to the end of his life4 ,see ,,antipas4 ,,archi-,,synagogus1 the ruler of a synagogue4 ,see ,,synagogue4 ,,architriclinus1 1 generally translated steward1 signifies rather the master or superintendent of the feast2 8one10 says ,gaudentius1 8who is the husband's friend1 and commissioned to conduct the order and economy of the feast40 ,he gave directions to the servants1 superintended every thing1 commanded the tables to be covered1 or to be cleared of the dishes1 as he thought proper3 whence his name1 as regulator of the triclinium1 or festive board4 ,he also tasted the wine1 and distributed it to the guests4 ,the author of ,ecclesiasticus thus describes this office1 xxxii1 #a1 #b3 8,if thou be made the master of a feast1 lift not thyself up1 but be among them as one of the rest3 take diligent care of them1 and so sit down4 ,and when thou hast done all thy office1 take thy place1 that thou mayest be merry with them1 and receive a crown for the well ordering of the feast40 ,this office is mentioned1 ,john ii1 #h1 #i1 upon which ,theophylact remarks3 8,that no one might suspect that their taste was vitiated by having drunk to excess1 so as not to know water from wine1 our ,saviour orders it to be first carried to the governor of the feast1 who certainly was sober2 for those who on such occasions are intrusted with this office1 observe the strictest sobriety1 that they may be able properly to regulate the whole40 ,,areopagus1 the high court at ,athens1 famed for the justice of its decisions2 and so called1 because it sat on a hill of the same name1 or in the suburbs of the city1 dedicated to ,mars1 the god of war1 as the city was to ,minerva1 his sister4 ,st4 ,paul1 ,acts xvii1 #ai1 c1 having preached at ,athens1 was carried before the ,areopagites1 as 8a setter forth of strange gods40 ,on this occasion he delivered that fine sermon which is in substance recorded in ,acts xvii4 ,dionysius1 one of the judges1 was converted2 and the ,apostle was dismissed without any farther trouble4 ,,argob1 a canton lying beyond ,jordan1 in the half tribe of ,manasseh1 and in the country of ,bashan1 one of the most fruitful on the other side of ,jordan4 ,in the region of ,argob there were sixty cities1 called ,bashan-havoth-,jair1 which had very high walls and strong gates1 without reckoning many villages and hamlets1 which were not inclosed1 ,deut4 iii1 #d-ad2 #a ,kings iv1 #ac4 ,but ,argob was more peculiarly the name of the capital city of the region of ,argob1 which ,eusebius says was fifteen miles west of ,gerara4 ,,arians1 this ancient sect1 was unquestionably so called from ,arius1 a presbyter of ,alexandria1 in the early part of the fourth century4 ,it is said that he aspired to episcopal honours2 and after the death of ,achilles1 in ,a4 ,d4 #cac1 felt not a little chagrined that ,alexander should be preferred before him4 ,whether this circumstance had any influence on his opinions1 it is impossible to say2 but one day1 when his rival 7,alexander7 had been addressing the clergy in favour of the orthodox doctrine1 and maintaining1 in strong and pointed language1 8that the ,son of ,god was co-eternal1 co-essential1 and co-equal with the ,father10 ,arius considered this as a species of ,sabellianism1 and ventured to say1 that it was inconsistent and impossible1 since the ,father1 who begat1 must be before the ,son1 who was begotten3 the latter1 therefore1 could not be absolutely eternal4 ,alexander at first admonished ,arius1 and endeavoured to convince him of his error2 but without effect1 except that he became the more bold in contradiction4 ,some of the clergy thought their bishop too forbearing1 and it is possible he felt his inferiority of talent2 for ,arius was a man of accomplished learning1 and commanding eloquence2 venerable in person1 and fascinating in address4 ,at length ,alexander was roused1 and attempted to silence ,arius by his authority2 but this not succeeding1 as the latter was bold and pertinacious1 ,alexander1 about the year #cbj1 called a council of his clergy1 by whom the reputed heretic was deposed and excommunicated4 ,arius now retired into ,palestine1 where his talents and address soon made a number of converts2 and among the rest1 the celebrated ,eusebius1 bishop of ,nicomedia1 and other bishops and clergy of those parts1 who assembled in council1 and received the excommunicated presbyter into their communion4 ,eusebius also1 having great interest with ,constantia1 the sister of ,constantine1 and wife of ,licinius1 recommended ,arius to her protection and patronage2 through which1 and by his own eloquent letters to the clergy in various parts1 his system spread with great rapidity1 and to a vast extent4 ,the emperor ,constantine1 who had no great skill in these matters1 was grieved to see the ,christian church 7but just escaped from the red dragon of persecution7 thus torn by intestine animosity and dissensions2 he therefore determined to summon a general council of the clergy1 which met at ,nice1 ,a4 ,d4 #cbe1 and contained more than #cjj bishops4 ,constantine attended in person1 and strongly recommended peace and unanimity4 ,athanasius was the chief opponent of the ,arians4 ,both parties were willing to subscribe to the language of the ,scriptures1 but each insisted on interpreting for themselves4 8,did the ,trinitarians10 says ,mr4 ,milner1 8assert that ,christ was ,god8 ,the ,arians allowed it1 but in the same sense as holy men and angels are styled gods in ,scripture4 ,did they affirm that he was truly ,god8 ,the others allowed that he was made so by ,god4 ,did they affirm that the ,son was naturally of ,god8 ,it was granted3 ,even we1 said they1 are of ,god1 #8of whom are all things4'0 ,at length the ,athanasians collected a number of texts1 which they conceived amounted to full proof of the ,son being of one and the same substance with the ,father2 the ,arians admitted he was of like substance1 the difference in the ,greek phrases being only in a single letter1--1 homoousios and 1 homoiousios4 ,at length the former was decreed to be the orthodox faith1 and the ,nicene creed was framed as it remains at this day so far as concerns the person of the ,son of ,god1 who is said to be 8begotten of his ,father before all worlds2 ,god of ,god1 ,light of ,light1 very ,god of very ,god1 begotten1 not made1 of one substance with the ,father1 by whom all things were made10 c4 ,arius was now excommunicated4 ,the sentence of the council pronounced against him and his associates was followed by another of the emperor1 whereby the excommunicated persons were condemned to banishment1 that they might be debarred the society of their countrymen whom the church had judged unworthy to remain in her communion4 ,soon after which1 ,eusebius of ,nicomedia1 and ,theognis of ,nice1 being found to continue their countenance and protection to the ,arian cause1 to communicate with those whom they had anathematized1 and to concur in those sentiments which they had condemned by their subscriptions2 they were both subjected to the same penalty of exile by the emperor1 and were actually deposed1 7as we learn from ,athanasius17 and had successors ordained to their sees1 though history is silent as to the council by which this was done4 ,but such was the good nature and credulity of ,constantine1 that these men1 by their usual artifices1 easily imposed upon him1 and brought him to such a full persuasion of their agreement with the ,nicene faith1 that in about three years' time they were not only recalled from banishment1 but restored to their sees1 and to a considerable degree of interest at court4 ,their thorough attachment to the cause of ,arius1 and their hatred of ,athanasius1 who had so vigorously withstood them in the council1 and was now advanced to the see of ,alexandria1 made them watchful of every opportunity to defeat the decisions of the council4 ,in the meantime one who wished well to their designs1 and whom ,constantia had upon her death bed recommended to the emperor1 did so far prevail upon the easy credulity of ,constantine1 by complaining that ,arius had been misrepresented1 and differed nothing in his sentiments from the ,nicene fathers1 that the indulgent emperor recalled him from his banishment1 and required him to exhibit in writing1 a confession of his faith4 ,he did this in such terms as1 though they admitted of a latent reservation1 yet bore the appearance of being entirely catholic2 and therefore not only gave satisfaction to the emperor1 but even offended some of his own followers1 who from that time forth separated from him4 ,the discerning ,athanasius was not so easily imposed upon as ,constantine2 but1 well assured of the heretic's prevarication1 was resolute in refusing to admit him to communion1 whom the ,nicene council had so openly condemned4 ,upon this the emperor sent for ,arius to ,constantinople1 and insisted upon his being received into communion1 by ,alexander1 bishop of that city4 ,however1 on the day before this was to have taken place1 ,arius died suddenly from a complaint in his bowels4 ,some attributed this to poison2 others to the judgment of ,god4 ,the emperor did not long survive2 and ,constantius1 his successor1 became warmly attached to the ,arian cause1 as were all the court party4 ,successive emperors took different sides1 and thus was the peace of the church agitated for many years1 and practical religion sacrificed alternately to the dogmas or the interests of one party or the other2 and each was in turn excommunicated1 fined1 imprisoned1 or banished4 ,constantius supported ,arianism triumphantly1 ,julian laughed at both parties1 but persecuted neither1 ,jovian supported the ,nicene doctrine4 ,valentinian1 and his brother ,valens1 took contrary sides2 the former supporting ,athanasianism in the west1 and the latter ,arianism in the east2 so that what was orthodoxy at ,rome was heresy at ,constantinople1 and vice versa4 ,the ,arians themselves were not unanimous1 but divided into various shades of sentiment1 under their respective leaders2 as ,eusebians1 ,eudoxians1 ,acasians1 ,atians1 c2 but the more general distinction was into ,arians and ,semi-,arians2 the former sinking the character of the ,son of ,god into that of a mere creature1 while the latter admitted every thing but the homoousian doctrine1 or his absolute equality with the ,father4 ,after this period we hear little of ,arianism1 till it was revived in ,england in the beginning of the last century by the eccentric ,mr4 ,whiston1 by ,mr4 ,emlyn1 and ,dr4 ,samuel ,clarke4 ,the latter was what may be called a high or ,semi-,arian1 who came within a shade of orthodoxy2 the two former were low ,arians1 reducing the rank of our ,saviour to the scale of angelic beings--a creature 8made out of nothing40 ,since this time1 however1 both ,arians and ,socinians are sunk into the common appellation of ,unitarians1 or rather ,humanitarians1 who believe our ,saviour 7as ,dr4 ,priestley expresses it7 to be 8a man like themselves40 ,the last advocates of the pure ,arian doctrine1 of any celebrity1 were ,mr4 ,henry ,taylor1 7under the signature of ,ben ,mordecai17 and ,dr4 ,richard ,price1 in his 8,sermons on the ,christian ,doctrine40 ,it may be proper to observe1 that the ,arians1 though they denied the absolute eternity of the ,son1 strongly contended for his prexistence1 as the ,logos1 or the ,word of ,god1 8by whom the worlds were made20 and admitted1 more or less explicitly1 the sacrifice which he offered for sin upon the cross4 ,,ariel1 the capital city of ,moab1 frequently mentioned in ,scripture1 ,ezra viii1 #af4 ,see ,,moab4 ,,arimathea1 or ,,ramah1 now called ,raml1 or ,ramla1 a pleasant town1 beautifully situated on the borders of a fertile and extensive plain1 abounding in gardens1 vineyards1 olive and date trees4 ,it stands about thirty miles north-west of ,jerusalem1 on the high road to ,jaffa4 ,at this ,rama1 which was likewise called ,ramathaim ,zophim1 as lying in the district of ,zuph1 or ,zoph1 ,samuel was born1 #a ,sam4 i4 ,this was likewise the native place of ,joseph1 called ,joseph of ,arimathea1 who begged and obtained the body of ,jesus from ,pilate1 ,matt4 xxvi1 #eg4 ,there was another ,ramah1 about six miles north of ,jerusalem1 in a pass which separated the kingdoms of ,israel and ,judah1 which ,baasha1 king of ,israel1 took and began to fortify2 but he was obliged to relinquish it1 in consequence of the alliance formed between ,asa1 king of ,judah1 and ,benhadad1 king of ,syria1 #a ,kings xv4 ,this is the ,ramah1 supposed to be alluded to in the lamentation of ,rachel for her children4 ,,aristarchus1 spoken of by ,st4 ,paul in his ,epistle to the ,colossians1 iv1 #aj1 and often mentioned in the ,acts of the ,apostles4 ,he was a ,macedonian1 and a native of ,thessalonica4 ,he accompanied ,st4 ,paul to ,ephesus1 and there continued with him during the two years of his abode in that place1 sharing with him in all the dangers and labours of the ministry1 ,acts xix1 #bi2 xx1 #d2 xxvii1 #b4 ,he was near losing his life in a tumult raised by the ,ephesian silversmiths4 ,he left ,ephesus with the ,apostle1 and went with him into ,greece4 ,from thence he attended him into ,asia2 from ,asia into ,judea1 and from ,judea to ,rome4 ,,ark1 arca1 denotes a kind of floating vessel built by ,noah1 for the preservation of himself and family1 with several species of animals during the deluge4 ,the ,hebrew word by which the ark is expressed1 is or 1 the constructive form of 1 which is evidently the ,greek 2 and so the ,,lxx render the word in ,exod4 ii1 #c1 where only it again occurs4 ,they also render it 2 ,josephus1 2 and the ,vulgate1 arcam2 signifying an ark1 coffer1 or chest4 ,although the ark of ,noah answered1 in some respects1 the purpose of a ship1 it is not so certain that it was of the same form and shape4 ,it has been inconclusively argued by ,michaelis and some others1 that if its form had not been like that of a ship1 it could not have resisted the force of the waves2 because it was not intended to be conducted1 like a ship1 from one place to another1 but merely 8to float on the surface of the waters10 ,gen4 vii1 #ag4 ,it appears to have had neither helm1 nor mast1 nor oars2 but was merely a bulky capacious vessel1 light enough to be raised aloft with all its contents1 by the gradual rise of the deluge4 ,its shape1 therefore1 was of little importance2 more especially as it seems to have been the purpose of ,providence1 in this whole transaction1 to signify to those who were saved1 as well as to their latest posterity1 that their preservation was not in any degree effected by human contrivance4 ,the ark in which ,moses was exposed bears the same name2 and some have thought that both were of the same materials4 ,with respect to the etymology of the ,hebrew word1 the most rational seems to be that of ,clodius1 who derives it from the ,arabic word 1 8he collected10 from which is formed 1 or 1 denoting a place in which things are collected4 ,foster deduces it from two ,egyptian words1 thoi1 8a ship10 and bai1 8a palm tree branch02 and such ships are still to be seen not only in ,egypt1 but in ,india and other countries2 particularly in some isles of the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,to the insufficiency of the ark to contain all the creatures said to have been brought into it1 objections have1 at different times1 been made4 ,bishop ,wilkins and others have learnedly discussed this subject1 and afforded the most satisfactory answers4 ,dr4 ,hales proves the ark to have been of the burden of forty-two thousand four hundred and thirteen tons2 and asks1 8,can we doubt of its being sufficient to contain eight persons1 and about two hundred or two hundred and fifty pair of four-footed animals1 7a number to which1 according to ,m4 ,buffon1 all the various distinct species may be reduced17 together with all the subsistence necessary for a twelvemonth1 with the fowls of the air1 and such reptiles and insects as cannot live under water80 ,all these various animals were controlled by the power of ,god1 whose special agency is supposed in the whole transaction1 and 8the lion was made to lie down with the kid40 ,whether ,noah was commanded to bring with him1 into the ark1 a pair of all living creatures1 zoologically and numerically considered1 has been doubted4 ,during the long period between the creation and the flood1 animals must have spread themselves over a great part of the antediluvian earth1 and certain animals would1 as now1 probably become indigenous to certain climates4 ,the pairs saved must therefore1 if all the kinds were included1 have travelled from immense distances4 ,but of such marches no intimation is given in the history2 and this seems to render it probable that the animals which ,noah was 8to bring with him0 into the ark1 were the animals clean and unclean of the country in which he dwelt1 and which1 from the capacity of the ark1 must have been in great variety and number4 ,the terms used1 it is true1 are universal2 and it is satisfactory to know1 that if taken in the largest sense there was ample accommodation in the ark4 ,nevertheless1 universal terms in ,scripture are not always to be taken mathematically1 and in the vision of ,peter1 the phrase 1--all the four-footed beasts of the earth1 must be understood of varii generis quadrupedes1 as ,schleusner paraphrases it4 ,thus we may easily account for the exuvi of animals1 whose species no longer exist1 which have been discovered in various places4 ,the number of such extinct species probably has been greatly over-rated by ,cuvier2 but of the fact1 to a considerable extent1 there can be no doubt4 ,it is also to be observed that the presumptive evidence of the truth of the fact of the preparation of such a vessel1 and of the supernatural circumstances which attended it1 is exceedingly strong4 ,it is1 in truth1 the only solution of a difficulty which has no other explanation2 for as a universal deluge is confirmed by the general history of the world1 and by a variety of existing facts and monuments1 such a structure as the ark1 for the preservation and sustenance of various animals1 seems to have been absolutely necessary2 for as we can trace up the first imperfect rudiments of the art of ship building among the ,greeks1 there could be no ships before the flood2 and1 consequently1 no animals could have been saved4 ,nay1 it is highly improbable that even men and domestic animals could be saved1 not to mention wild beasts1 serpents1 c1 though we should admit that the antediluvians had shipping1 unless we should suppose1 also1 that they had a divine intimation respecting the flood1 such as ,moses relates2 but this would be to give up the cause of infidelity4 ,mr4 ,bryant has collected a variety of ancient historical relations1 which show that some records concerning the ark had been preserved among most nations of the world1 and in the general system of ,gentile mythology4 ,abydenus1 with whom all the eastern writers concur1 informs us that the place of descent from the ark was ,armenia2 and that its remains had been preserved for a long time4 ,plutarch mentions the ,noachic dove1 and its being sent out of the ark4 ,lucian speaks of ,deucalion's going forth from the ark1 and raising an altar to ,god4 ,the priests of ,ammonia had a custom1 at particular seasons1 of carrying in procession a boat1 in which was an oracular shrine1 held in great veneration3 and this custom of carrying the deity in an ark or boat was in use also among the ,egyptians4 ,bishop ,pococke has preserved three specimens of ancient sculpture1 in which this ceremony is displayed4 ,they were very ancient1 and found by him in ,upper ,egypt4 ,the ship of ,isis referred to the ark1 and its name1 8,baris10 was that of the mountain corresponding to ,ararat in ,armenia4 ,bryant finds reference to the ark in the temples of the serpent worship1 called ,dracontia2 and also in that of ,sesostris1 fashioned after the model of the ark1 in commemoration of which it was built1 and consecrated to ,osiris at ,theba2 and he conjectures that the city1 said to be one of the most ancient in ,egypt1 as well as the province1 was denominated from it1 ,theba being the appellation of the ark4 ,in other countries1 as well as in ,egypt1 an ark1 or ship1 was introduced in their mysteries1 and often carried about in the seasons of their festivals4 ,he finds1 also1 in the story of the ,argonauts several particulars1 that are thought to refer to the ark of ,noah4 ,as many cities1 not in ,egypt only and ,botia1 but in ,cilicia1 ,ionia1 ,attica1 ,phthiotis1 ,cataonia1 ,syria1 and ,italy1 were called ,theba2 so likewise the city ,apamea was denominated ,cibotus1 from 1 in memory of the ark1 and of the history connected with it4 ,the ark1 according to the traditions of the ,gentile world1 was prophetic2 and was regarded as a kind of temple or residence of the deity4 ,it comprehended all mankind1 within the circle of eight persons1 who were thought to be so highly favoured of ,heaven that they at last were reputed to be deities4 ,hence in the ancient mythology of ,egypt1 there were precisely eight gods2 and the ark was esteemed an emblem of the system of the heavens4 ,the principal terms by which the ancients distinguished the ark were ,theba1 ,baris1 ,arguz1 ,aren1 ,arene1 ,arni1 ,laris1 ,boutas1 ,botus1 and ,cibotus2 and out of these they formed different personages4 ,see ,,deluge4 ,,ark ,,of ,,the ,,covenant1 a small chest or coffer1 three feet nine inches in length1 two feet three inches in breadth1 and two feet three inches in height2 in which were contained the golden pot that had manna1 ,aaron's rod1 and the tables of the covenant1 ,num4 xvii1 #aj2 ,heb4 ix1 #d4 ,this coffer was made of shittim wood1 and was covered with a lid1 called the mercy seat1 ,exod4 xxv1 #ag-bb1 c1 which was of solid gold1 at the two ends whereof were two figures1 called cherubim1 looking toward each other1 with expanded wings1 which1 embracing the whole circumference of the mercy seat1 met in the middle4 ,the whole1 according to the rabbins1 was made out of the same mass1 without any of the parts being joined by solder4 ,over this it was that the ,shechinah1 or visible display of the divine presence in a luminous cloud rested1 both in the tabernacle and in the temple1 ,lev4 xvi1 #b2 and from hence the divine oracles were given forth by an audible voice1 as often as ,god was consulted in behalf of his people4 ,hence it is that ,god is said in ,scripture to dwell between the cherubim1 on the mercy seat1 because there was the seat or throne of the visible appearance of his glory among them1 #b ,kings xix1 #ae2 #b ,chron1 xiii1 #f2 ,psalm lxxx1 #a1 c2 and for this reason the high priest appeared before the mercy seat once every year1 on the great day of expiation1 at which time he was to make his nearest approach to the divine presence1 to mediate and make atonement for the whole people of ,israel4 ,on the two sides of the ark there were four rings of gold1 two on each side1 through which staves1 overlaid with gold1 were put1 by means whereof they carried it as they marched through the wilderness1 c1 on the shoulders of the ,levites1 ,exod4 xxv1 #ac1 #ad2 xxvii1 #e4 ,after the passage of the ,jordan1 the ark continued for some time at ,gilgal1 from whence it was removed to ,shiloh4 ,from this place the ,israelites carried it to their camp1 where1 in an engagement with the ,philistines1 it fell into their hands4 ,the ,philistines1 having gotten possession of the ark1 carried it in triumph to one of their principal cities1 named ,ashdod1 and placed it in the temple of ,dagon1 whose image fell to the ground and was broken4 ,the ,philistines also were so afflicted with emerods1 that they afterward returned the ark with various presents2 and it was lodged at ,kirjath-,jearim1 and afterward at ,nob4 ,david conveyed it to the house of ,obededom1 and from thence to his palace at ,zion2 and lastly1 ,solomon brought it into the temple which he had built at ,jerusalem4 ,it remained in the temple till the times of the last kings of ,judah1 who gave themselves up to idolatry1 and even dared to place their idols in the holy temple itself4 ,the priests1 being unable to bear this profanation1 took the ark and carried it from place to place1 to preserve it from the hands of those impious princes4 ,josiah commanded them to bring it back to the sanctuary1 and it was accordingly replaced1 #b ,chron4 xxxv1 #c4 ,what became of the ark at the destruction of the temple by ,nebuchadnezzar1 is a dispute among the rabbins4 ,had it been carried to ,babylon with the other vessels of the temple1 it would1 in all probability1 have been brought back with them at the close of the captivity4 ,but that this was not the case1 is agreed on all hands2 whence it is probable that it was destroyed with the temple4 ,the ark of the covenant was1 as it were1 the centre of worship to all those of the ,hebrew nation who served ,god according to the ,levitical law2 and not only in the temple1 when they came thither to worship1 but every where else in their dispersions through the whole world2 whenever they prayed1 they turned their faces toward the place where the ark stood1 and directed all their devotions that way1 ,dan4 vi1 #aj4 ,whence the author of the book of ,cosri1 justly says1 that the ark1 with the mercy seat and cherubim1 were the foundation1 root1 heart1 and marrow of the whole temple1 and all the ,levitical worship performed therein2 and1 therefore1 had there been nothing else wanting in the second temple but the ark only1 this alone would have been a sufficient reason for the old men to have wept when they remembered the first temple in which it stood2 and for the saying of ,haggai1 ii1 #c1 that the second temple was as nothing compared with the first2 so great a share had the ark of the covenant in the glory of ,solomon's temple4 ,however1 the defect was supplied as to the outward form1 for in the second temple there was also an ark of the same dimensions with the first1 and put in the same place2 but it wanted the tables of the law1 ,aaron's rod1 and the pot of manna2 nor was there any appearance of the divine glory over it2 nor any oracles delivered from it4 ,the only use that was made of it was to be a representation of the former on the great day of expiation1 and to be a repository of the ,holy ,scriptures1 that is1 of the original copy of that collection of them made by ,ezra after the captivity2 in imitation of which the ,jews1 in all their synagogues1 have a like ark or coffer in which they keep their ,scriptures4 ,for the temple of ,solomon a new ark was not made2 but he constructed cherubim in the most holy place1 which were designed to give additional state to this most sacred symbol of ,god's grace and mercy4 ,these cherubim were fifteen feet high1 and were placed at equal distance from the centre of the ark and from each side of the wall1 so that their wings being expanded1 the two wings which were extended behind touched the wall1 and the other two met over the ark and so overshadowed it4 ,when these magnificent cherubim were finished1 the ark was brought in and placed under their wings1 #b ,chron4 v1 #g-aj4 ,the ark was called the ark of the covenant1 because it was a symbol of the covenant between ,god and his people4 ,it was also named the ark of the testimony1 because the two tables which were deposited in it were witnesses against every transgression4 ,,arm4 ,as it is by this member of the body that we chiefly exert our strength1 it is therefore used in ,scripture for an emblem of power4 ,thus ,god is said to have delivered his people from ,egyptian bondage 8with a stretched-out arm10 ,deut4 v1 #ae2 and he thus threatens ,eli the high priest1 8,i will cut off thine arm1 and the arm of thy father's house10 #a ,sam4 ii1 #ca2 that is1 ,i will deprive thee and thy family of power and authority4 ,,armageddon1 a place spoken of1 ,rev4 xvi1 #af1 which literally signifies 8the mountain of ,mageddon10 or 8,megiddo10 a city situated in the great plain at the foot of ,mount ,carmel1 where the good prince ,josiah received his mortal wound1 in the battle against ,necho1 king of ,egypt4 ,at ,armageddon1 the three unclean spirits coming out of the dragon's mouth shall gather together the kings of the earth1 to the battle of the great day of ,god ,almighty1 ,rev4 xvi1 #ac1 #ad2 where the word ,armageddon1 according to ,mr4 ,pool1 does not signify any particular place1 but is used in allusion to ,megiddo1 mentioned ,judges v1 #ai1 where ,barak overcame ,sisera with his great army1 and where ,josiah was slain1 #b ,kings xxiii1 #cj4 ,if so1 the term must have been a proverbial one for a place of destruction and mourning4 ,,armenia1 a considerable country of ,asia1 having ,colchis and ,iberia on the north1 ,media on the east1 ,mesopotamia on the south1 ,pontus and ,cappadocia on the west1 and the ,euphrates and ,syria on the south-west4 ,armenia is often confounded with ,arama1 the land of ,aram or ,syria2 but they are totally different4 ,armenia1 which is separated from ,aram by ,mount ,taurus1 was so denominated from ,ar-,men1 the mountainous country of ,meni or ,minni1 the people of which country are mentioned under this name by ,jeremiah1 when summoning the nations against ,babylon4 ,the people of this country have in all ages maintained a great similarity of character1 partly commercial and partly pastoral4 ,they have1 in fact1 in the northern parts of the ,asiatic continent1 been what the ,cushites and ,ishmaelites were in the south1 tenders of cattle1 living on the produce of their flocks and herds1 and carriers of merchandize between the neighbouring nations2 a part living at home with their flocks1 and a part travelling as merchants and dealers into distant countries4 ,in the flourishing times of ,tyre1 the ,armenians1 according to ,ezekiel1 xxvii1 #ad1 brought horses and mules to the markets of that city2 and1 according to ,herodotus1 they had a considerable trade in wine1 which they sent down the ,euphrates to ,babylon1 c4 ,at the present day1 the ,armenians are the principal traders of the east2 and are to be found in the capacity of merchants or commercial agents all over ,asia1 a patient1 frugal1 industrious1 and honest people1 whose known character for these virtues has withstood the tyranny and extortions of the wretched governments under which they chiefly live4 ,the religion of the ,armenians is a corrupt ,christianity of the sect of ,eutyches2 that is1 they own but one nature in ,jesus ,christ4 ,their rites partake of those of the ,greek and ,latin churches1 but they reject the idolatries of both4 ,it is indeed a remarkable instance of the firmness of this people1 that while the surrounding nations submitted to the religion as well as the arms of the ,turks1 they have preserved the purity of their ancient faith1 such as it is1 to the present day4 ,it cannot be supposed but that the ,turks used every effort to impose on the conquered ,armenians the doctrines of the ,koran4 ,more tolerant1 indeed1 than the ,saracens1 liberty of conscience was still not to be purchased of them but by great sacrifices1 which for three centuries the ,armenians have patiently endured1 and exhibit to the world an honourable and solitary instance of a successful national opposition of ,christianity to ,mohammedanism4 ,,armenian ,,church1 a branch1 originally1 of the ,greek church1 residing in ,armenia4 ,they probably received ,christianity in the fourth century4 ,mr4 ,yeates gives the most recent account of them3-- 8,their whole ecclesiastical establishment is under the government of four patriarchs2 the first has his residence in ,echmiadzin1 or ,egmiathin1 near ,irivan2 the second1 at ,sis1 in the lesser ,armenia2 the third1 in ,georgia2 and the fourth1 in ,achtamar1 or ,altamar1 on the ,lake of ,van2 but the power of the two last is bounded within their own diocesses1 while the others have more extensive authority1 and the patriarch of ,egmiathan has1 or had1 under him eighteen bishops1 beside those who are priors of monasteries4 ,the ,armenians every where perform divine service in their own tongue1 in which their liturgy and offices are written1 in the dialect of the fourth or fifth centuries4 ,they have the whole ,bible translated from the ,septuagint1 as they say1 so early as the time of ,chrysostom4 ,the ,armenian confession is similar to that of the ,jacobite ,christians1 both being ,monophysites1 acknowledging but one nature in the person of ,christ2 but this1 according to ,mr4 ,simon1 is little more than a dispute about terms2 few of them being able to enter into the subtilties of polemics4 8,in the year #affd1 an ,armenian bishop1 named ,uscan1 visited ,europe for the purpose of getting printed the ,armenian ,bible1 and communicated the above particulars to ,mr4 ,simon4 ,in #affg1 a certain patriarch of the lesser ,armenia visited ,rome1 and made a profession of faith which was considered orthodox1 and procured him a cordial reception1 with the hope of reconciling the ,armenian ,christians to the ,roman church2 but1 before he got out of ,italy1 it was found he had prevaricated1 and still persisted in the errors of his church4 ,about this time1 ,clement ,,ix1 wrote to the king of ,persia1 in favour of some ,catholic converts in ,armenia1 and received a favourable answer2 but the ,armenian church could never be persuaded to acknowledge the authority of ,rome4 8,they have among them a number of monasteries and convents1 in which is maintained a severe discipline2 marriage is discountenanced1 though not absolutely prohibited2 a married priest cannot obtain promotion1 and the higher clergy are not allowed to marry4 ,they worship in the eastern manner1 by prostration3 they are very superstitious1 and their ceremonies much resemble those of the ,greek church4 ,once in their lives they generally perform a pilgrimage to ,jerusalem2 and in #ahai1 the number of ,armenian pilgrims was thirteen hundred1 nearly as many as the ,greeks4 ,dr4 ,buchanan1 however1 says1 #8,of all the ,christians in central ,asia1 they have preserved themselves most free from ,mohammedan and ,papal corruptions4'0 ,,armies4 ,in the reign of ,david1 the ,hebrews acquired such skill in the military art1 together with such strength1 as gave them a decided superiority over their competitors on the field of battle4 ,david increased the standing army1 which ,saul had introduced4 ,solomon introduced cavalry into the military force of the nation1 also chariots4 ,both cavalry and chariots were retained in the subsequent age2 an age1 in which military arms were improved in their construction1 the science of fortification made advances1 and large armies were mustered4 ,from this period1 till the time when the ,hebrews became subject to the ,assyrians and ,chaldeans1 but little improvement was made in the arts of war4 ,the ,maccabees1 after the return of the ,hebrews from the captivity1 gave a new existence to the military art among them4 ,but their descendants were under the necessity of submitting to the superior power of the ,romans4 ,whenever there was an immediate prospect of war1 a levy was made by the genealogists1 ,deut4 xx1 #e-i4 ,in the time of the kings1 there was a head or ruler of the persons1 that made the levy1 denominated 1 who kept an account of the number of the soldiers1 but who is1 nevertheless1 to be distinguished from the generalissimo1 1 #b ,chron4 xxvi1 #aa4 ,compare #b ,sam4 viii1 #ag2 xx1 #be2 #a ,chron4 xviii1 #af4 ,after the levy was fully made out1 the genealogists gave public notice1 that the following persons might be excused1 from military service1 ,deut4 xx1 #e-h3 #a4 ,those who had built a house1 and had not yet inhabited it4 #b4 ,those who had planted a 1 that is1 an olive or vine garden1 and had not as yet tasted the fruit of it2 an exemption1 consequently1 which extended through the first five years after such planting4 #c4 ,those who had bargained for a spouse1 but had not celebrated the nuptials2 also those who had not as yet lived with their wife1 for a year4 #d4 ,the faint-hearted1 who would be likely to discourage others1 and who1 if they had gone into battle1 where1 in those early times1 every thing depended on personal prowess1 would only have fallen victims4 ,at the head of each rank or file of fifty1 was the captain of fifty4 ,the other divisions consisted of a hundred1 a thousand1 and ten thousand men1 each one of which was headed by its appropriate commander4 ,these divisions ranked in respect to each other according to their families1 and were subject to the authority of the heads of those families1 #b ,chron4 xxv1 #e2 xxvi1 #ab1 #ac4 ,the centurions1 and chiliarchs or captains of thousands1 were admitted into the councils of war1 #a ,chron4 xiii1 #a-c2 #a ,sam4 xviii1 #ac4 ,the leader of the whole army was denominated 1 the captain of the host4 ,the genealogists1 7in the ,english version1 officers17 according to a law in ,deut4 xx1 #i1 had the right of appointing the persons who were to act as officers in the army2 and they1 undoubtedly1 made it a point1 in their selections1 to choose those who are called heads of families4 ,the practice of thus selecting military officers ceased under the kings4 ,some of them were then chosen by the king1 and in other instances the office became permanent and hereditary in the heads of families4 ,both kings and generals had armour bearers1 4 ,they were chosen from the bravest of the soldiery1 and not only bore the arms of their masters1 but were employed to give his commands to the subordinate captains1 and were present at his side in the hour of peril1 #a ,sam4 xiv1 #f2 xvii1 #g4 ,the infantry1 the cavalry1 and the chariots of war were so arranged1 as to make separate divisions of an army1 ,exod4 xiv1 #f1 #g4 ,the infantry were divided likewise into light-armed troops1 1 and into spearmen1 ,genesis xlix1 #ai2 #a ,samuel xxx1 #h1 #ae1 #bc2 #b ,sam4 iii1 #bb2 iv1 #b2 xxii1 #cj2 ,psalm xviii1 #cj2 #b ,kings v1 #b2 ,hosea vii1 #a4 ,the light-armed infantry were furnished with a sling and javelin1 with a bow1 arrows1 and quiver1 and also1 at least in latter times1 with a buckler4 ,they fought the enemy at a distance4 ,the spearmen1 on the contrary1 who were armed with spears1 swords1 and shields1 fought hand to hand1 #a ,chron4 xii1 #bd1 #cd2 #b ,chron4 xiv1 #h2 xvii1 #ag4 ,the light-armed troops were commonly taken from the tribes of ,ephraim and ,benjamin1 #b ,chron4 xiv1 #h2 xvii1 #ag4 ,compare ,gen4 xlix1 #bg2 ,psalm lxxviii1 #i4 ,the art of laying out an encampment appears to have been well understood in ,egypt1 long before the departure of the ,hebrews from that country4 ,it was there that ,moses became acquainted with that mode of encamping1 which1 in the second chapter of ,numbers1 is prescribed to the ,hebrews4 ,in the encampment of the ,israelites1 it appears that the holy tabernacle occupied the centre4 ,in reference to this circumstance1 it may be remarked1 that it is the common practice in the east1 for the prince or leader of a tribe to have his tent pitched in the centre of the others2 and it ought not to be forgotten1 that ,god1 whose tent or palace was the holy tabernacle1 was the prince1 the leader of the ,hebrews4 ,the tents nearest to the tabernacle were those of the ,levites1 whose business it was to watch it1 in the manner of a ,pretorian guard4 ,the family of ,gershom pitched to the west1 that of ,kehath to the south1 that of ,merari to the north4 ,the priests occupied a position to the east1 opposite to the entrance of the tabernacle1 ,num4 i1 #ec2 iii1 #ba-ch4 ,at some distance to the east1 were the tribes of ,judah1 ,issachar1 and ,zebulon2 on the south were those of ,reuben1 ,simeon1 and ,gad2 to the west were ,ephraim1 ,manasseh1 and ,benjamin2 to the north1 ,dan1 ,asher1 and ,napthali4 ,the people were thus divided into four bodies1 three tribes to a division2 each of which divisions had its separate standard1 4 ,each of the large family associations likewise1 of which the different tribes were composed1 had a separate standard1 termed1 in contradistinction from the other1 2 and every ,hebrew was obliged to number himself with his particular division1 and follow his appropriate standard4 ,of military standards1 there were1--#a4 ,the standard1 denominated 2 one of which pertained to each of the four general divisions4 ,the four standards of this name were large1 and ornamented with colours in white1 purple1 crimson1 and dark blue4 ,the ,jewish ,rabbins assert1 7founding their statement on ,genesis xlix1 #c1 #i1 #ag1 #bb1 which in this case is very doubtful authority17 that the first of these standards1 namely1 that1 of ,judah1 bore a lion2 the second1 or that of ,reuben1 bore a man2 that of ,ephraim1 which was the third1 displayed the figure of a bull2 while that of ,dan1 which was the fourth1 exhibited the representation of cherubim4 ,they were wrought into the standards with embroidered work4 #b4 ,the standard1 called 4 ,the ensign of this name belonged to the separate classes of families4 #c4 ,the standard1 called 4 ,this standard was not1 like the others1 borne from place to place4 ,it appears from ,num4 xxi1 #h1 #i1 that it was a long pole1 fixed into the earth4 ,a flag was fastened to its top1 which was agitated by the wind1 and seen at a great distance1 ,jer4 iv1 #f1 #ba2 li1 #b1 #ab1 #bg2 ,ezek4 xxvii1 #g4 ,in order to render it visible1 as far as possible1 it was erected on lofty mountains1 and was in this way used as a signal1 to assemble soldiers4 ,it no sooner made its appearance on such an elevated position1 than the war-cry was uttered1 and the trumpets were blown1 ,isaiah v1 #bf2 xiii1 #b2 xviii1 #c2 xxx1 #ag2 xlix1 #bb2 lxii1 #aj-ac4 ,before battle the various kinds of arms were put into the best order2 the shields were anointed1 and the soldiers refreshed themselves by taking food1 lest they should become weary and faint under the pressure of their labours1 ,jer4 xlvi1 #c1 #d2 ,isaiah xxi1 #e4 ,the soldiers1 more especially the generals and kings1 except when they wished to remain unknown1 #a ,kings xxii1 #cj-cd1 were clothed in splendid habiliments1 which are denominated1 -1 the sacred dress1 ,psalm cx1 #c4 ,it was the duty of the priests1 before the commencement of the battle1 to exhort the ,hebrews to exhibit that courage which was required by the exigency of the occasion4 ,the words which they used were as follows3--8,hear1 ,o ,israel2 ye approach this day unto battle against your enemies2 let not your hearts faint2 fear not1 and do not tremble2 neither be ye terrified1 because of them4 ,for the ,lord your ,god is he that goeth with you1 to fight for you against your enemies1 to save you10 ,deut4 xx1 #b1 c4 ,the last ceremony1 previous to an engagement1 was the sounding of the sacred trumpets by the priests1 ,num4 x1 #i1 #aj2 #b ,chron4 xiii1 #ab-ad2 #a ,macc4 iii1 #ed4 ,,arminianism1 strictly speaking1 is that system of religious doctrine which was taught by ,arminius1 professor of divinity in the university of ,leyden4 ,if therefore we would learn precisely what ,arminianism is1 we must have recourse to those writings in which that divine himself has stated and expounded his peculiar tenets4 ,this1 however1 will by no means give us an accurate idea of that which1 since his time1 has been usually denominated ,arminianism4 ,on examination1 it will be found1 that in many important particulars1 those who have called themselves ,arminians1 or have been accounted such by others1 differ as widely from the nominal head and founder of their sect1 as he himself did from ,calvin1 and other doctors of ,geneva4 ,there are1 indeed1 certain points1 with regard to which he has been strictly and uniformly followed by almost all his pretended adherents2 but there are others of equal or of greater importance1 dogmatically insisted on by them1 to which he unquestionably never gave his sanction1 and even appears to have been decidedly hostile4 ,such a distinction1 obvious as it must be to every attentive reader1 has yet been generally so far overlooked1 that the memory of ,arminius is frequently loaded with imputations the most unreasonable and unjust4 ,he is accused1 by the ignorant and the prejudiced1 of introducing corruptions into the ,christian church1 which he probably never thought of1 and which certainly have no place in his works4 ,and all the odium which his followers have from time to time incurred by their varied and increasing heterodoxy1 has been absurdly reflected upon him1 as if he could be responsible for every error that may be sent abroad under the sanction of his name4 ,whatever be the number or the species of these errors1 and in whatever way they may be associated with his principles1 it is fair to the character of ,arminius1 and useful to the interests of religious truth1 to revert to his own writings as the only source from which we ought to derive information concerning the ,arminian scheme2 and by doing so1 it may be discovered1 that genuine unadulterated ,arminianism is not that great and dangerous heresy which among a certain class of ,christians it is too often represented to be4 ,arminianism1 in its proper sense1 is to be considered as a separation from ,calvinism1 with regard to the doctrines of unconditional election1 particular redemption1 and other points necessarily resulting from these4 ,the ,calvinists held that ,god had elected a certain portion of the human race to eternal life1 passing by the rest1 or rather dooming them to everlasting destruction2 that ,god's election proceeded upon no prescience of the moral principles and character of those whom he had thus predestinated1 but originated solely in the motions of his free and sovereign mercy2 that ,christ died for the elect only1 and therefore that the merits of his death can avail for the salvation of none but them2 and that they are constrained by the irresistible power of divine grace to accept of him as their ,saviour4 ,to this doctrine1 that of ,arminius and his legitimate followers stands opposed4 ,they do not deny an election2 but they deny that it is absolute and unconditional4 ,they argue1 that an election of this kind is inconsistent with the character of ,god1 that it destroys the liberty of the human will1 that it contradicts the language of ,scripture1 and that it tends to encourage a careless and licentious practice in those by whom it is believed4 ,they maintain that ,god has elected those only who1 according1 not to his decree1 but to his foreknowledge1 and in the exercise of their natural powers of self-determination1 acting under the influence of his grace1 would possess that faith and holiness to which salvation is annexed in the ,gospel scheme4 ,and those who are not elected are allowed to perish1 not because they were not elected1 but merely and solely in consequence of their infidelity and disobedience2 on account1 indeed1 of which infidelity and disobedience being foreseen by ,god1 their election did not take place4 ,they hold1 that ,christ died for all men in the literal and unrestricted sense of that phrase2 that his atonement is able1 both from its own merit1 and from the intention of him who appointed it1 to expiate the guilt of every individual2 that every individual is invited to partake of the benefits which it has procured2 that the grace of ,god is offered to make the will comply with this invitation1 but that this grace may be resisted and rendered ineffectual by the sinner's perversity4 ,whether true believers necessarily persevered1 or whether they might fall from their faith1 and forfeit their state of grace1 was a question which ,arminius left in a great measure unresolved1 but which was soon determined by his followers in this additional proposition1 that saints may fall from the state of grace1 in which they are placed by the operation of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,this1 indeed1 seems to follow as a corollary1 from what ,arminius maintained respecting the natural freedom and corruption of the will1 and the resistibility of divine grace4 ,it may now be proper to mention some tenets with regard to which ,arminianism has been much misrepresented4 ,if a man hold that good works are necessary to justification2 if he maintain that faith includes good works in its own nature2 if he reject the doctrine of original sin2 if he deny that divine grace is requisite for the whole work of sanctification2 if he speak of human virtue as meritorious in the sight of ,god2 it is very generally concluded1 that he is an ,arminian4 ,but the truth is1 that a man of such sentiments is properly a disciple of the ,pelagian and ,socinian schools4 ,to such sentiments pure ,arminianism is as diametrically opposite as ,calvinism itself4 ,the genuine ,arminians admit the corruption of human nature in its full extent4 ,they admit1 that we are justified by faith only4 ,they admit1 that our justification originates solely in the grace of ,god4 ,they admit1 that the procuring and meritorious cause of our justification is the righteousness of ,christ4 ,propter quam1 says ,arminius1 ,deus credentibus peccatum condonat1 eosque pro justis reputat non aliter atque si legem perfect implevissent4 ,for the sake of which ,god pardons believers1 and accounts them as righteous precisely as if they had perfectly obeyed the law4 ,they admit in this way1 that justification implies not merely forgiveness of sin1 but acceptance to everlasting happiness4 ,junctam habet adoptionem in filios1 et collationem juris in hereditatem vit etern4 ,it has connected with it adoption to sonship1 and the grant of a right to the inheritance of eternal life4 ,they admit1 in fine1 that the work of sanctification1 from its very commencement to its perfection in glory1 is carried on by the operation of the ,holy ,spirit1 which is the gift of ,god by ,jesus ,christ4 ,so sound1 indeed1 are the ,arminians with respect to the doctrine of justification1 a doctrine so important and essential in the opinion of ,luther1 that he scrupled not to call it1 articulus ecclesi stantis vel cadentis2 the article with which the church stands or falls2 that those who look into the writings of ,arminius may be disposed to suspect him of having even exceeded ,calvin in orthodoxy4 ,it is certain1 at least1 that he declares his willingness to subscribe to every thing that ,calvin has written on that leading subject of ,christianity1 in the third book of his ,institutes2 and with this declaration the tenor of his writings invariably corresponds4 ,the system of ,arminius1 then1 appears to have been the same with that which was generally maintained in the reformed churches at that time2 except in so far as the doctrine of the divine decrees was concerned4 ,but the most eminent of those who became ,arminians1 or ranked among his professed followers1 by embracing and avowing his peculiar tenets with respect to election and redemption1 soon began to depart widely from the other tenets of his theological creed4 ,they adopted views of the corruption of man1 of justification1 of the righteousness of ,christ1 of the nature of faith1 of the province of good works1 of the necessity and operations of grace1 that are quite contrary to those which he had entertained and published4 ,many of them1 in process of time1 differed more or less from one another1 on some or all of these points4 ,and so diversified are the forms which ,arminianism1 as it is called1 has assumed in the course of its progress1 that to describe precisely what it has been since the synod of ,dort1 or what it is at the present day1 would be a most difficult1 if not an impossible1 task4 ,even the confession of faith1 which was drawn out for the ,arminians by ,episcopius1 and is to be found in the second volume of his works1 cannot be referred to as a standard4 ,it was composed merely to counteract the reproach of their being a society without any common principles4 ,it is expressed chiefly in the words and phrases of ,scripture1 to which1 of course1 every one would annex his own meaning4 ,beside1 no person1 not even a pastor1 was obliged1 by any form1 to adhere strictly to it2 but every one was left entirely at liberty to interpret its language in the manner that was most agreeable to his own private sentiments4 ,accordingly1 so various and inconsistent are their opinions1 that could ,arminius peruse the unnumbered volumes which have been written as expositions and illustrations of ,arminian doctrine1 he would be at a loss to discover his own simple system1 amidst that heterogeneous mass of error with which it has been rudely mixed2 and would be astonished to find1 that the controversy which he had conscientiously introduced1 had wandered far from the point to which he had confined it1 and that with his name dogmas were associated1 the unscriptural and dangerous nature of which he had pointed out and condemned4 ,the same temper of mind which led him to renounce the peculiarities of ,calvinism1 induced him also to adopt more enlarged and liberal views of church communion than those which had hitherto prevailed4 ,while he maintained that the mercy of ,god is not confined to a chosen few1 he conceived it to be quite inconsistent with the genius of ,christianity1 that men of that religion should keep at a distance from each other1 and constitute separate churches1 merely because they differed in their opinions as to some of its doctrinal articles4 ,he thought that ,christians of all denominations should form one great community1 united and upheld by the bonds of charity and brotherly love2 with the exception1 however1 of ,roman ,catholics1 who1 on account of their idolatrous worship and persecuting spirit1 must be unfit members of such a society4 ,that this was not only agreeable to the wishes of ,arminius1 but one chief object of his labours1 is evident from a passage in his last will1 which he made a little before his death3--,ea proposui et docui qu ad propagationem amplificationemque veritatis religionis ,christian1 veri ,dei cultus1 communis pietatis1 et sanct inter homines conversationis1 denique ad convenientem ,christiano nomini tranquillitatem et pacem juxta verbum ,dei possent conferre1 excludens ex iis papatum1 cum quo nulla unitas fidei1 nullum pietatis aut ,christian pacis vinculum servari potest4 ,i have advanced and taught those things which might contribute to the propagation and spread of the truth of ,christianity1 the worship of the true ,god1 general piety1 and a holy fellowship among men2--in fine1 to a tranquillity and peace according to ,god's word and becoming the ,christian name1 excluding the ,papacy1 with which no unity of faith1 no bond of piety1 or of ,christian peace can be maintained4 ,mosheim has stated this circumstance in a note to his history of the ,arminian church2 but his statement1 or rather the conclusion which he deduces from it1 is evidently unfair and incorrect4 ,he alleges1 that ,arminius had actually laid the plan of that theological system which was afterward embraced by his followers2 that he had inculcated the main and leading principles of it on the minds of his disciples2 and that ,episcopius and others1 who rejected ,calvinism in more points than in that which related to the divine decrees1 only propagated1 with greater courage and perspicuity1 the doctrines which ,arminianism1 as taught by its founder1 already contained4 ,these allegations1 it is clear1 have no sort of connection with the passage from which they are drawn as inferences2 and they are wholly inconsistent with the assertions1 and reasonings1 and declarations of ,arminius1 when he is discussing the merits of the question that was agitated between him and the ,geneva school4 ,arminius1 in addition to the scheme of doctrine which he taught1 was anxious to establish this maxim1 and to reduce it to practice1 that1 with the exception above mentioned1 no difference of opinions should prevent ,christians from remaining in one church or religious body4 ,he did not mean to insinuate1 that a difference of opinion was of no consequence at all2 that they who thought one way were just as right as they who thought a contrary way2 or that men have no occasion to be solicitous about the religious tenets which they hold4 ,he did not mean to give up his own system as equally true1 or equally false1 with that of ,calvin2 and as little could he be supposed to sanction those sentiments of his followers which were in direct opposition to the sentiments which he himself had maintained4 ,but he endeavoured1 in the first place1 to assert liberty of conscience1 and of worship2 and then1 upon that fundamental principle1 to persuade all ,christians1 however divided in opinion1 to lay aside the distinctions of sect and party1 and in one united body to consult that tranquillity and peace which is so agreeable to the ,christian name4 ,this we conceive to have been the object of ,arminius2 an object so indicative of an enlightened mind1 so congenial to that charity which hopeth all things1 and thinketh no evil1 and so conducive to the interests of religion and the peace of the world1 as to reflect the highest honour on him by whom it was first pursued1 and to constitute the true glory of ,arminianism4 ,the controversy to which ,arminianism had given rise1 was carried on after the death of its founder1 with the greatest eagerness1 and produced the most bitter and deplorable dissensions4 ,the ,arminians requested nothing more than a bare toleration4 ,this moderate demand1 at all times reasonable and just1 was particularly so in ,holland1 which had thrown off the yoke of civil and spiritual despotism1 and where the received confession of faith had not determined the questions under debate4 ,it was strongly urged by ,grotius1 ,hoogerbeets1 ,olden ,barnevelt1 and other persons of respectability and influence4 ,and ,maurice1 prince of ,orange1 and his mother the princess dowager1 giving countenance to the claim1 there was some prospect of the ,calvinists being persuaded to enter into pacific measures1 and to treat their dissenting brethren with forbearance4 ,accordingly1 in the year #afaa1 a conference between the contending parties was held at the ,hague1 on which occasion1 it is commonly asserted1 the toleration required was offered to the ,arminians1 provided they would renounce the errors of ,socinianism1--though the papers which passed between the parties at that conference1 as authenticated by each of them1 contain no proviso of that description4 ,another conference was held at ,delft1 in #afac4 ,and in #afad1 the ,states of ,holland promulgated an edict1 exhorting the disputants to the exercise of mutual charity4 ,but these and other expedients employed for the same purpose1 had not the desired effect4 ,the ,calvinists expressed great indignation at the magistrates1 for endeavouring1 by their authority1 to promote a union with such adversaries4 ,the conduct of the ,states was ably and eloquently defended by ,grotius1 in two treatises1 entitled1 8,de ,jure ,summarum ,potestatum circa sacra10 and 8,ordinum ,hollandi1 ac ,west-,frisi ,pietas a multorum calumniis vindicata40 ,the hopes of success which the ,arminians entertained from the indulgent manner in which they were treated by the civil authorities1 were soon blasted by a misunderstanding which had secretly subsisted for some time between the stadtholder and the principal magistrates1 and at last broke forth into an open rupture4 ,maurice1 being suspected of aiming at sovereign power1 was firmly opposed by the leading persons in the government1 who had been the friends and patrons of the ,arminians1 and to whom1 therefore1 these adhered at this difficult crisis4 ,on the other hand1 the ,gomarists1 or ,calvinists1 attached themselves to ,maurice1 and inflamed the resentment which he had already1 for various reasons1 conceived against the ,arminians4 ,the prince was resolved1 at once to ruin the ministers who had ventured to oppose his schemes of usurpation1 and to crush the ,arminians1 by whom those statesmen had been warmly supported4 ,for this purpose he got the leading men cast into prison4 ,barnevelt1 whose long and faithful services deserved a better fate1 died on the scaffold3 and ,grotius and ,hoogerbeets1 under pretexts more plausible than solid1 were unjustly condemned to perpetual imprisonment1 from which1 however1 the former afterward escaped1 and fled into ,france4 ,the alleged crime of the ,arminians being of an ecclesiastical nature1 it was thought proper to bring their cause before a national assembly of divines by which their religious opinions might be regularly and finally condemned4 ,under the auspices of ,maurice1 therefore1 and by the authority of the states general1 a synod was convoked at ,dort1 in the year #afah4 ,before this meeting1 which consisted of deputies from the ,united ,provinces1 from ,england1 ,scotland1 ,switzerland1 and other places1 the ,arminians appeared1 with ,episcopius at their head1 to answer to the accusations brought against them1 of departing from the established religion4 ,for a full account of the proceedings of this synod1 the reader may consult the second and third volumes of ,brandt's ,history of the ,reformation1 and the ,remains of ,mr4 ,john ,hales of ,eaton1 who was present at the meeting1 and gives a simple narrative of what he saw and heard4 ,the conduct of the synod has been applauded by some1 and condemned by others4 ,on the one hand1 it has been placed above every other synod since the ,apostolic age1 for its temper1 moderation1 and sanctity2 on the other1 it has been charged with injustice and cruelty1 and burlesqued in such lines as these3-- ,dordrechti synodus nodus2 chorus integer1 ger2 ,conventus1 ventus2 sessio1 stramen1 ,amen4 ,the point of this doggrel1 which consists chiefly in the gingle of the ,latin words1 is lost in a translation4 ,the following is a literal version3-- ,the synod of ,dort1 a knot2 the whole assembly1 sick2 ,the convention1 wind2 the session1 straw1 ,amen4 ,neal remarks1 that it behaved as well as most assemblies of a similar kind have done1 8who have pretended to establish articles for other men's faith1 with penal sanctions40 ,this says very little for the synod of ,dort2 though1 perhaps1 it is even more than can be said with truth4 ,martinius of ,bremen seems to have spoken much more correctly1 when he told his friends1 8,i believe now what ,gregory ,nazianzen says1 that he had never seen any council attended with good effects1 but that it always increased the evil rather than removed it4 ,i declare as well as that father1 that ,i will never set my foot in any synod again4 ,o ,dort6 ,dort6 would to ,god that ,i had never seen thee60 ,the ,arminians1 it is contended1 asked more indulgence than they had reason to expect2 however it is certain that the treatment which they received from the synod1 was arbitrary1 faithless1 and oppressive4 ,they were at length found guilty of heresy1 and of hostility to their country and its religion4 ,and the measures adopted against them1 in consequence of this sentence1 were of the most severe and rigorous kind4 ,they were excommunicated2 they were driven from all their offices1 civil and ecclesiastical2 their ministers were prohibited from preaching2 and their congregations were suppressed4 ,refusing to submit to the two last of these hard decrees1 they were subjected to fines1 imprisonments1 and various other punishments4 ,to avoid this tyrannical treatment1 many of them retired to ,antwerp1 others to ,france1 and a considerable number into ,holstein1 where they were kindly received by ,frederick the duke1 and where1 in the form of a colony1 they built for themselves a handsome town1 naming it ,frederickstadt1 in compliment to their friend and protector4 ,the history of this colony may be found in a work entitled ,epistol ,prstantium et ,eruditorum ,virorum ,ecclesiastic et ,theologic1 and published by ,limborch and ,hartsoeker4 ,the tenets of the ,arminians may be comprised in the following five articles relating to predestination1 universal redemption1 the corruption of men1 conversion1 and perseverance1 viz4 #a4 ,that ,god1 from all eternity1 determined to bestow salvation on those whom he foresaw would persevere unto the end in their faith in ,christ ,jesus2 and to inflict everlasting punishment on those who should continue in their unbelief1 and resist unto the end his divine succours2 so that election was conditional1 and reprobation in like manner the result of foreseen infidelity and persevering wickedness4 #b4 ,that ,jesus ,christ1 by his sufferings and death1 made an atonement for the sins of all mankind in general1 and of every individual in particular2 that1 however1 none but those who believe in him can be partakers of the divine benefits4 #c4 ,that true faith cannot proceed from the exercise of our natural faculties and powers1 nor from the force and operation of free will2 since man1 in consequence of his natural corruption1 is incapable either of thinking or doing any good thing2 and that1 therefore1 it is necessary1 in order to his salvation1 that he be regenerated and renewed by the operation of the ,holy ,ghost1 which is the gift of ,god through ,jesus ,christ4 #d4 ,that this divine grace or energy of the ,holy ,ghost begins and perfects every thing that can be called good in man1 and consequently all good works are to be attributed to ,god alone2 that1 nevertheless1 this grace is offered to all1 and does not force men to act against their inclinations1 but may be resisted and rendered ineffectual by the perverse wills of impenitent sinners4 #e4 ,that ,god gives to the truly faithful1 who are regenerated by his grace1 the means of preserving themselves in this state2 and though the first ,arminians made some doubt with respect to the closing part of this article1 their followers uniformly maintain1 that the regenerate may lose true justifying faith1 forfeit their state of grace1 and die in their sins4 ,the ,arminians are also called ,remonstrants1 from an humble petition entitled their ,remonstrance1 which1 in the year #afaj1 they addressed to the ,states of ,holland4 ,their principal writers are1 ,arminius1 ,episcopius1 ,uitenbogart1 ,grotius1 ,curcellus1 ,limborch1 ,le ,clerc1 ,wetstein1 ,goodwin1 ,whitby1 ,wesley1 ,fletcher1 ,tomline1 c4 ,the works of ,arminius1 with a copious account of his life and times1 have been recently translated into ,english1 by ,mr4 ,james ,nichols2 and have not only served to dissipate many misconceptions respecting the sentiments of this celebrated divine1 which had prevailed in ,england1 where the ,pelagianism of some eminent divines1 generally called ,,arminian1 had been unjustly charged upon him2 but have added a most valuable collection of treatises to our theological literature4 ,,arms4 ,the ,hebrews do not appear to have had any peculiar military habit4 ,as the flowing dress which they ordinarily wore would have impeded their movements1 they girt it closely around them when preparing for battle1 and loosened it on their return1 #b ,sam4 xx1 #h2 #a ,kings xx1 #aa4 ,they used the same arms as the neighbouring nations1 both defensive and offensive2 and these were made either of iron or of brass1 principally of the latter metal4 ,of the defensive arms of the ,hebrews1 the following were the most remarkable2 namely1 #a4 ,the helmet1 1 for covering and defending the head4 ,this was a part of the military provision made by ,uzziah for his vast army1 #b ,chron4 xxvi1 #ad2 and long before the time of that king1 the helmets of ,saul and of the ,philistine champion were of the same metal1 #a ,sam4 xvii1 #ch4 ,this military cap was also worn by the ,persians1 ,ethiopians1 and ,libyans1 ,ezek4 xxxviii1 #e1 and by the troops which ,antiochus sent against ,judas ,maccabeus1 #a ,mac4 vi1 #ce4 #b4 ,the breastplate or corslet1 1 was another piece of defensive armour4 ,goliath1 and the soldiers of ,antiochus1 #a ,sam4 xvii1 #e2 #a ,mac4 vi1 #ce1 were accoutred with this defence2 which1 in our authorized translation1 is variously rendered habergeon1 coat of mail1 and brigandine1 #a ,sam4 xvii1 #ch2 #b ,chron4 xxvi1 #ad2 ,isa4 lix1 #ag2 ,jer4 xlvi1 #d4 ,between the joints of this harness1 as it is termed in #a ,kings xxii1 #d1 the profligate ,ahab was mortally wounded by an arrow1 shot at a venture4 ,from these various renderings of the original word1 it should seem that this piece of armour covered both the back and breast1 but principally the latter4 ,the corslets were made of various materials3 sometimes they were made of flax or cotton1 woven very thick1 or of a kind of woollen felt3 others again were made of iron or brazen scales1 or lamin1 laid one over another1 like the scales of a fish2 others were properly what we call coats of mail2 and others were composed of two pieces of iron or brass1 which protected the back and breast4 ,all these kinds of corslets are mentioned in the ,scriptures4 ,goliath's coat of mail1 #a ,sam4 xvii1 #e1 was literally a corslet of scales1 that is1 composed of numerous lamin of brass1 crossing each other4 ,it was called by ,virgil1 and other ,latin writers1 squama lorica4 ,similar corslets were worn by the ,persians and other nations4 ,the breastplate worn by the unhappy ,saul1 when he perished in battle1 is supposed to have been of flax1 or cotton1 woven very close and thick1 #b ,sam4 i1 #i1 marginal rendering4 #c4 ,the shield defended the whole body during the battle4 ,it was of various forms1 and made of wood covered with tough hides1 or of brass1 and sometimes was overlaid with gold1 #a ,kings x1 #af1 #ag2 xiv1 #bf1 #bg4 ,two sorts are mentioned in the ,scriptures2 namely1 the 1 great shield or buckler1 and the 1 or smaller shield4 ,it was much used by the ,jews1 ,babylonians1 ,chaldeans1 ,assyrians1 and ,egyptians4 ,david1 who was a great warrior1 often mentions a shield and buckler in his divine poems1 to signify that defence and protection of ,heaven which he expected and experienced1 and in which he reposed all his trust1 ,psalm v1 #ab2 and when he says1 8,god will with favour compass the righteous as with a shield10 he seems to allude to the use of the great shield tsinnah1 7which is the word he uses17 with which they covered and defended their whole bodies4 ,king ,solomon caused two different sorts of shields to be made2 namely1 the tsinnah1 7which answers to clypeus among the ,latins17 such a large shield as the infantry wore1 and the maginnim1 or scuta1 which were used by the horsemen1 and were of a much less size1 #b ,chron4 ix1 #ae1 #af4 ,the former of these are translated targets1 and are double in weight to the other4 ,the ,philistines came into the field with this weapon3 so we find their formidable champion was appointed1 #a ,sam4 xvii1 #g4 ,one bearing a shield went before him1 whose proper duty it was to carry this and some other weapons1 with which to furnish his master upon occasion4 ,the loss of the shield in fight was excessively resented by the ,jewish warriors1 as well as lamented by them2 for it was a signal aggravation of the public mourning1 that 8the shield of the mighty was vilely cast away10 #b ,sam4 i1 #ba4 ,david1 a man of arms1 who composed this beautiful elegy on the death of ,saul1 felt how disgraceful a thing it was for soldiers to quit their shields in the field4 ,these honourable sentiments were not confined to the ,jews4 ,we find them prevailing among most other ancient nations1 who considered it infamous to cast away or lose their shield4 ,with the ,greeks it was a capital crime1 and punished with death4 ,the ,lacedemonian women1 it is well known1 in order to excite the courage of their sons1 used to deliver to them their fathers' shields1 with this short address3 8,this shield thy father always preserved3 do thou preserve it also1 or perish40 ,alluding perhaps to these sentiments1 ,st4 ,paul1 when exhorting the ,hebrew ,christians to steadfastness in the faith of the ,gospel1 urges them not to cast away their confidence1 which 8hath great recompense of reward10 ,heb4 x1 #ce4 #d4 ,another defensive provision in war was the military girdle1 which was for a double purpose3 first1 in order to hold the sword1 which hung1 as it to this day1 at the soldier's girdle or belt1 #a ,sam4 xvii1 #ci3 secondly1 it was necessary to gird the clothes and the armour together4 ,to gird and to arm are synonymous words in ,scripture2 for those who are said to be able to put on armour are1 according to the ,hebrew and the ,septuagint1 girt with a girdle2 and hence comes the expression of 8girding to the battle10 #a ,kings xx1 #aa2 ,isa4 viii1 #i2 #b ,sam4 xxii1 #dj2 #a ,sam4 xviii1 #d4 ,there is express mention of this military girdle1 where it is recorded that ,jonathan1 to assure ,david of his entire love and friendship by some visible pledges1 stripped himself not only of his usual garments1 but of his military habiliments1 his sword1 bow1 and girdle1 and gave them to ,david4 #e4 ,boots or greaves were part of the ancient defensive harness1 because it was the custom to cast certain 1 impediments1 7so called1 because they entangled the feet17 in the way before the enemy4 ,the military boot or shoe was therefore necessary to guard the legs and feet from the iron stakes placed in the way to gall and wound them2 and thus we are enabled to account for ,goliath's greaves of brass which were upon his legs4 ,the offensive weapons were of two sorts2 namely1 such as were employed when they came to a close engagement1 and those with which they annoyed the enemy at a distance4 ,of the former description were the sword and the battle-axe4 #a4 ,the sword is the most ancient weapon of offence mentioned in the ,bible4 ,with it ,jacob's sons treacherously assassinated the ,shechemites1 ,gen4 xxxiv1 #b4 ,it was worn on the thigh1 ,psalm xlv1 #d2 ,exod4 xxxii1 #bg2 and1 it should seem on the left thigh2 for it is particularly mentioned that ,ehud put a dagger or short sword under his garments on his right thigh1 ,judges iii1 #af4 ,there appear to have been two kinds of swords in use1 a larger one with one edge1 which is called in ,hebrew the mouth of the sword1 ,joshua vi1 #ba2 and a shorter one with two edges1 like that of ,ehud4 ,the modern ,arabs1 it is well known1 wear a sabre on one side1 and a cangiar or dagger in their girdles4 #b4 ,of the battle-axe we have no description in the sacred volume3 it seems to have been a most powerful weapon in the hands of cavalry1 from the allusion made to it by ,jeremiah3 8,thou art my battle-axe and weapons of war2 for with thee will ,i break in pieces the nations1 and with thee will ,i destroy kingdoms3 and with thee will ,i break in pieces the horse and his rider1 and with thee will ,i break in pieces the chariot and his rider10 ,jer4 li1 #bj1 #ba4 #c4 ,the spear and javelin 7as the words and are variously rendered in ,num4 xxv1 #g2 #a ,sam4 xiii1 #ai1 and ,jer4 xlvi1 #d7 were of different kinds1 according to their length or make4 ,some of them might be thrown or darted1 #a ,sam4 xviii1 #aa2 others were a kind of long swords1 ,num4 xxv1 #h2 and it appears from #b ,sam4 ii1 #bc1 that some of them were pointed at both ends4 ,when armies were encamped1 the spear of the general or commander-in-chief was stuck into the ground at his head4 #d4 ,slings are enumerated among the military stores collected by ,uzziah1 #b ,chron4 xxvi1 #ad4 ,in the use of the sling ,david eminently excelled1 and he slew ,goliath with a stone from one4 ,the ,benjaminites were celebrated in battle because they had attained to great skill and accuracy in handling this weapon2 8they could sling stones to a hair's breadth1 and not miss10 ,judges xx1 #af2 and where it is said that they were left-handed1 it should rather be rendered ambidexters2 for we are told they could use 8both the right hand and the left10 #a ,chron4 xii1 #b2 that is1 they did not constantly use the right hand as others did1 when they shot arrows or slung stones2 but they were so expert in their military exercises1 that they could perform them with their left hand as well as with their right4 #e4 ,bows and arrows are of great antiquity2 indeed1 no weapon is mentioned so early4 ,thus ,isaac said to ,esau1 8,take thy weapons1 thy quiver and thy bow10 ,gen4 xxvii1 #c2 though1 it is true1 these are not spoken of as used in war1 but in hunting2 and so they are supposed and implied before this1 where it is said of ,ishmael1 that he became an archer1 he used bows and arrows in shooting of wild beasts1 ,gen4 xxi1 #bj4 ,this afterward became so useful a weapon1 that care was taken to train up the ,hebrew youth to it betimes4 ,when ,david had1 in a solemn manner1 lamented the death of ,king ,saul1 he gave orders for teaching the young men the use of the bow1 #a ,sam4 i1 #ah1 that they might be as expert as the ,philistines1 by whose bows and arrows ,saul and his army were slain4 ,these were part of the military ammunition2 for in those times bows were used instead of guns1 and arrows supplied the place of powder and ball4 ,from the book of ,job1 xx1 #bd1 it may be collected1 that the military bow was made of steel1 and consequently was very stiff and hard to bend1 on which account they used their foot in bending their bows2 and therefore when the prophets speak of treading the bow and of bows trodden1 they are to be understood of bows bent1 as our translators rightly render it1 ,jer4 #a1 #ad2 ,isa4 v1 #bh2 xxi1 #ae2 but the ,hebrew word which is used in these places1 signifies to tread upon4 ,this weapon was thought so necessary in war1 that it is there called1 8the bow of war10 or the 8battle-bow10 ,zech4 ix1 #aj2 x1 #ad4 ,,arnon1 a river or brook1 mentioned ,num4 xxi1 #bd1 and elsewhere4 ,its spring head is in the mountains of ,gilead1 or of the ,moabites1 and it discharges itself into the ,dead ,sea4 ,,arrow4 ,see ,,arms4 ,divination with arrows was a method of presaging future events1 practised by the ancients4 ,ezekiel1 xxi1 #ba1 informs us1 that ,nebuchadnezzar1 putting himself at the head of his armies1 to march against ,zedekiah1 king of the ,jews1 and against the king of the ,ammonites1 stood at the parting of two ways1 to mingle his arrows together in a quiver1 in order to divine from thence which way he should march4 ,jerom1 ,theodoret1 and the modern commentators after them1 believe that this prince took several arrows1 and upon each of them wrote the name of the king1 town1 or province1 which he was to attack3 for example1 upon one1 ,jerusalem2 upon another1 ,rabbah1 the capital of the ,ammonites2 and upon another1 ,egypt1 c4 ,after having put these into a quiver1 he shook them together1 and then drew them out2 and the arrow which was drawn was thought to declare the will of the gods to attack first that city1 province1 or kingdom1 with whose name it was inscribed4 ,,artaxerxes1 or ,,ahasuerus1 a king of ,persia1 the husband of ,esther1 who1 in the opinion of the learned ,usher and ,calmet1 was the ,darius of profane authors4 ,see ,,ahasuerus4 #b4 ,,artaxerxes ,,longimanus is supposed by ,dr4 ,prideaux to be the ,ahasuerus of ,esther4 ,he was the son of ,xerxes1 and grandson of ,darius ,hystaspes1 and reigned in ,persia from the year of the world #ceca to #cegi4 ,he permitted ,ezra1 with all those inclined to follow him1 to return into ,judea1 in the year of the world #cecg1 ,ezra vii1 viii4 ,afterward1 ,nehemiah also obtained leave to return1 and to build the walls and gates of ,jerusalem1 in the year of the world #ceej1 ,nehem4 i1 #aa4 ,from this year1 chronologers reckon the beginning of ,daniel's seventy weeks1 ,daniel xi1 #bi4 ,these are weeks of years1 and make four hundred and ninety years4 ,dr4 ,prideaux1 who discourses very copiously1 and with great learning1 on this prophecy1 maintains that the decree mentioned in it for the restoring and rebuilding of ,jerusalem1 cannot be understood of that granted to ,nehemiah1 in the twentieth year of ,artaxerxes2 but of that granted to ,ezra1 by the same ,artaxerxes1 in the seventh year of his reign4 ,from that time to the death of ,christ1 are exactly four hundred and ninety years1 to a month3 for in the month ,nisan the decree was granted to ,ezra2 and in the middle of the same month ,nisan1 ,christ suffered1 just four hundred and ninety years afterward4 ,the easterns think that the surname of ,longimanus was given to ,artaxerxes by reason of the extent of his dominions2 as it is commonly said that princes have long hands3 but the ,greeks maintain that this prince had really longer hands or arms than usual2 and that1 when he stood upright1 he could touch his knees4 ,he is said to have been the handsomest man of his time4 ,the eastern people call him ,bahaman1 and give him the surname of ,ardschir-diraz-dest1 or the long-handed4 ,he was the son of ,asfendiar1 sixth king of the second dynasty of the ,persians4 ,after having extinguished the family of ,rostam1 which was formidable to him on account of the great men who composed it1 he carried his arms into the western provinces1 ,mesopotamia and ,syria1 which formed part of his empire4 ,he took ,babylon from ,belshazzar1 son of ,nebuchadnezzar2 and he put in his place ,kiresch1 who by us is called ,cyrus4 ,some ,persian historians assert that the mother of ,artaxerxes was a ,jewess1 of the tribe of ,benjamin1 and family of ,saul2 and that the most beloved of his wives was of the tribe of ,judah1 and race of ,solomon1 by ,rehoboam1 king of ,judah4 ,if this be true1 we need not wonder that he should recommend to ,cyrus to favour the ,jewish nation4 ,this ,cyrus performed1 by sending back the people into their own country1 and permitting them to rebuild their temple4 ,but the truth of this story is doubtful2 and were it true1 the interference of the special providence of ,god must still be acknowledged4 ,artaxerxes reigned forty-seven years1 and died in the year of the world #cegi1 and before ,jesus ,christ #dbe4 ,,artemas1 ,st4 ,paul's disciple1 who was sent by that ,apostle into ,crete1 in the room of ,titus1 chap4 iii1 #ab1 while he continued with ,st4 ,paul at ,nicopolis1 where he passed the winter4 ,we know nothing particular of the life or death of ,artemas2 but the employment to which he was appointed by the ,apostle is a proof of his great merit4 ,,asa1 the son and successor of ,abijam1 king of ,judah1 began to reign in the year of the world #cjdi1 and before ,christ #iee4 ,he reigned forty-one years at ,jerusalem1 and did right in the sight of the ,lord4 ,he purged ,jerusalem from the infamous practices attending the worship of idols2 and he deprived his mother of her office and dignity of queen1 because she erected an idol to ,astarte1 which he burnt in the valley of ,hinnom1 #a ,kings xv1 #h1 c4 ,the ,scripture reproaches ,asa with not destroying the high places1 which1 perhaps1 he thought it politic to tolerate1 to avoid the greater evil of idolatry4 ,he carried into the house of the ,lord the gold and silver vessels which his father ,abijam had vowed to consecrate4 ,he fortified several cities1 and repaired others1 encouraging his people to this labour while the kingdom was at peace2 and the ,lord favoured them with his protection4 ,after this he levied three hundred thousand men in ,judah1 armed with shields and pikes2 and two hundred and eighty thousand men in ,benjamin1 armed with shields and bows1 all men of courage and valour4 ,about this time1 ,zerah1 king of ,ethiopia1 or rather of ,cush1 which is part of ,arabia1 marched against ,asa with a million of foot1 and three hundred chariots of war1 and advanced as far as ,mareshah4 ,this probably happened in the fifteenth year of ,asa's reign1 and in the year of the world #cjfd1 #b ,chron4 xv1 #aj4 ,asa advanced to meet ,zerah1 and encamped in the plain of ,zephathah1 or rather ,zephatah1 near ,mareshah1 and having prayed to the ,lord1 ,god struck the forces of ,zerah with such a panic that they began to flee4 ,asa and his army pursued them to ,geran1 and slew of them a great number4 ,after this1 ,asa's army returned to ,jerusalem1 laden with booty4 ,the prophet ,azariah met them1 and said1 8,hear ye me1 ,asa1 and all ,judah and ,benjamin1 ,the ,lord is with you while ye be with him1 and if ye seek him he will be found of you2 but if ye forsake him1 he will forsake you4--,be ye strong1 therefore1 and let not your hands be weak3 for your work shall be rewarded10 #b ,chron4 xv1 #b1 #g4 ,after this exhortation1 ,asa1 being animated with new courage1 destroyed the idols of ,judah1 ,benjamin1 and ,mount ,ephraim2 repaired the altar of burnt-offerings2 and assembled ,judah and ,benjamin1 with many from the tribes of ,simeon1 ,ephraim1 and ,manasseh1 and on the third day1 in the fifteenth year of his reign1 celebrated a solemn festival4 ,of the cattle taken from ,zerah1 they sacrificed seven hundred oxen1 and seven thousand sheep2 they renewed the covenant with the ,lord2 and1 with cymbals and trumpets sounding1 they swore to the covenant1 and declared that whoever should forsake the true worship of ,god1 should be put to death4 ,the ,lord gave them peace2 and1 according to the ,chronicles1 the kingdom of ,judah had rest till the thirty-fifth year of ,asa4 ,concerning this year1 however1 there are difficulties2 and some think that we should read the twenty-fifth1 instead of the thirty-fifth2 since ,baasha1 who made war on ,asa1 lived no longer than the twenty-sixth year of ,asa1 #a ,kings xvi1 #h4 ,in this year ,baasha1 king of ,israel1 began to fortify ,ramah1 on the frontiers of the two kingdoms of ,judah and ,israel1 that he might prevent the ,israelites from resorting to the kingdom of ,judah1 and the temple of the ,lord at ,jerusalem4 ,when ,asa was informed of this1 he sent to ,benhadad1 king of ,damascus1 all the gold and silver of his palace1 and of the temple1 to induce him to break his alliance with ,baasha1 and to assist him against the king of ,israel4 ,benhadad accepted ,asa's presents1 and invaded ,baasha's country1 where he took several cities belonging to the tribe of ,naphtali4 ,this obliged ,baasha to retire from ,ramah1 that he might defend his dominions nearer home4 ,asa immediately ordered his people to ,ramah1 carried off all the materials prepared by ,baasha1 and employed them in building ,geba and ,mizpah4 ,this application to ,benhadad for assistance was inexcusable4 ,it implied1 that ,asa distrusted ,god's power and goodness1 which he had so lately experienced4 ,therefore the ,prophet ,hanani was sent to reprove him for his conduct4 ,asa1 however1 was so exasperated at his rebukes that he put the ,prophet in chains1 and at the same time ordered the execution of several persons in ,judah4 ,toward the latter part of his life1 he was incommoded with swellings in his feet1 which1 gradually rising upwards1 killed him4 ,the ,scripture reproaches him with having had recourse to physicians1 rather than to the ,lord4 ,he was buried in the sepulchre which he had provided for himself in the city of ,david2 and after his death they placed on the bed great quantities of perfumes and spices1 with which his body was burned4 ,his bones and ashes were then collected1 and put into his grave4 ,,asahel1 the son of ,zeruiah1 and brother of ,joab4 ,he was killed by ,abner1 in the battle of ,gibeon1 #b ,sam4 ii1 #ah1 #ai1 while he obstinately persisted in the pursuit of that general4 ,to revenge his death1 his brother ,joab1 some years after1 treacherously killed ,abner1 who had come to wait on ,david at ,hebron1 in order to procure him to be acknowledged king by all ,israel1 #b ,sam4 iii1 #bf1 #bg4 ,see ,,abner4 ,,asaph1 a celebrated musician in the time of ,david1 was the son of ,barachias of the tribe of ,levi4 ,asaph1 and also his descendants1 presided over the musical band in the service of the temple4 ,several of the psalms1 as the fiftieth1 the seventy-third to the eighty-third1 have the name of ,asaph prefixed2 but it is not certain whether the words or the music were composed by him4 ,with regard to some of them1 which were written during the ,babylonish captivity1 they cannot in any respect be ascribed to him4 ,perhaps they were written or set to music by his descendants1 who bore his name1 or by some of that class of musicians of which the family of ,asaph was the head1 #a ,chron4 vi1 #ci2 #b ,chron4 xxix1 #cj2 xxxv1 #ae2 ,neh4 xii1 #df4 ,the psalms which bear the name of ,asaph are doctrinal or preceptive3 their style1 though less sweet than that of ,david1 is more vehement1 and little inferior to the grandeur of ,isaiah4 ,,ascension ,,of ,,christ1 his visible elevation to heaven4 ,our ,saviour1 having repeatedly conversed with his ,apostles after his resurrection1 and afforded them many infallible proofs of its reality1 led them from ,jerusalem to ,bethany1 and was raised up to heaven in their sight2 there to continue till he shall descend at the last day to judge the quick and the dead4 ,the evidences of this fact were numerous4 ,the disciples saw him ascend1 ,acts i1 #i1 #aj4 ,two angels testified that he did ascend1 ,acts i1 #aa4 ,stephen1 ,paul1 and ,john saw him in his ascended state1 ,acts vii1 #ee1 #ef2 ix2 ,rev4 i4 ,the ascension was demonstrated by the descent of the ,holy ,ghost1 ,john xvi1 #g1 #ad2 ,acts ii1 #cc2 and the terrible overthrow and dispersion of the ,jewish nation is still a standing proof of it1 ,john viii1 #ba2 ,matt4 xxvi1 #fd4 ,the time of ,christ's ascension was forty days after his resurrection4 ,he continued so many days upon earth that he might give repeated proofs of his resurrection1 ,acts i1 #c2 instruct his ,apostles in every thing of importance respecting their office and ministry1 ,acts i1 #c2 and might open to them the ,scriptures concerning himself1 and renew their commission to preach the ,gospel1 ,acts i1 #e1 #f2 ,mark xvi1 #ae4 ,as to the manner of his ascension1 it was from mount ,olivet to heaven1 not in appearance only1 but in reality1 and that visibly and locally4 ,it was a real motion of his human nature2 sudden1 swift1 glorious1 and in a triumphant manner4 ,he was parted from his disciples while he was solemnly blessing them2 and multitudes of angels attended him with shouts of praise1 ,psalm lxviii1 #ag2 xlvii1 #e1 #f4 ,the effects or ends of his ascension were1 #a4 ,to fulfil the types and prophecies concerning it2 #b4 ,to 8appear0 as a priest 8in the presence of ,god for us20 #c4 ,to take upon him more openly the exercise of his kingly office2 #d4 ,to receive gifts for men1 both ordinary and extraordinary1 ,psalm lxviii1 #ah2 #e4 ,to open the way to heaven for his people1 ,heb4 x1 #ai1 #bj2 #f4 ,to assure the saints of their ascension to heaven after their resurrection from the dead1 ,john xiv1 #a1 #b4 ,,ashdod1 ,,azoth1 according to the ,vulgate1 or ,azotus1 according to the ,greek1 a city which was assigned by ,joshua to the tribe of ,judah1 but was possessed a long time by the ,philistines1 and rendered famous for the temple of their god ,dagon1 ,joshua xv1 #dg4 ,it lies upon the ,mediterranean ,sea1 about nine or ten miles north of ,gaza2 and in the times when ,christianity flourished in these parts was made an episcopal see1 and continued a fair village till the days of ,st4 ,jerom4 ,here the ark of ,jehovah triumphed over the ,philistine idol ,dagon1 #a ,sam4 v1 #b4 ,,asher1 tribe of4 ,the province allotted to this tribe was a maritime one1 stretching along the coast from ,sidon on the north to ,mount ,carmel on the south2 including the cities ,abdon1 ,achshaph1 ,accho1 ,achzib1 ,sarepta1 ,sidon1 and ,tyre4 ,but of the northern half of this territory1 that is1 from ,tyre northward1 this tribe never became possessed1 not having expelled the ,phnician inhabitants1 who are supposed not to have been pure ,canaanites1 but a mixture of this people with a ,cuthite colony from ,egypt4 ,asher was the most northerly of the tribes2 and had that of ,naphtali on the west1 and ,zebulun on the south4 ,,ashes4 ,several religious ceremonies1 and some symbolical ones1 anciently depended upon the use of ashes4 ,to repent in sackcloth and ashes1 or1 as an external sign of self-affliction for sin1 or of suffering under some misfortune1 to sit in ashes1 are expressions common in ,scripture4 8,i am but dust and ashes10 exclaims ,abraham before the ,lord1 ,gen4 xviii1 #bg2 indicating a deep sense of his own meanness in comparison with ,god4 ,god threatens to shower down dust and ashes on the lands instead of rain1 ,deut4 xxviii1 #bd2 thereby to make them barren instead of blessing them1 to dry them up instead of watering them4 ,tamar1 after the injury she had received from ,amnon1 covered her head with ashes1 #b ,sam4 xiii1 #ai4 ,the ,psalmist1 in great sorrow1 says poetically1 he had 8eaten ashes as it were bread10 ,psalm cii1 #i2 that is1 he sat on ashes1 he threw ashes on his head2 and his food1 his bread1 was sprinkled with the ashes wherewith he was himself covered4 ,so ,jeremiah introduces ,jerusalem saying1 8,the ,lord hath covered me with ashes10 ,lamentations iii1 #af4 ,sitting on ashes1 or lying down among ashes1 was a token of extreme grief4 ,we find it adopted by ,job1 ii1 #h2 by many ,jews when in great fear1 ,esther iv1 #c2 and by the king of ,nineveh1 ,jonah iii1 #f4 ,he arose from his throne1 laid aside his robe1 covered himself with sackcloth1 and sat in ashes4 ,this token of affliction is illustrated by ,homer's description of old ,laertes grieving for the absence of his son1 8,sleeping in the apartment where the slaves slept1 in the ashes1 near the fire40 ,compare ,jer4 vi1 #bf1 8,daughter of my people1 wallow thyself in ashes40 ,there was a sort of ley and lustral water1 made with the ashes of the heifer sacrificed on the great day of expiation2 these ashes were distributed to the people1 and used in purifications1 by sprinkling1 to such as had touched a dead body1 or had been present at funerals1 ,num4 xix1 #ag4 ,,ashkenaz1 one of the sons of ,gomer1 and grandson of ,japheth1 who gave his name to the country first peopled by him in the north and north-western part of ,asia ,minor1 answering to ,bithynia2 where were traces long after of his name1 particularly in that of ,ascanius1 applied to a bay and city1 as well as to some islands lying along the coast4 ,it was also from this country1 most probably1 that the king ,ascanius1 mentioned by ,homer1 came to the aid of ,priamus at the siege of ,troy4 ,from the same source1 likewise1 the ,pontus ,euxinus1 or ,black ,sea1 derived its name4 ,it may farther be remarked on the identity of these countries1 that the ,prophet ,jeremiah1 predicting the capture of ,babylon1 and calling by name the countries which were to rise against it1 exclaims1 8,call together against her the kingdoms of ,ararat1 7or ,armenia17 ,minni1 and ,ashkenaz30 which was literally fulfilled2 as ,xenophen informs us that ,cyrus1 after taking ,sardis1 became master of ,phrygia on the ,hellespont1 and took along with him many soldiers of that country4 ,,ashtaroth1 or ,,astarte1 a goddess of the ,zidonians4 ,the word ,ashtaroth properly signifies flocks of sheep1 or goats2 and sometimes the grove1 or woods1 because she was goddess of woods1 and groves were her temples4 ,in groves consecrated to her1 such lasciviousness was committed as rendered her worship infamous4 ,she was also called the queen of heaven2 and sometimes her worship is said to be that of 8the host of heaven40 ,she was certainly represented in the same manner as ,isis1 with cows' horns on her head1 to denote the increase and decrease of the moon4 ,cicero calls her the fourth ,venus of the ,syrians4 ,she is almost always joined with ,baal1 and is called a god1 the ,scriptures having no particular word to express a goddess4 ,it is believed that the moon was adored in this idol4 ,her temples generally accompanied those of the sun2 and while bloody sacrifices or human victims were offered to ,baal1 bread1 liquors1 and perfumes were presented to ,astarte4 ,for her1 tables were prepared upon the flat terrace roofs of houses1 near gates1 in porches1 and at crossways1 on the first day of every month2 and this was called by the ,greeks1 ,hecate's supper4 ,solomon1 seduced by his foreign wives1 introduced the worship of ,ashtaroth into ,israel2 but ,jezebel1 daughter of the king of ,tyre1 and wife to ,ahab1 principally established her worship4 ,she caused altars to be erected to this idol in every part of ,israel2 and at one time four hundred priests attended the worship of ,ashtaroth1 #a ,kings xviii1 #g4 ,,ashur1 the son of ,shem1 who gave his name to ,assyria4 ,it is believed that ,ashur originally dwelt in the land of ,shinar and about ,babylonia1 but that he was compelled by the usurper ,nimrod to depart from thence1 and settle higher toward the springs of the ,tigris1 in the province of ,assyria1 so called from him1 where some think he built the famous city of ,nineveh1 and those of ,rehoboth1 ,calah1 and ,resen1 ,gen4 x1 #aa1 #ab4 ,,asia1 one of the four grand divisions of the earth4 ,it is also used in a more restricted sense for ,asia ,minor1 or ,anatolia4 ,in the ,new ,testament it always signifies the ,roman ,proconsular ,asia1 in which the seven ,apocalyptic churches were situated4 ,,askelon1 a city in the land of the ,philistines1 situated between ,azoth and ,gaza1 upon the coast of the ,mediterranean ,sea1 about #ebj furlongs from ,jerusalem4 ,the tribe of ,judah1 after the death of ,joshua1 took the city of ,askelon1 ,judges i1 #ah1 being one of the five governments belonging to the ,philistines4 ,the place at present is in ruins4 ,,asmon,,ans1 a name given to the ,maccabees1 the descendants of ,mattathias4 ,after the death of ,ezra and ,nehemiah1 the ,jews were governed by their high priest1 in subjection1 however1 to the ,persian kings1 to whom they paid tribute2 but with full enjoyment of their liberties1 civil and religious4 ,nearly three centuries of prosperity ensued1 until they were cruelly oppressed by ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 king of ,syria1 when they were compelled to take up arms in their own defence4 ,under the able conduct of ,judas1 surnamed ,maccabeus1 and his valiant brothers1 the ,jews maintained a religious war for twenty-six years with five successive kings of ,syria2 and after destroying upwards of two hundred thousand of their best troops1 the ,maccabees finally established the independence of their own country1 and the aggrandisement of their family4 ,this illustrious house1 whose princes united the regal and pontifical dignity in their own persons1 administered the affairs of the ,jews during a period of a hundred and twenty-six years2 until1 disputes arising between ,hyrcanus ,,ii1 and his brother ,aristobulus1 the latter was defeated by the ,romans1 who captured ,jerusalem1 and reduced ,judea to a military province1 ,b4 ,c4 #ei4 ,,asnapper1 the king of ,assyria1 who sent the ,cutheans into the country belonging to the ten tribes1 ,ezra iv1 #aj4 ,many take this prince to be ,shalmaneser2 but others1 with more probability1 think him to be ,esar-haddon4 ,,asp1 4 ,deut4 xxxii1 #cc2 ,job xx1 #ad1 #af2 ,psalm lviii1 #d2 xci1 #ac2 ,isaiah xi1 #h4 ,a very venomous serpent1 whose poison is so subtle as to kill within a few hours with a universal gangrene4 ,this may well refer to the bten of the ,arabians1 which ,m4 ,forskal describes as spotted with black and white1 about one foot in length1 and nearly half an inch in thickness1 oviparous1 and whose bite is death4 ,it is the aspic of the ancients1 and is so called now by the literati of ,cyprus1 though the common people call it kufi1 717 deaf4 ,with the ,,pethen we may connect the python of the ,greeks1 which was1 according to fable1 a huge serpent that had an oracle at mount ,parnassus1 famous for predicting future events4 ,apollo is said to have slain this serpent1 and hence he was called 8,pythius40 ,those possessed with a spirit of divination were also styled 4 ,the word occurs in ,acts1 xvi1 #af1 as the characteristic of a young woman who had a pythonic spirit4 ,it is well known that the serpent was particularly employed by the ,heathens in their enchantments and divinations4 ,see ,,serpent4 ,pethen1 1 is variously translated in our version2 but interpreters generally consider it as referring to the asp4 ,zophar alludes to it more than once in his description of a wicked man3 8,yet his meat in his bowels is turned1 it is the gall of asps within him4 ,he shall suck the poison of asps3 the viper's tongue shall slay him40 ,the venom of asps is the most subtle of all2 it is incurable2 and1 if the wounded part be not instantly amputated1 it speedily terminates the existence of the sufferer4 ,to these circumstances1 ,moses evidently alludes in his character of the ,heathen3 8,their wine is the poison of dragons1 and the cruel venom of asps40 ,to tread upon the asp is attended with extreme danger2 therefore1 to express in the strongest manner the safety which the godly man enjoys under the protection of his heavenly ,father1 it is promised1 that he shall tread with impunity upon these venomous creatures4 ,no person of his own accord approaches the hole of these deadly reptiles2 for he who gives them the smallest disturbance is in extreme danger of paying the forfeit of his rashness with his life4 ,hence1 the ,prophet ,isaiah1 predicting the conversion of the ,gentiles to the faith of ,christ1 and the glorious reign of peace and truth in those regions which1 prior to that period1 were full of horrid cruelty1 marvellously heightens the force of the whole description by declaring1 8,the sucking child shall play on the hole of the asp1 and the weaned child shall put his hand on the cockatrice' den4 ,they shall not hurt nor destroy in all my holy mountain2 for the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the ,lord1 as the waters cover the sea40 ,,ass1 1 ,arabic1 chamara and hamar4 ,there are three words referred by translators to the ass3 #a4 1 which is the usual appellation1 and denotes the ordinary kind2 such as is employed in labour1 carriage1 and domestic services4 #b4 1 rendered onager1 or 8wild ass40 #c4 1 rendered she ass4 ,to these we must add1 1 rendered wild asses1 ,dan4 v1 #ba4 ,the prevailing colour of this animal in the east is reddish2 and the ,arabic word1 chamara1 signifies to be red4 ,in his natural state he is fleet1 fierce1 formidable1 and intractable2 but when domesticated1 the most gentle of all animals1 and assumes a patience and submission even more humble than his situation4 ,le ,clerc observes1 that the ,israelites not being allowed to keep horses1 the ass was not only made a beast of burden1 but used on journeys2 and that even the most honourable of the nation were wont to be mounted on asses1 which in the eastern countries were much larger and more beautiful than they are with us4 ,jair of ,gilead had thirty sons who rode on as many asses1 and commanded in thirty cities1 ,judges x1 #d4 ,abdon's sons and grandsons rode also upon asses1 ,judges xii1 #d4 ,and ,christ makes his solemn entry into ,jerusalem riding upon an ass1 ,matt4 xxi1 #d2 ,john xii1 #ad4 ,to draw with an ox and ass together was prohibited in the ,mosaic law1 ,deut4 xxii1 #aj4 ,this law is thought to have respect to some idolatrous custom of the ,gentiles1 who were taught to believe that their fields would be more fruitful if thus ploughed2 for it is not likely that men would have yoked together two creatures so different in their tempers and motions1 had they not been led to it by some superstition4 ,there might be1 however1 a physical reason for this injunction4 ,two beasts of a different species cannot well associate together2 and on this account never pull pleasantly either in the cart or plough1 and are not therefore 8true yoke fellows40 ,le ,clerc considers this law as merely symbolical1 importing that we are not to form improper alliances in civil and religious life2 and he thinks his opinion confirmed by these words of ,st4 ,paul1 #b ,cor4 vi1 #ad3 8,be ye not unequally yoked with unbelievers20 which are simply to be understood as prohibiting all intercourse between ,christians and idolaters1 in social1 matrimonial1 and religious life4 ,to teach the ,jews the propriety of this1 a variety of precepts relative to improper and heterogeneous mixtures were interspersed through their law2 so that in civil and domestic life they might have them ever before their eyes4 ,the wild ass1 called ,,para1 is probably the onager of the ancients4 ,it is taller and a much more dignified animal than the common or domestic ass2 its legs are more elegantly shaped2 and it bears its head higher4 ,it is peculiarly distinguished by a dusky woolly mane1 long erect ears1 and a forehead highly arched4 ,the colour of the hair1 in general1 is of a silvery white4 ,these animals associate in herds1 under a leader1 and are very shy4 ,they inhabit the mountainous regions and desert parts of ,tartary1 ,persia1 c4 ,anciently they were likewise found in ,lycaonia1 ,phrygia1 ,mesopotamia1 and ,arabia ,deserta4 ,they are remarkably wild2 and ,job1 xxxix1 #e-h1 describes the liberty they enjoy1 the place of their retreat1 their manners1 and wild1 impetuous1 and untamable spirit4 8,vain man would be wise1 though he be born a wild ass's colt10 ,job xi1 #ab2 1 8ass colt10 not 8ass's colt20 being in apposition with 1 and not in government4 ,the whole is a proverbial expression1 denoting extreme perversity and ferocity1 and repeatedly alluded to in the ,old ,testament4 ,thus1 ,gen4 xvi1 #ab1 it is prophesied of ,ishmael that he should be 1 a wild ass man2 rough1 untaught1 and libertine as a wild ass4 ,so ,hosea1 xiii1 #ae2 8,he 7,ephraim7 hath run wild 7literally assified himself7 amidst the braying monsters40 ,so again1 ,hosea viii1 #i1 the very same character is given of ,ephraim1 who is called 8a solitary wild ass by himself10 or perhaps a solitary wild ass of the desert2 for the original will bear to be so rendered4 ,this proverbial expression has descended among the ,arabians to the present day1 who still employ1 as ,schultens has remarked1 the expressions1 8the ass of the desert10 or 8the wild ass10 to describe an obstinate1 indocile1 and contumacious person4 ,the ,prophet ,isaiah1 xxxii1 #ad1 describes great desolation by saying that 8the wild asses shall rejoice where a city stood40 ,there is another kind of ass called1 4 ,abraham had ,,atonoth1 ,gen4 xii1 #af2 ,balaam rode on an ,,aton1 ,num4 xxii1 #bc4 ,we find from #a ,chron4 xxvii1 #cj1 that ,david had an officer expressly appointed to superintend his ,,atonoth2 not his ordinary asses1 but those of a nobler race2 which implies at least equal dignity in this officer to his colleagues mentioned with him4 ,this notion of the ,,aton gives also a spirit to the history of ,saul1 who1 when his father's ,,atonoth were lost1 was at no little pains to seek them2 moreover1 as beside being valuable1 they were uncommon1 he might the more readily hear of them if they had been noticed or taken up by any one2 and this leads to the true interpretation of the servant's proposed application to ,samuel1 verse #f1 as though he said1 8,in his office of magistracy this honourable man may have heard of these strayed rarities1 and secured them2 peradventure he can direct us40 ,thus we find that these atonoth are mentioned in ,scripture1 only in the possession of judges1 patriarchs1 and other great men2 insomuch that where these are there is dignity1 either expressed or implied4 ,they were also a present for a prince2 for ,jacob presented ,esau with twenty1 ,gen4 xxxii1 #ae4 ,what then shall we say of the wealth of ,job1 who possessed a thousand8 ,another word which is rendered 8wild ass0 by our translators1 ,job xxxix1 #e1 is ,,orud2 which seems to be the same1 that in the ,chaldee of ,daniel1 v1 #ba1 is called oredia4 ,mr4 ,parkhurst supposes that this word denotes the brayer1 and that ,,para and ,,orud are only two names for the same animal4 ,but these names may perhaps refer to different races1 though of the same species2 so that a description of the properties of one may apply to both1 though not without some variation4 ,who sent out the para free8 ,or who hath loosed the bands of the orud8 ,whose dwelling ,i have made the wilderness1 ,and the barren land 7salt deserts7 his resort3 ,the range of open mountains are his pasture1 ,and he searcheth after every green thing4 ,gmelin observes that the onager is very fond of salt4 ,whether the 8deserts0 of the above text were salt marshes1 or salt deserts1 is of very little consequence2 the circumstance shows the correctness of the ,hebrew poet4 ,in ,daniel we read that ,nebuchadnezzar dwelt with the ,,oredia4 ,we need not suppose that he was banished to the deserts1 but was at most kept safely in an enclosure of his own park1 where curious animals were kept for state and pleasure4 ,if this be correct1 then the ,,orud was somewhat1 at least1 of a rarity at ,babylon2 and it might be of a kind different from the ,,para1 as it is denoted by another name4 ,may it not be the ,gicquetei of ,professor ,pallas1 the wild mule of ,mongalia which surpasses the onager in size1 beauty1 and perhaps in swiftness4 ,,assideans1 by some named ,chasideans1 from chasidim1 8merciful1 pious40 ,they were a kind of religious society among the ,jews1 whose chief and distinguishing character was1 to maintain the honour of the temple1 and observe punctually the traditions of the elders4 ,they were therefore not only content to pay the usual tribute for the maintenance of the house of ,god1 but charged themselves with farther expense upon that account2 for every day1 except that of the great expiation1 they sacrificed a lamb1 in addition to the daily oblation1 which was called the sin offering of the ,assideans4 ,they practised greater hardships and mortifications than others2 and their common oath was1 8,by the temple20 for which our ,saviour reproves the ,pharisees1 who had learned that oath of them1 ,matt4 xxiii1 #af4 ,from this sect the ,pharisees sprung4 ,the ,assideans are represented as a numerous sect1 distinguished by its valour1 as well as by its zeal for the law1 #a ,mac4 ii1 #db4 ,a company of them resorted to ,mattathias1 to fight for the law of ,god1 and the liberties of their country4 ,this sect arose either during the captivity1 or soon after the restoration1 of the ,jews2 and were probably in the commencement1 and long afterward1 a truly pious part of the nation2 but they at length became superstitious4 ,,assurance4 ,the sense in which this term is used theologically is that of a firm persuasion of our being in a state of salvation4 ,the doctrine itself has been matter of dispute among divines1 and when considered as implying not only that we are now accepted of ,god through ,christ1 but that we shall be finally saved1 or when it is so taken as to deny a state of salvation to those who are not so assured as to be free from all doubt1 it is in many views questionable4 ,assurance of final salvation must stand or fall with the doctrine of personal unconditional election1 and is chiefly held by divines of the ,calvinistic school2 and that nothing is an evidence of a state of present salvation but so entire a persuasion as amounts to assurance in the strongest sense1 might be denied upon the ground that degrees of grace1 of real saving grace1 are undoubtedly mentioned in ,scripture4 ,assurance1 however1 is spoken of in the ,new ,testament1 and stands prominent as one of the leading doctrines of religious experience4 ,we have 8full assurance of understanding20 that is a perfect knowledge and entire persuasion of the truth of the doctrine of ,christ4 ,the 8assurance of faith10 in ,hebrews ix1 #bb1 is an entire trust in the sacrifice and priestly office of ,christ4 ,the 8assurance of hope10 mentioned in ,hebrews vi1 #aa1 relates to the heavenly inheritance1 and must necessarily imply a full persuasion that we are 8the children of ,god10 and therefore 8heirs of his glory20 and from this passage it must certainly be concluded that such an assurance is what every ,christian ought to aim at1 and that it is attainable4 ,this1 however1 does not exclude occasional doubt and weakness of faith1 from the earlier stages of his experience4 ,a comforting and abiding persuasion of present acceptance by ,god1 through ,christ1 we may therefore affirm1 must in various degrees follow true faith4 ,in support of this view1 the following remarks may be offered3-- ,if it is the doctrine of the inspired records1 that man is by nature prone to evil1 and that in practice he violates that law under which as a creature he is placed1 and is thereby exposed to punishment2--if also it is there stated1 that an act of grace and pardon is promised on the conditions of repentance toward ,god1 and faith in our ,lord ,jesus ,christ2--if that repentance implies consideration of our ways1 a sense of the displeasure of ,almighty ,god1 contrition of heart1 and consequently trouble and grief of mind1 mixed1 however1 with a hope inspired by the promise of forgiveness1 and which leads to earnest supplication for the actual pardon of sin so promised1 it will follow from these premises--either1 #a4 ,that forgiveness is not to be expected till after the termination of our course of probation1 that is1 in another life2 and that1 therefore1 this trouble and apprehension of mind can only be assuaged by the hope we may have of a favourable final decision on our case2--or1 #b4 ,that sin is1 in the present life1 forgiven as often as it is thus repented of1 and as often as we exercise the required and specific acts of trust in the merits of our ,saviour2 but that this forgiveness of our sins is not in any way made known unto us3 so that we are left1 as to our feelings1 in precisely the same state as if sin were not forgiven till after death1 namely1 in grief and trouble of mind1 relieved only by hope2--or1 #c4 ,the ,scriptural view is1 that when sin is forgiven by the mercy of ,god through ,christ1 we are1 by some means1 assured of it1 and peace and satisfaction of mind take the place of anxiety and fear4 ,the first of these conclusions is sufficiently disproved by the authority of ,scripture1 which exhibits justification as a blessing attainable in this life1 and represents it as actually experienced by true believers4 8,therefore being justified by faith40 8,there is now no condemnation to them who are in ,christ ,jesus40 8,whosoever believeth is justified from all things10 c4 ,the quotations might be multiplied1 but these are decisive4 ,the notion that though an act of forgiveness may take place1 we are unable to ascertain a fact so important to us1 is also irreconcilable with many scriptures in which the writers of the ,new ,testament speak of an experience1 not confined personally to themselves1 or to those ,christians who were endowed with spiritual gifts1 but common to all ,christians4 8,being justified by faith we have peace with ,god40 8,we joy in ,god1 by whom we have received the reconciliation40 8,being reconciled unto ,god by the death of his ,son40 8,we have not received the spirit of bondage again unto fear1 but the spirit of adoption1 by which we cry1 ,abba1 ,father40 ,to these may be added innumerable passages which express the comfort1 the confidence1 and the joy of ,christians2 their 8friendship0 with ,god2 their 8access0 to him2 their entire union and delightful intercourse with him2 and their absolute confidence in the success of their prayers4 ,all such passages are perfectly consistent with deep humility1 and self-diffidence2 but they are irreconcilable with a state of hostility between the parties1 and with an unascertained and only hoped-for restoration of friendship and favour4 ,an assurance1 therefore1 that the sins which are felt to 8be a burden intolerable0 are forgiven1 and that the ground of that apprehension of future punishment which causes the penitent to 8bewail his manifold sins10 is taken away by restoration to the favour of the offended ,god1 must be allowed1 or nothing would be more incongruous and impossible than the comfort1 the peace1 the rejoicing of spirit1 which in the ,scriptures are attributed to believers4 ,few ,christians of evangelical views have1 therefore1 denied the possibility of our becoming assured of the favour of ,god in a sufficient degree to give substantial comfort to the mind4 ,their differences have rather respected the means by which the contrite become assured of that change in their relation to ,almighty ,god1 whom they have offended1 which in ,scripture is expressed by the term justification4 ,the question has been1 7where the notion of an assurance of eternal salvation has not been under discussion17 by what means the assurance of the divine favour is conveyed to the mind4 ,some have concluded that we obtain it by inference1 others by the direct testimony of the ,holy ,spirit to the mind4 ,see ,,holy ,,spirit4 ,,assyria1 a kingdom of ,asia1 of the extent1 origin1 and duration of which very different accounts have been given by ancient writers4 ,ctesias and ,diodorus ,siculus affirm1 that the ,assyrian monarchy1 under ,ninus and ,semiramis1 comprehended the greater part of the known world3 but1 if this had been the case1 it is not likely that ,homer and ,herodotus would have omitted a fact so remarkable4 ,the sacred records intimate that none of the ancient states or kingdoms were of considerable extent2 for neither ,chederlaomer1 nor any of the neighbouring princes1 were tributary or subject to ,assyria2 and 8we find nothing10 says ,playfair1 8of the greatness or power of this kingdom in the history of the judges and succeeding kings of ,israel1 though the latter kingdom was oppressed and enslaved by many different powers in that period40 ,it is therefore highly probable that ,assyria was originally of small extent4 ,according to ,ptolemy1 this country was bounded on the north by part of ,armenia and ,mount ,niphates2 on the west by the ,tigris2 on the south by ,susiana2 and on the east by part of ,media and the mountains ,choatra and ,zagros4 ,of the origin1 revolutions1 and termination of ,assyria1 properly so called1 and distinguished from the grand monarchy which afterward bore this appellation1 the following account is given by ,mr4 ,playfair1 as the most probable3--8,the founder of it was ,ashur1 the second son of ,shem1 who departed from ,shinar1 upon the usurpation of ,nimrod1 at the head of a large body of adventurers1 and laid the foundations of ,nineveh1 where he resided1 and erected a new kingdom1 called ,assyria1 after his name1 ,gen4 x1 #aa4 ,these events happened not long after ,nimrod had established the ,chaldean monarchy1 and fixed his residence at ,babylon2 but it does not appear that ,nimrod reigned in ,assyria4 ,the kingdoms of ,assyria and ,babylon were originally distinct and separate1 ,micah v1 #f2 and in this state they remained until ,ninus conquered ,babylon1 and made it tributary to the ,assyrian empire4 ,ninus1 the successor of ,ashur1 ,gen4 x1 #aa1 seized on ,chaldea after the death of ,nimrod1 and united the kingdoms of ,assyria and ,babylon4 ,this great prince is said to have subdued ,asia1 ,persia1 ,media1 ,egypt1 c4 ,if he did so1 the effects of his conquests were of no long duration2 for1 in the days of ,abraham1 we do not find that any of the neighbouring kingdoms were subject to ,assyria4 ,ninus was succeeded by ,semiramis1 a princess bold1 enterprising1 and fortunate2 of whose adventures and exploits many fabulous relations have been recorded4 ,playfair is of opinion that there were two princesses of this name1 who flourished at different periods3 one1 the consort of ,ninus2 and another1 who lived five generations before ,nitocris1 queen of ,nebuchadnezzar4 ,of the successors of ,ninus and ,semiramis nothing certain is recorded4 ,the last of the ancient ,assyrian kings was ,sardanapalus1 who was besieged in his capital by ,arbaces1 governor of ,media1 in concurrence with the ,babylonians4 ,these united forces defeated the ,assyrian army1 demolished the capital1 and became masters of the empire1 ,b4 ,c4 #hba4 8,after the death of ,sardanapalus10 says ,mr4 ,playfair1 8the ,assyrian empire was divided into three kingdoms2 namely1 the ,median1 ,assyrian1 and ,babylonian4 ,arbaces retained the supreme authority1 and nominated governors in ,assyria and ,babylon1 who were honoured with the title of kings1 while they remained subject and tributary to the ,persian monarchs ,belesis10 he says1 8a ,chaldean priest1 who assisted ,arbaces in the conquest of ,sardanapalus1 received the government of ,babylon as the reward of his services2 and ,phul was intrusted with that of ,assyria4 ,the ,assyrian governor gradually enlarged the boundaries of his kingdom1 and was succeeded by ,tiglath-pileser1 ,salmanasar1 and ,sennacherib1 who asserted and maintained their independence4 ,after the death of ,assar-haddon1 the brother and successor of ,sennacherib1 the kingdom of ,assyria was split1 and annexed to the kingdoms of ,media and ,babylon4 ,several tributary princes afterward reigned in ,nineveh2 but we hear no more of the kings of ,assyria1 but of those of ,babylon4 ,cyaxares1 king of ,media1 assisted ,nebuchadnezzar1 king of ,babylon1 in the siege of ,nineveh1 which they took and destroyed1 ,b4 ,c4 #fjf40 ,the history of ,assyria1 deduced from ,scripture1 and acknowledged as the only authentic one by ,sir ,isaac ,newton and many others1 ascribes the foundation of the monarchy to ,pul1 or ,phul1 about the second year of ,menahem1 king of ,israel1 twenty-four years before the ra of ,nabonassar1 #aegi years after the flood1 and1 according to ,blair1 #gfi1 or1 according to ,newton1 #gij1 years before ,christ4 ,menahem1 having taken forcible possession of the throne of ,israel by the murder of ,shallum1 #b ,kings xv1 #aj1 was attacked by ,pul1 but prevented the hostilities meditated against him by presenting the invader with a thousand talents of silver4 ,pul1 thus gratified1 took the kingdom of ,israel under his protection1 returned to his own country1 after having received voluntary homage from several nations in his march1 as he had done from ,israel1 and became the founder of a great empire4 ,as it was in the days of ,pul that the ,assyrians began to afflict the inhabitants of ,palestine1 #b ,kings xi1 #i2 #a ,chron4 v1 #bf1 this was the time1 according to ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 when the ,assyrian empire arose4 ,thus he interprets the words1 8since the time of the kings of ,assyria10 ,nehem4 ix1 #cb2 that is1 since the time of the kingdom of ,assyria1 or since the rise of that empire4 ,but though this was the period in which the ,assyrians afflicted ,israel1 it is not so evident that the time of the kings of ,assyria must necessarily be understood of the rise of the ,assyrian empire4 ,however1 ,newton thus reasons2 and observes1 that 8,pul and his successors afflicted ,israel1 and conquered the nations round about them2 and upon the ruin of many small and ancient kingdoms erected their empire2 conquering the ,medes1 as well as other nations40 ,it is farther argued1 that ,god1 by the ,prophet ,amos1 in the reign of ,jeroboam1 about ten or twenty years before the reign of ,pul1 7see ,amos vi1 #ac1 #ad17 threatened to raise up a nation against ,israel2 and that1 as ,pul reigned presently after the prophecy of ,amos1 and was the first upon record who began to fulfil it1 he may be justly reckoned the first conqueror and founder of this empire4 ,see #a ,chron4 v1 #bf4 ,pul was succeeded on the throne of ,assyria by his elder son ,tiglath-pileser2 and at the same time he left ,babylon to his younger son ,nabonassar1 ,b4 ,c4 #gdg4 ,of the conquests of this second king of ,assyria against the kings of ,israel and ,syria1 when he took ,damascus1 and subdued the ,syrians1 we have an account in #b ,kings xv1 #bi1 #cg2 xvi1 #e1i2 #a ,chron4 v1 #bf2 by which the prophecy of ,amos was fulfilled1 and from which it appears that the empire of the ,assyrians was now become great and powerful4 ,the next king of ,assyria was ,shalmaneser1 or ,salmanassar1 who succeeded ,tiglath-pileser1 ,b4 ,c4 #gbi1 and invaded ,phnicia1 took the city of ,samaria1 and1 ,b4 ,c4 #gba1 carried the ten tribes into captivity1 placing them in ,chalach and ,chabor1 by the river ,gazon1 and in the cities of the ,medes1 #b ,kings xvii1 #f4 ,shalmaneser was succeeded by ,sennacherib1 ,b4 ,c4 #gai2 and in the year ,b4 ,c4 #gad1 he was put to flight with great slaughter by the ,ethiopians and ,egyptians4 ,in the year ,b4 ,c4 #gaa the ,medes revolted from the ,assyrians2 ,sennacherib was slain2 and he was succeeded by his son ,esar-,haddon1 ,asserhaddon1 ,asordan1 ,assaradin1 or ,sarchedon1 by which names he is called by different writers4 ,he began his reign at ,nineveh1 in the year of ,nabonassar #db2 and in the year #fh extended it over ,babylon4 ,he then carried the remainder of the ,samaritans into captivity1 and peopled ,samaria with captives brought from several parts of his kingdom2 and in the year of ,nabonassar #gg or #gh he seems to have put an end to the reign of the ,ethiopians over ,egypt4 8,in the reign of ,sennacherib and ,asser-,hadon10 says ,sir ,i4 ,newton1 8the ,assyrian empire seems arrived at its greatness2 being united under one monarch1 and containing ,assyria1 ,media1 ,apolloniatis1 ,susiana1 ,chaldea1 ,mesopotamia1 ,cilicia1 ,syria1 ,phnicia1 ,egypt1 ,ethiopia1 and part of ,arabia2 and reaching eastward into ,elymais1 and ,partcene1 a province of the ,medes2 and if ,chalach and ,chabor be ,colchis and ,iberia1 as some think1 and as may seem probable from the circumcision used by those nations till the days of ,herodotus1 we are also to add these two provinces1 with the two ,armenias1 ,pontus1 and ,cappadocia1 as far as to the river ,halys3 for ,herodotus tells us that the people of ,cappadocia1 as far as to that river1 were called ,syrians by the ,greeks1 both before and after the days of ,cyrus2 and that the ,assyrians were also called ,syrians by the ,greeks40 ,asser-,hadon was succeeded in the year ,b4 ,c4 #ffh by ,saosduchinus4 ,at this time ,manasseh was allowed to return home1 and fortify ,jerusalem2 and the ,egyptians also1 after the ,assyrians had harassed ,egypt and ,ethiopia three years1 ,isa4 xx1 #c1 #d1 were set at liberty4 ,saosduchinus1 after a reign of twenty years1 was succeeded at ,babylon1 and probably at ,nineveh also1 by ,chyniladon1 in the year ,b4 ,c4 #fdg4 ,this ,chyniladon is supposed by ,newton to be the ,nebuchadonosor mentioned in the book of ,judith1 i1 #a-ae1 who made war upon ,arphaxad1 king of the ,medes2 and1 though deserted by his auxiliaries of ,cilicia1 ,damascus1 ,syria1 ,phnicia1 ,moab1 ,ammon1 and ,egypt1 routed the army of the ,medes1 and slew ,arphaxad4 ,this ,arphaxad is supposed to be either ,dejoces or his son ,phraortes1 mentioned by ,herodotus4 ,soon after the death of ,phraortes1 in the year ,b4 ,c4 #fce1 the ,scythians invaded the ,medes and ,persians2 and in #fbe1 ,nabopolassar1 the commander of the forces of ,chyniladon in ,chaldea1 revolted from him1 and became king of ,babylon4 ,chyniladon was either then or soon after succeeded at ,nineveh by the last king of ,assyria1 called ,sarac by ,polyhistor4 ,the authors of the ,universal ,history suppose ,saosduchinus to have been the ,nebuchadonosor of ,scripture1 and ,chyniladon or ,chynaladan to have been the ,sarac of ,polyhistor4 ,at length ,nebuchadnezzar1 the son of ,nabopolassar1 married ,amyit1 the daughter of ,astyages1 king of the ,medes1 and sister of ,cyaxares2 and by this marriage the two families having contracted affinity1 they conspired against the ,assyrians4 ,nabopolassar being old1 and ,astyages dead1 their sons ,nebuchadnezzar and ,cyaxares led the armies of the two nations against ,nineveh1 slew ,sarac1 destroyed the city1 and shared the kingdom of the ,assyrians4 ,this victory the ,jews refer to the ,chaldeans2 the ,greeks1 to the ,medes2 ,tobit1 xiv1 #ae1 ,polyhistor1 and ,ctesias1 to both4 ,with this victory commenced the great successes of ,nebuchadnezzar and ,cyaxares1 and it laid the foundation of the two collateral empires of the ,babylonians and ,medes1 which were branches of the ,assyrian empire2 and hence the time of the fall of the ,assyrian empire is determined1 the conquerors being then in their youth4 ,in the reign of ,josiah1 when ,zephaniah prophesied1 ,nineveh and the kingdom of ,assyria were standing2 and their fall was predicted by that ,prophet1 ,zeph4 i1 #c2 ii1 #ac4 ,and in the end of his reign1 ,pharaoh-,necho1 king of ,egypt1 the successor of ,psammitichus1 went up against the king of ,assyria to the river ,euphrates1 to fight against ,carchemish1 or ,circutium2 and in his way thither slew ,josiah1 #b ,kings xxiii1 #bi2 #b ,chron4 xxxv1 #bj2 and therefore the last king of ,assyria was not yet slain4 ,but in the third and fourth years of ,jehoiakim1 the successor of ,josiah1 the two conquerors having taken ,nineveh1 and finished their war in ,assyria1 prosecuted their conquests westward2 and1 leading their forces against the king of ,egypt1 as an invader of their right of conquest1 they beat him at ,carchemish1 and took from him whatever he had recently taken from the ,assyrians1 #b ,kings xxiv1 #g2 ,jer4 xlvi1 #b2 8and therefore we cannot err10 says ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 8above a year or two1 if we refer the destruction of ,nineveh1 and fall of the ,assyrian empire1 to the third year1 of ,jehoiakim10 or the hundred and fortieth1 or1 according to ,blair1 the hundred and forty-first year of ,nabonassar2 that is1 the year ,b4 ,c4 #fjg4 ,of the government1 laws1 religion1 learning1 customs1 c1 of the ancient ,assyrians1 nothing absolutely certain is recorded4 ,their kingdom was at first small1 and subsisted for several ages under hereditary chiefs2 and their government was simple4 ,afterward1 when they rose to the sublimity of empire1 their government seems to have been despotic1 and the empire hereditary4 ,their laws were probably few1 and depended upon the mere will of the prince4 ,to ,ninus we may ascribe the division of the ,assyrian empire into provinces and governments2 for we find that this institution was fully established in the reigns of ,semiramis and her successors4 ,the people were distributed into a certain number of tribes2 and their occupations or professions were hereditary4 ,the ,assyrians had several distinct councils1 and several tribunals for the regulation of public affairs4 ,of councils there were three1 which were created by the body of the people1 and who governed the state in conjunction with the sovereign4 ,the first consisted of officers who had retired from military employments2 the second1 of the nobility2 and the third1 of the old men4 ,the sovereigns also had three tribunals1 whose province it was to watch over the conduct of the people4 ,the ,assyrians have been competitors with the ,egyptians for the honour of having invented alphabetic writing4 ,it appears1 from the few remains now extant of the writing of these ancient nations1 that their letters had a great affinity with each other4 ,they much resembled one another in shape2 and they ranged them in the same manner1 from right to left4 ,,astrology1 the art of foretelling future events1 from the aspects1 positions1 and influences of the heavenly bodies4 ,the word is compounded of star1 and 1 discourse2 whence1 in the literal sense of the term1 astrology should signify no more than the doctrine or science of the stars4 ,astrology judiciary1 or judicial1 is what we commonly call simple astrology1 or that which pretends to foretel mortal events1 even those which have a dependence on the free will and agency of man2 as if they were directed by the stars4 ,this art1 which owed its origin to the practice of knavery on credulity1 is now universally exploded by the intelligent part of mankind4 ,judicial astrology is commonly said to have been invented in ,chaldea1 and thence transmitted to the ,egyptians1 ,greeks1 and ,romans2 though some will have it of ,egyptian origin1 and ascribe the invention to ,cham4 ,but we derive it from the ,arabians4 ,the ,chaldeans1 and the ,egyptians1 and indeed almost all the nations of antiquity1 were infatuated with the chimras of astrology4 ,it originated in the notion1 that the stars have an influence1 either beneficial or malignant1 upon the affairs of men1 which may be discovered1 and made the ground of certain prediction1 in particular cases2 and the whole art consisted in applying astronomical observations to this fanciful purpose4 ,diodorus ,siculus relates1 that the ,chaldeans learned these arts from the ,egyptians2 and he would not have made this assertion1 if there had not been at least a general tradition that they were practised from the earliest times in ,egypt4 ,the system was1 in those remote ages1 intimately connected with ,sabaism1 or the worship of the stars as divinities2 but whether it emanates from idolatry or fatality1 it denies ,god and his providence1 and is therefore condemned in the ,scriptures1 and ranked with practices the most offensive and provoking to the ,divine ,majesty4 ,,astyages1 otherwise1 ,cyaxares1 king of the ,medes1 and successor to ,phraortes4 ,he reigned forty years1 and died ,a4 ,m4 #cdji4 ,he was father to ,astyages1 otherwise called ,darius the ,mede4 ,he had two daughters1 ,mandane and ,amyit3 ,mandane married ,cambyses1 the ,persian1 and was the mother of ,cyrus2 ,amyit married ,nebuchadnezzar1 the son of ,nabopolassar1 and was the mother of ,evilmerodach4 ,,astyages1 otherwise called ,ahasuerus in the ,greek1 ,dan4 ix1 #a1 or ,cyaxares in ,xenophon1 or ,apandus in ,ctesias1 was appointed by his father ,cyaxares governor of ,media1 and sent with ,nabopolassar1 king of ,babylon1 against ,saracus1 otherwise called ,chynaladanus1 king of ,assyria4 ,these two princes besieged ,saracus in ,nineveh1 took the city1 and dismembered the ,assyrian empire4 ,astyages was with ,cyrus at the conquest of ,babylon1 and succeeded ,belshazzar1 king of the ,chaldeans1 as is expressly mentioned in ,daniel1 v1 #cj1 #ca1 ,a4 ,m4 #cddg4 ,after his death ,cyrus succeeded him1 ,a4 ,m4 #cdef4 ,,asuppim1 a word which signifies gatherings1 and the name of the treasury of the temple of ,jerusalem1 #a ,chron4 xxvi1 #ae4 ,,athaliah1 the daughter of ,omri1 king of ,samaria1 and wife to ,jehoram1 king of ,judah4 ,this princess1 being informed that ,jehu had slain her son ,ahaziah1 resolved to take the government upon herself1 #b ,kings xi2 which that she might effect without opposition1 she destroyed all the children that ,jehoram had by other wives1 and all their offspring4 ,but ,jehosheba1 the sister of ,ahaziah1 by the father's side only1 was at this time married to ,jehoiada1 the high priest2 and while ,athaliah's executioners were murdering the rest1 she conveyed ,joash the son of ,ahaziah away1 and kept him and his nurse concealed in an apartment of the temple1 during six years4 ,in the seventh year1 his uncle ,jehoiada being determined to place him on the throne of his ancestors1 and procure the destruction of ,athaliah1 he engaged the priests and ,levites1 and the leading men in all the parts of the kingdom in his interest1 and in a public assembly produced him1 and made them take an oath of secrecy and fidelity to him4 ,he then distributed arms among the people1 whom he divided into three bodies1 one to guard the person of the king1 and the other two to secure the gates of the temple4 ,after this1 he brought out the young prince1 set the crown on his head1 put the book of the law into his hand1 and with sound of trumpet proclaimed him2 which was seconded with the joyful shouts and acclamations of the people4 ,athaliah1 hearing the noise1 made all haste to the temple2 but when1 to her astonishment1 she saw the young king seated on a throne1 she rent her clothes and cried out1 8,treason60 ,but1 at the command of ,jehoiada1 the guards seized and carried her out of the temple1 putting all to the sword who offered to rescue or assist her2 and then taking her to the stable gate belonging to the palace1 there put her to death1 ,a4 ,m4 #cabf4 ,,athanasians1 the orthodox followers of ,st4 ,athanasius1 the great and able antagonist of ,arius4 ,the ,athanasian ,creed1 though generally admitted not to be drawn up by this father1 7but probably1 as ,doctor ,waterland says1 by ,hilary1 bishop of ,arles1 in the fifth century17 is universally allowed to contain a fair expression of his sentiments4 ,this creed says1 8,the ,catholic faith is this3 that we worship ,one ,god in ,trinity1 and ,trinity in ,unity3 neither confounding the persons1 nor dividing the substance4 ,for there is one person of the ,father1 another of the ,son1 and another of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,but the ,godhead of the ,father1 of the ,son1 and of the ,holy ,ghost1 is all one2 the glory equal1 the majesty co-eternal4 ,such as the ,father is1 such is the ,son1 and such is the ,holy ,ghost20 namely1 8uncreate1 incomprehensible1 eternal10 c4 ,the true key to the ,athanasian ,creed lies in the knowledge of the errors to which it was opposed4 ,the ,sabellians considered the ,father1 ,son1 and ,holy ,spirit as one in person2--this was 8confounding the persons30 the ,arians considered them as differing in essence--three beings2--this was 8dividing the substance30 and against these two hypotheses was the creed originally framed4 ,and since every sect was willing to adopt the language of ,scripture1 it was thought necessary to adopt scholastic terms1 in order to fix the sense of ,scripture language4 ,many1 however1 hold the doctrine of the ,athanasian ,creed1 and approve its terms1 who object to its damnatory clauses4 ,see ,,arians4 ,,athanasius1 the celebrated patriarch of ,alexandria1 resisted ,arius and his erroneous doctrines2 and his sentiments as to the ,trinity are embodied in the creed which bears his name1 though not composed by him4 ,at the ,council of ,nice1 though then but a deacon of ,alexandria1 his reputation for skill in controversy gained him an honourable place in the council1 and with great dexterity he exposed the sophistry of those who pleaded on the side of ,arius4 ,notwithstanding the influence of the emperor1 who had recalled ,arius from banishment1 and upon a plausible confession of his faith1 in which he affected to be orthodox in his sentiments1 directed that he should be received by the ,alexandrian church1 ,athanasius refused to admit him to communion1 and exposed his prevarication4 ,the ,arians upon this exerted themselves to raise tumults at ,alexandria1 and to injure the character of ,athanasius with the emperor1 who was prevailed upon to pronounce against him a sentence of banishment4 ,in the beginning of the reign of ,constantius he was recalled2 but was again disturbed and deposed through the influence of the ,arians4 ,accusations were also sent against him and other bishops from the east to the west1 but they were acquitted by ,pope ,julius in full council4 ,athanasius was restored to his see upon the death of the ,arian bishop1 who had been placed in it4 ,arianism1 however1 being in favour at court1 he was condemned by a council convened at ,arles1 and by another at ,milan1 and was obliged to fly into the deserts4 ,he returned with the other bishops whom ,julian the apostate recalled from banishment1 and in ,a4 ,d4 #cfb1 held a council at ,alexandria1 where the belief of a consubstantial ,trinity was openly professed4 ,many now were recovered from ,arianism1 and brought to subscribe the ,nicene ,creed4 ,during the reign of ,jovian also ,athanasius held another council1 which declared its adherence to the ,nicene faith2 and with the exception of a short retirement under ,valens he was permitted to sit down in quiet and govern his affectionate church of ,alexandria4 ,athanasius was an eminent instrument of maintaining the truth in an age when errors affecting the great foundation of our faith were urged with great subtlety4 ,he was by his acuteness able to trace the enemy through his most insidious modes of attack2 and thus to preserve the simple and unwary from being misled by terms and distinctions1 which1 whilst they sounded in unison with the true faith of the ,gospel1 did in fact imply1 or at least open the door to1 the most deadly errors4 ,the ,scripture doctrine of the ,trinity1 as explained by him1 at length triumphed over the heresies which at one time met with so much support and sanction2 and the views of ,athanasius have been received1 in substance1 by all orthodox churches to the present time4 ,,atheist1 in the strict and proper sense of the word1 is one who does not believe in the existence of a ,god1 or who owns no being superior to nature4 ,it is compounded of the two terms1 negative1 and 1 ,god1 signifying without ,god4 ,atheists have been also known by the name infidels2 but the word infidel is now commonly used to distinguish a more numerous party1 and is become almost synonymous with ,deist4 ,he who disbelieves the existence of a ,god1 as an infinite1 intelligent1 and a moral agent1 is a direct or speculative ,atheist2 he who confesses a ,deity and providence in words1 but denies them in his life and actions1 is a practical ,atheist4 ,that ,atheism existed in some sense before the flood1 may be suspected from what we read in ,scripture1 as well as from ,heathen tradition2 and it is not very unreasonable to suppose1 that the deluge was partly intended to evince to the world a heavenly power1 as ,lord of the universe1 and superior to the visible system of nature4 ,this was at least a happy consequence of that fatal catastrophe2 for1 as it is observed by ,dean ,sherlock1 8,the universal deluge1 and the confusion of languages1 had so abundantly convinced mankind of a divine power and providence1 that there was no such creature as an ,atheist1 till their ridiculous idolatries had tempted some men of wit and thought1 rather to own no ,god than such as the ,heathens worshipped40 ,atheistical principles were long nourished and cherished in ,greece1 and especially among the atomical1 peripatetic1 and skeptical philosophers2 and hence some have ascribed the origin of ,atheism to the philosophy of ,greece4 ,this is true1 if they mean that species of refined ,atheism1 which contrives any impious scheme of principles to account for the origin of the world1 without a divine being4 ,for though there may have been in former ages1 and in other countries1 some persons irreligious in principle as well as in practice1 yet we know of none who1 forming a philosophical scheme of impiety1 became a sect1 and erected colleges of ,atheistical learning1 till the arrogant and enterprising genius of ,greece undertook that detestable work4 ,carrying their presumptuous and ungoverned speculations into the very essence of the divinity1 at first they doubted1 and at length denied1 the existence of a first cause independent of nature and of a providence that superintends its laws1 and governs the concerns of mankind4 ,these principles1 with the other improvements of ,greece1 were transferred to ,rome2 and1 excepting in ,italy1 we hear little of ,atheism1 for many ages after the ,christian ra4 8,for some ages before the ,reformation10 says ,archbishop ,tillotson1 8,atheism was confined to ,italy1 and had its chief residence at ,rome4 ,but1 in this last age1 ,atheism has travelled over the ,alps and infected ,france1 and now of late it hath crossed the seas1 and invaded our nation1 and hath prevailed to amazement40 ,however1 to ,tillotson1 and other able writers1 we owe its suppression in this country2 for they pressed it down with a weight of sound argument1 from which it has never been able to raise itself4 ,for although in our time1 in ,france and ,germany a subtle ,atheism was revived1 and spread its unhallowed and destructive influence for many years throughout the ,continent1 it made but little progress in this better-instructed nation4 ,atheism1 in its primary sense1 comprehends1 or at least goes beyond1 every heresy in the world2 for it professes to acknowledge no religion1 true or false4 ,the two leading hypotheses which have prevailed1 among ,atheists1 respecting this world and its origin1 are1 that of ,ocellus ,lucanus1 adopted and improved by ,aristotle1 that it was eternal2 and that of ,epicurus1 that it was formed by a fortuitous concourse of atoms4 8,that the soul is material and mortal1 ,christianity an imposture1 the ,scripture a forgery1 the worship of ,god superstition1 hell a fable1 and heaven a dream1 our life without providence1 and our death without hope1 like that of asses and dogs1 are part of the glorious gospel of our modern ,atheists40 ,the being of a ,god may be proved from the marks of design1 and from the order and beauty visible in the world2 from universal consent2 from the relation of cause and effect2 from internal consciousness2 and from the necessity of a final as well as an efficient cause4 ,of all the false doctrines and foolish opinions that ever infested the mind of man1 nothing can possibly equal that of ,atheism1 which is such a monstrous contradiction of all evidence1 to all the powers of understanding1 and the dictates of common sense1 that it may be well questioned whether any man can really fall into it by a deliberate use of his judgment4 ,all nature so clearly points out1 and so loudly proclaims1 a ,creator of infinite power1 wisdom1 and goodness1 that whoever hears not its voice1 and sees not its proofs1 may well be thought wilfully deaf1 and obstinately blind4 ,if it be evident1 self-evident to every man of thought1 that there can be no effect without a cause1 what shall we say of that manifold combination of effects1 that series of operations1 that system of wonders1 which fill the universe1 which present themselves to all our perceptions1 and strike our minds and our senses on every side8 ,every faculty1 every object of every faculty1 demonstrates a ,deity4 ,the meanest insect we can see1 the minutest and most contemptible weed we can tread upon1 is really sufficient to confound ,atheism1 and baffle all its pretensions4 ,how much more that astonishing variety and multiplicity of ,god's works with which we are continually surrounded6 ,let any man survey the face of the earth1 or lift up his eyes to the firmament2 let him consider the nature and instincts of brute animals1 and afterward look into the operations of his own mind1 and will he presume to say or suppose that all the objects he meets with are nothing more than the result of unaccountable accidents and blind chance8 ,can he possibly conceive that such wonderful order should spring out of confusion8 or that such perfect beauty should be ever formed by the fortuitous operations of unconscious1 unactive particles of matter8 ,as well1 nay better1 and more easily1 might he suppose that an earthquake might happen to build towns and cities2 or the materials carried down by a flood fit themselves up without hands into a regular fleet4 ,for what are towns1 cities1 or fleets1 in comparison of the vast and amazing fabric of the universe6 ,in short1 ,atheism offers such violence to all our faculties1 that it seems scarce credible it should ever really find any place in the human understanding4 ,atheism is unreasonable1 because it gives no tolerable account of the existence of the world4 ,this is one of the greatest difficulties with which the ,atheist has to contend4 ,for he must suppose either that the world is eternal1 or that it was formed by chance and a fortuitous concourse of the parts of matter4 ,that the world had a beginning1 is evident from universal tradition1 and the most ancient history that exists2 from there being no memorials of any actions performed previously to the time assigned in that history as the ra of the creation2 from the origin of learning and arts1 and the liability of the parts of matter to decay4 ,that the world was not produced by chance1 is also evident4 ,nothing can be more unreasonable than to ascribe to chance an effect which appears with all the characters of a wise design and contrivance4 ,will chance fit means to ends1 even in ten thousand instances1 and not fail in a single one8 ,how often might a man1 after shaking a set of letters in a bag1 throw them on the ground1 before they would become an exact poem1 or form a good discourse in prose8 ,in short1 the arguments in proof of ,deity are so numerous1 and at the same time so obvious to a thinking mind1 that to waste time in disputing with an ,atheist1 is approaching too much toward that irrationality1 which may be considered as one of the most striking characteristics of the sect4 ,the more noted ,atheist1 since the ,reformation1 are ,machiavel1 ,spinoza1 ,hobbes1 ,blount1 and ,vanini4 ,to these may be added ,hume1 and ,voltaire the corypheus of the sect1 and the great nursing father of that swarm of them which has appeared in these last days4 ,dr4 ,samuel ,clarke1 in his 8,demonstration of the ,being of a ,god10 says1 that ,atheism arises either from stupid ignorance1 or from corruption of principles and manners1 or from the reasonings of false philosophy2 and he adds1 that the latter1 who are the only ,atheistical persons capable of being reasoned with at all1 must of necessity own that1 supposing it cannot be proved to be true1 yet it is a thing very desirable1 and which any wise man would wish to be true1 for the great benefit and happiness of man1 that there was a ,god1 an intelligent and wise1 a just and good ,being1 to govern the world4 ,whatever hypothesis these men can possibly frame1 whatever argument they can invent1 by which they would exclude ,god and providence out of the world2 that very argument or hypothesis1 will of necessity lead them to this concession4 ,if they argue1 that our notion of ,god arises not from nature and reason1 but from the art and contrivance of politicians2 that argument itself forces them to confess1 that it is manifestly for the interest of human society1 that it should be believed there is a ,god4 ,if they suppose that the world was made by chance1 and is every moment subject to be destroyed by chance again2 no man can be so absurd as to contend1 that it is as comfortable and desirable to live in such an uncertain state of things1 and so continually liable to ruin1 without any hope of renovation1 as in a world that is under the preservation and conduct of a powerful1 wise1 and good ,god4 ,if they argue against the being of ,god1 from the faults and defects which they imagine they can find in the frame and constitution of the visible and material world2 this supposition obliges them to acknowledge that it would have been better the world had been made by an intelligent and wise ,being1 who might have prevented all faults and imperfections4 ,if they argue against providence1 from the faultiness and inequality which they think they discover in the management of the moral world2 this is a plain confession1 that it is a thing more fit and desirable in itself1 that the world should be governed by a just and good ,being1 than by mere chance or unintelligent necessity4 ,lastly1 if they suppose the world to be eternally and necessarily self-existent1 and consequently that every thing in it is established by a blind and eternal fatality2 no rational man can at the same time deny1 but that liberty and choice1 or a free power of acting1 is a more eligible state1 than to be determined thus in all our actions1 as a stone is to move1 downward1 by an absolute and inevitable fate4 ,in a word1 which way soever they turn themselves1 and whatever hypothesis they make1 concerning the original and frame of things1 nothing is so certain and undeniable1 as that man1 considered without the protection and conduct of a superior ,being1 is in a far worse case than upon supposition of the being and government of ,god1 and of men's being under his peculiar conduct1 protection1 and favour4 ,,athens1 a celebrated city of ,greece1 too well known to be here described4 ,st4 ,paul's celebrated sermon1 ,acts xvii1 was preached on the ,areopagus1 or ,hill of ,mars1 where a celebrated court was held which took cognizance of matters of religion1 blasphemies against the gods1 the building of temples1 c4 7,see ,areopagus47 ,the inscription on the altar1 8to the unknown ,god10 which ,st4 ,paul so appropriately made the text of his discourse1 was adopted on the occasion of the city having been relieved from a pestilence2 and they erected altars to 8the ,god unknown10 either as not knowing to which of their divinities they were indebted for the favour1 or1 which is more probable1 because there was something in the circumstances of this deliverance1 which led them to refer it to a higher power than their own gods1 even to the supreme ,god1 who was not unfrequently styled1 the 8unknown10 by the wiser ,heathens4 ,the existence of such altars is expressly mentioned by ,lucian4 ,on the place where the great ,apostle bore his noble testimony against idols1 and declared to them the ,god whom they ignorantly worshipped1 ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke1 the traveller1 remarks1 8,it is not possible to conceive a situation of greater peril1 or one more calculated to prove the sincerity of a preacher1 than that in which the ,apostle was here placed2 and the truth of this1 perhaps1 will never be better felt than by a spectator1 who from this eminence actually beholds the monuments of ,pagan pomp and superstition by which he1 whom the ,athenians considered as the setter forth of strange gods1 was then surrounded3 representing to the imagination the disciples of ,socrates and of ,plato1 the dogmatist of the porch1 and the skeptic of the academy1 addressed by a poor and lowly man1 who1 #8rude in speech1' without the #8enticing words of man's wisdom1' enjoined precepts contrary to their taste1 and very hostile to their prejudices4 ,one of the peculiar privileges of the ,areopagit seems to have been set at defiance by the zeal of ,st4 ,paul on this occasion2 namely1 that of inflicting extreme and exemplary punishment upon any person who should slight the celebration of the holy mysteries1 or blaspheme the gods of ,greece4 ,we ascended to the summit by means of steps cut in the natural stone4 ,the sublime scene here exhibited is so striking1 that a brief description of it may prove how truly it offers to us a commentary upon the ,apostle's words1 as they were delivered upon the spot4 ,he stood upon the top of the rock1 and beneath the canopy of heaven4 ,before him there was spread a glorious prospect of mountains1 islands1 seas1 and skies2 behind him towered the lofty ,acropolis1 crowned with all its marble temples4 ,thus every object1 whether in the face of nature1 or among the works of art1 conspired to elevate the mind1 and to fill it with reverence toward that ,being who made and governs the world1 ,acts xvii1 #bd1 #bh2 who sitteth in that light which no mortal eye can approach1 and yet is nigh unto the meanest of his creatures2 in whom we live1 and move1 and have our being40 ,,atonement1 the satisfaction offered to divine justice by the death of ,christ for the sins of mankind1 by virtue of which all true penitents who believe in ,christ are personally reconciled to ,god1 are freed from the penalty of their sins1 and entitled to eternal life4 ,the atonement for sin made by the death of ,christ1 is represented in the ,christian system as the means by which mankind may be delivered from the awful catastrophe of eternal death2 from judicial inflictions of the displeasure of a ,governor1 whose authority has been contemned1 and whose will has been resisted1 which shall know no mitigation in their degree1 nor bound to their duration4 ,this end it professes to accomplish by means which1 with respect to the ,supreme ,governor himself1 preserve his character from mistake1 and maintain the authority of his government2 and with respect to man1 give him the strongest possible reason for hope1 and render more favourable the condition of his earthly probation4 ,these are considerations which so manifestly show1 from its own internal constitution1 the superlative importance and excellence of ,christianity1 that it would be exceedingly criminal to overlook them4 ,how sin may be forgiven without leading to such misconceptions of the divine character as would encourage disobedience1 and thereby weaken the influence of the divine government1 must be considered as a problem of very difficult solution4 ,a government which admitted no forgiveness1 would sink the guilty to despair2 a government which never punishes offence1 is a contradiction1--it cannot exist4 ,not to punish the guilty1 is to dissolve authority2 to punish without mercy1 is to destroy1 and where all are guilty1 to make the destruction universal4 ,that we cannot sin with impunity1 is a matter determined4 ,the ,ruler of the world is not careless of the conduct of his creatures2 for that penal consequences are attached to the offence1 is not a subject of argument1 but is matter of fact evident by daily observation of the events and circumstances of the present life4 ,it is a principle therefore already laid down1 that the authority of ,god must be preserved2 but it ought to be remarked1 that in that kind of administration which restrains evil by penalty1 and encourages obedience by favour and hope1 we and all moral creatures are the interested parties1 and not the divine ,governor himself1 whom1 because of his independent and all-sufficient nature1 our transgressions cannot injure4 ,the reasons1 therefore1 which compel him to maintain his authority do not terminate in himself4 ,if he treats offenders with severity1 it is for our sake1 and for the sake of the moral order of the universe1 to which sin1 if encouraged by a negligent administration1 or by entire or frequent impunity1 would be the source of endless disorder and misery2 and if the granting of pardon to offence be strongly and even severely guarded1 so that no less a satisfaction could be accepted than the death of ,god's own ,son1 we are to refer this to the moral necessity of the case as arising out of the general welfare of accountable creatures1 liable to the deep evil of sin1 and not to any reluctance on the part of our ,maker to forgive1 much less to any thing vindictive in his nature1--charges which have been most inconsiderately and unfairly said to be implied in the doctrine of ,christ's vicarious sufferings4 ,if it then be true1 that the release of offending man from future punishment1 and his restoration to the divine favour1 ought1 for the interests of mankind themselves1 and for the instruction and caution of other beings1 to be so bestowed1 that no license shall be given to offence2--that ,god himself1 whilst he manifests his compassion1 should not appear less just1 less holy1 than he really is2--that his authority should be felt to be as compelling1 and that disobedience should as truly1 though not unconditionally1 subject us to the deserved penalty1 as though no hope of forgiveness had been exhibited2--we ask1 ,on what scheme1 save that which is developed in the ,new ,testament1 are these necessary conditions provided for8 ,necessary they are1 unless we contend for a license and an impunity which shall annul all good government in the universe1 a point for which no reasonable man will contend2 and if so1 then we must allow that there is strong internal evidence of the truth of the doctrine of ,scripture1 when it makes the offer of pardon consequent only upon the securities we have before mentioned4 ,if it be said1 that sin may be pardoned in the exercise of the divine prerogative1 the reply is1 that if this prerogative were exercised toward a part of mankind only1 the passing by of the rest would be with difficulty reconciled to the divine character2 and if the benefit were extended to all1 government would be at an end4 ,this scheme of bringing men within the exercise of a merciful prerogative1 does not therefore meet the obvious difficulty of the case2 nor is it improved by confining the act of grace only to repentant criminals4 ,for in the immediate view of danger1 what offender1 surrounded with the wreck of former enjoyments1 feeling the vanity of guilty pleasures1 now past for ever1 and beholding the approach of the delayed penal visitation1 but would repent8 ,were the principle of granting pardon to repentance to regulate human governments1 every criminal would escape1 and judicial forms would become a subject for ridicule4 ,nor is it recognised by the divine ,being in his conduct to men in the present state1 although in this world punishments are not final and absolute4 ,repentance does not restore health injured by intemperance2 property1 wasted by profusion2 or character1 once stained by dishonourable practices4 ,if repentance alone could secure pardon1 then all must be pardoned1 and government dissolved1 as in the case of forgiveness by the exercise of mere prerogative2 but if an arbitrary selection be made1 then different and discordant principles of government are introduced into the divine administration1 which is a derogatory supposition4 ,the question proposed abstractedly1 ,how may mercy be extended to offending creatures1 the subjects of the divine government1 without encouraging vice1 by lowering the righteous and holy character of ,god1 and the authority of his government1 in the maintenance of which the whole universe of beings are interested8 is1 therefore1 at once one of the most important and one of the most difficult that can employ the human mind4 ,none of the theories which have been opposed to ,christianity affords a satisfactory solution of the problem4 ,they assume principles either destructive of moral government1 or which cannot1 in the circumstances of man1 be acted upon4 ,the only answer is found in the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,they alone show1 and1 indeed1 they alone profess to show1 how ,god may be 8just10 and yet the 8justifier0 of the ungodly4 ,other schemes show how he may be merciful2 but the difficulty does not lie there4 ,the ,gospel meets it1 by declaring 8the righteousness of ,god10 at the same time that it proclaims his mercy4 ,the voluntary sufferings of the ,divine ,son of ,god 8for us10 that is1 in our room and stead1 magnify the justice of ,god2 display his hatred to sin2 proclaim 8the exceeding sinfulness0 of transgression1 by the deep and painful manner in which they were inflicted upon the ,substitute2 warn the persevering offender of the terribleness1 as well as the certainty1 of his punishment2 and open the gates of salvation to every penitent4 ,it is a part of the same divine plan also to engage the influence of the ,holy ,spirit1 to awaken penitence in man1 and to lead the wanderer back to himself2 to renew our fallen nature in righteousness1 at the moment we are justified through faith1 and to place us in circumstances in which we may henceforth 8walk not after the flesh1 but after the ,spirit40 ,all the ends of government are here answered--no license is given to offence1--the moral law is unrepealed1--a day of judgment is still appointed1--future and eternal punishments still display their awful sanctions1--a new and singular display of the awful purity of the divine character is afforded1--yet pardon is offered to all who seek it2 and the whole world may be saved4 ,with such evidence of suitableness to the case of mankind1 under such lofty views of connection with the principles and ends of moral government1 does the doctrine of the atonement present itself4 ,but other important considerations are not wanting to mark the united wisdom and goodness of that method of extending mercy to the guilty1 which ,christianity teaches us to have been actually and exclusively adopted4 ,it is rendered1 indeed1 8worthy of all acceptation10 by the circumstance of its meeting the difficulties we have just dwelt upon1--difficulties which could not otherwise have failed to make a gloomy impression upon every offender awakened to a sense of his spiritual danger2 but it must be very inattentively considered1 if it does not farther commend itself to us1 by not only removing the apprehensions we might feel as to the severity of the divine ,lawgiver1 but as exalting him in our esteem as 8the righteous ,lord1 who loveth righteousness10 who surrendered his beloved ,son to suffering and death1 that the influence of moral goodness might not be weakened in the hearts of his creatures2 and as a ,god of love1 affording in this instance a view of the tenderness and benignity of his nature infinitely more impressive and affecting than any abstract description could convey1 or than any act of creating and providential power and grace could exhibit1 and1 therefore1 most suitable to subdue that enmity which had unnaturally grown up in the hearts of his creatures1 and which1 when corrupt1 they so easily transfer from a law which restrains their inclination to the ,lawgiver himself4 ,if it be important to us to know the extent and reality of our danger1 by the death of ,christ it is displayed1 not in description1 but in the most impressive action2 if it be important that we should have an assurance of the divine placability toward us1 it here receives a demonstration incapable of being heightened2 if gratitude be the most powerful motive of future obedience1 and one which renders command on the one part1 and active service on the other1 8not grievous but joyous10 the recollection of such obligations as those which the 8love of ,christ0 has laid us under1 is a perpetual spring to this energetic affection1 and will be the means of raising it to higher and more delightful activity for ever4 ,all that can most powerfully illustrate the united tenderness and awful majesty of ,god1 and the odiousness of sin2 all that can win back the heart of man to his ,maker and ,lord1 and render future obedience a matter of affection and delight as well as duty2 all that can extinguish the angry and malignant passions of man to man2 all that can inspire a mutual benevolence1 and dispose to a self-denying charity for the benefit of others2 all that can arouse by hope1 or tranquillize by faith2 is to be found in the vicarious death of ,christ1 and the principles and purposes for which it was endured4 ,the first declaration1 on this subject1 after the appearance of ,christ1 is that of ,john the ,baptist1 when he saw ,jesus coming unto him1 8,behold the ,lamb of ,god1 which taketh away the sin of the world20 where it is obvious1 that when ,john called our ,lord1 8the ,lamb of ,god10 he spoke of him under a sacrificial character1 and of the effect of that sacrifice as an atonement for the sins of mankind4 ,this was said of our ,lord1 even before he entered on his public office2 but if any doubt should exist respecting the meaning of the ,baptist's expression1 it is removed by other passages1 in which a similar allusion is adopted1 and in which it is specifically applied to the death of ,christ1 as an atonement for sin4 ,in the ,acts of the ,apostles1 the following words of ,isaiah are1 by ,philip the evangelist1 distinctly applied to ,christ1 and to his death3 8,he was led as a sheep to the slaughter2 and like a lamb dumb before his shearer1 so opened he not his mouth4 in his humiliation his judgment was taken away3 and who shall declare his generation8 for his life is taken from the earth40 ,this particular part of the prophecy being applied to our ,lord's death1 the whole must relate to the same subject2 for it is undoubtedly one entire prophecy1 and the other expressions in it are still stronger3 8,he was wounded for our transgressions2 he was bruised for our iniquities2 the chastisement of our peace was upon him2 and with his stripes we are healed3 the ,lord hath laid on him the iniquity of us all40 ,in the ,first ,epistle of ,peter1 is also a strong and very apposite text1 in which the application of the term 8lamb0 to our ,lord1 and the sense in which it is applied1 can admit of no doubt3 8,forasmuch as ye know that ye were not redeemed with corruptible things1 but with the precious blood of ,christ1 as of a lamb without blemish and without spot10 #a ,peter i1 #ah1 #ai4 ,it is therefore evident that the ,prophet ,isaiah1 six hundred years before the birth of ,jesus2 that ,john the ,baptist1 on the commencement of his ministry2 and that ,st4 ,peter1 his friend1 companion and ,apostle1 subsequent to the transaction2 speak of ,christ's death as an atonement for sin1 under the figure of a lamb sacrificed4 ,the passages that follow1 plainly and distinctly declare the atoning efficacy of ,christ's death3 8,now once in the end of the world hath he appeared to put away sin by the sacrifice of himself40 8,christ was once offered to bear the sins of many2 and unto them that look for him shall he appear the second time without sin unto salvation10 ,heb4 ix1 #bf1 #bh4 8,this man1 after he had offered one sacrifice for sin1 for ever sat down on the right hand of ,god2 for by one offering he hath perfected for ever them that are sanctified10 ,heb4 x1 #ab4 ,it is observable1 that nothing similar is said of the death of any other person1 and that no such efficacy is imputed to any other martyrdom4 8,while we were yet sinners ,christ died for us2 much more then1 being now justified by his blood1 we shall be saved from wrath through him3 for if1 when we were enemies1 we were reconciled to ,god by the death of his ,son1 much more1 being reconciled1 we shall be saved by his life10 ,rom4 v1 #h-aj4 ,the words1 8reconciled to ,god by the death of his ,son10 show that his death had an efficacy in our reconciliation2 but reconciliation is only preparatory to salvation4 8,he has reconciled us to his ,father in his cross1 and in the body of his flesh through death10 ,col4 i1 #bj1 #bb4 ,what is said of reconciliation in these texts1 is in some others spoken of sanctification1 which is also preparatory to salvation4 8,we are sanctified10--how8 8by the offering of the body of ,christ once for all10 ,heb4 x1 #aj4 ,in the same epistle1 the blood of ,jesus is called 8the blood of the covenant by which we are sanctified40 ,in these and many other passages that occur in different parts of the ,new ,testament1 it is therefore asserted that the death of ,christ had an efficacy in the procuring of human salvation4 ,such expressions are used concerning no other person1 and the death of no other person2 and it is therefore evident1 that ,christ's death included something more than a confirmation of his preaching2 something more than a pattern of a holy and patient martyrdom2 something more than a necessary antecedent to his resurrection1 by which he gave a grand and clear proof of our resurrection from the dead4 ,christ's death was all these1 but it was something more4 ,it was an atonement for the sins of mankind2 and in this way only it became the accomplishment of our eternal redemption4 ,see ,,day ,,of ,,expiation4 ,,augsburgh1 or ,,augustan ,,confession4 ,in #aecj1 a diet of the ,german princes was convened by the emperor ,charles ,v1 to meet at ,augsburgh1 for the express purpose of composing the religious troubles which then distracted ,germany4 ,on this occasion ,melancthon was employed to draw up this famous confession of faith which may be considered as the creed of the ,german reformers1 especially of the more temperate among them4 ,it consisted of twenty-one articles1 including the following points3--,the ,trinity1 original sin1 the incarnation1 justification by faith1 the word and sacraments1 necessity of good works1 the perpetuity of the church1 infant baptism1 the ,lord's ,supper1 repentance and confession1 the proper use of the sacraments1 church order1 rites and ceremonies1 the magistracy1 a future judgment1 free will1 the worship of saints1 c4 ,it then proceeds to state the abuses of which the reformers chiefly complained1 as the denial of the sacramental cup to the laity1 the celibacy of the clergy1 the mass1 auricular confession1 forced abstinence from meats1 monastic vows1 and the enormous power of the church of ,rome4 ,the confession was read at a full meeting of the diet1 and signed by the elector of ,saxony1 and three other princes of the ,german empire4 ,john ,faber1 afterward archbishop of ,vienna1 and two other ,catholic divines1 were employed to draw up an answer to this confession1 which was replied to by ,melancthon in his 8,apology for the ,augsburgh ,confession0 in #aeca4 ,this confession and defence2 the articles of ,smalcald1 drawn up by ,luther2 his catechisms1 c1 form the symbolical books of the ,lutheran church2 and it must be owned that they contain concessions in favour of some parts of popery1 particularly the real presence1 that few ,protestants in this country would admit4 ,,augustine1 or1 as he is sometimes called in the court style of the middle ages1 ,,st4 ,,austin1 one of the ancient fathers of the church1 whose writings for many centuries had almost as potent an influence on the religious opinions of ,christendom as those of ,aristotle exercised over philosophy4 ,indeed1 it has often been mentioned as a fact1 with expressions of regret1 that the writings of no man1 those of the ,stagirite excepted1 contributed more than those of ,st4 ,augustine to encourage that spirit of subtle disquisition which subsequently distinguished the era of the ,schoolmen4 ,he was born1 ,november #acth1 ,a4 ,d4 #ced1 at ,tagasta1 an episcopal city of ,numidia in ,africa4 ,his parents1 ,patricius and ,monica1 were ,christians of respectable rank in life1 who afforded their son all the means of instruction which his excellent genius and wonderful aptitude for learning seemed to require4 ,he studied grammar and rhetoric at ,madura1 until he was sixteen years old2 and afterward removed to ,carthage1 to complete his studies4 ,in both these cities1 in all the fervour of unregenerate youth1 he entered eagerly into the seducing scenes of dissipation and folly with which he was surrounded1 and became not only depraved but infamous in his conduct4 ,in this respect he was not improved by his subsequent connection with the ,manichees1 whose unhallowed principles afforded an excuse for his immorality1 and threw a veil over the vilest of his actions4 ,the simplicity and minuteness with which he has narrated the numerous incidents of his childhood1 youth1 and mature age1 in his celebrated book of 8,confessions10 have afforded abundant matter of ridicule to the profane and infidel wits of this and the last age4 ,the reflections1 however1 which accompany his narrative1 are generally important and judicious1 and furnish to the moral philosopher copious materials for a history of the varieties of the human heart1 and are of superior value to the humble ,christian for the investigation and better knowledge of his own4 ,with a strange though not uncommon inconsistency1 few books have been more frequently quoted as authority on matters relating to general literature and philosophy by infidels themselves1 than ,st4 ,augustine's otherwise despised 8,confessions10 and his 8,city of ,god40 ,but1 whatever else is taught in this remarkable piece of autobiography1 every pious reader will be delighted with the additional proofs which it contains of the ultimate prevalence of faithful prayer1 especially on the part of ,christian parents4 ,monica's importunate prayers to heaven followed the aberrations of her graceless son1--when he settled at ,carthage as a teacher of rhetoric2 when he removed to ,rome1 and lodged with a ,manichee2--and when he finally settled at ,milan as professor of rhetoric4 ,st4 ,ambrose was at that time1 ,a4 ,d4 #chd1 bishop of ,milan1 and to his public discourses ,augustine began to pay much attention4 ,his heart became gradually prepared for the reception of divine truth1 and for that important change of heart and principles which constitutes 8conversion40 ,the circumstances attending this change1 though often related1 are not unworthy of being repeated1 if only to show that the mode of the ,holy ,spirit's operations was in substance the same in those early days as they are now2 and time was when some of the soundest divines and most worthy dignitaries of the church of ,england were in the habit of referring with approbation to this well attested instance of change of heart4 ,one of his ,christian countrymen1 ,pontinius1 who held a high situation at court1 having perceived a copy of ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles lying on the table1 entered one day into conversation with him and his friend ,alipius about the nature of faith and the happiness of those who lived in the enjoyment of religion4 ,augustine was deeply affected at the close of this visit2 and when ,pontinius had retired1 giving vent to his feelings he addressed ,alipius in a most animated strain3 8,how is this8 ,what shall we do8 ,ignorant people come1 and seize upon heaven2 and we1 with our learning1 7senseless wretches that we are67 behold we are immersed in flesh and blood6 ,are we ashamed to follow them8 ,yet is it not a still greater shame1 not even to be able to follow them80 ,full of remorse and contrition ,augustine left the house and retired to a secret part of the garden1 followed by his friend1 who seemed on this occasion to be a partaker of his grief only because he saw him grieved in spirit4 ,unwilling to unman himself1 as he accounted it1 before ,alipius1 he left him2 and throwing himself down under the branches of a large fig tree he poured out a torrent of tears which he was unable any longer to restrain1 and exclaimed in bitterness of soul1 8,when1 ,o ,lord1 when will thy anger cease8 ,why tomorrow8 ,why not at this time80 ,he instantly heard what he considered to be the voice of a child1 saying ,tolle1 lege1 8,take and read40 ,these two ,latin words were repeated several times2 ,augustine reflected upon them1 checked his tears1 received them as the voice of ,god1 and running into the house1 opened1 according to the divine direction1 the ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul which he had left on the table1 and attentively read the first passage which he found4 ,it was ,romans xiii1 #ac1 #ad2 a passage peculiarly applicable to him1 in reference to his former habits and present state of mind3 8,not in rioting and drunkenness1 not in chambering and wantonness1 not in strife and envying3 but put ye on ,,the ,,lord ,,jesus ,,christ1 and make not provision for the flesh to fulfil the lusts thereof40 ,he shut up the book1 and was amazed that all his doubts and fears had vanished4 ,alipius was speedily informed of this wonderful change in his feelings and views2 and after having desired to see the two verses1 in the spirit of a true seeker he pointed out to ,augustine the passage which immediately follows1 and which he considered as peculiarly adapted to his own case3 8,him that is weak in the faith receive ye10 c1 ,rom4 xiv1 #a4 ,the two friends then ran to acquaint ,monica with these circumstances1 the knowledge of which transported her with joy4 ,in a frame of mind not unfamiliar to those who have themselves had 8much forgiven10 ,augustine wished to retire at once from so wicked a world as that in which he had passed the first thirty-two years of his dissolute life4 ,his secession1 however1 was only a temporary one2 for he and ,alipius were1 a few months afterward1 received by baptism into the ,christian church4 ,after having composed several religious treatises in his retreat near ,tagasta1 especially against the errors of the ,manichees1 from which he had been so recently reclaimed1 he was1 in the year #cib1 ordained priest by ,valerius1 bishop of ,hippo1 now a part of the ,barbary ,states on the coast of ,africa4 ,he there held a public disputation with ,fortunatus1 a celebrated priest among the ,manichees1 and acquitted himself with great spirit and success1 he also wrote and preached largely and to great effect against the ,donatists and ,manichees4 ,his reputation as a divine increased2 and he was1 at the close of the year #cie1 ordained bishop of ,hippo1 in which high station he continued with great advantage to wage war against various orders of heretics4 ,augustine had hitherto directed his theological artillery principally against the predestinarian errors of the ,manichees2 but he was soon called upon to change his weapons and his mode of warfare1 in attacking a new and not less dangerous class of heretics4 ,in the year #dab he began to write against the injurious doctrines of ,pelagias1 a native of ,britain1 who had resided for a considerable time at ,rome1 and acquired universal esteem by the purity of his manners1 his piety1 and his erudition4 ,alarmed at the consequences which seemed to him obviously to result from allowing that ,adam's sin is transmitted to all his posterity1 and fortified in his sentiments on this subject by those of ,origen and ,ruffinus1 with the latter of whom he had associated1 he boldly denied tenets which he did not believe4 ,in the defence of his opinions1 ,pelagius1 was seconded by ,celestius1 a man equally eminent for his talents and his virtues4 ,their principles were propagated at first rather by hints and intimations1 than by open avowal and plain declarations2 but this reserve was laid aside when they perceived the ready reception which their doctrines obtained2 and ,celestius began zealously to disseminate them in ,africa1 while ,pelagius sowed the same tares in ,palestine1 whence they were speedily transplanted to almost every corner of ,christendom4 ,if the brief notices1 which have come down to us respecting their tenets1 in the writings of their adversaries1 be correct1 they affirmed1 8,it is not free will if it requires the aid of ,god2 because every one has it within the power of his own will to do any thing1 or not to do it4 ,our victory over sin and ,satan proceeds not from the help which ,god affords1 but is owing to our own free will4 ,the prayers which the church offers up either for the conversion of unbelievers and other sinners1 or for the perseverance of believers1 are poured forth in vain4 ,the unrestricted capability of men's own free will is amply sufficient for all these things1 and therefore no necessity exists for asking of ,god those things which we are able of ourselves to obtain2 the gifts of grace being only necessary to enable men to do that more easily and completely which yet they could do themselves though more slowly and with greater difficulty2 and that they are perfectly free creatures10 in opposition to all the current notions of predestination and reprobation4 ,these novel opinions were refuted by ,st4 ,augustine and ,st4 ,jerom1 as well as by ,orosius a ,spanish presbyter1 and they were condemned as heresies in the council of ,carthage and in that of ,milevum4 ,the discussions which then arose have been warmly agitated in various subsequent periods of the ,christian church1 though little new light has been thrown upon them from that age to the present4 ,in his eagerness to confute these opponents ,st4 ,augustine employed language so strong as made it susceptible of an interpretation wholly at variance with the accountability of man4 ,this led to farther explanations and modifications of his sentiments1 which were multiplied when the ,semi-,pelagians arose1 who thought that the truth lay between his doctrines and those of the ,pelagians4 ,concerning original sin1 he maintained that it was derived from our first parents2 and he believed he had ascertained in what the original sin conveyed by ,adam to his posterity consisted4 ,in his sentiments1 however1 upon the latter point he was rather inconsistent1 at one time asserting that the essence of original sin was concupiscence1 and at another expressing doubts respecting his own position4 ,this subject was bequeathed as a legacy to the schoolmen of a subsequent age1 who exercised their subtle wits upon all its ramifications down to the period of the council of ,trent4 ,on the consequences of the fall of our first parents1 ,st4 ,augustine taught that by it human nature was totally corrupted1 and deprived of all inclination and ability to do good4 ,before the age in which he lived1 the early fathers held what1 in the language of systematic theology1 is termed the synergestic system1 or the needfulness of human coperation in the works of holiness2 but though the freedom of the will was not considered by them as excluding or rendering unnecessary the grace of ,god1 yet much vagueness is perceptible in the manner in which they express themselves1 because they had not examined the subject with the same attention as the theologians by whom they were succeeded4 ,those early divines generally used the language of ,scripture1 the fertile invention of controversial writers1 not having as yet displayed itself1 except on the divine nature of ,jesus ,christ1 and subsidiary terms and learned distinctions not being then required by any great differences of opinion4 ,but as soon as ,pelagius broached his errors1 the attention of ,christians was naturally turned to the investigation of the doctrine of grace4 ,the opinions of ,st4 ,augustine on this subject1 which soon became those of the great body of the ,christian church1 admitted the necessity of divine grace1 or the influence of the ,holy ,spirit1 for our obedience to the law of ,god4 ,he ascribed the renovation of our moral constitution wholly to this grace1 denied all coperation of man with it for answering the end to be accomplished1 and represented it as irresistible4 ,he farther affirmed that it was given only to a certain portion of the human race1 to those who showed the fruits of it in their sanctification1 and that it secured the perseverance of all upon whom it was bestowed4 ,plaifere in his 8,appello ,evangelium0 has given the following as the substance of that opinion of the order of predestination of which 8many do say that ,st4 ,austin was the first author3 #a4 ,that ,god from all eternity decreed to create mankind holy and good4 #b4 ,that he foresaw man1 being tempted by ,satan1 would fall into sin1 if ,god did not hinder it2 he decreed not to hinder4 #c4 ,that out of mankind1 seen fallen into sin and misery1 he chose a certain number to raise to righteousness and to eternal life1 and rejected the rest1 leaving them in their sins4 #d4 ,that for these his chosen he decreed to send his ,son to redeem them1 and his ,spirit to call them and sanctify them2 the rest he decreed to forsake1 leaving them to ,satan and themselves1 and to punish them for their sins40 ,after ,st4 ,augustine had thus in a great degree new moulded the science of theology1 and had combined with it as an essential part of divine truth1 that the fate of mankind was determined by the divine decree independently of their own efforts and conduct1 and that they were thus divided into the elect and reprobate1 it became necessary1 in order to preserve consistency1 to introduce into his system a limitation with respect to baptism1 and to prevent the opinions concerning it from interfering with those which flowed from the doctrine of predestination4 ,he accordingly taught1 that baptism brings with it the forgiveness of sins2 that it is so essential1 that the omission of it will expose us to condemnation2 and that it is attended with regeneration4 ,he also affirmed that the virtue of baptism is not in the water2 that the ministers of ,christ perform the external ceremony1 but that ,christ accompanies it with invisible grace2 that baptism is common to all1 whilst1 grace is not so2 and that the same external rite may be death to some1 and life to others4 ,by this distinction he rids himself of the difficulty which would have pressed upon his scheme of theology1 had pardon1 regeneration1 and salvation been necessarily connected with the outward ordinance of baptism2 and limits its proper efficacy to those who are comprehended1 as the heirs of eternal life1 in the decree of the ,almighty4 ,many1 however1 of those who strictly adhere to him in other parts of his doctrinal system1 desert him at this point4 ,bishop ,bedell speaks thus in disparagement of his baptismal views1 in a letter to ,dr4 ,ward3 8,this ,i do yield to my ,lord of ,sarum most willingly1 that the justification1 sanctification1 and adoption which children have in baptism1 is not univoc univocally the same with that which adulti adults have4 ,i think the emphatical speeches of ,augustine against the ,pelagians1 and of ,prosper1 are not so much to be regarded 7who say the like of the eucharist also7 touching the necessity and efficacy in the case of infants2 and they are very like the speeches of ,lanfranc and ,guitmund of ,christ's presence in the sacrament1 opposing veracitr1 truly and ver truly to sacramentalitr2 sacramentally2 which is a false and absurd contraposition4 ,the opinion of the ,franciscans out of ,scotus and ,bernard1 mentioned in the council of ,trent1 seems to be the true opinion2 for they make the sacraments to be effectual1 #8because ,god gives them effectus regularitr concomitantes1' regularly accompanying effects1 and to contain grace no otherwise than as an effectual sign2 and that grace is received by them as an investiture by a ring or staff1 which is obsignando1 by signation4 ,consider that if you will aver1 that baptism washes away otherwise than sacramentally1 that is1 obsignatorily1 original sin2 yet you must allow that manner of washing for future actual sins2 and you must make two sorts of justification1 one for children1 another for adulti2 adults2 and 7which passes all the rest7 you must find some promise in ,god's covenant wherein he binds himself to wash away sin without faith or repentance4 ,by this doctrine1 you must also maintain that children do spiritually eat the flesh of ,christ and drink his blood1 if they receive the eucharist1 as for ages they did1 and by the analogy of the passover they may2 and sith if the use of this sacrament toties quoties as often as it is used must needs confer grace1 it seems it were necessary to let them communicate1 and the oftener the better1 to the intent they might be stronger in grace3 which opinion1 though ,st4 ,austin and many more of the ancients do maintain1 ,i believe you will not easily condescend unto1 or that children dying without baptism are damned40 ,these remarks are important1 as proceeding from the pen of the personal friend of ,father ,paul1 who wrote the ,history of the council of ,trent4 ,in the various discussions which have arisen concerning predestination and the doctrines with which it is connected1 some modern divines have quoted the arguments of ,st4 ,augustine against the ,manichees1 and others those which he employed against the ,pelagians1 according to the discordant views which the combatants severally entertain on these controverted points4 ,one of them has thus expressed himself1 in his endeavour to reconcile ,st ,augustine with himself3--8,the heresy of ,pelagius being suppressed1 the catholic doctrine in that point became more settled and confirmed by the opposition2 such freedom being left to the will of man1 as was subservient unto grace1 coperating in some measure with those heavenly influences4 ,and so much is confessed by ,st4 ,augustine himself1 where he asks this question1 #8,doth any man affirm that free will is perished utterly from man by the fall of ,adam8' ,and thereunto he makes this answer3 #8,freedom is perished by sin2 but it is that freedom only which we had in paradise1 of having perfect righteousness with immortality4' ,for1 otherwise1 it appears to be his opinion1 that man was not merely passive in all the acts of grace which conduced to glory1 according to the memorable saying of his1 so common in the mouths of all men1 #8,he who first made us without our help will not vouchsafe to save us at last without our concurrence4' ,if any harsher expressions have escaped his pen1 7as commonly it happeneth in the heats of a disputation17 they are to be qualified by this last rule1 and by that before1 in which it was affirmed1 that #8,god could not with justice judge and condemn the world1 if all men's sins proceeded not from their own free will1 but from some overruling providence which inforced them to it4#80 ,another admirer of this father offers the following as an attempt at reconciliation3 8,st4 ,augustine denied that the coperation of man is at all exerted to produce the renewal of our nature2 but1 when the renewal had been produced1 he admitted that there was an exercise of the will combined with the workings of grace4 ,in the tenth chapter of his work against the ,manichans1 the bishop of ,hippo thus expresses himself3 #8,who is it that will not exclaim1 ,how foolish it is to deliver precepts to that man who is not at liberty to perform what is commanded6 ,and how unjust it is to condemn him who had not power to fulfil the commands6 ,yet these unhappy persons the ,manichees do not perceive that they are ascribing such injustice and want of equity to ,god4 ,but what greater truth is there than this1 that ,god has delivered precepts1 and that human spirits have freedom of will8#8 ,elsewhere he says1 #8,nothing is more within our power than our own will4 ,the will is that by which we commit sin1 and by which we live righteously4' ,nothing can be plainer than that the writer of these passages admitted the liberty of the human will1 and the necessity of our own exertions in conjunction with divine grace4 ,how this is to be reconciled with his general doctrine1 is perhaps indicated in the following passage from his book ,de ,grati et lib4 ,arbitrio1 c4 #ag4 ,speaking of grace he says1 #8,that we may will ,god works without us2 but when we will1 and so will as to do1 he co-works with us2 yet unless he either works that we may will1 or co-works when we do will1 we are utterly incapable of doing any thing in the good works of piety4'0 ,these are but very slight specimens of the mode in which learned and ingenious men have tried to give a kind of symmetrical proportion to this father's doctrinal system4 ,several large treatises have been published with the same praiseworthy intention2 the pious authors of them either entirely forgetting1 or having never read1 the rather latitudinarian indulgence of opinion which ,st4 ,augustine claims for himself in his 8,retractations10 in which he has qualified the harshness of his previous assertions on many subjects4 ,if1 however1 an estimate may be formed of what this father intended in his various pacifacatory doctrinal explanations from what he has actually admitted and expressed1 it may be safely affirmed that no systematic writer of theology seems so completely to have entered into the last and best views of the bishop of ,hippo1 or so nearly reconciled the apparent discordances in them1 as ,arminius has done2 and few other authors have rendered more ample justice to his sentiments1 talents1 and character1 than the famous ,dutch ,professor4 ,many were the theological labours to which he was invited by the most eminent of his contemporaries2 and hastily as some of his lucubrations were executed1 it is not surprising that among two hundred and seventy-two treatises on different subjects1 some are of inferior value and unworthy of the fame which he had acquired in the church4 ,after a life of various changes1 and of a mixed character1 he died ,a4 ,d4 #dcj1 in the seventy-sixth year of his age2 having been harassed at the close of life by seeing his country invaded by the ,vandals1 and the city of which he was the bishop besieged4 ,though those barbarians took ,hippo and burned it1 they saved his library1 which contained his voluminous writings4 ,st4 ,augustine was a diligent man in the sacred calling2 and that the office of a bishop even in that age of the church was no sinecure1 is evident from several notices in his letters4 ,at the close of one addressed to ,marcellinus he gives the subjoined account3 8,if ,i were able to give you a narrative of the manner in which ,i spend my time1 you would be both surprised and distressed on account of the great number of affairs which oppress me without my being able to suspend them4 ,for when some little leisure is allowed me by those who daily attend upon me about business1 and who are so urgent with me that ,i can neither shun them nor ought to despise them1 ,i have always some other writings to compose1 which indeed ought to be preferred1 to those which ,marcellinus requested1 because the present juncture will not permit them to be postponed4 ,for the rule of charity is1 not to consider the greatness of the friendship1 but the necessity of the affair4 ,thus ,i have continually something or other to compose which diverts me from writing what would be more agreeable to my inclinations1 daring the little intervals in that multiplicity of business with which ,i am burdened either through the wants or the passions of others40 ,he frequently complains of this oppressive weight of occupation in which his love of his flock had engaged him1 by obeying the ,apostolical precept1 which forbids ,christians from going to law before ,pagan tribunals4 ,in reference to this employment his biographer1 ,posidonius1 says3 8,at the desire of ,christians1 or of men belonging to any sect whatever1 he would hear causes with patience and attention1 sometimes till the usual hour of eating1 and sometimes the whole day without eating at all1 observing the dispositions of the parties1 and how much they advanced or decreased in faith and good works2 and when he had opportunity he instructed them in the law of ,god1 and gave them suitable advice1 requiring nothing of them except ,christian obedience4 ,he sometimes wrote letters1 when desired1 on temporal subjects2 but looked upon all this as unprofitable occupation1 which drew him aside from that which was better and more agreeable to himself40 ,the character of this eminent father has been much misrepresented both as a man and as a writer4 ,whoever looks into his writings for accurate and enlarged views of ,christian doctrine1 looks for that which could not be expected in the very infancy of ,biblical criticism4 ,he was a rhetorician by profession1 and the degenerate taste of that age must be blamed1 rather than the individual who wrote in the style which then prevailed4 ,the learning of ,st4 ,augustine1 and particularly his knowledge of ,greek1 have been disputed2 and hence the importance of his ,biblical criticisms has been depreciated4 ,in the account of the early part of his life he confesses his great aversion to the study of that language2 and as he tells us1 in his maturer age1 that he read the ,platonists in a ,latin version1 it has perhaps been too hastily concluded that he never made any great proficiency in it4 ,but though it be allowed that his comments on ,scripture consist chiefly of popular reflections1 spiritual and moral1 or allegorical and mystical perversions of the literal meaning2 yet the works of this father are not wholly destitute of remarks and critical interpretations1 that are pertinent and judicious3 to such1 after a series of extracts from his writings1 ,dr4 ,lardner has referred his readers4 ,with regard to his knowledge of ,greek1 this impartial and candid author is of opinion1 that he understood that language better than some have supposed2 and he has cited several passages from which it may be perceived1 that ,st4 ,augustine frequently compared his copies of the ,latin version with those of the ,greek original4 ,le ,clerc himself allows that he sometimes explains ,greek words and phrases in a very felicitous manner4 ,indeed1 the commencement of his correspondence with ,st4 ,jerom proves him to have been no contemptible critic4 ,in this he besought him1 in the name of all the ,african churches1 to apply himself to the translation into ,latin of the ,greek interpreters of ,scripture1 rather than to enter upon a new translation from the original ,hebrew2 and to point out those passages in which the ,hebrew differed from the ,septuagint1 as he had previously done in the book of ,job4 ,voltaire and other profane wits have1 in the exercise of their buffoonery1 impeached his moral conduct2 but their charges1 when impartially examined1 will be seen to be founded in ignorance or in malice4 ,they resemble those which the same parties prefer against ,prophets1 ,apostles1 and against ,christ himself4 ,mosheim observes that ,augustine's high reputation filled the ,christian world2 and 8not without reason1 as a variety of great and shining qualities were united in the character of that illustrious man4 ,a sublime genius1 an uninterrupted and zealous pursuit of truth1 an indefatigable application1 an invincible patience1 a sincere piety1 and a subtle and lively wit1 conspired to establish his fame upon the most lasting foundations40 ,such a testimony as this far outweighs the vituperative remarks and petty sneers of a thousand infidels4 ,see ,,pelagians and ,,synods4 ,,augustus1 emperor of ,rome1 and successor of ,julius ,csar4 ,the battle of ,actium1 which he fought with ,mark ,antony1 and which made him master of the empire1 happened fifteen years before the birth of ,christ4 ,this is the emperor who appointed the enrolment mentioned ,luke ii1 #a1 which obliged ,joseph and the ,virgin ,mary to go to ,bethlehem1 the place where ,jesus ,christ was born4 ,augustus procured the crown of ,judea for ,herod1 from the ,roman senate4 ,after the defeat of ,mark ,antony1 ,herod adhered to ,augustus1 and was always faithful to him2 so that ,augustus loaded him with honours and riches4 ,,aven1 a city of ,egypt1 afterward called ,heliopolis1 and ,on1 ,ezek4 xxx1 #ag4 ,herodotus informs us that in this city there was an annual assembly in honour of the sun1 and a temple dedicated to him4 ,it appears1 however1 highly probable1 by the behaviour of ,pharaoh to ,joseph and ,jacob1 and especially by ,joseph's care to preserve the land to the priests1 ,gen4 xlvii1 #bb1 #bf1 that the true religion prevailed in ,egypt in his time2 and it is incredible that ,joseph should have married the daughter of the priest of ,on1 had that name among the ,egyptians denoted only the material light2 which1 however1 no doubt they1 like all the rest of the world1 idolized in after times1 and to which we find a temple dedicated among the ,canaanites1 under this name1 ,joshua vii1 #b4 ,,avenger ,,of ,,blood4 ,he who prosecuted the man-slayer under the law was called the avenger of blood1 and had a right to slay the person1 if he found him without a city of refuge4 ,see ,,goel4 ,,avims1 a people descended from ,hevus1 the son of ,canaan4 ,they dwelt at first in the country which was afterward possessed by the ,caphtorims1 or ,philistines4 ,the ,scripture says expressly1 that the ,caphtorims drove out the ,avims1 who dwelt in ,hazerim1 even unto ,azzah1 ,deut4 ii1 #bc4 ,there were also ,avims1 or ,hivites1 at ,shechem1 or ,gibeon1 ,joshua xi1 #ai2 for the inhabitants of ,shechem were ,hivites4 ,lastly1 there were some of them beyond ,jordan1 at the foot of ,mount ,hermon4 ,bochart thinks1 that ,cadmus1 who conducted a colony of the ,phnicians into ,greece1 was a ,hivite4 ,his name1 ,cadmus1 comes from the ,hebrew ,kedem1 8the east10 because he came from the eastern parts of the land of ,canaan4 ,the name of his wife ,hermione was taken from ,mount ,hermon1 at the foot whereof the ,hivites dwelt4 ,the metamorphoses of the companions of ,cadmus into serpents is founded upon the signification of the name of ,hivites1 which1 in the ,phnician language1 signifies serpents4 ,,azariah1 or ,,uzziah1 king of ,judah1 son of ,amaziah4 ,he began to reign at the age of sixteen years1 and reigned fifty-two years in ,jerusalem2 his mother's name being ,jecholiah1 #b ,kings xv4 ,azariah did that which was right in the sight of the ,lord2 nevertheless he did not destroy the high places2 and1 against the express prohibition of ,god1 the people continued to sacrifice there4 ,having taken upon him to offer incense in the temple1 which office belonged entirely to the priests1 he was struck with a leprosy1 and continued without the city1 separated from other men until the day of his death1 #b ,chron4 xxvi4 ,josephus says1 that upon this occasion a great earthquake happened2 and that the temple opening at the top1 a ray of light darted upon the king's forehead1 the very moment he took the censer into his hand1 and he instantly became a leper2 nay1 that the earthquake was so very violent1 that it tore in sunder a mountain west of ,jerusalem1 and rolled one half of it over and over to the distance of four furlongs1 till at length it was stopped by another mountain which stood over against it2 but choked up the highway1 and covered the king's gardens with dust4 ,this is what ,josephus adds to the history related in the ,chronicles2 but the truth of it may be justly suspected4 ,we know1 indeed1 that there was a very great earthquake in the reign of ,uzziah2 for ,amos1 chap4 i1 #a1 and ,zechariah1 chap4 xiv1 #e1 make mention of it3 however1 it is not certain that it happened at the very time that ,uzziah took upon him to offer incense4 ,during the time that ,uzziah was a leper1 his son ,jotham1 as his father's viceroy1 took the public administration upon himself1 and succeeded him after his death1 which happened in the fifty-second year of his reign1 ,a4 ,m4 #cbdf4 ,he was not buried in the royal sepulchre2 but in the same field1 at some distance1 on account of his leprosy4 ,the first part of ,uzziah's reign was very successful3 he obtained great advantages over the ,philistines1 ,ammonites1 and ,arabians4 ,he made additions to the fortifications at ,jerusalem1 and always kept an army on foot of three hundred and seven thousand men1 and upwards1 #b ,chron4 xxvi2 and he had great magazines1 well stored with all sorts of arms1 as well offensive as defensive2 and he was a great lover of agriculture4 ,,baal1 ,,bel1 or ,,belus1 denoting lord1 a divinity among several ancient nations2 as the ,canaanites1 ,phnicians1 ,sidonians1 ,carthaginians1 ,babylonians1 ,chaldeans1 and ,assyrians4 ,the term ,baal1 which is itself an appellative1 served at first to denote the true ,god1 among those who adhered to the true religion4 ,accordingly1 the ,phnicians1 being originally ,canaanites1 having once had1 as well as the rest of their kindred1 the knowledge of the true ,god1 probably called him ,baal1 or lord4 ,but they1 as well as other nations1 gradually degenerating into idolatry1 applied this appellation to their respective idols2 and thus were introduced a variety of divinities1 called ,baalim1 or ,baal1 with some epithet annexed to it1 as ,baal ,berith1 ,baal ,gad1 ,baal ,moloch1 ,baal ,peor1 ,baal ,zebub1 c4 ,some have supposed that the descendants of ,ham first worshipped the sun under the title of ,baal1 #b ,kings xxiii1 #e1 #aa2 and that they afterward ascribed it to the patriarch who was the head of their line2 making the sun only an emblem of his influence or power4 ,it is certain1 however1 that when the custom prevailed of deifying and worshipping those who were in any respect distinguished among mankind1 the appellation of ,baal was not restricted to the sun1 but extended to those eminent persons who were deified1 and who became objects of worship in different nations4 ,the ,phnicians had several divinities of this kind1 who were not intended to represent the sun4 ,it is probable that ,baal1 ,belus1 or ,bel1 the great god of the ,carthaginians1 and also of the ,sidonians1 ,babylonians1 and ,assyrians1 who1 from the testimony of ,scripture1 appears to have been delighted with human sacrifices1 was the ,moloch of the ,ammonites2 the ,chronus of the ,greeks1 who was the chief object of adoration in ,italy1 ,crete1 ,cyprus1 and ,rhodes1 and all other countries where divine honours were paid him2 and the ,saturn of the ,latins4 ,in process of time1 many other deities1 beside the principal ones just mentioned1 were distinguished by the title of ,baal among the ,phnicians1 particularly those of ,tyre1 and of course among the ,carthaginians1 and other nations4 ,such were ,jupiter1 ,mars1 ,bacchus1 and ,apollo1 or the sun4 ,the temples and altars of ,baal were generally placed on eminences3 they were places inclosed by walls1 within which was maintained a perpetual fire2 and some of them bad statues or images1 called in ,scripture 8,chamanim40 ,maundrell1 in his journey from ,aleppo to ,jerusalem1 observed1 some remains of these enclosures in ,syria4 ,baal had his prophets and his priests in great numbers2 accordingly1 we read of four hundred and fifty of them that were fed at the table of ,jezebel only2 and they conducted the worship of this deity1 by offering sacrifices1 by dancing round his altar with violent gesticulations and exclamations1 by cutting their bodies with knives and lancets1 and by raving and pretending to prophesy1 as if they were possessed by some invisible power4 ,it is remarkable that we do not find the name ,baal so much in popular use east of ,babylonia2 but it was general west of ,babylonia1 and to the very extremity of western ,europe1 including the ,british isles4 ,the worship of ,bel1 ,belus1 ,belenus1 or ,belinus1 was general throughout the ,british islands2 and certain of its rites and observances are still maintained among us1 notwithstanding the establishment of ,christianity during so many ages4 ,a town in ,perthshire1 on the borders of the ,highlands1 is called ,tilliebeltane or ,tulliebeltane2 that is1 the eminence1 or rising ground1 of the fire of ,baal4 ,in the neighbourhood is a ,druidical temple of eight upright stones1 where it is supposed the fire was kindled4 ,at some distance from this is another temple of the same kind1 but smaller2 and near it a well still held in great veneration4 ,on ,beltane morning1 superstitious people go to this well1 and drink of it2 then they make a procession round it nine times4 ,after this they in like manner go round the temple4 ,so deep-rooted is this ,heathenish superstition in the minds of many who reckon themselves good ,protestants1 that they will not neglect these rites1 even when ,beltane falls on the ,sabbath4 ,in ,ireland1 ,bel-tein is celebrated on the twenty-first of ,june1 at the time of the solstice4 ,there1 as they make fires on the tops of hills1 every member of the family is made to pass through the fire2 as they reckon this ceremony necessary to ensure good fortune through the succeeding year4 ,this resembles the rites used by the ,romans in the ,palilia4 ,bel-tein is also observed in ,lancashire4 ,in ,wales1 this annual fire is kindled in autumn1 on the first day of ,november2 which being neither at the solstice nor equinox1 deserves attention4 ,it may be accounted for by supposing that the lapse of ages has removed it from its ancient station1 and that the observance is kept on the same day1 nominally1 though that be now removed some weeks backward from its true station4 ,however that may be1 in ,north ,wales especially1 this fire is attended by many ceremonies2 such as running through the fire and smoke1 each participator casting a stone into the fire4 ,the ,hebrews often imitated the idolatry of the ,canaanites in adoring ,baal4 ,they offered human sacrifices to him in groves1 upon high places1 and upon the terraces of houses4 ,baal had priests and prophets consecrated to his service4 ,all sorts of infamous and immodest actions were committed in the festivals of ,baal and ,astarte4 ,see ,jer4 xxxii1 #ce2 #b ,kings xvii1 #af2 xxiii1 #d1 #e1 #ab2 #a ,kings xviii1 #bb2 #b ,kings x1 #ai2 #a ,kings xiv1 #bd2 xv1 #ab2 #b ,kings xxiii1 #g2 ,hosea iv1 #ad4 ,this false deity is frequently mentioned in ,scripture in the plural number1 ,baalim1 which may intimate that the name ,baal was given to several different deities4 ,there were many cities in ,palestine1 whose names were compounded of ,baal and some other word3 whether it was that the god ,baal was adored in them1 or that these places were looked upon as the capital cities1--lords of their respective provinces1--is uncertain4 ,,baal ,,berith1 the god of the ,shechemites1 ,judges viii1 #cc2 ix1 #d1 #df4 ,,baal ,,peor4 ,peor is supposed to have been a part of ,mount ,abarim2 and ,baal was the great idol or chief god of the ,phnicians1 and was known and worshipped under a similar name1 with tumultuous and obscene rites1 all over ,asia4 ,he is the same as the ,bel of the ,babylonians4 ,baal1 by itself1 signifies lord1 and was a name of the solar or principal god4 ,but it was also variously compounded1 in allusion to the different characters and attributes of the particular or local deities who were known by it1 as ,baal ,peor1 ,baal ,zebub1 ,baal ,zephon1 c4 ,baal ,peor1 then1 was probably the temple of an idol belonging to the ,moabites1 on ,mount ,abarim1 which the ,israelites worshipped when encamped at ,shittim2 this brought a plague upon them1 of which twenty-four thousand died1 ,num4 xxxv4 ,chemosh1 the abomination of ,moab1 to whom ,solomon erected an altar1 #a ,kings xi1 #g1 is supposed to have been the same deity4 ,baal ,peor has been farther supposed by some to have been ,priapus2 by others1 ,saturn2 by others1 ,pluto2 and by others again1 ,adonis4 ,mr4 ,faber agrees with ,calmet in making ,baal ,peor the same with ,adonis2 a part of whose worship consisted in bewailing him with funeral rites1 as one lost or dead1 and afterward welcoming1 with extravagant joy1 his fictitious return to life4 ,he was in an eminent degree the god of impurity4 ,hosea1 speaking of the worship of this idol1 emphatically calls it 8that shame10 ,hos4 ix1 #aj4 ,yet in the rites of this deity the ,moabite and ,midianite women seduced the ,israelites to join4 ,,baal ,,zebub1 ,,beelzebub1 or ,,bel-,,zebub1 signifies the god of flies1 and was an idol of the ,ekronites4 ,it is not easy to discover how this false deity obtained its name4 ,some commentators think that he was called ,baal ,samin1 or the lord of heaven2 but that the ,jews1 from contempt1 gave him the name of ,baal-zebub4 ,others with greater reason believe that he was denominated 8the god of flies0 by his votaries1 because he defended them from flies1 which are extremely troublesome in hot countries2 in the same manner as the ,eleans worshipped ,hercules under the appellation of 1 the fly chaser4 ,pliny is of opinion1 that the name of ,achor1 the god invoked at ,cyrene against flies1 is derived from ,accaron1 or ,ekron1 where ,baal-zebub was worshipped1 and where he had a famous temple and oracle4 ,winkelman has given the figures of two heads1 8both of them images of ,jupiter1 called by the ,greeks 1 and by the ,romans ,muscarius2 that is to say1 fly driver2 for to this ,jupiter was attributed the function of driving away flies40 ,it is evident that ,beelzebub was considered as the patron deity of medicine2 for this is plainly implied in the conduct of ,ahaziah1 #b ,kings i4 ,the ,greek mythology considered ,apollo as the god of medicine1 and attributed also to him those possessions by a pythonic spirit which occasionally perplexed spectators1 and of which we have an instance in ,acts xvi1 #ai4 ,apollo1 too1 was the sun4 ,hence we probably see the reason why ,ahaziah sent to ,beelzebub to inquire the issue of his accident2 since ,beelzebub was ,apollo1 and ,apollo was the god of physic4 ,the ,jews1 who changed ,beelzebub into ,beelzebul1 8god of a dunghill10 perhaps had a reference to the ,greek of pytho1 which signifies putrefied4 ,in ,scripture ,beelzebub is called 8the prince of devils10 ,matt4 xii1 #bd2 ,luke xi1 #ae2 merely1 it would seem1 through the application of the name of the chief idol of the ,heathen world to the prince of evil spirits4 ,this was natural1 since the ,jews were taught in their own ,scriptures to consider all the idols of the ,heathens 8devils40 ,those commentators who think that the idol of ,ekron himself is intended1 have indulged in an improbable fancy4 ,see ,,hornet4 ,,baal ,,zephon1 or the god of the watch tower1 was probably the temple of some idol1 which served at the same time for a place of observation for the neighbouring sea and country1 and a beacon to the travellers by either4 ,it was situated on a cape or promontory on the eastern side of the western or ,heroopolitan branch of the ,red ,sea1 near its northern extremity1 over against ,pihahiroth1 or the opening in the mountains which led from the desert1 on the side of ,egypt1 to the ,red ,sea4 ,,baasha1 the son of ,ahijah1 commander-in-chief of the armies belonging to ,nadab1 the son of ,jeroboam1 king of ,israel4 ,baasha killed his master treacherously at the siege of ,gibbethon1 a city of the ,philistines1 ,a4 ,m4 #cjea1 and usurped the crown1 which he possessed twenty-four years1 #a ,kings xv1 #bg1 c4 ,and1 to secure himself in his usurpation1 he massacred all the relatives of his predecessor2 which barbarous action proved the accomplishment of the prophecy denounced against the house of ,jeroboam by ,ahijah1 the prophet1 #a ,kings xiv1 #a1 c4 ,,babel1 the tower and city founded by the descendants of ,noah in the plain of ,shinar4 ,the different tribes descended from ,noah were here collected1 and from this point were dispersed1 through the confusion of their language4 ,the time when this tower was built is differently stated in the ,hebrew and ,samaritan chronologies4 ,the former fixes it in the year #aja after the flood1 which ,mr4 ,faber thinks encumbered with insuperable difficulties4 ,this writer then goes on to show1 that the chronology of the ,samaritan ,pentateuch reconciles every date1 and surmounts every difficulty4 ,it represents ,shem as dying nearly a century and a half before the death of ,peleg1 instead of more than that number of years afterward1 and almost four centuries and a half before the death of ,abraham2 whom1 in accordance with the history1 it makes to survive his father ,terah precisely a hundred years4 ,it removes the difficulties with which the ,hebrew chronology invests the whole history1 by giving time1 while it allows the dispersion to have taken place in the latter part of ,peleg's life1 for the thirteen sons of his younger brother ,joktan to have become heads of families2 for ,noah and his sons to have died1 as it is proved they must have done1 prior to the emigration from ,armenia2 for ,nimrod1 instead of being a boy1 to have been of an age suitable to his exploits1 and to have acquired the sovereign command1 not1 in the face of all probability1 while the four great patriarchs were living1 but after their decease2 and for the families of mankind to have multiplied sufficiently to undertake the stupendous work of the tower4 ,it explains also the silence respecting ,shem in the history of ,abraham1 by making the former die in ,armenia four hundred and forty years before the latter was born1 instead of surviving him thirty-five years2 and1 lastly1 it makes sacred history accord with profane2 the ,babylonic history of ,berosus1 and the old records consulted by ,epiphanius1 both placing the death of ,noah and his sons before the emigration from ,armenia4 ,the sum of the whole is as follows3 ,all the descendants of ,noah remained in ,armenia in peaceable subjection to the patriarchal religion and government during the lifetime of the four royal patriarchs1 or till about the beginning of the sixth century after the flood2 when1 gradually falling off from the pure worship of ,god1 and from their allegiance to the respective heads of families1 and seduced by the schemes of the ambitious ,nimrod1 and farther actuated by a restless disposition1 or a desire for a more fertile country1 they migrated in a body southwards1 till they reached the plains of ,shinar1 probably about sixty years after the death of ,shem4 ,here1 under the command of their new leader1 and his dominant military and sacerdotal ,cuthites1 by whom the original scheme of idolatry1 the groundwork of which was probably laid in ,armenia1 was now perfected2 and1 with the express view to counteract the designs of the ,almighty in their dispersion into different countries1 they began to build the city and tower1 and set up a banner which should serve as a mark of national union1 and concentrate them in one unbroken empire2 when they were defeated and dispersed by the miraculous confusion of tongues4 ,all this probably occupied the farther space of twenty or twenty-one years2 making eighty-one from the death of ,shem1 and five hundred and eighty-three after the flood4 ,all of which also will come within the life of ,peleg1 who1 according to the ,samaritan ,pentateuch1 died in the year #fdj4 ,the tower of ,belus in ,babylon1 mentioned by ,herodotus1 was probably either the original tower of ,babel repaired1 or it was constructed upon its massive foundations4 ,the remains of this tower are still to be seen1 and are thus described by ,captain ,mignan1 in his ,travels in ,chaldea3-- 8,at day light ,i departed for the ruins1 with a mind absorbed by the objects which ,i had seen yesterday4 ,an hour's walk1 indulged in intense reflection1 brought me to the grandest and most gigantic northern mass1 on the eastern bank of the ,euphrates1 and distant about four miles and a half from the eastern suburb of ,hillah4 ,it is called by the natives1 ,el ,mujellibah1 #8the overturned2' also ,haroot and ,maroot1 from a tradition handed down1 with little deviation1 from time immemorial1 that near the foot of the ruin there is a well1 invisible to mortals1 in which those rebellious angels were condemned by ,god to be hung with their heels upward1 until the day of judgment1 as a punishment for their wickedness4 ,this solid mound1 which ,i consider1 from its situation and magnitude1 to be the remains of the ,tower of ,babel1 7an opinion likewise adopted by that venerable and highly distinguished geographer1 ,major ,rennell17 is a vast oblong square1 composed of kiln-burnt and sun-dried bricks1 rising irregularly to the height of one hundred and thirty-nine feet1 at the south-west2 whence it slopes toward the north-east to a depth of one hundred and ten feet4 ,its sides face the four cardinal points4 ,i measured them carefully1 and the following is the full extent of each face3 that to the north1 along the visible face1 is two hundred and seventy-four yards2 to the south1 two hundred and fifty-six yards2 to the east1 two hundred and twenty-six yards2 and to the west1 two hundred and forty yards4 ,the summit is an uneven flat1 strewed with broken and unbroken bricks1 the perfect ones measuring thirteen inches square1 by three thick4 ,many exhibited the arrow-headed character1 which appeared remarkably fresh4 ,pottery1 bitumen1 vitrified and petrified brick1 shells1 and glass1 were all equally abundant4 ,the principal materials composing this ruin are1 doubtless1 mud bricks baked in the sun1 and mixed up with straw4 ,it is not difficult to trace brick work along each front1 particularly at the south-west angle1 which is faced by a wall1 composed partly of kiln-burnt brick1 that in shape exactly resembles a watch tower or small turret4 ,on its summit there are still considerable traces of erect building2 at the western end is a circular mass of sold brick work1 sloping toward the top1 and rising from a confused heap of rubbish4 ,the chief material forming this fabric appeared similar to that composing the ruin called ,akercouff1 a mixture of chopped straw1 with slime used as cement2 and regular layers of unbroken reeds between the horizontal courses of the bricks4 ,the base is greatly injured by time and the elements2 particularly to the south-east1 where it is cloven into a deep furrow from top to bottom4 ,the sides of the ruin exhibit hollows worn partly by the weather1 but more generally formed by the ,arabs1 who are incessantly digging for bricks1 and hunting for antiquities40 ,,babylon1 #b ,kings xxiv1 #a4 ,the capital of ,chaldea1 built by ,nimrod1 ,gen4 x1 #aj4 ,it was under ,nebuchadnezzar that ,babylon1 then become the seat of universal empire1 is supposed to have acquired that extent and magnificence1 and that those stupendous works were completed which rendered it the wonder of the world and of posterity3 and accordingly1 this prince1 then the most potent on the earth1 arrogated to himself the whole glory of its erection2 and in the pride of his heart exclaimed1 8,is not this great ,babylon that ,i have built80 ,the city at this period stood on both sides of the river1 which intersected it in the middle4 ,it was1 according to the least computation1 that of ,diodorus ,siculus1 #de miles in circumference2 and according to ,herodotus1 the older author of the two1 #fj miles4 ,its shape was that of a square1 traversed each way by #be principal streets2 which of course intersected each other1 dividing the city into #fbf squares4 ,these streets were terminated at each end by gates of brass1 of prodigious size and strength1 with a smaller one opening toward the river4 ,the walls1 from the most moderate accounts1 were #ge feet in height and #cb in breadth2 while ,herodotus makes them #cjj in height and #ge in breadth3 which last measurement1 incredible as it may seem1 is worthy of credit1 as ,herodotus is much the oldest author who describes them1 and who gives their original height2 whereas1 those who follow him in their accounts of these stupendous walls1 describe them as they were after they had been taken down to the less elevation by ,darius ,hystaspes4 ,they were built of brick1 cemented with bitumen instead of mortar2 and were encompassed by a broad and deep ditch1 lined with the same materials1 as were also the banks of the river in its course through the city3 the inhabitants descending to the water by steps through the smaller brazen gates before mentioned4 ,the houses were three or four stories high1 separated from each other by small courts or gardens1 with open spaces and even fields interspersed over the immense area enclosed within the walls4 ,over the river was a bridge1 connecting the two halves of the city1 which stood1 the one on its eastern1 and the other on its western1 bank2 the river running nearly north and south4 ,the bridge was #e furlongs in length1 and #cj feet in breadth1 and had a palace at each end1 with1 it is said1 a subterraneous passage beneath the river1 from one to the other3 the work of ,semiramis4 ,within the city was the temple of ,belus1 or ,jupiter1 which ,herodotus describes as a square of two stadia1 or a quarter of a mile3 in the midst of which arose the celebrated tower1 to which both the same writer1 and ,strabo1 give an elevation of one stadium1 or #ffj feet2 and the same measure at its base2 the whole being divided into eight separate towers1 one above another1 of decreasing dimensions to the summit2 where stood a chapel1 containing a couch1 table1 and other things of gold4 ,here the principal devotions were performed2 and over this1 on the highest platform of all1 was the observatory1 by the help of which the ,babylonians arrived to such perfection in astronomy1 that ,calisthenes the philosopher1 who accompanied ,alexander to ,babylon1 found astronomical observations for #aijc years backwards from that time2 which reach as high as the #aaeth year after the flood4 ,on either side of the river1 according to ,diodorus1 adjoining to the bridge1 was a palace2 that on the western bank being by much the larger4 ,this palace was eight miles in circumference1 and strongly fortified with three walls one within another4 ,within it were the celebrated pensile or hanging gardens1 enclosed in a square of #djj feet4 ,these gardens were raised on terraces1 supported by arches1 or rather by piers1 laid over with broad flat stones2 the arch appearing to be unknown to the ,babylonians3 which courses of piers rose above one another1 till they reached the level of the top of the city walls4 ,on each terrace or platform1 a deep layer of mould was laid1 in which flowers1 shrubs and trees were planted2 some of which are said to have reached the height of #ej feet4 ,on the highest level was a reservoir1 with an engine to draw water up from the river by which the whole was watered4 ,this novel and astonishing structure1 the work of a monarch who knew not how to create food for his own pampered fancy1 or labour for his debased subjects or unhappy captives1 was undertaken to please his wife ,amyitis2 that she might see an imitation of the hills and woods of her native country1 ,media4 ,yet1 while in the plenitude of its power1 and1 according to the most accurate chronologers1 #afj years before the foot of an enemy had entered it1 the voice of an enemy had entered it1 the voice of prophecy pronounced the doom of the mighty and unconquered ,babylon4 ,a succession of ages brought it gradually to the dust2 and the gradation of its fall is marked till it sinks at last into utter desolation4 ,at a time when nothing but magnificence was around this city1 emphatically called the great1 fallen ,babylon was delineated by the pencil of inspiration exactly as every traveller now describes its ruins4 ,the immense fertility of ,chaldea1 which retained also the name of ,babylonia till after the ,christian ra1 corresponded with the greatness of ,babylon4 ,it was the most fertile region of the whole east4 ,babylonia was one vast plain1 adorned and enriched by the ,euphrates and the ,tigris1 from which1 and from the numerous canals that intersected the country from the one river to the other1 water was distributed over the fields by manual labour and by hydraulic machines1 giving rise1 in that warm climate and rich exhaustless soil1 to an exuberance of produce without a known parallel1 over so extensive a region1 either in ancient or modern times4 ,herodotus states1 that he knew not how to speak of its wonderful fertility1 which none but eye witnesses would credit2 and1 though writing in the language of ,greece1 itself a fertile country1 he expresses his own consciousness that his description of what he actually saw would appear to be improbable1 and to exceed belief4 ,such was the 8,chaldees' excellency10 that it departed not on the first conquest1 nor on the final extinction of its capital1 but one metropolis of ,assyria arose after another in the land of ,chaldea1 when ,babylon had ceased to be 8the glory of kingdoms40 #b4 ,manifold are the prophecies respecting ,babylon and the land of the ,chaldeans2 and the long lapse of ages has served to confirm their fulfilment in every particular1 and to render it at last complete4 ,the judgments of ,heaven are not casual1 but sure2 they are not arbitrary1 but righteous4 ,and they were denounced against the ,babylonians1 and the inhabitants of ,chaldea1 expressly because of their idolatry1 tyranny1 oppression1 pride1 covetousness1 drunkenness1 falsehood1 and other wickedness4 ,the burden of ,babylon1 which ,isaiah the son of ,amos did see3 8,the noise of a multitude in the mountains1 like as of a great people3 a tumultuous noise of the kingdoms of nations gathered together3 the ,lord of ,hosts mustereth the host of the battle4 ,they come from a far country1 from the end of heaven1 even the ,lord and the weapons of his indignation1 to destroy the whole land4 ,behold1 the day of the ,lord cometh1 cruel both with wrath and fierce anger1 to lay the land desolate3 and he shall destroy the sinners thereof out of it4 ,babylon1 the glory of kingdoms1 the beauty of the ,chaldees' excellency1 shall be as when ,god overthrew ,sodom and ,gomorrah4 ,it shall never be inhabited1 neither shall it be dwelt in from generation to generation3 neither shall the ,arabian pitch tent there3 neither shall the shepherds make their fold there4 ,but wild beasts of the desert shall lie there3 and their houses shall be full of doleful creatures2 and owls shall dwell there1 and satyrs shall dance there4 ,and the wild beasts of the islands shall cry in their desolate houses1 and dragons in their pleasant palaces40 8,thou shalt take up this proverb against the king of ,babylon1 and say1 ,how hath the oppressor ceased6 the golden city ceased6 ,thy pomp is brought down to the grave1 and the noise of thy viols3 the worm is spread under thee1 and the worms cover thee4 ,thou shalt be brought down to hell1 to the sides of the pit4 ,thou art cast out of the grave like an abominable branch4--,i will cut off from ,babylon the name1 and remnant1 the son1 and nephew1 saith the ,lord4 ,i will also make it a possession for the bittern1 and pools of water3 and ,i will sweep it with the besom of destruction1 saith the ,lord of ,hosts40 8,babylon is fallen1 is fallen2 and all the graven images of her gods he hath broken unto the ground40 8,thus saith the ,lord1 that saith unto the deep1 ,be dry2 and ,i will dry up thy rivers3 that saith of ,cyrus1 ,he is my shepherd1 and shall perform all my pleasure1--and ,i will loose the loins of kings1 to open before him the two-leaved gates2 and the gates shall not be shut40 8,bel boweth down10 c4 8,come down1 and sit in the dust1 ,o virgin daughter of ,babylon3 sit on the ground1 there is no throne1 ,o daughter of the ,chaldeans4 ,sit thou silent1 and get thee into darkness1 ,o daughter of the ,chaldeans2 for thou shalt no more be called the lady of kingdoms40 ,many other prophecies against ,babylon1 and the whole land of ,chaldea1 are found in the ,old ,testament2 and though the limits of this article will only allow a reference to be made to the exact fulfilment of a few1 there is not one of the great number of predictions on record1 the accomplishment of which has not been remarked by numerous writers1 and more especially by those who have visited the spot4 ,for1 though for many centuries the site of ,babylon was unknown1 or the ruins of other ,chaldean cities mistaken for its remains1 its true situation and present condition have been1 within a few years1 satisfactorily ascertained1 and accurately described1 by several most intelligent and enterprising travellers4 ,when in the plenitude of its greatness1 splendour and strength1 ,babylon first yielded to the arms of ,cyrus1 whose name1 and the manuvre by which the city was taken1 were mentioned by ,isaiah nearly two hundred years before the event2 which was also predicted by ,jeremiah3 8,go up1 ,o ,elam1 7or ,persia17 besiege1 ,o ,media4 ,the ,lord hath raised up the spirit of the kings of the ,medes1 for his device is against ,babylon1 to destroy it40 ,the kings of ,persia and ,media1 prompted by a common interest1 freely entered into a league against ,babylon1 and with one accord entrusted the command of their united armies to ,cyrus1 the relative and eventually the successor of them both4--,but the taking of ,babylon was not reserved for these kingdoms alone3 other nations had to be 8prepared against her40 8,set up a standard in the land2 blow the trumpet among the nations1 prepare the nations against her1 call together against her the kingdoms of ,ararat1 ,minni1 and ,aschenaz3 ,lo1 ,i will raise and cause to come up against ,babylon an assembly of great nations from the north country10 c4 ,cyrus subdued the ,armenians1 who had revolted against ,media1 spared their king1 bound them over anew to their allegiance1 by kindness rather than by force1 and incorporated their army with his own4--8,the mighty men of ,babylon have foreborne to fight4 ,they have remained in their holds2 their might hath failed1 they became as women40 ,so dispirited became its people1 that ,babylon1 which had made the world to tremble1 was long besieged1 without making any effort to drive off the enemy4 ,but1 possessed of provisions for twenty years1 which in their timid caution they had plentifully stored1 they derided ,cyrus from their impregnable walls1 within which they remained4 ,their profligacy1 their wickedness and false confidence were unabated2 they continued to live carelessly in pleasures3 and ,babylon the great1 unlike to many a small fortress and unwalled town1 made not one struggle to regain its freedom or to be rid of the foe4--,much time having been lost1 and no progress being made in the siege1 the anxiety of ,cyrus was strongly excited1 and he was reduced to great perplexity1 when at last it was suggested and immediately determined to divert the course of the ,euphrates4 ,and while the unconscious and reckless citizens were engaged in dancing and merriment1 the river was suddenly turned into the lake1 the trench1 and the canals2 and the ,persians1 both foot and horse1 so soon as the subsiding of the water permitted1 entered by its channel1 and were followed by the allies in array1 along the dry part of the river4 8,i will dry up thy sea1 and make thy springs dry4 ,that saith to the deep1 ,be dry1 ,i will dry up thy rivers40--,one detachment was placed where the river first enters the city1 and another where it leaves it4 ,and 8one post did run to meet another1 and one messenger to meet another1 to show the king of ,babylon that his city is taken at the end1 and that the passages are shut40 8,they were taken10 says ,herodotus1 8by surprise2 and such is the extent of the city1 that1 as the inhabitants themselves affirm1 they who lived in the extremities were made prisoners before any alarm was communicated to the centre of the place10 where the palace stood4 ,thus a 8snare was laid for ,babylon1 it was taken1 and it was not aware2 it was found and also caught2 for it had sinned against the ,lord4 ,how is the praise of the whole earth surprised60--8,in their heat ,i will make their feasts1 and ,i will make them drunken1 that they may rejoice and sleep a perpetual sleep1 and not wake1 saith the ,lord4 ,i will bring them down like lambs to the slaughter10 c4 8,i will make drunken her princes and her wise men1 her captains and her rulers1 and her mighty men1 and they shall sleep a perpetual sleep10 c4 ,cyrus1 as the night drew on1 stimulated his assembled troops to enter the city1 because in that night of general revel within the walls1 many of them were asleep1 many drunk1 and confusion universally prevailed4 ,on passing1 without obstruction or hinderance1 into the city1 the ,persians1 slaying some1 putting others to flight1 and joining with the revellers1 as if slaughter had been merriment1 hastened by the shortest way to the palace1 and reached it ere yet a messenger had told the king that his city was taken4 ,the gates of the palace1 which was strongly fortified1 were shut4 ,the guards stationed before them1 were drinking beside a blazing light1 when the ,persians rushed impetuously upon them4 ,a louder and altered clamour1 no longer joyous1 caught the ear of the inmates of the palace1 and the bright light showed them the work of destruction1 without revealing its cause4 ,and not aware of the presence of an enemy in the midst of ,babylon1 the king himself1 7who had been roused from his revelry by the hand writing on the wall17 excited by the warlike tumult at the gates1 commanded those within to examine from whence it arose2 and according to the same word1 by which 8the gates0 7leading from the river to the city7 8were not shut1 the loins of kings were loosed to open before ,cyrus the two-leaved gates0 of the palace4 ,the eager ,persians sprang in4 8,the king of ,babylon heard the report of them2 anguish took hold of him20 he and all who were about him perished2 ,god had 8numbered0 his kingdom and finished it2 it was 8divided10 and given to the ,medes and ,persians2 the lives of the ,babylonian princes1 and lords1 and rulers1 and captains1 closed with that night's festival2 the drunken slept 8a perpetual sleep1 and did not wake40--8,i will fill thee with men as with caterpillars40 ,not only did the ,persian army enter with ease as caterpillars1 together with all the nations that had come up against ,babylon1 but they seemed also as numerous4 ,cyrus1 after the capture of the city1 made a great display of his cavalry in the presence of the ,babylonians1 and in the midst of ,babylon4 ,four thousand guards stood before the palace gates1 and two thousand on each side4 ,these advanced as ,cyrus approached2 two thousand spearmen followed them4 ,these were succeeded by four square masses of ,persian cavalry1 each consisting of ten thousand men3 and to these again were added1 in their order1 the ,median1 ,armenian1 ,hyrcanian1 ,caducian1 and ,sacian horsemen1--all1 as before1 8riding upon horses1 every man in array10--with lines of chariots1 four abreast1 concluding the train of the numerous hosts4 ,cyrus afterward reviewed1 at ,babylon1 the whole of his army1 consisting of one hundred and twenty thousand horse1 two thousand chariots1 and six hundred thousand foot4 ,babylon1 which was taken when not aware1 and within whose walls no enemy1 except a captive1 had been ever seen1 was thus 8filled with men as with caterpillars10 as if there had not been a wall around it4 ,the ,scriptures do not relate the manner in which ,babylon was taken1 nor do they ever allude to the exact fulfilment of the prophecies4 ,but there is1 in every particular1 a strict coincidence between the predictions of the prophets and the historical narratives1 both of ,herodotus and ,xenophon4 #c4 ,every step in the progress of the decline of ,babylon was the accomplishment of a prophecy4 ,conquered1 for the first time1 by ,cyrus1 it was afterward reduced from an imperial to a tributary city4 8,come down and sit in the dust1 ,o daughter of ,babylon3 sit on the ground1 there is no throne1 ,o daughter of the ,chaldeans40 ,after the ,babylonians rebelled against ,darius1 the walls were reduced in height1 and all the gates destroyed4 8,the wall of ,babylon shall fall1 her walls are thrown down40--,xerxes1 after his ignominious retreat from ,greece1 rifled the temples of ,babylon1 the golden images alone of which were estimated at #bj1jjj1jjjl1 beside treasures of vast amount4 8,i will punish ,bel in ,babylon1 and ,i will bring forth out of his mouth that which he has swallowed up2 ,i will do judgment upon the graven images of ,babylon40--,alexander the ,great attempted to restore it to its former glory1 and designed to make it the metropolis of a universal empire4 ,but while the building of the temple of ,belus1 and the reparation of the embankments of the ,euphrates1 were actually carrying on1 the conqueror of the world died1 at the commencement of this his last undertaking1 in the height of his power1 and in the flower of his age4 8,take balm for her pain1 if so be that she may be healed4 ,we would have healed ,babylon1 but she is not healed40 ,the building of the neighbouring city of ,seleucia was the chief cause of the decline of ,babylon1 and drained it of a great part of its population4 ,and at a later period1 or about #acj years before the birth of ,christ1 ,humerus1 a ,parthian governor1 who was noted as excelling all tyrants in cruelty1 exercised great severities on the ,babylonians2 and having burned the forum and some of the temples1 and destroyed the fairest parts of the city1 reduced many of the inhabitants to slavery on the slightest pretexts1 and caused them1 together with all their households1 to be sent into ,media4 8,they shall remove1 they shall depart1 both man and beast40 ,the 8golden city0 thus gradually verged1 for centuries1 toward poverty and desolation4 ,notwithstanding that ,cyrus resided chiefly at ,babylon1 and sought to reform the government1 and remodel the manners of the ,babylonians1 the succeeding kings of ,persia preferred1 as the seat of empire1 ,susa1 ,persepolis1 or ,ecbatana1 situated in their own country3 and in like manner the successors of ,alexander did not attempt to complete his purpose of restoring ,babylon to its preeminence and glory2 but1 after the subdivision of his mighty empire1 the very kings of ,assyria1 during their temporary residence even in ,chaldea1 deserted ,babylon1 and dwelt in ,seleucia4 ,and thus the foreign inhabitants1 first ,persians and afterward ,greeks1 imitating their sovereigns by deserting ,babylon1 acted as if they verily had said1 8,forsake her1 and let us go every man unto his own country2 for her judgment is reached unto heaven1 and is lifted up even to the skies40 #d4 ,but kindred judgments1 the issue of common crimes1 rested on the land of ,chaldea1 as well as on its doomed metropolis4 8,they come from a far country1 from the end of the earth1 to destroy the whole land4 ,many nations and great kings shall serve themselves of thee also10 c4 ,the ,persians1 the ,macedonians1 the ,parthians1 the ,romans1 the ,saracens1 and the ,turks1 are the chief of the many nations who have unscrupulously and unsparingly 8served themselves0 of the land of the ,chaldeans3 and ,cyrus and ,darius1 kings of ,persia2 ,alexander the ,great2 and ,seleucus1 king of ,assyria2 ,demetrius and ,antiochus the ,great2 ,tragan1 ,severus1 ,julian1 and ,heraclius1 emperors of ,rome2 the victorious ,omar1 the successor of ,mohammed2 ,holagou1 and ,tamerlane1--are 8great kings0 who successively subdued or desolated ,chaldea1 or exacted from it tribute to such an extent1 as scarcely any other country ever paid to a single conqueror4 ,and though the names of some of these nations were unknown to the ,babylonians1 and unheard of in the world at the time of the prophecy1 most of these 8many nations and great kings0 need now but to be named1 to show that1 in local relation to ,chaldea1 8they came from the utmost border1 from the coasts of the earth40--8,i will punish the land of the ,chaldeans1 and will make it perpetual desolations2 cut off the sower from ,babylon1 and him that handleth the sickle in the time of harvest4 ,a drought is on her waters1 and they shall be dried up4 ,behold the hinder-most of the nations1 a dry land and a desert40 ,the land of the ,chaldeans was indeed made--perpetual1 or long continued1 desolation4 ,ravaged and spoiled for ages1 the ,chaldees' excellency finally disappeared1 and the land became desolate1 as still it remains4 ,rauwolff1 who passed through it in #aegd1 describes the country as bare1 and 8so dry and barren that it cannot be tilled40 ,and the most recent travellers all concur in describing it in similar terms4 ,on the one side1 near to the site of ,opis1 8the country all around10 says ,mr4 ,buckingham1 8appears to be one wide desert1 of sandy and barren soil1 thinly scattered over with brushwood and tufts of reedy grass40 ,on the other1 between ,bussorah and ,bagdad1 8immediately on either bank of the ,tigris10 observes ,mignan1 8is the untrodden desert4 ,the absence of all cultivation1 the sterile1 arid1 and wild character of the whole scene1 formed a contrast to the rich and delightful accounts delineated in ,scripture4 ,the natives1 in travelling over these pathless deserts1 are compelled to explore their way by the stars40 8,the whole country between ,bagdad and ,hillah is a perfectly flat and 7with the exception of a few spots as you approach the latter place7 uncultivated waste4 ,that it was at some former period in a far different state1 is evident from the number of canals by which it is traversed1 now dry and neglected2 and the quantity of heaps of earth covered with fragments of brick and broken tiles1 which are seen in every direction1 the indisputable traces of former population4 ,at present the only inhabitants of the tract are the ,sobeide ,arabs4 ,around1 as far as the eye can reach is a trackless desert40--8,her cities are desolations40 ,the course of the ,tigris through ,babylonia1 instead of being adorned with cities1 is marked with the sites of 8ancient ruins40 ,sitace1 ,sabata1 ,narisa1 ,fuchera1 ,sendia1 8no longer exist40 ,a succession of longitudinal mounds1 crossed at right angles by others1 mark the supposed site of ,artemita1 or ,destagered4 ,its once luxuriant gardens are covered with grass2 and a higher mound distinguishes 8the royal residence0 from the ancient streets4 8,extensive ridges and mountains1 7near to ,houmania17 varying in height and extent1 are seen branching in every direction40 ,a wall1 with sixteen bastions1 is the only memorial of ,apollonia4 ,the once magnificent ,seleucia is now a scene of desolation4 ,there is not a single entire edifice1 but the country is strewed for miles with fragments of decayed buildings4 8,as far10 says ,major ,keppel1 8as the eye could reach1 the horizon presented a broken line of mounds2 the whole of this place was a desert flat40 ,on the opposite bank of the ,tigris1 where ,ctesiphon its rival stood1 beside fragments of walls and broken masses of brick work1 and remains of vast structures encumbered with heaps of earth1 there is one magnificent monument of antiquity 8in a remarkably perfect state of preservation10 8a large and noble pile of building1 the front of which presents to view a wall three hundred feet in length1 adorned with four rows of arched recesses1 with a central arch1 in span eighty-six feet1 and above a hundred feet high1 supported by walls sixteen feet thick1 and leading to a hall which extends to the depth of a hundred and fifty-six feet10 the width of the building4 ,a great part of the back wall1 and of the roof1 is broken down2 but that which remains 8still appears much larger than ,westminster ,abbey40 ,it is supposed to have been the lofty palace of ,chosroes2 but there desolation now reigns4 8,on the site of ,ctesiphon10 says ,mignan1 8the smallest insect under heaven would not find a single blade of grass wherein to hide itself1 nor one drop of water to allay its thirst40 ,in the rear of the palace1 and attached to it1 are mounds two miles in circumference1 indicating the utter desolation of buildings1 formed to minister to luxury4 #e4 ,but let us come to the fulfilment of these wonderful prophecies in the present condition of ,babylon itself1 as described by those who have most recently visited it4 8,babylon shall become heaps40 ,babylon the glory of kingdoms is now the greatest of ruins4 8,immense tumuli of temples1 palaces1 and habitations of every description10 are every where seen1 and form 8long and varied lines of ruins10 which1 in some places1 says ,sir ,r4 ,k4 ,porter1 8rather resemble natural hills than mounds which cover the remains of great and splendid edifices40 ,these buildings1 which were once the labour of slaves and the pride of kings1 are now misshapen heaps of rubbish4 8,the whole face of the country10 observes ,rich1 8is covered with vestiges of building1 in some places consisting of brick walls surprisingly fresh1 in others1 merely a vast succession of mounds of rubbish1 of such indeterminate figures1 variety1 and extent1 as to involve the person who should have formed any theory in inextricable confusion40--8,let nothing of her be left40 8,vast heaps constitute all that now remains of ancient ,babylon10 says ,rich4 ,all its grandeur is departed2 all its treasures have been spoiled2 all its excellence has utterly vanished2 the very heaps are searched for bricks1 when nothing else can be found2 even these are not left1 wherever they can be taken away2 and ,babylon has for ages been 8a quarry above ground10 ready to the hand of every successive despoiler4 ,without the most remote allusion to this prophecy1 ,captain ,mignan describes a mound attached to the palace1 ninety yards in breadth by half that height1 the whole of which is deeply furrowed1 in the same manner as the generality of the mounds4 8,the ground is extremely soft1 and tiresome to walk over1 and appears completely exhausted of all its building materials2 nothing now is left1 save one towering hill1 the earth of which is mixed with fragments of broken brick1 red varnished pottery1 tile1 bitumen1 mortar1 glass1 shells1 and pieces of mother of pearl10--worthless fragments1 of no value to the poorest4 8,from thence shall she be taken1 let nothing of her be left40 ,while the workmen 8cast her up as heaps0 while excavating for bricks1 that they may 8take0 them 8from thence10 and that 8nothing may be left20 they labour more than trebly in the fulfilment of prophecy3 for the numerous and deep excavations form pools of water1 on the over-flowing of the ,euphrates1 and1 annually filled1 they are not dried up throughout the year4 8,deep cavities are also formed by the ,arabs1 when digging for hidden treasure40 ,thus 8the ground10 says ,buckingham1 8is sometimes covered with pools of water in the hollows40 8,sit in the dust1 sit on the ground1 ,o daughter of the ,chaldeans40 ,the surface of the mounds which form all that remains of ,babylon1 consists of decomposed buildings1 reduced to dust2 and over all the ancient streets and habitations1 there is literally nothing but the dust of the ground on which to sit4--8,thy nakedness shall be uncovered40 8,our path10 says ,captain ,mignan1 8lay through the great mass of ruined heaps on the site of #8shrunken ,babylon2' and ,i am perfectly incapable of conveying an adequate idea of the dreary1 lonely nakedness that appeared before me40--8,sit thou silent1 and get thee into darkness40 8,there reigns throughout the ruins10 says ,sir ,r4 ,k4 ,porter1 8a silence profound as the grave40 8,babylon is now a silent scene1 a sublime solitude40--8,it shall never be inhabited1 nor dwelt in from generation to generation40 ,from ,rauwolff's testimony it appears that1 in the sixteenth century1 8there was not a house to be seen40 ,and now 8the eye wanders over a barren desert1 in which the ruins are nearly the only indication that it had ever been inhabited40 8,it is impossible10 adds ,major ,keppel1 8to behold this scene and not to be reminded how exactly the predictions of ,isaiah and ,jeremiah have been fulfilled1 even in the appearance ,babylon was doomed to present1 that #8she should never be inhabited2' that #8the ,arabian should not pitch his tent there2' that she should #8become heaps2' that her cities should be #8a desolation1 a dry land1 and a wilderness4'0 8,babylon is spurned alike by the heel of the ,ottomans1 the ,israelites1 and the sons of ,ishmael40 ,it is 8a tenantless and desolate metropolis10 remarks ,mignan4 8,it shall not be inhabited1 but be wholly desolate4 ,neither shall the ,arabian pitch tent there1 neither shall the shepherds make their folds there40 ,it was prophesied of ,ammon that it should be a stable for camels and a couching place for flocks2 and of ,philistia1 that it should be cottages for shepherds1 and a pasture of flocks4 ,but ,babylon was to be visited with a far greater desolation1 and to become unfit or unsuited even for such a purpose2 and that neither a tent would be pitched there1 even by an ,arab1 nor a fold made by a shepherd1 implies the last degree of solitude and desolation4 8,it is common in these parts for shepherds to make use of ruined edifices to shelter their flocks in40 ,but ,babylon is an exception4 ,instead of taking the bricks from thence1 the shepherd might very readily erect a defence from wild beasts1 and make a fold for his flock amidst the heaps of ,babylon2 and the ,arab who fearlessly traverses it by day1 might pitch his tent by night4 ,but neither the one nor the other could now be persuaded to remain a single night among the ruins4 ,the superstitious dread of evil spirits1 far more than the natural terror of the wild beasts1 effectually prevents them4 ,captain ,mignan was accompanied by six ,arabs1 completely armed2 but he 8could not induce them to remain toward night1 from the apprehension of evil spirits4 ,it is impossible to eradicate this idea from the minds of this people1 who are very deeply imbued with superstition40 8,wild beasts of the deserts shall lie there1 and their houses shall be full of doleful creatures2 and owls shall dwell there1 and satyrs 7goats7 shall dance there10 c4 8,there are many dens of wild beasts in various parts4 ,and while the lower excavations are often pools of water1 in most of the cavities are numbers of bats and owls40 ,the king of the forest now ranges over the site of that ,babylon which ,nebuchadnezzar built for his own glory4 ,and the temple of ,belus1 the greatest work of man1 is now like unto a natural den of lions4 ,two or three majestic lions were seen upon its heights by ,sir ,robert ,ker ,porter1 as he was approaching it2 and 8the broad prints of their feet were left plain in the clayey soil40 ,major ,keppel saw there a similar foot-print of a lion4 ,it is also the unmolested retreat of jackalls1 hyenas1 and other noxious animals4 ,wild beasts are numerous at the ,mujelib1 as well as on ,birs ,nimrood4 8,the mound10 says ,kinneir1 8was full of large holes3 we entered some of them1 and found them strewed with the carcasses and skeletons of animals recently killed4 ,the ordure of wild beasts was so strong1 that prudence got the better of curiosity2 for we had no doubt as to the savage nature of the inhabitants4 ,our guides1 indeed1 told us1 that all the ruins abounded in lions1 and other wild beasts3 so literally has the divine prediction been fulfilled1 that wild beasts of the deserts should lie there1 and their houses be full of doleful creatures2 that the wild beasts of the islands should cry in their desolate houses40 8,the sea is come upon ,babylon4 ,she is covered with the multitude of the waves thereof40 ,the traces of the western bank of the ,euphrates are now no longer discernible4 ,the river overflows unrestrained2 and the very ruins1 with 8every appearance of the embankment10 have been swept away4 8,the ground there is low and marshy1 and presents not the slightest vestige of former buildings1 of any description whatever40 8,morasses and ponds10 says ,porter1 8tracked the ground in various parts4 ,for a long time after the general subsiding of the ,euphrates1 great part of this plain is little better than a swamp10 c4 8,the ruins of ,babylon are then inundated1 so as to render many parts of them inaccessible1 by converting the valleys among them into morasses40 ,but while ,babylon is thus 8covered with the multitude of waves1 and the waters come upon it20 yet1 in striking contrast and seeming contradiction to such a feature of desolation1 7like the formation of 8pools of water10 from the 8casting up of heaps107 are the elevated sunburnt ruins1 which the waters do not overflow1 and the 8dry waste0 and 8parched and burning plain10 on which the heaps of ,babylon lie1 equally prove that it is 8a desert1 a dry land1 and a wilderness40 ,one part1 even on the western side of the river1 is 8low and marshy1 and another10 says ,mignan1 8an arid desert40 ,many other striking particulars might be collected2 and we may conclude in the words of ,mr4 ,keith1 from whose work on the prophecies several of the above particulars have been extracted3--8,is it possible that there can be any attestation of the truth of prophecy1 if it be not witnessed here8 ,is there any spot on earth which has undergone a more complete transformation8 #8,the records of the human race1' it has been said with truth1 #8do not present a contrast more striking than that between the primeval magnificence of ,babylon and its long desolation4' ,its ruins have of late been carefully and scrupulously examined by different natives of ,britain1 of unimpeached veracity2 and the result of every research is a more striking demonstration of the literal accomplishment of every prediction4 ,how few spots are there on earth of which we have so clear and faithful a picture as prophecy gave to fallen ,babylon at a time when no spot on earth resembled it less than its present desolate solitary site6 or could any prophecies respecting any single place have been more precise1 or wonderful1 or numerous1 or true1 or more gradually accomplished throughout many generations8 ,and when they look at what ,babylon was1 and what it is1 and perceive the minute realization of them all1 may not nations learn wisdom1 may not tyrants tremble1 and may not skeptics think80 ,the reasons why prophecies so numerous and particular were recorded concerning ,babylon1 appear to have been1 #a4 ,that ,babylon was the great oppressor of the ,jews4 #b4 ,that it was the type of all the powerful persecuting enemies of the church of ,god1 especially of ,rome2 and in its fate they may read their own4 #c4 ,that the accomplishment of prophecy in the destruction of so eminent an empire might give a solemn testimony to the truth of the ,scriptures to the whole earth1 and to all ages4 ,,backsliding1 a falling off1 or defection in matters of religion2 an apostasy1 ,acts xxi1 #ba2 #b ,thess4 ii1 #c2 #a ,tim4 iv1 #a4 ,this may be either partial or complete3 partial1 when it is in the heart1 as ,prov4 xiv1 #ad2 complete1 as that described in ,heb4 vi1 #d1 c2 x1 #f1 c4 ,on the latter passage ,chrysostom observes1 8,when a house has a strong foundation1 suppose an arch fall1 some of the beams break1 or a wall decline1 while the foundation is good1 these breaches may be repaired2 so in religion1 whilst a person maintains the true doctrines1 and remains on the firm rock1 though he fall1 true repentance may restore him to the favour and image of ,god3 but as in a house1 when the foundation is bad1 nothing can save the building from ruin2 so when heretical doctrines are admitted for a foundation1 nothing can save the professor from destruction40 ,it is important in interpreting these passages to keep it steadfastly in mind1 that the apostasy they speak of is not only moral but doctrinal4 ,,badger1 4 ,this word in a plural form occurs1 ,exod4 xxv1 #e2 xxvi1 #ad2 xxxv1 #g1 #bc2 xxxvi1 #ai2 xxxix1 #cd2 ,num4 iv1 #f1 #h1 #aj-ab1 #ad1 #be2 ,ezek4 xvi1 #aj2 and is joined with 1 skins used for the covering of the tabernacle in the wilderness4 ,the ,jewish interpreters are agreed as to its being some animal4 ,jarchi says it was a beast of many colours1 which no more exists4 ,kimchi holds the same opinion4 ,aben ,ezra thinks it some animal of the bovine kind1 of whose skins shoes are made2 alluding to ,ezek4 xvi1 #aj4 ,most modern interpreters have taken it to be the badger1 and among these our ,english translators2 but1 in the first place1 the badger is not an inhabitant of ,arabia2 and there is nothing in its skin peculiarly proper either for covering a tabernacle or making shoes4 ,hasus1 ,michaelis1 and others1 have laboured to prove that it is the mermaid1 or homo marinus1 the trichekus of ,linnus4 ,faber1 ,dathe1 and ,rosenmuller1 think that it is the seal1 or sea calf1 vitulus marinus1 the skin of which is both strong and pliable1 and was accounted by the ancients as a most proper outer covering for tents1 and was also made into shoes1 as ,rau has clearly shown4 ,niebuhr says1 8,a merchant of ,abushahr called dahash that fish which the captains in ,english vessels call porpoise1 and the ,germans1 sea hog4 ,in my voyage from ,maskat to ,abushahr1 ,i saw a prodigious quantity together near ,ras ,mussendom1 that were all going the same way1 and seemed to swim with great vehemence40 ,bochart thinks that not an animal1 but a colour1 was intended1 ,exodus xxv1 #e2 so that the covering of the tabernacle was to be azure1 or sky blue4 ,,bag1 a purse or pouch1 ,deut4 xxv1 #ac2 #a ,sam4 xvii1 #dj2 ,luke xii1 #cc2 ,job xiv1 #ag4 ,the money collected in the treasuries of eastern princes was reckoned up in certain equal sums1 put into bags and sealed4 ,these are1 in some parts of the ,levant1 called purses1 where they estimate great expenses by so many purses4 ,the money collected in the temple in the time of ,joash1 for its reparation1 seems1 in like manner1 to have been told up in bags of equal value2 and these were probably delivered sealed to those who paid the workmen1 #b ,kings xii1 #aj4 ,in the east1 in the present day1 a bag of money passes1 for some time at least1 currently from hand to hand1 under the authority of a banker's seal1 without any examination of its contents4 ,see ,tobit ix1 #e2 xi1 #af4 ,,baking ,,bread4 ,abraham directed ,sarah to bake cakes upon the hearth1 for the use of the strangers who had visited him1 ,genesis xviii1 #f4 ,elijah requests the same of the widow of ,zarephath1 #a ,kings xvii1 #ac4 ,amnon the son of ,david requests ,tamar his sister to come and make cakes in his sight1 that he might eat at her hand1 #b ,sam4 xiii1 #f4 ,these and other allusions to the preparation of bread will be explained by referring to eastern customs4 ,rauwolff observes that travellers frequently bake bread in the deserts of ,arabia1 on the ground heated for that purpose by fire1 covering their cakes of bread with ashes and coals1 and turning them several times till they are enough4 ,the eastern bread is made in small thin cakes1 and is generally eaten new4 ,sometimes it was however made to keep several days1 as the shew bread2 and a sort of rusks1 or bread for travelling1 ,joshua ix1 #ab4 ,the eastern ladies of rank often prepare cakes1 pastry1 c1 in their own apartments4 ,,balaam1 a prophet of the city of ,pethor1 or ,bosor1 upon the ,euphrates1 whose intercourse with ,balak1 king of the ,moabites1 who sent for him to curse the ,israelites1 is recorded at large by ,moses1 ,num4 xxii-xxiv4 ,it has been a subject of controversy1 whether ,balaam was a true prophet or a mere diviner1 magician1 or fortune teller4 ,origen says that his whole power consisted in magic and cursing4 ,theodoret is of opinion that ,balaam did not consult the ,lord1 but that he was supernaturally inspired1 and constrained to speak against his own inclination4 ,cyril says that he was a magician1 an idolater1 and a false prophet1 who spoke truth against his will2 and ,st4 ,ambrose compares him to ,caiaphas1 who prophesied without being aware of the import of what he said4 ,jerom seems to have adopted the opinion of the ,hebrews2 which was1 that ,balaam knew the true ,god1 erected altars to him1 and that he was a true prophet1 though corrupted by avarice1 ,num4 xxii1 #ah4 ,st4 ,austin and other commentators have inclined to this opinion4 ,dr4 ,jortin supposes that ,balaam was a worshipper of the true ,god1 and a priest and prophet of great reputation2 and that he was sent for by ,balak from a notion which generally prevailed1 that priests and prophets could sometimes1 by prayers and sacrifices duly and skilfully applied1 obtain favours from ,god1 and that their imprecations were efficacious4 ,he conceives that the prophet had been accustomed to revelations1 and that he used to receive them in visions1 or in dreams of the night4 ,it cannot be denied that the ,scripture expressly calls him a prophet1 #b ,pet4 ii1 #ae1 and therefore those are probably right who think that he had once been a good man and a true prophet1 till1 loving the wages of unrighteousness1 and prostituting the honour of his office to covetousness1 he apostatized from ,god1 and1 betaking himself to idolatrous practices1 fell under the delusion of the devil1 of whom he learned all his magical enchantments2 though at this juncture1 when the preservation of his people was concerned1 it might be consistent with ,god's wisdom to appear to him and overrule his mind by the impulse of real revelations4 ,as to what passed between him and his ass1 when that animal was miraculously enabled to speak to its master1 commentators are divided in their opinions2 whether it really and literally happened as ,moses relates it1 or whether it be an allegory only1 or was the mere imagination or vision of ,balaam4 ,but ,st4 ,peter evidently mentions it as a fact literally and certainly occurring3 8the dumb ass1 speaking with man's voice1 when she forbade the madness of the prophet10 #b ,pet4 ii1 #af4 ,this1 it is true1 has frequently been made the subject of profane banter by those whose skepticism leads them to scoff at all prodigies4 ,but how absurd is it to subject a miraculous event to the ordinary rules of reasoning6 8,say what you will of the formation of the tongue and jaws being unfit for speaking10 says ,bishop ,newton1 8yet an adequate cause is assigned for this wonderful event2 for it is expressly said that #8the ,lord opened the mouth of the ass2' and who that believes a ,god1 can doubt his power to do this and much more8 ,the miracle was by no means needless or superfluous2 it was well adapted to convince ,balaam that the mouth and tongue were under ,god's direction1 and that the same divine power which caused the dumb ass to speak contrary to its nature1 could1 in like manner1 make him utter blessings contrary to his inclination4 ,and1 accordingly1 he was overruled to bless the people1 though he came prepared and disposed to curse them2 which was the greater miracle of the two2 for the ass was merely passive1 but ,balaam resisted the good motions of ,god40 ,the prophecy which ,balaam delivered concerning ,israel on this remarkable occasion1 and which is contained in ,numbers xxiv1 #e-i1 has been greatly admired by critics4 ,bishop ,lowth1 in particular1 remarks that he knows nothing in the whole scope of the ,hebrew poetry more exquisite or perfect4 8,it abounds10 says he1 8in splendid imagery1 copied immediately from the tablet of nature2 and is chiefly conspicuous for the glowing elegance of the style1 and the form and diversity of the figures40 ,after his predictions1 ,balaam returned into his own country2 but before he left the land of ,moab1 as if vexed with his own disappointment in missing the promised reward1 and with a purpose of revenging himself on the ,israelites1 as the cause of it1 he instructed the ,moabites and ,midianites in a wicked scheme1 which was to send their daughters into the camp of the ,israelites1 in order to draw them first into lewdness1 and then into idolatry1 the certain means of depriving them of the help of that ,god who protected them4 ,this artifice succeeded2 for as the ,israelites lay encamped at ,shittim1 many of them were deluded by these strange women1 not only to commit whoredom with them1 but to assist at their sacrifices1 and worship their god ,baal-,peor1 ,num4 xxv1 #a-c2 xxxi1 #af2 ,mic4 vi1 #e2 #b ,pet4 ii1 #ae2 ,jude #aa2 ,rev4 ii1 #ad2 ,deut4 xxiii1 #d1 #e2 ,joshua xxiv1 #i1 #aj2 ,neh4 xiii1 #b4 ,god commanded ,moses to avenge this crime4 ,he therefore declared war against the ,midianites1 killed five of their princes1 and a great number of other persons without distinction of age or sex1 among whom was ,balaam himself4 ,moses says that ,balaam consulted the ,lord1 and calls the ,lord his ,god3 8,i cannot go beyond the commandment of the ,lord my ,god10 ,num4 xxii1 #ah4 ,the reason why ,balaam calls ,jehovah1 8my ,god0 may be1 because he was of the posterity of ,shem1 who maintained the worship of ,jehovah1 not only in his own person1 but among his descendants2 so that while the posterity of ,ham fell into idolatry1 and the posterity of ,japhet were settled at a distance in ,europe1 the ,shemites generally1 though not universally1 retained the worship of ,god4 ,,baldness is a natural effect of old age1 in which period of life the hair of the head1 wanting nourishment1 falls off1 and leaves the head naked4 ,artificial baldness was used as a token of mourning2 it is threatened to the voluptuous daughters of ,israel1 instead of well set hair1 ,isaiah iii1 #bd4 ,see ,mic4 i1 #af2 and instances of it occur1 ,isaiah xv1 #b2 ,jer4 xlvii1 #e4 ,see ,ezek1 vii1 #ah2 ,amos viii1 #aj4 ,the insult offered to ,elisha by the young people of ,bethel1 improperly rendered 8little children10 who cried out after him1 8,go up1 thou bald head10 may here be noticed4 ,the town of ,bethel was one of the principal nurseries of ,ahab's idolatry1 and the contempt was offered to ,elisha in his public character as a prophet of the ,lord4 ,if in the expression1 8,go up10 there was also a reference to the translation of ,elijah1 as turning it into jest1 this was another aggravation of the sin1 to which these young people were probably instigated by their parents4 ,the malediction laid upon them by the prophet was not an act of private resentment1 but evidently proceeded from prophetic impulse4 ,,balm1 1 ,gen4 xxxvii1 #be2 xliii1 #aa2 ,jer4 viii1 #bb2 xlvi1 #aa2 li1 #h2 ,ezek4 xxvii1 #ag4 ,balm1 or balsam1 is used with us as a common name for many of those oily resinous substances1 which flow spontaneously or by incision1 from certain trees or plants1 and are of considerable use in medicine and surgery4 ,it serves therefore very properly to express the ,hebrew word 1 which the ,,lxx have rendered 1 and the ancients have interpreted resin indiscriminately4 ,,balsam ,,tree1 2 in ,arabic1 abuschm1 that is1 8father of scent10 sweet-scented4 ,according to ,mr4 ,bruce1 the balessan1 balsam1 or balm1 is an evergreen shrub1 or tree1 which grows to about fourteen feet high1 spontaneously and without culture in its native country1 ,azab1 and all along the coast to ,babelmandel4 ,there were three kinds of balsam extracted from this tree4 ,the first was called opobalsamum1 and was most highly esteemed4 ,it was that which flowed spontaneously1 or by means of incision1 from the trunk or branches of the tree in summer time4 ,the second was carpobalsamum1 made by expressing the fruit when in maturity4 ,the third1 and least esteemed of all1 was hylobalsamum1 made by a decoction of the buds and small young twigs4 ,the great value set upon this drug in the east is traced to the earliest ages4 ,the ,ishmaelites1 or ,arabian carriers and merchants1 trafficking with the ,arabian commodities into ,egypt1 brought with them as a part of their cargo1 ,gen4 xxxvii1 #be2 xliii1 #aa4 ,josephus1 in the history of the antiquities of his country1 says that a tree of this balsam was brought to ,jerusalem by the queen of ,saba1 and given among other presents to ,solomon1 who1 as we know from ,scripture1 was very studious of all sorts of plants1 and skilful in the description and distinction of them4 ,and here1 indeed1 it seems to have been cultivated and to have thriven2 so that the place of its origin1 through length of time1 combined with other reasons1 came to be forgotten4 ,notwithstanding the positive authority of ,josephus1 and the great probability that attends it1 we cannot put it in competition with what we have been told in ,scripture1 as we have just now seen that the place where it grew1 and was sold to merchants1 was ,gilead in ,judea1 more than #agcj years before ,christ1 or #ajjj before the queen of ,saba2 so that in reading the verse1 nothing can be plainer than that it had been transplanted into ,judea1 flourished1 and had become an article of commerce in ,gilead1 long before the period he mentions4 8,a company of ,ishmaelites came from ,gilead with their camels1 bearing spicery and balm1 and myrrh1 going to carry it down to ,egypt10 ,gen4 xxxvii1 #be4 ,theophrastus1 ,dioscorides1 ,pliny1 ,strabo1 ,diodorus ,siculus1 ,tacitus1 ,justin1 ,solinus1 and ,serapion1 speaking of its costliness and medicinal virtues1 all say that this balsam came from ,judea4 ,the words of ,pliny are1 8,but to all other odours whatever1 the balsam is preferred1 produced in no other part but the land of ,judea1 and even there in two gardens only2 both of them belonging to the king1 one no more than twenty acres1 the other still smaller40 ,the whole valley of ,jericho was once esteemed the most fruitful in ,judea2 and the obstinacy with which the ,jews fought here to prevent the balsam trees from falling into the possession of the ,romans1 attests the importance which was attached to them4 ,this tree ,pliny describes as peculiar to the vale of ,jericho1 and as 8more like a vine than a myrtle40 ,it was esteemed so precious a rarity1 that both ,pompey and ,titus carried a specimen to ,rome in triumph2 and the balsam1 owing to its scarcity1 sold for double its weight in silver1 till its high price led to the practice of adulteration4 ,justin makes it the chief source of the national wealth4 ,he describes the country in which it grew1 as a valley like a garden1 environed with continual hills1 and1 as it were1 enclosed with a wall4 8,the space of the valley contains #bjj1jjj acres1 and is called ,jericho4 ,in that valley1 there is wood as admirable for its fruitfulness as for its delight1 for it is intermingled with palm trees and opobalsamum4 ,the trees of the opobalsamum have a resemblance to fir trees2 but they are lower1 and are planted and husbanded after the manner of vines4 ,on a set season of the year they sweat balsam4 ,the darkness of the place is beside as wonderful as the fruitfulness of it2 for although the sun shines no where hotter in the world1 there is naturally a moderate and perpetual gloominess of the air40 ,according to ,mr4 ,buckingham1 this description is most accurate4 8,both the heat and the gloominess10 he says1 8were observed by us1 though darkness would be an improper term to apply to this gloom40 ,,bangorian ,,controversy1 a controversy that arose with ,dr4 ,hoadly1 bishop of ,bangor4 ,that prelate1 in a sermon preached before ,george ,i1 asserted that ,christ was supreme in his own kingdom2 that he had not delegated his power1 like temporal lawgivers during their absence1 to any persons as his vicegerents or deputies2 and that the church of ,england1 as all other national churches1 was merely a civil or human institution1 established for the purpose of diffusing and perpetuating the knowledge and belief of ,christianity4 ,on the meeting of the convocation1 a committee was appointed to examine this publication4 ,a heavy censure was passed against it1 as tending to subvert all government and discipline in the church of ,christ1 to reduce his kingdom to a state of anarchy and confusion1 and to impugn and impeach the royal supremacy in matters ecclesiastical1 and the authority of the legislature to enforce obedience in matters of religion1 by severe sanction4 ,to these proceedings a sudden stop was put by proroguing the convocation2 but the controversy which had been commenced was continued for several years4 ,,banner1 an ensign1 or standard1 used by armies or caravans on their journeys in the eastern countries4 ,the original 1 is rendered by lexicographers and translators under this word1 as a noun1 in which form it often occurs1 a standard1 banner2 as a verb1 once1 to set up a banner2 ,psalm xx1 #e2 as a participle pahul1 vexillatus1 one distinguished by a banner1 the chief2 as a participle niphal1 bannered1 or with banners4 ,the meaning of the root is illustrated by the very ingenious and sensible author of 8,observations on ,divers ,passages of ,scripture10 who shows1 from ,pitts and ,pococke1 that1 8as in ,arabia and the neighbouring countries1 on account of the intense heat of the sun by day1 people generally choose to travel in the night2 so1 to prevent confusion in their large caravans1 particularly in the annual one to ,mecca1 each company1 of which the caravan consists1 has its distinct portable beacon1 which is carried on the top of a pole1 and consists of several lights1 which are somewhat like iron stoves1 into which they put short dry wood1 with which some of the camels are loaded4 ,every company has one of these poles belonging to it2 some of which have ten1 some twelve1 of these lights on their tops1 more or less2 and they are likewise of different figures1 as well as numbers2 one1 perhaps1 in an oval shape2 another1 triangular1 or in the form of an ,m1 or ,n1 c1 so that by these every one knows his respective company4 ,they are carried in the front1 and set up in the place where the caravan is to pitch1 before that comes up1 at some distance from one another4 ,as travelling then in the night must be1 generally speaking1 more agreeable to a great multitude in that desert1 we may believe a compassionate ,god1 for the most part1 directed ,israel to move in the night4 ,and in consequence1 must we not rather suppose the standards of the tribes were movable beacons1 like those of the ,mecca pilgrims1 than flags or any thing of that kind80 ,this ingenious author seems1 however1 to forget1 #a4 ,that the pillar of fire was with the ,israelites to direct their marches4 #b4 ,that the ,israelites were not a mere caravan1 but an army2 and1 as such1 for order1 required standards as well by day as by night4 ,see ,,armies4 ,,banquet4 ,the hospitality of the present day in the east exactly resembles that of the remotest antiquity4 ,the parable of the 8great supper0 is in those countries literally realized4 ,and such was the hospitality of ancient ,greece and ,rome4 ,when a person provided an entertainment for his friends or neighbours1 he sent round a number of servants to invite the guests2 these were called vocatores by the ,romans1 and by the ,greeks4 ,the day when the entertainment is to be given is fixed some considerable time before2 and in the evening of the day appointed1 a messenger comes to bid the guests to the feast4 ,the custom is thus introduced in ,luke3 8,a certain man made a great supper1 and bade many2 and sent his servant at supper time to say to them that were bidden1 ,come1 for all things are now ready40 ,they were not now asked for the first time2 but had already accepted the invitation1 when the day was appointed1 and were therefore already pledged to attend at the hour when they might be summoned4 ,they were not taken unprepared1 and could not in consistency and decency plead any prior engagement4 ,they could not now refuse1 without violating their word1 and insulting the master of the feast1 and1 therefore1 justly subjected themselves to punishment4 ,the terms of the parable exactly accord with established custom4 ,the ,jews did not always follow the same method2 sometimes they sent a number of servants different ways among the friends they meant to invite2 and at other times1 a single male domestic4 ,the ,persians send a deputation to meet their guests3 this deputation are called openers of the way2 and the more distinguished the persons sent1 and the greater the distance to which they go1 so much greater is the honour4 ,so it is proclaimed1 8,go forth and behold king ,solomon1 with the crown wherewith his mother crowned him40 8,the bridegroom cometh1 go ye forth to meet him40 ,the names of the persons to be invited were inscribed upon tablets1 and the gate was set open to receive those who had obtained them2 but to prevent any getting in that had no ticket1 only one leaf of the door was left open2 and that was strictly guarded by the servants of the family4 ,those who were admitted had to go along a narrow passage to the room2 and after all who had received tickets of admission were assembled1 the master of the house rose and shut to the door2 and then the entertainment began4 ,the first ceremony1 after the guests arrived at the house of entertainment1 was the salutation performed by the master of the house1 or one appointed in his place4 ,among the ,greeks1 this was sometimes done by embracing with arms around2 but the most common salutation was by the conjunction of their right hands1 the right hand being reckoned a pledge of fidelity and friendship4 ,sometimes they kissed the lips1 hands1 knees1 or feet1 as the person deserved more or less respect4 ,the ,jews welcomed a stranger to their house in the same way2 for our ,lord complains to ,simon1 that he had given him no kiss1 had welcomed him to his table with none of the accustomed tokens of respect4 ,the custom of reclining was introduced from the nations of the east1 and particularly from ,persia1 where it seems to have been adopted at a very remote period4 ,the ,old ,testament ,scriptures allude to both customs2 but they furnish undeniable proofs of the antiquity of sitting4 ,as this is undoubtedly the most natural and dignified posture1 so it seems to have been universally adopted by the first generations of men2 and it was not till after the lapse of many ages1 and when degenerate man had lost much of the firmness of his primitive character1 that he began to recline4 ,the tables were constructed of three different parts or separate tables1 making but one in the whole4 ,one was placed at the upper end crossways1 and the two others joined to its ends1 one on each side1 so as to leave an open space between1 by which the attendants could readily wait at all the three4 ,round these tables were placed beds or couches1 one to each table2 each of these beds was called clinium2 and three of these being united1 to surround the three tables1 made the triclinium4 ,at the end of each clinium was a footstool1 for the convenience of mounting up to it4 ,these beds were formed of mattresses1 and supported on frames of wood1 often highly ornamented2 the mattresses were covered with cloth or tapestry1 according to the quality of the entertainer4 ,at the splendid feast which ,ahasuerus made for the nobles of his kingdom1 beds of silver and gold were placed round the tables2 according to a custom in the east of naming a thing from its principal ornament1 these must have been couches profusely ornamented with the precious metals4 ,each guest inclined the superior part of his body upon his left arm1 the lower part being stretched out at length1 or a little bent2 his head was raised up1 and his back sometimes supported with pillows4 ,in conversation1 those who spoke raised themselves almost upright1 supported by cushions4 ,when they ate1 they raised themselves on their elbow1 and made use of the right hand2 which is the reason our ,lord mentions the hand of ,judas in the singular number3 8,he that dippeth his hand with me in the dish1 the same shall betray me10 ,matt4 xxvi1 #bc4 ,see ,,accubation4 ,when a ,persian comes into an assembly1 and has saluted the house1 he then measures with his eye the place to which his degree of rank entitles him2 he straightway wedges himself into the line of guests1 without offering any apology for the general disturbance which he produces4 ,it often happens that persons take a higher seat than that to which they are entitled4 ,the ,persian scribes are remarkable for their arrogance in this respect1 in which they seem to bear a striking resemblance to the ,jews of the same profession in the days of our ,lord4 ,the master of the entertainment has1 however1 the privilege of placing any one as high in the rank of the assembly as he may choose4 ,and ,mr4 ,morier saw an instance of it at a public entertainment to which he was invited4 ,when the assembly was nearly full1 the governor of ,kashan1 a man of humble mien1 although of considerable rank1 came in and seated himself at the lowest place2 when the master of the house1 after numerous expressions of welcome1 pointed with his hand to an upper seat in the assembly1 to which he desired him to move1 and which he accordingly did4 ,these circumstances furnish a beautiful and striking illustration of the parable which our ,lord uttered1 when he saw how those that were invited chose the highest places4 ,before the ,greeks went to an entertainment1 they washed and anointed themselves2 for it was thought very indecent to appear on such an occasion1 defiled with sweat and dust2 but they who came off a journey were washed1 and clothed with suitable apparel1 in the house of the entertainer1 before they were admitted to the feast4 ,when ,telemachus and ,pisistratus arrived at the palace of ,menelaus1 in the course of their wanderings1 they were immediately supplied with water to wash1 and with oil to anoint1 themselves1 before they took their seats by the side of the king4 ,the oil used on such occasions1 in the palaces of nobles and princes1 was perfumed with roses and other odoriferous herbs4 ,they also washed their hands before they sat down to meat4 ,to these customary marks of respect1 to which a traveller1 or one who had no house of his own1 was entitled1 our ,lord alludes in his defence of ,mary3 8,and he turned to the woman1 and said unto ,simon1 ,seest thou this woman8 ,i entered into thine house2 thou gavest me no water for my feet1 but she hath washed my feet with her tears1 and wiped them with the hairs of her head4 ,thou gavest me no kiss2 but this woman1 since the time ,i came in1 hath not ceased to kiss my feet4 ,my head with oil thou didst not anoint2 but this woman hath anointed my feet with ointment10 ,luke vii1 #dd4 ,homer mentions it as a custom quite common in those days1 for daughters to wash and afterward to anoint the feet of their parents4 ,our ,saviour was in the circumstances of a traveller2 he had no home to wash and anoint himself in1 before he went to ,simon's house2 and1 therefore1 had a right to complain that his entertainer had failed in the respect that was due to him as a stranger1 at a distance from the usual place of his residence4 ,the ,jews regularly washed their hands and their feet before dinner2 they considered this ceremony as essential1 which discovers the reason of their astonishment1 when they observed the disciples of ,christ sit down at table without having observed this ceremony3 8,why do thy disciples transgress the tradition of the elders8 for they wash not their hands when they eat bread10 ,matt4 xv1 #b4 ,after meals they wash them again2 for1 says the evangelist1 8the ,pharisees and all the ,jews1 except they wash their hands oft1 eat not1 holding the tradition of the elders10 ,mark vii1 #c1 #d4 ,when they washed their hands themselves1 they plunged them into the water up to the wrists2 but when others performed this office for them1 it was done by pouring it upon their hands4 ,the same custom prevailed in ,greece1 for ,homer says1 the attendants poured water on the hands of their chiefs4 ,this was a part of the service which ,elisha performed for his master ,elijah2 and in every instance under the law where water was applied to the body by another1 it was done1 not by plunging1 but by pouring or sprinkling4 ,to wash the feet was a mean and servile office1 and1 therefore1 generally performed by the female servants of the family4 ,it was occasionally performed1 however1 by females of the highest rank2 for the daughter of ,cleobulus1 one of the ,grecian sages1 and king of ,lindus1 a city on the south-east part of ,rhodes1 was not ashamed to wash the feet of her father's guests4 ,and it was customary for them to kiss the feet of those to whom they thought a more than common respect was due2 for the daughter of ,philocleon1 in ,aristophanes1 washed her father1 anointed his feet1 and1 stooping down1 kissed them4 ,the towel which was used to wipe the feet after washing1 was considered through all the east as a badge of servitude4 ,suetonius mentions it as a sure mark of the intolerable pride of ,caligula1 the ,roman emperor1 that when at supper he suffered senators of the highest rank1 sometimes to stand by his couch1 sometimes at his feet1 girt with a towel4 ,hence it appears that this honour was a token of humiliation1 which was not1 however1 absolutely degrading and inconsistent with all regard to rank4 ,yet our blessed ,redeemer did not refuse to give his disciples1 and ,judas ,iscariot himself1 that proof of his love and humility4 ,the entertainment was conducted by a symposiarch1 or governor of the feast4 ,he was1 says ,plutarch1 one chosen among the guests1 the most pleasant and diverting in the company1 that would not get drunk1 and yet would drink freely2 he was to rule over the rest1 to forbid any disorder1 but to encourage their mirth4 ,he observed the temper of the guests1 and how the wine worked upon them2 how every one could bear his wine1 and to endeavour accordingly to keep them all in harmony1 and in an even composure1 that there might be no disquiet nor disturbance4 ,to do this effectually1 he first proclaimed liberty to every one to drink what he thought proper1 and then observing who among them was most ready to be disordered1 mixed more water with his wine1 to keep him equally sober with the rest of the company2 so that this officer took care that none should be forced to drink1 and that none1 though left to their own choice1 should get intoxicated4 ,such1 we have reason to believe1 was the governor of the feast at the marriage in ,cana of ,galilee1 which our ,lord honoured with his presence4 ,the term literally signifies the governor of a place furnished with three beds2 and he acted as one having authority2 for he tasted the wine before he distributed it to the company1 which1 it is universally admitted1 was one of the duties of a symposiarch4 ,neither the name nor the act accords with the character and situation of a guest2 he must1 therefore1 have been the symposiarch1 or governor of the feast4 ,the existence of such an officer among the ,jews is placed beyond a doubt1 by a passage in the apocryphal book of ,ecclesiasticus1 where his office is thus described3 8,if thou be made the master of a feast1 lift not thyself up1 but be among them as one of the rest2 take diligent care of them1 and so sit down4 ,and when thou hast done all thine office1 take thy place1 that thou mayest be merry with them1 and receive a crown for the well-ordering of the feast10 ,ecclesiasticus xxxii1 #a4 ,see ,,architriclinus4 ,,baptism1 from the ,greek word 1 is a rite or ceremony by which persons are initiated into the profession of the ,christian religion2 or1 it is the appointed mode by which a person assumes the profession of ,christianity1 or is admitted to a participation of the privileges belonging to the disciples of ,christ4 ,it was by this mode that those who believed the ,gospel were to be separated from unbelievers1 and joined to the visible ,christian church2 and the rite accompanying it1 or washing with water1 was probably intended to represent the washing away1 or renouncing1 the impurities of some former state1 viz4 the sins that had been committed1 and the vicious habits that had been contracted2 and to this purpose it may be observed1 that the profession of repentance always accompanied1 or was understood to accompany1 the profession of faith in ,christ4 ,that our ,lord instituted such an ordinance as baptism1 is plain from the commission given to the ,apostles after his resurrection1 and recorded in ,matt4 xxviii1 #ai1 #bj4 ,to this rite there is also an allusion in ,mark xvi1 #af2 ,john iii1 #e2 ,acts ii1 #da2 viii1 #ab1 #cf-ch2 xxii1 #af4 ,the design of this institution1 which was to express faith in ,christ on the part of those who were baptized1 and to declare their resolution of openly professing his religion1 and cultivating real and universal holiness1 appears from ,rom4 vi1 #c1 #d2 #a ,peter iii1 #ba2 ,ephes4 v1 #bf2 and ,titus iii1 #e4 ,we find no account of baptism as a distinct religious rite1 before the mission of ,john1 the forerunner of ,christ1 who was called the 8,baptist10 on account of his being commanded by ,god to baptize with water all who should hearken to his invitation to repent4 ,washing1 however1 accompanied many of the ,jewish rites1 and1 indeed1 was required after contracting any kind of uncleanness4 ,also1 soon after the time of our ,saviour1 we find it to have been the custom of the ,jews solemnly to baptize1 as well as to circumcise1 all their proselytes4 ,as their writers treat largely of the reasons for this rite1 and give no hint of its being a novel institution1 it is probable that this had always been the custom antecedent to the time of ,moses1 whose account of the rite of circumcision1 and of the manner of performing it1 is by no means circumstantial4 ,or1 baptism1 after circumcision1 might have come into use gradually from the natural propriety of the thing1 and its easy conformity to other ,jewish customs4 ,for if no ,jew could approach the tabernacle1 or temple1 after the most trifling uncleanness1 without washing1 much less would it be thought proper to admit a proselyte from a state so impure and unclean as ,heathenism was conceived to be1 without the same mode of purification4 ,the antiquity of this practice of proselyte baptism among the ,jews1 has been a subject of considerable debate among divines4 ,it is strenuously maintained by ,lightfoot4 ,dr4 ,john ,owen considers the opinion1 that ,christian baptism came from the ,jews1 as destitute of all probability4 ,on the other hand1 ,mr4 ,wall has made it highly probable1 to say the least1 from many testimonies of the ,jewish writers1 who without one dissenting voice allow the fact1 that the practice of ,jewish baptism obtained before and at1 as well as after1 our ,saviour's time4 ,there is also a strong intimation1 even in the ,gospel itself1 of such a known practice among the ,jews in the time of ,john the ,baptist1 ,john i1 #be4 ,the testimonies of the ,jewish writers are of the greater weight1 because the practice1 reported by them to have been of so ancient a date1 did still remain among them2 for if it had not been of that antiquity to which it pretends1 viz4 before the time of ,christ1 it is not likely that it would ever have become a custom among the ,jews afterward4 ,would they begin to proselyte persons to their religion by baptism in imitation of the disciples of ,jesus of ,nazareth1 whom they held accursed8 ,and yet if this proselyte baptism were adopted by the ,jews since the time of ,christ1 it must have been a mere innovation in imitation of ,christians1 which is not very likely4 ,this ceremony is performed by immersion in the oriental churches4 ,the practice of the western churches is1 to sprinkle the water on the head or face of the person to be baptized1 except in the church of ,milan1 in whose ritual it is ordered1 that the head of the infant be plunged three times into the water2 the minister at the same time pronouncing the words1 8,i baptize thee in the name of the ,father1 the ,son1 and the ,holy ,ghost20 importing that by this ceremony the person baptized is received among the professors of that religion which ,god1 the ,father of all1 revealed to mankind by the ministry of his ,son1 and confirmed by the miracles of his ,spirit4 #b4 ,it is observable that the baptismal form1 above cited from ,st4 ,matthew1 never occurs in the same words1 either in the book of the ,acts1 or in any of the ,epistles4 ,but though the form in ,st4 ,matthew never appears elsewhere1 the thing intended thereby is always implied4 ,there are many ceremonies delivered by ecclesiastical writers1 as used in baptism1 which were introduced after the age of ,justin ,martyr1 but which are now disused2 as the giving milk and honey to the baptized1 in the east2 wine and milk1 in the west1 c4 ,they also added unction and the imposition of hands4 ,tertullian is the first who mentions the signing with the sign of the cross1 but only as used in private1 and not in public worship2 and he particularly describes the custom of baptizing without it4 ,indeed1 it does not appear to have been used in baptism till the latter end of the fourth or fifth century2 at which time great virtue was ascribed to it4 ,lactantius1 who lived in the beginning of the fourth century1 says the devil cannot approach those who have the heavenly mark of the cross upon them as an impregnable fortress to defend them2 but he does not say it was used in baptism4 ,after the council of ,nice1 ,christians added to baptism the ceremonies of exorcism and adjuration1 to make evil spirits depart from the persons to be baptized4 ,they made several signings with the cross1 they used lighted candles1 they gave salt to the baptized person to taste1 and the priest touched his mouth and ears with spittle1 and also blew and spat upon his face4 ,at that time also baptized persons wore white garments till the ,sunday following4 ,they had also various other ceremonies2 some of which are now abolished1 though others of them remain in the church of ,rome to this day4 #c4 ,the ,quakers assert1 that water baptism was never intended to continue in the church of ,christ any longer than while ,jewish prejudices made such an external ceremony necessary4 ,they argue from ,eph4 iv1 #e1 in which one baptism is spoken of as necessary to ,christians1 that this must be a baptism of the ,spirit4 ,but from comparing the texts that relate to this institution1 it will plainly appear that water baptism was instituted by ,christ in more general terms than will agree with this explication4 ,that it was administered to all the ,gentile converts1 and not confined to the ,jews1 appears from ,matt4 xxviii1 #ai1 #bj1 compared with ,acts x1 #dg2 and that the baptism of the ,spirit did not supersede water baptism appears to have been the judgment of ,peter and of those that were with him2 so that the one baptism spoken of seems to have been that of water2 the communication of the ,holy ,spirit being only called baptism in a figurative sense4 ,as for any objection which may be drawn from #a ,cor4 i1 #ag1 it is sufficiently answered by the preceding verses1 and all the numerous texts1 in which1 in epistles written long after this1 the ,apostle speaks of all ,christians as baptized2 and argues from the obligation of baptism1 in such a manner as we can never imagine he would have done1 if he had apprehended it to have been the will of ,god that it should be discontinued in the church4 ,compare ,rom4 vi1 #c1 c2 ,col4 ii1 #ab2 ,gal4 iii1 #bg4 #d4 ,baptism1 in early times1 was only administered at ,easter and ,whitsuntide1 except in cases of necessity4 ,adult persons were prepared for baptism by abstinence1 prayer1 and other pious exercises4 ,it was to answer for them1 says ,mosheim1 that sponsors1 or godfathers1 were first instituted in the second century1 though they were afterward admitted also in the baptism of infants4 ,this1 according to ,m4 ,daill1 was not done till the fourth century4 ,wall refers the origin of sponsors1 or godfathers1 on the authority of ,tertullian1 to the commencement of the second century2 who were used in the baptism of infants that could not answer for themselves4 ,the catechumens were not forward in coming to baptism4 ,st4 ,ambrose was not baptized before he was elected bishop of ,milan2 and some of the fathers not till the time of their death4 ,some deferred it out of a tender conscience2 and others out of too much attachment to the world2 it being the prevailing opinion of the primitive times1 that baptism1 whenever conferred1 washed away all antecedent stains and sins4 ,accordingly they deferred this sanctifying rite as long as possible1 even till they apprehended they were at the point of death4 ,cases of this kind occur at the beginning of the third century4 ,constantine the ,great was not baptized till he was at the last gasp1 and in this he was followed by his son ,constantius2 and two of his other sons1 ,constantine and ,constans1 were killed before they were baptized4 ,as to the necessity of baptism1 we may observe1 however1 that1 though some seem to have laid too great stress upon it1 as if it were indispensably necessary in order to salvation2 it must be allowed1 that for any person to omit baptism1 when he acknowledges it to be an institution of ,christ1 and that it is the will of ,christ that he should submit to it1 is an act of disobedience to his authority1 which is inconsistent with true faith4 #e4 ,the word baptism is frequently taken for sufferings1 ,mark x1 #ch2 ,luke xii1 #ej2 ,matt4 xx1 #bb1 #bc4 ,of expressions like these we find some traces in the ,old ,testament also1 where waters often denote tribulations1 ,psalm lxix1 #a1 #ae2 cxxiv1 #d1 #e2 and where to be swallowed up by the waters1 and to pass through the great waters1 signify to be overwhelmed with miseries and calamities4 #f4 ,st4 ,paul1 endeavouring to prove the resurrection of the dead1 among several other reasons in support of the doctrine1 says1 8,if the dead rise not at all1 what shall they do who are baptized for the dead80 #a ,cor4 xv1 #bi4 ,of this phrase various interpretations have been given2 three of which only shall be here mentioned4 8,it means10 say some1 8#8baptized in the room of the dead just fallen in the cause of ,christ1 and who are thus supported by a sucession of new converts1 immediately offering themselves to fill up their places1 as ranks of soldiers who advance to combat in the room of their companions1 who have just been slain in their sight4'0 ,others think it signifies1 8,in hope of blessings to be received after they are numbered with the dead40 ,dr4 ,macknight supplies the words1 1 and reads the clause1 8,who are baptized for the resurrection of the dead20 or in consequence of their believing in the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead2 on account of which faith1 and their profession of it1 they are exposed to great sufferings1 for which they can have no recompense1 if there be no resurrection of the dead1 nor any future life at all4 #g4 ,as to the subjects of baptism1 the anti-pdobaptists hold that believing adults only are proper subjects1 because the commission of ,christ to baptize appears to them to restrict this ordinance to such only as are taught1 or made disciples2 and that1 consequently1 infants1 who cannot be thus taught1 ought to be excluded4 8,it does not appear10 say they1 8that the ,apostles1 in executing the commission of ,christ1 ever baptized any but those who were first instructed in the ,christian faith1 and professed their belief of it40 ,they contend that infants can receive no benefit from baptism1 and are not capable of faith and repentance1 which are to be considered as prerequisites4 #h4 ,as to the mode1 they observe that the meaning of the word signifies to immerse or dip1 and that only2 that ,john baptized in ,jordan2 that he chose a place where there was much water2 that ,jesus came up out of the water2 that ,philip and the eunuch went down both into the water2 that the terms1 washing1 purifying1 burying in baptism1 so often mentioned in the ,scriptures1 allude to this mode2 that immersion only was the practice of the ,apostles and the first ,christians2 and that it was only laid aside from the love of novelty1 and the coldness of climate4 ,these positions1 they think1 are so clear from ,scripture1 and the history of the church1 that they stand in need of but little argument for their support4 ,farther1 they also insist that all positive institutions depend entirely upon the will and declaration of the institutor2 and that1 therefore1 reasoning by analogy from previously abrogated rites is to be rejected1 and the express command of ,christ respecting baptism ought to be our rule4 #i4 ,the ,pdobaptists1 however1 are of a different opinion4 ,as to the subjects of baptism1 they believe that qualified adults1 who have not been baptized before1 are certainly proper subjects2 but then they think1 also1 that infants ought not to be excluded4 ,they believe that1 as the ,abrahamic and ,christian covenants are the same1 ,gen4 xvii1 #g2 ,heb4 viii1 #ab2 that as children were admitted under the former2 and that as baptism is now a sign1 seal1 or confirmation of this covenant1 infants have as great a right to it as the children of the ,israelites had to the seal of circumcision under the law1 ,acts ii1 #ci2 ,rom4 iv1 #aa4 ,farther1 if children are not to be baptized because there is no positive command for it1 for the same reason they say that women should not come to the ,lord's ,supper2 nor ought we to keep holy the first day of the week2 neither of these being expressly commanded4 ,if baptizing infants had been a human invention1 they also ask1 how such a practice could have been so universal in the first three hundred years of the church1 and yet no record have remained when it was introduced1 nor any dispute or controversy about it have taken place8 ,some reduce the matter to a narrower compass2 urging1 7#a47 ,that ,god constituted in his church the membership of infants1 and admitted them to that privilege by a religious ordinance1 ,gen4 xvii2 ,gal4 iii1 #ad1 #ag4 7#b47 ,that this right of infants to church membership was never taken away3 and this being the case1 they argue1 that infants must be received1 because ,god has appointed it2 and1 since they must be received1 it must be either with baptism or without it2 but none must be received without baptism2 therefore1 infants must of necessity be baptized4 ,hence it is clear that1 under the ,gospel1 infants are still continued exactly in the same relation to ,god and his church in which they were originally placed under former dispensations4 ,that infants are to be received into the church1 and as such baptized1 is also inferred from the following passages of ,scripture3 ,gen4 xvii2 ,isa4 xliv1 #c2 ,matt4 xix1 #ac2 ,luke ix1 #dg1 #dh2 ,acts ii1 #ch1 #ci2 ,rom4 xi1 #ag1 #ba2 #a ,cor4 vii1 #ad4 #aj4 ,though there are no express examples in the ,new ,testament of ,christ and his ,apostles baptizing infants1 yet there is no proof that they were excluded4 ,jesus ,christ actually blessed little children2 and it is difficult to believe that such received his blessing1 and yet were not to be members of the ,gospel church4 ,if ,christ received them1 and would have us 8receive0 them1 how can we keep them out of the visible church8 ,beside1 if children were not to be baptized1 it is reasonable to expect that they would have been expressly forbidden4 ,as whole households were baptized1 it is also probable there were children among them4 ,from the year #djj to #aaej1 no society of men1 in all that period of seven hundred and fifty years1 ever pretended to say it was unlawful to baptize infants3 and still nearer the time of our ,saviour there appears to have been scarcely any one who advised the delay of infant baptism4 ,irenus1 who lived in the second century1 and was well acquainted with ,polycarp1 who was ,john's disciple1 declares expressly1 that the church learned from the ,apostles to baptize children4 ,origen1 in the third century1 affirms1 that the custom of baptizing infants was received from ,christ and his ,apostles4 ,cyprian1 and a council of ministers1 held about the year #bed1 no less than sixty-six in number1 unanimously agreed that children might be baptized as soon as they were born4 ,ambrose1 who wrote about #bgd years from the ,apostles1 declares that the baptism of infants had been practised by the ,apostles themselves1 and by the church down to that time4 8,the catholic church every where declares10 says ,chrysostom1 in the fifth century1 8that infants should be baptized20 and ,augustine affirmed1 that he never heard or read of any ,christian1 catholic or sectarian1 but who always held that infants were to be baptized4 ,they farther believe that there needed no mention in the ,new ,testament of receiving infants into the church1 as it had been once appointed and never repealed4 ,so far from confining baptism to adults1 it must be remembered that there is not a single instance recorded in the ,new ,testament1 in which the descendants of ,christian parents were baptized in adult years4 ,the objection that infants are not proper subjects for baptism1 because they cannot profess faith and repentance1 falls with as much weight upon the institution of circumcision as infant baptism2 since they are as capable or are as fit subjects for the one as the other4 ,finally1 it is generally acknowledged1 that if infants die1 7and a great part of the human race die in their infancy17 they are saved3 if this be the case then why refuse them the sign of union with ,christ1 if they be capable of enjoying the thing signified8 #aa4 ,as to the mode1 the ,pdobaptists deny that the term 1 which is a derivative of 1 and1 consequently1 must be something less in its signification1 is invariably used in the ,new ,testament to express plunging4 ,it is denied1 therefore1 that dipping is its only meaning2 that ,christ absolutely enjoined immersion2 and that it is his positive will that no other mode should be used4 ,as the word is used to express the various ablutions among the ,jews1 such as sprinkling1 pouring1 c1 ,heb4 ix1 #aj1 for the custom of washing before meals1 and the washing of household furniture1 pots1 c1 it is evident from hence that it does not express the manner of doing a thing1 whether by immersion or effusion1 but only the thing done2 that is1 washing2 or the application of water in some form or other4 ,it no where signifies to dip1 but in denoting a mode of1 and in order to1 washing or cleansing2 and the mode or use is only the ceremonial part of a positive institute2 just as in the ,lord's ,supper1 the time of day1 the number and posture of the communicants1 the quantity and quality of bread and wine1 are circumstances not accounted essential by any part of ,christians4 ,if in baptism there be an expressive emblem of the descending influence of the ,spirit1 pouring must be the mode of administration2 for that is the ,scriptural term most commonly and properly used for the communication of divine influences1 ,matt4 iii1 #aa2 ,mark i1 #h1 #aj2 ,luke iii1 #af-bb2 ,john i1 #cc2 ,acts i1 #e2 ii1 #ch1 #ci2 viii1 #ab1 #ag2 xi1 #ae1 #af4 ,the term sprinkling1 also1 is made use of in reference to the act of purification1 ,isa4 lii1 #ae2 ,ezek4 xxxvi1 #be2 ,heb4 ix1 #ac1 #ad2 and therefore cannot be inapplicable to baptismal purification4 ,but1 it is observed1 that ,john baptized 8in ,jordan30 to this it is replied1 ,to infer always a plunging of the whole body in water from this particle1 would1 in many instances1 be false and absurd4 ,the same ,greek preposition1 1 is used when it is said they should be 8baptized with fire20 but few will assert that they should be plunged into it4 ,the ,apostle1 speaking of ,christ1 says1 he came not1 1 8by water only20 but1 1 8by water and blood40 ,there the same word1 1 is translated by2 and with justice and propriety2 for we know no good sense in which we could say he came in water4 ,it has been remarked that is1 more than a hundred times1 in the ,new ,testament1 rendered at2 and in a hundred and fifty others it is translated with4 ,if it be rendered so here1 ,john baptized at ,jordan1 or with the water of ,jordan1 there is no proof that he plunged his disciples in it4 ,jesus1 it is said1 came up out of the water2 but this is no proof that he was immersed1 as the ,greek term1 1 often signifies from3 for instance1 8,who hath warned you to flee from10 not out of1 8the wrath to come80 with many others that might be mentioned4 ,again3 it is urged that ,philip and the eunuch went down both into the water4 ,to this it is answered1 that here also is no proof of immersion3 for1 if the expression of their going down into the water necessarily includes dipping1 then ,philip was dipped1 as well as the eunuch4 ,the preposition 1 translated into1 often signifies no more than to1 or unto3 see ,matt4 xv1 #bd2 ,rom4 x1 #aj2 ,acts xxviii1 #ad2 ,matt4 iii1 #aa2 xvii1 #bg3 so that from none of these circumstances can it be proved that there was one person of all the baptized1 who went into the water ankle deep4 ,as to the ,apostle's expression1 8buried with him in baptism10 that has no force in the argument for immersion1 since it does not allude to a custom of dipping1 any more than our baptismal crucifixion and death has any such reference4 ,it is not the sign1 but the thing signified1 that is here alluded to4 ,as ,christ was buried1 and rose again to a heavenly life1 so we by baptism signify that we are separated from sin1 that we may live a new life of faith and love4 ,to conclude3 it is urged1 against the mode of immersion1 that1 as it carries with it too much of the appearance of a burdensome rite for the ,gospel dispensation2 as it is too indecent for so solemn an ordinance2 as it has a tendency to agitate the spirits1 often rendering the subject unfit for the exercise of proper thoughts and affections1 and indeed utterly incapable of them2 as in many cases the immersion of the body would1 in all probability1 be instant death2 as in other situations it would be impracticable1 for want of water2 it cannot be considered as necessary to the ordinance of baptism1 and there is the strongest improbability that it was ever practised in the times of the ,new ,testament1 or in the earliest periods of the ,christian church4 ,,baptists1 or ,,antip,,dobaptists1 so called from their rejecting the baptism of infants4 ,the ,baptists in ,england form one of 8the three denominations of ,protestant ,dissenters40 ,the constitution of their churches1 and their modes of worship1 are congregational1 or independent4 ,they bore a considerable share in the sufferings of the seventeenth and preceding centuries3 for there were many among the ,lollards and ,wickliffites who disapproved of infant baptism4 ,there were also many of this faith among the ,protestants and ,reformers abroad4 ,in ,holland1 ,germany1 and the north1 they went by the names of ,anabaptists and ,mennonites2 and in ,piedmont and the south1 they were found among the ,albigenses and ,waldenses4 ,the ,baptists subsist chiefly under two denominations1--the ,particular or ,calvinistical1 and the ,general or ,arminian4 ,the former is by far the most numerous4 ,some of both denominations1 ,general and ,particular1 allow of free or mixed communion2 admitting to the ,lord's table pious persons who have not been immersed1 while others consider that as an essential requisite to communion4 ,these are sometimes called ,strict ,baptists4 ,other societies of this denomination observe the seventh day of the week as their ,sabbath1 apprehending the original law of the ,sabbath to remain in force1 unaltered and unrepealed4 ,these are called ,seventh-day ,baptists4 ,a considerable number of the ,general ,baptists have gone into ,unitarianism2 in consequence of which1 those who maintained the doctrines of the ,trinity and atonement1 in the latter part of the eighteenth century1 formed themselves into what is called 8,the ,new ,connection10 or ,association4 ,these preserve a friendly correspondence with their other brethren in things which concern the general interests of the denomination1 but hold no religious communion with them4 ,some congregations of ,general ,baptists admit three distinct orders of church officers3 messengers or ministers1 elders1 and deacons4 ,the ,baptists in ,america1 and in the ,east and ,west ,indies1 are chiefly ,calvinists2 but most of them admit of free communion4 ,the ,scottish ,baptists form a distinct denomination1 and are distinguished by several peculiarities of church government4 8,no trace can be found of a ,baptist church in ,scotland10 says ,mr4 ,jones1 8excepting one which appears to have been formed out of ,cromwell's army1 previous to #agfe1 when a church was settled at ,edinburgh1 under the pastoral care of ,mr4 ,carmichael and ,mr4 ,archibald ,m',lean4 ,others have since been formed at ,dundee1 ,glasgow1 and in most of the principal towns of ,scotland30 also at ,london1 and in various parts of ,england4 ,they think that the order of public worship1 which uniformly obtained in the ,apostolic churches1 is clearly set forth in ,acts ii1 #db-dg2 and therefore they endeavour to follow it out to the utmost of their power4 ,they require a plurality of elders in every church1 administer the ,lord's ,supper1 and make contributions for the poor every first day of the week4 ,the prayers and exhortations of the brethren form a part of their church order1 under the direction and control of the elders1 to whom it exclusively belongs to preside in conducting the worship1 to rule in cases of discipline1 and to labour in the word and doctrine1 in distinction from the brethren exhorting one another4 ,the elders are all laymen1 generally chosen from among the brethren2 but1 when circumstances require1 are supported by their contributions4 ,they approve also of persons who are properly qualified for it1 being appointed by the church to preach the ,gospel and baptize1 though not vested with any pastoral charge4 ,the discipline and government of the ,scottish ,baptists are strictly congregational4 ,,barachias1 the father of ,zacharias1 mentioned ,matt4 xxiii1 #ce1 as slain between the temple and the altar4 ,there is a great diversity of opinions concerning the person of this ,zacharias1 the son of ,barachias4 ,some think him to be ,zacharias1 the son of ,jehoiada1 who was killed by the orders of ,joash1 between the temple and the altar1 #b ,chron4 xxiv1 #ba4 ,campbell thinks1 with ,father ,simon1 that ,jehoiada had two names1 ,barachias and ,jehoiada4 ,see ,,zacharias4 ,,barak1 son of ,abinoam1 chosen by ,god to deliver the ,hebrews from that bondage under which they were held by ,jabin1 king of the ,canaanites1 ,judges iv1 #d1 #e1 c4 ,he refused to obey the ,lord's commands1 signified to him by ,deborah1 the prophetess1 unless she consented to go with him4 ,deborah accompanied ,barak toward ,kedesh of ,naphtali2 and1 having assembled ten thousand men1 they advanced to mount ,tabor4 ,sisera1 being informed of this movement1 marched with nine hundred chariots of war1 and encamped near the river ,kishon4 ,barak rapidly descended from mount ,tabor1 and the ,lord having spread terror through ,sisera's army ,barak easily obtained a complete victory4 ,sisera was killed by ,jael4 ,barak and ,deborah composed a hymn of thanksgiving2 and the land had peace forty years from ,a4 ,m4 #bgai to #bgei1 ,b4 ,c4 #abde4 ,,barbarian4 ,the word 7rendered barbarian2 ,,lxx1 17 in the ,hebrew sense of it1 signifies a stranger2 one who knows neither the holy language nor the law4 ,according to the notions of the ,greeks1 all nations who were not ,greeks1 or not governed by laws like the ,greeks1 were barbarians4 ,the ,persians1 ,egyptians1 ,hebrews1 ,arabians1 ,gauls1 ,germans1 and even the ,romans1 were1 in their phraseology1 barbarians1 however learned or polite they might be in themselves4 ,st4 ,paul comprehends all mankind under the names of ,greeks and barbarians3 8,i am a debtor both to the ,greeks and to the barbarians2 to the wise and to the unwise10 ,rom4 i1 #ad4 ,st4 ,luke calls the inhabitants of the island of ,malta barbarians1 ,acts xxviii1 #b1 #d4 ,st4 ,paul1 writing to the ,colossians1 uses the terms barbarian and ,scythian almost in the same signification4 ,in #a ,cor4 xiv1 #aa1 he says1 that if he who speaks a foreign language in an assembly be not understood by those to whom he discourses1 with respect to them he is a barbarian2 and1 reciprocally1 if he understand not those who speak to him1 they are to him barbarians4 ,barbarian1 therefore1 is used for every stranger or foreigner who does not speak our native language1 and includes no implication whatever of savage nature or manners in those respecting whom it is used4 ,it is most probably derived from berbir1 8a shepherd20 whence ,barbary1 the country of wandering shepherds2 ,bedouins1 ,sceni1 ,scythei1 as if1 wanderers in tents2 therefore barbarians4 ,,bar-,,jesus1 or1 according to some copies1 ,,bar-,,jeu1 was a ,jewish magician in the island of ,crete1 ,acts xiii1 #f4 ,st4 ,luke calls him ,elymas4 ,he was with the pro-consul ,sergius ,paulus1 who1 sending for ,paul and ,barnabas1 desired to hear the word of ,god4 ,bar-,jesus endeavouring to hinder the pro-consul from embracing ,christianity1 ,paul1 filled with the ,holy ,ghost1 8set his eyes upon him1 and said1 ,o full of all subtilty and mischief1 thou child of the devil1 thou enemy of all righteousness1 wilt thou not cease to pervert the right ways of the ,lord8 ,behold1 the hand of the ,lord is upon thee1 and thou shalt be blind1 not seeing the sun for a season20 which took place immediately4 ,the pro-consul1 who saw this miracle1 was converted4 ,origen and ,chrysostom think that ,elymas1 or ,bar-,jesus1 was converted likewise2 and that ,st4 ,paul speedily restored his sight4 ,,barley1 1 ,exod4 ix1 #ca2 ,lev4 xxvii1 #af1 c22 a well-known kind of grain4 ,it derives its ,hebrew name from the long hairy beard which grows upon the ear4 ,pliny1 on the testimony of ,menander1 says that barley was the most ancient aliment of mankind4 ,in ,palestine the barley was sown about ,october1 and reaped in the end of ,march1 just after the passover4 ,in ,egypt the barley harvest was later2 for when the hail fell there1 ,exodus ix1 #ca1 a few days before the passover1 the flax and barley were bruised and destroyed3 for the flax was at its full growth1 and the barley began to form its green ears2 but the wheat1 and more backward grain1 were not damaged1 because they were only in the blade1 and the hail bruised the young shoots which produce the ears4 ,the rabbins sometimes called barley the food of beasts1 because in reality they fed their cattle with it1 #a ,kings iv1 #bh2 and from ,homer and other ancient writers we learn1 that barley was given to horses4 ,the ,hebrews1 however1 frequently used barley bread1 as we find by several passages of ,scripture3 for example1 ,david's friends brought to him in his flight wheat1 barley1 flour1 c1 #b ,sam4 xvii1 #bh4 ,solomon sent wheat1 barley1 oil1 and wine1 to the labourers ,king ,hiram had furnished him1 #b ,chron4 ii1 #ae4 ,elijah had a present made him1 of twenty barley loaves1 and corn in the husk1 #b ,kings iv1 #bb4 ,and1 by miraculously increasing the five barley loaves1 ,christ fed a multitude of about five thousand1 ,john vi1 #h-aj4 ,the jealousy-offering1 in the ,levitical institution1 was to be barley meal1 ,num4 v1 #ae4 ,the common mincha1 or offering1 was of fine wheat flour1 ,lev4 ii1 #a2 but this was of barley1 a meaner grain1 probably to denote the vile condition of the person in whose behalf it was offered4 ,for which reason1 also1 there was no oil or frankincense permitted to be offered with it4 ,sometimes barley is put for a low1 contemptible reward or price4 ,so the false prophets are charged with seducing the people for handfuls of barley1 and morsels of bread1 ,ezek4 xiii1 #ai4 ,hosea bought his emblematic bride for fifteen pieces of silver1 and a homer and a half of barley1 ,hosea iii1 #b4 ,,barnabas1 a disciple of ,jesus ,christ1 and companion of ,st4 ,paul in his labours4 ,he was a ,levite1 born in the isle of ,cyprus4 ,his proper name was ,joses1 to which the ,apostles added ,barnabas1 signifying the son of consolation4 ,he is generally considered one of the seventy disciples1 chosen by our ,saviour4 ,he was brought up with ,paul at the feet of ,gamaliel4 ,when that ,apostle came to ,jerusalem1 three years after his conversion1 ,barnabas introduced him to the other ,apostles1 ,acts ix1 #bf1 #bg1 about ,a4 ,d4 #cg4 ,five years afterward1 the church at ,jerusalem1 being informed of the progress of the ,gospel at ,antioch1 sent ,barnabas thither1 who beheld with great joy the wonders of the grace of ,god1 ,acts xi1 #bb1 #bd4 ,he exhorted the faithful to perseverance4 ,some time afterward1 he went to ,tarsus1 to seek ,paul1 and bring him to ,antioch1 where they jointly laboured two years1 and converted great numbers2 and here the disciples were first called ,christians4 ,they left ,antioch ,a4 ,d4 #dd1 to convey alms from this church to that at ,jerusalem4 ,at their return they brought ,john ,mark1 the cousin of ,barnabas4 ,while they were at ,antioch1 the ,holy ,ghost directed that they should be separated for those labours among the ,gentiles to which he had appointed them4 ,they departed into ,cyprus1 where they converted ,sergius ,paulus1 the pro-consul4 ,they preached at ,perga in ,pamphylia without much success1 by reason of the obstinacy and malice of the ,jews2 but being come to ,iconium1 they made many converts4 ,here the ,jews stirred up a sedition1 and obliged them to retire to ,derbe and ,lystra1 in ,lycaonia1 where ,st4 ,paul curing one neas1 who had been lame from his birth1 the people of ,lystra regarded them as gods2 calling ,barnabas1 ,jupiter2 and ,paul1 ,mercury2 and would have sacrificed to them1 which the two ,apostles with great difficulty hindered3 nevertheless1 soon afterward1 they were persecuted in this very city4 ,having revisited the cities through which they had passed1 and where they had preached the ,gospel1 they returned to ,antioch in ,syria4 ,in ,a4 ,d4 #ea1 ,barnabas was sent with ,paul from ,antioch to ,jerusalem1 on occasion of disputes concerning the observance of legal rites1 to which the ,jews wished to subject the ,gentiles4 ,paul and ,barnabas were present in the council at ,jerusalem1 and returned immediately to ,antioch4 ,peter1 arriving there soon afterward1 was led to countenance1 in some degree1 by his conduct1 the observance of the ,mosaic distinctions4 ,barnabas1 too1 7who1 being by descent a ,levite1 might retain some former notions17 used the like dissimulation3 but ,paul reproved ,peter and ,barnabas with great freedom4 ,paul afterward determining to visit the churches in the isle of ,cyprus1 and in ,asia ,minor1 ,barnabas desired that ,john ,mark might accompany them3 but ,paul objected1 because ,mark had left them on the first journey4 ,hereupon the two ,apostles separated3 ,paul went toward ,asia2 and ,barnabas1 with ,mark1 to ,cyprus4 ,this is all we know certainly concerning ,barnabas4 ,there is extant among the writings of the fathers an epistle which is attributed to ,barnabas2 though1 being without an inscription1 it is not known to whom it professes to have been addressed4 ,it was first published by ,archbishop ,usher1 in ,greek and ,latin1 and translated by ,archbishop ,wake1 in his 8,genuine ,epistles of the ,apostolical ,fathers10 and has often been reprinted4 ,that it is not the production of ,barnabas1 the companion of ,paul1 may be safely concluded from internal evidence2 though it may have been written by some other person of the same name4 ,there is also a tract which goes by the name of1 8,the ,gospel of ,barnabas10 still extant2 from which ,dr4 ,white1 at the end of his ,bampton ,lectures1 has given extracts sufficiently copious to satisfy any impartial mind that it is spurious4 ,,barrenness4 ,this was looked upon as reproachful among the ,greeks and ,romans1 but more particularly so among the ,jews2 which may be accounted for by the constant expectation of ,messiah1 and the hope that every woman had1 that she might be the mother of the promised seed4 ,this constant hope of the speedy coming of the great 8,seed of the woman0 serves also to account for many circumstances in the ,old ,testament history4 8,couple it10 says the ,rev4 ,j4 ,j4 ,blunt1 8with this consideration1 and ,i see the scheme of revelation1 like the physical scheme1 proceeding with beautiful uniformity3 a unity of plan #8connecting1' as it has been well said by ,paley1 #8the chicken roosting upon its perch with the spheres revolving in the firmament2' and a unity of plan connecting in like manner the meanest accidents of a household with the most illustrious visions of a prophet4 ,abstracted from this consideration1 ,i see in the history of ,moses details of actions1 some trifling1 some even offensive1 pursued at a length 7when compared with the whole7 singularly disproportionate2 while things which the angels would desire to look into are passed over and forgotten4 ,but this principle once admitted1 all is consecrated2 all assumes a new aspect2 trifles1 that seem at first not bigger than a man's hand1 occupy the heavens2 and wherefore ,sarah laughed1 for instance1 at the prospect of a son1 and wherefore that laugh was rendered immortal in his name2 and wherefore the sacred historian dwells on a matter so trivial1 whilst the world and its vast concerns were lying at his feet1 ,i can fully understand4 ,for then ,i see the hand of ,god shaping every thing to his own ends1 and in an event thus casual1 thus easy1 thus unimportant1 telling forth his mighty design of salvation to the world1 and working it up into the web of his noble prospective counsels1 ,gen4 xxi1 #f4 ,i see that nothing is great or little before ,him who can bend to his purposes whatever he willeth1 and convert the light-hearted and thoughtless mockery of an aged woman into an instrument of his glory1 effectual as the tongue of the seer which he touched with living coals from the altar4 ,bearing this master-key in my hand1 ,i can interpret the scenes of domestic mirth1 of domestic stratagem1 or of domestic wickedness1 with which the history of ,moses abounds4 ,the ,seed of the woman1 that was to bruise the serpent's head1 ,gen4 iii1 #ae1 however indistinctly understood1 7and probably it was understood very indistinctly17 was the one thing longed for in the families of old2 was #8the desire of all nations1' as the ,prophet ,haggai expressly calls it1 ,hag4 ii1 #g2 and1 provided they could accomplish this desire1 they 7like others1 when urged by an overpowering motive7 were often reckless of the means1 and rushed upon deeds which they could not defend4 ,then did the wife forget her jealousy1 and provoke1 instead of resenting1 the faithlessness of her husband1 ,gen4 xvi1 #b2 xxx1 #c1 #i2 then did the mother forget a parent's part1 and teach her own child treachery and deceit1 ,gen4 xxv1 #bc2 xxvii1 #ac2 then did daughters turn the instincts of nature backward1 and deliberately work their own and their father's shame1 ,gen4 xix1 #ca2 then did the daughter-in-law veil her face1 and court the incestuous bed1 ,gen4 xxxviii1 #ad2 and to be childless1 was to be a by-word1 ,gen4 xvi1 #e2 xxx1 #a2 and to refuse to raise up seed to a brother1 was to be spit upon1 ,gen4 xxxviii1 #bf2 ,deut4 xxv1 #i2 and the prospect of the promise1 like the fulfilment of it1 did not send peace into families1 but a sword2 and three were set against two1 and two against three1 ,gen4 xxvii1 #da2 and the elder1 who would be promoted unto honour1 was set against the younger1 whom ,god would promote1 ,gen4 iv1 #e2 xxvii1 #da2 and national differences were engendered by it1 as individuals grew into nations1 ,gen4 xix1 #cg2 xxvi1 #ce2 and even the foulest of idolatries may be traced1 perhaps1 to this hallowed source2 for the corruption of the best is the worst corruption of all1 ,num4 xxv1 #a1 #b1 #c4 ,it is upon this principle of interpretation1 and ,i know not upon what other so well1 that we may put to silence the ignorance of foolish men1 who have made those parts of the ,mosaic history a stumbling-block to many1 which1 if rightly understood1 are the very testimony of the covenant2 and a principle which is thus extensive in its application and successful in its results2 which explains so much that is difficult1 and answers so much that is objected against1 has1 from this circumstance alone1 strong presumption in its favour1 strong claims upon our sober regard40 ,,barsabas4 ,joseph ,barsabas1 surnamed ,justus1 was one of the first disciples of ,jesus ,christ1 and probably one of the seventy4 ,when ,st4 ,peter proposed to the disciples to fill up the place of ,judas the traitor1 by choosing another ,apostle1 ,acts i1 #ba1 ,barsabas was nominated along with ,matthias2 but the lot fell on ,matthias1 who was therefore numbered with the eleven ,apostles4 ,we know nothing farther of the life of this ,barsabas4 #b4 ,,barsabas was also the surname of ,judas1 one of the principal disciples mentioned1 ,acts xv1 #bb1 c4 ,barsabas and some others were sent by the ,apostles1 with ,paul and ,barnabas1 to ,antioch1 and carried a letter with them from the ,apostles1 signifying what the council at ,jerusalem had decreed4 ,after the reading of the letter to the brethren1 which was received with joy1 ,barsabas and ,silas continued here some time longer1 instructing and confirming the brethren2 after which ,silas and ,barsabas returned to ,jerusalem4 ,this is all we know of ,barsabas ,judas4 ,,bartholomew1 one of the twelve ,apostles1 ,matt4 x1 #c1 is supposed to be the same person who is called ,nathanael1 one of the first of ,christ's disciples4 ,this opinion is founded on the circumstance1 that as the evangelist ,john never mentions ,bartholomew in the number of the ,apostles1 so the other evangelists never mention ,nathanael4 ,and as in ,john i1 #de1 ,philip and ,nathanael are mentioned together as coming to ,jesus1 so in the other evangelists ,philip and ,bartholomew are constantly associated together4 ,the supposition also acquires additional probability from considering1 that ,nathanael is particularly mentioned among the ,apostles to whom ,christ appeared at the sea of ,tiberias1 after his resurrection2 ,simon ,peter1 ,thomas1 and ,nathanael1 of ,cana in ,galilee2 the sons of ,zebedee1 namely1 ,james and ,john2 with two other of his disciples1 probably ,andrew and ,philip1 ,john xxi1 #b4 ,it is an early tradition1 that ,bartholomew propagated the faith as far as ,india1 and also in the more northern and western parts of ,asia1 and that he finally suffered martyrdom4 ,but all the particulars respecting the life and labours of the ,apostles1 not mentioned in the ,new ,testament1 are exceedingly uncertain4 ,,baruch1 the son of ,neriah1 and grandson of ,maaseiah1 was of illustrious birth1 and of the tribe of ,judah4 ,he had a brother of the name of ,seraiah1 who occupied an important station in the court of ,king ,zedekiah2 but he himself adhered to the person of the ,prophet ,jeremiah1 and was his most steady friend1 though his attachment to him drew on himself several persecutions and much ill treatment4 ,he appears to have acted as his secretary during a great part of his life1 and never left him till they were parted by death4 ,in the reign of ,jehoiakim1 king of ,judah1 ,a4 ,m4 #ccih1 ,jeremiah having been thrown into prison1 the ,lord commanded him to commit to writing all the prophecies that he had delivered until that time4 ,he accordingly sent for ,baruch1 and dictated them to him by word of mouth4 ,some time afterward he instructed the latter to go and read them to the people1 who were then assembled in the temple2 on which ,michaiah1 who happened to be present1 and heard them1 instantly gave notice of them to the king's counsellors4 ,the latter immediately sent for ,baruch1 and commanded him to repeat to them what he had been reading to the people in the temple2 which he accordingly did1 to their great astonishment3 and1 finding that they contained some very unwelcome tidings respecting the fate of the kingdom1 they inquired how he came into possession of them2 intimating that their duty to the king required that they should make him acquainted therewith4 ,baruch was at the same time advised to consult his own safety1 and to let no man know where he was to be found2 after which they took from him the roll of his prophecies1 and deposited it in the chamber of ,elishama1 the scribe4 ,they next waited on the king1 and told him what had passed4 ,the latter sent ,jehudi to fetch the book2 which being brought1 ,jehoiakim commanded it to be read in his presence1 and in the presence of his nobles who surrounded him4 ,but ,jehudi had not proceeded far before the king took the book1 cut it with his secretary's penknife1 and threw it into the fire1 where it was consumed before their faces4 ,he at the same time gave orders to have both ,baruch and ,jeremiah seized2 but the hand of ,providence concealed them from his fury4 ,jeremiah was instructed a second time to commit his prophecies to writing2 and ,baruch wrote them as before1 with the addition of several others which were not contained in the former book4 ,in the fourth year of the reign of ,zedekiah1 ,baruch went to ,babylon1 carrying with him a long letter from ,jeremiah1 in which the ,prophet foretold the judgments that should come upon ,babylon1 and promised the ,jews1 who were then captives in that country1 that they should again be restored to their own land4 ,the latter were exceedingly affected at hearing ,jeremiah's letter read to them1 and returned an answer to their brethren at ,jerusalem4 ,after his return to ,jerusalem1 ,baruch continued his constant attendance on ,jeremiah2 and when ,jerusalem was besieged by ,nebuchadnezzar1 and ,jeremiah thrown into prison1 ,baruch also was confined with him3 but when the city had surrendered1 ,nebuzaraddan showed him much kindness1 granted him his liberty1 and permitted him to go with ,jeremiah wherever he chose4 ,the remnant of the people who had been left in ,judea under the care of ,gedaliah1 having adopted the resolution of going into ,egypt1 and finding that ,jeremiah opposed their taking that journey1 threw the blame upon ,baruch2 insinuating that the latter had influenced the ,prophet to declare against it4 ,they were1 however1 both of them at last compelled to follow the people into ,egypt1 where ,jeremiah soon afterward died2 on which ,baruch retired to ,babylon1 where the rabbins say he also died in the twelfth year of the captivity1 ,jer4 xxxvi2 xliii4 ,the book of ,baruch is justly placed among the apocryphal writings4 ,grotius thinks it a fiction written by some ,hellenistic ,jew2 and ,st4 ,jerome gives as the reason why he did not write a commentary upon it1 that the ,jews themselves did not deem it canonical4 ,,bashan1 or ,,basan1 one of the most fertile cantons of ,canaan1 which was bounded on the west by the river ,jordan1 on the east by the mountains of ,gilead1 on the south by the brook of ,jabbok1 and on the north by the land of ,geshur4 ,the whole kingdom took its name from the hill of ,bashan1 which is situated in the middle of it1 and by the ,greeks is called ,batana4 ,it had no less than sixty walled towns in it1 beside villages4 ,it afforded an excellent breed of cattle1 and stately oaks1 and was1 in short1 a plentiful and populous country4 ,og1 king of the ,amorites1 possessed this country when ,moses made the conquest thereof4 ,in the division of the ,holy ,land1 it was assigned to the half tribe of ,manasseh4 ,of the present state of this portion of the ancient possessions of the ,israelites1 ,mr4 ,buckingham1 in his ,travels1 gives the following account3 8,we ascended the steep on the north side of the ,zerkah1 or ,jabbok2 and1 on reaching the summit1 came again on a beautiful plain1 of an elevated level1 and still covered with a very rich soil4 ,we had now quitted the land of ,sihon1 king of the ,amorites1 and entered into that of ,og1 the king of ,bashan1 both of them well known to all the readers of the early ,scriptures4 ,we had quitted too1 the districts apportioned to the tribes of ,reuben and of ,gad1 and entered that part which was allotted to the half tribe of ,manasseh1 beyond ,jordan eastward1 leaving the land of the children of ,ammon on our right1 or to the east of the ,jabbok1 which1 according to the authority before quoted1 divided ,ammon1 or ,philadelphia1 from ,gerasa4 ,the mountains here are called the land of ,gilead in the ,scriptures1 and in ,josephus2 and1 according to the ,roman division1 this was the country of the ,decapolis1 so often spoken of in the ,new ,testament1 or the province of ,gaulonitis1 from the city of ,gaulon1 its early capital4 ,we continued our way over this elevated tract1 continuing to behold1 with surprise and admiration1 a beautiful country on all sides of us3 its plains covered with a fertile soil1 its hills clothed with forests2 at every new turn presenting the most magnificent landscapes that could be imagined4 ,among the trees1 the oak was frequently seen2 and we know that this territory produced them of old4 ,in enumerating the sources from which the supplies of ,tyre were drawn in the time of her great wealth and naval splendour1 the ,prophet says1 #8,of the oaks of ,bashan have they made thine oars1' ,ezek4 xxvii1 #f4 ,some learned commentators indeed1 believing that no oaks grew in these supposed desert regions1 have translated the word by #8alders1' to prevent the appearance of inaccuracy in the inspired writer4 ,the expression of #8the fat bulls of ,bashan1' which occurs more than once in the ,scriptures1 seemed to us equally inconsistent1 as applied to the beasts of a country generally thought to be a desert1 in common with the whole tract which is laid down in our modern maps as such between the ,jordan and the ,euphrates2 but we could now fully comprehend1 not only that the bulls of this luxuriant country might be proverbially fat1 but that its possessors1 too1 might be a race renowned for strength and comeliness of person4 ,the general face of this region improved as we advanced farther in it2 and every new direction of our path opened upon us views which surprised and charmed us by their grandeur and their beauty4 ,lofty mountains gave an outline of the most magnificent character2 flowing beds of secondary hills softened the romantic wildness of the picture2 gentle slopes1 clothed with wood1 gave a rich variety of tints1 hardly to be imitated by the pencil2 deep valleys1 filled with murmuring streams and verdant meadows1 offered all the luxuriance of cultivation2 and herds and flocks gave life and animation to scenes as grand1 as beautiful1 and as highly picturesque as the genius or taste of a ,claude could either invent or desire40 ,,basilideans1 the followers of ,basilides of ,alexandria1 a gnostic leader of the early part of the second century4 ,see ,,gnostics4 ,,bastard1 one born out of wedlock4 ,a bastard among the ,greeks was despised1 and exposed to public scorn1 on account of his spurious origin4 ,in ,persia the son of a concubine is never placed on a footing with the legitimate offspring2 any attempt made by parental fondness to do so would be resented by the relations of the legitimate wife1 and outrage the feelings of a whole tribe4 ,the ,jewish father bestowed as little attention on the education of his natural children as the ,greek3 he seems to have resigned them1 in a great measure1 to their own inclinations2 he neither checked their passions1 nor corrected their faults1 nor stored their minds with useful knowledge4 ,this is evidently implied in these words of the ,apostle3 8,if ye endure chastening1 ,god dealeth with you as with sons2 for what son is he whom the father chasteneth not8 ,but if ye be without chastisement1 whereof all are partakers1 then are ye bastards and not sons10 ,heb4 xii1 #g1 #h4 ,to restrain the licentious desires of the heart1 ,jehovah by an express law fixed a stigma upon the bastard1 which was not to be removed till the tenth generation2 and to show that the precept was on no account to be violated1 or suffered to fall into disuse1 it is emphatically repeated1 8,a bastard shall not enter into the congregation of the ,lord2 even to his tenth generation shall he not enter into the congregation of the ,lord10 ,deut4 xxiii1 #b4 ,,bastinado1 the punishment of beating with sticks4 ,it is also called tympanum1 a drum1 because the patient was beaten like a drum4 ,upwards of a hundred blows were often inflicted1 and sometimes the beating was unto death4 ,st4 ,paul1 ,heb4 xi1 #ce1 says that some of the saints were tortured1 1 suffered the tympanum1 that is1 were stretched on an instrument of torture1 and beaten to death4 ,,bat1 1 ,lev4 xi1 #ai2 ,deut4 xiv1 #ah2 ,isaiah ii1 #bj2 ,baruch vi1 #bb4 ,the ,jewish legislator1 having enumerated the animals legally unclean1 as well beasts as birds1 closes his catalogue with a creature whose equivocal properties seem to exclude it from both those classes3 it is too much a bird to be properly a mouse1 and too much a mouse to be properly a bird4 ,the bat is therefore well described in ,deut4 xiv1 #ah1 #ai1 as the passage should be read1 8,moreover the othelaph1 and every creeping thing that flieth1 is unclean to you3 they shall not be eaten40 ,this character is very descriptive1 and places this creature at the head of a class of which he is a clear and well-known instance4 ,it has feet or claws growing out of its pinions1 and contradicts the general order of nature1 by creeping with the instruments of its flight4 ,the ,hebrew name of the bat is from darkness1 and to fly1 as if it described 8the flier in darkness40 ,so the ,greeks called the creature 1 from 1 night2 and the ,latins1 vespertilio1 from vesper1 8evening40 ,it is prophesied1 ,isaiah ii1 #bj1 8,in that day shall they cast away their idols to the moles and to the bats20 that is1 they shall carry them into the dark caverns1 old ruins1 or desolate places1 to which they shall fly for refuge1 and so shall give them up1 and relinquish them to the filthy animals that frequent such places1 and have taken possession of them as their proper habitation4 ,,bath1 a measure of capacity for things liquid1 being the same with the ephah1 ,ezek4 xlv1 #aa1 and containing ten homers1 or seven gallons and four pints4 ,,bath-,,kol1 1 daughter of the voice4 ,by this name the ,jewish writers distinguish what they called a revelation from ,god1 after verbal prophecy had ceased in ,israel2 that is1 after the prophets ,haggai1 ,zechariah1 and ,malachi4 ,the generality of their traditions and customs are founded on this ,bath-,kol4 ,they pretend that ,god revealed them to their elders1 not by prophecy1 but by the daughter of the voice4 ,the ,bath-,kol1 as ,dr4 ,prideaux shows1 was a fantastical way of divination1 invented by the ,jews1 like the ,sortes ,virgilian divination by the works of ,virgil among the ,heathen4 ,for1 as with them1 the words first opened upon in the works of that poet1 was the oracle whereby they prognosticated those future events which they desired to be informed of2 so with the ,jews when they appealed to ,bath-,kol1 the next words which they should hear drop from any one's mouth were taken as the desired oracle4 ,with some it is probable that ,bath-,kol1 the daughter of the voice1 was only an elegant personification of tradition4 ,others1 however1 more bold1 said that it was a voice from heaven1 sometimes attended by a clap of thunder4 ,,battle4 ,see ,,armies4 ,,baxterianism1 a modification of the ,calvinistic doctrine of election advocated by the celebrated ,baxter in his treatise of 8,universal ,redemption10 and in his 8,methodus ,theologi40 ,the real author of the scheme1 at least in a systematized form1 was ,camero1 who taught divinity at ,saumur1 and it was unfolded and defended by his disciple ,amyraldus1 whom ,curcellus refuted4 ,baxter says1 in his preface to his 8,saint's ,rest10 8,the middle way which ,camero1 ,crocius1 ,martinius1 ,amyraldus1 ,davenant1 with all the divines of ,britain and ,bremen in the synod of ,dort1 go1 ,i think is nearest the truth of any that ,i know who have written on these points40 ,baxter first differs from the majority of ,calvinists1 though not from all1 in his statement of the doctrine of satisfaction3-- 8,christ's sufferings were not a fulfilling of the law's threatening2 7though he bore its curse materially27 but a satisfaction for our not fulfilling the precept1 and to prevent ,god's fulfilling the threatening on us4 ,christ paid not1 therefore1 the idem1 but the tantundem1 or quivalens2 not the very debt which we owed and the law required1 but the value3 7else it were not strictly satisfaction1 which is redditio quivalentis3 the rendering of an equivalent37 and 7it being improperly called the paying of a debt1 but properly a suffering for the guilty7 the idem is nothing but supplicium delinquentis4 ,the punishment of the guilty individual4 ,in criminals1 dum alius solvet simul aliud solvitur4 ,when another suffers1 it is another thing also that is suffered4 ,the law knoweth no vicarius pn2 substitute in punishment2 though the law maker may admit it1 as he is above law2 else there were no place for pardon1 if the proper debt be paid and the law not relaxed1 but fulfilled4 ,christ did neither obey nor suffer in any man's stead1 by a strict1 proper representation of his person in point of law2 so as that the law should take it1 as done or suffered by the party himself4 ,but only as a third person1 as a mediator1 he voluntarily bore what else the sinner should have borne4 ,to assert the contrary 7especially as to particular persons considered in actual sin7 is to overthrow all ,scripture theology1 and to introduce all ,antinomianism2 to overthrow all possibility of pardon1 and assert justification before we sinned or were born1 and to make ourselves to have satisfied ,god4 ,therefore1 we must not say that ,christ died nostro loco1 in our stead1 so as to personate us1 or represent our persons in law sense2 but only to bear what else we must have borne40 ,this system explicitly asserts1 that ,christ made a satisfaction by his death equally for the sins of every man2 and thus ,baxter essentially differs both from the higher ,calvinists1 and1 also1 from the ,sublapsarians1 who1 though they may allow that the reprobate derive some benefits from ,christ's death1 so that there is a vague sense in which he may be said to have died for all men1 yet they1 of course1 deny to such the benefit of ,christ's satisfaction or atonement which ,baxter contends for3-- 8,neither the law1 whose curse ,christ bore1 nor ,god1 as the legislator to be satisfied1 did distinguish between men as elect and reprobate1 or as believers and unbelievers1 de presenti vel de futuro2 with regard to the present or the future2 and to impose upon ,christ1 or require from him satisfaction for the sins of one sort more than of another1 but for mankind in general4 ,god the ,father1 and ,christ the ,mediator1 now dealeth with no man upon the mere rigorous terms of the first law2 7obey perfectly and live1 else thou shalt die27 but giveth to all much mercy1 which1 according to the tenor of that violated law1 they could not receive1 and calleth them to repentance1 in order to their receiving farther mercy offered them4 ,and accordingly he will not judge any at last according to the mere law of works1 but as they have obeyed or not obeyed his conditions or terms of grace4 ,it was not the sins of the elect only1 but of all mankind fallen1 which lay upon ,christ satisfying4 ,and to assert the contrary1 injuriously diminisheth the honour of his sufferings2 and hath other desperate ill consequences40 ,the benefits derived to all men equally1 from the satisfaction of ,christ1 he thus states3-- 8,all mankind1 immediately upon ,christ's satisfaction1 are redeemed and delivered from that legal necessity of perishing which they were under1 7not by remitting sin or punishment directly to them1 but by giving up ,god's jus puniendi right of punishing into the hands of the ,redeemer2 nor by giving any right directly to them1 but per meram resultantiam by mere consequence this happy change is made for them in their relation1 upon the said remitting of ,god's right and advantage of justice against them17 and they are given up to the ,redeemer as their owner and ruler1 to be dealt with upon terms of mercy which have a tendency to their recovery4 ,god the ,father and ,christ the ,mediator hath freely1 without any prerequisite condition on man's part1 enacted a law of grace of universal extent1 in regard of its tenor1 by which he giveth1 as a deed or gift1 ,christ himself1 with all his following benefits which he bestoweth2 7as benefactor and legislator27 and this to all alike1 without excluding any2 upon condition they believe and accept the offer4 ,by this law1 testament1 or covenant1 all men are conditionally pardoned1 justified1 and reconciled to ,god already1 and no man absolutely2 nor doth it make a difference1 nor take notice of any1 till men's performance or non-performance of the condition makes a difference4 ,in the new law ,christ hath truly given himself with a conditional pardon1 justification1 and conditional right to salvation1 to all men in the world1 without exception40 ,but the peculiarity of ,baxter's scheme will be seen from the following farther extracts3-- 8,though ,christ died equally for all men1 in the aforesaid law sense1 as he satisfied the offended legislator1 and as giving himself to all alike in the conditional covenant2 yet he never properly intended or purposed the actual justifying and saving of all1 nor of any but those that come to be justified and saved2 he did not1 therefore1 die for all1 nor for any that perish1 with a decree or resolution to save them1 much less did he die for all alike1 as to this intent4 ,christ hath given faith to none by his law or testament1 though he hath revealed1 that to some he will1 as benefactor and ,dominus ,absolutus1 absolute ,lord1 give that grace which shall infallibly produce it2 and ,god hath given some to ,christ that he might prevail with them accordingly2 yet this is no giving it to the person1 nor hath he in himself ever the more title to it1 nor can any lay claim to it as their due4 ,it belongeth not to ,christ as satisfier1 nor yet as legislator1 to make wicked refusers to become willing1 and receive him and the benefits which he offers2 therefore he may do all for them that is fore-expressed1 though he cure not their unbelief4 ,faith is a fruit of the death of ,christ1 7and so is all the good which we do enjoy17 but not directly1 as it is satisfaction to justice2 but only remotely1 as it proceedeth from that jus dominii right of dominion which ,christ has received to send the ,spirit in what measure and ,,to ,,whom ,,he ,,will1 and to succeed it accordingly2 and as it is necessary to the attainment of the farther ends of his death in the certain gathering and saving of ,,the ,,elect40 ,thus the whole theory amounts to this1 that1 although a conditional salvation has been purchased by ,christ for all men1 and is offered to them1 and all legal difficulties are removed out of the way of their pardon as sinners by the atonement1 yet ,christ hath not purchased for any man the gift of ,,faith1 or the power of performing the condition of salvation required2 but gives this to some1 and does not give it to others1 by virtue of that absolute dominion over men which he has purchased for himself1 so that1 as the ,calvinists refer the decree of election to the sovereignty of the ,father1 ,baxter refers it to the sovereignty of the ,son2 one makes the decree of reprobation to issue from the ,creator and ,judge1 the other1 from the ,redeemer himself4 ,if1 however1 any one expects to find something in the form of system in ,baxter's opinions on the five disputed points1 he will be much disappointed4 ,the parties to whom he refers as the authors of this supposed 8middle way10 differ as much among themselves as ,baxter occasionally does from himself4 ,bishop ,davenant and ,dr4 ,s4 ,ward differed from ,amyraut1 ,martinius1 and others of that school1 on the topic of baptismal regeneration2 and1 as the subjects of baptism1 according to the sentiments of the two former1 are invested with invisible grace1 and are regenerated in virtue of the ordinance when canonically performed1 such divines far more easily disposed of their baptized converts in the ranks of strict predestination1 than the others could who did not hold those sentiments4 ,but they exhibited much ingenuity in not suffering it to 8intrench upon the question of perseverance40 ,their friend ,bishop ,bedell1 however1 maintained1 that 8reprobates coming to years of discretion1 after baptism1 shall be condemned for original sin2 for their absolution and washing in baptism was but conditional and expectative2 which doth truly interest them in all the promises of ,god1 but under the condition of repenting1 believing and obeying1 which they never perform1 and therefore never attain the promise40 ,bishop ,overal has also been claimed as a patron of this diversified 8middle system20 but it will be evident to every one who peruses his productions1 that his chief endeavour was to display the doctrines of the ,english church as identical with those of ,st4 ,augustine1 yet basing them upon the antecedent will of ,god and conditional decrees4 ,after all the refined distinctions which ,baxter employed to render the theory of common and special grace plausible and popular1 the real meaning of the inventors was frequently elicited when such a question as this was asked1 8,have any men in the world grace sufficient to repent and believe savingly who do not80 ,after asserting that he knows nothing about the matter1 the reply of ,baxter is1 8,if we may conjecture upon probabilities1 it seemeth most likely that there is such a sufficient grace1 or power1 to repent and believe savingly1 in some that use it not1 but perish40 8,this10 says one of ,baxter's apologists1 8seems to me very inexplicable60 and in the same light it will be viewed by all who recollect that this 8sufficient grace or power0 is that 8portion of special grace which never fails to accomplish its design1--the salvation of the individual on whom it is bestowed60 ,baxter's celebrated 8,aphorisms of ,justification10 published in #afdi1 afforded employment to himself and his theological critics till near the close of his life2 and in the many modifications1 concessions1 and alterations which were extorted from him by men of different religious tenets1 he sometimes incautiously proved himself to be more ,calvinistic than ,calvin1 and at others more ,arminian than ,arminius4 ,the following observations1 from 8,,orme',s ,life of ,baxter10 are on the whole just and instructive3-- 8,thus did ,baxter1 at a very early period of his life1 launch into the ocean of controversy1 on some of the most interesting subjects that can engage the human mind4 ,the manner in which he began to treat them was little favourable to arriving at correct and satisfactory conclusions4 ,possessed of a mind uncommonly penetrating1 he yet seems not to have had the faculty of compressing within narrow limits his own views1 or the accounts he was disposed to give of the views of others4 ,all this arose1 not from any indisposition to be explicit1 but from the peculiar character of his mind4 ,he is perpetually distinguishing things into physical and moral1 real and nominal1 material and formal4 ,however important these distinctions are1 they often render his writings tiresome to the reader1 and his reasonings more frequently perplexing than satisfactory4 ,baxter is generally understood to have pursued a middle course between ,calvinism and ,arminianism4 ,that he tried to hold and adjust the balance between the two parties1 and that he was most anxious to reconcile them1 are very certain4 ,but it seems scarcely less evident1 that he was much more a ,calvinist than he was an ,arminian4 ,while this seems to me very apparent1 it must be acknowledged1 that if certain views which have often been given of ,calvinism are necessary to constitute a ,calvinist1 ,richard ,baxter was no believer in that creed4 8,while satisfied that among ,baxter's sentiments1 no important or vital error will be found1 yet in the style and method in which he too generally advocated or defended them1 there is much to censure4 ,the wrangling and disputatious manner in which he presented many of his views1 was calculated to gender an unsanctified state of mind in persons who either abetted or opposed his sentiments4 ,his scholastic and metaphysical style of arguing is unbefitting the simplicity of the ,gospel1 and cannot fail to injure it wherever such is employed4 ,it not only savours too much of the spirit of the schools1 and the philosophy of this world2 but places the truths of revelation on a level with the rudiments of human science4 ,i am not sure whether certain effects which began early in the last century to appear among the ,presbyterian part of the ,nonconformists1 may not be traced1 in some degree1 to the speculative and argumentative writings of ,baxter4 ,his influence over this class of his brethren was evidently very great4 ,he contributed more than any other man to mitigate the harsh and forbidding aspect which the ,presbyterians presented during the civil wars and the commonwealth4 ,this was well1 but he did not stop here4 ,he was inimical to all the existing systems of doctrine and discipline then contended for1 or ever before known in the world2 while he did not present any precisely defined system as his own4 ,he opposed ,calvinism2 he opposed ,arminianism2 he would not allow himself to be considered an ,episcopalian1 in the ordinary acceptation of the word2 he denied that he was a ,presbyterian1 and scorned to be thought an ,independent4 ,he held something in common with them all1 and yet he was somewhat different from all4 ,he contended for a system more general1 and more liberal1 than was then approved2 and1 as we have stated1 wished to place a variety of theological truths on grounds belonging rather to philosophy or metaphysics1 than to revelation4 8,on himself1 this species of latitudinarianism produced little injurious effect1 but ,i fear it had a baneful influence on others4 ,the rejection of all human authority and influence in religion1 requires to be balanced by a very strong sense of the divine authority1 to prevent its generating a state of mind more characterized by pride of intellect1 and independence of spirit1 than by the humility and diffidence which are essential features in the ,christian character4 ,it is a singular fact1 that the ,presbyterians1 though at first more rigid in their doctrinal views1 and more exclusive in their spirit and system of church government1 than the ,independents1 became before the death of ,baxter the more liberal party4 ,high views began to be ascribed by them to their now moderate brethren2 and1 to avoid the charge of ,antinomianism1 which ,baxter was too ready to prefer against such as differed from some of his views1 the ,presbyterians seem gradually to have sunk into a state of low1 moderate orthodoxy1 in which there was little of the warmth or vitality of evangelical religion4 8,in farther illustration of the influence now adverted to1 it must be remarked1 that the first stage in that process of deterioration which took place among the ,presbyterian ,dissenters1 was generally characterized by the term ,baxterianism2 a word to which it is difficult to attach a definite meaning4 ,it denotes no separate sect or party1 but rather a system of opinions on doctrinal points1 verging toward ,arminianism1 and which ultimately passed to ,arianism and ,socinianism4 ,even during ,baxter's own life1 while the ,presbyterians taxed the ,independents with ,antinomianism1 the latter retorted the charge of ,socinianism1 or at least of a tendency toward it1 in some of the opinions maintained both by ,baxter and others of that party4 ,to whatever cause it is to be attributed1 it is a melancholy fact1 that the declension which began even at this early period in the ,presbyterian body1 went on slowly1 but surely1 till1 from the most fervid orthodoxy1 it finally arrived at the frigid zone of ,unitarianism4 8,i wish not to be understood as stating that ,baxter either held any opinions of this description1 or was conscious of a tendency in his sentiments toward such a fearful consummation2 but1 that there was an injurious tendency in his manner of discussing certain important subjects4 ,it was subtle1 and full of logomachy2 it tended to unsettle1 rather than to fix and determine2 it gendered strife1 rather than godly edifying4 ,it is not possible to study such books as his #8,methodus1' and his #8,catholic ,theology1' without experiencing that we are brought into a different region from ,apostolic ,christianity2 a region of fierce debate and altercation about words1 and names1 and opinions2 in which all that can be said for error is largely dwelt upon1 as well as what can be said for truth4 ,the ambiguities of language1 the diversities of sects1 the uncertainties of human perception and argument are urged1 till the force of revealed truth is considerably weakened1 and confidence in our own judgment of its meaning greatly impaired4 ,erroneous language is maintained to be capable of sound meaning1 and the most ,scriptural phrases to be susceptible of unscriptural interpretation1 till truth and error almost change places1 and the mind is bewildered1 confounded1 and paralyzed4 ,into this mode of discussing such subjects1 was this most excellent man led1 partly by the natural constitution of his mind1 which has often been adverted to2 partly by his ardent desire of putting an end to the divisions of the ,christian world1 and producing universal concord and harmony4 ,he failed where success was impossible1 however plausible might have been the means which he employed4 ,he understood the causes of difference and contention better than their remedies2 hence the measures which he used frequently aggravated instead of curing the disease4 ,while a portion of evil1 however1 probably resulted from ,baxter's mode of conducting controversy1 and no great light was thrown by him on some of the dark and difficult subjects which he so keenly discussed1 ,i have no doubt he contributed considerably to produce a more moderate spirit toward each other1 between ,calvinists and ,arminians1 than had long prevailed4 ,though he satisfied neither party1 he must have convinced both1 that great difficulties exist on the subjects in debate1 if pursued beyond a certain length2 that allowance ought to be made by each1 for the weakness or prejudices of the other2 and that genuine religion is compatible with some diversity of opinion respecting one or all of the five points40 ,a similar effect as that which ,mr4 ,orme ascribes to ,baxter's writings on the ,english ,presbyterians1 followed also1 on the continent among the reformed churches4 ,it was the same middle system with its philosophical subtleties1 which ,camero and ,amyraut taught abroad1 and which produced in them those effects that have been falsely ascribed1 both in ,england and abroad1 to ,arminianism4 ,see ,,amyraut and ,,cameron4 ,,bay-,,tree4 4 ,it is mentioned only in ,psalm xxxvii1 #ce1 #cf3 8,i have seen the ungodly in great power1 and flourishing like a green bay-tree4 ,yet he passed away1 and lo1 he was not4 ,yea1 ,i sought him1 but he could not be found40 ,aben ,ezra1 ,jarchi1 ,kimchi1 ,jerom1 and some others say that the original may mean only a native tree2 a tree growing in its native soil1 not having suffered by transplantation4 ,such a tree spreads itself luxuriantly4 ,the ,septuagint and ,vulgate render it cedars2 but the high ,dutch of ,luther's ,bible1 the old ,saxon1 the ,french1 the ,spanish1 the ,italian of ,diodati1 and the version of ,ainsworth1 make it the laurel4 ,,bdellium1 1 occurs ,gen4 ii1 #ab1 and ,num4 xi1 #g4 ,interpreters seem at a loss to know what to do with this word1 and have rendered it variously4 ,many suppose it a mineral production4 ,the ,septuagint translates in the first place1 1 a carbuncle1 and in the second1 1 a crystal4 ,the rabbins are followed by ,reland in calling it a crystal2 but some1 instead of bedolah1 read berolah1 changing the into 1 which are not always easily distinguished1 and are often mistaken by transcribers2 and so render it the beryl1 which1 say they1 is the prime kind of crystal4 ,the bedoleh1 in ,genesis1 is undoubtedly some precious stone2 and its colour1 mentioned in ,numbers1 where the manna is spoken of as of the colour of bdellium1 is explained by a reference to ,exod4 xvi1 #ad1 #ca1 where it is likened to hoar frost1 which being like little fragments of ice1 may confirm the opinion that the bdellium is the beryl1 perhaps that pellucid kind1 called by ,dr4 ,hill the ellipomocrostyla1 or beryl crystal4 ,,bean1 1 occurs #b ,sam4 xvii1 #bh1 and ,ezek4 iv1 #i4 ,a common legume4 ,those most usually cultivated in ,syria are the white horse-bean1 faba rotunda oblonga1 and the kidney-bean1 phaseolis minimus1 fructu viridi ovato1 called by the natives masch4 ,the ,arabic ban1 the name of the coffee berry1 corresponds with our bean1 and is probably its etymon4 ,,bear4 ,that bears were common in ,palestine appears from several passages of the ,old ,testament4 ,their strength1 rapacity1 and fierceness1 furnish many expressive metaphors to the ,hebrew poets4 ,the ,hebrew name of this animal is taken from his growling2 so ,varro deduces his ,latin name ursus by an onomatopia from the noise which he makes3 8ursi ,lucana origo1 vel unde illi1 nostri ab ipsius voce30 the origin of the term ursus 7bear7 is ,lucanian1 7whence also the bears themselves17 from the noise made by the animal4 ,david had to defend his flock against bears as well as lions1 #a ,sam4 xvii1 #cd4 ,and ,dr4 ,shaw gives us to understand that these rugged animals are not peculiar to the bleak regions of the north1 being found in ,barbary2 and ,thevenot informs us that they inhabit the wilderness adjoining the ,holy ,land1 and that he saw one near the northern extremities of the ,red ,sea4 ,the ferocity of the bear1 especially when hungry or robbed of its whelps1 has been mentioned by many authors4 ,the ,scripture alludes in three places to this furious disposition4 ,the first is1 #b ,sam4 xvii1 #h1 8,they be mighty men1 and they be chafed in their minds as a bear robbed of her whelps in the field40 ,the second1 ,prov4 xvii1 #ab1 8,let a bear robbed of her whelps meet a man rather than a fool in his folly40 ,and the third1 ,hosea xiii1 #h1 8,i will meet them as a bear that is bereaved of her whelps1 and will rend the caul of their heart40 ,,beard4 ,the ,hebrews wore their beards1 but had1 doubtless1 in common with other ,asiatic nations1 several fashions in this1 as in all other parts of dress4 ,moses forbids them1 ,lev4 xix1 #bg1 8to cut off entirely the angle1 or extremity of their beard20 that is1 to avoid the manner of the ,egyptians1 who left only a little tuft of beard at the extremity of their chins4 ,the ,jews1 in some places1 at this day suffer a little fillet of hair to grow from below the ears to the chin3 where1 as well as upon their lower lips1 their beards are long4 ,when they mourned1 they entirely shaved the hair of their heads and beards1 and neglected to trim their beards1 to regulate them into neat order1 or to remove what grew on their upper lips and cheeks1 ,jer4 xli1 #e2 xlviii1 #cg4 ,in times of grief and affliction1 they plucked away the hair of their heads and beards1 a mode of expression common to other nations under great calamities4 ,the king of the ,ammonites1 designing to insult ,david in the person of his ambassadors1 cut away half of their beards1 and half of their clothes2 that is1 he cut off all their beard on one side of their faces1 #b ,sam4 x1 #d1 #e2 #a ,chron4 xix1 #e4 ,to avoid ridicule1 ,david did not wish them to appear at his court till their beards were grown again4 ,when a leper was cured of his leprosy1 he washed himself in a bath1 and shaved off all the hair of his body2 after which1 he returned into the camp1 or city2 seven days afterward1 he washed himself and his clothes again1 shaved off all his hair1 and offered the sacrifices appointed for his purification1 ,lev4 xiv1 #i4 ,the ,levites1 at their consecration1 were purified by bathing1 and washing their bodies and clothes2 after which1 they shaved off all the hair of their bodies1 and then offered the sacrifices appointed for their consecration1 ,num4 viii1 #g4 ,nothing has been more fluctuating in the different ages of the world and countries than the fashion of wearing the beard4 ,some have cultivated one part and some another2 some have endeavoured to extirpate it entirely1 while others have almost idolized it2 the revolutions of countries have scarcely been more famous than the revolutions of beards4 ,it is a great mark of infamy among the ,arabs to cut off the beard4 ,many people would prefer death to this kind of treatment4 ,as they would think it a grievous punishment to lose it1 they carry things so far as to beg for the sake of it3 8,by your beard1 by the life of your beard1 ,god preserve your blessed beard40 ,when they would express their value for any thing1 they say1 8,it is worth more than a man's beard40 ,and hence we may easily learn the magnitude of the offence of the ,ammonites in their treatment of ,david's ambassadors1 as above mentioned2 and also the force of the emblem used ,ezek4 v1 #a-e1 where the inhabitants of ,jerusalem are compared to the hair of his head and beard4 ,though they had been dear to ,god as the hair of an eastern beard to its owner1 they should be taken away and consumed1 one part by pestilence and famine1 another by the sword1 another by the calamities incident on exile4 ,,beasts4 ,when this word is used in opposition to man1 as ,psalm xxxvi1 #e1 any brute creature is signified2 when to creeping things1 as ,lev4 xi1 #b1 #g2 xxix1 #cj1 four-footed animals1 from the size of the hare and upward1 are intended2 and when to wild creatures1 as ,gen4 i1 #be1 cattle1 or tame animals1 are spoken of4 ,in ,isaiah xiii1 #ba1 several wild animals are mentioned as dwelling among the ruins of ,babylon3 8,wild beasts of the desert10 1 those of the dry wilderness1 as the root of the word implies1 8shall dwell there4 ,their houses shall be full of doleful creatures10 1 marsh animals4 8,owls shall dwell there10 ostriches1 8and satyrs10 1 shaggy ones1 8shall dance there4 ,and the wild beasts of the islands10 1 oases of the desert1 8shall cry in their desolate houses1 and dragons10 1 crocodiles1 or amphibious animals1 8shall be in their desolate places40 ,st4 ,paul1 #a ,cor4 xv1 #cb1 speaks of fighting with beasts1 c3 by which he does not mean his having been exposed in the amphitheatre to fight as a gladiator1 as some have conjectured1 but that he had to contend at ,ephesus with the fierce uproar of ,demetrius and his associates4 ,ignatius uses the same figure in his ,epistle to the ,romans3 8,from ,syria even unto ,rome ,i fight with wild beasts1 both by sea and land1 both night and day1 being bound to ten leopards20 that is1 to a band of soldiers4 ,so ,lucian1 in like manner1 says1 8,for ,i am not to fight with ordinary wild beasts1 but with men1 insolent and hard to be convinced40 ,in ,rev4 iv1 v1 vi1 mention is made of four beasts1 or rather1 as the word signifies1 living creatures1 as in ,ezek4 i2 and so the word might have been less harshly translated4 ,wild beasts are used in ,scripture as emblems of tyrannical and persecuting powers4 ,the most illustrious conquerors of antiquity also have not a more honourable emblem4 ,,bed4 ,mattresses1 or thick cotton quilts folded1 were used for sleeping upon4 ,these were laid upon the duan1 or divan1 a part of the room elevated above the level of the rest1 covered with a carpet in winter1 and a fine mat in summer4 7,see ,accubation and ,banquets47 ,a divan cushion serves for a pillow and bolster4 ,they do not keep their beds made2 the mattresses are rolled up1 carried away1 and placed in a cupboard till they are wanted at night4 ,and hence the propriety of our ,lord's address to the paralytic1 8,arise1 take up thy bed10 or mattress1 8and walk10 ,matt4 ix1 #f4 ,the duan on which these mattresses are placed1 is at the end of the chamber1 and has an ascent of several steps4 ,hence ,hezekiah is said to turn his face to the wall when he prayed1 that is1 from his attendants4 ,in the day the duan was used as a seat1 and the place of honour was the corner1 ,amos iii1 #ab4 ,,beelzebub1 ,matt4 x1 #be4 ,see ,,baalzebub4 ,,beersheba1 or the well of the oath2 so named from a well which ,abraham dug in this place1 and the covenant which he here made with ,abimelech1 king of ,gerar1 ,gen4 xx1 #ca4 ,here also he planted a grove1 as it would appear1 for the purpose of retirement for religious worship4 ,in process of time1 a considerable town was built on the same spot1 which retained the same name4 ,beersheba was given by ,joshua to the tribe of ,judah1 and afterward transferred to ,simeon1 ,joshua xv1 #bh4 ,it was situated twenty miles south of ,hebron1 in the extreme south of the land of ,israel1 as ,dan was on the north4 ,the two places are frequently thus mentioned in ,scripture1 as 8from ,dan to ,beersheba10 to denote the whole length of the country4 ,,bee1 1 occurs ,deut4 i1 #dd2 ,judges xiv1 #h2 ,psalm cviii1 #ab2 ,isa4 vii1 #ah4 ,a well known1 small1 industrious insect2 whose form1 propagation1 economy1 and singular instinct and ingenuity1 have attracted the attention of the most inquisitive and laborious inquirers into nature4 ,bees were very numerous in the east4 ,serid1 or ,seriad1 means 8the land of the hive20 and ,canaan was celebrated as 8a land flowing with milk and honey40 ,the wild bees formed their comb in the crevices of the rocks1 and in the hollows of decayed trees4 ,the passage in ,isa4 vii1 #h1 which mentions the 8hissing for the bee10 is supposed to involve an allusion to the practice of calling out the bees from their hives1 by a hissing or whistling sound1 to their labour in the fields1 and summoning them again to return when the heavens begin to lower1 or the shadows of evening to fall4 ,in this manner ,jehovah threatens to rouse the enemies of ,judah1 and lead them to the prey4 ,however widely scattered1 or far remote from the scene of action1 they should hear his voice1 and with as much promptitude as the bee that has been taught to recognise the signal of its owner and obey his call1 they should assemble their forces2 and although weak and insignificant as a swarm of bees1 in the estimation of a proud and infatuated people1 they should come1 with irresistible might1 and take possession of the rich and beautiful region which had been abandoned by its terrified inhabitants4 ,the bee is represented by the ancients as a vexatious and even a formidable enemy2 and the experience of every person who turns his attention to the temper and habits of this insect attests the truth of their assertion4 ,the allusion1 therefore1 of ,moses to their fierce hostility1 ,deut4 i1 #dd1 is both just and beautiful3 8,the ,amorites1 which dwelt in that mountain1 came out against you1 and chased you as bees do1 and destroyed you in ,seir even unto ,hormah40 ,the ,amorites1 it appears1 were the most bitter adversaries to ,israel of all the nations of ,canaan4 ,like bees that are easily irritated1 that attack with great fury and increasing numbers the person that dares to molest their hive1 and persecute him in his flight to a considerable distance1 the incensed ,amorites had collected their hostile bands1 and chased the ,israelites from their territory4 ,the ,psalmist also complains that his enemies compassed him about like bees2 fiercely attacking him on every side4 ,from these allusions it would however appear1 that the bees of the east were of a more quarrelsome temper than ours1 which exist chiefly in a domesticated state4 ,,beetle4 4 ,it occurs only ,lev4 xi1 #bb4 ,a species of locust is thought to be there spoken of4 ,the word still remains in the ,arabic1 and is derived from an original1 alluding to the vast number of their swarms4 ,golius explains it of the locust without wings4 ,the ,egyptians paid a superstitious worship to the beetle4 ,mr4 ,molyneaux1 in the 8,philosophical ,transactions10 says1 8,it is more than probable that this destructive beetle we are speaking of was that very kind of scarabus1 which the idolatrous ,egyptians of old had in such high veneration as to pay divine worship unto it1 and so frequently engrave its image upon their obelisks1 c1 as we see at this day4 ,for nothing can be supposed more natural than to imagine a nation1 addicted to polytheism1 as the ,egyptians were1 in a country frequently suffering great mischief and scarcity from swarms of devouring insects1 should1 from a strange sense and fear of evil to come1 7the common principle of superstition and idolatry17 give sacred worship to the visible authors of these their sufferings1 in hopes to render them more propitious for the future4 ,see ,,fly and ,,locust4 ,,behemoth4 4 ,this term has greatly tried the ingenuity of the critics4 ,by some1 among whom are ,bythner and ,reiske1 it is regarded in ,job xl1 #af1 as a plural noun for beasts in general3 the peculiar name of the animal immediately described not being mentioned1 as unnecessary1 on account of the description itself being so easily applied at the time4 ,in this sense it is translated in various passages in the ,psalms4 ,thus1 l1 #aj1 in which it is usually rendered cattle1 as the plural of it means unquestionably a beast or brute1 in the general signification of these words3 8,for every beast of the field is mine1 and the cattle10 behemoth1 8upon a thousand hills40 ,so again1 ,isa4 lxxiii1 #bb3 8,so foolish was ,i1 and ignorant2 ,i was as a beast10 behemoth1 8before thee40 ,it is also used in the same sense in chap4 xxxv1 #aa1 of the book of ,job3 8,who teacheth us more than the beasts10 behemoth1 8of the earth40 ,the greater number of critics1 however1 have understood the word behemoth1 in the singular number1 as the peculiar name of the quadruped described1 ,job xl1 of whatever kind or nature it may be2 although they have materially differed upon this last point1 some regarding it as the hippopotamus1 or river horse1 and others as the elephant4 ,the evidence in favour of the hippopotamus appears1 however1 to predominate4 ,the hippopotamus is nearly as large as the rhinoceros4 ,the male has been found seventeen feet in length1 fifteen in circumference1 and seven in height4 ,the head is enormously large1 and the jaws extend upwards two feet1 and are armed with four cutting teeth1 each of which is twelve inches in length4 ,the body is of a lightish colour1 thinly covered with hair4 ,the legs are three feet long4 ,though amphibious1 the hoofs1 which are quadrifid1 are not connected by membranes4 ,the hide is so thick and tough as to resist the edge of a sword or sabre4 ,although an inhabitant of the waters1 the hippopotamus is well known to breathe air like land animals4 ,on land1 indeed1 he finds the chief part of his food4 ,it has been pretended that he devours vast quantities of fish2 but it appears with the fullest evidence1 both from the relations of many travellers1 and from the structure of the stomach1 in specimens that have been dissected1 that he is nourished solely1 or almost solely1 on vegetable food4 ,though he feeds upon aquatic plants1 yet he very often leaves the waters1 and commits wide devastations through all the cultivated fields adjacent to the river4 ,unless when accidentally provoked1 or wounded1 he is never offensive2 but when he is assaulted or hurt1 his fury against the assailants is terrible4 ,he will attack a boat1 break it in pieces with his teeth2 or1 where the river is not too deep1 he will raise it on his back and overset it4 ,if he be irritated when on shore1 he will immediately betake himself to the water2 and there1 in his native element1 shows all his strength and resolution4 ,,behmenists1 a name given to those mystics who adopted the explication of the mysteries of nature and grace1 as given by ,jacob ,behmen4 ,this writer was born in the year #aege1 at ,old ,siedenburg1 near ,gorlitz1 in ,upper ,lusatia4 ,he was a shoemaker by trade1 and is described as having been thoughtful and religious from his youth up1 taking peculiar pleasure in frequenting the public worship4 ,at length1 seriously considering within himself that speech of our ,saviour1 8,your heavenly ,father will give the ,holy ,spirit to them that ask him10 he was thereby awakened to desire that promised ,comforter2 and1 continuing in that earnestness1 he was at last1 to use his own expression1 8surrounded with a divine light for seven days1 and stood in the highest contemplation and kingdom of joys60 ,after this1 about the year #afjj1 he was again surrounded with a divine light and replenished with the heavenly knowledge2 insomuch as1 going abroad into the fields1 and viewing the herbs and grass1 by his inward light1 he saw into their essences1 uses1 and properties1 which were discovered to him by their lineaments1 figures1 and signatures4 ,in the year #afaj1 he had a third special illumination1 wherein still farther mysteries were revealed to him2 but it was not till the year #afab that ,behmen committed these revelations to writing4 ,his first treatise is entitled1 8,aurora10 which was seized by the senate of ,gorlitz before it was completed4 ,his next production is called1 8,the ,three ,principles10 by which he means the dark world1 or hell2 the light world1 or heaven2 and the external1 or visible world1 which we inhabit4 ,in this work he more fully illustrates the subjects treated of in the former1 and supplies what is wanting in that work1 showing1 #a4 ,how all things came from a working will of the holy1 triune1 incomprehensible ,god1 manifesting himself as ,father1 ,son1 and ,holy ,spirit1 through an outward1 perceptible1 working1 triune power of fire1 light1 and spirit1 in the kingdom of heaven4 #b4 ,how and what angels and men were in their creation2 that they are in and from ,god1 his real offspring2 that their life begun in and from this divine fire1 which is the ,father of ,light1 generating a birth of light in their souls2 from both which proceeds the ,holy ,spirit1 or breath of divine love1 in the triune creature1 as it does in the triune ,creator4 #c4 ,how some angels1 and all men1 are fallen from ,god1 and their first state of a divine triune life in him2 what they are in their fallen state1 and the difference between the fall of angels and that of man4 #d4 ,how the earth1 stars1 and elements were created in consequence of the fall of angels4 #e4 ,whence there is good and evil in all this temporal world2 and what is meant by the curse that dwells in it4 #f4 ,of the kingdom of ,christ1 how it is set in opposition to the kingdom of hell4 #g4 ,how man1 through faith in ,christ1 is able to overcome the kingdom of hell1 and thereby obtain eternal salvation4 #h4 ,how and why sin and misery shall only reign for a time1 until ,god shall1 in a supernatural way1 make fallen man rise to the glory of angels1 and this material system shake off its curse1 and enter into an everlasting union with that heaven from whence it fell4 ,the next year1 ,behmen produced his 8,three-fold ,life of ,man10 according to the three principles above mentioned4 ,in this work he treats more largely of the state of man in this world3 that he has1 #a4 ,that immortal spark of life1 which is common to angels and devils4 #b4 ,that divine life of the light and ,spirit of ,god1 which makes the essential difference between an angel and a devil2 and1 #c4 ,the life of this external and visible world4 ,the first and last are common to all men2 but the second only to a true ,christian1 or child of ,god4 ,behmen wrote several other treatises2 but these are the basis of all his other writings4 ,his conceptions are often clothed under allegorical symbols2 and1 in his later works1 he frequently adopted chemical and ,latin phrases1 which he borrowed from conversation with learned men4 ,but as to the matter contained in his writings1 he disclaims having borrowed it either from men or books4 ,he died in the year #afbd2 and his last words were1 8,now ,i go hence into paradise60 ,behmen's principles were adopted by ,mr4 ,law1 who clothed them in a more modern dress1 and in a style less obscure4 ,the essential obscurity of the subjects indeed he could not remedy4 ,if they were understood by the author himself1 he is probably the only one who ever made that attainment4 ,,bel1 or ,,belus1 a name by which many ,heathens1 and particularly the ,babylonians1 called their chief idol4 ,but whether under this appellation they worshipped ,nimrod1 their first ,baal1 or lord1 or ,pul1 king of ,assyria1 or some other monarch1 or the sun1 or all in one1 is uncertain4 ,it is1 however1 probable1 that ,bel is the same as the ,phenician ,baal1 and that the worship of the same deity passed over to the ,carthagenians1 who were a colony of ,phenicians4 ,hence the names ,hannibal1 ,asdrubal1 c1 compounded with ,bel or ,baal1 according to the custom of the east1 where great men added the names of the gods to their own4 ,bel had a temple erected to him in the city of ,babylon1 on the very uppermost range of the famous tower of ,babel1 wherein were many statues of this pretended deity2 and one1 among the rest1 of massy gold1 forty feet high4 ,the whole furniture of this magnificent temple was of the same metal1 and valued at eight hundred talents of gold4 ,this temple1 with its riches1 was in being till the time of ,xerxes1 who1 returning from his unfortunate expedition into ,greece1 demolished it1 and carried off the immense wealth which it contained4 ,it was1 probably1 the statue of this god which ,nebuchadnezzar1 being returned to ,babylon after the end of the ,jewish war1 set up and dedicated in the plain of ,dura2 the story of which is related at large1 ,dan4 iii4 ,see ,,babel4 ,,bel ,,and ,,the ,,dragon1 an apocryphal and uncanonical book4 ,it was always rejected by the ,jewish church1 and is extant neither in the ,hebrew1 nor in the ,chaldee languages2 nor is there any proof that it ever was so1 although the council of ,trent allowed it to be part of the canonical book of ,daniel1 in which it stands in the ,latin ,vulgate4 ,there are two ,greek texts of this fragment1 that of the ,septuagint1 and that found in ,theodotion's ,greek version of ,daniel4 ,the ,latin and ,arabic versions are from the text of ,theodotion4 ,daniel probably1 by detecting the mercenary contrivances of the idolatrous priests of ,babylon1 and by opening the eyes of the people to the follies of superstition1 might furnish some foundation for the story2 but the whole is evidently charged with fiction1 though introduced with a pious intent4 ,st4 ,jerom gives it no better title than1 8,the fable of ,bel and the ,dragon40 ,selden thinks that this history ought rather to be considered as a poem or fiction1 than a true account3 as to the dragon1 he observes1 that serpents1 dracones1 made a part of the hidden mysteries of the ,pagan religion1 as appears from ,clemens ,alexandrinus1 ,julius ,firmicus1 ,justin ,martyr1 and others4 ,see ,,serpent4 ,,belial4 ,the phrase1 8sons of ,belial10 signifies wicked1 worthless men4 ,it was given to the inhabitants of ,gibeah1 who abused the ,levite's wife1 ,judges xix1 #bb2 and to ,hophni and ,phineas1 the wicked and profane sons of ,eli1 #a ,samuel ii1 #ab4 ,in later times the name ,belial denoted the devil3 8,what concord hath ,christ with ,belial80 #b ,cor4 vi1 #ae2 for as the word literally imports 8one who will do no one good10 the positive sense of a doer of evil was applied to ,satan1 who is the author of evil1 and1 eminently1 8the ,evil ,one40 ,,bells4 ,moses ordered that the lower part of the blue robe1 which the high priest wore in religious ceremonies1 should be adorned with pomegranates and bells1 intermixed alternately1 at equal distances4 ,the pomegranates were of wool1 and in colour1 blue purple1 and crimson2 the bells were of gold4 ,moses adds1 8,and it shall be upon ,aaron to minister2 and his sound shall be heard when he goeth in unto the holy place before the ,lord1 and when he cometh out2 that he die not40 ,some of the ,hebrews believe that these little bells are round2 others1 that they were such as were commonly in use4 ,the ancient kings of ,persia are said to have had the hem of their robes adorned like that of the ,jewish high priest1 with pomegranates and golden bells4 ,the ,arabian ladies1 who are about the king's person1 have little gold bells fastened to their legs1 their neck1 and elbows1 which1 when they dance1 make a very agreeable harmony4 ,the ,arabian women of rank1 generally1 wear on their legs large hollow gold rings1 containing small flints1 that sound like little bells when they walk2 or they are large circles1 with little rings hung all round1 which produce the same effect4 ,these1 when they walk1 give notice that the mistress of the house is passing1 that so the servants of the family may behave themselves respectfully1 and strangers may retire1 to avoid seeing the person who advances4 ,it was1 in all probability1 with some such design of giving notice that the high priest was passing1 that he also wore little bells at the hem of his robe4 ,their sound intimated also when he was about to enter the sanctuary1 and served to keep up the attention of the people4 ,a reverential respect for the ,divine ,inhabitant was also indicated4 ,the palace of kings was not to be entered without due notice1 by striking some sonorous body1 much less the sanctuary of ,god2 and the high priest did1 by the sound of his bells at the bottom of his robe1 ask leave to enter4 8,and his sound shall be heard when he goeth into the holy place before the ,lord1 and when he cometh out2 that he die not40 ,bells were a part of the martial furniture of horses employed in war4 ,the ,jewish warrior adorned his charger with these ornaments2 and the prophet foretels that these in future times should be consecrated to the service of ,god3 8,in that day shall there be upon the bells of the horses1 ,holiness unto the ,lord40 ,chardin observes that something like this is seen in several places of the east2 in ,persia1 and in ,turkey1 the reins of their bridles are of silk1 of the thickness of a finger1 on which are wrought the name of ,god1 or other inscriptions4 ,a horse which had not been trained was by the ,greeks called1 8one that had never heard the noise of bells40 ,,belly is used in ,scripture for gluttony1 ,titus i1 #ab2 ,philip iii1 #af2 ,rom4 xvi1 #ah4 ,for the heart1 or the secrets of the mind1 ,prov4 xx1 #bg1 #cj2 xxii1 #ah4 ,the 8belly of hell0 signifies the grave1 or some imminent danger1 or deep distress1 ,jonah ii1 #b2 ,ecclus4 ii1 #e4 ,,belshazzar1 the last king of ,babylon1 and1 according to ,hales and others1 the grandson of ,nebuchadnezzar1 ,dan4 v1 #ah4 ,during the period that the ,jews were in captivity at ,babylon1 a variety of singular events concurred to prove that the sins which brought desolation on their country1 and subjected them for a period of seventy years to the ,babylonish yoke1 had not dissolved that covenant relation which1 as the ,god of ,abraham1 ,jehovah had entered into with them2 and that any act of indignity perpetrated against an afflicted people1 or any insult cast upon the service of their temple1 would be regarded as an affront to the ,majesty of heaven1 and not suffered to pass with impunity1 though the perpetrators were the princes and potentates of the earth4 ,belshazzar was a remarkable instance of this4 ,he had an opportunity of seeing1 in the case of his ancestor1 how hateful pride is1 even in royalty itself2 how instantly ,god can blast the dignity of the brightest crown1 and reduce him that wears it to a level with the beasts of the field2 and consequently how much the prosperity of kings and the stability of their thrones depend upon acknowledging that 8the ,most ,high ruleth in the kingdom of men1 and giveth it to whomsoever he will40 ,but all these awful lessons were lost upon ,belshazzar4 ,the only circumstances of his reign1 recorded1 are the visions of the ,prophet ,daniel1 in the first and third years1 ,dan4 vii1 #a2 viii1 #a2 and his sacrilegious feast and violent death1 ,dan4 v1 #a-cj4 ,isaiah1 who represents the ,babylonian dynasty as 8the scourge of ,palestine10 styles ,nebuchadnezzar 8a serpent10 ,evil ,merodach 8a cockatrice10 and ,belshazzar 8a fiery flying serpent10 the worst of all1 ,isaiah xiv1 #d-bi4 ,and ,xenophon confirms this prophetic character by two atrocious instances of cruelty and barbarity1 exercised by ,belshazzar upon some of his chief and most deserving nobles4 ,he slew the only son of ,gobryas1 in a transport of rage1 because at a hunting match he hit with his spear a bear1 and afterward a lion1 when the king had missed both2 and in a fit of jealousy1 he brutally castrated ,gadatus1 because one of his concubines had commended him as a handsome man4 ,his last and most heinous offence was the profanation of the sacred vessels belonging to the temple of ,jerusalem1 which his wise grandfather1 and even his foolish father ,evil ,merodach1 had respected4 ,having made a great feast for a thousand of his lords1 he ordered those vessels to be brought during the banquet1 that he1 his princes1 his wives1 and his concubines1 might drink out of them1 which they did2 and to aggravate sacrilege by apostasy and rebellion1 and ingratitude against the ,supreme ,author of all their enjoyments1 8they praised the gods of gold1 silver1 brass1 iron1 and stone1 but the ,god in whose hand was their breath1 and whose were all their ways1 they praised or glorified not40 ,for these complicated crimes his doom was denounced in the midst of the entertainment2 a divine hand appeared1 which wrote on the plaister of the wall1 opposite to the king1 and full in his view1 a mysterious inscription4 ,this tremendous apparition struck ,belshazzar with the greatest terror and agony3 8his countenance was changed1 and his thoughts troubled him1 so that the joints of his loins were loosed1 and his knees smote against each other40 ,this is one of the liveliest and finest amplifications of dismay to be found throughout the sacred classics1 and infinitely exceeds1 both in accuracy and force1 the most admired of the ,heathen2 such as 8et corde et genibus tremit10 of ,horace1 and 8tarda trementi genua labant10 of ,virgil4 ,unable himself to decypher the writing1 ,belshazzar cried aloud to bring in the astrologers1 the ,chaldeans1 and the soothsayers1 promising that whosoever should read the writing1 and explain to him its meaning1 should be clothed with scarlet1 have a chain of gold about his neck1 and be the third ruler in his kingdom4 ,but the writing was too difficult for the ,magi2 at which the king was still more greatly troubled4 ,in this crisis1 and at the instance of the queen mother1 the ,prophet ,daniel was sent for1 to whom honours were promised1 on condition of his explaining the writing4 ,daniel refused the honours held out to him2 but having with great faithfulness pointedly reproved the monarch for his ingratitude to ,god who had conferred on him such dignity1 and particularly for his profanation of the vessels which were consecrated to his service1 he proceeded to the interpretation of the words which had been written1 and still stood visible on the wall4 ,they were1 ,mene1 ,tekel1 ,upharsin4 8,this is the interpretation of the thing1 ,mene1 #8,god hath numbered thy kingdom and finished it2' ,tekel1 #8thou art weighed in the balances and art found wanting2' ,peres1 #8thy kingdom is divided1 and given to the ,medes and ,persians4'0 ,in that very night1 in the midst of their mirth and revelling1 the city was taken by surprise1 ,belshazzar himself put to death1 and the kingdom transferred to ,darius the ,mede4 ,if the character of the hand-writing was known to the ,magi of ,babylon1 the meaning could not be conjectured4 ,perhaps1 however1 the character was that of the ancient ,hebrew1 or what we now call the ,samaritan2 and in that case it would be familiar to ,daniel1 though rude and unintelligible to the ,chaldeans4 ,but even if ,daniel could read the words1 the import of this solemn graphic message to the proud and impious monarch could only have been made known to the prophet by ,god4 ,all the ideas the three words convey1 are numbering1 weighing1 and dividing4 ,it was only for the power which sent the omen to unfold1 not in equivocal terms1 like the responses of ,heathen oracles1 but in explicit language1 the decision of the righteous ,judge1 the termination of his long suffering1 and the instant visitation of judgment4 ,see ,,babylon4 ,,belus1 a river of ,palestine4 ,on leaving ,acre1 and turning toward the south-east1 the traveller crosses the river ,belus1 near its mouth1 where the stream is shallow enough to be easily forded on horseback4 ,this river rises out of a lake1 computed to be about six miles distant1 toward the south-east1 called by the ancients ,palus ,cendovia4 ,of the sand of this river1 according to ,pliny1 glass was first made2 and ships from ,italy continued to convey it to the glass houses of ,venice and ,genoa1 so late as the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,,benediction1 in a general sense1 the act of blessing in the name of ,god1 or of giving praise to ,god1 or returning thanks for his favours4 ,hence benediction is the act of saying grace before or after meals4 ,neither the ancient ,jews1 nor ,christians1 ever ate without a short prayer4 ,the ,jews are obliged to rehearse a hundred benedictions every day2 of which1 eighty are to be spoken in the morning4 ,rabbi ,nehemiah ,baruch1 in #afhh1 published a discourse on the manner wherein the sacerdotal benediction is to be pronounced4 ,in the synagogue of ,ferrara1 it is rather sung than spoken4 ,among the ancient ,jews1 as well as ,christians1 benedictions were attended with the imposition of hands2 and ,christians1 in process of time1 added the sign of the cross1 which was made with the same hand1 elevated or extended4 ,hence1 in the ,romish church1 benediction was used to denote the sign of the cross1 made by a bishop or prelate1 from an idea that it conferred some grace on the people4 ,the custom of receiving benediction by bowing the head before the bishops1 is very ancient2 and was so universal1 that emperors themselves did not decline this mark of submission4 ,under the name benediction the ,hebrews also frequently understood the presents which friends made to one another2 in all probability because they were generally attended with blessings and prayers1 both from those who gave and those who received them4 ,the solemn blessing pronounced by the ,jewish high priest upon the people1 is recorded ,num4 vi1 #bb1 c3 8,the ,lord bless thee1 and keep thee3 the ,lord make his face to shine upon thee1 and be gracious unto thee3 the ,lord lift up his countenance upon thee1 and give thee peace40 ,the great ,christian benediction is1 8,the grace of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 the love of ,god the ,father1 and the fellowship of the ,holy ,ghost1 be with you always40 ,see ,,blessing4 ,,benhadad1 the son of ,tibrimon1 king of ,syria1 came to the assistance of ,asa1 king of ,judah1 against ,baasha1 king of ,israel1 obliging the latter to return home and succour his own country1 and to abandon ,ramah1 which he had undertaken to fortify1 #a ,kings xv1 #ah4 ,this ,benhadad is thought by some to have been the same person with ,hadad the ,edomite1 who rebelled against ,solomon toward the end of that prince's reign1 #a ,kings xi1 #be4 #b4 ,,benhadad1 king of ,syria1 son of the preceding1 made war upon ,ahab1 king of ,israel1 but was defeated4 ,in the following year1 however1 he came with a most powerful army to ,aphek1 where ,ahab again engaged him1 killed a hundred thousand of his men1 and the remainder endeavouring to take refuge in ,aphek1 the walls of the city fell upon them1 and killed twenty-seven thousand more4 ,thus completely defeated1 ,benhadad submitted to beg his life of the king of ,israel1 who not only granted his request1 but gave him his liberty1 and restored him to his crown upon certain conditions1 #a ,kings xx4 ,twelve years afterward1 ,a4 ,m4 #caae1 ,benhadad declared war against ,jehoram1 the son and successor of ,ahab1 #b ,kings vi1 #h2 but his designs were made known to ,jehoram by the ,prophet ,elisha1 and they were accordingly frustrated4 ,suspecting some treachery in this affair1 ,benhadad was informed that all his projects were revealed to his enemy by ,elisha1 and getting intelligence that the latter was at ,dothan1 he sent a detachment of his best troops to invest the city and apprehend the prophet2 but they were struck with blindness at ,elisha's prayer1 so that they were unable to distinguish him1 when he was in the midst of them and held a conversation with them4 ,he then led them into the city of ,samaria1 and having conducted them safely there1 he prayed to ,god again to open their eyes1 and induced ,jehoram to dismiss them without violence4 ,generous as this conduct was1 it produced no salutary effect on the infatuated ,benhadad2 for about four years afterward1 he laid close siege to ,samaria1 and reduced the city to such distress that the head of an ass1 which the ,israelites considered to be an unclean animal1 was sold for fourscore pieces of silver1 about #bl4 #is4 sterling2 and the fourth part of a cab of dove's dung1 or rather three quarters of a pint of chick pease1 as ,bochart understands the word1 for five pieces of silver4 ,in fact1 such was the pressure of the famine at this time in ,samaria1 that mothers were constrained to eat their own children4 ,jehoram1 hearing of these calamities1 attributed them to ,elisha1 and sent orders to have him put to death2 but before his messengers could reach the prophet's house1 he came thither himself4 ,elisha predicted that the next day1 about the same hour1 a measure of fine flour would be sold at the gate of ,samaria for a shekel1 which1 however incredible at the moment1 proved to be the case2 for in the night1 a general panic1 supernaturally induced1 pervaded the ,syrian camp2 they imagined that ,jehoram had procured an army of ,egyptians to come to his assistance1 and1 abandoning their horses1 tents1 and provisions1 they all took to flight4 ,four lepers1 whose disease did not permit them to live within the city1 and being ready to perish with hunger1 ventured into the ,syrian camp2 and finding it deserted1 and at the same time abounding with all sorts of provisions1 communicated the information to ,jehoram4 ,the king immediately rose1 though in the middle of the night2 but reflecting that probably it was only a stratagem of ,benhadad to draw his people out of the town1 he first sent parties to reconnoitre4 ,they1 however1 speedily returned1 and informed him that the enemy was fled1 and that the roads were every where strewed with arms and garments1 which the ,syrians had abandoned to facilitate their flight4 ,as soon as the news was confirmed1 the ,samaritans went out1 pillaged the ,syrian camp1 and brought in such quantities of provisions1 that a measure of fine flour was1 at the time specified by ,elisha1 sold at the gate of ,samaria for a shekel1 #b ,kings vii4 ,the following year1 ,a4 ,m4 #cabj1 ,benhadad fell sick1 and sent ,hazael1 one of his officers1 with forty camels1 loaded with valuable presents1 to the ,prophet ,elisha1 to interrogate him1 whether or not he should recover of his indisposition4 ,elisha fixed his eyes steadfastly on ,hazael1 and then burst into tears3 8,go10 said he1 8and tell ,benhadad1 ,thou mayest certainly recover2 though the ,lord hath showed me that he shall assuredly die40 ,he at the same time apprised ,hazael that he himself would reign in ,syria1 and do infinite mischief to ,israel4 ,hazael on this returned and told ,benhadad that his health should be restored4 ,but on the next day he took a thick cloth1 which1 having dipped in water1 he spread over the king's face and stifled him4 ,he then took possession of the kingdom of ,syria1 according to the prediction of ,elisha1 #b ,kings viii4 #c4 ,,benhadad1 the son of ,hazael1 mentioned in the preceding article1 succeeded his father as king of ,syria1 #b ,kings xiii1 #bd4 ,during his reign1 ,jehoash1 king of ,israel1 recovered from him all that his father ,hazael had taken from ,jehoahaz his predecessor4 ,he defeated him in three several engagements1 and compelled him to surrender all the country beyond ,jordan1 #b ,kings xiii1 #be4 ,,beni ,,khaibir1 sons of ,keber1 the descendants of the ,rechabites1 to whom it was promised1 ,jer4 xxxv1 #ai1 8,thus saith the ,lord1 ,jonadab1 the son of ,rechab1 shall not want a man to stand before me for ever40 ,they were first brought into notice in modern times by ,mr4 ,samuel ,brett1 who wrote a narrative of the proceedings of the great council of the ,jews in ,hungary1 ,a4 ,d4 #afej4 ,he says of the sect of the ,rechabites1 8that they observe their old rules and customs1 and neither sow1 nor plant1 nor build houses2 but live in tents1 and often remove from one place to another with their whole property and families40 ,they are also mentioned in ,neibuhr's travels4 ,mr4 ,wolff1 a converted ,jew1 gives the following account in a late journal4 ,he inquired of the rabbins at ,jerusalem1 relative to these wandering ,jews1 and received the following information3 8,rabbi ,mose ,secot is quite certain that the ,beni ,khaibir are descendants of the ,rechabites2 at this present moment they drink no wine1 and have neither vineyard1 nor field1 nor seed2 but dwell1 like ,arabs1 in tents1 and are wandering nomades4 ,they receive and observe the law of ,moses by tradition1 for they are not in possession of the written law40 ,mr4 ,wolff afterward himself visited this people1 who have remained1 amidst all the changes of nations1 a most remarkable monument of the exact fulfilment of a minute1 and apparently at first sight an unimportant1 prophecy4 ,so true is it1 that not one jot or tittle of the word of ,god shall pass away6 ,see ,,rechabites4 ,,benjamin1 the youngest son of ,jacob and ,rachel1 who was born1 ,a4 ,m4 #bbgb4 ,jacob1 being on his journey from ,mesopotamia1 as he was proceeding southward with ,rachel in the company1 ,gen4 xxxv1 #af1 #ag1 c1 the pains of child-bearing came upon her1 about a quarter of a league from ,bethlehem1 and she died after the delivery of a son1 whom1 with her last breath1 she named ,benoni1 that is1 8the son of my sorrow20 but soon afterward ,jacob changed his name1 and called him ,benjamin1 that is1 8the son of my right hand40 ,see ,,joseph4 ,,berea1 a city of ,macedonia1 where ,st4 ,paul preached the ,gospel with great success1 and where his hearers were careful to compare what they heard with the scriptures of the ,old ,testament1 ,acts1 xvii1 #aj2 for which they are commended1 and held out to us as an example of subjecting every doctrine to the sole test of the word of ,god4 ,,bernice1 the daughter of ,agrippa1 surnamed the ,great1 king of the ,jews1 and sister to young ,agrippa1 also king of the ,jews4 ,this lady was first betrothed to ,mark1 the son of ,alexander ,lysimachus1 albarach of ,alexandria2 afterward she married ,herod1 king of ,chalcis1 her own uncle by the father's side4 ,after the death of ,herod1 which happened ,a4 ,d4 #dh1 she was married to ,polemon1 king of ,pontus1 but did not long continue with him4 ,she returned to her brother ,agrippa1 and with him heard the discourse which ,paul delivered before ,festus1 ,acts xxv4 ,,beryl1 1 a pellucid gem of a bluish green colour1 whence it is called by the lapidaries1 aqua marina4 ,its ,hebrew name is a word also for the same reason given to the sea1 ,psalm xlviii1 #g4 ,it is found in the ,east ,indies1 ,peru1 ,siberia1 and ,tartary4 ,it has a brilliant appearance1 and is generally transparent4 ,it was the tenth stone belonging to the high priest's pectoral1 ,exod4 xxviii1 #aj1 #bj2 ,rev4 xxi1 #bj4 ,,bethabara1 or ,,bethbarah1 signifies in the ,hebrew a place of passage1 because of its ford over the river ,jordan1 on the east bank of which river it stood over against ,jericho1 ,joshua ii1 #g2 iii1 #ae1 #af4 ,to this place ,gideon sent a party to secure the passage of the river1 previous to his attack on the ,midianites1 ,judges vii1 #bd4 ,here ,john commenced his baptizing1 and here ,christ himself was baptized1 ,john i1 #bh4 ,to this place1 also1 ,jesus retired1 when the ,jews sought to take him at the feast of dedication2 and many who resorted there to him believed on him1 ,john x1 #ci-db4 ,,bethany1 a considerable place1 situated on the ascent of the mount of ,olives1 about two miles from ,jerusalem1 ,john xi1 #ah2 ,matt4 xxi1 #ag2 xxvi1 #f1 c4 ,here it was that ,martha and ,mary lived1 with their brother ,lazarus1 whom ,jesus raised from the dead2 and it was here that ,mary poured the perfume on our ,saviour's head4 ,bethany at present is but a very small village4 ,one of our modern travellers tells us1 that1 at the entrance into it1 there is an old ruin1 called the castle of ,lazarus1 supposed to have been the mansion house where he and his sisters resided4 ,at the bottom of a descent1 not far from the castle1 you see his sepulchre1 which the ,turks hold in great veneration1 and use it for an oratory1 or place for prayer4 ,here going down by twenty-five steps1 you come at first into a small square room1 and from thence creep into another that is smaller1 about a yard and a half deep1 in which the body is said to have been laid4 ,about a bow-shot from hence you pass by the place which they say was ,mary ,magdalene's house2 and thence descending a steep hill1 you come to the fountain of the ,apostles1 which is so called because1 as the tradition goes1 these holy persons were wont to refresh themselves there between ,jerusalem and ,jericho1--as it is very probable they might1 because the fountain is close to the road side1 and is inviting to the thirsty traveller4 ,bethany is now a poor village1 but pleasantly situated1 says ,dr4 ,richardson1 on the shady side of the mount of ,olives1 and abounds in trees and long grass4 ,,bethaven1 the same with ,bethel4 ,this city1 upon the revolt of the ten tribes1 belonged to the kingdom of ,israel1 and was therefore one of the cities in which ,jeroboam set up his golden calves4 ,whence the prophet in derision calls it1 8,bethaven10 the house of vanity or idols1 ,hosea iv1 #ae1 instead of 8,bethel10 the house of ,god1 the name which ,jacob formerly gave it1 when he had the vision of the mysterious ladder1 reaching from earth to heaven1 ,gen4 xxviii1 #ai4 ,,bethel1 a city which lay to the west of ,ai1 about eight miles to the north of ,jerusalem1 in the confines of the tribe of ,ephraim and ,benjamin4 ,here ,jacob slept and had his vision4 ,the name of this city had formerly been ,luz1 which signifies an almond1 and was probably so called from the number of almond trees which grew in those parts4 ,see ,,jacob4 ,,bethesda4 ,this word signifies the house of mercy1 and was the name of a pool1 or public bath1 at ,jerusalem1 which had five porticos1 piazzas1 or covered walks around it4 ,this bath was called ,bethesda1 because1 as some observe1 the erecting of baths was an act of great kindness to the common people1 whose infirmities in hot countries required frequent bathing2 but the generality of expositors think it had this name rather from the great goodness of ,god manifested to his people1 in bestowing healing virtues upon its waters4 ,the account of the evangelist is1 8,now there was at ,jerusalem1 by the sheep market1 a pool1 which is called in the ,hebrew tongue1 ,bethesda1 having five porches4 ,in these lay a multitude of impotent folk1 of blind1 halt1 withered1 waiting for the moving of the water2 for an angel went down at a certain season into the pool3 whosoever then first after the troubling of the water stepped in was made whole of whatsoever disease he had10 ,john v1 #b-d4 ,the genuineness of the fourth verse has been disputed1 because it is wanting in some ancient ,,mss1 and is written in the margin of another as a scholion2 but even were the spuriousness of this verse allowed1 for which1 however1 the evidence is by no means satisfactory1 the supernatural character of the account1 as it is indicated by the other parts of the narrative1 remains unaffected4 ,the agitation of the water2 its suddenly healing virtue as to all diseases2 and the limitation to the first that should go in1 are all miraculous circumstances4 ,commentators have however resorted to various hypotheses to account for the whole without divine agency4 ,dr4 ,hammond says1 8,the sacrifices were exceedingly numerous at the passover1 1 7once a year1 ,chrysostom17 when the pool being warm from the immediate washing of the blood and entrails1 and thus adapted to the cure of the blind1 the withered1 the lame1 and perhaps the paralytic1 was yet farther troubled1 and the congelations and grosser parts stirred up by an officer or messenger1 1 to give it the full effect40 ,to this hypothesis ,whitby acutely replies1 #a4 ,how could this natural virtue be adapted to1 and cure1 all kinds of diseases8 #b4 ,how could the virtue only extend to the cure of one man1 several probably entering at the same instant8 #c4 ,how unlikely is it1 if natural1 to take place only at one certain time1 at the passover8 for there was a multitude of sacrifices slain at other of the feasts4 #d4 ,lastly1 and decisively1 ,lightfoot shows that there was a laver in the temple for washing the entrails2 therefore they were not washed in this pool at all4 ,others1 however1 suppose that the blood of the victims was conveyed from the temple to this pool by pipes2 and ,kuinoel thinks that it cannot be denied that the blood of animals recently slaughtered may impart a medicinal property to water2 and he refers to ,richter's 8,dissertat4 de ,balneo ,animali10 and ,michaelis in loc4 ,but he admits that it cannot be proved whether the pool was situated out of the city at the sheep gate1 or in the city1 and in the vicinity of the temple2 nor that the blood of the victims was ever conveyed thither by canals4 ,kuinoel justly observes1 that though in ,josephus no mention is made of the baths here described1 yet this silence ought not to induce us to question the truth of this transaction2 since the historian omits to record many other circumstances which cannot be doubted2 as1 for instance1 the census of ,augustus1 and the murder of the infants4 ,this critic also supposes that ,st4 ,john only acts the part of an historian1 and gives the account as it was current among the ,jews1 without vouching for its truth1 or interposing his own judgment4 ,mede follows in the track of absurdly attempting to account for the phenomenon on natural principles3--8,i think the water of this pool acquired a medicinal property from the mud at its bottom1 which was heavy with metallic salts1--sulphur perhaps1 or alum1 or nitre4 ,now this would1 from the water being perturbed from the bottom by some natural cause1 perhaps subterranean heat1 or storms1 rise upward and be mingled with it1 and so impart a sanative property to those who bathed in it before the metallic particles had subsided to the bottom4 ,that it should have done so1 1 is not strange1 since ,bartholin has1 by many examples1 shown1 that it is usual with many medicinal baths1 to exert a singular force and sanative power at stated times1 and at periodical1 but uncertain1 intervals40 ,doddridge combines the common hypothesis with that of ,mede2 namely1 that the water had at all times more or less of a medicinal property2 but at some period1 not far distant from that in which the transaction here recorded took place1 it was endued with a miraculous power2 an extraordinary commotion being probably observed in the water1 and ,providence so ordering it1 that the next person who accidentally bathed here1 being under some great disorder1 found an immediate and unexpected cure3 the like phenomenon in some other desperate case1 was probably observed on a second commotion3 and these commotions and cures might happen periodically4 ,all those hypotheses which exclude miracle in this case are very unsatisfactory1 nor is there any reason whatever to resort to them2 for1 when rightly viewed1 there appears a mercy and a wisdom in this miracle which must strike every one who attentively considers the account1 unless he be a determined unbeliever in miraculous interposition4 ,for1 #a4 ,the miracle occurred 1 from time to time1 that is1 occasionally1 perhaps frequently4 #b4 ,though but one at a time was healed1 yet1 as this might often occur1 a singularly gracious provision was made for the relief of the sick inhabitants of ,jerusalem in desperate cases4 #c4 ,the angel probably acted invisibly1 but the commotion in the waters was so strong and peculiar as to mark a supernatural agent4 #d4 ,there is great probability in what ,doddridge1 following ,tertullian1 supposes1 that the waters obtained their healing property not long before the ministry of ,christ1 and lost it after his rejection and crucifixion by the ,jews4 ,in this case a connection was established between the healing virtue of the pool and the presence of ,christ on earth1 indicating ,,him to be the source of this benefit1 and the true agent in conferring it2 and thus it became1 afterward at least1 a confirmation of his mission4 #e4 ,the whole might also be emblematical1 8intended10 says ,macknight1 8to show that ,ezekiel's vision of waters issuing out of the sanctuary was about to be fulfilled1 of which waters it is said1 ,they shall be healed1 and every thing shall live where the river cometh40 ,it cannot be objected that this was not an age of miracles2 and if miracles be allowed1 we see in this particular supernatural visitation obvious reasons of fitness1 as well as a divine compassion4 ,if however the ends to be accomplished by so public and notable a miraculous interposition were less obvious1 still we must admit the fact1 or either force absurd interpretations upon the text1 or make the evangelist carelessly give his sanction to an instance of vulgar credulity and superstition4 ,maundrell and ,chateaubriand both describe a bason or reservoir1 near ,st4 ,stephen's gate1 and bounding the temple on the north1 as the identical pool of ,bethesda2 which1 if it really be what it is represented to be1 is all that now remains of the primitive architecture of the ,jews at ,jerusalem4 ,the latter says1 8,it is a reservoir1 a hundred and fifty feet long and forty wide4 ,the sides are walled1 and these walls are composed of a bed of large stones joined together by iron cramps2 a wall of mixed materials runs up on these large stones2 a layer of flints is stuck upon the surface of this wall2 and a coating is laid over these flints4 ,the four beds are perpendicular with the bottom1 and not horizontal3 the coating was on the side next to the water2 and the large stones rested1 as they still do1 against the ground4 ,this pool is now dry1 and half filled up4 ,here grow some pomegranate trees1 and a species of wild tamarind of a bluish colour3 the western angle is quite full of nopals4 ,on the west side may also be seen two arches1 which probably led to an aqueduct that carried the water into the interior of the temple40 ,,beth-,,horon4 ,about twelve miles from ,jerusalem1 lies the ,arab village of ,bethoor1 where ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke was by accident compelled to pass a night4 ,it is noticed by no other traveller2 and yet1 there is the highest probability that this is the ,beth-horon of the ,scriptures4 ,st4 ,jerom associates it with ,rama1 in the remark that they were in his time1 together with other noble cities built by ,solomon1 only poor villages4 ,beth-horon stood on the confines of ,ephraim and ,benjamin2 which1 according to the learned traveller1 exactly answers to the situation of ,bethoor4 ,he supposes it1 from its situation on a hill1 to be ,beth-horon the upper1 the ,beth-horon superior of ,eusebius1 of which frequent notice occurs in the apocryphal writings4 ,josephus mentions that ,cestius1 the ,roman general1 marched upon ,jerusalem by way of ,lydda and ,beth-horon4 ,,bethlehem1 a city in the tribe of ,judah1 ,judges xvii1 #g2 and likewise called ,ephrath1 ,gen4 xlviii1 #g2 or ,ephratah1 ,micah v1 #b2 and the inhabitants of it1 ,ephrathites1 ,ruth i1 #b2 #a ,sam4 xvii1 #ab4 ,here ,david was born1 and spent his early years as a shepherd4 ,and here also the scene of the beautiful narrative of ,ruth is supposed to be laid4 ,but its highest honour is1 that here our divine ,lord condescended to be born of woman3--8,and thou1 ,bethlehem ,ephratah1 though thou be little among the thousands of ,judah1 yet out of thee shall he come forth unto me1 that is to be ruler in ,israel1 whose goings forth have been of old1 from everlasting40 ,travellers describe the first view of ,bethlehem as imposing4 ,the town appears covering the ridge of a hill on the southern side of a deep and extensive valley1 and reaching from east to west4 ,the most conspicuous object is the monastery erected over the supposed 8,cave of the ,nativity20 its walls and battlements have the air of a large fortress4 ,from this same point1 the ,dead ,sea is seen below on the left1 seemingly very near1 8but10 says ,sandys1 8not so found by the traveller2 for these high1 declining mountains are not to be directly descended40 ,the road winds round the top of a valley which tradition has fixed on as the scene of the angelic vision which announced the birth of our ,lord to the shepherds2 but different spots have been selected1 the ,romish authorities not being agreed on this head4 ,bethlehem 7called in the ,new ,testament ,bethlehem ,ephrata and ,bethlehem of ,judea1 to distinguish it from ,bethlehem of ,zabulon7 is situated on a rising ground1 about two hours' distance1 or not quite six miles from ,jerusalem4 ,here the traveller meets with a repetition of the same puerilities and disgusting mummery which he has witnessed at the church of the sepulchre4 8,the stable10 to use the words of ,pococke1 8in which our ,lord was born1 is a grotto cut out of the rock1 according to the eastern custom40 ,it is astonishing to find so intelligent a writer as ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke gravely citing ,st4 ,jerom1 who wrote in the fifth century1 as an authority for the truth of the absurd legend by which the cave of the nativity is supposed to be identified4 ,the ancient tombs and excavations are occasionally used by the ,arabs as places of shelter2 but the ,gospel narrative affords no countenance to the notion that the ,virgin took refuge in any cave of this description4 ,on the contrary1 it was evidently a manger belonging to the inn or khan3 in other words1 the upper rooms being wholly occupied1 the holy family were compelled to take up their abode in the court allotted to the mules and horses1 or other animals4 ,but the ,new ,testament was not the guide which was followed by the mother of ,constantine1 to whom the original church owed its foundation4 ,the present edifice is represented by ,chateaubriand as of undoubtedly high antiquity2 yet ,doubdan1 an old traveller1 says that the monastery was destroyed in the year #abfc by the ,moslems2 and in its present state1 at all events1 it cannot lay claim to a higher date4 ,the convent is divided among the ,greek1 ,roman1 and ,armenian ,christians1 to each of whom separate parts are assigned as places of worship and habitations for the monks2 but1 on certain days1 all may perform their devotions at the altars erected over the consecrated spots4 ,the church is built in the form of a cross2 the nave being adorned with forty-eight ,corinthian columns in four rows1 each column being two feet six inches in diameter1 and eighteen feet high1 including the base and the capital4 ,the nave1 which is in possession of the ,armenians1 is separated from the three other branches of the cross by a wall1 so that the unity of the edifice is destroyed4 ,the top of the cross is occupied by the choir1 which belongs to the ,greeks4 ,here is an altar dedicated to the wise men of the east1 at the foot of which is a marble star1 corresponding1 as the monks say1 to the point of the heavens where the miraculous meteor became stationary1 and directly over the spot where the ,saviour was born in the subterranean church below6 ,a flight of fifteen steps1 and a long narrow passage1 conduct to the sacred crypt or grotto of the nativity1 which is thirty-seven feet six inches long1 by eleven feet three inches in breadth1 and nine feet high4 ,it is lined and floored with marble1 and provided on each side with five oratories1 8answering precisely to the ten cribs or stalls for horses that the stable in which our ,saviour was born contained60 ,the precise spot of the birth is marked by a glory in the floor1 composed of marble and jasper encircled with silver1 around which are inscribed the words1 ,hc de ,virgine ,mari ,jesus ,christus natus est4 ,here ,jesus ,christ was born of the ,virgin ,mary4 ,over it is a marble table or altar1 which rests against the side of the rock1 here cut into an arcade4 ,the manger is at the distance of seven paces from the altar2 it is in a low recess hewn out of the rock1 to which you descend by two steps1 and consists of a block of marble1 raised about a foot and a half above the floor1 and hollowed out in the form of a manger4 ,before it is the altar of the ,magi4 ,the chapel is illuminated by thirty-two lamps1 presented by different princes of ,christendom4 ,chateaubriand has described the scene in his usual florid and imaginative style3 8,nothing can be more pleasing1 or better calculated to excite devotional sentiments1 than this subterraneous church4 ,it is adorned with pictures of the ,italian and ,spanish schools1 which represent the mysteries of the place4 ,the usual ornaments of the manger are of blue satin1 embroidered with silver4 ,incense is continually burning before the cradle of our ,saviour4 ,i have heard an organ1 touched by no ordinary hand1 play1 during mass1 the sweetest and most tender tunes of the best ,italian composers4 ,these concerts charm the ,christian ,arab1 who1 leaving his camels to feed1 repairs1 like the shepherds of old1 to ,bethlehem1 to adore the ,king of kings in the manger4 ,i have seen this inhabitant of the desert communicate at the altar of the ,magi1 with a fervour1 a piety1 a devotion1 unknown among the ,christians of the west4 ,the continual arrival of caravans from all the nations of ,christendom2 the public prayers2 the prostrations2 nay1 even the richness of the presents sent here by the ,christian princes1 altogether produce feelings in the soul1 which it is much easier to conceive than to describe40 ,such are the illusions which the ,roman superstition casts over this extraordinary scene6 ,in another subterraneous chapel1 tradition places the sepulchre of the ,innocents4 ,from this1 the pilgrim is conducted to the grotto of ,st4 ,jerom1 where they show the tomb of that father1 who passed great part of his life in this place2 and who1 in the grotto shown as his oratory1 is said to have translated that version of the ,bible which has been adopted by the church of ,rome1 and is called the ,vulgate4 ,he died at the advanced age of ninety-one1 ,a4 ,d4 #dbb4 ,the village of ,bethlehem contains about three hundred inhabitants1 the greater part of whom gain their livelihood by making beads1 carving mother-of-pearl shells with sacred subjects1 and manufacturing small tables and crucifixes1 all which are eagerly purchased by the pilgrims4 ,bethlehem has been visited by many modern travellers4 ,the following notice of it by ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke will be read with interest3 8,after travelling for about an hour from the time of our leaving ,jerusalem1 we came in view of ,bethlehem1 and halted to enjoy the interesting sight4 ,the town appeared covering the ridge of a hill on the southern side of a deep and extensive valley1 and reaching from east to west2 the most conspicuous object being the monastery1 erected over the cave of the nativity1 in the suburbs1 and upon the eastern side4 ,the battlements and walls of this building seemed like those of a vast fortress4 ,the ,dead ,sea below1 upon our left1 appeared so near to us that we thought we could have rode thither in a very short space of time4 ,still nearer stood a mountain upon its western shore1 resembling in its form the cone of ,vesuvius near ,naples1 and having also a crater upon its top which was plainly discernible4 ,the distance1 however1 is much greater than it appears to be2 the magnitude of the objects beheld in this fine prospect causing them to appear less remote than they really are4 ,the atmosphere was remarkably clear and serene2 but we saw none of those clouds of smoke1 which1 by some writers1 are said to exhale from the surface of the lake1 nor from any neighbouring mountain4 ,every thing about it was in the highest degree grand and awful4 ,bethlehem is six miles from ,jerusalem4 ,josephus describes the interval between the two cities as equal only to twenty stadia2 and in the passage referred to1 he makes an allusion to a celebrated well1 which1 both from the account given by him of its situation1 and more especially from the text of the sacred ,scriptures1 #b ,sam4 xxiii1 #ae1 seems to have contained the identical fountain1 of whose pure and delicious water we were now drinking4 ,considered merely in point of interest1 the narrative is not likely to be surpassed by any circumstance of ,pagan history4 ,david1 being a native of ,bethlehem1 calls to mind1 during the sultry days of harvest1 verse #ac1 a well near the gate of the town1 the delicious waters of which he had often tasted2 and expresses an earnest desire to assuage his thirst by drinking of that limpid spring4 #8,and ,david longed1 and said1 ,o that one would give me to drink of the water of the well of ,bethlehem1 which is by the gate6' ,the exclamation is overheard by #8three of the mighty men whom ,david had1' namely1 ,adino1 ,eleazar1 and ,shamnah1 verses #h1 #i1 #aa4 ,these men sallied forth1 and having fought their way through the garrison of the ,philistines at ,bethlehem1 verse #ad1 #8drew water from the well that was by the gate1' on the other side of the town1 and brought it to ,david4 ,coming into his presence1 they present to him the surprising testimony of their valour and affection4 ,the aged monarch receives from their hands a pledge they had so dearly earned1 but refuses to drink of water every drop of which had been purchased with blood1 #b ,sam4 xxiii1 #ag4 ,he returns thanks to the ,almighty1 who had vouchsafed the deliverance of his warriors from the jeopardy they had encountered2 and pouring out the water as a libation on the ground1 makes an offering of it to the ,lord4 ,the well still retains its pristine renown2 and many an expatriated ,bethlehemite has made it the theme of his longing and regret40 ,,bethphage1 so called from its producing figs1 a small village situated in ,mount ,olivet1 and1 as it seems1 somewhat nearer ,jerusalem than ,bethany4 ,jesus being come from ,bethany to ,bethphage1 commanded his disciples to seek out an ass for him that he might ride1 in his triumphant entrance into ,jerusalem1 ,matt4 xxi1 #a1 c4 ,the distance between ,bethphage and ,jerusalem is about fifteen furlongs4 ,,bethsaida1 a city whose name in ,hebrew imports a place of fishing or of hunting1 and for both of these exercises it was well situated4 ,as it belonged to the tribe of ,naphtali1 it was in a country remarkable for plenty of deer2 and as it lay on the north end of the lake ,gennesareth1 just where the river ,jordan runs into it1 it became the residence of fishermen4 ,three of the ,apostles1 ,philip1 ,andrew1 and ,peter1 were born in this city4 ,it is not mentioned in the ,old ,testament1 though it frequently occurs in the ,new3 the reason is1 that it was but a village1 as ,josephus tells us1 till ,philip the tetrarch enlarged it1 making it a magnificent city1 and gave it the name of ,julias1 out of respect to ,julia1 the daughter of ,augustus ,csar4 ,the evangelists speak of ,bethsaida2 and yet it then possessed that name no longer3 it was enlarged and beautified nearly at the same time as ,csarea1 and called ,julias4 ,thus was it called in the days of our ,lord1 and so would the sacred historians have been accustomed to call it4 ,but if they knew nothing of this1 what shall we say of their age8 ,in other respects they evince the most accurate knowledge of the circumstances of the time4 ,the solution is1 that1 though ,philip had exalted it to the rank of a city1 to which he gave the name of ,julias1 yet1 not long afterward1 this ,julia1 in whose honour the city received its name1 was banished from the country by her own father4 ,the deeply wounded honour of ,augustus was even anxious that the world might forget that she was his daughter4 ,tiberius1 whose wife she had been1 consigned the unfortunate princess1 after the death of ,augustus1 to the most abject poverty1 under which she sank without assistance4 ,thus adulation must under two reigns have suppressed a name1 from which otherwise the city might have wished to derive benefit to itself2 and for some time it was called by its ancient name ,bethsaida instead of ,julias4 ,at a later period this name again came into circulation1 and appears in the catalogue of ,jewish cities by ,pliny4 ,by such incidents1 which are so easily overlooked1 and the knowledge of which is afterward lost1 do those who are really acquainted with an age disclose their authenticity4 8,but it is strange10 some one will say1 8that ,john reckons this ,bethsaida1 or ,julias1 where he was born1 in ,galilee1 ,john xii1 #ba4 ,should he not know to what province his birthplace belonged80 ,philip only governed the eastern districts by the sea of ,tiberias2 but ,galilee was the portion of his brother ,antipas4 ,bethsaida or ,julias could therefore not have been built by ,philip1 as the case is2 or it did not belong to ,galilee1 as ,john alleges4 ,in fact1 such an error were sufficient to prove that this ,gospel was not written by ,john4 ,julias1 however1 was situated in ,gaulonitis1 which district was1 for deep political reasons1 divided from ,galilee2 but the ordinary language of the time asserted its own opinion1 and still reckoned the ,gaulonitish province in ,galilee4 ,when1 therefore1 ,john does the same1 he proves1 that the peculiarity of those days was not unknown to him2 for he expresses himself after the ordinary manner of the period4 ,thus ,josephus informs us of ,judas the ,gaulonite from ,gamala1 and also calls him in the following chapters1 the ,galilean2 and then in another work he applies the same expression to him2 from whence we may be convinced that the custom of those days paid respect to a more ancient division of the country1 and bade defiance1 in the present case1 to the then existing political geography4 ,is it possible that historians who1 as it is evident from such examples1 discover throughout so nice a knowledge of geographical arrangements and local and even temporary circumstances1 should have written at a time when the theatre of events was unknown to them1 when not only their native country was destroyed1 but their nation scattered1 and the national existence of the ,jews extinguished and extirpated8 ,on the contrary1 all this is in proof that they wrote at the very period which they profess1 and it also proves the usual antiquity assigned to the ,gospels4 ,,bethshan1 a city belonging to the half tribe of ,manasseh1 on the west of ,jordan1 and not far from the river4 ,it was a considerable city in the time of ,eusebius and ,st4 ,jerom1 and was then1 as it had been for several ages before1 called ,scythopolis1 or the city of the ,scythians1 from some remarkable occurrence when the ,scythians made an irruption into ,syria4 ,it is said to be six hundred furlongs from ,jerusalem1 #b ,macc4 xii1 #bi4 ,after the battle of ,mount ,gilboa1 the ,philistines took the body of ,saul1 and hung it against the wall of ,bethshan1 #a ,sam4 xxxi1 #aj4 ,bethshan is now called ,bysan1 and is described by ,burckhardt as situated on rising ground on the west of the ,ghor1 or valley of ,jordan4 ,,bethshemesh1 a city of the tribe of ,judah1 belonging to the priests1 ,joshua xxi1 #af4 ,the ,philistines having sent back the ark of the ,lord1 it was brought to ,bethshemesh1 #a ,sam4 vi1 #ab1 where some of the people out of curiosity having looked into it1 the ,lord destroyed seventy of the principal men belonging to the city1 and fifty thousand of the common people1 verse #ai4 ,it is here to be observed that it was solemnly enjoined1 ,num4 iv1 #bj1 that not only the common people but that even the ,levites themselves should not dare to look into the ark1 upon pain of death4 8,it is a fearful thing10 says ,bishop ,hall1 8to use the holy ordinances of ,god with an irreverent boldness2 fear and trembling become us in our access to the majesty of the ,almighty40 ,,bethuel1 the son of ,nahor and ,milcah4 ,he was ,abraham's nephew1 and father to ,laban and ,rebekah1 the wife of ,isaac1 ,genesis xxii1 #bj1 #bc4 ,,betrothment1 a mutual promise or compact between two parties for a future marriage4 ,the word imports as much as giving one's troth2 that is1 true faith1 or promise4 ,among the ancient ,jews1 the betrothing was performed either by a writing1 or by a piece of silver given to the bride4 ,after the marriage was contracted1 the young people had the liberty of seeing each other1 which was not allowed them before4 ,if1 after the betrothment1 the bride should trespass against that fidelity she owed to her bridegroom she was treated as an adulteress4 ,see ,,marriage4 ,,bezer1 or ,bozra1 or ,bostra1 a city beyond ,jordan1 given by ,moses to ,reuben3 this town was designed by ,joshua to be a city of refuge2 it was given to the ,levites of ,gershom's family1 ,deut4 iv1 #dc4 ,when ,scripture mentions ,bezer1 it adds1 8in the wilderness10 because it lay in ,arabia ,deserta1 and the eastern part of ,edom1 encompassed with deserts4 ,eusebius places ,bozra twenty-four miles from ,adraa1 or ,edrai4 ,this city is sometimes said to belong to ,reuben1 sometimes to ,moab1 and sometimes again to ,edom2 because1 as it was a frontier town to these three provinces1 it was occasionally in the hands of one party1 and then was taken by another4 ,the bishops of ,bostra subscribed the decrees of several councils4 ,,bible1 the book1 by way of eminence so called1 as containing the sacred ,scriptures1 that is1 the inspired writings of the ,old and ,new ,testament2 or the whole collection of those which are received among ,christians as of divine authority4 ,the word ,bible comes from the ,greek 1 or 1 and is used to denote any book2 but is emphatically applied to the book of inspired ,scripture1 which is 8the book0 as being superior in excellence to all other books4 again comes from 1 the ,egyptian reed1 from which the ancient paper was procured4 ,the word ,bible seems to be used in the particular sense just given by ,chrysostom3 8,i therefore exhort all of you to procure to yourselves ,bibles1 4 ,if you have nothing else1 take care to have the ,new ,testament1 particularly the ,acts of the ,apostles and the ,gospels1 for your constant instructers40 ,and ,jerome says1 8that the ,scriptures being all written by one ,spirit1 are one book40 ,augustine also informs us1 8that some called all the canonical ,scriptures one book1 on account of their wonderful harmony and unity of design throughout40 ,it is not improbable that this mode of speaking gradually introduced the general use of the word ,bible for the whole collection of the ,scriptures1 or the books of the ,old and ,new ,testament4 ,by the ,jews the ,bible1 that is1 the ,old ,testament1 is called ,mikra1 that is1 8lecture1 or reading40 ,by ,christians the ,bible1 comprehending the ,old and ,new ,testament1 is usually denominated 8,scripture20 sometimes also the 8,sacred ,canon10 which signifies the rule of faith and practice4 ,these1 and similar appellations1 are derived from the divine original and authority of the ,bible4 ,as it contains an authentic and connected history of the divine dispensations with regard to mankind2 as it was given by divine inspiration2 as its chief subject is religion2 and as the doctrines it teaches1 and the duties it inculcates1 pertain to the conduct of men1 as rational1 moral1 and accountable beings1 and conduce by a divine constitution and promise1 to their present and future happiness2 the ,bible deserves to be held in the highest estimation1 and amply justifies the sentiments of veneration with which it has been regarded1 and the peculiar and honourable appellations by which it has been denominated4 #b4 ,the list of the books contained in the ,bible constitutes what is called the canon of ,scripture4 ,those books that are contained in the catalogue to which the name of canon has been appropriated1 are called canonical1 by way of contradistinction from others called deutero-canonical1 apocryphal1 pseudo-apocryphal1 c1 which either are not acknowledged as divine books1 or are rejected as heretical and spurious4 7,see ,apocrypha47 ,the first canon or catalogue of the sacred books was made by the ,jews2 but the original author of it is not satisfactorily ascertained4 ,it is certain1 however1 that the five books of ,moses1 called the ,pentateuch1 were collected into one body within a short time after his death2 since ,deuteronomy1 which is1 as it were1 the abridgment and recapitulation of the other four1 was laid in the tabernacle near the ark1 according to the order which he gave to the ,levites1 ,deut4 xxxi1 #bd4 ,hence the first canon of the sacred writings consisted of the five books of ,moses3 for a farther account of which see ,pentateuch4 ,it does not appear that any other books were added to these1 till the division of the ten tribes1 as the ,samaritans acknowledged no others4 ,however1 after the time of ,moses1 several prophets1 and other writers divinely inspired1 composed either the history of their own times1 or prophetical books and divine writings1 or psalms appropriated to the praise of ,god4 ,but these books do not seem to have been collected into one body1 or comprised under one and the same canon1 before the ,babylonish captivity4 ,this was not done till after their return from the captivity1 about which time the ,jews had a certain number of books digested into a canon1 which comprehended none of those books that were written since the time of ,nehemiah4 ,the book of ,ecclesiasticus affords sufficient evidence that the canon of the sacred books was completed when that tract was composed2 for that author1 in chapter xlix1 having mentioned among the famous men and sacred writers1 ,isaiah1 ,jeremiah1 ,ezekiel1 adds the twelve minor prophets who follow those three in the ,jewish canon2 and from this circumstance we may infer that the prophecies of these twelve were already collected and digested into one body4 ,it is farther evident1 that in the time of our ,saviour the canon of the ,holy ,scriptures was drawn up1 since he cites the law of ,moses1 the ,prophets1 and the ,psalms1 which are the three kinds of books of which that canon is composed1 and which he often styles1 8the ,scriptures10 or1 8the ,holy ,scripture10 ,matt4 xxi1 #db2 xxii1 #bi2 xxvi1 #ed2 ,john v1 #ci2 and by him therefore the ,jewish canon1 as it existed in his day1 was fully authenticated1 by whomsoever or at what time it had been formed4 #c4 ,the person who compiled this canon is generally allowed to be ,ezra4 ,according to the invariable tradition of ,jews and ,christians1 the honour is ascribed to him of having collected together and perfected a complete edition of the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,the original of the ,pentateuch had been carefully preserved in the side of the ark1 and had been probably introduced with the ark into the temple at ,jerusalem4 ,after having been concealed in the dangerous days of the idolatrous kings of ,judah1 and particularly in the impious reigns of ,manasseh and ,amon1 it was found in the days of ,josiah1 the succeeding prince1 by ,hilkiah the priest1 in the temple4 ,prideaux thinks1 that during the preceding reigns the book of the law was so destroyed and lost1 that1 beside this copy of it1 there was then no other to be obtained4 ,to this purpose he adds1 that the surprise manifested by ,hilkiah1 on the discovery of it1 and the grief expressed by ,josiah when he heard it read1 plainly show that neither of them had seen it before4 ,on the other hand1 ,dr4 ,kennicott1 with better reason1 supposes1 that long before this time there were several copies of the law in ,israel1 during the separation of the ten tribes1 and that there were some copies of it also among the tribes of ,judah and ,benjamin1 particularly in the hands of the prophets1 priests1 and ,levites2 and that by the instruction and authority of these ,,mss1 the various services in the temple were regulated1 during the reigns of the good kings of ,judah4 ,he adds1 that the surprise expressed by ,josiah and the people1 at his reading the copy found by ,hilkiah1 may be accounted for by adverting to the history of the preceding reigns1 and by recollecting how idolatrous a king ,manasseh had been for fifty-five years1 and that he wanted neither power nor inclination to destroy the copies of the law1 if they had not been secreted by the servants of ,god4 ,the law1 after being so long concealed1 would be unknown almost to all the ,jews2 and thus the solemn reading of it by ,josiah would awaken his own and the people's earnest attention2 more especially1 as the copy produced was probably the original written by ,moses4 ,from this time copies of the law were extensively multiplied among the people2 and though1 within a few years1 the autograph1 or original copy of the law1 was burnt with the city and temple by the ,babylonians1 yet many copies of the law and the prophets1 and of all the other sacred writings1 were circulated in the hands of private persons1 who carried them with them into their captivity4 ,it is certain that ,daniel had a copy of the ,holy ,scriptures with him at ,babylon2 for he quotes the law1 and mentions the prophecies of ,jeremiah1 ,dan4 ix1 #b1 #aa1 #ac4 ,it appears also1 from the sixth chap4 of ,ezra1 and from the ninth chap4 of ,nehemiah1 that copies of the law were dispersed among the people4 ,the whole which ,ezra did may be comprised in the following particulars3 ,he collected as many copies of the sacred writings as he could find1 and compared them together1 and1 out of them all1 formed one complete copy1 adjusted the various readings1 and corrected the errors of transcribers4 ,he likewise made additions in several parts of the different books1 which appeared to be necessary for the illustration1 correction1 and completion of them4 ,to this class of additions we may refer the last chapter of ,deuteronomy1 which1 as it gives an account of the death and burial of ,moses1 and of the succession of ,joshua after him1 could not have been written by ,moses himself4 ,under the same head have also been included some other interpolations in the ,bible1 which create difficulties that can only be solved by allowing them2 as in ,gen4 xii1 #f2 xxii1 #ad2 xxxvi1 #c2 ,exodus xvi1 #ce2 ,deut4 ii1 #ab2 iii1 #aa1 #ad2 ,prov4 xxv1 #a4 ,the interpolations in these passages are ascribed by ,prideaux to ,ezra2 and others which were afterward added1 he attributes to ,simon the ,just4 ,ezra also changed the old names of several places that were become obsolete1 putting instead of them the new names by which they were at that time called2 instances of which occur in ,genesis xiv1 #d1 where ,dan is substituted for ,laish1 and in several places in ,genesis1 and also in ,numbers1 where ,hebron is put for ,kirjath ,arba1 c4 ,he likewise wrote out the whole in the ,chaldee character1 changing for it the old ,hebrew character1 which has since that time been retained only by the ,samaritans1 and among whom it is preserved even to this day4 ,the canon of the whole ,hebrew ,bible seems1 says ,kennicott1 to have been closed by ,malachi1 the latest of the ,jewish prophets1 about fifty years after ,ezra had collected together all the sacred books which had been composed before and during his time4 ,prideaux supposes the canon was completed by ,simon the ,just1 about one hundred and fifty years after ,malachi3 but1 as his opinion is founded merely on a few proper names at the end of the two genealogies1 #a ,chron4 iii1 #ai2 ,nehem4 xii1 #bb1 which few names might very easily be added by a transcriber afterward1 it is more probable1 as ,kennicott thinks1 that the canon was finished by the last of the prophets1 about four hundred years before ,christ4 #d4 ,it is an inquiry of considerable importance1 in its relation to the subject of this article1 what books were contained in the canon of the ,jews4 ,the ,old ,testament1 according to our ,bibles1 comprises thirty-nine books1 viz4 the ,pentateuch or five books of ,moses1 called ,genesis1 ,exodus1 ,leviticus1 ,numbers1 and ,deuteronomy1 the books of ,joshua1 ,judges1 ,ruth1 #a #b ,samuel1 #a #b ,kings1 #a #b ,chronicles1 ,ezra1 ,nehemiah1 ,esther1 ,job1 ,psalms1 ,proverbs1 ,ecclesiastes1 the ,song of ,solomon1 the prophecies of ,isaiah1 ,jeremiah with his ,lamentations1 ,ezekiel1 ,daniel1 ,hosea1 ,joel1 ,amos1 ,obadiah1 ,jonah1 ,micah1 ,nahum1 ,habakkuk1 ,zephaniah1 ,haggai1 ,zechariah1 and ,malachi4 ,but1 among the ancient ,jews1 they formed only twenty-two books1 according to the letters of their alphabet1 which were twenty-two in number2 reckoning ,judges and ,ruth1 ,ezra and ,nehemiah1 ,jeremiah and his ,lamentations1 and the twelve minor prophets1 7so called from the comparative brevity of their compositions17 respectively as one book4 ,josephus says1 8,we have not thousands of books1 discordant1 and contradicting each other3 but we have only twenty-two1 which comprehend the history of all former ages1 and are justly regarded as divine4 ,five of them proceed from ,moses2 they include as well the laws1 as an account of the creation of man1 extending to the time of his 7,moses7 death4 ,this period comprehends nearly three thousand years4 ,from the death of ,moses to that of ,artaxerxes1 who was king of ,persia after ,xerxes1 the prophets1 who succeeded ,moses1 committed to writing1 in thirteen books1 what was done in their days4 ,the remaining four books contain hymns to ,god1 7the ,psalms17 and instructions of life for man40 ,the threefold division of the ,old ,testament into the ,law1 the ,prophets1 and the ,psalms1 mentioned by ,josephus1 was expressly recognised before his time by ,jesus ,christ1 as well as by the subsequent writers of the ,new ,testament4 ,we have therefore sufficient evidence that the ,old ,testament existed at that time2 and if it be only allowed that ,jesus ,christ was a teacher of a fearless and irreproachable character1 it must be acknowledged that we draw a fair conclusion1 when we assert that the ,scriptures were not corrupted in his time3 for1 when he accused the ,pharisees of making the law of no effect by their traditions1 and1 when he enjoined his hearers to search the ,scriptures1 he could not have failed to mention the corruptions or forgeries of ,scripture1 if any had existed in that age4 ,about fifty years before the time of ,christ were written the ,targums of ,onkelos on the ,pentateuch1 and of ,jonathan ,ben-,uzziel on the ,prophets2 7according to the ,jewish classification of the books of the ,old ,testament27 which are evidence of the genuineness of those books at that time4 ,we have1 however1 unquestionable testimony of the genuineness of the ,old ,testament1 in the fact that its canon was fixed some centuries before the birth of ,jesus ,christ4 ,jesus the son of ,sirach1 author of the book of ,ecclesiasticus1 makes evident references to the prophecies of ,isaiah1 ,jeremiah1 and ,ezekiel1 and mentions these prophets by name3 he speaks also of the twelve minor prophets4 ,it likewise appears from the prologue to that book1 that the law and the prophets1 and other ancient books1 were extant at the same period4 ,the book of ,ecclesiasticus1 according to the best chronologers1 was written in the ,syro-,chaldaic dialect ,a4 ,m4 #cggb1 that is1 two hundred and thirty-two years before the ,christian ra1 and was translated by the grandson of ,jesus into ,greek1 for the use of the ,alexandrian ,jews4 ,the prologue was added by the translator2 but this circumstance does not diminish the evidence for the antiquity of the ,old ,testament3 for he informs us1 that the law and the prophets1 and the other books of their fathers1 were studied by his grandfather2 a sufficient proof that they were extant in his time4 ,fifty years1 indeed1 before the age of the author of ,ecclesiasticus1 or two hundred and eighty-two years before the ,christian ra1 the ,greek version of the ,old ,testament1 usually called the ,septuagint1 was executed at ,alexandria1 the books of which are the same as in our ,bibles2 whence it is evident that we still have those identical books1 which the most ancient ,jews attested to be genuine4 ,the ,christian fathers too1 ,origen1 ,athanasius1 ,hilary1 ,gregory1 ,nazianzen1 ,epiphanius1 and ,jerom1 speaking of the books that are allowed by the ,jews as sacred and canonical1 agree in saying that they are the same in number with the letters in the ,hebrew alphabet1 that is1 twenty-two1 and reckon particularly those books which we have already mentioned4 ,nothing can be more satisfactory and conclusive than all the parts of the evidence for the authenticity and integrity of the canon of the ,old ,testament scriptures4 ,the ,jews1 to whom they were first committed1 never varied respecting them2 while they were fully recognised by our ,lord and his ,apostles2 and1 consequently1 their authenticity is established by express revelation4 ,and that we now possess them as thus delivered and authenticated1 we have the concurrent testimony of the whole succession of the most distinguished early ,christian writers1 as well as of the ,jews to this day1 who1 in every age1 and in all countries1 the most remote from one another1 have constantly been in the habit of reading them in their synagogues4 #e4 ,the five books of the law are divided into fifty-four sections1 which division is attributed to ,ezra1 and was intended for the use of their synagogues1 and for the better instruction of the people in the law of ,god4 ,for1 one of these sections was read every ,sabbath in their synagogues4 ,they ended the last section with the last words of ,deuteronomy on the ,sabbath of the feast of the tabernacles1 and then began anew with the first section from the beginning of ,genesis the next ,sabbath after1 and so went round in this circle every year4 ,the number of these sections was fifty-four1 because in their intercalated years 7a month being then added7 there were fifty-four ,sabbaths4 ,on other years they reduced them to the number of the ,sabbaths which were in those years1 by joining two short ones several times into one4 ,for they held themselves obliged to have the whole law thus read over in their synagogues every year4 ,till the time of the persecution of ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 they read only the law2 but being then prohibited from reading it any more1 they substituted in the room of the fifty-four sections of the law1 fifty-four sections out of the prophets1 the reading of which they ever after continued4 ,thus1 when the reading of the law was restored by the ,maccabees1 the section which was read every ,sabbath out of the law served for their first lesson1 and the section out of the prophets for their second lesson2 and this practice was continued to the times of the ,apostles1 ,acts xiii1 #ae1 #bg4 ,these sections were divided into verses1 called by the ,jews pesukim1 and they are marked out in the ,hebrew ,bible by two great points at the end of them1 called from hence1 soph-pasuk1 that is1 the end of the verse4 ,this division1 if not made by ,ezra1 is very ancient2 for when the ,chaldee came into use in the room of the ,hebrew language1 after the return of the ,jews from their captivity in ,babylon1 the law was read to the people first in the ,hebrew language1 and then rendered by an interpreter into the ,chaldee language2 and this was done period by period4 ,the division of the ,holy ,scriptures into chapters is of a much later date4 ,the ,psalms1 indeed1 appear to have been always divided as they are at present1 ,acts xiii1 #cc2 but as to the rest of the ,bible1 the present division into chapters was unknown to the ancients4 #f4 ,from the time when the ,old ,testament was completed by ,malachi1 the last of the prophets1 till the publication of the ,new ,testament1 about four hundred and sixty years elapsed4 ,during the life of ,jesus ,christ1 and for some time after his ascension1 nothing on the subject of his mission was committed to writing4 ,the period of his remaining upon earth may be regarded as an intermediate state between the old and new dispensations4 ,his personal ministry was confined to the land of ,judea2 and1 by means of his miracles and discourses1 together with those of his disciples1 the attention of men1 in that country1 was sufficiently directed to his doctrine4 ,they were also in possession of the ,old ,testament scriptures2 which1 at that season1 it was of the greatest importance they should consult1 in order to compare the ancient predictions with what was then taking place4 ,immediately after the resurrection of ,jesus ,christ1 his disciples1 in the most public manner1 and in the place where he had been crucified1 proclaimed that event1 and the whole of the doctrine which he had commanded them to preach4 ,in this service they continued personally to labour for a considerable time1 first among their countrymen the ,jews1 and then among the other nations4 ,during the period between the resurrection and the publication of the ,new ,testament1 the churches possessed miraculous gifts1 and the prophets were enabled to explain the predictions of the ,old ,testament1 and to show their fulfilment4 ,after their doctrine had every where attracted attention1 and1 in spite of the most violent opposition1 had forced its way through the civilized world2 and when churches or societies of ,christians were collected1 not only in ,judea1 but in the most celebrated cities of ,italy1 ,greece1 and ,asia ,minor1 the scriptures of the ,new ,testament were written by the ,apostles1 and other inspired men1 and intrusted to the keeping of these churches4 ,the whole of the ,new ,testament was not written at once1 but in different parts1 and on various occasions4 ,six of the ,apostles1 and two inspired disciples who accompanied them in their journeys1 were employed in this work4 ,the histories which it contains of the life of ,christ1 known by the name of the ,gospels1 were composed by four of his contemporaries1 two of whom had been constant attendants on his public ministry4 ,the first of these was published within a few years after his death1 in that very country where he had lived1 and among the people who had seen him and observed his conduct4 ,the history called the ,acts of the ,apostles1 which contains an account of their proceedings1 and of the progress of the ,gospel1 from ,jerusalem1 among the ,gentile nations1 was published about the year #fd1 being thirty years after our ,lord's crucifixion1 by one who1 though not an ,apostle1 declares that he had 8perfect understanding of all things1 from the very first10 and who had written one of the ,gospels4 ,this book1 commencing with a detail of proceedings1 from the resurrection of ,jesus ,christ1 carries down the evangelical history till the arrival of ,paul as a prisoner at ,rome4 ,the ,epistles1 addressed to churches in particular places1 to believers scattered up and down in different countries1 or to individuals1 in all twenty-one in number1 were separately written1 by five of the ,apostles1 from seventeen1 to twenty1 thirty1 and thirty-five years after the death of ,christ4 ,four of these writers had accompanied the ,lord ,jesus during his life1 and had been 8eye witnesses of his majesty40 ,the fifth was the ,apostle ,paul1 who1 as he expresses it1 was 8one born out of due time10 but who had likewise seen ,jesus ,christ1 and had been empowered by him to work miracles1 which were 8the signs of an ,apostle40 ,one of these five also wrote the book of ,revelation1 about the year ,a4 ,d4 #if1 addressed to seven churches in ,asia1 containing ,epistles to these churches from ,jesus ,christ himself1 with various instructions for the immediate use of all ,christians1 together with a prophetical view of the kingdom of ,god till the end of time4 ,these several pieces1 which compose the scriptures of the ,new ,testament1 were received by the churches with the highest veneration2 and1 as the instructions they contain1 though partially addressed1 were equally intended for all1 they were immediately copied1 and handed about from one church to another1 till each was in possession of the whole4 ,the volume of the ,new ,testament was thus completed before the death of the last of the ,apostles1 most of whom had sealed their testimony with their blood4 ,from the manner in which these scriptures were at first circulated1 some of their parts were necessarily longer in reaching certain places than others4 ,these1 of course1 could not be so soon received into the canon as the rest4 ,owing to this circumstance1 and to that of a few of the books being addressed to individual believers1 or to their not having the names of their writers affixed1 or the designation of ,apostle added1 a doubt for a time existed among some respecting the genuineness of the ,epistle to the ,hebrews1 the ,epistle of ,james1 the second ,epistle of ,peter1 the second and third ,epistles of ,john1 the ,epistle of ,jude1 and the book of ,revelation4 ,these1 however1 though not universally1 were generally acknowledged2 while all the other books of the ,new ,testament were without dispute received from the beginning4 ,this discrimination proves the scrupulous care of the first churches on this highly important subject4 ,at length these books1 which had not at first been admitted1 were1 like the rest1 universally received1 not by the votes of a council1 as is sometimes asserted1 but after deliberate and free inquiry by many separate churches1 under the superintending providence of ,god1 in different parts of the world4 ,it is at the same time a certain fact1 that no other books beside those which at present compose the volume of the ,new ,testament1 were admitted by the churches4 ,several apocryphal writings were published under the name of ,jesus ,christ and his ,apostles1 which are mentioned by the writers of the first four centuries1 most of which have perished1 though some are still extant4 ,few or none of them were composed before the second century1 and several of them were forged as late as the third century4 ,but they were not acknowledged as authentic by the first ,christians2 and were rejected by those who have noticed them1 as spurious and heretical4 ,histories1 too1 as might have been expected1 were written of the life of ,christ2 and one forgery was attempted1 of a letter said to have been written by ,jesus himself to ,abgarus1 king of ,edessa2 but of the first1 none were received as of any authority1 and the last was universally rejected4 8,beside our ,gospels1 and the ,acts of the ,apostles10 says ,paley1 8no ,christian history claiming to be written by an ,apostle1 or ,apostolical man1 is quoted within three hundred years after the birth of ,christ1 by any writer now extant or known1 or1 if quoted1 is quoted with marks of censure and rejection40 ,this agreement of ,christians respecting the ,scriptures1 when we consider their many differences in other respects1 is the more remarkable1 since it took place without any public authority being interposed4 8,we have no knowledge0 says the above author1 8of any interference of authority in the question before the council of ,laodicea1 in the year #cfc4 ,probably the decree of this council rather declared than regulated the public judgment1 or1 more properly speaking1 the judgment of some neighbouring churches1 the council itself consisting of no more than thirty or forty bishops of ,lydia and the adjoining countries4 ,nor does its authority seem to have extended farther40 ,but the fact1 that no public authority was interposed1 does not require to be supported by the above reasoning4 ,the churches at the beginning1 being widely separated from each other1 necessarily judged for themselves in this matter1 and the decree of the council was founded on the coincidence of their judgment4 ,in delivering this part of his written revelation1 ,god proceeded as he had done in the publication of the ,old ,testament scriptures4 ,for a considerable time1 his will was declared to mankind through the medium of oral tradition4 ,at length he saw meet1 in his wisdom1 to give it a more permanent form4 ,but this did not take place till a nation1 separated from all others1 was provided for its reception4 ,in the same manner1 when ,jesus ,christ set up his kingdom in the world1 of which the nation of ,israel was a type1 he first made known his will by means of verbal communication1 through his servants whom he commissioned and sent out for that purpose2 and when1 through their means1 he had prepared his subjects and collected them into churches1 to be the depositaries of his word1 he caused it to be delivered to them in writing4 ,his kingdom was not to consist of any particular nation1 like that of ,israel1 but of all those individuals1 in every part of the world1 who should believe in his name4 ,it was to be ruled1 not by means of human authority1 or compulsion of any kind1 but solely by his authority4 ,these sacred writings were thus intrusted to a people prepared for their reception1--a nation among the nations1 but singularly distinct from all the rest1 who guarded and preserved them with the same inviolable attachment as the ,old ,testament scriptures had experienced from the ,jews4 #g4 ,respecting the lateness of the time when the scriptures of the ,new ,testament were written1 no objection can be offered1 since they were published before that generation passed away which had witnessed the transactions they record4 ,the dates of these writings fall within the period of the lives of many who were in full manhood when the ,lord ,jesus was upon earth2 and the facts detailed in the histories1 and referred to in the ,epistles1 being of the most public nature1 were still open to full investigation4 ,it must also be recollected1 that the ,apostles and disciples1 during the whole intermediate period1 were publicly proclaiming to the world the same things which were afterward recorded in their writings4 ,thus were the ,scriptures1 as we now possess them1 delivered to the first churches4 ,by the concurrent testimony of all antiquity1 both of friends and foes1 they were received by ,christians of different sects1 and were constantly appealed to on all hands1 in the controversies that arose among them4 ,commentaries upon them were written at a very early period1 and translations made into different languages4 ,formal catalogues of them were published1 and they were attacked by the adversaries of ,christianity1 who not only did not question1 but expressly admitted1 the facts they contained1 and that they were the genuine productions of the persons whose names they bore4 ,in this manner the ,scriptures were also secured from the danger of being in any respect altered or vitiated4 8,the books of ,scripture10 says ,augustine1 8could not have been corrupted4 ,if such an attempt had been made by any one1 his design would have been prevented and defeated4 ,his alterations would have been immediately detected by many and more ancient copies40 ,the difficulty of succeeding in such an attempt is apparent hence1 that the ,scriptures were early translated into divers languages1 and copies of them were numerous4 ,the alterations which any one attempted to make would have been soon perceived2 just even as now1 in fact1 lesser faults in some copies are amended by comparing ancient copies or those of the original4 8,if any one10 continues ,augustine1 8should charge you with having interpolated some texts alleged by you as favourable to your cause1 what would you say8 ,would you not immediately answer that it is impossible for you to do such a thing in books read by all ,christians2 and that if any such attempt had been made--by you1 it would have been presently discerned and defeated by comparing the ancient copies8 ,well1 then1 for the same reason that the ,scriptures cannot be corrupted by you1 neither could they be corrupted by any other people40 ,accordingly1 the uniformity of the manuscripts of the ,holy ,scriptures that are extant1 which are incomparably more numerous than those of any ancient author1 and which are dispersed through so many countries1 and in so great a variety of languages1 is truly astonishing4 ,it demonstrates both the veneration in which the ,scriptures have been always held1 and the singular care that has been taken in transcribing them4 ,the number of various readings1 that by the most minute and laborious investigation and collations of manuscripts have been discovered in them1 are said to amount to one hundred and fifty thousand2 though at first sight they may seem calculated to diminish confidence in the sacred text1 yet in no degree whatever do they affect its credit and integrity4 ,they consist almost wholly in palpable errors in transcription1 grammatical and verbal differences1 such as the insertion or omission of a letter or article1 the substitution of a word for its equivalent1 or the transposition of a word or two in a sentence4 ,taken altogether1 they neither change nor affect a single doctrine or duty announced or enjoined in the word of ,god4 ,when1 therefore1 we consider the great antiquity of the sacred books1 the almost infinite number of copies1 of versions1 and of editions1 which have been made of them in all languages1 in languages which have not any analogy one with another1 among nations differing so much in their customs and their religious opinions1--when we consider these things1 it is truly astonishing1 and can only be ascribed to the watchful providence of ,god over his own word1 that1 among the various readings1 nothing truly essential can be discerned1 which relates to either precept or doctrine1 or which breaks that connection1 that unity which subsists in all the various parts of divine revelation1 and which demonstrates the whole to be the work of one and the same ,spirit4 #h4 ,having considered the appellations by which the ,bible is distinguished1 the books of which it consists1 the time and manner in which they were collected1 it may not be improper to subjoin a few observations on the genuineness and authenticity of the ,scriptures1 on their high original and divine authority1 and on their great importance and utility4 ,it should here be considered1 that the genuineness of the ,scriptures proves the truth of the principal facts contained in them2 to which purpose we may observe that it is very rare to meet with any genuine writings of the historical kind1 in which the principal facts are not true1 unless it be in instances where both the motives which engaged the author to falsify1 and the circumstances which gave some plausibility to the fiction1 are apparent2 neither of which can be alleged in the present case with any colour of reason4 ,as this is rare in general1 it is more rare when the writer treats of things that happened in his own time1 and under his own cognizance and direction1 and communicates his history to persons under the same circumstances2 all which may be said of the writers of the ,scripture history4 ,beside1 the great importance of the facts mentioned in the ,scriptures makes it more improbable1 that the several authors should either have attempted to falsify1 or have succeeded in such an attempt4 ,the same observation may be applied to the great number of particular circumstances of time1 place1 persons1 c1 mentioned in the ,scriptures1 and to the harmony of the books with themselves1 and with each other4 ,these are arguments both for the genuineness of the books1 and truth of the facts distinctly considered1 and also arguments for deducing the truth from the genuineness4 ,moreover1 if the books of the ,old and ,new ,testaments were written by the persons to whom they have been ascribed1 that is1 if they be genuine1 the moral characters of these writers afford the strongest assurance1 that the facts asserted by them are true4 ,the sufferings which several of the writers underwent both in life and in death1 in attestation of the facts delivered by them1 furnish a particular argument in favour of these facts4 ,again1 the arguments here alleged for proving the truth of the ,scripture history from the genuineness of the books1 are as conclusive in respect of the miraculous facts1 as of the common ones4 ,it may also be observed1 that if we allow the genuineness of the books to be a sufficient evidence of the common facts which they record1 the miraculous facts must also be allowed from their close connection with the others4 ,it is necessary to admit both or neither4 ,we cannot conceive that ,moses should have delivered the ,israelites from their slavery in ,egypt1 or conducted them through the wilderness for forty years1 at all in such manner as the common history represents1 unless we suppose the miraculous facts intermixed with it to be true also4 ,in like manner1 the fame of ,christ's miracles1 the multitudes which followed him1 the adherence of his disciples1 the jealousy and hatred of the chief priests1 scribes1 and ,pharisees1 with many other facts of a common nature1 are impossible to be accounted for1 unless we allow that he did really work miracles4 ,and the same observations hold1 in general1 of the other parts of the ,scripture history4 ,we might urge that a particular argument in favour of the miraculous part of the ,scripture history1 may be deduced from the reluctance of mankind to receive miraculous facts2 which would put the writers and readers very much upon their guard1 and would operate as a strong check upon the publication of a miraculous history at or near the time when the miracles were said to be performed2 and thus it would serve as a strong confirmation of such a history1 if its genuineness be previously granted4 #i4 ,in connection with the preceding proposition we may observe1 that the genuineness of the ,scriptures proves their divine authority4 ,porphyry in effect acknowledges the truth of this proposition1 in its reference to the book of ,daniel1 by being unable to devise a method of invalidating its divine authority implied in the accomplishment of the prophecies which it contains1 without asserting that they were written after the event1 or that they were forgeries4 ,many of the other books of the ,old and ,new ,testaments have unquestionable evidences of the divine foreknowledge1 if they be allowed genuine2 such are those supplied by ,moses's prophecy concerning the captivity of the ,israelites1 or of a state not yet erected2 ,isaiah's concerning ,cyrus2 ,jeremiah's concerning the duration of the ,babylonish captivity2 ,christ's concerning the destruction of ,jerusalem1 and the captivity that was to follow2 ,st4 ,john's concerning the great corruption of the ,christian church2 and ,daniel's concerning the fourth empire in its declension2 which last was extant in the time of ,porphyry1 at least2 that is1 before the events which it represents4 ,the truth of the proposition might also be argued from the sublimity and excellence of the doctrines contained in the ,scriptures2 in no respect suiting the supposed authors1 or the ages in which they lived1 their education or occupation2 so that1 if they were the real authors1 we are under the necessity of admitting the divine assistance4 ,the converse of this proposition1 namely1 that the divine authority of the ,scriptures infers their genuineness1 will be readily and universally acknowledged4 ,moreover1 the truth of the principal facts contained in the ,scriptures proves their divine authority4 ,such is the frame of the human mind1 that the ,scripture history1 allowed to be true1 must convince us that ,christ1 the ,prophets1 and the ,apostles1 were endued with a power greater than human1 and acted by the authority of a ,being of the highest wisdom and goodness4 ,by such mode of reasoning it is shown that the genuineness of the ,scriptures1 the truth of the principal facts contained in them1 and their divine authority1 appear to be so connected with each other1 that1 any one being established upon independent principles1 the other two may be inferred from it4 ,on the subject of the inspiration of the ,scriptures1 see ,,inspiration4 #aj4 ,another argument in favour of the genuineness of the books of the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 and of the truth of the principal facts contained in them1 may be deduced from the manner in which they have been transmitted down from one age to another2 resembling that in which all other genuine books and true histories have been conveyed down to posterity4 ,as the works of the ,greek and ,roman writers were considered by these nations as having been transmitted to them by their ancestors in a continued succession from the times when the respective authors lived1 so have the books of the ,old ,testament been accounted by the ,jews1 and those of the ,new by the ,christians2 and it is an additional evidence in the last case1 that the primitive ,christians were not a distinct nation1 but a great multitude of people dispersed through all the nations of the ,roman empire1 and even extending itself beyond the bounds of that empire4 ,as the ,greeks and ,romans always believed the principal facts of their historical books1 so the ,jews and ,christians did more1 and never seem to have doubted of the truth of any part of theirs4 ,in short--whatever can be said of the traditional authority due to the ,greek and ,roman writers--something analogous to this1 and for the most part of greater weight1 may be urged for the ,jewish and ,christian4 ,now1 as all sober minded persons admit the books usually ascribed to the ,greek and ,roman historians1 philosophers1 c1 to be genuine1 and the principal facts related or alluded to in them to be true1 and that one chief evidence for this is the general traditionary one here recited1 they ought1 therefore1 to pay the same regard to the books of the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 since there are the same1 or even greater1 reasons for it4 ,beside1 these traditionary evidences are sufficient2 and we thus obtain a real argument1 as well as one ad hominem1 for receiving books thus handed down to us4 ,for it is not conceivable1 that whole nations should either be imposed upon themselves1 or concur to deceive others by forgeries of books or of facts4 ,these books and facts must therefore1 in general1 be genuine and true2 and it is a strong additional evidence of this1 that all nations must be jealous of forgeries for the same reasons as we are4 #aa4 ,we may proceed to state farther1 that the great importance of the histories1 precepts1 promises1 threatenings1 and prophecies contained in the ,scriptures1 is in evidence both of their genuineness1 and of the truth of the principal facts mentioned in them4 ,the history of the creation1 fall1 deluge1 longevity of the patriarchs1 dispersion of mankind1 calling of ,abraham1 descent of ,jacob with his family into ,egypt1 and the precepts of abstaining from blood1 and of circumcision1 were of such concern1 either to mankind in general1 or to the ,israelites in particular1 and some of them of so extraordinary a nature1 as that it could not be a matter of indifference to the people among whom the account given of them in ,genesis was first published1 whether they received them or not4 ,on the supposition that this account was first published among the ,israelites by ,moses1 and then confirmed by clear1 universal1 uninterrupted tradition1 it will be easy to conceive how it should be handed down from age to age among the ,jews1 and received by them as indubitable4 ,but1 supposing the account to be false1 or that there were no such vestiges and evidences of these histories and precepts1 it will be difficult to conceive how this could have happened1 let the time of publication be what it may4 ,if early1 the people would reject at once the account1 for want of a clear tradition2 if late1 it would be natural to inquire how the author was informed of things never known before to others4 ,as to other cosmogonies and theogonies current among ,pagans1 which are evident fictions1 they furnish no just objection against the ,mosaic history1 because they were generally regarded merely as amusing fictions2 and yet they concealed in figures1 or expressed in plain words1 some truths which agree with the book of ,genesis1 and afford a strong presumptive evidence in favour of this book4 ,with respect to the law of ,moses1 this was extremely burdensome1 expensive1 and severe1 particularly in its reference to the crime of idolatry1 to which mankind were then extravagantly prone2 and it was absurd1 according to human judgment1 in the instances of prohibiting their furnishing themselves with horses for war1 and of commanding all the males of the whole nation to appear at ,jerusalem three times a year4 ,nevertheless1 it claims a divine authority1 and appeals to facts of the most notorious kind1 and to customs and ceremonies of the most peculiar nature1 as the memorials of these facts4 ,can we then conceive that any nation1 with such motives to reject1 and such opportunities of detecting1 the forgery of the books of ,exodus1 ,leviticus1 ,numbers1 and ,deuteronomy1 should yet receive them1 and submit to this heavy yoke8 ,that the ,jews did submit to the law of ,moses in these circumstances1 is evident from the books of the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 if we allow them the least truth and genuineness1 or even from profane writers1 and from the present observance of it by the ,jews scattered through all the kingdoms of the world4 ,should it be said that other nations have ascribed divine authority to their lawgivers1 and submitted to very severe laws1 it may be alleged in reply to this1 that the pretences of lawgivers among the ,pagans to inspiration1 and the submission of the people1 may be accounted for from their peculiar circumstances at the time1 without recurring to real inspiration2 and more especially if we admit the patriarchal revelations related by ,moses1 and his own divine legation1 as ,heathen lawgivers copied after these1 and hence we derive a strong argument in their favour4 ,beside1 no instance occurs among the ,pagans of a body of laws framed at once and remaining invariable2 whereas the body politic of the ,israelites assumed a complete form at once1 and has preserved it1 with little variation1 to the present time1 and under many external disadvantages2 thus supplying us with an instance altogether without parallel1 and showing the high opinion which they entertained of the great importance of their law4 ,in short1 of all the fictions or forgeries that can happen among any people1 the most improbable is that of the ,jewish body of civil laws1 and seems to be utterly impossible4 #ab4 ,if we farther examine the history contained in the books of ,joshua1 ,judges1 ,ruth1 ,samuel1 ,kings1 ,chronicles1 ,ezra1 and ,nehemiah1 and extending from the death of ,moses to the restablishment of the ,jews after the ,babylonish captivity by ,ezra and ,nehemiah1 we shall find a variety of important facts1 most of which must be supposed to leave such vestiges of themselves1 either external and visible1 or internal in the minds and memories of the people1 as would verify them if true1 or cause them to be rejected if false4 ,the conquest of the land of ,canaan1 the division of it1 and the appointment of cities for the priests and ,levites by ,joshua2 the frequent slaveries of the ,israelites to the neighbouring kings1 and their deliverance by the judges2 the creation of a kingdom by ,samuel2 the translation of this kingdom from ,saul's family to ,david1 with his conquests2 the glory of ,solomon's kingdom2 the building of the temple2 the division of the kingdom2 the idolatrous worship set up at ,dan and ,bethel2 the captivity of the ,israelites by the kings of ,assyria2 the captivity of the ,jews by ,nebuchadnezzar2 the destruction of their temple2 their return under ,cyrus1 rebuilding the temple under ,darius ,hystaspes1 and restablishment under ,artaxerxes ,longimanus1 by ,ezra and ,nehemiah3--these events are some of them the most glorious1 and some of them the most reproachful1 that can happen to any people4 ,how can we reconcile forgeries of such opposite kinds1 and especially as they are interwoven together by various complicated and necessary connections1 which do not admit of separation8 ,the facts1 indeed1 are of such importance1 notoriety1 and permanency in their effects1 that no particular persons among the ,israelites could first project the design of feigning them1 that their own people would not concur with such a design1 and that neighbouring nations would not permit the fiction to pass4 ,nothing but the invincible evidence of the facts here alleged1 could induce a jealous multitude among the ,israelites or neighbouring nations to acquiesce4 ,this must be acknowledged upon the supposition that the several books were published in or near the times when the facts that are recorded in them happened4 ,but suppose all these historical books forged by ,ezra2 the hypothesis is evidently impossible4 ,things so important and notorious1 so honourable and so reproachful to the people for whose sake they were forged1 would have been rejected with the utmost indignation1 unless there were the strongest and most genuine traces of these things already among the people4 ,they must therefore1 in part at least1 be true4 ,if it be said that additions were made by ,ezra1 these additions must have been either of important or trivial matters4 ,on the first supposition1 the difficulty already stated recurs2 and if the important facts are true1 what possible motive could have induced ,ezra to make additions of no importance8 ,beside1 if any ancient writings were extant1 ,ezra must either copy after them1 which destroys the present supposition1 or differ from and oppose them1 which would betray him4 ,if there were no such ancient writings1 the people would be led to inquire with regard to matters of importance1 for what reason ,ezra was so particular in things of which there was neither any memory1 nor account in writing4 ,should it be said that the people did not regard what ,ezra had thus forged1 this reduces the subject in question to matters of small or of no importance4 ,beside1 why should ,ezra write if no one would read or regard8 ,farther3 ,ezra must have had1 like other men1 friends1 enemies1 and rivals2 and some1 or all of these1 would have been a check upon him1 and a security against him1 in matters of importance4 ,if we suppose these books1 instead of having been forged at once1 to have been forged successively1 at the interval of one1 two1 or three centuries after the facts related1 we shall involve ourselves in the same or similar difficulties4 ,upon the whole1 then1 we may conclude1 that the forgery of the annals of the ,israelites appears to be impossible1 as well as that of the body of their civil laws4 ,it is needless to examine the books of ,esther1 ,job1 the ,psalms1 ,proverbs1 ,ecclesiastes1 and ,canticles2 and we might proceed to the ,prophecies2 but this will be resumed under the article ,prophecy4 ,for the subjects comprehended in the books of the ,new ,testament4 ,see ,,gospel3,,gospel1 and ,,christianity4 #ac4 ,we shall here subjoin some general evidences in attestation of the truth of the books of ,scripture4 ,that ,jews and ,christians have thought their sacred books very highly important1 most genuine1 and true1 appears from the persecutions and sufferings which they have undergone on account of their attachment to them1 and because they would not be prevailed upon to surrender them4 ,the preservation of the law of ,moses1 probably the first book written in any language1 whilst many others of a later date have been lost1 shows the great regard that has been paid to it2 and from this circumstance we may infer that this and the other books of the ,old ,testament have been preserved on account of their importance1 or from some other cause1 equally evincing their genuineness and truth4 ,the great value set upon these books appears also from the many early translations and paraphrases of them2 and these translations and paraphrases serve to correct errors that are unavoidable in the lapse of time1 and to secure their integrity and purity4 ,the hesitation and difficulty with which some few books of the ,new ,testament were received into the canon1 show the great care and concern of the primitive ,christians about the canon1 and the high importance of the books admitted into it2 and afford a strong evidence of their genuineness and truth4 ,the same observation is in a degree applicable to the ,jewish canon4 ,moreover1 the religious hatred and animosity which subsisted between the ,jews and ,samaritans1 and between several of the ancient sects among the ,christians1 convince us of what importance they all thought their sacred books1 and disposed them to watch over one another with a jealous eye4 ,farther3 the genuineness of the books of the ,old and ,new ,testaments may be evinced from the language1 style1 and manner of writing used in them4 ,the ,hebrew language1 in which the ,old ,testament was written1 being the language of an ancient people1 who had little intercourse with their neighbours1 would not change so fast as modern languages have done1 since different nations have been variously blended with one another by the extension of trade1 arts1 and sciences2 and yet some changes must have occurred in the interval that elapsed between the time of ,moses and that of ,malachi4 ,the biblical ,hebrew corresponds so exactly to this criterion1 as to afford a considerable argument in favour of the genuineness of the books of the ,old ,testament4 ,beside1 these books have too great a diversity of style to be the work of either one ,jew1 or of any set of contemporary ,jews4 ,if they be forgeries1 there must have been a succession of impostors in different ages1 who concurred in the same iniquitous design4 ,again3 the ,hebrew language ceased to be spoken1 as a living language1 soon after the time of the ,babylonish captivity2 and it would be difficult or impossible to forge any thing in it after it became a dead language4 ,hence it appears1 that all the books of the ,old ,testament must at least be nearly as ancient as the ,babylonish captivity2 and as they could not all be written in the same age1 some must be much more ancient1 and this would reduce us to the necessity of supposing a succession of conspiring impostors4 ,moreover1 there is1 as we have already observed1 a simplicity of style1 and an unaffected manner of writing1 in all the books of the ,old ,testament1 which is a strong evidence of their genuineness4 ,the style of the ,new ,testament1 in particular1 is not only simple and unaffected1 but is ,greek influenced by the ,hebrew idiom1 and exactly answers to the circumstances of time1 places1 and persons4 ,to which we may add1 that the narrations and precepts of both the ,old and ,new ,testament are delivered without hesitation2 the writers teaching as having authority3 and this circumstance is peculiar to those who unite1 with a clear knowledge of what they deliver1 a perfect integrity of heart4 ,but a farther argument for the genuineness and truth of the ,scriptures is supplied by the very great number of particular circumstances of time1 place1 persons1 c1 mentioned in them4 ,it is needless to recount these2 but they are incompatible with forged and false accounts1 that do not abound in such particularities1 and the want of which furnishes a suspicion to their discredit4 ,compare1 in this respect1 ,manetho's account of the dynasties of ,egypt1 ,ctesias's of the ,assyrian kings1 and those which the technical chronologers have given of the ancient kingdoms of ,greece1 which are defective in such particulars1 with the history by ,thucydides of the ,peloponnesian war1 and with ,csar's of the war in ,gaul1 and the difference will be sufficiently apparent4 ,dr4 ,paley's admirable treatise1 entitled1 8,hor ,paulin10 affords very valuable illustrations of this argument as it respects the genuineness of the books of the ,new ,testament4 ,the agreement of the ,scriptures with history1 natural and civil1 is a farther proof of their genuineness and truth4 ,the history of the fall agrees in an eminent manner both with the obvious facts of labour1 sorrow1 pain1 and death1 with what we see and feel every day1 and with all our philosophical inquiries into the frame of the human mind1 the nature of social life1 and the origin of evil4 ,natural history bears a strong testimony to ,moses's account of the deluge4 ,civil history affords many evidences which corroborate the same account4 7,see ,deluge47 ,the ,mosaic account of the confusion of languages1 of the dispersion of ,noah's sons1 and of the state of religion in the ancient postdiluvian world1 is not only rendered probable1 but is in a very high degree established1 by many collateral arguments4 ,see ,,confusion ,,of ,,languages1 and ,,division ,,of ,,the ,,earth4 #ad4 ,the agreement of the books of the ,old and ,new ,testaments with themselves and with each other1 affords another argument both of their genuineness and truth4 ,the laws of the ,israelites are contained in the ,pentateuch1 and referred to1 in a great variety of ways1 direct and indirect1 in the historical books1 in the ,psalms1 and in the ,prophecies4 ,the historical facts also in the preceding books are often referred to in those that succeed1 and in the ,psalms and ,prophecies4 ,in like manner1 the ,gospels have the greatest harmony with each other1 and the ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul with the ,acts of the ,apostles2 and1 indeed1 there is scarcely any book of either the ,old or ,new ,testament1 which may not be shown to refer to many of the rest1 in one way or other4 ,for the illustration of this argument1 let us suppose that no more remained of the ,roman writers than ,livy1 ,tully1 and ,horace2 would they not1 by their references to the same facts and customs1 by the sameness of style in the same writer1 and difference in the different ones1 and numberless other such like circumstances of critical consideration1 prove themselves1 and one another to be genuine1 and the principal facts related1 or alluded to1 to be true8 ,whoever will apply this reasoning to the present case will perceive1 that the numberless minute1 direct1 and indirect agreements and coincidences1 that present themselves to all diligent readers of the ,scriptures1 prove their truth and genuineness beyond all contradiction4 ,the harmony and agreement of the several writers of the ,old and ,new ,testament appear the more remarkable1 when it is considered that their various parts were penned by several hands in very different conditions of life1 from the throne and sceptre down to the lowest degree1 and in very distant ages1 through a long interval of time2 which would naturally have led a spirit of imposture to have varied its schemes1 and to have adapted them to different stations in the world1 and to the different vicissitudes of every age4 ,david wrote about four hundred years after ,moses1 and ,isaiah about two hundred and fifty after ,david1 and ,matthew more than seven hundred years after ,isaiah2 and yet these authors1 with all the other ,prophets and ,apostles1 write in perfect harmony1 confirming the authority of their predecessors1 labouring to reduce the people to the observance of their instructions1 and loudly exclaiming against the neglect and contempt of them1 and denouncing the severest judgments against such as continued disobedient4 ,consequently1 as the writers of the ,holy ,scriptures1 though they all claim a divine authority1 yet write in perfect connection and harmony1 mutually confirming the doctrine and testimony of each other1 and concurring to establish the very same religious truths and principles1 it is a strong proof that they all derived their instructions from the same fountain1 the wisdom of ,god1 and were indeed under the direction and illumination of the same ,spirit4 ,this leads us to add1 that the unity of design1 which appears in the dispensations recorded in the ,scriptures1 is an argument not only of their truth and genuineness1 but also of their divine authority4 ,in order to perceive the force of this argument1 it is only necessary to inquire what this design is1 and how it is pursued by the series of events and divine interpositions recorded in the ,scriptures4 7,see ,dispensation47 ,it should also be considered1 that the historical evidences in favour of the genuineness1 truth1 and divine authority of the ,scriptures1 do not become less from age to age2 but1 on the contrary1 it may rather be presumed that they increase4 ,since the three great concurring events of printing1 the reformation of religion in these western parts1 and the restoration of letters1 so many more evidences and coincidences have been discovered in favour of the ,jewish and ,christian histories1 as may serve1 in some measure1 to supply the want of those that have been lost in the preceding times2 and as this accumulation of evidences is likely to continue1 there is great reason to hope that it will at length become irresistible to all and silence even every gainsayer4 #ae4 ,the moral characters of the ,prophets1 and the ,apostles1 prove the truth and divine authority of the ,scriptures4 ,the characters of the persons who are said in the ,scriptures to have had divine communications1 and a divine mission1 are so much superior to the characters that occur in common life1 that we can scarcely account for the more eminent individuals1 and much less so for so large a succession of them1 continued through so many ages1 without allowing the divine communications and assistance which they allege4 ,notwithstanding considerable imperfections that pertained to many of these eminent persons1 and the occasional offences chargeable upon one or two of them1 yet the impartial reader should consider whether the ,prophets1 ,apostles1 c1 were not so much superior1 not only to mankind at an average1 but even to the best men among the ,greeks and ,romans1 as is not fairly to be accounted for by the mere powers of human nature4 ,if this statement should not be conceded1 their characters1 however1 are too good to allow the supposition of an impious fraud and imposture1 which must have been the case if they had not divine authority4 ,beside1 it should be recollected1 that the undisguised and impartial manner in which the imperfections and faults of the eminent persons mentioned in ,scripture are related1 furnishes a remarkable additional evidence for the truth of those parts of the ,scripture history in which such relations occur1 beside such evidences as extend to the whole4 #af4 ,the excellence of the doctrine contained in the ,scriptures is an additional evidence of their authority4 ,this argument has great force independently of all other considerations4 ,suppose1 for instance1 that the author of the ,gospel1 which goes under the name of ,st4 ,matthew1 was not known1 and that it was unsupported by the writers of the primitive times2 yet such are the unaffected simplicity of the narrations1 the purity of the doctrine1 and the sincere piety and goodness of the sentiments1 that it carries its own authority with it4 ,the same observation is applicable in general to all the books of the ,old and ,new ,testaments2 so that if there was no other book in the world beside the ,bible1 a man could not reasonably doubt of the truth of revealed religion4 ,if all other arguments were set aside1 we may conclude from this single consideration1 that the authors of the books of the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 whoever they were1 cannot have made a false claim to divine authority4 ,the ,scriptures contain doctrines concerning ,god1 providence1 a future state1 the duty of man1 c1 far more pure and sublime than can in any way be accounted for from the natural powers of men1 so circumstanced as the sacred writers were4 ,let the reader consider whether it can be reasonably supposed1 that ,jewish shepherds1 fishermen1 c1 should1 both before and after the rise of the ,heathen philosophy1 so far exceed men of the greatest abilities and accomplishments in other nations1 by any other means than divine communications4 ,indeed1 no writers1 from the invention of letters to the present times1 are equal to the penmen of the books of the ,old and ,new ,testaments in true excellence1 utility and dignity2 and this is surely such an internal criterion of their divine authority1 as ought not to be resisted4 #ag4 ,the many and great advantages which have accrued to the world from the patriarchal1 ,judaical1 and ,christian revelations1 confirm the whole4 ,these advantages relate partly to the knowledge1 and partly to the practice1 of religion4 ,the internal worth and excellence of the ,scriptures1 as containing the best principles of knowledge1 holiness1 consolation1 and hope1 and their consequent utility and importance in a moral and practical view1 fully and directly demonstrate their divine original4 ,for an enlarged view of this branch of evidence see ,,christianity4 ,,biblists1 or ,,biblici1 a term applied to certain doctors in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries1 who expounded the sacred writings in their public schools1 and endeavoured to establish their doctrines by the authority of ,scripture1 in opposition to uncertain traditions1 or the speculations of the schools4 ,upon the same principle1 the ,pietists of the seventeenth century formed what they called ,biblical colleges1 for expounding the ,scriptures4 ,,bier4 ,see ,,burial4 ,,bildad1 the ,shuhite1 one of ,job's friends1 thought by some to have descended from ,shuah1 the son of ,abraham1 by ,keturah1 ,job ii1 #aa2 viii1 xviii1 xxv4 ,,bilhah1 ,rachel's handmaid1 given by her to ,jacob her husband1 as a concubinary wife1 that1 through her she might have a son1 ,gen4 xxx1 #c1 #d1 c4 ,see ,,barrenness4 ,,bind4 ,to bind and loose are taken for condemning and absolving3 8,and ,i will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven3 and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven3 and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven10 ,matt4 xvi1 #ai4 ,by binding and loosing1 in the language of the ,jews1 is understood1 likewise1 permitting and forbidding2 or declaring any thing in a judicial manner to be permitted or forbidden2 and on the promotion of their doctors1 they put the keys into their hands with these words1 8,receive the power of binding and loosing40 ,so our ,lord says1 8,i am not come to destroy10 to unloose or dissolve1 8the law1 but to fulfil10 that is1 to confirm and establish it1 ,matt4 v1 #ag4 ,see ,,keys4 ,,bird1 1 a common name for all birds1 but is sometimes used for the sparrow in particular4 ,birds are distinguished by the ,jewish legislator into clean and unclean4 ,such as fed upon grain and seeds were allowed for food1 and such as devoured flesh and carrion were prohibited4 ,moses1 to inspire the ,israelites with sentiments of tenderness toward the brute creation1 commands them1 if they find a bird's nest1 not to take the dam with the young1 but to suffer the old one to fly away1 and to take the young only1 ,deut4 xxii1 #f4 ,this is one of those merciful constitutions in the law of ,moses which respect the animal creation1 and tended to humanize the heart of that people1 to excite in them a sense of the divine providence extending itself to all creatures1 and to teach them to exercise their dominion over them with gentleness4 ,beside1 the young never knew the sweets of liberty2 the dam did3 they might be taken and used for any lawful purpose2 but the dam must not be brought into a state of captivity4 ,the poet ,phocylides has a maxim1 in his admonitory poem1 very similar to that in the sacred texts3-- 1 ' 1 ' 4 ,nor from a nest take all the birds away1 ,the mother spare1 she'll breed a future day4 ,it appears that the ancients hunted birds4 ,baruch1 iii1 #ag1 speaking of the kings of ,babylon1 says1 8,they had their pastime with the fowls of the air20 and ,daniel1 iii1 #ch1 tells ,nebuchadnezzar that ,god had made the fowls of the air subject to him4 ,birds were offered in sacrifice on many occasions4 ,in the sacrifices for sin1 he who had not a lamb1 or a kid1 8might offer two turtles1 or two young pigeons2 one for a sin-offering1 the other for a burnt-offering4 ,these he presented to the priest1 who offered that first which was for the sin-offering1 and wrung off the head from the neck1 but did not divide it asunder3 the other he was to offer for a burnt-offering10 ,lev4 v1 #g1 #h4 ,when a man who had been smitten with a leprosy was healed1 he came to the entrance of the camp of ,israel1 and the priest went out to inspect him1 whether he were entirely cured1 ,lev4 xiv1 #e1 #f4 ,after this inspection1 the leprous person came to the door of the tabernacle1 and offered two living sparrows1 or two birds2 7pure birds1 those of which it was lawful to eat27 he made a wisp with branches of cedar and hyssop1 tied together with a thread1 or scarlet ribbon2 he filled an earthen pot with running water1 that the blood of the bird might be mingled with it2 then the priest1 dipping the bunch of hyssop and cedar into the water1 sprinkled with it the leper who was healed2 after which he let loose the living bird1 to fly where it would4 ,in ,palestine dead bodies were sometimes left exposed to birds of prey1 as appears from ,scripture2 but1 generally1 they were buried in the evening3 even criminals were taken down from the gallows4 ,,birthright1 or ,,primogeniture1 the right of the first-born or eldest son4 ,the birthright1 or right of primogeniture1 had many privileges annexed to it4 ,the first-born was consecrated to the ,lord1 ,exod4 xxii1 #bi2 had a double portion of the estate allotted him1 ,deut4 xxi1 #ag2 had a dignity and authority over his brethren1 ,gen4 xlix1 #c2 succeeded in the government of the family or kingdom1 #b ,chron4 xxi1 #c2 and1 as some with good reason suppose1 in ancient times to the priesthood or chief government in matters ecclesiastical4 ,jacob1 having bought ,esau's birthright1 acquired a title to the particular blessing of his dying father2 and1 accordingly1 he had consigned to him the privilege of the covenant which ,god made with ,abraham1 that from his loins the ,messiah should spring3 a prerogative which descended to his posterity4 ,reuben forfeited the blessings of his birthright1 as we see by the express declaration of his father ,jacob1 in his benediction of his children1 ,gen4 xlix1 #a1 c1 for the crime of incest with his father's concubine1 on account of which his tribe continued all along in obscurity2 while the priesthood was conferred on ,levi1 the government on ,judah1 and the double portion on ,joseph1 to descend to their respective tribes4 ,and this preminence of the first-born took place from the beginning1 and as much belonged to ,cain1 before his forfeiture of it1 as it did to ,reuben before his4 ,see ,genesis iv1 #g2 xlix1 #c4 ,thus the patriarchs1 ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 offered sacrifices1 and were priests as well as kings in their respective families1 ,gen4 xii1 #g1 #h2 xiii1 #ah2 xvii1 #g2 xxvi1 #be2 xxxi1 #ed2 xxxv1 #g4 ,job1 in ,arabia1 acted in the same capacity1 ,job1 i1 #e2 and it is highly probable that1 among the ancient ,heathen nations in general1 the first-born were entitled not only to the civil authority1 but also to the priesthood4 ,this seems to have been the case in ,egypt1 in the time of ,moses3 and hence ,jehovah's destroying their first-born1 as it was the last miracle wrought in that country before the ,exodus1 so was it the most dreadful1 and most effectual in prevailing on ,pharaoh and the ,egyptians to dismiss the ,israelites4 ,,bishop1 1 1 signifies an overseer1 or one who has the inspection and direction of any thing4 ,nehemiah speaks of the overseer of the ,levites at ,jerusalem1 ,neh4 xi1 #bb4 ,the most common acceptation of the word bishop is that in ,acts xx1 #bh1 and in ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles1 ,philip1 i1 #a1 where it signifies the pastor of a church4 ,st4 ,peter calls ,jesus ,christ 8the ,shepherd and ,bishop of our souls10 #a ,peter ii1 #be2 and ,st4 ,paul describes the qualities requisite in a bishop1 #a ,tim4 iii1 #b2 ,titus #a1 #b1 c4 ,it is not improbable that the overseers of ,christ's church are in the ,new ,testament called 1 from the following passage in ,isaiah3 8,i will also make thy officers peace1 and thine overseers0 717 8righteousness10 ,isa4 lx1 #ag4 ,the word1 as used by the ,apostolic writers1 when referring to the pastors of ,christian churches1 is evidently of the same import as presbyter or elder2 for the terms1 as they occur in the ,new ,testament1 appear to be synonymous1 and are used indifferently4 ,thus the same persons that are called 1 bishops are also called 1 elders4 ,hence1 when ,st4 ,paul came to ,miletus1 he sent to ,ephesus for the presbyters of the church1 and thus addressed them3 8,take heed unto yourselves1 and to all the flock over which the ,holy ,ghost hath made you0 7the presbyters7 81 bishops10 or overseers1 ,acts xx1 #ag4 8,here10 says ,dr4 ,campbell1 8there can be no question that the same persons are denominated presbyters and bishops40 ,nor is this the only passage in which we find the terms used convertibly4 ,in ,titus i1 #e1 it is said1 8,for this cause left ,i thee in ,crete1 that thou shouldest set in order the things that are wanting1 and ordain elders0 7,greek1 7 8in every city20 and then it follows in verse #g1 8,for a bishop0 77 8must be blameless40 ,in like manner1 the ,apostle ,peter1 #a ,peter v1 #a3 8,the elders0 77 8which are among you ,i exhort2 feed the flock of ,god which is among you1 taking the oversight thereof2 1 that is1 discharging the office of bishops40 ,see ,,episcopacy4 ,,bithynia1 a country of ,asia ,minor1 stretching along the shore of the ,pontus ,euxinus1 or ,black ,sea1 from ,mysia to ,paphlagonia2 having ,phrygia and ,galatia on the south4 ,in it are the two cities of ,nica1 or ,nice1 and ,chalcedon3 both celebrated in ecclesiastical history1 on account of the general councils held in them1 and called after their names4 ,the former city is at present called ,is-,nick1 and the latter ,kadi-,keni4 ,within this country1 also1 are the celebrated mountains of ,olympus4 ,st4 ,peter addressed his first ,epistle to the ,hebrew ,christians who were scattered through this and the neighbouring countries4 ,,bitter ,,herbs4 4 ,exod4 xii1 #h1 and ,num4 ix1 #aa4 ,the ,jews were commanded to eat their passover with a salad of bitter herbs2 but whether one particular plant was intended1 or any kind of bitter herbs1 has been made a question4 ,by the ,septuagint it is rendered 2 by ,jerom1 8cum lactucis agrestibus20 and by the ,gr4 ,venet41 4 ,dr4 ,geddes remarks1 that 8it is highly probable that the succory or wild lettuce is meant40 ,the ,mischna in ,pesachim1 cap4 #b1 reckons five species of these bitter herbs3 #a4 ,chazareth1 taken for lettuce3 #b4 ,ulsin1 supposed to be endive or succory3 #c4 ,tamca1 probably tansy3 #d4 ,charubbinim1 which ,bochart thought might be the nettle1 but ,scheuchzer shows to be the camomile3 #e4 ,meror1 the sow-thistle1 or dent-de-lion1 or wild lettuce4 ,mr4 ,forskal says1 8the ,jews in ,sana and in ,egypt eat the lettuce with the paschal lamb40 ,he also remarks1 that moru is centaury1 of which the young stems are eaten in ,february and ,march4 ,,bittern4 4 ,isa4 xiv1 #bc2 xxxiv1 #aa2 and ,zephaniah ii1 #ad4 ,interpreters have rendered this word variously3 an owl1 an osprey1 a tortoise1 a porcupine1 and even an otter4 8,how unhappy10 says ,mr4 ,harmer1 8that a word which occurs but three times in the ,hebrew ,bible should be translated by three different words1 and that one of them should be otter60 ,isaiah1 prophesying the destruction of ,babylon1 says that 8the ,lord will make it a possession for the bittern1 and pools of water20 and ,zephaniah1 ii1 #ad1 prophesying against ,nineveh1 says that 8the cormorant and bittern shall lodge in the upper lintels of it3 their voice shall sing in the windows40 ,the ,arabic version reads 8al-houbara40 ,according to ,dr4 ,shaw1 the houbara is 8of the bigness of a capon1 but of a longer body4 ,it feeds on little shrubs and insects1 like the graab el ,sahara2 frequenting1 in like manner1 the confines of the desert40 ,golius interprets it the bustard2 and ,dr4 ,russel says that the ,arabic name of the bustard is 8houbry40 ,,bitterness1 waters of4 ,see ,,adultery4 ,,blasphemy1 1 properly denotes calumny1 detraction1 reproachful or abusive language1 against whomsoever it be vented4 ,that and its conjugates are very often applied1 says ,dr4 ,campbell1 to reproaches not aimed against ,god1 is evident from the following passages3 ,matt4 xii1 #ca1 #cb2 xxvii1 #ci2 ,mark xv1 #bi2 ,luke xxii1 #fe2 xxiii1 #ci2 ,rom4 iii1 #h2 xiv1 #af2 #a ,cor4 iv1 #ac2 x1 #cj2 ,eph4 iv1 #ca2 #a ,tim4 vi1 #d2 ,titus iii1 #b2 #a ,pet4 iv1 #ad2 ,jude #i1 #aj2 ,acts vi1 #aa1 #ac2 #b ,pet4 ii1 #aj1 #aa2 in the much greater part of which the ,english translators1 sensible that they could admit no such application1 have not used the words blaspheme or blasphemy1 but rail1 revile1 speak evil1 c4 ,in one of the passages quoted1 a reproachful charge brought even against the devil is called 1 ,jude #i2 and rendered by them1 8railing accusation40 ,the import of the word is maledicentia1 in the largest acceptation2 comprehending all sorts of verbal abuse1 imprecation1 reviling1 and calumny4 ,and let it be observed1 that when such abuse is mentioned as uttered against ,god1 there is properly no change made in the signification of the word3 the change is only in the application2 that is1 in the reference to a different object4 ,the idea conveyed in the explanation now given is always included1 against whomsoever the crime be committed4 ,in this manner every term is understood that is applicable to both ,god and man4 ,thus the meaning of the word disobey is the same1 whether we speak of disobeying ,god or of disobeying man4 ,the same may be said of believe1 honour1 fear1 c4 ,as1 therefore1 the sense of the term is the same1 though differently applied1 what is essential to constitute the crime of detraction in the one case1 is essential also in the other4 ,but it is essential to this crime1 as commonly understood1 when committed by one man against another1 that there be in the injurious person the will or disposition to detract from the person abused4 ,mere mistake in regard to character1 especially when the mistake is not conceived by him who entertains it to lessen the character1 nay1 is supposed1 however erroneously1 to exalt it1 is never construed by any into the crime of defamation4 ,now1 as blasphemy is in its essence the same crime1 but immensely aggravated by being committed against an object infinitely superior to man1 what is fundamental to the very existence of the crime will be found in this1 as in every other species which comes under the general name4 ,there can be no blasphemy1 therefore1 where there is not an impious purpose to derogate from the ,divine ,majesty1 and to alienate the minds of others from the love and reverence of ,god4 ,the blasphemer is no other than the calumniator of ,almighty ,god4 ,to constitute the crime1 it is as necessary that this species of calumny be intentional4 ,he must be one1 therefore1 who by his impious talk endeavours to inspire others with the same irreverence toward the ,deity1 or perhaps1 abhorrence of him1 which he indulges in himself4 ,and though1 for the honour of human nature1 it is to be hoped that very few arrive at this enormous guilt1 it ought not to be dissembled1 that the habitual profanation of the name and attributes of ,god by common swearing1 is but too manifest an approach toward it4 ,there is not an entire coincidence3 the latter of these vices may be considered as resulting solely from the defect of what is good in principle and disposition2 the former from the acquisition of what is evil in the extreme3 but there is a close connection between them1 and an insensible gradation from the one to the other4 ,to accustom one's self to treat the ,sovereign of the universe with irreverent familiarity1 is the first step2 malignly to arraign his attributes1 and revile his providence1 is the last4 ,the first divine law published against it1 8,he that blasphemeth the name of the ,lord0 7or ,jehovah1 as it is in the ,hebrew7 8shall be put to death10 ,lev4 xxiv1 #af1 when considered along with the incident that occasioned it1 suggests a very atrocious offence in words1 no less than abuse or imprecations vented against the ,deity4 ,for1 in what way soever the crime of the man there mentioned be interpreted1--whether as committed against the true ,god1 the ,god of ,israel1 or against any of the false gods whom his ,egyptian father worshipped1--the law in the words now quoted is sufficiently explicit2 and the circumstances of the story plainly show1 that the words which he had used were derogatory from the ,godhead1 and shocking to the hearers4 ,and if we add to this the only other memorable instance in sacred history1 namely1 that of ,rabshakeh1 it will lead us to conclude that it is solely a malignant attempt1 in words1 to lessen men's reverence of the true ,god1 and1 by vilifying his perfections1 to prevent their placing confidence in him1 which is called in ,scripture blasphemy1 when the word is employed to denote a sin committed directly against ,god4 ,this was manifestly the attempt of ,rabshakeh1 when he said1 8,neither let ,hezekiah make you trust in the ,lord10 7the word is ,jehovah17 8saying1 ,jehovah will surely deliver us4 ,hath any of the gods of the nations delivered his land out of the hand of the king of ,assyria8 ,where are the gods of ,hamath and of ,arpad8 ,where are the gods of ,sepharvaim1 ,hena1 and ,iva8 ,have they delivered ,samaria out of my hand8 ,who are they1 among all the gods of the countries1 that have delivered their country out of mine hand1 that ,jehovah should deliver ,jerusalem out of mine hand80 #b ,kings xviii1 #cj1 #cc-ce4 #b4 ,it will naturally occur to inquire1 what that is1 in particular1 which our ,lord denominates 8blasphemy against the ,holy ,spirit10 ,matt4 xii1 #ca1 #cb2 ,mark iii1 #bh1 #bi2 ,luke xii1 #aj4 ,but without entering minutely into the discussion of this question1 it may suffice here to observe1 that this blasphemy is certainly not of the constructive kind1 but direct1 manifest1 and malignant4 ,first1 it is mentioned as comprehended under the same genus with abuse against men1 and contradistinguished only by the object4 ,secondly1 it is farther explained by being called speaking against in both cases3 1-- ' 4 8,whosoever speaketh a word against the ,son of ,man40--8,whosoever speaketh against the ,holy ,ghost40 ,the expressions are the same1 in effect1 in all the ,evangelists who mention it1 and imply such an opposition as is both intentional and malevolent4 ,this cannot have been the case of all who disbelieved the mission of ,jesus1 and even decried his miracles2 many of whom1 we have reason to think1 were afterward converted by the ,apostles4 ,but it was the wretched case of some who1 instigated by worldly ambition and avarice1 slandered what they knew to be the cause of ,god2 and1 against conviction1 reviled his work as the operation of evil spirits4 ,this view of the sin against the ,holy ,ghost is confirmed by the circumstances under which our ,lord spoke4 ,if we consider the ,scripture account of this sin1 nothing can be plainer than that it is to be understood of the ,pharisees' imputing the miracles wrought by the power of the ,holy ,ghost to the power of the devil2 for our ,lord had just healed one possessed of a devil1 and upon this the ,pharisees gave this malicious turn to the miracle4 ,this led our ,saviour to discourse on the sin of blasphemy4 ,the ,pharisees were the persons charged with the crime3 the sin itself manifestly consisted in ascribing what was done by the finger of ,god to the agency of the devil2 and the reason1 therefore1 why our ,lord pronounced it unpardonable1 is plain2 because1 by withstanding the evidence of miracles1 they resisted the strongest means of conviction1 and that wilfully and malignantly2 and1 giving way to their passions1 opprobriously treated that ,holy ,spirit whom they ought to have adored4 ,from all which it will probably follow1 that no person can now be guilty of the blasphemy against the ,holy ,ghost1 in the sense in which our ,saviour originally intended it2 but there may be sins which bear a very near resemblance to it4 ,this appears from the case of the apostates mentioned in the ,epistle to the ,hebrews1 to whom 8no more sacrifice for sins0 is said to remain2 whose defection1 however1 is not represented so much as a direct sin against the ,holy ,ghost as against ,christ1 whom the apostate ,jews blasphemed in the synagogues4 ,it implied1 however1 a high offence against the ,holy ,spirit also1 with whose gifts they had1 probably1 been endowed1 and their conduct must be considered1 if not the same sin as that committed by the ,pharisees1 yet as a consenting with it1 and thus as placing them in nearly1 if not altogether1 the same desperate condition4 ,even apostasy in the present day1 although a most aggravated and perilous offence1 cannot be committed with circumstances of equal aggravation to those which were found in the case of the persons mentioned by ,st4 ,paul2 and it may be laid down as certain1 for the relief of those who may be tempted to think that they have committed the unpardonable sin1 that their horror of it1 and the trouble which the very apprehension causes them1 are the sure proofs that they are mistaken4 ,but although there may be now fearful approaches to the unpardonable offence1 it is to be remembered that there may be many dangerous and fatal sins against the ,holy ,ghost1 which are not the sin against him1 which has no forgiveness4 ,,blemish1 whatever renders a person or thing imperfect or uncomely4 ,the ,jewish law required the priests to be free from blemishes of person1 ,lev4 xxi1 #ag-bc2 xxii1 #bj-bd4 ,scandalous professors are blemishes to the church of ,god1 #b ,peter ii1 #ac2 ,jude #ab1 and therefore ought to be put away from it1 in the exercise of a godly discipline4 ,,bless1 ,,blessing4 ,there are three points of view in which the acts of blessing may be considered4 ,the first is1 when men are said to bless ,god1 as in ,psalm ciii1 #a1 #b4 ,we are then not to suppose that the divine ,being1 who is over all1 and1 in himself1 blessed for evermore1 is capable of receiving any augmentation of his happiness1 from all the creatures which he has made3 such a supposition1 as it would imply something of imperfection in the divine nature1 must ever be rejected with abhorrence2 and1 therefore1 when the creatures bless the adorable ,creator1 they only ascribe to him that praise and dominion1 and honour1 and glory1 and blessing1 which it is equally the duty and joy of his creatures to render4 ,but when ,god is said to bless his people1 ,gen4 i1 #bb2 ,eph4 i1 #c2 the meaning is1 that he confers benefits upon them1 either temporal or spiritual1 and so communicates to them some portion of that blessedness which1 in infinite fulness1 dwells in himself1 ,james i1 #ag2 ,psalm civ1 #bd1 #bh2 ,luke xi1 #i-ac4 ,in the third place men are said to bless their fellow creatures4 ,from the time that ,god entered into covenant with ,abraham1 and promised extraordinary blessings to his posterity1 it appears to have been customary for the father of each family1 in the direct line1 or line of promise1 previous to his death1 to call his children around him1 and to inform them1 according to the knowledge which it pleased ,god then to give him1 how1 and in what manner1 the divine blessing conferred upon ,abraham was to descend among them4 ,upon these occasions1 the patriarchs enjoyed a divine illumination2 and under its influence1 their benediction was deemed a prophetic oracle1 foretelling events with the utmost certainty1 and extending to the remotest period of time4 ,thus ,jacob blessed his sons1 ,gen4 xlix2 and ,moses1 the children of ,israel1 ,deut4 xxxiii4 ,when ,melchizedeck blessed ,abraham1 the act of benediction included in it not merely the pronouncing solemn good wishes1 but also a petitionary address to ,god that he would be pleased to ratify the benediction by his concurrence with what was prayed for4 ,thus ,moses instructed ,aaron1 and his descendants1 to bless the congregation1 8,in this wise shall ye bless the children of ,israel1 saying unto them1 ,the ,lord bless thee1 and keep thee2 the ,lord make his face to shine upon thee2 the ,lord lift up his countenance upon thee1 and give thee peace10 ,num4 iv1 #bc4 ,david says1 8,i will take the cup of salvation1 and call upon the name of the ,lord10 ,psalm cxvi1 #ac4 ,this phrase appears to be taken from the practice of the ,jews in their thank-offerings1 in which a feast was made of the remainder of their sacrifices1 and the offerers1 together with the priests1 did eat and drink before the ,lord2 when1 among other rites1 the master of the feast took a cup of wine in his hand and solemnly blessed ,god for it1 and for the mercies which were then acknowledged1 and gave it to all the guests1 every one of whom drank in his turn4 ,to this custom it is supposed our blessed ,lord alludes in the institution of the cup1 which also is called1 #a ,cor4 x1 #af1 8the cup of blessing40 ,at the family feasts also1 and especially that of the passover1 both wine and bread were in this solemn and religious manner distributed1 and ,god was blessed1 and his mercies acknowledged4 ,they blessed ,god for their present refreshment1 for their deliverance out of ,egypt1 for the covenant of circumcision1 and for the law given by ,moses2 and prayed that ,god would be merciful to his people ,israel1 that he would send the ,prophet ,elijah1 and that he would render them worthy of the kingdom of the ,messiah4 ,see also #a ,chron4 xvi1 #b1 #c4 ,in the ,mosaic law1 the manner of blessing is appointed by the lifting up of hands4 ,our ,lord lifted up his hands1 and blessed his disciples4 ,it is probable that this action was constantly used on such occasions4 ,the palm of the hand held up was precatory2 and the palm turned outward or downward was benedictory4 ,see ,,benediction and ,,lord',s ,,supper4 ,,blindfolding4 ,this is the treatment which ,christ received from his enemies4 ,it refers to a sport which was common among children1 called 1 in which it was the manner first to blindfold1 then to strike1 and to ask who gave the blow1 and not to let the person go till he had named the right man who had struck him4 ,it was used in reproach of our blessed ,lord as a ,prophet1 or divine instructer1 and to expose him to ridicule1 ,luke xxii1 #fc1 #fd4 ,,blindness is often used in ,scripture to express ignorance or want of discernment in divine things1 as well as the being destitute of natural sight4 ,see ,isa4 xlii1 #ah1 #ai2 vi1 #aj2 ,matt4 xv1 #ad4 8,blindness of heart0 is the want of understanding arising from the influence of vicious passions4 8,hardness of heart0 is stubbornness of will1 and destitution of moral feeling4 ,moses says1 8,thou shalt not put a stumbling block before the blind10 ,lev4 xix1 #ad1 which may be understood literally2 or figuratively1 as if ,moses recommended that charity and instruction should be shown to them who want light and counsel1 or to those who are in danger of going wrong through their ignorance4 ,moses says also1 8,cursed be he who maketh the blind to wander out of his way10 ,deut4 xxvii1 #ah1 which may also be taken in the same manner4 ,an ignorant or erring teacher is compared by our ,lord to a blind man leading a blind man2--a strong representation of the presumption of him that professes to teach the way of salvation without due qualifications1 and of the danger of that implicit faith which is often placed by the people in the authority of man1 to the neglect of the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,,blood4 ,beside its proper sense1 the fluid of the veins of men and animals1 the term in ,scripture is used1 #a4 ,for life4 8,god will require the blood of a man10 he will punish murder in what manner soever committed4 8,his blood be upon us10 let the guilt of his death be imputed to us4 8,the voice of thy brother's blood crieth20 the murder committed on him crieth for vengeance4 8,the avenger of blood20 he who is to avenge the death of his relative1 ,num4 xxxv1 #bd1 #bg4 #b4 ,blood means relationship1 or consanguinity4 #c4 ,flesh and blood are placed in opposition to a superior nature3 8,flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee1 but my ,father who is in heaven10 ,matt4 xvi1 #ag4 #d4 ,they are also opposed to the glorified body3 8,flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of ,god10 #a ,cor4 xv1 #ej4 #e4 ,they are opposed also to evil spirits3 8,we wrestle not against flesh and blood10 against visible enemies composed of flesh and blood1 8but against principalities and powers10 c1 ,eph4 vi1 #ab4 #f4 ,wine is called the pure blood of the grape3 8,judah shall wash his garments in the blood of the grape10 ,gen4 xlix1 #aa2 ,deut4 xxxii4 #ad4 #g4 ,the priests were established by ,god to judge between blood and blood2 that is1 in criminal matters1 and where the life of man is at stake2--to determine whether the murder be casual1 or voluntary2 whether a crime deserve death1 or admit of remission1 c4 #h4 ,in its most eminent sense blood is used for the sacrificial death of ,christ2 whose blood or death is the price of our salvation4 ,his blood has 8purchased the church10 ,acts xx1 #bh4 8,we are justified by his blood10 ,rom4 v1 #i4 8,we have redemption through his blood10 ,eph4 i1 #g1 c4 ,see ,,atonement4 ,that singular and emphatic prohibition of blood for food from the earliest times1 which we find in the ,holy ,scriptures1 deserves particular attention4 ,god expressly forbade the eating of blood alone1 or of blood mixed with the flesh of animals1 as when any creature was suffocated1 or strangled1 or killed without drawing its blood from the carcass4 ,for when the grant of animal food was made to ,noah1 in those comprehensive words1 8,even as the green herb have ,i given you all things10 it was added1 8but flesh with the life thereof1 namely1 its blood1 ye shall not eat10 ,gen4 ix1 #d4 ,and when the law was given to the children of ,israel1 we find the prohibition against the eating of blood still more explicitly enforced1 both upon ,jews and ,gentiles1 in the following words1 8,whatsoever man there be of the house of ,israel1 or of the strangers that sojourn among you1 that eateth any manner of blood2 ,i will even set my face against that soul that eateth blood1 and will cut him off from among his people3 for the life of the flesh is in the blood2 and ,i have given it to you upon the altar to make atonement for your souls3 for it is the blood that maketh an atonement for the soul10 ,lev4 xvii1 #aj1 #aa4 ,and to cut off all possibility of mistake upon this particular point1 it is added3 8,therefore ,i said unto the children of ,israel1 ,no soul of you shall eat blood1 neither shall any stranger that sojourneth among you eat blood2 and whatsoever man there be of the children of ,israel1 or of the strangers that sojourn among you1 which hunteth and catcheth any beast or fowl that may be eaten2 he shall even pour out the blood thereof and cover it with dust1 for it is the life of all flesh2 the blood of it is for the life thereof2 therefore ,i said unto the children of ,israel1 ,ye shall eat the blood of no manner of flesh3 for the life of all flesh is the blood thereof2 whosoever eateth it shall be cut off10 verses #ab-ad4 ,this restraint1 than which nothing can be more express1 was also1 under the new covenant1 enjoined upon believing ,gentiles1 as 8a burden0 which 8it seemed necessary to the ,holy ,spirit to impose upon them10 ,acts xv1 #bh1 #bi4 ,for this prohibition no moral reason seems capable of being offered2 nor does it clearly appear that blood is an unwholesome aliment1 which some think was the physical reason of its being inhibited2 and if1 in fact1 blood is deleterious as food1 there seems no greater reason why this should be pointed out by special revelation to man1 to guard him against injury1 than many other unwholesome aliments4 ,there is little force in the remark1 that the eating of blood produces a ferocious disposition2 for those nations that eat strangled things1 or blood cooked with other aliments1 do not exhibit more ferocity than others4 ,the true reason was1 no doubt1 a sacrificial one4 ,when animals were granted to ,noah for food1 the blood was reserved2 and when the same law was renacted among the ,israelites1 the original prohibition is repeated with an explanation which at once shows the original ground upon which it rested3 8,i have given it upon the altar to make an atonement for your souls40 ,from this 8additional reason10 as it has been called1 it has been argued1 that the doctrine of the atoning power of blood was new1 and was1 then1 for the first time1 announced by ,moses1 or the same cause for the prohibition would have been assigned to ,noah4 ,to this we may reply1 #a4 ,that unless the same reason be supposed as the ground of the prohibition of blood to ,noah1 as that given by ,moses to the ,jews1 no reason at all can be conceived for this restraint being put upon the appetite of mankind from ,noah to ,moses2 and yet we have a prohibition of a most solemn kind1 which in itself could have no reason1 enjoined without any external reason being either given or conceivable4 #b4 ,that it is a mistake to suppose that the declaration of ,moses to the ,jews1 that ,god had 8given them the blood for an atonement10 is an 8additional reason0 for the interdict1 not to be found in the original prohibition to ,noah4 ,the whole passage occurs in ,lev4 xvii2 and the great reason there given of the prohibition of blood is1 that it is 8the life20 and what follows respecting 8atonement10 is exegetical of this reason2--the life is in the blood1 and the blood or life is given as an atonement4 ,now1 by turning to the original prohibition in ,genesis we find that precisely the same reason is given3 8,but the flesh with the blood1 which is the life thereof1 shall ye not eat40 ,the reason1 then1 being the same1 the question is1 whether the exegesis added by ,moses must not necessarily be understood in the general reason given for the restraint to ,noah4 ,blood is prohibited because it is the life2 and ,moses adds1 that it is 8the blood10 or life1 8which makes atonement40 ,let any one attempt to discover any reason for the prohibition of blood to ,noah1 in the mere circumstance that it is 8the life10 and he will find it impossible4 ,it is no reason at all1 moral or instituted1 except that as it was ,,life ,,substituted ,,for ,,life1 the life of the animal in sacrifice for the life of man1 and that1 therefore1 blood had a sacred appropriation4 ,the manner1 too1 in which ,moses introduces the subject1 is indicative that1 though he was renewing a prohibition1 he was not publishing a new doctrine2 he does not teach his people that ,god had then given1 or appointed1 blood to make atonement2 but he prohibits them from eating it1 because he had already made this appointment1 without reference to time1 and as a subject with which they were familiar4 ,because the blood was the life1 it was sprinkled upon1 and poured out at1 the altar3 and we have in the sacrifice of the paschal lamb1 and the sprinkling of its blood1 a sufficient proof that1 before the giving of the law1 not only was blood not eaten1 but was appropriated to a sacred sacrificial purpose4 ,nor was this confined to the ,jews2 it was customary with the ,romans and ,greeks1 who1 in like manner1 poured out and sprinkled the blood of victims at their altars2 a rite derived1 probably1 from the ,egyptians1 who deduced it1 not from ,moses1 but from the sons of ,noah4 ,the notion1 indeed1 that the blood of the victims was peculiarly sacred to the gods1 is impressed upon all ancient ,pagan mythology4 ,,boanerges4 ,this word is neither ,hebrew nor ,syriac1 and some have thought that the transcribers have not exactly copied it1 and that the word was benereen1 1 which expresses the sound of the ,hebrew of the phrase1 8sons of thunder40 ,parkhurst judges the word to be the ,galilean pronunciation of the ,hebrew expressed in ,greek letters4 ,now1 properly signifies a violent trembling or commotion1 and may therefore be well rendered by 1 thunder1 which is a violent commotion in the air2 so1 vice vers1 any violent commotion is figuratively1 and not unusually1 in all languages1 called thunder4 ,when our ,saviour named the sons of ,zebedee1 ,boanerges1 he perhaps had an eye to that prophecy of ,haggai1 8,yet once1 and ,i will shake the heavens and the earth10 ii1 #f2 which is by the ,apostle to the ,hebrews1 xii1 #bf1 applied to the great alteration made in the economy of the ,jews by the publication of the ,gospel4 ,the name ,boanerges1 therefore1 given to ,james and ,john1 imports that they should be eminent instruments in accomplishing the wondrous change1 and should1 like an earthquake or thunder1 mightily bear down all opposition1 by their inspired preaching and miraculous powers4 ,that it does not relate to their mode of preaching is certain2 for that clearly appears to have been calmly argumentative1 and sweetly persuasive--the very reverse of what is usually called a thundering ministry4 ,,boar1 4 ,the wild boar is considered as the parent stock of our domestic hog4 ,he is smaller1 but at the same time stronger and more undaunted1 than the hog4 ,in his own defence1 he will turn on men or dogs2 and scarcely shuns any denizen of the forests1 in the haunts where he ranges4 ,his colour is always an iron grey1 inclining to black4 ,his snout is longer than that of the common breed1 and his ears are comparatively short4 ,his tusks are very formidable1 and all his habits are fierce and savage4 ,it should seem1 from the accounts of ancient authors1 that the ravages of the wild boar were considered as more formidable than those of other savage animals4 ,the conquest of the ,erymanthian boar was one of the fated labours of ,hercules2 and the story of the ,calydonian boar is one of the most beautiful in ,ovid4 ,the destructive ravages of these animals are mentioned in ,psalm lxxx1 #ad4 ,dr4 ,pococke observed very large herds of wild boars on the side of ,jordan1 where it flows out of the sea of ,tiberias2 and saw several of them on the other side lying among the reeds by the sea4 ,the wild boars of other countries delight in the like moist retreats4 ,these shady marshes then1 it should seem1 are called in the ,scripture1 8woods20 for it calls these animals1 8the wild boars of the woods40 ,,bohemian ,,brethren1 a sect of heretics1 according to the church of ,rome2 but1 in truth1 a race of early reformers1 who preceded ,luther4 ,at first they were charged with so many heresies1 that the great reformer was shy of them2 but1 upon receiving from themselves an account of their tenets1 in #aebb1 he readily acknowledged them as brethren1 and received them into communion4 ,some time after this1 they were driven by persecution from their native country1 and entered into communion with the ,swiss church1 as reformed by ,zuinglius2 and from thence sprang the church of the ,united ,brethren4 ,,bonds were of two kinds1 public and private2 the former were employed to secure a prisoner in the public jail1 after confession or conviction2 the latter when he was delivered to a magistrate1 or even to private persons1 to be kept at their houses till he should be tried4 ,the ,apostle ,paul was subjected to private bonds by ,felix1 the ,roman governor1 who 8commanded a centurion to keep him1 and to let him have liberty1 and that he should forbid none of his acquaintance to minister1 or come unto him10 ,acts xxiv1 #bc4 ,and after he was carried prisoner to ,rome1 he 8dwelt two whole years in his own hired house1 and received all that came in unto him10 xxviii1 #cj4 ,,bonnet was a covering for the head1 worn by the ,jewish priests4 ,josephus says1 that the bonnet worn by the private priests was composed of several rounds of linen cloth1 turned in and sewed together1 so as to appear like a thick linen crown4 ,the whole was entirely covered with another piece of linen1 which came down as low as their forehead1 and concealed the deformity of the seams4 ,see ,exodus xxviii1 #dj4 ,the high priest's bonnet was not much different from that which has been described4 ,,book1 a writing composed on some point of knowledge by a person intelligent therein1 for the instruction or amusement of the reader4 ,the word is formed from the ,gothic boka1 or ,saxon boc1 which comes from the ,northern buech1 of buechaus1 a beech or service tree1 on the bark of which our ancestors used to write4 ,book is distinguished from pamphlet1 or single paper1 by its greater length2 and from tome or volume1 by its containing the whole writing on the subject4 ,isidore makes this distinction between liber and codex2 that the former denotes a single book1 the latter a collection of several2 though1 according to ,scipio ,maffei1 codex signifies a book in the square form2 liber1 a book in the roll form4 ,the primary distinction between liber and codex seems to have been derived1 as ,dr4 ,heylin has observed1 from the different materials used for writing1 among the ancients3 from the innerside of the bark of a tree1 used for this purpose1 and called in ,latin liber1 the name of liber applied to a book was deduced2 and from that tablet1 formed from the main body of a tree1 called caudex1 was derived the appellation of codex4 #b4 ,several sorts of materials were formerly used in making books3 stone and wood were the first materials employed to engrave such things upon as men were desirous of having transmitted to posterity4 ,porphyry makes mention of some pillars preserved in ,crete1 on which the ceremonies observed by the ,corybantes in their sacrifices were recorded4 ,the works of ,hesiod were originally written on tables of lead1 and deposited in the temple of the ,muses in ,botia4 ,the laws of ,jehovah were written on tables of stone1 and those of ,solon on wooden planks4 ,tables of wood and ivory were common among the ancients3 those of wood1 were very frequently covered with wax1 that persons might write on them with more ease1 or blot out what they had written4 ,and the instrument used to write with was a piece of iron1 called a style2 and hence the word 8style0 came to be taken for the composition of the writing4 ,the leaves of the palm-tree were afterward used instead of wooden planks1 and the finest and thinnest part of the bark of such trees as the lime1 ash1 maple1 and elm2 and especially the tilio1 or phillyrea1 and ,egyptian papyrus4 ,hence came the word liber1 7a book17 which signifies the inner bark of the trees4 ,and as these barks were rolled up in order to be removed with greater ease1 each roll was called volumen1 a volume2 a name afterward given to the like rolls of paper or parchment4 ,from the ,egyptian papyrus the word paper is derived4 ,after this1 leather was introduced1 especially the skins of goats and sheep4 ,for the king of ,pergamus1 in collecting his library1 was led to the invention of parchment made of those skins4 ,the ancients likewise wrote upon linen4 ,pliny says1 the ,parthians1 even in his time1 wrote upon their clothes2 and ,livy speaks of certain books made of linen1 lintei libri1 upon which the names of magistrates1 and the history of the ,roman commonwealth1 were written1 and preserved in the temple of the goddess ,moneta4 #c4 ,the materials generally used by the ancients for their books1 were liable to be easily destroyed by the damp1 when hidden in the earth2 and in times of war1 devastation1 and rapacity1 it was necessary to bury in the earth whatever they wished to preserve from the attacks of fraud and violence4 ,with this view1 ,jeremiah ordered the writings1 which he delivered to ,baruch1 to be put in an earthen vessel1 ,jer4 xxxii4 ,in the same manner the ancient ,egyptians made use of earthen urns1 or pots of a proper shape1 for containing whatever they wanted to inter in the earth1 and which1 without such care1 would have been soon destroyed4 ,we need not wonder then1 that the ,prophet ,jeremiah should think it necessary to inclose those writings in an earthen pot1 which were to be buried in ,judea1 in some place where they might be found without much difficulty on the return of the ,jews from captivity4 ,accordingly two different writings1 or small rolls of writing1 called books in the original ,hebrew1 were designed to be inclosed in such an earthen vessel2 but commentators have been much embarrassed in giving any probable account of the necessity of two writings1 one sealed1 the other open2 or1 as the passage has been commonly understood1 the one sealed up1 the other left open for any one to read2 more especially1 as both were to be alike buried in the earth and concealed from every eye1 and both were to be examined at the return from the captivity4 ,but the word translated open1 in reference to the evidence1 or book which was open1 7#a ,sam4 iii1 #g1 #ba2 ,dan4 ii1 #ai1 #cj2 x1 #a17 signifies the revealing of future events to the minds of men by a divine agency2 and it is particularly used in the book of ,esther1 viii1 #ac1 to express a book's making known the decree of an earthly king4 ,consequently the open book of ,jeremiah seems to signify1 not its being then lying open or unrolled before them1 while the other was sealed up2 but the book that had revealed the will of ,god1 to bring back ,israel into their own country1 and to cause buying and selling of houses and lands again to take place among them4 ,this was a book of prophecy1 opening and revealing the future return of ,israel1 and the other little book1 which was ordered to be buried along with it1 was the purchase deed4 #d4 ,by adverting to the different modes of writing in eastern countries1 we obtain a satisfactory interpretation of a passage in the book of ,job1 xix1 #bc1 #bd1 and a distinct view of the beautiful gradation which is lost in our translation3 8,o that my words were now written6 ,o that they were printed 7written7 in a book6 that they were graven with an iron pen and lead in the rock for ever60 ,in the east there is a mode of writing1 which is designed to fix words in the memory1 but the writing is not intended for duration4 ,accordingly we are informed by ,dr4 ,shaw1 that children learn to write in ,barbary by means of a smooth thin board1 slightly covered with whiting1 which may be wiped off or renewed at pleasure4 ,job expresses his wish not only that his words were written1 but also written in a book1 from which they should not be blotted out1 nay1 still farther1 graven in a rock1 the most permanent mode of recording them1 and especially if the engraved letters were filled with lead2 or the rock was made to receive leaden tablets1 the use of which was known among the ancients4 ,so ,pliny1 8,at first men wrote on the leaves of palm1 and the bark of certain trees1 but afterward public documents were preserved on leaden plates1 and those of a private nature on wax1 or linen40 #e4 ,the first books were in the form of blocks and tables1 of which we find frequent mention in ,scripture1 under the appellation sepher1 which the ,septuagint render 1 that is1 square tables3 of which form the book of the covenant1 book of the law1 book1 or bill of divorce1 book of curses1 c1 appear to have been4 ,as flexible matters came to be written on1 they found it more convenient to make their books in form of rolls1 called by the ,greeks 1 by the ,latins volumina1 which appear to have been in use among the ancient ,jews as well as the ,grecians1 ,romans1 ,persians1 and even ,indians2 and of such did the libraries chiefly consist1 till some centuries after ,christ4 ,the form which obtains among us is the square1 composed of separate leaves2 which was also known1 though little used1 among the ancients2 having been invented by ,attalus1 king of ,pergamus1 the same who also invented parchment3 but it has now been so long in possession1 that the oldest manuscripts are found in it4 ,montfaucon assures us1 that of all the ancient ,greek manuscripts he has seen1 there are but two in the roll form2 the rest being made up much after the manner of the modern books4 ,the rolls1 or volumes1 were composed of several sheets1 fastened to each other1 and rolled upon a stick1 or umbilicus2 the whole making a kind of column1 or cylinder1 which was to be managed by the umbilicus1 as a handle2 it being reputed a kind of crime to take hold of the roll itself4 ,the outside of the volume was called frons2 the ends of the umbilicus were called cornua1 8horns20 which were usually carved and adorned likewise with silver1 ivory1 or even gold and precious stones4 ,whilst the ,egyptian papyrus was in common use1 its brittle nature made it proper to roll up what they wrote2 and as this had been a customary practice1 many continued it when they used other materials1 which might very safely have been treated in a different manner4 ,to the form of books belongs the economy of the inside1 or the order and arrangement of points and letters into lines and pages1 with margins and other appurtenances4 ,this has undergone many varieties3 at first1 the letters were only divided into lines1 then into separate words2 which1 by degrees1 were noted with accents1 and distributed by points and stops into periods1 paragraphs1 chapters1 and other divisions4 ,in some countries1 as among the orientals1 the lines began from the right1 and ran to the left2 in others1 as in northern and western nations1 from the left to the right2 others1 as the ,grecians1 followed both directions alternately1 going in the one and returning in the other1 called boustrophedon1 because it was after the manner of oxen turning when at plough4 ,in the ,chinese books1 the lines ran from top to bottom4 ,again3 the page in some is entire1 and uniform2 in others1 divided into columns2 in others distinguished into texts and notes1 either marginal1 or at the bottom3 usually it is furnished with signatures and catch words2 also with a register to discover whether the book be complete4 ,to these are occasionally added the apparatus of summaries1 or side notes2 the embellishments of red1 gold1 or figured initial letters1 head pieces1 tail pieces1 effigies1 schemes1 maps1 and the like4 ,the end of the book now denoted by finis1 was anciently marked with a 1 called coronis1 and the whole frequently washed with an oil drawn from cedar1 or citron chips1 strewed between the leaves to preserve it from rotting4 ,there also occur certain formul at the beginning and end of books2 as among the ,jews1 the word 1 esto fortis1 which we find at the end of the books of ,exodus1 ,leviticus1 ,numbers1 ,ezekiel1 c1 to exhort the reader to be courageous1 and proceed on to the following book4 ,the conclusions were also often guarded with imprecations against such as should falsify them2 of which we have an instance in the ,apocalypse4 ,the ,mohammedans1 for the like reason1 place the name of ,god at the beginning of all their books1 which cannot fail to procure them protection1 on account of the infinite regard which they pay to that name1 wherever found4 ,for the like reason it is1 that divers of the laws of the ancient emperors begin with the formula1 ,in nomine ,dei4 ,in the name of ,god4 ,at the end of each book the ,jews also added the number of verses contained in it1 and at the end of the ,pentateuch the number of sections2 that1 it might be transmitted to posterity entire4 ,the ,masorites and ,mohammedan doctors have gone farther2 so as to number the several words and letters in each book1 chapter1 verse1 c1 of the ,old ,testament and the ,alcoran4 ,the scarcity and high price of books in former ages1 ought to render us the more grateful for the discovery of the great art of printing1 as especially by that means the ,holy ,bible1 8the word of truth and ,gospel of our salvation10 is made familiar to all classes4 ,the universal ignorance that prevailed in ,europe1 from the seventh to the eleventh century1 may be ascribed to the scarcity of books during that period1 and the difficulty of rendering them more common1 concurring with other causes arising from the state of government and manners4 ,the ,romans wrote their books either on parchment1 or on paper made of the ,egyptian papyrus4 ,the latter1 being the cheapest1 was of course the most commonly used4 ,but after the ,saracens conquered ,egypt1 in the seventh century1 the communication between that country and the people settled in ,italy1 or in other parts of ,europe1 was almost entirely broken off1 and the papyrus was no longer in use among them4 ,they were obliged on that account to write all their books upon parchment2 and as the price of that was high1 books became extremely rare and of great value4 ,we may judge of the scarcity of materials for writing them from one circumstance4 ,there still remain several manuscripts of the eighth1 ninth1 and following centuries1 written on parchment1 from which some former writing had been erased1 in order to substitute a new composition in its place4 ,thus1 it is probable1 several of the works of the ancients perished4 ,a book of ,livy or of ,tacitus might be erased1 to make room for the legendary tale of a saint1 or the superstitious prayers of a missal4 ,nay1 worse instances are recorded1 of obliterating copies of the ,holy ,scriptures to make room for the lucubrations of some of the more modern fathers of the church4 ,manuscripts thus defaced1 the vellum or parchment of which is occupied with some other writings1 are called 8palimpsests10 codices rescripti or palimpsesti1 from 1 8that which has been twice scraped40 ,as this want of materials for writing will serve to account for the loss of many of the works of the ancients1 and for the small number of ,,mss4 previous to the eleventh century1 many facts prove the scarcity of books at this period4 ,private persons seldom possessed any books whatever2 and even monasteries of note had only one missal4 ,in #abii1 ,john de ,pontissara1 bishop of ,winchester1 borrows of his cathedral convent of ,st4 ,swithin1 at ,winchester1 8bibliam bene glossatam10 that is1 the ,bible1 with marginal annotations1 in two folio volumes2 but gives a bond for the return of it1 drawn up with great solemnity4 ,for the bequest of this ,bible to the convent1 and one hundred marks1 the monks founded a daily mass for the soul of the donor4 ,if any person gave a book to a religious house1 he believed that so valuable a donation merited eternal salvation1 and he offered it on the altar with great ceremony4 ,the prior and convent of ,rochester declare1 that they will every year pronounce the irrevocable sentence of damnation on him who shall purloin or conceal a ,latin translation of ,aristotle's ,poetics1 or even obliterate the title4 ,sometimes a book was given to a monastery1 on condition that the donor should have the use of it for his life2 and sometimes to a private person1 with the reservation that he who receives it should pray for the soul of his benefactor4 ,in the year #abbe1 ,roger de ,insula1 dean of ,york1 gave several ,latin ,bibles to the university of ,oxford1 on condition that the students who perused them should deposit a cautionary pledge4 ,the library of that university1 before the year #acjj1 consisted only of a few tracts1 chained or kept in chests1 in the choir of ,st4 ,mary's church4 ,the price of books became so high1 that persons of a moderate could not afford to purchase them4 ,in the year #aagd1 ,walter1 prior of ,st4 ,swithin's at ,winchester1 purchased of the monks of ,dorchester1 in ,oxfordshire1 ,bede's homilies1 and ,st4 ,austin's psalter for twelve measures of barley and a pall1 on which was embroidered in silver the history of ,st4 ,birinus converting a ,saxon king4 ,about the year #adjj1 a copy of ,john of ,meun's 8,roman de la ,rose0 was sold before the palace gate at ,paris for forty crowns1 or #ccl4 #fs4 #f;d4 ,the countess of ,anjou paid1 for a copy of the homilies of ,haimon1 bishop of ,halberstadt1 two hundred sheep1 five quarters of wheat1 and the same quantity of rye and millet4 ,even so late as the year #adga1 when ,louis ,,xi4 of ,france borrowed the works of ,rhasis1 the ,arabian physician1 from the faculty of medicine at ,paris1 he not only deposited by way of pledge a considerable quantity of plate1 but he was obliged to procure a nobleman to join with him as surety in a deed1 binding himself under a great forfeiture to restore it4 ,but when1 in the eleventh century1 the art of making paper was invented1 and more especially after the manufacture became general1 the number of ,,mss4 increased1 and the study of the sciences was wonderfully facilitated4 ,indeed1 the invention of the art of making paper1 and the invention of the art of printing1 are two very memorable events in the history of literature and of human civilization4 ,it is remarkable1 that the former preceded the first dawning of letters and improvement in knowledge1 toward the close of the eleventh century2 and the latter ushered in the light which spread over ,europe at the ra of the reformation4 #f4 ,if the ancient books were large1 they were formed of a number of skins1 of a number of pieces of linen and cotton cloth1 or of papyrus1 or parchment1 connected together4 ,the leaves were rarely written over on both sides1 ,ezek4 ii1 #i2 ,zech4 v1 #a4 ,books1 when written upon very flexible materials1 were1 as stated above1 rolled round a stick2 and1 if they were very long1 round two1 from the two extremities4 ,the reader unrolled the book to the place which he wanted1 1 and rolled it up again1 when he had read it1 1 ,luke iv1 #ag-bj2 whence the name 1 a volume1 or thing rolled up1 ,psalm xl1 #g2 ,isaiah xxxiv1 #d2 ,ezek4 ii1 #i2 #b ,kings xix1 #ad2 ,ezra vi1 #b4 ,the leaves thus rolled round the stick1 which has been mentioned1 and bound with a string1 could be easily sealed1 ,isaiah xxix1 #aa2 ,dan4 xii1 #d2 ,rev4 v1 #a2 vi1 #g4 ,those books1 which were inscribed on tablets of wood1 lead1 brass1 or ivory1 were connected together by rings at the back1 through which a rod was passed to carry them by4 ,the orientals appear to have taken pleasure in giving tropical or enigmatical titles to their books4 ,the titles1 prefixed to the fifty-sixth1 sixtieth1 and eightieth psalms appear to be of this description4 ,and there can be no doubt1 that ,david's elegy upon ,saul and ,jonathan1 #b ,sam4 i1 #ah1 is called or the bow1 in conformity with this peculiarity of taste4 ,the book1 or flying roll1 spoken of in ,zech4 v1 #a1 #b1 twenty cubits long and ten wide1 was one of the ancient rolls1 composed of many skins1 or parchments1 glued or sewed together at the end4 ,though some of these rolls or volumes were very long1 yet none1 probably1 was ever made of such a size as this4 ,this contained the curses and calamities which should befal the ,jews4 ,the extreme length and breadth of it shows the excessive number and enormity of their sins1 and the extent of their punishment4 ,isaiah1 describing the effects of ,god's wrath1 says1 8,the heavens shall be folded up like a book10 7scroll17 ,isaiah xxxiv1 #d4 ,he alludes to the way among the ancients1 of rolling up books1 when they purposed to close them4 ,a volume of several feet in length was suddenly rolled up into a very small compass4 ,thus the heavens should shrink into themselves1 and disappear1 as it were1 from the eyes of ,god1 when his wrath should be kindled4 ,these ways of speaking are figurative1 and very energetic4 #g4 ,book is sometimes used for letters1 memoirs1 an edict1 or contract4 ,in short1 the word book1 in ,hebrew1 sepher1 is much more extensive than the ,latin liber4 ,the letters which ,rabshakeh delivered from ,sennacherib to ,hezekiah are called a book4 ,the ,english translation1 indeed1 reads letter2 but the ,septuagint has 1 and the ,hebrew text1 4 ,the contract1 confirmed by ,jeremiah for the purchase of a field1 is called by the same name1 ,jer4 xxxii1 #aj2 and also the edict of ,ahasuerus in favour of the ,jews1 ,esther ix1 #bj1 though our translators have called it letters4 ,the writing which a man gave to his wife when he divorced her1 was denominated1 in ,hebrew1 8a book of divorce10 ,deut4 xxiv4 ,,books1 ,writers of4 ,the ancients seldom wrote their treatises with their own hand1 but dictated them to their freedmen and slaves4 ,these were either 1 amanuenses1 notarii1 8hasty writers10 or 1 librarii1 8fair writers10 or 1 librarii1 8copyists40 ,the office of these last was to transcribe fairly that which the former had written hastily and from dictation2 they were those who were obliged to write books and other documents which were intended to be durable4 ,the correctness of the copies was under the care of the emendator1 corrector1 4 ,a great part of the books of the ,new ,testament was dictated after this custom4 ,st4 ,paul noted it as a particular circumstance in the ,epistle to the ,galatians1 that he had written it with his own hand1 ,gal4 vi1 #aa4 ,but he affixed the salutation with his own hand1 #b ,thess4 iii1 #ag2 #a ,cor4 xvi1 #ba2 ,col4 iv1 #ah4 ,the amanuensis who wrote the ,epistle to the ,romans1 has mentioned himself near the conclusion1 ,rom4 xvi1 #bb4 ,,books1 modes of publication4 ,works could only be multiplied by means of transcripts4 ,whenever in this way they passed over to others1 they were beyond the control of the author1 and published4 ,the edition1 or publication1 by means of the booksellers1 was1 only at a later period1 advantageous to the ,christians4 ,the recitatio reading aloud preceded the publication1 which took place often merely among some few friends1 and often with great preparations before many persons1 who were invited for that purpose4 ,from hence the author became known as the writer1 and the world became previously informed of all which they might expect from the work4 ,if the composition pleased them1 he was requested to permit its transcription2 and thus the work left the hands of the author1 and belonged to the publicum3 public4 ,frequently an individual sent his literary labours to some illustrious man1 as a present1 strena1 a new-year's gift1 munusculum2 a small present2 or he prefixed his name to it1 for the sake of giving him a proof of friendship or regard1 by means of this express and particular direction of his work4 ,when it was only thus presented or sent to him1 and he accepted it1 he was considered as the person bound to introduce it to the world1 or as the patronus libri1 patron of the book1 who had pledged himself1 as the patronus person patron of the person to this duty4 ,it now became his office to provide for its publication by means of transcripts1 to facilitate its approach ad limina potentiorum to the gates of men of great influence1 and to be its defensor4 ,thus the works of the first founders of the ,christian church made their appearance before their community4 ,their ,epistles were read in those congregations to which they were directed2 and whoever wished to possess them either took a transcript of them1 or caused one to be procured for him4 ,the historical works were made known by the authors in the congregations of the ,christians1 per recitationem3 by reading aloud3 the object and general interest in them procured for them readers and transcribers4 ,st4 ,luke dedicated his writings to an illustrious man of the name of ,theophilus4 ,,book ,,of ,,life1 or ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,living1 or ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,lord1 ,psalm lxix1 #bh4 ,some have thought it very probable that these descriptive phrases1 which are frequent in ,scripture1 are taken from the custom1 observed generally in the courts of princes1 of keeping a list of persons who are in their service1 of the provinces which they govern1 of the officers of their armies1 of the number of their troops1 and sometimes even of the names of their soldiers4 ,thus1 when it is said that any one is written in the book of life1 it means that he particularly belongs to ,god1 and is enrolled among the number of his friends and servants3 and to be 8blotted out of the book of life10 is to be erased from the list of ,god's friends and servants1 as those who are guilty of treachery are struck off the roll of officers belonging to a prince4 ,the most satisfactory explanation of these phrases is1 however1 that which refers them to the genealogical lists of the ,jews1 or to the registers kept of the living1 from which the names of all the dead were blotted out4 ,,book ,,of ,,judgment4 ,daniel1 speaking of ,god's judgment1 says1 8,the judgment was set1 and the books were opened10 ,dan4 vii1 #aj4 ,this is an allusion to what was practised when a prince called his servants to account4 ,the accounts are produced and examined4 ,it is possible he might allude1 also1 to a custom of the ,persians1 among whom it was a constant practice every day to write down the services rendered to the king1 and the rewards given to those who had performed them4 ,of this we see an instance in the history of ,ahasuerus and ,mordecai1 ,esther iv1 #ab1 #cd4 ,when1 therefore1 the king sits in judgment1 the books are opened3 he obliges all his servants to reckon with him2 he punishes those who have failed in their duty2 he compels those to pay who are indebted to him2 and he rewards those who have done him services4 ,a similar proceeding will take place at the day of ,god's final judgment4 ,,sealed ,,book1 mentioned ,isa4 xxix1 #aa1 and the book sealed with seven seals1 in the ,revelation v1 #a-c1 are the prophecies of ,isaiah and of ,john1 which were written in a book1 or roll1 after the manner of the ancients1 and were sealed1 which figure truly signifies that they were mysterious3 they had respect to times remote1 and to future events2 so that a complete knowledge of their meaning could not be obtained till after what was foretold should happen1 and the seals1 as it were taken off4 ,in old times1 letters1 and other writings that were to be sealed1 were first wrapped round with thread or flax1 and then wax and the seal were applied to them4 ,to read them1 it was necessary to cut the thread or flax1 and to break the seals4 ,,booty1 spoils taken in war1 ,num4 xxxi1 #bg-cb4 ,according to the law of ,moses1 the booty was to be divided equally between those who were in the battle and those who were in the camp1 whatever disparity there might be in the number of each party4 ,the law farther required that1 out of that part of the spoils which was assigned to the fighting men1 the ,lord's share should be separated2 and for every five hundred men1 oxen1 asses1 sheep1 c1 they were to take one for the high priest1 as being the ,lord's first fruits4 ,and out of the other moiety1 belonging to the children of ,israel1 they were to give for every fifty men1 oxen1 asses1 sheep1 c1 one to the ,levites4 ,,booz1 or ,,boaz1 the son of ,salmon and ,rahab1 ,ruth iv1 #ba1 c2 ,matt41 i1 #e4 ,rahab1 we know1 was a ,canaanite of ,jericho1 ,joshua ii1 #a4 ,salmon1 who was of the tribe of ,judah1 married her1 and she bore him ,booz1 one of our ,saviour's ancestors according to the flesh4 ,some say there were three of this name1 the son1 the grandson1 and the great grandson1 of ,salmon3 the last ,booz was ,ruth's husband1 and the father of ,obed4 #b4 ,,booz1 or ,,boaz1 was the name of one of the two brazen pillars which ,solomon erected in the porch of the temple1 the other column being called ,jachin4 ,this last pillar was on the right hand of the entrance into the temple1 and ,booz on the left1 #a ,kings vii1 #ba4 ,the word signifies strength or firmness4 ,mr4 ,hutchinson has an express treatise upon these two columns1 attempting to show that they represented the true system of the universe1 which he insists was given by ,god to ,david1 and by him to ,solomon1 and was wrought by ,hiram upon these pillars4 ,,bosom4 ,see ,,accubation4 ,,bosses1 the thickest and strongest parts of a buckler1 ,job xv1 #bj4 ,,bottle4 ,the eastern bottle is made of a goat or kid skin1 stripped off without opening the belly2 the apertures made by cutting off the tail and legs are sewed up1 and1 when filled1 it is tied about the neck4 ,the ,arabs and ,persians never go a journey without a small leathern bottle of water hanging by their side like a scrip4 ,these skin bottles preserve their water1 milk1 and other liquids1 in a fresher state than any other vessels they can use4 ,the people of the east1 indeed1 put into them every thing they mean to carry to a distance1 whether dry or liquid1 and very rarely make use of boxes and pots1 unless to preserve such things as are liable to be broken4 ,they enclose these leathern bottles in woollen sacks1 because their beasts of carriage often fall down under their load1 or cast it down on the sandy desert4 ,these skin bottles were not confined to the countries of ,asia2 the roving tribes1 which passed the ,hellespont soon after the deluge1 and settled in ,greece and ,italy1 probably introduced them into those countries4 ,we learn from ,homer1 that they were in common use among the ,greeks at the siege of ,troy2 for1 with a view to an accommodation between the hostile armies1 the heralds carried through the city the things which were necessary to ratify the compact1 two lambs1 and exhilarating wine1 the fruit of the earth1 in a bottle of goat skin3 1 1 1 4 ,il4 lib4 iii1 l4 #bdf4 ,the bottle of wine which ,samuel's mother brought to ,eli1 #a ,sam4 i1 #bd1 is called 1 and was an earthen jug4 ,another word is used to signify the vessel out of which ,jael gave milk to ,sisera3 she opened a bottle of milk1 and gave him drink1 ,judges iv1 #ai4 ,this is called 1 which refers to something supple1 moist1 oozing1 or1 perhaps1 imports moistened into pliancy1 as that skin must be which is kept constantly filled with milk4 ,this kind was usually made of goat skins4 ,this word is also used to denote the bottle in which ,jesse sent wine by ,david to ,saul1 #a ,sam4 xvi1 #bj4 ,it is likewise employed to express the bottle into which the ,psalmist desires his tears may be collected1 ,psalm lvi1 #h2 and that to which he resembles himself1 and which he calls a bottle in the smoke1 ,psalm cxix1 #hc1 that is1 a skin bottle1 blackened and shrivelled4 ,beside the words already considered1 another 1 in the plural1 is used1 ,job xxxii1 #ai4 ,this signifies1 in general1 to swell or distend4 ,on receiving the liquor poured into it1 a skin bottle must be greatly swelled and distended2 and it must be swelled still farther by the fermentation of the liquor within it1 as that advances to ripeness4 ,in this state1 if no vent be given to the liquor1 it may overpower the strength of the bottle1 or it may penetrate by some secret crevice or weaker part4 ,hence arises the propriety of putting new wine into new bottles1 which1 being strong1 may resist the expansion1 the internal pressure of their contents1 and preserve the wine to due maturity2 while old bottles may1 without danger1 contain old wine1 whose fermentation is already past1 ,matt4 ix1 #ag2 ,luke v1 #ch4 ,,bouddhists1 or ,,budhists1 one of the three great sects of ,india1 distinct both from the ,brahminical sect1 and the ,jainas4 ,the ,bouddhists do not believe in a ,first ,cause3 they consider matter as eternal2 that every portion of animated existence has in itself its own rise1 tendency1 and destiny2 that the condition of creatures on earth is regulated by works of merit and demerit2 that works of merit not only raise individuals to happiness1 but1 as they prevail1 exalt the world itself to prosperity2 while1 on the other hand1 when vice is predominant1 the world degenerates till the universe itself is dissolved4 ,they suppose1 however1 that there is always some superior deity1 who has attained to this elevation by religious merit2 but they do not regard him as the governor of the world4 ,to the present grand period1 comprehending all the time included in a 8kulpu10 they assign five deities1 four of whom have already appeared1 including ,goutumu1 or ,bouddhu1 whose exaltation continues five thousand years1 two thousand three hundred and fifty-six of which had expired1 ,a4 ,d4 #ahad4 ,after the expiration of the five thousand years1 another saint will obtain the ascendancy1 and be deified4 ,six hundred millions of saints are said to be canonized with each deity1 though it is admitted that ,bouddhu took only twenty-four thousand devotees to heaven with him4 ,the lowest state of existence is in hell2 the next is that in the forms of brutes3 both these are states of punishment4 ,the next ascent is to that of man1 which is probationary4 ,the next includes many degrees of honour and happiness up to demigods1 c1 which are states of reward for works of merit4 ,the ascent to superior deity is from the state of man4 ,the ,bouddhists are taught that there are four superior heavens which are not destroyed at the end of 8kulpu20 that below these there are twelve other heavens1 followed by six inferior heavens2 after which follows the earth2 then the world of snakes2 and then thirty-two chief hells3 to which are to be added1 one hundred and twenty hells of milder torments4 ,the highest state of glory is absorption4 ,the person who is unchangeable in his resolution2 who has obtained the knowledge of things past1 present1 and to come1 through one 8kulpu20 who can make himself invisible2 go where he pleases2 and who has attained to complete abstraction2 will enjoy absorption4 ,those who perform works of merit are admitted to the heavens of the different gods1 or are made kings or great men on earth2 and those who are wicked are born in the forms of different animals1 or consigned to different hells4 ,the happiness of these heavens is described as entirely sensual4 ,the ,bouddhists believe that at the end of a 8kulpu0 the universe is destroyed4 ,to convey some idea of the extent of this period1 the illiterate ,cingalese use this comparison3 8,if a man were to ascend a mountain nine miles high1 and to renew these journeys once in every hundred years1 till the mountain were worn down by his feet to an atom1 the time required to do this would be nothing to the fourth part of a #8kulpu4'0 ,bouddhu1 before his exaltation1 taught his followers that1 after his death1 the remains of his body1 his doctrine1 or an assembly of his disciples1 were to be held in equal reverence with himself4 ,when a ,cingalese1 therefore1 approaches an image of ,bouddhu1 he says1 8,i take refuge in ,bouddhu2 ,i take refuge in his doctrine2 ,i take refuge in his followers40 ,there are five commands given to the common ,bouddhists2 the first forbids the destruction of animal life2 the second forbids theft2 the third1 adultery2 the fourth1 falsehood2 the fifth1 the use of spirituous liquors4 ,there are other commands for superior classes1 or devotees1 which forbid dancing1 songs1 music1 festivals1 perfumes1 elegant dresses1 elevated seats1 c4 ,among works of the highest merit1 one is the feeding of a hungry infirm tiger with a person's own flesh4 ,,bourignonists1 the followers of the celebrated ,mad4 ,antoinette ,bourignon de la ,ponte1 a native of ,flanders1 born at ,lisle1 in #afaf4 ,she was so much deformed at her birth1 that it was even debated whether she should not be stifled as a monster4 ,as she grew up1 however1 this deformity greatly decreased1 and she discovered a superior mind1 a strong imagination1 and very early indications of a devotional spirit1 strongly tinctured with mysticism4 ,she conceived herself to be divinely called1 and set apart to revive the true spirit of ,christianity that had been extinguished by theological animosities and debates4 ,in her confession of faith1 she professes her belief in the ,scriptures1 and in the divinity and atonement of ,christ4 ,the leading principles which pervade her productions are these3 that man is perfectly free to resist or receive divine grace2 that ,god is ever unchangeable in love toward all his creatures1 and does not inflict any arbitrary punishment1 but that the evils they suffer are the natural consequences of sin2 that true religion consists not in any outward forms of worship1 nor systems of faith1 but in immediate communion with the ,deity1 by internal feelings and impulses1 and by a perfect acquiescence in his will4 ,this lady was educated in the ,roman ,catholic religion2 but she declaimed equally against the corruptions of the church of ,rome and those of the ,reformed churches3 hence she was opposed and persecuted by both ,catholics and ,protestants1 and after being driven about from place to place1 she died at ,franeker1 in #afhj4 ,she maintained that there ought to be a general toleration of all religions4 ,her notion on ,god's foreknowledge was1 that ,god was capable of foreknowing all events1 but1 his power being equal to his knowledge1 he purposely withheld from himself that knowledge in certain cases1 that he might not interfere with the free agency and responsibility of his creatures4 ,her works are very numerous1 making eighteen volumes in octavo3 of which the principal are1 8,the ,light of the ,world20 8,the ,testimony of ,truth20 and 8,the ,renovation of the ,gospel ,spirit20 which are much in esteem among the admirers of mystical theology4 ,,bow4 ,the expression1 8to break the bow10 so frequent in ,scripture1 signifies to destroy the power of a people1 because the principal offensive weapon of armies was anciently the bow4 8,a deceitful bow0 is one that1 from some defect1 either in bending or the string1 carries the arrow wide of the mark1 however well aimed4 ,see ,,arms4 ,,bowels4 ,the bowels are the seat of mercy1 tenderness1 and compassion4 ,joseph's bowels were moved at the sight of his brother ,benjamin2 that is1 he felt himself softened and affected4 ,the true mother of the child whom ,solomon commanded to be divided1 felt her bowels move1 and consented that it should be given to the woman who was not its real mother1 #a ,kings1 iii1 #bf4 ,the ,hebrews also sometimes place wisdom and understanding in the bowels1 8,who hath put wisdom in the inner parts80 or bowels1 ,job xxxviii1 #cf4 ,the ,psalmist says1 8,thy law is within my heart10 literally1 in the midst of my bowels1--it is by me strongly and affectionately regarded1 ,psalm xl1 #h4 ,,box ,,tree1 1 ,isa4 xli1 #i2 lx1 #ac2 ,ezek4 xxvii1 #f2 #b ,esdras xiv1 #bd1 where the word appears to be used for tablets4 ,most of the ancient1 and several of the modern1 translators render this word the buxus1 or 8box tree20 but from its being mentioned along with trees of the forest1 some more stately tree must be intended1 probably the cedar4 ,,bracelet4 ,a bracelet is commonly worn by the oriental princes1 as a badge of power and authority4 ,when the calif ,cayem ,bemrillah granted the investiture of certain dominions to an eastern prince1 he sent him letters patent1 a crown1 a chain1 and bracelets4 ,this was probably the reason that the ,amalekite brought the bracelet which he found on ,saul's arm1 along with his crown1 to ,david1 #b ,sam4 i1 #aj4 ,it was a royal ornament1 and belonged to the regalia of the kingdom4 ,the bracelet1 it must be acknowledged1 was worn both by men and women of different ranks2 but the original word1 in the second book of ,samuel1 occurs only in two other places1 and is quite different from the term which is employed to express the more common ornament known by that name4 ,and beside1 this ornament was worn by kings and princes in a different manner from their subjects4 ,it was fastened above the elbow2 and was commonly of great value4 ,,brahmins1 or ,,brachmins1 the highest caste of ,hindoos1 to whom is confined the priesthood1 and1 in general1 all their ancient learning1 which is locked up in their sacred language1 called the ,sanscrit4 ,the ,brahmins derive that name from ,brahma1 the ,creator2 for they maintain the doctrine of three embodied energies1 the creative1 the preserving1 and the destroying2 personified under the names of ,brahma1 ,vishnu1 and ,shiva1 all sprung from ,brimh2 and to each of them is assigned a kind of celestial consort1 a female deity1 which they describe as a passive energy4 ,like the philosophers of ,greece1 they seem to have had an open and a secret doctrine3 the latter1 a species of ,spinozism1 considering the great ,supreme as 8the soul of the world20 endowed with no other quality than ubiquity2 requiring no worship1 and exerting no power1 but in the production of the three great energies above mentioned4 ,these are so ingeniously diversified as to produce three hundred and thirty millions of gods1 or objects of idolatry2 so various in character as to suit every man's taste or humour1 and to furnish examples of every vice and folly to which humanity is subject4 ,as it respects a future state1 two of the principal doctrines of ,brachminism are transmigration and absorption4 ,after death1 the person is conveyed1 by the messengers of ,yumu1 through the air to the place of judgment4 ,after receiving his sentence1 he wanders about the earth for twelve months1 as an arial being or ghost2 and then takes a body suited to his future condition1 whether he ascend to the gods1 or suffer in a new body1 or be hurled into some hell4 ,this is the doctrine of several 8pooranus20 others maintain1 that immediately after death and judgment1 the person suffers the pains of hell1 and removes his sin by suffering2 and then returns to the earth in some bodily form4 ,the descriptions which the 8pooranus0 give of the heavens of the gods are truly in the eastern style2 all things1 even the beds of the gods1 are made of gold and precious stones4 ,all the pleasures of these heavens are exactly what we should expect in a system formed by uninspired and unrenewed men3 like the paradise of ,mohammed1 they are brothels1 rather than places of rewards for 8the pure in heart40 ,here all the vicious passions are personified1 or rather1 deified3 the quarrels and licentious intrigues of the gods fill these places with perpetual uproar1 while their impurities are described with the same literality and gross detail1 as similar things are talked of among these idolaters on earth4 ,but the highest degree of happiness is absorption4 ,god1 as separated from matter1 the ,hindoos contemplate as a being reposing in his own happiness1 destitute of ideas2 as infinite placidity2 as an unruffled sea of bliss2 as being perfectly abstracted1 and void of consciousness4 ,they therefore deem it the height of perfection to be like this being4 ,hence ,krishnu1 in his discourse to ,urjoonu1 praises the man 8who forsaketh every desire that entereth into his heart2 who is happy of himself2 who is without affection2 who rejoiceth not either in good or evil2 who1 like the tortoise1 can restrain his members from their wonted purpose2 to whom pleasure and pain1 gold1 iron1 and stones are the same40 8,the learned10 adds ,krushnu1 8behold ,brumhu alike in the reverend #8branhun1' perfected in knowledge2 in the ox1 and in the elephant2 in the dog1 and in him who eateth of the flesh of dogs40 ,the person whose very nature1 say they1 is absorbed in divine meditation2 whose life is like a sweet sleep1 unconscious and undisturbed2 who does not even desire ,god1 and who is thus changed into the image of the ever blessed2 obtains absorption into ,brumhu4 ,the ceremonies leading to absorption are called by the name of 8tupushya0 and the persons performing them1 a 8tupushwee40 ,forsaking the world2 retiring to a forest2 fasting1 living on roots1 fruits1 c2--remaining in certain postures2 exposure to all the inclemencies of the weather1 c2 these1 and many other austere practices are prescribed1 to subdue the passions1 to fix the mind1 habituate it to meditation1 and fill it with that serenity and indifference to the world which is to prepare it for absorption1 and place it beyond the reach of future birth4 ,,bramble1 1 a prickly shrub1 ,judges ix1 #ad1 #ae2 ,psalm lviii1 #i4 ,in the latter place it is translated 8thorn40 ,hiller supposes atad to be the cynobastus1 or sweetbrier4 ,the author of 8,scripture ,illustrated0 says1 that the bramble seems to be well chosen as the representative of the original2 which should be a plant bearing fruit of some kind1 being associated1 ,judges ix1 #ad1 though by opposition1 with the vine4 ,the apologue or fable of ,jotham has always been admired for its spirit and application4 ,it has also been considered as the oldest fable extant4 ,,branch1 a title of ,messiah3 8,and there shall come forth a rod out of the stem of ,jesse1 and a ,,branch shall grow out of his roots10 ,isaiah xi1 #a4 ,see also ,zech4 iii1 #h2 vi1 #ab2 ,jer4 xxiii1 #e2 xxxiii1 #ae4 ,when ,christ is represented as a slender twig1 shooting out from the trunk of an old tree lopped to the very root and decayed1 and becoming itself a mighty tree1 reference is made1 #a4 ,to the kingly dignity of ,christ1 springing up from the decayed house of ,david2 #b4 ,to the exaltation which was to succeed his humbled condition on earth1 and to the glory and vigour of his mediatorial reign4 ,,brass4 4 ,the word brass occurs very often in our translation of the ,bible2 but that is a mixed metal1 for the making of which we are indebted to the ,german metallurgists of the thirteenth century4 ,that the ancients knew not the art of making it1 is almost certain4 ,none of their writings even hint at the process4 ,there can be no doubt that copper is the original metal intended4 ,this is spoken of as known prior to the flood2 and to have been discovered1 or at least wrought1 as was also iron1 in the seventh generation from ,adam1 by ,tubal-cain3 whence the name ,vulcan4 ,the knowledge of these two metals must have been carried over the world afterward with the spreading colonies of the ,noachid4 ,agreeably to this1 the ancient histories of the ,greeks and ,romans speak of ,cadmus as the inventor of the metal which by the former is called 1 and by the latter s2 and from him had the denomination cadmea4 ,according to others1 ,cadmus discovered a mine1 of which he taught the use4 ,the name of the person here spoken of was undoubtedly the same with ,ham1 or ,cam1 the son of ,noah1 who probably learned the art of assaying metals from the family of ,tubal-cain1 and communicated that knowledge to the people of the colony which he settled4 ,,brasen ,,serpent1 the1 was an image of polished brass1 in the form of one of those fiery serpents which were sent to chastise the murmuring ,israelites in the wilderness1 and whose bite caused violent heat1 thirst1 and inflammation4 ,by divine command 8,moses made a serpent of brass10 or copper1 and 8put it upon a pole2 and it came to pass1 that if a serpent had bitten any man1 when he beheld the serpent of brass1 he lived10 ,num4 xxi1 #f-i4 ,this brasen serpent was preserved as a monument of the divine mercy1 but in process of time became an instrument of idolatry4 ,when this superstition began1 it is difficult to determine2 but the best account is given by the ,jewish rabbi1 ,david ,kimchi1 in the following manner3 ,from the time that the kings of ,israel did evil1 and the children of ,israel followed idolatry1 till the reign of ,hezekiah1 they offered incense to it2 for it being written in the law of ,moses1 8,whoever looketh upon it shall live10 they fancied they might obtain blessings by its mediation1 and therefore thought it worthy to be worshipped4 ,it had been kept from the days of ,moses1 in memory of a miracle1 in the same manner as the pot of manna was3 and ,asa and ,jehoshaphat did not extirpate it when they rooted out idolatry1 because in their reign they did not observe that the people worshipped this serpent1 or burnt incense to it2 and therefore they left it as a memorial4 ,but ,hezekiah thought fit to take it quite away1 when he abolished other idolatry1 because in the time of his father they adored it as an idol2 and though pious people among them accounted it only as a memorial of a wonderful work1 yet he judged it better to abolish it1 though the memory of the miracle should happen to be lost1 than suffer it to remain1 and leave the ,israelites in danger to commit idolatry hereafter with it4 ,on the subject of the serpent-bitten ,israelites being healed by looking at the brasen serpent1 there is a good comment in the book of ,wisdom1 chap4 xvi1 #d-ab1 in which are these remarkable words3--8,they were admonished1 having a sign of salvation10 that is1 the brasen serpent1 8to put them in remembrance of the commandments of thy law4 ,for he that turned himself toward it1 was not saved by the ,,thing that he saw1 but by ,,thee1 that art the ,saviour of all10 verses #f1 #g4 ,to the circumstance of looking at the brasen serpent in order to be healed1 our ,lord refers1 ,john iii1 #ad1 #ae3 8,as ,moses lifted up the 7brasen7 serpent in the wilderness1 even so must the ,son of man be lifted up1 that whosoever believeth in him should not perish1 but have eternal life40 ,,bread1 a term which in ,scripture is used1 as by us1 frequently for food in general2 but is also often found in its proper sense4 ,sparing in the use of flesh1 like all the nations of the east1 the chosen people usually satisfied their hunger with bread1 and quenched their thirst in the running stream4 ,their bread was generally made of wheat or barley1 or lentiles and beans4 ,bread of wheat flour1 as being the most excellent1 was preferred3 barley bread was used only in times of scarcity and distress4 ,so mean and contemptible1 in the estimation of the numerous and well-appointed armies of ,midian1 was ,gideon1 with his handful of undisciplined militia1 that he seems to have been compared to bread of this inferior quality1 which may account for the ready interpretation of the dream of the ,midianite respecting him3 8,and when ,gideon was come1 behold1 there was a man that told a dream unto his fellow1 and said1 ,behold1 ,i dreamed a dream1 and lo1 a cake of barley bread tumbled into the host of ,midian1 and came unto a tent and smote it that it fell1 and overturned it1 that the tent lay along4 ,and his fellow answered and said1 ,this is nothing else save the sword of ,gideon1 the son of ,joash1 a man of ,israel2 for into his hand hath ,god delivered ,midian1 and all the host40 ,in the cities and villages of ,barbary1 where public ovens are established1 the bread is usually leavened2 but among the ,bedoweens and ,kabyles1 as soon as the dough is kneaded1 it is made into thin cakes1 either to be baked immediately upon the coals1 or else in a shallow earthen vessel like a frying-pan1 called ,tajen4 ,such were the unleavened cakes which we so frequently read of in ,scripture2 and those also which ,sarah made quickly upon the hearth4 ,these last are about an inch thick2 and1 being commonly prepared in woody countries1 are used all along the shores of the ,black ,sea1 from the ,palus ,motis to the ,caspian1 in ,chaldea and ,mesopotamia1 except in towns4 ,a fire is made in the middle of the room3 and when the bread is ready for baking1 a corner of the hearth is swept1 the bread is laid upon it1 and covered with ashes and embers2 in a quarter of an hour1 they turn it4 ,sometimes they use small convex plates of iron1 which are most common in ,persia1 and among the nomadic tribes1 as being the easiest way of baking1 and done with the least expense2 for the bread is extremely thin1 and soon prepared4 ,the oven is also used in every part of ,asia3 it is made in the ground1 four or five feet deep1 and three in diameter1 well plastered with mortar4 ,when it is hot1 they place the bread 7which is commonly long1 and not thicker than a finger7 against the sides3 it is baked in a moment4 ,ovens1 ,chardin apprehends1 were not used in ,canaan in the patriarchal age3 all the bread of that time was baked upon a plate1 or under the ashes2 and he supposes1 what is nearly self-evident1 that the cakes which ,sarah baked on the hearth were of the last sort1 and that the shew bread was of the same kind4 ,the ,arabs about ,mount ,carmel use a great strong pitcher1 in which they kindle a fire2 and when it is heated1 they mix meal and water1 which they apply with the hollow of their hands to the outside of the pitcher2 and this extremely soft paste1 spreading itself1 is baked in an instant4 ,the heat of the pitcher having dried up all the moisture1 the bread comes off as thin as our wafers2 and the operation is so speedily performed1 that in a very little time a sufficient quantity is made4 ,but their best sort of bread they bake1 either by heating an oven1 or a large pitcher full of little smooth shining flints1 upon which they lay the dough1 spread out in the form of a thin broad cake4 ,sometimes they use a shallow earthen vessel1 resembling a frying pan1 which seems to be the pan mentioned by ,moses1 in which the meat-offering was baked4 ,this vessel1 ,dr4 ,shaw informs us1 serves both for baking and frying2 for the bagreah of the people of ,barbary differs not much from our pancakes2 only1 instead of rubbing the pan in which they fry them with butter1 they rub it with soap1 to make them like a honey-comb4 ,if these accounts of the ,arab stone pitcher1 the pan1 and the iron hearth or copper plate1 be attended to1 it will not be difficult to understand the laws of ,moses in the second chapter of ,leviticus3 they will be found to answer perfectly well to the description which he gives us of the different ways of preparing the meat-offerings4 ,as the ,hebrews made their bread thin1 in the form of little flat cakes1 they did not cut it with a knife1 but broke it2 which gave rise to the expression1 breaking bread1 so frequent in ,scripture4 ,the ,arabians and other eastern people1 among whom wood is scarce1 often bake their bread between two fires made of cow dung1 which burns slowly1 and bakes the bread very leisurely4 ,the crumb of it is very good1 if it be eaten the same day2 but the crust is black and burnt1 and retains a smell of the materials that were used in baking it4 ,this may serve to explain a passage in ,ezekiel1 iv1 #i-ac4 ,the straits of a siege and the scarcity of fuel were thus intimated to the ,prophet4 ,during the whole octave of the passover1 the ,hebrews use only unleavened bread1 as a memorial that at the time of their departure out of ,egypt they wanted leisure to bake leavened bread2 and1 having left the country with precipitation1 they were content to bake bread which was not leavened1 ,exod4 xii1 #h4 ,the practice of the ,jews at this day1 with relation to the use of unleavened bread1 is as follows3 ,they forbid to eat1 or have in their houses1 or in any place belonging to them1 either leavened bread or any thing else that is leavened4 ,that they may the better observe this rule1 they search into all the corners of the house with scrupulous exactness for all bread or paste1 or any thing that is leavened4 ,after they have thus well cleansed their houses1 they whiten them1 and furnish them with kitchen and table utensils1 all new1 and with others which are to be used only on that day4 ,if they are movables1 which have served only for something else1 and are made of metal1 they have them polished1 and put into the fire1 to take away all the impurity which they may have contracted by touching any thing leavened4 ,all this is done on the thirteenth day of ,nisan1 or on the vigil of the feast of the passover1 which begins with the fifteenth of the same month1 or the fourteenth day in the evening2 for the ,hebrews reckon their days from one evening to another4 ,on the fourteenth of ,nisan1 at eleven o'clock1 they burn the common bread1 to show that the prohibition of eating leavened bread is then commenced2 and this action is attended with words1 whereby the master of the house declares that he has no longer any thing leavened in his keeping2 that1 at least1 he believes so4 ,in allusion to this practice1 we are commanded to 8purge out the old leaven20 by which 8malice and wickedness0 are intended2 and to feed only on the 8unleavened bread of sincerity and truth40 #b4 ,,shew ,,bread1 or1 according to the ,hebrews1 the bread of faces1 was bread offered every ,sabbath day upon the golden table in the holy place1 ,exod4 xxv1 #cj4 ,the ,hebrews affirm that these loaves were square1 and had four sides1 and were covered with leaves of gold4 ,they were twelve in number1 according to the number of the twelve tribes1 in whose names they were offered4 ,every loaf was composed of two assarons of flour1 which make about five pints and one-tenth4 ,these loaves were unleavened4 ,they were presented hot every ,sabbath day1 the old ones being taken away and eaten by the priests only4 ,this offering was accompanied with salt and frankincense1 and even with wine1 according to some commentators4 ,the ,scripture mentions only salt and incense2 but it is presumed that wine was added1 because it was not wanting in other sacrifices and offerings4 ,it is believed that these loaves were placed one upon another1 in two piles of six each2 and that between every loaf were two thin plates of gold1 folded back in a semicircle the whole length of them1 to admit air1 and to prevent the loaves from growing mouldy4 ,these golden plates1 thus turned in1 were supported at their extremities by two golden forks1 which rested on the ground4 ,the twelve loaves1 because they stood before the ,lord1 were called 1 1 or 1 the bread of faces1 or of the presence2 and are therefore denominated in our ,english translation the shew bread4 ,since part of the frankincense put upon the bread was to be burnt on the altar for a memorial1 even an offering made by fire unto the ,lord2 and since ,aaron and his sons were to eat it in the holy place1 ,lev4 xxiv1 #e-i1 it is probable that this bread typified ,christ1 first presented as a sacrifice to ,jehovah1 and then becoming spiritual food to such as in and through him are spiritual priests to ,god1 even his ,father1 ,rev4 i1 #f2 v1 #aj2 xx1 #f2 #a ,peter ii1 #e4 ,it appears1 from some places in ,scripture1 7see ,exodus xxix1 #cb1 and ,numbers vi1 #ae17 that there was always near the altar a basket full of bread1 in order to be offered together with the ordinary sacrifices4 ,,breastplate1 or ,,pectoral1 one part of the priestly vestments1 belonging to the ,jewish high priests4 ,it was about ten inches square1 ,exod4 xxviii1 #ac-ca2 and consisted of a folded piece of the same rich embroidered stuff of which the ephod was made4 ,it was worn on the breast of the high priest1 and was set with twelve precious stones1 on each of which was engraven the name of one of the tribes4 ,they were set in four rows1 three in each row1 and were divided from each other by the little golden squares or partitions in which they were set4 ,the names of these stones1 and that of the tribe engraven on them1 as also their disposition on the breastplate1 are usually given as follows2 but what stones really answer to the ,hebrew name1 is for the most part very uncertain3-- ,sardine1 ,topaz1 ,carbuncle1 ,,reuben4 ,,simeon4 ,,levi4 ,emerald1 ,sapphire1 ,diamond1 ,,judah4 ,,dan4 ,,naphtali4 ,ligure1 ,agate1 ,amethyst1 ,,gad4 ,,asher4 ,,issachar4 ,beryl1 ,onyx1 ,jasper1 ,,zebulun4 ,,joseph4 ,,benjamin4 ,this breastplate was fastened at the four corners1 those on the top to each shoulder1 by a golden hook or ring1 at the end of a wreathen chain2 and those below to the girdle of the ephod1 by two strings or ribbons1 which had likewise two rings or hooks4 ,this ornament was never to be separated from the priestly garment2 and it was called the memorial1 because it was a sign whereby the children of ,israel might know that they were presented to ,god1 and that they were had in remembrance by him4 ,it was also called the breastplate of judgment1 because it had the divine oracle of ,,urim and ,,thummim annexed to it4 ,these words signify lights and perfections1 and are mentioned as in the high priest's breastplate2 but what they were1 we cannot determine4 ,some think they were two precious stones added to the other twelve1 by the extraordinary lustre of which1 ,god marked his approbation of a design1 and1 by their becoming dim1 his disallowance of it2 others1 that these two words were written on a precious stone1 or plate of gold1 fixed in the breastplate2 others1 that the letters of the names of the tribes1 were the ,urim and ,thummim2 and that the letters by standing out1 or by an extraordinary illumination1 marked such words as contained the answer of ,god to him who consulted this oracle4 ,le ,clerc will have them to be the names of two precious stones1 set in a golden collar of the high priest1 and coming down to his breast1 as the magistrates of ,egypt wore a golden chain1 at the end of which hung the figure of truth1 engraven on a precious stone4 ,prideaux thinks the words chiefly denote the clearness of the oracles dictated to the high priest1 though perhaps the lustre of the stones in his breastplate might represent this clearness4 ,jahn says the most probable opinion is1 that ,,urim and ,,thummim 71 1 light and justice1 ,septuagint1 7 manifestation and truth was a sacred lot1 #a ,samuel xiv1 #da1 #db4 ,there were employed1 perhaps1 in determining this lot1 three precious stones1 on one of which was engraven 1 yes2 on the other1 1 no2 the third being destitute of any inscription4 ,the question proposed1 therefore1 was always to be put in such a way1 that the answer might be direct1 either yes or no1 provided any answer was given at all4 ,these stones were carried in the purse or bag1 formed by the lining or interior of the pectoral2 and when the question was proposed1 if the high priest drew out the stone which exhibited yes1 the answer was affirmative2 if the one on which no was written1 the answer was negative2 if the third1 no answer was to be given1 ,joshua vii1 #ac-ba2 #a ,sam4 xiv1 #dj-dc2 xxviii1 #f4 ,in the midst of all this conjecture1 only two things are certain3 #a4 ,that one of the appointed methods of consulting ,god1 on extraordinary emergencies1 was by ,,urim and ,,thummim3 #b4 ,that the oracles of ,god rejected all equivocal and enigmatical replies1 which was the character of the ,heathen pretended oracles4 8,the words of the ,lord are pure words40 ,his own oracle bears1 therefore1 an inscription which signifies lights and perfections1 or1 the shining and the perfect2 or1 according to the ,,lxx1 manifestation and truth4 ,in this respect it might be a type of the ,christian revelation made to the true ,israel1 the ,christian church1 by the ,gospel4 ,st4 ,paul seems especially to allude to this translation of ,urim and ,thummim by the ,septuagint1 when he speaks of himself and his fellow labourers1 8commending themselves to every man's conscience by manifestation of the truth20 in opposition to those who by their errors and compliances with the ,jewish prejudices1 or with the philosophical taste of the ,greeks1 obscured the truth1 and rendered ambiguous the guidance of ,christian doctrine4 ,his preaching is thus tacitly compared to the oracles of ,god2 theirs1 to the misleading and perplexed oracles of the ,heathen4 ,,bride and ,,bridegroom4 ,under this head an account of the marriage customs of ancient times1 the knowledge of which is so necessary to explain many allusions in the ,holy ,scriptures1 may be properly introduced4 ,among the ,jews1 the state of marriage was1 from the remotest periods of their history1 reckoned so honourable1 that the person who neglected or declined to enter into it without a good reason1 was thought to be guilty of a great crime4 ,such a mode of thinking was not confined to them2 in several of the ,grecian states1 marriage was held in equal respect4 ,the ,jews did not allow marriageable persons to enter into that honourable state without restriction2 the high priest was forbidden by law to marry a widow2 and the priests of every rank1 to take a harlot to wife1 a profane woman1 or one put away from her husband4 ,to prevent the alienation of inheritances1 an heiress could not marry but into her own tribe4 ,the whole people of ,israel1 being a holy nation1 separated from all the earth to the service of the true ,god1 and to be the depositaries of his law1 were forbidden to contract matrimonial alliances with the idolatrous nations in their vicinity4 ,the marriage engagement of a minor1 without the knowledge and consent of the parents1 was of no force2 so sacred was the parental authority held among that people4 ,these customs appear to have been derived from a very remote antiquity2 for when ,eliezer of ,damascus went to ,mesopotamia to take a wife from thence unto his master's son1 he disclosed the motives of his journey to the father and brother of ,rebecca2 and ,hamor applied to ,jacob and his sons1 for their consent to the union of ,dinah with his son ,shechem4 ,samson also consulted his parents about his marriage2 and entreated them to get for him the object of his choice4 ,marriage contracts seem to have been made in the primitive ages with little ceremony4 ,the suitor himself1 or his father1 sent a messenger to the father of the woman1 to ask her in marriage4 ,in the remote ages of antiquity1 women were literally purchased by their husbands2 and the presents made to their parents or other relations were called their dowry4 ,thus1 we find ,shechem bargaining with ,jacob and his sons for ,dinah3 8,let me find grace in your eyes1 and what ye shall say unto me1 ,i will give3 ask me never so much dowry and gift1 and ,i will give according as ye shall say unto me2 but give me the damsel to wife10 ,gen4 xxxiv1 #b4 ,the practice still continues in the country of ,shechem2 for when a young ,arab wishes to marry1 he must purchase his wife2 and for this reason1 fathers1 among the ,arabs1 are never more happy than when they have many daughters4 ,they are reckoned the principal riches of a house4 ,an ,arabian suitor will offer fifty sheep1 six camels1 or a dozen of cows3 if he be not rich enough to make such offers1 he proposes to give a mare or a colt1 considering in the offer the merit of the young woman1 the rank of her family1 and his own circumstances4 ,in the primitive times of ,greece1 a well-educated lady was valued at four oxen4 ,when they are agreed on both sides1 the contract is drawn up by him that acts as cadi or judge among these ,arabs4 ,in some parts of the east1 a measure of corn is formally mentioned in contracts for their concubines1 or temporary wives1 beside the sum of money which is stipulated by way of dowry4 ,this custom is probably as ancient as concubinage1 with which it is connected2 and if so1 it will perhaps account for the ,prophet ,hosea's purchasing a wife of this kind1 for fifteen pieces of silver1 and for a homer of barley1 and a half homer of barley4 ,when the intended husband was not able to give a dowry1 he offered an equivalent4 ,the patriarch ,jacob1 who came to ,laban with only his staff1 offered to serve him seven years for ,rachel3 a proposal which ,laban accepted4 ,this custom has descended to modern times2 for in ,cabul the young men who are unable to advance the required dowry 8live with their future father-in-law1 and earn their bride by their services1 without ever seeing the object of their wishes40 ,the contract of marriage was made in the house of the woman's father1 before the elders and governors of the city or district4 ,the espousals by money1 or a written instrument1 were performed by the man and woman under a tent or canopy erected for that purpose4 ,into this chamber the bridegroom was accustomed to go with his bride1 that he might talk with her more familiarly2 which was considered as a ceremony of confirmation to the wedlock4 ,while he was there1 no person was allowed to enter3 his friends and attendants waited for him at the door1 with torches and lamps in their hands2 and when he came out1 he was received by all that were present with great joy and acclamation4 ,to this ancient custom1 the ,psalmist alludes in his magnificent description of the heavens3 8,in them he set a tabernacle for the sun2 which1 as a bridegroom coming out of his chamber1 rejoices as a strong man to run a race10 ,psalm xix1 #d4 ,a ,jewish virgin legally betrothed was considered as a lawful wife2 and1 by consequence1 could not be put away without a bill of divorce4 ,and if she proved unfaithful to her betrothed husband1 she was punished as an adulteress2 and her seducer incurred the same punishment as if he had polluted the wife of his neighbour4 ,this is the reason that the angel addressed ,joseph1 the betrothed husband of ,mary1 in these terms3 8,joseph1 thou son of ,david1 fear not to take unto thee ,mary thy wife2 for that which is conceived in her is of the ,holy ,ghost40 ,the ,evangelist ,luke gives her the same title3 8,and ,joseph also went up from ,galilee unto ,bethlehem1 to be taxed1 with ,mary his espoused wife10 ,luke ii1 #d1 #e4 #b4 ,ten or twelve months commonly intervened between the ceremony of espousals and the marriage3 during this interval1 the espoused wife continued with her parents1 that she might provide herself with nuptial ornaments suitable to her station4 ,this custom serves to explain a circumstance in ,samson's marriage1 which is involved in some obscurity4 8,he went down10 says the historian1 8and talked with the woman10 7whom he had seen at ,timnath17 8and she pleased him well10 ,judges xiv1 #g1 c4 ,these words seem to refer to the ceremony of espousals2 the following1 to the subsequent marriage3 8,and after a time he returned to take her10 ,judges xiv1 #h4 ,hence a considerable time intervened between the espousals and their actual union4 ,from the time of the espousals1 the bridegroom was at liberty to visit his espoused wife in the house of her father2 yet neither of the parties left their own abode during eight days before the marriage2 but persons of the same age visited the bridegroom1 and made merry with him4 ,these circumstances are distinctly marked in the account which the sacred historian has given us of ,samson's marriage3 8,so his father went down unto the woman1 and made there a feast2 for so used the young men to do4 ,and it came to pass when they saw him1 that they brought thirty companions to be with him10 ,judges xiv1 #aj4 ,these companions were the children of the bride chamber1 of whom our ,lord speaks3 8,can the children of the bride chamber mourn as long as the bridegroom is with them80 ,matt4 xix1 #ae4 ,the marriage ceremony was commonly performed in a garden1 or in the open air2 the bride was placed under a canopy1 supported by four youths1 and adorned with jewels according to the rank of the married persons2 all the company crying out with joyful acclamations1 8,blessed be he that cometh60 ,it was anciently the custom1 at the conclusion of the ceremony1 for the father and mother and kindred of the woman1 to pray for a blessing upon the parties4 ,bethuel and ,laban1 and the other members of their family1 pronounced a solemn benediction upon ,rebecca before her departure3 8,and they blessed ,rebecca1 and said unto her1 ,thou art our sister1 be thou the mother of thousands of millions2 and let thy seed possess the gate of those that hate them10 ,gen4 xxiv1 #fj4 ,and in times long posterior to the age of ,isaac1 when ,ruth1 the ,moabitess1 was espoused to ,boaz1 8all the people that were in the gate1 and the elders1 said1 ,we are witnesses3 the ,lord make the woman that is come into thine house like ,rachel1 and like ,leah1 which two did build the house of ,israel2 and do thou worthily in ,ephratah1 and be famous in ,bethlehem10 ,ruth iv1 #aa1 #ab4 ,after the benedictions1 the bride is conducted with great pomp to the house of her husband3 this is usually done in the evening2 and as the procession moved along1 money1 sweetmeats1 flowers1 and other articles1 were thrown among the populace1 which they caught in cloths made for such occasions1 stretched in a particular manner upon frames4 ,the use of perfumes at eastern marriages is common2 and upon great occasions very profuse4 #c4 ,it was the custom among the ancient ,greeks1 and the nations around them1 to conduct the new-married couple with torches and lamps to their dwelling2 as appears from the messenger in ,euripides1 who says he called to mind the time when he bore torches before ,menelaus and ,helena4 ,these torches were usually carried by servants2 and the procession was sometimes attended by singers and dancers4 ,thus ,homer1 in his description of the shield of ,achilles3-- -- ' 1 ' 1 1 4 4 4 4 ,il4 lib4 xviii1 l4 #dij4 8,in one of the sculptured cities1 nuptials were celebrating1 and solemn feasts2 through the city they conducted the new-married pair from their chambers1 with flaming torches1 while frequent shouts of ,hymen burst from the attending throng1 and young men danced in skilful measures to the sound of the pipe and the harp40 ,a similar custom is observed among the ,hindoos4 ,the husband and wife1 on the day of their marriage1 being both in the same palanquin1 go about seven and eight o'clock at night1 accompanied with all their kindred and friends2 the trumpets and drums go before them2 and they are lighted by a number of flambeaux2 immediately before the palanquin walk many women1 whose business it is to sing verses1 in which they wish them all manner of prosperity4 ,they march in this equipage through the streets for the space of some hours1 after which they return to their own house1 where the domestics are in waiting4 ,the whole house is illumined with small lamps2 and many of those flambeaux already mentioned are kept ready for their arrival1 beside those which accompany them1 and are carried before the palanquin4 ,these flambeaux are composed of many pieces of old linen1 squeezed hard against one another in a round figure1 and thrust down into a mould of copper4 ,the persons that hold them in one hand have in the other a bottle of the same metal with the copper mould1 which is full of oil1 which they take care to pour out from time to time upon the linen1 which otherwise gives no light4 ,the ,roman ladies also were led home to their husbands in the evening by the light of torches4 ,a ,jewish marriage seems to have been conducted in much the same way2 for in that beautiful psalm1 where ,david describes the majesty of ,christ's kingdom1 we meet with this passage3 8,and the daughter of ,tyre shall be there with a gift2 even the rich among the people shall entreat thy favour4 ,the king's daughter is all-glorious within2 her clothing is of wrought gold4 ,she shall be brought unto the king in raiment of needle work2 the virgins1 her companions that follow her1 shall be brought unto thee4 ,with gladness and rejoicing shall they be brought3 they shall enter into the king's palace10 ,psalm xlv1 #ab1 c4 ,in the parable of the ten virgins1 the same circumstances are introduced3 8,they that were foolish took their lamps1 and took no oil with them3 but the wise took oil in their vessels with their lamps4 ,while the bridegroom tarried10 leading the procession through the streets of the city1 the women and domestics that were appointed to wait his arrival at home1 8all slumbered and slept4 ,and at midnight there was a cry made1 ,behold1 the bridegroom cometh6 ,go ye out to meet him4 ,then all those virgins arose and trimmed their lamps4 ,and the foolish said unto the wise1 ,give us of your oil2 for our lamps are gone out10 ,matt4 xxv1 #f4 ,the following extract from ,ward's 8,view of the ,hindoos0 very strikingly illustrates this parable3 8,at a marriage1 the procession of which ,i saw some years ago1 the bridegroom came from a distance1 and the bride lived at ,serampore1 to which place the bridegroom was to come by water4 ,after waiting two or three hours1 at length1 near midnight1 it was announced1 as if in the very words of ,scripture1 #8,behold1 the bridegroom cometh6 ,go ye out to meet him4' ,all the persons employed now lighted their lamps1 and ran with them in their hands to fill up their stations in the procession2 some of them had lost their lights1 and were unprepared2 but it was then too late to seek them1 and the cavalcade moved forward to the house of the bride1 at which place the company entered a large and splendidly illuminated area1 before the house covered with an awning1 where a great multitude of friends dressed in their best apparel were seated upon mats4 ,the bridegroom was carried in the arms of a friend1 and placed on a superb seat in the midst of the company1 where he sat a short time1 and then went into the house1 the door of which was immediately shut1 and guarded by ,sepoys4 ,i and others expostulated with the door keepers1 but in vain40 #d4 ,but among the ,jews1 the bridegroom was not always permitted to accompany his bride from her father's house2 an intimate friend was often sent to conduct her1 while he remained at home to receive her in his apartment4 ,her female attendants had the honour to introduce her2 and whenever they changed the bride's dress1 which is often done1 they presented her to the bridegroom4 ,it is the custom1 and belongs to their ideas of magnificence1 frequently to dress and undress the bride1 and to cause her to wear on that same day all the clothes made up for her nuptials4 ,these circumstances discover the force of ,st4 ,john's language1 in his magnificent description of the ,christian church in her millennial state3 8,and ,i1 ,john1 saw the holy city1 ,new ,jerusalem1 coming down from ,god out of heaven1 prepared as a bride adorned for her husband10 ,rev4 xxi1 #b4 #e4 ,those that were invited to the marriage were expected to appear in their best and gayest attire4 ,if the bridegroom was in circumstances to afford it1 wedding garments were prepared for all the guests1 which were hung up in the antechamber for them to put on over the rest of their clothes1 as they entered the apartments where the marriage feast was prepared4 ,to refuse1 or even to neglect1 putting on the wedding garment1 was reckoned an insult to the bridegroom2 aggravated by the circumstance that it was provided by himself for the very purpose of being worn on that occasion1 and was hung up in the way to the inner apartment1 that the guests must have seen it1 and recollected the design of its suspension4 ,this accounts for the severity of the sentence pronounced by the king1 who came in to see the guests1 and found among them one who had neglected to put it on3 8,and he saith unto him1 ,friend1 how camest thou in hither1 not having a wedding garment8 ,and he was speechless10 ,matt4 xxii1 #aa1 because it was provided at the expense of the entertainer1 and placed full in his view4 8,then said the king to the servants1 ,bind him hand and foot1 and take him away1 and cast him into outer darkness3 there shall be weeping and gnashing of teeth40 ,the following extract will show the importance of having a suitable garment for a marriage feast1 and the offence taken against those who refuse it when presented as a gift4 8,the next day1 ,dec4 #c;d1 the king sent to invite the ambassadors to dine with him once more4 ,the ,mehemander told them1 it was the custom that they should wear over their own clothes the best of those garments which the king had sent them4 ,the ambassadors at first made some scruple of that compliance2 but when they were told that it was a custom observed by all ambassadors1 and that no doubt the king would take it very ill at their hands if they presented themselves before him without the marks of his liberality1 they at last resolved to do it2 and1 after their example1 all the rest of the retinue40 ,,brier4 ,this word occurs several times in our translation of the ,bible1 but with various authorities from the original4 #a4 1 ,judges viii1 #g1 #af1 is a particular kind of thorn4 #b4 1 ,prov4 xv1 #ai2 ,micah vii1 #d4 ,it seems hardly possible to determine what kind of plant this is4 ,some kind of tangling prickly shrub is undoubtedly meant4 ,in the former passage there is a beautiful opposition1 which is lost in our rendering3 8,the narrow way of the slothful is like a perplexed path among briers2 whereas the broad road0 7elsewhere rendered causeway7 8of the righteous is a high bank20 that is1 free from obstructions1 direct1 conspicuous1 and open4 ,the common course of life of these two characters answers to this comparison4 ,their manner of going about business1 or of transacting it1 answers to this4 ,an idle man always takes the most intricate1 the most oblique1 and eventually the most thorny1 measures to accomplish his purpose2 the honest and diligent man prefers the most open and direct4 ,in ,micah1 the unjust judge1 taking bribes1 is a brier1 holding every thing that comes within his reach1 hooking all that he can catch4 #c4 1 ,ezek4 ii1 #f4 ,this word is translated by the ,septuagint1 1 stung by the strus1 or gadfly2 and they use the like word in ,hosea iv1 #af1 where1 what in our version is 8a backsliding heifer10 they render 8a heifer stung by the strus40 ,these coincident renderings lead to the belief that both places may be understood of some venomous insect4 ,the word may lead us to sarran1 by which the ,arabs thus describe 8a great bluish fly1 having greenish eyes1 its tail armed with a piercer1 by which it pesters almost all horned cattle1 settling on their heads1 c4 ,often it creeps up the noses of asses4 ,it is a species of gadfly2 but carrying its sting in its tail40 #d4 1 ,ezek4 xxviii1 #bd1 and 1 ,ezek4 ii1 #f1 must be classed among thorns4 ,the second word ,parkhurst supposes to be a kind of thorn1 overspreading a large surface of ground1 as the dewbrier4 ,it is used in connection with 1 which1 in ,gen4 iii1 #ah1 is rendered thorns4 ,the author of 8,scripture ,illustrated0 queries1 however1 whether1 as it is associated with 8scorpions0 in ,ezek4 ii1 #f1 both this word and serebim may not mean some species of venomous insects4 #e4 1 mentioned only in ,isaiah lv1 #ac1 probably means a prickly plant2 but what particular kind it is impossible to determine4 #f4 4 ,this word is used only by the ,prophet ,isaiah1 and in the following places3 ,isa4 v1 #f2 vii1 #bc-be2 ix1 #ag2 x1 #ag2 xxvii1 #d2 and xxxii1 #ac4 ,it is probably a brier of a low kind2 such as overruns uncultivated lands4 ,,brimstone1 1 ,gen4 xix1 #bd2 ,deut4 xxix1 #bc2 ,job xviii1 #ae2 ,psalm xi1 #f2 ,isaiah xxx1 #cc2 xxxiv1 #i2 ,ezek4 xxxviii1 #bb4 ,it is rendered by the ,septuagint1 and is so called in ,luke xvii1 #bi4 ,fire and brimstone are represented in many passages of ,scripture as the elements by which ,god punishes the wicked2 both in this life1 and another4 ,there is in this a manifest allusion to the overthrow of the cities of the plain of the ,jordan1 by showers of ignited sulphur1 to which the physical appearances of the country bear witness to this day4 ,the soil is bituminous1 and might be raised by eruptions into the air1 and then inflamed and return in horrid showers of overwhelming fire4 ,this awful catastrophe1 therefore1 stands as a type of the final and eternal punishment of the wicked in another world4 ,in ,job4 xviii1 #ae1 ,bildad1 describing the calamities which overtake the wicked person1 says1 8,brimstone shall be scattered upon his habitation40 ,this may be a general expression1 to designate any great destruction3 as that in ,psalm xi1 #f1 8,upon the wicked he shall rain fire and brimstone40 ,moses1 among other calamities which he sets forth in case of the people's disobedience1 threatens them with the fall of brimstone1 salt1 and burning like the overthrow of ,sodom1 c1 ,deut4 xxix1 #bc4 ,the ,prophet ,isaiah1 xxxiv1 #i1 writes that the anger of the ,lord shall be shown by the streams of the land being turned into pitch1 and the dust thereof into brimstone4 ,see ,,dead ,,sea4 ,,brook is distinguished from a river by its flowing only at particular times2 for example1 after great rains1 or the melting of the snow2 whereas a river flows constantly at all seasons4 ,however1 this distinction is not always observed in the ,scripture2 and one is not unfrequently taken for the other1--the great rivers1 such as the ,euphrates1 the ,nile1 the ,jordan1 and others being called brooks4 ,thus the ,euphrates1 ,isaiah xv1 #g1 is called the brook of willows4 ,it is observed that the ,hebrew word1 1 which signifies a brook1 is also the term for a valley1 whence the one is often placed for the other1 in different translations of the ,scriptures4 ,to deal deceitfully 8as a brook10 and to 8pass away as the stream thereof10 is to deceive our friend when he most needs and expects our help and comfort1 ,job vi1 #ae2 because brooks1 being temporary streams1 are dried up in the heats of summer1 when the traveller most needs a supply of water on his journey4 ,,brother4 #a4 ,a brother by the same mother1 a uterine brother1 ,matt4 iv1 #ba2 xx1 #bj4 #b4 ,a brother1 though not by the same mother1 ,matt4 i1 #b4 #c4 ,a near kinsman1 a cousin1 ,matt4 xiii1 #ee2 ,mark vi1 #c4 ,observe1 that in ,matt4 xiii1 #ee1 ,james1 and ,joses1 and ,judas1 are called the 1 brethren1 of ,christ1 but were most probably only his cousins by his mother's side2 for ,james and ,joses were the sons of ,mary1 ,matt4 xxvii1 #ef2 and ,james and ,judas1 the sons of ,alpheus1 ,luke vi1 #ae1 #af2 which ,alpheus is therefore probably the same with ,cleopas1 the husband of ,mary1 sister to our ,lord's mother1 ,john xix1 #be4 ,,buckler4 ,see ,,arms4 ,,build4 ,beside the proper and literal signification of this word1 it is used with reference to children and a numerous posterity4 ,sarah desires ,abraham to take ,hagar to wife1 that by her she may be builded up1 that is1 have children to uphold her family1 ,gen4 xvi1 #b4 ,the midwives who refused obedience to ,pharaoh's orders1 when he commanded them to put to death all the male children of the ,hebrews1 were rewarded for it2 ,god built them houses1 that is1 he gave them a numerous posterity4 ,the ,prophet ,nathan tells ,david that ,god would build his house2 that is1 give him children and successors1 #b ,sam4 vii1 #bg4 ,moses1 speaking of the formation of the first woman1 says1 ,god built her with the rib of ,adam1 ,gen4 ii1 #bb4 ,,bul1 the eighth month of the ecclesiastical year of the ,jews1 and the second month of the civil year4 ,it answers to ,october1 and consists of twenty-nine days4 ,on the sixth day of this month the ,jews fasted1 because on that day ,nebuchadnezzar put to death the children of ,zedekiah in the presence of their unhappy father1 whose eyes1 after they had been witnesses of this sad spectacle1 he ordered to be put out1 #b ,kings xxv1 #g4 ,we find the name of this month mentioned in ,scripture but once1 #a ,kings vi1 #ch4 ,,bull1 the male of the beeve kind2 and it is to be recollected that the ,hebrews never castrated animals4 ,there are several words translated 8bull0 in ,scripture1 of which the following is a list1 with the meaning of each3 1 a bove1 or cow1 of any age4 1 the wild bull1 oryx1 or buffalo1 occurs only ,deut4 xiv1 #e2 and in ,isaiah li1 #bj1 1 with the interchange of the two last letters4 1 a word implying strength1 translated 8bulls10 ,psalm xxii1 #ab2 l1 #ac2 lxviii1 #cj2 ,isaiah xxxiv1 #g2 ,jer4 xlvi1 #ae4 1 herds1 horned cattle of full age4 1 a full grown bull1 or cow1 fit for propagating4 1 a full grown1 plump young bull2 and in the feminine1 a heifer4 1 ,chaldee taur1 and ,latin taurus2 the ox accustomed to the yoke3 occurs only in ,ezra vi1 #i1 #ag2 vii1 #ag2 ,dan4 iv1 #be1 #cb1 #cc2 xxii1 #bi1 #cj4 ,this animal was reputed by the ,hebrews to be clean1 and was generally made use of by them for sacrifices4 ,the ,egyptians had a particular veneration for it1 and paid divine honours to it2 and the ,jews imitated them in the worship of the golden calves or bulls1 in the wilderness1 and in the kingdom of ,israel4 ,the wild bull is found in the ,syrian and ,arabian deserts4 ,it is frequently mentioned by the ,arabian poets1 who are copious in their descriptions of hunting it1 and borrow many images from its beauty1 strength1 swiftness1 and the loftiness of its horns4 ,they represent it as fierce and untamable2 as being white on the back1 and having large shining eyes4 ,bulls1 in a figurative and allegorical sense1 are taken for powerful1 fierce1 and insolent enemies1 ,psalm xxii1 #ab2 lxviii1 #cj4 ,,bulrush1 1 ,exodus ii1 #c2 ,job viii1 #aa2 ,isaiah xviii1 #b2 xxxv1 #g4 ,a plant growing on the banks of the ,nile1 and in marshy grounds4 ,the stalk rises to the height of six or seven cubits1 beside two under water4 ,this stalk is triangular1 and terminates in a crown of small filaments resembling hair1 which the ancients used to compare to a thyrsus4 ,this reed1 the ,cyperus papyrus of ,linnus1 commonly called 8the ,egyptian reed10 was of the greatest use to the inhabitants of the country where it grew2 the pith contained in the stock served them for food1 and the woody part for building vessels1 figures of which are to be seen on the engraven stones and other monuments of ,egyptian antiquity4 ,for this purpose they made it up1 like rushes1 into bundles2 and1 by tying these bundles together1 gave their vessels the necessary shape and solidity4 8,the vessels of bulrushes10 or papyrus1 8that are mentioned in sacred and profane history10 says ,dr4 ,shaw1 8were no other than large fabrics of the same kind with that of ,moses1 ,exodus ii1 #c2 which1 from the late introduction of plank and stronger materials1 are now laid aside40 ,thus ,pliny takes notice of the 8naves papyraceas armamentaque ,nili10 8ships made of papyrus1 and the equipments of the ,nile20 and he observes1 8ex ips quidem papyro navigia texunt10 8of the papyrus itself they construct sailing vessels40 ,herodotus and ,diodorus have recorded the same fact2 and among the poets1 ,lucan1 8,conseritur bibul ,memphitis cymba papyro10 8the ,memphian0 or ,egyptian boat is made of the thirsty papyrus2 where the epithet bibul1 8drinking10 8soaking10 8thirsty10 is particularly remarkable1 as corresponding with great exactness to the nature of the plant1 and to its ,hebrew name1 which signifies to soak or drink up4 ,these vegetables require much water for their growth2 when1 therefore1 the river on whose banks they grew was reduced1 they perished sooner than other plants4 ,this explains ,job viii1 #aa1 where the circumstance is referred to as an image of transient prosperity3 8,can the flag grow without water8 ,whilst it is yet in its greenness1 and not cut down1 it withereth before any other herb40 ,,burial1 the interment of a deceased person2 an office held so sacred1 that they who neglected it have in all nations been held in abhorrence4 ,as soon as the last breath had fled1 the nearest relation1 or the dearest friend1 gave the lifeless body the parting kiss1 the last farewell and sign of affection to the departed relative4 ,this was a custom of immemorial antiquity2 for the patriarch ,jacob had no sooner yielded up his spirit1 than his beloved ,joseph1 claiming for once the right of the first-born1 8fell upon his face and kissed him40 ,it is probable he first closed his eyes1 as ,god had promised he should do3 8,joseph shall put his hands upon thine eyes40 ,the parting kiss being given1 the company rent their clothes1 which was a custom of great antiquity1 and the highest expression of grief in the primitive ages4 ,this ceremony was never omitted by the ,hebrews when any mournful event happened1 and was performed in the following manner3 they took a knife1 and holding the blade downward1 gave the upper garment a cut in the right side1 and rent it a hand's breadth4 ,for very near relations1 all the garments are rent on the right side4 ,after closing the eyes1 the next care was to bind up the face1 which it was no more lawful to behold4 ,the next care of surviving friends was to wash the body1 probably1 that the ointments and perfumes with which it was to be wrapped up1 might enter more easily into the pores1 when opened by warm water4 ,this ablution1 which was always esteemed an act of great charity and devotion1 was performed by women4 ,thus the body of ,dorcas was washed1 and laid in an upper room1 till the arrival of the ,apostle ,peter1 in the hope that his prayers might restore her to life4 ,after the body was washed1 it was shrouded1 and swathed with a linen cloth1 although in most places1 they only put on a pair of drawers and a white tunic2 and the head was bound about with a napkin4 ,such were the napkin and grave clothes in which the ,saviour was buried4 #b4 ,the body was sometimes embalmed1 which was performed by the ,egyptians after the following method3 the brain was removed with a bent iron1 and the vacuity filled up with medicaments2 the bowels were also drawn out1 and the trunk being stuffed with myrrh1 cassia1 and other spices1 except frankincense1 which were proper to exsiccate the humours1 it was pickled in nitre1 in which it lay for seventy days4 ,after this period1 it was wrapped in bandages of fine linen and gums1 to make it adhere2 and was then delivered to the relations of the deceased entire2 all its features1 and the very hairs of the eyelids1 being preserved4 ,in this manner were the kings of ,judah embalmed for many ages4 ,but when the funeral obsequies were not long delayed1 they used another kind of embalming4 ,they wrapped up the body with sweet spices and odours1 without extracting the brain1 or removing the bowels4 ,this is the way in which it was proposed to embalm the lifeless body of our ,saviour2 which was prevented by his resurrection4 ,the meaner sort of people seem to have been interred in their grave clothes1 without a coffin4 ,in this manner was the sacred body of our ,lord committed to the tomb4 ,the body was sometimes placed upon a bier1 which bore some resemblance to a coffin or bed1 in order to be carried out to burial4 ,upon one of these was carried forth the widow's son of ,nain1 whom our compassionate ,lord raised to life1 and restored to his mother4 ,we are informed in the history of the kings of ,judah1 that1 ,asa being dead1 they laid him in the bed1 or bier1 which was filled with sweet odours4 ,josephus1 the ,jewish historian1 describing the funeral of ,herod the ,great1 says1 ,his bed was adorned with precious stones2 his body rested under a purple covering2 he had a diadem and a crown of gold upon his head1 a sceptre in his hand2 and all his house followed the bed4 ,the bier used by the ,turks at ,aleppo is a kind of coffin1 much in the form of ours1 only the lid rises with a ledge in the middle4 #c4 ,the ,israelites committed the dead to their native dust2 and from the ,egyptians1 probably1 borrowed the practice of burning many spices at their funerals4 8,they buried ,asa in his own sepulchres1 which he made for himself in the city of ,david1 and laid him in the bed which was filled with sweet odours1 and divers kinds of spices1 prepared by the apothecaries' art2 and they made a very great burning for him10 #b ,chron4 xvi1 #ad4 ,thus the ,old ,testament historian entirely justifies the account which the ,evangelist gives1 of the quantity of spices with which the sacred body of ,christ was swathed4 ,the ,jews object to the quantity used on that occasion1 as unnecessarily profuse1 and even incredible2 but it appears from their own writings1 that spices were used at such times in great abundance4 ,in the ,talmud it is said1 that no less than eighty pounds of spices were consumed at the funeral of rabbi ,gamaliel the elder4 ,and at the funeral of ,herod1 if we may believe the account of their most celebrated historian1 the procession was followed by five hundred of his domestics carrying spices4 ,why then should it be reckoned incredible1 that ,nicodemus brought of myrrh and aloes about a hundred pounds' weight1 to embalm the body of ,jesus8 #d4 ,the funeral procession was attended by professional mourners1 eminently skilled in the art of lamentation1 whom the friends and relations of the deceased hired1 to assist them in expressing their sorrow4 ,they began the ceremony with the stridulous voices of old women1 who strove1 by their doleful modulations1 to extort grief from those that were present4 ,the children in the streets through which they passed1 often suspended their sports1 to imitate the sounds1 and joined with equal sincerity in the lamentations4 8,but whereunto shall ,i liken this generation8 ,it is like unto children sitting in the markets1 and calling unto their fellows1 and saying1 ,we have mourned unto you1 and ye have not lamented10 ,matt4 ix1 #ag4 ,music was afterward introduced to aid the voices of the mourners3 the trumpet was used at the funerals of the great1 and the small pipe or flute for those of meaner condition4 ,hired mourners were in use among the ,greeks as early as the ,trojan war1 and probably in ages long before2 for in ,homer1 a choir of mourners were planted around the couch on which the body of ,hector was laid out1 who sung his funeral dirge with many sighs and tears3-- ' 1 1 ' 1 4 4 4 4 ,il4 lib4 xxiv1 l4 #gbj4 8,a melancholy choir attend around1 ,with plaintive sighs and music's solemn sound2 ,alternately they sing1 alternate flow ,the obedient tears1 melodious in their wo40 ,,pope4 ,in ,egypt1 the lower class of people call in women who play on the tabor2 and whose business it is1 like the hired mourners in other countries1 to sing elegiac airs to the sound of that instrument1 which they accompany with the most frightful distortions of their limbs4 ,these women attend the corpse to the grave1 intermixed with the female relations and friends of the deceased1 who commonly have their hair in the utmost disorder2 their heads covered with dust2 their faces daubed with indigo1 or at least rubbed with mud2 and howling like maniacs4 ,such were the minstrels whom our ,lord found in the house of ,jairus1 making so great a noise round the bed on which the dead body of his daughter lay4 ,the noise and tumult of these retained mourners1 and the other attendants1 appear to have begun immediately after the person expired4 ,it is evident that this sort of mourning and lamentation was a kind of art among the ,jews3 8,wailing shall be in the streets2 and they shall call such as are skilful of lamentation to wail10 ,amos v1 #af4 ,mourners are still hired at the obsequies of ,hindoos and ,mohammedans1 as in former times4 ,to the dreadful noise and tumult of the hired mourners1 the following passage of ,jeremiah indisputably refers2 and shows the custom to be derived from a very remote antiquity3 8,call for the mourning women that they may come2 and send for cunning women1 that they may come1 and let them make haste1 and take up a wailing for us1 that our eyes may run down with tears1 and our eyelids gush out with waters10 ,jer4 ix1 #ag4 ,the funeral processions of the ,jews in ,barbary are conducted nearly in the same manner as those in ,syria4 ,the corpse is borne by four to the place of burial3 in the first rank march the priests1 next to them the kindred of the deceased2 after whom come those that are invited to the funeral2 and all singing in a sort of plain song1 the forty-ninth ,psalm4 ,hence the ,prophet1 ,amos viii1 #c1 warns his people that public calamities were approaching1 so numerous and severe1 as should make them forget the usual rites of burial1 and even to sing one of the songs of ,zion over the dust of a departed relative4 ,this appears to be confirmed by a prediction in the eighth chapter3 8,and the songs of the temple shall be howlings in that day1 saith the ,lord ,god2 there shall be many dead bodies in every place2 they shall cast them forth with silence20 they shall have none to lament and bewail2 none to blow the funeral trump or touch the pipe and tabor2 none to sing the plaintive dirge1 or express their hope of a blessed resurrection1 in the strains of inspiration4 ,all shall be silent despair4 ,see ,,sepulchres4 ,,bush4 4 ,this word occurs in ,exod4 iii1 #b1 #d1 and ,deut4 xxxiii1 #af1 as the name of the bush in which ,god appeared to ,moses4 ,if it be the mentioned by ,dioscorides1 it is the white thorn4 ,celsius calls it the rubus fructicosus4 ,the number of these bushes in this region seems to have given the name to the mountain ,sinai4 ,the word 1 found only in ,isa4 vii1 #ai1 and there rendered 8bushes10 means fruitful pastures4 ,,butter is taken in ,scripture1 as it has been almost perpetually in the east1 for cream or liquid butter1 ,prov4 xxx1 #cc2 #b ,sam4 xvii1 #bi4 ,the ancient way of making butter in ,arabia and ,palestine was probably nearly the same as is still practised by the ,bedoween ,arabs1 and ,moors in ,barbary1 and which is thus described by ,dr4 ,shaw3 8,their method of making butter is by putting the milk or cream into a goat's skin turned inside out1 which they suspend from one side of the tent to the other2 and then pressing it to and fro in one uniform direction1 they quickly separate the unctious and wheyey parts4 ,in the ,levant they tread upon the skin with their feet1 which produces the same effect40 ,the last method of separating the butter from the milk1 perhaps may throw light upon a passage in ,job of some difficulty3 8,when ,i washed my steps with butter1 and the rock poured me out rivers of oil10 ,job xxxi1 #f4 ,the method of making butter in the east illustrates the conduct of ,jael1 the wife of ,heber1 described in the book of ,judges3 8,and ,sisera said unto her1 ,give me1 ,i pray thee1 a little water to drink1 for ,i am thirsty3 and she opened a bottle of milk1 and gave him drink and covered him40 ,in the ,song of ,deborah1 the statement is repeated3 8,he asked water1 and she gave him milk2 she brought forth butter in a lordly dish10 ,judges iv1 #ai2 v1 #be4 ,the word 1 which our translators rendered butter1 properly signifies cream2 which is undoubtedly the meaning of it in this passage3 for ,sisera complained of thirst1 and asked a little water to quench it2--a purpose to which butter is but little adapted4 ,mr4 ,harmer1 indeed1 urges the same objection to cream1 which1 he contends1 few people would think a very proper beverage for one that was extremely thirsty2 and concludes that it must have been butter-milk which ,jael1 who had just been churning1 gave to ,sisera4 ,but the opinion of ,dr4 ,russel is preferable1--that the hemah of the ,scriptures is probably the same as the haymak of the ,arabs1 which is not1 as ,harmer supposed1 simple cream1 but cream produced by simmering fresh sheep's milk for some hours over a slow fire4 ,it could not be butter newly churned1 which ,jael presented to ,sisera1 because the ,arab butter is apt to be foul1 and is commonly passed through a strainer before it is used3 and ,russel declares1 he never saw butter offered to a stranger1 but always haymak2 nor did he ever observe the orientals drink butter-milk1 but always leban1 which is coagulated sour milk1 diluted with water4 ,it was leban1 therefore1 which ,pococke mistook for butter-milk1 with which the ,arabs treated him in the ,holy ,land4 ,a similar conclusion may be drawn concerning the butter and milk which the wife of ,heber presented to ,sisera3 they were forced cream or haymak1 and leban1 or coagulated sour milk1 diluted with water1 which is a common and refreshing beverage in those sultry regions4 ,in ,isaiah vii1 #ae1 butter and honey are mentioned as food which1 in ,egypt and other places in the east1 is in use to this day4 ,the butter and honey are mixed1 and the bread is then dipped in it4 ,,byssus4 ,by this word we generally understand that fine ,egyptian linen of which the priests' tunics were made4 ,but we must distinguish three kinds of commodities1 which are generally comprehended under the name of linen3 #a4 ,the ,hebrew 1 which signifies linen3 #b4 1 which signifies cotton3 #c4 1 which is commonly called bussus1 and is the silk growing from a certain shell fish1 called pinna4 ,we do not find the name butz in the text of ,moses1 though the ,greek and ,latin use the word byssus1 to signify the fine linen of certain habits belonging to the priests4 ,the word butz occurs only in #a ,chron4 xv1 #bg2 ,ezek4 xxvii1 #af2 ,esther i1 #f4 ,in the ,chronicles we see ,david dressed in a mantle of butz1 with the singers and ,levites4 ,solomon used butz in the veils of the temple and sanctuary4 ,ahasuerus's tents were upheld by cords of butz2 and ,mordecai was clothed with a mantle of purple and butz1 when king ,ahasuerus honoured him with the first employment in his kingdom4 ,lastly1 it is observed that there was a manufacture of butz in the city of ,beersheba1 in ,palestine4 ,this butz must have been different from common linen1 since in the same place where it is said1 ,david wore a mantle of byssus1 we read likewise that he had on a linen ephod4 ,,cab1 or ,,kab1 a ,hebrew measure1 containing three pints one-third of our wine measure1 or two pints five-sixths of our corn measure4 ,,cabbala1 a mysterious kind of science1 delivered to the ancient ,jews1 as they pretend1 by revelation1 and transmitted by oral tradition to those of our times2 serving for the interpretation of the books both of nature and ,scripture4 ,the word is variously written1 as ,cabala1 ,caballa1 ,kabbala1 ,kabala1 ,cabalistica1 ,ars ,cabala1 and ,gaballa4 ,it is originally ,hebrew1 1 and properly signifies reception2 formed from the verb 1 to receive by tradition1 or from father to son2 especially in the ,chaldee and ,rabbinical ,hebrew4 ,cabbala1 then1 primarily denotes any sentiment1 opinion1 usage1 or explication of ,scripture1 transmitted from father to son4 ,in this sense the word cabbala is not only applied to the whole art1 but also to each operation performed according to the rules of that art4 ,thus it is1 rabbi ,jacob ,ben ,ascher1 surnamed ,baal-,hatturim1 is said to have compiled most of the cabbalas invented on the books of ,moses before his time4 ,as to the origin of the cabbala1 the ,jews relate many marvellous tales4 ,they derive the mysteries contained in it from ,adam2 and assert1 that whilst the first man was in paradise1 the angel ,raphael brought him a book from heaven1 which contained the doctrines of heavenly wisdom2 and that when ,adam received this book1 angels came down from heaven to learn its contents2 but that he refused to admit them to the knowledge of sacred things1 intrusted to himself alone3 that1 after the fall1 this book was taken back into heaven2 that1 after many prayers and tears1 ,god restored it to ,adam2 and that it passed from ,adam to ,seth4 ,the ,jewish fables farther relate1 that the book being lost1 and the mysteries contained in it almost forgotten1 in the degenerate age preceding the flood1 they were restored by special revelation to ,abraham1 who transmitted them to writing in the book 8,jezirah20 and that the revelation was renewed to ,moses1 who received a traditionary and mystical1 as well as a written and preceptive1 law from ,god4 ,accordingly1 the ,jews believe that ,god gave to ,moses on ,mount ,sinai1 not only the law1 but also the explication of that law2 and that ,moses1 after his coming down1 retiring to his tent1 rehearsed to ,aaron both the one and the other4 ,when he had done1 the sons of ,aaron1 ,eleazar and ,ithamar1 were introduced to a second rehearsal4 ,this being over1 the seventy elders that composed the sanhedrim were admitted2 and1 lastly1 the people1 as many as pleased2 to all of whom ,moses again repeated both the law and explanation1 as he received them from ,god3 so that ,aaron heard it four times1 his sons thrice1 the elders twice1 and the people once4 ,now1 of the two things which ,moses taught them1 the laws and the explanation1 only the first were committed to writing2 which is what we have in ,exodus1 ,leviticus1 and ,numbers4 ,as to the second1 or the explication of those laws1 they were contented to impress it well in their memory1 to teach it their children2 they to theirs1 c4 ,hence the first part they call simply the law1 or the written law2 the second1 the oral law1 or cabbala4 ,such is the original notion of the cabbala4 #b4 ,the cabbala being again lost amidst the calamities of the ,babylonish captivity1 was once more revealed to ,esdras2 and it is said to have been preserved in ,egypt1 and transmitted to posterity through the hands of ,simeon ,ben ,setach1 ,elkanah1 ,akibha1 ,simeon ,ben ,jochai1 and others4 ,the only warrantable inference from these accounts1 which bear the obvious marks of fiction1 is1 that the cabbalistic doctrine obtained early credit among the ,jews as a part of their sacred tradition1 and was transmitted1 under this notion1 by the ,jews in ,egypt to their brethren in ,palestine4 ,under the sanction of ancient names1 many fictitious writings were produced1 which greatly contributed to the spreading of this mystical system4 ,among these were 8,sepher ,happeliah10 or the book of wonders2 8,sepher ,hakkaneh10 or the book of the pen2 and 8,sepher ,habbahir10 or the book of light4 ,the first unfolds many doctrines said to have been delivered by ,elias to the rabbi ,elkanah2 the second contains mystical commentaries on the divine commands2 and the third illustrates the most sublime mysteries4 ,among the profound doctors who1 beside the study of tradition1 cultivated with great industry the cabbalistic philosophy1 the most celebrated persons are the rabbis ,akibba1 who lived soon after the destruction of ,jerusalem1 and ,simeon ,ben ,jochai1 who flourished in the second century4 ,to the former is ascribed the book entitled 8,jezirah10 concerning the creation2 and to the latter1 the book 8,sohar10 or brightness2 and these are the principal sources from which we derive our knowledge of the cabbala4 #c4 ,that this system of the cabbalistic philosophy1 which we may consider as the acroamatic1 esoteric1 or concealed doctrine of the ,jews1 by way of contradistinction from the exoretic or popular doctrine1 was not of ,hebrew origin1 we may conclude with a very great degree of probability1 from the total dissimilarity of its abstruse and mysterious doctrines to the simple principles of religion taught in the ,mosaic law2 and that it was borrowed from the ,egyptian schools will sufficiently appear from a comparison of its tenets with those of the oriental and ,alexandrian philosophy4 ,many writers have1 indeed1 imagined that they have found in the cabbalistic dogmas a near resemblance of the doctrines of ,christianity2 and they have thought that the fundamental principles of this mystical system were derived from divine revelation4 ,this opinion1 however1 may be traced up to a prejudice which originated with the ,jews1 and passed from them to the ,christian fathers1 by which they were led to ascribe all ,pagan wisdom to a ,hebrew origin3 a notion which very probably took its rise in ,egypt1 when ,pagan tenets first crept in among the ,jews4 ,philo1 ,josephus1 and other learned ,jews1 in order to flatter their own vanity1 and that of their countrymen1 industriously propagated this opinion2 and the more learned fathers of the ,christian church1 who entertained a high opinion of the ,platonic philosophy1 hastily adopted it1 from an imagination that if they could trace back the most valuable doctrines of ,paganism to a ,hebrew origin1 this could not fail to recommend the ,jewish and ,christian religions to the attention of the ,gentile philosophers4 ,many learned moderns1 relying implicitly upon these authorities1 have maintained the same opinion2 and have thence been inclined to credit the report of the divine original of the ,jewish cabbala4 ,but the opinion is unfounded2 and the cabbalistic system is essentially inconsistent with the pure doctrine of divine revelation4 ,the true state of the case seems to be1 that during the prophetic ages1 the traditions of the ,jews consisted in a simple explanation of those divine truths which the prophets delivered1 or their law exhibited1 under the veil of emblems4 ,after this period1 when the sects of the ,essenes and ,therapeut were formed in ,egypt1 foreign tenets and institutions were borrowed from the ,egyptians and ,greeks2 and1 in the form of allegorical interpretations of the law1 were admitted into what might then be called the ,jewish mysteries1 or secret doctrines4 ,these innovations chiefly consisted in certain dogmas concerning ,god and divine things1 at this time received in the ,egyptian schools2 particularly at ,alexandria1 where the ,platonic and ,pythagorean doctrines on these subjects had been blended with the oriental philosophy4 ,the ,jewish mysteries1 thus enlarged by the accession of ,pagan dogmas1 were conveyed from ,egypt to ,palestine1 at the time when the ,pharisees1 who had been driven into ,egypt under ,hyrcanus1 returned with many other ,jews into their own country4 ,from this time the cabbalistic mysteries continued to be taught in the ,jewish schools2 but at length they were adulterated by a mixture of ,peripatetic doctrines1 and other tenets4 ,these mysteries were not1 probably1 reduced to any systematic forms in writing1 till after the dispersion of the ,jews2 when in consequence of their national calamities1 they became apprehensive that those sacred treasures would be corrupted or lost4 ,in preceding periods1 the cabbalistic doctrines underwent various corruptions1 particularly from the prevalence of the ,aristotelian philosophy4 ,the similarity1 or rather the coincidence1 of the cabbalistic1 ,alexandrian1 and oriental philosophy1 will be sufficiently evinced by briefly stating the common tenets in which these different systems agreed4 ,they are as follow3--8,all things are derived by emanation from one principle2 and this principle is ,god4 ,from him a substantial power immediately proceeds1 which is the image of ,god1 and the source of all subsequent emanations4 ,this second principle sends forth1 by the energy of emanation1 other natures1 which are more or less perfect1 according to their different degrees of distance1 in the scale of emanation1 from the first source of existence1 and which constitute different worlds or orders of being1 all united to the eternal power from which they proceed4 ,matter is nothing more than the most remote effect of the emanative energy of the ,deity4 ,the material world receives its form from the immediate agency of powers far beneath the first source of being4 ,evil is the necessary effect of the imperfection of matter4 ,human souls are distant emanations from ,deity2 and1 after they are liberated from their material vehicles1 will return1 through various stages of purification1 to the fountain whence they first proceeded40 ,from this brief view it appears1 that the cabbalistic system1 which is the offspring of the other two1 is a fanatical kind of philosophy1 originating in defect of judgment and eccentricity of imagination1 and tending to produce a wild and pernicious enthusiasm4 #d4 ,among the explications of the law which are furnished by the cabbala1 and which1 in reality1 are little else but the several interpretations and decisions of the rabbins on the laws of ,moses1 some are mystical2 consisting of odd abstruse significations given to a word1 or even to the letters whereof it is composed3 whence1 by different combinations1 they draw meanings from ,scripture very different from those it seems naturally to import4 ,the art of interpreting ,scripture after this manner is called more particularly cabbala2 and it is in this last sense the word is more ordinarily used among us4 ,this cabbala1 called also artificial cabbala1 to distinguish it from the first kind1 or simple tradition1 is divided into three sorts4 ,the first1 called gematria1 consists in taking letters as figures1 or arithmetical numbers1 and explaining each word by the arithmetical value of the letters whereof it is composed2 which is done various ways3 the second is called notaricon1 and consists either in taking each letter of a word for an entire diction1 or in making one entire diction out of the initial letters of many3 the third kind1 called themurah1 that is1 changing1 consists in changing and transposing the letters of a word2 which is done various ways4 ,the generality of the ,jews prefer the cabbala to the literal ,scripture2 comparing the former to the sparkling lustre of a precious stone1 and the latter to the fainter glimmering of a candle4 ,the cabbala only differs from masorah1 as the latter denotes the science of reading the ,scripture2 the former1 of interpreting it4 ,both are supposed to have been handed down from generation to generation by oral tradition only1 till at length the readings were fixed by the vowels and accents1 as the interpretations were by the gemara4 #e4 ,cabbala is also applied to the use1 or rather abuse1 which visionaries and enthusiasts make of ,scripture1 for discovering futurity by the study and consideration of the combination of certain words1 letters1 and numbers1 in the sacred writings4 ,all the words1 terms1 magic figures1 numbers1 letters1 charms1 c1 used in the ,jewish magic1 as also in the hermetical science1 are comprised under this species of cabbala2 which professes to teach the art of curing diseases1 and performing other wonders1 by means of certain arrangements of sacred letters and words4 ,but it is only the ,christians that call it by this name1 on account of the resemblance this art bears to the explications of the ,jewish cabbala3 for the ,jews never used the word cabbala in any such sense2 but ever with the utmost respect and veneration4 ,it is not1 however1 the magic of the ,jews alone which we call cabbala2 but the word is also used for any kind of magic4 ,,cabul1 the name which ,hiram1 king of ,tyre1 gave to the twenty cities in the land of ,galilee1 of which ,solomon made him a present1 in acknowledgment for the great services in building the temple1 #a ,kings ix1 #ca4 ,these cities not being agreeable to ,hiram1 on viewing them1 he called them the land of ,cabul1 which in the ,hebrew tongue denotes displeasing2 others take it to signify binding or adhesive1 from the clayey nature of the soil4 ,c,,sar1 a title borne by all the ,roman emperors till the destruction of the empire4 ,it took its rise from the surname of the first emperor1 ,caius ,julius ,csar2 and this title1 by a decree of the senate1 all the succeeding emperors were to bear4 ,in ,scripture1 the reigning emperor is generally mentioned by the name of ,csar1 without expressing any other distinction3 so in ,matt4 xxii1 #ba1 8,render unto ,csar10 c1 ,tiberias is meant2 and in ,acts xxv1 #aj1 8,i appeal unto ,csar10 ,nero is intended4 ,c,,sarea1 a city and port of ,palestine1 built by ,herod the ,great1 and thus called in honour of ,augustus ,csar4 ,it was on the site of the tower of ,strato4 ,this city1 which was six hundred furlongs from ,jerusalem1 is often mentioned in the ,new ,testament4 ,here it was that ,herod ,agrippa was smitten of the ,lord for not giving ,god the glory1 when the people were so extravagant in his praise4 ,cornelius the centurion1 who was baptized by ,st4 ,peter1 resided here1 ,acts x1 #a1 c2 and also ,philip the deacon1 with his four maiden daughters4 ,at ,csarea the ,prophet ,agabus foretold that ,paul would be bound and persecuted at ,jerusalem4 ,lastly1 the ,apostle himself continued two years a prisoner at ,csarea1 till he was conducted to ,rome4 ,when ,judea was reduced to the state of a ,roman province1 ,csarea became the stated residence of the proconsul1 which accounts for the circumstance of ,paul being carried thither from ,jerusalem1 to defend himself4 ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke's remarks upon this once celebrated city will be read with interest3 8,on the #aeth of ,july1 #ahja1 we embarked1 after sunset1 for ,acre1 to avail ourselves of the land wind1 which blows during the night1 at this season of the year4 ,by day break1 the next morning1 we were off the coast of ,csarea2 and so near with the land that we could very distinctly perceive the appearance of its numerous and extensive ruins4 ,the remains of this city1 although still considerable1 have long been resorted to as a quarry1 whenever building materials are required at ,acre4 ,djezzar ,pacha brought from hence the columns of rare and beautiful marble1 as well as the other ornaments of his palace1 bath1 fountain1 and mosque at ,acre4 ,the place at present is inhabited only by jackals and beasts of prey4 ,as we were becalmed during the night1 we heard the cries of these animals until day break4 ,pococke mentions the curious fact of the former existence of crocodiles in the river of ,csarea4 ,perhaps there has not been in the history of the world an example of any city1 that in so short a space of time rose to such an extraordinary height of splendour as did this of ,csarea2 or that exhibits a more awful contrast to its former magnificence1 by the present desolate appearance of its ruins4 ,not a single inhabitant remains4 ,its theatres1 once resounding with the shouts of multitudes1 echo no other sound than the nightly cries of animals roaming for their prey4 ,of its gorgeous palaces and temples1 enriched with the choicest works of art1 and decorated with the most precious marbles1 scarcely a trace can be discerned4 ,within the space of ten years after laying the foundation1 from an obscure fortress1 it became the most celebrated and flourishing city of all ,syria4 ,it was named ,csarea by ,herod1 in honour of ,augustus1 and dedicated by him to that emperor1 in the twenty-eighth year of his reign4 ,upon this occasion1 that the ceremony might be rendered illustrious1 by a degree of profusion unknown in any former instance1 ,herod assembled the most skilful musicians1 wrestlers1 and gladiators from all parts of the world4 ,this solemnity was to be renewed every fifth year4 ,but1 as we viewed the ruins of this memorable city1 every other circumstance respecting its history was absorbed in the consideration that we were actually beholding the very spot where the scholar of ,tarsus1 after two years' imprisonment1 made that eloquent appeal1 in the audience of the king of ,judea1 which must ever be remembered with piety and delight4 ,in the history of the actions of the holy ,apostles1 whether we regard the internal evidence of the narrative1 or the interest excited by a story so wonderfully appalling to our passions and affections1 there is nothing that we call to mind with fuller emotions of sublimity and satisfaction4 #8,in the demonstration of the ,spirit and of power1' the mighty advocate for the ,christian faith had before #8reasoned of righteousness1 temperance1 and judgment to come1' till the ,roman governor1 ,felix1 trembled as he spoke4 ,not all the oratory of ,tertullus2 not the clamour of his numerous adversaries2 not even the countenance of the most profligate of tyrants availed against the firmness and intrepidity of the oracle of ,god4 ,the judge had trembled before his prisoner2 and now a second occasion offered1 in which1 for the admiration and the triumph of the ,christian world1 one of the bitterest persecutors of the name of ,christ1 and a ,jew1 appeals1 in the public tribunal of a large and populous city1 to all its chiefs and its rulers1 its governor and its king1 for the truth of his conversion founded on the highest evidence40 ,c,,sarea ,,philippi was first called ,laish or ,leshem1 ,judg4 xviii1 #g4 ,after it was subdued by the ,danites1 ,judg4 v1 #bi1 it received the name of ,dan2 and is by ,heathen writers called ,paneas4 ,philip1 the youngest son of ,herod the ,great1 made it the capital of his tetrarchy1 enlarged and embellished it1 and gave it the name of ,csarea ,philippi4 ,it was situated at the foot of ,mount ,hermon1 near the head of the ,jordan2 and was about fifty miles from ,damascus1 and thirty from ,tyre4 ,our ,saviour visited and taught in this place1 and healed one who was possessed of an evil spirit3 here also he gave the memorable rebuke to ,peter1 ,mark viii4 ,,caiaphas1 high priest of the ,jews1 succeeded ,simon1 son of ,camith2 and after possessing this dignity nine years1 from ,a4 ,m4 #djbi to #djch1 he was succeeded by ,jonathan1 son of ,ananas1 or ,annas4 ,caiaphas was high priest1 ,a4 ,m4 #djcg1 which was the year of ,jesus ,christ's death4 ,he married a daughter of ,annas1 who also is called high priest in the ,gospel1 because he had long enjoyed that dignity4 ,when the priests deliberated on the seizure and death of ,jesus ,christ1 ,caiaphas declared1 that there was no room for debate on that matter1 8because it was expedient that one man should die for the people1 that the whole nation should not perish10 ,john xi1 #di1 #ej4 ,this sentiment was a prophecy1 which ,god suffered to proceed from the mouth of the high priest on this occasion1 importing1 that the death of ,jesus would be for the salvation of the world4 ,when ,judas had betrayed ,jesus1 he was first taken before ,annas1 who sent him to his son-in-law1 ,caiaphas1 who possibly lived in the same house1 ,john xviii1 #bd4 ,the priests and doctors of the law there assembled to judge our ,saviour1 and to condemn him4 ,the depositions of certain false witnesses being insufficient to justify a sentence of death against him1 and ,jesus continuing silent1 ,caiaphas1 as high priest1 said to him1 8,i adjure thee by the living ,god1 that thou tell us whether thou art the ,christ1 the ,son of ,god60 ,to this adjuration1 so solemnly made by the superior judge1 ,jesus answered1 8,thou hast said2 nevertheless ,i say unto you1 ,hereafter shall ye see the ,son of man sitting on the right hand of power1 and coming in the clouds of heaven40 ,on hearing these words1 ,caiaphas rent his clothes1 saying1 8,what farther need have we of witnesses8 ,behold1 now you have heard his blasphemy4 ,what think ye80 ,they answered1 8,he is worthy of death40 ,and as the power of life and death was not at this time in their hands1 but was reserved by the ,romans1 they conducted him to ,pilate1 that he might confirm their sentence1 and order his execution4 ,two years after this1 ,vitellus1 governor of ,syria1 coming to ,jerusalem at the passover1 was received very magnificently by the people4 ,as an acknowledgment for this honour1 he restored the custody of the high priest's ornaments to the priests1 he remitted certain duties raised on the fruits of the earth1 and deposed the high priest ,caiaphas4 ,from this it appears that ,caiaphas had fallen under popular odium1 for his deposition was to gratify the people4 ,,cain1 the eldest son of ,adam and ,eve4 ,he was the first man who had been a child1 and the first man born of woman4 ,for his history1 as connected with that of ,abel1 see ,abel4 ,the curse pronounced upon ,cain1 on account of his fratricide1 is thus expressed3 8,and the ,lord said unto ,cain1 ,where is thy brother ,abel8 ,and he said1 ,i know not3 am ,i my brother's keeper8 ,and ,god said1 ,what hast thou done8 ,the voice of thy brother's blood crieth unto me from the ground4 ,and now art thou cursed from the earth1 which hath opened her mouth to receive thy brother's blood from thy hand4 ,when thou tillest it1 it shall not henceforth yield unto thee its strength2 a fugitive and a vagabond shalt thou be in the earth4 ,and ,cain said unto the ,lord1 ,my punishment is greater than ,i can bear4 ,behold1 thou hast driven me out this day from the face of the earth10 meaning1 probably1 from his own native district1 and from the presence of his kindred1 8and from thy face shall ,i be hid20 by which he probably intended the divine glory1 or ,shekinah1 whose appearance sanctified the place of primitive worship1 and was the pledge of acceptance and protection4 ,the mark set upon ,cain 8lest any one finding him should kill him10 has been variously interpreted4 ,some have supposed it a change in the colour of his skin1 others a certain horror of countenance4 ,the ,,lxx4 understood the passage to mean1 that the ,lord gave him a sign1 to assure him that his life should be preserved4 ,whatever it was1 its object was not to aggravate1 but to mitigate1 his punishment1 which may intimate that ,cain had manifested repentance4 ,cain1 being thus banished from the presence of the ,lord1 retired into the land of ,nod1 lying east from the province of ,eden4 ,while he dwelt in this country1 which is generally understood to be ,susiana1 or ,chusistan1 he had a son1 whom he named ,enoch1 in memory of whom he built a city of the same name4 ,this is all we learn from ,scripture concerning ,cain4 ,,cake4 ,see ,,bread4 ,,calah1 a city of ,assyria1 built by ,ashur1 ,gen4 x1 #ab4 ,from it the adjacent country1 on the north-east of the ,tigris1 and south of the ,gordian mountains of ,armenia1 was called ,callachene1 or ,callacine4 ,,calamus1 4 ,exod4 xxx1 #bc2 ,cantic4 iv1 #ad2 ,isa4 xliii1 #bd2 ,jer4 vi1 #bj2 ,ezek4 xxvii1 #ai4 ,an aromatic reed1 growing in moist places in ,egypt1 in ,judea near lake ,genezareth1 and in several parts of ,syria4 ,it grows to about two feet in height2 bearing from the root a knotted stalk1 quite round1 containing in its cavity a soft white pith4 ,the whole is of an agreeable aromatic smell2 and the plant is said to scent the air with a fragrance even while growing4 ,when cut down1 dried1 and powdered1 it makes an ingredient in the richest perfumes4 ,it was used for this purpose by the ,jews4 ,,calamus ,,scriptorius1 a reed answering the purpose of a pen to write with4 ,the ancients used styles1 to write on tablets covered with wax2 but reeds1 to write on parchment or papyrus4 ,the ,psalmist says1 8,my tongue is the pen of a ready writer10 xlv1 #a4 ,the ,hebrew signifies rather a style4 ,the third book of ,maccabees states1 that the writers employed in making a list of the ,jews in ,egypt1 produced their reeds quite worn out4 ,baruch wrote his prophecies with ink1 ,jer4 xxxvi1 #d2 and1 consequently1 used reeds2 for it does not appear that quills were then used to write with4 ,in third ,john #ac1 the ,apostle says1 he did not design to write with pen 7reed7 and ink4 ,the ,arabians1 ,persians1 ,turks1 ,greeks1 and ,armenians1 to this day1 write with reeds or rushes4 ,,caleb1 the son of ,jephunneh1 of the tribe of ,judah1 was one of those who accompanied ,joshua1 when he was deputed by ,moses to view the land of ,canaan1 which the ,lord had promised them for an inheritance1 ,num4 xiii4 ,the deputies sent on this occasion were twelve in number1 selected one out of each of the tribes1 and they performed their commission with great promptitude and skill2 they traversed the country in every direction1 bringing with them1 on their return1 some of its finest fruits for the inspection of their brethren4 ,some of them1 however1 after making the report of the beauty and goodness of the country1 which they described to be a land flowing with milk and honey1 added1 that the inhabitants of it were remarkable for their strength1 while its cities were large and enclosed with walls4 ,these later particulars having excited a spirit of murmuring among the ,israelites1 ,caleb endeavoured to animate their courage by dwelling upon the fertility of the country1 and exhorting them to go boldly and take possession of it4 ,others1 however1 dissuaded the people from making the attempt1 assuring them that they would never make themselves masters of it4 ,we have seen giants there1 said they1 in comparison of whom we were as grasshoppers2 on which the people declared against the project1 and intimated their wish to return again into ,egypt4 ,moses and ,aaron no sooner heard this than they fell upon their faces before the whole congregation1 and ,joshua and ,caleb rent their clothes1 imploring them to take courage and march boldly on2 since1 if ,god were with them1 they might easily make a conquest of the whole land4 ,so exasperated1 however1 were the multitude1 that they were proceeding to stone ,caleb and ,joshua1 when the glory of the ,lord appeared upon the tabernacle1 and threatened their extermination4 ,moses1 having fervently interceded for them1 the ,lord graciously heard his prayer2 but though he was pleased not to destroy them immediately1 he protested with an oath1 that none of those who had murmured against him should see the land of ,canaan1 but that they should all die in the wilderness4 8,as for my servant ,caleb10 it was added1 8who hath faithfully followed me1 him will ,i bring into the land1 and he shall possess it1 he and his children after him10 ,num4 xiv1 #a-bd4 ,joshua also obtained a similar exception1 verses #cj1 #ch4 ,when ,joshua had entered the promised land1 and conquered a considerable part of it1 ,caleb1 with the people of his tribe1 came to meet him at ,gilgal1 and finding that he was about to divide the land among the twelve tribes1 ,caleb petitioned to have the country which was inhabited by the giants allotted to him1 on which ,joshua blessed him and granted his request4 ,assisted by a portion of his tribe1 he marched against ,hebron1 and slew the children of ,anak3 thence he proceeded to ,debir1 and finding the place almost impregnable1 he offered his daughter ,achsah in marriage to the hero that should take it4 ,this was done by his nephew ,othniel1 who in consequence obtained ,achsah with a considerable portion also of territory4 ,we are not informed of the particular time or manner of the death of ,caleb2 but by his three sons1 ,iru1 ,elah1 and ,naam1 he had a numerous posterity1 who maintained an honourable rank among their brethren4 ,see ,num4 xiii1 xiv1 ,josh4 xiv1 #f-ae2 xv1 #ac-ai2 ,judges i1 #i-ae2 #a ,chron4 iv1 #ae-bj4 ,,calf1 4 ,the young of the ox kind4 ,there is frequent mention in ,scripture of calves1 because they were made use of commonly in sacrifices4 ,the 8fatted calf10 mentioned in several places1 as in #a ,sam4 xxviii1 #bd1 and ,luke xv1 #bc1 was stall fed1 with special reference to a particular festival or extraordinary sacrifice4 ,the 8calves of the lips10 mentioned by ,hosea1 xiv1 #b1 signify the sacrifices of praise which the captives of ,babylon addressed to ,god1 being no longer in a condition to offer sacrifices in his temple4 ,the ,septuagint render it the 8fruit of the lips20 and their reading is followed by the ,syriac1 and by the ,apostle to the ,hebrews1 xiii1 #ae4 ,the 8golden calf0 was an idol set up and worshipped by the ,israelites at the foot of mount ,sinai in their passage through the wilderness to the land of ,canaan4 ,having been conducted through the wilderness by a pillar of cloud and fire1 which preceded them in their marches1 while ,moses was receiving the divine commands that cloud covered the mountain1 and they probably imagined that it would no longer be their guide2 and1 therefore1 applied to ,aaron to make for them a sacred sign or symbol1 as other nations had1 which might visibly represent ,god4 ,with this request1 preferred tumultuously1 and in a menacing manner1 ,aaron in a moment of weakness complied4 ,the image thus formed is supposed to have been like the ,egyptian deity1 ,apis1 which was an ox1 an animal used in agriculture1 and so a symbol of the god who presided over their fields1 or of the productive power of the ,deity4 ,the means by which ,moses reduced the golden calf to powder1 so that when mixed with water he made the people drink it1 in contempt1 has puzzled commentators4 ,some understand that he did this by a chymical process1 then well known1 but now a secret2 others1 that he beat it into gold leaf1 and then separated this into parts so fine1 as to be easily potable2 others1 that he reduced it by filing4 ,the account says1 that he took the calf1 burned it to powder1 and mixed the powder with water2 from which it is probable1 as several ,jewish writers have thought1 that the calf was not wholly made of gold1 but of wood1 covered with a profusion of gold ornaments cast and fashioned for the occasion4 ,for this reason it obtained the epithet golden1 as afterward some ornaments of the temple were called1 which we know were only overlaid with gold4 ,it would in that case be enough to reduce the wood to powder in the fire1 which would also blacken and deface the golden ornaments2 but there is no need to suppose they were also reduced to powder4 ,it is plain from ,aaron's proclaiming a fast to ,jehovah1 ,exod4 xxxii1 #d1 and from the worship of ,jeroboam's calves being so expressly distinguished from that of ,baal1 #b ,kings x1 #bh-ca1 that both ,aaron and ,jeroboam meant the calves they formed and set up for worship to be emblems of ,jehovah4 ,nevertheless1 the inspired ,psalmist speaks of ,aaron's calf with the utmost abhorrence1 and declares that1 by worshipping it1 they forgat ,god their ,saviour1 7see #a ,cor4 x1 #i17 who had wrought so many miracles for them1 and that for this crime ,god threatened to destroy them1 ,psalm cvi1 #ai-bd2 ,exod4 xxxii1 #aj2 and ,st4 ,stephen calls it plainly 1 an idol1 ,acts vii1 #da4 ,as for ,jeroboam1 after he had1 for political reasons1 #a ,kings xii1 #bg1 c1 made a schism in the ,jewish church1 and set up two calves in ,dan and ,bethel1 as objects of worship1 he is scarcely ever mentioned in ,scripture but with a particular stigma set upon him3 8,jeroboam1 the son of ,nebat1 who made ,israel to sin40 ,,call1 to name a person or thing1 ,acts xi1 #bf2 ,rom4 vii1 #c4 #b4 ,to cry to another for help2 and hence1 to pray4 ,the first passage in the ,old ,testament in which we meet with this phrase1 is ,gen4 iv1 #bf1 where we read1 8,then began men to call on the name of the ,lord10 or ,jehovah2 the meaning of which seems to be1 that they then first began to worship him in public assemblies4 ,in both the ,old and ,new ,testament1 to call upon the name of the ,lord1 imports invoking the true ,god in prayer1 with a confession that he is ,jehovah1 that is1 with an acknowledgment of his essential and incommunicable attributes4 ,in this view the phrase is applied to the worship of ,christ4 ,,calling1 a term in theology1 which is taken in a different sense by the advocates and the impugners of the ,calvinistic doctrine of grace4 ,by the former it is thus stated3 ,in the golden chain of spiritual blessings which the ,apostle enumerates in ,rom4 viii1 #cj1 originating in the divine predestination1 and terminating in the bestowment of eternal glory on the heirs of salvation1 that of calling forms an important link4 8,moreover1 whom he did predestinate1 them he also called2 and whom he called1 them he also glorified40 ,hence we read of 8the called according to his purpose10 ,rom4 viii1 #bh4 ,there is indeed a universal call of the ,gospel to all men2 for wherever it comes it is the voice of ,god to those who hear it1 calling them to repent and believe the divine testimony unto the salvation of their souls2 and it leaves them inexcusable in rejecting it1 ,john iii1 #ad-ai2 but this universal call is not inseparably connected with salvation2 for it is in reference to it that ,christ says1 8,many are called1 but few are chosen10 ,matt4 xxii1 #ad4 ,but the ,scripture also speaks of a calling which is effectual1 and which consequently is more than the outward ministry of the word2 yea1 more than some of its partial and temporary effects upon many who hear it1 for it is always ascribed to ,god's making his word effectual through the enlightening and sanctifying influences of his ,holy ,spirit4 ,thus it is said1 8,paul may plant1 and ,apollos water1 but ,god giveth the increase10 #a ,cor4 iii1 #f1 #g4 ,again1 he is said to have 8opened the heart of ,lydia1 that she attended to the doctrine of ,paul10 ,acts xvi1 #ad4 8,no man can come unto ,christ1 except the ,father draw him10 ,john vi1 #dd4 ,hence faith is said to be the gift of ,god1 ,eph4 ii1 #h2 ,phil4 i1 #bi4 ,the ,spirit takes of the things of ,christ and shows them to men1 ,john xvi1 #ad2 and thus opens their eyes1 turning them from darkness to light1 and from the power of ,satan unto ,god1 ,acts xxvi1 #ah4 ,and so ,god saves his people1 not by works of righteousness which they have done1 but according to his mercy1 by the washing of regeneration and renewing of the ,holy ,spirit1 ,titus iii1 #e4 ,thus they are saved1 and called with a holy calling1 not according to their works1 but according to the divine purpose and grace which was given them in ,christ ,jesus before the world began1 #b ,tim4 i1 #i4 #b4 ,to this it is replied1 that this whole statement respecting a believer's calling is without any support from the ,scriptures1 and is either a misunderstanding1 or a misapplication of their sense4 8,to call0 signifies to invite to the blessings of the ,gospel1 to offer salvation through ,christ1 either by ,god himself1 or1 under his appointment1 by his servants2 and in the parable of the marriage of the king's son1 ,matt4 xxii1 #a-ad1 which appears to have given rise1 in many instances1 to the use of this term in the ,epistles1 we have three descriptions of 8called0 or invited persons4 ,first1 the disobedient1 who would not come in at the call1 but made light of it4 ,second1 the class of persons represented by the man who1 when the king came in to see his guests1 had not on the wedding garment2 and with respect to whom our ,lord makes the general remark1 8,for many are called1 but few are chosen20 so that the persons thus represented by this individual culprit were not only 8called10 but actually came into the company4 ,third1 the approved guests2 those who were both called and chosen4 ,as far as the simple calling or invitation is concerned1 all these three classes stood upon equal ground--all were invited2 and it depended upon their choice and conduct whether they embraced the invitation1 and were admitted as guests4 ,we have nothing here to countenance the notion of what is termed 8effectual calling40 ,this implies an irresistible influence exerted upon all the approved guests1 but withheld from the disobedient1 who could not1 therefore1 be otherwise than disobedient2 or at most could only come in without that wedding garment1 which it was never put into their power to take out of the king's wardrobe2 and the want of which would necessarily exclude them1 if not from the church on earth1 yet from the church in heaven4 ,the doctrine of ,christ's parables is in entire contradiction to this notion of irresistible influence2 for they who refused1 and they who complied but partially with the calling1 are represented1 not merely as being left without the benefit of the feast1 but as incurring additional guilt and condemnation for refusing the invitation4 ,it is to this offer of salvation by the ,gospel1 this invitation to spiritual and eternal benefits1 that ,st4 ,peter appears to refer1 when he says1 8,for the ,,promise is unto you and to your children1 and to all that are afar off1 even as many as the ,lord our ,god shall ,,call10 ,acts ii1 #ci2 a passage which declares 8the promise0 to be as extensive as the 8calling20 in other words1 as the offer or invitation4 ,to this also ,st4 ,paul refers1 ,rom4 i1 #e1 #f3 8,by whom we have received grace and ,apostleship1 for obedience to the faith among all nations1 for his name20 that is1 to publish his ,gospel1 in order to bring all nations to the obedience of faith2 8among whom are ye also the ,,called of ,jesus ,christ20 you at ,rome have heard the ,gospel1 and have been invited to salvation in consequence of this design4 ,this promulgation of the ,gospel1 by the personal ministry of the ,apostle1 under the name of calling1 is also referred to in ,gal4 i1 #f3 8,i marvel that ye are so soon removed from him that called you into the grace of ,christ10 obviously meaning1 that it was he himself who had called them1 by his preaching1 to embrace the grace of ,christ4 ,so also in chap4 v1 #ac3 8,for1 brethren1 ye have been called unto liberty40 ,again3 #a ,thess4 ii1 #ab3 8,that ye would walk worthy of ,god1 who hath ,,called you10 invited you1 8to his kingdom and glory40 #c4 ,in our ,lord's parable it will also be observed1 that the persons called are not invited as separate individuals to partake of solitary blessings2 but they are called to 8a feast10 into a company or society1 before whom the banquet is spread4 ,the full revelation of the transfer of the visible church of ,christ from ,jews by birth1 to believers of all nations1 was not1 however1 then made4 ,when this branch of the evangelic system was fully revealed to the ,apostles1 and taught by them to others1 that part of the meaning of our ,lord's parable which was not at first developed was more particularly discovered to his inspired followers4 ,the calling of guests to the evangelical feast1 we then more fully learn1 was not the mere calling of men to partake of spiritual benefits2 but calling them also to form a spiritual society composed of ,jews and ,gentiles1 the believing men of all nations2 to have a common fellowship in these blessings1 and to be formed into this fellowship for the purpose of increasing their number1 and diffusing the benefits of salvation among the people or nation to which they respectively belonged4 ,the invitation1 8the calling10 of the first preachers was to all who heard them in ,rome1 in ,ephesus1 in ,corinth1 and other places2 and those who embraced it1 and joined themselves to the church by faith1 baptism1 and continued public profession1 were named1 especially and eminently1 8the called10 because of their obedience to the invitation4 ,they not only put in their claim to the blessings of ,christianity individually1 but became members of the new church1 that spiritual society of believers which ,god now visibly owned as his people4 ,as they were thus called into a common fellowship by the ,gospel1 this is sometimes termed their 8vocation20 as the object of this church state was to promote 8holiness10 it is termed a 8holy vocation20 as sanctity was required of the members1 they are said to have been 8called to be saints20 as the final result was1 through the mercy of ,god1 to be eternal life1 we hear of 8the hope of their calling10 and of their being 8called to his eternal glory by ,christ ,jesus40 #d4 ,these views will abundantly explain the various passages in which the term calling occurs in the ,epistles3 8,even us whom he hath called1 not of the ,jews only1 but also of the ,gentiles10 ,rom4 ix1 #bd2 that is1 whom he hath made members of his church through faith4 8,but unto them which are called1 both ,jews and ,greeks1 ,christ the power of ,god1 and the wisdom of ,god20 the wisdom and efficacy of the ,gospel being1 of course1 acknowledged in their very profession of ,christ1 in opposition to those to whom the preaching of 8,christ crucified0 was 8a stumbling block10 and 8foolishness10 #a ,cor4 i1 #bd4 8,is any man called10 7brought to acknowledge ,christ1 and to become a member of his church17 8being circumcised8 let him not become uncircumcised4 ,is any called in uncircumcision8 let him not be circumcised10 #a ,cor4 vii1 #ah4 8,that ye walk worthy of the vocation1 wherewith ye are called4 ,there is one body1 and one ,spirit1 even as ye are called in one hope of your calling10 ,eph4 iv1 #a1 #d4 8,that ye would walk worthy of ,god1 who hath called you to his kingdom and glory10 #a ,thess4 ii1 #ab4 8,through sanctification of the ,spirit1 and belief of the truth1 whereunto he called you by our ,gospel1 to the obtaining of the glory of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ10 #b ,thess4 ii1 #ac1 #ad4 8,who hath saved us and called us with a holy calling2 not according to our works1 but according to his own purpose and grace1 which was given us in ,christ ,jesus before the world began2 but is now made manifest by the appearing of our ,saviour ,jesus ,christ10 #b ,tim4 i1 #i1 #aj4 ,on this passage we may remark1 that the 8calling10 and the 8purpose0 mentioned in it1 must of necessity be interpreted to refer to the establishment of the church on the principle of faith1 so that it might include men of all nations2 and not1 as formerly1 be restricted to natural descent4 ,for personal election1 and a purpose of effectual personal calling1 could not have been hidden till manifested by the 8appearing of ,christ20 since every instance of true conversion to ,god in any age prior to the appearing of ,christ1 would be as much a manifestation of eternal election1 and an instance of personal effectual calling1 according to the ,calvinistic scheme1 as it was after the appearance of ,christ4 ,the ,apostle is speaking of a purpose of ,god1 which was kept secret till revealed by the ,christian system2 and1 from various other parallel passages1 we learn that this secret1 this 8mystery10 as he often calls it1 was the union of the ,jews and ,gentiles in 8one body10 or church1 by faith4 #e4 ,in none of these passages is the doctrine of the exclusive calling of a set number of men contained2 and the synod of ,dort1 as though they felt this1 only attempt to infer the doctrine from a text already quoted2 but which we will now more fully notice3 8,whom he did predestinate1 them he also called2 and whom he called1 them he also justified2 and whom he justified1 them he also glorified10 ,rom4 viii1 #cj4 ,this is the text on which the ,calvinists chiefly rest their doctrine of effectual calling2 and tracing it1 as they say1 through its steps and links1 they conclude1 that a set and determinate number of persons having been predestinated unto salvation1 this set number only are called effectually1 then justified1 and finally glorified4 ,but this passage was evidently nothing to the purpose1 unless it had spoken of a set and determinate number of men as predestinated and called1 independent of any consideration of their faith and obedience2 which number as being determinate1 would1 by consequence exclude the rest4 ,the context declares that those who are foreknown1 and predestinated to eternal glory1 are true believers1 those who 8love ,god10 as stated in a subsequent verse2 for of such only the ,apostle speaks2 and when he adds1 8,moreover1 whom he did predestinate1 them he also called2 and whom he called1 them he also justified2 and whom he justified1 them he also glorified20 he shows in particular how the divine purpose to glorify believers is carried into effect1 through all its stages4 ,the great instrument of bringing men to 8love ,god0 is the ,gospel2 they are1 therefore1 called1 invited by it1 to this state and benefit2 the calling being obeyed1 they are justified2 and being justified1 and continuing in that state of grace1 they are glorified4 ,nothing1 however1 is here said to favour the conclusion1 that many others who were called by the ,gospel1 but refused1 might not have been justified and glorified as well as they2 nothing to distinguish this calling into common and effectual3 and the very guilt which those are every where represented as contracting who despised the ,gospel calling1 shows that they reject a grace which is sufficient1 and sincerely intended1 to save them4 ,,calneh1 a city in the land of ,shinar1 built by ,nimrod1 and one of the cities mentioned ,genesis x1 #aj1 as belonging to his kingdom4 ,it is believed to be the same with ,calno1 mentioned in ,isa4 x1 #i4 ,it is said by the ,chaldee interpreters1 as also by ,eusebius and ,jerom1 to be the same with ,ctesiphon1 standing upon the ,tigris1 about three miles distant from ,seleucia1 and that for some time it was the capital city of the ,parthians4 ,bochart1 ,wells1 and ,michalis1 agree in this opinion4 ,,calvary1 or1 as it is called in ,hebrew1 ,golgotha1 8a skull10 or 8place of skulls10 supposed to be thus denominated from the similitude it bore to the figure of a skull or man's head1 or from its being a place of burial4 ,it was a small eminence or hill to the north of ,mount ,sion1 and to the west of old ,jerusalem1 upon which our ,lord was crucified4 ,the ancient summit of ,calvary has been much altered1 by reducing its level in some parts1 and raising it in others1 in order to bring it within the area of a large and irregular building1 called 8,the ,church of the ,holy ,sepulchre10 which now occupies its site4 ,but in doing this1 care has been taken that none of the parts connected with the crucifixion should suffer any alteration4 ,the same building also encloses within its spacious walls several other places reputed sacred4 ,the places which claim the chief attraction of the ,christian visitant of this church1 and those only perhaps which can be relied on1 are1 the spot on which the crucifixion took place1 and the sepulchre in which our ,lord was afterward laid4 ,the first has been preserved without mutilation3 being a piece of ground about ten yards square1 in its original position2 and so high above the common floor of the church1 that there are1 according to ,chateaubriand1 twenty-one steps to ascend up to it4 ,mr4 ,buckingham describes the present mount as a rock1 the summit of which is ascended by a steep flight of eighteen or twenty steps from the common level of the church1 which is equal with that of the street without2 and beside this1 there is a descent of thirty steps1 from the level of the church1 into the chapel of ,st4 ,helena1 and by eleven more to the place where the cross was said to be found4 ,on this little mount is shown the hole in which the cross was fixed2 and near it the position of the crosses of the two thieves3 one1 the penitent1 on the north2 and the other on the south4 ,here1 also1 is shown a cleft in the rock1 said to have been caused by the earthquake which happened at the crucifixion4 ,the sepulchre1 distant1 according to ,mr4 ,jolliffe1 forty-three yards from the cross1 presents rather a singular and unexpected appearance to a stranger2 who1 for such a place1 would naturally expect to find an excavation in the ground1 instead of which1 he perceives it altogether raised1 as if artificially1 above its level4 ,the truth is1 that in the alterations which were made on ,calvary1 to bring all the principal places within the projected church1 the earth around the sepulchre was dug away2 so that1 what was originally a cave in the earth has now the appearance of a closet or grotto above ground4 ,the sepulchre itself is about six feet square and eight high4 ,there is a solid block of the stone left in excavating the rock1 about two feet and a half from the floor1 and running along the whole of the inner side2 on which the body of our ,lord is said to have been laid4 ,this1 as well as the rest of the sepulchre1 is now faced with marble3 partly from the false taste which prevailed in the early ages of ,christianity1 in disguising with profuse and ill-suited embellishments the spots rendered memorable in the history of its ,founder2 and partly1 perhaps1 to preserve it from the depredations of the visitants4 ,this description of the holy sepulchre will but ill accord with the notions entertained by some ,english readers of a grave2 but a cave or grotto1 thus excavated in rocky ground1 on the side of a hill1 was the common receptacle for the dead among the eastern nations4 ,such was the tomb of ,christ2 such that of ,lazarus2 and such are the sepulchres still found in ,judea and the east4 ,it may be useful farther to observe1 that it was customary with ,jews of property to provide a sepulchre of this kind on their own ground1 as the place of their interment after death2 and it appears that ,calvary itself1 or the ground immediately around it1 was occupied with gardens2 one of which belonged to ,joseph of ,arimathea1 who had then recently caused a new sepulchre to be made for himself4 ,it was this sepulchre1 so close at hand1 and so appropriate1 which he resigned for the use of our ,lord2 little thinking perhaps1 at the time1 how soon it would again be left vacant for its original purpose by his glorious resurrection4 ,,calvinism1 that scheme of doctrine on predestination and grace1 which was taught by ,calvin1 the celebrated reformer1 in the early part of the sixteenth century4 ,his opinions are largely opened in the third book of his 8,institutes30 8,predestination we call the eternal decree of ,god2 by which he hath determined in himself what he would have to become of every individual of mankind4 ,for they are not all created with similar destiny2 but eternal life is foreordained for some1 and eternal damnation for others4 ,every man1 therefore1 being created for one or other of these ends1 we say1 he is predestinated1 either to life1 or to death40 ,after having spoken of the election of the race of ,abraham1 and then of particular branches of that race1 he proceeds3 8,though it is sufficiently clear1 that ,god1 in his secret counsel1 freely chooses whom he will1 and rejects others1 his gratuitous election is but half displayed till we come to particular individuals1 to whom ,god not only offers salvation1 but assigns it in such a manner that the certainty of the effect is liable to no suspense or doubt40 ,he sums up the chapter1 in which he thus generally states the doctrine1 in these words3 8,in conformity1 therefore1 to the clear doctrine of the ,scripture1 we assert1 that1 by an eternal and immutable counsel1 ,god hath once for all determined both whom he would admit to salvation1 and whom he would condemn to destruction4 ,we affirm that this counsel1 as far as concerns the elect1 is founded on his gratuitous mercy1 totally irrespective of human merit2 but that to those whom he devotes to condemnation1 the gate of life is closed by a just and irreprehensible1 but incomprehensible1 judgment4 ,in the elect1 we consider calling as an evidence of election2 and justification as another token of its manifestation1 till they arrive in glory1 which constitutes its completion4 ,as ,god seals his elect by vocation and justification1 so by excluding the reprobate from the knowledge of his name1 and sanctification of his ,spirit1 he affords another indication of the judgment that awaits them10 chap4 #ba1 book iii4 #b4 ,in the commencement of the following chapter he thus rejects the notion that predestination is to be understood as resulting from ,god's foreknowledge of what would be the conduct of either the elect or the reprobate3 8,it is a notion commonly entertained1 that ,god1 foreseeing what would be the respective merits of every individual1 makes a correspondent distinction between different persons2 that he adopts as his children such as he foreknows will be deserving of his grace2 and devotes to the damnation of death others1 whose dispositions he sees will be inclined to wickedness and impiety4 ,thus they not only obscure election by covering it with the veil of foreknowledge1 but pretend that it originates in another cause10 book iii1 chap4 #bb4 ,consistently with this1 he a little farther on asserts1 that election does not flow from holiness1 but holiness from election3 8,for when it is said1 that the faithful are elected that they should be holy1 it is fully implied1 that the holiness they were in future to possess had its origin in election40 ,he proceeds to quote the example of ,jacob and ,esau1 as loved and hated before they had done good or evil1 to show that the only reason of election and reprobation is to be placed in ,god's 8secret counsel40 ,he will not allow the future wickedness of the reprobate to have been considered in the decree of their rejection1 any more than the righteousness of the elect1 as influencing their better fate3 8#8,god hath mercy on whom he will have mercy1 and whom he will he hardeneth4' ,you see how he 7the ,apostle7 attributes both to the mere will of ,god4 ,if1 therefore1 we can assign no reason why he grants mercy to his people but because such is his pleasure1 neither shall we find any other cause but his will for the reprobation of others4 ,for when ,god is said to harden1 or show mercy to whom he pleases1 men are taught1 by this declaration1 to seek no cause beside his will40 7,ibid47 8,many1 indeed1 as if they wished to avert odium from ,god1 admit election in such a way as to deny that any one is reprobated4 ,but this is puerile and absurd2 because election itself could not exist1 without being opposed to reprobation2--whom ,god passes by he therefore reprobates2 and from no other cause than his determination to exclude them from the inheritance which he predestines for his children10 book iii1 chap4 xxiii4 #c4 ,this is the scheme of predestination as exhibited by ,calvin2 and to the objection taken from justice1 he replies1 8,they0 7the objectors7 8inquire by what right the ,lord is angry with his creatures who had not provoked him by any previous offence2 for that to devote to destruction whom he pleases1 is more like the caprice of a tyrant1 than the lawful sentence of a judge4 ,if such thoughts ever enter into the minds of pious men1 they will be sufficiently enabled to break their violence by this one consideration1 how exceedingly presumptuous it is1 only to inquire into the causes of the divine will2 which is1 in fact1 and is justly entitled to be1 the cause of every thing that exists4 ,for if it has any cause1 then there must be something antecedent on which it depends1 which it is impious to suppose4 ,for the will of ,god is the highest rule of justice2 so that what he wills must be considered just1 for this very reason1 because he wills it40 ,thus he assumes the very thing in dispute1 that ,god has willed the destruction of any part of the human race1 8for no other cause than because he wills it20 of which assumption there is not only not a word of proof in ,scripture2 but1 on the contrary1 it ascribes the death of him that dieth to his own will1 and not to the will of ,god4 #b4 ,he pretends that to assign any cause to the divine will is to suppose something antecedent to1 something above ,god1 and therefore 8impious20 as if we might not suppose something ,,in ,god to be the rule of his will1 not only without any impiety1 but with truth and piety2 as1 for instance1 his perfect wisdom1 holiness1 justice1 and goodness2 or1 in other words1 to believe the exercise of his will to flow from the perfection of his whole nature2 a much more honourable and ,scriptural view of the will of ,god than that which subjects it to no rule1 even though it should arise from the nature of ,god himself4 #c4 ,when he calls the will of ,god1 8the highest rule of justice10 beyond which we cannot push our inquiries1 he confounds the will of ,god1 as a rule of justice to us1 and as a rule to himself4 ,this will is our rule2 yet even then1 because we know that it is the will of a perfect being3 but when ,calvin represents mere will as constituting ,god's own rule of justice1 he shuts out knowledge1 discrimination of the nature of things1 and holiness2 which is saying something very different from that great truth1 that ,god cannot will any thing but what is perfectly just4 ,it is to say that blind will1 will which has no respect to any thing but itself1 is ,god's highest rule of justice2 a position which1 if presented abstractedly1 many ,calvinists themselves would spurn4 #d4 ,he determines the question by the authority of his own metaphysics1 and totally forgets that one dictum of inspiration overturns his whole theory1--,god 8willeth all men to be saved20 a declaration1 which in no part of the sacred volume is opposed or limited by any contrary declaration4 #d4 ,calvin was not1 however1 content thus to leave the matter2 but resorts to an argument1 in which he has been generally followed by those who have adopted his system with some mitigations3 8,as we are all corrupted by sin1 we must necessarily be odious to ,god1 and that not from tyrannical cruelty1 but in the most equitable estimation of justice4 ,if all whom the ,lord predestinates to death are1 in their natural condition1 liable to the sentence of death1 what injustice do they complain of receiving from him80 ,to this ,calvin very fairly states the obvious rejoinder made in his day2 and which the common sense of mankind will always make1--8,they object1 ,were they not by the decree of ,god antecedently predestinated to that corruption which is now stated as the cause of their condemnation8 ,when they perish in their corruption1 therefore1 they only suffer the punishment of that misery into which1 in consequence of his predestination1 ,adam fell1 and precipitated his posterity with him40 ,the manner in which ,calvin attempts to meet this objection1 shows how truly unanswerable it is upon his system4 8,i confess10 says he1 8indeed1 that all the descendants of ,adam fell1 by the ,divine will1 into that miserable condition in which they are now involved2 and this is what ,i asserted from the beginning1 that we must always return at last to the sovereign determination of ,god's will2 the cause of which is hidden in himself4 ,but it follows not1 therefore1 that ,god is liable to this reproach2 for we will answer them in the language of ,paul1 #8,o man1 who art thou that repliest against ,god8 ,shall the thing formed say to him that formed it1 ,why hast thou made me thus'0 ,that is1 in order to escape the pinch of the objection1 he assumes that ,st4 ,paul affirms that ,god has 8formed0 a part of the human race for eternal misery2 and that1 by imposing silence upon them1 he intended to declare that this proceeding in ,god was just4 ,now the passage may be proved from its context to have no respect to the eternal state of men at all2 but1 if that were less obvious1 it gives no answer to the objection2 and we are brought round again1 as indeed he confesses1 to his former1 and indeed only1 argument1 that the whole matter as he states it1 is to be referred back to the divine will2 which will1 though perfectly arbitrary1 is1 as he contends1 the highest rule of justice3 8,i say1 with ,augustine1 that the ,lord created those whom he certainly foreknew would fall into destruction2 and that this was actually so1 because he willed it2 but of his will1 it belongs not to us to demand the reason1 which we are incapable of comprehending2 nor is it reasonable1 that the divine will should be made the subject of controversy with us1 which is only another name for the highest rule of justice40 ,thus he shuts us out from pursuing the argument4 ,but the evasion proves the objection unanswerable4 ,for if all is to be resolved into the mere will of ,god as to the destruction of the reprobate2 if they were created for this purpose1 as ,calvin expressly affirms2 if they fell into their corruption in pursuance of ,god's determination2 if1 as he had said before1 8,god passes them by1 and reprobates them1 from no other cause than his determination to exclude them from the inheritance of his children10 why refer to their natural corruption at all1 and their being odious to ,god in that state1 since the same reason is given for their corruption as for their reprobation8--not any fault of theirs2 but the mere will of ,god1 8the reprobation hidden in his secret counsel10 and that not grounded on the visible and tangible fact of their demerit4 ,thus the election taught by ,calvin is not the choice of some persons to peculiar grace from the whole mass1 equally deserving of punishment2 7though this is a sophism27 since1 in that case1 the decree of reprobation would rest upon ,god's foreknowledge of those passed by as corrupt and guilty1 which notion he rejects3 8,for since ,god foresees future events only in consequence of his decree that they shall happen1 it is useless to contend about foreknowledge1 while it is evident that all things come to pass rather by ordination and decree40 8,it is a ,,horrible ,,decree1 ,i confess2 but no one can deny that ,god foreknew the future fate of man before he created him2 and that he did foreknow it1 because it was appointed by his own decree40 ,agreeably to this1 he repudiates the distinction between will and permission3 8,for what reason shall we assign for his permitting it1 but because it is his will8 ,it is not probable1 however1 that man procured his own destruction by the mere permission1 and without any appointment1 of ,god40 #e4 ,with this doctrine he again attempts to reconcile the demerit of men3 8,their perdition depends on the divine predestination in such a manner1 that the cause and matter of it are found in themselves4 ,for the first man fell because the ,lord had determined it should so happen4 ,the reason of this determination is unknown to us4--,man1 therefore1 falls according to the appointment of divine providence2 but he falls by his own fault4 ,the ,lord had a little before pronounced every thing that he had made to be #8very good4' ,whence1 then1 comes the depravity of man to revolt from his ,god8 ,lest it should be thought to come from creation1 ,god approved and commended what had proceeded from himself4 ,by his own wickedness1 therefore1 man corrupted the nature he had received pure from the ,lord1 and by his fall he drew all his posterity with him to destruction40 ,it is in this way that ,calvin attempts to avoid the charge of making ,god the author of sin4 ,but how ,god should not merely permit the defection of the first man1 but appoint it1 and will it1 and that his will should be the 8necessity of things10 7all which he had before asserted17 and yet that ,deity should not be the author of that which he appointed1 willed1 and imposed a necessity upon1 would be rather a delicate inquiry4 ,it is enough that ,calvin rejects the impious doctrine2 and even though his principles directly lead to it1 since he has put in his disclaimer1 he is entitled to be exempted from the charge2--but the logical conclusion is inevitable4 #f4 ,in much the same manner he contends that the necessity of sinning is laid upon the reprobate by the ordination of ,god1 and yet denies ,god to be the author of their sinful acts1 since the corruption of men was derived from ,adam1 by his own fault1 and not from ,god4 ,he exhorts us 8rather to contemplate the evident cause of condemnation1 which is nearer to us1 in the corrupt nature of mankind1 than search after a hidden and altogether incomprehensible one1 in the predestination of ,god40 8,for though1 by the eternal providence of ,god1 man was created to that misery to which he is subject1 yet the ground of it he has derived from himself1 not ,god2 since he is thus ruined1 solely in consequence of his having degenerated from the pure creation of ,god to vicious and impure depravity40 ,thus1 almost in the same breath1 he affirms that men became reprobate from no other cause than 8the will of ,god10 and his 8sovereign determination20 that men have no reason 8to expostulate with ,god1 if they are predestinated to eternal death1 without any demerit of their own1 merely by his sovereign will20--and then1 that the corrupt nature of mankind is the evident and nearer cause of condemnation2 7which cause1 however1 was still a matter of 8appointment10 and 8ordination10 not 8permission207 and that man is 8ruined solely in consequence of his having degenerated from the pure state in which ,god created him40 ,these propositions manifestly fight with each other2 for if the reason of reprobation be laid in man's corruption1 it cannot be laid in the mere will and sovereign determination of ,god1 unless we suppose him to be the author of sin4 ,it is this offensive doctrine only1 which can reconcile them4 ,for if ,god so wills1 and appoints1 and necessitates the depravity of man1 as to be the author of it1 then there is no inconsistency in saying that the ruin of the reprobate is both from the mere will of ,god1 and from the corruption of their nature1 which is but the result of that will4 ,the one is then1 as ,calvin states1 the 8evident and nearer cause10 the other the more remote and hidden one2 yet they have the same source1 and are substantially acts of the same will4 ,but if it be denied that ,god is1 in any sense1 the author of evil1 and if sin is from man alone1 then is the 8corruption of nature0 the effect of an independent will2 and if this corruption be the 8real source10 as he says1 of men's condemnation1 then the decree of reprobation rests not upon the sovereign will of ,god1 as its sole cause1 which he affirms2 but upon a cause dependent on the will of the first man3 but as this is denied1 then the other must follow4 ,calvin himself1 indeed1 contends for the perfect concurrence of these proximate and remote causes1 although in point of fact1 to have been perfectly consistent with himself1 he ought rather to have called the mere will of ,god ,,the ,,cause of the decree of reprobation1 and the corruption of man ,,the ,,means by which it is carried into effect3--language which he sanctions1 and which many of his followers have not scrupled to adopt4 #g4 ,so certainly does this opinion involve in it the consequences1 that in sin man is the instrument1 and ,god the actor1 that it cannot be maintained1 as stated by ,calvin1 without this conclusion4 ,for as two causes of reprobation are expressly laid down1 they must be either opposed to each other1 or be consenting4 ,if they are opposed1 the scheme is given up2 if consenting1 then are both reprobation and human corruption the results of the same will1 the same decree1 and necessity4 ,it would be trifling to say that the decree does not influence2 for if so1 it is no decree in ,calvin's sense1 who understands the decree of ,god1 as the foregoing extracts and the whole third book of his 8,institutes0 plainly show1 as appointing what shall be1 and by that appointment making it necessary4 ,otherwise1 he could not reject the distinction between will and permission1 and avow the sentiment of ,st4 ,augustine1 8that the will of ,god is the necessity of things2 and that what he has willed will necessarily come to pass10 book iii1 chap4 #bc1 sec4 #h4 ,so1 in writing to ,castellio1 he makes the sin of ,adam the result of an act of ,god3 8,you say ,adam fell by his free will4 ,i except against it4 ,that he might not fall1 he stood in need of that strength and constancy with which ,god armeth all the elect1 as long as he will keep them blameless4 ,whom ,god has elected1 he props up with an invincible power unto perseverance4 ,why did he not afford this to ,adam1 if he would have had him stand in his integrity80 ,and with this view of necessity1 as resulting from the decree of ,god1 the immediate followers of ,calvin coincided2 the end and the means1 as to the elect1 and as to the reprobate1 are equally fixed by the decree1 and are both to be traced to the appointing and ordaining will of ,god4 ,on such a scheme it is therefore worse than trifling to attempt to make out a case of justice in favour of this assumed divine procedure1 by alleging the corruption and guilt of man3 a point which1 indeed1 ,calvin himself1 in fact1 gives up when he says1 8,that the reprobate obey not the word of ,god1 when made known to them1 is justly imputed to the wickedness and depravity of their hearts1 provided it be at the same time stated1 that they are abandoned to this depravity1 because they have been raised up by a just but inscrutable judgment of ,god1 to display his glory in their condemnation40 #h4 ,it was by availing themselves of the ineffectual struggles of ,calvin to give some colour of justice to his reprobating decree by fixing upon the corruption of man as a cause of reprobation1 that some of his followers endeavoured1 in the very teeth of his own express words1 to reduce his system to sublapsarianism4 ,this was attempted by ,amyraldus2 who was answered by ,curcellus1 in his tract 8,de ,jure ,dei in ,creaturas40 ,this last writer1 partly by several of the same passages we have given above from ,calvin's ,institutes1 and by extracts from his other writings1 proves that ,calvin did by no means consider man1 as fallen1 to be the object of reprobation2 but man not yet created2 man as to be created1 and so reprobated1 under no consideration in the divine mind of his fall or actual guilt1 except as consequences of an eternal preterition of the persons of the reprobate1 resolvable only into the sovereign pleasure of ,god4 ,the references he makes to men as corrupt1 and to their corrupt state as the proximate cause of their rejection1 are all manifestly used to parry off rather than to answer objections1 and somewhat to moderate and soften1 as ,curcellus observes1 the harsher parts of his system4 ,and1 indeed1 for what reason are we so often brought back to that unfailing refuge of ,calvin1 8the presumption and wickedness of replying against ,god80 ,for if reprobation be a matter of human desert1 it cannot be a mystery2 if it be adequate punishment for an adequate fault1 there is no need to urge it upon us to bow with submission to an unexplained sovereignty4 ,we may add1 there is no need to speak of a remote or first cause of reprobation1 if the proximate cause will explain the whole case2 and that ,calvin's continual reference to ,god's secret counsel1 and will1 and inscrutable judgment1 could have no aptness to his argument4 ,among ,english divines1 ,dr4 ,twisse has sufficiently defended ,calvin from the charge1 as he esteems it1 of sublapsarianism2 and1 whatever merit ,twisse's own supralapsarian creed may have1 his argument on this point is unanswerable4 #i4 ,as it is not intended here to enter into this controversy1 on which multitudes of books have been written1 and the leading authors are known almost to every one1 the above may be sufficient to convey a just notion of ,calvin's own opinions4 ,after these subjects had long agitated the reformed churches1 and given rise to several modifications of ,calvin's original scheme1 and to numerous writings in refutation of it1 the synod of ,dort digested the whole into five articles from which arose the celebrated controversy on the five points4 ,these articles1 as being the standard of what is generally called strict ,calvinism1 are1 in substance1 as follows3-- 7#a47 8,of ,predestination4 ,as all men have sinned in ,adam1 and have become exposed to the curse and eternal death1 ,god would have done no injustice to any one1 if he had determined to leave the whole human race under sin and the curse1 and to condemn them on account of sin2 according to those words of the ,apostle1 #8,all the world is become guilty before ,god1' ,rom4 iii1 #ai1 #bc2 vi1 #bc4 ,that some1 in time1 have faith given them by ,god1 and others have it not given1 proceeds from his eternal decree2 for #8known unto ,god are all his works from the beginning1' c1 ,acts xv1 #ah2 ,eph4 i1 #aa4 ,according to which decree1 he graciously softens the hearts of the elect1 however hard1 and he bends them to believe2 but the non-elect he leaves1 in his judgment1 to their own perversity and hardness4 ,and here1 especially1 a deep discrimination1 at the same time both merciful and just2 a discrimination of men equally lost1 opens itself to us2 or that decree of election and reprobation which is revealed in the word of ,god2 which1 as perverse1 impure1 and unstable persons do wrest to their own destruction1 so it affords ineffable consolation to holy and pious souls4 ,but election is the immutable purpose of ,god2 by which1 before the foundations of the world were laid1 he chose1 out of the whole human race1 fallen by their own fault from their primeval integrity into sin and destruction1 according to the most free good pleasure of his own will1 and of mere grace1 a certain number of men1 neither better nor worthier than others1 but lying in the same misery with the rest1 to salvation in ,christ2 whom he had1 even from eternity1 constituted ,mediator and head of all the elect1 and the foundation of salvation2 and therefore he decreed to give them unto him to be saved1 and effectually to call and draw them into communion with him1 by his word and ,spirit2 or he decreed himself to give unto them true faith1 to justify1 to sanctify1 and at length powerfully to glorify them1 c1 ,eph4 i1 #d-f2 ,rom4 viii1 #cj4 ,this same election is not made from any foreseen faith1 obedience of faith1 holiness1 or any other good quality and disposition1 as a pre-requisite cause or condition in the man who should be elected1 c4 #8,he hath chosen us1' not because we were1 but #8that we might be1 holy1' c1 ,eph4 i1 #d2 ,rom4 ix1 #aa-ac2 ,acts xiii1 #dh4 ,moreover1 ,holy ,scripture doth illustrate and commend to us this eternal and free grace of our election1 in this more especially1 that it doth testify all men not to be elected2 but that some are non-elect1 or passed by1 in the eternal election of ,god1 whom truly ,god1 from most free1 just1 irreprehensible1 and immutable good pleasure1 decreed to leave in the common misery into which they had1 by their own fault1 cast themselves2 and not to bestow on them living faith1 and the grace of conversion2 but having been left in their own ways1 and under just judgment1 at length1 not only on account of their unbelief1 but also of all their other sins1 to condemn and eternally punish them1 to the manifestation of his own justice4 ,and this is the decree of reprobation1 which determines that ,god is1 in no wise1 the author of sin1 7which1 to be thought of1 is blasphemy17 but a tremendous1 incomprehensible1 just judge1 and avenger48 7#b47 8,of the ,death of ,christ40 ,passing over1 for brevity's sake1 what is said of the necessity of atonement1 in order to pardon1 and of ,christ having offered that atonement and satisfaction1 it is added1 8,this death of the ,son of ,god is a single and most perfect sacrifice and satisfaction for sins2 of infinite value and price1 abundantly sufficient to expiate the sins of the whole world2 but because many who are called by the ,gospel do not repent1 nor believe in ,christ1 but perish in unbelief2 this doth not arise from defect or insufficiency of the sacrifice offered by ,christ upon the cross1 but from their own fault4 ,god willed that ,christ1 through the blood of the cross1 should1 out of every people1 tribe1 nation1 and language1 efficaciously redeem all those1 and those only1 who were from eternity chosen to salvation1 and given to him by the ,father2 that he should confer on them the gift of faith10 c4 7#c47 8,of ,man's ,corruption1 c4 ,all men are conceived in sin1 and born the children of wrath1 indisposed 7inepti7 to all saving good1 propense to evil1 dead in sin1 and the slaves of sin2 and without the regenerating grace of the ,holy ,spirit1 they neither are willing nor able to return to ,god1 to correct their depraved nature1 or to dispose themselves to the correction of it48 7#d47 8,of ,grace and ,free will4 ,but in like manner as1 by the fall1 man does not cease to be man1 endowed with intellect and will2 neither hath sin1 which hath pervaded the whole human race1 taken away the nature of the human species1 but it hath depraved and spiritually stained it2 so that even this divine grace of regeneration does not act upon men like stocks and trees1 nor take away the properties of his will2 or violently compel it1 while unwilling2 but it spiritually quickens1 heals1 corrects1 and sweetly1 and at the same time powerfully1 inclines it2 so that whereas before it was wholly governed by the rebellion and resistance of the flesh1 now prompt and sincere obedience of the ,spirit may begin to reign2 in which the renewal of our spiritual will1 and our liberty1 truly consist2 in which manner1 7or for which reason17 unless the admirable ,author of all good should work in us1 there could be no hope to man of rising from the fall by that free will1 by which1 when standing1 he fell into ruin40 7#e47 8,on ,perseverance4 ,god1 who is rich in mercy1 from his immutable purpose of election1 does not wholly take away his ,holy ,spirit from his own1 even in lamentable falls2 nor does he so permit them to glide down1 7prolabi17 that they should fall from the grace of adoption1 and the state of justification2 or commit the #8sin unto death1' or against the ,holy ,spirit2 that1 being deserted by him1 they should cast themselves headlong into eternal destruction4 ,so that not by their own merits or strength1 but by the gratuitous mercy of ,god1 they obtain it1 that they neither totally fall from faith and grace1 nor finally continue in their falls and perish40 #aj4 ,the controversy on these difficult subjects was not decided by the decrees of the synod of ,dort1 which1 it will be seen under that article1 were purposely drawn up in a politic and wary manner1 so as to quadrate with the opinions1 and not to outrage the feelings1 of any grade of ,calvinists4 ,prior to the convention of that celebrated assembly1 the doctrines of ,calvin had been refined upon and incautiously carried out to some of their legitimate consequences1 in a manner almost without precedent1 except that of the ,mohammedan doctors on the absolute fate which holds a distinguished place in the ,koran4 ,several of the brightest and most acute wits in ,europe occupied themselves in sublimating to the height of extravagance the two kindred branches of predestination1--the eternal and absolute election of certain men to everlasting glory1 and the reprobation of the rest of mankind to endless punishment1 without regard in the divine mind to the foreseen faith of one class or to the foreseen unbelief of the other4 ,this course was commenced by ,beza1 the contemporary and successor of ,calvin1 who possessed neither his genius nor his caution2 and his writings contain several rash assertions on these points1 which1 it is probable1 would never have obtained the approbation of his departed friend and instructer4 ,zanchius1 with true ,italian astuteness1 carried on this process of refinement in high style2 and his predestinarian improvements were only equalled by those of ,piscator1 ,pareus1 ,keckerman1 ,hommius1 ,kimedontius1 ,polanus1 ,sturmius1 ,danus1 ,thysius1 ,donteklock1 ,bogerman1 ,gomar1 ,smoutius1 ,triglandius1 down to the minor tribe of ,contra-,remonstrants1 ,damman1 ,maccovius1 and ,sibrandus ,lubbertus4 ,nor were the clever divines of our own country a whit behind the foreigners in accomplishing this grand object2 and the theological reader1 on seeing the names of ,perkins1 ,whitaker1 ,abbot1 and ,twisse1 will instantly recognise men whose doctrinal vagaries were familiar to all the ,calvinists in ,europe4 ,no one can form an adequate conception of the injury thus inflicted on the divine attributes of wisdom1 goodness1 and mercy1 as they have been revealed in the ,scriptures1 unless he has read the immense mass of quotations from the writings of these and other divines1 which were presented to the notice of the synod of ,dort by the ,remonstrants1 especially in their ,rejection of ,errors under each of the five points in dispute2 the proofs of which were quoted from their respective authors1 and the accuracy and faithfulness of which were never called in question4 ,not only would the minds of all sober ,christians in these days be shocked when perusing the monstrous sentiments propounded in those extracts1 but even the tolerably stiff ,calvinists of ,oliver ,cromwell's time felt themselves scandalized by any allusion to them1 and would not admit that their opinions had the least affinity to such desecrating dogmas4 ,little more than twenty years after the synod of ,dort1 that distinguished polemical divine and accurate scholar1 ,dr4 ,thomas ,pierce1 published his able and very interesting pamphlet1 entitled1 8,a ,correct ,copy of ,some ,notes concerning ,god's ,decrees20 in which1 without naming the authors1 he gave ten extracts from celebrated ,calvinistic treatises1 to prove1 that 8there are men of no small name who have told the world1 that all the evil of sin which is in man proceedeth from ,god only as the author1 and from man only as the instrument40 ,four of these extracts will furnish sufficient matter to every judicious mind for mournful reflections on the strange obliquities to which the human understanding is liable3--7#a47 8,a wicked man1 by the just impulse of ,god1 doeth that which is not lawful for him to do40 7#b47 8,when ,god makes an angel or a man a transgressor1 he himself doth not transgress1 because he doth not break a law4 ,the very same sin1 namely1 adultery or murder1 inasmuch as it is the work of ,god1 the author1 mover1 and compeller1 is not a crime2 but inasmuch as it is of man1 it is a wickedness40 7#c47 8,god can will that man shall not fall1 by his will which is called voluntas signi2 and in the mean while he can ordain that the same man shall infallibly and efficaciously fall1 by his will which is called voluntas beneplaciti4 ,the former will of ,god is improperly called his will1 for it only signifieth what man ought to do by right2 but the latter will is properly called a will1 because by that he decreed what should inevitably come to pass40 7#d47 8,god's will doth pass1 not only into the permission of the sin1 but into the sin itself which is permitted4 ,the ,dominicans10 the high predestinarian order in the church of ,rome1 8do imperfectly and obscurely relate the truth whilst1 beside ,god's concurrence to the making way for sin1 they require nothing but the negation of efficacious grace1 when it is manifest that there is a farther prostitution of sin required40 ,of these four passages the first is from ,calvin himself1 the second from ,zuinglius1 and the third and fourth from ,dr4 ,twisse4 ,this pamphlet was the first in a smart controversy1 in which ,doctor 7afterward ,bishop7 ,reynolds1 ,baxter1 ,hickman1 and ,barlee1 took part against ,dr4 ,pierce1 but in which those eminent men virtually disclaimed all community of sentiment between themselves and such high predestinarians4 ,in their warmth1 however1 they accused the ,doctor of having 8rifled the well-furnished cabinet of the ,batavian ,remonstrant writings10 and of not having hesitated 8to be beholden to very thieves1 namely1 such roguish pamphlets as ,fur ,predestinatus and others are1 rather than want materials for invectives against ,calvin1 ,beza1 ,twisse10 c4 ,in his reply1 the ,doctor says1 8,when ,i published my papers on ,god's decrees1 ,i had never so much as seen that well-furnished cabinet1 the #8,acta ,synodalia ,remonstrantium2'0 and he proves that he has copied none of his extracts from ,fur ,predestinatus4 ,as his opponents were 8so unthankful for the lenity0 which he had displayed in giving 8so short a catalogue10 he added other affirmations of a still more revolting import1 if that were possible4 ,the four extracts which follow1 will serve as a correct specimen of the gross and unguarded assertions of some of those good men who were thus exposed2 the first two are from ,zanchius1 the other two from ,piscator1 both of them men of renown in that age3--7#a47 8,reprobates are compelled with a necessity of sinning1 and so of perishing1 by this ordination of ,god2 and so compelled that they cannot choose but sin and perish40 7#b47 8,god works all things in all men1 not only in the godly1 but also in the ungodly40 7#c47 8,judas could not but betray ,christ1 seeing that ,god's decrees are immutable2 and whether a man bless or curse1 he always doth it necessarily in respect of ,god's providence1 and in so doing he doeth always according to the will of ,god40 7#d47 8,it doth or at least may appear from the word of ,god1 that we neither can do more good than we do1 nor omit more evil than we omit2 because ,god from eternity hath precisely decreed that both the good and the evil should so be done4 ,it is fatally constituted when1 and how1 and how much1 every one of us ought to study and love piety1 or not to love it40 ,in that newly emancipated age1 the ample discussion of these topics could not fail to produce much good2 and the result in the course of a few years was1 that a vast number of those who had implicitly followed the guidance of ,calvin1 deserted his standard1 and either went completely over to the ranks of ,arminius1 or halted midway under the command of ,baxter4 ,from that time to the middle of the eighteenth century1 those dogmas which are usually designated as ultra-,calvinian or ,antinomian1 received no support except from such shallow divines as ,dr4 ,crisp and his immediate admirers4 ,but when the ,rev4 ,john ,wesley and his brother1 as ,arminians1 propounded the doctrines of the ,gospel in as evangelical a manner1 and with as marked success1 as any ,calvinist1 a number of those excellent men1 both in the church and among the ,dissenters1 who had been early benefited by the ministry of the two brothers1 thought1 as many now do1 that it was impossible for any thing to be evangelical that was not ,calvinistic2 and1 apparently with the design of being at as great a remove as possible from a reputed heresy1 they became in principle real ,antinomians4 ,in forming this conclusion1 and in running to a supposed opposite extreme1 such persons seem to have forgotten that those truly evangelical principles1--which in ,germany and the neighbouring states effected the reformation from ,popery1 which transformed sinners into ,christians and martyrs1 and which1 in the perverted state of society that then obtained1 but too painfully reminded the sainted sufferers of the domestic1 municipal1 and national grievances and persecutions to which the earliest confessors of the name of ,christ were subjected1--had been in beneficial operation long before ,calvin's doctrinal system was brought to maturity1 and when he was known only as the humble and diligent pastor of the church of ,geneva4 ,and even after the publication of his 8,institutes10 which contained the peculiarities of his creed1 he had to wait many years1 to labour hard1 not always in the most sanctified spirit1 both from the pulpit and the press1 and to endure many personal mortifications1 before he was able to obtrude his novel dogmas on his own immediate connections1 or to make any sensible impression on the generally received theology of his learned contemporaries4 ,such persons ought also to recollect1 that1 as ,dr4 ,watts justly observes1 8some of the most rigid and narrow limitations of grace to men are found chiefly in ,calvin's ,institutions1 which were written in his youth4 ,but his comments on ,scripture were the labours of his riper years and maturer judgment40 #aa4 ,his first tract on predestination was published in #aeeb2 and the first complete edition of his 8,institutes0 did not see the light till the year #aeeh2 but the change in ,melancthon's opinions1 from the fatality of ,stoicism1 to the universality of the ,gospel1 occurred at least six years prior to #aece1 when the second edition of his 8,common ,places0 was published1 that contained his amended creed1 and strong cautions against the contrary doctrines4 ,one of the most eloquent and best informed writers of the present age has1 in reference to this subject1 justly observed3 8,both ,luther and ,melancthon1 after their creed became permanently settled at the diet of ,augsburg1 7,a4 ,d4 #aecj17 kept one object constantly in view1--to inculcate only what was plain and practical1 and never to attempt philosophizing4 ,they perceived1 that before the reformation the doctrine of divine foreknowledge had been grossly misconceived and abused1 although guarded by all the logic of the schools2 and they felt1 that1 after it1 they had themselves at first contributed to increase the evil1 by grounding upon the same high argument1 although for a very different purpose1 the position of an infallible necessity4 ,thenceforward1 therefore1 they only taught a predestination which the ,christian religion explains1 and the ,christian life exemplifies4 ,thus1 while their adversaries philosophized upon a predestination of individuals1 preferred one before another by divine regard because worthy of such a preference1 they taught only that which has been revealed with certainty1--the predestination of a peculiar description of persons1 of a people zealous of good works1 of the ,christian church contemplated as an aggregate1 not on account of its own dignity1 but on account of ,christ its supreme ,head1 and the author of eternal salvation to all who obey him4 ,while restoring ,scriptural simplicity to the doctrine of predestination1 perplexed and disfigured by the vanity of the schools1 they studiously and anxiously preserved every trace of that universal benevolence by which ,christianity is particularly distinguished4 #8,let us1' they said1 #8with both our hands1 or rather with all our heart1 hold fast the true and pious maxim1 that ,god is not the author of sin1 that he sits not in heaven writing ,stoical laws in the volumes of fate2 but1 endowed with a perfect freedom himself1 he communicates a liberty of action to his creatures2 firmly opposing the position of necessity as false1 and pernicious to morals and religion4 ,god1 we may be assured1 is no cruel and merciless tyrant2 he does not hate and reject men1 but loves them as a parent loves his children4' ,universal grace1 indeed1 was at all times a favourite topic with the ,lutherans2 nor would they admit of any predestination except that of a beneficent ,deity1 who was in ,christ reconciling the world to himself2 except a predestination conformable with that order of things which he has established1 and with the use or abuse of the means which he has ordained4 #8,the ,almighty1' they said1 #8has seriously willed and decreed1 from eternity1 all men to be saved and to enjoy everlasting felicity2 let us not therefore indulge in evil suggestions1 and separate ourselves from his grace1 which is as expanded as the space between heaven and earth2 let us not restrain the general promise1 in which he offers his favour to all without discrimination1 nor confine it to those who1 affecting a peculiar garb1 wish to be alone esteemed pious and sanctified4 ,if many perish1 the fault is not to be imputed to the divine will1 but to human obstinacy1 which despises that will1 and disregards a salvation destined for all men4' #8,and because many are called1 but few are chosen1 let us not1' they added1 #8entertain an opinion highly impious1--that ,god tenders his grace to many1 but communicates it only to a few2 for should we not in the greatest degree detest a ,deity by whose arbitrary will we believed ourselves to be excluded from salvation8' ,upon the important point likewise of the conditional acceptance of the individual1 their ideas were not more distinct than their language was explicit4 #8,if ,god chose1' they argued1 #8certain persons only in order to unite them to himself1 and rejected the remainder in all respects alike1 would not such ,,an ,,election ,,without ,,causes seem tyrannical8 ,let us therefore be persuaded1 that some cause exists in us1 as some difference is to be found between those who are1 and those who are not1 accepted4' ,thus they conceived that1 predestinating his elect in ,christ1 or the ,christian church1 to eternal salvation1 he excludes none from that number by a partial adoption of favourites1 but calls all equally1 and accepts of all who obey his calling1 or1 in other words1 who become true ,christians by possessing the qualifications which ,christianity requires4--',he1' they stated1 who #8falls from grace1 cannot but perish1 completely losing remission of sin1 with the other benefits which ,christ has purchased for him1 and acquiring in their stead divine wrath and death eternal4' ,melancthon1 who in his private correspondence expressly termed ,calvin the ,zeno of his day1 says1 #8,let us execrate the ,stoical disputations which some introduce1 who imagine that the elect always retain the ,holy ,spirit1 even when they commit atrocious crimes1--a manifest and highly reprehensible error2 and let us not confirm in fools security and blindness4'0 ,these quotations might be augmented by others from the earliest ,lutheran authors1 more ,arminian in their import than any which ,arminius ever wrote3 but the preceding are sufficient to show1 that1 during upward of thirty years1 the ,protestant church in ,germany was nourished by doctrines most manifestly at variance with the refinements afterward promulgated by ,calvin4 ,real conversions of sinners were never more abundant than in that golden age2 yet these were produced by the blessing of ,god upon an evangelical agency that had scarcely any thing in common with the ,genevan dogmas4 ,with these and similar facts before him1 therefore1 no ,calvinist can in common honesty claim for the peculiarities of his creed1 for those doctrines which distinguish it from the ,melancthonism of the ,protestant churches of ,england and ,germany1 the exclusive title of ,,evangelical4 ,equally fallacious is the ground on which he can prefer any such claim on account of the alleged counsel and advice given by ,calvin to our reformers while they were engaged in the formation of our ,articles and ,liturgy4 ,on no fact in the ecclesiastical history of this country are our annalists more completely at agreement than on this1--that ,calvin's name and writings were scarcely known in ,england till the time when the persecution under ,queen ,mary forced many of our best divines into banishment2 and that1 to the great future disquietude of the church1 several of these exiles on their return imported a personal bias either in favour of his discipline or of his dogmas4 ,anterior to that period he had received no such pressing invitations from our reformers1 and from the king himself1 as ,melancthon had done1 for his friendly theological aid in drawing up the doctrinal and disciplinary formul of our national church4 ,the man who asserts the contrary to this1 and who has the hardihood to deny the ,melancthonian origin of the ,articles and ,liturgy1 discovers at once his want of correct information on these subjects1 and has never read the convincing documents appended to the ,archbishop of ,cashel's 7,dr4 ,laurence's7 8,eight ,sermons10 being the ,bampton ,lectures for #ahjd1 and entitled1 8,an ,attempt to ,illustrate those ,articles of the ,church of ,england which the ,calvinists improperly consider as ,calvinistical20 ,todd's treatise 8,on ,original ,sin1 ,free ,will1 c1 as maintained by certain ,declarations of our ,reformers20 ,plaifere's 8,appello ,evangelium20 nor even the portable yet convincing pamphlets of ,kipling and ,winchester1 the former entitled 8,the ,articles not ,calvinistic20 the latter1 8,a ,dissertation on the ,seventeenth ,article of the ,church40 #ab4 ,there is one fact connected with these assumed yet unfounded claims1 which has never yet been placed in its proper light1 but which it may be well briefly to notice in this place4 ,calvin himself1 in #aece1 wrote the following truly ,melancthonian paragraphs as part of his preface to the ,new ,testament in ,french3 8,this ,mediator1 our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 was the only1 true1 and eternal ,son of ,god1 whom the ,father was about to send into the world1 that he might collect all men together from this horrid dispersion and devastation4 ,when1 at length1 that fulness of time arrived1 that day preordained by the ,lord1 he openly showed himself as that ,messiah who had for so many ages been the desire of all nations1 and hath most abundantly performed all those things which were necessary for the redemption of all men4 ,but this great blessing was not confined solely within the boundaries of the land of ,israel1 since1 on the contrary1 it was intended porrigendum to be held out for the acceptance of the whole human race2 because through ,christ alone the entire family of man was to be reconciled to ,god1 as will be seen1 and most amply demonstrated1 in these pages of the ,new ,testament40 8,to this inheritance of our heavenly ,father's kingdom we are all called without respect of persons1--whether we be men or women1 high or low1 masters or servants1 teachers or disciples1 doctores divines or laics1 ,jews or ,greeks1 ,frenchmen or ,romani ,italians4 ,from this inheritance no one is excluded1 if he only so receive ,christ as he is offered by the ,father for the salvation of all men1 and embrace him when received40 ,great research has been displayed by the ,calvinists at different periods1 in endeavouring to discover1 in the public formularies of the church1 or in the private productions of our reformers1 some trace of affinity between them and the writings of ,calvin4 ,only two cases of such affinity have yet been found2 and1 unfortunately for the validity of all pretensions of this kind1 neither of them contains a single peculiarity of ,calvinism1 but1 on the contrary1 both are of the moderate and evangelical class of the ,melancthonian school4 ,one of the passages thus discovered is here subjoined from ,cranmer's 8,defence of the ,true and ,catholic ,doctrine of the ,sacrament10 c2 and bears all the marks of verisimilitude to the second of the preceding paragraphs from ,calvin1 though written fifteen years after it3--8,almighty ,god1 without respect of person1 accepteth the oblation and sacrifice of priest and lay person1 of king and subject1 of master and servant1 of man and woman1 of young and old1 yea1 of ,english1 ,french1 ,scot1 ,greek1 ,latin1 ,jew1 and ,gentile2 of every man according to his faithful and obedient heart unto him1 and that through the sacrifice propitiatory of ,jesus ,christ40 ,had either this or the other passage contained the least tinge of what is now considered as belonging exclusively to the system of ,calvin1 the ,english admirers of that great man would have had some grounds for the assertions which have been too confidently made1 because so easily refuted4 #ac4 ,having given this summary of the sentiments of ,calvin himself1 and of the ancient or strict ,calvinists1 it is proper to observe1 that there are1 and always have been1 many who generally embrace the ,calvinistic system1 but object to some particular parts1 and to the strong language in which some of the propositions are expressed4 ,these are called moderate or modern ,calvinists1 who differ from ,calvin1 and the synod of ,dort1 chiefly on two points1--the doctrine of reprobation1 and the extent of the death of ,christ4 ,the theory of ,baxter has already been noticed4 ,this and all other mitigated schemes rest on two principles1 the sufficiency of the atonement for all mankind1 and the sufficiency of grace for those who do not believe4 ,still something more is held to be necessary than this sufficiency of grace in order to actual salvation2 namely1 an acceptance by man1 which can only be made under that degree of effectual supernatural aid which is dispensed only to a certain number of persons1 who are thus distinguished as the 8elect of ,god40 ,the main characteristic of all these theories1 from the first to the last1 from the highest to the lowest1 is1 that a part of mankind are shut out from the mercies of ,god1 on some ground irrespective of their refusal of a sincere offer to them of salvation through ,christ1 made with a communicated power of embracing it4 ,some power they allow to the reprobate1 as natural power1 and degrees of superadded moral power2 but in no case the power to believe unto salvation2 and thus1 as one well observes1 8,when they have cut some fair trenches1 as if they would bring the water of life unto the dwellings of the reprobate1 on a sudden they open a sluice which carries it off again40 ,the whole labour of these theories is to find out some plausible reason for the infliction of punishment on them that perish1 independent of the only cause assigned by the word of ,god--their rejection of a mercy free for all1 and made attainable by all4 ,see ,,baxterianism4 #ad4 ,after all1 however1 it is pleasant to find these indications of a growing consciousness1 on the part of modern predestinarians1 that the common notions and common language of mankind on these deep subjects are not far from the truth4 ,and though some too fastidious ,arminians may complain1 that1 in this desire to enlist the views and words of common sense on the side of ,calvinism1 many of those by whom they are employed attach to them a meaning very different from that which ordinary usage warrants2 yet even this tendency to approximate to right views should be regarded as favourable to the progress of truth1 and the evidently improved feeling which has suggested such approximation ought to be met in a conciliating spirit4 ,but this is a fault which must always be an appendage to such a system1 however it may be modified2 and does not exclusively apply to its modern supporters4 ,the following remarks by ,archbishop ,laurence on the ambiguity of language not unfrequently discernible in the writings of ,calvin himself1 are worthy of consideration3--8,in whatsoever sense he wished these words to be understood1 it must be admitted that he sometimes adapted the style of others1 who had a very different object in view1 to his own peculiar opinions4 ,and hence1 from the want of a due discrimination1 the sentiments of his contemporaries1 opposite in their natural tendency1 are often improperly forced into the vortex of ,calvinism4 ,systematizing was his darling propensity1 and the ambition of being distinguished as a leader in reform his predominant passion3 in the arrangements of the former1 he never felt a doubt1 or found a difficulty2 and in the pursuits of the latter he displayed an equal degree of perseverance and ardour4 ,thus1 in the doctrine of the eucharist1 it is well known that he laboured to acquire celebrity1 and conciliate followers1 by maintaining a kind of middle sacramental presence between the corporeal of the ,lutherans1 and the mere spiritual of the ,zuinglians2 expressing himself in language which1 partly derived from one1 and partly from the other1 verged toward neither extreme2 but which1 by his singular talent at perspicuous combination1 he applied1 and not without success1 to his own particular purpose4 ,nor was he less solicitous to press into his service a foreign phraseology upon the subject more immediately before me2 a subject on his theory of which he not a little prided himself1 and seemed contented to stake his reputation4 ,he perceived that the ,lutherans1 strongly reprobating every discussion upon the decrees of a ,deity unrevealed to us1 founded predestination solely on a ,scriptural basis2 contending for a divine will which is seriously1 not fictitiously1 disposed to save all men1 and predetermined to save all who become and continue sincere ,christians4 ,zuingle1 indeed1 had reasoned from a different principle2 and1 although persuaded that ,god's mercies in ,christ were liberally bestowed on all without distinction1 on infants who commit not actual crime1 and on the ,heathen as well as the ,christian world1 he nevertheless was a necessitarian in the strictest sense of the expression2 referring events of every kind to an uncontrollable and absolute predetermination4 ,zuingle1 however1 died in #aeca1 before the youth of ,calvin permitted him to assume the character of a reformer2 who found ,bullinger then at the head of the ,zuinglian church1 not only applauding1 but adopting1 the moderation of the ,lutherans2 and1 to use the phrase of ,turretin1 plainly ,melancthonizing4 ,but the doctrine alluded to1 it may be imagined1 was of a species too limited and unphilosophical for one of his enterprising turn of mind1 who never met with an obstacle which he attempted not instantly to surmount4 ,disregarding1 therefore1 the sober restrictions of the times1 he gave loose to the most unbounded speculation3 yet1 anxious by all means to win over all to his opinion1 he studiously laboured to preserve1 on some popular points1 a verbal conformity with the ,lutherans4 ,with them1 in words1 he taught the universality of ,god's good will2 but it was a universality which he extended only to the offer of salvation2 conceiving the reprobate to be precluded from the reception of that offer by the secret decree of an immutable ,deity4 ,the striking feature of their system was an election in ,christ1 by which they meant an election as ,christians4 ,this also1 in words1 he inculcated3 his idea1 however1 of an election in ,christ was totally different from theirs2 for he held it to be the previous election of certain favourites by an irrespective will of ,god1 whom1 and whom alone1 ,christ was subsequently appointed to save4 ,but his ingenuity was such1 in adapting the terms borrowed from another source to his own theory1 that some erroneously conceive them to have been thus originally used by the ,lutherans themselves4 ,hence1 therefore1 much confusion has arisen in the attempt of properly discriminating between the various sentiments of ,protestants upon this question1 at the period under consideration3 all have been regarded as formed upon the model which ,calvin exhibited2 at least by writers who have contemplated him as the greatest reformer of his age1 but who have forgotten that1 although they chose to esteem him the greatest1 they could not represent him as the first in point of time2 and that his title to preminence1 in the common estimation of his contemporaries1 was then far from being acknowledged40 #ae4 ,on one topic1 however1 ,calvin and the older divines of that school were very explicit4 ,they tell us plainly1 that they found all the ,christian fathers1 both of the ,greek and the ,latin church down to the age of ,st4 ,augustine1 quite unmanageable for their purpose2 and therefore occasionally bestow upon them and their productions epithets not the most courteous4 ,yet some modern writers1 not possessing half the splendid qualifications of those veterans in learning1 make a gorgeous display of the little that they know concerning antiquity2 and wish to lead their readers to suppose1 that the whole stream of early ,christianity has flowed down only in their channel4 ,every one must have remarked how much like ,calvin all those fathers speak whose works are quoted by ,toplady in his 8,historic ,defence40 ,nor can the two ,milners1 in their 8,history of the ,church10 entirely escape censure on this account1--though both were excellent men1 and better scholars than ,toplady4 ,but from the manner in which they 8show up0 only those ancient ,christian authors1 some of whose sentiments seem to be nearly in unison with their own1 they induce the unlearned or half informed to draw the erroneous conclusion1--that the peculiarities of ,calvinism are not the inventions of a comparatively recent ra1 and that they have always formed a prominent part of the profession of faith of every ,christian community since the days of the ,apostles4 ,all men must admire the candid and liberal spirit which breathes in the subjoined high but just eulogium on ,calvin1 from the pen of the same amiable ,archbishop3 8,calvin himself was both a wise and a good man2 inferior to none of his contemporaries in general ability1 and superior to almost all in the art1 as well as elegance1 of composition1 in the perspicuity and arrangement of his ideas1 the structure of his periods1 and the ,latinity of his diction4 ,although attached to a theory1 which he found it difficult in the extreme to free from the suspicion of blasphemy against ,god1 as the author of sin1 he certainly was no blasphemer2 but1 on the contrary1 adopted that very theory from an anxiety not to commit1 but1 as he conceived1 to avoid blasphemy1--that of ascribing to human1 what he deemed alone imputable to divine1 agency40 ,,cambyses1 the son of ,cyrus1 king of ,persia4 ,he succeeded his father1 ,a4 ,m4 #cdge1 and is the ,ahasuerus mentioned in ,ezra iv1 #f1 to whom1 as soon as he came to the crown1 the ,samaritans applied by petition1 desiring that the rebuilding of ,jerusalem might be stopped4 ,what the motives were which they made use of to prevail upon this prince1 we are ignorant2 but it is certain1 that though he was not persuaded to revoke his father's decree1 yet he put a stop to the works1 so that for the remaining seven years and five months which he reigned1 the building of the city and temple was suspended4 ,see ,,ahasuerus4 ,,camel1 4 ,this animal is called in ancient ,arabic1 gimel2 and in modern1 diammel2 in ,greek1 4 ,with very little variation1 the name is retained in modern languages4 ,the camel is very common in ,arabia1 ,judea1 and the neighbouring countries2 and is often mentioned in ,scripture1 and reckoned among the most valuable property1 #a ,chron4 v1 #ba2 ,job i1 #c1 c4 8,no creature10 says ,volney1 8seems so peculiarly fitted to the climate in which he exists as the camel4 ,designing this animal to dwell in a country where he can find little nourishment1 nature has been sparing of her materials in the whole of his formation4 ,she has not bestowed upon him the fleshiness of the ox1 horse1 or elephant2 but limiting herself to what is strictly necessary1 has given him a long head1 without ears1 at the end of a long neck without flesh2 has taken from his legs and thighs every muscle not immediately requisite for motion2 and1 in short1 bestowed upon his withered body only the vessels and tendons necessary to connect its frame together4 ,she has furnished him with a strong jaw1 that he may grind the hardest aliments2 but1 lest he should consume too much1 has straitened his stomach1 and obliged him to chew the cud2 has lined his foot with a lump of flesh1 which sliding in the mud1 and being no way adapted to climbing1 fits him only for a dry1 level1 and sandy soil1 like that of ,arabia4 ,so great1 in short1 is the importance of the camel to the desert1 that1 were it deprived of that useful animal1 it must infallibly lose every inhabitant40 ,the chief use of the camel has always been as a beast of burden1 and for performing journeys across the deserts4 ,they have sometimes been used in war1 to carry the baggage of an oriented army1 and mingle in the tumult of the battle4 ,many of the ,amalekite warriors1 who burnt ,ziklag in the time of ,david1 were mounted on camels2 for the sacred historian remarks1 that of the whole army not a man escaped the furious onset of that heroic and exasperated leader1 8save four hundred young men1 which rode upon camels1 and fled10 #a ,sam4 xxx1 #ag4 ,the passage of ,scripture in which our ,lord says1 8,it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle1 than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of heaven10 ,matt4 xix1 #bd1 has been the occasion of much criticism4 ,some assert that near ,jerusalem was a low gate called 8the needle's eye10 through which a camel could not pass unless his load was taken off4 ,others conjecture that should be read 1 a cable4 ,but there are no ancient manuscripts to support the reading4 ,in the ,jewish ,talmud1 there is1 however1 a similar proverb respecting an elephant3 8,rabbi ,shesheth answered ,rabbi ,amram1 who had advanced an absurdity1 #8,perhaps thou art one of the ,pambidithians1 who can make an elephant pass through the eye of a needle2'0 that is1 says the ,aruch1 8who speak things impossible40 ,there is also a saying of the same kind in the ,koran3 8,the impious1 who in his arrogancy shall accuse our doctrine of falsity1 shall find the gates of heaven shut2 nor shall he enter there1 till a camel shall pass through the eye of a needle4 ,it is thus that we shall recompense the wicked10 ,surat4 vii1 #cg4 ,indeed1 ,grotius1 ,lightfoot1 ,wetstein1 and ,michalis join in opinion1 that the comparison is so much in the figurative style of the oriental nations and of the rabbins1 that the text is sufficiently authentic4 ,,camel's ,,hair1 mentioned ,matt4 iii1 #d2 ,mark i1 #f4 ,john the ,baptist1 we are told1 was habited in a raiment of camel's hair2 and ,chardin assures us1 that the modern dervises wear such garments2 as they do also great leathern girdles4 ,camel's hair is also made into those beautiful stuffs1 called shawls2 but certainly the coarser manufacture of this material was adopted by ,john1 and we may receive a good idea of its texture1 from what ,braithwaite says of the ,arabian tents3 8,they are made of camel's hair1 somewhat like our coarse hair cloths to lay over goods40 ,by this coarse vesture the ,baptist was not merely distinguished1 but contrasted with those in royal palaces1 who wore 8soft raiment10 such as shawls or other superfine manufactures1 whether of the same material or not4 ,,cameronians1 a sect in ,scotland1 who separated from the ,presbyterians in #afff1 and continued to hold their religious assemblies in the fields4 ,the ,cameronians took their denomination from ,richard ,cameron1 a famous field preacher1 who1 refusing to accept the indulgence to tender consciences granted by ,king ,charles ,,ii1 as such an acceptance seemed an acknowledgment of the king's supremacy1 and that he had before a right to silence them1 separated from his brethren1 and even headed a rebellion in which he was killed4 ,his followers were never entirely reduced till the ,revolution1 when they voluntarily submitted to ,king ,william4 ,the ,cameronians adhered rigidly to the form of government established in #afdh4 ,,cameronists1 or ,,cameronites1 is the denomination of a party of ,calvinists in ,france1 who asserted1 that the cause of men's doing good or evil proceeds from the knowledge which ,god infuses into them2 and that ,god does not move the will physically1 but only morally1 in virtue of its dependence on the judgment of the mind4 ,they had this name from ,john ,cameron1 one of the most famous divines among the ,protestants of ,france1 in the seventeenth century1 who was born at ,glasgow1 in ,scotland1 about the year #aehj1 and taught ,greek there till he removed to ,bourdeaux in #afjj4 ,here he acquired such celebrity by the fluency with which he spoke ,greek1 that he was appointed to teach the learned languages at ,bergerac4 ,he afterward became professor of philosophy at ,sedan2 but returning to ,bourdeaux in #afjd1 he devoted himself to the study of divinity4 ,upon being appointed tutor to the sons of the chancellor of ,navarre1 he accompanied them to ,paris1 ,geneva1 and ,heidelberg4 ,after having discharged the office of a minister at ,bourdeaux1 which he assumed in #afjh1 for ten years1 he accepted the professorship of divinity at ,saumur4 ,upon the dispersion of that academy by the public commotions in #afba1 he removed to ,england1 and taught divinity at his own house in ,london4 ,king ,james inclined to favour him on account of his supposed attachment to the hierarchy1 made him master of the college1 and professor of divinity1 at ,glasgow2 but after holding this office1 which he found to be unpleasant to him1 for a year1 he returned to ,saumur1 where he read private lectures4 ,from thence he removed1 in #afbd1 to ,montauban2 where the disturbances excited by the emissaries of the duke de ,rohan led him to remonstrate against the principles which produced them1 with more zeal than prudence4 ,this occasioned his being insulted by a private person in the streets1 and severely beaten3 and this treatment so much affected him1 that he soon after died1 in #afbe1 at the early age of forty-six years4 ,bayle represents him as 8a man of great parts and judgment1 of an excellent memory1 very learned1 a good philosopher1 good humoured1 liberal not only of his knowledge but his purse1 a great talker1 a long-winded preacher1 little versed in the fathers1 inflexible in his opinions1 and inclined to turbulence40 ,he was one of those who attempted to reconcile the doctrine of predestination1 as it had been taught at ,geneva1 and confirmed at ,dort1 with the sentiments of those who believe that ,god offers salvation to all mankind4 ,his opinion was maintained and propagated by ,moses ,amyraut1 and several others of the most learned among the reformed ministers1 who thought ,calvin's doctrine too harsh4 ,they were called ,hypothetical ,universalists4 ,cameron likewise maintained the possibility of salvation in the church of ,rome4 ,see ,,amyraut and ,,baxterianism4 ,,camp1 or ,,encampment1 of the ,israelites4 ,the whole body of the people1 consisting of six hundred thousand fighting men1 beside women and children1 was disposed under four battalions1 so placed as to enclose the tabernacle1 in the form of a square1 and each under one general standard4 7,see ,armies47 ,there were forty-one encampments1 from their first in the month of ,march1 at ,rameses1 in the land of ,goshen1 in ,egypt1 and in the wilderness1 until they reached the land of ,canaan4 ,they are thus enumerated in ,numbers xxxiii3-- #a4 ,rameses #b4 ,succoth #c4 ,etham1 on the edge of the wilderness #d4 ,pihahiroth #e4 ,marah #f4 ,elim #g4 ,by the ,red ,sea #h4 ,wilderness of ,sin #i4 ,dophkah #aj4 ,alush #aa4 ,rephidim #ab4 ,wilderness of ,sinai #ac4 ,kibroth-hattaavah #ad4 ,hazeroth #ae4 ,rithmah #af4 ,rimmon-parez #ag4 ,libnah #ah4 ,rissah #ai4 ,kehelatha #bj4 ,shapher #ba4 ,haradah #bb4 ,makheloth #bc4 ,tahath #bd4 ,tarah #be4 ,mithcah #bf4 ,hashmonah #bg4 ,moseroth #bh4 ,bene-jaakan #bi4 ,hor-hagidgad #cj4 ,jotbathah #ca4 ,ebronah #cb4 ,ebion-gaber #cc4 ,kadesh #cd4 ,mount ,hor #ce4 ,zalmonah #cf4 ,punon #cg4 ,oboth #ch4 ,ije-abarim #ci4 ,dibon-gad #dj4 ,almon-diblathaim #da4 ,mountains of ,abarim ,in the second year after their exodus from ,egypt they were numbered2 and upon an exact poll1 the number of their males amounted to six hundred and three thousand1 five hundred and fifty1 from twenty years old and upward1 ,num4 i1 ii4 ,this vast mass of people1 encamped in beautiful order1 must have presented a most impressive spectacle4 ,that it failed not to produce effect upon the richly endowed and poetic mind of ,balaam1 appears from ,num4 xxiv1 #b2 8,and ,balaam lifted up his eyes and he saw ,israel abiding in his tents according to their tribes2 and the ,spirit of ,god came upon him1 and he took up his parable and said1 ,how goodly are thy tents1 ,o ,jacob1 and thy tabernacles1 ,o ,israel6 ,as the valleys are they spread forth1 as gardens by the river side1 as the trees of lign aloes which the ,lord hath planted1 and as cedar trees beside waters40 ,grandeur1 order1 beauty1 and freshness1 were the ideas at once suggested to the mind of this unfaithful prophet1 and called forth his unwilling admiration4 ,perhaps we may consider this spectacle as a type of the order1 beauty1 and glory of the true 8church in the wilderness10 in those happy days when ,god 8shall not behold iniquity in ,jacob1 nor perverseness in ,israel20 when it shall be said1 8,the ,lord his ,god is with him1 and the shout of a king is among them40 ,,camphire4 4 ,greek1 4 ,latin cyprus4 ,canticles i1 #ad2 iv1 #ac4 ,sir ,t4 ,browne supposes that the plant mentioned in the ,canticles1 rendered in the ,septuagint1 and cyprus in the ,vulgate1 is that described by ,dioscorides and ,pliny1 which grows in ,egypt1 and near to ,ascalon1 producing an odorate bush of flowers1 and yielding the celebrated oleum cyprinum4 ,a sweet oil made of the flowers of the privet tree4 ,this is one of the plants which is most grateful to the eye and the smell4 ,the deep colour of its bark1 the light green of its foliage1 the softened mixture of white and yellow with which the flowers1 collected into long clusters like the lilac1 are coloured2 the red tint of the ramifications which support them1 form an agreeable combination4 ,the flowers1 whose shades are so delicate1 diffuse around the sweetest odours1 and embalm the gardens and apartments which they embellish4 ,the women take pleasure in decking themselves with them4 ,with the powder of the dried leaves they give an orange tincture to their nails1 to the inside of their hands1 and to the soles of their feet4 ,the expression1 1 rendered 8pare their nails10 ,deut4 xxi1 #ab1 may perhaps rather mean1 8adorn their nails20 and imply the antiquity of this practice4 ,this is a universal custom in ,egypt1 and not to conform to it would be considered indecent4 ,it seems to have been practised by the ancient ,egyptians1 for the nails of the mummies are most commonly of a reddish hue4 ,in the ,song of ,solomon1 the bride is described as saying1 8,my beloved is unto me as a cluster of camphire in the vineyards of ,engedi10 chap4 i1 #bd2 and again1 8,thy plants are an orchard of pomegranates1 with pleasant fruits1 camphire with spikenard10 chap4 iv1 #ac4 ,,cana1 a town of ,galilee1 where ,jesus performed his first miracle1 ,john ii1 #a1 #b1 c4 ,it lay in the tribe of ,zebulun1 not far from ,nazareth4 ,cana was visited by ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke1 who says1 8,it is worthy of note1 that1 walking among the ruins of a church1 we saw large massy stone pots1 answering the description given of the ancient vessels of the country2 these were not preserved nor exhibited as reliques1 but lying about1 disregarded by the present inhabitants1 as antiquities with whose original use they were unacquainted4 ,from their appearance1 and the number of them1 it was quite evident that a practice of keeping water in large stone pots1 each holding from eighteen to twenty-seven gallons1 was once common in the country40 ,,canaan1 the son of ,ham4 ,the ,hebrews believe that ,canaan1 having first discovered ,noah's nakedness1 told his father ,ham2 and that ,noah1 when he awoke1 having understood what had passed1 cursed ,canaan1 the first author of the offence4 ,others are of opinion that ,ham was punished in his son ,canaan1 ,gen4 ix1 #be4 ,for though ,canaan is mentioned1 ,ham is not exempted from the malediction2 on the contrary1 he suffers more from it1 since parents are more affected with their children's misfortunes than with their own2 especially if the evils have been inflicted through some fault or folly of theirs4 ,some have thought that ,canaan may be put elliptically for the father of ,canaan1 that is1 ,ham1 as it is rendered in the ,arabic and ,septuagint translations4 ,the posterity of ,canaan was numerous4 ,his eldest son1 ,sidon1 founded the city of ,sidon1 and was father of the ,sidonians and ,phenicians4 ,canaan had ten other sons1 who were fathers of as many tribes1 dwelling in ,palestine and ,syria2 namely1 the ,hittites1 the ,jebusites1 the ,amorites1 the ,girgasites1 the ,hivites1 the ,arkites1 the ,sinites1 the ,arvadites1 the ,zemarites1 and the ,hemathites4 ,it is believed that ,canaan lived and died in ,palestine1 which from him was called the land of ,canaan4 ,notwithstanding the curse is directed against ,canaan the son1 and not against ,ham the father1 it is often supposed that all the posterity of ,ham were placed under the malediction1 8,cursed be ,canaan2 a servant of servants shall he be unto his brethren40 ,but the true reason why ,canaan only was mentioned probably is1 that the curse was in fact restricted to the posterity of ,canaan4 ,it is true that many ,africans1 descendants of other branches of ,ham's family1 have been largely and cruelly enslaved2 but so have other tribes in different parts of the world4 ,there is certainly no proof that the negro race were ever placed under this malediction4 ,had they been included in it1 this would neither have justified their oppressors1 nor proved that ,christianity is not designed to remove the evil of slavery4 ,but ,canaan alone in his descendants1 is cursed1 and ,ham only in that branch of his posterity4 ,it follows that the subjugation of the ,canaanitish races to ,israel fulfils the prophecy4 ,to them it was limited1 and with them it expired4 ,part of the seven nations of the ,canaanites were made slaves to the ,israelites1 when they took possession of their land2 and the remainder by ,solomon4 ,,canaan1 ,,land ,,of4 ,in the map it presents the appearance of a narrow slip of country1 extending along the eastern coast of the ,mediterranean2 from which1 to the river ,jordan1 the utmost width does not exceed fifty miles4 ,this river was the eastern boundary of the land of ,canaan1 or ,palestine1 properly so called1 which derived its name from the ,philistines or ,palestines originally inhabiting the coast4 ,to three of the twelve tribes1 however1 ,reuben1 ,gad1 and ,manasseh1 portions of territory were assigned on the eastern side of the river1 which were afterward extended by the subjugation of the neighbouring nations4 ,the territory of ,tyre and ,sidon was its ancient border on the north-west2 the range of the ,libanus and ,antilibanus forms a natural boundary on the north and north-east2 while in the south it is pressed upon by the ,syrian and ,arabian deserts4 ,within this circumscribed district1 such were the physical advantages of the soil and climate1 there existed1 in the happiest periods of the ,jewish nation1 an immense population4 ,the kingdom of ,david and ,solomon1 however1 extended far beyond these narrow limits4 ,in a north-eastern direction1 it was bounded only by the river ,euphrates1 and included a considerable part of ,syria4 ,it is stated that ,solomon had dominion over all the region on the western side of the ,euphrates1 from ,thiphsah1 or ,thapsacus1 on that river1 in latitude #be #bj1 to ,azzah1 or ,gaza4 8,tadmore in the wilderness10 7,palmyra17 which the ,jewish monarch is stated to have built1 7that is1 either founded or fortified17 is considerably to the north-east of ,damascus1 being only a day's journey from the ,euphrates2 and ,hamath1 the ,epiphania of the ,greeks1 7still called ,hamah17 in the territory belonging to which city ,solomon had several 8store cities10 is seated on the ,orontes1 in latitude #cd #de ,n4 ,on the east and south-east1 the kingdom of ,solomon was extended by the conquest of the country of ,moab1 that of the ,ammonites1 and ,edom2 and tracts which were either inhabited or pastured by the ,israelites1 lay still farther eastward4 ,maon1 which belonged to the tribe of ,judah1 and was situated in or near the desert of ,paran1 is described by ,abulfeda as the farthest city of ,syria toward ,arabia1 being two days' journey beyond ,zoar4 ,in the time of ,david1 the people of ,israel1 women and children included1 amounted1 on the lowest computation1 to five millions2 beside the tributary ,canaanites1 and other conquered nations4 ,the vast resources of the country1 and the power of the ,jewish monarch1 may be estimated not only by the consideration in which he was held by the contemporary sovereigns of ,egypt1 ,tyre1 and ,assyria1 but by the strength of the several kingdoms into which the dominions of ,david were subsequently divided4 ,damascus revolted during the reign of ,solomon1 and shook off the ,jewish yoke4 ,at his death1 ten of the tribes revolted under ,jeroboam1 and the country became divided into the two rival kingdoms of ,judah and ,israel1 having for their capitals ,jerusalem and ,samaria4 ,the kingdom of ,israel fell before the ,assyrian conqueror1 in the year ,b4 ,c4 #gba1 after it had subsisted about two hundred and fifty years4 ,that of ,judah survived about one hundred and thirty years1 ,judea being finally subdued and laid waste by ,nebuchadnezzar1 and the temple burned ,b4 ,c4 #ehh4 ,idumea was conquered a few years after4 ,from this period till the ra of ,alexander the ,great1 ,palestine remained subject to the ,chaldean1 ,median1 and ,persian dynasties4 ,at his death1 ,judea fell under the dominion of the kings of ,syria1 and1 with some short and troubled intervals1 remained subject either to the kings of ,syria or of ,egypt1 till ,john ,hyrcanus shook off the ,syrian yoke1 and assumed the diadem1 ,b4 ,c4 #acj4 ,the ,asmonean dynasty1 which united1 in the person of the monarch1 the functions of king and pontiff1 though tributary to ,roman conquerors1 lasted one hundred and twenty-six years1 till the kingdom was given by ,anthony to ,herod the ,great1 of an ,idumean family1 ,b4 ,c4 #ci4 #b4 ,at the time of the ,christian ra1 ,palestine was divided into five provinces2 ,judea1 ,samaria1 ,galilee1 ,perea1 and ,idumea4 ,on the death of ,herod1 ,archelaus1 his eldest son1 succeeded to the government of ,judea1 ,samaria1 and ,idumea1 with the title of tetrarch2 ,galilee being assigned to ,herod ,antipas2 and ,perea1 or the country beyond ,jordan1 to the third brother1 ,philip4 ,but in less than ten years the dominions of ,archelaus became annexed1 on his disgrace1 to the ,roman province of ,syria2 and ,judea was thenceforth governed by ,roman procurators4 ,jerusalem1 after its final destruction by ,titus1 ,a4 ,d4 #ga1 remained desolate and almost uninhabited1 till the emperor ,hadrian colonized it1 and erected temples to ,jupiter and ,venus on its site4 ,the empress ,helena1 in the fourth century1 set the example of repairing in pilgrimage to the ,holy ,land1 to visit the scenes consecrated by the ,gospel narrative2 and the country became enriched by the crowds of devotees who flocked there4 ,in the beginning of the seventh century1 it was overrun by the ,saracens1 who held it till ,jerusalem was taken by the crusaders in the twelfth4 ,the ,latin kingdom of ,jerusalem continued for about eighty years1 during which the ,holy ,land streamed continually with ,christian and ,saracen blood4 ,in #aahg1 ,judea was conquered by the illustrious ,saladin1 on the decline of whose kingdom it passed through various revolutions1 and at length1 in #acag1 was finally swallowed up in the ,turkish empire4 ,palestine is now distributed into pashalics4 ,that of ,acre or ,akka extends from ,djebail nearly to ,jaffa2 that of ,gaza comprehends ,jaffa and the adjacent plains2 and these two being now united1 all the coast is under the jurisdiction of the pasha of ,acre4 ,jerusalem1 ,hebron1 ,nablous1 ,tiberias1 and in fact1 the greater part of ,palestine1 are included in the pashalic of ,damascus1 now held in conjunction with that of ,aleppo2 which renders the present pasha1 in effect1 the viceroy of ,syria4 ,though both pashas continue to be dutiful subjects to the ,grand ,seignior in appearance1 and annually transmit considerable sums to ,constantinople to insure the yearly renewal of their office1 they are to be considered as tributaries1 rather than subjects of the ,porte2 and it is supposed to be the religious supremacy of the ,sultan1 as caliph and vicar of ,mohammed1 more than any apprehension of his power1 which prevents them from declaring themselves independent4 ,the reverence shown for the firmauns of the ,porte throughout ,syria attests the strong hold which the ,sultan maintains1 in this character1 on the ,turkish population4 ,the pashas of ,egypt and ,bagdad are attached to the ,turkish sovereign by the same ecclesiastical tie1 which alone has kept the ill-compacted and feeble empire from crumbling to ruin4 #c4 ,a few additional remarks upon the topography and climate will tend to elucidate the force of many of those parts of ,scripture which contain allusions to these topics4 ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke1 after stating his resolve to make the ,scriptures his only guide throughout this interesting territory1 says1 8,the delight afforded by the internal evidences of truth1 in every instance where their fidelity of description was proved by a comparison of existing documents1 surpassed even all we had anticipated4 ,such extraordinary instances of coincidence even with the customs of the country as they are now exhibited1 and so many wonderful examples of illustration afforded by contrasting the simple narrative with the appearances presented1 made us only regret the shortness of our time1 and the limited sphere of our abilities for the comparison40 ,judea is beautifully diversified with hills and plains--hills now barren and gloomy1 but once cultivated to their summits1 and smiling in the variety of their produce1 chiefly the olive and the vine2 and plains1 over which the ,bedouin now roves to collect a scanty herbage for his cattle1 but once yielding an abundance of which the inhabitants of a northern climate can form no idea4 ,rich in its soil2 glowing in the sunshine of an almost perpetual summer2 and abounding in scenery of the grandest1 as well as of the most beautiful kind2 this happy country was indeed a land which the ,lord had blessed3 but ,mohammedan sloth and despotism1 as the instruments employed to execute the curse of ,heaven1 have converted it into a waste of rock and desert1 with the exception of some few spots1 which remain to attest the veracity of the accounts formerly given of it4 ,the hills of ,judea frequently rise into mountains2 the most considerable of which are those of ,lebanon and ,hermon1 on the north2 those which surround the sea of ,galilee1 and the ,dead ,sea1 also attain a respectable elevation4 ,the other mountains of note are1 ,carmel1 ,tabor1 ,ebal1 and ,gerizim1 and the mountains of ,gilboa1 ,gilead1 and ,abarim2 with the summits of the latter1 ,nebo and ,pisgah3 a description of which will be found under their respective heads4 ,many of the hills and rocks abound in caverns1 the refuge of the distressed1 or the resorts of robbers4 #d4 ,from the paucity of rain which falls in ,judea1 and the heat and dryness of the atmosphere for the greater part of the year1 it possesses but few rivers2 and as these1 have all their rise within its boundaries1 their course is short1 and their size inconsiderable3 the principal is the ,jordan1 which runs about a hundred miles4 ,the other remarkable streams are1 the ,arnon1 the ,jabbok1 the ,kishon1 the ,kedron1 the ,besor1 the ,sorek1 and the stream called the river of ,egypt4 ,these1 also1 will be found described under their respective heads4 ,this country was once adorned with woods and forests3 as we read of the forest of cedars in ,lebanon1 the forest of oaks in ,bashan1 the forest or wood of ,ephraim1 and the forest of ,hareth in the tribe of ,judah4 ,of these1 the woods of ,bashan alone remain2 the rest have been swept away by the ravages of time and of armies1 and by the gradual consumption of the inhabitants1 whose indolence and ignorance have prevented their planting others4 #e4 ,there are no volcanoes now existing in ,judea or its vicinity3 nor is mention made of any in history1 although volcanic traces are found in many parts on its eastern side1 as they are also in the mountains of ,edom on the south1 the ,djebel ,shera and ,hesma1 as noticed by ,burckhardt4 ,there can be no doubt that many of the sacred writers were familiarly acquainted with the phenomena of volcanoes2 whence it may be inferred that they were presented to their observation at no great distance1 and from which they drew some of their sublimest imagery4 ,mr4 ,horne has adduced the following instances3 8,the mountains quake at him1 and the hills melt1 and the earth is burned at his presence4 ,his fury is poured out like fire1 and the rocks are thrown down by him10 ,nahum i1 #e1 #f4 8,behold1 the ,lord cometh forth out of his place1 and will come down and tread upon the high places of the earth4 ,and the mountains shall be molten under him1 and the valleys shall be cleft as wax before the fire1 and as the waters that are poured down a steep place10 ,micah i1 #c1 #d4 8,o that thou wouldest rend the heavens1 that thou wouldest come down1 that the mountains might flow down at thy presence4 ,as when the melting fire burneth1 the fire causeth the waters to boil1 to make thy name known to thine adversaries1 that the nations may tremble at thy presence4 ,when thou didst terrible things which we looked not for1 thou camest down1 the mountains flowed down at thy presence10 ,isa4 lxiv1 #a-c4 #f4 ,the climate of ,judea1 from the southern latitude of the country1 is necessarily warm4 ,the cold of winter is1 indeed1 sometimes greater than in ,european climates situated some degrees farther to the north2 but it is of short duration1 and the general character of the climate is that of heat4 ,both heat and cold are1 however1 tempered by the nature of the surface2 the winter being scarcely felt in the valleys1 while in the summer the heat is almost insupportable2 and1 on the contrary1 in the more elevated parts1 during the winter months1 or rather weeks1 frosts frequently occur1 and snow sometimes falls1 while the air in summer is comparatively cool and refreshing4 ,many winters pass without either snow or frost2 and in the coldest weather which ever occurs1 the sun in the middle of the day is generally warm1 and often hot2 so that the pain of cold is in reality but little felt1 and the poor who cannot afford fires may enjoy1 during several hours of the day1 the more genial and invigorating influence of the sun4 ,this is the ordinary character of the winters2 though in some years1 as will be seen presently1 the cold is more severely felt during the short time that it prevails1 which is never more than two months1 and more frequently not so much as one4 ,toward the end of ,november1 or beginning of ,december1 domestic fires become agreeable4 ,it was at this time that ,jehoiakim1 king of ,judah1 is represented by ,jeremiah as sitting in his winter house1 with a fire burning on the hearth before him1 ,jer4 xxxvi1 #bb4 ,the same luxury1 though frequently by no means necessary1 is used by the wealthy till the end of ,march4 #g4 ,rain only falls during the autumn1 winter1 and spring1 when it sometimes descends with great violence3 the greatest quantity1 and that which properly constitutes the rainy season1 happening between the autumnal equinox1 or somewhat later1 and the beginning of ,december2 during which period1 heavy clouds often obscure the sky1 and several days of violent rain sometimes succeed each other with winds4 ,this is what in ,scripture is termed the early or the former rain4 ,showers continue to fall at uncertain intervals1 with some cloudy but more fair weather1 till toward the vernal equinox1 when they become again more frequent and copious till the middle of ,april4 ,these are the latter rains1 ,joel ii1 #bc4 ,from this time to the end of ,may1 showers come on at irregular intervals1 gradually decreasing as the season advances2 the sky being for the most part serene1 and the temperature of the air agreeable1 though sometimes acquiring a high degree of heat4 ,from the end of ,may1 or beginning of ,june1 to the end of ,september1 or middle of ,october1 scarce a drop of rain falls1 the sky being constantly unclouded1 and the heat generally oppressive4 ,during this period1 the inhabitants commonly sleep on the tops of their houses4 ,the storms1 especially in the autumn1 are preceded by short but violent gusts of wind1 which1 from the surface of a parched soil1 raise great clouds of dust2 which explains what is meant by1 8,ye shall not see wind10 #b ,kings iii1 #g4 ,the continuation of the same passage likewise implies1 that such circumscribed whirlwinds were generally considered as the precursors of rain3 a circumstance likewise alluded to by ,solomon1 who says1 8,whoso boasteth himself of a false gift1 is like clouds and wind without rain10 ,prov4 xxv1 #ad4 ,another prognostic of an approaching storm is a small cloud rising in the west1 and increasing until it overspreads the whole heavens4 ,such was the cloud1 8like a man's hand10 which appeared to ,elijah1 on mount ,carmel2 which spread 8till the heaven was black with clouds and wind1 and there was a great rain10 #a ,kings xviii1 #dd4 ,to this phenomenon1 and the certainty of the prognostic1 our ,saviour alludes3 8,when ye see a cloud0 7or the cloud1 7 8rise out of the west1 straightway ye say1 ,there cometh a shower2 and so it is10 ,luke xii1 #ed4 ,the same appearance is noticed by ,homer3-- ' ' 1 '1 1 1 1 ' 1 4 4 4 4 4 ,il4 lib4 iv1 #bge4 8,slow from the main the heavy vapours rise1 ,spread in dim streams1 and sail along the skies1 ,till black as night the swelling tempest shows1 ,the cloud condensing as the west wind blows4 ,he dreads the impending storm10 c4 ,,pope4 ,hail frequently falls in the winter and spring in very heavy storms1 and with hailstones of an enormous size4 ,dr4 ,russel says that he has seen some at ,aleppo which measured two inches in diameter2 but sometimes they are found to consist of irregularly shaped pieces1 weighing near three ounces4 ,the copious dew forms another peculiarity of this climate1 frequently alluded to in ,scripture3 so copious1 indeed1 is it sometimes1 as to resemble small rain1 and to supply the wants of superficial vegetation4 ,mr4 ,maundrell1 when travelling near mount ,hermon1 says1 8,we were instructed by experience what the ,psalmist means by #8the dew of ,hermon1' ,psalm cxxxiii1 #c2 our tents being as wet with it1 as if it had rained all night40 #h4 ,the seasons are often adverted to in ,scripture1 under the terms 8seed time and harvest40 ,the former1 for wheat1 is about the middle of ,october to the middle or end of ,november3 barley is put into the ground two and sometimes three months later4 ,the wheat harvest commences about the twentieth of ,may1 and early in ,june the whole is off the ground4 ,the barley harvest1 it is to be observed1 is generally a fortnight earlier4 ,a survey of the astonishing produce of this country1 and of the manner in which its most rocky and1 to appearance1 insuperably sterile parts1 are made to yield to the wants of man1 will be sufficient to refute the objections raised by skeptical writers against the possibility of its furnishing subsistence to the multitude of its former inhabitants recorded in ,scripture4 ,dr4 ,clarke1 when travelling from ,napolose to ,jerusalem1 relates1 8,the road was mountainous1 rocky1 and full of loose stones2 yet the cultivation was every where marvellous3 it afforded one of the most striking pictures of human industry which it is possible to behold4 ,the limestone rocks and stony valleys of ,judea were entirely covered with plantations of figs1 vines1 and olive trees3 not a single spot seemed to be neglected4 ,the hills1 from their bases to their upmost summits1 were entirely covered with gardens3 all of these were free from weeds1 and in the highest state of agricultural perfection4 ,even the sides of the most barren mountains had been rendered fertile1 by being divided into terraces1 like steps rising one above another1 whereon soil had been accumulated with astonishing labour4 ,among the standing crops1 we noticed millet1 cotton1 linseed1 and tobacco2 and occasionally small fields of barley4 ,a sight of this territory can alone convey any adequate idea of its surprising produce3 it is truly the ,eden of the east1 rejoicing in the abundance of its wealth4 ,under a wise and a beneficent government1 the produce of the ,holy ,land would exceed all calculation4 ,its perennial harvest2 the salubrity of its air2 its limpid springs2 its rivers1 lakes1 and matchless plains2 its hills and dales2--all these1 added to the serenity of its climate1 prove this land to be indeed #8a field which the ,lord hath blessed3 ,god hath given it of the dew of heaven1 and the fatness of the earth1 and plenty of corn and wine4'0 ,an oriental's ideas of fertility differ1 however1 from ours2 for to him1 plantations of figs1 vines1 and olives1 with which the limestone rocks of ,judea were once covered1 would suggest the same associations of plenty and opulence that are called up in the mind of an ,englishman by rich tracts of corn land4 ,the land of ,canaan is characterized as flowing with milk and honey2 and it still answers to this description2 for it contains extensive pasture lands of the richest quality1 and the rocky country is covered with aromatic plants1 yielding to the wild bees1 who hive in the hollow of the rocks1 such abundance of honey as to supply the poorer classes with an article of food4 ,honey from the rocks is repeatedly referred to in the ,scriptures1 as a delicious food1 and an emblem of plenty1 #a ,sam4 xiv1 #be2 ,psa4 lxxxi1 #af4 ,dates are another important article of consumption2 and the neighbourhood of ,judea was famous for its numerous palm trees1 which are found springing up from chance-sown kernels in the midst of the most arid districts4 ,when to these wild productions we add the oil extracted from the olive1 so essential an article to an oriental1 we shall be at no loss to account for the ancient fertility of the most barren districts of ,judea1 or for the adequacy of the soil to the support of so numerous a population1 notwithstanding the comparatively small proportion of arable land4 ,there is no reason to doubt1 however1 that corn and rice would be imported by the ,tyrian merchants2 which the ,israelites would have no difficulty in exchanging for the produce of the olive ground and the vineyard1 or for their flocks and herds4 ,delicious wine is still produced in some districts1 and the valleys bear plentiful crops of tobacco1 wheat1 barley1 and millet4 ,tacitus compares both the climate and the soil1 indeed1 to those of ,italy2 and he particularly specifies the palm tree and balsam tree as productions which gave the country an advantage over his own4 ,among other indigenous productions may be enumerated the cedar and other varieties of the pine1 the cypress1 the oak1 the sycamore1 the mulberry tree1 the fig tree1 the willow1 the turpentine tree1 the acacia1 the aspen1 the arbutus1 the myrtle1 the almond tree1 the tamarisk1 the oleander1 the peach tree1 the chaste tree1 the carob or locust tree1 the oskar1 the doom1 the mustard plant1 the aloe1 the citron1 the apple1 the pomegranate1 and many flowering shrubs4 ,the country about ,jericho was celebrated for its balsam1 as well as for its palm trees2 and two plantations of it existed during the last war between the ,jews and the ,romans1 for which both parties fought desperately4 ,but ,gilead appears to have been the country in which it chiefly abounded3 hence the name1 8balm of ,gilead40 ,since the country has fallen under the ,turkish dominion1 it has ceased to be cultivated in ,palestine1 but is still found in ,arabia4 ,other indigenous productions have either disappeared or are now confined to circumscribed districts4 ,iron is found in the mountain range of ,libanus1 and silk is produced in abundance in the plains of ,samaria4 #i4 ,the grand distinction of ,canaan1 however1 is1 that it was the only part of the earth made1 by divine institution1 a type of heaven4 ,so it was exhibited to ,abraham1 and also to the ,jews4 ,it pointed to the eternal rest which the spiritual seed of the father of the faithful were to enjoy after the pilgrimage of life2 its holy city was the figure of the 8,jerusalem above20 and ,zion1 with its solemn and joyful services represented that 8hill of the ,lord0 to which the redeemed shall come with songs1 and everlasting joy upon their heads2 where they shall obtain joy and gladness1 and sorrow and sighing shall fly away4 ,,canaanites1 the posterity of ,canaan by his eleven sons1 who are supposed to have settled in the land of ,canaan1 soon after the dispersion of ,babel4 ,five of these are known to have dwelt in the land of ,canaan2 viz4 ,heth1 ,jebus1 ,hemor or ,amor1 ,girgashi1 and ,hevi or ,hivi2 and these1 together with their father ,canaan1 became the heads of so many nations4 ,sina or ,sini was another son of ,canaan1 whose settlement is not so precisely ascertained2 but some authors infer1 from the affinity of the names1 that the ,desert of ,sin1 and ,mount ,sinai1 were the places of his abode1 and that they were so called from him4 ,the ,hittites inhabited the country about ,hebron1 as far as ,beersheba1 and the brook ,besor1 reckoned by ,moses the southern limits of ,canaan4 ,the ,jebusites dwelt near them on the north1 as far as the city of ,jebus1 since called ,jerusalem4 ,the ,amorites possessed the country on the east side of ,jordan1 between the river ,arnon on the south-east1 and ,mount ,gilead on the north1 afterward the lot of ,reuben and ,gad4 ,the ,girgashites lay next above the ,amorites1 on the east side of the ,sea of ,tiberias1 and their land was afterward possessed by the half tribe of ,manasseh4 ,the ,hivites dwelt northward1 under ,mount ,libanus4 ,the ,perizzites1 who make one of the seven nations of the ,canaanites1 are supposed1 by ,heylin and others1 to be the descendants of ,sina or ,sini2 and it is probable1 since we do not read of their abode in cities1 that they lived dispersed1 and in tents1 like the ,scythians1 roving on both sides of the ,jordan1 on the hills and plains2 and that they were called by that name from the ,hebrew pharatz1 which signifies 8to disperse40 ,the ,canaanites dwelt in the midst of all1 and were surrounded by the rest4 ,this appears from the sacred writings to have been the respective situation of those seven nations1 which are said to have been doomed to destruction for their idolatry and wickedness1 when the ,israelites first invaded their country4 ,the learned have not absolutely determined whether the nations proceeding from ,canaan's other six sons should be reckoned among the inhabitants of the land of ,canaan4 ,the prevalent opinion is1 that they were not included4 ,as to the customs1 manners1 arts1 sciences1 and language of the seven nations that inhabited the land of ,canaan1 they must1 from the situation they severally occupied1 have been very different4 ,those who inhabited the sea coast were merchants1 and by reason of their commerce and wealth scattered colonies over almost all the islands and maritime provinces of the ,mediterranean4 7,see ,phenicia7 ,the colonies which ,cadmus carried to ,thebes in ,botia1 and his brother ,cilix into ,cilicia1 are said to have proceeded from the stock of ,canaan4 ,sicily1 ,sardinia1 ,malta1 ,cyprus1 ,corfu1 ,majorca1 ,minorca1 ,gades1 and ,ebutris1 are supposed to have been peopled by the ,canaanites4 ,the other ,canaanites1 whose situation was inland1 were employed partly in pasturage1 and partly in tillage1 and they were also well skilled in the exercise of arms4 ,those who dwelt in the walled cities1 and who had fixed abodes1 cultivated the land2 and those who wandered about1 as the ,perizzites seem to have done1 grazed cattle3 so that among the ,canaanites1 we discover the various classes of merchants1 and1 consequently1 mariners2 of artificers1 soldiers1 shepherds1 and husbandmen4 ,we learn1 also1 from their history1 that they were all ready1 however diversified by their occupations or local interests1 to join in a common cause2 that they were well appointed for war1 both offensive and defensive2 that their towns were well fortified2 that they were sufficiently furnished with military weapons and warlike chariots2 that they were daring1 obstinate1 and almost invincible2 and that they were not destitute of craft and policy4 ,their language1 we find1 was well understood by ,abraham1 who was a ,hebrew1 for he conversed readily with them on all occasions2 but as to their mode of writing1 whether it was originally their own or borrowed from the ,israelites1 it is not so easy to determine4 ,their religion1 at least in part1 seems to have been preserved pure till the days of ,abraham1 who acknowledged ,melchisedek to be priest of the most high ,god2 and ,melchisedek was1 without doubt1 a ,canaanite1 or1 at least1 dwelt at that time in ,canaan in high esteem and veneration4 #b4 ,but we learn from the ,scripture history1 that the ,hittites in particular were become degenerate in the time of ,isaac and ,rebekah2 for they could not endure the thoughts of ,jacob's marrying one of the daughters of ,heth1 as ,esau had done4 ,from this time1 then1 we may date the prevalence of those abominations which subjected them to the divine displeasure1 and made them unworthy of the land which they possessed4 ,in the days of ,moses1 they were become incorrigible idolaters2 for he commands his people to destroy their altars1 and break down their images1 7statues or pillars17 and cut down their groves1 and burn their graven images with fire4 ,and lest they should pervert the ,israelites1 the latter were strictly enjoined not to intermarry with them2 but 8to smite them1 and utterly destroy them1 nor show mercy upon them10 ,deut4 vii1 #a-e4 ,they are accused of the cruel custom of sacrificing men1 and are said to have made their seed pass through the fire to ,moloch1 ,lev4 xviii1 #ba4 ,their morals were as corrupt as their doctrine3 adultery1 bestiality of all sorts1 profanation1 incest1 and all manner of uncleanness1 are the sins laid to their charge4 8,the ,canaanites10 says ,mr4 ,bryant1 8as they were a sister tribe of the ,mizraim1 resembled them in their rites and religion4 ,they held a heifer1 or cow1 in high veneration1 agreeably to the customs of ,egypt4 ,their chief deity was the sun1 whom they worshipped1 together with the ,baalim1 under the titles of ,ourchol1 ,adonis1 or ,thamuz40 #c4 ,when the measure of the idolatries and abominations of the ,canaanites was filled up1 ,god delivered their country into the hands of the ,israelites1 who conquered it under ,joshua4 ,however1 they resisted with obstinate valour1 and kept ,joshua employed six years from the time of his passing the river ,jordan1 and entering ,canaan1 in the year ,b4 ,c4 #adea1 to the year ,b4 ,c4 #adde1 the sabbatical year beginning from the autumnal equinox2 when he made a division of the land among the tribes of ,israel1 and rested from his conquests4 ,as ,god had commanded this people1 long before1 to be treated with rigour1 see ,deut4 vii1 #b1 ,joshua extirpated great numbers1 and obliged the rest to fly1 some of them into ,africa1 and others into ,greece4 ,procopius says1 they first retreated into ,egypt1 but advanced into ,africa1 where they built many cities1 and spread themselves over those vast regions which reach to the straits1 preserving their old language with little alteration4 ,in the time of ,athanasius1 the ,africans still said they were descended from the ,canaanites2 and when asked their origin1 they answered1 8,canani40 ,it is agreed1 that the ,punic tongue was nearly the same as the ,canaanitish or ,hebrew4 #d4 ,on the rigorous treatment of the nations of ,canaan by the ,israelites1 to which infidels have taken so many exceptions1 the following remarks of ,paley are a sufficient reply3 ,the first thing to be observed is1 that the nations of ,canaan were destroyed for their wickedness4 ,this is plain from ,lev4 xviii1 #bd1 c4 ,now the facts disclosed in this passage sufficiently testify1 that the ,canaanites were a wicked people2 that detestable practices were general among them1 and even habitual2 that it was for these enormities the nations of ,canaan were destroyed4 ,it was not1 as some have imagined1 to make way for the ,israelites2 nor was it simply to make away with their idolatry2 but it was because of the abominable crimes which usually accompanied the latter4 ,and we may farther learn from the passage1 that ,god's abhorrence of these crimes and his indignation against them are regulated by the rules of strict impartiality1 since ,moses solemnly warns the ,israelites against falling into the like wicked courses1 8that the land10 says he1 8cast not you out also1 when you defile it1 as it cast out the nations that were before you2 for whosoever shall commit any of these abominations1 even the souls that commit them shall be cut off from among their people10 ,lev4 xviii1 #bh1 #bi4 ,now1 when ,god1 for the wickedness of a people1 sends an earthquake1 or a fire1 or a plague among them1 there is no complaint of injustice1 especially when the calamity is known1 or expressly declared beforehand1 to be inflicted for the wickedness of such people4 ,it is rather regarded as an act of exemplary penal justice1 and1 as such1 consistent with the character of the moral ,governor of the universe4 ,the objection1 therefore1 is not to the ,canaanitish nations being destroyed2 7for when their national wickedness is considered1 and when that is expressly stated as the cause of their destruction1 the dispensation1 however severe1 will not be questioned27 but the objection is solely to the manner of destroying them4 ,i mean there is nothing but the manner left to be objected to3 their wickedness accounts for the thing itself4 ,to which objection it may be replied1 that if the thing itself be just1 the manner is of little signification1 of little signification even to the sufferers themselves4 ,for where is the great difference1 even to them1 whether they were destroyed by an earthquake1 a pestilence1 a famine1 or by the hands of an enemy8 ,where is the difference1 even to our imperfect apprehensions of divine justice1 provided it be1 and is known to be1 for their wickedness that they are destroyed8 ,but this destruction1 you say1 confounded the innocent with the guilty4 ,the sword of ,joshua1 and of the ,jews spared neither women nor children4 ,is it not the same with all other national visitations8 ,would not an earthquake1 or a fire1 or a plague1 or a famine among them have done the same8 ,even in an ordinary and natural death the same thing happens2 ,god takes away the life he lends1 without regard1 that we can perceive1 to age1 or sex1 or character4 8,but1 after all1 promiscuous massacres1 the burning of cities1 the laying waste of countries1 are things dreadful to reflect upon40 ,who doubts it8 so are all the judgments of ,almighty ,god4 ,the effect1 in whatever way it shows itself1 must necessarily be tremendous1 when the ,lord1 as the ,psalmist expresses it1 8moveth out of his place to punish the wicked40 ,but it ought to satisfy us2 at least this is the point upon which we ought to rest and fix our attention2 that it was for excessive1 wilful1 and forewarned wickedness1 that all this befel them1 and that it is all along so declared in the history which recites it4 ,but1 farther1 if punishing them by the hands of the ,israelites rather than by a pestilence1 an earthquake1 a fire1 or any such calamity1 be still an objection1 we may perceive1 ,i think1 some reasons for this method of punishment in preference to any other whatever2 always bearing in our mind1 that the question is not concerning the justice of the punishment1 but the mode of it4 ,it is well known1 that the people of those ages were affected by no proof of the power of the gods which they worshipped1 so deeply as by their giving them victory in war4 ,it was by this species of evidence that the superiority of their own gods above the gods of the nations which they conquered1 was1 in their opinion1 evinced4 ,this being the actual persuasion which then prevailed in the world1 no matter whether well or ill founded1 how were the neighbouring nations1 for whose admonition this dreadful example was intended1 how were they to be convinced of the supreme power of the ,god of ,israel above the pretended gods of other nations2 and of the righteous character of ,jehovah1 that is1 of his abhorrence of the vices which prevailed in the land of ,canaan8 ,how1 ,i say1 were they to be convinced so well1 or at all indeed1 as by enabling the ,israelites1 whose ,god he was known and acknowledged to be1 to conquer under his banner1 and drive out before them1 those who resisted the execution of that commission with which the ,israelites declared themselves to be invested1 namely1 the expulsion and extermination of the ,canaanitish nations8 ,this convinced surrounding countries1 and all who were observers or spectators of what passed1 first1 that the ,god of ,israel was a real ,god2 secondly1 that the gods which other nations worshipped1 were either no gods1 or had no power against the ,god of ,israel2 and thirdly1 that it was he1 and he alone1 who possessed both the power and the will1 to punish1 to destroy1 and to exterminate from before his face1 both nations and individuals1 who gave themselves up to the crimes and wickedness for which the ,canaanites were notorious4 ,nothing of this sort would have appeared1 or with the same evidence1 from an earthquake1 or a plague1 or any natural calamity4 ,these might not have been attributed to divine agency at all1 or not to the interposition of the ,god of ,israel4 ,another reason which made this destruction both more necessary1 and more general1 than it would have otherwise been1 was the consideration1 that if any of the old inhabitants were left1 they would prove a snare to those who succeeded them in the country2 would draw and seduce them by degrees into the vices and corruptions which prevailed among themselves4 ,vices of all kinds1 but vices most particularly of the licentious kind1 are astonishingly infectious4 ,a little leaven leaveneth the whole lump4 ,a small number of persons addicted to them1 and allowed to practise them with impunity or encouragement1 will spread them through the whole mass4 ,this reason is formally and expressly assigned1 not simply for the punishment1 but for the extent to which it was carried2 namely1 extermination3 8,thou shalt utterly destroy them1 that they teach you not to do after all their abominations1 which they have done unto their gods40 ,in reading the ,old ,testament account1 therefore1 of the ,jewish wars and conquests in ,canaan1 and the terrible destruction brought upon the inhabitants thereof1 we are always to remember that we are reading the execution of a dreadful but just sentence1 pronounced by ,jehovah against the intolerable and incorrigible crimes of these nations2 that they were intended to be made an example to the whole world of ,god's avenging wrath against sins1 which1 if they had been suffered to continue1 might have polluted the whole ancient world1 and which could only be checked by the signal and public overthrow of nations notoriously addicted to them1 and so addicted as even to have incorporated them into their religion and their public institutions2 and that the ,israelites were mere instruments in the hands of a righteous ,providence for effecting the extirpation of a people1 of whom it was necessary to make a public example to the rest of mankind2 that this extermination1 which might have been accomplished by a pestilence1 by fire1 by earthquakes1 was appointed to be done by the hands of the ,israelites1 as being the clearest and most intelligible method of displaying the power and the righteousness of the ,god of ,israel2 his power over the pretended gods of other nations2 and his righteous indignation against the crimes into which they were fallen4 ,,candace1 the name of an ,ethiopian queen1 whose eunuch coming to ,jerusalem to worship the ,lord1 was baptized by ,philip the deacon1 near ,bethsura1 in the way to ,gaza1 as he was returning to his own country1 ,acts viii1 #bg4 ,the ,ethiopia here mentioned was the isle or peninsula of ,mero to the south of ,egypt1 which1 as ,mr4 ,bruce shows1 is now called ,atbara1 up the ,nile4 ,candace was the common name of the queens of that country4 ,strabo and ,pliny mention queens of that name as reigning in their times4 ,that the queen mentioned in the ,acts was converted by the instrumentality of her servant1 and that the country thus received ,christianity at that early period1 are statements not supported by any good testimony4 ,see ,,abyssinian ,,church4 ,,candlestick4 ,the instrument so rendered by our translators was more properly a stand for lamps4 ,one of beaten gold was made by ,moses1 ,exod4 xxv1 #ca1 #cb1 and put into the tabernacle in the holy place1 over against the table of shew bread4 ,the basis of this candlestick was also of pure gold2 it had seven branches1 three on each side1 and one in the middle4 ,when ,solomon had built the temple1 he was not satisfied with placing one golden candlestick there1 but had ten put up1 of the same form and metal with that described by ,moses1 five on the north1 and five on the south side of the holy place1 #a ,kings vii1 #di4 ,after the ,jews returned from their captivity1 the golden candlestick was again placed in the temple1 as it had been before in the tabernacle by ,moses4 ,the lamps were kept burning perpetually2 and were supplied morning and evening with pure olive oil4 ,josephus says1 that after the ,romans had destroyed the temple1 the several things which were found within it1 were carried in triumph to ,rome1 namely1 the golden table1 and the golden candlestick with seven branches4 ,these were lodged in the temple built by ,vespasian1 and consecrated to ,peace2 and at the foot of ,mount ,palatine1 there is a triumphal arch still visible1 upon which ,vespasian's triumph is represented1 and the several monuments which were carried publicly in the procession are engraved1 and among the rest the candlestick with the seven branches1 which are still discernible upon it4 ,in ,rev4 i1 #ab1 #bj1 mention is made of seven golden candlesticks1 which are said to be emblems of the seven ,christian churches4 ,,canker-,,worm1 1 ,psalm cv1 #cd2 ,jer4 li1 #bg1 where it is rendered caterpillar2 ,joel i1 #d2 ii1 #be2 ,nahum iii1 #ae1 canker-worm4 ,as it is frequently mentioned with the locust1 it is thought by some to be a species of that insect4 ,it certainly cannot be the canker-worm1 as our version renders it2 for in ,nahum1 it is expressly said to have wings and fly1 to camp in the hedges by day1 and commit its depredations in the night4 ,but it may be1 as the ,septuagint renders it in five passages out of eight where it occurs1 the bruchus1 or 8hedge-chaffer40 ,nevertheless1 the passage1 ,jer4 li1 #bg1 where the ialek is described as 8rough10 that is1 with hair standing on end on it1 leads us very naturally to the rendering of our translators in that place1 8the rough caterpillar10 which1 like other caterpillars1 at a proper time1 casts its exterior covering and flies away in a winged state4 ,scheuchzer observes that we should not1 perhaps1 be far from the truth1 if with the ancient interpreters1 we understood this ialek1 after all1 as a kind of locust2 as some species of them have hair principally on the head1 and others have prickly points standing out4 ,,canon1 a word used to denote the authorized catalogue of the sacred writings4 ,the word is originally ,greek1 1 and signifies a rule or standard1 by which other things are to be examined and judged4 ,accordingly the same word has been applied to the tongue of a balance1 or that small part which1 by its perpendicular position1 determines the even poise or weight1 or1 by its inclination either way1 the uneven poise of the things which are weighed4 ,hence it appears1 that as the writings of the ,prophets1 ,apostles1 and ,evangelists contain an authentic account of the revealed will of ,god1 they are the rule of the belief and practice of those who receive them4 ,canon is also equivalent to a list or catalogue1 in which are inserted those books which contain the rule of faith4 ,for an account of the settling of the canon of ,scripture1 see ,bible4 ,the following observations of ,dr4 ,alexander1 in his work on the canon1 proving that no canonical book of the ,old or ,new ,testament has been lost1 may here be properly introduced4--,no canonical book of the ,old ,testament has been lost4 ,on this subject1 there has existed some diversity of opinion4 ,chrysostom is cited by ,bellarmine as saying1 8that many of the writings of the prophets had perished1 which may readily be proved from the history in ,chronicles4 ,for the ,jews were negligent1 and not only negligent1 but impious2 so that some books were lost through carelessness1 and others were burned1 or otherwise destroyed40 ,in confirmation of this opinion1 an appeal is made to #a ,kings iv1 #cb1 #cc1 where it is said of ,solomon1 8that he spake three thousand proverbs1 and his songs were a thousand and five4 ,and he spake of trees1 from the cedar in ,lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall3 he spake also of beasts1 and of fowl1 and of creeping things1 and of fishes40 ,all these productions1 it is acknowledged1 have perished4 ,again it is said in #a ,chron4 xxix1 #bi1 #cj3 8,now1 the acts of ,david the king1 first and last1 behold they are written in the book of ,samuel the seer1 and in the book of ,nathan the prophet1 and in the book of ,gad the seer2 with all his reign1 and his might1 and the times that went over him1 and over ,israel1 and over all the kingdoms of the countries40 ,the book of ,jasher1 also1 is twice mentioned in ,scripture4 ,in ,joshua x1 #ac3 8,and the sun stood still1 and the moon stayed1 until the people had avenged themselves on their enemies4 ,is not this written in the book of ,jasher80 ,and in #b ,sam4 i1 #ah3 8,and he bade them teach the children of ,israel the use of the bow3 behold1 it is written in the book of ,jasher40 ,the book of the wars of the ,lord is referred to in ,numbers xxi1 #ad4 ,but we have in the canon no books under the name of ,nathan and ,gad1 nor any book of ,jasher1 nor of the wars of the ,lord4 ,moreover1 we frequently are referred1 in the sacred history1 to other chronicles or annals1 for a fuller account of the matters spoken of1 which chronicles are not now extant4 ,and in #b ,chron4 ix1 #bi1 it is said1 8,now1 the rest of the acts of ,solomon1 first and last1 are they not written in the book of ,nathan the prophet1 and in the prophecy of ,ahijah the ,shilonite1 and in the visions of ,iddo the seer1 against ,jeroboam1 the son of ,nebat80 ,now1 it is well known that none of these writings of the prophets are in the canon2 at least1 none of them under their names4 ,it is said1 also1 in #b ,chron4 xii1 #ae1 8,now1 the acts of ,rehoboam1 first and last1 are they not written in the book of ,shemaiah the prophet1 and of ,iddo the seer1 concerning genealogies80 ,of which works nothing remains under the names of these prophets4 #a4 ,the first observation which may be made on this subject is1 that every book referred to or quoted in the sacred writings is not necessarily an inspired or canonical book4 ,because ,st4 ,paul cites passages from the ,greek poets1 it does not follow that we must receive their poems as inspired4 #b4 ,a book may be written by an inspired man1 and yet be neither inspired nor canonical4 ,inspiration was not constantly afforded to the prophets2 but was occasional1 and for particular important purposes4 ,in common matters1 and especially in things no way connected with religion1 it is reasonable to suppose that the ,prophets and ,apostles were left to the same guidance of reason and common sense as other men4 ,a man1 therefore1 inspired to deliver some prophecy1 or even to write a canonical book1 might write other books with no greater assistance than other good men receive4 ,because ,solomon was inspired to write some canonical books1 it does not follow that what he wrote on natural history was also inspired1 any more than ,solomon's private letters to his friends1 if ever he wrote any4 ,let it be remembered that the ,prophets and ,apostles were only inspired on special occasions1 and on particular subjects1 and all difficulties respecting such works as these will vanish4 ,how many of the books referred to in the ,bible1 and mentioned above1 may have been of this description1 it is now impossible to tell2 but probably several of them belong to this class4 ,no doubt there were many books of annals much more minute and particular in the narration of facts than those which we have4 ,it was often enough merely to refer to these state papers1 or public documents1 as being sufficiently correct1 in regard to the facts on account of which the reference was made4 ,the book of the wars of the ,lord might1 for aught that appears1 have been merely a muster roll of the army4 ,the word translated book has so extensive a meaning in ,hebrew1 that it is not even necessary to suppose that it was a writing at all4 ,the book of ,jasher 7or of ,rectitude1 if we translate the word7 might have been some useful compend taken from ,scripture1 or composed by the wise1 for the regulation of justice and equity between man and man4 ,augustine1 in his 8,city of ,god10 has distinguished accurately on this subject4 8,i think10 says he1 8that those books which should have authority in religion were revealed by the ,holy ,spirit1 and that men composed others by historical diligence1 as the prophets did these by inspiration4 ,and these two classes of books are so distinct1 that it is only by those written by inspiration that we are to suppose that ,god1 through them1 is speaking unto us4 ,the one class is useful for fulness of knowledge2 the other1 for authority in religion2 in which authority the canon is preserved40 #c4 ,but again3 it may be maintained1 without any prejudice to the completeness of the canon1 that there may have been inspired writings which were not intended for the instruction of the church in all ages1 but composed by the prophets for some special occasion4 ,these writings1 though inspired1 were not canonical4 ,they were temporary in their design2 and when that was accomplished1 they were no longer needed4 ,we know that the prophets delivered1 by inspiration1 many discourses to the people1 of which we have not a trace on record4 ,many true prophets are mentioned1 who wrote nothing that we know of2 and several are mentioned1 whose names are not even given4 ,the same is true of the ,apostles4 ,very few of them had any concern in writing the canonical ,scriptures1 and yet they all possessed plenary inspiration4 ,and if they wrote letters on special occasions1 to the churches planted by them2 yet these were not designed for the perpetual instruction of the universal church4 ,therefore1 ,shemaiah1 and ,iddo1 and ,nathan1 and ,gad1 might have written some things by inspiration which were never intended to form a part of the sacred volume4 ,it is not asserted that there certainly existed such temporary inspired writings3 all that is necessary to be maintained is1 that1 supposing such to have existed1 which is not improbable1 it does not follow that the canon is incomplete by reason of their loss4 #d4 ,the last remark in relation to the books of the ,old ,testament supposed to be lost is1 that it is highly probable that we have several of them now in the canon1 under another name4 ,the books of ,samuel1 ,kings1 and ,chronicles1 were1 probably1 not written by one1 but by a succession of prophets4 ,there is reason to believe that1 until the canon of sacred ,scripture was closed1 the succession of prophets was never interrupted4 ,whatever was necessary to be added1 by way of explanation1 to any book already received into the canon1 they were competent to annex2 or1 whatever annals or histories it was the purpose of ,god to have transmitted to posterity1 they would be directed and inspired to prepare4 ,thus1 different parts of these books might have been penned by ,gad1 ,nathan1 ,iddo1 ,shemaiah1 c4 ,that some parts of these histories were prepared by prophets1 we have clear proof in one instance2 for ,isaiah has inserted in his prophecy several chapters which are contained in #b ,kings1 and which1 ,i think1 there can be no doubt were originally written by himself4 ,the ,jewish doctors are of opinion that the book of ,jasher is one of the books of the ,pentateuch1 or the whole law4 ,the book of the wars of the ,lord has by many been supposed to be no other than the book of ,numbers4 ,thus1 it sufficiently appears from an examination of particulars1 that there exists no evidence that any canonical book of the ,old ,testament has been lost4 ,to which we may add1 that there are many general considerations of great weight which go to prove that no part of the ,scriptures of the ,old ,testament has been lost4 ,the translation of these books into ,greek is sufficient to show that the same books existed nearly two hundred years before the advent of ,christ4 ,and1 above all1 the unqualified testimony to the ,scriptures of the ,old ,testament1 by ,christ and his ,apostles1 ought to satisfy us that we have lost none of the inspired books of the canon4 ,the ,scriptures are constantly referred to1 and quoted as infallible authority by them1 as we have before shown4 ,these oracles were committed to the ,jews as a sacred deposit1 and they are never charged with unfaithfulness in this trust4 ,the ,scriptures are declared to have been written 8for our learning20 and no intimation is given that they had ever been mutilated1 or in any degree corrupted4 ,as to the ,new ,testament1 the same author proceeds3 ,with respect to the ,new ,testament1 ,i am ready to concede1 as was before done1 that there may have been books written by inspired men that have been lost2 for inspiration was occasional1 not constant2 and confined to matters of faith1 and not afforded on the affairs of this life1 or in matters of mere science4 ,and if such writings have been lost1 the canon of ,scripture has suffered no more by this means1 than by the loss of any other uninspired books4 ,but again3 ,i am willing to go farther1 and say that it is possible 7although ,i know no evidence of the fact7 that some things1 written under the influence of inspiration1 for a particular occasion1 and to rectify some disorder in a particular church1 may have been lost1 without injury to the canon4 ,for1 since much that the ,apostles preached by inspiration is undoubtedly lost1 so there is no reason why every word which they wrote must necessarily be preserved1 and form a part of the canonical volume4 ,for example3 suppose that when ,st4 ,paul said1 8,i wrote to you in an epistle not to company with fornicators10 #a ,cor4 v1 #i1 he referred to an epistle which he had written to the ,corinthians1 before the one now called the ,first2 it might never have been intended that this letter should form a constituent part of the canon2 for although it treated of subjects connected with ,christian faith or practice1 yet1 an occasion having arisen1 in a short time1 of treating these subjects more at large1 every thing in that epistle 7supposing it ever to have been written7 may have been included in the two ,epistles to the ,corinthians which are now in the canon4 #a4 ,the first argument to prove that no canonical book has been lost1 is derived from the watchful care of providence over the sacred ,scriptures4 ,now1 to suppose that a book written by the inspiration of the ,holy ,spirit1 and intended to form a part of the canon1 which is the rule of faith to the church1 should be utterly and irrecoverably lost1 is surely not very honourable to the wisdom of ,god1 and in no way consonant with the ordinary method of his dispensations1 in regard to his precious truth4 ,there is good reason to think that1 if ,god saw it needful1 and for the edification of the church1 that such books should be written under the inspiration of the ,holy ,spirit1 by his providence he would have taken care to preserve them from destruction4 ,we do know that this treasure of divine truth has been1 in all ages1 and in the worst times1 the special care of ,god1 or not one of the sacred books would now be in existence4 ,and if one canonical book might be lost through the negligence or unfaithfulness of men1 why not all8 ,and thus the end of ,god1 in making a revelation of his will1 might have been defeated4 ,but whatever other corruptions have crept into the ,jewish or ,christian churches1 it does not appear that either of them1 as a body1 ever incurred the censure of having been careless in preserving the oracles of ,god4 ,our ,saviour never charges the ,jews1 who perverted the sacred ,scriptures to their own ruin1 with having lost any portion of the sacred deposit intrusted to them4 ,history informs us of the fierce and malignant design of ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 to abolish every vestige of the sacred volume2 but the same history assures us that the ,jewish people manifested a heroic fortitude and invincible patience in resisting and defeating his impious purpose4 ,they chose rather to sacrifice their lives1 and suffer a cruel death1 than to deliver up the copies of the sacred volume in their possession4 ,and the same spirit was manifested1 and with the same result1 in the ,dioclesian persecution of the ,christians4 ,every effort was made to obliterate the sacred writings of ,christians2 and multitudes suffered death for refusing to deliver up the ,new ,testament4 ,some1 indeed1 overcome by the terrors of a cruel persecution1 did1 in the hour of temptation1 consent to surrender the holy book2 but they were ever afterward called traitors2 and it was with the utmost difficulty that any of them could be received again into the communion of the church1 after a long repentance1 and the most humbling confessions of their fault4 ,now1 if any canonical book was ever lost1 it must have been in these early times1 when the word of ,god was valued far above life1 and when every ,christian stood ready to seal the truth with his blood4 #b4 ,another argument which appears to me to be convincing is1 that in a little time1 all the sacred books were dispersed over the whole world4 ,if a book had1 by some accident or violence1 been destroyed in one region1 the loss could soon have been repaired1 by sending for copies to other countries4 ,the considerations just mentioned would1 ,i presume1 be satisfactory to all candid minds1 were it not that it is supposed that there is evidence that some things were written by the ,apostles which are not now in the canon4 ,we have already referred to an epistle to the ,corinthians1 which ,st4 ,paul is supposed to have written to them1 previously to the writing of those which we now possess4 ,but it is by no means certain1 or even probable1 that ,st4 ,paul ever did write such an epistle2 for not one ancient writer makes the least mention of any such letter1 nor is there any where to be found any citation from it1 or any reference to it4 ,it is a matter of testimony1 in which all the fathers concur1 as with one voice1 that ,st4 ,paul wrote no more than fourteen epistles1 all of which we now have4 ,but still1 ,st4 ,paul's own declaration stands in the way of our opinion3 8,i wrote to you in an epistle10 #a ,cor4 v1 #i1 #aa4 ,the words in the original are1 2 the literal version of which is1 8,i have written to you in the epistle10 or 8in this epistle20 that is1 in the former part of it2 where1 in fact1 we find the very thing which he says that he had written4 ,see #a ,cor4 v1 #b1 #e1 #f4 ,but it is thought by learned and judicious commentators1 that the words following1 1 8,but now ,i have written unto you10 require that we should understand the former clause1 as relating to some former time2 but a careful attention to the context will convince us that this reference is by no means necessary4 ,the ,apostle had told them in the beginning of the chapter1 to avoid the company of fornicators1 c2 but it is manifest1 from the tenth verse1 that he apprehended that his meaning might be misunderstood1 by extending the prohibition too far1 so as to decline all intercourse with the world2 therefore1 he repeats what he had said1 and informs them that it had relation only to the professors of ,christianity1 who should be guilty of such vices4 ,the whole may be thus paraphrased3 8,i wrote to you above in my letter1 that you should separate from those who were fornicators1 and that you should purge them out as old leaven2 but1 fearing lest you should misapprehend my meaning1 by inferring that ,i have directed you to avoid all intercourse with the ,heathen around you1 who are addicted to these shameful vices1 which would make it necessary that you should go out of the world1 ,i now inform you that my meaning is1 that you do not associate familiarly with any who make a profession of ,christianity1 and yet continue in these evil practices40 ,in confirmation of this interpretation1 we can adduce the old ,syriac version1 which1 having been made soon after the days of the ,apostles1 is good testimony in relation to this matter of fact4 ,in this venerable version1 the meaning of the eleventh verse is thus given3 8,this is what ,i have written unto you10 or1 8the meaning of what ,i have written unto you40 ,the only other passage in the ,new ,testament which has been thought to refer to an epistle of ,st4 ,paul not now extant1 is that in ,colossians iv1 #af3 8,and when this epistle is read among you1 cause also that it be read in the church of the ,laodiceans1 and that ye likewise read the epistle from ,laodicea40 ,but what evidence is there that ,st4 ,paul ever wrote an epistle to the ,laodiceans8 ,the text on which this opinion has been founded1 in ancient and modern times1 correctly interpreted1 has no such import4 ,the words in the original are1 1 8and that ye likewise read the epistle from ,laodicea10 ,col4 iv1 #af4 ,these words have been differently taken2 for1 by them some understand that an epistle had been written by ,st4 ,paul to the ,laodiceans1 which he desired might be read in the church at ,colosse4 ,chrysostom seems to have understood them thus2 and the ,romish writers almost universally have adopted this opinion4 8,therefore10 says ,bellarmine1 8it is certain that ,st4 ,paul's epistle to the ,laodiceans is now lost40 ,and their opinion is favoured by the ,latin ,vulgate1 where we read1 eamque ,laodicensium1 8that which is of the ,laodiceans20 but even these words admit of another construction4 ,many learned ,protestants1 also1 have embraced the same interpretation2 while others suppose that ,st4 ,paul here refers to the epistle to the ,ephesians1 which they think he sent to the ,laodiceans1 and that the present inscription is spurious4 ,but that neither of these opinions is correct1 may be rendered very probable4 ,that ,st4 ,paul could not intend1 by the language used in the passage under consideration1 an epistle written by himself1 will appear by the following arguments3 7#a47 ,st4 ,paul could not1 with any propriety of speech1 have called an epistle written by himself1 and sent to the ,laodiceans1 an epistle from ,laodicea4 ,he certainly would have said1 1 to ,laodicea1 or some such thing4 ,who ever heard of an epistle addressed to any individual1 or to any society1 denominated an epistle from them8 7#b47 ,if the epistle referred to in this passage had been one written by ,st4 ,paul1 it would have been most natural for him to call it his epistle2 and this would have rendered his meaning incapable of misconstruction4 7#c47 ,all those best qualified to judge of the fact1 and who were well acquainted with ,st4 ,paul's history and writings1 never mention any such epistle3 neither ,clement1 ,hermas1 nor the ,syriac interpreter1 knew any thing of such an epistle of ,st4 ,paul4 ,but it may be asked1 ,to what epistle1 then1 does ,st4 ,paul refer8 ,it seems safest in such a case1 where testimony is deficient1 to follow the literal sense of the words1 and to believe that it was an epistle written by the ,laodiceans1 probably to himself1 which he had sent to the ,colossians1 together with his own epistle1 for their perusal4 ,,canticles1 the book of1 in ,hebrew1 1 the song of songs4 ,the church1 as well as the synagogue1 received this book generally as canonical4 ,the royal author appears1 in the typical spirit of his times1 to have designed to render a ceremonial appointment descriptive of a spiritual relation2 and this song is accordingly considered1 by judicious writers1 to be a mystical allegory of that sort which induces a more sublime sense on historical truths1 and which1 by the description of human events1 shadows out divine circumstances4 ,the sacred writers were1 by ,god's condescension1 authorized to illustrate his strict and intimate relation to the church by the figure of a marriage2 and the emblem must have been strikingly becoming and expressive to the conceptions of the ,jews1 since they annexed ideas of peculiar mystery to this appointment1 and imagined the marriage union to be a counterpart representation of some original pattern in heaven4 ,hence it was performed among them with very peculiar ceremonies and solemnity1 with every thing that could give dignity and importance to its rites4 ,solomon1 therefore1 in celebrating the circumstances of his marriage1 was naturally led1 by a train of correspondent reflections1 to consider that spiritual connection which it was often employed to symbolize2 and the idea must have been the more forcibly suggested to him1 as he was at this period preparing to build a temple to ,god1 and thereby to furnish a visible representation of the ,hebrew church4 ,the spiritual allegory thus worked up by ,solomon to its highest perfection1 was very consistent with the prophetic style1 which was accustomed to predict evangelical blessings by such parabolical figures2 and ,solomon was more immediately furnished with a pattern for this representation by the author of the forty-fifth ,psalm1 who describes1 in a compendious allegory1 the same future connection between ,christ and his church4 #b4 ,but though the work be certainly an allegorical representation1 many learned men1 in an unrestrained eagerness to explain the song1 even in its minutest and most obscure particulars1 have too far indulged their imaginations2 and1 by endeavouring too nicely to reconcile the literal with the spiritual sense1 have been led beyond the boundaries which a reverence for the sacred ,scriptures should ever prescribe4 ,the ideas which the sacred writers furnish concerning the mystical relation between ,christ and his church1 though well accommodated to our apprehensions by the allusion of a marriage union1 are too general to illustrate every particular contained in this poem1 which may be supposed to have been intentionally decorated with some ornaments appropriate to the literal construction4 ,when the general analogy is obvious1 we are not always to expect minute resemblance1 and should not be too curious in seeking for obscure and recondite allusions4 ,solomon1 in the glow of an inspired fancy1 and unsuspicious of misconception or deliberate perversion1 describes ,god and his church1 with their respective attributes and graces1 under colourings familiar and agreeable to mankind1 and exhibits their ardent affection under the authorized figures of earthly love4 ,no similitude1 indeed1 could be chosen so elegant and apposite for the illustration of this intimate and spiritual alliance1 as a marriage union1 if considered in the chaste simplicity of its first institution1 or under the interesting circumstances with which it was established among the ,jews4 #c4 ,this poem may be considered1 as to its form1 as a dramatic poem of the pastoral kind4 ,there is a succession of time1 and a change of place1 to different parts of the palace and royal gardens4 ,the persons introduced as speakers1 are the bridegroom and bride1 and their respective attendants4 ,the interchange of dialogue is carried on in a wild and digressive manner2 but the speeches are adapted to the persons with appropriate elegance4 ,the companions of the bride compose a kind of chorus1 which seems to bear some resemblance to that afterward adopted in the ,grecian tragedy4 ,solomon and his queen assume the pastoral simplicity of style1 which is favourable to the communication of their sentiments4 ,the poem abounds throughout with beauties1 and presents every where a delightful and romantic display of nature1 painted at its most interesting season1 and described with every ornament that an inventive fancy could furnish4 ,it is justly entitled ,song of ,songs1 or most excellent song1 as being superior to any that an uninspired writer could have produced1 and tending1 if properly understood1 to purify the mind1 and to elevate the affections from earthly to heavenly things4 ,,capernaum1 a city celebrated in the ,gospels1 being the place where ,jesus usually resided during the time of his ministry4 ,it stood on the sea coast1 that is1 on the coast of the sea of ,galilee1 in the borders of ,zebulun and ,naphtalim1 ,matt4 iv1 #ae1 and consequently toward the upper part of it4 ,as it was a convenient port from ,galilee to any place on the other side of the sea1 this might be our ,lord's inducement to make it the place of his most constant residence4 ,upon this account ,capernaum was highly honoured2 and though 8exalted unto heaven10 as its inhabitants boasted1 because it made no proper use of this signal favour it drew from him the severe denunciation1 that it should 8be brought down to hell10 ,matt4 xi1 #bc4 ,this sentence of destruction has been fully realized2 the ancient city is reduced to a state of utter desolation4 ,burckhardt supposes the ruins called ,tal ,houm1 near the rivulet called ,el ,eshe1 to be those of ,capernaum4 ,mr4 ,buckingham1 who gives this place the name of ,talhhewn1 describes considerable and extensive ruins2 the only remains of those edifices which exalted ,capernaum above its fellows4 ,,cappadocia1 is called in ,hebrew ,caphtor4 ,cappadocia joined ,galatia on the east1 and is mentioned in ,acts ii1 #i1 and by ,st4 ,peter1 who addresses his ,first ,epistle to the dispersed throughout ,pontus1 ,galatia1 ,cappadocia1 ,bithynia1 and ,asia4 ,the people of this country were formerly infamous for their vices2 but after the promulgation of ,christianity1 it produced many great and worthy men3 among these may be reckoned ,gregory ,nazianzen1 ,gregory ,nyssen1 and ,st4 ,basil1 commonly styled the ,great4 ,,captives4 ,the treatment of persons taken in war among ancient nations throws great light upon many passages of ,scripture4 ,the eastern conqueror often stripped his unhappy captives naked1 shaved their heads1 and made them travel in that condition1 exposed to the burning heat of a vertical sun by day1 and the chilling cold of the night4 ,such barbarous treatment was to modest women the height of cruelty and indignity2 especially to those who had been educated in softness and elegance1 who had figured in all the superfluities of ornamental dress1 and whose faces had hardly ever been exposed to the sight of man4 ,the ,prophet ,isaiah mentions this as the hardest part of the sufferings in which female captives are involved3 8,the ,lord will expose their nakedness40 ,the daughter of ,zion had indulged in all the softness of oriental luxury2 but the offended ,jehovah should cause her unrelenting enemies to drag her forth from her secret chambers into the view of an insolent soldiery2 strip her of her ornaments1 in which she so greatly delighted2 take away her splendid and costly garments1 discover her nakedness1 and compel her to travel in that miserable plight to a far distant country1 a helpless captive1 the property of a cruel lord4 ,arrived in the land of their captivity1 captives were often purchased at a very low price4 ,the ,prophet ,joel complains of the contemptuous cheapness in which the people of ,israel were held by those who made them captives3 8,and they have cast lots for my people2 and have given a boy for a harlot1 and sold a girl for wine1 that they might drink40 ,the custom of casting lots for the captives taken in war appears to have prevailed both among the ,jews and the ,greeks4 ,the same allusion occurs in the prophecy of ,obadiah3 8,strangers carried away captive his forces1 and foreigners entered into his gates1 and cast lots upon ,jerusalem10 ,obadiah #aa4 ,with respect to the ,greeks1 we have an instance in ,tryphiodorus3-- 8,shared out by lot the female captives stand1 ,the spoils divided with an equal hand2 ,each to his ship conveys his rightful share1 ,price of their toil1 and trophies of the war40 #b4 ,by an inhuman custom which is still retained in the east1 the eyes of captives taken in war were not seldom put out1 sometimes literally scooped or dug out of their sockets4 ,this dreadful calamity ,samson had to endure from the unrelenting vengeance of his enemies4 ,in a posterior age1 ,zedekiah1 the last king of ,judah and ,benjamin1 after being compelled to behold the violent death of his sons and nobility1 had his eyes put out1 and was carried in chains to ,babylon4 ,the barbarous custom long survived the decline and fall of the ,babylonian empire2 for by the testimony of ,mr4 ,maurice1 in his history of ,hindostan1 the captive princes of that country were often treated in this manner by their more fortunate rivals2 a red hot iron was passed over their eyes1 which effectually deprived them of sight1 and at the same time of their title and ability to reign4 ,to the wretched state of such prisoners1 the ,prophet ,isaiah alludes in a noble prediction1 where he describes in very glowing colours the character and work of the promised ,messiah3 8,he hath sent me to heal the broken hearted1 to preach deliverance to the captives1 and recovering of sight to the blind1 to set at liberty them that are bruised10 as captives too frequently were by the weight of their fetters4 #c4 ,it seems to have been the practice of eastern kings1 to command their captives taken in war1 especially those that had1 by the atrociousness of their crimes1 or the stoutness of their resistance1 greatly provoked their indignation1 to lie down on the ground1 and then put to death a certain part of them1 which they measured with a line1 or determined by lot4 ,this custom was not1 perhaps1 commonly practised by the people of ,god1 in their wars with the nations around them2 but one instance is recorded in the life of ,david1 who inflicted this punishment on the ,moabites3 8,and he smote ,moab1 and measured them with a line1 casting them down to the ground2 even with two lines measured he to put to death1 and with one full line to keep alive3 and so the ,moabites became ,david's servants1 and brought gifts10 #b ,sam4 viii1 #b4 ,but the most shocking punishment which the ingenious cruelty of a haughty and unfeeling conqueror ever inflicted on the miserable captive1 is described by ,virgil in the eighth book of the neid2 and which even a ,roman1 inured to blood1 could not mention without horror3-- 8,quid memorem infandas cdes8 quid facta tyranni10 c4 ,line #dhc4 8,what words can paint those execrable times1 ,the subjects' sufferings1 and the tyrant's crimes6 ,that blood1 those murders1 ,o ye gods6 replace ,on his own head1 and on his impious race3 ,the living and the dead at his command ,were coupled face to face1 and hand to hand1 ,till1 choked with stench1 in loathed embraces tied1 ,the lingering wretches pined away1 and died40 ,,dryden4 ,it is to this deplorable condition of a captive that the ,apostle refers1 in that pathetic exclamation1 8,o wretched man that ,i am6 who shall deliver me from the body of this death80 ,who shall rescue me1 miserable captive as ,i am1 from this continual burden of sin which ,i carry about with me2 and which is cumbersome and odious1 as a dead carcass bound to a living body1 to be dragged along with it where-ever it goes8 ,,captivity4 ,god generally punished the sins and infidelities of the ,jews by different captivities or servitudes4 ,the first captivity is that of ,egypt1 from which they were delivered by ,moses1 and which should be considered rather as a permission of providence1 than as a punishment for sin4 ,six captivities are reckoned during the government by judges3 the first1 under ,chushanrishathaim1 king of ,mesopotamia1 which continued about eight years2 the second1 under ,eglon1 king of ,moab1 from which the ,jews were delivered by ,ehud2 the third1 under the ,philistines1 from which they were rescued by ,shamgar2 the fourth1 under ,jabin1 king of ,hazor1 from which they were delivered by ,deborah and ,barak2 the fifth1 under the ,midianites1 from which ,gideon freed them2 and the sixth1 under the ,ammonites and ,philistines1 during the judicatures of ,jephthah1 ,ibzan1 ,elon1 ,abdon1 ,eli1 ,samson1 and ,samuel4 ,but the greatest and most remarkable captivities were those of ,israel and ,judah1 under their regal government4 ,,captivities ,,of ,,israel4 ,in the year of the world #cbfd1 ,tiglath-pileser took several cities1 and carried away captives1 principally from the tribes of ,reuben1 ,gad1 and the half tribe of ,manasseh1 #b ,kings xv1 #bi4 ,in the year of the world #cbhc1 ,shalmaneser took and destroyed ,samaria1 after a siege of three years1 and transplanted the tribes that had been spared by ,tiglath-pileser1 to provinces beyond the ,euphrates1 #b ,kings xviii1 #aj1 #aa4 ,it is generally believed1 there was no return of the ten tribes from this second captivity4 ,but when we examine carefully the writings of the ,prophets1 we find a return of at least a great part of ,israel from the captivity clearly pointed out4 ,hosea says1 8,they shall tremble as a bird out of ,egypt1 and as a dove out of the land of ,assyria2 and ,i will place them in their houses1 saith the ,lord10 ,hosea xi1 #aa4 ,amos says1 8,and ,i will bring again my people ,israel from their captivity3 they shall build their ruined cities and inhabit them10 c1 ,amos ix1 #ad4 ,obadiah observes1 8,the captivity of this host of the children of ,israel shall possess that of the ,canaanites10 c1 ,obadiah #ah1 #ai4 ,to the same purpose speak the other ,prophets4 8,the ,lord shall assemble the outcast of ,israel1 and gather together the dispersed of ,judah10 ,isa4 xi1 #ab1 #ac4 ,ezekiel received an order from ,god to take two pieces of wood1 and write on one1 8,for ,judah and for the children of ,israel20 and on the other1 8,for ,joseph and for all the house of ,israel20 and to join these two pieces of wood1 that they might become one1 and designate the reunion of ,judah and ,israel1 ,ezek4 xxxvii1 #af4 ,jeremiah is equally express3 8,the house of ,judah shall walk with the house of ,israel2 and they shall come together out of the north1 to the land which ,i have given for an inheritance to their fathers10 ,jer4 iii1 #ah4 ,see also ,jer4 xxxi1 #g-i1 #af1 #ag1 #bj2 xvi1 #ae2 xlix1 #b1 c2 ,zech4 ix1 #ac2 x1 #f1 #aj2 ,micah ii1 #ab4 ,in the historical books of ,scripture1 we find that ,israelites of the ten tribes1 as well as of ,judah and ,benjamin1 returned from the captivity4 ,among those that returned with ,zerubbabel are reckoned some of ,ephraim and ,manasseh1 who settled at ,jerusalem with the tribe of ,judah4 ,when ,ezra numbered those who returned from the captivity1 he only inquired whether they were of the race of ,israel2 and at the first passover which was then celebrated in the temple1 was a sacrifice of twelve he-goats for the whole house of ,israel1 according to the number of the tribes1 ,ezra vi1 #af1 #ag2 viii1 #ce4 ,under the ,maccabees1 and in our ,saviour's time1 we see ,palestine peopled by ,israelites of all the tribes indifferently4 ,the ,samaritan ,chronicle asserts that in the thirty-fifth year of the pontificate of ,abdelus1 three thousand ,israelites1 by permission of ,king ,sauredius1 returned from captivity1 under the conduct of ,adus1 son of ,simon4 ,,captivities ,,of ,,judah4 ,the captivities of ,judah are generally reckoned four3 the first1 in the year of the world #ccih1 under ,king ,jehoiakim1 when ,daniel and others were carried to ,babylon2 the second1 in the year of the world #cdja1 and in the seventh year of the reign of ,jehoiakim1 when ,nebuchadnezzar carried three thousand and twenty-three ,jews to ,babylon2 the third1 in the year of the world #cdjf1 and in the fourth of ,jehoiachin1 when this prince1 with part of his people1 was sent to ,babylon2 and the fourth in the year #cdaf1 under ,zedekiah1 from which period begins the captivity of seventy years1 foretold by the ,prophet ,jeremiah4 ,dr4 ,hales computes that the first of these captivities1 which he thinks formed the commencement of the ,babylonish captivity1 took place in the year before ,christ #fje4 ,the ,jews were removed to ,babylon by ,nebuchadnezzar1 who1 designing to render that city the capital of the east1 transplanted thither very great numbers of people1 subdued by him in different countries4 ,in ,babylon the ,jews had judges and elders1 who governed them1 and who decided matters in dispute juridically1 according to their laws4 ,of this we see a proof in the story of ,susanna1 who was condemned by elders of her own nation4 ,cyrus1 in the year of the world #cdeg1 and in the first year of his reign at ,babylon1 permitted the ,jews to return to their own country1 ,ezra i1 #a4 ,however1 they did not obtain leave to rebuild the temple2 and the completion of those prophecies which foretold the termination of their captivity after seventy years1 was not till the year of the world #cdhf4 ,in that year1 ,darius ,hystaspes1 by an edict1 allowed them to rebuild the temple4 ,in the year of the world #cecg1 ,artaxerxes ,longimanus sent ,nehemiah to ,jerusalem4 ,the ,jews assert that only the refuse of their nation returned from the captivity1 and that the principal of them continued in and near ,babylon1 where they had been settled1 and where they became very numerous4 ,it may1 however1 be doubted whether the refuse of ,judah was really carried to ,babylon4 ,it appears from incidental observations in ,scripture that some remained2 and ,major ,rennell has offered several reasons for believing that only certain classes of the ,jews were deported to ,babylon1 as well as into ,assyria4 ,nebuchadnezzar carried away only the principal inhabitants1 the warriors1 and artisans of every kind2 and he left the husbandmen1 the labourers1 and in general1 the poorer classes1 that constitute the great body of the people4 ,,caraites1 or ,,kar,,ites1 an ancient ,jewish sect4 ,the name signifies ,textualists1 or ,scripturists1 and was originally given to the school of ,shammai1 7about thirty years or more before ,christ17 because they rejected the traditions of the elders1 as embraced by the school of ,hillel and the ,pharisees1 and all the fanciful interpretations of the ,cabbala4 ,they claim1 however1 a much higher antiquity1 and produce a catalogue of doctors up to the time of ,ezra4 ,the rabbinists have been accustomed to call them ,sadducees2 but they believed in the inspiration of the ,scriptures1 the resurrection of the dead1 and the final judgment4 ,they believe that ,messiah is not yet come1 and reject all calculations of the time of his appearance3 yet they say1 it is proper that even every day they should receive their salvation by ,messiah1 the ,son of ,david4 ,as to the practice of religion1 they differ from the rabbinists in the observance of the festivals1 and keep the ,sabbath with more strictness4 ,they extend their prohibition of marriage to more degrees of affinity1 and admit not of divorce on any slight or trivial grounds4 ,the sect of ,caraites still exists1 but their number is inconsiderable4 ,they are found chiefly in the ,crimea1 ,lithuania1 and ,persia2 at ,damascus1 ,constantinople1 and ,cairo4 ,their honesty in the ,crimea is said to be proverbial4 ,,carbuncle1 1 ,exod4 xxviii1 #ag2 xxxix1 #aj2 ,ezek4 xxviii1 #ac2 and 1 ,eccles4 xxxii1 #e2 ,tobit xiii1 #ag2 a very elegant and rare gem1 known to the ancients by the name 1 or coal1 because1 when held up before the sun1 it appears like a piece of bright burning charcoal3 the name carbunculus has the same meaning4 ,it was the third stone in the first row of the pectoral2 and is mentioned among the glorious stones of which the new ,jerusalem is figuratively said to be built4 ,bishop ,lowth observes that the precious stones1 mentioned ,isa4 liv1 #aa1 #ab1 and ,rev4 xxi1 #ah1 seem to be general images to express beauty1 magnificence1 purity1 strength1 and solidity1 agreeably to the ideas of the eastern nations2 and to have never been intended to be strictly scrutinized1 and minutely and particularly explained1 as if they had some precise moral or spiritual meaning4 ,tobit1 in his prophecy of the final restoration of ,israel1 ,tobit xii1 #af1ag1 describes the new ,jerusalem in the same oriental manner4 ,,carmel1 in the southern part of ,palestine1 where ,nabal the ,carmelite1 ,abigail's husband1 dwelt1 ,joshua xv1 #ee2 #a ,sam4 xxv4 #b4 ,,carmel was also the name of a celebrated mountain in ,palestine4 ,though spoken of in general as a single mountain1 it ought rather to be considered as a mountainous region1 the whole of which was known by the name of ,carmel1 while to one of the hills1 more elevated than the rest1 that name was usually applied by way of eminence4 ,it had the plain of ,sharon on the south2 overlooked the port of ,ptolemais on the north2 and was bounded on the west by the ,mediterranean sea2 forming one of the most remarkable promontories that present themselves on the shores of that great sea4 ,according to ,volney1 it is about two thousand feet in height1 and has the shape of a flattened cone4 ,its sides are steep and rugged2 the soil neither deep nor rich2 and among the naked rocks stinted with plants1 and wild forests which it presents to the eye1 there are at present but few traces of that fertility which we are accustomed to associate with the idea of ,mount ,carmel4 ,yet even ,volney himself acknowledges that he found among the brambles1 wild vines and olive trees1 which proved that the hand of industry had once been employed on a not ungrateful soil4 ,of its ancient productiveness there can be no doubt2 the etymology and ordinary application of its name being sufficient evidence of the fact4 ,carmel is not only expressly mentioned in ,scripture as excelling other districts in that respect2 but1 every place possessed of the same kind of excellence obtained from it the same appellation in the language both of the prophets and the people4 ,mount ,carmel is celebrated in the ,old ,testament1 as the usual place of residence of the ,prophets ,elijah and ,elisha4 ,it was here that ,elijah so successfully opposed the false prophets of ,baal1 #a ,kings xviii2 and there is a certain part of the mountain facing the west1 and about eight miles from the point of the promontory1 which the ,arabs call ,mansur1 and the ,europeans the place of sacrifice1 in commemoration of that miraculous event4 ,near the same place is also still shown a cave1 in which it is said the ,prophet had his residence4 ,the brook ,kishon1 which issues from ,mount ,tabor1 waters the bottom of ,carmel1 and falls into the sea toward the northern side of the mountain1 and not the southern1 as some writers have erroneously stated4 ,its greatest elevation is about one thousand five hundred feet2 hence1 when the sea coast on one side1 and the plain on the other1 are oppressed with sultry heat1 this hill is refreshed by cooling breezes1 and enjoys a delightful temperature4 ,the fastnesses of this rugged mountain are so difficult of access1 that the ,prophet ,amos classes them with the deeps of hell1 the height of heaven1 and the bottom of the sea3 8,though they dig into hell10 7or the dark and silent chambers of the grave17 8thence shall mine hand take them2 though they climb up to heaven1 thence will ,i bring them down2 and though they hide themselves in the top of ,carmel1 ,i will search and take them out thence2 and though they be hid from my sight in the bottom of the sea1 thence will ,i command the serpent1 and he shall bite them10 ,amos ix1 #b1 #c4 ,lebanon raises to heaven a summit of naked and barren rocks1 covered for the greater part of the year with snow2 but the top of ,carmel1 how naked and sterile soever its present condition1 was clothed with verdure which seldom was known to fade4 ,even the lofty genius of ,isaiah1 stimulated and guided by the ,spirit of inspiration1 could not find a more appropriate figure to express the flourishing state of the ,redeemer's kingdom1 than 8the excellency of ,carmel and ,sharon40 ,,cart1 a machine used in ,palestine to force the corn out of the ear1 and bruise the straw1 ,isaiah xxviii1 #bg1 #bh4 ,the wheels of these carts were low1 broad1 and shod with iron1 and were drawn over the sheaves spread on the floor by means1 of oxen4 ,,castor and ,,pollux4 ,it is said that the vessel which carried ,paul to ,rome had the sign of ,castor and ,pollux1 ,acts xxviii1 #aa4 ,castor and ,pollux were sea-gods1 and invoked by sailors2 and even the light balls or meteors which are sometimes seen on ships1 were called ,castor and ,pollux4 ,an inscription in ,gruter proves that seamen implored ,castor and ,pollux in dangers at sea4 ,it is to be observed1 that ,st4 ,luke does not mention the name1 but the sign1 of the ship4 ,by the word sign1 the sacred writer meant a protecting image of the deity1 to whom the vessel was in some sort consecrated2 as at present in ,catholic countries1 most of their vessels are named after some saint1 ,st4 ,xavier1 ,st4 ,andero1 ,st4 ,dominique1 c4 ,it appears to be certain1 that the figure which gave name to the ship was at the head1 and the tutelary deity was placed on the poop4 ,,casuist1 one who studies and decides upon cases of conscience4 ,escobar has made a collection of the opinions of all the casuists before his time4 ,m4 ,le ,feore1 preceptor to ,louis ,,xiii1 said that the books of the casuists taught 8the art of quibbling with ,god20 which does not seem far from truth1 by reason of the multitude of distinctions and subtleties with which they abound4 ,mayer has published a bibliotheca of casuists1 containing an account of all the writers on cases of conscience1 ranged under three heads2 the first comprehending the ,lutheran2 the second1 the ,calvinistic2 and the third1 the ,roman casuists4 ,,casuistry1 the doctrine and science of conscience and its cases1 with the rules and principles of resolving the same2 drawn partly from natural reason1 or equity1 and partly from the authority of ,scripture1 the canon law1 councils1 fathers1 c4 ,to casuistry belongs the decision of all difficulties arising about what a man may lawfully do or not do2 what is sin or not sin2 what things a man is obliged to do in order to discharge his duty1 and what he may let alone without breach of it4 ,although the morality of the ,gospel is distinguished by its purity and by its elevation1 it is necessarily exhibited in a general form2 certain leading principles are laid down2 but the application of these to the innumerable cases which occur in the actual intercourse of life1 is left to the understanding and the conscience of individuals4 ,had it been otherwise1 the ,christian code would have swelled to an extent which would have rendered it in a great degree useless2 it would have been difficult or impossible to recollect all its provisions2 and1 minute as these would have been1 they would still have been defective1--new situations or combinations of circumstances modifying duty continually arising1 which it would have been impracticable or hurtful to anticipate4 ,when the principles of duty are rightly unfolded1 and when they are placed on a sound foundation1 there is1 to a fair mind1 no difficulty in accommodating them to its own particular exigencies4 ,a few cases1 it is true1 may occur1 where it is a matter of doubt in what way men should act2 but these are exceedingly rare1 and the lives of vast numbers may come to an end without any of them happening to occasion perplexity4 ,every man may be1 and perhaps is1 sensible1 that his errors are to be ascribed1 not to his having been at a loss to know what he should have done1 but to his deliberately or hastily violating what he saw to be right1 or to his having allowed himself to confound1 by vain and subtile distinctions1 what1 in the case of any one else1 would have left in his mind no room for hesitation4 ,the manner1 however1 in which the ,gospel inculcates the law of ,god1 combined with other causes in leading to a species of moral discussion1 which1 pretending to ascertain in every case what ought to be practised1 and thus to afford plain and safe directions to the conscience1 terminated in what has been denominated casuistry4 ,the schoolmen delighted in this species of intellectual labour4 ,they transferred their zeal for the most fanciful and frivolous distinctions in what respected the doctrines of religion to its precepts2 they anatomized the different virtues2 nicely examined all the circumstances by which our estimate of them should be influenced2 and they thus rendered the study of morality inextricable1 confounded the natural notions of right and wrong1 and so accustomed themselves and others to weigh their actions1 that they could easily find some excuse for what was most culpable1 while they continued under the impression that they were not deviating from what1 as moral beings1 was incumbent upon them4 ,the corruption of manners which was introduced into the church during the dark ages rendered casuistry very popular2 and1 accordingly1 many who affected to be the most enlightened writers of their age1 and perhaps really were so1 tortured their understanding or their fancy in solving cases of conscience1 and often in polluting their own imaginations and those of others1 by employing them on possible crimes1 upon which1 however unlikely was their occurrence in life1 they were eager to pronounce a decision4 ,the happy change which the ,reformation produced upon the views of men respecting the sacred ,scriptures1 tended to erect that pure standard of duty which for ages had been laid in the dust4 ,yet for a considerable time ,protestant divines occupied themselves with the intricacies of casuistry1 thus in some degree shutting out the light which they had fortunately poured upon the world4 ,the ,lutheran theologians walked very much in the tract which the schoolmen had opened1 although their decisions were much more consonant with ,christianity2 and it was not uncommon in some countries for ecclesiastical assemblies to devote part of their time to the resolution of questions which might have been safely left unnoticed1 which now are almost universally regarded as frivolous1 and about which almost the most ignorant would be ashamed to ask an opinion4 ,even after much of the sophistry1 and much of the moral perversion connected with casuistry1 were exploded1 the form of that science was preserved1 and many valuable moral principles in conformity to it delivered4 ,the venerable ,bishop ,hall published a celebrated work1 to which he gave the appellation of 8,cases of ,conscience ,practically resolved20 and he introduces it with the following observations addressed to the reader3 8,of all divinity1 that part is most useful which determines cases of conscience2 and of all cases of conscience1 the practical are most necessary1 as action is of more concernment than speculation2 and of all practical cases1 those which are of most common use are of so much greater necessity and benefit to be resolved1 as the errors thereof are more universal1 and therefore more prejudicial to the society of mankind4 ,these ,i have selected out of many2 and having turned over divers casuists1 have pitched upon those decisions which ,i hold most conformable to enlightened reason and religion2 sometimes ,i follow them1 and sometimes ,i leave them for a better guide40 ,he divides his work into four parts1--,cases of profit and traffic1 ,cases of life and liberty1 ,cases of piety and religion1 and ,cases matrimonial2 under each of these solving a number of questions1 or rather giving a number of moral dissertations4 ,casuistry1 as a systematic perversion of ,christian morality1 is now1 in the ,protestant world1 very much unknown2 though there still is1 and perhaps always will be1 that softening down of the strict rules of duty1 to which mankind are led either by self-deceit1 or by the natural desire of reconciling1 with the hope of the divine favour1 considerable obliquity from that path of rectitude and virtue which alone is acceptable to ,god4 ,but the most striking specimen of the length to which casuistry was carried1 and of the dangerous consequences which resulted from it1 is furnished by the history of the maxims and sentiments of the ,jesuits1 that celebrated order1 which combined with profound literature1 and the most zealous support of ,popery1 an ambition that perverted their understandings1 or rather induced them to employ their rational powers in the melancholy work of poisoning the sources of morality1 and of casting the name and the appearance of virtue over a dissoluteness of principle and a profligacy of licentiousness1 which1 had they not been checked by sounder views1 and by feelings and habits favourable to morality1 would have spread through the world the most degrading misery4 ,see ,,jesuits4 ,,caterpillar4 4 ,the word occurs ,deut4 xxviii1 #ch2 ,psa4 lxviii1 #df2 ,isa4 xxxiii1 #d2 #a ,kings viii1 #cg2 #b ,chron4 vi1 #bh2 ,joel i1 #d2 ii1 #be4 ,in the four last cited texts1 it is distinguished from the locust1 properly so called2 and in ,joel i1 #d1 is mentioned as 8eating up0 what the other species had left1 and therefore might be called the consumer1 by way of eminence4 ,but the ancient interpreters are far from being agreed what particular species it signifies4 ,the ,septuagint in ,chronicles1 and ,aquila in ,psalms1 render it 3 so the ,vulgate in ,chronicles and ,isaiah1 and ,jerom in ,psalms1 bruchus1 the chafer1 which is a great devourer of leaves4 ,from the ,syriac version1 however1 ,michalis is disposed to understand it the taupe grillon1 8mole cricket10 which1 in its grub state1 is very destructive to corn and other vegetables1 by feeding on their roots4 ,see ,,locust4 ,,catholic denotes what is general or universal4 ,the rise of heresies induced the primitive ,christian church to assume to itself the appellation of catholic1 as being a characteristic to distinguish itself from them4 ,the ,romish church now proudly assumes the title catholic1 in opposition to all who have separated from her communion1 and whom she considers as heretics and schismatics1 while she herself remains the only true and ,christian church4 ,the church of ,christ is called catholic1 because it extends throughout the world1 and endures through all time4 #b4 ,,catholic1 general1 ,epistles4 ,they are seven in number2 namely1 one of ,james1 two of ,peter1 three of ,john1 and one of ,jude4 ,they are called catholic1 because directed to ,christian converts generally1 and not to any particular church4 ,hug1 in his 8,introduction to the ,new ,testament10 takes another view of the import of this term1 which was certainly used at an early period1 as by ,origen and others3--8,when the ,gospels and ,acts of the ,apostles constituted one peculiar division1 the works of ,paul also another1 there still remained writings of different authors1 which might likewise form a collection of themselves1 to which a name must be given4 ,it might most aptly be called the common collection1 1 of the ,apostles1 and the treatises contained in it1 and 1 which are commonly used by the ,greeks as synonyms4 ,for this we find a proof even in the most ancient ecclesiastical language4 ,clemens ,alexandrinus calls the epistle which was despatched by the assembly of the ,apostles1 ,acts xv1 #bc1 the #8catholic epistle1' as that in which all the ,apostles had a share1 4 ,hence our seven epistles are catholic1 or epistles of all the ,apostles who are authors40 ,,caves1 or ,,caverns4 ,the country of ,judea1 being mountainous and rocky1 is in many parts full of caverns1 to which allusions frequently occur in the ,old ,testament4 ,at ,engedi1 in particular1 there was a cave so large1 that ,david1 with six hundred men1 hid themselves in the sides of it1 and ,saul entered the mouth of the cave without perceiving that any one was there1 #a ,sam4 xxiv4 ,josephus tells us of a numerous gang of banditti1 who1 having infested the country1 and being pursued by ,herod with his army1 retired into certain caverns1 almost inaccessible1 near ,arbela in ,galilee1 where they were with great difficulty subdued4 8,beyond ,damascus10 says ,strabo1 8are two mountains1 called ,trachones1 from which the country has the name of ,trachonitis2 and from hence1 toward ,arabia and ,iturea1 are certain rugged mountains1 in which there are deep caverns2 one of which will hold four thousand men40 ,tavernier1 in his 8,travels in ,persia10 speaks of a grotto between ,aleppo and ,bir1 that would hold near three thousand horse4 ,and ,maundrel assures us1 that 8three hours distant from ,sidon1 about a mile from the sea1 there runs along a high rocky mountain1 in the sides of which are hewn a multitude of grottoes1 all very little differing from each other4 ,they have entrances about two foot square4 ,there are of these subterraneous caverns two hundred in number4 ,it may1 with probability1 at least1 be concluded that these places were contrived for the use of the living1 and not of the dead40 ,these extracts may be useful in explaining such passages of ,scripture as the following3 8,because of the ,midianites1 the children of ,israel made them dens which are in the mountains1 and caves1 and strong holds10 ,judges vi1 #b4 ,to these they betook themselves for refuge in times of distress and hostile invasion3--8,when the men of ,israel saw that they were in a strait1 for the people were distressed1 then the people did hide themselves in caves1 and in thickets1 and in rocks1 and in high places1 and in pits10 #a ,sam4 xiii1 #f4 ,see also ,jer4 xli1 #i3 8,to enter into the holes of the rocks and into the caves of the earth10 became with the prophets a very proper and familiar image to express a state of terror and consternation4 ,thus ,isa4 ii1 #ai3 8,they shall go into the holes of the rocks1 and into the caves of the earth1 for fear of the ,lord1 and for the glory of his majesty1 when he ariseth to shake terribly the earth40 ,,cedar1 4 ,the cedar is a large and noble evergreen tree4 ,its lofty height1 and its far extended branches1 afford spacious shelter and shade1 ,ezek4 xxxi1 #c1 #f1 #h4 ,the wood is very valuable2 is of a reddish colour1 of an aromatic smell1 and reputed incorruptible4 ,this is owing to its bitter taste1 which the worms cannot endure1 and to its resin1 which preserves it from the injuries of the weather4 ,the ark of the covenant1 and much of the temple of ,solomon1 and that of ,diana at ,ephesus1 were built of cedar4 ,the tree is much celebrated in ,scripture4 ,it is called1 8the glory of ,lebanon10 ,isa4 lx1 #ac4 ,on that mountain it must in former times have flourished in great abundance4 ,there are some cedars still growing there which are prodigiously large4 ,but the travellers who have visited the place within these two or three centuries1 and who describe trees of vast size1 inform us that their number is diminished greatly2 so that1 as ,isaiah says1 8a child may number them10 ,isa4 x1 #ai4 ,maundrell measured one of the largest size1 and found it to be twelve yards and six inches in girt1 and yet sound2 and thirty-seven yards in the spread of its boughs4 ,gabriel ,sionita1 a very learned ,syrian ,maronite1 who assisted in editing the ,paris ,polyglott1 a man worthy of all credit1 thus describes the cedars of mount ,lebanon1 which he had examined on the spot3 8,the cedar grows on the most elevated part of the mountain1 is taller than the pine1 and so thick1 that five men together could scarcely encompass one4 ,it shoots out its branches at ten or twelve feet from the ground3 they are large and distant from each other1 and are perpetually green4 ,the wood is of a brown colour1 very solid and incorruptible1 if preserved from wet4 ,the tree bears a small cone like that of the pine40 ,,celsus4 ,a ,pagan philosopher of the second century1 who composed a work against ,christianity1 in which he so expressly refers to the facts of the ,gospels1 and to the books of the ,new ,testament1 as to have furnished important undesigned testimony to their antiquity and truth4 ,,cemetery4 ,see ,,sepulchre4 ,,censer1 a sacred instrument made use of in the religious rites of the ,hebrews4 ,it was a vase which contained incense to be used in sacrifice4 ,when ,aaron made an atonement for himself and his house1 he was to take a censer full of burning coals of fire from off the altar of the ,lord1 ,lev4 xvi1 #ab4 ,and ,solomon1 when he provided furniture for the temple of the ,lord1 made1 among other things1 censers of pure gold1 #a ,kings vii1 #ej4 ,,centurion1 an officer in the ,roman army1 who1 as the term indicates1 had the command of a hundred men1 ,matt4 viii1 #e1 c4 ,,cephas1 1 from 1 a rock4 ,the ,greek 1 and the ,latin ,petrus1 have the same signification4 ,see ,,peter4 ,,ceremony1 an assemblage of several actions1 forms1 and circumstances1 serving to render a thing magnificent and solemn4 ,applied to religious services1 it signifies the external rites and manner in which the ministers of religion perform their sacred functions1 and direct or lead the worship of the people4 ,in #afdf1 ,m4 ,ponce1 published a history of ancient ceremonies1 showing the rise1 growth1 and introduction of each rite into the church1 and its gradual advancement to superstition4 ,many of them were borrowed from ,judaism1 but more from ,paganism4 ,in all religions adapted to the nature of man there must be some positive institutions for fixing the mind upon spiritual objects1 and counteracting that influence of material things upon habits and pursuits which is1 and must be1 constantly exerted4 ,without such institutions1 religion might be preserved1 indeed1 by a few of superior understanding and of strong powers of reflection2 but among mankind in general all trace of it would soon be lost4 ,when the end for which they are appointed is kept in view1 and the simple examples of the ,new ,testament are observed1 they are of vast importance to the production both of pious feelings and of virtuous conduct2 but there has constantly been a propensity in the human race to mistake the means for the end1 and to consider themselves as moral and religious1 when they scrupulously observe what was intended to produce morality and religion4 ,the reason is obvious3 ceremonial observances can be performed without any great sacrifice of propensities and vices2 they are palpable2 when they are observed by men who1 in the tenor of public life1 do not act immorally1 they are regarded by others as indicating high attainments in virtue2 and through that self-deceit which so wonderfully misleads the reason1 and inclines it to minister to the passions which it should restrain1 men have themselves become persuaded that their acknowledgment of divine authority1 implied in their respect to the ritual which that authority is conceived to have sanctioned1 may be taken as a proof that they have nothing to apprehend from the violation of the law under which they are placed4 ,but1 whatever be the causes of this1 the fact itself is established by the most extensive and the most incontrovertible evidence4 ,we find it1 indeed1 wherever mankind have had notions of superior power1 and of their obligation to yield obedience to the will of the supreme ,being4 ,under the system of polytheism which prevailed in the most enlightened nations previous to the publication of ,christianity1 this was carried so far1 that the connection between religion and morality was in a great degree dissolved1 rites and ceremonies1 sacrifices and oblations1 were all that it was thought requisite to observe2 when these were carefully performed1 there was no hesitation in ascribing piety to the persons who did perform them1 however deficient they might be in virtuous and pious dispositions4 ,even under the ,mosaical dispensation1 proceeding as it did1 immediately from heaven1 and adapted1 as in infinite wisdom it was1 to the situation of those to whom it was given1 the same evil early began to be experienced2 and although it was lamented and exposed by the prophets1 and the most enlightened men among the ,jews1 it was so far from being eradicated1 that it continued to acquire strength1 till it was exhibited in all its magnitude in the character prevalent among the ,pharisees at the period of ,christ's manifestation4 ,with this highly popular and revered class of men1 religion was either merely a matter of ceremony1 or was employed1 for base and interested purposes1 to cast a veil of sanctity over their actions4 ,they said long prayers1 but it was for a show2 they gave alms1 but it was after they had sounded a trumpet1 that the eye of man might be fixed upon their beneficence2 and1 as to the point now under review1 they were most strikingly described by our ,saviour1 when he said of them1 8,they pay tithe of mint1 and anise1 and cummin1 but they neglect the weightier matters of the law1 justice1 and mercy1 and truth40 ,the ,christian religion not only expressly guards against an evil which had become so prevalent1 but its whole spirit is at variance with it1 its own ceremonial observances being few1 and obviously emblematical of whatever is excellent and holy4 ,but still the ,gospel finds human nature as other religions found it2 and ecclesiastical history1 even from the earliest periods1 shows with what astonishing perverseness1 and with what wonderful ingenuity1 men departed from the simplicity of ,christianity1 and substituted in its room the most childish1 and often the most pernicious1 practices and observances4 ,the power of godliness was lost in forms2 and the innovations of a profane will-worship became almost innumerable4 ,the effect was1 that men regarded ,god as less concerned with the moral conduct of his creatures1 than with the quantum of service they performed in his temples2 and religion and morals were so disjoined1 that one became the substitute for the other1 to the universal corruption of the ,christian world4 ,,cerinthians4 ,of ,cerinthus1 the founder of this sect1 ,dr4 ,burton gives the following account3 ,cerinthus is said to have been one of those ,jews who1 when ,st4 ,peter returned to ,jerusalem1 expostulated with him for having baptized ,cornelius1 ,acts xi1 #b4 ,he is also stated to have been one of those who went down from ,judea to ,antioch1 and said1 8,except ye be circumcised after the manner of ,moses1 ye cannot be saved10 ,acts xv1 #a4 ,according to the same account1 he was one of the false teachers who seduced the ,galatians to ,judaism2 and he is also charged with joining in the attack which was made upon ,st4 ,paul1 for polluting the temple by the introduction of ,greeks1 ,acts xxi1 #bg1 #bh4 ,i cannot find any older authority for these statements than that of ,epiphanius1 who wrote late in the fourth century1 and is by no means worthy of implicit credit4 ,he asserts1 also1 that ,cerinthus was one of the persons alluded to by ,st4 ,luke1 as having already undertaken to write the life of ,jesus4 ,but all these stories ,i take to be entirely inventions2 and there is no evidence that ,cerinthus made himself conspicuous at so early a period4 ,irenus speaks of the heresy of the ,nicolaitans1 as being considerably prior to that of the ,cerinthians4 ,according to the same writer1 ,carpocrates also preceded ,cerinthus2 and if it be true1 as so many of the fathers assert1 that ,st4 ,john wrote his ,gospel expressly to confute this heresy1 we can hardly come to any other conclusion1 than that it was late in the first century when ,cerinthus rose into notice4 ,he appears undoubtedly to have been a ,jew2 and there is evidence that1 after having studied philosophy in ,egypt1 he spread his doctrines in ,asia ,minor4 ,this will account for his embracing the ,gnostic opinions1 and for his exciting the notice of ,st4 ,john1 who resided at ,ephesus4 ,he was certainly a ,gnostic in his notion of the creation of the world1 which he conceived to have been formed by angels2 and his attachment to that philosophy may explain what otherwise seems inconsistent1 that he retained some of the ,mosaic ceremonies1 such as the observance of ,sabbaths and circumcision2 though1 like other ,gnostics1 he ascribed the law and the prophets to the angel who created the world4 ,this adoption or rejection of different parts of the same system was a peculiar feature of the ,gnostic philosophy2 and the name of ,cerinthus probably became eminent1 because he introduced a fresh change in the notion concerning ,christ4 ,the ,gnostics1 like their leader1 ,simon ,magus1 had all of them been ,docet1 and denied the real humanity2 but ,cerinthus is said to have maintained that ,jesus had a real body1 and was the son of human parents1 ,joseph and ,mary4 ,in the other points he agreed with the ,gnostics1 and believed that ,christ was one of the ons who descended on ,jesus at his baptism4 ,it is difficult to ascertain who was the first ,gnostic that introduced this opinion4 ,some writers give the merit of it to ,ebion2 and yet it is generally said that ,cerinthus and ,ebion agreed in their opinions concerning ,christ1 and that ,cerinthus preceded ,ebion4 ,again ,carpocrates is said to have held the same sentiments2 and he is placed by ,irenus before ,cerinthus3 so that it is difficult1 if not impossible1 to decide the chronological precedence of these heretics4 ,perhaps the safest inference to draw from so many conflicting testimonies is this3 that ,carpocrates was the first ,gnostic of eminence who was not a ,docetist2 but that the notion of ,jesus being born of human parents was taught more explicitly and with more success by ,cerinthus4 ,carpocrates is reported to have been distinguished by the gross immorality of his life2 and whatever we may think of the imputations cast upon the ,gnostics in general1 it seems impossible to deny that this person1 at least1 professed and practised a perfect liberty of action4 ,there is also strong evidence that in this instance ,cerinthus followed his example4 ,there is a peculiar doctrine ascribed to this heretic1 which1 if it originated with him1 may well account for the celebrity of his name4 ,cerinthus has been handed down as the first person who held the notion of a millennium2 and though the fathers undoubtedly believed that1 previous to the general resurrection1 the earth would undergo a renovation1 and the just would rise to enjoy a long period of terrestrial happiness1 yet there was a marked and palpable difference between the millennium of the fathers and that of ,cerinthus4 ,the fathers conceived this terrestrial happiness to be perfectly pure and freed from the imperfections of our nature2 but ,cerinthus is said to have promised his followers a millennium of the grossest pleasures and the most sensual gratifications4 ,it is singular that all the three sources1 to which we may trace the ,gnostic doctrines1 might furnish some foundation for this notion of a millennium4 ,thus ,plato has left some speculations concerning the 8great year10 when1 after the expiration of thirty-six thousand years1 the world was to be renewed1 and the golden age to return4 ,it was the belief of the ,persian magi1 according to ,plutarch1 that the time would come1 when ,ahreman1 or the evil principle1 would be destroyed2 when the earth would lose its impediments and inequalities1 and all mankind would be of one language1 and enjoy uninterrupted happiness4 ,it was taught1 in the ,cabbala1 that the world was to last six thousand years1 which would be followed by a period of rest for a thousand years more4 ,there appears in this an evident allusion1 though on a much grander scale1 to the sabbatical years of rest4 ,the institution of the jubilee1 and the glowing descriptions given by the prophets of the restoration of the ,jews1 and the reign of the ,messiah1 may have led the later ,jews to some of their mystical fancies2 and when all these systems were blended together by the ,gnostics1 it is not strange1 if a millennium formed part of their creed long before the time of ,cerinthus4 ,it seems probable1 however1 that he went much farther than his predecessors in teaching that the millennium would consist in a course of sensual indulgence2 and it may have been his notions upon this subject1 added to those concerning the human nature of ,christ1 which led him to maintain1 contrary to the generality of ,gnostics1 that ,christ had not yet risen1 but that he would rise hereafter4 ,the ,gnostics1 as we have seen1 denied the resurrection altogether4 ,believing ,jesus to be a phantom1 they did not believe that he was crucified2 and they could not therefore believe that he had risen4 ,but ,cerinthus1 who held that ,jesus was born1 like other human beings1 found no difficulty in believing literally that he was crucified2 and he is said also to have taught that he would rise from the dead at some future period4 ,it is most probable that this period was that of the millennium2 and the words of ,st4 ,john in the ,revelation would easily be perverted1 where it is said of the souls of the martyrs1 that 8they lived and reigned with ,christ a thousand years10 ,rev4 xx1 #d4 ,,chalcedony1 1 ,rev4 xxi1 #ai2 a precious stone4 ,arethas1 who has written an account of ,bithynia1 says that it was so called from ,chalcedon1 a city of that country1 opposite to ,byzantium2 and it was in colour like a carbuncle4 ,some have supposed this also to be the stone called 1 translated 8emerald10 ,exodus xxviii1 #ah4 ,,chaldea1 or ,babylonia1 the country lying on both sides of the ,euphrates1 of which ,babylon was the capital2 and extending southward to the ,persian ,gulf1 and northward into ,mesopotamia1 at least as far as ,ur1 which is called ,ur of the ,chaldees4 ,this country had also the name of ,shinar4 ,see ,,babylon4 ,,chaldean ,,philosophy claims attention on account of its very high antiquity4 ,the most ancient people1 next to the ,hebrews1 among the eastern nations1 who appear to have been acquainted with philosophy1 in its more general sense1 were the ,chaldeans2 for though the ,egyptians have pretended that the ,chaldeans were an ,egyptian colony1 and that they derived their learning from ,egypt1 there is reason to believe that the kingdom of ,babylon1 of which ,chaldea was a part1 flourished before the ,egyptian monarchy2 and that the ,egyptians were rather indebted to the ,chaldeans1 than the ,chaldeans to the ,egyptians4 ,nevertheless1 the accounts that have been transmitted to us by the ,chaldeans themselves1 of the antiquity of their learning1 are blended with fable1 and involved in considerable uncertainty4 ,there are other circumstances1 independently of the antiquity of the ,chaldean philosophy1 which render our knowledge of it imperfect and uncertain4 ,we derive our acquaintance with it from other nations1 and principally from the ,greeks1 whose vanity led them to despise and misrepresent the pretended learning of barbarous nations4 ,the ,chaldeans also adopted a symbolical mode of instruction1 and transmitted their doctrines to posterity under a veil of obscurity1 which it is not easy to remove4 ,to all which1 we may add that1 about the commencement of the ,christian ra1 a race of philosophers sprung up1 who1 with a view of gaining credit to their own wild and extravagant doctrines1 passed them upon the world as the ancient wisdom of the ,chaldeans and ,persians1 in spurious books1 which they ascribed to ,zoroaster1 or some other eastern philosopher4 ,thus1 the fictions of these impostors were confounded with the genuine dogmas of the ancient eastern nations4 ,notwithstanding these causes of uncertainty1 which perplex the researches of modern inquirers into the distinguishing doctrines and character of the ,chaldean philosophy1 it appears probable that the philosophers of ,chaldea were the priests of the ,babylonian nation1 who instructed the people in the principles of religion1 interpreted its laws1 and conducted its ceremonies4 ,their character was similar to that of the ,persian magi1 and they are often confounded with them by the ,greek historians4 ,like the priests in most other nations1 they employed religion in subserviency to the ruling powers1 and made use of imposture to serve the purposes of civil policy4 ,accordingly1 ,diodorus ,siculus relates1 that they pretended to predict future events by divination1 to explain prodigies1 and interpret dreams1 and to avert evils1 or confer benefits1 by means of augury and incantations4 ,for many ages1 they retained a principal place among diviners4 ,in the reign of ,marcus ,antonius1 when the emperor and his army1 who were perishing with thirst1 were suddenly relieved by a shower1 the prodigy was ascribed to the power and skill of the ,chaldean soothsayers4 ,thus accredited for their miraculous powers1 they maintained their consequence in the courts of princes4 ,the principal instrument which they employed in support of their superstition1 was astrology4 ,the ,chaldeans were probably the first people who made regular observations upon the heavenly bodies1 and hence the appellation of ,chaldean became afterward synonymous with that of astronomer4 ,nevertheless all their observations were applied to the sole purpose of establishing the credit of judicial astrology2 and they employed their pretended skill in this art1 in calculating nativities1 foretelling the weather1 predicting good and bad fortune1 and other practices usual with impostors of this class4 ,while they taught the vulgar that all human affairs are influenced by the stars1 and professed to be acquainted with the nature and laws of their influence1 and consequently to possess a power of prying into futurity1 they encouraged much idle superstition1 and many fraudulent practices4 ,hence other professors of these mischievous arts were afterward called ,chaldeans1 and the arts themselves were called ,babylonian arts4 ,among the ,romans these impostors were so troublesome1 that1 during the time of the republic1 it became necessary to issue an edict requiring the ,chaldeans1 or mathematicians1 7by which latter appellation they were commonly known17 to depart from ,rome and ,italy within ten days2 and1 afterward1 under the emperors1 these soothsayers were put under the most severe interdiction4 ,the ,chaldean philosophy1 notwithstanding the obscurity that has rendered it difficult of research1 has been highly extolled1 not only by the orientals and ,greeks1 but by ,jewish and ,christian writers3 but upon recurring to authorities that are unquestionable1 there seems to be little or nothing in this branch of the barbaric philosophy which deserves notice4 ,the following brief detail will include the most interesting particulars4 ,from the testimony of ,diodorus1 and also from other ancient authorities1 collected by ,eusebius1 it appears1 that the ,chaldeans believed in ,god1 the ,lord and ,parent of all1 by whose providence the world is governed4 ,from this principle sprung their religious rites1 the immediate object of which was a supposed race of spiritual beings or demons1 whose existence could not have been imagined1 without first conceiving the idea of a supreme ,being1 the source of all intelligence4 ,the belief of a supreme ,deity1 the fountain of all the divinities which were supposed to preside over the several parts of the material world1 was the true origin of all religious worship1 however idolatrous1 not excepting even that which consisted in paying divine honours to the memory of dead men4 ,beside the supreme ,being1 the ,chaldeans supposed spiritual beings to exist1 of several orders2 gods1 demons1 heroes3 these they probably distributed into subordinate classes1 agreeably to their practice of theurgy or magic4 ,the ,chaldeans1 in common with the eastern nations in general1 admitted the existence of certain evil spirits1 clothed in a vehicle of grosser matter2 and in subduing or counteracting these1 they placed a great part of the efficacy of their religious incantations4 ,these doctrines were the mysteries of the ,chaldean religion1 imparted only to the initiated4 ,their popular religion consisted in the worship of the sun1 moon1 planets1 and stars1 as divinities1 after the general practice of the east1 ,job xxxi1 #bg4 ,from the religious system of the ,chaldeans were derived two arts1 for which they were long celebrated2 namely1 magic and astrology4 ,their magic1 which should not be confounded with witchcraft1 or a supposed intercourse with evil spirits1 consisted in the performance of certain religious ceremonies or incantations1 which were supposed1 by the interposition of good demons1 to produce supernatural effects4 ,their astrology was founded upon the chimerical principle1 that the stars have an influence1 either beneficial or malignant1 upon the affairs of men1 which may be discovered1 and made the certain ground of prediction1 in particular cases2 and the whole art consisted in applying astronomical observations to this fanciful purpose1 and thus imposing upon the credulity of the vulgar4 ,,chamber4 ,see ,,upper ,,room4 ,,chapters4 ,the ,new ,testament was early portioned out into certain divisions1 which appear under various names4 ,the custom of reading it publicly in the ,christian assemblies after the law and the prophets1 would soon cause such divisions to be applied to it4 ,the law and the prophets were for this end already divided into parashim and haptaroth1 and the ,new ,testament could not long remain without being treated in the same way4 ,the distribution into church lessons was indeed the oldest that took place in it4 ,the ,christian teachers gave the name of pericopes1 to the sections read as lessons by the ,jews4 ,justin ,martyr avails himself of this expression1 when he quotes prophetical passages4 ,such is the case also in ,clemens of ,alexandria2 but this writer also gives the name of to larger sections of the ,gospels and ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles4 ,pericopes therefore were nothing else but 1 church lessons1 or sections of the ,new ,testament1 which were read in the assemblies after ,moses and the ,prophets4 ,in the third century another division also into occurs4 ,dionysius of ,alexandria speaks of them in reference to the ,apocalypse1 and the controversies respecting it4 ,some1 says he1 went through the whole book1 from chapter to chapter1 to show that it bore no sense4 ,in the fifth century ,euthalius produced again a division into chapters1 which was accounted his invention4 ,he himself however lays claim to nothing more than having composed 1 the summaries of the contents of the chapters in the ,acts of the ,apostles and the ,catholic ,epistles4 ,in the ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 not even these are his property2 but they are derived 8from one of the wisest of the fathers1 and worshippers of ,christ10 as he himself says1 and he only incorporated them into his stichometrical edition of the ,new ,testament4 ,the chapters must1 therefore1 have been in existence before ,euthalius1 if the father whom he mentions composed notices of their contents4 ,but how old they are cannot easily be known4 ,the ,euthalian are distinguished from the pericopes1 or reading portions1 by their extent4 ,the ,jews had divided the law into fifty-three parashim1 according to the number of the ,sabbaths1 taking into account the leap year4 ,nearly so distributed were the ,acts of the ,apostles1 ,st4 ,paul's and the ,catholic ,epistles1 according to the ,alexandrine ritual1 which ,euthalius follows in his stichometrical edition1 namely1 into fifty-six pericopes2 three more than the number of 1 ,sundays1 probably for three festivals1 which might be observed at ,christmas1 ,easter1 and ,whitsuntide4 ,the ,gospels too had naturally in the same way many pericopes4 ,such in older times was the practice in ,asia also2 for ,justin says1 that the believers there assemble themselves for prayer and reading on ,sunday only1 4 ,since then the whole ,new ,testament was distributed into so few sections1 these must necessarily have been great1 and a pericope in ,euthalius sometimes includes in it four1 five1 and even six chapters4 ,we have spoken hitherto only of the chapters of the ,acts of the ,apostles and the ,epistles4 ,in the ,gospels there occur to us of two sorts1 the greater and the lesser4 ,the lesser are the ,ammonian which ,eusebius rejected1 after which he composed his ten canons in order to point out in the ,monotessaron of ,ammonius the respective contents of every ,evangelist4 ,he has explained himself in the ,epistle to ,carpianus on their use1 and on the formation of his ten canons1 where he names his sections sometimes 1 sometimes 4 ,matthew has three hundred and fifty-five of these1 ,mark two hundred and thirty-six1 ,luke three hundred and forty-two1 and ,john two hundred and thirty-two4 ,the other chapters are independent of these1 which from their extent are also named the greater4 ,of these1 ,matthew contains sixty-eight1 ,mark forty-nine1 ,luke eighty-three1 and ,john only eighteen4 ,there are but very few manuscripts which have not both of them together4 ,as to the church lessons1 to come back to them once more1 various alterations took place in them4 ,as the festival days multiplied1 the old division could no longer subsist1 and in many churches the pericopes were shortened4 ,at last as the ritual of ceremonies was enlarged1 only certain portions were extracted from the ,gospels1 the ,acts of the ,apostles1 and the ,epistles1 which sometimes were very short4 ,a codex of this sort was termed 2 in reference to the ,gospels alone1 2 and in respect to the other books1 4 ,this seems to have taken place among the ,latins much earlier than among the ,greeks4 ,there are perfectly credible testimonies1 which establish such an arrangement among the former at the middle of the fifth century1 at which date nothing of the kind is perceptible among the latter4 ,the expression1 1 appears indeed frequently in the ,typicum of ,st4 ,sabas1 who died in the beginning of the fifth century4 ,but the ,greeks do not disavow1 that this ,typicum or monastic ritual was not by himself1 that it perished in the invasions of the barbarians1 and was composed anew by ,john of ,damascus1 with references memoriter1 from memory1 to that of ,sabas4 ,he lived toward the middle of the eighth century1 and with an earlier notice of lectionaries among the ,greeks we are not acquainted4 ,finally1 our present chapters come1 as it is well known1 from ,cardinal ,hugo de ,st4 ,cher1 who in the twelfth century composed a concordance1 and to this end distributed the ,bible according to his own discretion into smaller portions4 ,they are now moreover generally admitted in the editions of the ,hebrew and ,greek texts4 ,the verses1 however1 are from ,robert ,stephens1 who first introduced them in his edition of the ,new ,testament1 ,a4 ,d4 #aeea4 ,his son1 ,henry ,stephens1 was the first to record this for the information of posterity1 in the preface to his ,greek ,concordance to the ,new ,testament2 in which he says1 that two facts connected with it equally demand our admiration3 8,the first is1 that my father1 while travelling from ,paris to ,lyons1 finished this division of each chapter into verses1 and indeed the greater part of it inter equitandum when riding on his horse4 ,the second fact is1 that1 a short time prior to this journey1 while he had the matter still in contemplation1 almost all those to whom he mentioned it told him plainly that he was an indiscreet man1 as though he had a wish to spend his time and labour on an affair which would prove utterly useless1 and which would not obtain for him any commendation1 but1 on the contrary1 would expose him to much ridicule4 ,but behold the result3 in opposition to the opinion which condemned and discountenanced my father's undertaking1 as soon as his invention was published1 every edition of the ,new ,testament1 whether in the ,greek1 ,latin1 ,french1 ,german1 or in any other language1 which did not adopt it1 was immediately discarded40 ,it perhaps will not be unedifying to add1 that this passage has yielded mankind another proof that ,,learning is not always synonymous with ,,wisdom3 for the phrase respecting riding1 which occurs in it1 has furnished matter of warm dispute to literary men2 some of them contending that inter equitandum means1 that ,robert ,stephens performed the greater part of his task while actually on horseback2 but others1 giving a more extended construction to the expression1 assert that he was engaged in this occupation only when stopping for refreshment at inns on the road4 ,though the first interpretation would probably obtain the greatest number of suffrages from really learned and impartial men2 yet it is quite sufficient for mankind to know1 in either way1 that this division into verses was completed in the course of that journey4 ,,chariots ,,of ,,war4 ,the ,scripture speaks of two sorts of these chariots1 one for princes and generals to ride in1 the other used to break the enemies battalions1 by letting them loose armed with iron1 which made dreadful havoc among the troops4 ,the most ancient chariots of which we have any notice are ,pharaoh's1 which were overwhelmed in the ,red ,sea1 ,exodus xiv1 #g4 ,the ,canaanites1 whom ,joshua engaged at the waters of ,merom1 had cavalry and a multitude of chariots1 ,joshua xi1 #d4 ,sisera1 the general of ,jabin1 king of ,hazor1 had nine hundred chariots of iron in his army1 ,judges iv1 #c4 ,the tribe of ,judah could not get possession of all the lands of their lot1 because the ancient inhabitants of the country were strong in chariots of iron4 ,the ,philistines1 in the war carried on by them against ,saul1 had thirty thousand chariots and six thousand horsemen1 #a ,sam4 xiii1 #e4 ,david1 having taken one thousand chariots of war from ,hadadezer1 king of ,syria1 hamstrung the horses1 and burned nine hundred chariots1 reserving only one hundred to himself1 #b ,sam4 viii1 #d4 ,solomon had a considerable number of chariots1 but we know of no military expedition in which they were employed1 #a ,kings x1 #bf4 ,as ,judea was a very mountainous country1 chariots could be of no great use there1 except in the plains2 and the ,hebrews often evaded them by fighting on the mountains4 ,the kings of the ,hebrews1 when they went to war1 were themselves generally mounted in chariots from which they fought1 and issued their orders2 and there was always a second chariot empty1 which followed each of them1 that if the first was broken he might ascend the other1 #b ,chron4 xxxv1 #bd4 ,chariots were sometimes consecrated to the sun2 and the ,scripture observes1 that ,josiah burned those which had been dedicated to the sun by his predecessors1 #b ,kings xxiii1 #aa4 ,this superstitious custom was borrowed from the ,heathens1 and principally from the ,persians4 ,,charity1 considered as a ,christian grace1 ought in our translation1 in order to avoid mistake1 to have been translated love4 ,it is the love of ,god1 and the love of our neighbour flowing from the love of ,god2 and is described with wonderful copiousness1 felicity1 and even grandeur1 by ,st4 ,paul1 #a ,cor4 xiii2 a portion of ,scripture which1 as it shows the habitual temper of a true ,christian1 cannot be too frequently referred to for self-examination1 and ought to be constantly present to us as our rule4 #b4 ,in the popular sense1 charity is almsgiving2 a duty of practical ,christianity which is solemnly enjoined1 and to which special promises are annexed4 ,,charm4 ,see ,,divination4 ,,chebar1 a river of ,chaldea1 ,ezek4 i1 #a4 ,it is thought to have risen near the head of the ,tigris1 and to have run through ,mesopotamia1 to the south-west1 and emptied itself into the ,euphrates4 ,,chedorlaomer1 a king of the ,elamites1 who were either ,persians1 or people bordering upon the ,persians4 ,this was one of the four confederated kings1 who made war upon the five kings of the pentapolis of ,sodom2 and who1 after having defeated them1 and made themselves masters of a great booty1 were pursued and dispersed by ,abraham1 ,gen4 xiv4 ,,chemarim4 ,this word occurs only once in our version of the ,bible3 8,i will cut off the remnant of ,baal1 and the name of the ,chemarims 7,chemarim7 with the priests10 ,zeph4 i1 #d2 but it frequently occurs in the ,hebrew1 and is generally translated 8priests of the idols10 or 8priests clothed in black10 because chamar signifies blackness4 ,by this word the best commentators understand the priests of false gods1 and in particular the worshippers of fire1 because they were1 it is said1 dressed in black4 ,le ,clerc1 however1 declares against this last opinion4 ,our translators of the ,bible would seem sometimes to understand by this word the idols or objects of worship1 rather than their priests4 ,this is also the opinion of ,le ,clerc4 ,calmet observes that camar in ,arabic signifies the moon1 and that ,isis is the same deity4 8,among the priests of ,isis10 says ,calmet1 8were those called melanephori1 that is1 wearers of black2 but it is uncertain whether this name was given them by reason of their dressing wholly in black1 or because they wore a black shining veil in the processions of this goddess40 ,,chemosh1 1 an idol of the ,moabites1 ,numbers xxi1 #bi4 ,the name is derived from a root which in ,arabic signifies to hasten4 ,for this reason1 many believe ,chemosh to be the sun1 whose precipitate course might well procure it the name of swift4 ,some identify ,chemosh with ,ammon2 and ,macrobius shows that ,ammon was the sun1 whose rays were denoted by his horns4 ,calmet is of opinion that the god ,hamanus and ,apollo ,chomeus1 mentioned by ,strabo and ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 was ,chamos1 or the sun4 ,these deities were worshipped in many parts of the east4 ,some1 from the resemblance of the ,hebrew ,chamos with the ,greek ,comos1 have thought ,chamos to signify ,bacchus4 ,jerom and most interpreters consider ,chamosh and ,peor as the same deity2 but some think that ,baal-,peor was ,tammuz1 or ,adonis4 ,to ,chemosh ,solomon erected an altar upon the ,mount of ,olives1 #a ,kings xi1 #g4 ,as to the form of the idol ,chemosh1 the ,scripture is silent2 but if1 according to ,jerom1 it were like ,baal-,peor1 it must have been of the beeve kind2 as were1 probably1 all the ,baals1 though accompanied with various insignia4 ,there can be little doubt that part of the religious services performed to ,chemosh1 as to ,baal-,peor1 consisted in revelling and drunkenness1 obscenities and impurities of the grossest kinds4 ,from ,chemosh the ,greeks seem to have derived their 1 called by the ,romans ,comus1 the god of feasting and revelling4 ,,cherethim4 4 ,cherethim1 or ,cherethites1 are denominations for the ,philistines3 8,i will stretch out mine hand upon the ,philistines1 and will cut off the ,cherethim1 and destroy the remnant of the sea coast10 ,ezek4 xxv1 #af4 ,zephaniah1 exclaiming against the ,philistines1 says1 8,wo unto the inhabitants of the sea coasts1 the nation of the ,cherethites10 ,zeph4 ii1 #e4 ,it is said1 #a ,sam4 xxx1 #ad1 that the ,amalekites invaded the south of the ,cherethites2 that is1 of the ,philistines4 ,david1 and some of the kings1 his successors1 had guards called ,cherethites and ,pelethites1 #b ,sam4 xv1 #ah2 xx1 #g4 ,calmet thinks that they were of the country of the ,philistines2 but several expositors of our own country are of a different opinion4 8,we can hardly suppose10 say the latter1 8that ,david would employ any of these uncircumcised people as his body-guard1 or that the ,israelitish soldiers would have patiently seen foreigners of that nation advanced to such places of honour and trust40 ,it may1 therefore1 be inferred that guards were called ,cherethites1 because they went with ,david into ,philistia1 where they continued with him all the time he was under the protection of ,achish4 ,these were the persons who accompanied ,david from the first1 and who remained with him in his greatest distresses2 and it is no wonder1 if men of such approved fidelity should be chosen for his body-guard4 ,beside1 it is not uncommon for soldiers to derive their names1 not from the place of their nativity1 but of their residence4 ,,cherub4 1 plural 4 ,it appears1 from ,gen4 iii1 #bi1 that this is a name given to angels2 but whether it is the name of a distinct class of celestials1 or designates the same order as the seraphim1 we have no means of determining4 ,but the term cherubim generally signifies those figures which ,moses was commanded to make and place at each end of the mercy seat1 or propitiatory1 and which covered the ark with expanded wings in the most holy place of the ,jewish tabernacle and temple4 ,see ,exodus xxv1 #ah1 #ai4 ,the original meaning of the term1 and the shape or form of these1 any farther than that they were alata animata1 8winged creatures10 is not certainly known4 ,the word in ,hebrew is sometimes taken for a calf or ox2 and ,ezekiel1 x1 #ad1 sets down the face of a cherub as synonymous to the face of an ox4 ,the word cherub1 in ,syriac and ,chaldee1 signifies to till or plough1 which is the proper work of oxen4 ,cherub also signifies strong and powerful4 ,grotius says they were figures much like that of a calf2 and ,bochart1 likewise1 thinks that they were more like the figure of an ox than any thing beside2 and ,spencer is of the same mind4 ,but ,josephus says they were extraordinary creatures of a figure unknown to mankind4 ,the opinion of most critics1 taken1 it seems1 from ,ezek4 i1 #i1 #aj1 is1 that they were figures composed of parts of various creatures2 as a man1 a lion1 an ox1 an eagle4 ,but certainly we have no decided proof that the figures placed in the holy of holies1 in the tabernacle1 were of the same form with those described by ,ezekiel4 ,the contrary1 indeed1 seems rather indicated1 because they looked down upon the mercy seat1 which is an attribute not well adapted to a four-faced creature1 like the emblematical cherubim seen by ,ezekiel4 ,the cherubim of the sanctuary were two in number2 one at each end of the mercy seat2 which1 with the ark1 was placed exactly in the middle1 between the north and south sides of the tabernacle4 ,it was here that atonement was made1 and that ,god was rendered propitious by the high priest sprinkling the blood upon and before the mercy seat1 ,lev4 xvi1 #ad1 #ae4 ,here the glory of ,god appeared1 and here he met his high priest1 and by him his people1 and from hence he gave forth his oracles2 whence the whole holy place was called 1 the oracle4 ,these cherubim1 it must be observed1 had feet whereon they stood1 #b ,chron4 iii1 #ac2 and their feet were joined1 in one continued beaten work1 to the ends of the mercy seat which covered the ark3 so that they were wholly over or above it4 ,those in the tabernacle were of beaten gold1 being but of small dimensions1 ,exod4 xxv1 #ah2 but those in the temple of ,solomon were made of the wood of the olive tree overlaid with gold2 for they were very large1 extending their wings to the whole breadth of the oracle1 which was twenty cubits1 #a ,kings vi1 #bc-bh2 #b ,chron4 iii1 #aj-ac4 ,they are called 8cherubim of glory10 not merely or chiefly on account of the matter or formation of them1 but because they had the glory of ,god1 or the glorious symbol of his presence1 8the ,shekinah10 resting between them4 ,as this glory abode in the inward tabernacle1 and as the figures of the cherubim represented the angels who surround the manifestation of the divine presence in the world above1 that tabernacle was rendered a fit image of the court of heaven1 in which light it is considered every where in the ,epistle to the ,hebrews4 ,see chapters iv1 #ad2 viii1 #a2 ix1 #h1 #i1 #bc1 #bd2 xii1 #bb1 #bc4 ,the cherubim1 it is true1 have been considered by the disciples of ,mr4 ,hutchinson as designed emblems of ,jehovah himself1 or rather of the ,trinity of ,persons in the ,godhead1 with man taken into the divine essence4 ,but that ,god1 who is a pure ,spirit1 without parts or passions1 perfectly separate and remote from all matter1 should command ,moses to make material and visible images or emblematical representations of himself1 is utterly improbable3 especially1 considering that he had repeatedly1 expressly1 and solemnly forbidden every thing of this kind in the second commandment of the moral law1 delivered from ,mount ,sinai1 amidst thunder and lightning1 8blackness1 darkness1 and tempest10 pronouncing with an audible and awful voice1 while 8the whole mount quaked greatly1 and the sound of the trumpet waxed louder and louder1 ,thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image1 nor the likeness of any thing that is in heaven above1 or in the earth beneath1 or in the water under the earth40 ,hence the solemn caution of ,moses1 ,deut4 iv1 #ae1 c3 8,take ye good heed unto yourselves1 7for ye saw no manner of similitude on the day the ,lord spake unto you in ,horeb out of the midst of the fire17 lest ye corrupt yourselves1 and make you a graven image1 the similitude of any figure1 the likeness of male or female1 of any beast that is on the earth1 of any winged fowl that flieth in the air1 of any thing that creepeth on the ground1 of any fish that is in the waters40 ,hence ,god's demand by his prophet3 8,to what will ye liken me1 or shall ,i be equal1 saith the ,holy ,one80 ,and hence the censure of the inspired penman1 ,psalm cvi1 #bj3 8,they changed their glory into the similitude of an ox that eateth grass40 ,add to this1 that in most or all of the places where the cherubim are mentioned in the ,scriptures1 ,god is expressly distinguished from them4 ,thus1 8,he10 the ,lord1 8placed at the east of the garden cherubim1 and a flaming sword10 ,gen4 iii1 #bd4 8,he rode on a cherub and did fly10 ,psalm xviii1 #aj4 8,he sitteth between the cherubim10 ,psalm xcix1 #a4 8,he dwelleth between the cherubim10 ,psalm lxxx1 #a4 ,we also read of 8the glory of the ,god of ,israel going up1 from the cherub whereupon he was1 to the threshold of the house10 ,ezek4 ix1 #c4 ,and again1 8,the glory of the ,lord went up from the cherub1 and the court was full of the brightness of the ,lord's glory10 ,ezek4 x1 #d4 ,and again1 8,the glory of the ,lord departed from off the threshold1 and stood over the cherubim10 ,ezek4 x1 #ah4 ,in all these passages the glory of the ,lord1 that is1 the ,shekinah1 the glorious symbol of his presence1 is distinguished from the cherubim2 and not the least intimation is given in these passages1 or any others1 of the ,scripture1 that the cherubim were images or emblematical representations of him4 ,mr4 ,parkhurst's laborious effort to establish ,mr4 ,hutchinson's opinion on the subject of the cherubim1 in his ,hebrew ,lexicon1 sub voce1 is so obviously fanciful and contradictory1 that few will be converted to this strange opinion4 ,it seems much more probable that1 as most eminent divines have supposed1 the cherubim represented the angels who surround the divine presence in heaven4 ,accordingly1 they had their faces turned toward the mercy seat1 where ,god was supposed to dwell1 whose glory the angels in heaven always behold1 and upon which their eyes are continually fixed2 as they are also upon ,christ1 the true propitiatory1 which mystery of redemption they 8desire10 ,st4 ,peter tells us1 8to look into10 #a ,peter i1 #ab3 a circumstance evidently signified by the faces of the cherubim being turned inward1 and their eyes fixed on the mercy seat4 ,we may here also observe that1 allowing ,st4 ,peter in this passage to allude to the cherubic figures1 which1 from his mode of expression1 can scarcely be doubted1 this amounts to a strong presumption that the cherubim represented1 not so much one order1 as 8the angels0 in general1 all of whom are said to 8desire to look into0 the subjects of human redemption1 and to all whose orders1 8the principalities and powers in heavenly places1 the manifold wisdom of ,god is made known by the church40 ,in ,ezekiel1 the cherubic figures are evidently connected with the dispensations of providence2 and they have therefore appropriate forms1 emblematical of the strength1 wisdom1 swiftness1 and constancy1 with which the holy angels minister in carrying on ,god's designs3 but in the sanctuary they are connected with the administration of grace2 and they are rather adoring beholders1 than actors1 and probably appeared under forms more simple4 ,as to the living creatures1 improperly rendered 8beasts0 in our translation1 ,rev4 iv1 #g1 some think them a hieroglyphical representation1 not of the qualities of angels1 but of those of real ,christians2 especially of those in the suffering and active periods of the church4 ,the first a lion1 signifying their undaunted courage1 manifested in meeting with confidence the greatest sufferings2 the second a calf or ox1 emblematical of unwearied patience2 the third with the face of a man representing prudence and compassion2 the fourth a flying eagle1 signifying activity and vigour4 ,the four qualities thus emblematically set forth in these four living creatures1 namely1 undaunted courage1 unwearied patience under sufferings1 prudence united with kindness1 and vigorous activity1 are found1 more or less1 in the true members of ,christ's church in every age and nation4 ,but others have imagined that this representation might be intended to intimate also that these qualities would especially prevail in succeeding ages of the church1 in the order in which they are here placed3 that is1 that in the first age true ,christians would be eminent for the courage1 fortitude1 and success1 wherewith they should spread the ,gospel2 that in the next age they would manifest remarkable patience in bearing persecution1 when they should be 8killed all the day10 like calves or oxen appointed for the slaughter2 that in the subsequent age or ages1 when the storms of persecution were blown over1 and ,christianity was generally spread through the whole ,roman empire1 knowledge and wisdom1 piety and virtue1 should increase1 and the church should wear the face of a man1 and excel in prudence1 humanity1 love1 and good works2 and that in ages still later1 being reformed from various corruptions in doctrine and practice1 and full of vigour and activity1 it should carry the ,gospel1 as upon the wings of a flying eagle1 to the remotest nations under heaven1 8to every kindred1 and tongue1 and people40 ,this is a thought which deserves some consideration4 ,the four great monarchies of the earth had their prophetic emblems1 taken both from metals and from beasts and birds2 and it is not unreasonable to look for prophetic emblems of the one kingdom of ,christ1 in its varied and successive states4 ,perhaps1 however1 the most reasonable conclusion is1 that1 like the 8living creatures0 in the vision of ,ezekiel1 they are emblematical of the ministrations of angels in what pertains to those providential events which more particularly concern the church4 ,,chesnut ,,tree1 4 ,this tree1 which is mentioned only in ,gen4 xxx1 #cg1 and ,ezek4 xxxi1 #h1 is by the ,septuagint and ,jerom rendered plane tree2 and ,drusius1 ,hiller1 and most of the modern interpreters render it the same4 ,the name is derived from a root which signifies nakedness2 and it is often observed of the plane tree that the bark peels off from the trunk1 leaving it naked1 which peculiarity may have been the occasion of its ,hebrew name4 ,the son of ,sirach says1 8,i grew up as a plane tree by the water10 ,ecclesiasticus xxiv1 #ad4 ,,child4 ,mothers1 in the earliest times1 suckled their offspring themselves1 and that from thirty to thirty-six months4 ,the day when the child was weaned was made a festival1 ,gen4 xxi1 #h2 ,exod4 ii1 #g1 #i2 #a ,sam4 i1 #bb-bd2 #b ,chron4 xxxi1 #af2 #b ,mac4 vii1 #bg1 #bh2 ,matt1 xxi1 #af4 ,nurses were employed1 in case the mother died before the child was old enough to be weaned1 and when from any circumstances she was unable to afford a sufficient supply of milk for its nourishment4 ,in later ages1 when matrons had become more delicate1 and thought themselves too infirm to fulfil the duties which naturally devolved upon them1 nurses were employed to take their place1 and were reckoned among the principal members of the family4 ,they are1 accordingly1 in consequence of the respectable station which they sustained1 frequently mentioned in sacred history1 ,gen4 xxxv1 #h2 #b ,kings xi1 #b2 #b ,chron4 xxii1 #aa4 ,the sons remained till the fifth year in the care of the women2 they then came into the father's hands1 and were taught not only the arts and duties of life1 but were instructed in the ,mosaic law1 and in all parts of their country's religion1 ,deut1 vi1 #bj-be2 vii1 #ai2 xi1 #ai4 ,those who wished to have them farther instructed1 provided they did not deem it preferable to employ private teachers1 sent them away to some priest or ,levite1 who sometimes had a number of other children to instruct4 ,it appears from #a ,sam4 i1 #bd-bh1 that there was a school near the holy tabernacle1 dedicated to the instruction of youth4 ,there had been many other schools of this kind1 which had fallen into decay1 but were restored again by the ,prophet ,samuel2 after whose time1 the members of the seminaries in question1 who were denominated by way of distinction 8the sons of the prophets10 acquired no little notoriety4 ,daughters rarely departed from the apartments appropriated to the females1 except when they went out with an urn to draw water4 ,they spent their time in learning those domestic and other arts1 which are befitting a woman's situation and character1 till they arrived at that period in life when they were to be sold1 or1 by a better fortune1 given away in marriage1 ,prov4 xxxi1 #ac2 #b ,sam4 xiii1 #g4 #b4 ,in ,scripture1 disciples are often called children or sons1 ,solomon1 in his ,proverbs1 says1to his disciple1 8,hear1 my son40 ,the descendants of a man1 how remote soever1 are denominated his sons or children2 as 8the children of ,edom10 8the children of ,moab10 8the children of ,israel40 ,such expressions as 8the children of light10 8the children of darkness10 8the children of the kingdom10 signify those who follow truth1 those who remain in error1 and those who belong to the church4 ,persons arrived at almost the age of maturity are sometimes called 8children40 ,thus1 ,joseph is termed 8the child10 though he was at least sixteen years old1 ,gen4 xxxvii1 #cj2 and ,benjamin1 even when above thirty1 was so denominated1 xliv1 #bj4 ,by the ,jewish law1 children were reckoned the property of their parents1 who could sell them for seven years to pay their debts4 ,their creditors had also the power of compelling them to resort to this measure4 ,the poor woman1 whose oil ,elisha increased so much as enabled her to pay her husband's debts1 complained to the prophet1 that1 her husband being dead1 the creditor was come to take away her two sons to be bondmen1 #b ,kings iv1 #a4 8,children1 or sons of ,god10 is a name by which the angels are sometimes described3 8,there was a day when the sons of ,god came to present themselves before the ,lord10 ,job i1 #f2 ii1 #a4 ,good men1 in opposition to the wicked1 are also thus denominated2 the children of ,seth's family1 in opposition to those of ,cain3 8,the sons of ,god saw the daughters of men10 ,gen4 vi1 #b4 ,judges1 magistrates1 priests1 are also termed children of ,god3 8,i have said1 ,ye are gods1 and all of you are the children of the ,most ,high10 ,psa4 lxxxii1 #f4 ,the ,israelites are called 8sons of ,god10 in opposition to the ,gentiles1 ,hosea i1 #aj2 ,john xi1 #eb4 ,in the ,new ,testament1 believers are commonly called 8children of ,god0 by virtue of their adoption4 ,st4 ,paul1 in several places1 extols the advantages of being adopted sons of ,god1 ,rom4 viii1 #ad2 ,gal4 iii1 #bf4 8,children1 or sons of men10 is a name given to ,cain's family before the deluge1 and1 in particular1 to the giants who were violent men1 and had corrupted their ways4 ,afterward1 the impious ,israelites were thus called3 8,o ye sons of men1 how long will ye love vanity80 ,psa4 iv1 #b4 8,the sons of men1 whose teeth are spears and arrows10 lvii1 #d4 ,,child ,,birth4 ,in oriental countries child birth is not an event of much difficulty2 and mothers at such a season were originally the only assistants of their daughters1 as any farther aid was deemed unnecessary1 ,exod4 i1 #ai4 ,in cases of more than ordinary difficulty1 those matrons who had acquired some celebrity for skill and expertness on occasions of this kind1 were invited in2 and in this way there eventually rose into notice that class of women denominated midwives4 ,the child was no sooner born1 than it was washed in a bath1 rubbed with salt1 and wrapped in swaddling clothes1 1 ,ezek4 xvi1 #d4 ,it was the custom at a very ancient period1 for the father1 while music in the mean while was heard to sound1 to clasp the new born child to his bosom1 and by this ceremony was understood to declare it to be his own1 ,gen4 l1 #bc2 ,job iii1 #ab2 ,psa4 xxii1 #aa4 ,this practice was imitated by those wives who adopted the children of their maids1 ,gen4 xvi1 #b2 xxx1 #c-e4 ,the birth day of a son1 especially1 was made a festival1 and on each successive year was celebrated with renewed demonstrations of festivity and joy1 ,gen4 xl1 #bj2 ,job i1 #d2 ,matt4 xiv1 #f4 ,the messenger1 who brought the news of the birth of a son1 was received with joy1 and rewarded with presents1 ,job iii1 #c2 ,jer4 xx1 #ae4 ,this is the case at the present day in ,persia4 ,,chisleu1 the third month of the ,jewish civil year1 and the ninth of their sacred1 answering to our ,november and ,december1 ,nehem4 i1 #a4 ,it contains thirty days4 ,,chittim1 the country1 or countries1 implied by this name in ,scripture1 are variously interpreted by historians and commentators4 ,chittim has been taken1 by ,hales and ,lowth1 for all the coasts and islands of the ,mediterranean2 which appears most consonant with the general use of the word by the different inspired writers4 ,,christ1 an appellation synonymous with ,messiah4 ,the word 1 signifies anointed1 from 1 ,i anoint4 ,sometimes the word ,christ is used singly1 by way of autonomasis1 to denote a person sent from ,god1 as an anointed prophet1 king1 or priest4 8,christ10 says ,lactantius1 8is no proper name1 but one denoting power2 for the ,jews used to give this appellation to their kings1 calling them ,christ1 or anointed1 by reason of their sacred unction40 ,but he adds1 8,the ,heathens1 by mistake1 call ,jesus ,christ1 ,chrestus40 ,accordingly1 ,suetonius1 speaking of ,claudius1 and of his expelling the ,jews from ,rome1 says that 8he banished them because they were continually promoting tumults1 under the influence of one ,chrestus30 8,judos1 impulsore ,chresto1 assidu tumultuantes1 ,rom expulit10 taking ,christ to be a proper name4 ,the names of ,messiah and ,christ were originally derived from the ceremony of anointing1 by which the kings and the high priests of ,god's people1 and sometimes the prophets1 #a ,kings xix1 #af1 were consecrated and admitted to the exercise of their functions2 for all these functions were accounted holy among the ,israelites4 ,but the most eminent application of the word is to that illustrious personage1 typified and predicted from the beginning1 who is described by the prophets1 under the character of ,god's ,anointed1 the ,messiah1 or the ,christ4 ,as to the use of the term in the ,new ,testament1 were we to judge by the common version1 or even by most versions into modern tongues1 we should receive it rather as a proper name1 than an appellative1 or name of office1 and should think of it only as our ,lord's surname4 ,to this mistake our translators have contributed1 by too seldom prefixing the article before ,christ4 ,the word ,christ was at first as much an appellative as the word ,baptist1 and the one was as regularly accompanied with the article as the other4 ,yet our translators1 who would always say 8the ,baptist10 have1 it should seem1 studiously avoided saying 8the ,christ40 ,the article1 in such expressions as occur in ,acts xvii1 #c2 xviii1 #e1 #bh1 adds considerable light to them1 and yet no more than what the words of the historian manifestly convey to every reader who understands his language4 ,it should therefore be1 8,paul testified to the ,jews that ,jesus was the ,christ10 or the ,messiah1 c4 ,many other similar instances occur4 ,should it be asked1 ,is the word ,christ never to be understood in the ,new ,testament as a proper name1 but always as having a direct reference to the office or dignity8 it may be replied1 that this word came at length1 from the frequency of application to one individual1 and only to one1 to supply the place of a proper name4 ,it would also very much accelerate this effect1 that the name ,jesus was common among the ,jews at that time1 and this rendered an addition necessary for distinguishing the person4 ,to this purpose1 ,grotius remarks1 that in process of time the name ,jesus was very much dropped1 and ,christ1 which had never been used before as the proper name of any person1 and was1 for that reason1 a better distinction1 was substituted for it2 insomuch that1 among the ,heathens1 our ,lord came to be more known by the latter than by the former4 ,this use seems to have begun soon after his ascension4 ,during his life1 it does not appear that the word was ever used in this manner2 nay1 the contrary is evident from several passages of the ,gospels4 ,the evangelists wrote some years after the period above mentioned2 and therefore they adopted the practice common among ,christians at that time1 which was to employ the word as a surname for the sake of distinction4 ,see ,matt4 i1 #a1 #ah2 ,mark i1 #a4 ,,christian1 a follower of the religion of ,christ4 ,it is probable that the name ,christian1 like that of ,nazarenes and ,galileans1 was given to the disciples of our ,lord in reproach or contempt4 ,what confirms this opinion is1 that the people of ,antioch in ,syria1 ,acts xi1 #bf1 where they were first called ,christians1 are observed by ,zosimus1 ,procopius1 and ,zonaras1 to have been remarkable for their scurrilous jesting4 ,some have indeed thought that this name was given by the disciples to themselves2 others1 that it was imposed on them by divine authority2 in either of which cases surely we should have met with it in the subsequent history of the ,acts1 and in the ,apostolic ,epistles1 all of which were written some years after2 whereas it is found but in two more places in the ,new ,testament1 ,acts xxvi1 #bh1 where a ,jew is the speaker1 and in #a ,pet4 iv1 #af1 where reference appears to be made to the name as imposed upon them by their enemies4 ,the word used1 ,acts xi1 #bf1 signifies simply to be called or named1 and when ,doddridge and a few others take it to imply a divine appointment1 they disregard the usus loquendi established acceptation of the term which gives no support to that opinion4 ,the words of ,tacitus1 when speaking of the ,christians persecuted by ,nero1 are remarkable1 8vulgus ,christianos appellabat10 8the vulgar called them ,christians40 ,epiphanius says1 that they were called ,jesseans1 either from ,jesse1 the father of ,david1 or1 which is much more probable1 from the name of ,jesus1 whose disciples they were4 ,they were denominated ,christians1 ,a4 ,d4 #db or #dc2 and though the name was first given reproachfully1 they gloried in it1 as expressing their adherence to ,christ1 and they soon generally assumed it4 ,,christianity1 the religion of ,christians4 ,by ,christianity is here meant1 not that religious system as it may be understood and set forth in any particular society calling itself ,christian2 but as it is contained in the sacred books acknowledged by all these societies1 or churches1 and which contained the only authorized rule of faith and practice4 #b4 ,the lofty profession which ,christianity makes as a religion1 and the promises it holds forth to mankind1 entitle it to the most serious consideration of all4 ,for it may in truth be said1 that no other religion presents itself under aspects so sublime1 or such as are calculated to awaken desires and hopes so enlarged and magnificent4 ,it not only professes to be from ,god1 but to have been taught to men by the ,son of ,god incarnate in our nature1 the ,second ,person in the adorable trinity of divine ,persons1 8the same in substance1 equal in power and glory40 ,it declares that this divine personage is the appointed ,redeemer of mankind from sin1 death1 and misery2 that he was announced as such to our first parents upon their lapse from the innocence and blessedness of their primeval state2 that he was exhibited to the faith and hope of the patriarchs in express promises2 and1 by the institution of sacrifices1 as a propitiatory sacrifice for the sins of the whole world1 so that man might be reconciled to ,god through ,him1 and restored to his forfeited inheritance of eternal life4 ,it represents all former dispensations of true religion1 all revelations of ,god's will1 and all promises of grace from ,god to man1 as emanating from the anticipated sacrifice and sacerdotal intercession of its ,author1 and as all preparatory to the introduction of his perfect religion2 and that as to the great political movements among the nations of antiquity1 the rise and fall of empires were all either remotely or proximately connected with the designs of his advent among men4 ,it professes to have completed the former revelations of ,god's will and purposes2 to have accomplished ancient prophecies2 fulfilled ancient types2 and taken up the glory of the ,mosaic religion into its own 8glory that excelleth20 and to contain within itself a perfect system of faith1 morals1 and acceptable worship4 ,it not only exhibits so effectual a sacrifice for sin1 that remission of all offences against ,god flows from its merits to all who heartily confide in it2 but it proclaims itself to be a remedy for all the moral disorders of our fallen nature2 it casts out every vice1 implants every virtue1 and restores man to 8the image of ,god in which he was created10 even to 8righteousness and true holiness40 #c4 ,its promises both to individuals and to society are of the largest kind4 ,it represents its ,founder as now exercising the office of the ,high ,priest of the human race before ,god1 and as having sat down at his right hand1 a mediatorial and reconciling government being committed to him1 until he shall come to judge all nations1 and distribute the rewards of eternity to his followers1 and inflict its never-terminating punishments upon those who reject him4 ,by virtue of this constitution of things1 it promises pardon to the guilty1 of every age and country1 who seek it in penitence and prayer1 comfort to the afflicted and troubled1 victory over the fear of death1 a happy intermediate state to the disembodied spirit1 and finally the resurrection of the body from the dead1 and honour and immortality to be conferred upon the whole man glorified in the immediate presence of ,god4 ,it holds out the loftiest hopes also as to the world at large4 ,it promises to introduce harmony among families and nations1 to terminate all wars and all oppressions1 and ultimately to fill the world with truth1 order1 and purity4 ,it represents the present and past state of society1 as in contest with its own principles of justice1 mercy1 and truth2 but teaches the final triumph of the latter over every thing contrary to itself4 ,it exhibits the ambition1 the policy1 and the restlessness of statesmen and warriors1 as but the overruled instruments by which it is working out its own purposes of wisdom and benevolence2 and it not only defies the proudest array of human power1 but professes to subordinate it by a secret and irresistible working to its own designs4 ,finally1 it exhibits itself as enlarging its plans1 and completing its designs1 by moral suasion1 the evidence of its truth1 and the secret divine influence which accompanies it4 ,such are the professions and promises of ,christianity1 a religion which enters into no compromise with other systems2 which represents itself as the only religion now in the world having ,god for its author2 and in his name2 and by the hope of his mercy1 and the terrors of his frown1 it commands the obedience of faith to all people to whom it is published upon the solemn sanction1 8,he that believeth shall be saved1 and he that believeth not shall be damned40 #d4 ,corresponding with these professions1 which throw every other religion that pretends to offer hope to man into utter insignificance1 it is allowed that the evidences of its truth ought to be adequate to sustain the weight of so vast a fabric1 and that men have a right to know that they are not deluded with a grand and impressive theory1 but are receiving from this professed system of truth and salvation 8the true sayings of ,god40 ,such evidence it has afforded in its splendid train of miracles2 in its numerous appeals to the fulfilment of ancient ,,prophecies2 in its own powerful ,,internal ,,evidence2 in the ,,influence which it has always exercised1 and continues to exert1 upon the happiness of mankind2 and in various collateral circumstances4 ,under the heads of ,miracles and ,prophecy1 those important branches of evidence will be discussed1 and to them the reader is referred4 ,it is only necessary here to say1 that the miracles to which ,christianity appeals as proofs of its divine authority1 are not only those which were wrought by ,christ and his ,apostles1 but also those which took place among the patriarchs1 under the law of ,moses1 and by the ministry of the ,prophets2 for the religion of those ancient times was but ,christianity in its antecedent revelations4 ,all these miracles1 therefore1 must be taken collectively1 and present attestations of the loftiest kind1 as being manifestly the work of the 8finger of ,god10 wrought under circumstances which precluded mistake1 and exhibiting an immense variety1 from the staying of the very wheels of the planetary system1--as when the sun and moon paused in their course1 and the shadow on the dial of ,ahaz went backward1--to the supernatural changes wrought upon the elements of matter1 the healing of incurable diseases1 the expulsion of tormenting demons1 and the raising of the dead4 ,magnificent as this array of miracles is1 it is equalled by the prophetic evidence1 founded upon the acknowledged principle1 that future and distant contingencies can only be known to that ,being1 one of whose attributes is an absolute prescience4 ,and here1 too1 the variety and the grandeur presented by the prophetic scheme exhibit attestations to the truth of ,christianity suited to its great claims and its elevated character4 ,within the range of prophetic vision all time is included1 to the final consummation of all things2 and the greatest as well as the smallest events are seen with equal distinctness1 from the subversion of mighty empires and gigantic cities1 to the parting of the raiment of our ,lord1 and the casting of the lot for his robe by the ,roman guard stationed at his cross4 #e4 ,these subjects are discussed under the articles assigned to them2 as also the ,,internal ,,evidence of the truth of ,christianity1 which arises from the excellence and beneficial tendency of its doctrines4 ,of its just and sublime conceptions and exhibitions of the divine character2 of the truth of that view of the moral state of man upon which its disciplinary treatment is founded2 of the correspondence that there is between its views of man's mixed relation to ,god as a sinful creature1 and yet pitied and cared for1 and that actual mixture of good and evil1 penalty and forbearance1 which the condition of the world presents2 of the connection of its doctrine of atonement with hope2 of the adaptation of its doctrine of divine influence to the moral condition of mankind when rightly understood1 and the affecting benevolence and condescension which it implies2 and of its noble and sanctifying revelations of the blessedness of a future life1 much might be said3--they are subjects indeed on which volumes have been written1 and they can never be exhausted4 ,but we confine ourselves to the ,,moral ,,tendency1 and the consequent ,,beneficial ,,influence1 of ,christianity4 ,no where except in the ,scriptures have we a perfect system of morals2 and the deficiencies of ,pagan morality only exalt the purity1 the comprehensiveness1 the practicability of ours4 ,the character of the ,being acknowledged as supreme must always impress itself upon moral feeling and practice2 the obligation of which rests upon his will4 ,the ,god of the ,bible is 8holy10 without spot2 8just10 without partiality2 8good10 boundlessly benevolent and beneficent2 and his law is the image of himself1 8holy1 just1 and good40 ,these great moral qualities are not made known to us merely in the abstract1 so as to be comparatively feeble in their influence3 but in the person of ,christ1 our ,god1 incarnate1 they are seen exemplified in action1 displaying themselves amidst human relations1 and the actual circumstances of human life4 ,with ,pagans the authority of moral rules was either the opinion of the wise1 or the tradition of the ancient1 confirmed1 it is true1 in some degree1 by observation and experience2 but to us1 they are given as commands immediately issuing from the supreme ,governor1 and ratified as his by the most solemn and explicit attestations4 ,with them many great moral principles1 being indistinctly apprehended1 were matters of doubt and debate2 to us1 the explicit manner in which they are given excludes both3 for it cannot be questioned1 whether we are commanded to love our neighbour as ourselves2 to do to others as we would that they should do to us1 a precept which comprehends almost all relative morality in one plain principle2 to forgive our enemies2 to love all mankind2 to live righteously and soberly1 as well as godly2 that magistrates must be a terror only to evil doers1 and a praise to them that do well2 that subjects are to render honour to whom honour1 and tribute to whom tribute1 is due2 that masters are to be just and merciful1 and servants faithful and obedient4 ,these1 and many other familiar precepts1 are too explicit to be mistaken1 and too authoritative to be disputed2 two of the most powerful means of rendering law effectual4 ,those who never enjoyed the benefit of revelation1 never conceived justly and comprehensively of that moral state of the heart from which right and beneficent conduct alone can flow2 and therefore when they speak of the same virtues as those enjoined by ,christianity1 they are to be understood as attaching to them a lower idea4 ,in this the infinite superiority of ,christianity displays itself4 ,the principle of obedience is not only a sense of duty to ,god1 and the fear of his displeasure2 but a tender love1 excited by his infinite compassions to us in the gift of his ,son1 which shrinks from offending4 ,to this influential motive as a reason of obedience1 is added another1 drawn from its end3 one not less influential1 but which ,heathen moralists never knew1--the testimony that we please ,god1 manifested in the acceptance of our prayers1 and in spiritual and felicitous communion with him4 ,by ,christianity1 impurity of thought and desire is restrained in an equal degree as are their overt acts in the lips and conduct4 ,humanity1 meekness1 gentleness1 placability1 disinterestedness1 and charity are all as clearly and solemnly enjoined as the grosser vices are prohibited2 and on the unruly tongue itself is impressed 8the law of kindness40 ,nor are the injunctions feeble2 they are strictly ,,law1 and not mere advice and recommendations3 8,without holiness no man shall see the ,lord20 and thus our entrance into heaven1 and our escape from perdition1 are made to depend upon this preparation of mind4 ,to all this is added possibility1 nay certainty1 of attainment1 if we use the appointed means4 ,a ,pagan could draw1 though not with lines so perfect1 a beau ideal of virtue1 which he never thought attainable2 but the 8full assurance of hope0 is given by the religion of ,christ to all who are seeking the moral renovation of their nature2 because 8it is ,god that worketh in us to will and to do of his good pleasure40 #f4 ,when such is the moral nature of ,christianity1 how obvious is it that its tendency both as to individuals and to society must be in the highest sense beneficial6 ,from every passion which wastes1 and burns1 and frets1 and enfeebles the spirit1 the individual is set free1 and his inward peace renders his obedience cheerful and voluntary3 and we might appeal to infidels themselves1 whether1 if the moral principles of the ,gospel were wrought into the hearts1 and embodied in the conduct1 of all men1 the world would not be happy2 whether if governments ruled1 and subjects obeyed1 by the laws of ,christ2 whether if the rules of strict justice which are enjoined upon us regulated all the transactions of men1 and all that mercy to the distressed which we are taught to feel and to practise came into operation2 and whether1 if the precepts which delineate and enforce the duties of husbands1 wives1 masters1 servants1 parents1 children1 did1 in fact1 fully and generally govern all these relations1--whether a better age than that called golden by the poets1 would not then be realized1 and ,virgil's ,jam redit et ,virgo1 redeunt ,saturnia regna1 ,now ,astraea returns1 and the ,saturnian reign1 be far too weak to express the mighty change8 ,it was in the reign of ,saturn that the ,heathen poets fixed the golden age4 ,at that period1 according to them1 ,astraea1 7the goddess of justice17 and many other deities lived on earth2 but being offended with the wickedness of men1 they successively fled to heaven4 ,astraea staid longest1 but at last retired to her native seat1 and was translated into the sign ,virgo1 next to ,libra1 who holds her balance4 ,such is the tendency of ,christianity4 ,on immense numbers of individuals it has superinduced these moral changes2 all nations1 where it has been fully and faithfully exhibited1 bear1 amidst their remaining vices1 the impress of its hallowing and benevolent influence3 it is now in active exertion in many of the darkest and worst parts of the earth1 to convey the same blessings2 and he who would arrest its progress1 were he able1 would quench the only hope which remains to our world1 and prove himself an enemy1 not only to himself1 but to all mankind4 ,what then1 we ask1 does all this prove1 but that the ,scriptures are worthy of ,god1 and propose the very ends which rendered a revelation necessary8 ,of the whole system of practical religion which it contains we may say1 as of that which is embodied in our ,lord's sermon on the mount1 in the words of one1 who1 in a course of sermons on that divine composition1 has entered most deeply into its spirit1 and presented a most instructive delineation of the character which it was intended to form3 8,behold ,christianity in its native form1 as delivered by its great ,author4 ,see a picture of ,god1 as far as he is imitable by man1 drawn by ,god's own hand4 ,what beauty appears in the whole6 ,how just a symmetry6 ,what exact proportion in every part6 ,how desirable is the happiness here described6 ,how venerable1 how lovely is the holiness60 8,if10 says ,bishop ,taylor1 8wisdom1 and mercy1 and justice1 and simplicity1 and holiness1 and purity1 and meekness1 and contentedness1 and charity1 be images of ,god1 and rays of divinity1 then that doctrine1 in which all these shine so gloriously1 and in which nothing else is ingredient1 must needs be from ,god4 ,if the holy ,jesus had come into the world with less splendour of power and mighty demonstrations1 yet the excellency of what he taught makes him alone fit to be the ,master of the world20 and agreeable to all this1 has been its actual influence upon mankind4 ,although1 says ,bishop ,porteus1 ,christianity has not always been so well understood1 or so honestly practised1 as it ought to have been2 although its spirit has been often mistaken1 and its precepts misapplied1 yet1 under all these disadvantages1 it has gradually produced a visible change in those points which most materially concern the peace and quiet of the world4 ,its beneficent spirit has spread itself through all the different relations and modifications of life1 and communicated its kindly influence to almost every public and private concern of mankind4 ,it has insensibly worked itself into the inmost frame and constitution of civil states4 ,it has given a tinge to the complexion of their governments1 to the temper and administration of their laws4 ,it has restrained the spirit of the prince1 and the madness of the people4 ,it has softened the rigours of despotism1 and tamed the insolence of conquest4 ,it has1 in some degree1 taken away the edge of the sword1 and thrown even over the horrors of war a veil of mercy4 ,it has descended into families2 has diminished the pressure of private tyranny2 improved every domestic endearment2 given tenderness to the parent1 humanity to the master1 respect to superiors1 to inferiors ease2 so that mankind are1 upon the whole1 even in a temporal view1 under infinite obligations to the mild and pacific temper of the ,gospel1 and have reaped from it more substantial worldly benefits than from any other institution upon earth4 ,as one proof of this1 among many others1 consider only the shocking carnage made in the human species by the exposure of infants1 the gladiatorial shows1 which sometimes cost ,rome twenty or thirty lives in a month2 and the exceedingly cruel usage of slaves allowed and practised by the ancient ,pagans4 ,these were not the accidental and temporary excesses of a sudden fury1 but were legal and established1 and constant methods of murdering and tormenting mankind4 ,had ,christianity done nothing more than brought into disuse1 as it confessedly has done1 the two former of these inhuman customs entirely1 and the latter to a very great degree1 it has justly merited the title of the benevolent religion4 ,but this is far from being all4 ,throughout the more enlightened parts of ,christendom there prevails a gentleness of manners widely different from the ferocity of the most civilized nations of antiquity2 and that liberality with which every species of distress is relieved1 is a virtue peculiar to the ,christian name4 ,but we may ask farther1 ,what success has it had on the mind of man1 as it respects his eternal welfare8 ,how many thousands have felt its power1 rejoiced in its benign influence1 and under its dictates been constrained to devote themselves to the glory and praise of ,god6 ,burdened with guilt1 incapable of finding relief from human resources1 the mind has here found peace unspeakable in beholding that sacrifice which alone could atone for transgression4 ,here the hard and impenitent heart has been softened1 the impetuous passions restrained1 the ferocious temper subdued1 powerful prejudices conquered1 ignorance dispelled1 and the obstacles to real happiness removed4 ,here the ,christian1 looking round on the glories and blandishments of this world1 has been enabled1 with a noble contempt1 to despise all4 ,here death itself1 the king of terrors1 has lost his sting2 and the soul1 with a holy magnanimity1 has borne up in the agonies of a dying hour1 and sweetly sung itself away to everlasting bliss4 ,in respect to its future spread1 we have reason to believe that all nations shall feel its happy effects4 ,the prophecies are pregnant with matter as to this belief4 ,it seems that not only a nation1 or a country1 but the whole habitable globe1 shall become the kingdom of our ,god1 and of his ,christ4 ,and who is there that has ever known the excellency of this system2 who is there that has ever experienced its happy efficacy2 who is there that has ever been convinced of its divine origin1 its delightful nature and peaceful tendency1 but must join the benevolent and royal poet in saying1 8,let the whole earth be filled with its glory8 ,amen and amen60 #g4 ,among the collateral proofs of the truth and divine origin of ,christianity1 its rapid and wonderful success justly holds an important place4 ,of its early triumphs1 the history of the ,acts of the ,apostles is a splendid record2 and in process of time it made a wonderful progress through ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa4 ,in the third century there were ,christians in the camp1 in the senate1 and in the palace2 in short1 every where1 as we are informed1 except in the temples and the theatres3 they filled the towns1 the country1 and the islands4 ,men and women of all ages and ranks1 and even those of the first dignity1 embraced the ,christian faith2 insomuch that the ,pagans complained that the revenues of their temples were ruined4 ,they were in such great numbers in the empire1 that1 as ,tertullian expresses it1 if they had retired into another country1 they would have left the ,romans only a frightful solitude4 7,see the next article47 ,for the illustration of this argument1 we may observe1 that the ,christian religion was introduced every where in opposition to the sword of the magistrate1 the craft and interest of the priests1 the pride of the philosophers1 the passions and prejudices of the people1 all closely combined in support of the national worship1 and to crush the ,christian faith1 which aimed at the subversion of ,heathenism and idolatry4 ,moreover1 this religion was not propagated in the dark1 by persons who tacitly endeavoured to deceive the credulous2 nor delivered out by little and little1 so that one doctrine might prepare the way for the reception of another2 but it was fully and without disguise laid before men all at once1 that they might judge of the whole under one view4 ,consequently mankind were not deluded into the belief of it1 but received it upon proper examination and conviction4 ,beside1 the ,gospel was first preached and first believed by multitudes in ,judea1 where ,jesus exercised his ministry1 and where every individual had the means of knowing whether the things that were told him were matters of fact2 and in this country1 the scene of the principal transactions on which its credibility depended1 the history of ,christ could never have been received1 unless it had been true1 and known to all as truth4 ,again3 the doctrine and history of ,jesus were preached and believed in the most noted countries and cities of the world1 in the very age when he is said to have lived4 ,on the fiftieth day after our ,lord's crucifixion1 three thousand persons were converted in ,jerusalem by a single sermon of the ,apostles2 and a few weeks after this1 five thousand who believed were present at another sermon preached also in ,jerusalem1 ,acts ii1 #da2 iv1 #d2 vi1 #g2 viii1 #a2 ix1 #a1 #bj4 ,about eight or ten years after our ,lord's death1 the disciples were become so numerous at ,jerusalem and in the adjacent country1 that they were objects of jealousy and alarm to ,herod himself1 ,acts xii1 #a4 ,in the twenty-second year after the crucifixion1 the disciples in ,judea are said to have been many myriads1 ,acts xxi1 #bj4 ,the age in which ,christianity was introduced and received1 was famous for men whose faculties were improved by the most perfect state of social life1 but who were good judges of the evidence offered in support of the facts recorded in the ,gospel history4 ,for it should be recollected1 that the success of the ,gospel was not restricted to ,judea2 but it was preached in all the different provinces of the ,roman empire4 ,the first triumphs of ,christianity were in the heart of ,greece itself1 the nursery of learning and the polite arts2 for churches were planted at a very early period at ,corinth1 ,ephesus1 ,bera1 ,thessalonica1 and ,philippi4 ,even ,rome herself1 the seat of wealth and empire1 was not able to resist the force of truth at a time when the facts related were recent1 and when they might1 if they had been false1 have easily been disproved4 ,from ,greece and ,rome1 at a period of cultivation and refinement1 of general peace1 and extensive intercourse1 when one great empire united different nations and distant people1 the confutation of these facts would very soon have passed from one country to another1 to the utter confusion of the persons who endeavoured to propagate the belief of them4 ,nor ought it to be forgotten that the religion to which such numbers were proselyted1 was an exclusive one4 ,it denied1 without reserve1 the truth of every article of ,heathen mythology1 and the existence of every object of their worship4 ,it accepted no compromise2 it admitted of no comprehension4 ,if it prevailed at all1 it must prevail by the overthrow of every statue1 altar1 and temple in the world4 ,it pronounced all other gods to be false1 and all other worship vain4 ,these are considerations which must have strengthened the opposition to it2 augmented the hostility which it must encounter2 and enhanced the difficulty of gaining proselytes3 and more especially when we recollect1 that among the converts to ,christianity in the earliest age1 a number of persons remarkable for their station1 office1 genius1 education1 and fortune1 and who were personally interested by their emoluments and honours in either ,judaism or ,heathenism1 appeared among the ,christian proselytes4 ,its evidences approved themselves1 not only to the multitude1 but to men of the most refined sense and most distinguished abilities2 and it dissolved the attachments which all powerful interest and authority created and upheld4 ,among the proselytes to ,christianity we find ,nicodemus1 and ,joseph of ,arimathea1 members of the senate of ,israel2 ,jairus1 a ruler of the synagogue2 ,zaccheus1 the chief of the publicans at ,jericho2 ,apollos1 distinguished for eloquence2 ,paul1 learned in the ,jewish law2 ,sergius ,paulus1 governor of the island of ,cyprus2 ,cornelius1 a ,roman captain2 ,dionysius1 a judge and senator of the ,athenian areopagus2 ,erastus1 treasurer of ,corinth2 ,tyrannus1 a teacher of grammar and rhetoric at ,corinth2 ,publius1 governor of ,malta2 ,philemon1 a person of considerable rank at ,colosse2 ,simon1 a noted sophist in ,samaria2 ,zenas1 a lawyer2 and even the domestics of the emperor himself4 ,these are noticed in the sacred writings2 and the ,heathen historians also mention some persons of great note who were converted at an early period4 ,to all the preceding circumstances we may add a consideration of peculiar moment1 which is1 that the profession of ,christianity led all1 without exception1 to renounce the pleasures and honours of the world1 and to expose themselves to the most ignominious sufferings4 ,and now1 without adding any more to this argument1 we may ask1 ,how could the ,christian religion have thus prevailed had it not been introduced by the power of ,god and of truth8 ,and it has been supported in the world by the same power through a course of many ages1 amidst the treachery of its friends1 the opposition of its enemies1 the dangers of prosperous periods1 and the persecutions and violence of adverse circumstances2 all which must have destroyed it1 if it had not been founded in truth1 and guarded by the protection of an almighty ,providence4 ,,christianity3 ,sketch of its ,history4 ,the ,christian religion was published by its great ,author in ,judea1 a short time before the death of ,herod the ,great1 and toward the conclusion of the long reign of ,augustus4 ,while other religions had been accommodated to the peculiar countries in which they had taken their origin1 and had indeed generally grown out of incidents connected with the history of those to whom they were addressed1 ,christianity was so framed as to be adapted to the whole human race2 and although1 for the wisest reasons1 it was first announced to the ,jews1 who had peculiar advantages for forming an accurate judgment with regard to it1 it was early declared that1 in conformity to predictions which had long been known1 and long interpreted1 as referring to a new communication of the divine will1 it was to be a light to lighten the ,gentiles1 and was to carry salvation to the ends of the earth4 ,although ,christianity originated in ,judea1 it was not long confined within the narrow limits of the ,holy ,land4 ,the open manner in which it was announced1 the length of time during which its ,author publicly addressed his countrymen1 the innumerable miracles which he performed1 and1 above all1 the report of the resurrection under circumstances which must have been communicated to the imperial government at ,rome1 excited the deep attention of the numerous ,jews and proselytes who1 from surrounding nations1 regularly went up to ,jerusalem1 and of whom vast numbers were actually in that city when the resurrection must have been the subject of universal discussion4 ,they very naturally carried to the different countries in which they usually resided1 the astonishing intelligence with which they had been furnished2 and provision was soon made for fulfilling the prediction which ,jesus had uttered1 that his ,gospel would1 before the destruction of ,jerusalem1 be circulated and embraced by many through the wide extent of the ,roman empire4 ,the ,apostle ,peter1 in consequence of what he knew to be a solemn injunction from ,heaven1 communicated to a ,gentile the truths of ,christianity4 ,st4 ,paul1 who had distinguished himself by his enmity to the ,christians1 and by the cruelty with which he had persecuted them1 having been converted1 devoted himself to lay the foundations of the ,gospel through a large portion of the most enlightened part of the world2 and the miraculous gift of tongues1 by which humble and illiterate men found themselves at once able to speak the languages of different nations1 left no doubt that they were bound to preach their faith as extensively as had been marked out to them by the last instructions which they had received from their ,master4 ,they had to struggle with the most formidable difficulties in prosecuting this undertaking2 for which1 had they trusted merely to their own strength1 and their own natural endowments1 they were wholly unqualified4 #b4 ,the ,roman empire at the period of their commencing the attempt1 comprehended almost the whole of the civilized world1 and thus included within it nations whose habits1 customs1 and sentiments essentially differed1 and whom it required the most dexterous policy to unite in one community1 or to subject to one government4 ,the most effectual method by which1 during the commonwealth1 and at the rise of the empire1 this had been accomplished1 was a politic respect to the religious opinions which all these nations entertained4 ,not only were their modes of worship treated with scrupulous reverence1 but their gods1 in conformity with the genius of ,paganism1 were incorporated or associated with the deities of ,rome1 and they were thus joined to their conquerors by the strongest ties by which the affections can be secured4 ,at all times religion had been an object of prominent interest with the ,romans3 at the foundation of the city1 ,romulus had professed to be directed by ,heaven3 during the whole period of the republic1 the most sacred attention had been paid to the rites and ceremonies sanctioned by the prevailing superstition1 the prosperity of the state was invariably ascribed to the protection of the gods1 and the most impressive solemnities1 combined with the richest splendour and magnificence1 cast around polytheism a mysterious sanctity1 which even the philosophers affected to revere4 ,precautions accordingly had been early taken to prevent innovations upon the established ritual2 foreign rites were prohibited till they had obtained the sanction of the senate2 and when the solicitation of this sanction was neglected1 the persons guilty of the neglect were frequently punished4 ,from the nature of ,paganism1 it was perfectly consistent with its spirit to conjoin1 with any particular mode of it1 the forms which elsewhere prevailed4 ,these additions left all which had been previously honoured in unimpaired vigour and influence1 and1 in fact1 only increased the appearance of profound regard for religion1 which the ,romans so long assumed4 ,but this part of the political constitution1 lightly as it affected other religions1 at once struck at the root of ,christianity1 which1 unlike the prevailing modifications of idolatry1 prohibited the worship of all the deities before whose altars mankind had for ages bent1 and required1 as essential for obtaining the divine favour1 that they who believed in it should pay undivided homage to the one ,god1 whose existence it revealed4 ,the extension of the ,gospel thus necessarily carried with it opposition to the most ancient and most revered law of the empire1 and it was impossible for those who judged of it merely from this circumstance1 without investigating its nature and tendency1 to hesitate in directing against it the statutes which the zeal of their fathers had provided1 to prevent such a revolution as would be produced by so thorough and so alarming a change in their religious principles4 ,no sooner1 however1 had the message of salvation been addressed indiscriminately to all men1 and1 from the evidence by which it was accompanied1 had brought numbers to acknowledge the heavenly source from which it is derived1 than the detestation of it previously entertained burst forth in all its violence2 and it is apparent that this had been widely and openly expressed before any imperial edicts were directed against the ,christians4 ,tacitus1 in the celebrated passage in which he mentions the disciples of ,jesus1 and which refers to a period not more than thirty years distant from the ascension1 represents it as notorious in ,rome1 that ,christ1 during the reign of ,tiberius1 had been put to death as a criminal2 he asserts that his adherents had long been odious on account of their enormities2 he laments that their destructive superstition had found its way to the capital of the empire2 and he attributes the melancholy fate to which they were condemned to the general persuasion1 that they were actuated by hatred to the whole human race4 ,it is necessary to keep this fact steadily in view1 to form an accurate idea of that opposition which ,christianity had to encounter4 ,this opposition is not to be estimated merely by reference to particular statutes1 or even to be considered as fully exhibited when we have gathered together the public proceedings which have been recorded in history1 or deplored in the writings of those who sought to avert them4 ,it is to be remembered that even when the laws which the frantic zeal of some of the emperors had enacted were repealed1 the general law of the empire was still in force2 that it was competent for every one who had the cruelty to do so1 to turn it against the ,christians2 and that the firm1 though mistaken1 conviction that the ,christian profession involved in it the most revolting impiety1 the most tremendous guilt1 and the most dangerous hostility to the best interests of the state1 would lead numbers to indulge their antipathy1 when little notice was taken of the sufferers1 and would keep the disciples of the hated faith in a state of unceasing alarm4 7,see ,persecution47 ,what was the effect of this depressing situation8 ,did it check the dissemination of the ,gospel1 or confine it to the men by whom it was preached8 ,so far was this from being the case1 that from the period of the death1 and1 as it must here he termed1 the alleged resurrection of ,jesus1 it was embraced by immense numbers in all the countries to which it was conveyed2 and even while they were contemplating the sacrifices and the trials to which1 by attaching themselves to it1 they would be exposed1 they did not hesitate to relinquish the religion in which they had been educated1 and to exchange for misery and death all the comforts which the strongest feelings and propensities of our nature lead men to value and to pursue4 ,finally1 imperial ,rome bowed to the religion it had persecuted1 and the emperor ,constantine became a ,christian4 #c4 ,the propagation of ,christianity assumes a new aspect after it became the religion of the empire1 and was guarded by the protection and surrounded by the munificence of imperial power4 ,the causes which1 in the first stage of its existence1 had most powerfully acted against it1 were now turned to its support2 and all the motives by which men are usually guided led them to enter with1 at least1 apparent conviction into its sanctuaries4 ,not only was persecution1 after the reign of ,constantine1 at an end1 but with the exception of the short reign of ,julian1 who1 having apostatized from ,christianity1 and become intoxicated with the fascinating speculations of the ,platonic philosophy1 was eager to raise the temples which his predecessor had laid in ruins1 promotion and wealth and honour could be most effectually secured by transferring to the ,gospel the zeal which had been in vain exhausted to preserve the sinking fabric of ,paganism and idolatry4 ,the emperors1 who had displayed their zeal and their attachment to the religion of ,jesus1 by forcing their own subjects to profess it1 conceived it to be their duty to communicate so great a blessing to all the nations which they could influence2 and when they found it necessary to declare war against the savage tribes which pressed upon the frontiers1 or forced themselves within the precincts of the empire1 they carried on hostilities with the view of rendering these instrumental no less to the diffusion of their religious tenets1 than to the vindication of their authority1 and the security of their dominions4 ,the vanquished invaders felt little reluctance to purchase the forbearance or the clemency of their conquerors1 by submitting to receive their religion2 and this species of conversion1 so little connected with the great objects which revelation was designed to accomplish1 leaving1 in fact1 all the gross superstitious practices and all the immoral abominations which had previously existed1 was boastfully held forth as a decisive proof of the triumph of the ,gospel4 #d4 ,the foundation of the empire1 not long after the days of ,constantine1 began to be shaken3 and it experienced numberless assaults and convulsions1 till it was finally divided into the eastern and western empires4 ,the luxury and wealth which had enervated their possessors1 and destroyed the heroism and intrepidity by which their ancestors had been distinguished1 presented the most powerful temptations to the lawless bands which1 driven from the sterile regions of the north of ,europe1 had pressed forward to seek for new and more favoured habitations4 ,the feeble attempts to turn aside1 by bribery1 these ferocious barbarians increased the danger which they were intended to remove2 and the history of ,europe presents1 for several ages1 the disgusting spectacle of war1 conducted with an atrocity eclipsing the stern virtues which sometimes were strikingly displayed4 ,but although the insubordination of this turbulent and sanguinary period was little favourable to the mild influence of genuine ,christianity1 it did not prove so fatal to it as might have been apprehended2 and it was even instrumental in extending its nominal dominion4 ,mankind1 when scarcely emerged from barbarism1 and attached to no particular country1 but seeking wherever it can be found the food necessary for themselves and the flocks upon which they in a great measure depend1 although they entertain those sentiments with regard to religion which seem almost interwoven with our nature1 feel little attachment to any one system of superstition1 and are open to the reception of new doctrines1 which an association with what they value may have led them to venerate4 ,when1 accordingly1 the tribes which finally overran the ,roman empire had ceased from the destructive contests by which they got possession of the regions that had long been blessed with civilization and enlightened by science1 they surveyed with amazement and with admiration the people whom they had conquered2 they were delighted with the luxuries which abounded among them2 they were charmed with their manners and customs2 and they eagerly conformed to institutions from which they hoped that they should reap what the original inhabitants of their settlement had enjoyed4 ,the religion of the vanquished they contemplated with reverence2 they connected it with the wealth1 the refinement1 and the power which they saw spread around them2 and they easily exchanged the rude and careless worship of their native deities1 for the polished and splendid devotional rites1 which1 with the most imposing solemnity1 were celebrated by the ,christians4 ,hence1 they soon embraced the religion by which it was believed that these rites were prescribed2 and they communicated it to the nations with whom they still maintained an alliance4 ,there is no doubt that motives very little connected with the conviction of the understanding led to the progress of ,christianity now described2 and1 in fact1 that progress was occasioned by causes so different from those which should have produced it1 that1 had circumstances been changed1 and had the religion of ,jesus been continued to be persecuted by the most powerful states1 multitudes who affected to revere it would1 upon the same ground on which their veneration rested1 have exerted themselves to deride its tenets1 and to exterminate its professors4 #e4 ,but it was not the secular arm alone that was stretched forth to lead men to the reception of ,christianity4 ,the church1 after it had been firmly established1 and had1 amidst the riches and honours with which it was endowed1 forgotten that it should not have been of this world1 conceived it incumbent1 as an evidence of its zeal1 or1 as was too often the case1 for extending its power and its influence1 to make attempts to substitute the cross of ,christ for the emblems of ,paganism4 ,in accomplishing this object1 it employed different means4 ,but although the conversions which took place1 from the establishment of ,christianity till the restoration of learning1 or the reformation1 which forms a new ra in the dissemination of the ,gospel1 were often unfortunately very far from planting the word of life in the hearts of those to whom it was conveyed1 they were very extensive4 ,they reached to almost every country in ,europe2 to ,arabia1 ,china1 ,judea1 and many other parts of ,asia2 and the obscure tribes1 to whom no missionaries were despatched1 gradually conformed to the religion of those more powerful states upon which they depended1 or to which they looked with respect or veneration4 #f4 ,mohammedanism1 however1 arrested the progress of ,christianity in some of these countries1 and humbled it and oppressed it in others2 but since the reformation1 and especially within the last century1 it has been extended1 not so much by conquest1 as by the legitimate means of colonization1 and by missions and education1 to the most distant and important parts of the world1 to ,china1 ,india1 ,africa1 the ,american ,islands1 and those of the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,the zeal1 self-denial1 and successes1 of those missionaries1 who have been sent forth within a few years by various ,protestant societies1 and their great successes form1 indeed1 a splendid section in the modern history of the church4 ,they have sown the seed in almost every land1 and the fruit has spread itself throughout the world4 ,,chronicles1 ,books of4 ,this name is given to two historical books of ,scripture1 which the ,hebrews call ,dibri-,jamim1 8,words of ,days10 that is1 8,diaries10 or 8,journals40 ,they are called in the ,,lxx1 ,paralipomena1 which signifies1 8things omitted20 as if these books were a supplement of what had been omitted1 or too much abridged1 in the books of ,kings1 and other historical books of ,scripture4 ,and1 indeed1 we find in them many particulars which are not extant elsewhere3 but it must not be thought that these are the records1 or books of the acts1 of the kings of ,judah and ,israel1 so often referred to4 ,those ancient registers were much more extensive than these are2 and the books of ,chronicles themselves refer to those original memoirs1 and make long extracts from them4 ,they were compiled1 and probably by ,ezra1 from the ancient chronicles of the kings of ,judah and ,israel just now mentioned1 and they may be considered as a kind of supplement to the preceding books of ,scripture4 ,the former part of the first book of ,chronicles contains a great variety of genealogical tables1 beginning with ,adam2 and in particular gives a circumstantial account of the twelve tribes1 which must have been very valuable to the ,jews after their return from captivity4 ,the descendants of ,abraham1 ,isaac1 ,jacob1 and ,david1 from all of whom it was predicted that the ,saviour of the world should be born1 are here marked with precision4 ,these genealogies occupy the first nine chapters1 and in the tenth is recorded the death of ,saul ,from the eleventh chapter to the end of the book1 we have a history of the reign of ,david1 with a detailed statement of his preparation for the building of the temple1 of his regulations respecting the priests and ,levites1 and his appointment of musicians for the public service of religion4 ,the second book of ,chronicles contains a brief sketch of the ,jewish history1 from the accession of ,solomon to the return from the ,babylonian captivity1 being a period of four hundred and eighty years2 and in both these books we find many particulars not noticed in the other historical books of ,scripture4 ,,chrysolite1 ,rev4 xxi1 #bj1 a precious stone of a golden colour4 ,schroder says it is the gem now called the ,indian topaz1 which is of a yellowish green colour1 and very beautiful4 ,,chrysoprasus1 ,rev4 xxi1 #bj1 a precious stone1 which ,pliny classes among the beryls2 the best of which1 he says1 are of a sea-green colour2 after these he mentions the chrysoberyls1 which are a little paler1 inclining to golden colour2 and next1 a sort still paler1 and by some reckoned a distinct species1 and called chrysoprasus4 ,,church4 ,the ,greek word 1 so rendered1 denotes an assembly met about business1 whether spiritual or temporal1 ,acts xix1 #cb1 #ci4 ,it is understood also of the collective body of ,christians1 or all those over the face of the earth who profess to believe in ,christ1 and acknowledge him to be the ,saviour of mankind2 this is called the visible church4 ,but by the word church1 we are more strictly to understand the whole body of ,god's true people1 in every period of time3 this is the invisible or spiritual church4 ,the people of ,god on earth are called the church militant1 and those in heaven the church triumphant4 ,it has been remarked by ,dr4 ,john ,owen1 that sin having entered into the world1 ,god was pleased to found his church 7the catholic or universal church7 in the promise of the ,messiah given to ,adam2 that this promise contained in it something of the nature of a covenant1 including the grace which ,god designed to show to sinners in the ,messiah1 and the obedience which he required from them2 and that consequently1 from its first promulgation1 that promise became the sole foundation of the church and of the whole worship of ,god therein4 ,prior to the days of ,abraham1 this church1 though scattered up and down the world1 and subject to many changes in its worship through the addition of new revelations1 was still but one and the same1 because founded in the same covenant1 and interested thereby in all the benefits or privileges that ,god had granted1 or would at any time grant4 ,in process of time1 ,god was pleased to restrict his church1 as far as visible acknowledgment went1 in a great measure1 to the seed of ,abraham4 ,with the latter he renewed his covenant1 requiring that he should walk before him and be upright4 ,he also constituted him the father of the faithful1 or of all them that believe1 and the 8heir of the world40 ,so that since the days of ,abraham1 the church has1 in every age1 been founded upon the covenant made with that patriarch1 and on the work of redemption which was to be performed according to that covenant4 ,now wheresoever this covenant made with ,abraham is1 and with whomsoever it is established1 with them is the church of ,god1 and to them all the promises and privileges of the church really belong4 ,hence we may learn that at the coming of the ,messiah1 there was not one church taken away and another set up in its room2 but the church continued the same1 in those that were the children of ,abraham1 according to the faith4 ,it is common with divines to speak of the ,jewish and the ,christian churches1 as though they were two distinct and totally different things2 but that is not a correct view of the matter4 ,the ,christian church is not another church1 but the very same that was before the coming of ,christ1 having the same faith with it1 and interested in the same covenant4 ,great alterations indeed were made in the outward state and condition of the church1 by the coming of the ,messiah4 ,the carnal privilege of the ,jews1 in their separation from other nations to give birth to the ,messiah1 then failed1 and with that also their claim on that account to be the children of ,abraham4 ,the ordinances of worship suited to that state of things then expired1 and came to an end4 ,new ordinances of worship were appointed1 suitable to the new light and grace which were then bestowed upon the church4 ,the ,gentiles came into the faith of ,abraham along with the ,jews1 being made joint partakers with them in his blessing4 ,but none of these things1 nor the whole collectively1 did make such an alteration in the church1 but that it was still one and the same4 ,the olive tree was still the same1 only some branches were broken off1 and others grafted into it4 ,the ,jews fell1 and the ,gentiles came in their room4 ,and this may enable us to determine the difference between the ,jews and ,christians relative to the ,old ,testament promises4 ,they are all made to the church4 ,no individual has any interest in them except by virtue of his membership with the church4 ,the church is1 and always was1 one and the same4 ,the ,jewish plea1 is1 that the church is with them1 because they are the children of ,abraham according to the flesh4 ,christians reply1 that their privilege on that ground was of another nature1 and ended with the coming of the ,messiah3 that the church of ,god1 unto whom all the promises belong1 are only those who are heirs of the faith of ,abraham1 believing as he did1 and are consequently interested in his covenant4 ,these are ,zion1 ,jerusalem1 ,israel1 ,jacob1 the temple1 or church of ,god4 #b4 ,by a particular church we understand an assembly of ,christians united together1 and meeting in one place1 for the solemn worship of ,god4 ,to this agrees the definition given by the compilers of the ,thirty-nine ,articles of the ,church of ,england3 8,a congregation of faithful men1 in which the true word of ,god is preached1 and the sacraments duly administered according to ,christ's ordinances1 in all those things that of necessity are requisite to the same10 ,acts ix1 #ca2 xx1 #ag2 ,gal4 i1 #b1 #bb2 #a ,cor4 xiv1 #cd2 ,col4 iv1 #ae4 ,the word is now also used to denote any particular denomination of ,christians1 distinguished by particular doctrines1 ceremonies1 c1 as the ,romish church1 the ,greek church1 the ,english church1 c4 #c4 ,on the subject of the church1 opinions as opposite or varying as possible have been held1 from that of the ,papists1 who contend for its visible unity throughout the world under a visible head1 down to that of the ,independents1 who consider the universal church as composed of congregational churches1 each perfect in itself1 and entirely independent of every other4 ,the first opinion is manifestly contradicted by the language of the ,apostles1 who1 while they teach that there is but one church1 composed of believers throughout the world1 think it not at all inconsistent with this to speak of 8the churches of ,judea10 8of ,achaia10 8the seven churches of ,asia10 8the church at ,ephesus10 c4 ,among themselves the ,apostles had no common head2 but planted churches and gave directions for their government1 in most cases without any apparent correspondence with each other4 ,the ,popish doctrine is certainly not found in their writings2 and so far were they from making provision for the government of this one supposed church1 by the appointment of one visible and exclusive head1 that they provide for the future government of the respective churches raised up by them in a totally different manner1 that is1 by the ordination of ministers for each church1 who are indifferently called bishops1 and presbyters1 and pastors4 ,the only unity of which they speak is the unity of the whole church in ,christ1 the invisible head1 by faith2 and the unity produced by 8fervent love toward each other40 ,nor has the ,popish doctrine of the visible unity of the church any countenance from early antiquity4 ,the best ecclesiastical historians have showed1 that1 through the greater part of the second century1 the ,christian churches were independent of each other4 8,each ,christian assembly10 says ,mosheim1 8was a little state governed by its own laws1 which were either enacted1 or at least approved1 by the society4 ,but in process of time1 all the churches of a province were formed into one large ecclesiastical body1 which1 like confederate states1 assembled at certain times in order to deliberate about the common interests of the whole40 ,so far indeed this union of churches appears to have been a wise and useful arrangement1 although afterward it was carried to an injurious extreme1 until finally it gave birth to the assumptions of the bishop of ,rome1 as universal bishop2 a claim1 however1 which1 when most successful1 was but partially submitted to1 the eastern churches having1 for the most part1 always maintained their independence4 ,no very large association of churches of any kind existed till toward the close of the second century1 which sufficiently refutes the papal argument from antiquity4 ,the independence of the early ,christian churches does not1 however1 appear to have resembled that of the churches which1 in modern times1 are called ,independent4 ,during the lives of the ,apostles and ,evangelists they were certainly subject to their counsel and control1 which proves that the independency of separate societies was not the first form of the church4 ,it may1 indeed1 be allowed1 that some of the smaller and more insulated churches might1 after the death of the ,apostles and ,evangelists1 retain this form for some considerable time2 but the larger churches1 in the chief cities1 and those planted in populous neighbourhoods1 had many presbyters1 and1 as the members multiplied1 they had several separate assemblies or congregations1 yet all under the same common government4 ,and when churches were raised up in the neighbourhood of cities1 the appointment of chorepiscopi1 or country bishops1 and of visiting presbyters1 both acting under the presbytery of the city1 with the bishop at its head1 is sufficiently in proof1 that the ancient churches1 especially the larger and more prosperous of them1 existed in that form which1 in modern times1 we should call a religious connection1 subject to a common government4 ,this appears to have arisen out of the very circumstance of the increase of the church1 through the zeal of the first ,christians2 and it was doubtless much more in the spirit of the very first discipline exercised by the ,apostles and ,evangelists1 7when none of the churches were independent1 but remained under the government of those who had been chiefly instrumental in raising them up17 to place themselves under a common inspection1 and to unite the weak with the strong1 and the newly converted with those who were 8in ,christ before them40 ,there was also in this1 greater security afforded both for the continuance of wholesome doctrine1 and of godly discipline4 #d4 ,church members are those who compose or belong to the visible church4 ,as to the real church1 the true members of it are such as come out from the world1 #b ,cor4 vi1 #ag2 who are born again1 #a ,peter i1 #bc2 or made new creatures1 #b ,cor4 v1 #ag2 whose faith works by love to ,god and all mankind1 ,gal4 v1 #f2 ,james ii1 #ad1 #bf2 who walk in all the ordinances of the ,lord blameless4 ,none but such are members of the true church2 nor should any be admitted into any particular church without some evidence of their earnestly seeking this state of salvation4 #e4 ,church fellowship is the communion that the members enjoy one with another4 ,the ends of church fellowship are1 the maintenance and exhibition of a system of sound doctrine2 the support of the ordinances of evangelical worship in their purity and simplicity2 the impartial exercise of church government and discipline2 the promotion of holiness in all manner of conversation4 ,the more particular duties are1 earnest study to keep peace and unity2 bearing of one another's burdens1 ,gal4 vi1 #a1 #b2 earnest endeavours to prevent each other's stumbling1 #a ,cor4 x1 #bc-cc2 ,heb4 x1 #bd-bg2 ,rom4 xiv1 #ac2 steadfast continuance in the faith and worship of the ,gospel1 ,acts ii1 #db2 praying for and sympathizing with each other1 #a ,sam4 xii1 #bc2 ,eph4 vi1 #ah4 ,the advantages are1 peculiar incitement to holiness2 the right to some promises applicable to none but those who attend the ordinances of ,god1 and hold communion with the saints1 ,psalm xcii1 #ac2 cxxxii1 #ac1 #af2 xxxvi1 #h2 ,jer4 xxxi1 #ab2 the being placed under the watchful eye of pastors1 ,heb4 xiii1 #g2 that they may restore each other if they fall1 ,gal4 vi1 #a2 and the more effectually promote the cause of true religion4 #f4 ,as to church order and discipline1 without entering into the discussion of the many questions which have been raised on this subject1 and argued in so many distinct treatises1 it may be sufficient generally to observe1 that the church of ,christ being a visible and permanent society1 bound to observe certain rites1 and to obey certain rules1 the existence of government in it is necessarily supposed4 ,all religious rites suppose order1 all order direction and control1 and these a directive and controlling power4 ,again3 all laws are nugatory without enforcement1 in the present mixed and imperfect state of society2 and all enforcement supposes an executive4 ,if baptism be the door of admission into the church1 some must judge of the fitness of candidates1 and administrators of the rite must be appointed2 if the ,lord's ,supper must be partaken of1 the times and the mode are to be determined1 the qualifications of communicants judged of1 and the administration placed in suitable hands2 if worship must be social and public1 here again there must be an appointment of times1 an order1 and an administration2 if the word of ,god is to be read and preached1 then readers and preachers are necessary2 if the continuance of any one in the fellowship of ,christians be conditional upon good conduct1 so that the purity and credit of the church may be guarded1 then the power of enforcing discipline must be lodged some where4 ,thus government flows necessarily from the very nature of the institution of the ,christian church2 and since this institution has the authority of ,christ and his ,apostles1 it is not to be supposed1 that its government was left unprovided for2 and if they have in fact made such a provision1 it is no more a matter of mere option with ,christians whether they will be subject to government in the church1 than it is optional with them to confess ,christ by becoming its members4 ,the nature of this government1 and the persons to whom it is committed1 are both points which we must briefly examine by the light of the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,as to the first1 it is wholly spiritual3--8,my kingdom10 says our ,lord1 8is not of this world40 ,the church is a society founded upon faith1 and united by mutual love1 for the personal edification of its members in holiness1 and for the religious benefit of the world4 ,the nature of its government is thus determined2 it is concerned only with spiritual objects4 ,it cannot employ force to compel men into its pale2 for the only door of the church is faith2 to which there can be no compulsion2--8he that believeth and is baptized0 becomes a member4 ,it cannot inflict pains and penalties upon the disobedient and refractory1 like civil governments2 for the only punitive discipline authorized in the ,new ,testament1 is comprised in 8admonition10 8reproof10 8sharp rebukes10 and1 finally1 8excision from the society40 ,the last will be better understood1 if we consider the special relations in which true ,christians stand to each other1 and the duties resulting from them4 ,they are members of one body1 and are therefore bound to tenderness and sympathy2 they are the conjoint instructers of others1 and are therefore to strive to be of 8one judgment20 they are brethren1 and they are to love one another as such1 that is1 with an affection more special than that general good will which they are commanded to bear to all mankind2 they are therefore to seek the intimacy of friendly society among themselves1 and1 except in the ordinary and courteous intercourse of life1 they are bound to keep themselves separate from the world2 they are enjoined to do good unto all men1 but 8especially to them that are of the household of faith20 and they are forbidden 8to eat0 at the ,lord's table with immoral persons1 that is1 with those who1 although they continue their ,christian profession1 dishonour it by their practice4 ,with these relations of ,christians to each other and to the world1 and their correspondent duties1 before our minds1 we may easily interpret the nature of that extreme discipline which is vested in the church4 8,persons who will not hear the church0 are to be held 8as ,heathen men and publicans10 as those who are not members of it2 that is1 they are to be separated from it1 and regarded as of 8the world10 quite out of the range of the above mentioned relations of ,christians to each other1 and their correspondent duties2 but still1 like 8,heathen men and publicans0 they are to be the objects of pity1 and general benevolence4 ,nor is this extreme discipline to be hastily inflicted before 8a first and second admonition10 nor before those who are 8spiritual0 have attempted 8to restore a brother overtaken by a fault20 and when the 8wicked person0 is 8put away10 still the door is to be kept open for his reception again upon repentance4 ,the true excommunication of the ,christian church is therefore a merciful and considerate separation of an incorrigible offender from the body of ,christians1 without any infliction of civil pains or penalties4 8,now we command you1 brethren1 in the name of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 that ye withdraw yourselves from every brother that walketh disorderly1 and not after the tradition which ye have received from us10 #b ,thess4 iii1 #f4 8,purge out therefore the old leaven1 that ye may be a new lump10 #a ,cor4 v1 #g4 8,but now ,i have written to you not to keep company1 if any man that is called a brother be a fornicator1 or covetous1 or an idolater1 or a railer1 or a drunkard1 or an extortioner1 with such a one1 no not to eat10 #a ,cor4 v1 #aa4 ,this then is the moral discipline which is imperative upon the church of ,christ1 and its government is criminally defective whenever it is not enforced4 ,on the other hand1 the disabilities and penalties which established churches in different places have connected with these sentences of excommunication1 have no countenance at all in ,scripture1 and are wholly inconsistent with the spiritual character and ends of the ,christian association4 #g4 ,as to the persons to whom the government of the church is committed1 it is necessary to consider the composition1 so to speak1 of the primitive church1 as stated in the ,new ,testament4 ,a full enunciation of these offices we find in ,ephesians iv1 #aa3 8,and he gave some1 ,apostles2 and some1 ,prophets2 and some1 ,evangelists2 and some1 pastors and teachers2 for the perfecting of the saints1 for the work of the ministry1 for the edifying of the body of ,christ40 ,of these1 the office of ,apostle is allowed by all to have been confined to those immediately commissioned by ,christ to witness the fact of his miracles1 and of his resurrection from the dead1 and to reveal the complete system of ,christian doctrine and duty2 confirming their extraordinary mission by miracles wrought by themselves4 ,if by 8prophets0 we are to understand persons who foretold future events1 then the office was from its very nature extraordinary1 and the gift of prophecy has passed away with the other miraculous endowments of the first age of ,christianity4 ,if1 with others1 we understand that these prophets were extraordinary teachers raised up until the churches were settled under permanent qualified instructors2 still the office was temporary4 ,the 8,evangelists0 are generally understood to be assistants of the ,apostles1 who acted under their especial authority and direction4 ,of this number were ,timothy and ,titus2 and as the ,apostle ,paul directed them to ordain bishops or presbyters in the several churches1 but gave them no authority to ordain successors to themselves in their particular office as ,evangelists1 it is clear that the ,evangelists must also be reckoned among the number of extraordinary and temporary ministers suited to the first age of ,christianity4 ,whether by 8pastors and teachers0 two offices be meant1 or one1 has been disputed4 ,the change in the mode of expression seems to favour the latter view1 and so the text is interpreted by ,st4 ,jerom1 and ,st4 ,augustine2 but the point is of little consequence4 ,a pastor was a teacher1 although every teacher might not be a pastor2 but in many cases his office might be one of subordinate instruction1 whether as an expounder of doctrine1 a catechist1 or even a more private instructer of those who as yet were unacquainted with the first principles of the ,gospel of ,christ4 ,the term pastor implies the duties both of instruction and of government1 of feeding and of ruling the flock of ,christ2 and1 as the presbyters or bishops were ordained in the several churches1 both by the ,apostles and ,evangelists1 and rules are left by ,st4 ,paul as to their appointment1 there can be no doubt but that these are the 8pastors0 spoken of in the ,epistle to the ,ephesians1 and that they were designed to be the permanent ministers of the church2 and that with them both the government of the church and the performance of its leading religious services were deposited4 ,deacons had the charge of the gifts and offerings for charitable purposes1 although1 it appears from ,justin ,martyr1 not in every instance2 for he speaks of the weekly oblations as being deposited with the chief minister1 and distributed by him4 ,these pastors appear to have been indifferently called ,,bishops and ,,presbyters1 and with them the regulation of the churches was1 doubtless1 deposited2 not without checks and guards1 the principal of which1 however1 was1 in the primitive church1 and continues to be in all modern churches which have no support from the magistracy1 or are made independent of the people by endowments1 the voluntariness of the association4 ,a perfect religious liberty is always supposed by the ,apostles to exist among ,christians2 no compulsion of the civil power is any where assumed by them as the basis of their advices or directions2 no binding of the members to one church1 without liberty to join another1 by any ties but those involved in moral considerations1 of sufficient weight1 however1 to prevent the evils of faction and schism4 ,it was this which created a natural and competent check upon the ministers of the church2 for being only sustained by the opinion of the churches1 they could not but have respect to it2 and it was this which gave to the sound part of a fallen church the advantage of renouncing1 upon sufficient and well-weighed grounds1 their communion with it1 and of kindling up the light of a pure ministry and a holy discipline1 by forming a separate association1 bearing its testimony against errors in doctrine1 and failures in practice4 ,nor is it to be conceived1 that1 had this simple principle of perfect religious liberty been left unviolated through subsequent ages1 the church could ever have become so corrupt1 or with such difficulty and slowness have been recovered from its fall4 ,this ancient ,christian liberty has happily been restored in a few parts of ,christendom4 ,see ,,episcopacy and ,,presbyterianism4 ,,church ,,of ,,england and ,,ireland is that established by law in ,england and ,ireland1 where it forms a part of the common law of the land1 or constitution of the country4 #a4 ,when and by whom ,christianity was first introduced into ,britain1 cannot at this distance of time be exactly ascertained4 ,eusebius1 indeed1 positively declares that it was by the ,apostles and their disciples2 ,bishops ,jewel and ,stillingfleet1 ,dr4 ,cave1 and others1 insist that it was by ,st4 ,paul2 and ,baronius affirms1 on the authority of an ancient manuscript in the ,vatican ,library1 that the ,gospel was planted in ,britain by ,simon ,zelotes1 the ,apostle1 and ,joseph of ,arimathea2 and that the latter came over ,a4 ,d4 #ce1 or about the twenty-first year of ,tiberius1 and died in this country4 ,according to ,archbishop ,usher1 the ,british churches had a school of learning in the year #ahb1 to provide them with proper teachers2 and it would appear that they flourished1 without dependence on any foreign church1 till the arrival of ,austin the monk1 in the latter part of the sixth century4 #b4 ,episcopacy was early established in this country2 and it ought to be remembered1 to the honour of the ,british bishops and clergy1 that during several centuries they withstood the encroachments of the see of ,rome4 ,popery1 however1 was at length introduced into ,england1 and1 as some say1 by ,austin1 the monk2 and we find its errors every where prevalent during several ages preceding the reformation1 till they were refuted by ,wickliffe4 ,the seed which ,wickliffe had sown ripened after his death1 and produced a glorious harvest4 ,however1 it was not till the reign of ,henry ,,viii1 that the reformation in ,england in reality commenced4 ,when ,luther declared war against the pope1 ,henry wrote his treatise on the seven sacraments against ,luther's book1 8,of the ,captivity of ,babylon10 and was repaid by the pontiff with the title of 8,defender of the ,faith40 ,this title1 in a sense diametrically opposite1 and by a claim of higher desert1 was transmitted by ,henry with his crown1 and now belongs to his successors4 ,henry's affections being estranged from his queen ,catharine1 and fixed on ,anne ,boleyn1 he requested a divorce from his wife2 but the pope hesitating1 the archbishop of ,canterbury annulled his former marriage4 ,the sentence of the archbishop was condemned by the pope1 whose authority ,henry therefore shook off1 and was declared by parliament 8supreme head of the church40 ,in the year #ahjj1 when the kingdoms of ,britain and ,ireland were united1 the churches of ,england and ,ireland1 which had always been the same in government1 faith1 and worship1 became one united church4 #c4 ,the acknowledged standards of the faith and doctrines of the united church are1 after the ,scriptures1 the ,book of ,homilies and the ,thirty-nine ,articles4 ,her liturgy is also doctrinal1 as well as devotional4 ,the homilies were composed by ,cranmer1 ,latimer1 and ,ridley1 men of unexceptionable learning and orthodoxy2 or1 according to others1 the first book was written principally by ,cranmer1 and the second by ,jewel4 ,they were appointed to be read in churches at the beginning of the reformation1 when1 by reason of the scarcity of learned divines1 few ministers were found who could safely be trusted to preach their own compositions4 ,the first draught of the ,articles was composed by ,archbishop ,cranmer1 assisted by ,bishop ,ridley1 in the year #aeea2 and after being corrected by the other bishops1 and approved by the convocation1 they were published in ,latin and ,english in #aeec1 and amounted to forty-two in number4 ,in #aefb they were revised and corrected4 ,being then reduced to thirty-nine1 they were drawn up in ,latin only2 but in #aega they were subscribed by the members of the two houses of convocation1 both in ,latin and ,english2 and therefore the ,latin and ,english copies are to be considered as equally authentic4 ,the original manuscripts1 subscribed by the houses of convocation1 were burned in the fire of ,london2 but ,dr4 ,bennet has collated the oldest copies now extant1 in which it appears that there are no variations of any importance4 ,during the last century1 disputes arose among the clergy respecting the propriety of subscribing to any human formulary of religious sentiments4 ,parliament1 in #aggb1 was applied to for the abolition of the subscription1 by certain clergymen and others1 whose petition received the most ample discussion1 but was rejected by a large majority4 ,it has been generally held by most1 if not all1 ,calvinists1 both in and out of the church1 that the doctrinal parts of our ,articles are ,calvinistic4 ,this opinion1 however1 has been warmly controverted4 ,it is no doubt nearer the truth to conclude that the ,articles are framed with comprehensive latitude2 and that neither ,calvinism nor ,arminianism was intended to be exclusively established4 ,in this view such liberal sentiments as the following1 from the ,apology of the ,church of ,england1 in #agcb1 are not of uncommon occurrence3 8,this1 ,i know1 ,i am myself an ,anti-,calvinian2 and yet1 were ,i to compile articles for the church1 ,i would abhor the thoughts of forming them so fully according to my own scheme of thinking1 or of descending so minutely into all the particular branches of it1 that none but ,arminians should be able to subscribe1 or that the church should lose the credit and service of such valuable men as the ,abbots1 ,davenant1 ,usher1 and other ,calvinists undoubtedly were4 ,and since our reformers were men of temper and moderation1 it seems but justice1 ,i am sure it is but reasonable1 to think they intended such a latitude as ,i contend for1 so that both parties1 the followers of ,arminius as well as of ,calvin1 might subscribe40 ,in a subsequent page1 however1 the same author says1 8,but what1 if there was not so entire a harmony among the compilers or imposers1 as was before supposed8 ,what if several of them were ,anti-,calvinian8 ,this will incline the balance still more in our favour1 and enlarge the probability of the articles being drawn up in a moderate1 indefinite way4 ,the divines who fled for refuge1 in ,queen ,mary's reign1 to ,geneva1 ,zurich1 and other places beyond sea1 7where1 by conceiving a great veneration for ,calvin1 they were mightily changed in their sentiments and ways of thinking17 began to propagate his notions soon after their return in the next reign3 and this seems to have been the prime occasion of ,calvinism taking any considerable root in this kingdom4 ,in ,king ,edward's time it doth not appear to have prevailed1 except among a few #8gospelers1' and how they were reflected on by ,bishop ,latimer and ,hooper has been already observed4 ,when the articles were formed in #aeeb1 ,i do not find that any deference was paid to ,calvin's judgment or authority3 instead of that1 the assistance he offered was1 to his no little grief and dissatisfaction1 refused4 ,next to the ,scriptures and the doctrine of the primitive church1 the compilers had an eye to the ,augustan ,confession1 as appears from the identity of many of the articles2 to the writings of ,melancthon1 whose assistance they desired1 and whom ,king ,edward invited over hither2 the works of ,erasmus2 and the ,necessary ,doctrine and ,erudition for any ,christian ,man4 ,this last book was published by ,king ,henry's authority in #aedc2 and because it then had the approbation of most of those who compiled the ,articles nine years afterward1 it will be of consequence to see how it stands affected toward ,calvinism4 ,it teaches the cardinal point of universal redemption in several places2 which strikes directly at the root of the ,calvinian system1 and1 as ,dr4 ,whitby expresses it1 #8draws all the rest after it1 on which side soever the truth lies4'0 ,this judicious amplitude has received much elucidation in ,dr4 ,puller's ,moderation of the ,church of ,england considered1 #afgi2 and in other works of more recent date4 #d4 ,in this church1 divine service is conducted by a liturgy1 which was composed in #aedg1 and has undergone several alterations1 the last of which took place in #affa1 in the reign of ,charles ,,ii4 ,many applications have been since made for a review2 and particular alterations were proposed in #afhi1 by several learned and excellent divines1 in the number of whom were ,archbishops ,tillotson and ,tenison1 and ,bishops ,patrick1 ,burnet1 ,stillingfleet1 ,kidder1 c4 ,this subject has been recently revived2 and it is believed that some changes are under consideration4 ,to this liturgy every clergyman promises at his ordination to conform in his public ministrations4 #e4 ,ever since the reign of ,henry ,,viii1 the sovereigns of ,england have been styled 8supreme heads of the church10 as well as 8defenders of the faith20 but this title is said to convey no spiritual meaning2 or1 in other words1 it only substitutes the king in place of the pope1 with respect to temporalities1 and the external economy of the church4 ,the church of ,england is governed by two archbishops and twenty-four bishops1 beside the bishop of ,sodor and ,man4 ,the benefices of the bishops were converted by ,william the ,conqueror into temporal baronies2 and1 therefore1 all of them1 except the bishop of ,man1 are barons or lords of parliament1 and sit and vote in the house of lords1 where they represent the clergy4 ,the bishops' representatives and assistants are the archdeacons1 of whom there are sixty in ,england4 ,the other dignitaries of the church are the deans1 prebendaries1 canons1 c2 and the inferior clergy are the rectors1 vicars1 and curates4 ,the united church knows only three orders of ministers2 bishops1 priests1 and deacons3 but in these orders are comprehended archbishops1 bishops1 deans1 archdeacons1 rectors1 vicars1 and curates4 ,the church of ,ireland is governed by four archbishops and eighteen bishops4 ,since the union of ,britain and ,ireland1 one archbishop and three bishops sit alternately in the house of peers1 by rotation of sessions4 ,,cilicia1 a country in the south-east of ,asia ,minor1 and lying on the northern coast1 at the east end of the ,mediterranean ,sea3 the capital city thereof was ,tarsus1 the native city of ,st4 ,paul1 ,acts xxi1 #ci4 ,,cinnamon1 1 an agreeable aromatic2 the inward bark of the canella1 a small tree of the height of the willow4 ,it is mentioned1 ,exodus xxx1 #bc1 among the materials in the composition of the holy anointing oil2 and in ,proverbs vii1 #ag2 ,canticles iv1 #ad2 ,ecclesiasticus xxiv1 #ae2 and ,revelation xviii1 #ac1 among the richest perfumes4 ,this spice is now brought from the east ,indies2 but as there was no traffic with ,india in the days of ,moses1 it was then brought1 probably1 from ,arabia1 or some neighbouring country4 ,we learn1 however1 from ,pliny1 that a species of it grew in ,syria4 ,,cinneroth1 or ,,cinnereth1 a city on the north-western side of the sea of ,galilee2 which1 from it1 is frequently called in the ,old ,testament the sea of ,cinneroth3 from which word1 that of ,genesaret1 in the ,new ,testament1 is conjectured by ,dr4 ,wells to have been framed4 ,,circumcision is from the ,latin1 circumcidere1 8to cut all round10 because the ,jews1 in circumcising their children1 cut off after this manner the skin which covers the prepuce4 ,god enjoined ,abraham to use circumcision1 as a sign of his covenant4 ,in obedience to this order1 ,abraham1 at ninety-nine years of age1 was circumcised3 also his son ,ishmael1 and all the males of his property1 ,gen4 xvii1 #aj4 ,god repeated the precept of circumcision to ,moses3 he ordered that all who were to partake of the paschal sacrifice should receive circumcision2 and that this rite should be performed on children1 on the eighth day after their birth4 ,the ,jews have always been very exact in observing this ceremony1 and it appears that they did not neglect it when in ,egypt4 ,but ,moses1 while in ,midian with ,jethro his father-in-law1 did not circumcise his two sons born in that country2 and during the journey of the ,israelites in the wilderness1 their children were not circumcised4 ,circumcision was practised among the ,arabians1 ,saracens1 and ,ishmaelites4 ,these people1 as well as the ,israelites1 sprung from ,abraham4 ,circumcision was introduced with the law of ,moses among the ,samaritans and ,cutheans4 ,the ,idumeans1 though descended from ,abraham and ,isaac1 were not circumcised till subdued by ,john ,hircanus4 ,those who assert that the ,phenicians were circumcised1 mean1 probably1 the ,samaritans2 for we know1 from other authority1 that the ,phenicians did not observe this ceremony4 ,as to the ,egyptians1 circumcision never was of general and indispensable obligation on the whole nation2 certain priests only1 and particular professions1 were obliged to it4 ,circumcision is likewise the ceremony of initiation into the ,mohammedan religion4 ,there is1 indeed1 no law in the ,koran which enjoins it1 and they have the precept only in tradition4 ,they say that ,mohammed commanded it out of respect to ,abraham1 the head of his race4 ,they have no fixed day for the performance of this rite1 and generally wait till the child is five or six years of age4 ,,circumcision1 ,covenant of4 ,that the covenant with ,abraham1 of which circumcision was made the sign and seal1 ,genesis xvii1 #g-ad1 was the general covenant of grace1 and not wholly1 or even chiefly1 a political and national covenant1 may be satisfactorily established4 ,the first engagement in it was1 that ,god would 8greatly bless0 ,abraham2 which promise1 although it comprehended temporal blessings1 referred1 as we learn from ,st4 ,paul1 more fully to the blessing of his justification by the imputation of his faith for righteousness1 with all the spiritual advantages consequent upon the relation which was thus established between him and ,god1 in time and eternity4 ,the second promise in the covenant was1 that he should be 8the father of many nations20 which we are also taught by ,st4 ,paul to interpret more with reference to his spiritual seed1 the followers of that faith whereof cometh justification1 than to his natural descendants4 8,that the promise might be sure to all the seed1 not only to that which is by the law1 but to that also which is by the faith of ,abraham1 who is the father of us all10--of all believing ,gentiles as well as ,jews4 ,the third stipulation in ,god's covenant with the patriarch1 was the gift to ,abraham and to his seed of 8the land of ,canaan10 in which the temporal promise was manifestly but the type of the higher promise of a heavenly inheritance4 ,hence ,st4 ,paul says1 8,by faith he sojourned in the land of promise1 dwelling in tabernacles with ,isaac and ,jacob1 the heirs with him of the same promise20 but this 8faith0 did not respect the fulfilment of the temporal promise2 for ,st4 ,paul adds1 8they looked for a city which had foundations1 whose builder and maker is ,god10 ,heb4 xi1 #ai4 ,the next promise was1 that ,god would always be 8a ,god to ,abraham and to his seed after him10 a promise which is connected with the highest spiritual blessings1 such as the remission of sins1 and the sanctification of our nature1 as well as with a visible church state4 ,it is even used to express the felicitous state of the church in heaven1 ,rev4 xxi1 #c4 ,the final engagement in the ,abrahamic covenant was1 that in ,abraham's 8seed1 all nations of the earth should be blessed20 and this blessing1 we are expressly taught by ,st4 ,paul1 was nothing less than the justification of all nations1 that is1 of all believers in all nations1 by faith in ,christ3 8,and the ,scripture1 foreseeing that ,god would justify the ,heathen by faith1 preached before the ,gospel to ,abraham1 saying1 ,in thee shall all nations be blessed4 ,so then they who are of faith are blessed with believing ,abraham20 they receive the same blessing1 justification1 by the same means1 faith1 ,gal4 iii1 #h1 #i4 ,this covenant with ,abraham1 therefore1 although it respected a natural seed1 ,isaac1 from whom a numerous progeny was to spring2 and an earthly inheritance provided for this issue1 the land of ,canaan2 and a special covenant relation with the descendants of ,isaac1 through the line of ,jacob1 to whom ,jehovah was to be 8a ,god10 visibly and specially1 and they a visible and 8peculiar people20 yet was1 under all these temporal1 earthly1 and external advantages1 but a higher and spiritual grace embodying itself under these circumstances1 as types of a dispensation of salvation and eternal life1 to all who should follow the faith of ,abraham1 whose justification before ,god was the pattern of the justification of every man1 whether ,jew or ,gentile1 in all ages4 ,now1 of this covenant1 in its spiritual as well as in its temporal provisions1 circumcision was most certainly the sacrament1 that is the 8sign0 and the 8seal20 for ,st4 ,paul thus explains the case3 8,and he received the ,,sign of circumcision1 a ,,seal of the righteousness of the faith which he had yet being uncircumcised40 ,and as this rite was enjoined upon ,abraham's posterity1 so that every 8uncircumcised man-child whose flesh of his foreskin was not circumcised on the eighth day10 was to be 8cut off from his people10 by the special judgment of ,god1 and that because 8he had broken ,god's covenant10 ,gen4 xvii1 #ad2 it therefore follows that this rite was a constant publication of ,god's covenant of grace among the descendants of ,abraham1 and its repetition a continual confirmation of that covenant1 on the part of ,god1 to all practising it in that faith of which it was the ostensible expression4 #b4 ,as the covenant of grace made with ,abraham was bound up with temporal promises and privileges1 so circumcision was a sign and seal of the covenant in both its parts1--its spiritual and its temporal1 its superior and inferior provisions4 ,the spiritual promises of the covenant continued unrestricted to all the descendants of ,abraham1 whether by ,isaac or by ,ishmael2 and still lower down1 to the descendants of ,esau as well as to those of ,jacob4 ,circumcision was practised among them all by virtue of its divine institution at first2 and was extended to their foreign servants1 and to proselytes1 as well as to their children2 and where-ever the sign of the covenant of grace was by divine appointment1 there it was as a seal of that covenant1 to all who believingly used it2 for we read of no restriction of its spiritual blessings1 that is1 its saving engagements1 to one line of descent from ,abraham only4 ,but over the temporal branch of the covenant1 and the external religious privileges arising out of it1 ,god exercised a rightful sovereignty1 and expressly restricted them first to the line of ,isaac1 and then to that of ,jacob1 with whose descendants he entered into special covenant by the ministry of ,moses4 ,the temporal blessings and external privileges comprised under general expressions in the covenant with ,abraham1 were explained and enlarged under that of ,moses1 while the spiritual blessings remained unrestricted as before4 ,this was probably the reason why circumcision was renacted under the law of ,moses4 ,it was a confirmation of the temporal blessings of the ,abrahamic covenant1 now1 by a covenant of peculiarity1 made over to them1 while it was still recognized as a consuetudinary rite which had descended to them from their fathers1 and as the sign and seal of the covenant of grace1 made with ,abraham and with all his descendants without exception4 ,this double reference of circumcision1 both to the authority of ,moses and to that of the patriarchs1 is found in the words of our ,lord1 ,john vii1 #bb3 8,moses therefore gave unto you circumcision1 not because it is of ,moses1 but of the fathers20 or1 as it is better translated by ,campbell1 8,moses instituted circumcision among you1 7not that it is from ,moses1 but from the patriarchs17 and ye circumcise on the ,sabbath4 ,if on the ,sabbath a child receive circumcision1 that the law of ,moses may not be violated10 c4 #c4 ,from these observations1 the controversy in the ,apostolic churches respecting circumcision will derive much elucidation4 ,the covenant with ,abraham prescribed circumcision as an act of faith in its promises1 and as a pledge to perform its conditions on the part of his descendants4 ,but the object on which this faith rested1 was 8the ,seed of ,abraham10 in whom the nations of the earth were to be blessed3 which ,seed1 says ,st4 ,paul1 8is ,christ10--,christ as promised1 not yet come4 ,when the ,christ had come1 so as fully to enter upon his redeeming offices1 he could no longer be the object of faith1 as still to come2 and this leading promise of the covenant being accomplished1 the sign and seal of it vanished away4 ,nor could circumcision be continued in this view by any1 without an implied denial that ,jesus was the ,christ1 the expected ,seed of ,abraham4 ,circumcision also as an institution of ,moses1 who continued it as the sign and seal of the ,abrahamic covenant both in its spiritual and temporal provisions1 but with respect to the latter made it also a sign and seal of the restriction of its temporal blessings and peculiar religious privileges to the descendants of ,israel1 was terminated by the entrance of our ,lord upon his office of ,mediator1 in which office all nations were to be blessed in him4 ,the ,mosaic edition of the covenant not only guaranteed the land of ,canaan1 but the peculiarity of the ,israelites1 as the people and visible church of ,god to the exclusion of others1 except by proselytism4 ,but when our ,lord commanded the ,gospel to be preached to 8all nations10 and opened the gates of the 8common salvation0 to all1 whether ,gentiles or ,jews1 circumcision1 as the sign of a covenant of peculiarity and religious distinction1 was also done away4 ,it had not only no reason remaining1 but the continuance of the rite involved the recognition of exclusive privileges which had been terminated by ,christ4 ,this will explain the views of the ,apostle ,paul on this great question4 ,he declares that in ,christ there is neither circumcision nor uncircumcision2 that neither circumcision availeth any thing1 nor uncircumcision1 but 8faith that worketh by love20 faith in the ,seed of ,abraham already come and already engaged in his mediatorial and redeeming work2 faith1 by virtue of which the ,gentiles came into the church of ,christ on the same terms as the ,jews themselves1 and were justified and saved4 ,the doctrine of the non-necessity of circumcision1 he applies to the ,jews as well as to the ,gentiles1 although he specially resists the attempts of the ,judaizers to impose this rite upon the ,gentile converts2 in which he was supported by the decision of the ,holy ,spirit when the appeal upon this question was made to 8the ,apostles and elders at ,jerusalem10 from the church at ,antioch4 ,at the same time it is clear that he takes two different views of the practice of circumcision1 as it was continued among many of the first ,christians4 ,the first is that strong one which is expressed in ,gal4 v1 #b-d1 8,behold1 ,i ,paul say unto you1 that if ye be circumcised1 ,christ shall profit you nothing2 for ,i testify again to every man that is circumcised1 that he is a debtor to do the whole law4 ,christ is made of no effect unto you1 whosoever of you are justified by the law1 ye are fallen from grace40 ,the second is that milder view which he himself must have had when he circumcised ,timothy to render him more acceptable to the ,jews2 and which also appears to have led him to abstain from all allusion to this practice when writing his epistle to the believing ,hebrews1 although many1 perhaps most of them1 continue to circumcise their children1 as did the ,jewish ,christians for a long time afterward4 ,these different views of circumcision1 held by the same person1 may be explained by considering the different principles on which circumcision might be practised after it had become an obsolete ordinance4 7#a47 ,it might be taken in the simple view of its first institution1 as the sign and seal of the ,abrahamic covenant2 and then it was to be condemned as involving a denial that ,abraham's ,seed1 the ,christ1 had already come1 since1 upon his coming1 every old covenant gave place to the new covenant introduced by him4 7#b47 ,it might be practised and enjoined as the sign and seal of the ,mosaic covenant1 which was still the ,abrahamic covenant with its spiritual blessings1 but with restriction of its temporal promises and special ecclesiastical privileges to the line of ,jacob1 with a law of observances which was obligatory upon all entering that covenant by circumcision4 ,in that case it involved1 in like manner1 the notion of the continuance of an old covenant1 after the establishment of the new2 for thus ,st4 ,paul states the case in ,galatians iii1 #ai3 8,wherefore then serveth the law8 ,it was added because of transgressions until the ,seed should come40 ,after that therefore it had no effect3--it had waxed old1 and had vanished away4 7#c47 ,again3 circumcision might imply an obligation to observe all the ceremonial usages and the moral precepts of the ,mosaic law1 along with a general belief in the mission of ,christ1 as necessary to justification before ,god4 ,this appears to have been the view of those among the ,galatian ,christians who submitted to circumcision1 and of the ,jewish teachers who enjoined it upon them2 for ,st4 ,paul in that epistle constantly joins circumcision with legal observances1 and as involving an obligation to do 8the whole law10 in order to justification4--8,i testify again to every man that is circumcised1 that he is a debtor to do the whole law2 whosoever of you are justified by the law1 ye are fallen from grace40 8,knowing that a man is not justified by the works of the law1 but by the faith of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ10 ,gal4 ii1 #af4 ,to all persons therefore practising circumcision in this view it was obvious1 that 8,christ was become of none effect10 the very principle of justification by faith alone in him was renounced even while his divine mission was still admitted4 7#d47 ,but there are two grounds on which circumcision maybe conceived to have been innocently1 though not wisely1 practised1 among the ,christian ,jews4 ,the first was that of preserving an ancient national distinction on which they valued themselves2 and were a converted ,jew in the present day disposed to perform that rite upon his children for this purpose only1 renouncing in the act all consideration of it as a sign and seal of the old covenants1 or as obliging to ceremonial acts in order to justification1 no one would censure him with severity4 ,it appears clear that it was under some such view that ,st4 ,paul circumcised ,timothy1 whose mother was a ,jewess2 he did it because of 8the ,jews which were in those quarters10 that is1 because of their national prejudices1 8for they knew that his father was a ,greek40 ,the second was a lingering notion1 that1 even in the ,christian church1 the ,jews who believed would still retain some degree of eminence1 some superior relation to ,god2 a notion which1 however unfounded1 was not one which demanded direct rebuke1 when it did not proudly refuse spiritual communion with the converted ,gentiles1 but was held by men who 8rejoiced that ,god had granted to the ,gentiles repentance unto life40 ,these considerations may account for the silence of ,st4 ,paul on the subject of circumcision in his ,epistle to the ,hebrews4 ,some of them continued to practise that rite1 but they were probably believers of the class just mentioned2 for had he thought that the rite was continued among them on any principle which affected the fundamental doctrines of ,christianity1 he would no doubt have been equally prompt and fearless in pointing out that apostasy from ,christ which was implied in it1 as when he wrote to the ,galatians4 ,not only might circumcision be practised with views so opposite that one might be wholly innocent1 although an infirmity of prejudice2 the other such as would involve a rejection of the doctrine of justification by faith in ,christ2 but some other ,jewish observances also stood in the same circumstances4 ,st4 ,paul in his ,epistle to the ,galatians1 a part of his writings from which we obtain the most information on these questions1 grounds his 8doubts0 whether the members of that church were not seeking to be 8justified by the law0 upon their observing 8days1 and months1 and times1 and years40 ,had he done more than 8doubt10 he would have expressed himself more positively4 ,he saw their danger on this point2 he saw that they were taking steps to this fatal result1 by such an observance of these 8days10 c1 as had a strong leaning and dangerous approach to that dependence upon them for justification1 which would destroy their faith in ,christ's solely sufficient sacrifice2 but his very doubting1 not of the fact of their being addicted to these observances1 but of the animus with which they regarded them1 supposes it possible1 however dangerous this ,jewish conformity might be1 that they might be observed for reasons which would still consist with their entire reliance upon the merits of ,christ for salvation4 ,even he himself1 strongly as he resisted the imposition of this conformity to ,jewish customs upon the converts to ,christianity as a matter of necessity1 yet in practice must have conformed to many of them1 when no sacrifice of principle was understood2 for1 in order to gain the ,jews1 he became 8as a ,jew40 ,see ,,abraham1 and ,,baptism4 ,,cisleu1 the ninth month of the ecclesiastical1 and the third of the civil1 year among the ,hebrews4 ,it answers nearly to our ,november4 ,,cistern1 a reservoir chiefly for rain water4 ,numbers of these are still to be seen in ,palestine1 some of which are a hundred and fifty paces long1 and sixty broad4 ,the reason of their being so large was1 that their cities were many of them built in elevated situations2 and the rain falling only twice in the year1 namely1 spring and autumn1 it became necessary for them to collect a quantity of water1 as well for the cattle as for the people4 ,a broken cistern would of course be a great calamity to a family1 or in some cases even to a town2 and with reference to this we may see the force of the reproof1 ,jer4 ii1 #ac4 ,,cities4 ,by referring to some peculiarities in the building1 fortifying1 c1 of eastern cities we shall the better understand several allusions and expressions of the ,old ,testament4 ,it is evident that the walls of fortified cities were sometimes partly constructed of combustible materials2 for the ,prophet1 denouncing the judgments of ,god upon ,syria and other countries1 declares1 8,i will send a fire on the wall of ,gaza1 which shall devour the palaces thereof10 ,amos i1 #g4 ,the walls of ,tyre and ,rabbah seem to have been of the same perishable materials2 for the ,prophet adds1 8,i will send a fire upon the wall of ,tyrus1 which shall devour the palaces thereof20 and again1 8,i will kindle a fire in the walls of ,rabbah1 and it shall devour the palaces thereof with shouting in the day of battle10 verses #aj1 #ad4 ,one method of securing the gates of fortified places1 among the ancients1 was to cover them with thick plates of iron2 a custom which is still used in the east1 and seems to be of great antiquity4 ,we learn from ,pitts1 that ,algiers has five gates1 and some of these have two1 some three1 other gates within them2 and some of them are plated all over with thick iron4 ,the place where the ,apostle was imprisoned seems to have been secured in the same manner2 for1 says the inspired historian1 8,when they were past the first and second ward1 they came unto the iron gate that leadeth unto the city2 which opened to them of its own accord10 ,acts xii1 #aj4 ,pococke1 speaking of a bridge not far from ,antioch1 called the iron bridge1 says1 there are two towers belonging to it1 the gates of which are covered with iron plates2 which he supposes is the reason of the name it bears4 ,some of their gates are plated over with brass2 such are the enormous gates of the principal mosque at ,damascus1 formerly the church of ,john the ,baptist4 ,to gates like these1 the ,psalmist probably refers in these words3 8,he hath broken the gates of brass10 ,psalm cvii1 #af2 and the ,prophet1 in that remarkable passage1 where ,god promises to go before ,cyrus his anointed1 and 8break in pieces the gates of brass1 and cut in sunder the bars of iron10 ,isa4 xlv1 #b4 ,but1 conscious that all these precautions were insufficient for their security1 the orientals employed watchmen to patrol the city during the night1 to suppress any disorders in the streets1 or to guard the walls against the attempts of a foreign enemy4 ,to this custom ,solomon refers in these words3 8,the watchmen that went about the city found me1 they smote me1 they wounded me2 the keepers of the wall took away my veil from me10 ,song v1 #g4 ,this custom may be traced to a very remote antiquity2 so early as the departure of ,israel from the land of ,egypt1 the morning watch is mentioned1 certainly indicating the time when the watchmen were commonly relieved4 ,in ,persia1 the watchmen were obliged to indemnify those who were robbed in the streets2 which accounts for the vigilance and severity which they display in the discharge of their office1 and illustrates the character of watchman given to ,ezekiel1 and the duties he was required to perform4 ,if the wicked perished in his iniquities without warning1 the ,prophet was to be accountable for his blood2 but if he duly pointed out his danger1 he delivered his own soul1 ,ezek4 xxxiii1 #b4 ,they were also charged1 as with us1 to announce the progress of the night to the slumbering city3 8,the burden of ,dumah2 he calls to me out of ,seir1 ,watchman1 what of the night8 watchman1 what of the night8 ,the watchman said1 ,the morning cometh1 and also the night10 ,isa4 xxi1 #aa4 ,this is confirmed by an observation of ,chardin upon these words of ,moses3 8,for a thousand years in thy sight are but as yesterday when it is past1 and as a watch in the night30 that 8as the people of the east have no clocks1 the several parts of the day and of the night1 which are eight in all1 are announced4 ,in the ,indies1 the parts of the night are made known1 as well by instruments of music1 in great cities1 as by the rounds of the watchmen1 who1 with cries and small drums1 give them notice that a fourth part of the night is past4 ,now1 as these cries awaked those who had slept all that quarter part of the night1 it appeared to them but as a moment40 ,it is evident the ancient ,jews knew1 by some public notice1 how the night watches passed away2 but1 whether they simply announced the termination of the watch1 or made use of trumpets1 or other sonorous instruments1 in making the proclamation1 it may not be easy to determine2 and still less what kind of chronometers the watchmen used4 ,the probability is1 that the watches were announced with the sound of a trumpet2 for the ,prophet ,ezekiel makes it a part of the watchman's duty1 at least in time of war1 to blow the trumpet1 and warn the people4 ,the watchman1 in a time of danger1 seems to have taken his station in a tower1 which was built over the gate of the city4 ,the fortified cities in ,canaan1 as in some other countries1 were commonly strengthened with a citadel1 to which the inhabitants fled when they found it impossible to defend the place4 ,the whole inhabitants of ,thebez1 unable to resist the repeated and furious assaults of ,abimelech1 retired into one of these towers1 and bid defiance to his rage3 8,but there was a strong tower within the city1 and thither fled all the men and women1 and all they of the city1 and shut it to them1 and gat them up to the top of the tower40 ,the extraordinary strength of this tower1 and the various means of defence which were accumulated within its narrow walls1 may be inferred from the violence of ,abimelech's attack1 and its fatal issue3 8,and ,abimelech came unto the tower1 and fought against it1 and went hard unto the door of the tower1 to burn it with fire4 ,and a certain woman cast a piece of a millstone upon ,abimelech's head1 and all to break his skull10 ,judges ix1 #eb4 ,the city of ,shechem had a tower of the same kind1 into which the people retired1 when the same usurper took it and sowed it with salt1 ,judges ix1 #df4 ,these strong towers which were built within a fortified city1 were commonly placed on an eminence1 to which they ascended by a flight of steps4 ,such was the situation of the city of ,david1 a strong tower upon a high eminence at ,jerusalem2 and the manner of entrance1 as described by the sacred writer3 8,but the gate of the fountain repaired ,shallum1 unto the stairs that go down from the city of ,david10 ,nehemiah iii1 #ae4 ,,cities ,,of ,,refuge4 ,see ,,refuge4 ,,claudius1 a ,roman emperor2 he succeeded ,caius ,caligula1 ,a4 ,d4 #da1 and reigned thirteen years1 eight months1 and nineteen days1 dying ,a4 ,d4 #ed4 ,king ,agrippa was the principal means of persuading ,claudius to accept the empire1 which was tendered him by the soldiers4 ,as an acknowledgment for this service1 he gave ,agrippa all ,judea1 and the kingdom of ,chalcis to his brother ,herod4 ,he put an end to the dispute which had for some time existed between the ,jews of ,alexandria and the other freemen of that city1 and confirmed the ,jews in the possession of their right of freedom1 which they had enjoyed from the beginning1 and every where maintained them in the free exercise of their religion4 ,but he would not permit them to hold any assemblies at ,rome4 ,king ,agrippa dying ,a4 ,d4 #dd1 the emperor again reduced ,judea into a province1 and sent ,cuspius ,fadus to be governor4 ,about the same time the famine happened which is mentioned ,acts xi1 #bh-cj1 and was foretold by the ,prophet ,agabus4 ,claudius1 in the ninth year of his reign1 published an edict for expelling all ,jews out of ,rome1 ,acts xviii1 #b4 ,it is very probable that the ,christians1 who were at that time confounded with the ,jews1 were banished likewise4 #b4 ,,claudius ,,felix1 successor of ,cumanus in the government of ,judea4 ,felix found means to solicit and engage ,drusilla1 sister of ,agrippa the ,younger1 to leave her husband ,azizus1 king of the ,emessenians1 and to marry him1 ,a4 ,d4 #ec4 ,felix sent to ,rome ,eleazar1 son of ,dinus1 captain of a band of robbers1 who had committed great ravages in ,palestine2 he procured the death of ,jonathan1 the high priest1 who sometimes freely represented to him his duty2 he defeated a body of three thousand men1 whom an ,egyptian1 a false prophet1 had assembled upon the ,mount of ,olives4 ,st4 ,paul being brought to ,cesarea1 where ,felix usually resided1 was well treated by this governor1 who permitted his friends to see him1 and render him services1 hoping the ,apostle would procure his redemption by a sum of money4 ,he however neither condemned ,paul1 nor set him at liberty1 when the ,jews accused him2 but adjourned the determination of this affair till the arrival of ,lysias1 who commanded the troops at ,jerusalem1 where he had taken ,paul into custody1 and who was expected at ,cesarea1 ,acts xxiii1 #bf1 #bg1 c2 xxiv1 #a-c1 c4 ,while the ,apostle was thus detained1 ,felix1 with his wife ,drusilla1 who was a ,jewess1 sent for him1 and desired him to explain the religion of ,jesus ,christ4 ,the ,apostle spoke with his usual boldness1 and discoursed to them on justice1 temperance1 and the last judgment4 ,felix trembled before this powerful exhibition of truths so arousing to his conscience2 but he remanded ,st4 ,paul to his confinement4 ,he farther detained him two years at ,cesarea1 in compliance with the wishes of the ,jews1 and in order to do something to propitiate them1 because they were extremely dissatisfied with his government4 ,being recalled to ,rome1 ,a4 ,d4 #fj2 and many ,jews going thither to complain of the extortions and violence committed by him in ,judea1 he would have been put to death1 if his brother ,pallas1 who had been ,claudius's slave1 and was now his freedman1 had not preserved him4 ,felix was succeeded in the government of ,judea by ,porcius ,festus4 ,,clay1 1 is often mentioned in ,scripture1 nor is it necessary to explain the various references to what is so well known4 ,it may be remarked1 however1 that clay was used for scaling doors4 ,norden and ,pococke observe1 that the inspectors of the granaries in ,egypt1 after closing the door1 put their seal upon a handful of clay1 with which they cover the lock4 ,this may help to explain ,job xxxviii1 #ad1 in which the earth is represented as assuming form and imagery from the brightness of the rising sun1 as rude clay receives a figure from the impression of a seal or signet4 ,,cleopas1 according to ,eusebius and ,epiphanius1 was brother of ,joseph1 both being sons of ,jacob4 ,he was the father of ,simeon1 of ,james the ,less1 of ,jude1 and ,joseph or ,joses4 ,cleopas married ,mary1 sister to the blessed virgin4 ,he was therefore uncle to ,jesus ,christ1 and his sons were first cousins to him4 ,cleopas1 his wife1 and sons1 were disciples of ,christ4 ,having beheld our ,saviour expire upon the cross1 he1 like the other disciples1 appears to have lost all hopes of seeing the kingdom of ,god established by him on earth4 ,the third day after our ,saviour's death1 on the day of his resurrection1 ,cleopas1 with another disciple1 departed from ,jerusalem to ,emmaus2 and in the way discoursed on what had lately happened4 ,our ,saviour joined them1 appearing as a traveller2 and1 taking up their discourse1 he reasoned with them1 convincing them out of the ,scriptures1 that it was necessary the ,messiah should suffer death1 previously to his being glorified4 ,at ,emmaus1 ,jesus seemed as if inclined to go farther2 but ,cleopas and his companion detained him1 and made him sup with them4 ,while they were at table1 ,jesus took bread1 blessed it1 brake1 and gave it to them1 and by this action their eyes were opened1 and they knew him4 ,upon his disappearing they instantly returned to ,jerusalem1 to announce the fact to the ,apostles1 who in their turn declared that 8the ,lord was risen indeed and had appeared to ,peter40 ,in our translation of ,luke xxiv1 #ca1 it is said that ,jesus 8vanished out of their sight20 but the original is more properly rendered1 8,he suddenly went away from them10 the word being often applied by the ,greek writers to those who in any way1 but especially suddenly and abruptly1 withdraw from any one's company4 ,no other actions of ,cleopas are known4 ,it is the opinion of ,jerom1 that his residence was at ,emmaus1 and that he invited our ,saviour into his own house4 ,supposing ,cleopas to have been the brother of ,joseph1 and father of ,james1 c1 ,calmet thinks it more probable that as he was a ,galilean1 he dwelt in some city of ,galilee4 ,,cloud1 a collection of vapours suspended in the atmosphere4 ,when the ,israelites had left ,egypt1 ,god gave them a pillar of cloud to direct their march1 ,exod4 xiii1 #ba1 #bb4 ,according to ,jerom1 in his ,epistle to ,fabiola1 this cloud attended them from ,succoth2 or1 according to others1 from ,rameses2 or1 as the ,hebrews say1 only from ,ethan1 till the death of ,aaron2 or1 as the generality of commentators are of opinion1 to the passage of ,jordan4 ,this pillar was commonly in front of the ,israelites2 but at ,pihahiroth1 when the ,egyptian army approached behind them1 it placed itself between ,israel and the ,egyptians1 so that the ,egyptians could not come near the ,israelites all night1 ,exod4 xiv1 #ai1 #bj4 ,in the morning1 the cloud moving on over the sea1 and following the ,israelites who had passed through it1 the ,egyptians pressing after were drowned4 ,from that time1 this cloud attended the ,israelites2 it was clear and bright during night1 in order to afford them light2 but in the day it was thick and gloomy1 to defend them from the excessive heats of the deserts4 8,the angel of ,god which went before the camp of ,israel1 removed and went behind them2 and the pillar of the cloud went from before their face1 and stood behind them10 ,exod4 xiv1 #ai4 ,here we may observe1 that the angel and the cloud made the same motion1 as it would seem1 in company4 ,the cloud by its motions gave the signal to the ,israelites to encamp or to decamp4 ,where1 therefore1 it stayed1 the people stayed till it rose again2 then they broke up their camp1 and followed it till it stopped4 ,it was called a pillar1 by reason of its form1 which was high and elevated4 ,some interpreters suppose that there were two clouds1 one to enlighten1 the other to shade1 the camp4 ,the ,lord appeared at ,sinai in the midst of a cloud1 ,exod4 xix1 #i2 xxiv1 #e2 and after ,moses had built and consecrated the tabernacle1 the cloud filled the court around it1 so that neither ,moses nor the priests could enter1 ,exodus xl1 #cd1 #ce4 ,the same happened at the dedication of the temple of ,jerusalem by ,solomon1 #b ,chronicles v1 #ac2 #a ,kings viii1 #aj4 ,when the cloud appeared upon the tent1 in front of which were held the assemblies of the people in the desert1 it was then indicated that ,god was present2 for the tent was a sign of ,god's presence4 ,the angel descended in the cloud1 and thence spoke to ,moses1 without being seen by the people1 ,exod4 xvi1 #aj2 ,num4 xi1 #be2 xvi1 #e4 ,it is common in ,scripture1 when mentioning ,god's appearing1 to represent him as encompassed with clouds1 which serve as a chariot1 and contribute to veil his dreadful majesty1 ,job xxii1 #ad2 ,isaiah xix1 #a2 ,matt4 xvii1 #e2 xxiv1 #cj1 c2 ,psalm xviii1 #aa1 #ab2 xcvii1 #b2 civ1 #c4 ,cloud is also used for morning mists3 8,your goodness is as a morning cloud2 and as the early dew it goeth away10 ,hosea vi1 #d2 xiii1 #c4 ,job1 speaking of the chaos1 says1 that ,god had confined the sea or the water1 as it were with a cloud1 and covered it with darkness1 as a child is wrapped in its blankets4 ,the author of ,ecclesiasticus1 xxiv1 #f1 used the same expression4 ,the ,son of ,god1 at his second advent1 is described as descending upon clouds1 ,matt4 xxiv1 #cj2 ,luke xi1 #bg2 ,rev4 xiv1 #ad-af4 ,,cocceians1 the disciples of ,john ,cocceius1 a celebrated ,dutch divine1 born at ,bremen1 in #afjh1 where he was appointed professor of ,hebrew1 at the age of twenty-seven1 and afterward filled the theological chair at ,leyden1 where he died in #affi4 ,his works make ten volumes in folio4 ,he was a man of good learning1 and a vivid imagination4 ,he considered the ,old ,testament as a mirror1 which held forth figuratively the transactions and events that were to happen in the church under the dispensation of the ,new ,testament1 and unto the end of the world4 ,he maintained1 that by far the greater part of the ancient prophecies related to ,christ's ministry and mediation1 and the rise1 progress1 and revolutions of the church2 not only under the figure of typical persons and transactions1 but in a more direct manner2 and that ,christ was1 indeed1 as much the substance of the ,old ,testament as of the ,new4 ,cocceius also taught1 that the covenant made between ,god and the ,jews was of the same nature as the new covenant by ,jesus ,christ2 that the law was promulgated by ,moses1 not merely as a rule of obedience1 but also as a representation of the covenant of grace2 that when the ,jews had provoked the ,deity by their various transgressions1 particularly by the worship of the golden calf1 the severe yoke of the ceremonial law was added as a punishment2 that this yoke1 which was painful in itself1 became doubly so on account of its typical signification2 since it admonished the ,israelites from day to day of the imperfection of their state1 filled them with anxiety1 and was a perpetual proof that they had merited the righteous judgment of ,god1 and could not expect1 before the coming of the ,messiah1 the entire remission of their iniquities2 that indeed good men1 under the ,mosaic dispensation1 were1 after death1 made partakers of glory2 but that1 nevertheless1 during the whole course of their lives they were far removed from that assurance of salvation1 which rejoices the believer under the dispensation of the ,gospel2 and that their anxiety flowed from this consideration1 that their sins1 though they remained unpunished1 were not yet pardoned2 because ,christ had not as yet offered himself up to make an atonement for them4 ,cocceius was also a millennarian1 and expected a personal reign of ,christ on earth in the last days4 ,many of his opinions were afterward adopted by the ,hutchinsonians4 ,,cock1 1 a well known domestic fowl4 ,some derive the ,greek name from 1 and 1 a bed1 because the crowing of cocks rouses men from their beds2 but ,mr4 ,parkhurst asks1 8,may not this name be as properly deduced from the ,hebrew 1 the coming of the light1 of which this #8bird of dawning1' as ,shakspeare calls him1 gives such remarkable notice1 and for doing which he was1 among the ,heathen1 sacred to the sun1 who in ,homer is himself called 80 ,in ,matt4 xxvi1 #cd1 our ,lord is represented as saying1 that before cock-crow ,peter should deny him thrice2 so ,luke xxii1 #cd1 and ,john xiii1 #ci4 ,but according to ,mark xiv1 #cj1 he says1 8,before the cock crow twice thou shalt deny me thrice40 ,these texts may be very satisfactorily reconciled1 by observing1 that ancient authors1 both ,greek and ,latin1 mention two cock-crowings1 the one of which was soon after midnight1 the other about three o'clock in the morning2 and this latter being most noticed by men as the signal of their approaching labours1 was called by way of eminence1 the cock-crowing2 and to this alone1 ,matthew1 giving the general sense of our ,saviour's warning to ,peter1 refers2 but ,mark1 recording his very words1 mentions the two cock-crowings4 ,the rabbies tell us that cocks were not permitted to be kept in ,jerusalem on account of the holiness of the place2 and that for this reason some modern ,jews cavil against this declaration of the ,evangelists2 but the cock is not among the birds prohibited in the law of ,moses4 ,if there was any restraint in the use and domestication of the animal1 it must have been an arbitrary practice of the ,jews1 and could not have been binding on foreigners1 of whom many resided at ,jerusalem as officers or traders4 ,strangers would not be willing to forego an innocent kind of food in compliance with a conquered people2 and the trafficking spirit of the ,jews would induce them to supply aliens1 if it did not expressly contradict the letter of their law4 ,this is sufficient to account for fowl of this kind being there1 even admitting a customary restraint4 ,the celebrated ,reland admits that it was not allowed to breed cocks in the city1 but that the ,jews were not prohibited from buying them to eat1 and that therefore the cock mentioned in the ,gospel might be in the house of a ,jew who designed to kill it for his own table2 or may have been kept in the precincts of ,pilate1 or of a ,roman officer or soldier4 ,during the time of our ,saviour1 the night was divided into four watches1 a fourth watch having been introduced among the ,jews from the ,romans1 who derived it from the ,greeks4 ,the second and third watches are mentioned in ,luke xii1 #ch2 the fourth1 in ,matthew xiv1 #be2 and the four are all distinctly mentioned in ,mark xiii1 #ce3 8,watch1 therefore2 for ye know not when the master of the house cometh2 at even10 1 or the late watch1 8or at midnight10 1 8or at the cock-crowing10 1 8or in the morning10 1 the early watch4 ,here1 the first watch was at even1 and continued from six till nine2 the second commenced at nine1 and ended at twelve1 or midnight2 the third watch1 called by the ,romans gallicinium1 lasted from twelve to three2 and the morning watch closed at six4 ,,cockatrice1 1 or 1 ,proverbs xxiii1 #cb2 ,isaiah xi1 #h2 xiv1 #bi2 lix1 #e2 ,jer4 viii1 #ag4 ,a venomous serpent4 ,the original ,hebrew word has been variously rendered1 the aspic1 the regulus1 the hydra1 the hemorhoos1 the viper1 and the cerastes4 ,in ,isaiah xi1 #h1 this serpent is evidently intended for a proportionate advance in malignity beyond the peten which precedes it2 and in xiv1 #bi1 it must mean a worse kind of serpent than the nahash4 ,in lix1 #e1 it is referred to as oviparous4 ,in ,jer4 viii1 #ag1 ,dr4 ,blayney1 after ,aquila1 retains the rendering of basilisk4 ,bochart1 who thinks it to be the regulus or basilisk1 says that it may be so denominated by an onomatopia from its hissing2 and accordingly it is hence called in ,latin sibilus1 8the hisser40 ,so the ,arabic saphaa signifies 8flatu adurere10 to scorch with a blast4 ,the ,chaldee paraphrast1 the ,syriac1 and the ,arabic1 render it the hurman or horman2 which rabbi ,selomo on ,gen4 xlix1 #ag1 declares to be the tziphoni of the ,hebrews3 8,hurman vocatur species1 cujus morsus est insanabilis4 ,is est ,hebris tziphoni1 et ,chaldaic dicitur hurman1 quia omnia facit vastationem2 id est1 quia omnia vastat1 et ad internecionem destruit40 ,the species is called hurman1 whose bite is incurable4 ,it is the tziphoni of the ,hebrews1 and is called in ,chaldee hurman1 because it makes all things --a waste2 that is1 because it lays waste and utterly destroys every thing4 ,,cockle1 4 ,this word occurs only in ,job xxxi1 #dj4 ,by the ,chaldee it is rendered noxious herbs2 by ,symmachus1 1 plants of imperfect fruit2 by the ,septuagint1 1 the blackberry bush2 by ,castelio1 ebulus1 8dwarf elder20 by ,celsius1 aconite2 and by ,bishop ,stock and ,dr4 ,good1 the night-shade4 ,m4 ,michalis maintains1 after ,celsius1 that both this word and 1 ,isaiah v1 #b1 #d1 denote the aconite1 a poisonous plant1 growing spontaneously and luxuriantly on sunny hills1 such as are used for vineyards4 ,he says that this interpretation is certain1 because1 as ,celsius had observed1 1 in ,arabic1 denotes the aconite2 and he intimates that it best suits ,job xxxi1 #dj1 where it is mentioned as growing instead of barley4 ,the word appears to import a weed not only noxious1 but of a fetid smell4 ,c,,lo-,,syria1 hollow or depressed ,syria1 ,syria in the vale1 #a ,macc4 xiii1 #aj4 ,this name imports the hollow land1 or region1 situated between two long ridges of mountains2 and those mountains have been always understood to be ,libanus and ,anti-libanus4 ,as these ridges run parallel for many leagues1 they contain between them a long1 extensive1 and extremely fruitful valley4 ,,colosse1 a city of ,phrygia ,minor1 which stood on the river ,lyceus1 at an equal distance between ,laodicea and ,hierapolis4 ,these three cities1 says ,eusebius1 were destroyed by an earthquake1 in the tenth of ,nero1 or about two years after the date of ,st4 ,paul's ,epistle to the ,colossians4 ,laodicea1 ,hierapolis1 and ,colosse were at no great distance from each other2 which accounts for the ,apostle ,paul1 when writing to his ,christian brethren in the latter of these places1 mentioning them all in connection with each other1 ,col4 iv1 #ac4 ,of these cities1 however1 ,laodicea was the greatest1 for it was the metropolis of ,phrygia1 though ,colosse is said to have been a great and wealthy place4 ,the inhabitants of ,phrygia1 says ,dr4 ,macknight1 were famous for the worship of ,bacchus1 and of ,cybele the mother of the gods2 whence the latter was called ,phrygia mater1 by way of eminence4 ,in her worship1 as well as in that of ,bacchus1 both sexes practised every species of debauchery in speech and action1 with a frantic rage which they pretended was occasioned by the inspiration of the deities whom they worshipped4 ,these were the orgies1 from 1 rage1 of ,bacchus and ,cybele1 so famed in antiquity1 the lascivious rites of which being perfectly adapted to the corruptions of the human heart1 were performed by both sexes without shame or remorse4 ,hence as the ,son of ,god came into the world to destroy the works of the devil1 it appeared1 in the eye of his ,apostle1 a matter of great importance to carry the light of the ,gospel into countries where these abominable impurities were not only practised1 but even dignified with the honourable appellation of religious worship2 especially as nothing but the heaven-descended light of the ,gospel could dispel such a pernicious infatuation4 ,that this salutary purpose might be effectually accomplished1 ,paul1 accompanied by ,silas and ,timothy1 went at different times into ,phrygia1 and preached the ,gospel in many cities of that country with great success2 but it is thought by many persons1 that the ,epistle to the ,colossians contains internal marks of his never having been at ,colosse when he wrote it4 ,this opinion rests principally upon the following passage3 8,for ,i would that ye knew what great conflict ,i have for you1 and for them at ,laodicea1 and for as many as have not seen my face in the flesh10 ,col4 ii1 #a3 but these words1 if they prove any thing upon this question1 prove that ,st4 ,paul had never been either at ,laodicea or ,colosse2 but surely it is very improbable that he should have travelled twice into ,phrygia for the purpose of preaching the ,gospel1 and not have gone either to ,laodicea or ,colosse1 which were the two principal cities of that country2 especially as in the second journey into those parts it is said1 that he 8went over all the country of ,galatia and ,phrygia1 strengthening all the disciples20 and moreover1 we know that it was the ,apostle's practice to preach at the most considerable places of every district into which he went4 ,dr4 ,lardner1 after arguing this point1 says1 8,from all these considerations1 it appears to me very probable that the church at ,colosse had been planted by the ,apostle ,paul1 and that the ,christians there were his friends1 disciples1 and converts40 ,the ,epistle greatly resembles that to the ,ephesians1 both in sentiment and expression4 ,after saluting the ,colossian ,christians in his own name1 and that of ,timothy1 ,st4 ,paul assures them1 that since he had heard of their faith in ,christ ,jesus1 and of their love to all ,christians1 he had not ceased to return thanks to ,god for them1 and to pray that they might increase in spiritual knowledge1 and abound in every good work2 he describes the dignity of ,christ1 and declares the universality of the ,gospel dispensation1 which was a mystery formerly hidden1 but now made manifest2 and he mentions his own appointment1 through the grace of ,god1 to be the ,apostle of the ,gentiles2 he expresses a tender concern for the ,colossians and other ,christians of ,phrygia1 and cautions them against being seduced from the simplicity of the ,gospel1 by the subtlety of ,pagan philosophers1 or the superstition of ,judaizing ,christians2 he directs them to set their affections on things above1 and forbids every species of licentiousness2 he exhorts to a variety of ,christian virtues1 to meekness1 veracity1 humility1 charity1 and devotion2 he enforces the duties of wives1 husbands1 children1 fathers1 servants1 and masters2 he inculcates the duty of prayer1 and of prudent behaviour toward unbelievers2 and after adding the salutations of several persons then at ,rome1 and desiring that this epistle might be read in the church of their neighbours the ,laodiceans1 he concludes with a salutation from himself1 written1 as usual1 with his own hand4 ,,comforter1 one of the titles by which the ,holy ,spirit is designated in the ,new ,testament1 ,john xiv1 #af1 #bf2 xv1 #bf4 ,the name has no doubt a reference to his peculiar office in the economy of redemption2 namely1 that of imparting consolation to the hearts of ,christ's disciples1 which he effects by 8taking of the things that are ,christ's10 and explaining them2 or1 in other words1 by illuminating their minds as to the meaning of the ,scriptures1 assuring them of the ,saviour's love1 bringing to their recollection his consolatory sayings1 and filling their souls with peace and joy in believing them4--,the word has also been rendered ,advocate1 ,helper1 ,monitor1 ,teacher1 c4 ,the first does not apply to the office of the ,spirit2 and the others are not so well supported by the connection of our ,lord's discourse1 which favours the translation1 ,comforter2 because whatever gracious offices the ,holy ,spirit was to perform for the disciples1 the great end of all was to remove that sorrow which the approach of the departure of ,christ had produced1 and to render their joy full and complete4 ,,commerce4 ,merchandise1 in its various branches1 was carried on in the east at the earliest period of which we have any account2 and it was not long before the traffic between nations1 both by sea and land1 was very considerable4 ,accordingly1 frequent mention is made of public roads1 fords1 bridges1 and beasts of burden2 also of ships for the transportation of property1 of weights1 measures1 and coin1 both in the oldest books of the ,bible1 and in the most ancient profane histories4 ,the ,phenicians anciently held the first rank as a commercial nation4 ,they were in the habit of purchasing goods of various kinds throughout all the east4 ,they then carried them in ships down the ,mediterranean1 as far as the shores of ,africa and ,europe1 brought back in return merchandise and silver1 and disposed of these again in the more eastern countries4 ,the first metropolis of the ,phenicians was ,sidon3 afterward ,tyre became the principal city4 ,tyre was built two hundred and forty years before the temple of ,solomon1 or twelve hundred and fifty-one before ,christ4 ,the ,phenicians had ports of their own in almost every country2 the most distinguished of which were ,carthage and ,tarshish1 or ,tartessus1 in ,spain4 ,the ships from the latter place undertook very distant voyages3 hence1 any vessels that performed distant voyages were called 8ships of ,tarshish10 4 ,something is said of the commerce of the ,phenicians in the twenty-seventh and twenty-eighth chapters of ,ezekiel1 and the twenty-third chapter of ,isaiah4 ,the inhabitants of ,arabia ,felix carried on a commerce with ,india4 ,they carried some of the articles which they brought from ,india through the straits of ,babelmandel into ,abyssinia and ,egypt2 some they transported to ,babylon through the ,persian ,gulf and the ,euphrates2 and some by the way of the ,red ,sea to the port of ,eziongeber4 ,they thus became rich2 though it is possible their wealth may have been too much magnified by the ancients4 ,the eminence of the ,egyptians1 as a commercial nation1 commences with the reign of ,necho4 ,their commerce1 nevertheless1 was not great1 till ,alexander had destroyed ,tyre and built ,alexandria4 #b4 ,the ,phenicians sometimes received the goods of ,india by way of the ,persian ,gulf1 where they had colonies in the islands of ,dedan1 ,arad1 and ,tyre4 ,sometimes they received them from the ,arabians1 who either brought them by land through ,arabia1 or up the ,red ,sea to ,eziongeber4 ,in the latter case1 having landed them at the port mentioned1 they transported them through the country by the way of ,gaza to ,phenicia4 ,the ,phenicians increased the amount of their foreign goods by the addition of those which they themselves fabricated2 and were thus enabled to supply all parts of the ,mediterranean4 ,the ,egyptians at first received their goods from the ,phenicians1 ,arabians1 ,africans1 and ,abyssinians2 in all of which countries there are still the remains of large trading towns2 but in a subsequent age1 they imported goods from ,india in their own vessels2 and eventually carried on an export trade with various ports on the ,mediterranean4 ,oriental commerce1 however1 was chiefly carried on by land3 accordingly1 vessels are hardly mentioned in the ,bible1 except in ,psalm cvii1 #bc-cj1 and in passages where the discourse turns upon the ,phenicians1 or upon the naval affairs of ,solomon and ,jehoshaphat4 ,the two principal routes from ,palestine into ,egypt were1 the one along the shores of the ,mediterranean from ,gaza to ,pelusium1 and the other from ,gaza by the way of ,mount ,sinai and the ,elanitic branch of the ,red ,sea4 #c4 ,the merchants transported their goods upon camels2 animals which are patient of thirst1 and are easily supported in the deserts4 ,for the common purpose of security against depredations1 the oriental merchants travelled in company1 as is common in the east at the present day4 ,a large travelling company of this kind is called a caravan or carvan1 a smaller one was called kafile or kafle1 ,job vi1 #ah-bj2 ,gen4 xxxvii1 #be2 ,isa4 xxi1 #ac2 ,jer4 ix1 #b2 ,judges v1 #f2 ,luke ii1 #dd4 ,the furniture carried by the individuals of a caravan consisted of a mattress1 a coverlet1 a carpet for sitting upon1 a round piece of leather1 which answered the purpose of a table1 a few pots and kettles of copper covered with tin2 also a tin-plated cup1 which was suspended before the breast under the outer garment1 and was used for drinking1 #a ,sam4 xxvi1 #aa1 #ab1 #af3 leathern bags for holding water1 tents1 lights1 and provisions in quality and abundance as each one could afford4 ,every caravan had a leader to conduct it through the desert1 who was acquainted with the direction of its route1 and with the cisterns and fountains4 ,these he was able to ascertain1 sometimes from heaps of stones1 sometimes by the character of the soil1 and1 when other helps failed him1 by the stars1 ,num4 x1 #bi-cb2 ,jer4 xxxi1 #ba2 ,isa4 xxi1 #ad4 ,when all things are in readiness1 the individuals who compose the caravan assemble at a distance from the city4 ,the commander of the caravan1 who is a different person from the conductor or leader1 and is chosen from the wealthiest of its members1 appoints the day of their departure4 ,a similar arrangement was adopted among the ,jews1 whenever they travelled in large numbers to the city of ,jerusalem4 ,the caravans start very early1 sometimes before day4 ,they endeavour to find a stopping place or station to remain at during the night1 which shall afford them a supply of water1 ,job vi1 #ae-bj4 ,they arrive at their stopping place before the close of the day2 and1 while it is yet light1 prepare every thing that is necessary for the recommencement of their journey4 ,in order to prevent any one from wandering away from the caravan1 and getting lost during the night1 lamps or torches are elevated upon poles and carried before it4 ,the pillar of fire answered this purpose for the ,israelites1 when wandering in the wilderness4 ,sometimes the caravans lodge in cities2 but when they do not1 they pitch their tents so as to form an encampment2 and during the night keep watch alternately for the sake of security4 ,in the cities there are public inns1 called ,chan and ,carvanserai1 in which the caravans are lodged without expense4 ,they are large square buildings1 in the centre of which is an area1 or open court4 ,carvanserais are denominated in the ,greek of the ,new ,testament1 1 and 1 ,luke ii1 #g2 x1 #cd4 ,the first mention of one in the ,old ,testament is in ,jer4 xli1 #ag1 4 ,it was situated near the city of ,bethlehem4 #d4 ,moses enacted no laws in favour of commerce1 although there is no question that he saw the situation of ,palestine to be very favourable for it4 ,the reason of this was1 that the ,hebrews1 who were designedly set apart to preserve the true religion1 could not mingle with foreign idolatrous nations without injury4 ,he therefore merely inculcated good faith and honesty in buying and selling1 ,lev4 xix1 #cf1 #cg2 ,deut4 xxv1 #ac-af2 and left all the other interests of commerce to a future age4 ,by the establishment1 however1 of the three great festivals1 he gave occasion for some mercantile intercourse4 ,at these festivals all the adult males of the nation were yearly assembled at one place4 ,the consequence was1 that those who had any thing to sell brought it2 while those who wished to buy articles came with the expectation of having an opportunity4 ,as ,moses1 though he did not encourage1 did not interdict foreign commerce1 ,solomon1 at a later period1 not only carried on a traffic in horses1 as already stated1 but sent ships from the port of ,eziongeber through the ,red ,sea to ,ophir1 probably the coast of ,africa1 #a ,kings ix1 #bf2 #b ,chron4 ix1 #ba4 ,this traffic1 although a source of emolument1 appears to have been neglected after the death of ,solomon4 ,the attempt made by ,jehoshaphat to restore it was frustrated1 by his ships being dashed upon the rocks and destroyed1 #a ,kings xxii1 #dh1 #di2 #b ,chron4 xx1 #cf4 ,joppa1 though not a very convenient one1 was properly the port of ,jerusalem2 and some of the large vessels which went to ,spain sailed from it1 ,jonah i1 #c4 ,in the age of ,ezekiel1 the commerce of ,jerusalem was so great1 that it gave an occasion of envy even to the ,tyrians themselves1 ,ezek4 xxvi1 #b4 ,after the captivity1 a great number of ,jews became merchants1 and travelled for the purpose of traffic into all countries4 ,about the year #aej ,b4 ,c4 prince ,simon rendered the port at ,joppa more convenient than it had hitherto been4 ,in the time of ,pompey the ,great1 there were so many ,jews abroad on the ocean1 even in the character of pirates1 that ,king ,antigonus was accused before him of having sent them out on purpose4 ,a new port was built by ,herod at ,cesarea4 ,,communion1 in a religious sense1 refers chiefly to the admission of persons to the ,lord's ,supper4 ,this is said to be open1 when all are admitted who apply1 as in the ,church of ,england2 to be strict1 when confined to the members of a single society1 or1 at least1 to members of the same denomination2 and it is mixed1 when persons are admitted from societies of different denominations1 on the profession of their faith1 and evidence of their piety4 ,the principal difficulty on this point arises between the strict ,baptists and ,pdo-,baptists4 ,,concubine1 4 ,this term1 in western authors1 commonly signifies1 a woman1 who1 without being married to a man1 yet lives with him as his wife2 but1 in the sacred writers1 the word concubine is understood in another sense2 meaning a lawful wife1 but one not wedded with all the ceremonies and solemnities of matrimony2 a wife of the second rank1 inferior to the first wife1 or mistress of the house4 ,children of concubines did not inherit their father's fortune2 but he might provide for1 and make presents to1 them4 ,thus ,abraham1 by ,sarah his wife1 had ,isaac1 his heir2 but1 by his two concubines1 ,hagar and ,keturah1 he had other children1 whom he did not make equal to ,isaac4 ,as polygamy was tolerated in the east1 it was common to see in every family1 beside lawful wives1 several concubines4 ,since the abrogation of polygamy by ,jesus ,christ1 and the restoration of marriage to its primitive institution1 concubinage is ranked with adultery or fornication4 ,,coney1 1 ,levit4 xi1 #e2 ,deut4 xiv1 #g2 ,psalm civ1 #h2 and ,prov4 xxx1 #bf4 ,bochart and others have supposed the shaphan of the ,scriptures to be the jerboa2 but ,mr4 ,bruce proves that the ashkoko is intended4 ,this curious animal is found in ,ethiopia1 and in great numbers on ,mount ,lebanon1 c4 ,instead of holes1 they seem to delight in more airy places1 in the mouths of caves1 or clefts in the rock4 ,they are gregarious1 and frequently several dozens of them sit upon the great stones at the mouths of caves1 and warm themselves in the sun1 or come out and enjoy the freshness of the summer evening4 ,they do not stand upright upon their feet1 but seem to steal along as in fear1 their belly being nearly close to the ground2 advancing a few steps at a time1 and then pausing4 ,they have something very mild1 feeble-like1 and timid1 in their deportment2 are gentle and easily tamed1 though1 when roughly handled at the first1 they bite very severely4 ,many are the reasons to believe this to be the animal called saphan in ,hebrew1 and erroneously by our translators1 8the coney10 or rabbit4 ,the latter are gregarious indeed1 and so far resemble the other1 as also in size2 but they seek not the same place of retreat2 for the rabbit burrows most generally in the sand4 ,nor is there any thing in the character of rabbits that denotes excellent wisdom1 or that they supply the want of strength by any remarkable sagacity4 ,the saphan1 then1 is not the rabbit2 which last1 unless it was brought to him by his ships from ,europe1 ,solomon never saw4 ,let us now apply the characters of the ashkoko to the saphan4 8,he is above all other animals so much attached to the rocks1 that ,i never once10 says ,mr4 ,bruce1 8saw him on the ground1 or from among large stones in the mouth of caves1 where is his constant residence4 ,he lives in families or flocks4 ,he is in ,judea1 ,palestine1 and ,arabia1 and consequently must have been familiar to ,solomon4 ,david describes him very pertinently1 and joins him to other animals perfectly known3 #8,the hills are a refuge for the wild goats1 and the rocks for the saphan3' and ,solomon says that #8they are exceeding wise1' that they are #8but a feeble folk1 yet make their houses in the rocks4' ,now this1 ,i think1 very obviously fixes the ashkoko to be the saphan2 for his weakness seems to allude to his feet1 and how inadequate these are to dig holes in the rock1 where yet1 however1 he lodges4 ,from their tenderness these are very liable to be excoriated or hurt2 notwithstanding which1 they build houses in the rocks more inaccessible than those of the rabbit1 and in which they abide in greater safety1 not by exertion of strength1 for they have it not1 but are truly1 as ,solomon says1 #8a feeble folk1' but by their own sagacity and judgment2 and are therefore justly described as wise4 ,lastly1 what leaves the thing without doubt is1 that some of the ,arabs1 particularly ,damir1 say that the saphan has no tail1 that it is less than a cat1 that it lives in houses or nests1 which it builds of straw1 in contradistinction to the rabbit and the rat1 and those animals that burrow in the ground40 ,,confession signifies a public acknowledgment of any thing as our own3 thus ,christ will confess the faithful in the day of judgment1 ,luke xii1 #h4 #b4 ,to own and profess the truths of ,christ1 and to obey his commandments1 in spite of opposition and danger from enemies1 ,matt4 x1 #cb4 #c4 ,to utter or speak the praises of ,god1 or to give him thanks4 #d4 ,to acknowledge our sins and offences to ,god1 either by private or public confession2 or to our neighbour whom we have wronged2 or to some pious persons from whom we expect to receive comfort and spiritual instruction2 or to the whole congregation when our fault is published1 ,psalm xxxii1 #e2 ,matt4 iii1 #f2 ,james v1 #af2 #a ,john i1 #i4 #e4 ,to acknowledge a crime before a judge1 ,josh4 vii1 #ai4 #b4 ,in the ,jewish ceremony of annual expiation1 the high priest confessed in general his own sins1 the sins of other ministers of the temple1 and those of all the people4 ,when an ,israelite offered a sacrifice for sin1 he put his hand on the head of the victim1 and confessed his faults1 ,lev4 iv4 ,on the day of atonement1 the ,jews still make a private confession of their sins1 which is called by them cippur1 and which is said to be done in the following manner3 ,two ,jews retire into a corner of the synagogue4 ,one of them bows very low before the other1 with his face turned toward the north4 ,he who performs the office of confessor gives the penitent nine-and-thirty blows on the back with a leathern strap1 repeating these words1 8,god1 being full of compassion1 forgave their iniquity1 and destroyed them not2 yea1 many a time turned he his anger away1 and did not stir up all his wrath40 ,as there are only thirteen words in this verse recited in the ,hebrew1 he repeats it three times1 and at every word strikes one blow2 which makes nine-and-thirty words1 and as many lashes4 ,in the meantime1 the penitent declares his sins1 and at the confession of every one beats himself on his breast4 ,this being finished1 he who has performed the office of confessor prostrates himself on the ground1 and receives in turn from his penitent nine-and-thirty lashes4 #c4 ,the ,romish church not only requires confession as a duty1 but has advanced it to the dignity of a sacrament4 ,these confessions are made in private to the priest1 who is not to reveal them under pain of the highest punishment4 ,the council of ,trent requires 8secret confession to the priest alone1 of all and every mortal sin1 which1 upon the most diligent search and examination of our consciences1 we can remember ourselves to be guilty of since our baptism2 together with all the circumstances of those sins1 which may change the nature of them2 because1 without the perfect knowledge of these1 the priest cannot make a judgment of the nature and quality of men's sins1 nor impose fitting penance for them40 ,this is the confession of sins which the same council confidently affirms 8to have been instituted by our ,lord1 and by the law of ,god1 to be necessary to salvation1 and to have been always practised in the catholic church40 ,it is1 however1 evident1 that such confession is unscriptural4 ,st4 ,james1 indeed1 says1 8,confess your faults one to another10 ,james v1 #af2 but priests are not here mentioned1 and the word faults seems to confine the precept to a mutual confession among ,christians1 of those offences by which they may have injured each other4 ,certain it is1 that from this passage the necessity of auricular confession1 and the power of priestly absolution1 cannot be inferred4 ,though many of the early ecclesiastical writers earnestly recommend confession to the clergy1 yet they never recommend it as essential to the pardon of sin1 or as having connection with a sacrament4 ,they only urge it as entitling a person to the prayers of the congregation2 and as useful for supporting the authority of wholesome discipline1 and for maintaining the purity of the ,christian church4 ,chrysostom condemns all secret confession to men1 as being obviously liable to great abuses2 and ,basil1 ,hilary1 and ,augustine1 all advise confession of sins to ,god only4 ,it has been proved by ,m4 ,daill1 that private1 auricular1 sacramental confession of sins was unknown in the primitive church4 ,but1 though private auricular confession is not of divine authority1 yet1 as ,archbishop ,tillotson properly observes1 there are many cases in which men1 under the guilt and trouble of their sins1 can neither appease their own minds1 nor sufficiently direct themselves1 without recourse to some pious and prudent guide4 ,in these cases1 men certainly do very well1 and many times prevent a great deal of trouble and perplexity to themselves1 by a timely discovery of their condition to some faithful minister1 in order to their direction and satisfaction4 ,to this purpose a general confession is for the most part sufficient2 and where there is occasion for a more particular discovery1 there is no need of raking into the minute and foul circumstances of men's sins to give that advice which is necessary for the cure and ease of the penitent4 ,auricular confession is unquestionably one of the greatest corruptions of the ,romish church4 ,it goes upon the ground that the priest has power to forgive sins2 it establishes the tyrannical influence of the priesthood2 it turns the penitent from ,god who only can forgive sins1 to man who is himself a sinner2 and it tends to corrupt both the confessors and the confessed by a foul and particular disclosure of sinful thoughts and actions of every kind without exception4 ,,confessions ,,of ,,faith1 simply considered1 is the same with creed1 and signifies a summary of the principal articles of belief adopted by any individual or society4 ,in its more common acceptation1 it is restricted to the summaries of doctrine published by particular ,christian churches1 with the view of preventing their religious sentiments from being misunderstood or misrepresented1 or1 by requiring subscription to them1 of securing uniformity of opinion among those who join their communion4 ,except a single sentence in one of the ,ignatian ,epistles1 7,a4 ,d4 #ahj17 which relates exclusively to the reality of ,christ's personality and sufferings in opposition to the ,docet1 the earliest document of this kind is to be found in the writings of ,irenus1 who flourished toward the end of the second century of the ,christian ra4 ,in his treatise against heresies1 this father affirms that 8the faith of the church planted throughout the whole world10 consisted in the belief of 8one ,god1 the ,father ,almighty1 ,maker of heaven and earth and sea1 and all that are in them2 and one ,christ ,jesus1 the ,son of ,god1 who became incarnate for our salvation2 and one ,holy ,spirit1 who foretold1 through the ,prophets1 the dispensations and advents1 and the generation by the virgin1 and the passion1 and the resurrection from the dead1 and the ascension in the flesh into heaven1 of ,jesus ,christ our beloved ,lord1 and his appearing from heaven in the glory of the ,father1 to unite together all things under one head1 and to raise every individual of the human race2 that unto ,christ ,jesus1 our ,lord and ,god1 and ,saviour and ,king1 every knee may bow1 and every tongue confess2 that he may pronounce just sentence upon all40 ,in various parts of ,tertullian's writings similar statements occur1 7,a4 ,d4 #bjj17 which it is unnecessary particularly to quote4 ,we shall only remark1 that in one of them1 the miraculous conception of ,christ by the power of the ,holy ,ghost is distinctly mentioned2 that in another1 he declares it to have been the uniform doctrine from the beginning of the ,gospel1 that ,christ was born of the virgin1 both man and ,god1 ex e natum hominem et ,deum2 and that in each of these1 faith in the ,father1 ,son1 and ,spirit1 is recognised as essential to ,christianity4 ,the following passage we cite1 for the purpose of marking its coincidence with the ,apostles' ,creed1 to which we shall have occasion soon to advert3 8,this10 says he1 8is the sole1 immovable1 irreformable rule of faith2 namely1 to believe in the only ,god ,almighty1 maker of the world2 and his ,son ,jesus ,christ1 born of the virgin ,mary1 crucified under ,pontius ,pilate1 the third day raised from the dead1 received into heaven1 now sitting at the right hand of the ,father1 about to come and judge the quick and the dead1 by the resurrection also of the flesh40 ,the summaries contained in the works of ,origen 7,a4 ,d4 #ebj7 nearly resemble the preceding2 any difference between them being easily accounted for1 from the tenets of the particular heresies against which they were directed4 ,in his 8,commentary on ,st4 ,john's ,gospel10 he thus writes3 8,we believe that there is one ,god1 who created all things1 and framed and made all things to exist out of nothing4 ,we must also believe in the ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 and in all the truth concerning his ,deity and humanity2 and we must likewise believe in the ,holy ,spirit2 and that1 being free agents1 we shall be punished for the things in which we sin1 and rewarded for those in which we do well40 ,according to ,cyprian1 the formula1 to which assent was required from adults at their baptism1 was in these terms3 8,dost thou believe in ,god the ,father1 ,christ the ,son1 the ,holy ,spirit1 the remission of sins1 and eternal life1 through the holy church80 ,this was called by him symboli lex1 8the law of the creed20 and by ,novatian1 regula veritatis1 8the rule of truth40 #b4 ,from these and similar sources1 the different clauses of what is commonly called the ,apostles' ,creed appear to have sprung4 ,for1 though it was long believed to be the composition of the ,apostles1 its claims to such an inspired origin are now universally rejected4 ,of its great antiquity1 however1 there can be no doubt2 the whole of it1 as it stands in the ,english liturgy1 having been generally received as an authoritative confession in the fourth century4 ,toward the end of that century1 ,rufinus wrote a commentary on it1 which is still extant1 in which he acknowledges that the clause respecting ,christ's descent into hell was not admitted into the creeds either of the western or the eastern churches4 ,we learn also that the epithet catholic was not at that time applied in it to the church4 ,its great simplicity and conciseness1 beside1 prove it to have been considerably earlier than the council of ,nice1 when the heretical speculations of various sects led the defenders of the orthodox faith to fence the interests of religion with more complicated and cumbrous barriers4 ,this confession of faith was then preminently named symbolum2 which might be understood in the general acceptation of sign1 as the characteristic1 representative sign of the ,christian faith2 or1 in a more restricted sense1 in reference to the 1 or tessera militaris1 the watch word of the ,christian soldier1 communicated to each man at his first entrance into the service of ,christ4 ,perhaps this word1 at first1 only denoted the formula of baptism1 and was afterward transferred to the confession of faith4 #c4 ,in the celebrated council of ,nice1 7,a4 ,d4 #cbe17 in which ,arianism was not only condemned1 but proscribed1 the confession established as the universal standard of truth and orthodoxy runs thus3 8,i believe in one ,god1 the ,father ,almighty1 maker of heaven and earth1 and of all things visible and invisible2 and in one ,lord ,jesus1 the only begotten ,son of ,god1 begotten of the ,father1 before all worlds1 ,god of ,god1 ,light of ,light1 very ,god of very ,god1 begotten not made1 being of one substance with the ,father2 by whom all things were made2 who for us men1 and for our salvation1 descended from heaven1 and became incarnate by the ,holy ,ghost1 of the virgin ,mary2 and was made man1 was crucified for us under ,pontius ,pilate4 ,he suffered and was buried2 and the third day he rose again according to the ,scriptures1 and ascended into heaven1 and sitteth on the right hand of the ,father2 and he shall come again with glory to judge both the quick and the dead1 of whose kingdom there will be no end4 ,and ,i believe in the ,holy ,ghost who spake by the ,prophets2 and one catholic1 and ,apostolical church4 ,i acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins1 and ,i look for the resurrection of the dead1 and the life of the world to come40 ,it were endless to specify the particular shades of difference by which the ,arian confessions 7the number of which amounted nearly to twenty in the space of a very few years7 were distinguished from each other3 suffice it to say1 that while they agreed generally in substance1 especially in rejecting the ,nicene term1 1 as applied to the ,son1 their variations of expression concerning the nature of his subordination to the ,father were so astonishingly minute1 as almost to bid defiance to any attempt which might be made1 at this distance of time1 to determine in what their real and essential differences consisted4 #d4 8,the ,book of ,armagh10 a very ancient collection of interesting national documents1 which have recently been published by ,sir ,william ,betham in the second part of his curious 8,irish ,antiquarian ,researches10 contains the ,confession of ,st4 ,patrick2 who has been supposed1 from several collateral circumstances1 to have flourished some years prior to the time of ,st4 ,jerom1 or about the commencement of the fourth century4 ,the subjoined are the first two paragraphs in it1 and will be admired for the orthodoxy1 artlessness1 and ,christian experience which they exhibit3--8,i1 ,,patrick1 a sinner1 the rudest1 the least1 and the most insignificant of the faithful1 had ,calphurnius1 a deacon1 for my father1 who was the son of ,potitus1 heretofore a priest1 the son of ,odissus1 who lived in the village of ,banavem ,taberni4 ,for he had a little farm adjacent1 where ,i was captured4 ,i was then almost sixteen years of age2 but ,i knew not ,god1 and was led into captivity by the ,irish1 with many thousand men1 as we deserved1 because we estranged ourselves from ,god1 and did not keep his laws1 and were disobedient to our pastors1 who admonished us with respect to our salvation3 and the ,lord brought down upon us the anger of his ,spirit1 and dispersed us among many nations1 even to the extremity of the earth1 where my meanness was conspicuous among foreigners1 and where the ,lord discovered to me a sense of my unbelief2 that late ,i should remember my transgressions1 and that ,i should be converted with my whole heart to the ,lord my ,god1 who had respect to my humiliation1 and pitied my youth and ignorance1 even before ,i knew him1 and before ,i was wise1 or could distinguish between right and wrong1 and strengthened me1 and cherished me1 as a father would a son4 ,from which time ,i could not remain silent2 nor1 indeed1 did he cease to bless me with many acts of kindness2 and so great was the favour of which he thought me worthy in the land of my captivity4 ,for this is my retribution1 that1 after my rebuking1 punishment1 and acknowledgment of ,god1 ,i should exalt him1 and confess his wonderful acts before every nation which is under the whole heaven2 because there is no other ,god1 nor ever was before1 nor will be after him1 except ,god1 the unbegotten ,father1 without beginning1 possessing all things1 as we have said1 and his ,son ,jesus ,christ1 who1 we bear witness1 was always with the ,father1 before the formation of the world1 in spirit 7or spiritually7 with the ,father1 inexpressibly begotten before all beginning1 through whom visible things were made3 he became man1 having overcome death1 and was received into heaven4 ,and ,god has given to him all power #8above every name1 as well of the inhabitants of heaven as of the earth and of the powers below1 that every tongue should confess that ,jesus ,christ is ,lord and ,god2' whom we believe1 and whose coming we expect1 as presently about to be ,judge of the living and dead1 who will render unto every man according to his actions1 and has poured upon us abundantly the gift of his ,holy ,spirit1 and the pledge of immortality2 who makes us that believe and are obedient to be the sons of ,god and joint heirs of ,christ2 whom we believe and adore1 one ,god in the ,trinity of the sacred name4 ,for he spoke by the ,prophet1 #8,call upon me in the day of tribulation1 and ,i will deliver thee1 and thou shalt glorify me4' ,and again he says1 #8,it is an honourable thing to reveal and confess the works of ,god4'0 #e4 ,macedonius having denied not only the divinity but the personality of the ,holy ,spirit1 maintaining that he is only a divine energy diffused throughout the universe1 a general council was called at ,constantinople1 ,a4 ,d4 #cha1 in order to crush this rising heresy4 ,the confession promulgated on this occasion1 and which 8gave the finishing touch to what the council of ,nice had left imperfect1 and fixed1 in a full and determinate manner1 the doctrine of the ,trinity1 as it is still received among the generality of ,christians10 exactly coincides with the ,nicene confession1 except in the article respecting the ,spirit1 which it thus extends3 8,and ,i believe in the ,holy ,ghost1 the ,lord1 and ,giver of life1 who proceedeth from the ,father and the ,son1 who1 together with the ,father and the ,son1 is worshipped and glorified40 #f4 ,subsequent to this1 and probably toward the middle of the fifth century1 the creed which bears the name of ,athanasius appears to have been composed4 ,that it was not the work of this distinguished opposer of ,arianism is established by the most satisfactory evidence4 ,no traces of it are to be found in any of his writings1 though they relate chiefly to the very subject of which it is an exposition2 and so far from its being ascribed to him1 not the least notice is taken of it by any of his contemporaries4 ,its language1 beside1 concerning the ,spirit is so similar to that of the council of ,constantinople1 but still more precise and explicit1 that there can be no doubt of its having been written posterior to the time of that assembly4 ,yet ,athanasius died in the year #cgc4 ,accordingly1 it has been1 with great probability of truth1 attributed1 particularly by ,dr4 ,waterland1 to ,hilary1 bishop of ,arles1 who is said by one of his biographers to have composed an ,exposition of the ,creed3 a title which certainly is more appropriate and characteristic of it than that of ,creed simply1 by which it is now so universally known4 ,the damnatory clauses in this creed have frequently been made subjects of reprehension2 and some clergymen of the church of ,england have scrupled to read them as directed by the ,rubric4 ,the following is an apology for those clauses1 by the late venerable ,archdeacon ,dodwell1 who seems to have felt none of those misgivings which troubled his doubting brethren3--8,the form1 as well as the substance1 of this creed1 and the very introduction to the main article1 has been objected to3 #8,whosoever will be saved1 before all things it is necessary that he hold the catholic faith2' to which is added1 #8,which faith1 except every one do keep whole and undefiled1 without doubt he shall perish everlastingly4' ,this1 with a like condemnatory sentence in the conclusion of the creed1 wherein a possibility of salvation is denied to him who does not cordially embrace this doctrine1 is pronounced unreasonable1 uncharitable1 unchristian1 with every other aggravating appellation that can be used4 ,but the ground of this charge1 and the whole of the difficulty suggested in it1 from the variety of the circumstances of different persons1 depends upon the interpretation of the phrase of #8being saved4' ,the meaning of this term in its primary signification1 and as it is applied to common subjects in common discourse1 means a preservation from threatening perils1 or from threatened punishment4 ,but1 in an evangelical sense1 and as it occurs in the ,new ,testament1 it includes much more3 it means the whole ,christian scheme of redemption and justification by the ,son of ,god1 with all the glorious privileges and promises contained in that scheme4 ,it means not merely a hope of deliverance from danger or from vengeance1 but a federal title to positive happiness1 purchased by the merits1 and declared to mankind by the ,gospel of ,christ ,jesus our ,lord4 ,st4 ,paul calls it #8the obtaining the salvation which is in ,christ ,jesus with eternal glory1' #b ,tim4 ii1 #aj4 #8,whosoever1' then1 says the creed1 #8will' thus #8be saved1' will be desirous to secure the glorious promises of the ,gospel1 must pursue it upon the terms which that ,gospel proposes1 and particularly must embrace the doctrines which it reveals4 ,the creed speaks of those only to whom the evidence of the ,gospel has been fully set forth1 and the importance of it fully explained4 ,we are to justify it only to professed believers1 and of them only4 ,the state and lot of the ,heathen world are quite out of the question4 ,neither common sense nor ,scripture will permit us to interpret it of those who still #8sit in darkness and the shadow of death1' and never had the means of grace and the hope of glory proposed to them4 ,even with respect to those to whom the ,gospel is preached1 there is no necessity of interpreting the words here used in the harshest and strictest sense4 ,there are many distinctions and limitations1 which are always understood and supposed in such cases1 though they are not expressly mentioned4 ,general rules are laid down as such1 are true as such2 while excepted cases are referred to the judgment of those who are qualified to judge of them1 and are not particularly pointed out2 as for other reasons1 so lest they should be extended too far1 and defeat the general rule4 ,sufficient capacity in the persons to whom it is applied1 and sufficient means of information and conviction1 are always presupposed1 where faith is spoken of as necessary4 ,where either of these is wanting1 the case is 7where it should be7 in the hands of ,god4 ,the creed is laid down as a rule of judgment to men1 not to their ,maker4 ,we may learn from thence on what terms alone we can claim a title to the promises of the ,gospel2 but we do not learn from thence how far uncovenanted favour may be extended to particular persons4 ,it is not intended to exclude the mercy of ,god to ,heathens or heretics2 it being his prerogative1 and his alone1 to judge how far the error or ignorance of any one is his wilful fault1 or his unavoidable infirmity4 ,but it is intended to establish the terms on which ,,we may now claim acceptance1 and1 in consequence of his gracious promise1 may say1 that #8,god is faithful and just to forgive us our sins4' ,the creed relates only to the covenant of salvation2 and any expression which1 used separately without this view and connection1 might be thought to bear a stronger and more absolute sense1 yet is limited by this relative coherence1 and is to be interpreted by it4 #8,perishing everlastingly1' in other discourses1 may sometimes be understood of everlasting damnation2 but here it means the being for ever excluded from the only stated claim of promised mercy4 ,and #8without doubt1' he who does not embrace the truths proposed by revelation1 has no title to those hopes which that revelation1 and that only1 offers to mankind4 ,and even when such expressions of terror are used in the strongest sense1 and threatened to unbelief or disobedience1 they universally imply such exceptions as these1--#8,unless personal disabilities lessen the guilt1 or repentance intervene to prevent the punishment4' ,in short1 no objection can be made against this assertion in the creed1 but what would hold as strongly against that declaration of our blessed ,lord1 #8,he that believeth1 and is baptized1 shall be saved2 but he that believeth not shall be damned1' ,mark xvi1 #ae4 ,indeed1 this condemnatory sentence in this form by human authority is plainly founded on and borrowed from that divine authority in the ,gospel2 and whatever distinctions and limitations are allowed in that case are equally applicable to this1 and will fully justify both4 ,the necessity of a true belief in all whom ,providence has blessed with the means and opportunities of learning it1 in order to entitle them federally to eternal salvation1 being thus established upon ,scripture proof1 the creed goes on very regularly to declare what is that true belief so indispensably necessary40 ,this is1 perhaps1 all that can be said in favour of these comminations2 but few will think it quite satisfactory4 ,the effect of them has doubtless been1 to induce many to fly to the opposite extreme of laxity on the subject of fundamental doctrines4 ,before leaving the ancient formulas of ,christian doctrine1 it may be stated1 that both in the council of ,ephesus against the ,nestorians1 held ,a4 ,d4 #dca2 and in that of ,chalcedon1 against the ,eutychians1 in #dea2 it was solemnly declared and decreed1 that 8,christ was one divine person1 in whom two natures1 the human and the divine1 were most closely united1 but without being mixed or confounded together40 #g4 ,amid the variance and opposition of council to council1 and pope to pope1 7,a4 ,d4 #aeec17 which prevailed for centuries in the ,romish church1 it would be no easy task to ascertain the real articles of its confession4 ,the decrees of the council of ,trent1 however1 together with the creed of ,pope ,pius ,,iv1 are now commonly understood to be the authoritative standards of its faith and worship4 ,these1 beside recognising the authority of the ,apostles' and the ,nicene ,creeds1 embrace a multitude of dogmas which it is unnecessary particularly to specify1 relating to traditions1 the sacraments of baptism1 confirmation1 eucharist1 penance1 extreme unction1 order1 and matrimony1 transubstantiation1 the sacrifice of the mass1 worshipping of images1 purgatory1 indulgences1 c1 c4 #h4 ,the ,greek church has no public or established confession2 but its creed1 so far as can be gathered from its authorized catechisms1 admits the doctrines of the ,nicene and ,athanasian ,creeds1 with the exception of the article in each concerning the procession of the ,holy ,spirit1 which it affirms to be 8from the ,father only1 and not from the ,father and the ,son40 ,it disowns the supremacy and infallibility of the pope1 purgatory by fire1 graven images1 and the restriction of the sacrament to one kind2 but acknowledges the seven sacraments of the catholics1 the religious use of pictures1 invocation of saints1 transubstantiation1 and masses and prayers for the dead4 #i4 ,though the ,romish church early appropriated to itself the exclusive title of catholic1 or universal2 and though1 for many centuries1 its unscriptural tenets pervaded the far greater part of ,europe2 not only were there always some individuals who adhered to the doctrines of genuine ,christianity1 but1 long before the ,protestant reformation1 there appear to have been whole congregations who maintained1 in considerable purity1 the substance of the faith contained in ,scripture4 ,such were the churches of the ,waldenses in the valleys of ,piedmont1 whose confession1 of so early a date as the beginning of the twelfth century1 is still preserved4 ,it consists of fourteen articles1 of which the following is a copy1 taken from the ,cambridge ,,mss1 and bearing date ,a4 ,d4 #aabj3--87a47 ,we believe and firmly hold all that which is contained in the twelve articles of the symbol1 which is called the ,apostles' ,creed1 accounting for heresy whatsoever is disagreeing1 and not consonant to the said twelve articles4 7#b47 ,we do believe that there is one ,god1 ,father1 ,son1 and ,holy ,spirit4 7#c47 ,we acknowledge for the holy canonical ,scriptures the books of the ,holy ,bible4 ,here follows a list of the books of the ,old and ,new ,testament1 exactly the same as those we have in our ,english authorized version4 ,then follows a list of 8the books apocryphal1 which10 with admirable simplicity they say1 8are not received of the ,hebrews4 ,but we read them1 as saith ,st4 ,jerom in his ,prologue to the ,proverbs1 #8for the instruction of the people1 not to confirm the authority of the doctrine of the church4'0 7#d47 ,the books above-said teach this1 that there is one ,god1 almighty1 all-wise1 and all-good1 who has made all things by his goodness2 for he formed ,adam in his own image and likeness1 but that by the envy of the devil1 and the disobedience of the said ,adam1 sin has entered into the world1 and that we are sinners in ,adam and by ,adam4 7#e47 ,that ,christ was promised to our fathers who received the law1 that so knowing by the law their sin1 unrighteousness1 and insufficiency1 they might desire the coming of ,christ1 to satisfy for their sins1 and accomplish the law by himself4 7#f47 ,that ,christ was born in the time appointed by ,god the ,father2 that is to say1 in the time when all iniquity abounded1 and not for the cause of good works1 for all were sinners2 but that he might show us grace and mercy1 as being faithful4 7#g47 ,that ,christ is our life1 truth1 peace1 and righteousness2 also our pastor1 advocate1 sacrifice1 and priest2 who died for the salvation of all those that believe1 and is risen for our justification4 7#h47 ,in like manner1 we firmly hold that there is no other ,mediator and ,advocate with ,god the ,father1 save only ,jesus ,christ4 ,and as for the virgin ,mary1 that she was holy1 humble1 and full of grace4 ,and in like manner do we believe concerning all the other saints2 namely1 that1 being in heaven1 they wait for the resurrection of their bodies at the day of judgment4 7#i47 ,item1 ,we believe that1 after this life1 there are only two places1 the one for the saved1 and the other for the damned2 the which two places we call paradise and hell1 absolutely denying that purgatory invented by antichrist1 and forged contrary to the truth4 7#aj47 ,item1 ,we have always accounted as an unspeakable abomination before ,god all those inventions of men2 namely1 the feasts and the vigils of saints1 the water which they call holy3 as likewise to abstain from flesh upon certain days1 and the like2 but especially their masses4 7#aa47 ,we esteem for an abomination1 and as antichristian1 all those human inventions which are a trouble or prejudice to the liberty of the spirit4 7#ab47 ,we do believe that the sacraments are signs of the holy thing1 or visible forms of the invisible grace2 accounting it good that the faithful sometimes use the said signs or visible forms1 if it may be done4 ,however1 we believe and hold1 that the above-said faithful may be saved without receiving the signs aforesaid1 in case they have no place nor any means to use them4 7#ac47 ,we acknowledge no other sacrament than baptism and the ,lord's ,supper4 7#ad47 ,we ought to honour the secular powers by submission1 ready obedience1 and paying of tributes40 ,these churches had1 in modern times1 another confession imposed upon them1 after they began to receive pastors from ,geneva1 which is strongly tinged with ,calvinism4 ,it bears date ,a4 ,d4 #afee4 #aj4 ,the first ,protestant confession was that presented in #aecj1 to the diet of ,augsburg1 by the suggestion and under the direction of ,john1 elector of ,saxony4 ,this wise and prudent prince1 with the view of having the principal grounds on which the ,protestants had separated from the ,romish communion1 distinctly submitted to that assembly1 entrusted the duty of preparing a summary of them to the divines of ,wittemberg4 ,nor was that task a difficult one2 for the reformed doctrines had already been digested into seventeen articles1 which had been proposed at the conferences both at ,sultzbach and ,smalcald1 as the confession of faith to be adopted by the ,protestant confederates4 ,these1 accordingly1 were delivered to the elector by ,luther1 and served as the basis of the celebrated ,augsburg confession1 written 8by the elegant and accurate pen of ,melancthon30 a work which has been admired by many even of its enemies1 for its perspicuity1 piety1 and erudition4 ,it contains twenty-eight chapters1 the leading topics of which are1 the true and essential divinity of ,christ2 his substitution and vicarious sacrifice2 original sin2 human inability2 the necessity1 freedom1 and efficacy of divine grace2 consubstantiation2 and particularly justification by faith1 to establish the truth and importance of which was one of its chief objects4 ,the last seven articles condemn and confute the ,popish tenets of communion in one kind1 clerical celibacy1 private masses1 auricular confession1 legendary traditions1 monastic vows1 and the exorbitant power of the church4 ,this confession is silent on the doctrine of predestination4 ,this is the universal standard of orthodox doctrine among those who profess to be ,lutherans1 in which no authoritative alteration has ever been made4 #aa4 ,the confession of ,basle1 originally presented1 like the preceding1 to the diet of ,augsburg1 but not published till #aecd1 consists of only twelve articles1 which1 in every essential point1 agree with those of the ,augsburg confession1 except that it rejects the doctrine of consubstantiation2 affirming that ,christ is only spiritually present in the ,lord's ,supper1 sacramentaliter nimirum1 et per memorationem fidei2 that is to say sacramentally1 and by faith2 and that it asserts the doctrine of predestination and infant baptism4 ,but the more detailed creed of the whole ,swiss ,protestant churches is contained in the former and latter ,helvetic confessions4 ,the first was drawn up in #aecf1 by ,bullinger1 ,myconius1 and ,grynus1 in behalf of the churches of ,helvetia1 and presented to an assembly of divines at ,wittemberg1 by whom it was cordially approved4 ,but being deemed too concise1 a second was prepared in #aeef1 by the pastors of ,zurich2 which was subscribed not only by all the ,swiss ,protestants1 but by the churches of ,geneva and ,savoy1 and by many of those in ,hungary and ,poland4 ,they fully harmonize with each other1 with only this difference1 that the doctrine of predestination1 and an approbation of the observance of such religious festivals1 as the nativity1 c1 are to be found in the latter confession only4 #ab4 ,the ,bohemic confession was compiled from various ancient confessions of the ,waldenses who had settled in ,bohemia1 and approved of by ,luther and ,melancthon in #aecb2 but it was not published till #aece2 when it was presented by the barons and other nobles to ,king ,ferdinand4 ,it extends to twenty articles1 similar to those of the ,waldensian confession1 with the addition of others on the divinity of ,christ1 justification by faith in him1 8without any human help or merit10 predestination1 and the absolute necessity of sanctification and good works4 #ac4 ,the confession of the ,saxon churches was composed in #aeea by ,melancthon1 at the desire of the pastors of ,saxony and ,misnia met in assembly at ,wittemberg1 in order to be presented to the council of ,trent4 ,it is contained in twenty-two articles2 and while1 like that of ,augsburg1 it is silent on the subject of predestination1 it lays equal stress on the doctrine of justification by faith2 and has a separate article entitled 8,rewards10 in which the doctrine of human merit1 particularly as connected with future blessedness1 is condemned and refuted4 #ad4 ,some account of the framing of the ,english ,confession of ,faith has been already given under the article ,church of ,england and ,ireland4 ,the 8,articles of ,religion0 are there said to have been amended and completed in the year #aega2 and the ,rev4 ,henry ,j4 ,todd1 in his very able work on this subject1 has shown their ,melancthonian origin and character by extracts from the 8,articles of ,religion10 8set out by the ,convocation1 and published by the king's authority10 in #aecf2--;from those of #aedj2--;from ,cranmer's 8,necessary ,erudition of any ,christian ,man10 published in #aedc2--;from the ,homilies on ,salvation1 ,faith1 and ,good ,works1 in #aedg1 which three were1 according to ,bishop ,woolton's unimpeached testimony 7in #aegf7 composed by ,archbishop ,cranmer2--from the 8,reformatio ,legum ,ecclesiasticarum10 8composed under the superintendence of the same watchful primate1 in #aeea20--;from the 8,articles of ,religion0 formed in #aeeb1 almost wholly by ,cranmer20--from 8,catechismus ,brevis1 ,christian ,disciplin ,summam continens10 in #aeec1 which was published in ,english1 as well as ,latin1 and commonly called 8,edward the ,sixth's ,catechism20 and from ,bishop ,jewel's celebrated 8,apologia ,ecclesi ,anglican10 8published in #aefb by the queen's authority1 thus recognised as a national ,confession of ,faith1 and as such has been printed in the ,corpus ,confessionum ,fidei40 8,such10 says ,mr4 ,todd1 8are the several public documents or declarations1 produced or made before the establishment of the ,thirty-nine ,articles of ,religion1 from which ,i have given extracts1 to which the framers of these ,articles directed their attention1 with the spirit of which they concur1 and the words of which they almost literally adopt4 ,there will also be found1 as chronologically preceding these1 considerable extracts from the ,confession of ,augsburg1 the whole article from the ,saxon ,confession1 ,de ,remissione ,peccatorum1 et ,justificatione1 respecting the forgiveness of sins1 and justification1 and such passages in our ,liturgy as concern the points which the ,articles and ,homilies exhibit40 ,no one who has perused these documents will require any additional argument to convince him1 that1 in its very foundations1 the ,english ,confession of ,faith was most explicitly in favour of general redemption4 ,we cannot therefore be surprised at all the old orthodox divines of the church of ,england1 from #afaj to #affj1 refusing to be called ,,arminians2 for they repeatedly declared that their own church openly professed similar doctrines to those promulgated by the ,dutch professor1 long before his name was known in the world4 ,in this assertion they were perfectly correct2 and by every important fact in our ecclesiastical history1 as connected with doctrinal matters1 their views are confirmed4 ,if the ,articles were actually of a ,calvinistic complexion1 as they are now often represented to be1 what could have induced ,whitaker and other learned ,calvinists to waste so much valuable time and labour in fabricating the ,lambeth ,articles in #aeie8 ,those worthies avowed1 that the original ,thirty-nine ,articles were not doctrinal enough for their purpose4--,when four choice divines1 two of them professors of divinity at ,cambridge1 were sent to the synod of ,dort as deputies from the ,english church1 and one from the church of ,scotland1 though their political instructions went the full length of assisting in the condemnation and oppression of the ,arminians1 personally considered as a troublesome party in the republic1 yet they had different instructions respecting their doctrines4 ,on the second article1 discussed in that synod1 8the extent of ,christ's redemption10 ,balcanqual1 the deputy from the church of ,scotland1 informs the ,english ambassador at the ,hague1 that a difference had arisen among the ,british deputies3 8,the question among us is1 whether the words of ,scripture1 which are likewise the words of our confession1 be to be understood of all particular men1 or only of the elect who consist of all sorts of men8 ,dr4 ,davenant and ,dr4 ,ward are of ,martinius of ,breme his mind1 that it is to be understood of all particular men3 the other three ,bishop ,carleton1 ,dr4 ,goad1 and ,dr4 ,balcanqual take the other exposition1 which is that of the writers of the reformed churches40 ,the ambassador wrote home for instructions1 and received orders for the ,british deputies 8to have those conclusions concerning ,christ's death1 and the application of it to us1 couched in manner and terms as near as possibly may be to those which were used in the primitive church1 by the fathers of that time1 against the ,pelagians and ,semi-,pelagians1 and not in any new phrase of the modern age2 and that the same may be as agreeable to the confessions of the church of ,england and other reformed churches1 and with as little distaste and umbrage to the ,lutheran churches1 as may be40 ,archbishop ,abbott expressed his approbation of their 8cautelous moderation0 in withholding their 8hand from pressing in public any rigorous exclusive propositions in the doctrine of the extent of our ,saviour ,christ's oblation40 ,the history of this affair1 which cannot be here detailed1 shows1 that1 however willing the three deputies were to condemn the remonstrants1 the resistance of the two more moderate divines was approved by the authorities at home1 and their opinions on this subject were recorded in such theses as no true ,calvinist could consistently subscribe4 ,during our civil troubles in #afdc1 the ,assembly of ,divines at ,westminster revised the first fifteen of the ,thirty-nine ,articles 8with a design10 as ,neal in his 8,history of the ,puritans0 candidly declares1 8to render their sense more express and determinate in favour of ,calvinism40 ,this they found to be a hopeless task1 as the ancient creed was too incorrigible to be bent to their views2 and they found it much easier to frame one after their own hearts1 some account of which the reader will find in a subsequent paragraph4--,all these facts go to prove1 that the best informed ,calvinists have always viewed the ,english articles as not sufficiently high in doctrine1 unless1 as in the case of the seventeenth1 they be allowed to interpret them by interpolations or qualifying epithets4 #ae4 ,the confession of the reformed ,gallican churches was prepared by order of a synod at ,paris in #aeei2 and presented to ,charles ,,ix4 in #aefa1 by the celebrated ,beza1 in a conference with that monarch at ,poissy4 ,it was published for the first time in #aeff1 with a preface by the ,french clergy to the pastors of all ,protestant churches2 and afterward1 in #aega1 it was solemnly ratified and subscribed in the national synod of ,rochelle4 ,it is extended to forty articles2 but they are in general concise1 and embrace the usual topics of the other ,protestant confessions1 including the doctrines of election1 and justification by faith only4 #af4 ,the ,protestants in ,scotland having presented a petition to parliament in #aefj1 requesting the public condemnation of ,popery1 and the legal acknowledgment of the reformed doctrine and worship1 they were required to draw up a summary of the doctrines which they could prove to be consonant with ,scripture1 and which they were anxious to have established4 ,the ministers on whom this duty was devolved1 being well acquainted with the subject1 prepared the required summary in the course of four days1 and laid it before parliament1 when1 after having been read first before the ,lords of the ,articles1 and afterward twice 7the second time article by article7 before the whole parliament1 it received their sanction as the established system of belief and worship4 ,it consists of twenty-five articles1 and coincides with all the other ,protestant confessions which affirm the doctrine of election1 and reject that of consubstantiation2 for although it is not so explicit as some of them respecting the unconditional nature of election1 yet a distinct recognition of this doctrine pervades the whole of it2 and though it has no separate article on justification1 it no less plainly recognises this fundamental principle of the ,protestant faith4 #ag4 ,the tenets of ,arminius having obtained considerable prevalence in ,holland toward the beginning of the seventeenth century1 the ,calvinists1 or ,gomarists1 as they were then called1 appealed to a national synod1 which was convened at ,dort in #afah1 by order of the states-general2 and attended by ecclesiastical deputies from ,england1 ,switzerland1 ,bremen1 ,hesse1 and the ,palatinate1 beside the clerical and lay representatives of the reformed churches in the ,united ,provinces4 ,the canons of this synod1 contained in five chapters1 relate to what are commonly called the five points2 namely1 particular and unconditional election2 particular redemption1 or the limitation of the saving effects of ,christ's death to the elect only2 the total corruption of human nature1 and the total moral inability of man in his fallen state2 the irresistibility of divine grace2 and the final perseverance of the saints2 all of which are declared to be the true and the only doctrines of ,scripture4 #ah4 ,the ,remonstrants1 as the ,dutch ,arminians are generally called1 did not present a confession of faith to the synod of ,dort1 but only their sentiments on the five points enumerated in the preceding paragraph1 with corresponding rejections of errors under each of those points4 ,however1 in the first year of their exile1 they applied themselves diligently to this task1 and soon produced an ample confession1 principally composed by the celebrated ,episcopius4 ,in the preface they give copious reasons for such a record of their opinions2 which ,courcelles has thus expressed in a more summary manner3--8,they did not publish it for the purpose of making it a standard of schism1 by which they might separate themselves from men who held other opinions2 nor for the purpose of having it esteemed by those under their pastoral care as a secondary rule of faith2--which is in these days with many persons a most pernicious abuse of this kind of confessions4 ,but it was published solely with the intention to stop the mouths of those who calumniously assert1 that the ,remonstrants cherish within their bosoms portentous dogmas which they dare not divulge4 ,for there is no cause for doubting1 whether under such circumstances and for this purpose1 it is not lawful for men to publish a confession of their faith1 especially as ,st4 ,peter admonishes us #8always to be ready to give an answer to every man that asketh us a reason of the hope that is in us with meekness and fear4'0 ,this confession is of a more practical character than any of the preceding3 it inculcates1 at great length1 all the most important duties of ,christianity1 and1 in the words of the preface1 8directs all things to the practice of ,christian piety4 ,for we believe that true divinity is merely practical1 and not either simply or for its greatest or chief part speculative2 and therefore whatever things are delivered therein ought to be referred thither only1--that a man may be the more strongly and fitly inflamed and encouraged to a diligent performance of his duty1 and keeping of the commandments of ,jesus ,christ40 ,in the ,english translator's address to the reader in #afgf1 it is said1 8,touching the worth of this book1 as a summary of ,christian religion1 if ,doctor ,jeremy ,taylor's judgment be of credit with thee1 ,i am credibly informed he should prefer it to be one of those two or three which1 next the ,holy ,bible1 he would have preserved from the supposed total destruction of books4 ,a high encomium from the mouth of so learned and pious a divine60 ,but though its contents were chiefly practical1 one expression in it1 respecting the propriety of tolerating in a ,christian community a man who denied the eternal generation of ,jesus ,christ1 produced a controversy in ,holland1 as well as in this country1 in which the famous ,bishop ,bull eminently distinguished himself4 ,see ,,dort and ,,remonstrants4 #ai4 ,the only other confession of which we shall take notice is that of the ,westminster assembly1 which met in #afdc1 and at which five ministers and three elders as commissioners from the general assembly of the church of ,scotland attended1 agreeably to engagements between the convention of estates there1 and both houses of parliament in ,england4 ,this confession is contained in thirty-three chapters1 and in every point of doctrine1 fully accords with the sentiments of the synod of ,dort2 and on some points going rather beyond it1 as with respect to a supposed election of angels4 ,it was approved and adopted by the general assembly in #afdg2 and two years after1 ratified by act of parliament1 as 8the public and avowed confession of the church of ,scotland40 ,by act of parliament in #afij1 it was again declared to be the national standard of faith in ,scotland2 and subscription to it as 8the confession of his faith10 specially required of every person who shall be admitted 8a minister or preacher within this church40 ,subscription to it was also enjoined by the act of union in #agjg1 on all 8professors1 principals1 regents1 masters1 and others bearing office10 in any of the ,scottish universities4 ,,conflagration1 a general burning of a city1 or other considerable place4 ,but the word is more ordinarily restrained to that grand period1 or catastrophe of our world1 wherein the face of nature is expected to be changed by a deluge of fire1 as it was anciently by that of water4 ,the ancient ,chaldeans1 ,pythagoreans1 ,platonists1 ,epicureans1 ,stoics1 ,celts1 and ,etrurians1 appear to have had a notion of the conflagration2 though whence they should derive it1 unless from the sacred books1 it is difficult to conceive2 except1 perhaps1 from the ,phenicians1 who themselves had it from the ,jews4 ,the ,celts1 whose opinions resembled those of the eastern nations1 held1 that after the burning of the world1 a new period of existence would commence4 ,the ancient ,etrurians1 or ,tuscans1 also concurred with other western and northern nations of ,celtic origin1 as well as with the ,stoics1 in asserting the entire renovation of nature after a long period1 or great year1 when a similar succession of events would again take place4 ,the cosmogony of an ancient ,etrurian1 preserved by ,suidas1 limits the duration of the universe to a period of twelve thousand years2 six thousand of which passed in the production of the visible world1 before the formation of man4 ,the ,stoics also maintained that the world is liable to destruction from the prevalence of moisture or of drought2 the former producing a universal inundation1 and the latter1 a universal conflagration4 8,these10 they say1 8succeed each other in nature1 as regularly as winter and summer40 ,the doctrine of conflagration is a natural consequence of the general system of ,stoicism2 for1 since1 according to this system1 the whole process of nature is carried on in a necessary series of causes and effects1 when that operative fire1 which at first1 bursting from chaos1 gave form to all things1 and which has since pervaded and animated all nature1 shall have consumed its nutriment2 that is1 when the vapours1 which are the food of the celestial fires1 shall be exhausted1 a deficiency of moisture must produce a universal conflagration4 ,this grand revolution in nature is1 after the doctrine of the ,stoics1 thus elegantly described by ,ovid3-- 8,esse quoque in fatis reminiscitur1 affore tempus ,quo mare1 quo tellus1 correptaque regia cli ,ardeat2 et mundi moles operosa laboret40 ,,metamor4 lib4 i1 #bef4 or1 as ,dryden has translated the passage1-- 8,rememb'ring in the fates a time when fire ,should to the battlements of heaven aspire2 ,when all his blazing worlds above should burn1 ,and all the inferior globe to cinders turn40 ,seneca1 speaking of the same event1 says expressly1 8,tempus advenerit quo sidera sideribus incurrent1 et omni flagrante materia uno igne1 quicquid nunc ex deposito lucet1 ardebit20 that is1 8the time will come when the world will be consumed1 that it may be again renewed2 when the powers of nature will be turned against herself1 when stars will rush upon stars1 and the whole material world1 which now appears resplendent with beauty and harmony1 will be destroyed in one general conflagration40 ,in this grand catastrophe of nature1 all animated beings1 7excepting the ,universal ,intelligence17 men1 heroes1 demons1 and gods1 shall perish together4 ,seneca1 the tragedian1 who was of the same school with the philosopher1 writes to the same purpose3-- 8,cli regia concidens ,certos atque obitus trahet3 ,atque omnes pariter deos ,perdet mors aliqua1 et chaos40 8,the mighty palace of the sky ,in ruin fall'n is doomed to lie2 ,and all the gods1 its wreck beneath1 ,shall sink in chaos and in death40 ,the ,pythagoreans also maintained the dogma of conflagration4 ,to this purpose ,hippasus1 of ,metapontum1 taught that the universe is finite1 is always changing1 and undergoes a periodical conflagration4 ,philolaus1 who flourished in the time of ,plato1 maintained that the world is liable to destruction both by fire and water4 ,mention of the conflagration is also several times made in the books of the ,sibyls1 ,sophocles1 ,lucan1 c4 ,dr4 ,burnet1 after ,f4 ,tachard and others1 relates that the ,siamese believe that the earth will at last be parched up with heat1 the mountains melted down1 and the earth's whole surface reduced to a level1 and then consumed with fire4 ,and the ,bramins of ,siam do not only hold that the world shall be destroyed by fire1 but also that a new earth shall be made out of the cinders of the old4 ,the sacred ,scriptures announce this general destruction of the world by fire in a variety of passages4 #b4 ,various are the sentiments of authors on the subject of the conflagration2 the cause whence it is to arise1 and the effects it is to produce4 ,divines ordinarily account for it metaphysically2 and will have it take its rise from a miracle1 as a fire from heaven4 ,philosophers contend for its being produced from natural causes2 and will have it effected according to the laws of mechanics3 some think an eruption of a central fire sufficient for the purpose2 and add1 that this may be occasioned several ways2 namely1 either by having its intensity increased1 7which1 again1 may be effected either by being driven into less space by the encroachments of the superficial cold1 or by an increase of the inflammability of the fuel whereon it is fed17 or by having the resistance of imprisoning earth weakened2 which may happen either from the diminution of its matter1 by the consumption of its central parts1 or by weakening the cohesion of the constituent parts of the mass1 by the excess or the defect of moisture4 ,others look for the cause of the conflagration in the atmosphere2 and suppose that some of the meteors there engendered in unusual quantities1 and exploded with unusual vehemence1 from the concurrency of various circumstances1 may be made to effect it1 without seeking any farther4 ,the astrologers account for it from a conjunction of all the planets in the sign ,cancer2 8as the deluge10 say they1 8was occasioned by their conjunction in ,capricorn40 ,this was an opinion adopted by the ancient ,chaldeans4 ,lastly3 others have recourse to a still more effectual and flaming machine2 and conclude the world is to undergo its conflagration from the near approach of a comet1 in its return from the sun4 ,it is most natural to conclude1 that1 as the ,scriptures represent the catastrophe as the work of a moment1 no gradually operating natural cause will be employed to effect it1 but that ,he who spake and the world was created1 will again destroy it by the same word of his power2 setting loose at once the all-devouring element of fire to absorb all others4 ,beyond this1 all is conjecture4 ,,confusion ,,of ,,tongues is a memorable event1 which happened in the one hundred and first year1 according to the ,hebrew chronology1 after the flood1 ,b4 ,c4 #bbdg1 at the overthrow of ,babel2 and which was providentially brought about1 in order to facilitate the dispersion of mankind1 and the population of the earth4 ,until this period1 there had been one common language1 which formed a bond of union1 that prevented the separation of mankind into distinct nations4 #b4 ,there has been a considerable difference of opinion as to the nature of this confusion1 and the manner in which it was effected4 ,some learned men1 prepossessed with the notion that all the different idioms now in the world did at first arise from one original language1 to which they may be reduced1 and that the variety among them is no more than must naturally have happened in a long course of time by the mere separation of the builders of ,babel1 have maintained1 that there were no new languages formed at the confusion2 but that this event was accomplished by creating a misunderstanding and variance among the builders1 without any immediate influence on their language4 ,but this opinion1 advanced by ,le ,clerc1 c1 seems to be directly contrary to the obvious meaning of the word 1 lip1 used by the sacred historian2 which1 in other parts of ,scripture signifies speech1 ,psalm lxxxi1 #e2 ,isaiah xxviii1 #aa2 xxxiii1 #ai2 ,ezekiel iii1 #e4 ,it has been justly remarked1 that unanimity of sentiment1 and identity of language1 are particularly distinguished from each other1 in the history3 8,the people is one1 and they have all one language10 ,gen4 xi1 #f4 ,it has been also suggested1 that if disagreement in opinion and counsel were the whole that was intended1 it would have had a contrary effect2 they would not have desisted from their project1 but strenuously have maintained their respective opinions1 till the greater number of them had compelled the minority either to fly or to submit4 ,others have imagined1 that this was brought about by a temporary confusion of their speech1 or rather of their apprehensions1 causing them1 while they continued together and spoke the same language1 to understand the words differently3 ,scaliger is of this opinion4 ,others again account for this event1 by the privation of all language1 and by supposing that mankind were under a necessity of associating together1 and of imposing new names on things by common consent4 ,another opinion ascribes the confusion to such an indistinct remembrance of the original language which they spoke before1 as made them speak it very differently2 so that by the various inflections1 terminations1 and pronunciations of divers dialects1 they could no more understand one another1 than they who understand ,latin can understand those who speak ,french1 ,italian1 or ,spanish1 though all these languages arise out of it4 ,this opinion is adopted by ,casaubon1 and by ,bishop ,patrick in his ,commentary1 and is certainly much more probable than either of the former3 and ,mr4 ,shuckford maintains1 that the confusion arose from small beginnings1 by the invention of new words in either of the three families of ,shem1 ,ham1 and ,japhet1 which might contribute to separate them from one another2 and that in each family new differences of speech might gradually arise1 so that each of these families went on to divide and subdivide among themselves4 ,others1 again1 as ,mr4 ,joseph ,mede and ,dr4 ,wotton1 c1 not satisfied with either of the foregoing methods of accounting for the diversity of languages among mankind1 have recourse to an extraordinary interposition of divine power1 by which new languages were framed and communicated to different families by a supernatural infusion or inspiration2 which languages have been the roots and originals from which the several dialects that are1 or have been1 or will be1 spoken1 as long as this earth shall last1 have arisen1 and to which they may with ease be reduced4 #c4 ,it is1 however1 unnecessary to suppose1 that the primitive language was completely obliterated1 and entire new modes of speech at once introduced4 ,it was quite sufficient1 if such changes only were effected1 as to render the speech of different companies or different tribes unintelligible to one another1 that their mutual coperation in the mad attempt in which they had all engaged might be no longer practicable4 ,the radical stem of the first language might therefore remain in all1 though new dialects were formed1 bearing among themselves a similar relation with what we find in the languages of modern ,europe1 derived from the same parent stem1 whether ,gothic1 ,latin1 or ,sclavonian4 ,in the midst of these changes1 it is reasonable to suppose that the primitive language itself1 unaltered1 would still be preserved in some one at least of the tribes or families of the human race4 ,now in none of these was the transmission so likely to have taken place1 as among that branch of the descendants of ,shem1 from which the patriarch ,abraham proceeded4 ,upon these grounds1 therefore1 we may probably conclude1 that the language spoken by ,abraham1 and by him transmitted to his posterity1 was in fact the primitive language1 modified indeed and extended in the course of time1 but still retaining its essential parts far more completely than any other of the languages of men4 ,if these conclusions are well founded1 they warrant the inference1 that1 in the ancient ,hebrew1 there are still to be found the traces of the original speech4 ,whether this ancient ,hebrew more nearly resembled the ,chaldean1 the ,syrian1 or what is now termed the ,hebrew1 it is unnecessary here to inquire2 these languages1 it has never been denied1 were originally and radically the same1 though1 from subsequent modifications1 they appear to have assumed somewhat different aspects4 ,,congregationalists1 a denomination of ,protestants who reject all church government1 except that of a single congregation under the direction of one pastor1 with their elders1 assistants1 or managers4 ,in one particular1 the ,congregationalists differ from the ,independents3 the former invite councils1 which1 however1 only tender their advice2 but the latter are accustomed to decide all difficulties within themselves4 ,see ,,independents4 ,,conscience is that principle1 power1 or faculty within us1 which decides on the merit or demerit of our own actions1 feelings1 or affections1 with reference to the rule of ,god's law4 ,it has been called the moral sense by ,lord ,shaftesbury and ,dr4 ,hutcheson4 ,this appellation has been objected to by some1 but has been adopted and defended by ,dr4 ,reid1 who says1 8,the testimony of our moral faculty1 like that of the external senses1 is the testimony of nature1 and we have the same reason to rely upon it40 ,he therefore considers conscience as an original faculty of our nature1 which decides clearly1 authoritatively1 and instantaneously1 on every object that falls within its province4 8,as we rely10 says he1 8upon the clear and distinct testimony of our eyes1 concerning the colours and figures of the bodies about us1 we have the same reason to rely1 with security1 upon the clear and unbiassed testimony of our conscience1 with regard to what we ought and ought not to do40 ,but ,dr4 ,reid is surely unfortunate in illustrating the power of conscience by the analogy of the external senses4 ,with regard to the intimations received through the organs of sense1 there can be no difference of opinion1 and there can be no room for argument4 ,they give us at once correct information1 which reasoning can neither invalidate nor confirm4 ,but it is surely impossible to say as much for the power of conscience1 which sometimes gives the most opposite intimations with regard to the simplest moral facts1 and which requires to be corrected by an accurate attention to the established order of nature1 or to the known will of ,god1 before we can rely with confidence on its decisions4 ,it does not appear1 that conscience can with propriety be considered as a principle distinct from that which enables us to pronounce on the general merit or demerit of moral actions4 ,this principle1 or faculty1 is attended with peculiar feelings1 when we ourselves are the agents2 we are then too deeply interested to view the matter as a mere subject of reasoning2 and pleasure or pain are excited1 with a degree of intensity proportioned to the importance which we always assign to our own interests and feelings4 ,in the case of others1 our approbation or disapprobation is generally qualified1 sometimes suspended1 by our ignorance of the motives by which they have been influenced2 but1 in our own case1 the motives and the actions are both before us1 and when they do not correspond1 we feel the same disgust with ourselves that we should feel toward another1 whose motives we knew to be vicious1 while his actions are specious and plausible4 ,but in our own case1 the uneasy feeling is heightened in a tenfold degree1 because self-contempt and disgust are brought into competition with the warmest self-love1 and the strongest desire of self-approbation4 ,we have then something of the feelings of a parent1 who knows the worthlessness of the child he loves1 and contemplates with horror the shame and infamy which might arise from exposure to the world4 #b4 ,conscience1 then1 cannot be considered as any thing else than the general principle of moral approbation or disapprobation applied to our own feelings or conduct1 acting with increased energy from the knowledge which we have of our motives and actions1 and from the deep interest which we take in whatever concerns ourselves2 nor can we think that they have deserved well of morals or philosophy1 who have attempted to deduce our notions of right and wrong from any one principle4 ,various powers both of the understanding and of the will are concerned in every moral conclusion2 and conscience derives its chief and most salutary influence from the consideration of our being continually in the presence of ,god1 and accountable to him for all our thoughts1 words1 and actions4 ,a conscience well informed1 and possessed of sensibility1 is the best security for virtue1 and the most awful avenger of wicked deeds2 an ill-informed conscience is the most powerful instrument of mischief2 a squeamish and ticklish conscience generally renders those who are under its influence ridiculous4 ,hic murus aheneus esto1 ,nil conscire sibi1 nulla pallescere culpa4 ,let a consciousness of innocence1 and a fearlessness of any accusation1 be thy brazen bulwark4 #c4 ,the rule of conscience is the will of ,god1 so far as it is made known to us1 either by the light of nature1 or by that of revelation4 ,with respect to the knowledge of this rule1 conscience is said to be rightly informed1 or mistaken2 firm1 or wavering1 or scrupulous1 c4 ,with respect to the conformity of our actions to this rule when known1 conscience is said to be good or evil4 ,in a moral view1 it is of the greatest importance that the understanding be well informed1 in order to render the judgment or verdict of conscience a safe directory of conduct1 and a proper source of satisfaction4 ,otherwise1 the judgment of conscience may be pleaded1 and it has actually been pleaded1 as an apology for very unwarrantable conduct4 ,many atrocious acts of persecution have been perpetrated1 and afterward justified1 under the sanction of an erroneous conscience4 ,it is also of no small importance1 that the sensibility of conscience be duly maintained and cherished2 for want of which men have often been betrayed into criminal conduct without self-reproach1 and have deluded themselves with false notions of their character and state4 ,see ,,moral ,,obligation4 ,,consecration1 a devoting or setting apart any thing to the worship or service of ,god4 ,the ,mosaical law ordained that all the first-born1 both of man and beast1 should be sanctified or consecrated to ,god4 ,the whole race of ,abraham was in a peculiar manner consecrated to his worship2 and the tribe of ,levi and family of ,aaron were more immediately consecrated to the service of ,god1 ,exod4 xiii1 #b1 #ab1 #ae2 ,num4 iii1 #ab2 #a ,peter ii1 #i4 ,beside the consecrations ordained by the sovereign authority of ,god1 there were others which depended on the will of men1 and were either to continue for ever or for a time only4 ,david and ,solomon devoted the ,nethinims to the service of the temple for ever1 ,ezra viii1 #bj2 ii1 #eh4 ,hannah1 the mother of ,samuel1 offered her son to the ,lord1 to serve all his life-time in the tabernacle1 #a ,sam4 i1 #aa2 ,luke i1 #ae4 ,the ,hebrews sometimes devoted their fields and cattle to the ,lord1 and the spoils taken in war1 ,leviticus xxvii1 #bh1 #bi2 #a ,chron4 xviii1 #aa4 ,the ,new ,testament furnishes us with instances of consecration4 ,christians in general are consecrated to the ,lord1 and are a holy race1 a chosen people1 #a ,peter ii1 #i4 ,ministers of the ,gospel are in a peculiar manner set apart for his service2 and so are places of worship2 the forms of dedication varying according to the views of different bodies of ,christians2 and by some a series of ceremonies has been introduced1 savouring of superstition1 or at best of ,judaism4 ,,consubstantialists4 ,this term was applied to the orthodox1 or ,athanasians1 who believed the ,son to be of the same substance with the ,father2 whereas the ,arians would only admit the ,son to be of like substance with the ,father4 ,,consubstantiation1 a tenet of the ,lutheran church respecting the presence of ,christ in the ,lord's ,supper4 ,luther denied that the elements were changed after consecration1 and therefore taught that the bread and wine indeed remain2 but that together with them1 there is present the substance of the body of ,christ1 which is literally received by communicants4 ,as in red-hot iron it may be said two distinct substances1 iron and fire1 are united1 so is the body of ,christ joined with the bread4 ,some of his followers1 who acknowledged that similes prove nothing1 contented themselves with saying that the body and blood of ,christ are really present in the sacrament in an inexplicable manner4 ,see ,,lord',s ,,supper4 ,,conversations4 ,these were held by the orientals in the gate of the city4 ,accordingly1 there was an open space near the gate1 which was fitted up with seats for the accommodation of the people1 ,gen4 xix1 #a2 ,psalm lxix1 #ab4 ,those who were at leisure occupied a position on these seats1 and either amused themselves with witnessing those who came in and went out1 and with any trifling occurrences that might offer themselves to their notice1 or attended to the judicial trials1 which were commonly investigated at public places of this kind1 namely1 the gate of the city1 ,gen4 xix1 #a2 xxxiv1 #bj2 ,psalm xxvi1 #d1 #e2 lxix1 #ab2 cxxvii1 #e2 ,ruth iv1 #aa2 ,isaiah xiv1 #ca2 or held intercourse by conversation4 ,promenading1 so fashionable and so agreeable in colder latitudes1 was wearisome and unpleasant in the warm climates of the east1 and this is probably one reason why the inhabitants of those climates preferred holding intercourse with one another1 while sitting near the gate of the city1 or beneath the shade of the fig tree and the vine1 #a ,samuel xxii1 #f2 ,micah iv1 #d4 ,the formula of assent in conversation was 1 1 ,thou hast said1 or ,thou hast rightly said4 ,we are informed by the traveller ,aryda1 that this is the prevailing mode of a person's expressing his assent or affirmation to this day1 in the vicinity of ,mount ,lebanon1 especially where he does not wish to assert any thing in express terms4 ,this explains the answer of the ,saviour to the high priest ,caiaphas in ,matt4 xxvi1 #fd1 when he was asked whether he was the ,christ1 the ,son of ,god1 and replied1 1 ,thou hast said4 ,the ,english word conversation has now a more restricted sense than formerly2 and it is to be noted that in several passages of our translation of the ,bible it is used to comprehend our whole conduct4 ,,conversion1 a change from one state or character to another4 ,conversion1 considered theologically1 consists in a renovation of the heart and life1 or a being turned from sin and the power of ,satan unto ,god1 ,acts xxvi1 #ah2 and is produced by the influence of divine grace upon the soul4 ,this is conversion considered as a state of mind2 and is opposed both to a careless and unawakened state1 and to that state of conscious guilt and slavish dread1 accompanied with struggles after a moral deliverance not yet attained1 which precedes our justification and regeneration2 both of which are usually understood to be comprised in conversion4 ,but this is not the only ,scriptural import of the term2 for the first turning of the whole heart to ,god in penitence and prayer is generally termed conversion4 ,in its stricter sense1 as given above1 it is1 however1 now generally used by divines4 ,,conviction1 in general1 is the assurance of the truth of any proposition4 ,in a religious sense1 it is the first degree of repentance1 and implies an affecting sense of our guilt before ,god2 and that we deserve and are exposed to his wrath4 ,,copper4 4 ,anciently1 copper was employed for all the purposes for which we now use iron4 ,arms1 and tools for husbandry and the mechanic arts1 were all of this metal for many ages4 ,job speaks of bows of copper1 ,job xx1 #bd2 and when the ,philistines had ,samson in their power1 they bound him with fetters of copper4 ,our translators indeed say 8brass20 but under that article their mistake is pointed out4 ,in ,ezra viii1 #bg1 are mentioned 8two vessels of copper1 precious as gold40 ,the ,septuagint renders it 2 the ,vulgate and ,castellio1 following the ,arabic1 8vasa ris fulgentis20 and the ,syriac1 8vases of ,corinthian brass40 ,it is more probable1 however1 that this brass was not from ,corinth1 but a metal from ,persia or ,india1 which ,aristotle describes in these terms3 8,it is said that there is in ,india a brass so shining1 so pure1 so free from tarnish1 that its colour differs nothing from that of gold4 ,it is even said that among the vessels of ,darius there were some respecting which the sense of smelling might determine whether they were gold or brass40 ,bochart is of opinion that this is the chasmal of ,ezekiel i1 #bg1 the of ,rev4 i1 #ae1 and the electrum of the ancients4 ,mr4 ,harmer quotes from the manuscript notes of ,sir ,john ,chardin a reference to a mixed metal in the east1 and highly esteemed there2 and suggests that this composition might have been as old as the time of ,ezra1 and be brought from those more remote countries into ,persia1 where these two basins were given to be conveyed to ,jerusalem4 ,ezekiel1 xxvii1 #ac1 speaks of the merchants of ,javan1 ,jubal1 and ,meshech1 as bringing vessels of nehesh 7copper7 to the markets of ,tyre4 ,according to ,bochart and ,michalis1 these were people situated toward ,mount ,caucasus1 where copper mines are worked at this day4 ,see ,,brass4 ,,copts1 a name given to the ,christians of ,egypt who do not belong to the ,greek church1 but are ,monophysites1 and in most respects ,jacobites4 ,scaliger and ,father ,simon derive the name from ,coptos1 once a celebrated town of ,egypt1 and the metropolis of the ,thebaid2 but ,volney and others are of opinion1 that the name ,copts is only an abbreviation of the ,greek word ,aigouptios1 8an ,egyptian40 ,the ,copts have a patriarch1 whose jurisdiction extends over both ,egypts1 ,nubia1 and ,abyssinia2 who resides at ,cairo1 but who takes his title from ,alexandria4 ,he has under him eleven or twelve bishops1 beside the abuna1 or bishop of the ,abyssinians1 whom he appoints and consecrates4 ,the rest of the clergy1 whether secular or regular1 are composed of the orders of ,st4 ,anthony1 ,st4 ,paul1 and ,st4 ,macarius1 who have each their monasteries4 ,their arch-priests1 who are next in degree to bishops1 and their deacons1 are said to be numerous2 and they often confer the order of deacon even on children4 ,next to the patriarch is the bishop1 or titular patriarch1 of ,jerusalem1 who also resides at ,cairo1 because there are only few ,copts at ,jerusalem4 ,he is1 in reality1 little more than bishop of ,cairo2 except that he goes to ,jerusalem every ,easter1 and visits some other places in ,palestine1 which own his jurisdiction4 ,to him belongs the government of the ,coptic church1 during the vacancy of the patriarchal see4 ,the ecclesiastics are said to be1 in general1 of the lowest ranks of the people2 and hence that great degree of ignorance which prevails among them4 ,they have seven sacraments2 baptism1 the eucharist1 confirmation1 ordination1 faith1 fasting1 and prayer4 ,they admit only three cumenical councils2 those of ,nice1 ,constantinople1 and ,ephesus4 ,there are three ,coptic liturgies2 one attributed to ,st4 ,basil1 another to ,st4 ,gregory1 and the third to ,st4 ,cyril4 ,at present1 however1 little more than the mere shadow of ,christianity can be seen in ,egypt2 and1 in point of numbers1 not more than fifty thousand ,christians in all can be found in this country4 ,there are not more than three ,christian churches at ,cairo4 ,,coral1 1 ,job xxviii1 #ah2 ,ezek4 xxvii1 #af2 a hard1 cretaceous1 marine production1 resembling in figure the stem of a plant1 divided into branches4 ,it is of different colours1--black1 white1 and red4 ,the latter is the sort emphatically called coral1 as being the most valuable1 and usually made into ornaments4 ,this1 though no gem1 is ranked by the author of the book of ,job1 xxviii1 #ah1 with the onyx and sapphire4 ,dr4 ,good observes1 8,it is by no means certain what the words here rendered #8corals and pearls1' and those immediately afterward rendered #8rubies and topaz1' really signified4 ,reiske has given up the inquiry as either hopeless or useless2 and ,schultens has generally introduced the ,hebrew words themselves1 and left the reader of the translation to determine as he may4 ,our common version is1 in the main1 concurrent with most of the oriental renderings3 and ,i see no reason to deviate from it40 ,,corban1 1 ,mark vii1 #aa2 from the ,hebrew 1 to offer1 to present4 ,it denotes a gift1 a present made to ,god1 or to his temple4 ,the ,jews sometimes swore by corban1 or by gifts offered to ,god1 ,matt4 xxiii1 #ah4 ,theophrastus says that the ,tyrians forbad the use of such oaths as were peculiar to foreigners1 and particularly of corban1 which1 ,josephus informs us1 was used only by the ,jews4 ,jesus ,christ reproaches the ,jews with cruelty toward their parents1 in making a corban of what should have been appropriated to their use4 ,for when a child was asked to relieve the wants of his father or mother1 he would often say1 8,it is a gift10 corban1 8by whatsoever thou mightest be profited by me20 that is1 ,i have devoted that to ,god which you ask of me2 and it is no longer mine to give1 ,mark vii1 #aa4 ,thus they violated a precept of the moral law1 through a superstitious devotion to ,pharisaic observances1 and the wretched casuistry by which they were made binding upon the conscience4 ,,coriander1 1 ,exod4 xvi1 #ca2 ,num4 xi1 #g2 a strongly aromatic plant4 ,it bears a small round seed1 of a very agreeable smell and taste4 ,the manna might be compared to the coriander seed in respect to its form or shape1 as it was to bdellium in its colour4 ,see ,,manna4 ,,corinth1 a celebrated city1 the capital of ,achaia1 situated on the isthmus which separates the ,peloponnesus from ,attica4 ,this city was one of the best peopled and most wealthy of ,greece4 ,its situation between two seas drew thither the trade of both the east and west4 ,its riches produced pride1 ostentation1 effeminacy1 and all vices1 the consequences of abundance4 ,for its insolence to the ,roman legates1 it was destroyed by ,l4 ,mummius4 ,in the burning of it1 so many statues of different metals were melted together1 that they produced the famous ,corinthian brass4 ,it was afterward restored to its former splendour by ,julius ,csar4 ,christianity was first planted at ,corinth by ,st4 ,paul1 who resided here eighteen months1 between the years #ea and #ec2 during which time he enjoyed the friendship of ,aquila and his wife ,priscilla1 two ,jewish ,christians1 who had been expelled from ,italy1 with other ,jews1 by an edict of ,claudius4 ,the church consisted both of ,jews and of ,gentiles2 but ,st4 ,paul began1 as usual1 by preaching in the synagogue1 until the ,jews violently opposed him1 and blasphemed the name of ,christ2 when the ,apostle1 shaking his garment1 and declaring their blood to be upon their own heads1 left them1 and made use afterward of a house adjoining the synagogue1 belonging to a man named ,justus4 ,the rage of the ,jews1 however1 did not stop here2 but1 raising a tumult1 they arrested ,paul1 and hurrying him before the tribunal of the pro-consul ,gallio1 the brother of the famous ,seneca1 accused him of persuading men to worship ,god contrary to the law4 ,but ,gallio1 who was equally indifferent both to ,judaism and ,christianity1 and finding that ,paul had committed no breach of morality1 or of the public peace1 refused to hear their complaint1 and drove them all from the judgment seat4 ,the ,jews being thus disappointed in their malicious designs1 ,st4 ,paul was at liberty to remain some time longer at ,corinth2 and after his departure1 ,apollos1 a zealous and eloquent ,jewish convert of ,alexandria1 was made a powerful instrument in confirming the church1 and in silencing the opposition of the ,jews1 ,acts xviii4 ,how much it stood in need of such support1 is evident from the ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul2 who cautions the ,corinthians against divisions and party spirit2 fornication1 incest1 partaking of meats offered to idols1 thereby giving an occasion of scandal1 and encouragement to idolatry2 abusing the gifts of the ,spirit1 litigiousness1 c4 ,the ,corinthians1 indeed1 were in great danger3 they lived at ease1 free from every kind of persecution1 and were exposed to much temptation4 ,the manners of the citizens were particularly corrupt3 they were1 indeed1 infamous to a proverb4 ,in the centre of the city was a celebrated temple of ,venus1 a part of whose worship consisted in prostitution2 for there a thousand priestesses of the goddess ministered to dissoluteness under the patronage of religion3 an example which gave the ,corinthians very lax ideas on the illicit intercourse of the sexes4 ,corinth also possessed numerous schools of philosophy and rhetoric2 in which1 as at ,alexandria1 the purity of the faith by an easy and natural process1 became early corrupted4 ,there occurs a chronological difficulty in the visits of ,st4 ,paul to ,corinth4 ,in #b ,cor4 xii1 #ad1 and xiii1 #a1 #b1 the ,apostle expresses his design of visiting that city a third time2 whereas only one visit before the date of the ,second ,epistle is noticed in the ,acts1 xviii1 #a1 about ,a4 ,d4 #ea2 and the next time that he visited ,greece1 ,acts xx1 #b1 about ,a4 ,d4 #eg1 no mention is made of his going to ,corinth4 ,mr4 ,horne observes on this subject1 8,it has been conjectured by ,grotius1 and ,drs4 ,hammond and ,paley1 that his ,first ,epistle virtually supplied the place of his presence2 and that it is so represented by the ,apostle in a corresponding passage1 #a ,cor4 v1 #c4 ,admitting this solution to be probable1 it is1 however1 far-fetched1 and is not satisfactory as a matter of fact4 ,michalis has produced another1 more simple and natural2 namely1 that ,paul1 on his return from ,crete1 visited ,corinth a second time before he went to winter at ,nicopolis4 ,this second visit is unnoticed in the ,acts1 because the voyage itself is unnoticed4 ,the third visit1 promised in #b ,cor4 xii1 #ad1 and xiii1 #a1 #b1 was actually paid on the ,apostle's second return to ,rome1 when he took ,corinth in his way1 #b ,tim4 iv1 #bj4 #8,thus critically1' says ,dr4 ,hales1 #8does the book of the ,acts harmonize1 even in its omissions1 with the epistles2 and these with each other1 in the minute incidental circumstances of the third visit4'0 ,about ,a4 ,d4 #bfh1 the ,heruli burned ,corinth to ashes4 ,in #ebe1 it was again almost ruined by an earthquake4 ,about #aahj1 ,roger1 king of ,sicily1 took and plundered it4 ,since #adeh1 it was till lately under the power of the ,turks2 and is so decayed1 that its inhabitants amount to no more than about fifteen hundred1 or two thousand2 half ,mohammedans1 and half ,christians4 ,a late ,french writer1 who visited this country1 observes1 8,when the ,csars rebuilt the walls of ,corinth1 and the temples of the gods rose from their ruins more magnificent than ever1 an obscure architect was rearing in silence an edifice which still remains standing amidst the ruins of ,greece4 ,this man1 unknown to the great1 despised by the multitude1 rejected as the offscouring of the world1 at first associated himself with only two companions1 ,crispus and ,gaius1 and with the family of ,stephanas4 ,these were the humble architects of an indestructible temple1 and the first believers at ,corinth4 ,the traveller surveys the site of this celebrated city2 he discovers not a vestige of the altars of ,paganism1 but perceives some ,christian chapels rising from among the cottages of the ,greeks4 ,the ,apostle might still1 from his celestial abode1 give the salutation of peace to his children1 and address them in the words1 #8,paul to the church of ,god1 which is at ,corinth4'0 ,,corinthians1 ,epistles to4 ,st4 ,paul left ,corinth ,a4 ,d4 #ec or #ed1 and went to ,jerusalem4 ,from ,ephesus he wrote his ,first ,epistle to the ,corinthians1 in the beginning of ,a4 ,d4 #ef4 ,in this epistle he reproves some who disturbed the peace of the church1 complains of some disorders in their assemblies1 of law suits among them1 and of a ,christian who had committed incest with his mother-in-law1 the wife of his father1 and had not been separated from the church4 ,this letter produced in the ,corinthians great grief1 vigilance against the vices reproved1 and a very beneficial dread of ,god's anger4 ,they repaired the scandal1 and expressed abundant zeal against the crime committed1 #b ,cor4 vii1 #i-aa4 ,to form an idea of the condition of the ,corinthian church1 we must examine the epistles of the ,apostle4 ,the different factions into which they were divided1 exalted above all others the chiefs1 1 the very chiefest ,apostles1 #b ,cor4 xi1 #e2 xii1 #aa1 whose notions they adopted1 and whose doctrines they professed to follow1 and attempted to depreciate those of the opposite party4 ,while1 then1 some called themselves disciples of ,paul1 ,cephas1 or ,apollos1 others assumed the splendid appellation of ,christ's party4 ,probably they affected to be the followers of ,james1 the brother of our ,lord1 and thought thus to enter into a nearer discipleship with ,jesus than the other parties4 ,the controversy1 as we shall see from the whole1 related to the obligation of ,judaism4 ,the advocates of it had appealed1 even in ,galatia1 to ,cephas and ,james1 for the sake of opposing to ,paul1 who had banished ,jewish ceremonies from ,christianity1 authorities which were not less admitted than his own4 ,the question itself divided all these various parties into two principal factions3 the partisans of ,cephas and ,james were for the law2 the friends of ,paul adopted his opinion1 as well as ,apollos1 who1 with his adherents1 was always in heart in favour of ,paul1 and never wished to take a part in a separation from him1 #a ,cor4 xvi1 #ab4 ,the leaders of the party against ,paul1 these 1 false apostles1 as ,paul calls them1 and 1 transformers of themselves into the apostles of ,christ1 who declared themselves the promulgators and defenders of the doctrines of ,cephas1 and ,james1 were1 as may be easily conceived1 converted ,jews1 #b ,cor4 xi1 #bb1 who had come from different places1--to all appearance from ,palestine1 1 the comers1 #b ,cor4 xi1 #d1--;and could therefore boast of having had intercourse with the ,apostles at ,jerusalem1 and of an acquaintance with their principles4 ,they were not even of the orthodox ,jews1 but those who adhered to the doctrines of the ,sadducees2 and though they were even now converted to ,christianity1 while they spoke zealously in favour of the law1 they were undermining the hopes of the pious1 and exciting doubts against the resurrection1 #a ,cor4 xv1 #ce2 so that ,paul1 from regard to the teachers1 whose disciples they professed to be1 was obliged to refute them from the testimony of ,james and ,cephas1 #a ,cor4 xv1 #e1 #g4 ,these1 proud of their own opinions1 #a ,cor4 i1 #ag1 not without private views1 depreciated ,paul's authority1 and extolled their own knowledge1 #a ,cor4 ii1 #ab2 #b ,cor4 xi1 #af1 #ag4 ,violently as the contest was carried on1 they still did not withdraw from the same place of assembly for instruction and mutual edification2 this1 however1 was even the cause of too many scandalous scenes and disorders4 ,at the 1 love feasts1 love and benevolence were no where to be seen4 ,instead of eating together1 and refreshing their poor brethren out of that which they had brought with them1 each one1 as he came1 ate his own1 without waiting for any one else1 and feasted often to excess1 while the needy was fasting1 #a ,cor4 xi1 #ag4 ,when also some were preparing for prayers or singing1 others raised their voices to instruct1 and commenced exercises in spiritual gifts1 tongues1 prophesyings1 and interpretations1 #a ,cor4 xii1 xiii1 xiv2 moreover1 the women1 to bring confusion to its highest pitch1 took their part in interlocutions and proposals of questions1 #a ,cor4 xiv1 #cd4 ,such was the state of things as to the interior discipline of the assemblies and edification2 but the exterior deportment1 which the members of this society had maintained in civil life1 soon disappeared also4 ,formerly1 when differences arose among the believers1 they were adjusted by the intervention of arbitrators from their own communion1 and terminated quietly4 ,now1 as their mutual confidence in each other more and more decreased1 they brought1 to the disgrace of ,christianity1 their complaints before the ,pagan tribunals1 #a ,cor4 vi1 #a4 ,but as to what concerned the main object1 namely1 the obligation of ,judaism1 it was so little confined simply to words and reasons1 that each party rather strove to display its opposite principles in its conduct4 ,one party gave to the other1 as much as possible1 motives for ill will and reproach4 ,the ,jews required circumcision as an indispensable act of religion2 while ,paul's disciples attempted to lay the foundation of a new doctrine respecting it1 and to extinguish all traces of circumcision1 #a ,cor4 vii1 #ah4 ,as the ,jewish party observed and maintained a distinction of meats1 that of ,paul ate without distinction any thing sold in the markets1 and even meats from the ,heathen sacrifices1 #a ,cor4 x1 #be1 #bh2 viii1 #a4 ,nor was this enough2 they often made no scruple to be present at the sacrificial feasts4 ,among other things1 they also took part in many scandalous practices which were common there1 and fell1 by means of their imprudence1 into still greater crimes1 #a ,cor4 x1 #bj1 #ba2 viii1 #aj4 ,according to the ,jewish custom1 the women were obliged to appear veiled in the synagogues and public assemblies4 ,the anti-judaists abolished this custom of the synagogue1 #a ,cor4 xi1 #e1 #f1 #aj2 and herein imitated the ,heathen practices4 ,from despite to ,judaism1 which considered matrimonial offspring as a particular blessing of ,god1 some embraced celibacy1 which they justified by ,st4 ,paul's example1 #a ,cor4 vii1 #g1 #h2 and this they also recommended to others1 #a ,cor4 vii1 #a-be4 ,some went even so far1 that1 although married1 they resolved to practise a continual continency1 #a ,corinthians1 vii1 #c-e4 ,these were the evils1 both in his own party and in that of his opponents1 which ,st4 ,paul had to remedy4 ,paul1 having understood the good effects of his first letter among the ,corinthians1 wrote a second to them1 ,a4 ,d4 #eg1 from ,macedonia1 and probably from ,philippi4 ,he expresses his satisfaction at their conduct1 justifies himself1 and comforts them4 ,he glories in his suffering1 and exhorts them to liberality4 ,near the end of the year #eg1 he came again to ,corinth1 where he staid about three months1 and whence he went to ,jerusalem4 ,just before his second departure from ,corinth1 he wrote his ,epistle to the ,romans1 probably in the beginning of ,a4 ,d4 #eh4 ,,cormorant1 1 ,levit4 xi1 #ag2 ,deut4 xiv1 #ag2 a large sea bird4 ,it is about three feet four inches in length1 and four feet two inches in breadth from the tips of the extended wings4 ,the bill is about five inches long1 and of a dusky colour2 the base of the lower mandible is covered with a naked yellowish skin1 which extends under the throat and forms a kind of pouch4 ,it has a most voracious appetite1 and lives chiefly upon fish1 which it devours with unceasing gluttony4 ,it darts down very rapidly upon its prey2 and the ,hebrew1 and the ,greek name1 1 a cataract1 are expressive of its impetuosity4 ,the word 1 which in our version of ,isaiah xxxiv1 #aa1 is rendered cormorant1 is the pelican4 ,,corner4 ,amos iii1 #ab4 ,sitting in the corner is a stately attitude4 ,the place of honour is the corner of the room1 and there the master of the house sits and receives his visitants4 ,,council sometimes denotes any kind of assembly2 sometimes that of the sanhedrim2 and1 at other times1 a convention of pastors met to regulate ecclesiastical affairs4 ,it may be reasonably supposed that as ,christianity spreads1 circumstances would arise which would make consultation necessary among those who had embraced the ,gospel1 or at least among those who were employed in its propagation4 ,a memorable instance of this kind occurred not long after the ascension of our ,saviour4 ,in consequence of a dispute which had arisen at ,antioch concerning the necessity of circumcising ,gentile converts1 it was determined that 8,paul and ,barnabas1 and certain others of them1 should go up to ,jerusalem unto the ,apostles and elders about this question40--8,and the ,apostles and elders came together for to consider of this matter10 ,acts xv1 #f4 ,after a consultation1 they decided the point in question2 and they sent their decree1 which they declared to be made under the direction of the ,holy ,ghost1 to all the churches1 and commanded that it should be the rule of their conduct4 ,this is generally considered as the first council2 but it differed from all others in this circumstance1 that its members were under the especial guidance of the ,spirit of ,god4 ,the ,gospel was soon after conveyed into many parts of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa2 but it does not appear that there was any public meeting of ,christians for the purpose of discussing any contested point1 till the middle of the second century4 ,from that time councils became frequent2 but as they consisted only of those who belonged to particular districts or countries1 they were called provincial or national councils4 ,the first general council was that of ,nice1 convened by the emperor ,constantine1 ,a4 ,d4 #cbe2 the second general council was held at ,constantinople1 in the year #cha1 by order of ,theodosius the ,great2 the third1 at ,ephesus1 by order of ,theodosius1 ,junior1 ,a4 ,d4 #dca2 and the fourth at ,chalcedon1 by order of the emperor ,marcian1 ,a4 ,d4 #dea4 ,these1 as they were the first four general councils1 so they were by far the most eminent4 ,they were caused respectively by the ,arian1 ,apollinarian1 ,nestorian1 and ,eutychian controversies1 and their decrees are in high esteem both among ,papists and orthodox ,protestants2 but the deliberations of most councils were disgraced by violence1 disorder1 and intrigue1 and their decisions were usually made under the influence of some ruling party4 ,authors are not agreed about the number of general councils2 ,papists usually reckon eighteen1 but ,protestant writers will not allow that nearly so many had a right to that name4 ,the last general council was that held at ,trent1 for the purpose of checking the progress of the reformation4 ,it first met by the command of ,pope ,paul ,,iii1 ,a4 ,d4 #aede2 it was suspended during the latter part of the pontificate of his successor1 ,julius ,,iii1 and the whole of the pontificates of ,marcellus ,,ii1 and ,paul ,,iv1 that is1 from #aeeb to #aefb1 in which year it met again by the authority of ,pope ,pius ,,iv1 and it ended1 while he was pope1 in the year #aefc4 ,provincial councils were very numerous3 ,baxter enumerates four hundred and eighty-one1 and ,dufresnoy many more4 #b4 ,of the eighteen councils denominated 8general0 by the ,papists1 four have already been enumerated2 and they with the next four constitute the eight eastern councils1 which alone1 according to the 8,body of ,civil ,law10 each of the popes of ,rome1 on his elevation to the pontificate1 solemnly professes to maintain4 ,the fifth was convened at ,constantinople1 ,a4 ,d4 #eef1 by the emperor ,justinian2 the sixth1 also at ,constantinople1 in #fha1 in which the emperor ,constantine ,,iv1 himself presided2 the seventh at ,nice1 in #ghg1 by the empress ,irene2 and the eighth1 at ,constantinople1 in #hgj1 by the emperor ,basilius4 ,it is matter of historical record1 and therefore cannot be denied1 that the convening of all these councils appertained solely to the respective emperors2 that they alone exercised authority on such occasions2 that the bishop of ,rome was never thought to possess any1 although his power may be said to have been set up between the fifth and sixth general councils2 nor did the bishop himself1 pro tempore1 think himself entitled to an authority of the kind4 ,the other councils which the ,romish church dignifies with the title of 8general10 are the ten western ones1 which are here subjoined3--7#i47 ,the first council of ,lateran1 held under ,pope ,calixtus1 ,a4 ,d4 #aabc2 7#aj47 the second of ,lateran1 under ,innocent ,,ii1 in #aaci2 7#aa47 the third of ,lateran1 under ,alexander ,,iii1 in #aagi1 the decrees of which were intended to extirpate the ,albigenses1 as well as the ,waldenses1 who were variously called ,leonists1 or poor men of ,lyons2 7#ab47 the fourth of ,lateran1 under ,innocent ,,iii1 in #abae1 which incited ,christian ,europe to engage in a crusade for the recovery of the ,holy ,land1 and whose canons obtruded on the church the monstrous doctrines of transubstantiation and auricular confession1 the latter being ranked among the duties prescribed by the law of ,christ2 7#ac47 the first of ,lyons1 under ,innocent ,,iv1 in #abde2 7#ad47 the second of ,lyons1 under ,gregory ,x1 in #abgd2 7#ae47 that of ,vienne1 under ,clement ,v1 in #acaa2 7#af47 that of ,florence1 under ,eugenius ,,iv1 in #adci2 7#ag47 the fifth of ,lateran1 under the infamous ,julius ,,ii2 and 7#ah47 the council of ,trent1 of which an account is given in the preceding paragraph1 and which grounds its fame on its opposition to the progress of the reformation under ,luther4 ,though1 according to ,bellarmine1 these eighteen alone are recognised by the ,romish church cumenical or universal councils1 yet some of them did not deserve even the more restricted appellation of 8general40 ,for the council of ,trent itself1 in some of its sessions1 could scarcely number more than forty or fifty ecclesiastics1 and1 of those1 not one eminent for profound theological or classical knowledge4 ,the lawyers who attended1 says ,father ,paul1 8knew little of religion1 while the few divines were of less than ordinary sufficiency40 ,some of the other councils which are not acknowledged by the ,papists to be 8general0 with respect to all their sessions1 7as those of ,basle and ,constance17 are in part received by them1 and in part rejected4 ,bellarmine and other celebrated writers of his church1 are dubious about determining whether or not 8the fifth of ,lateran0 was really a general council1 and leave it as a thing discretionary with the faithful either to retain or reject it2 if it be rejected1 the only refuge which they have1 is to receive in its place the council of ,constance1 held under ,john ,,xxiii1 in #adad1 which is disclaimed by the ,italian clergy but admitted by those of ,france1 and which is rendered infamous in the annals of religion and humanity by its cruel and treacherous conduct toward those two early ,protestant martyrs1 ,john ,huss and ,jerome of ,prague2 8who went to the stake10 says1 neas ,sylvius1 8as if it had been to a banquet1 without uttering a complaint that could betray the least weakness of mind4 ,when they began to burn1 they sung a hymn1 which even the crackling of the flames could not interrupt4 ,never did any philosopher suffer death with so much courage1 as they endured the fire40 ,but this acknowledgment of ,constance as one of the eighteen is resisted vi et armis1 by the crafty ,cisalpine ecclesiastics1 because one of the earliest acts of that council declared the representatives of the church in general council assembled to be superior to the sovereign pontiff1 not only when schism prevailed1 but at all other times whatsoever4 #c4 ,a general council being composed of men every one of whom is fallible1 they must also be liable to error when collected together2 and that they actually have erred is sufficiently evident from this fact1 that different general councils have made decrees directly opposite to each other1 particularly in the ,arian and ,eutychian controversies1 which were upon subjects immediately 8pertaining unto ,god40 ,indeed1 neither the first general councils themselves1 nor those who defended their decisions1 ever pretended to infallibility2 this was a claim of a much more recent date1 suited to the dark ages in which it was asserted and maintained1 but now considered equally groundless and absurd in the case of general councils as in that of popes4 ,if ,god had been pleased to exempt them from a possibility of error1 he would have announced that important privilege in his written word2 but no such promise or assurance is mentioned in the ,new ,testament ,if infallibility belonged to the whole church collectively1 or to any individual part of it1 it must be so prominent and conspicuous that no mistake or doubt could exist upon the subject2 and above all1 it must have prevented those dissensions1 contests1 heresies1 and schisms1 which have abounded among ,christians from the days of the ,apostles to the present time2 and of which that very church1 which is the asserter and patron of this doctrine1 has had its full share4 ,the ,scriptures being the only source from which we can learn the terms of salvation1 it follows that things ordained by general councils as necessary to salvation1 have neither strength nor authority1 as the church of ,england has well said1 unless it may be declared that they he taken out of ,holy ,scripture4 ,it is upon this ground we receive the decisions of the first four general councils1 in which we find the truths revealed in the ,scriptures1 and therefore we believe them4 ,we reverence the councils for the sake of the doctrines which they declared and maintained1 but we do not believe the doctrines upon the authority of the councils4 ,,covenant4 ,the ,greek word occurs often in the ,septuagint1 as the translation of a ,hebrew word1 which signifies covenant3 it occurs also in the ,gospels and the ,epistles2 and it is rendered in our ,english ,bibles sometimes covenant1 sometimes testament4 ,the ,greek word1 according to its etymology1 and according to classical use1 may denote a testament1 a disposition1 as well as a covenant2 and the ,gospel may be called a testament1 because it is a signification of the will of our ,saviour ratified by his death1 and because it conveys blessings to be enjoyed after his death4 ,these reasons for giving the dispensation of the ,gospel the name of a testament appeared to our translators so striking1 that they have rendered more frequently by the word testament1 than by the word covenant4 ,yet the train of argument1 where occurs1 generally appears to proceed upon its meaning a covenant2 and therefore1 although1 when we delineate the nature of the ,gospel1 the beautiful idea of its being a testament1 is not to be lost sight of1 yet we are to remember that the word testament1 which we read in the ,gospels and ,epistles1 is the translation of a word which the sense requires to be rendered covenant4 ,a covenant implies two parties1 and mutual stipulations4 ,the new covenant must derive its name from something in the nature of the stipulations between the parties different from that which existed before2 so that we cannot understand the propriety of the name1 new1 without looking back to what is called the old1 or first4 ,on examining the passages in ,gal4 iii1 in #b ,cor4 iii1 and in ,heb4 viii-x1 where the old and the new covenant are contrasted1 it will be found that the old covenant means the dispensation given by ,moses to the children of ,israel2 and the new covenant the dispensation of the ,gospel published by ,jesus ,christ2 and that the object of the ,apostle is to illustrate the superior excellence of the latter dispensation4 ,but1 in order to preserve the consistency of the ,apostle's writings1 it is necessary to remember that there are two different lights in which the former dispensation may be viewed4 ,christians appear to draw the line between the old and the new covenant1 according to the light in which they view that dispensation4 ,it may be considered merely as a method of publishing the moral law to a particular nation2 and then with whatever solemnity it was delivered1 and with whatever cordiality it was accepted1 it is not a covenant that could give life4 ,for1 being nothing more than what divines call a covenant of works1 a directory of conduct requiring by its nature entire personal obedience1 promising life to those who yielded that obedience1 but making no provision for transgressors1 it left under a curse 8every one that continued not in all things that were written in the book of the law to do them40 ,this is the essential imperfection of what is called the covenant of works1 the name given in theology to that transaction1 in which it is conceived that the supreme ,lord of the universe promised to his creature1 man1 that he would reward that obedience to his law1 which1 without any such promise1 was due to him as the ,creator4 ,no sooner had ,adam broken the covenant of works1 than a promise of a final deliverance from the evils incurred by the breach of it was given4 ,this promise was the foundation of that transaction which ,almighty ,god1 in treating with ,abraham1 condescends to call 8my covenant with thee10 and which1 upon this authority1 has received in theology the name of the ,abrahamic covenant4 ,upon the one part1 ,abraham1 whose faith was counted to him for righteousness1 received this charge from ,god1 8,walk before me and be thou perfect20 upon the other part1 the ,god whom he believed1 and whose voice he obeyed1 beside promising other blessings to him and his seed1 uttered these significant words1 8,in thy seed shall all the families of the earth be blessed40 ,in this transaction1 then1 there was the essence of a covenant2 for there were mutual stipulations between two parties2 and there was superadded1 as a seal of the covenant1 the rite of circumcision1 which1 being prescribed by ,god1 was a confirmation of his promise to all who complied with it1 and being submitted to by ,abraham1 was1 on his part1 an acceptance of the covenant4 ,the ,abrahamic covenant appears1 from the nature of the stipulations1 to be more than a covenant of works2 and1 as it was not confined to ,abraham1 but extended to his seed1 it could not be disannulled by any subsequent transactions1 which fell short of a fulfilment of the blessing promised4 ,the law of ,moses1 which was given to the seed of ,abraham four hundred and thirty years after1 did not come up to the terms of that covenant even with regard to them1 for1 in its form it was a covenant of works1 and to other nations it did not directly convey any blessing4 ,but although the ,mosaic dispensation did not fulfil the ,abrahamic covenant1 it was so far from setting that covenant aside1 that it cherished the expectation of its being fulfilled3 for it continued the rite of circumcision1 which was the seal of the covenant2 and in those ceremonies which it enjoined1 there was a shadow1 a type1 an obscure representation1 of the promised blessing1 ,luke i1 #gb1 #gc4 ,here1 then1 is another view of the ,mosaic dispensation4 8,it was added1 because of transgressions1 till the seed should come to whom the promise was made10 ,gal4 iii1 #ai4 ,by delivering a moral law1 which men felt themselves unable to obey2 by denouncing judgments which it did not of itself provide any effectual method of escaping2 and by holding forth1 in various oblations1 the promised and expected ,saviour2 8it was a schoolmaster to bring men unto ,christ40 ,the covenant made with ,abraham retained its force during the dispensation of the law1 and was the end of that dispensation4 ,the views which have been given furnish the ground upon which we defend that established language which is familiar to our ears1 that there are only two covenants essentially different1 and opposite to one another1 the covenant of works1 made with the first man1 intimated by the constitution of human nature to every one of his posterity1 and having for its terms1 8,do this and live20--and the covenant of grace1 which was the substance of the ,abrahamic covenant1 and which entered into the constitution of the ,sinaitic covenant1 but which is more clearly revealed1 and more extensively published in the ,gospel4 ,this last covenant1 which the ,scriptures call new in respect to the mode of its dispensation under the ,gospel1 although it is not new in respect of its essence1 has received1 in the language of theology1 the name of the covenant of grace1 for the two following obvious reasons3 because1 after man had broken the covenant of works1 it was pure grace or favour in the ,almighty to enter into a new covenant with him2 and1 because by the covenant there is conveyed that grace which enables man to comply with the terms of it4 ,it could not be a covenant unless there were terms1--something required1 as well as something promised or given1--duties to be performed1 as well as blessings to be received4 ,accordingly1 the tenor of the new covenant1 founded upon the promise originally made to ,abraham1 is expressed by ,jeremiah in words which the ,apostle to the ,hebrews has quoted as a description of it3 8,i will be to them a ,god1 and they shall be to me a people10 ,heb4 viii1 #aj3--words which intimate on one part not only entire reconciliation with ,god1 but the continued exercise of all the perfections of the ,godhead in promoting the happiness of his people1 and the full communication of all the blessings which flow from his unchangeable love2 on the other part1 the surrender of the heart and affections of his people1 the dedication of all the powers of their nature to his service1 and the willing uniform obedience of their lives4 ,but1 although there are mutual stipulations1 the covenant retains its character of a covenant of grace1 and must be regarded as having its source purely in the grace of ,god4 ,for the very circumstances which rendered the new covenant necessary1 take away the possibility of there being any merit upon our part3 the faith by which the covenant is accepted is the gift of ,god2 and all the good works by which ,christians continue to keep the covenant1 originate in that change of character which is the fruit of the operation of his ,spirit4 ,covenants were anciently confirmed by eating and drinking together2 and chiefly by feasting on a sacrifice4 ,in this manner1 ,abimelech1 the ,philistine1 confirmed the covenant with ,isaac1 and ,jacob with his father ,laban1 ,gen4 xxvi1 #bf-ca2 xxxi1 #dd-df1 #ed4 ,sometimes they divided the parts of the victim1 and passed between them1 by which act the parties signified their resolution of fulfilling all the terms of the engagement1 on pain of being divided or cut asunder as the sacrifice had been1 if they should violate the covenant1 ,gen4 xv1 #i1 #aj1 #ag1 #ah2 ,jer4 xxxiv1 #ah4 ,hence the ,hebrew word charat1 which properly signifies to divide1 is applied allusively in ,scripture to the making of a covenant4 ,when the law of ,moses was established1 the people feasted in their peace-offerings on a part of the sacrifice1 in token of their reconciliation with ,god1 ,deut4 xii1 #f1 #g4 ,see ,,circumcision4 ,,court1 an entrance into a palace or house4 7,see ,house47 ,the great courts belonging to the temple of ,jerusalem were three2 the first called the court of the ,gentiles1 because the ,gentiles were allowed to enter so far1 and no farther2 the second was the court of ,israel1 because all the ,israelites1 provided they were purified1 had a right of admission into it2 the third was that of the priests1 where the altar of burnt-offerings stood1 where the priests and ,levites exercised their ministry4 ,common ,israelites1 who were desirous of offering sacrifices1 were at liberty to bring their victims as far as the inner part of the court2 but they could not pass a certain line of separation1 which divided it into two2 and they withdrew as soon as they had delivered their sacrifices and offerings to the priests1 or had made their confession with the ceremony of laying their hands upon the head of the victim1 if it were a sin-offering4 ,before the temple was built1 there was a court belonging to the tabernacle1 but not near so large as that of the temple1 and encompassed only with pillars1 and veils hung with cords4 ,,crane4 ,in ,isaiah xxxviii1 #ad1 and ,jer4 viii1 #g1 two birds are mentioned1 the and the 4 ,the first in our version is translated crane1 and the second swallow2 but ,bochart exactly reverses them1 and the reasons he adduces are incontrovertible4 ,aristophanes curiously observes1 that 8it is time to sow when the crane migrates clamouring into ,africa2 she also bids the mariner suspend his rudder and take his rest1 and the mountaineer to provide himself with raiment20 and ,hesiod1 8,when thou hearest the voice of the crane1 clamouring annually from the clouds on high1 recollect that this is the signal for ploughing1 and indicates the approach of showery winter40 ,where do the cranes or winding swallows go1 ,fearful of gathering winds and falling snow8 ,conscious of all the coming ills1 they fly ,to milder regions and a southern sky4 ,,prior4 ,the ,prophet ,jeremiah mentions this bird1 thus intelligent of the seasons by an instinctive and invariable observation of their appointed times1 as a circumstance of reproach to the chosen people of ,god1 who1 although taught by reason and religion1 8knew not the judgment of the ,lord40 ,,creation1 in its primary import1 signifies the bringing into being something which did not exist before4 ,the term is therefore most generally applied to the original production of the materials whereof the visible world is composed4 ,it is also used in a secondary or subordinate sense1 to denote those subsequent operations of the ,deity upon the matter so produced1 by which the whole system of nature1 and all the primitive genera of things1 received their forms1 qualities1 and laws4 ,the accounts of the creation of the world which have existed among different nations1 are called ,cosmogonies4 ,moses's is unquestionably the most ancient2 and had it no other circumstance to recommend it1 its superior antiquity alone would give it a just claim to our attention4 ,it is evidently ,moses's intention to give a history of man1 and of religion1 and an account of creation4 ,in the way in which he has detailed it1 it would have been foreign to his plan1 had it not been necessary to obviate that most ancient and most natural species of idolatry1 the worship of the heavenly bodies4 ,his first care1 therefore1 is to affirm decidedly1 that ,god created the heavens and the earth2 and then he proceeds to mention the order in which the various objects of creation were called into existence4 ,first of all1 the materials1 of which the future universe was to be composed1 were created4 ,these were jumbled together in one indigested mass1 which the ancients called chaos1 and which they conceived to be eternal2 but which ,moses affirms to have been created by the power of ,god4 ,the materials of the chaos were either held in solution by the waters1 or floated in them1 or were sunk under them2 and they were reduced into form by the ,spirit of ,god moving upon the face of the waters4 ,light was the first distinct object of creation3 fishes were the first living things2 man was last in the order of creation4 #b4 ,the account given by ,moses is distinguished by its simplicity4 ,that it involves difficulties which our faculties cannot comprehend1 is only what might be expected from a detail of the operations of the omnipotent mind1 which can never be fully understood but by the ,being who planned them4 ,most of the writers who come nearest to ,moses in point of antiquity have favoured the world with cosmogonies2 and there is a wonderful coincidence in some leading particulars between their accounts and his4 ,they all have his chaos2 and they all state water to have been the prevailing principle before the arrangement of the universe began4 ,the systems became gradually more complicated1 as the writers receded farther from the age of primitive tradition2 and they increased in absurdity in proportion to the degree of philosophy which was applied to the subject4 ,the problem of creation has been said to be1 8,matter and motion being given1 to form a world20 and the presumption of man has often led him to attempt the solution of this intricate question4 ,but the true problem was1 8,neither matter nor motion being given1 to form a world40 ,at first1 the cosmogonists contented themselves with reasoning on the traditional or historical accounts they had received2 but it is irksome to be shackled by authority2 and after they had acquired a smattering of knowledge1 they began to think that they could point out a much better way of forming the world than that which had been transmitted to them by the consenting voice of antiquity4 ,epicurus was most distinguished in this hopeful work of invention2 and produced a cosmogony on the principle of a fortuitous concourse of atoms1 whose extravagant absurdity has hitherto preserved it from oblivion4 ,from his day to ours1 the world has been annoyed with systems2 but these are now modified by the theories of chemists and geologists1 whose speculations1 in so far as they proceed on the principle of induction1 have sometimes been attended with useful results2 but1 when applied to solve the problem of creation1 will serve1 like the systems of their forerunners1 to demonstrate the ignorance and the presumption of man4 #c4 ,the early cosmogonies are chiefly interesting from their resemblance to that of ,moses2 which proves that they have either been derived from him1 or from some ancient prevailing tradition respecting the true history of creation4 ,the most ancient author next to ,moses1 of whose writings any fragments remain1 is ,sanchoniatho1 the ,phenician4 ,his writings were translated by ,philo ,byblius2 and portions of this version are preserved by ,eusebius4 ,these writings come to us rather in an apocryphal form2 they contain1 however1 no internal evidence which can affect their authenticity2 they pretty nearly resemble the traditions of the ,greeks1 and are1 perhaps1 the parent stock from which these traditions are derived4 ,the notions detailed by ,sanchoniatho are almost translated by ,hesiod1 who mentions the primeval chaos1 and states 1 or love1 to be its first offspring4 ,anaxagoras was the first among the ,greeks who entertained tolerably accurate notions on the subject of creation3 he assumed the agency of an intelligent mind in the arrangement of the chaotic materials4 ,these sentiments gradually prevailed among the ,greeks2 from whom they passed to the ,romans1 and were generally adopted1 notwithstanding the efforts which were made to establish the doctrines of ,epicurus by the nervous poetry of ,lucretius4 ,ovid has collected the orthodox doctrines which prevailed on the subject1 both among ,greeks and ,romans2 and has expressed them with uncommon elegance and perspicuity in the first chapter of his 8,metamorphoses40 ,there is so striking a coincidence between his account and that of ,moses that one would almost think that he was translating from the first chapter of ,genesis2 and there can be no doubt that the ,mosaic writings were well known at that time1 both among the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,megasthenes1 who lived in the time of ,seleucus ,nicanor1 affirms1 that all the doctrines of the ,greeks respecting the creation1 and the constitution of nature1 were current among the ,bramins in ,india1 and the ,jews in ,syria4 ,he must1 of course1 have been acquainted with the writings of the latter1 before he could make the comparison4 ,juvenal talks of the writings of ,moses as well known3-- ,tradidit arcano quodcunque volumine ,moses4 ,whatever ,moses has transmitted in his mystic volume4 ,we are therefore inclined to think that ,ovid actually copied from the ,bible2 for he adopts the very order detailed by ,moses4 ,moses mentions the works of creation in the following order3 the separation of the sea from the dry land2 the creation of the heavenly bodies2 of marine animals2 of fowls and land animals2 of man4 ,observe now the order of the ,roman poet3-- ,ante mare et terras1 et1 quod tegit omnia1 clum1 ,unus erat toto natur vultus in orbe1 ,quem dixere chaos1 rudis1 indigestaque moles4 ,hanc ,deus1 et melior litem natura diremit4 ,nam clo terras1 et terras abscidit undis2 ,et liquidum spisso secrevit ab are clum4 ,neu regio foret ulla suis animalibus orba2 ,astra tenent cleste solum1 formque deorum2 ,cesserunt nitidis habitand piscibus und3 ,terra feras cepit1 volucres agitabilis ar4 ,sanctius his animal1 mentisque capacius alt ,deerat adhuc1 et quod dominari in ctera posset3 ,natus homo est4 8,before the seas1 and this terrestrial ball1 ,and heav'n's high canopy1 that covers all1 ,one was the face of nature2 if a face3 ,rather1 a rude and indigested mass3 ,a lifeless lump1 unfashion'd1 and unframed1 ,of jarring seeds2 and justly chaos named4 ,but ,god1 or nature1 while they thus contend1 ,to these intestine discords put an end2 ,then earth from air1 and seas from earth were driv'n1 ,and grosser air sunk from ethereal heav'n4 ,thus when the ,god1 whatever god was he1 ,had form'd the whole1 and made the parts agree1 ,that no unequal portions might be found1 ,he moulded earth into a spacious round4 ,then1 every void of nature to supply1 ,with forms of gods he fills the vacant sky3 ,new herds of beasts he sends1 the plains to share3 ,new colonies of birds1 to people air2 ,and to their oozy beds the finny fish repair4 ,a creature of a more exalted kind ,was wanting yet1 and then was man design'd3 ,conscious of thought1 of more capacious breast1 ,for empire form'd1 and fit to rule the rest3 ,whether with particles of heav'nly fire ,the ,god of nature did his soul inspire10 c4 ,,dryden4 ,here we see all the principal objects of creation mentioned exactly in the same order which ,moses had assigned to them in his writings2 and when we consider what follows2--the war of the giants2 the general corruption of the world2 the universal deluge2 the preservation of ,deucalion and ,pyrrha2 their sacrifices to the gods on leaving the vessel in which they had been preserved2--there can scarcely remain a doubt that ,ovid borrowed1 either directly or at second hand1 from ,moses4 ,what he says1 too1 is perfectly consistent with the received notions on the subject1 though it is probable that they had never before been so regularly methodised4 ,this train of reasoning would lead us to conclude that ,ovid1 and indeed the whole ,heathen world1 derived their notions respecting the creation1 and the early history of mankind1 from the sacred ,scriptures3 and it shows how deficient their own resources were1 when the pride of philosophy was forced to borrow from those whom it affected to despise4 ,with regard to the western mythologists1 then1 there can be little doubt that their cosmogonies1 at least such of them as profess to be historical1 and not theoretical1 are derived from ,moses2 and the same may be affirmed with regard to the traditions of the east3 as they were the same with those of ,greece in the time of ,megasthenes1 whose testimony to this effect is quoted both by ,clemens ,alexandrinus and ,strabo1 we may naturally conclude that they had the same origin4 #d4 ,the ,hindoo mythology has grown1 in the natural uninterrupted progress of corruption1 to such monstrous and complicated absurdity1 that in many cases it stands unique in extravagance4 ,in the more ancient ,hindoo writings1 however1 many sublime sentiments occur2 and in the 8,institutes of ,menu10 many passages are found relating to the creation1 which bear a strong resemblance to the account given by ,moses4 ,they are thus given in an advertisement1 prefixed to the fifth volume of the 8,asiatic ,researches10 and are intended as a supplement to a former treatise on the ,hindoo religion3-- 8,this universe existed only in the first divine idea1 yet unexpanded1 as if involved in darkness1 imperceptible1 undefinable1 undiscoverable by reason1 and undiscovered by revelation1 as if it were wholly immersed in sleep4 ,when the sole self-existing ,power1 himself undiscerned1 but making this world discernible1 with five elements and other principles of nature1 appeared with undiminished glory1 expanding his idea1 or dispelling the gloom4 ,he1 whom the mind alone can perceive1 whose essence eludes the external organs1 who has no visible parts1 who exists from eternity1 even he1 the soul of all beings1 whom no being can comprehend1 shone forth in person4 ,he1 having willed to produce various beings from his own divine substance1 first with a thought created the waters4 ,the waters are called nara1 because they are the production of ,nara1 or the ,spirit of ,god2 and since they were his first ayana1 or place of motion1 he thence is called ,narayana1 or moving on the waters4 ,from that which is1 the first cause1 not the object of sense1 existing every where in substance1 not existing to our perception1 without beginning or end1 was produced the divine male4 ,he framed the heaven above1 and the earth beneath2 in the midst he placed the subtile ether1 the eight regions1 and the permanent receptacle of waters4 ,he framed all creatures4 ,he1 too1 first assigned to all creatures distinct names1 distinct acts1 and distinct occupations4 ,he gave being to time1 and the divisions of time2 to the stars also1 and the planets2 to rivers1 oceans1 and mountains2 to level plains1 and uneven valleys4 ,for the sake of distinguishing actions1 he made a total difference between right and wrong4 ,having divided his own substance1 the mighty ,power became half male1 half female4 ,he whose powers are incomprehensible1 having created this universe1 was again absorbed in the spirit1 changing the time of energy for the time of repose40 ,in these passages we have evidently a philosophical comment on the account of creation given by ,moses1 or as transmitted from the same source of primitive tradition4 ,we also see in these passages the rudiments of the ,platonic philosophy1 the eternal ideas in the divine mind1 c2 and were any question to arise respecting the original author of these notions1 we should have little hesitation in giving it against the ,greeks4 ,they were the greatest plagiaries both in literature and philosophy1 and they have scarcely an article of literary property which they can call their own1 except their poetry4 ,their sages penetrated into ,egypt and ,india1 and on their return stigmatized the natives of these countries as barbarians1 lest they should be suspected of stealing their inventions4 #e4 ,the ,chaldean cosmogony1 according to ,berosus1 when divested of allegory1 seems to resolve itself into this1 that darkness and water existed from eternity2 that ,belus divided the humid mass1 and gave birth to creation2 that the human mind is an emanation from the divine nature4 ,the cosmogony of the ancient ,persians is very clumsy4 ,they introduce two eternal principles1 the one good1 called ,oromasdes1 the other evil1 called ,arimanius2 and they make these two principles contend with each other in the creation and government of the world4 ,each has his province1 which he strives to enlarge2 and ,mithras is the mediator to moderate their contentions4 ,this is the most inartificial plan that has been devised to account for the existence of evil1 and has the least pretensions to a philosophical basis4 ,the ,egyptian cosmogony1 according to the account given of it by ,plutarch1 seems to bear a strong resemblance to the ,phenician1 as detailed by ,sanchoniatho4 ,according to the ,egyptian account1 there was an eternal chaos1 and an eternal spirit united with it1 whose agency at last arranged the discordant materials1 and produced the visible system of the universe4 ,the cosmogony of the northern nations1 as may be collected from the ,edda1 supposes an eternal principle prior to the formation of the world4 ,the ,orphic ,fragments state every thing to have existed in ,god1 and to proceed from him4 ,the notion implied in this maxim is suspected to be pantheistic1 that is1 to imply the universe to be ,god2 which1 however1 might be a more modern perversion4 ,plato supposed the world to be produced by the ,deity1 uniting eternal1 immutable ideas1 or forms1 to variable matter4 ,aristotle had no cosmogony1 because he supposed the world to be without beginning and without end4 ,according to the ,stoical doctrine1 the divine nature1 acting on matter1 first produced moisture1 and then the other elements1 which are reciprocally convertible4 ,,crete1 an island in the ,mediterranean1 now called ,candia1 ,titus i1 #e4 ,nature had endowed this island with all that renders man happy2 the inhabitants1 likewise1 had formerly a constitution which was renowned and frequently compared with that of the ,spartans2 but at this time1 and even long before1 all1 even laws and morals1 had sunk very low4 ,the character of this nation was mutable1 prone to quarrelling1 to civil disturbances and frays1 to robberies and violences4 ,avaricious and base to a degree of sordid greediness1 they considered nothing as ignoble which gratified this inclination4 ,thence arose their treachery1 their false and deceitful disposition1 which had passed into a common proverb4 ,even in the times of purer morals they were decidedly addicted to wine2 and their propensity to incontinence was frequently censured and noticed by the ancients4 ,religion itself was one cause of the many excesses of this nation4 ,many deities were born among them2 they also showed their tombs and catacombs1 and celebrated the feasts and mysteries of all4 ,they therefore had continually holydays1 diversions1 and idle times1 and one of their native poets 7,diodorus calls him 7 gave them the testimony which ,paul found to be so true1 ,titus i1 #ab4 ,jews also had established themselves among them1 who according to all appearance could have improved here but very little in morality4 ,the ,apostle seems to have considered them a more dangerous people than the inhabitants themselves4 ,,crimson1 1 #b ,chron4 ii1 #g1 iii1 #ad1 the name of a colour4 ,bochart supposes it to be the cochlea purpuraria1 or purple from a kind of shell-fish taken near ,mount ,carmel4 ,but as the name of the mount is said to mean a vineyard1 one may rather suppose the colour to signify that of grapes2 like the redness of the vesture of him who trod the wine-press1 ,isa4 lxiii1 #a1 #b4 ,what our version renders crimson1 ,isa4 i1 #ah2 ,jer4 iv1 #cj1 should be scarlet4 ,,cross1 an ancient instrument of capital punishment4 ,the cross was the punishment inflicted by the ,romans1 on servants who had perpetrated crimes1 on robbers1 assassins1 and rebels2 among which last ,jesus was reckoned1 on the ground of his making himself ,king or ,messiah1 ,luke xxiii1 #a-e1 #ac-ae4 ,the words in which the sentence was given were1 8,thou shalt go to the cross40 ,the person who was subjected to this punishment was then deprived of all his clothes excepting something around the loins4 ,in this state of nudity he was beaten1 sometimes with rods1 but more generally with whips4 ,such was the severity of this flagellation1 that numbers died under it4 ,jesus was crowned with thorns1 and made the subject of mockery2 but insults of this kind were not among the ordinary attendants of crucifixion4 ,they were owing1 in this case1 merely to the petulant spirit of the ,roman soldiers1 ,matt4 xxvii1 #bi2 ,mark xv1 #ag2 ,john xix1 #b1 #e4 ,the criminal1 having been beaten1 was subjected to the farther suffering of being obliged to carry the cross himself to the place of punishment1 which was commonly a hill1 near the public way1 and out of the city4 ,the place of crucifixion at ,jerusalem was a hill to the north-west of the city4 ,the cross1 1 a post1 otherwise called the unpropitious or infamous tree1 consisted of a piece of wood erected perpendicularly1 and intersected by another at right angles near the top1 so as to resemble the letter ,t4 ,the crime for which the person suffered was inscribed on the transverse piece near the top of the perpendicular one4 ,there is no mention made in ancient writers of any thing on which the feet of the person crucified rested4 ,near the middle1 however1 of the perpendicular beam1 there projected a piece of wood1 on which he sat1 and which answered as a support to the body1 since the weight of the body might otherwise have torn away the hands from the nails driven through them4 ,the cross1 which was erected at the place of punishment1 being there firmly fixed in the ground1 rarely exceeded ten feet in height4 ,the victim1 perfectly naked1 was elevated to the small projection in the middle3 the hands were then bound by a rope round the transverse beam1 and nailed through the palm4 ,the assertion that the persons who suffered crucifixion were not in some instances fastened to the cross by nails through the hands and feet1 but were merely bound to it by ropes1 cannot be proved by the testimony of any ancient writer whatever4 ,that the feet1 as well as the hands1 were fastened to the cross by means of nails1 is expressly asserted in the play of ,plautus1 entitled 8,mostellaria10 compared with ,tertullian against the ,jews1 and against ,marcion4 ,in regard to the nailing of the feet1 it may be farthermore observed1 that ,gregory ,nazianzen has asserted1 that one nail only was driven through both of them2 but ,cyprian1 7de passione17 who had been a personal witness to crucifixions1 and is1 consequently1 in this case1 the better authority1 states1 on the contrary1 that two nails or spikes were driven1 one through each foot4 ,the crucified person remained suspended in this way till he died1 and the corpse had become putrid4 ,while he exhibited any signs of life1 he was watched by a guard2 but they left him when it appeared that he was dead4 ,the corpse was not buried1 except by express permission1 which was sometimes granted by the emperor on his birth day1 but only to a very few4 ,an exception1 however1 to this general practice was made by the ,romans in favour of the ,jews1 on account of ,deut4 xxi1 #bb1 #bc2 and in ,judea1 accordingly1 crucified persons were buried on the same day4 ,when1 therefore1 there was not a prospect that they would die on the day of the crucifixion1 the executioners hastened the extinction of life1 by kindling a fire under the cross1 so as to suffocate them with the smoke1 or by letting loose wild beasts upon them1 or by breaking their bones upon the cross with a mallet1 as upon an anvil4 ,the ,jews1 in the times of which we are speaking1 namely1 while they were under the jurisdiction of the ,romans1 were in the habit of giving the criminal1 before the commencement of his sufferings1 a medicated drink of wine and myrrh1 ,prov4 xxxi1 #f4 ,the object of this was to produce intoxication1 and thereby render the pains of the crucifixion less sensible to the sufferer4 ,this beverage was refused by the ,saviour for the obvious reason1 that he chose to die with the faculties of his mind undisturbed and unclouded1 ,matt4 xxvii1 #cd2 ,mark xv1 #bc4 ,it should be remarked1 that this sort of drink1 which was probably offered out of kindness1 was different from the vinegar which was subsequently offered to the ,saviour by the ,roman soldiers4 ,the latter was a mixture of vinegar and water1 denominated posca1 and was a common drink for the soldiers in the ,roman army1 ,luke xxiii1 #cf2 ,john xix1 #bi4 #b4 ,crucifixion was not only the most ignominious1 it was likewise the most cruel1 mode of punishment3 so very much so1 that ,cicero is justified in saying1 in respect to crucifixion1 8,ab oculis1 auribusque et omni cogitatione hominum1 removendum esse40 ,that it ought neither to be seen1 heard of1 nor even thought of by men4 ,the sufferings endured by a person on whom this punishment is inflicted are narrated by ,george ,gottlieb ,richter1 a ,german physician1 in a 8,dissertation on the ,saviour's ,crucifixion40 ,the position of the body is unnatural1 the arms being extended back1 and almost immovable4 ,in case of the least motion1 an extremely painful sensation is experienced in the hands and feet1 which are pierced with nails1 and in the back1 which is lacerated with stripes4 ,the nails1 being driven through the parts of the hands and feet which abound in nerves and tendons1 create the most exquisite anguish4 ,the exposure of so many wounds to the open air brings on an inflammation1 which every moment increases the poignancy of the suffering4 ,in those parts of the body which are distended or pressed1 more blood flows through the arteries than can be carried back in the veins4 ,the consequence is1 that a greater quantity of blood finds its way from the aorta into the head and stomach1 than would be carried there by a natural and undisturbed circulation4 ,the blood vessels of the head become pressed and swollen1 which of course causes pain1 and a redness of the face4 ,the circumstance of the blood being impelled in more than ordinary quantities into the stomach is an unfavourable one also1 because it is that part of the system which not only admits of the blood being stationary1 but is peculiarly exposed to mortification4 ,the aorta1 not being at liberty to empty1 in the free and undisturbed way as formerly1 the blood which it receives from the left ventricle of the heart1 is unable to receive its usual quantity4 ,the blood of the lungs1 therefore1 is unable to find a free circulation4 ,this general obstruction extends its effects likewise to the right ventricle1 and the consequence is1 an internal excitement1 and exertion1 and anxiety1 which are more intolerable than the anguish of death itself4 ,all the large vessels about the heart1 and all the veins and arteries in that part of the system1 on account of the accumulation and pressure of blood1 are the source of inexpressible misery4 ,the degree of anguish is gradual in its increase2 and the person crucified is able to live under it commonly till the third1 and sometimes till the seventh1 day4 ,pilate1 therefore1 being surprised at the speedy termination of the ,saviour's life1 inquired in respect to the truth of it of the centurion himself1 who commanded the soldiers1 ,mark xv1 #dd4 ,in order to bring their life to a more speedy termination1 so that they might be buried on the same day1 the bones of the two thieves were broken with mallets1 ,john xix1 #ca-cg2 and in order to ascertain this point in respect to ,jesus1 namely1 whether he was really dead1 or whether he had merely fallen into a swoon1 a soldier thrust his lance into his side2 but no signs of life appeared1 ,john xix1 #ca-cg4 #c4 ,our ,saviour says1 that whosoever will be his disciple must take up his cross and follow him1 ,matt4 xvi1 #bd3 by which is meant1 that his disciples must be willing to suffer for him1 in any way in which ,god1 in the course of his providence1 may call them to suffer2 even to endure martyrdom1 if called to it4 ,the cross is also often put for the whole of ,christ's sufferings1 ,eph4 ii1 #af2 ,heb4 xii1 #b2 and the doctrine of his perfect atonement1 ,gal4 vi1 #ad4 ,,crown is a term properly taken for a cap of state worn on the heads of sovereign princes1 as a mark of regal dignity4 ,in ,scripture there is frequent mention made of crowns2 and the use of them seems to have been very common among the ,hebrews4 ,the high priest wore a crown1 which was girt about his mitre1 or the lower part of his bonnet1 and was tied about his head4 ,on the forepart was a plate of gold1 with these words engraven on it3 8,holiness to the ,lord10 ,exod4 xxviii1 #cf2 xxix1 #f4 ,new-married persons of both sexes wore crowns upon their wedding day1 ,cant41 iii1 #aa2 and1 alluding to this custom1 it is said that when ,god entered into covenant with the ,jewish nation1 he put a beautiful crown upon their head1 ,ezekiel xvi1 #ab4 ,the first crowns were no more than a bandelet drawn round the head1 and tied behind1 as we see it still represented on medals1 c4 ,afterward1 they consisted of two bandelets2 by degrees they took branches of trees of divers kinds1 c2 at length they added flowers2 and ,claudius ,saturninus says there was not any plant of which crowns had not been made4 ,there was always a difference1 either in matter or form1 between the crowns of kings and great men1 and those of private persons4 ,the crown of a king was generally a white fillet bound about his forehead1 the extremities whereof being tied behind the head1 fell back on the neck4 ,sometimes they were made of gold tissue1 adorned with jewels4 ,that of the ,jewish high priest1 which is the most ancient of which we have any description1 was a fillet of gold placed upon his forehead1 and tied with a ribbon of a hyacinth colour1 or azure blue4 ,the crown1 mitre1 and diadem1 royal fillet and tiara1 are frequently confounded4 ,crowns were bestowed on kings and princes1 as the principal marks of their dignity4 ,david took the crown of the king of the ,ammonites from off his head3 the crown weighed a talent of gold1 and was moreover enriched with jewels1 #b ,sam4 xii1 #cj2 #a ,chron4 xx1 #b4 ,the ,amalekite who valued himself on killing ,saul1 brought this prince's crown unto ,david1 #b ,sam4 i1 #aj4 ,the crown was placed upon the head of young ,king ,josiah1 when he was presented to the people1 in order to be acknowledged by them1 #b ,chron4 xxiii1 #aa4 ,baruch says that the idols of the ,babylonians wore golden crowns1 ,baruch vi1 #i4 ,queens1 too1 wore diadems among the ,persians4 ,king ,ahasuerus honoured ,vashti with this mark of power2 and1 after her divorce1 the same favour was granted to ,esther1 chap4 ii1 #ag4 ,the elders1 in ,rev4 iv1 #aj1 are said to 8cast their crowns before the throne40 ,the allusion is here to the tributary kings dependent upon the ,roman emperors4 ,herod took off his diadem in the presence of ,augustus1 till ordered to replace it4 ,tiridates did homage to ,nero by laying the ensigns of royalty at the foot of his statue4 ,pilate's guard platted a crown of thorns1 and placed it on the head of ,jesus ,christ1 ,matt4 xxvii1 #bi1 with an intention to insult him1 under the character of the king of the ,jews4 ,see ,thorn4 ,in a figurative sense1 a crown signifies honour1 splendour1 or dignity1 ,lam4 v1 #af2 ,phil4 iv1 #a2 and is also used for reward1 because conquerors1 in the ,grecian games1 were crowned1 #a ,corinthians ix1 #be4 ,,crystal1 4 ,this word is translated 8crystal0 in ,ezek4 i1 #bb2 and 8frost10 ,gen4 xxxi1 #dj2 ,job xxxvii1 #aj2 ,jeremiah xxxvi1 #cj2 and 8ice10 ,job vi1 #af2 xxxviii1 #bi2 ,psalm cxlvii1 #ag2 1 ,rev4 iv1 #f2 xxii1 #a4 ,crystal is supposed to have its name from its resemblance to ice4 ,the ,greek word1 1 is formed from 1 ice1 and 1 to concrete4 ,the word1 1 is translated crystal1 in ,job xxviii1 #ag4 ,dr4 ,good observes1 8,we are not certain of the exact signification1 farther than that it denotes some perfectly transparent and hyaline gem40 ,,cubit1 a measure used among the ancients4 ,the ,hebrews call it 1 the mother of other measures3 in ,greek 4 ,a cubit originally was the distance from the elbow to the extremity of the middle finger3 this is the fourth part of a well proportioned man's stature4 ,the common cubit is eighteen inches4 ,the ,hebrew cubit1 according to ,bishop ,cumberland and ,m4 ,pelletier1 is twenty-one inches2 but others fix it at eighteen inches4 ,the ,talmudists observe1 that the ,hebrew cubit was larger by one quarter than the ,roman4 ,lewis ,capellus and others have asserted that there were two sorts of cubits among the ,hebrews2 one sacred1 the other common2 the sacred containing three feet1 the common containing a foot and a half4 ,moses assigns to the ,levites a thousand sacred cubits of land round about their cities1 ,num4 xxxv1 #d2 and in the next verse he gives them two thousand common ones4 ,the opinion1 however1 is very probable1 that the cubit varied in different districts and cities1 and at different times1 c4 ,,cucumber1 1 1 cucumis1 ,num4 xi1 #e1 the fruit of a plant very common in our gardens4 ,tournefort mentions six kinds1 of which the white and green are most esteemed4 ,they are very plentiful in the east1 especially in ,egypt1 and much superior to ours4 ,maillet1 in describing the vegetables which the modern ,egyptians have for food1 tells us1 that melons1 cucumbers1 and onions are the most common2 and ,celsius and ,alpinus describe the ,egyptian cucumbers as more agreeable to the taste and of more easy digestion than the ,european4 ,,culdees1 a body of religious1 who chiefly resided in ,scotland1 ,ireland1 and some of the adjacent isles4 ,the name has been also written ,keldees and ,kyldees4 ,various etymons have been given of it4 ,two of these seem to have superior claims to attention4 ,it may be deduced either from ,irish ceile1 or1 gille1 a servant1 and ,de1 ,dia1 ,god2 or from cuil1 ceal1 in ,welsh cel1 a sequestered corner1 a retreat4 ,the latter seems to derive support from the established sense of kil1 retained in the names of so many places1 which1 in an early age1 have been consecrated to religion4 ,it is more than probable that ,christianity had found its way into ,scotland before the close of the second century2 and that it continued to be professed by a few scattered individuals even before the arrival of ,ninian1 in the beginning of the fifth4 ,but we have no proof of the existence of any religious societies observing a particular institute1 till the year #efc1 when ,columba landed in ,hii1 or ,iona2 which1 in honour of him1 was afterward called ,i-colum-kill2 that is1 the isle of ,colum1 or ,columba1 of the cells4 ,he was born in ,ireland1 ,a4 ,d4 #eba2 and1 after founding many seminaries of religion there1 prompted by zeal for the propagation of ,christianity1 set sail for ,scotland with twelve companions4 ,according to ,bede1 having converted the northern ,picts1 he received from ,brudi1 their king1 the island of ,hii in possession1 for the purpose of erecting a monastery4 ,here he almost constantly resided till the year #eig1 when he died4 ,he made occasional visits to the mainland1 proceeding even as far as to ,inverness3 also to ,ireland1 where he was held in high estimation4 ,as he was himself much devoted to the study of the ,holy ,scriptures1 he taught his disciples to confirm their doctrines by testimonies brought from this unpolluted fountain1 and declared that only to be the divine counsel which he found there4 ,his followers1 faithful to his instructions1 8would receive those things only which are contained in the writings of the ,prophets1 ,evangelists1 and ,apostles1 diligently observing the works of piety and purity40 ,they lived1 indeed1 according to a certain institute1 which1 it is said1 was composed by their venerable instructer4 ,but there was this remarkable distinction between them and those societies properly called monastic1 that they were not associated expressly for the purpose of observing this rule4 ,while they seem to have reckoned something of this kind necessary for the preservation of order1 and for the attainment of habits of diligence1 their great design was1 by the instruction of those committed to their charge1 to train them up for the work of the ministry4 ,hence it has been justly observed1 that the ,culdean fraternities may more properly be viewed as colleges than as monasteries2 as being in fact1 the seminaries of the church both in ,north ,britain and in ,ireland4 ,there were also ,culdees in ,wales2 and1 for many ages1 the ,christians of that country held the same doctrines1 and observed the same rites1 with their ,scottish and ,irish brethren4 ,the presbyters not only acted as the ministers of religion to those in their vicinity1 but were still instructing others1 and sending forth missionaries whenever they had a call1 or any prospect of success4 #b4 ,in each regular establishment of the ,culdees1 it would appear that there were twelve brethren1 with one who presided over them4 ,their ecclesiastical government has been viewed as materially the same with the ,presbyterian4 ,their president1 or abbot1 was not a bishop1 but a presbyter2 to whose authority1 as we learn from ,bede1 even the bishops of the district were subject4 ,in their meetings1 all matters were settled by plurality of voices4 ,the members of this council had the general designation of seniores1 or elders4 ,to them1 collectively1 belonged the trial of the gifts of those who had been educated in their seminaries1 when they were to be employed in the public ministry2 from them they received ordination and mission1 and to them they were amenable in the discharge of their office4 ,those whom they thus employed are1 by ancient writers1 often denominated bishops4 ,but that they attached to this designation no dignity superior to that of presbyter1 appears incontrovertible from their being afterward called to account1 and sometimes censured by the fraternity4 ,it has been asserted by the friends of diocesan episcopacy1 that a bishop must always have resided at ,iona for the purpose of conferring ordination4 ,but there is not the slightest evidence of this4 ,the contrary appears from all the records of these early ages4 ,we learn from the ,saxon ,chronicle1 that 8there was always an abbot at ,hii1 but no bishop40 ,it is a singular fact1 that those who were first acknowledged as bishops in the northern parts of ,england1 and were indeed instrumental in the introduction of ,christianity there1 were not only trained up at ,iona1 but received all their authority from the council of seniors in that island4 ,this was the case with respect to ,corman1 the bishop of the ,northumbrians1 as well as ,aidan1 ,finan1 and ,colman1 who succeeded each other in this mission4 ,from the testimony of ,bede1 it is evident that by means of ,scottish missionaries1 or of those whom they had instructed and ordained1 not only the ,northumbrians1 but the ,middle-,angles1 the ,mercians and ,east-,saxons1 all the way to the river ,thames1 that is1 the inhabitants of by far the greatest part of the country now called ,england1 were converted to ,christianity2 and for some time acknowledged subjection to the ecclesiastical government of the ,scots4 ,the latter lost their influence merely because their missionaries chose rather to give up their charges than to submit to the prevailing influence of the church of ,rome1 to which the ,saxons of the west and of ,kent had subjected themselves4 #c4 ,their doctrines were not less unpalatable than their mode of government to the friends of the church of ,rome4 ,in ,england1 in a very early period1 the adherents of the ,popish missionary ,augustine were viewed by the delegates from ,iona in the light of heretics4 ,they accordingly refused to hold communion with them4 ,matters were carried so high in support of the ,roman authority in the synod of ,stroneschalch1 now ,whitby1 in ,england1 ,a4 ,d4 #ffb1 that ,colman1 the ,scottish bishop of ,lindisfarne1 left his bishopric1 and with his adherents returned to ,scotland4 ,thus1 as ,bede informs us1 8the ,catholic institution daily increasing1 all the ,scots who resided among the ,angles1 either conformed to them or returned to their own country40 ,it was decreed in the council of ,cealhythe1 ,a4 ,d4 #haf1 that no ,scottish priest should be allowed to perform any duty of his function in ,england4 ,but in ,scotland the ,culdean doctrine had taken deeper root2 and1 although equally offensive to the votaries of ,rome1 kept its ground for several centuries4 ,the ,popish writers themselves celebrate the piety1 the purity1 the humility1 and even the learning1 of the ,culdees2 but while they were displeased with the simplicity1 or what they deemed the barbarism1 of their worship1 they charged them with various deviations from the faith of the ,catholic church4 ,it was not the least of these1 that they did not observe ,easter at the proper time4 ,they did not acknowledge auricular confession2 they rejected penance and authoritative absolution2 they made no use of chrism in baptism2 confirmation was unknown2 they opposed the doctrine of the real presence2 they withstood the idolatrous worship of saints and angels1 dedicating all their churches to the ,holy ,trinity2 they denied the doctrine of works of supererogation2 they were enemies to the celibacy of the clergy1 themselves living in the married state4 ,one sweeping charge brought against them is1 that they preferred their own opinions to 8the statutes of the holy fathers40 #d4 ,the ,scots1 having received the ,christian faith by the labours of the ,culdees1 long withstood the errors and usurpations of ,rome4 ,it was not till the twelfth century that their influence began to decline4 ,the difference between the lower classes of society in ,england and those of the same description in ,scotland1 both with respect to religious knowledge and moral conduct1 is generally considered to be very striking4 ,some writers1 whose attention has been arrested by this singular circumstance1 and who could not be influenced by local attachments1 have ascribed the disparity to the relative influence1 however remote it may seem1 of the doctrine and example of the ,culdees4 ,notwithstanding their great disinterestedness and diligence in propagating the ,gospel in ,england1 these good men1 it has been remarked1 within thirty years after the commencement of their mission1 were obliged to give way to the adherents of ,rome2 whereas the ,scots1 it is certainly known1 enjoyed the benefit of their labours for more than seven centuries1 and seem to have still retained their predilection for the doctrines and modes which they so early received4 ,,cummin1 1 ,isaiah xxviii1 #be1 #bg2 1 ,matt4 xxiii1 #bc4 ,this is an umbelliferous plant1 in appeara resembling fennel1 but smaller4 ,is seeds have a bitterish warm taste1 accompanied with an aromatic flavour1 not of the most agreeable kind4 ,an essential oil is obtained from them by distillation4 ,the ,jews sowed it in their fields1 and when ripe threshed out the seeds with a rod1 ,isaiah xxviii1 #be1 #bg4 ,the ,maltese sow it1 and collect the seeds in the same manner4 ,,cup4 ,this word is taken in a twofold sense2 proper1 and figurative4 ,in a proper sense1 it signifies a vessel1 such as people drink out of at meals1 ,gen4 xl1 #ac4 ,it was anciently the custom1 at great entertainments1 for the governor of the feast to appoint to each of his guests the kind and proportion of wine which they were to drink1 and what he had thus appointed them it was deemed a breach of good manners either to refuse or not to drink up2 hence a man's cup1 both in sacred and profane authors1 came to signify the portion1 whether of good or evil1 which happens to him in this world4 ,thus1 to drink 8the cup of trembling10 or of 8the fury of the ,lord10 is to be afflicted with sore and terrible judgments1 ,isaiah li1 #ag2 ,jeremiah xxv1 #ae-bi2 ,psalm lxxv1 #h4 ,what ,christ means by the expression1 we cannot be at a loss to understand1 since in two remarkable passages1 ,luke xxii1 #db1 and ,john xviii1 #aa1 he has been his own interpreter4 ,lethale poculum bibere1 8to drink the deadly cup10 or cup of death1 was a common phrase among the ,jews2 and from them1 we have reason to believe1 our ,lord borrowed it4 ,,cup ,,of ,,blessing1 #a ,corinth4 x1 #af1 is that which was blessed in entertainments of ceremony1 or solemn services2 or1 rather1 a cup over which ,god was blessed for having furnished its contents2 that is1 for giving to men the fruit of the vine4 ,our ,saviour1 in the ,last ,supper1 blessed the cup1 and gave it to each of his ,apostles to drink1 ,luke xxii1 #bj4 ,,cup ,,of ,,salvation1 ,psalm cxvi1 #ac1 a phrase of nearly the same import as the former1 a cup of thanksgiving1 of blessing the ,lord for his saving mercies4 ,we see1 in #b ,macc4 vi1 #bg1 that the ,jews of ,egypt1 in their festivals for deliverance1 offered cups of salvation4 ,the ,jews have at this day cups of thanksgiving1 which are blessed1 in their marriage ceremonies1 and in entertainments made at the circumcision of their children4 ,some commentators think that 8the cup of salvation0 was a libation of wine poured on the victim sacrificed on thanksgiving occasions1 according to the law of ,moses1 ,exod4 xxix1 #dj4 ,,curse4 ,to curse1 signifies to imprecate1 to call for mischief upon1 or wish evil to1 any one4 ,noah cursed his grandson ,canaan1 ,gen4 ix1 #be3 ,jacob cursed the fury of his two sons1 ,gen4 xlix1 #g3 ,moses enjoins the people of ,israel to denounce curses against the violaters of the law1 ,deut4 xxvii1 #ae1 #af1 c4 ,joshua pronounced a curse upon him who should undertake to rebuild ,jericho4 ,these curses were such as were either ordained by ,god himself1 and pronounced by men under the influence of his ,spirit2 or they were predictions of certain evils which would happen to individuals1 or to a people1 uttered in the form of imprecations4 ,they were not the effects of passion1 impatience1 or revenge2 and1 therefore1 were not things condemned by ,god in his law1 like the cursing mentioned1 ,exodus xxi1 #ag1 xxii1 #bh1 ,leviticus xix1 #ad4 ,,cush1 the eldest son of ,ham1 and father of ,nimrod1 ,seba1 ,havilah1 ,sabtah1 ,raamah1 and ,sabtecha2 and the grandfather of ,sheba and ,dedan4 ,the posterity of ,cush1 spread over great part of ,asia and ,africa1 were called ,cushim1 or ,cushites2 and by the ,greeks and ,romans1 and in our ,bible1 ,ethiopians4 ,,cush1 ,,cutha1 ,,cuthea1 ,,cushan1 ,,ethiopia1 ,land of ,cush1 the country or countries peopled by the descendants of ,cush2 whose first plantations were on the gulf of ,persia1 in that part which still bears the name of ,chuzestan1 and from whence they spread over ,india and great part of ,arabia2 particularly its western part1 on the coast of the ,red ,sea2 invaded ,egypt1 under the name of ,hyc-,sos1 or shepherd-kings2 and thence passed1 as well probably as by the straits of ,babelmandel1 into ,central ,africa1 and first peopled the countries to the south of ,egypt1 ,nubia1 ,abyssinia1 and parts farther to the south and west4 ,the indiscriminate use of the term ,ethiopia in our ,bible1 for all the countries peopled by the posterity of ,cush1 and the almost exclusive application of the same term by the ,greek and ,roman writers to the before mentioned countries of ,africa1 have involved some portions of both sacred and profane history in almost inextricable confusion4 ,the first country which bore this name1 and which was doubtless the original settlement1 was that which is described by ,moses as encompassed by the river ,gihon1 or ,gyndes2 which encircles a great part of the province of ,chuzestan in ,persia4 ,in process of time1 the increasing family spread over the vast territory of ,india and ,arabia3 the whole of which tract1 from the ,ganges to the borders of ,egypt1 then became the land of ,cush1 or ,asiatic ,ethiopia1 the ,cusha ,dweepa within1 of ,hindoo geography4 ,until dispossessed of this country1 or a great part of it1 by the posterity of ,abraham1 the ,ishmaelites and ,midianites1 they1 by a farther dispersion1 passed over into ,africa2 which1 in its turn1 became the land of ,cush1 or ,ethiopia1 the ,cusha ,dweepa without1 of the ,hindoos3 the only country so understood after the commencement of the ,christian ra4 ,even from this last refuge1 they were compelled1 by the influx of fresh settlers from ,arabia1 ,egypt1 and ,canaan1 to extend their migrations still farther westward1 into the heart of the ,african continent2 where only in the woolly-headed negro1 the genuine ,cushite is to be found4 ,herodotus relates that ,xerxes had1 in the army prepared for his ,grecian expedition1 both ,oriental and ,african ,ethiopians3 and adds1 that they resembled each other in every outward circumstance except their hair2 that of the ,asiatic ,ethiopians being long and straight1 while the hair of those of ,africa was curled4 ,this is a very remarkable fact2 and leads to the question1 ,how came this singular distinction between people of the same stock8 ,did it arise from change of climate and of habits8 or from some original difference in a particular branch of the great family of ,cush8 ,the former appears by far the more probable4 ,it is not likely that a people descended from a common parent should naturally be distinguished by such a peculiar difference2 but that it might be acquired by change of soil and condition1 we have every reason to believe4 ,we have something exactly analogous to it1 in the change which the hair of animals undergoes when removed from their native state4 ,but a modern writer has furnished us with a fact which will go farther than either theory or analogy4 ,dr4 ,prichard1 in his researches into the ,physical ,history of ,man1 relates1 on the authority of ,dr4 ,s4 ,s4 ,smith1 of the negroes settled in the southern districts of the ,united ,states of ,america1 that the field-slaves1 who live on the plantations1 and retain pretty nearly the rude manners of their ,african progenitors1 preserve in the third generation much of their original structure1 though their features are not so strongly marked as those of imported slaves4 ,but the domestic servants of the same race1 who are treated with lenity1 and whose condition is little different from that of the lower class of white people1 in the third generation have the nose raised1 the mouth and lips of moderate size1 the eyes lively and sparkling1 and often the whole composition of the features extremely agreeable4 8,the hair grows sensibly longer in each succeeding race1 and extends to three1 four1 and sometimes to six or eight inches40 ,about four hundred years before ,christ1 ,herodotus1 in his second book which treats of ,egypt1 makes frequent mention of ,ethiopia2 meaning exclusively the ,ethiopia above ,egypt4 ,in the time of our ,saviour1 7and indeed from that time forward17 by ,ethiopia1 was meant1 in a general sense1 the countries south of ,egypt1 then but imperfectly known3 of one of which1 that ,candace was queen whose eunuch was baptized by ,philip4 ,from a review of the history of this remarkable people1 we may see that those writers must necessarily be wrong who would confine the ,ethiopians to either ,arabia or ,africa4 ,many parts of ,scripture history cannot possibly be understood1 without supposing them to have settlements in both2 which ,herodotus expressly asserts was the case4 ,in fine1 we may conclude1 that in the times of the prophets1 and during the transactions recorded in the second books of ,kings and ,chronicles1 the ,cushites1 still retaining a part of their ancient territories in ,arabia1 had crossed the ,red ,sea in great numbers1 and obtained extensive possessions in ,africa2 where1 being1 in a farther course of time1 altogether expelled from the east by the ,ishmaelites1 c1 their remains are now concentrated4 ,it is to be observed1 however1 that the ,cushites probably at the time of their expulsion from ,egypt1 migrated1 or sent colonies into several other parts1 particularly to ,phenicia1 ,colchis1 and ,greece2 where1 in process of time1 they became blended with the other inhabitants of those countries1 the families of ,javan1 ,meshek1 and ,tubal1 and their distinctive character totally lost4 ,,cypress1 1 ,isa4 xliv1 #ad2 and 1 ,ecclus4 xxiv1 #ac2 l1 #aj2 a large evergreen tree4 ,the wood is fragrant1 very compact1 and heavy4 ,it scarcely ever rots1 decays1 or is worm-eaten2 for which reason the ancients used to make the statues of their gods with it4 ,the unperishable chests which contain the ,egyptian mummies were of cypress4 ,the gates of ,st4 ,peter's church at ,rome1 which had lasted from the time of ,constantine to that of ,pope ,eugene ,,iv1 that is to say eleven hundred years1 were of cypress1 and had in that time suffered no decay4 ,but ,celsius thinks that ,isaiah speaks of the ilex1 a kind of oak2 and ,bishop ,lowth1 that the pine is intended4 ,the cypress1 however1 was more frequently used1 and more fit for the purpose which the prophet mentions1 than either of these trees4 ,,cyprus1 a large island in the ,mediterranean1 situated between ,cilicia and ,syria4 ,its inhabitants were plunged in all manner of luxury and debauchery4 ,their principal deity was ,venus4 ,the ,apostles ,paul and ,barnabas landed in the isle of ,cyprus1 ,a4 ,d4 #dd1 ,acts xiii1 #d4 ,while they continued at ,salamis1 they preached ,jesus ,christ in the ,jewish synagogues2 from thence they visited all the cities of the island1 preaching the ,gospel4 ,at ,paphos1 they found ,bar-,jesus1 a false prophet1 with ,sergius ,paulus1 the governor3 ,paul struck ,bar-,jesus with blindness2 and the proconsul embraced ,christianity4 ,some time after1 ,barnabas went again into this island with ,john1 surnamed ,mark1 ,acts xv1 #ci4 ,barnabas is considered as the principal ,apostle1 and first bishop1 of ,cyprus2 where it is said he was martyred1 being stoned to death by the ,jews of ,salamis4 ,,cyrene was a city of ,lybia in ,africa1 which1 as it was the principal city of that province1 gave to it the name of ,cyrenaica4 ,this city was once so powerful as to contend with ,carthage for preminence4 ,in profane writers1 it is mentioned as the birthplace of ,eratosthenes the mathematician1 and ,callimachus the poet2 and in holy writ1 of ,simon1 whom the ,jews compelled to bear our ,saviour's cross1 ,matt4 xxvii1 #cb2 ,luke xxiii1 #bf4 ,at ,cyrene resided many ,jews1 a great part of whom embraced the ,christian religion2 but others opposed it with much obstinacy4 ,among the most inveterate enemies of ,christianity1 ,luke reckons those of this province1 who had a synagogue at ,jerusalem1 and excited the people against ,st4 ,stephen1 ,acts xi1 #bj4 ,,cyrenius1 governor of ,syria1 ,luke ii1 #a1 #b4 ,great difficulties have been raised on the history of the taxing under ,cyrenius1 for the different solutions of which we must refer to the commentators4 ,it may be observed on the passage in ,luke ii1 #a1 #b1 ,that the word 1 rendered all the world1 sometimes signifies the whole of a country1 region1 or district1 as perhaps ,acts xi1 #bh1 and certainly ,luke xxi1 #bf4 ,the expression1 8all the country10 is peculiarly proper in this place1 because ,galilee1 as well as ,judea1 was included1 and perhaps all other parts in which were ,jews4 ,the word 1 which is rendered taxing1 should have been translated enrolment2 as a taxation did not always really follow such enrolment1 though such enrolment generally preceded a taxation4 ,the difficulty of the passage is in the word 1 first1 because1 ten or eleven years after1 there was actually a taxation1 which1 as a decisive mark of subjection to the ,roman power1 was very mortifying to the ,jewish nation4 ,to this taxation ,gamaliel alludes1 8,judas of ,galilee rose up in the days of the taxing10 ,acts v1 #cg1 when mobs and riots were frequent1 under pretence of liberty4 ,the narrative of ,st4 ,luke may be combined in the following order1 which is probably not far from its true import3 8,in those days ,csar ,augustus10 who was displeased with the conduct of ,herod1 and wished him to feel his dependence on the ,roman empire1 8issued a decree that the whole land0 of ,judea 8should be enrolled10 as well persons as possessions1 that the true state of the inhabitants1 their families1 and their property1 might be known and recorded4 ,accordingly1 8all were enrolled10 but the taxation did not immediately follow this enrolment1 because ,augustus was reconciled to ,herod2 and this accounts for the silence of ,josephus on an assessment not carried into effect4 8,and this was the first assessment 7or enrolment7 of ,cyrenius1 governor of ,syria4 ,and all went to be enrolled1 each to his own city20 and1 as the emperor's order was urgent1 and ,cyrenius was known to be active in the despatch of business1 even ,mary1 though far advanced 8in her pregnancy1 went with ,joseph1 and while they waited0 for their turn to be enrolled1 8,mary was delivered of ,jesus40 ,it is not1 however1 improbable1 that ,mary had some small landed estate1 for which her appearance was necessary4 ,jesus1 therefore1 was enrolled with ,mary and ,joseph1 as ,julian the ,apostate expressly says4 ,an officer being sent from ,rome to enrol and assess the subjects of a king1 implied that such king was dependent on the ,roman emperor1 and demonstrates that the sceptre was departed from ,judah4 ,this occurrence1 added to the alarm of ,herod on the inquiry of the ,magi respecting the birthplace of the ,messiah1 might sufficiently exasperate ,herod1 not merely to slay the infants of ,bethlehem1 but to every act of cruelty4 ,hence1 after such an occurrence1 all ,jerusalem might well be alarmed with ,herod1 ,matt4 ii1 #c2 and the priests1 c1 study caution in their answers to him4 ,this occurrence would quicken the attention of all who expected temporal redemption in ,israel1 as it would extremely mortify every ,jewish national feeling4 ,the overruling providence of ,god appointed1 that1 at the time of ,christ's birth1 there should be a public1 authentic1 and general production of titles1 pedigrees1 c1 which should prove that ,jesus was descended from the house and direct family line of ,david2 and that this should be proved judicially on such a scrutinizing occasion4 ,this occurrence brought about the birth of the ,messiah1 at the very place appointed by prophecy long before1 though the usual residence of ,joseph and ,mary was at ,nazareth4 ,,cyrus1 son of ,cambyses the ,persian1 and of ,mandane1 daughter of ,astyages1 king of the ,medes4 ,at the age of thirty1 ,cyrus was made general of the ,persian troops1 and sent1 at the head of thirty thousand men1 to assist his uncle1 ,cyaxares1 whom the ,babylonians were preparing to attack4 ,cyaxares and ,cyrus gave them battle1 and dispersed them4 ,after this1 ,cyrus carried the war into the countries beyond the river ,halys2 subdued ,cappadocia2 marched against ,crsus1 king of ,lydia1 defeated him1 and took ,sardis1 his capital4 ,having reduced almost all ,asia1 ,cyrus repassed the ,euphrates1 and turned his arms against the ,assyrians3 having defeated them1 he laid siege to ,babylon1 which he took on a festival day1 after having diverted the course of the river which ran through it4 ,on his return to ,persia1 he married his cousin1 the daughter and heiress of ,cyaxares2 after which he engaged in several wars1 and subdued all the nations between ,syria and the ,red ,sea4 ,he died at the age of seventy1 after a reign of thirty years4 ,authors differ much concerning the manner of his death4 #b4 ,we learn few particulars respecting ,cyrus from ,scripture2 but they are more certain than those derived from other sources4 ,daniel1 in the remarkable vision in which ,god showed him the ruin of several great empires which preceded the birth of the ,messiah1 represents ,cyrus as 8a ram which had two horns1 both high1 but one rose higher than the other1 and the higher came up last4 ,this ram pushed westward1 and northward1 and southward1 so that no beasts might stand before him1 neither was there any that could deliver out of his hand2 but he did according to his will1 and became great10 ,daniel viii1 #c1 #d1 #bj4 ,the two horns signify the two empires which ,cyrus united in his person1 that of the ,medes and that of the ,persians4 ,in another place1 ,daniel compares ,cyrus to a bear1 with three ribs in its mouth1 to which it was said1 8,arise1 devour much flesh40 ,cyrus succeeded ,cambyses in the kingdom of ,persia1 and ,darius the ,mede 7by ,xenophon called ,cyaxares1 and ,astyages in the ,greek of ,dan4 xiii1 #fe17 also in the kingdom of the ,medes1 and the empire of ,babylon4 ,he was monarch1 as he speaks 8of all the earth10 ,ezra i1 #a1 #b2 #b ,chron4 xxxvi1 #bb1 #bc1 when he permitted the ,jews to return into their own country1 ,a4 ,m4 #cdff1 ,b4 ,c4 #ech4 ,he had always a particular regard for ,daniel1 and continued him in his great employments4 #c4 ,the prophets foretold the exploits of ,cyrus4 ,isaiah1 xliv1 #bh1 particularly declares his name1 above a century before he was born4 ,josephus says1 that the ,jews of ,babylon showed this passage to ,cyrus2 and that1 in the edict which he granted for their return1 he acknowledged that he received the empire of the world from the ,god of ,israel4 ,the peculiar designation by name1 which ,cyrus received1 must be regarded as one of the most remarkable circumstances in the prophetic writings4 ,he was the heir of a monarch who ruled over one of the poorest and most inconsiderable kingdoms of ,asia1 but whose hardy inhabitants were at that time the bravest of the brave2 and the providential circumstances in which he was placed precluded him from all knowledge of this oracular declaration in his favour4 ,he did not become acquainted with the sacred books in which it was contained1 nor with the singular people in whose possession it was found1 till he had accomplished all the purposes for which he had been raised up1 except that of saying to ,jerusalem1 as the 8anointed0 vicegerent of ,heaven1 8,thou shalt be inhabited20 and to the cities of ,judah1 8,ye shall be built1 and ,i will raise up their ruins40 ,the national pride of the ,jews during the days of their unhallowed prosperity1 would hinder them from divulging among other nations such prophecies as this1 which contained the most severe yet deserved reflections upon their wicked practices and ungrateful conduct2 and it was only when they were captives in ,babylon that they submitted to the humiliating expedient of exhibiting1 to the mighty monarch whose bondmen they had become1 the prophetic record of their own apostasy and punishment1 and of his still higher destination1 as the rebuilder of ,jerusalem4 ,no temptation therefore could be laid before the conqueror in early life to excite his latent ambition to accomplish this very full and explicit prophecy2 and the facts of his life1 as recorded by historians of very opposite sentiments and feelings1 all concur in developing a series of consecutive events1 in which he acted no insignificant part2 which1 though astonishing in their results1 differ greatly from those rapid strides perceptible in the hurried career of other mighty men of war in the east2 and which1 from the unbroken connection in which they are presented to us1 appear like the common occurrences of life naturally following each other1 and mutually dependent4 ,yet this consideration does not preclude the presence of a mighty ,spirit working within him2 which1 according to ,isaiah1 said to him1 8,i will gird thee1 though thou hast not known me40 ,concerning the genius1 or guardian angel1 of ,socrates many learned controversies have arisen2 but1 though a few of the disputants have endeavoured to explain it away1 the majority of them have left the ,greek philosopher in possession of a greater portion of inspiration than1 with marvellous inconsistency1 some of them are willing to accord to the ,jewish prophets4 ,in this view it is highly interesting to recollect that the elegant historian who first informed his refined countrymen of this moral prodigy1 is he who subsequently introduced them to an acquaintance with the noble and heroic ,cyrus4 ,the didactic discourses and the comparatively elevated morality which ,xenophon embodied in his 8,memoirs of ,socrates10 are generally admitted to have been purposely illustrated in his subsequent admirable production1 the ,cyropdia1 or 8,education of ,cyrus20 the basis of which is true history adorned and refined by philosophy1 and exhibiting for universal imitation the life and actions of a prince who was cradled in the ancient ,persian school of the ,pischdadians1 the parent of the ,socratic4 ,isaiah describes1 in fine poetic imagery1 the ,almighty going before ,cyrus to remove every obstruction out of his way3-- 8,i will go before thee1 and level mountains1 ,i will burst asunder the folding-doors of brass1 ,and split in twain the bars of iron4 ,even ,i will give thee the dark treasures1 ,and the hidden wealth of secret places3 ,that thou mayest know1 that ,i ,,the ,,lord1 ,who call thee by thy name1 am ,,the ,,god ,,of ,,israel40 ,according to ,herodotus1 ,babylon was famous for its brazen gates and doors2 a hundred were in the city walls1 beside those which led to the river1 and others which belonged to the temple of ,belus4 ,when ,sardis and ,babylon were taken by ,cyrus1 they were the wealthiest cities in the world4 ,crsus gave an exact inventory of his immense treasures to ,cyrus1 and they were removed from ,sardis in waggons4 ,pliny gives the following account of the wealth which ,cyrus obtained by his conquests in ,asia3 8,he found thirty-four thousand pounds' weight of gold1 beside vessels of gold1 and gold wrought into the leaves of a platanus and of a vine2 five hundred thousand talents of silver1 and the cup of ,semiramis1 which weighed fifteen talents4 ,the ,egyptian talent1 according to ,varro1 was equal to eighty pounds40 ,mr4 ,brerewood estimates the value of the gold and silver in this enumeration at #abf1bbd1jjjl4 sterling4 ,other particulars relating to him1 and the accomplishment of prophecy in his conquest of that large city1 will be found under the article ,babylon4 ,it is the ,god of ,israel who1 in these sublime prophecies1 confounds the omens and prognostics of the ,babylonian soothsayers or diviners1 after they had predicted the stability of that empire2 and who announces the restoration of ,israel1 and the rebuilding of the city and temple of ,jerusalem1 through ,cyrus his 8shepherd0 and his 8anointed0 messenger4 ,chosen thus by ,god to execute his high behests1 he subdued and reigned over many nations1--the ,cilicians1 ,syrians1 ,paphlagonians1 ,cappadocians1 ,phrygians1 ,lydians1 ,carians1 ,phenicians1 ,arabians1 ,egyptians1 ,babylonians1 ,assyrians1 ,bactrians1 c4 8,i am ,he who frustrateth the tokens of the impostors1 ,and maketh the diviners mad2 c4 ,who saith to the abyss1 ,babylon1 #8,be desolate1 and ,i will dry up thy rivers3' ,who saith to ,cyrus1 #8,he is my shepherd1 ,and shall perform all my pleasure4' ,thus saith the ,lord to his anointed1 ,to ,cyrus whom ,i hold by the right hand1 ,to subdue before him nations1 ,and ungird the loins of kings1 ,to open before him palace folding-doors2 ,even river gates shall not be shut3 ,for ,jacob my servant's sake1 and ,israel my chosen1 ,i have surnamed thee20 c4 #d4 ,herodotus has painted the portrait of ,cyrus in dark colours1 and has been followed in many particulars by ,ctesias1 ,diodorus ,siculus1 ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus1 ,plato1 ,strabo1 ,justin1 and others2 in opposition to the contrary accounts of schylus1 ,xenophon1 ,josephus1 the ,persian historians1 and1 apparently1 the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,the motive for this conduct of ,herodotus is probably to be found in his aversion to ,cyrus1 for having been the enslaver of his country4 ,the ,greek historian was a man of free and independent spirit1 and could never brook the mention of the surrender of his native city1 ,halicarnassus1 to the troops of ,cyrus4 ,but1 allowing that heartlessness and cruelty are too often the accompaniments of mighty conquerors1 and that very few escape their direful contagion2 yet1 when the worst is told about ,cyrus1 abundance of authentic facts remain to attest his worth1 and to elevate his character above the standard of ordinary mortals4 ,xenophon informs us1 that the seven last years of his full sovereignty this prince spent in peace and tranquillity at home1 revered and beloved by all classes of his subjects4 ,in his dying moments he was surrounded by his family1 friends1 and children2 and delivered to them the noblest exhortations to the practice of piety1 virtue1 and concord4 ,this testimony is in substance confirmed by the ,persian historians1 who relate1 that1 after a long and bloody war1 ,khosru1 or ,cyrus1 subdued the empire of ,turan1 and made the city of ,balk1 in ,chorasan1 a royal residence1 to keep in order his new subjects2 that he repaid every family in ,persia proper the amount of their war-taxes1 out of the immense spoils which he had acquired by his conquests2 that he endeavoured to promote peace and harmony between the ,turanians and ,iranians2 that he regulated the pay of his soldiery1 reformed civil and religious abuses throughout the provinces1 and1 at length1 after a long and glorious reign1 resigned the crown to his son ,lohorasp1 and retired to solitude1 confessing that he had lived long enough for his own glory1 and that it was then time for him to devote the remainder of his days to ,god4 ,saadi1 in his ,gulistan1 copies the wise inscription which ,cyrus ordered to be inscribed on his crown3 8,what avails a long life spent in the enjoyment of worldly grandeur1 since others1 mortal like ourselves1 will one day trample under foot our pride6 ,this crown1 handed down to me from my predecessors1 must soon pass in succession upon the head of many others40 ,in the last book of the 8,cyropdia0 we find the following devout thanksgivings to the gods3 8,i am abundantly thankful for being truly sensible of your care1 and for never being elated by prosperity above my condition4 ,i beseech you to prosper my children1 wife1 friends1 and country4 ,and for myself1 ,i ask1 that such as is the life ye have vouchsafed to me1 such may be my end40 ,the reflections of ,dr4 ,hales on this passage are very judicious3 8,here1 ,xenophon1 a polytheist himself1 represents ,cyrus praying to the gods in the plural number2 but that he really prayed to one only1 the patriarchal ,god1 worshipped by his venerable ancestors1 the ,pischdadians1 may appear from the watchword1 or signal1 which he gave to his soldiers before the great battle1 in which ,evil ,merodach was slain3 4 8,,jove1 ,,our ,,saviour ,,and ,,leader40 ,who this god was1 we learn from the preamble of his famous proclamation1 permitting the ,jews to return from the ,babylonian captivity3 #8,the ,lord1 the ,god of heaven1 hath given me all the kingdoms of the earth1 and he hath charged me to build him a house at ,jerusalem1' c1 ,ezra i1 #a1 #b4 ,but where did the ,lord1 7,iahoh1 or ,jove7 so charge him8--,in that signal prophecy of ,isaiah1 predicting his name and his actions1 about ,b4 ,c4 #gab1 above a century before his birth2 a prophecy which was undoubtedly communicated to him by the venerable ,prophet ,daniel1 the ,archimagus1 who saw the beginning of the ,babylonish captivity1 and also its end1 here foretold to be effected by the instrumentality of ,cyrus40 #e4 ,pliny notices the tomb of ,cyrus at ,passagard in ,persia4 ,arrian and ,strabo describe it2 and they agree with ,curtius1 that ,alexander the ,great offered funeral honours to his shade there2 that he opened the tomb1 and found1 not the treasures he expected1 but a rotten shield1 two ,scythian bows1 and a ,persian scymetar4 ,and ,plutarch records the following inscription upon it1 in his life of ,alexander3--8,o man1 whoever thou art1 and whenever thou comest1 7for come1 ,i know1 thou wilt17 ,i am ,cyrus1 the founder of the ,persian empire4 ,envy me not the little earth that covers my body40 ,alexander was much affected at this inscription1 which set before him1 in so striking a light1 the uncertainty and vicissitude of worldly things4 ,and he placed the crown of gold which he wore1 upon the tomb in which the body lay1 wondering that a prince so renowned1 and possessed of such immense treasures1 had not been buried more sumptuously than if he had been a private person4 ,cyrus1 indeed1 in his last instructions to his children1 desired that 8his body1 when he died1 might not be deposited in gold or silver1 nor in any other sumptuous monument1 but committed1 as soon as possible1 to the ground40 ,the observation which ,dr4 ,hales here makes1 is worthy of record3--8,this is a most signal and extraordinary epitaph4 ,it seems to have been designed as a useful memento mori1 memento of death1 for ,alexander the ,great1 in the full pride of conquest1 8whose coming0 it predicts with a prophetic spirit1 8,for come ,i know thou wilt40 ,but how could ,cyrus know of his coming8--,very easily4 ,daniel the ,archimagus1 his venerable friend1 who warned the haughty ,nebuchadnezzar1 that 8head of gold10 or founder of the ,babylonian empire1 that it should be subverted by 8the breast and arms of silver10 ,dan4 ii1 #cg1 #ci1 or 8the ,mede and the ,persian10 ,darius and ,cyrus1 as he more plainly told the impious ,belshazzar1 ,dan4 v1 #bh1 we may rest assured1 communicated to ,cyrus also1 the founder of the ,persian empire1 the symbolical vision of the goat1 with the notable horn in his forehead1 ,alexander of ,macedon coming swiftly from the west1 to overturn the ,persian empire1 ,daniel viii1 #e1 #h1 under the last king ,codomannus1 the fourth from ,darius ,nothus1 as afterward more distinctly explained1 ,dan4 xi1 #a1 #d4 ,cyrus1 therefore1 decidedly addresses the short-lived conqueror1 ,o man1 whoever thou art1 c4 8,juvenal1 in that noble satire1 the tenth1 verse #afh1 has a fine reflection on the vanity of ,alexander's wild ambition to conquer worlds1 soon destined himself to be confined in a narrow coffin2 by a pointed allusion to the epitaph on the tomb of ,cyrus3-- ,unus ,pello ,juveni non sufficit orbis2 stuat1 infelix angusto limite mundi3 ,cum tamen a figulis munitam intraverit urbem1 ,sarcophago contentus erit4--,mors sola fatetur ,quantula sint hominum corpuscula60 #8,a single globe suffices not the ,pellan youth2 ,discontented1 he scorns the scanty limits of the world2 ,as if within a prison's narrow bounds confined3 ,but when he shall enter the brick-walled city1 ,babylon1 ,a coffin will content him4--,the epitaph alone owns1 ,how small are the diminutive bodies of men6' 8,the emotion of ,alexander1 on visiting the tomb1 and reading the inscription1 is not less remarkable4 ,he evidently applied to himself1 as the destroyer1 the awful rebuke of the founder of the ,persian empire1 for violating the sanctity of his tomb1 from motives of profane curiosity1 and perhaps of avarice4 ,and we may justly consider the significant act of laying down his golden crown upon the tomb itself1 as an amende honorable1 a homage due to the offended shade of the pious and lowly-minded ,cyrus the ,great40 ,these reflections must close our account of one of the most remarkable characters that ever appeared among the eastern conquerors4 ,,dagon1 1 corn1 from 1 or 1 a fish1 god of the ,philistines4 ,it is the opinion of some that ,dagon was represented like a woman1 with the lower parts of a fish1 like a triton or syren4 ,scripture shows clearly that the statue of ,dagon was human1 at least1 the upper part of it1 #a ,sam4 v1 #d1 #e4 ,a temple of ,dagon at ,gaza was pulled down by ,samson1 ,judges xvi1 #bc1 c4 ,in another1 at ,ashdod1 the ,philistines deposited the ark of ,god1 #a ,sam4 v1 #a-c4 ,a city in ,judah was called ,beth-,dagon2 that is1 the house1 or temple1 of ,dagon1 ,joshua xv1 #da2 and another on the frontiers of ,asher1 ,joshua xix1 #bg4 ,,dalmanutha4 ,st4 ,mark says that ,jesus ,christ embarked with his disciples on the lake of ,tiberias1 and came to ,dalmanutha1 ,mark viii1 #aj1 but ,st4 ,matthew calls it ,magdala1 ,matt4 xv1 #ci4 ,it seems that ,dalmanutha was near to ,magdala1 on the western side of the lake4 ,,dalmatia1 a part of old ,illyria1 lying along the gulf of ,venice4 ,titus preached here1 #b ,tim4 iv1 #aj4 ,,damascus1 a celebrated city of ,asia1 and anciently the capital of ,syria1 may be accounted one of the most venerable places in the world for its antiquity4 ,it is supposed to have been founded by ,ux1 the son of ,aram2 and is1 at least1 known to have subsisted in the time of ,abraham1 ,gen4 xv1 #b4 ,it was the residence of the ,syrian kings1 during the space of three centuries2 and experienced a number of vicissitudes in every period of its history4 ,its sovereign1 ,hadad1 whom ,josephus calls the first of its kings1 was conquered by ,david1 king of ,israel4 ,in the reign of ,ahaz1 it was taken by ,tiglath ,pileser1 who slew its last king1 ,rezin1 and added its provinces to the ,assyrian empire4 ,it was taken and plundered1 also1 by ,sennacherib1 ,nebuchadnezzar1 the generals of ,alexander the ,great1 ,judas ,maccabeus1 and at length by the ,romans in the war conducted by ,pompey against ,tigranes1 in the year before ,christ1 #fe4 ,during the time of the emperors1 it was one of their principal arsenals in ,asia1 and is celebrated by the emperor ,julian as1 even in his day1 8the eye of the whole east40 ,about the year #fcd1 it was taken by the ,saracen princes1 who made it the place of their residence1 till ,bagdad was prepared for their reception2 and1 after suffering a variety of revolutions1 it was taken and destroyed by ,tamerlane1 ,a4 ,d4 #adjj4 ,it was repaired by the ,mamelukes1 when they gained possession of ,syria2 but was wrested from them by the ,turks1 in #aejf2 and since that period has formed the capital of one of their pachalics4 ,the modern city is delightfully situated about fifty miles from the sea1 in a fertile and extensive plain1 watered by the river which the ,greeks called ,chrysorrhoras1 or 8,golden ,river10 but which is known by the name of ,barrady1 and of which the ancient ,abana and ,pharpar are supposed to have been branches4 ,the city is nearly two miles in length from its north-east to its north-west extremity2 but of very inconsiderable breadth1 especially near the middle of its extent1 where its width is much contracted4 ,it is surrounded by a circular wall1 which is strong1 though not lofty2 but its suburbs are extensive and irregular4 ,its streets are narrow2 and one of them1 called ,straight1 mentioned in ,acts ix1 #aa1 still runs through the city about half a mile in length4 ,the houses1 and especially those which front the streets1 are very indifferently built1 chiefly of mud formed into the shape of bricks1 and dried in the sun2 but those toward the gardens1 and in the squares1 present a more handsome appearance4 ,in these mud walls1 however1 the gates and doors are often adorned with marble portals1 carved and inlaid with great beauty and variety2 and the inside of the habitation1 which is generally a large square court1 is ornamented with fragrant trees and marble fountains1 and surrounded with splendid apartments1 furnished and painted in the highest style of luxury4 ,the market places are well constructed1 and adorned with a rich colonnade of variegated marble4 ,the principal public buildings are1 the castle1 which is about three hundred and forty paces in length2 the hospital1 a charitable establishment for the reception of strangers1 composing a large quadrangle lined with a colonnade1 and roofed in small domes covered with lead2 and the mosque1 the entrance of which is supported by four large columns of red granite2 the apartments in it are numerous and magnificent1 and the top is covered with a cupola ornamented with two minarets4 ,damascus is surrounded by a fruitful and delightful country1 forming a plain nearly eighty miles in circumference2 and the lands1 most adjacent to the city1 are formed into gardens of great extent1 which are stored with fruit trees of every description4 8,no place in the world10 says ,mr4 ,maundrell 8can promise to the beholder at a distance a greater voluptuousness20 and he mentions a tradition of the ,turks1 that their prophet1 when approaching ,damascus1 took his station upon a certain precipice1 in order to view the city2 and1 after considering its ravishing beauty and delightful aspect1 was unwilling to tempt his frailty by going farther2 but instantly took his departure with this remark1 that there was but one paradise designed for man1 and that1 for his part1 he was resolved not to take his in this world4 ,the air or water of ,damascus1 or both1 are supposed to have a powerful effect in curing the leprosy1 or1 at least1 in arresting its progress1 while the patient remains in the place4 ,the ,rev4 ,james ,conner visited ,damascus in #ahbj1 as an agent of the ,church ,missionary ,society4 ,he had a letter from the archbishop of ,cyprus to ,seraphim1 patriarch of ,antioch1 the head of the ,christian church in the east1 who resides at ,damascus4 ,this good man received ,mr4 ,conner in the most friendly manner2 and expressed himself delighted with the system and operations of the ,bible ,society4 ,he undertook to encourage and promote1 to the utmost of his power1 the sale and distribution of the ,scriptures throughout the patriarchate2 and1 as a proof of his earnestness in the cause1 he ordered1 the next day1 a number of letters to be prepared1 and sent to his archbishops and bishops1 urging them to promote the objects of the ,bible ,society in their respective stations4 ,,damn1 and ,,damnation1 are words synonymous with condemn and condemnation4 ,generally speaking1 the words are taken to denote the final and eternal punishment of the ungodly4 ,these terms1 however1 sometimes occur in the ,new ,testament in what may be termed a less strict1 or secondary sense4 ,thus1 when the ,apostle says to the ,romans1 8,he that doubteth10 namely1 the lawfulness of what he is doing1 8is damned if he eat10 ,rom4 xiv1 #bc2 the meaning is1 he stands condemned in his own mind4 ,again3 when ,st4 ,paul tells the ,corinthians1 that 8he that eateth and drinketh0 of the ,lord's ,supper 8unworthily1 eateth and drinketh damnation to himself10 #a ,cor4 xi1 #bi2 the original word1 1 there is thought by many to import no more than temporal judgments1 and that the ,apostle explains himself in the same sense when he says1 8,for this cause many among you are weak and sickly1 and many sleep10 or die4 ,this is at least one mode of interpreting the 8damnation0 of which ,st4 ,paul here speaks2 but probably the true sense is the bringing guilt upon the conscience1 and thereby a liability1 without remission1 to future judgment4 ,,dan1 the fifth son of ,jacob1 ,gen4 xxx1 #a-f4 ,dan had but one son1 whose name was ,hushim1 ,gen4 xlvi1 #bc2 yet he had a numerous posterity2 for1 on leaving ,egypt1 this tribe consisted of sixty-two thousand seven hundred men able to bear arms1 ,num4 i1 #ch4 ,of ,jacob's blessing ,dan1 see ,gen4 xlix1 #af1 #ag4 ,they took ,laish1 ,judges xviii1 #a2 ,joshua xix1 #dg4 ,they called the city ,dan1 after their progenitor4 ,the city of ,dan was situated at the northern extremity of the land of ,israel3 hence the phrase1 8from ,dan to ,beersheba10 denoting the whole length of the land of promise4 ,here ,jeroboam1 the son of ,nebat1 set up one of his golden calves1 #a ,kings xii1 #bi2 and the other at ,bethel4 ,,dancing4 ,it is still the custom in the east to testify their respect for persons of distinction by music and dancing4 ,when ,baron ,du ,tott1 who was sent by the ,french government to inspect their factories in the ,levant1 approached an encampment of ,turcomans1 between ,aleppo and ,alexandretta1 the musicians of the different hordes turned out1 playing and dancing before him all the time he and his escort were passing by their camp4 ,thus1 it will be recollected1 8the women came out of all the cities of ,israel1 singing and dancing1 to meet ,king ,saul1 with tabrets1 with joy1 and with instruments of music10 when he returned in triumph from the slaughter of the ,philistines4 ,in the oriental dances1 in which the women engage by themselves1 the lady of highest rank in the company takes the lead1 and is followed by her companions1 who imitate her steps1 and if she sings1 make up the chorus4 ,the tunes are extremely gay and lively1 yet with something in them wonderfully soft4 ,the steps are varied according to the pleasure of her who leads the dance1 but always in exact time4 ,this statement may enable us to form a correct idea of the dance1 which the women of ,israel performed under the direction of ,miriam1 on the banks of the ,red ,sea4 ,the prophetess1 we are told1 8took a timbrel in her hand1 and all the women went out after her1 with timbrels and dances40 ,she led the dance1 while they imitated her steps1 which were not conducted according to a set1 well-known form1 as in this country1 but extemporaneous4 ,the conjecture of ,mr4 ,harmer is extremely probable1 that ,david did not dance alone before the ,lord1 when he brought up the ark1 but1 as being the highest in rank1 and more skilful than any of the people1 he led the religious dance of the males4 ,,daniel was a descendant of the kings of ,judah1 and is said to have been born at ,upper ,bethoron1 in the territory of ,ephraim4 ,he was carried away captive to ,babylon when he was about eighteen or twenty years of age1 in the year #fjf before the ,christian ra4 ,he was placed in the court of ,nebuchadnezzar1 and was afterward raised to situations of great rank and power1 both in the empire of ,babylon and of ,persia4 ,he lived to the end of the captivity1 but being then nearly ninety years old1 it is most probable that he did not return to ,judea4 ,it is generally believed that he died at ,susa1 soon after his last vision1 which is dated in the third year of the reign of ,cyrus4 ,daniel seems to have been the only prophet who enjoyed a great share of worldly prosperity2 but amidst the corruptions of a licentious court he preserved his virtue and integrity inviolate1 and no danger or temptation could divert him from the worship of the true ,god4 ,the book of ,daniel is a mixture of history and prophecy3 in the first six chapters is recorded a variety of events which occurred in the reigns of ,nebuchadnezzar1 ,belshazzar1 and ,darius2 and1 in particular1 the second chapter contains ,nebuchadnezzar's prophetic dream concerning the four great successive monarchies1 and the everlasting kingdom of the ,messiah1 which dream ,god enabled ,daniel to interpret4 ,in the last six chapters we have a series of prophecies1 revealed at different times1 extending from the days of ,daniel to the general resurrection4 ,the ,assyrian1 the ,persian1 the ,grecian1 and the ,roman empires1 are all particularly described under appropriate characters2 and it is expressly declared that the last of them was to be divided into ten lesser kingdoms2 the time at which ,christ was to appear is precisely fixed2 the rise and fall of antichrist1 and the duration of his power1 are exactly determined2 and the future restoration of the ,jews1 the victory of ,christ over all his enemies1 and the universal prevalence of true religion1 are distinctly foretold1 as being to precede the consummation of that stupendous plan of ,god1 which 8was laid before the foundation of the world10 and reaches to its dissolution4 ,part of this book is written in the ,chaldaic language1 namely1 from the fourth verse of the second chapter to the end of the seventh chapter2 these chapters relate chiefly to the affairs of ,babylon1 and it is probable that some passages were taken from the public registers4 ,this book abounds with the most exalted sentiments of piety and devout gratitude2 its style is clear1 simple1 and concise2 and many of its prophecies are delivered in terms so plain and circumstantial1 that some unbelievers have asserted1 in opposition to the strongest evidence1 that they were written after the events which they describe had taken place4 ,with respect to the genuineness and authenticity of the hook of ,daniel1 there is abundance both of external and internal evidence2 indeed all that can well be had or desired in a case of this nature3 not only the testimony of the whole ,jewish church and nation1 who have constantly received this book as canonical1 but of ,josephus particularly1 who recommends him as the greatest of the prophets2 of the ,jewish ,targums and ,talmuds1 which frequently cite and appeal to his authority2 of ,st4 ,paul and ,st4 ,john1 who have copied many of his prophecies2 and of our ,saviour himself1 who cites his words1 and styles him1 8,daniel the prophet40 ,nor is the internal less powerful and convincing than the external evidence2 for the language1 the style1 the manner of writing1 and all other internal marks and characters1 are perfectly agreeable to that age2 and finally he appears plainly and undeniably to have been a prophet by the exact accomplishment of his prophecies4 ,,darius was the name of several princes in history1 some of whom are mentioned in ,scripture4 #a4 ,,darius the ,mede1 spoken of in ,daniel v1 #ca2 ix1 #a2 xi1 #a1 c1 was the son of ,astyages1 king of the ,medes1 and brother to ,mandane1 the mother of ,cyrus1 and to ,amyit1 the mother of ,evil-merodach1 and grandmother of ,belshazzar4 ,darius the ,mede1 therefore1 was uncle by the mother's side to ,evil-merodach and ,cyrus4 ,the ,septuagint1 in ,daniel vii1 give him the name of ,artaxerxes2 the thirteenth1 or apocryphal chapter of ,daniel1 calls him ,astyages2 and ,xenophon designates him by the name of ,cyaxares4 ,he succeeded ,belshazzar1 king of ,babylon1 his nephew's son1 or his sister's grandson1 in the year of the world1 #cddh1 according to ,calmet1 or in #cdfh1 according to ,usher4 ,daniel does not inform us of any previous war between them2 but the prophets ,isaiah and ,jeremiah supply this deficiency4 ,isa4 xiii1 xiv1 xlv1 xlvi1 xlvii2 ,jer4 l1 li4 #b4 ,,darius1 the son of ,hystaspes1 has been supposed by some1 on the authority of ,archbishop ,usher and ,calmet1 to be the ,ahasuerus of ,scripture1 and the husband of ,esther4 ,but ,dr4 ,prideaux thinks1 that ,ahasuerus was ,artaxerxes ,longimanus4 ,this prince recovered ,babylon after a siege of twenty months4 ,this city1 which had been formerly the capital of the east1 revolted from ,persia1 taking advantage of the revolutions that happened1 first at the death of ,cambyses1 and afterward on the massacre of the ,magi4 ,the ,babylonians employed four years in preparations1 and when they thought that their city was furnished with provisions for a long time1 they raised the standard of rebellion4 ,darius levied an army in great haste1 and besieged ,babylon4 ,the ,babylonians shut themselves up within their walls1 whose height and thickness secured them from assault2 and as they had nothing to fear but famine1 they assembled all their women and children1 and strangled them1 each reserving only his most beloved wife1 and one servant4 ,thus was fulfilled the prophecy of ,isaiah1 xlvii1 #g-i4 ,some believe that the ,jews were either expelled by the ,babylonians1 as being too much in the interest of ,darius2 or that1 in obedience to the frequent admonitions of the prophets1 they quitted that city when they saw the people determined to rebel1 ,isa4 xlviii1 #bj2 ,jer4 l1 #h2 li1 #f-i2 ,zech4 xi1 #f1 #g4 ,darius lay twenty months before ,babylon1 without making any considerable progress2 but1 at length1 ,zopyrus1 one of his generals1 obtained possession of the city by stratagem4 ,darius ordered the hundred gates of brass to be taken away1 according to the prediction of ,jeremiah1 li1 #eh1 8,thus saith the ,lord1 ,the broad walls of ,babylon shall be utterly broken1 and her high gates shall be burnt with fire1 and the people shall labour in vain40 ,this is related in ,herodotus4 #c4 ,,darius ,,codomanus was of the royal family of ,persia1 but very remote from the crown4 ,he was in a low condition1 when ,bagoas1 the eunuch1 who had procured the destruction of two kings1 ,ochus and ,arses1 placed him on the throne4 ,his true name was ,codoman1 and he did not take that of ,darius till he was king4 ,he was descended from ,darius ,nothus1 whose son1 ,ostanes1 was father to ,arsames1 that begat ,codomanus4 ,he was at first only a courier to the emperor ,ochus4 ,but one day when he was at this prince's army1 one of their enemies challenged the bravest of the ,persians4 ,codomanus offered himself for the combat1 and overcame the challenger1 and was made governor of ,armenia4 ,from this situation1 ,bagoas placed him on the throne of ,persia4 ,alexander the ,great invaded the ,persian empire1 and defeated ,darius in three successive battles4 ,after the third battle1 ,darius fled toward ,media1 in hopes of raising another army4 ,at ,ecbatana1 the capital of ,media1 he gathered the remains of his forces1 and some new levies4 ,alexander having wintered at ,babylon and ,persepolis1 took the field in search of ,darius1 who quitted ,ecbatana1 with an intention of retreating into ,bactria2 but1 changing his resolution1 ,darius stopped short1 and determined to hazard a battle1 though his army at this time consisted only of forty thousand men4 ,while he was preparing for this conflict1 ,bessus1 governor of ,bactria1 and ,narbazanes1 a grandee of ,persia1 seized him1 loaded him with chains1 forced him into a covered chariot1 and fled1 carrying him with them toward ,bactria4 ,if ,alexander pursued them1 they intended to purchase their peace by delivering ,darius into his hands2 but if not1 to kill him1 seize the crown1 and renew the war4 ,eight days after their departure1 ,alexander arrived at ,ecbatana1 and set out in pursuit of them1 which he continued for eleven days3 at length he stopped at ,rages1 in ,media1 despairing to overtake ,darius4 ,thence he went into ,parthia1 where he learned what had happened to that unfortunate prince4 ,after a precipitate march of many days1 he overtook the traitors1 who1 seeing themselves pressed1 endeavoured to compel ,darius to get upon horseback1 and save himself with them2 but he refusing1 they stabbed him in several places1 and left him expiring in his chariot4 ,he was dead when ,alexander arrived1 who could not forbear weeping at so sad a spectacle4 ,alexander covered ,darius with his own cloak1 and sent him to ,sisygambis his wife1 that she might bury him in the tombs of the kings of ,persia4 ,thus were verified the prophecies of ,daniel1 viii1 who had foretold the destruction of the ,persian monarchy1 under the symbol of a ram1 which butted with its horns westward1 northward1 and southward1 and which nothing could resist2 but a goat which had a very large horn between his eyes1 and which denoted ,alexander the ,great1 came from the west1 and overran the world without touching the earth2 springing forward with impetuosity1 the goat ran against the ram with all his force1 attacked him with fury1 struck him1 broke his two horns1 trampled him under foot1 and no one could rescue the ram4 ,nothing can be clearer than these prophecies4 ,,darkness1 the absence of light4 8,darkness was upon the face of the deep10 ,gen4 i1 #b2 that is1 the chaos was immersed in thick darkness1 because light was withheld from it4 ,the most terrible darkness was that brought on ,egypt as a plague2 it was so thick as to be1 as it were1 palpable2 so horrible1 that no one durst stir out of his place2 and so lasting1 that it endured three days and three nights1 ,exod4 x1 #ba1 #bb2 ,wisdom xvii1 #b1 #c4 ,the darkness at our ,saviour's death began at the sixth hour1 or noon1 and ended at the third hour1 or three o'clock in the afternoon4 ,thus it lasted almost the whole time he was on the cross2 compare ,matt4 xxvii1 #de1 with ,john xix1 #ad1 and ,mark xv1 #be4 ,origen1 ,maldonatus1 ,erasmus1 ,vatablus1 and others1 were of opinion that this darkness covered ,judea only2 which is sometimes called the whole earth2 that is1 the whole country4 ,chrysostom1 ,euthymius1 ,theophylact1 and others1 thought it extended over a hemisphere4 ,origen says it was caused by a thick mist1 which precluded the sight of the sun4 ,that it was preternatural is certain1 for1 the moon being at full1 a natural eclipse of the sun was impossible4 ,darkness is sometimes used metaphorically for death4 8,the land of darkness0 is the grave1 ,job x1 #bb2 ,psalm cvii1 #aj4 ,it is also used to denote misfortunes and calamities3 8,a day of darkness0 is a day of affliction1 ,esther xi1 #h4 8,let that day be darkness2 let darkness stain it10--let it be reckoned among the unfortunate days1 ,job iii1 #d1 #e4 ,the expressions1 8,i will cover the heavens with darkness20 8,the sun shall be turned into darkness1 and the moon into blood10 c1 signify very great political calamities1 involving the overthrow of kings1 princes1 and nobles1 represented by the luminaries of heaven4 ,in a moral sense1 darkness denotes ignorance and vice2 hence 8the children of light10 in opposition to 8the children of darkness10 are the righteous distinguished from the wicked4 ,,david1 the celebrated king of ,israel1 was the youngest son of ,jesse1 of the tribe of ,judah1 and was born #ajhe years before ,christ4 ,the following is an abstract of his history3 ,he was chosen of ,god to be king of ,israel1 and at his command was anointed to this dignity by the hands of ,samuel1 a venerable prophet1 in the room of ,saul2 who had been rejected for his disobedience to the divine orders1 in feloniously seizing1 to his own use the prey of an enemy1 which ,god1 the supreme ,king of ,israel1 had devoted to destruction4 ,he was introduced to court as a man expert in music1 a singularly valiant man1 a man of war1 prudent in matters1 of a comely person1 and one favoured of the ,lord4 ,by his skill in music1 he relieved ,saul under a melancholy indisposition that had seized him1 was highly beloved by his royal master1 and made one of his guards4 ,in a war with the ,philistines he accepted the challenge of a gigantic champion1 who defied the armies of ,israel1 and being skilful at the sling1 he slew him with a stone1 returned safely with his head1 and thus secured to his prince an easy victory over his country's enemies4 ,the reputation he gained1 by this glorious action1 raised an incurable jealousy and resentment against him1 in the mind of the king his master2 who made two unsuccessful attempts to murder him4 ,in his exalted station1 and amidst the dangers that encompassed him1 he behaved with singular prudence1 so that he was in high esteem both in the court and camp4 ,the modesty and prudence of his behaviour1 and his approved courage and resolution1 gained him the confidence and friendship of ,jonathan1 the king's eldest son1 8who loved him as his own soul10 became his advocate with his father1 and obtained from him a promise1 confirmed by an oath1 that he would no more attempt to destroy him4 ,but ,saul's jealousy returned by a fresh victory ,david gained over the ,philistines2 who1 finding the king was determined to seek his life1 retired from court1 and was dismissed in peace by ,jonathan1 after a solemn renewal of their friendship1 to provide for his own safety4 ,in this state of banishment1 there resorted to him companies of men1 who were uneasy in their circumstances1 oppressed by their creditors1 or discontented with ,saul's tyrannical government1 to the number of six hundred men4 ,these he kept in the most excellent order1 and by their valour he gained signal advantages for his country2 but never employed them in rebellion against the king1 or in a single instance to distress or subvert his government4 ,on the contrary such was the veneration he paid him1 and such the generosity of his temper1 that though it was thrice in his power to have him cut off1 he spared him1 and was determined never to destroy him1 whom ,god had constituted the king of ,israel4 ,his friendship with ,jonathan1 the king's son1 was a friendship of strict honour1 for he never seduced him from his allegiance and filial duty4 ,being provoked by a churlish farmer1 who evil treated and abused his messengers1 he1 in the warmth of his temper1 swore he would destroy him and his family2 but was immediately pacified by the address and prudence of a wife1 of whom the wretch was unworthy3 her he sent in peace and honour to her family1 and blessed for her advice1 and keeping him from avenging himself with his own hand4 ,being forced to banish himself into an enemy's country1 he was faithful to the prince who protected him3 and1 at the same time1 mindful of the interest of his own nation1 he cut off many of those who had harassed and plundered his fellow subjects4 ,when pressed by the king1 into whose dominions he retired1 to join in a war against his own country and father-in-law1 he prudently gave him such an answer as his situation required2 neither promising the aid demanded of him1 nor tying up his hands from serving his own prince1 and the army that fought under him2 only assuring him in general1 that he had never done any thing that could give him just reason to think he would refuse to assist him against his enemies4 ,upon the death of ,saul1 he cut off the ,amalekite who came to make a merit of having slain him2 and by the immediate direction of ,god1 who had promised him the succession1 went up to ,hebron1 where1 on a free election1 he was anointed king over the house of ,judah2 and after about a seven years' contest1 he was unanimously chosen king by all the tribes of ,israel1 8according to the word of the ,lord by ,samuel40 ,as king of ,israel1 he administered justice and judgment to all his people1 was a prince of courage1 and great military prudence and conduct2 had frequent wars with the neighbouring nations1 to which he was generally forced by their invading his dominions1 and plundering his subjects4 ,against them he never lost a battle2 he never besieged a city without taking it2 nor1 as for any thing that can be proved1 used any severities against those he conquered1 beyond what the law of arms allowed1 his own safety required1 or the cruelties of his enemies rendered just1 by way of retaliation2 enriching his people by the spoils he took1 and providing large stores of every thing necessary for the magnificent temple he intended to erect1 in honour of the ,god of ,israel4 ,having rescued ,jerusalem out of the hands of the ,jebusites1 he made it the capital of his kingdom1 and the place of his residence2 and being willing to honour it with the presence of the ark of ,god1 he brought it to ,jerusalem in triumph1 and divesting himself of his royal robes1 out of reverence to ,god1 he clothed himself in the habit of his ministers1 and with them expressed his joy by dancing and music2 contemned only by one haughty woman2 whom1 as a just punishment of her insolence1 he seems ever after to have separated from his bed4 ,though his crimes were henious1 and highly aggravated1 in the affair of ,uriah and ,bathsheba1 he patiently endured reproof1 humbly submitted to the punishment appointed him1 deeply repented1 and obtained mercy and forgiveness from ,god1 though not without some severe marks of his displeasure1 for the grievous offences of which he had been guilty4 ,a rebellion was raised against him by his son ,absalom4 ,when forced by it to depart from ,jerusalem1 a circumstance most pathetically described by the sacred historian1 he prevented the just punishment of ,shimei1 a wretch who cursed and stoned him4 ,when restored to his throne1 he spared him upon his submission1 and would not permit a single man to be put to death in ,israel upon account of this treason4 ,he1 with a noble confidence1 made the commander of the rebel forces general of his own army1 in the room of ,joab1 whom he intended to call to an account for murder and other crimes4 ,after this1 when obliged1 by the command of ,god1 to give up some of ,saul's family to justice1 for the murder of the ,gibeonites1 he spared ,mephibosheth1 ,micah1 and his family1 the male descendants of ,saul and ,jonathan1 who alone could have any pretence to dispute the crown with him1 and surrendered only ,saul's bastard children1 and those of his daughter by ,adriel1 who had no right or possible claim to the throne1 and could never give him any uneasiness in the possession of it2 and thus showed his inviolable regard for his oaths1 his tenderness to ,saul1 and the warmth of his gratitude and friendship to ,jonathan4 ,in the close of his life1 and in the near prospect of death1 to demonstrate his love of justice1 he charged ,solomon to punish with death ,joab1 for the base murder of two great men1 whom he assassinated under the pretence of peace and friendship4 ,to this catalogue of his noble actions must be added1 that he gave the most shining and indisputable proofs of an undissembled reverence for1 and sincere piety to1 ,god2 ever obeying the direction of his prophets1 worshipping him alone1 to the exclusion of all idols1 throughout the whole of his life1 and making the wisest settlement to perpetuate the worship of the same ,god1 through all succeeding generations4 ,to this abstract a few miscellaneous remarks may be added4 #a4 ,when ,david is called 8the man after ,god's own heart10 a phrase which profane persons have often perverted1 his general character1 and not every particular of it1 is to be understood as approved by ,god2 and especially his faithful and undeviating adherence to the true religion1 from which he never deviated into any act of idolatry4 #b4 ,he was chosen to accomplish to their full extent the promises made to ,abraham to give to his seed1 the whole country from the river of ,egypt to the great river ,euphrates4 ,he had succeeded to a kingdom distracted with civil dissension1 environed on every side by powerful and victorious enemies1 without a capital1 almost without an army1 without any bond of union between the tribes4 ,he left a compact and united state1 stretching from the frontier of ,egypt to the foot of ,lebanon1 from the ,euphrates to the sea4 ,he had crushed the power of the ,philistines1 subdued or curbed all the adjacent kingdoms3 he had formed a lasting and important alliance with the great city of ,tyre4 ,he had organized an immense disposable force2 for every month #bd1jjj men1 furnished in rotation by the tribes1 appeared in arms1 and were trained as the standing militia of the country4 ,at the head of his army were officers of consummate experience1 and1 what was more highly esteemed in the warfare of the time1 extraordinary personal activity1 strength1 and valour4 ,the ,hebrew nation owed the long peace of ,solomon the son's reign to the bravery and wisdom of the father4 #c4 ,as a conqueror he was a type of ,christ1 and the country 8from the river to the ends of the earth10 was also the prophetic type of ,christ's dominion over the whole earth4 #d4 ,his inspired psalms not only place him among the most eminent prophets2 but have rendered him the leader of the devotions of good men1 in all ages4 ,the hymns of ,david excel no less in sublimity and tenderness of expression than in loftiness and purity of religious sentiment4 ,in comparison with them the sacred poetry of all other nations sinks into mediocrity4 ,they have embodied so exquisitely the universal language of religious emotion1 that they have entered with unquestioned propriety into the ritual of the higher and more perfect religion of ,christ4 ,the songs which cheered the solitude of the desert caves of ,engedi1 or resounded from the voice of the ,hebrew people as they wound along the glens or the hill sides of ,judea1 have been repeated for ages in almost every part of the habitable world1 in the remotest islands of the ocean1 among the forests of ,america or the sands of ,africa4 ,how many human hearts have these inspired songs softened1 purified1 exalted6 ,of how many wretched beings have they been the secret consolation6 ,on how many communities have they drawn down the blessings of ,divine providence1 by bringing the affections into unison with their deep devotional fervour1 and leading to a constant and explicit recognition of the government1 rights1 and mercies of ,god6 ,,day4 ,the ,hebrews1 in conformity with the ,mosaic law1 reckoned the day from evening to evening4 ,the natural day1 that is1 the portion of time from sunrise to sunset1 was divided by the ,hebrews1 as it is now by the ,arabians1 into six unequal parts4 ,these divisions were as follows3--#a4 ,the break of day4 ,this portion of time was1 at a recent period1 divided into two parts1 in imitation of the ,persians2 the first of which began when the eastern1 the second1 when the western1 division of the horizon was illuminated4 ,the authors of the ,jerusalem ,talmud divided it into four parts2 the first of which was called in ,hebrew 1 which occurs in ,psalm xxii1 #a1 and corresponds to the phrase1 1 in the ,new ,testament1 ,mark xvi1 #b2 ,john xx1 #a4 #b4 ,the morning or sunrise4 #c4 ,the heat of the day4 ,this began about nine o'clock1 ,gen4 xviii1 #a2 #a ,sam4 xi1 #aa4 #d4 ,midday4 #e4 ,the cool of the day2 literally1 the wind of the day4 ,this expression is grounded on the fact1 that a wind commences blowing regularly a few hours before sunset1 and continues till evening1 ,gen4 iii1 #h4 #f4 ,the evening4 ,this was divided into two parts1 2 the first of which began1 according to the ,caraites and ,samaritans1 at sunset1 the second1 when it began to grow dark4 ,but1 according to the rabbins1 the first commenced just before sunset1 the second1 precisely at sunset4 ,the ,arabians agree with the ,caraites and ,samaritans2 and in this way the ,hebrews appear to have computed1 previous to the captivity4 ,the mention of 1 hours1 occurs first in ,daniel iii1 #f1 #ae2 v1 #e4 ,they were first measured by gnomons1 which merely indicated the meridian2 afterward1 by the hour-watch1 2 and subsequently still1 by the clepsydra1 or instrument for measuring time by means of water4 ,the hour-watch or dial1 otherwise called the sun-dial1 is mentioned in the reign of ,king ,hezekiah1 #b ,kings xx1 #i1 #aj2 ,isaiah xxxviii1 #h4 ,its being called 8the sundial of ,ahaz0 renders it probable that ,ahaz first introduced it from ,babylon2 whence1 also1 ,anaximenes1 the ,milesian1 brought the first skiathericon into ,greece4 ,this instrument was of no use during the night1 nor indeed during a cloudy day4 ,in consequence of this defect1 the clepsydra was invented1 which was used in ,persia as late as the seventeenth century in its simplest form4 ,the clepsydra was a small circular vessel1 constructed of thinly-beaten copper or brass1 and having a small perforation through the bottom4 ,it was placed in another vessel1 filled with water4 ,the diameter of the hole in the bottom of the clepsydra was such1 that it filled with water in three hours1 and sunk4 ,it was necessary that there should be a servant to tend it1 who should take it up when it had sunk1 pour out the water1 and place it again empty on the surface of the water in the vase4 ,the hours of principal note in the course of the day were the third1 the sixth1 and the ninth4 ,these hours1 it would seem1 were consecrated by ,daniel to prayer1 ,dan4 vi1 #aj2 ,acts ii1 #ae2 iii1 #a2 x1 #i4 ,the day was divided into twelve hours1 which1 of course1 varied in length1 being shorter in the winter and longer in the summer1 ,john xi1 #i4 ,in the winter1 therefore1 the clepsydras were so constructed that the water might sink them more rapidly4 ,the hours were numbered from the rising of the sun1 so that1 at the season of the equinox1 the third corresponded to the ninth of our reckoning2 the sixth1 to our twelfth2 and the ninth1 to three o'clock in the afternoon4 ,at other seasons of the year1 it is necessary to observe the time when the sun rises1 and reduce the hours to our time accordingly4 ,we observe1 therefore1 that the sun in ,palestine1 at the summer solstice1 rises at five of our time1 and sets about seven4 ,at the winter solstice1 it rises about seven1 and sets about five4 ,before the captivity1 the night was divided into three watches4 ,the first1 which continued till midnight1 was denominated the commencing or first watch1 ,lam4 ii1 #ai4 ,the second was denominated the middle watch1 and continued from midnight till the crowing of the cock4 ,the third1 called the morning watch1 extended from the second to the rising of the sun4 ,these divisions and names appear to have owed their origin to the watches of the ,levites in the tabernacle and temple1 ,exod4 xiv1 #bd2 #a ,sam4 xi1 #aa4 ,in the time of ,christ1 however1 the night1 in imitation of the ,romans1 was divided into four watches4 ,according to the ,english mode of reckoning they were as follows3 #a4 ,the evening1 from twilight to nine o'clock4 #b4 ,the midnight1 from nine to twelve4 #c4 ,the cock crowing1 from twelve to three4 #d4 ,from three o'clock till daybreak4 ,a day is used in the prophetic ,scripture for a year3 8,i have appointed thee each day for a year10 ,ezek4 iv1 #f4 ,see ,,cock4 ,,deacon1 from the ,greek word 1 in its proper and primitive sense1 denotes a servant who attends his master1 waits on him at table1 and is always near his person to obey his orders1 which was accounted a more creditable kind of service than that which is imported by the word a slave2 but this distinction is not usually observed in the ,new ,testament4 ,our ,lord makes use of both terms in ,matt4 xx1 #bf1 #bg1 though they are not distinctly marked in our translation3 8,whosoever will be great among you1 let him be your deacon2 and whosoever will be chief among you1 let him be your servant40 ,the appointment of deacons in the first ,christian church is distinctly recorded1 ,acts vi1 #a-af4 ,the number of disciples having greatly increased in ,jerusalem1 the ,greeks1 or ,hellenistic ,jews1 began to murmur against the ,hebrews1 complaining that their widows were neglected in the daily distribution of the church's bounty4 ,the twelve ,apostles1 who hitherto had discharged the different offices of ,apostle1 presbyter1 and deacon1 upon the principle that the greater office always includes the less1 now convened the church1 and said unto them1 8,it is not reasonable that we should leave the ministration of the word of ,god1 and serve tables3 look ye out1 therefore1 among yourselves1 seven men of good report1 full of the ,holy ,ghost1 and wisdom1 whom we may appoint over this business2 but we will give ourselves continually to prayer1 and to the ministry of the word40 ,and the saying pleased the whole multitude2 and they 7the multitude7 chose ,stephen1 and six others1 whom they set before the ,apostles1 c4 ,the qualifications of deacons are stated by the ,apostle ,paul1 #a ,tim4 iii1 #h-ab4 ,there were also1 in the primitive churches females invested with this office1 who were termed deaconesses4 ,of this number was ,phbe1 a member of the church of ,cenchrea1 mentioned by ,st4 ,paul1 ,rom4 xvi1 #a4 8,they served the church10 says ,calmet1 8in those offices which the deacons could not themselves exercise1 visiting those of their own sex in sickness1 or when imprisoned for the faith4 ,they were persons of advanced age1 when chosen2 and appointed to the office by imposition of hands40 ,it is probably of these deaconesses that the ,apostle speaks1 where he describes the ministering widows1 #a ,tim4 v1 #e-aj4 ,,dead4 ,see ,,burial4 ,,dead1 ,,mournings ,,for ,,the4 ,the ancient ,israelites1 in imitation of the ,heathen1 from whom they borrowed the practice1 frequently cut themselves with knives and lancets1 scratched their faces1 or pricked certain parts of their bodies with needles4 ,these superstitious practices were expressly forbidden in their law3 8,ye are the children of the ,lord your ,god3 ye shall not cut yourselves1 nor make any baldness between your eyes for the dead40 ,the bereaved ,greeks tore1 cut off1 and sometimes shaved1 their hair2 they reckoned it a duty which they owed to the dead1 to deprive their heads of the greatest part of their honours1 or1 in the language of ,scripture1 made a baldness between their eyes4 ,the same custom prevailed among the ancient ,persians1 and the neighbouring states4 ,when the patriarch ,job was informed of the death of his children1 and the destruction of his property1 he arose and rent his mantle1 and shaved his head1 and fell down upon the ground and worshipped2 and in the prophecies of ,jeremiah1 we read of eighty men who were going to lament the desolations of ,jerusalem1 having their beards shaven1 and their clothes rent1 and having cut themselves1 in direct violation of the divine law1 with offerings and incense in their hand1 to bring them to the house of the ,lord1 ,jer4 xii1 #e4 ,shaving1 however1 was1 on some occasions1 a sign of joy2 and to let the hair grow long1 the practice of mourners1 or persons in affliction4 ,joseph shaved himself before he went into the palace1 ,gen4 xli1 #ad2 and ,mephibosheth let his hair grow during the time ,david was banished from ,jerusalem1 but shaved himself on his return4 ,in ordinary sorrows they only neglected their hair1 or suffered it to hang down loose upon their shoulders2 in more poignant grief they cut it off2 but in a sudden and violent paroxysm1 they plucked it off with their hands4 ,such a violent expression of sorrow is exemplified in the conduct of ,ezra1 which he thus describes3 8,and when ,i heard this thing ,i rent my garment and my mantle1 and plucked off the hair of my head1 and of my beard1 and sat down astonied10 ,ezra ix1 #c4 ,the ,greeks1 and other nations around them1 expressed the violence of their sorrow in the same way2 for in ,homer1 ,ulysses and his companions1 bewailing the death of ,elpenor1 howled and plucked off their hair4 ,mourners withdrew as much as possible from the world2 they abstained from banquets and entertainments2 they banished from their houses as unsuitable to their circumstances1 and even painful to their feelings1 musical instruments of every kind1 and whatever was calculated to excite pleasure1 or that wore an air of mirth and gaiety4 ,thus did the king of ,persia testify his sorrow for the decree1 into which his wily courtiers had betrayed him1 and which1 without the miraculous interposition of ,heaven1 had proved fatal to his favourite minister3 8,then the king went to his palace1 and spent the night fasting2 neither were instruments of music brought before him10 ,dan4 vi1 #ah4 #b4 ,oriental mourners divested themselves of all ornaments1 and laid aside their jewels1 gold1 and every thing rich and splendid in their dress4 ,this proof of humiliation and submission ,jehovah required of his offending people in the wilderness3 8,therefore1 now put off thy ornaments from thee1 that ,i may know what to do unto thee4 ,and the children of ,israel stripped themselves of their ornaments by the ,mount ,horeb10 ,exodus xxxiii1 #e1 #f4 ,long after the time of ,moses1 that rebellious nation again received a command of similar import3 8,strip you1 and make you bare1 and gird sackcloth upon your loins10 ,isaiah xxxii1 #aa4 ,the garments of the mourner were always black4 ,progne1 having notice of ,philomela's death1 lays aside her robes1 beaming with a profusion of gold1 and appears in sable vestments2 and ,altha1 when her brethren were slain by ,meleager1 exchanged her glittering robes for black3-- 8,et auratas mutavit vestibus atris40 ,,ovid4 ,these sable vestments differed from their ordinary dress1 not only in colour1 but also in value1 being made of cheap and coarse stuff1 as appears from these lines of ,terence3-- 8,texentem telam studiose ipsam offendimus ,mediocriter vestitam veste lugubri ,ejus anus causa1 opinor1 qu erat mortua40 8,we found her busy at the loom1 in a cheap mourning habit1 which she wore ,i suppose for the old woman's death40 ,in ,judea1 the mourner was clothed in sackcloth of hair1 and by consequence1 in sable robes2 and penitents1 by assuming it1 seemed to confess that their guilt exposed them to death4 ,some of the eastern nations1 in modern times1 bury in linen2 but ,chardin informs us1 that others still retain the use of sackcloth for that purpose4 ,to sit in sackcloth and ashes1 was a frequent expression of mourning in the oriental regions2 and persons overwhelmed with grief1 and unable to sustain the weight of their calamities1 often threw themselves upon the earth1 and rolled in the dust2 and the more dirty the ground was1 the better it served to defile them1 and to express their sorrow and dejection4 ,in this way ,tamar signified her distress1 after being dishonoured by ,amnon1 8,she put ashes on her head20 and when ,mordecai understood that the doom of his nation was sealed1 he 8rent his clothes1 and put on sackcloth with ashes40 ,our ,lord alludes to the same custom1 in that denunciation3 8,wo unto thee1 ,chorazin6 wo unto thee1 ,bethsaida6 for if the mighty works which were done in you1 had been done in ,tyre and ,sidon1 they would have repented long ago1 in sackcloth and ashes10 ,matt4 xi1 #ba4 ,intimately connected with this1 is the custom of putting dust upon the head4 ,when the armies of ,israel were defeated before ,ai1 8,joshua rent his clothes1 and fell to the earth upon his face1 he and the elders of ,israel1 and put dust upon their heads40 ,the mourner sometimes laid his hands upon his head2 for the prophet1 expostulating with his people1 predicts their humiliation in these words3 8,yea1 thou shalt go forth from him1 and thine hands upon thine head2 for the ,lord hath rejected thy confidences1 and thou shalt not prosper in them10 ,jer4 ii1 #cg4 ,in both these cases1 the head of the mourner was uncovered2 but they sometimes adopted the opposite custom1 and covered their heads in great distress1 or when they were loaded with disgrace and infamy4 #c4 ,to cover the lips was a very ancient sign of mourning2 and it continues to be practised among the ,jews of ,barbary to this day4 ,when they return from the grave to the house of the deceased1 the chief mourner receives them with his jaws tied up with a linen cloth1 in imitation of the manner in which the face of the dead is covered2 and by this the mourner is said to testify that he was ready to die for his friend4 ,muffled in this way1 the mourner goes for seven days1 during which the rest of his friends come twice every twenty-four hours to pray with him4 ,this allusion is perhaps involved in the charge which ,ezekiel received when his wife died1 to abstain from the customary forms of mourning3 8,forbear to cry2 make no mourning for the dead2 bind the tire of thy head upon thee1 and put on thy shoes upon thy feet1 and cover not thy lips1 and eat not the bread of men10 ,ezekiel xxiv1 #ag4 #d4 ,sitting on the ground was a posture which denoted severe distress4 ,thus the prophet represents the elders of ,israel1 after the destruction of ,jerusalem1 and the captivity of those whom the sword had spared3 8,the elders of the daughter of ,zion sit upon the ground1 and keep silence2 they have cast up dust upon their heads2 they have girded themselves with sackcloth2 the virgins of ,jerusalem hang down their heads to the ground10 ,lam4 ii1 #aj4 ,judea is represented on several coins of ,vespasian and ,titus1 as a solitary female in this very posture of sorrow and captivity sitting upon the ground4 ,it is remarkable1 that we find ,judea represented as a sorrowful woman sitting on the ground1 in a passage of the prophet1 where the same calamity which was recorded on the medals of these ,roman emperors is foretold3 8,and she being desolate shall sit upon the ground10 ,isaiah iii1 #bf4 #e4 ,chardin informs us that when the king of ,persia dies1 his physicians and astrologers lose their places1 and are excluded from the court2 the first1 because they could not cure their sovereign1 and the last1 because they did not give previous notice of his death4 ,this whimsical custom he supposes has descended to modern times from a very remote antiquity2 and to have been the true reason that ,daniel was absent when ,belshazzar saw the hand writing his doom on the wall4 ,if the conjecture of that intelligent traveller be well founded1 the venerable prophet had been forced by the established etiquette of the court to retire from the management of public affairs at the death of ,nebuchadnezzar2 and had remained in a private station for twenty-three years1 neglected or forgotten1 till the awful occurrence of that memorable night rendered his assistance necessary1 and brought him again into public notice4 ,this accounts in a very satisfactory manner1 as well for ,belshazzar's ignorance of ,daniel1 as for the recollection of ,nitocris1 the queen-mother1 who had long known his character and abilities during the reign of her husband4 ,this solution of the difficulty is at least ingenious4 #f4 ,it was a custom among the ,jews to visit the sepulchres of their deceased friends three days2 for so long they supposed their spirits hovered about them2 but when once they perceived their visage begin to change1 as it would in that time in those warm countries1 all hopes of a return to life were then at an end4 ,but it appears from an incident in the narrative of the raising of ,lazarus1 that in ,judea they were accustomed to visit the graves of their deceased relations after the third day1 merely to lament their loss1 and give vent to their grief4 ,if this had not been a common practice1 the people that came to comfort the sisters of ,lazarus would not so readily have concluded1 when ,mary1 on the fourth day1 went hastily out to meet her ,saviour1 8,she goeth to the grave to weep there40 ,the ,turkish women continue to follow this custom3 they go before sunrising on ,friday1 the stated day of their worship1 to the grave of the deceased1 where1 with many tears and lamentations1 they sprinkle their monuments with water and flowers4 ,,dead ,,sea4 ,this was anciently called the ,sea of the ,plain1 ,deut4 iii1 #ag2 iv1 #di1 from its situation in the great hollow or plain of the ,jordan2 the ,salt ,sea1 ,deut4 iii1 #ag2 ,joshua xv1 #e1 from the extreme saltness of its waters2 and the ,east ,sea1 ,ezek4 xlvii1 #ah2 ,joel ii1 #bj1 from its situation relative to ,judea1 and in contradistinction to the ,west ,sea1 or ,mediterranean4 ,it is likewise called by ,josephus1 and by the ,greek and ,latin writers generally1 ,lacus ,asphaltites1 from the bitumen found in it2 and the ,dead ,sea1 its more frequent modern appellation1 from a tradition1 commonly though erroneously received1 that no living creature could exist in its saline and sulphureous waters4 ,it is at present known in ,syria by the names of ,almotanah and ,bahar ,loth3 and occupies what may be considered as the southern extremity of the vale of ,jordan2 forming1 in that direction1 the western boundary to the ,holy ,land4 ,the ,dead ,sea is about seventy miles in length1 and twenty in breadth at its broadest part2 having1 like the ,caspian1 no visible communication with the ocean4 ,its depth seems to be altogether unknown2 nor does it appear that a boat has ever navigated its surface4 ,toward its southern extremity1 however1 in a contracted part of the lake1 is a ford1 about six miles over1 made use of by the ,arabs3 in the middle of which they report the water to be warm2 indicating the presence of warm springs beneath4 ,in general1 toward the shore1 it is shallow2 and rises and falls with the seasons1 and the quantity of water carried into it by seven streams1 which fall into this their common receptacle1 the chief of which is the ,jordan4 ,the water now covering these ruins occupies what was formerly the vale of ,siddim2 a rich and fruitful valley1 in which stood the five cities1 called the cities of the plain1 namely1 ,sodom1 ,gomorrah1 ,admah1 ,zeboim1 and ,bela or ,zoar3 the four first of which were destroyed1 while the latter1 being 8a little city10 was preserved at the intercession of ,lot2 to which he fled for refuge from the impending catastrophe1 and where he remained in safety during its accomplishment4 ,the specific gravity of the waters of the ,dead ,sea is supposed to have been much exaggerated by the ancient writers1 but their statements are now proved to be by no means very wide of the truth4 ,pliny says1 that no living bodies would sink in it2 and ,strabo1 that persons who went into it were borne up to their middle4 ,van ,egmont and ,heyman state1 that1 on swimming to some distance from the shore1 they found themselves1 to their great surprise1 lifted up by the water4 8,when ,i had swam to some distance10 says the latter1 8,i endeavoured to sink to the bottom1 but could not2 for the water kept me continually up1 and would certainly have thrown me upon my face1 had ,i not put forth all the strength ,i was master of1 to keep myself in a perpendicular posture2 so that ,i walked in the sea as if ,i had trod on firm ground1 without having occasion to make any of the motions necessary in treading fresh water2 and when ,i was swimming1 ,i was obliged to keep my legs the greatest part of the time out of the water4 ,my fellow traveller was agreeably surprised to find that he could swim here1 having never learned4 ,but this proceeded from the gravity of the water1 as this certainly does from the extraordinary quantity of salt in it40 ,mr4 ,joliffe says1 he found it very little more buoyant than other seas1 but he did not go out of his depth4 8,the descent of the beach10 he says1 8is so gently gradual1 that ,i must have waded above a hundred yards to get completely out of my depth1 and the impatience of the ,arabians would not allow of time sufficient for this40 ,captain ,mangles says3 8,the water is as bitter and as buoyant as the people have reported4 ,those of our party who could not swim1 floated on its surface like corks4 ,on dipping the head in1 the eyes smarted dreadfully40 ,with regard to the agents employed in this catastrophe1 there might seem reason to suppose that volcanic phenomena had some share in producing it2 but ,chateaubriand's remark is deserving of attention4 8,i cannot10 he says1 8coincide in opinion with those who suppose the ,dead ,sea to be the crater of a volcano4 ,i have seen ,vesuvius1 ,solfatara1 ,monte ,nuovo in the lake of ,fusino1 the peak of the ,azores1 the ,mamalif opposite to ,carthage1 the extinguished volcanoes of ,auvergne2 and remarked in all of them the same characters2 that is to say1 mountains excavated in the form of a tunnel1 lava1 and ashes1 which exhibited incontestable proofs of the agency of fire40 ,after noticing the very different shape and position of the ,dead ,sea1 he adds3 8,bitumen1 warm springs1 and phosphoric stones are found1 it is true1 in the mountains of ,arabia2 but then1 the presence of hot springs1 sulphur1 and asphaltos is not sufficient to attest the anterior existence of a volcano40 ,the learned ,frenchman inclines to adopt the idea of ,professors ,michalis and ,busching1 that ,sodom and ,gomorrah were built upon a mine of bitumen2 that lightning kindled the combustible mass1 and that the cities sunk in the subterraneous conflagration4 ,m4 ,malte ,brun ingeniously suggests1 that the cities might themselves have been built of bituminous stones1 and thus have been set in flames by the fire of heaven4 ,we learn from the ,mosaic account1 that the ,vale of ,siddim1 which is now occupied by the ,dead ,sea1 was full of 8slime pits10 or pits of bitumen4 ,pococke says3 8,it is observed1 that the bitumen floats on the water1 and comes ashore after windy weather2 the ,arabs gather it up1 and it serves as pitch for all uses1 goes into the composition of medicines1 and is thought to have been a very great ingredient in the bitumen used in embalming the bodies in ,egypt3 it has been much used for cerecloths1 and has an ill smell when burnt4 ,it is probable that there are subterraneous fires1 that throw up this bitumen at the bottom of the sea1 where it may form itself into a mass1 which may be broken by the motion of the water occasioned by high winds2 and it is very remarkable1 that the stone called the stone of ,moses1 found about two or three leagues from the sea1 which burns like a coal1 and turns only to a white stone1 and not to ashes1 has the same smell1 when burnt1 as this pitch2 so that it is probable1 a stratum of the stone under the ,dead ,sea is one part of the matter that feeds the subterraneous fires1 and that this bitumen boils up out of it40 ,to give force to this last conjecture1 however1 it would be requisite to ascertain1 whether bitumen is capable of being detached from this stone1 in a liquid state1 by the action of fire4 ,the stone in question is the black feited limestone1 used at ,jerusalem in the manufacture of rosaries and amulets1 and worn as a charm against the plague4 ,the effluvia which it emits on friction1 is owing to a strong impregnation of sulphuretted hydrogen4 ,if the buildings were constructed of materials of this description1 with quarries of which the neighbouring mountains abound1 they would be easily susceptible of ignition by lightning4 ,the ,scriptural account1 however1 is explicit1 that 8the ,lord rained upon ,sodom and ,gomorrah brimstone and fire from heaven20 which we may safely interpret as implying a shower of inflamed sulphur1 or nitre4 ,at the same time it is evident1 that the whole plain underwent a simultaneous convulsion1 which seems referable to the consequences of a bituminous explosion4 ,in perfect accordance with this view of the catastrophe1 we find the very materials1 as it were1 of this awful visitation still at hand in the neighbouring hills2 from which they might have been poured down by the agency of thunder storms1 directed by the hand of offended ,heaven4 ,captains ,irby and ,mangles collected1 on the southern coast1 lumps of nitre and fine sulphur1 from the size of a nutmeg up to that of a small hen's egg1 which1 it was evident from their situation1 had been brought down by the rain3 8their great deposit must be sought for10 they say1 8in the cliff40 ,these cliffs then were probably swept by the lightnings1 and their flaming masses poured in a deluge of fire upon the plain4 ,,deborah1 a prophetess1 wife of ,lapidoth1 judged the ,israelites1 and dwelt under a palm tree between ,ramah and ,bethel1 ,judges iv1 #d1 #e4 ,she sent for ,barak1 directed him to attack ,sisera1 and1 in the name of ,god1 promised him victory2 but ,barak refusing to go1 unless she went with him1 she told him1 that the honour of this expedition would be given to a woman1 and not to him4 ,after the victory1 ,deborah and ,barak sung a fine thanksgiving song1 the composition probably of ,deborah alone1 which is preserved1 ,judges v4 ,,debts4 ,in nothing1 perhaps1 do the ,israelitish laws deviate so far from our own1 as in regard to matters of debt4 ,imprisonment was unknown among the ,hebrews1 who were equally free from those long and expensive modes of procedure with which we are acquainted1 for the recovery of debts4 ,their laws in this respect were simple1 but efficient4 ,where pledges were lodged with a creditor for the payment of a debt1 which was not discharged1 the creditor was allowed to appropriate the pledge to his own benefit1 without any interposition of a magistrate1 and to keep it as rightfully as if it had been bought with the sum which had been lent for it4 ,but1 beside the pledge1 every ,israelite had various pieces of property1 on which execution for debt might readily be made2 as 7#a47 ,his hereditary land1 the produce of which might be attached till the year of jubilee3 7#b47 ,his houses1 which1 with the sole exception of those of the ,levites1 might be sold in perpetuity1 ,lev4 xxv1 #bi1 #cj3 7#c47 ,his cattle1 household furniture1 and ornaments1 appear also liable to be taken in execution4 ,see ,job xxiv1 #c2 ,proverbs xxii1 #bg4 ,from ,deut4 xv1 #a-aa1 we see that no debt could be exacted from a poor man in the seventh year2 because the land lying fallow1 he had no income whence to pay it3 7#d47 ,the person of the debtor1 who might be sold1 along with his wife and children1 if he had any4 ,see ,lev4 xxv1 #ci2 ,job xxiv1 #i2 #b ,kings iv1 #a2 ,isaiah l1 #a2 ,nehemiah v4 ,we have no intimation1 in the writings of ,moses1 that suretyship was practised among the ,hebrews in cases of debt4 ,in the ,proverbs of ,solomon1 however1 there are many admonitions respecting it4 ,where this warranty was given1 the surety was treated with the same severity as if he had been the actual debtor2 and if he could not pay1 his very bed might be taken from under him1 ,prov4 xxii1 #bg4 ,there is a reference to the custom observed in contracting this obligation in ,prov4 xvii1 #ah3 8,a man void of understanding striketh hands10 c2 and also in ,prov4 xxii1 #bf3 8,be not thou one of them that strike hands10 c4 ,it is to be observed that the hand was given1 not to the creditor1 but to the debtor1 in the creditor's presence4 ,by this act the surety intimated that he became in a legal sense one with the debtor1 and rendered himself liable to pay the debt4 #b4 ,we have above noticed the practice of lending on pledge2 but as this was liable to considerable abuse1 the following judicial regulations were adopted3 7#a47 ,the creditor was not allowed to enter the house of the debtor to fetch the pledge1 but was obliged to stand without the door1 and wait till it was brought to him1 ,deut4 xxiv1 #aj1 #aa4 ,this law was wisely designed to restrain avaricious and unprincipled persons from taking advantage of their poor brethren in choosing their own pledges4 7#b47 ,the upper garment1 which served by night for a blanket1 ,exod4 xxii1 #be1 #bf2 ,deut4 xxiv1 #ab1 #ac1 and mills and millstones1 if taken in pledge1 were to be restored to the owner before sunset4 ,the reason of this law was1 that these articles were indispensable to the comfortable subsistence of the poor2 and for the same reason1 it is likely that it extended to all necessary utensils4 ,such a restoration was no loss to the creditor2 for he had it in his power at last1 by the aid of summary justice1 to lay hold of the whole property of the debtor2 and if he had none1 of his person3 and1 in the event of non-payment1 as before stated1 to take him for a bond slave4 ,,decalogue1 the ten principal commandments1 ,exod4 xx1 #a1 c1 from the ,greek ten1 and words4 ,the ,jews call these precepts1 the ten words4 ,,decapolis1 a country in ,palestine1 so called1 because it contained ten principal cities2 some situated on the west1 and some on the east side of ,jordan1 ,matt4 iv1 #be2 ,mark v1 #bj4 ,,dedication1 a religious ceremony1 whereby any person or thing was set apart to the service of ,god1 and the purposes of religion4 ,dedications of persons1 temples1 and houses1 were frequent among the ,jews4 ,see ,,consecration4 ,,defilement4 ,under the law1 many were those blemishes of person and conduct1 which were considered as defilements3 some were voluntary1 others involuntary2 some were inevitable1 and the effect of nature itself1 others arose from personal transgression4 ,under the ,gospel1 defilements are those of the heart1 of the mind1 the temper1 and conduct4 ,the ceremonial uncleannesses of the law are superseded as religious rites2 though many of them claim attention as usages of health1 decency1 and civility4 ,,degrees4 ,psalms of ,degrees is a name given to fifteen psalms1 from the cxx1 to the cxxxiv1 inclusive4 ,the ,hebrew text calls them a song of ascents4 ,junius and ,tremellius translate the ,hebrew a song of excellences1 or an excellent song1 from the excellent matter they contain4 ,some call them psalms of elevation1 because they were sung with an exalted voice1 or because at every psalm the voice was raised2 but the translation of psalms of degrees has more generally obtained4 ,some think that they were called psalms of degrees1 because they were sung upon the fifteen steps of the temple2 but they are not agreed where these steps were4 ,others are of opinion1 that they were so denominated1 because sung in a gallery1 which was in the court of ,israel1 where the ,levites sometimes read the law4 ,calmet thinks1 that they were called songs of degrees1 or of ascent1 because they were composed on occasion of the deliverance of the ,jews from the captivity of ,babylon1 either to implore this deliverance from ,god1 or to return thanks for it after it had been obtained2 and that the ,hebrews used the term to go up1 when they spoke of their journeying from ,babylon to ,jerusalem4 ,others are of opinion1 that these psalms were sung during the time of service1 while the flesh1 c1 were consuming on the altar1 and while the fume and smoke ascended toward heaven2 and that the title ,psalms of ,ascent seems to favour this supposition4 ,the point is involved in entire obscurity2 and1 after all1 the title of these ,psalms may be only a musical direction to the temple choir4 ,,deists4 ,this term appears to have had an honourable origin1 being of the same import as ,theists1 designating those who believe in the existence of a supreme intelligent cause1 in opposition to the ,epicureans1 and other ,atheistical philosophers4 ,the name1 in modern times1 is said to have been first assumed about the middle of the sixteenth century1 by some persons on the continent1 in order to avoid the imputation of ,atheism4 ,peter ,viret1 a divine of that century1 mentions it as a new name assumed by those who rejected ,christianity4 ,lord ,edw4 ,herbert1 baron of ,cherbury1 in the seventeenth century1 has been regarded as the first ,deistical writer in this country1 or at least1 the first who reduced ,deism to a system2 affirming the sufficiency of reason and natural religion1 and rejecting divine revelation as unnecessary and superfluous4 ,his system1 however1 embraced these five articles3--#a4 ,the being of ,god4 #b4 ,that he is to be worshipped4 #c4 ,that piety and moral virtue are the chief parts of worship4 #d4 ,that ,god will pardon our faults on repentance4 ,and1 #e4 ,that there is a future state of rewards and punishment4 ,some have divided all ,deists into two classes--those who admit a future state1 and those who deny it4 ,but ,dr4 ,s4 ,clarke1 taking the term in the most extensive sense1 arranges them under four classes3--#a4 ,those who admit a ,supreme ,being1 but deny that he concerns himself with the conduct or affairs of men2 maintaining1 with ,lucretius1 that ,god 8,ne'er smiles at good1 nor frowns at wicked1 deeds40 #b4 ,those who admit not only the being but the providence of ,god1 with respect to the natural world2 but who allow no difference between moral good and evil1 nor that ,god takes any notice of our moral conduct4 #c4 ,such as believe in the natural attributes of ,god1 and his all-governing providence2 yet deny the immortality of the soul1 or any future state4 #d4 ,such as admit the existence of ,god1 his providence1 and the obligations of natural religion2 but so far only as these things are discoverable by the light of nature1 without any divine revelation4 ,some of the ,deists have attempted to overthrow the ,christian dispensation1 by opposing to it what they call the absolute perfection of natural religion4 ,others1 as ,blount1 ,collins1 and ,morgan1 have endeavoured to gain the same purpose1 by attacking particular parts of the ,christian scheme1 by explaining away the literal sense and meaning of certain passages1 or by placing one portion of the sacred canon in opposition to the other4 ,a third class1 wherein we meet with the names of ,shaftesbury and ,bolingbroke1 advancing farther in their progress1 expunge from their creed the doctrine of future existence1 deny or controvert all the moral perfections of the ,deity1 and wholly reject the ,scriptures4 ,the ,deists of the present day are distinguished by their zealous efforts to diffuse the principles of infidelity among the common people4 ,hume1 ,bolingbroke1 and ,gibbon1 addressed themselves solely to the more polished classes of the community2 but of late the writings of ,paine1 ,carlile1 and others1 have diffused infidelity among the lower orders of society1 and clothed it in the dress of vulgar ridicule1 the more effectually to destroy in the common people all reverence for sacred things4 ,among the disciples of this school1 ,deism has led to the most disgusting ,atheism4 ,thus 8evil men and seducers wax worse and worse40 ,,deluge signifies1 in general1 any great inundation2 but more particularly that universal flood by which the whole inhabitants of this globe were destroyed1 except ,noah and his family4 ,according to the most approved systems of chronology1 this remarkable event happened in the year #afef after the creation1 or about #bcdh before the ,christian ra4 ,of so general a calamity1 from which only a single family of all who lived then on the face of the earth was preserved1 we might naturally expect to find some memorials in the traditionary records of ,pagan history1 as well as in the sacred volume1 where its peculiar cause1 and the circumstances which attended it1 are so distinctly and so fully related4 ,its magnitude and singularity could scarcely fail to make an indelible impression on the minds of the survivors1 which would be communicated from them to their children1 and would not be easily effaced from the traditions even of their latest posterity4 ,a deficiency in such traces of this awful event1 though perhaps it might not serve entirely to invalidate our belief of its reality1 would certainly tend considerably to weaken its claim to credibility2 it being scarcely probable that the knowledge of it should be utterly lost to the rest of the world1 and confined to the documents of the ,jewish nation alone4 ,what we might reasonably expect has1 accordingly1 been actually and completely realized4 ,the evidence which has been brought from almost every quarter of the world to bear upon the reality of this event1 is of the most conclusive and irresistible kind2 and every investigation1 whether etymological or historical1 which has been made concerning ,heathen rites and traditions1 has constantly added to its force1 no less than to its extent4 ,and here1 it were injustice to the memory of ingenuity and erudition almost unexampled in modern times1 were we not to mention the labours of ,bryant1 the learned analysist of ancient mythology1 whose patience and profoundness of research have thrown such new and convincing light on this subject4 ,nor must we forget his ardent and successful disciple1 ,mr4 ,faber1 who1 in his 8,dissertation on the ,mysteries of the ,cabiri10 has in travelling over similar ground with his illustrious master at once corrected some of his statements1 and greatly strengthened his general conclusions4 ,as the basis of their system1 however1 rests on a most extensive etymological examination of the names of the deities and other mythological personages worshipped and celebrated by the ,heathen1 compared with the varied traditions respecting their histories1 and the nature of the rites and names of the places that were sacred to them1 we cannot do more1 in the present article1 than shortly state the result of their investigations1 referring for the particular details1 to the highly original treatises already mentioned4 ,according to them1 the memory of the deluge was incorporated with almost every part of the ,gentile mythology and worship2 ,noah1 under a vast multitude of characters1 being one of their first deities1 to whom all the nations of the ,heathen world looked up as their founder2 and to some circumstance or other in whose history1 and that of his sons and the first patriarchs1 most1 if not all1 of their religious ceremonies may be considered as not indistinctly referring4 ,traces of these1 neither vague nor obscure1 they conceive to be found in the history and character1 not only of ,deucalion1 but of ,atlas1 ,cronus1 or ,saturn1 ,dionusos1 ,inachus1 ,janus1 ,minos1 ,zeus1 and others among the ,greeks2 of ,isis1 ,osiris1 ,sesostris1 ,oannes1 ,typhon1 c1 among the ,egyptians2 of ,dagon1 ,agruerus1 ,sydyk1 c1 among the ,phenicians2 of ,astarte1 ,derceto1 c1 among the ,assyrians2 of ,buddha1 ,menu1 ,vishnu1 c1 among the ,hindus2 of ,fohi1 and a deity represented as sitting upon the lotos in the midst of waters1 among the ,chinese2 of ,budo and ,iakusi among the ,japanese1 c4 ,they discover allusions to the ark1 in many of the ancient mysteries1 and traditions with respect to the dove and the rainbow1 by which several of these allegorical personages were attended1 which are not easily explicable1 unless they be supposed to relate to the history of the deluge4 ,by the celebrated ,ogdoas of the ,egyptians1 consisting of eight persons sailing together in the sacred baris or ark1 they imagine the family of ,noah1 which was precisely eight in number1 to have been designated2 and in the rites of ,adonis or ,thammuz1 in particular1 they point out many circumstances which seem to possess a distinct reference to the events recorded in the sixth and seventh chapters of ,genesis4 ,with regard to this system1 we shall only farther observe1 that1 after every reasonable deduction is made from it1 which the exuberant indulgence of fancy occasionally exhibited by its authors appears to render necessary1 it contains so much that is relevant and conclusive1 that it induces the conviction that it has a solid foundation in truth and fact2 it being scarcely possible to conceive1 that a mere hypothesis could be supported by evidence so varied1 so extensive1 and in many particulars so demonstrative1 as that which its framers have produced4 ,beside1 however1 the allusions to the deluge in the mythology and religious ceremonies of the ,heathen1 to which we have thus concisely adverted1 there is a variety of traditions concerning it still more direct and circumstantial1 the coincidence of which1 with the narrative of ,moses1 it will require no common degree of skeptical hardihood to deny4 ,we are informed by one of the circumnavigators of the world1 who visited the remote island of ,otaheite1 that some of the inhabitants being asked concerning their origin1 answered1 that their supreme ,god having1 a long time ago1 been angry1 dragged the earth through the sea1 when their island was broken off and preserved4 ,in the island of ,cuba1 the people are said to believe that the world was once destroyed by water by three persons1 evidently alluding to the three sons of ,noah4 ,it is even related1 that they have a tradition among them1 that an old man1 knowing that the deluge was approaching1 built a large ship1 and went into it with a great number of animals2 and that he sent out from the ship a crow1 which did not immediately come back1 staying to feed on the carcasses of dead animals1 but afterward returned with a green branch in its mouth4 ,the author who gives the above account likewise affirms that it was reported by the inhabitants of ,castella del ,oro1 in ,terra ,firma1 that during a universal deluge1 one man1 and his children1 were the only persons who escaped1 by means of a canoe1 and that from them the world was afterward peopled4 ,according to the ,peruvians1 in consequence of a general inundation1 occasioned by violent and continued rains1 a universal destruction of the human species took place1 a few persons only excepted1 who escaped into caves on the tops of the mountains1 into which they had previously conveyed a stock of provisions1 and a number of live animals1 lest when the waters abated1 the whole race should have become extinct4 ,others of them affirm1 that only six persons were saved1 by means of a float or raft1 and that from them all the inhabitants of the country are descended4 ,they farther believe1 that this event took place before there were any incas or kings among them1 and when the country was extremely populous4 ,the ,brazilians not only preserve the tradition of a deluge1 but believe that the whole race of mankind perished in it1 except one man and his sister2 or1 according to others1 two brothers with their wives1 who were preserved by climbing the highest trees on their loftiest mountains2 and who afterward became the heads of two different nations4 ,the memory of this event they are even said to celebrate in some of their religious anthems or songs4 ,acosta1 in his history of the ,indies1 says1 that the ,mexicans speak of a deluge in their country1 by which all men were drowned2 and that it was afterward peopled by viracocha1 who came out of the lake ,titicaca2 and1 according to ,herrera1 the ,machoachans1 a people comparatively in the neighbourhood of ,mexico1 had a tradition1 that a single family was formerly preserved in an ark amid a deluge of waters2 and that along with them1 a sufficient number of animals were saved to stock the new world4 ,during the time that they were shut up in the ark1 several ravens were sent out1 one of which brought back the branch of a tree4 ,among the ,iroquois it is reported that a certain spirit1 called by them ,otkon1 was the creator of the world2 and that another being1 called ,messou1 repaired it after a deluge1 which happened in consequence of ,otkon's dogs having one day while he was hunting with them lost themselves in a great lake1 which1 in consequence of this1 overflowed its banks1 and in a short time covered the whole earth4 ,passing from the more remote western to the eastern continent1 nearer to the region where ,noah is generally supposed to have lived1 we find the traditions respecting the deluge still more particular and minute4 ,according to ,josephus1 there were a multitude of ancient authors who concurred in asserting that the world had once been destroyed by a flood3 8,this deluge10 says he1 8and the ark are mentioned by all who have written barbaric histories1 one of whom is ,berosus the ,chaldean40 ,eusebius informs us1 that ,melo1 a bitter enemy of the ,jews1 and whose testimony is on this account peculiarly valuable1 takes notice of the person who was saved along with his sons from the flood1 having been1 after his preservation1 driven away from ,armenia1 whence he retired to the mountainous parts of ,syria4 ,abydenus1 after giving an account of the deluge from which ,xisuthrus1 the ,chaldean ,noah1 was saved1 concludes with asserting1 in exact concurrence with ,berosus1 that the ark first rested on the mountains of ,armenia1 and that its remains were used by the natives as a talisman2 and ,plutarch mentions the ,noachic dove being sent out of the ark1 and returning to it again1 as an intimation to ,deucalion that the storm had not yet ceased4 ,this1 however1 is by no means all3 ,sir ,w4 ,jones1 speaking of one of the ,chinese fables1 says1 8,although ,i cannot insist with confidence1 that the rainbow mentioned in it alludes to the ,mosaic narrative of the flood1 nor build any solid argument on the divine person ,niuva1 of whose character1 and even of whose sex the historians of ,china speak very doubtfully2 ,i may nevertheless assure you1 after full inquiry and consideration1 that the ,chinese believe the earth to have been wholly covered with water1 which1 in works of undisputed authenticity1 they describe as flowing abundantly1 then subsiding1 and separating the higher from the lower age of mankind40 ,still more coincident even than this with the ,mosaic account1 is the ,grecian history of the deluge1 as preserved by ,lucian1 a native of ,samosata on the ,euphrates2 and its authority is the more incontrovertible1 on account of his being an avowed derider of all religions4 ,the antediluvians1 according to him1 had gradually become so hardened and profligate1 as to be guilty of every species of injustice4 ,they paid no regard to the obligation of oaths2 were insolent1 inhospitable1 and unmerciful4 ,for this reason they were visited with an awful calamity4 ,suddenly the earth poured forth a vast quantity of water1 the rain descended in torrents1 the rivers overflowed their banks1 and the sea rose to a prodigious height1 so that 8all things became water10 and all men were destroyed except ,deucalion4 ,he alone1 for the sake of his prudence and piety1 was reserved to a second generation4 ,in obedience to a divine nomination1 he entered1 with his sons and their wives1 into a large ark1 which they had built for their preservation2 and immediately swine1 and horses1 and lions1 and serpents1 and all other animals which live on earth1 came to him by pairs1 and were admitted by him into the ark4 ,there they became perfectly mild and innoxious1 their natures being changed by the gods1 who created such a friendship between them1 that they all sailed peaceably together1 so long as the waters prevailed over the surface of the globe4 ,scarcely less remarkable is the ,hindoo tradition4 ,it is contained in the ancient poem of the ,bhavagat2 and forms the subject of the first ,purana1 entitled ,matsya1 or 8,the ,fish40 ,the following is ,sir ,william ,jones's abridgment of it2 and the identity of the event which it describes1 with that of the ,hebrew historian1 is too obvious to require any particular illustration3 8,the demon ,hayagriva1 having purloined the ,vedas from the custody of ,brahma1 while he was reposing at the close of the sixth ,manwantara1 the whole race of men became corrupt1 except the seven ,rishis1 and ,satyavrata1 who then reigned in ,dravira1 a maritime region to the south of ,carnata4 ,this prince was performing his ablutions in the river ,critimala1 when ,vishnu appeared to him in the shape of a small fish1 and after several augmentations of bulk in different waters1 was placed by ,satyavrata in the ocean1 where he thus addressed his amazed votary3 #8,in seven days all creatures who have offended me shall be destroyed by a deluge1 but thou shalt be secured in a capacious vessel miraculously formed2 take therefore all kinds of medicinal herbs1 and esculent grain for food1 and1 together with the seven holy men1 your respective wives1 and pairs of all animals1 enter the ark without fear3 then shalt thou know ,god face to face1 and all thy questions shall be answered4' ,saying this1 he disappeared2 and after seven days the ocean began to overflow the coasts1 and the earth to be flooded by constant showers1 when ,satyavrata1 meditating on the deity1 saw a large vessel moving on the waters4 ,he entered it1 having in all respects conformed to the instructions of ,vishnu2 who in the form of a vast fish1 suffered the vessel to be tied with a great sea serpent1 as with a cable1 to his measureless horn4 ,when the deluge had ceased1 ,vishnu slew the demon1 and recovered the ,vedas1 instructed ,satyavrata in divine knowledge1 and appointed him the seventh ,menu1 by the name of ,vaivaswata40 ,when we thus meet with some traditions of a deluge in almost every country1 though the persons saved from it are said1 in those various accounts to have resided in different districts widely separated from each other1 we are constrained to allow that such a general concurrence of belief could never have originated merely from accident4 ,while the mind is in this situation1 ,scripture comes forward1 and1 presenting a narrative more simple1 better connected1 and bearing an infinitely greater resemblance to authentic history1 than any of those mythological accounts which occur in the traditions of ,paganism1 immediately flashes the conviction upon the understanding1 that this must be the true history of those remarkable facts which other nations have handed down to us1 only through the medium of allegory and fable4 ,by the evidence adduced in this article1 indeed1 the moral certainty of the ,mosaic history of the flood appears to be established on a basis sufficiently firm to bid defiance to the cavils of skepticism4 8,let the ingenuity of unbelief first account satisfactorily for this universal agreement of the ,pagan world2 and she may then1 with a greater degree of plausibility1 impeach the truth of the ,scriptural narrative of the deluge40 ,the fact1 however1 is not only preserved in the traditions of all nations1 as we have already seen2 but after all the philosophical arguments which were formerly urged against it1 philosophy has at length acknowledged that the present surface of the earth must have been submerged under water4 8,not only10 says ,kirwan1 8in every region of ,europe1 but also of both the old and new continents1 immense quantities of marine shells1 either dispersed or collected1 have been discovered40 ,this and several other facts seem to prove1 that at least a great part of the present earth was1 before the last general convulsion to which it has been subjected1 the bed of an ocean which1 at that time1 was withdrawn from it4 ,other facts seem also to prove with sufficient evidence1 that this was not a gradual retirement of the waters which once covered the parts now inhabited by men2 but a violent one1 such as may be supposed from the brief but emphatic relation of ,moses4 ,the violent action of water has left its traces in various undisputed phenomena4 ,stratified mountains of various heights exist in different parts of ,europe1 and of both continents2 in and between whose strata1 various substances of marine1 and some vegetables of terrestrial1 origin1 repose either in their natural state1 or petrified4 ,to overspread the plains of the arctic circle with the shells of ,indian seas1 and with the bodies of elephants and rhinoceri1 surrounded by masses of submarine vegetation2 to accumulate on a single spot1 as at ,la ,bolca1 in promiscuous confusion1 the marine productions of the four quarters of the globe2 what conceivable instrument would be efficacious but the rush of mighty waters8 ,these facts1 about which there is no dispute1 and which are acknowledged by the advocates of each of the prevailing geological theories1 give a sufficient attestation to the deluge of ,noah1 in which 8the fountains of the great deep were broken up10 and from which precisely such phenomena might be expected to follow4 ,to this may be added1 though less decisive in proof1 yet certainly strong as presumptive evidence1 that the very aspect of the earth's surface exhibits interesting marks both of the violent action1 and the rapid subsidence1 of waters2 as well as affords a most interesting instance of the divine goodness in converting what was ruin itself into utility and beauty4 ,the great frame-work of the varied surface of the habitable earth was probably laid by a more powerful agency than that of water2 either when on the third day the waters under the heavens were gathered into one place1 and the crust of the primitive earth was broken down to receive them1 so that 8the dry land might appear20 by those mighty convulsions which appear to have accompanied the general deluge2 but the rounding1 so to speak1 of what was rugged1 where the substance was yielding1 and the graceful undulations of hill and dale which so frequently present themselves1 were probably effected by the retiring waters4 ,the flood has passed away2 but the soils which it deposited remain2 and the valleys through which its last streams were drawn off to the ocean1 with many an eddy and sinuous course1 still exist1 exhibiting visible proofs of its agency1 and impressed with forms so adapted to the benefit of man1 and often so gratifying to the finest taste1 that1 when the flood 8turned10 it may be said to have 8left a blessing behind it40 ,the objections once made to the fact of a general deluge have1 indeed1 been greatly weakened by the progress of philosophical knowledge2 and may be regarded as nearly given up1 like the former notion of the high antiquity of the race of men1 founded on the ,chinese and ,egyptian chronologies and pretended histories4 ,philosophy has even at last found out that there is sufficient water in the ocean1 if called forth1 to overflow the highest mountains to the height given by ,moses1--a conclusion which it once stoutly denied4 ,keill formerly computed that twenty-eight oceans would be necessary for that purpose2 but we are now informed 8that a farther progress in mathematical and physical knowledge has shown the different seas and oceans to contain1 at least1 forty-eight times more water than they were then supposed to do2 and that the mere raising of the temperature of the whole body of the ocean to a degree no greater than marine animals live in1 in the shallow seas between the tropics1 would so expand it as more than to produce the height above the mountains stated in the ,mosaic account40 ,as to the deluge of ,noah1 therefore1 infidelity has almost entirely lost the aid of philosophy in framing objections to the ,scriptures4 ,,demoniac1 a human being possessed with and actuated by some spiritual malignant being of superior power4 ,the word demon is used by ,pagan writers often in a good sense1 and is applied to their divinities2 but the demons of holy writ are malignant spirits4 ,we are not informed very particularly about their origin or destiny2 but we find them represented as 1 and 1 unclean and evil spirits2 and we must consider them as in league with the devil1 as the subjects of his dominion1 and the instruments of his will4 ,they were the immediate agents in all possessions2 and to expel or restrain them1 or to cure the diseases which they were supposed to occasion1 was one of the miraculous gifts of the early times4 #b4 ,on this subject an ardent controversy was agitated about the middle and toward the end of the last century1 between ,dr4 ,farmer and his opponents4 ,in this controversy1 of which we shall attempt to give a short view1 it was contended1 on the one hand1 that the demoniacal cases recorded in the books of the ,new ,testament1 were instances of real possession2 and1 on the other1 that they were merely diseases1 set forth under the notion of possessions1 in conformity with the belief which was prevalent at the time4 ,by the one party1 the language of holy writ was interpreted literally2 and by the other it was considered as figurative1 and used in the way of accommodation to the existing opinions4 ,the leading asseveration of ,dr4 ,farmer1 upon the general question1 is1 that miracles1 or works surpassing the power of men1 are never performed without a divine interposition2 and by a divine interposition he means1 either the immediate agency of the ,deity himself1 or of beings empowered and commissioned by him4 ,and the proof of this asseveration1 he tells us1 may very easily be found1 if we consider that1 on any other supposition1 it is impossible to show that a religion supported by miracles is really from ,god4 ,for the miracles in question1 or works surpassing the power of human beings1 may have been performed by evil spirits1 acting independently of the ,divinity1 thwarting his purposes1 and marring the operation of his goodness4 ,should it be said that1 from the tendency of the miracle itself1 and a fortiori1 from the tendency of the miracle and religion when taken together1 we may easily infer the character of the being from whom the whole scheme proceeds1--to this also ,dr4 ,farmer is ready with his answer4 8,with regard to doctrines10 says he 8of a moral or useful tendency1 it is not1 in all cases1 easy for the bulk of mankind1 or even for the wise and learned1 to form a certain judgment concerning them4 ,what to men appeared to have a tendency to promote virtue and happiness1 superior beings1 who discerned its remotest effects1 might know to be a curse rather than a blessing1 and give it countenance from a motive of malevolence4 ,on the other hand1 a doctrine really subservient to the cause of piety and virtue1 men might judge to be prejudicial to it4 ,and were the sanctity of the doctrine ever so apparent1 it would not 7on the principles of those with whom we are here arguing7 certainly follow from hence1 that the miracles recommending it were wrought by ,god2 inasmuch as other beings1 from motives unknown to us1 might interest themselves in favour of such a doctrine40 ,in one word1 according to this author1 we do not know whether the tendency of the miracle1 or of the religion1 be good or not2 and therefore we can form no accurate idea of the character really belonging to the being from whom the revelation proceeds4 ,to our eyes the system may appear well calculated to promote our happiness1 but it may have been the contrivance of wicked spirits4 ,according to the sense and discernment of men1 the miracle is useful in itself1 but we cannot be sure whether it may not have been performed by one of the rebellious angels 8who kept not their first estate40 ,in conformity with these opinions1 ,dr4 ,farmer maintains that there is not an instance recorded in sacred ,scripture1 where a miracle has been wrought1 and where there is not sufficient reason to believe that the effect was produced either by the ,deity himself1 or by agents commissioned and empowered to act in his name4 ,hence he considers the ,egyptian magicians as jugglers2 the witch of ,endor1 as a ventriloquist2 and1 completing the system1 he has written an elaborate dissertation to prove1 that when ,christ was 8tempted of the devil10 as the ,evangelist ,matthew expresses it1 that apostate angel was not really present2 and that the whole transaction took place in a vision or a dream4 ,with regard to the demoniacs of the ,new ,testament1 this writer and his followers contend that1 among the ,jews1 certain diseases1 such as madness and epilepsy1 were usually ascribed to the agency of evil spirits4 ,this was the current notion and belief of the country4 ,upon this notion the ordinary phraseology was built4 ,our ,lord and his ,apostles adapted their instructions to this prevailing notion1 and used the language which had been formed upon it2 just as ,moses1 in his account of the creation1 adapts himself to the popular astronomy of his time1 instead of laying before us the true system of the heavenly bodies4 ,he speaks1 not in relation to what is physically correct1 but in relation to what was believed4 ,he founds his instructions upon the ideas already entertained by the people to whom the revelation was first communicated3 and ,christ and his ,apostles do the very same thing4 ,they speak of the demoniacs1 not according to the real state of the case1 but according to the notions which the ,jews entertained of it4 ,not a few of those demoniacs appear to have been persons of a disordered understanding1 subject to attacks of mania2 some of them were afflicted with the epilepsy1 or falling sickness1 some were deaf1 and others were dumb4 ,when a demon is said to enter into a man1 the meaning is1 that his madness is about to show itself in a violent paroxysm2 when a demon is said to speak1 it is only the unhappy victim of the disease himself that speaks2 and when a demon or devil is expelled1 the exact truth of the case1 as well as the whole of the miracle1 is nothing more than that the disease is cured4 ,occasionally1 too1 say those who contend against the reality of demoniacal possessions1 the language of the sacred books confirms the explanation which has just been given4 ,thus1 in the tenth chapter of ,st4 ,john's ,gospel1 we find the ,jews saying of ,christ1 8,he hath a devil1 and is mad10 as if the expressions were perfectly equivalent2 and the person who is represented1 in the seventeenth chapter of ,matthew1 as a lunatic1 is spoken of by ,st4 ,mark as vexed with a dumb spirit4 ,it is farther argued on this side of the question1 that the instances of possession recorded in the books of the ,new ,testament have all the features and appearance of ordinary diseases4 ,the madness shows itself in these cases1 just as it shows itself in the cases which occur among ourselves in the present day3 it is now melancholy1 and the patient is silent and sullen1 and now it vents itself in bursts of anger and ferocious resentment4 ,and the epilepsy of the sacred books is the epilepsy of all our systems of nosology3 the phenomena of the diseases are precisely the same4 ,nor does this1 say they1 detract from the very high character which ,christ undoubtedly sustains in the inspired writings1 or diminish the value of his miracles as the evidences of our religion2 since it must be allowed1 that to cure a disease with a word or a touch is an effort of power far beyond the reach of any human being4 ,and let it be remembered1 that those who deny the expulsion of demons are ready to admit that diseases were miraculously cured4 ,there is a miracle in either case2 and1 in either case1 it is a sufficient proof of our ,saviour's mission1 and an adequate support of the ,christian faith4 #c4 ,to these statements and reasonings1 the advocates of possessions have not been slow to reply4 ,they call in question the truth of ,dr4 ,farmer's leading asseveration2 namely1 8that extraordinary works have never been performed without a divine interposition20 and contend1 that as human beings have a certain sphere and agency allotted them1 so it is reasonable to believe that malignant spirits have a wider sphere1 and an agency less controlled2 and that within this sphere1 and in the exercise of this agency1 they perform actions1 the tendency of which is to thwart the purposes of the divine beneficence1 and to introduce confusion and misery into the world4 ,they argue1 too1 that the devil himself1 the chief of the apostate spirits1 is often represented in holy writ as exerting his malignity in opposition to the designs of infinite goodness2 and in the case of our first parents1 as a remarkable example1 he tempted them to disobedience1 and led them to their fall4 ,it was in consequence of his machinations1 that they brought down upon themselves the wrath of ,heaven1 and were driven from the garden in which 8the ,lord had placed them40 ,the advocates of possessions contend still farther1 that the revelation which is made to us in sacred ,scripture is addressed to our understandings2 that it is not only in our power1 but that it is our indispensable duty1 to examine it1 and to judge of it2 that the tendency of any miracle1 or system of doctrine1 is a sufficient evidence of the character belonging to him who performs the miracle1 or publishes the doctrine2 that good actions are demonstrative of the quality of goodness2 and1 in short1 that a religion calculated to make us happy must have proceeded from a ,being who has consulted and provided for our happiness4 ,nor is this a matter so abstruse and remote from human apprehension1 that we can form no opinion about it4 8,for10 say they1 8if any thing connected with ,christianity be plain1 it seems to be that the tendency of the religion is beneficent2 and that it is no less pure in its character than blessed in its effects4 ,the very miracles recorded in ,scripture are proofs of goodness4 ,they must have been wrought by a good being4 ,and10 they continue1 8we think ourselves entitled to hold our religion as true1 and to regard it as in the highest degree beneficial1 though we must allow1 at the same time1 that the magicians of ,egypt performed many wonderful works by the agency of wicked spirits2 that the sorceress of ,endor was in league with the powers of darkness1 and that ,christ was literally tempted #8of the devil1' in the wilderness of ,judea40 #d4 ,with regard to the more specific question of demoniacal possessions1 they answer1 that though ,god has often been pleased to accommodate himself to our apprehension by adopting the current language of the countries1 where the revelation was first published2 yet the account of the creation given by ,moses is not altogether an instance in point4 ,for1 say they1 while it is granted that the true system of the universe is not laid before us in the first chapter of ,genesis1 it ought to be remembered that the statements in that chapter are exceedingly general2 and that1 while the whole truth is not told1 it being no part of the revelation to tell it1 there is1 at the same time1 no error directly inculcated4 ,in the demoniacal cases1 however1 the conduct of the inspired writers1 and1 indeed1 of ,christ himself1 is widely different4 ,they positively and directly inform us1 that a demon 8enters into0 a man1 and 8comes out0 of him2 they represent the demons as speaking1 and reasoning1 and hoping1 and fearing1 as having inclinations and aversions peculiar to themselves1 and distinct from those of the person who is the subject of the possession2 they tell us of one unhappy sufferer who was vexed with many devils2 and1 in the case of the demoniac of ,gadara1 they assure us that the devils were 8cast out0 of the man1 and were permitted1 at their own request1 to 8enter into0 a herd of swine which were feeding in the neighbourhood1 and that immediately the herd ran violently down a steep place1 and were drowned in the sea4 ,who ever heard of swine afflicted with madness as a natural disease8 ,or1 when and where has the epilepsy1 or falling sickness1 been predicable of the sow8 ,for1 it must be carefully observed that the disease of the man1 the affection of the human sufferer1 whatever that affection might have been1 was clearly transferred from him to the animals in question4 ,beside1 as various instances are recorded in ,scripture1 and as several cases are given at considerable length1 might we not expect1 if possessions were really nothing more than ordinary diseases1 that the truth would be somewhere told or hinted at8 that1 within the compass of the sacred canon1 something would be said1 or something insinuated1 which would lead us to understand that the language1 though inaccurate and improper1 was used in accommodation to the popular belief8 ,might we not expect that ,christ himself would have declared1 in one unequivocal affirmation1 or in some intelligible way1 the exact truth of the case8 ,or1 at all events1 when the ,holy ,ghost had descended upon the ,apostles on the day of pentecost1 and when the full disclosure of the revelation appears to have been made1 might it not reasonably have been looked for that the popular error would have been rectified1 and the language reduced from its figurative character to a state of simple correctness8 ,what conceivable motive could influence our ,saviour1 or his ,apostles1 to sanction the delusion of the multitude8 ,and does it not strike at the root of the ,christian religion itself1 to have it thought1 for a single moment1 that its 8,author and ,finisher10 who came to enlighten and to reform the world1 should have1 on so many occasions1 not only countenanced1 but confirmed1 an opinion which he must have known to be 8the reverse of the truth08 ,let us then1 say they1 beware how we relinquish the literal sense of holy writ1 in search of allegorical or figurative interpretations4 ,and if1 upon any occasion1 we think it proper to do so1 let us consider well the grounds and reasons upon which our determination is built4 ,it is evident that the devil and his angels1 according to all that we can learn of them in the sacred books1 are real beings2 that the demons of the ,new ,testament are malignant spirits2 and that they act upon the same principles1 and even under the authority of ,satan himself1 who is otherwise called ,beelzebub1 and the prince of the devils4 ,nay1 in these very cases of possession1 the chief of the apostate angels is clearly set forth as acting either in his own person1 or by means of his infernal agents4 ,and it is on this supposition alone that we can explain the language of ,christ in that remarkable declaration which he makes to the ,pharisees and rulers of the ,jews1 and which we find recorded in the twelfth chapter of the ,gospel by ,st4 ,matthew4 8,the ,pharisees heard it10 observes the ,evangelist1 8and they said1 ,this fellow doth not cast out devils but by ,beelzebub1 the prince of the devils4 ,and ,jesus knew their thoughts1 and said unto them1 ,every kingdom divided against itself is brought to desolation2 and every city or house divided against itself shall not stand2 and if ,satan cast out ,satan1 he is divided against himself3 how shall then his kingdom stand80 #e4 ,on this subject of diseases it is also to be observed1 that the inspired writers uniformly make a distinction between diseases occurring in the ordinary course of nature1 and diseases occasioned by the agency of evil spirits4 8,there is every where10 says ,bishop ,porteus1 8a plain distinction made between common diseases and demoniacal possessions1 which shows that they are totally different things4 ,in the fourth chapter of the ,gospel of ,st4 ,matthew1 where the very first mention is made of these possessions1 it is said that our ,lord's fame went throughout all ,syria1 and that they brought unto him #8all sick people1 that were taken with divers diseases and torments1' and those #8which were possessed with devils1' and he healed them4 ,here those that were taken with divers diseases and torments1 and those possessed with devils1 are mentioned as distinct and separate persons3 a plain proof that the demoniacal possessions were not natural diseases3 and the very same distinction is made in several other passages of holy writ4 ,there can be no doubt1 therefore1 that the demoniacs were persons really possessed with evil spirits2 and although it may appear strange to us1 yet we find1 from ,josephus and other historians1 that it was in those times no uncommon case40 #f4 ,we may conclude1 from the argument on both sides of the question1 that the only reason which can be urged for departing from the obvious sense of ,scripture is1 that cases of possession involve a philosophical mystery4 ,this1 truly1 is a very insufficient ground1 and especially when we consider that if we better knew the nature of spirits1 and of our own frame1 the philosophy might appear all on the opposite side1 and no doubt would do so4 ,but no one who admits the ,scriptures to decide this question1 can consistently stand upon that objectionable ground of interpretation to which he is forced by denying the plain and consistent sense of innumerable passages4 ,if he admits this error1 he must admit many others2 for a ,bible1 so interpreted1 may be made to mean any thing4 ,,destructionists1 a denomination of ,christians who believe that the final punishment threatened in the ,gospel to the wicked and impenitent1 consists not in eternal misery1 but in a total extinction of being2 and that the sentence of annihilation shall be executed with more or less previous torment1 in proportion to the greater or less guilt of the criminal4 ,this doctrine is largely maintained in the sermons of the late ,dr4 ,john ,taylor1 of ,norwich2 ,mr4 ,s4 ,bourn1 of ,birmingham2 and many others4 ,in defence of the system1 ,mr4 ,bourn argues1 that there are many passages of ,scripture1 in which the ultimate punishment to which wicked men shall be adjudged is defined1 in the most precise and intelligible terms1 to be an everlasting destruction1 proceeding from ,him who is equally able to destroy as to create2 and who1 by our ,lord himself1 is said to be 8able to destroy both soul and body in hell40 ,by the 8everlasting punishment of the wicked10 therefore1 ,mr4 ,b4 understands 8everlasting destruction10 literally speaking1 8from the presence of the ,lord10 which is 8the second death20 from which there can be no resurrection1 and which is set in opposition to 8eternal life40 ,in speaking of the images used to illustrate this subject1 ,mr4 ,b4 remarks1 that the wicked are compared to combustible materials1 as brands1 tares1 c1 which the fire utterly consumes3 so ,sodom and ,gomorrah suffer 8the vengeance of eternal fire10 that is1 they are destroyed for ever2 and the phrases1 8the worm that dieth not1 and the fire which is not quenched10 are placed in opposition to entering into life1 and denote the termination of existence1 ,mark ix1 #dc4 ,to all this it may be answered3 #a4 ,that annihilation1 as a punishment1 admits of no degrees4 #b4 ,if we connect with this a previous state of torment1 7as ,mr4 ,winchester says1 8for ages of ages107 annihilation must be rather a relief from punishment1 than the punishment itself4 #c4 ,that annihilation is rather a suspension than an exertion of divine power4 #d4 ,that the punishment of impenitent men is described as the same with that of the fallen angels1 who are not annihilated1 ,matt4 xxv1 #da1 but remain in expectation of future punishment1 8,art thou come to torment us before the time80 ,matt4 viii1 #bi4 #e4 ,in the state of future punishment1 there is said to be 8weeping and gnashing of teeth10 ,matt4 xxiv1 #ea4 #f4 ,as the happiness of saints in the future state consists not merely in being1 but in well being1 or happiness2 so the punishment of the wicked requires the idea of eternal suffering to support the contrast4 ,it might be added1 that annihilation1 as far as we know1 forms no part of the divine economy4 ,one thing is also certain and indisputable3 the strong language of ,scripture is intended to deter men from sin2 and whoever attempts to remove the barrier1 offers insult to the divine wisdom1 and trifles with his own destiny4 ,but the capital argument is1 that it is unscriptural3--8,where their worm dieth not1 and the fire is not quenched10 is1 like many others1 a declaration1 to which no dexterity of interpretation can give any other good sense1 than the continuance of conscious punishment4 ,,devil1 ,diabolus1 an evil angel4 ,the word is formed from the ,french diable1 of the ,latin diabolus1 which comes from the ,greek 1 which1 in its ordinary acceptation1 signifies calumniator1 traducer1 or false accuser1 from the verb 1 to calumniate1 c2 or from the ancient ,british diafol4 ,dr4 ,campbell observes1 that1 though the word is sometimes1 both in the ,old ,testament and the ,new1 applied to men and women1 as traducers1 it is1 by way of eminence1 employed to denote that apostate angel1 who is exhibited to us1 particularly in the ,new ,testament1 as the great enemy of ,god and man4 ,in the two first chapters of ,job1 it is the word in the ,septuagint by which the ,hebrew 1 ,satan1 or adversary1 is translated4 ,indeed1 the ,hebrew word in this application1 as well as the ,greek1 has been naturalized in most modern languages4 ,thus we say1 indifferently1 the devil1 or ,satan2 only the latter has more the appearance of a proper name1 as it is not attended with the article4 ,there is1 however1 this difference between the import of such terms1 as occurring in their native tongues1 and as modernized in translations4 ,in the former1 they always retain somewhat of their primitive meaning1 and1 beside indicating a particular being1 or class of beings1 they are of the nature of appellatives1 and make a special character or note of distinction in such beings4 ,whereas1 when thus ,latinized or ,englished1 they answer solely the first of these uses1 as they come nearer the nature of proper names4 is sometimes applied to human beings2 but nothing is more easy than to distinguish this application from the more frequent application to the arch-apostate4 ,one mark of distinction is1 that1 in this last use of the term1 it is never found in the plural4 ,when the plural is used1 the context always shows that it refers to human beings1 and not to fallen angels4 ,it occurs in the plural only thrice1 and that only in the epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 #a ,tim4 iii1 #aa2 #b ,tim4 iii1 #c2 ,titus ii1 #c4 ,another criterion whereby the application of this word to the prince of darkness may be discovered1 is its being attended with the article4 ,the term almost invariably is 4 ,the excepted instances occur in the address of ,paul to ,elymas the sorcerer1 ,acts xiii1 #aj2 and that of our ,lord to the ,pharisees1 ,john viii1 #dd4 ,the more doubtful cases are those in #a ,peter v1 #h1 and ,rev4 xx1 #b4 ,these are all the examples in which the word1 though used indefinitely or without the article1 evidently denotes our spiritual and ancient enemy2 and the examples in which it occurs in this sense with the article1 are too numerous to be recited4 #b4 ,that there are angels and spirits1 good and bad1 says an eminent writer2 that at the head of these last1 there is one more considerable and malignant than the rest1 who1 in the form1 or under the name1 of a serpent1 was deeply concerned in the fall of man1 and whose head1 in the language of prophecy1 the ,son of ,man was one day to bruise2 that this evil spirit1 though that prophecy be in part fulfilled1 has not yet received his death's wound1 but is still permitted1 for ends to us unsearchable1 and in ways which we cannot particularly explain1 to have a certain degree of power in this world1 hostile to its virtue and happiness1--all this is so clear from ,scripture1 that no believer1 unless he be previously 8spoiled by philosophy and vain deceit10 can possibly entertain a doubt of it4 ,certainly1 among the numerous refinements of modern times1 there is scarcely any thing more extraordinary than the attempt that has been made1 and is still making1 to persuade us that there really exists no such being in the world as the devil2 and that when the inspired writers speak of such a being1 all that they mean is1 to personify the evil principle6 ,a bold effort unquestionably2 and could its advocates succeed in persuading men into the universal belief of it1 they would do more to promote his cause and interest in the world than he himself has been able to effect since the seduction of our first parents4 ,but to be armed against this subtle stratagem1 let us attend to the plain doctrine of divine revelation respecting this matter4 ,in the ,old ,testament1 particularly in the first two chapters of ,job1 this evil spirit is called ,satan2 and in the ,new ,testament1 he is spoken of under various titles1 which are also descriptive of his power and malignity2 as for example1 he is called1 8the prince of this world10 ,john xii1 #ca2 8the prince of the power of the air10 ,eph4 ii1 #b2 8the god of this world10 #b ,cor4 iv1 #d2 8the dragon1 that old serpent1 the devil10 ,rev4 xx1 #b2 8the wicked one10 #a ,john v1 #ai4 ,he is represented as exercising a sovereign sway over the human race in their natural state1 or previous to their being enlightened1 regenerated1 and sanctified by the ,gospel1 ,eph4 ii1 #b1 #c4 ,his kingdom is described as a kingdom of darkness2 and the influence which he exercises over the human mind is called 8the power10 or energy1 8of darkness10 ,col4 i1 #ac4 ,hence believers are said to be 8called out of darkness into marvellous light10 #a ,peter ii1 #i4 ,farther1 he is said to go about 8as a roaring lion1 seeking its prey1 that he may destroy men's souls10 #a ,peter v1 #h4 ,christ says1 8,he was a murderer from the beginning1 and abode not in the truth1 because there is no truth in him2 when he speaketh a lie1 he speaketh of that which is his own1 for he is a liar1 and the father of it10 ,john viii1 #dd4 ,we are also taught that this grand adversary of ,god and man has a numerous band of fallen spirits under his control2 and that both he and they are reserved under a sentence of condemnation unto the judgment of the great day1 ,jude #f2 and that 8everlasting fire10 or perpetual torment1 8is prepared for the devil and his angels10 ,matt4 xxv1 #da4 ,in these various passages of ,scripture1 and many others which might be added1 the existence of the devil is expressly stated2 but if1 as our modern ,sadducees affirm1 nothing more is intended in them than a personification of the abstract quality of evil1 the ,bible1 and especially the ,new ,testament1 must be eminently calculated to mislead us in matters which intimately concern our eternal interests4 ,if1 in inferring from them the existence of evil spirits in this world1 we can be mistaken1 it will not be an easy matter to show what inference deduced from ,scripture premises may safely be relied on4 ,it ought not1 however1 to surprise ,christians that attempts of this kind should be made4 ,st4 ,paul tells us1 that in his day there were 8false apostles1 deceitful workers1 transforming themselves into the apostles of ,christ2 and no wonder10 says he1 8for ,satan himself is transformed into an angel of light10 #b ,cor4 xi1 #ac1 #ad4 #c4 ,to the notion1 that the ,jews derived their opinions on this subject from the oriental philosophy1 and that like the ,persians they set up a rival god2 it may be replied1 that the ,jewish notion of the devil had no resemblance to what the ,persians first1 and the ,manicheans afterward1 called the evil principle2 which they made in some sort cordinate with ,god1 and the first source of all evil1 as the other is of good4 ,for the devil1 in the ,jewish system1 is a creature as much as any other being in the universe1 and is liable to be controlled by omnipotence1--an attribute which they ascribed to ,god alone4 #d4 ,the arguments from philosophy against the existence of evil spirits are as frail as that which is pretended to be grounded upon criticism4 ,for that there is nothing irrational in the notion of superior beings1 is plain from this3 that if there be other beings below us1 there may be others above us4 ,if we have demonstration of one ,being at least who is invisible1 there may be many other created invisible and spiritual beings4 ,if we see men sometimes so bad as to delight in tempting others to sin and ruin1 there may exist a whole order of fallen beings who may have the same business and the same malignant pleasure2 and if we see some men furiously bent upon destroying truth and piety1 this is precisely what is ascribed to these evil spirits4 ,it is one of the serious circumstances of our probation on earth1 that we should be exposed to this influence of ,satan1 and we are therefore called to 8watch and pray that we enter not into temptation40 #e4 ,the establishment of the worship of devils so general in some form throughout a great part of the ,heathen world1 is at once a painful and a curious subject1 and deserves a more careful investigation than it has received4 ,in modern times1 devil-worship is seen systematized in ,ceylon1 ,burmah1 and many parts of the ,east ,indies2 and an order of devil-priests exists1 though contrary to the ,budhist religion1 against the temples of which it sets up rival altars4 ,mr4 ,ives1 in his ,travels through ,persia1 gives the following curious account of devil-worship3 8,these people 7the ,sanjacks1 a nation inhabiting the country about ,mosul1 the ancient ,nineveh7 once professed ,christianity1 then ,mohammedanism1 and last of all devilism4 ,they say it is true that the devil has at present a quarrel with ,god2 but the time will come when1 the pride of his heart being subdued1 he will make his submission to the ,almighty2 and1 as the ,deity cannot be implacable1 the devil will receive a full pardon for all his transgressions1 and both he1 and all those who paid him attention during his disgrace1 will be admitted into the blessed mansions4 ,this is the foundation of their hope1 and this chance for heaven they esteem to be a better one than that of trusting to their own merits1 or the merits of the leader of any other religion whatsoever4 ,the person of the devil they look on as sacred2 and when they affirm any thing solemnly1 they do it by his name4 ,all disrespectful expressions of him they would punish with death1 did not the ,turkish power prevent them4 ,whenever they speak of him1 it is with the utmost respect2 and they always put before his name a certain title corresponding to that of highness or lord40 ,the worshippers of the devil mentioned by ,ives were also found by ,niebuhr in the same country1 in a village between ,bagdad and ,mosul1 called ,abd-el-asis1 on the great ,zab1 a river which empties itself into the ,tigris4 ,this village1 says he1 is entirely inhabited by people who are called ,isidians1 and also ,dausin4 ,as the ,turks allow the free exercise of religion only to those who possess sacred books1 that is1 the ,mohammedans1 ,christians1 and ,jews1 the ,isidians are obliged to keep the principles of their religion very secret4 ,they therefore call themselves ,mohammedans1 ,christians1 or ,jews1 according to the party of him who inquires what their religion is4 ,some accuse them of worshipping the devil under the name of ,tschellebi2 that is1 ,lord4 ,others say that they show great reverence for the sun and fire1 that they are unpolished ,heathens1 and have horrid customs4 ,i have also been assured that the ,dausins do not worship the devil2 but adore ,god alone as the ,creator and ,benefactor of all mankind4 ,they will not speak of ,satan1 nor even have his name mentioned4 ,they say that it is just as improper for men to take a part in the dispute between ,god and a fallen angel1 as for a peasant to ridicule and curse a servant of the pacha who has fallen into disgrace2 that ,god did not require our assistance to punish ,satan for his disobedience2 it might happen that he might receive him into favour again2 and then we must be ashamed before the judgment seat of ,god1 if we had1 uncalled for1 abused one of his angels3 it was therefore the best not to trouble one's self about the devil2 but endeavour not to incur ,god's displeasure ourselves4 ,when the ,isidians go to ,mosul1 they are not detained by the magistrates1 even if they are known4 ,the vulgar1 however1 sometimes attempt to extort money from them4 ,when they offer eggs or butter to them for sale1 they endeavour first to get the articles into their hands1 and then dispute about the price1 or for this or other reasons to abuse ,satan with all their might2 on which the ,dausin is often polite enough to leave every thing behind1 rather than hear the devil abused4 ,but in the countries where they have the upper hand1 nobody is allowed to curse him1 unless he chooses to be beaten1 or perhaps even to lose his life4 ,,deuteronomy1 from 1 second1 and 1 law2 the last book of the ,pentateuch or five books of ,moses4 ,as its name imports1 it contains a repetition of the civil and moral law1 which was a second time delivered by ,moses1 with some additions and explanations1 as well to impress it more forcibly upon the ,israelites in general1 as in particular for the benefit of those who1 being born in the wilderness1 were not present at the first promulgation of the law4 ,it contains also a recapitulation of the several events which had befallen the ,israelites since their departure from ,egypt1 with severe reproaches for their past misconduct1 and earnest exhortations to future obedience4 ,the ,messiah is explicitly foretold in this book2 and there are many remarkable predictions interspersed in it1 particularly in the twenty-eighth1 thirtieth1 thirty-second1 and thirty-third chapters1 relative to the future condition of the ,jews4 ,the book of ,deuteronomy finishes with an account of the death of ,moses1 which is supposed to have been added by his successor1 ,joshua4 ,,dew4 ,dews in ,palestine are very plentiful1 like a small shower of rain every morning4 ,gideon filled a basin with the dew which fell on a fleece of wool1 ,judges vi1 #ch4 ,isaac1 blessing ,jacob1 wished him the dew of heaven1 which fattens the fields1 ,gen4 xxvii1 #bh4 ,in those warm countries where it seldom rains1 the night dews supply the want of showers4 ,isaiah speaks of rain as if it were a dew1 ,isaiah xviii1 #d4 ,some of the most beautiful and illustrative of the images of the ,hebrew poets are taken from the dews of their country4 ,the reviving influence of the ,gospel1 the copiousness of its blessings1 and the multitude of its converts1 are thus set forth4 ,,diadem4 ,see ,,crown4 ,,dial is not mentioned in ,scripture before the reign of ,ahaz4 ,interpreters differ concerning the form of the dial of ,ahaz1 #b ,kings xx4 ,the generality of expositors think that it was a staircase so disposed1 that the sun showed the hours upon it by the shadow4 ,others suppose that it was a pillar erected in the middle of a very level and smooth pavement1 on which the hours were engraven4 ,according to these authors1 the lines marked in this pavement are what the ,scripture calls degrees4 ,grotius describes it as follows3 8,it was a concave hemisphere1 and in the midst was a globe1 the shadow of which fell on the different lines engraven in the concavity of the hemisphere2 these lines were twenty-eight in number40 ,this description answers pretty nearly to that kind of dial1 which the ,greeks called scapha1 a boat or hemisphere1 the invention 7rather introduction7 of which1 ,vitruvius ascribes to ,berosus the ,chaldean4 ,it would seem1 indeed1 that the most ancient sun dial known is in the form of a half circle1 hollowed into the stone1 and the stone cut down to an angle4 ,this kind of dial was invented in ,babylon1 and was very probably the same as that of ,ahaz4 ,,diamond1 4 ,exod4 xxviii1 #ah2 xxix1 #aa2 ,ezek4 xxviii1 #ac4 ,this has from remote antiquity been considered as the most valuable1 or1 more properly1 the most costly substance in nature4 ,the reason of the high estimation in which it was held by the ancients was its rarity and its extreme hardness and brilliancy4 ,it filled the sixth place in the high priest's breastplate1 and on it was engraven the name of ,naphtali4 ,,diana1 a celebrated goddess of the ,heathens1 who was honoured principally at ,ephesus1 ,acts xix4 ,she was one of the number of the twelve superior deities1 and was called by the several names of ,hebe1 ,trivia1 and ,hecate4 ,in the heavens she was the moon1 upon earth she was called ,diana1 and in hell ,hecate4 ,she was worshipped in ,palestine1 ,jeremiah vii1 #ah2 xliv1 #ag1 #ah4 ,,dionysius1 the ,areopagite1 a convert of ,st4 ,paul1 ,acts xvii1 #cd4 ,chrysostom declares ,dionysius to have been a citizen of ,athens2 which is credible1 because the judges of the ,areopagus generally were so4 ,after his conversion1 ,dionysius was made the first bishop of ,athens2 having laboured1 and suffered much in the ,gospel1 he is said to have been burnt at ,athens1 ,a4 ,d4 #ie4 ,the works attributed to ,dionysius are generally reputed spurious4 ,,directory1 an ecclesiastical instrument1 containing directions for the conduct of religious worship1 drawn up by the assembly of divines1 by order of parliament1 in #afde4 ,it was intended to supply the use of the ,common ,prayer ,book1 which had been abolished4 ,it orders the reverent observation of public worship1 prayer1 singing of psalms1 the reading and exposition of the ,scriptures1 c4 ,it enjoins no forms1 but recommends the ,lord's prayer as a model of devotion2 directs that the ,lord's ,supper may be received sitting2 that the ,sabbath day be strictly observed2 but puts down all saints' days1 consecrations of churches1 and private or lay baptisms4 ,this ,directory1 which was formerly bound with the ,westminster confession of faith1 is still1 in effect1 the plan of worship among the ,dissenters1 and especially the ,presbyterians4 ,,disciple4 ,the proper signification of this word is a learner2 but it signifies in the ,new ,testament1 a believer1 a ,christian1 a follower of ,jesus ,christ4 ,disciple is often used instead of ,apostle in the ,gospels2 but1 subsequently1 ,apostles were distinguished from disciples4 ,the seventy-two who followed our ,saviour from the beginning1 are called disciples2 as are others who were of the body of believers and bore no office4 ,in subsequent times1 the name disciple1 in the sense of learner1 was sometimes given to the 1 8auditores10 persons who1 in the primitive church1 were receiving a preparatory instruction in ,christianity4 ,they were divided into two classes1 those who received private instruction1 and those who were admitted to the congregations1 and were under immediate preparation for baptism4 ,the church readers were1 in some places1 appointed to instruct the catechumens2 and at ,alexandria1 where often learned men presented themselves for instruction1 the office of catechist was filled by learned laymen1 and these catechists laid the foundation of an important theological school4 ,,diseases4 ,in the primitive ages of the world1 diseases1 in consequence of the great simplicity in the mode of living1 were but few in number4 ,at a subsequent period the number was increased by the accession of diseases that had been previously unknown4 ,epidemics also1 diseases somewhat peculiar in their character1 and still more fearful in their consequences1 soon made their appearance1 some infesting one period of life1 and some another2 some limiting their ravages to one country1 and some to another4 ,prosper ,alpinus mentions the diseases which are prevalent in ,egypt1 and in other countries in the same climate3 they are ophthalmies1 leprosies1 inflammations of the brain1 pains in the joints1 the hernia1 the stone in the reins and bladder1 the phthisic1 hectic1 pestilential and tertian fevers1 weakness of the stomach1 obstructions in the liver1 and the spleen4 ,of these diseases1 ophthalmies1 pestilential fevers1 and inflammations of the brain1 are epidemics2 the others are of a different character4 ,the leprosy prevails in ,egypt1 in the southern part of ,upper ,asia1 and in fact may be considered a disease endemic in warm climates generally4 ,accordingly1 it is not at all surprising1 if many of the ,hebrews1 when they left ,egypt1 were infected with it2 but the assertion of ,manetho1 that they were all thus infected1 and were in consequence of the infection1 driven out by force1 in which he is precipitately and carelessly followed by ,strabo1 ,tacitus1 by ,justin ,trogus1 and others more recent1 is a mere dream without any foundation4 ,the appearance of the disease externally is not always the same4 ,the spot is commonly small1 and resembling in its appearance the small red spot that would be the consequence of a puncture from a needle1 or the pustules of a ringworm4 ,the spots for the most part make their appearance very suddenly1 especially if the infected person1 at the period when the disease shows itself externally1 happens to be in great fear1 or to be moved with anger1 ,num4 xii1 #aj2 #b ,chron4 xxvi1 #ai4 ,they commonly exhibit themselves in the first instance on the face1 about the nose and eyes2 and gradually increase in size for a number of years1 till they become1 as respects the extent of surface which they embrace on the skin1 as large as a pea or bean2 they are then called 4 ,the white spot or pustule1 1 morphea alba1 and also the dark spot1 1 morphea nigra1 are indications of the existence of the real leprosy1 ,lev4 xiii1 #b1 #ci2 xiv1 #ef4 ,from these it is necessary to distinguish the spot1 which1 whatever resemblance there may be in form1 is so different in its effects1 called 1 and also the harmless sort of scab1 which occurs under the word1 1 ,lev4 xiii1 #f-h1 #bi4 ,moses1 in the thirteenth chapter of ,leviticus1 lays down very explicit rules for the purpose of distinguishing between those spots which are proofs of the actual existence of the leprosy1 and those spots which are harmless and result from some other cause4 ,those spots which are the genuine effects and marks of the leprosy gradually dilate themselves1 till at length they cover the whole body4 ,not only the skin is subject to a total destruction1 but the body is affected in every part4 ,the pain1 it is true1 is not very great1 but there is a great debility of the system1 and great uneasiness and grief1 so much so1 as almost to drive the victim of the disease to self-destruction4 #b4 ,moses acted the part of a wise legislator in making those laws which have come down to us concerning the inspection and separation of leprous persons4 ,the object of these laws will appear peculiarly worthy1 when it is considered1 that they were designed1 not wantonly to fix the charge of being a leper upon an innocent person1 and thus to impose upon him those restraints and inconveniences which the truth of such a charge naturally implies1 but to ascertain1 in the fairest and most satisfactory manner1 and to separate those1 and those only1 who were truly and really leprous4 ,as this was the prominent object of his laws that have come down to us on this subject1 namely1 to secure a fair and impartial decision on a question of this kind1 he has not mentioned those signs of leprosy which admitted of no doubt1 but those only which might be the subject of contention2 and left it to the priests1 who also fulfilled the office of physicians1 to distinguish between the really leprous1 and those who had only the appearance of being such4 ,we find mention1 in the rules laid down by ,moses for the purpose of ascertaining the true tokens of leprosy1 of a cutaneous disorder which is denominated by him bohak4 ,the words of ,moses1 which may be found in ,lev4 xiii1 #ch1 #ci1 are as follows3 8,if a man or woman have white spots on the skin1 and the priest see that the colour of these spots is faint and pale1 it is1 in this case1 the bohak that has broken out on the skin1 and they are clean40 ,a person1 accordingly1 who was attacked with this disease1 the bohak1 was not declared unclean2 and the reason of it was1 that it is not only harmless in itself1 but is free from that infectious and hereditary character which belongs to the true leprosy4 8,the bohak0 says ,mr4 ,niebuhr1 8is neither infectious nor dangerous4 ,a black boy at ,mocha1 who was attacked with this sort of leprosy1 had white spots here and there on his body4 ,it was said that the use of sulphur had for some time been of service to this boy1 but had not altogether removed the disease40 ,he then adds the following extract from the papers of a ,dr4 ,foster3 8,may #aeth1 #agfc1 ,i myself saw a case of the bohak in a ,jew at ,mocha4 ,the spots in this disease are of unequal size4 ,they have no shining appearance1 nor are they perceptibly elevated above the skin2 and they do not change the colour of the hair4 ,their colour is an obscure white or somewhat reddish4 ,the rest of the skin of this patient was blacker than that of the people of the country was in general1 but the spots were not so white as the skin of an ,european when not sunburnt4 ,the spots1 in this species of leprosy1 do not appear on the hands1 nor about the navel1 but on the neck and face2 not1 however1 on that part of the head where the hair grows very thick4 ,they gradually spread1 and continue sometimes only about two months2 but in some cases1 indeed1 as long as two years1 and then disappear1 by degrees1 of themselves4 ,this disorder is neither infectious nor hereditary1 nor does it occasion any inconvenience40 8,that all this10 remarks ,michalis1 8should still be found exactly to hold at the distance of three thousand five hundred years from the time of ,moses1 ought certainly to gain some credit to his laws1 even with those who will not allow them to be of divine authority40 ,the pestilence1 in its effects1 is equally terrible with the leprosy1 and is much more rapid in its progress2 for it terminates the existence of those who are infected with it almost immediately1 and at the farthest within three or four days4 ,the ,gentiles were in the habit of referring back the pestilence to the agency and interference of that being1 whatever it might be1 whether idol or spirit1 whom they regarded as the divinity4 ,the ,hebrews1 also1 every where attribute it to the agency either of ,god himself1 or of that legate or angel1 whom they denominate 4 #c4 ,the palsy of the ,new ,testament is a disease of very wide import4 ,many infirmities1 as ,richter has demonstrated1 were comprehended under the word which is rendered palsy in the ,new ,testament4 #a4 ,the apoplexy1 a paralytic shock1 which affected the whole body4 #b4 ,the hemiplegy1 which affects and paralyzes only one side of the body4 #c4 ,the paraplegy1 which paralyzes all the parts of the system below the neck4 #d4 ,the catalepsy1 which is caused by a contraction of the muscles in the whole or a part of the body1 for example1 in the hands1 and is very dangerous4 ,the effects upon the parts seized are very violent and deadly4 ,for instance3 when a person is struck with it1 if his hand happens to be extended1 he is unable to draw it back4 ,if the hand is not extended when he is struck with the disease1 he is unable to extend it3 it appears diminished in size1 and dried up in appearance4 ,hence the ,hebrews were in the habit of calling it 8a withered hand10 #a ,kings xiii1 #d-f2 ,zech4 xi1 #ag2 ,matt4 xii1 #aj-ac2 ,john v1 #c4 #e4 ,the cramp1 in oriental countries1 is a fearful malady1 and by no means unfrequent4 ,it originates from the chills of the night4 ,the limbs1 when seized with it1 remain immovable1 sometimes turned in1 and sometimes out1 in the same position as when they were first seized4 ,the person afflicted resembles those undergoing the torture 1 and experiences nearly the same exquisite sufferings4 ,death follows the disease in a few days1 ,matt4 viii1 #f1 #h2 ,luke vii1 #b2 #a ,macc4 ix1 #ee-eh4 ,,dispensations1 ,,divine4 ,these are otherwise called 8the ways of ,god10 and denote those schemes or methods which are devised and pursued by the wisdom and goodness of ,god1 in order to manifest his perfections and will to mankind1 for the purpose of their instruction1 discipline1 reformation1 and advancement in rectitude of temper and conduct1 in order to promote their happiness4 ,these are the grand ends of the divine dispensations2 and in their aptitude to promote these ends consist their excellence and glory4 ,the works or constitutions of nature are1 in a general sense1 divine dispensations1 by which ,god condescends to display to us his being and attributes1 and thus to lead us to the acknowledgment1 adoration1 and love1 of our ,creator1 ,father1 and ,benefactor4 ,the sacred ,scriptures reveal and record other dispensations of divine providence1 which have been directed to the promotion of the religious principles1 moral conduct1 and true happiness of mankind4 ,these have varied in several ages of the world1 and have been adapted by the wisdom and goodness of ,god to the circumstances of his intelligent and accountable creatures4 ,in this sense the various revelations which ,god has communicated to mankind at different periods1 and the means he has used1 as occasion has required1 for their discipline and improvement1 have been justly denominated divine dispensations4 ,accordingly1 we read in the works of theological writers of the various dispensations of religion2 that of the patriarchs1 that of ,moses1 and that of ,christ1 called the dispensation of grace1 the perfection and ultimate object of every other4 ,all these were adapted to the conditions of the human race at these several periods2 all1 in regular succession1 were mutually connected and rendered preparatory one to the other2 and all were subservient to the design of saving the world1 and promoting the perfection and happiness of its rational and moral inhabitants4 ,see ,,covenant4 ,,dispersion ,,of ,,mankind4 ,see ,,division ,,of ,,the ,,earth4 ,,divination1 a conjecture or surmise1 formed concerning future events1 from things which are supposed to presage them4 ,the eastern people were always fond of divination1 magic1 the curious arts of interpreting dreams1 and of obtaining a knowledge of future events4 ,when ,moses published the law1 this disposition had long been common in ,egypt and the neighbouring countries4 ,to prevent the ,israelites from consulting diviners1 fortune tellers1 interpreters of dreams1 c1 he forbade them1 under very severe penalties1 to consult persons of this description1 and promised to them the true spirit of prophecy as infinitely superior4 ,he commanded those to be stoned who pretended to have a familiar spirit1 or the spirit of divination1 ,deut4 xviii1 #i1 #aj1 #ae4 ,the writings of the prophets are full of invectives against the ,israelites who consulted diviners1 and against false prophets who by such means seduced the people4 #b4 ,different kinds of divination have passed for sciences1 as #a4 ,aromancy1 divining by the air4 #b4 ,astrology1 by the heavens4 #c4 ,augury1 by the flight and singing of birds1 c4 #d4 ,cheiromancy1 by inspecting the lines of the hand4 #e4 ,geomancy1 by observing cracks or clefts in the earth4 #f4 ,haruspicy1 by inspecting the bowels of animals4 #g4 ,horoscopy1 a branch of astrology1 marking the position of the heavens when a person is born4 #h4 ,hydromancy1 by water4 #i4 ,physiognomy1 by the countenance4 #aj4 ,pyromancy1 a divination made by fire4 #c4 ,the kinds of divination1 to which superstition in modern times has given belief1 are not less numerous1 or less ridiculous1 than those which were practised in the days of profound ignorance4 ,the divining rod1 which is mentioned in ,scripture1 is still in some repute in the north of ,england1 though its application is now confined principally to the discovery of veins of lead ore1 seams of coal1 or springs4 ,in order that it may possess the full virtue for this purpose1 it should be made of hazel4 ,divination by ,virgilian1 ,horatian1 or ,bible lots1 was formerly very common2 and the last kind is still practised4 ,the works are opened by chance1 and the words noticed which are covered by the thumb3 if they can be interpreted in any respect relating to the person1 they are reckoned prophetic4 ,charles ,i4 is said to have used this kind of divination to ascertain his fate4 ,the ancient ,christians were so much addicted to the sortes sanctorum1 or divining by the ,bible1 that it was expressly forbidden by a council4 ,divination by the speal1 or blade bone of a sheep1 is used in ,scotland4 ,in the ,highlands it is called sleina-reached1 or reading the speal bone4 ,it was very common in ,england in the time of ,drayton1 particularly among the colony of ,flemings settled in ,pembrokeshire4 ,camden relates of the ,irish1 that they looked through the bare blade bone of a sheep2 and if they saw any spot in it darker than ordinary1 they believed that somebody would be buried out of the house4 ,the ,persians used this mode of divination4 #d4 ,of all attempts to look into futurity by such means1 as well as resorting to charms and other methods of curing diseases1 and discovering secrets1 we may say1 that they are relics of ,paganism1 and argue an ignorance1 folly1 or superstition1 dishonourable to the ,christian name2 and are therefore to be reproved and discouraged4 ,,division ,,of ,,the ,,earth4 ,the prophecy of ,noah1 says ,dr4 ,hales1 was uttered long after the deluge4 ,it evidently alludes to a divine decree for the orderly division of the earth among the three primitive families of his sons1 because it notices the 8tents of ,shem0 and the 8enlargement of ,japheth10 ,genesis ix1 #bj-bg4 ,this decree was probably promulgated about the same time by the venerable patriarch4 ,the prevailing tradition of such a decree for this threefold division of the earth1 is intimated both in the ,old and ,new ,testament4 ,moses refers to it1 as handed down to the ,israelites1 8from the days of old1 and the years of many generations2 as they might learn from their fathers and their elders10 and farther1 as conveying a special grant of the land of ,palestine1 to be the lot of the twelve tribes of ,israel3-- 8,when the ,most ,high divided to the nations their settlements1 ,when he separated the sons of ,adam1 ,he assigned the boundaries of the peoples of ,israel ,according to the number of the sons of ,israel3 ,for the portion of the ,lord is his people1 ,jacob is the lot of his inheritance10 ,deut4 xxxii1 #g-i4 ,and this furnishes an additional proof of the justice of the expulsion of the ,canaanites1 as usurpers1 by the ,israelites1 the rightful possessors of the land of ,palestine1 under ,moses1 ,joshua1 and their successors1 when the original grant was renewed to ,abraham1 ,gen4 xv1 #ac-ba4 ,and the knowledge of this divine decree may satisfactorily account for the panic terror with which the devoted nations of ,canaan were struck at the miraculous passage of the ,red ,sea by the ,israelites1 and approach to their confines1 so finely described by ,moses3-- 8,the nations shall hear this and tremble1 ,sorrow shall seize the inhabitants of ,palestine4 ,then shall the dukes of ,edom be amazed1 ,dismay shall possess the princes of ,moab1 ,the inhabitants of ,canaan shall melt away3 ,fear and terror shall fall upon them1 ,by the greatness of thine arm they shall be petrified1 ,till thy people pass over ,jordan ,o ,lord1 ,till the people pass over1 whom thou hast redeemed40 ,exodus xv1 #ad-af4 ,st4 ,paul1 also1 addressing the ,athenians1 refers to the same decree1 as a well-known tradition in the ,heathen world3 8,god made of one blood every nation of men to dwell upon the whole face of the earth2 having appointed the predetermined seasons and boundaries of their dwellings10 ,acts xvii1 #bf4 ,here he represents mankind as all of 8one blood10 race1 or stock1 8the sons of ,adam0 and of ,noah in succession2 and the seasons and the boundaries of their respective settlements1 as previously regulated by the divine appointment4 ,and this was conformable to their own geographical allegory2 that ,chronus1 the god of time1 or ,saturn1 divided the universe among his three sons1 allotting the heaven to ,jupiter1 the sea to ,neptune1 and hell to ,pluto4 ,but ,chronus represented ,noah1 who divided the world among his three sons1 allotting the upper regions of the north to ,japheth1 the maritime or middle regions to ,shem1 and the lower regions of the south to ,ham4 ,according to the ,armenian tradition recorded by ,abulfaragi1 ,noah distributed the habitable earth from north to south between his sons1 and gave to ,ham the region of the blacks1 to ,shem the region of the tawny1 fuscorum1 and to ,japheth the region of the ruddy1 rubrorum3 and he dates the actual division of the earth in the hundred and fortieth year of ,peleg1 ,b4 ,c4 #bfad1 or five hundred and forty-one years after the deluge1 and one hundred and ninety-one years after the death of ,noah1 in the following order3--8,to the sons of ,shem was allotted the middle of the earth1 namely1 ,palestine1 ,syria1 ,assyria1 ,samaria1 ,singar1 or ,shinar1 ,babel1 or ,babylonia1 ,persia1 and ,hegiaz2 ,arabia2 to the sons of ,ham1 ,teimen1 or ,idumea1 ,jer4 xlix1 #g1 ,africa1 ,nigritia1 ,egypt1 ,nubia1 ,ethiopia1 ,scindia1 and ,india2 or ,india west and east of the river ,indus2 to the sons of ,japheth1 also1 ,garbia1 the north1 ,spain1 ,france1 the countries of the ,greeks1 ,sclavonians1 ,bulgarians1 ,turks1 and ,armenians40 ,in this curious and valuable geographical chart1 ,armenia1 the cradle of the human race1 was allotted to ,japheth1 by right of primogeniture2 and ,samaria and ,babel to the sons of ,shem2 the usurpation of these regions1 therefore1 by ,nimrod1 and of ,palestine by ,canaan1 was in violation of the divine decree4 ,though the migration of the primitive families began at this time1 ,b4 ,c4 #bfad1 or about five hundred and forty-one years after the deluge1 it was a length of time before they all reached their respective destinations4 ,the 8seasons10 as well as the 8boundaries0 of their respective settlements were equally the appointment of ,god2 the nearer countries to the original settlement being planted first1 and the remoter in succession4 ,these primitive settlements seem to have been scattered and detached from each other according to local convenience4 ,even so late as the tenth generation after the flood in ,abraham's days1 there were considerable tracts of land in ,palestine unappropriated1 on which he and his nephew1 ,lot1 freely pastured their cattle without hinderance or molestation4 ,that country was not fully peopled till the fourth generation after1 at the exode of the ,israelites from ,egypt4 ,and ,herodotus represents ,scythia as an uninhabited desert1 until ,targitorus planted the first colony there1 about a thousand years1 at most1 before ,darius ,hystaspes invaded ,scythia1 or about ,b4 ,c4 #aejh4 ,the orderly settlements of the three primitive families are recorded in that most venerable and valuable geographical chart1 the tenth chapter of ,genesis1 in which it is curious to observe how long the names of the first settlers have been preserved among their descendants1 even down to the present day3-- #a4 ,japheth1 the eldest son of ,noah1 ,gen4 x1 #ba1 and his family1 are first noticed1 ,gen4 x1 #b-e4 ,the name of the patriarch himself was preserved among his ,grecian descendants1 in the proverb1 1 older than ,japetus1 denoting the remotest antiquity4 ,the radical part of the word 1 evidently expresses ,japheth4 7#a47 ,gomer1 his eldest son1 was the father of the ,gomerians4 ,these1 spreading from the regions north of ,armenia and ,bactriana1 ,ezek4 xxxviii1 #f1 extended themselves westward over nearly the whole continent of ,europe2 still retaining their paternal denomination1 with some slight variation1 as ,cimmerians1 in ,asia2 ,cimbri and ,umbri1 in ,gaul and ,italy2 and ,cymri1 ,cambri1 and ,cumbri1 in ,wales and ,cumberland at the present day4 ,they are also identified by ancient authors with the ,galat of ,asia ,minor1 the ,gaels1 ,gauls1 and ,celt1 of ,europe1 who likewise spread from the ,euxine ,sea1 to the ,western ,ocean2 and from the ,baltic to ,italy southward1 and first planted the ,british ,isles4 ,josephus remarks1 that the ,galat were called 1 ,gomariani1 from their ancestor ,gomar4 ,see the numerous authorities adduced in support of the identity of the ,gomerians and ,celts1 by that learned and ingenious antiquary1 ,faber1 in his 8,origin of ,pagan ,idolatry40 ,of ,gomer's sons1 ,ashkenaz appears to have settled on the coasts of the ,euxine ,sea1 which from him seems to have received its primary denomination of 1 ,axenus1 nearly resembling ,ashkenaz2 but forgetting its etymology in process of time1 the ,greeks considered it as a compound term in their own language1 -1 signifying inhospitable2 and thence metamorphosed it into -1 ,eu-xenus1 8very hospitable40 ,his precise settlement is represented in ,scripture as contiguous to ,armenia1 westward2 for the kingdoms of ,ararat1 ,minni1 and ,ashkenaz1 are noticed together1 ,jer4 li1 #bg4 ,riphat1 the second son of ,gomer1 seems to have given name to the ,riphean mountains of the north of ,asia2 and ,togarmah1 the third son1 may be traced in the ,trocmi of ,strabo1 the ,trogmi of ,cicero1 and ,trogmades of the council of ,chalcedon1 inhabiting the confines of ,pontus and ,cappadocia4 7#b47 ,magog1 ,tubal1 and ,mesech1 sons of ,japhet1 are noticed together by ,ezekiel1 as settled in the north1 ,ezek4 xxxviii1 #b1 #ad1 #ae4 ,and as the ancestors of the numerous ,sclavonic and ,tartar tribes1 the first may be traced in the ,mongogians1 ,monguls1 and ,moguls2 the second1 in the ,tobolski1 of ,siberia2 and the third1 ,mesech1 or ,mosoc1 in the ,moschici1 ,moscow1 and ,muscovites4 7#c47 ,madai was the father of the ,medes1 who are repeatedly so denominated in ,scripture1 #b ,kings xvii1 #f2 ,isa4 xiii1 #ag2 ,jer4 li1 #aa2 ,dan4 v1 #bh1 c4 7#d47 ,from ,javan was descended the ,javanians1 or of the ,greeks1 and the ,yavanas of the ,hindus4 ,greece itself is called ,javan by ,daniel1 xi1 #b2 and the people by ,homer in his 8,iliad40 ,these aboriginal of ,greece are not to be confounded1 as is usually the case1 with the later 1 who invaded and subdued the ,javanian territories1 and were of a different stock4 ,the accurate ,pausanias states1 that the name of 1 was comparatively modern1 while that of is acknowledged to have been the primitive title of the barbarians who were subdued by the 4 ,strabo remarks that ,attica was formerly called both ,ionia and ,ias1 or ,ian2 while ,herodotus asserts1 that the ,athenians were not willing to be called 2 and he derives the name from 1 the son of ,zuth1 descended from ,deucalion or ,noah4 ,and this ,ion is said by ,eusebius to have been the ringleader in the building of the tower of ,babel1 and the first introducer of idol worship1 and ,sabianism1 or adoration of the sun1 moon1 and stars4 ,this would identify ,ion with ,nimrod4 ,and the ,ionians appear to have been composed of the later colonists1 the ,palli1 ,pelasgi1 or roving tribes from ,asia1 ,phenicia1 and ,egypt1 who1 according to ,herodotus1 first corrupted the simplicity of the primitive religion of ,greece1 and who1 by the ,hindus1 were called ,yonigas1 or worshippers of the yoni or dove4 ,this critical distinction between the ,iaones and the ,iones1 the ,yavanas1 and the ,yonigas1 we owe to the sagacity of ,faber4 ,of ,javan's sons1 ,elishah and ,dodon1 may be recognized in ,elis and ,dodona1 the oldest settlements of ,greece2 ,kittim1 in the ,citium of ,macedonia1 and ,chittim1 or maritime coasts of ,greece and ,italy1 ,num4 xxiv1 #bd2 and ,tarshish1 in the ,tarsus of ,cilicia1 and ,tartessus of ,spain4 #b4 ,ham and his family are next noticed1 ,gen4 x1 #f-bj4 ,the name of the patriarch is recorded in the title frequently given to ,egypt1 8,the land of ,ham10 ,psalm cv1 #bc1 c4 7#a47 ,of his sons1 the first and most celebrated appears to have been ,cush1 who gave name to the land of ,cush1 both in ,asia and ,africa2 the former still called ,chusistan by the ,arabian geographers1 and ,susiana by the ,greeks1 and ,cusha ,dwipa ,within1 by the ,hindus2 the other1 called ,cusha ,dwipa ,without4 ,and the enterprising ,cushim or ,cuthim1 of ,scripture1 in ,asia and ,europe1 assumed the title of ,get1 ,guiths1 and ,goths2 and of ,scuths1 ,scuits1 and ,scots2 and of ,sacas1 ,sacasenas1 and ,saxons4 ,the original family settlement of ,abraham was 8,ur of the ,chasdim10 or ,chaldees1 ,gen4 xi1 #bh1 who are repeatedly mentioned in ,scripture1 ,isa4 xiii1 #i2 ,dan4 ix1 #a1 c4 ,according to ,faber's ingenious remark1 it may more properly be pronounced ,chus-dim1 signifying ,godlike ,cushites4 ,it is highly improbable that they were so named from ,chesed1 ,abraham's nephew1 ,gen4 xxii1 #bb1 who was a mere boy1 if born at all1 when ,abraham left ,ur1 and was an obscure individual1 never noticed afterward4 ,of ,cush's sons1 ,seba1 ,havilah1 ,sabtah1 ,sabtacha1 and ,raamah2 and the sons of ,raamah1 ,sheba1 and ,dedan1 seem to have settled in ,idumea and ,arabia1 from the similar names of places there2 and of his descendants1 ,nimrod1 the mighty hunter1 first founded the kingdom of ,babylon1 and afterward of ,assyria1 invading the settlements of the ,shemites1 contrary to the divine decree4 ,his posterity were probably distinguished by the title of ,chusdim1 ,isaiah xxiii1 #ac4 7#b47 ,the second son of ,ham was ,misr1 or ,mizraim4 ,he settled in ,egypt1 whence the ,egyptians were universally styled in ,scripture1 ,mizraim1 or ,mizraites1 in the plural form4 ,but the country is denominated in the east1 to this day1 8the land of ,misr20 which1 therefore1 seems to have been the name of the patriarch himself4 ,the children of ,misr1 like their father1 are denominated in ,scripture by the plural number4 ,of these1 the ,ludim and ,lehabim were probably the ,copto-,libyans1 ,ezek4 xxx1 #e2 the ,naphtuhim occupied the sea coast1 which by the ,egyptians was called ,nephthus2 whence1 probably1 originated the name of the maritime god ,neptune4 ,the ,pathrusim occupied a part of ,lower ,egypt1 called from them ,pathros1 ,isa4 xi1 #aa4 ,the ,caphtorim and the ,casluhim1 whose descendants were the ,philistim of ,palestine1 occupied the district which lies between the delta of the ,nile and the southern extremity of ,palestine1 ,deut4 ii1 #bc2 ,amos ix1 #g4 7#c47 ,phut is merely noticed1 without any mention of his family4 ,but the tribes of ,phut and ,lud are mentioned together1 with ,cush1 or ,ethiopia1 ,jer4 xlvi1 #i2 ,ezek4 xxx1 #e2 and ,jerom notices a district in ,libya1 called ,regio ,phutensis1 or the land of ,phut4 7#d47 ,canaan has been noticed already2 and the original extent of the land of ,canaan is carefully marked by ,moses4 ,its western border1 along the ,mediterranean ,sea1 extended from ,sidon1 southward1 to ,gaza2 its southern border from thence1 eastward1 to ,sodom and ,gomorrah1 ,admah and ,zeboim1 the cities of the plain1 afterward covered by the ,dead ,sea1 or ,asphaltite ,lake2 its eastern border extending from thence northward1 to ,laish1 ,dan1 or the springs of the ,jordan2 and its northern border1 from thence to ,sidon1 westward4 ,of ,canaan's sons1 ,sidon1 the eldest1 occupied the north-west corner1 and built the town of that name1 so early celebrated for her luxury and commerce in ,scripture1 ,judges xviii1 #g2 #a ,kings v1 #f2 and by ,homer1 who calls the ,sidonians1 1 skilled in many arts4 ,and ,tyre1 so flourishing afterward1 though boasting of her own antiquity1 ,isa4 xxiii1 #g1 is styled1 8a daughter of ,sidon10 or a colony from thence1 ,isa4 v1 #ab4 ,heth1 his second son1 and the ,hittites1 his descendants appear to have settled in the south1 near ,hebron1 ,gen4 xxiii1 #c-g2 and next to them1 at ,jerusalem1 the ,jebusites1 or descendants of ,jebus1 both remaining in their original settlements till ,david's days2 #b ,sam4 xi1 #c2 v1 #f-i4 ,beyond the ,jebusites1 were settled the ,emorites1 or ,amorites1 ,num4 xiii1 #bi1 who extended themselves beyond ,jordan1 and were the most powerful of the ,canaanite tribes1 ,gen4 xv1 #af2 ,num4 xxi1 #ba1 until they were destroyed by ,moses and ,joshua1 with the rest of the devoted nations of ,canaan's family4 #c4 ,shem and his family are noticed last1 ,gen4 x1 #ba-cj4 ,his posterity were confined to middle ,asia4 7#a47 ,his son ,elam appears to have been settled in ,elymais1 or southern ,persia1 contiguous to the maritime tract of ,chusistan1 ,dan4 viii1 #b4 7#b47 ,his son ,ashur planted the land thence called ,assyria1 which soon became a province of the ,cushite1 or ,cuthic empire1 founded by ,nimrod4 7#c47 ,arphaxad1 through his grandson1 ,eber1 branched out into the two houses of ,peleg and ,joktan4 ,peleg probably remained in ,chaldea1 or southern ,babylonia1 at the time of the dispersion2 for there we find his grandson1 ,terah1 and his family1 settled at 8,ur of the ,chaldees10 ,gen4 xi1 #ca4 ,of the numerous children of ,joktan1 it is said by ,moses1 that 8their dwelling was from ,mesha1 as thou goest unto ,sephar1 a mount of the east40 ,faber is inclined to believe that they were the ancestors of the great body of the ,hindus1 who still retain a lively tradition of the patriarch ,shem1 ,shama1 or ,sharma2 and that the land of ,ophir1 abounding in gold1 so called from one of the sons of ,joktan1 lay beyond the ,indus1 eastward4 7#d47 ,lud was probably the father of the ,ludim or ,lydians1 of ,asia ,minor2 for this people had a tradition that they were descended from ,lud or ,lydus1 according to ,josephus4 7#e47 ,the children of ,aram planted the fertile country north of ,babylonia1 called ,aram ,naharaim1 8,aram between the two rivers10 the ,euphrates and the ,tigris1 thence called by the ,greeks1 ,mesopotamis1 ,gen4 xxiv1 #aj1 and ,padan ,aram1 the level country of ,aram1 ,gen4 xxv1 #bj4 ,this country of ,aram is frequently rendered ,syria in ,scripture1 ,judges x1 #f2 ,hosea xii1 #ab1 c2 which is not to be confounded with ,palestine ,syria1 into which they afterward spread themselves1 still retaining their original name of 1 or ,arameans1 noticed by ,homer in his 8,iliad40 #d4 ,upon this distribution of ,noah's posterity we shall only observe1 that the ,deity presided over all their counsels and deliberations1 and that he guided and settled all mankind according to the dictates of his all-comprehending wisdom and benevolence4 ,to this purpose1 the ancients themselves1 according to ,pindar1 retained some idea that the dispersion of men was not the effect of chance1 but that they had been settled in different countries by the appointment of ,providence1 ,gen4 xi1 #h1 #i2 ,deut4 xxii1 #h4 ,this dispersion1 and that confusion of languages with which it originated1 was intended1 by the counsel of an all-wise ,providence1 to counteract and defeat the scheme which had been projected by the descendants of ,noah1 for maintaining their union1 implied in their proposing to make themselves a name1 1 which ,schultens1 in ,job i1 #a1 derives from the ,arabic verb 1 or 1 to be high elevated1 or eminent4 ,by this scheme1 which seems to have been a project of state policy1 for keeping all men together under the present chiefs and their successors1 a great part of the earth must1 for a long time1 have been uninhabited1 and overrun with wild beasts4 ,the bad effects which this project would have had upon the minds1 the morals1 and religion of mankind1 was1 probably1 the chief reason why ,god interposed to frustrate it as soon as it was formed4 ,it had manifestly a direct tendency to tyranny1 oppression1 and slavery4 ,whereas in forming several independent governments by a small body of men1 the ends of government1 and the security of liberty and property1 would be much better attended to1 and more firmly established2 which1 in fact1 was really the case2 if we may judge of the rest by the constitution of one of the most eminent1 the kingdom of ,egypt1 ,gen4 xlvii1 #ae-bg4 ,the ,egyptians were masters of their persons and property1 till they sold them to ,pharaoh for bread2 and then their servitude amounted to no more than the fifth part of the produce of the country1 as an annual tax payable to the king4 ,by this event1 considered as a wise dispensation of ,providence1 bounds were set to the contagion of wickedness2 evil example was confined1 and could not extend its influence beyond the limits of one country2 nor could wicked projects be carried on1 with universal concurrence1 by many small colonies1 separated by the natural boundaries of mountains1 rivers1 barren deserts1 and seas1 and hindered from associating together by a variety of languages1 unintelligible to each other4 ,moreover1 in this dispersed state1 they could1 whenever ,god pleased1 be made reciprocal checks upon each other1 by invasions and wars1 which would weaken the power1 and humble the pride1 of corrupt and vicious communities4 ,this dispensation was1 therefore1 properly calculated to prevent a second universal degeneracy2 ,god dealing in it with men as rational agents1 and adapting his scheme to their state and circumstances4 ,,divorce4 ,as the ancient ,hebrews paid a stipulated price for the privilege of marrying1 they seemed to consider it the natural consequence of making a payment of that kind1 that they should be at liberty to exercise a very arbitrary power over their wives1 and to renounce or divorce them whenever they chose4 ,this state of things1 as ,moses himself very clearly saw1 was not equitable as respected the woman1 and was very often injurious to both parties4 ,finding himself1 however1 unable to overrule feelings and practices of very ancient standing1 he merely annexed to the original institution of marriage a very serious admonition to this effect1 viz4 that it would be less criminal for a man to desert his father and mother1 than without adequate cause to desert his wife1 ,gen4 ii1 #ad1 compared with ,malachi ii1 #aa-af4 ,he also laid a restriction upon the power of the husband as far as this1 that he would not permit him to repudiate the wife without giving her a bill of divorce4 ,he farther enacted in reference to this subject that the husband might receive the repudiated wife back1 in case she had not in the meanwhile been married to another person2 but if she had been thus married1 she could never afterward become the wife of her first husband2 a law1 which the faith due to the second husband clearly required1 ,deut4 xxiv1 #a-d1 compare ,jer4 iii1 #a1 and ,matt4 i1 #ai2 xix1 #h4 ,the inquiry1 8,what should be considered an adequate cause of divorce10 was left by ,moses to be determined by the husband himself4 ,he had liberty to divorce her1 if he saw in her any thing naked1 any thing displeasing or improper1 any thing so much at war with propriety1 and a source of so much dissatisfaction as to be1 in the estimation of the husband1 sufficient ground for separation4 ,these expressions1 however1 were sharply contested as to their meaning in the later times of the ,jewish nation4 ,the school of ,hillel contended1 that the husband might lawfully put away the wife for any cause1 even the smallest4 ,the mistake committed by the school of ,hillel in taking this ground was1 that they confounded moral and civil law4 ,it is true1 as far as the ,mosaic statute or the civil law was concerned1 the husband had a right thus to do2 but it is equally clear1 that the ground of just separation must have been1 not a trivial1 but a prominent and important one1 when it is considered1 that he was bound to consult the rights of the woman1 and was amenable to his conscience and his ,god4 ,the school of ,shammai explained the phrase1 nakedness of a thing1 to mean actual adultery4 ,our ,lord agreed with the school of ,shammai as far as this1 that the ground of divorce should be one of a moral nature1 and not less than adultery2 but he does not appear to have agreed with them in their opinion in respect to the ,mosaic statute4 ,on the contrary1 he denied the equity of that statute1 and in justification of ,moses maintained1 that he permitted divorces for causes below adultery1 only in consequence of the hardness of the people's hearts1 ,matt4 v1 #ca1 #cb2 xviii1 #a-i2 ,mark x1 #b-ab2 ,luke xvi1 #ah4 ,wives1 who were considered the property of their husbands1 did not enjoy by the ,mosaic statutes a reciprocal right1 and were not at liberty to dissolve the matrimonial alliance by giving a bill of divorce to that effect4 ,in the latter periods1 however1 of the ,jewish state1 the ,jewish matrons1 the more powerful of them at least1 appear to have imbibed the spirit of the ladies of ,rome1 and to have exercised in their own behalf the same power that was granted by the ,mosaic law only to their husbands1 ,mark vi1 #ag-bi2 x1 #ab4 ,,docet1 the advocates of an early heresy1 which taught that ,christ acted and suffered1 not in reality1 but in appearance4 ,they were so denominated from 1 to appear4 ,see ,,gnostics4 ,,doctors1 or ,,teachers1 of the law1 a class of men in great repute among the ,jews4 ,they had studied the law of ,moses in its various branches1 and the numerous interpretations which had been grafted upon it in later times2 and1 on various occasions1 they gave their opinion on cases referred to them for advice4 ,nicodemus1 himself a doctor 71 teacher7 of the law1 comes to consult ,jesus1 whom he compliments in the same terms as he was accustomed to receive from his scholars3 8,rabbi1 we know that thou art 1 a competent teacher from ,god40 ,doctors of the law were chiefly of the sect of the ,pharisees2 but they are sometimes distinguished from that sect1 ,luke v1 #ag4 ,,dog1 1 an animal well known4 ,by the law of ,moses1 the dog was declared unclean1 and was held in great contempt among the ,jews1 #a ,sam4 xvii1 #dc2 xxiv1 #ad2 #b ,sam4 ix1 #h2 #b ,kings viii1 #ac4 ,yet they had them in considerable numbers in their cities4 ,they were not1 however1 shut up in their houses or courts1 but forced to seek their food where they could find it4 ,the ,psalmist compares violent men to dogs1 who go about the city in the night1 prowl about for their food1 and growl1 and become clamorous if they be not satisfied1 ,psalm lix1 #f1 #ad1 #ae4 ,mr4 ,harmer has illustrated this by quotations from travellers into the east4 ,the ,turks also reckon the dog a filthy creature1 and therefore drive him from their houses2 so that with them dogs guard rather the streets and districts1 than particular houses1 and live on the offals that are thrown abroad4 ,in #a ,sam4 xxv1 #c1 ,nabal is said to have been 8churlish and evil in his manners2 and he was of the house of ,caleb20 but ,caleb here is not a proper name4 ,literally1 it is1 8,he was the son of a dog20 and so the ,septuagint1 ,syriac1 and ,arabic render it1--he was irritable1 snappish1 and snarling as a dog4 ,the irritable disposition of the dog is the foundation of that saying1 8,he that passeth by1 and meddleth with strife belonging not to him1 is like one that taketh a dog by the ears10 ,prov4 xxvi1 #ag2 that is1 he wantonly exposes himself to danger4 ,in #a ,kings xxi1 #bc1 it is said1 8,the dogs shall eat ,jezebel40 ,mr4 ,bruce1 when at ,gondar1 was witness to a scene in a great measure similar to the devouring of ,jezebel by dogs4 ,he says1 8,the bodies of those killed by the sword were hewn to pieces1 and scattered about the streets1 being denied burial4 ,i was miserable1 and almost driven to despair1 at seeing my hunting dogs1 twice let loose by the carelessness of my servants1 bringing into the court yard the heads and arms of slaughtered men1 and which ,i could no way prevent but by the destruction of the dogs themselves40 ,he also adds1 that upon being asked by the king the reason of his dejected and sickly appearance1 among other reasons1 he informed him1 8it was occasioned by an execution of three men1 which he had lately seen2 because the hynas1 allured into the streets by the quantity of carrion1 would not let him pass by night in safety from the palace2 and because the dogs fled into his house1 to eat pieces of human carcasses at their leisure40 ,this account illustrates also the readiness of the dogs to lick the blood of ,ahab1 #a ,kings xxii1 #ch2 in conformity to which is the expression of the ,prophet ,jeremiah1 xv1 #c1 8,i will appoint over them the sword to slay1 and the dogs to tear40 #b4 ,the dog was held sacred by the ,egyptians4 ,this fact we learn from ,juvenal1 who complains1 in his fifteenth satire1 ,oppida tota canem vencrantur1 nemo ,dianam4 8,thousands regard the hound with holy fear1 ,not one1 ,diana40 ,,gifford4 ,the testimony of the ,latin poet is confirmed by ,diodorus1 who1 in his first book1 assures us that the ,egyptians highly venerate some animals1 both during their life and after their death2 and expressly mentions the dog as one object of this absurd adoration4 ,to these witnesses may be added ,herodotus1 who says1 that when a dog expires1 all the members of the family to which he belonged worship the carcass2 and that1 in every part of the kingdom1 the carcasses of their dogs are embalmed1 and deposited in consecrated ground4 ,the idolatrous veneration of the dog by the ,egyptians is shown in the worship of their dog-god ,anubis1 to whom temples and priests were consecrated1 and whose image was borne in all religious ceremonies4 ,cynopolis1 the present ,minieh1 situated in the lower ,thebais1 was built in honour of ,anubis4 ,the priests celebrated his festivals there with great pomp4 8,anubis10 says ,strabo1 8is the city of dogs1 the capital of the ,cynopolitan prefecture4 ,these animals are fed there on sacred aliments1 and religion has decreed them a worship40 ,an event1 however1 related by ,plutarch1 brought them into considerable discredit with the people4 ,cambyses1 having slain the god ,apis1 and thrown his body into the field1 all animals respected it except the dogs1 which alone ate of his flesh4 ,this impiety diminished the popular veneration4 ,cynopolis was not the only city where incense was burned on the altars of ,anubis4 ,he had chapels in almost all the temples4 ,on solemnities1 his image always accompanied those of ,isis and ,osiris4 ,rome1 having adopted the ceremonies of ,egypt1 the emperor ,commodus1 to celebrate the ,isiac feasts1 shaved his head1 and himself carried the dog ,anubis4 #c4 ,in ,matt4 vii1 #f1 we have this direction of our ,saviour3 8,give not that which is holy unto the dogs1 neither cast ye your pearls before swine1 lest they10 the swine1 8trample them under their feet1 and10 the dogs1 8turn again and tear you40 ,it was customary1 not only with the writers of ,greece and ,rome1 but also with the eastern sages1 to denote certain classes of men by animals supposed to resemble them among the brutes4 ,our ,saviour was naturally led to adopt the same concise and energetic method4 ,by dogs1 which were held in great detestation by the ,jews1 he intends men of odious character and violent temper2 by swine1 the usual emblem of moral filth1 he means the sensual and profligate2 and the purport of his admonition is1 that as it is a maxim with the priests not to give any part of the sacrifices to dogs1 so it should be a maxim with you not to impart the holy instruction with which you are favoured1 to those who are likely to blaspheme and to be only excited by it to rage and persecution4 ,it is1 however1 a maxim of prudence not of cowardice2 and is to be taken along with other precepts of our ,lord1 which enjoin the publication of truth1 at the expense of ease and even life4 ,,dort1 ,synod of4 ,see ,,synods4 ,,dove1 4 ,this beautiful genus of birds is very numerous in the east4 ,in the wild state they generally build their nests in the holes or clefts of rocks1 or in excavated trees2 but they are easily taught submission and familiarity with mankind2 and1 when domesticated1 build in structures erected for their accommodation1 called 8dove-cotes40 ,they are classed by ,moses among the clean birds2 and it appears from the sacred as well as other writers1 that doves were always held in the highest estimation among the eastern nations4 ,rosenmuller1 in a note upon ,bochart1 derives the name from the ,arabic1 where it signifies mildness1 gentleness1 c4 ,the dove is mentioned in ,scripture as the symbol of simplicity1 innocence1 gentleness1 and fidelity1 ,hosea vii1 #aa2 ,matt4 x1 #af4 ,the following extract from ,morier's ,persian ,travels illustrates a passage in ,isaiah3 8,in the environs of the city1 to the westward1 near the ,zainderood1 are many pigeon houses1 erected at a distance from habitations1 for the sole purpose of collecting pigeons' dung for manure4 ,they are large round towers1 rather broader at the bottom than the top1 and crowned by conical spiracles1 through which the pigeons descend4 ,their interior resembles a honey-comb1 pierced with a thousand holes1 each of which forms a snug retreat for a nest4 ,more care appears to have been bestowed upon their outside than upon that of the generality of the dwelling houses2 for they are painted and ornamented4 ,the extraordinary flights of pigeons which ,i have seen alight upon one of these buildings afford1 perhaps1 a good illustration for the passage in ,isaiah lx1 #h3 #8,who are these that fly as a cloud1 and as the doves to their windows8' ,their great numbers1 and the compactness of their mass1 literally look like a cloud at a distance1 and obscure the sun in their passage40 ,the first mention of the dove in the ,scripture is ,genesis viii1 #h1 #aj-ab1 where ,noah sent one from the ark to ascertain if the waters of the deluge had assuaged4 ,she was sent forth thrice4 ,the first time she speedily returned2 having1 in all probability1 gone but a little way from the ark1 as she must naturally be terrified at the appearance of the waters4 ,after seven days1 being sent out a second time1 she returned with an olive leaf plucked off1 whereby it became evident that the flood was considerably abated1 and had sank below the tops of the trees2 and thus relieved the fears and cheered the heart of ,noah and his family4 ,and hence the olive branch has ever been among the forerunners of peace1 and chief of those emblems by which a happy state of renovation and restoration to prosperity has been signified to mankind4 ,at the end of other seven days1 the dove1 being sent out a third time1 returned no more2 from which ,noah conjectured that the earth was so far drained as to afford sustenance for the birds and fowls2 and he therefore removed the covering of the ark1 which probably gave liberty to many of the fowls to fly off2 and these circumstances afforded him the greater facility for making arrangements for disembarking the other animals4 ,doves might be offered in sacrifice1 when those who were poor could not bring a more costly offering4 ,,dowry4 ,see ,,bride4 ,,drachma4 ,the value of a common drachma was sevenpence1 ,english4 ,a didrachma1 or double drachma1 made very near half a shekel2 and four drachmas made nearly a shekel4 ,,dragon4 ,this word is frequently to be met with in our ,english translation of the ,bible4 ,it answers generally to the ,hebrew 1 1 2 and these words are variously rendered dragons1 serpents1 sea-monsters1 and whales4 ,the ,rev4 ,james ,hurdis1 in a dissertation relative to this subject1 observes1 that the word translated 8whales10 in ,gen4 i1 #ba1 occurs twenty-seven times in ,scripture2 and he attempts1 with much ingenuity1 to prove that it every where signifies the crocodile4 ,that it sometimes has this meaning1 he thinks is clear from ,ezekiel xxix1 #c3 8,behold1 ,i am against thee1 ,pharaoh king of ,egypt1 the great dragon that lieth in the midst of his rivers40 ,for1 to what could a king of ,egypt be more properly compared than the crocodile8 ,the same argument he draws from ,isaiah li1 #i3 8,art thou not he that hath cut ,rahab1 ,egypt1 and wounded the dragon80 ,among the ancients the crocodile was the symbol of ,egypt1 and appears so on ,roman coins4 ,some however have thought the hippopotamus intended2 others1 one of the larger species of serpents4 ,,draughts1 stupifying potions4 ,at the time of execution1 they gave the malefactor a grain of frankincense in a cup of wine1 in order to stupify and render him less sensible of pain4 ,this custom is traced to the charge of the wise man3 8,give strong drink to him that is ready to perish1 and wine to those that be of heavy hearts10 ,prov4 xxxiv1 #f4 ,the prophet makes an allusion to the powerful effects of this stupifying draught1 in that prediction which announces the judgments of ,god upon the empire of ,babylon3 8,take the wine cup of this fury at my hand1 and cause all the nations to whom ,i send thee to drink it4 ,and they shall drink1 and be moved1 and be mad1 because of the sword that ,i will send among them10 ,jer4 xxv1 #ae1 #af4 ,the ,jews1 according to the custom of their country1 gave our ,lord wine mingled with myrrh at his crucifixion4 ,see ,,cross4 ,,dreams4 ,the easterns1 in particular the ,jews1 greatly regarded dreams1 and applied for their interpretation to those who undertook to explain them4 ,the ancient ,greeks and ,romans had the same opinion of them1 as appears from their most eminent writers4 ,we see the antiquity of this attention to dreams in the history of ,pharaoh's butler and baker1 ,gen4 xl4 ,pharaoh himself1 and ,nebuchadnezzar1 are instances4 ,god expressly condemned to death all who pretended to have prophetic dreams1 and to foretel futurities1 even though what they foretold came to pass1 if they had any tendency to promote idolatry1 ,deut4 xiii1 #a-c4 ,but the people were not forbidden1 when they thought they had a significative dream1 to address the prophets of the ,lord1 or the high priest in his ephod1 to have it explained4 ,saul1 before the battle of ,gilboa1 consulted a woman who had a familiar spirit1 8because the ,lord would not answer him by dreams1 nor by prophets10 #a ,sam4 xxviii1 #f1 #g4 ,the ,lord himself sometimes discovered his will in dreams1 and enabled persons to explain them4 ,he informed ,abimelech in a dream1 that ,sarah was the wife of ,abraham1 ,gen4 xx1 #c1 #f4 ,he showed ,jacob the mysterious ladder in a dream1 ,gen4 xxviii1 #ab1 #ac2 and in a dream an angel suggested to him a means of multiplying his flocks1 ,genesis xxxi1 #aa1 #ab1 c4 ,joseph was favoured very early with prophetic dreams1 whose signification was easily discovered by ,jacob1 ,gen4 xxxvii1 #e4 ,god said1 that he spake to other prophets in dreams1 but to ,moses face to face4 ,the ,midianites gave credit to dreams1 as appears from that which a ,midianite related to his companion2 and from whose interpretation ,gideon took a happy omen1 ,judges vii1 #ac1 #ae4 ,the ,prophet ,jeremiah exclaims against impostors who pretended to have had dreams1 and abused the credulity of the people3 8,they prophesy lies in my name1 saying1 ,i have dreamed1 ,i have dreamed4 ,the prophet that hath a dream1 let him tell a dream2 and he that hath my word1 let him tell it faithfully1 saith the ,lord10 ,jer4 xxiii1 #be1 #bh1 #bi4 ,the ,prophet ,joel promises from ,god1 that in the reign of the ,messiah1 the effusion of the ,holy ,spirit should be so copious1 that the old men should have prophetic dreams1 and the young men should receive visions1 ,joel ii1 #bh4 ,,dress4 ,see ,,habits4 ,,dromedary4 ,this name answers to two words in the original1 1 and feminine 1 ,isa4 lx1 #f2 ,jer4 ii1 #bd2 and 1 ,esther viii1 #aj1 8young dromedaries20 probably the name in ,persian4 ,the dromedary is a race of camels chiefly remarkable for its prodigious swiftness4 ,the most observable difference between it and the camel is1 that it has but one protuberance on the back2 and instead of the slow solemn walk to which that animal is accustomed1 it will go as far in one day as the camel in three4 ,for this reason it is used to carry messengers where haste is required4 ,the animal is governed by a bridle1 which1 being usually fastened to a ring fixed in the nose1 may very well illustrate the expression1 #b ,kings xix1 #bh1 of turning back ,sennacherib by putting a hook into his nose2 and may farther indicate his swift retreat4 ,,dust1 or ashes1 cast on the head was a sign of mourning1 ,josh4 vii1 #f3 sitting in the dust1 a sign of affliction1 ,lam4 iii1 #bi2 ,isaiah xlvii1 #a4 ,the dust also denotes the grave1 ,gen4 iii1 #ai2 ,job vii1 #ba2 ,psalm xxii1 #ae4 ,it is put for a great multitude1 ,gen4 xiii1 #af2 ,numbers xxiii1 #aj4 ,it signifies a low or mean condition1 #a ,sam4 ii1 #h2 ,nahum iii1 #ah4 ,to shake or wipe off the dust of a place from one's feet1 marks the renouncing of all intercourse with it in future4 ,god threatens the ,jews with rain of dust1 c2 ,deut4 xxviii1 #bd4 ,an extract from ,sir ,t4 ,roe's embassy may cast light on this3 8,sometimes1 in ,india1 the wind blows very high in hot and dry seasons1 raising up into the air a very great height1 thick clouds of dust and sand4 ,these dry showers most grievously annoy all those among whom they fall2 enough to smite them all with present blindness2 filling their eyes1 ears1 nostrils1 and mouths too1 if not well guarded2 searching every place1 as well within as without1 so that there is not a little key-hole of any trunk or cabinet1 if it be not covered1 but receives this dust2 add to this1 that the fields1 brooks1 and gardens1 suffer extremely from these terrible showers40 #b4 ,in almost every part of ,asia1 those who demand justice against a criminal throw dust upon him1 signifying that he deserves to lose his life1 and be cast into the grave2 and that this is the true interpretation of the action1 is evident from an imprecation in common use among the ,turks and ,persians1 8,be covered with earth60 8,earth be upon thy head40 ,we have two remarkable instances of casting dust recorded in ,scripture3 the first is that of ,shimei1 who gave vent to his secret hostility to ,david1 when he fled before his rebellious son1 by throwing stones at him1 and casting dust1 #b ,sam4 xvi1 #ac4 ,it was an ancient custom1 in those warm and arid countries1 to lay the dust before a person of distinction1 and particularly before kings and princes1 by sprinkling the ground with water4 ,to throw dust into the air while a person was passing1 was therefore an act of great disrespect2 to do so before a sovereign prince1 an indecent outrage4 ,but it is clear that ,shimei meant more than disrespect and outrage to an afflicted king1 whose subject he was3 he intended to signify by that action1 that ,david was unfit to live1 and that the time was at last arrived to offer him a sacrifice to the ambition and vengeance of the house of ,saul4 ,this view of his conduct is confirmed by the behaviour of the ,jews to the ,apostle ,paul1 when they seized him in the temple1 and had nearly succeeded in putting him to death3 they cried out1 8,away with such a fellow from the earth1 for it is not fit that he should live2 and as they cried out and cast off their clothes1 and threw dust into the air1 the chief captain commanded him to be brought into the castle10 ,acts xxii1 #bc4 ,a great similarity appears between the conduct of the ,jews on this occasion1 and the behaviour of the peasants in ,persia1 when they go to court to complain of the governors1 whose oppressions they can no longer endure4 ,they carry their complaints against their governors by companies1 consisting of several hundreds1 and sometimes of a thousand2 they repair to that gate of the palace nearest to which their prince is most likely to be1 where they set themselves to make the most horrid cries1 tearing their garments1 and throwing dust into the air1 and demanding justice4 ,the king1 upon hearing these cries1 sends to know the occasion of them3 the people deliver their complaints in writing1 upon which he informs them that he will commit the cognizance of the affair to such a one as he names2 and in consequence of this1 justice is usually obtained4 ,,eagle1 1 ,exod4 xix1 #d2 ,lev4 xi1 #ac4 ,the name is derived from a verb which signifies to lacerate1 or tear in pieces4 ,the eagle has always been considered as the king of birds1 on account of its great strength1 rapidity and elevation of flight1 natural ferocity1 and the terror it inspires into its fellows of the air4 ,its voracity is so great that a large extent of territory is requisite for the supply of proper sustenance2 and providence has therefore constituted it a solitary animal3 two pair of eagles are never found in the same neighbourhood1 though the genus is dispersed through every quarter of the world4 ,its sight is quick1 strong1 and piercing1 to a proverb4 ,in ,job xxxix1 #bg1 the natural history of the eagle is finely drawn up3-- ,is it at thy voice that the eagle soars8 ,and therefore maketh his nest on high8 ,the rock is the place of his habitation4 ,he abides on the crag1 the place of strength4 ,thence he pounces upon his prey4 ,his eyes discern afar off4 ,even his young ones drink down blood2 ,and wherever is slaughter1 there is he4 ,alluding to the popular opinion that the eagle assists its feeble young in their flight1 by bearing them up on its own pinions1 ,moses represents ,jehovah as saying1 8,ye have seen what ,i did to the ,egyptians1 and how ,i bore you on eagles' wings1 and brought you unto myself10 ,exod4 xix1 #d4 ,scheuchzer has quoted from an ancient poet1 the following beautiful paraphrase on this passage3-- ,ac velut alituum princeps1 fulvusque tonantis ,armiger1 implumes1 et adhue sine robore natos ,sollicita refovet cura1 pinguisque ferin ,indulget pastus3 mox ut cum viribus al ,vesticipes crevere1 vocat se blandior aura1 ,expansa invitat pluma1 dorsoque morantes ,excipit1 attollitque humeris1 plausuque secundo ,fertur in arva1 timens oneri1 et tamen impete presso ,remigium tentans alarum1 incurvaque pinnis ,vela legens1 humiles tranat sub nubibus oras4 ,hinc sensim supra alta petit1 jam jamque sub astra ,erigitur1 cursusque leves citus urget in auras1 ,omnia pervolitans late loca1 et agmine ftus ,fertque refertque suos vario1 moremque volandi ,addocet3 illi autem1 longa assuetudine docti1 ,paulatim incipiunt pennis se credere clo ,impavidi3 tantum a teneris valet addere curam4 ,and as the king of birds1 and tawny armour-bearer of the ,thunderer1 cherishes with anxious care his unfledged1 and as yet feeble young1 and gratifies their appetite with rich prey3 presently when their downy wings have increased in strength1 a milder air calls them forth1 with expanded plumage he invites them1 and receives them hesitating on his back1 and sustains them on his shoulders1 and with easy flight is borne over the fields1 fearing for his burden1 and yet with a moderated effort trying the rowing of their wings1 and furling with his pinions his curved sails1 he glides through the low regions beneath the clouds4 ,hence by degrees he soars aloft1 and now he mounts to the starry heaven1 and swiftly urges his rapid flight through the air1 sweeping widely over space1 and in his gyrations bearing his offspring to and fro1 teaches them the art of flying3--but they1 taught by long practice1 gradually begin to trust themselves fearlessly on their wings3 ,so much does it avail to train the young with care4 #b4 ,when ,balaam delivered his predictions respecting the fate that awaited the nations which he then particularized1 he said of the ,kenites1 8,strong is thy dwelling1 and thou puttest thy nest in a rock10 ,num4 xxiv1 #ba2 alluding to that princely bird1 the eagle1 which not only delights in soaring to the loftiest heights1 but chooses the highest rocks1 and most elevated mountains1 as desirable situations for erecting its nest1 ,hab4 ii1 #i2 ,obad4 #d4 ,what ,job says concerning the eagle1 which is to be understood in a literal sense1 8,where the slain are1 there is he10 our ,saviour turns into a fine parable3 8,wheresoever the carcass is1 there will the eagles be gathered together10 ,matt4 xxiv1 #bh2 that is1 ,wherever the ,jews are1 who have corruptly fallen from ,god1 there will be the ,romans1 who bore the eagle as their standard1 to execute vengeance upon them1 ,luke xvii1 #cg4 #c4 ,the swiftness of the flight of the eagle is alluded to in several passages of ,scripture2 as1 8,the ,lord shall bring a nation against thee from afar1 from the end of the earth1 as swift as the eagle flieth10 ,deut4 xxviii1 #di4 ,in the affecting lamentation of ,david over ,saul and ,jonathan1 their impetuous and rapid career is described in forcible terms3 8,they were swifter than eagles2 they were stronger than lions10 #b ,sam4 i1 #bc4 ,jeremiah when he beheld in vision the march of ,nebuchadnezzar1 cried1 8,behold1 he shall come up as clouds1 and his chariots shall be as a whirlwind4 ,his horses are swifter than eagles4 ,wo unto us1 for we are spoiled10 ,jer4 iv1 #ac4 ,to the wide-expanded wings of the eagle1 and the rapidity of his flight1 the same prophet beautifully alludes in a subsequent chapter1 where he describes the subversion of ,moab by the same ruthless conqueror3 8,behold1 he shall fly as an eagle1 and spread his wings over ,moab10 ,jer4 xlviii1 #dj4 ,in the same manner he describes the sudden desolations of ,ammon in the next chapter2 but1 when he turns his eye to the ruins of his own country1 he exclaims1 in still more energetic language1 8,our persecutors are swifter than the eagles of the heavens10 ,lament4 iv1 #ai4 ,under the same comparison the patriarch ,job describes the rapid flight of time3 8,my days are passed away1 as the eagle that hasteth to the prey10 ,job ix1 #bf4 ,the surprising rapidity with which the blessings of common providence sometimes vanish from the grasp of the possessor is thus described by ,solomon3 8,riches certainly make themselves wings3 they fly away as an eagle toward heaven10 ,prov4 xxiii1 #e4 ,the flight of this bird is as sublime as it is rapid and impetuous4 ,none of the feathered race soar so high4 ,in his daring excursions he is said to leave the clouds of heaven1 and regions of thunder1 and lightning1 and tempest1 far beneath him1 and to approach the very limits of ether4 ,there is an allusion to this lofty soaring in the prophecy of ,obadiah1 concerning the pride of ,moab3 8,though thou exalt thyself as the eagle1 and though thou set thy nest among the stars1 thence will ,i bring thee down1 saith the ,lord10 ,obad4 #d4 ,the prophet ,jeremiah pronounces the doom of ,edom in similar terms3 8,o thou that dwellest in the clefts of the rock1 that holdest the height of the hill2 though thou shouldest make thy nest high as the eagle1 ,i will bring thee down from thence1 saith the ,lord10 ,jer4 xlix1 #af4 ,the eagle lives and retains its vigour to a great age2 and1 after moulting1 renews its vigour so surprisingly1 as to be said1 hyperbolically1 to become young again1 ,psalm ciii1 #e1 and ,isaiah xl1 #ca4 ,it is remarkable that ,cyrus1 compared1 in ,isaiah xlvi1 #aa1 to an eagle1 7so the word translated 8ravenous bird0 should be rendered17 had an eagle for his ensign according to ,xenophon1 who uses1 without knowing it1 the identical word of the prophet1 with only a ,greek termination to it3 so exact is the correspondence between the prophet and the historian1 the prediction and the event4 ,xenophon and other ancient historians inform us that the golden eagle with extended wings was the ensign of the ,persian monarchs long before it was adopted by the ,romans2 and it is very probable that the ,persians borrowed the symbol from the ancient ,assyrians1 in whose banners it waved1 till imperial ,babylon bowed her head to the yoke of ,cyrus4 ,if this conjecture be well founded1 it discovers the reason why the sacred writers1 in describing the victorious march of the ,assyrian armies1 allude so frequently to the expanded eagle4 ,referring to the ,babylonian monarch1 the prophet ,hosea proclaimed in the ears of all ,israel1 the measure of whose iniquities was nearly full1 8,he shall come as an eagle against the house of the ,lord10 ,hosea viii1 #a4 ,jeremiah predicted a similar calamity3 8,thus saith the ,lord1 ,behold1 he shall fly as an eagle1 and spread his wings over ,moab10 ,jer4 xlviii1 #dj2 and the same figure was employed to denote the destruction that overtook the house of ,esau3 8,behold1 he shall come up and fly as the eagle1 and spread his wings over ,bozrah10 xlix1 #bb4 ,the words of these prophets received a full accomplishment in the irresistible impetuosity and complete success with which the ,babylonian monarchs1 and particularly ,nebuchadnezzar1 pursued their plans of conquest4 ,ezekiel denominates him1 with great propriety1 8a great eagle with great wings10 because he was the most powerful monarch of his time1 and led into the field more numerous and better appointed armies1 7which the prophet calls1 by a beautiful figure1 8his wings10 the wings of his army17 than perhaps the world had ever seen4 ,the ,prophet ,isaiah1 referring to the same monarch1 predicted the subjugation of ,judea in these terms3 8,he shall pass through ,judah4 ,he shall overflow1 and go over4 ,he shall reach even to the neck2 and the stretching out of his wings0 7the array of his army7 8shall fill the breadth of thy land1 ,o ,immanuel10 ,isaiah viii1 #h4 ,the king of ,egypt is also styled by ,ezekiel1 8a great eagle1 with great wings1 and many feathers20 but he manifestly gives the preference to the king of ,babylon1 by adding1 that he had 8long wings1 full of feathers1 which had divers colours20 that is1 greater wealth1 and a more numerous army4 ,,ear1 the organ of hearing4 ,the ,scripture uses the term figuratively4 ,uncircumcised ears are ears inattentive to the word of ,god4 ,to signify ,god's regard to the prayers of his people1 the ,psalmist says1 8,his ears are open to their cry10 ,psalm xxxiv1 #ae4 ,among the ,jews1 the slave1 who renounced the privilege of being made free from servitude in the sabbatical year1 submitted to have his ear bored through with an awl2 which was done in the presence of some judge1 or magistrate1 that it might appear a voluntary act4 ,the ceremony took place at his master's door1 and was the mark of servitude and bondage4 ,the ,psalmist says1 in the person of the ,messiah1 8,sacrifice and offering thou didst not desire2 mine ears hast thou opened40 ,heb4 8,thou hast digged my ears40 ,this either means1 ,thou hast opened them1 removed impediments1 and made them attentive2 or1 thou hast pierced them1 as those of such servants were pierced1 who chose to remain with their masters2 and therefore imports the absolute and voluntary submission of ,messiah to the will of the ,father4 8,make the ears of this people heavy10 ,isaiah vi1 #aj2 that is1 render their minds inattentive and disobedient2 the prophets being said often to do that of which they were the innocent occasion4 ,,ear-,,rings and nose-jewels were favourite ornaments among the eastern females4 ,both are frequently mentioned in ,scripture4 ,thus the ,prophet ,ezekiel3 8,and ,i put a jewel on thy forehead10 or1 as it should have been rendered1 on thy nose4 ,this ornament was one of the presents which the servant of ,abraham gave to ,rebecca1 in the name of his master3 8,i put10 said he1 8the ear-ring upon her face20 more literally1 ,i put the ring on her nose4 ,they wore ear-rings beside2 for the household of ,jacob1 at his request1 when they were preparing to go up to ,bethel1 gave him all the ear-rings which were in their ears1 and he hid them under the oak which was by ,shechem4 ,sir ,john ,chardin says1 8,it is the custom in almost all the east for the women to wear rings in their noses1 in the left nostril1 which is bored low down in the middle4 ,these rings are of gold1 and have commonly two pearls and one ruby between them1 placed in the ring2 ,i never saw a girl1 or young woman in ,arabia1 or in all ,persia1 who did not wear a ring after this manner in her nostril40 ,some writers contend1 that by the nose-jewel1 we are to understand rings1 which women attached to their forehead1 and let them fall down upon their nose2 but ,chardin1 who certainly was a diligent observer of eastern customs1 no where saw this frontal ring in the east1 but every where the ring in the nose4 ,his testimony is supported by ,dr4 ,russel1 who describes the women in some of the villages about ,aleppo1 and all the ,arabs and ,chinganas1 7a sort of gipsies17 as wearing a large ring of silver or gold1 through the external cartilage of their right nostril4 ,it is worn1 by the testimony of ,egmont1 in the same manner by the women of ,egypt4 ,two words are used in the ,scriptures to denote these ornamental rings1 and 4 ,mr4 ,harmer seems to think they properly signified ear-rings2 but this is a mistake2 the sacred writers use them promiscuously for the rings both of the nose and of the ears4 ,that writer1 however1 is probably right in supposing that nezem is the name of a much smaller ring than agil4 ,chardin observed two sorts of rings in the east2 one so small and close to the ear1 that there is no vacuity between them2 the other so large1 as to admit the fore finger between it and the ear2 these last are adorned with a ruby and a pearl on each side1 strung on the ring4 ,some of these ear-rings had figures upon them1 and strange characters1 which he believed were talismans or charms2 but which were probably the names and symbols of their false gods4 ,we know from the testimony of ,pliny1 that rings with the images of their gods were worn by the ,romans4 ,the ,indians say1 they are preservatives against enchantment2 upon which ,chardin hazards a very probable conjecture1 that the ear-rings of ,jacob's family were perhaps of this kind1 which might be the reason of his demanding them1 that he might bury them under the oak before they went up to ,bethel4 ,,earth is used for that gross element which sustains and nourishes us by producing plants and fruits2 for the continent as distinguished from the sea1 8,god called the dry land earth10 ,gen4 i1 #aj2 for the terraqueous globe1 and its contents1 men1 animals1 plants1 metals1 waters1 c4 8,the earth is the ,lord's1 and the fulness thereof01 ,psalm xxiv1 #a2 for the inhabitants of the earth1 or continent1 8,the whole earth was of one language10 ,genesis xi1 #a2 for ,judea1 or the whole empire of ,chaldea and ,assyria4 ,thus ,cyrus says1 ,ezra i1 #b1 8,the ,lord ,god of heaven hath given me all the kingdoms of the earth40 ,the restriction of the term 8earth0 to ,judea is more common in ,scripture than is usually supposed2 and this acceptation of it has great effect on several passages1 in which it ought to be so understood4 ,earth in a moral sense is opposed to heaven1 and to what is spiritual4 8,he that is of the earth is earthy1 and speaketh of the earth2 he that cometh from above is above all10 ,john iii1 #ca4 8,if ye then be risen with ,christ1 set your affections on things above1 not on things on the earth10 ,col4 iii1 #a1 #b4 ,,earthquake4 ,the ,scripture speaks of several earthquakes4 ,one happened in the twenty-seventh year of ,uzziah1 king of ,judah1 in the year of the world #cbba4 ,this is mentioned in ,amos i1 #a1 and in ,zechariah xiv1 #e4 ,josephus says that its violence divided a mountain1 which lay west of ,jerusalem1 and drove one part of it four furlongs4 ,a very memorable earthquake is that which happened at our ,saviour's death1 ,matt4 xxvii1 #ea4 ,many have thought that this was perceived throughout the world4 ,others are of opinion that it was felt only in ,judea1 or even in the temple at ,jerusalem4 ,st4 ,cyril of ,jerusalem says1 that the rocks upon mount ,calvary were shown in his time1 which had been rent asunder by this earthquake4 ,maundrell and ,sandys testify the same1 and say that they examined the breaches in the rock1 and were convinced that they were the effects of an earthquake4 ,it must have been terrible1 since the centurion and those with him were so affected by it1 as to acknowledge the innocence of our ,saviour1 ,luke xxiii1 #dg4 ,phlegon1 ,adrian's freedman1 relates that1 together with the eclipse1 which happened at noon day1 in the fourth year of the two hundred and second ,olympiad1 or ,a4 ,d4 #cc1 a very great earthquake was also felt1 principally in ,bythynia4 ,the effects of ,god's power1 wrath1 and vengeance are compared to earthquakes1 ,psalm xviii1 #g2 xlvi1 #b2 cxiv1 #d4 ,an earthquake signifies also1 in prophetic language1 the dissolution of governments and the overthrow of states4 ,,east1 one of the four cardinal points of the world2 namely1 that particular point of the horizon in which the sun is seen to rise4 ,the ,hebrews express the east1 west1 north1 and south by words which signify before1 behind1 left1 and right1 according to the situation of a man who has his face turned toward the east4 ,by the east1 they frequently describe1 not only ,arabia ,deserta1 and the lands of ,moab and ,ammon1 which lay to the east of ,palestine1 but also ,assyria1 ,mesopotamia1 ,babylonia1 and ,chaldea1 though they are situated rather to the north than to the east of ,judea4 ,balaam1 ,cyrus1 and the wise men who visited ,bethlehem at the time ,christ was born1 are said to come from the east1 ,num4 xxiii1 #g2 ,isaiah xlvi1 #aa2 ,matt4 ii1 #a4 ,,easter1 the day on which the ,christian church commemorates our ,saviour's resurrection4 ,easter is a word of ,saxon origin1 and imports a goddess of the east4 ,this goddess was ,astarte1 in honour of whom sacrifices were annually offered about the passover time of the year1 the spring2 and hence the ,saxon name 8aster0 became attached by association of ideas to the ,christian festival of the resurrection4 ,,eating4 ,the ancient ,hebrews did not eat indifferently with all persons3 they would have esteemed themselves polluted and dishonoured by eating with people of another religion1 or of an odious profession4 ,in ,joseph's day they neither ate with the ,egyptians1 nor the ,egyptians with them1 ,gen4 xliii1 #cb2 nor1 in our ,saviour's time1 with the ,samaritans1 ,john iv1 #i4 ,the ,jews were scandalized at ,christ's eating with publicans and sinners1 ,matt4 ix1 #aa4 ,as there were several sorts of meats1 the use of which was prohibited1 they could not conveniently eat with those who partook of them1 fearing to receive pollution by touching such food1 or if by accident any particles of it should fall on them4 ,the ancient ,hebrews1 at their meals1 had each his separate table4 ,joseph1 entertaining his brethren in ,egypt1 seated them separately1 each at his particular table2 and he himself sat down separately from the ,egyptians1 who ate with him2 but he sent to his brethren portions out of the provisions which were before him1 ,gen4 xliii1 #ca1 c4 ,elkanah1 ,samuel's father1 who had two wives1 distributed their portions to them separately1 #a ,sam4 i1 #d1 #e4 ,in ,homer1 each guest has his little table apart2 and the master of the feast distributes meat to each4 ,we are assured that this is still practised in ,china2 and that many in ,india never eat out of the same dish1 nor on the same table1 with another person1 believing that they cannot do so without sin2 and this1 not only in their own country1 but when travelling1 and in foreign lands4 ,the ancient manners which we see in ,homer we see likewise in ,scripture1 with regard to eating1 drinking1 and entertainments3 we find great plenty1 but little delicacy2 and great respect and honour paid to the guests by serving them plentifully4 ,joseph sent his brother ,benjamin a portion five times larger than those of his other brethren4 ,samuel set a whole quarter of a calf before ,saul4 ,the women did not appear at table in entertainments with the men3 this would have been an indecency2 as it is at this day throughout the east4 ,the present ,jews1 before they sit down to table1 carefully wash their hands3 they speak of this ceremony as essential and obligatory4 ,after meals they wash them again4 ,when they sit down to table1 the master of the house1 or the chief person in the company1 taking bread1 breaks it1 but does not wholly separate it2 then1 putting his hand on it1 he recites this blessing3 8,blessed be thou1 ,o ,lord our ,god1 the ,king of the world1 who producest the bread of the earth40 ,those present answer1 8,amen40 ,having distributed the bread among the guests1 he takes the vessel of wine in his right hand1 saying1 8,blessed art thou1 ,o ,lord our ,god1 ,king of the world1 who hast produced the fruit of the vine40 ,they then repeat the twenty-third ,psalm4 ,buxtorf1 and ,leo of ,modena1 who have given particular accounts of the ,jewish ceremonies1 differ in some circumstances3 the reason is1 ,buxtorf wrote principally the ceremonies of the ,german ,jews1 and ,leo1 those of the ,italian ,jews4 ,they take care that1 after meals1 there shall be a piece of bread remaining on the table2 the master of the house orders a glass to be washed1 fills it with wine1 and1 elevating it1 says1 8,let us bless ,him of whose benefits we have been partaking30 the rest answer1 8,blessed be ,he who has heaped his favours on us1 and by his goodness has now fed us40 ,then he recites a pretty long prayer1 wherein he thanks ,god for his many benefits vouchsafed to ,israel2 beseeches him to pity ,jerusalem and his temple1 to restore the throne of ,david1 to send ,elias and the ,messiah1 to deliver them out of their long captivity1 c4 ,all present answer1 8,amen20 and then recite ,psalm xxxiv1 #i1 #aj4 ,then1 giving the glass with the little wine in it to be drunk round1 he drinks what is left1 and the table is cleared4 ,see ,,banquets4 ,partaking of the benefits of ,christ's passion by faith is also called eating1 because this is the support of our spiritual life1 ,john vi1 #ec1 #ef4 ,hosea reproaches the priests of his time with eating the sins of the people1 ,hosea iv1 #h2 that is1 feasting on their sin offerings1 rather than reforming their manners4 ,john the ,baptist is said to have come 8neither eating nor drinking10 ,matt4 xi1 #ah2 that is1 as other men did2 for he lived in the wilderness1 on locusts1 wild honey1 and water1 ,matt4 iii1 #d2 ,luke i1 #ae4 ,this is expressed1 in ,luke vii1 #cc1 by his neither eating 8bread10 nor drinking 8wine40 ,on the other hand1 the ,son of ,man is said1 in ,matt4 xi1 #ai1 to have come 8eating and drinking20 that is1 as others did2 and that too with all sorts of persons1 ,pharisees1 publicans1 and sinners4 ,,ebal1 a celebrated mountain in the tribe of ,ephraim1 near ,shechem1 over against ,mount ,gerizim4 ,these two mountains are within two hundred paces of each other1 and separated by a deep valley1 in which stood the town of ,shechem4 ,the two mountains are much alike in magnitude and form1 being of a semi-circular figure1 about half a league in length1 and1 on the sides nearest ,shechem1 nearly perpendicular4 ,one of them is barren2 the other1 covered with a beautiful verdure4 ,moses commanded the ,israelites1 as soon as they should have passed the river ,jordan1 to go directly to ,shechem1 and divide the whole multitude into two bodies1 each composed of six tribes2 one company to be placed on ,ebal1 and the other on ,gerizim4 ,the six tribes that were on ,gerizim were to pronounce blessings on those who should faithfully observe the law of the ,lord1 and the six others on ,mount ,ebal were to pronounce curses against those who should violate it1 ,deut4 xi1 #bi1 c2 xxvii1 and xxviii2 ,joshua viii1 #cj1 #ca4 ,this consecration of the ,hebrew commonwealth is thought to have been performed in the following manner3 ,the heads of the first six tribes went up to the top of ,mount ,gerizim1 and the heads of the other six tribes to the top of ,mount ,ebal4 ,the priests1 with the ark1 and ,joshua at the head of the elders of ,israel1 took their station in the middle of the valley which lies between the two mountains4 ,the ,levites ranged themselves in a circle about the ark2 and the elders1 with the people1 placed themselves at the foot of the mountain1 six tribes on a side4 ,when they were thus disposed in order1 the priests turned toward ,mount ,gerizim1 on the top of which were the six heads of the six tribes who were at the foot of the same mountain1 and pronounced1 for example1 these words3--8,blessed be the man that maketh not any graven images40 ,the six princes who were upon the top of the mountain1 and the six tribes who were below at its foot1 answered1 8,amen40 ,afterward1 the priests1 turning toward ,mount ,ebal1 upon which were the princes of the other six tribes1 cried1 with a loud voice1 8,cursed be the man that maketh any graven image20 and were answered by the princes opposite to them and their tribes1 8,amen40 ,the ,scripture1 at first view1 seems to intimate that there were six tribes upon one mountain1 and six on the other2 but beside that it is by no means probable that the tribes of the ,israelites1 who were so numerous1 should be able to stand on the summits of these two mountains1 it would not have been possible for them to have seen the ceremony1 nor to have heard the blessings and curses in order to answer them4 ,moreover1 the ,hebrew particle1 in the original1 signifies1 near1 over against1 as well as at the top1 ,joshua viii1 #cc4 ,accordingly1 we may say1 that neither ,joshua1 nor the priests or tribes1 went up to the top of the mountains1 but the heads only1 who in their persons might represent all the tribes4 ,,ebenezer1 the name of that field wherein the ,israelites were defeated by the ,philistines1 when the ark of the ,lord was taken1 #a ,sam4 iv1 #a2 also a memorial stone set up by ,samuel to commemorate a victory over the ,philistines4 ,the word signifies the stone of help2 and it was erected by the prophet1 saying1 8,hitherto the ,lord hath helped us40 ,,ebionites1 a sect of the first two or three centuries2 but it is not certain whether they received their name from a leader of the name of ,ebion1 7whom ,dr4 ,lardner considers as a disciple of ,cerinthus17 or from the meaning of the ,hebrew word ebion1 which implies poverty2 and if the latter1 whether they assumed the name1 as affecting to be poor1 like the ,founder of ,christianity2 or whether it was conferred on them by way of reproach1 as being of the lower orders4 ,the use of the term1 also1 according to ,dr4 ,horsley1 was various and indefinite4 ,sometimes it was the peculiar name of those sects that denied both the divinity of our ,lord1 and his miraculous conception4 ,then its meaning was extended1 to take in another party2 who admitted the miraculous conception of ,jesus1 but still denied his divinity1 and questioned his previous existence4 ,at last1 it seems1 the ,nazarites1 whose error was rather a superstitious severity in their practice1 than any deficiency in their faith1 were included by ,origen in the infamy of the appellation4 ,dr4 ,priestley1 claiming the ,ebionites as ,jewish ,unitarians1 considers the ancient ,nazarenes1 that is1 the first ,jewish converts1 as the true ,ebionites2 these1 he thinks1 were called ,nazarenes1 from their attachment to ,jesus of ,nazareth2 and ,ebionites1 from their poor and mean condition1 just as some of the reformers were called ,beghards1 or beggars4 ,the ,doctor cites the authorities of ,origen and ,epiphanius1 to prove that both these denominations related to the same people1 differing only1 like the ,socinians1 in receiving or rejecting the fact of the miraculous conception2 and neither1 as he assures us1 were reckoned heretics by any writers of the two first centuries4 ,to this ,dr4 ,horsley replies1 that both ,jews and ,heathens called the first ,christians ,nazarenes1 in allusion to the mean and obscure birthplace of their ,master1 ,jesus of ,nazareth1 ,matthew ii1 #bc2 ,acts x1 #ch2 but insists1 and answers every pretended proof to the contrary1 that the term ,nazarenes was never applied to any distinct sect of ,christians before the final destruction of ,jerusalem by ,adrian4 ,dr4 ,semler1 a ,german writer1 gives the following opinion3 8,those who more rigidly maintained the ,mosaic observances1 and who were numerous in ,palestine1 are usually called ,ebionites and ,nasarans4 ,some believe that they ought not to be reckoned heretics2 others think that they were united in doctrine1 differing only in name2 others place them in the second century4 ,it is of little consequence whether we distinguish or not the ,nazarenes1 or ,nazarans from the ,ebionites4 ,it is certain that both these classes were tenacious of the ,mosaic ceremonies1 and more inclined to the ,jews than to the ,gentiles1 though they admitted the ,messiahship of ,jesus in a very low and ,judaizing manner4 ,the ,ebionites held in execration the doctrine of the ,apostle ,paul40 ,dr4 ,j4 ,pye ,smith1 who quotes this passage from ,dr4 ,semler1 adds1 8,such1 it is apprehended1 on grounds of reasonable probability1 was the origin of ,unitarianism2 the child of ,judaism misunderstood1 and of ,christianity imperfectly received40 #b4 ,on this controversy great light has1 however1 been since thrown by ,dr4 ,burton4 ,it is well known to those who have studied the ,unitarian controversy1 that it has been often asserted that the ,cerinthians and ,ebionites were the teachers of genuine ,christianity1 and that the doctrine of ,christ's divinity1 and of universal redemption through his blood1 were the inventions of those who corrupted the preaching of the ,apostles4 ,if this were so1 we must convict all the fathers1 not merely of ignorance and mistake1 but of deliberate and wilful falsehood4 ,to suppose that the fathers of the second century were ignorant of what was genuine and what was false in ,christianity1 would be a bold hypothesis2 but if ,irenus1 the disciple of ,polycarp1 asserted1 as a matter of fact1 that ,st4 ,john wrote his ,gospel to refute the errors of ,cerinthus1 it is idle1 or something worse1 to say that ,irenus did not know for certain if the fact was really so4 ,as far1 then1 as the testimony of the fathers is concerned1 the ,cerinthians and ,ebionites were decidedly heretics4 ,the ,unitarians1 on the other hand1 maintain that the ,ebionites were the true and genuine believers2 and it is easy to see that the preference was given to these teachers1 because they held that ,jesus was born of human parents4 ,never1 ,i conceive1 was there a more unfortunate and fatal alliance formed than that between the ,ebionites and modern ,unitarians4 ,we find the ,ebionites referred to1 as if they agreed in every point with the ,socinian or ,unitarian creed2 and yet it may almost be asserted1 that in not one single point do their sentiments exactly coincide4 ,if a real ,ebionite will declare himself1 we are not afraid to meet him4 ,let him avow his faith2 let him believe of ,christ as ,ebion or ,cerinthus taught2 let him adopt the ravings of the ,gnostics2 we shall then know with whom we have to combat2 we may gird on the sword of ,irenus1 and meet him in the field4 ,but let him not select a few ingredients only from the poison2 let him not take a part only of their infatuated system4 ,if he will lean on that broken reed1 let him talk no more of ,ebion or ,cerinthus only2 but let him say boldly1 either that the ,gnostics agreed with the ,apostles1 or that the ,gnostics preached the true ,gospel1 while the ,apostles were in error4 #c4 ,we can hardly suppose the ,unitarians to be ignorant that the ,ebionites and ,cerinthians were a branch of the ,gnostics4 ,if the fact be denied1 the whole of this discussion might as well at once be closed4 ,we know nothing of ,cerinthus and ,ebion1 but from the writings of the fathers4 ,if it had not been for them1 we should never have known that these persons believed ,jesus to be born of human parents3 the same fathers unanimously add1 that in this point they differed from the preceding ,gnostics1 though agreeing with them on other points4 ,if we are to receive the testimony of the fathers in one particular1 but to reject it in every other1 ,i need not say that argument is useless4 ,but the fact can never be denied nor evaded4 ,the ,cerinthians1 to whom some ,unitarians have appealed1 did not ascribe the creation of the world to ,god1 but to an inferior being4 ,like the rest of the ,gnostics1 who engrafted that philosophy on ,judaism1 the ,cerinthians and ,ebionites retained some of the ,jewish ceremonies1 though they rejected some of the ,jewish ,scriptures4 ,many of them taught that the restraints of morality were useless2 and the ,cerinthians1 it is well known1 promised to their followers a millennium of sensual indulgence4 ,with respect to their notions concerning ,christ1 it is true that they believed ,jesus to be born of human parents2 and this fact is referred to1 as if it proved the falsehood of what is called the miraculous conception of ,jesus4 ,but it is plain that this tenet is mentioned by the fathers1 as being opposed to that of the other ,gnostics1 who held that the body of ,jesus was an illusive phantom4 ,such had hitherto been the belief of all the ,gnostics4 ,but ,cerinthus and ,ebion1 who were perhaps more rational in their speculations1 and who lived after the publication of the three first ,gospels1 could not resist the evidence that ,jesus was actually born1 and that he had a real1 substantial body4 ,this is the meaning of the statement1 that ,cerinthus and ,ebion believed ,jesus to be born of human parents4 ,it shows that they were not ,docet4 ,but because there were other ,gnostics who were more irrational and visionary than themselves1 we are not immediately to infer that their own notion concerning the birth of ,christ was the true one4 ,they believed1 at least1 many of them believed1 that ,jesus was born in the ordinary way2 that ,joseph was his parent as well as ,mary4 ,but they could hardly help believing so2 for they agreed with all the ,gnostics in thinking 7though it might seem as if this point had been forgotten7 that ,jesus and ,christ were separate persons3 they believed1 as ,i have already stated1 that ,christ descended upon ,jesus at his baptism1 and quitted him before his crucifixion4 ,they were therefore almost compelled to believe that ,jesus1 who was wholly distinct from ,christ1 had nothing divine in his nature1 and nothing miraculous in his birth2 in the same manner that they believed that the death of ,jesus1 from whom ,christ had then departed1 was like the death of any ordinary mortal1 and that no atonement was made by it4 ,but are we on these grounds to reject the miraculous conception and the atonement of ,christ8 ,or are the ,unitarians to quote these ,gnostics as holding the human nature of ,jesus1 and to forget that by ,jesus they meant a person wholly different from ,christ8 #d4 ,we are told1 indeed1 that the first part of ,st4 ,matthew's ,gospel is spurious1 because the ,ebionites rejected it4 ,undoubtedly they did4 ,they read in it that ,jesus ,christ was born1 not ,jesus only2 and that he was born of a virgin4 ,they therefore rejected this part of ,st4 ,matthew's ,gospel2 or rather1 by mutilating and altering the whole of it1 they composed a new gospel of their own to suit their purpose2 and yet this is the only authority which is quoted for rejecting the commencement of ,st4 ,matthew's ,gospel4 ,the fact1 that some even of the ,ebionites believed the miraculous conception1 speaks infinitely more in favour of the genuineness of that part of the ,gospel1 and of the truth of the doctrine itself1 than can be inferred on the contrary side from those who denied the doctrine1 and mutilated the ,gospel4 ,those other ,ebionites appear in this respect to have agreed with the first ,socinians1 and to have held that ,jesus was born of a virgin1 though they did not believe in his prexistence or divinity4 ,but the miraculous conception was so entirely contrary to all preconceived opinions1 and the more simple doctrine of the other ,ebionites and ,cerinthians was so much more suited to the ,gnostic system1 which separated ,jesus from ,christ1 that the evidence must have been almost irresistible1 which led one part of the ,ebionites to embrace a doctrine contrary to all experience1 contrary to the sentiments of their brethren1 and hardly reconcilable with other parts of their own creed4 ,the testimony1 therefore1 of these ,ebionites1 in favour of the miraculous conception1 is stronger1 perhaps1 than even that of persons who received the whole of the ,gospel1 and departed in no points from the doctrine of the ,apostles4 ,if the ,apostles had preached1 according to the statement of the ,unitarians1 that ,jesus ,christ was a mere human being1 born in the ordinary way1 what could possibly have led the ,gnostics to rank him immediately with their ons1 whom they believed to have been produced by ,god1 and to have dwelt with him from endless ages in the pleroma8 ,there literally was not one single heretic in the first century1 who did not believe that ,christ came down from heaven3 they invented1 it is true1 various absurdities to account for his union with the man ,jesus2 but the fair and legitimate inference from this fact would be1 that the ,apostles preached that in some way or other the human nature was united to the divine4 ,so far from the ,socinian or ,unitarian doctrine being supported by that of the ,cerinthians and ,ebionites1 ,i have no hesitation in saying1 that not one single person is recorded in the whole of the first century who ever imagined that ,christ was a mere man4 ,it has been observed1 that one branch of the ,ebionites resembled the first ,socinians1 that is1 they believed in the miraculous conception of ,jesus1 though they denied his prexistence2 but this was because they held the common notion of the ,gnostics1 that ,jesus and ,christ were two separate persons2 and they believed in the prexistence and divine nature of ,christ1 which ,socinus and his followers uniformly denied4 ,,ecbatana1 a city of ,media1 which1 according to ,herodotus1 was built by ,dejoces1 king of the ,medes4 ,it was situated on a gentle declivity1 distant twelve stadia from ,mount ,orontes1 and was in compass one hundred and fifty stadia1 and1 next to ,nineveh and ,babylon1 was one of the strongest and most beautiful cities of the east4 ,after the union of ,media with ,persia1 it was the summer residence of the ,persian kings4 ,sir ,r4 ,k4 ,porter1 in his ,travels1 says1 8,having for a few moments gazed at the venerable mountain1 7,orontes1 at the foot of which ,ecbatana was built17 and at the sad vacuum at its base2 what had been ,ecbatana1 being now shrunk to comparative nothingness2 ,i turned my eye on the still busy scene of life which occupied the adjacent country2 the extensive plain of ,hamadan1 and its widely extending hills4 ,on our right1 the receding vale was varied1 at short distances1 with numberless castellated villages rising from amidst groves of the noblest trees2 while the great plain itself stretched northward and eastward to such far remoteness1 that its mountain boundaries appeared like clouds upon the horizon4 ,this whole tract seemed one carpet of luxuriant verdure1 studded with hamlets1 and watered by beautiful rivulets4 ,on the south-west1 ,orontes1 or ,elwund1 7by whichever name we may designate this most towering division of the mountain17 presents itself1 in all the stupendous grandeur of its fame and form4 ,near to its base1 appear the dark coloured dwellings of ,hamadan1 crowded thickly on each other2 while the gardens of the inhabitants with their connecting orchards and woods1 fringe the entire slope of that part of the mountain40 8,the site of the modern town1 like that of the ancient1 is on a gradual ascent1 terminating near the foot of the eastern side of the mountain2 but there all trace of its past appearance would cease1 were it not for two or three considerable elevations1 and overgrown irregularities on and near them1 which may have been the walls of the royal fortress1 with those of the palaces1 temples1 and theatres1 seen no more4 ,i passed one of these heights1 standing to the south-west1 as ,i entered the city1 and observed that it bore many vestiges of having been strongly fortified4 ,the sides and summit are covered with large remnants of ruined walls of a great thickness1 and also of towers1 the materials of which were sun-dried bricks4 ,it has the name of the ,inner ,fortress1 and certainly holds the most commanding station near the plain40 ,of the interior of the city1 the same author says1 8,the mud alleys1 which now occupy the site of the ancient streets or squares1 are narrow1 interrupted by large holes or hollows in the way1 and heaps of the fallen crumbled walls of deserted dwellings4 ,a miserable bazaar or two are passed through in traversing the town2 and large lonely spots are met with1 marked by broken low mounds over older ruins2 with here and there a few poplars1 or willow trees1 shadowing the border of a dirty stream1 abandoned to the meanest uses2 which1 probably1 flowed pellucid and admired1 when these places were gardens1 and the grass-grown heap some stately dwelling of ,ecbatana4 ,in one or two spots ,i observed square platforms1 composed of large stones2 the faces of many of which were chiselled all over into the finest arabesque fretwork1 while others had1 in addition1 long inscriptions in the ,arabic character4 ,they had evidently been tomb-stones of the inhabitants1 during the caliph rule in ,persia4 ,but when we compare relics of the seventh century1 with the deep antiquity of the ruins on which they lie1 these monumental remains seem but the register of yesterday40 ,here is shown the tomb of ,mordecai and ,esther2 as well as that of ,avicenna1 the celebrated ,arabian physician4 ,the sepulchre of the former stands near the centre of the city of ,hamadan3 the tombs are covered by a dome1 on which is the following inscription in ,hebrew3 8,this day1 #aeth of the month ,adar1 in the year #ddgd from the creation of the world1 was finished the building of this temple over the graves of ,mordecai and ,esther1 by the hands of the good-hearted brothers1 ,elias and ,samuel1 the sons of the deceased ,ismael of ,kashan40 ,this inscription1 the date of which proves the dome to have been built eleven hundred years1 was sent by ,sir ,gore ,ouseley to ,sir ,john ,malcolm1 who has given it in his ,history of ,persia2 who also says that the tombs1 which are of a black coloured wood1 are evidently of very great antiquity1 but in good preservation1 as the wood has not perished1 and the inscriptions are still very legible4 ,sir ,r4 ,k4 ,porter has given a more particular description of this tomb4 ,he says1 8,i accompanied the priest through the town1 over much ruin and rubbish1 to an enclosed piece of ground1 rather more elevated than any in its immediate vicinity4 ,in the centre was the ,jewish tomb2 a square building of brick1 of a mosque-like form1 with a rather elongated dome at the top4 ,the whole seems in a very decaying state1 falling fast to the mouldering condition of some wall fragments around1 which1 in former times1 had been connected with1 and extended the consequence of1 the sacred enclosure4 ,the door that admitted us into the tomb1 is in the ancient sepulchral fashion of the country1 very small2 consisting of a small stone of great thickness1 and turning on its own pivots from one side4 ,its key is always in possession of the head of the ,jews resident at ,hamadan40 8,on passing through the little portal1 which we did in an almost doubled position1 we entered a small arched chamber1 in which are seen the graves of several rabbies3 probably1 one may cover the remains of the pious ,ismael2 and1 not unlikely1 the others may contain the bodies of the first rebuilders after the sacrilegious destruction by ,timour4 ,having #8trod lightly by their graves1' a second door of such very confined dimensions presented itself at the end of this vestibule1 we were constrained to enter it on our hands and knees1 and then standing up1 we found ourselves in a larger chamber1 to which appertained the dome4 ,immediately under its concave1 stand two sarcophagi1 made of a very dark wood1 carved with great intricacy of pattern1 and richness of twisted ornament1 with a line of inscription in ,hebrew running round the upper ledge of each4 ,many other inscriptions1 in the same language1 are cut on the walls2 while one of the oldest antiquity1 engraved on a slab of white marble1 is let into the wall itself40 ,this inscription is as follows3 8,mordecai1 beloved and honoured by a king1 was great and good4 ,his garments were as those of a sovereign4 ,ahasuerus covered him with this rich dress1 and also placed a golden chain around his neck4 ,the city of ,susa rejoiced at his honours1 and his high fortune became the glory of the ,jews40 ,the inscription which encompasses the sarcophagus of ,mordecai1 is to this effect3 8,it is said by ,david1 ,preserve me1 ,o ,god6 ,i am now in thy presence4 ,i have cried at the gate of heaven1 that thou art my ,god2 and what goodness ,i have received from thee1 ,o ,lord6 ,those whose bodies are now beneath in this earth1 when animated by thy mercy were great2 and whatever happiness was bestowed upon them in this world1 came from thee1 ,o ,god6 ,their grief and sufferings were many1 at the first2 but they became happy1 because they always called upon thy holy name in their miseries4 ,thou liftedst me up1 and ,i became powerful4 ,thine enemies sought to destroy me1 in the early times of my life2 but the shadow of thy hand was upon me1 and covered me1 as a tent1 from their wicked purposes6--,,mordecai40 ,the following is the corresponding inscription on the sarcophagus of ,esther3 8,i praise thee1 ,o ,god1 that thou hast created me6 ,i know that my sins merit punishment1 yet ,i hope for mercy at thy hands2 for whenever ,i call upon thee1 thou art with me2 thy holy presence secures me from all evil4 ,my heart is at ease1 and my fear of thee increases4 ,my life became1 through thy goodness1 at the last1 full of peace4 ,o ,god1 do not shut my soul out from thy divine presence6 ,those whom thou lovest1 never feel the torments of hell4 ,lead me1 ,o merciful ,father1 to the life of life2 that ,i may be filled with the heavenly fruits of paradise6--,,esther40 ,the ,jews at ,hamadan have no tradition of the cause of ,esther and ,mordecai having been interred at that place2 but however that might be1 there are sufficient reasons for believing the validity of their interment in this spot4 ,the strongest evidence we can have of the truth of any historical fact1 is1 its commemoration by an annual festival4 ,it is well known1 that several important events in ,jewish history are thus celebrated2 and among the rest1 the feast of ,purim is kept on the #acth and #adth of the month ,adar1 to commemorate the deliverance obtained by the ,jews1 at the intercession of ,esther1 from the general massacre ordered by ,ahasuerus1 and the slaughter they were permitted to make of their enemies4 ,now on this same festival1 in the same day and month1 ,jewish pilgrims resort from all quarters to the sepulchre of ,mordecai and ,esther2 and have done so for centuries1--a strong presumptive proof that the tradition of their burial in this place rests on some authentic foundation4 ,,ecclesiastes1 a canonical book of the ,old ,testament1 of which ,solomon was the author1 as appears from the first sentence4 ,the design of this book is to show the vanity of all sublunary things2 and from a review of the whole1 the author draws this pertinent conclusion1 8,fear ,god1 and keep his commandments1 for this is the whole of man20--his whole wisdom1 interest1 and happiness1 as well as his whole duty4 ,ecclesiastes1 according to a modern author1 is a dialogue1 in which a man of piety disputes with a libertine who favoured the opinion of the ,sadducees4 ,his reason is1 that there are passages in it which seem to contradict each other1 and could not1 he thinks1 proceed from the same person4 ,but this may be accounted for by supposing that it was ,solomon's method to propose the objections of infidels and sensualists1 and then to reply to them4 ,,ecclesiastical ,,polity1 the rules by which churches are governed1 as to their spiritual concerns4 ,the reformers having renounced the pope as antichrist1 and having laid it down as their fundamental principle1 that ,scripture is the only rule of faith1 and that it is the privilege of every man to interpret it according to his own judgment1 had to consider in what manner the churches which they had formed were to be regulated2 and there soon arose among them upon this point diversity of sentiment4 ,melancthon and the earliest reformers viewed with veneration the hierarchy which had so long subsisted1 as also many of the ceremonies which for ages had been observed2 and they expressed their readiness to continue that distinction of pastors which their researches into the history of the church had enabled them to trace back to the early ages of ,christianity4 ,but while they declared in favour of this form of ecclesiastical polity1 they did so1 not upon the ground that it was of divine institution1 or positively required by the author of ,christianity as inseparable from a church2 but on the ground1 that taking into estimation every thing connected with it1 it appeared to them eminently adapted to carry into effect that renovation of piety1 and that religious influence1 which they were so eager to promote4 ,they thus made ecclesiastical polity a matter of expediency1 or of prudential regulation2 the one thing in their view1 binding upon all ,christians1 being to strengthen the practical power of religion4 ,that this is a just representation of the state of opinion among the first ,protestants1 will be placed beyond a doubt by a few quotations from the confession of ,augsburg1 and from the works of some of the most eminent divines who then flourished4 ,speaking of this subject1 the compilers of the confession declare1 8that they were most desirous to preserve the ecclesiastical polity1 and those degrees in the church which had been introduced by human authority1 knowing that1 for wise and good purposes1 the discipline1 as described in the canons1 had been introduced by the fathers40 8,we wish10 they add1 8to testify that we would willingly preserve the ecclesiastical and canonical polity1 if the bishops would cease to act with cruelty against our churches40 ,and once again they remark1 that they had often declared that they venerated not only the ecclesiastical power which was instituted in the ,gospel1 but that they approved of the ecclesiastical polity which had subsisted1 and wished1 as much as was in their power1 to preserve it4 ,it is quite plain from these passages1 that the framers of that confession1 and those who adhered to it as the standard of their faith1 viewed ecclesiastical polity as a matter of human appointment2 and that1 although they venerated that form of it which had long existed1 they looked upon themselves as at liberty1 under peculiar circumstances1 to depart from it4 ,the truth1 accordingly1 is1 that a great part of the ,lutheran churches1 as we shall afterward find1 did introduce many deviations from that model for which their founders had expressed respect and admiration2 although episcopacy was in several places continued4 #b4 ,in consequence1 however1 of the exertions of ,calvin1 what were denominated the reformed churches deemed it expedient wholly to change this form of polity1 and to introduce again the equality among pastors which had existed in the primitive times4 ,that celebrated theologian1 resting upon the undisputed fact1 that in the ,apostolic age no distinction subsisted between bishops and presbyters1 thought himself at liberty to frame a system of polity upon this principle1 persuaded that1 by doing so1 he would most effectually guard against those abuses that had given rise to the ,papal tyranny which ,protestants had abjured4 ,he accordingly introduced his scheme where he had influence to do so2 and he employed all the vigour of his talents in pressing upon distant churches the propriety of regulating1 in conformity with his sentiments1 their ecclesiastical government4 ,but1 while he was firmly persuaded that an equality among pastors was agreeable to the ,apostolic practice1 he has shown that he did not conceive this equality to be so absolutely required by ,scripture1 that there could in no case be a departure from it4 ,he was1 in fact1 convinced that all the purposes of religion might be accomplished under a form of polity in which it was not recognised3 8,wherever10 he says1 8the preaching of the ,gospel is heard with reverence1 and the sacraments are not neglected1 there at that time there is a church40 ,speaking of faithful pastors1 he describes them to be 8those who by the doctrine of ,christ lead men to true piety1 who properly administer the sacred mysteries1 and who preserve and exercise right discipline40 ,in tracing the progress of the hierarchy1 he observes1 that 8those to whom the office of teaching was assigned were denominated presbyters2 that to avoid the dissensions often arising among equals1 they chose one of their number to preside1 to whom the title of bishop was exclusively given2 and that the practice1 as the ancients admitted1 was introduced by human consent1 from the necessity of the times40 ,that this exaltation of the bishop1 and1 of course1 this departure from parity1 did not1 in his estimation1 render the church unchristian1 is apparent from what he says of it after the change was introduced3 8,such was the severity of these times1 that all the ministers were led to discharge their duty as the ,lord required of them40 ,even after archbishops and patriarchs had arisen1 he merely says1 in recording their introduction1 8,this arrangement was calculated to preserve discipline40 #c4 ,what ,calvin thus taught in his 8,institutes10 he confirmed in many of the interesting letters which he wrote to various eminent persons4 ,in these letters he speaks with the highest respect of the church of ,england1 where the distinction of clerical orders was preserved4 ,he corresponds with the highest dignitaries of that church in a style which he assuredly would not have adopted1 had he considered them as upholding an antichristian polity2 and he repeatedly avows the principle1 that1 in regulating the government of the church1 attention must be paid to the circumstances in which its members were placed4 ,beza1 who was warmly attached to presbytery1 and who upon every occasion1 strenuously defended it1 still admits that the human order of episcopacy was useful1 as long as the bishops were good2 and he professes all reverence for those modern bishops who strive to imitate the primitive ones in the reformation of the church according to the word of ,god3 adding that it was a calumny against him1 and those who entertained his sentiments1 to affirm1 as some had done1 that they wished to prescribe their form of government to all other churches4 ,in the excellent letter which he addressed to ,grindal1 bishop of ,london1 and in which he pleads the cause of those ministers who scrupled to use the ceremonies which their brethren approved1 he bears his testimony to the conformity of the church of ,england in doctrine with his church1 expresses himself with the highest respect of the prelate to whom he was writing1 and concludes by asking his prayers in his own behalf1 and in that of the church of ,geneva2 all of which is quite inconsistent with the tenet1 that presbytery is absolutely prescribed by divine authority4 #d4 ,the same general principle was avowed by the most eminent ,english divines4 ,cranmer explicitly declared1 that bishops and priests were of the same order at the commencement of ,christianity2 and this was the opinion of several of his distinguished contemporaries4 ,holding this maxim1 their support of episcopacy must have proceeded from views of expediency1 or1 in some instances1 from a conviction which prevailed very generally at this early period1 that it belonged to the supreme civil magistrate to regulate the spiritual no less than the political government2 an idea involving in it that no one form of ecclesiastical polity is of divine institution4 ,at a later period1 during the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth1 we find the same conviction1 that it was no violation of ,christianity to choose different modes of administering the church4 ,archbishop ,whitgift1 who distinguished himself by the zeal with which he supported the ,english hierarchy1 frequently maintains1 that the form of discipline is not particularly1 and by name1 set down in ,scripture2 and he also plainly asserts1 8that no form of church government is1 by the ,scriptures1 prescribed or commanded to the church of ,god40 ,this principle is admirably illustrated and confirmed by the venerable ,hooker1 in the third book of his work on ecclesiastical polity2 and another divine of the ,english church1 who lived about the same period1 has laid down what he conceives to be an unquestionable position1 8that all churches have not the same form of discipline2 neither is it necessary that they should1 because it cannot be proved that any particular form of church government is enjoined by the word of ,god40 ,we have1 indeed1 a succession of testimonies from the introduction of the reformation down through the reign of ,elizabeth1--testimonies given by the primates1 and bishops1 and theologians1 who have been venerated as the luminaries of the church of ,england1 that the divine right or institution of episcopacy constituted no part of their faith2 and this is confirmed by their correspondence with reformed divines1 who did not live under the episcopal model1 but who1 notwithstanding1 were often consulted as to the ecclesiastical arrangements which the convocation should adopt4 ,the same general sentiment is to be traced in those churches which had reverted to the primitive equality among the ministers of ,christ4 ,in the second ,helvetic confession1 which was approved by many churches1 it is taught1 that bishops and presbyters in the beginning governed the church with equal power1 none exalting himself above another2 the inequality which soon was introduced originating from the desire of preserving order4 ,various passages from ,cyprian and ,jerom are quoted in confirmation of this2 and the article thus concludes3 8,wherefore no one can be lawfully hindered from returning to the ancient constitution of the church of ,god1 and to adopt it in preference to what custom has introduced40 ,had the compilers believed that this ancient constitution was of divine obligation1 they would have expressed themselves much more strongly with respect to it2 and instead of representing the return to it as what ought not to be hindered1 they would have enjoined it1 as what it was a violation of the law of ,god to neglect4 #e4 ,the reformation in ,scotland1 conducted by ,knox1 who had spent a considerable part of his life at ,geneva1 and who had imbibed the opinions of ,calvin1 proceeded upon those views of polity which that reformer had adopted4 ,still1 however1 he authorized a modification of these opinions1 accommodated to the state of his native country2 for although the title of bishop was not used1 superintendents1 with powers little inferior to those committed to prelates in ,england1 were sanctioned by the first ,book of ,discipline2 and these superintendents were classed1 in the acts of different general assemblies1 among the necessary ministers of the church4 ,the necessity must have arisen out of the circumstances of the period when the book was framed2 for the polity which it prescribed was said to be only for a time2 and the office of superintendent1 as has been strenuously urged by some of the most zealous defenders of presbytery1 was not intended to be permanent4 ,the ,lutheran church1 with the exception of those branches of it established in ,denmark and ,sweden1 has adopted a kind of intermediate constitution between episcopacy and presbytery4 ,while it holds that there is no divine law creating a distinction among ministers1 it yet contends that such a distinction is on many accounts expedient2 and accordingly a diversity in point of rank and privileges has been universally introduced1 approaching in different places1 more or less1 to the hierarchy which subsisted before the reformation4 ,but1 although it has thus regulated its own practice1 it unambiguously admits1 that as the ,gospel is silent as to any particular form of polity1 different forms may be chosen1 without any breach of ,christian union4 #f4 ,it appears from the statement which has now been given1 that all ,protestants immediately after the reformation1 while they abjured the papal supremacy1 were united in holding that the mode of administering the church might be varied1 some of them being attached to episcopacy1 others to presbytery2 but all founding this attachment upon the judgment which they had formed as to the tendency or utility of either of these modes of government4 ,an idea soon was avowed by some of the reformers1 that the whole regulation of the church pertained to the magistrate2 this branch of power being vested in him no less than that of administering the civil government2 and to this opinion the name of ,erastianism1 from ,erastus1 who first defended it1 was given4 ,cranmer1 in an official reply which he made to certain questions that had been submitted for his consideration1 declared1 8that the civil ministers under the king's majesty be those that shall please his highness for the time to put in authority under him2 as1 for example1 the lord chancellor1 lord great master1 c2 the ministers of ,god's word under his majesty be the bishops1 parsons1 vicars1 and such other priests as be appointed by his highness to that ministration2 as1 for example1 the bishop of ,canterbury1 c4 ,all the said officers and ministers1 as well of the one sort as the other1 be appointed1 assigned1 and elected in every place by the laws and orders of kings and princes40 ,by the great majority of ,protestants1 however1 the tenets of ,erastus were condemned2 for they maintained that the ,lord ,jesus had conveyed to his church a spiritual power quite distinct from the temporal2 and that it belonged to the ministers of religion to exercise it1 for promoting the spiritual welfare of the ,christian community4 ,but1 while they disputed as to this point1 they agreed in admitting there was no model prescribed in the ,new ,testament for a ,christian church1 as there had been in the ,mosaical economy for the ,jewish church2 and that it was a branch of the liberty of the disciples of ,christ1 or one of their privileges1 to choose the polity which seemed to them best adapted for extending the power and influence of religion4 ,,eclectics1 a sect of ancient philosophers1 who professed to select whatever was good and true from all the other philosophical sects4 ,the ,eclectic philosophy was in a flourishing state at ,alexandria when our ,saviour was upon earth4 ,its founders formed the design of selecting from the doctrines of all former philosophers such opinions as seemed to approach nearest the truth1 and of combining them into one system4 ,they held ,plato in the highest esteem2 but did not scruple to join with his doctrines whatever they thought conformable to reason in the tenets of other philosophers4 ,potamon1 a ,platonist1 appears to have been the projector of this plan4 ,the ,eclectic system was brought to perfection by ,ammonius ,saccas1 who blended ,christianity with his philosophy1 and founded the sect of the ,ammonians1 or ,new ,platonists1 in the second century4 ,the moral doctrine of the ,alexandrian school was as follows3--,the mind of man1 originally a portion of the ,divine ,being1 having fallen into a state of darkness and defilement1 by its union with the body1 is to be gradually emancipated from the chains of matter1 and rise by contemplation to the knowledge and vision of ,god4 ,the end of philosophy1 therefore1 is the liberation of the soul from its corporeal imprisonment4 ,for this purpose1 the ,eclectic philosophy recommends abstinence1 with other voluntary mortifications1 and religious exercises4 ,in the infancy of the ,alexandrian school1 not a few of the professors of ,christianity were led1 by the pretensions of the ,eclectic sect1 to imagine that a coalition might1 with great advantage1 be formed between its system and that of ,christianity4 ,this union appeared the more desirable1 when several philosophers of this sect became converts to the ,christian faith4 ,the consequence was1 that ,pagan ideas and opinions were by degrees mixed with the pure and simple doctrines of the ,gospel4 ,see ,,platonism4 ,,eclipse4 ,the word eclipse1 1 signifies failure1 namely1 of light4 ,an eclipse of the sun is caused by the intervention of the moon1 at new1 or in conjunction with the sun1 intercepting his light from the earth1 either totally or partially4 ,an eclipse of the moon is caused by the intervention of the earth1 intercepting the sun's light from the moon1 when full1 or in opposition to the sun1 either totally or partially4 ,the reason why the sun is not eclipsed every new moon1 nor the moon at every full1 is owing to the inclination of the moon's orbit to the plane of the ecliptic1 or earth's orbit1 in an angle of about five degrees and a half2 in consequence of which1 the moon is generally too much elevated above the plane of the ecliptic1 or too much depressed below it1 for her disk to touch the earth's shadow at full1 or for her shadow1 or her penumbra1 to touch the earth's disk at new4 ,an eclipse1 therefore1 of either luminary can only take place when they are within their proper limits1 or distances1 from the nodes or intersections of both orbits4 ,and because the limits of solar eclipses are wider than those of lunar1 in general there will be more eclipses of the sun than of the moon4 ,in any year1 the number of eclipses of both luminaries cannot be less than two1 and these will both be of the sun1 nor more than seven3 the usual number is four2 and it is very rare to have more than six4 ,but though solar eclipses happen oftener1 lunar are more frequently observed in any particular place4 ,for an eclipse of the moon is visible to the inhabitants of half the globe at the same instant2 whereas1 an eclipse of the sun is visible only within that part of the earth's surface1 traversed by the moon's total shadow1 and by her penumbra1 or partial shadow4 ,but her total shadow1 when she is nearest to the earth1 cannot cover a space of more than a hundred and fifty-eight geographical miles in diameter1 nor at her mean distance more than seventy-nine1 and at her greatest distance may not touch the earth at all4 ,in the two former cases1 the sun will be eclipsed in the places covered by the shadow totally1 or by the penumbra partially3 in the last it may be annular1 but not total4 ,without the reach of the shadow1 and within the limits of the penumbra1 which cannot cover more than four thousand five hundred and fifty-two miles of the earth's surface1 there will be a partial eclipse of the sun1 and without these limits no eclipse at all4 ,hence lunar eclipses are more frequently noticed by historians than solar2 and ,diogenes ,laertius may be credited when he relates1 that1 during the period in which the ,egyptians had observed eight hundred and thirty-two eclipses of the moon1 they had only observed three hundred and seventy-three of the sun4 ,in the midst of a total lunar eclipse1 the moon's disk is frequently visible1 and of a deep red or copperish colour4 ,this1 in the poetic language of sacred prophecy1 is expressed by 8the moon's being turned into blood10 ,joel ii1 #ca4 ,this remarkable phenomenon is caused by the sun's lateral rays in their passage through the dense atmosphere of the earth1 being inflected into the shadow by refraction1 and falling pretty copiously upon the moon's disk1 are reflected from thence to the eye of the spectator4 ,if the earth had no atmosphere1 the moon's disk would then be as black as in a solar eclipse4 ,a total eclipse of the moon may occasion a privation of her light for an hour and a half1 during her total immersion in the shadow2 whereas1 a total eclipse of the sun can never last in any particular place above four minutes1 when the moon is nearest to the earth1 and her shadow thickest4 ,hence it appears1 that the darkness which 8overspread the whole land of ,judea10 at the time of our ,lord's crucifixion1 was preternatural1 8from the sixth until the ninth hour10 or from noon till three in the afternoon1 in its duration1 and also in its time1 about full moon1 when the moon could not possibly eclipse the sun4 ,it was accompanied by an earthquake1 which altogether struck the spectators1 and among them the centurion and ,roman guard1 with great fear1 and a conviction1 that ,jesus was the ,son of ,god1 ,matt1 xxvii1 #ea-ed4 ,eclipses1 says ,dr4 ,hales1 are justly reckoned among the surest and most unerring characters of chronology2 for they can be calculated with great exactness backward as well as forward2 and there is such a variety of distinct circumstances of the time when1 and the place where1 they were seen2 of the duration1 or beginning1 middle1 or end of every eclipse1 and of the quantity1 or number of digits eclipsed2 that there is no danger of confounding any two eclipses together1 when the circumstances attending each are noticed with any tolerable degree of precision4 ,thus1 to an eclipse of the moon incidentally noticed by the great ,jewish chronologer1 ,josephus1 shortly before the death of ,herod the ,great1 we owe the determination of the true year of our ,saviour's nativity4 ,during ,herod's last illness1 and not many days before his death1 there happened an eclipse of the moon on the very night that he burned alive ,matthias1 and the ringleaders of a sedition1 in which the golden eagle1 which he had consecrated and set up over the gate of the temple1 was pulled down and broken to pieces by these zealots4 ,this eclipse happened1 by calculation1 ,march #ac1 ,u4 ,c4 #gej1 ,b4 ,c4 #d4 ,but it is certain from ,scripture1 that ,christ was born during ,herod's reign2 and from the visit of the magi to ,jerusalem 8from the east10 1 from the ,parthian empire1 to inquire for the true 8born ,king of the ,jews10 whose star they had seen 8at its rising10 1 and also from the age of the infants massacred at ,bethlehem1 8from two years old and under10 ,matt1 ii1 #a-af4 ,it is no less certain1 that ,jesus could not have been born later than ,b4 ,c4 #e1 which is the year assigned to the nativity by ,chrysostom1 ,petavius and ,prideaux4 ,,eden1 ,garden of1 the residence of our first parents in their state of purity and blessedness4 ,the word ,eden in the ,hebrew denotes 8pleasure0 or 8delight30 whence the name has been given to several places which1 from their situation1 were pleasant or delightful4 ,thus the ,prophet ,amos1 i1 #e1 speaks of an ,eden in ,syria1 which is generally considered to have been in the valley of ,damascus1 where a town called ,eden is mentioned by ,pliny and ,ptolemy1 and where the tomb of ,abel is pretended to be shown4 ,this has in consequence been selected by some as the site of the garden of ,eden4 ,by others1 the garden has been placed on the eastern side of mount ,libanus2 and by others again1 in ,arabia ,felix1 where traces of the word ,eden are found4 ,but the opinion which has been most generally received on this subject is that which places the garden on the ,lower ,euphrates2 between the junction of that river with the ,tigris and the gulf of ,persia4 ,this is ,dr4 ,well's opinion2 in which he is supported by ,huetius1 ,grotius1 ,marinus1 and ,bochart4 ,to this it is replied1 that1 according to this scheme1 the garden was intersected by a great branch of the ,euphrates1 in the lower and broadest part of its course2 which will give it an extent absolutely irreconcilable with the idea of ,adam's 8dressing0 it by his own manual labour1 or even of overlooking it3 beside that all communication would be cut off between its different parts by a stream half a mile in width4 ,its local features1 too1 if in this situation1 must have been of the most uninteresting kind2 the whole of that region1 as far as the sight can reach1 being a dead1 monotonous1 sandy1 or marshy flat1 without a single undulation to relieve the eye1 or give any of the beauties which the imagination involuntarily paints to itself as attendant on a spot finished by the hand of ,god as the residence of his creatures in a state of innocence2 whose minds may be supposed to be tuned to the full enjoyment of the grand and beautiful in nature4 ,how different will be the aspect and arrangement of this favoured spot1 if it be placed where only1 according to the words of ,moses1 it can be placed2 namely1 at the heads or fountains of the rivers described1 instead of their mouths4 ,the country of ,eden1 therefore1 according to others1 was some where in ,media1 ,armenia1 or the north of ,mesopotamia2 all mountainous tracts1 and affording1 instead of the sickening plains of ,babylonia1 some of the grandest1 as well as the richest scenery in the world4 ,a river or stream rising in some part of this country1 entered the garden2 where it was parted into four others1 in all probability1 by first falling into a basin or lake1 from which the other streams issued at different points1 taking different directions1 and growing into mighty rivers2 although at their sources in the garden1 they would be like all other rivers1 mere brooks1 and forming no barrier to a free communication between the parts of the garden4 ,dr4 ,wells1 in order to support his hypothesis of the situation of ,eden on the lower parts of the ,euphrates and ,tigris1 after giving these rivers a distribution which has now no existence1 makes the ,pison and ,gihon to be parts of the ,tigris and ,euphrates themselves3 an arrangement at perfect disagreement with the particular description of ,moses2 beside1 that the ,gihon thus called1 instead of compassing the whole land of ,cush1 can only be said to skirt an extreme corner of it4 ,it appears1 indeed1 that in the time of ,alexander1 the ,euphrates pursued a separate course to the sea2 or1 at least1 that a navigable branch of it was carried in that direction3 in the mouth of which1 at ,diridotis1 ,nearchus anchored with his fleet4 ,but what reliance can be placed on the ever shifting channels of a river flowing through an alluvial soil1 and over a perfect level divertible at the pleasure of the people inhabiting its banks8 ,or1 what theory can be founded on their distribution1 which will not be as unstable as the streams themselves8 ,this very channel1 so essential to the hypothesis which places ,eden in this situation1 was annihilated by the ,orcheni1 a neighbouring people2 who directed the stream to water their own land1 and thus gave it a shorter course into the ,tigris1 which it has ever since preserved4 ,but it is only the lower parts of the ,euphrates and ,tigris1 as they creep through the plains of ,babylonia1 which are thus inconstant3 higher up in their courses1 they flow over more solid strata1 and in deeper valleys1 unchanged by time4 ,it is here that their conformity with the ,mosaic account is to be sought2 and it is here that they may be found1 in the exact condition in which they were left by the deluge1 and1 indeed1 according to ,moses1 in which they existed before that event4 ,it is true1 that the heads of the four rivers1 above described1 cannot now be found sufficiently near1 to recognise thence the exact situation of paradise2 but they all arise from the same mountainous region2 and the springs of the ,euphrates and ,tigris1 as already mentioned1 are even now nearly interwoven4 ,mr4 ,faber supposes the lake ,arsissa to cover the site of ,eden2 and that the change which carried the heads of the rivers to a greater distance from it1 was occasioned by the deluge4 ,but it is far more probable that this change1 if we may infer from the account given by ,moses that the courses of all the streams remained unaltered by the flood1 may have taken place at man's expulsion from the garden3 when ,god might choose to obliterate this fair portion of his works1 unfitted for any thing but the residence of innocence2 and to blot at once from the face of the earth1 like the guilty cities of the plain1 both the site and the memorial of man's transgression1--an awful event1 which would add tenfold horrors to the punishment4 ,,edom1 a province of ,arabia1 which derives its name from ,edom1 or ,esau1 who there settled in the mountains of ,seir1 in the land of the ,horites1 south-east of the ,dead ,sea4 ,his descendants afterward extended themselves throughout ,arabia ,petrea1 and south of ,palestine1 between the ,dead ,sea and the ,mediterranean4 ,during the ,babylonish captivity1 and when ,judea was almost deserted1 they seized the south of ,judah1 and advanced to ,hebron4 ,hence that tract of ,judea1 which they inhabited1 retained the name of ,idumea in the time of our ,saviour1 ,mark iii1 #h4 ,under ,moses and ,joshua1 and even under the kings of ,judah1 the ,idumeans were confined to the east and south of the ,dead ,sea1 in the land of ,seir2 but afterward they extended their territories more to the south of ,judah4 ,the capital of east ,edom was ,bozrah2 and that of south ,edom1 ,petra1 or ,jectael4 ,the ,edomites1 or ,idumeans1 the posterity of ,esau1 had kings long before the ,jews4 ,they were first governed by dukes or princes1 and afterward by kings1 ,gen4 xxxvi1 #ca4 ,they continued independent till the time of ,david1 who subdued them1 in completion of ,isaac's prophecy1 that ,jacob should rule ,esau1 ,gen4 xxvii1 #bi1 #cj4 ,the ,idumeans bore this subjection with great impatience2 and at the end of ,solomon's reign1 ,hadad1 the ,edomite1 who had been carried into ,egypt during his childhood1 returned into his own country1 where he procured himself to be acknowledged king1 #a ,kings xi1 #bb4 ,it is probable1 however1 that he reigned only in east ,edom2 for ,edom south of ,judea continued subject to the kings of ,judah1 till the reign of ,jehoram1 son of ,jehoshaphat1 against whom it rebelled1 #b ,chron4 xxi1 #h4 ,jehoram attacked ,edom1 but did not subdue it4 ,amaziah king of ,judah1 took ,petra1 killed a thousand men1 and compelled ten thousand more to leap from the rock1 upon which stood the city of ,petra1 #b ,chron4 xxv1 #aa1 #ab4 ,but these conquests were not permanent4 ,uzziah took ,elath on the ,red ,sea1 #b ,kings xiv1 #bb2 but ,rezin1 king of ,syria1 retook it4 ,some think that ,esarhaddon1 king of ,syria1 ravaged this country1 ,isaiah xxi1 #aa-ag2 xxxiv1 #f4 ,holofernes subdued it1 as well as other nations around ,judea1 ,judith iii1 #ad4 ,when ,nebuchadnezzar besieged ,jerusalem1 the ,idumeans joined him1 and encouraged him to rase the very foundations of that city4 ,this cruelty did not long continue unpunished4 ,five years after the taking of ,jerusalem1 ,nebuchadnezzar humbled all the states around ,judea1 and in particular ,idumea4 ,john ,hyrcanus entirely conquered the ,idumeans1 whom he obliged to receive circumcision and the law4 ,they continued subject to the later kings of ,judea till the destruction of ,jerusalem by the ,romans4 ,they even came to assist that city when besieged1 and entered it in order to defend it4 ,however1 they did not continue there till it was taken1 but returned into ,idumea loaded with booty4 ,the prophecies respecting ,edom are numerous and striking2 and the present state of the country as described by modern travellers has given so remarkable an attestation to the accuracy of their fulfilment1 that a few extracts from ,mr4 ,keith's work1 in which this is pointed out1 may be fitly introduced3-- #b4 ,there are numerous prophecies respecting ,idumea1 that bear a literal interpretation1 however hyperbolical they may appear4 8,my sword shall come down upon ,idumea1 and upon the people of my curse1 to judgment4 ,from generation to generation it shall lie waste1 none shall pass through it for ever and ever4 ,but the cormorant and the bittern shall possess it2 the owl also and the raven shall dwell in it3 and he shall stretch out upon it the line of confusion1 and the stones of emptiness4 ,they shall call the nobles thereof to the kingdom2 but none shall be there1 and all her princes shall be nothing4 ,and thorns shall come up in her palaces1 nettles and brambles in the fortresses thereof2 and it shall be a habitation of dragons1 and a court for owls4 ,seek ye out of the book of the ,lord and read2 no one of these shall fail1 none shall want her mate2 for my mouth it hath commanded1 and his ,spirit it hath gathered them4 ,and he hath cast the lot for them1 and his hand hath divided it unto them by line2 they shall possess it for ever1 from generation to generation shall they dwell therein10 ,isa4 xxxiv1 #e1 #aj-ag4 8,i have sworn by myself1 saith the ,lord1 that ,bozrah0 7the strong or fortified city7 8shall become a desolation1 a reproach1 a waste1 and a curse2 and all the cities thereof shall be perpetual wastes4 ,lo1 ,i will make thee small among the ,heathen1 and despised among men4 ,thy terribleness hath deceived thee1 and the pride of thine heart1 ,o thou that dwellest in the clefts of the rock1 that holdest the height of the hill3 though thou shouldest make thy nest as high as the eagle1 ,i will bring thee down from thence1 saith the ,lord4 ,also ,edom shall be a desolation2 every one that goeth by shall be astonished1 and shall hiss at all the plagues thereof4 ,as in the overthrow of ,sodom and ,gomorrah1 and the neighbour cities thereof1 saith the ,lord1 no man shall abide there1 neither shall a son of man dwell in it10 ,jer4 xlix1 #ac-ah4 8,thus saith the ,lord ,god1 ,i will stretch out mine hand upon ,edom1 and will cut off man and beast from it1 and ,i will make it desolate from ,teman40 8,i laid the mountains of ,esau and his heritage waste for the dragons of the wilderness4 ,whereas ,edom saith1 ,we are impoverished1 but we will return and build the desolate places2 thus saith the ,lord of hosts1 ,they shall build1 but ,i will throw down2 and they shall call them1 ,the border of wickedness10 ,malachi i1 #c1 #d4 ,is there any country once inhabited and opulent1 so utterly desolate8 ,there is1 and that land is ,idumea4 ,the territory of the descendants of ,esau affords as miraculous a demonstration of the inspiration of the ,scriptures as the fate of the children of ,israel4 ,a single extract from the ,travels of ,volney will be found to be equally illustrative of the prophecy and of the fact3 8,this country has not been visited by any traveller1 but it well merits such an attention2 for1 from the report of the ,arabs of ,bakir1 and the inhabitants of ,gaza1 who frequently go to ,maan and ,karak1 on the road of the pilgrims1 there are1 to the south-east of the lake ,asphaltites1 7,dead ,sea17 within three days' journey1 upward of thirty ruined towns absolutely deserted4 ,several of them have large edifices1 with columns that may have belonged to the ancient temples1 or at least to ,greek churches4 ,the ,arabs sometimes make use of them to fold their cattle in2 but in general avoid them on account of the enormous scorpions with which they swarm4 ,we cannot be surprised at these traces of ancient population1 when we recollect that this was the country of the ,nabatheans1 the most powerful of the ,arabs1 and of the ,idumeans1 who1 at the time of the destruction of ,jerusalem1 were almost as numerous as the ,jews1 as appears from ,josephus1 who informs us1 that on the first rumour of the march of ,titus against ,jerusalem1 thirty thousand ,idumeans instantly assembled1 and threw themselves into that city for its defence4 ,it appears that1 beside the advantages of being under a tolerably good government1 these districts enjoyed a considerable share of the commerce of ,arabia and ,india1 which increased their industry and population4 ,we know that as far back as the time of ,solomon1 the cities of ,astioum ,gaber 7,ezion ,geber7 and ,ailah 7,eloth7 were highly frequented marts4 ,these towns were situated on the adjacent gulf of the ,red ,sea1 where we still find the latter yet retaining its name1 and perhaps the former in that of ,el ,akaba1 or #8the end of the sea4' ,these two places are in the hands of the ,bedouins1 who1 being destitute of a navy and commerce1 do not inhabit them4 ,but the pilgrims report that there is at ,el ,akaba a wretched fort4 ,the ,idumeans1 from whom the ,jews only took their ports at intervals1 must have found in them a great source of wealth and population4 ,it even appears that the ,idumeans rivalled the ,tyrians1 who also possessed a town1 the name of which is unknown1 on the coast of ,hedjaz1 in the desert of ,tih1 and the city of ,faran1 and1 without doubt1 ,el-,tor1 which served it by way of port4 ,from this place the caravans might reach ,palestine and ,judea1 7through ,idumea17 in eight or ten days4 ,this route1 which is longer than that from ,suez to ,cairo1 is infinitely shorter than that from ,aleppo to ,bassorah40 ,evidence1 which must have been undesigned1 which cannot be suspected of partiality1 and which no illustration can strengthen1 and no ingenuity pervert1 is thus borne to the truth of the most wonderful prophecies4 ,that the ,idumeans were a populous and powerful nation long posterior to the delivery of the prophecies2 that they possessed a tolerably good government1 even in the estimation of ,volney2 that ,idumea contained many cities2 that these cities are now absolutely deserted2 and that their ruins swarm with enormous scorpions2 that it was a commercial nation1 and possessed highly frequented marts2 that it forms a shorter route than the ordinary one to ,india2 and yet that it had not been visited by any traveller2 are facts all recorded1 and proved by this able but unconscious commentator4 #c4 ,a greater contrast cannot be imagined than the ancient and present state of ,idumea4 ,it was a kingdom previous to ,israel1 having been governed first by dukes or princes1 afterward by eight successive kings1 and again by dukes1 before there reigned any king over the children of ,israel1 ,gen4 xxxvi1 #ca1 c4 ,its fertility and early cultivation are implied not only in the blessings of ,esau1 whose dwelling was to be the fatness of the earth1 and of the dew of heaven from above2 but also in the condition proposed by ,moses to the ,edomites1 when he solicited a passage for the ,israelites through their borders1 that 8they would not pass through the fields nor through the vineyards20 and also in the great wealth1 especially in the multitudes of flocks and herds1 recorded as possessed by an individual inhabitant of that country1 at a period1 in all probability even more remote1 ,gen4 xxvii1 #ci2 ,num4 xx1 #ag2 ,job xlii1 #ab4 ,the ,idumeans were1 without doubt1 both an opulent and a powerful people4 ,they often contended with the ,israelites1 and entered into a league with their other enemies against them4 ,in the reign of ,david they were indeed subdued and greatly oppressed1 and many of them even dispersed throughout the neighbouring countries1 particularly ,phenicia and ,egypt4 ,but during the decline of the kingdom of ,judah1 and for many years previous to its extinction1 they encroached upon the territories of the ,jews1 and extended their dominion over the south-western part of ,judea4 #d4 ,there is a prediction which1 being peculiarly remarkable as applicable to ,idumea1 and bearing reference to a circumstance explanatory of the difficulty of access to any knowledge respecting it1 is entitled1 in the first instance1 to notice3 8,none shall pass through it for ever and ever4 ,i will cut off from ,mount ,seir him that passeth out1 and him that returneth10 ,isa4 xxxiv1 #aj2 ,ezek4 xxxv1 #g4 ,the ancient greatness of ,idumea must1 in no small degree1 have resulted from its commerce4 ,bordering with ,arabia on the east1 and ,egypt on the southwest1 and forming from north to south the most direct and most commodious channel of communication between ,jerusalem and her dependencies on the ,red ,sea1 as well as between ,syria and ,india1 through the continuous valleys of ,el ,ghor1 and ,el ,araba1 which terminated on the one extremity at the borders of ,judea1 and on the other at ,elath and ,ezion ,geber on the ,elanitic gulf of the ,red ,sea1 ,idumea may be said to have formed the emporium of the commerce of the east4 ,a ,roman road passed directly through ,idumea1 from ,jerusalem to ,akaba1 and another from ,akaba to ,moab2 and when these roads were made1 at a time long posterior to the date of the predictions1 the conception could not have been formed1 or held credible by man1 that the period would ever arrive when none would pass through it4 ,above seven hundred years after the date of the prophecy1 ,strabo relates that many ,romans and other foreigners were found at ,petra by his friend ,athenodorus1 the philosopher1 who visited it4 ,the prediction is yet more surprising when viewed in conjunction with another1 which implies that travellers would 8pass by0 ,idumea3 8,every one that goeth by shall be astonished40 ,and the ,hadj routes 7routes of the pilgrims7 from ,damascus and from ,cairo to ,mecca1 the one on the east and the other toward the south of ,idumea1 along the whole of its extent1 go by it1 or touch partially on its borders1 without passing through it4 ,the truth of the prophecy1 though hemmed in thus by apparent impossibilities and contradictions1 and with extreme probability of its fallacy in every view that could have been visible to man1 may yet be tried4 #e4 8,edom shall be a desolation4 ,from generation to generation it shall lie waste10 c4 ,judea1 ,ammon1 and ,moab1 exhibit so abundantly the remains and the means of an exuberant fertility1 that the wonder arises in the reflecting mind1 how the barbarity of man could have so effectually counteracted for so many generations the prodigality of nature4 ,but such is ,edom's desolation1 that the first sentiment of astonishment on the contemplation of it is1 how a wide extended region1 now diversified by the strongest features of desert wildness1 could ever have been adorned with cities1 or tenanted for ages by a powerful and opulent people4 ,its present aspect would belie its ancient history1 were not that history corroborated by 8the many vestiges of former cultivation10 by the remains of walls and paved roads1 and by the ruins of cities still existing in this ruined country4 ,the total cessation of its commerce2 the artificial irrigation of its valleys wholly neglected2 the destruction of all the cities1 and the continued spoliation of the country by the ,arabs1 while aught remained that they could destroy2 the permanent exposure1 for ages1 of the soil unsheltered by its ancient groves1 and unprotected by any covering from the scorching rays of the sun2 the unobstructed encroachments of the desert1 and of the drifted sands from the borders of the ,red ,sea2 the consequent absorption of the water of the springs and streamlets during summer1--are causes which have all combined their baneful operation in rendering ,edom 8most desolate1 the desolation of desolations40 ,volney's account is sufficiently descriptive of the desolation which now reigns over ,idumea2 and the information which ,seetzen derived at ,jerusalem respecting it is of similar import4 ,he was told1 that at the distance of two days' journey and a half from ,hebron1 he would find considerable ruins of the ancient city of ,abde1 and that for all the rest of the journey he would see no place of habitation2 he would meet only with a few tribes of wandering ,arabs4 ,from the borders of ,edom1 ,captains ,irby and ,mangles beheld a boundless extent of desert view1 which they had hardly ever seen equalled for singularity and grandeur4 ,and the following extract1 descriptive of what ,burckhardt actually witnessed in the different parts of ,edom1 cannot be more graphically abbreviated than in the words of the prophet4 ,of its eastern boundary1 and of the adjoining part of ,arabia ,petrea1 strictly so called1 ,burckhardt writes3 8,it might1 with truth1 be called ,petrea1 not only on account of its rocky mountains1 but also of the elevated plain already described1 which is so much covered with stones1 especially flints1 that it may with great propriety be called a stony desert1 although susceptible of culture2 in many places it is overgrown with wild herbs1 and must once have been thickly inhabited2 for the traces of many towns and villages are met with on both sides of the ,hadj road between ,maan and ,akaba1 as well as between ,maan and the plains of the ,hauran1 in which direction are also many springs4 ,at present all this country is a desert1 and ,maan 7,teman7 is the only inhabited place in it3 #8,i will stretch out my hand against thee1 ,o ,mount ,seir1 and will make thee most desolate4 ,i will stretch out my hand upon ,edom1 and will make it desolate from ,teman4'0 ,in the interior of ,idumea1 where the ruins of some of its ancient cities are still visible1 and in the extensive valley which reaches from the ,red to the ,dead ,sea1 the appearance of which must now be totally and sadly changed from what it was1 8the whole plain presented to the view an expanse of shifting sands1 whose surface was broken by innumerable undulations and low hills4 ,the sand appears to have been brought from the shores of the ,red ,sea1 by the southern winds2 and the ,arabs told me that the valleys continue to present the same appearance beyond the latitude of ,wady ,mousa4 ,in some parts of the valley the sand is very deep1 and there is not the slightest appearance of a road1 or of any work of human art4 ,a few trees grow among the sand hills1 but the depth of sand precludes all vegetation of herbage40 8,if grape gatherers come to thee1 would not they leave some gleaning grapes8 ,if thieves by night1 they will destroy till they have enough2 but ,i have made ,esau bare4 ,edom shall be a desolate wilderness40 8,on ascending the western plain10 continues ,mr4 ,burckhardt1 8on a higher level than that of ,arabia1 we had before us an immense expanse of dreary country1 entirely covered with black flints1 with here and there some hilly chain rising from the plain40 8,i will stretch out upon ,idumea the line of confusion1 and the stones of emptiness40 ,such is the present desolate aspect of one of the most fertile countries of ancient times6 ,so visibly even now does the withering curse of an offended ,god rest upon it6 ,,egg1 1 ,deut4 xxii1 #f2 ,job xxxix1 #ad2 ,isaiah x1 #ad2 lix1 #e2 1 ,luke xi1 #ab4 ,eggs are considered as a very great delicacy in the east1 and are served up with fish and honey at their entertainments4 ,as a desirable article of food1 the egg is mentioned1 ,luke xi1 #ab3 8,if a son ask for an egg1 will his father offer him a scorpion80 ,it has been remarked that the body of the scorpion is very like an egg1 as its head can scarcely be distinguished1 especially if it be of the white kind1 which is the first species mentioned by lian1 ,avicenna1 and others4 ,bochart has produced testimonies to prove that the scorpions in ,judea were about the bigness of an egg4 ,so the similitude is preserved between the thing asked1 and the thing given4 ,,eglon1 a king of ,moab1 who oppressed the ,israelites1 and was slain by ,ehud1 ,judges iii1 #ad1 #ba4 ,it is thought to have been a common name of the kings of ,moab1 as ,abimelech was of the ,philistines4 ,,egypt1 a country of ,africa1 called also in the ,hebrew ,scriptures the land of ,mizraim1 and the land of ,ham2 by the ,turks and ,arabs1 ,masr and ,misr2 and by the native ,egyptians1 ,chemi1 or the land of ,ham4 ,mr4 ,faber derives the name from ,ai-,capht1 or the land of the ,caphtorim2 from which1 also1 the modern ,egyptians derive their name of ,cophts4 ,egypt was first peopled after the deluge by ,mizraim1 or ,mizr1 the son of ,ham1 who is supposed to be the same with ,menes1 recorded in ,egyptian history as the first king4 ,every thing relating to the subsequent history and condition of this country1 for many ages1 is involved in fable4 ,nor have we any clear information from ,heathen writers1 until the time of ,cyrus1 and his son ,cambyses1 when the line of ,egyptian princes ceased in agreement with prophecies to that effect4 ,manetho1 the ,egyptian historian1 has given a list of thirty dynasties1 which1 if successive1 make a period of five thousand three hundred years to the time of ,alexander1 or three thousand two hundred and eighty-two years more than the real time1 according to the ,mosaic chronology4 ,but this is a manifest forgery1 which has1 nevertheless1 been appealed to by infidel writers1 as authority against the veracity of the ,mosaic history4 ,the truth is1 that this pretended succession of princes1 if all of them can be supposed to have existed at all1 constituted several distinct dynasties1 ruling in different cities at the same time3 thus these were the kingdoms of ,thebes1 ,thin1 ,memphis1 and ,tanis4 ,see ,,writing4 #b4 ,in the time of ,moses we find ,egypt renowned for learning2 for he was instructed 8in all its wisdom20 and it is one of the commendations of ,solomon1 at a later period1 that he excelled in knowledge 8all the wisdom of the children of the east country1 and all the wisdom of ,egypt40 ,astronomy1 which probably1 like that of the ,chaldeans1 comprehended also judicial astrology1 physics1 agriculture1 jurisprudence1 medicine1 architecture1 painting1 and sculpture1 were the principal sciences and arts2 to which were added1 and that by their wisest men1 the study of divination1 magic1 and enchantments4 ,they had also their consulters with familiar spirits1 and necromancers1 those who had1 or pretended to have1 intercourse with the infernal deities1 and the spirits of the dead1 and delivered responses to inquirers4 ,of all this knowledge1 good and evil1 and of a monstrous system of idolatry1 ,egypt was the polluted fountain to the surrounding nations2 but in that country itself it appears to have degenerated into the most absurd and debased forms4 ,among nations who are not blessed by divine revelation1 the luminaries of heaven are the first objects of worship4 ,diodorus ,siculus1 mentioning the ,egyptians1 informs us1 that 8the first men1 looking up to the world above them1 and1 struck with admiration at the nature of the universe1 supposed the sun and moon to be the principal and eternal gods40 ,this1 which may be called the natural superstition of mankind1 we can trace in the annals of the west1 as well as of the east2 among the inhabitants of the new world1 as well as of the old4 ,the sun and moon1 under the names of ,isis and ,osiris1 were the chief objects of adoration among the ,egyptians4 ,but the earliest times had a purer faith4 ,the following inscription1 engraven in hieroglyphics in the temple of ,neith1 the ,egyptian ,minerva1 conveys the most sublime idea of the ,deity which unenlightened reason could form3 8,i am that which is1 was1 and shall be3 no mortal hath lifted up my veil3 the offspring of my power is the sun40 ,a similar inscription still remains at ,capua1 on the temple of ,isis3 8,thou art one1 and from thee all things proceed40 ,plutarch also informs us1 that the inhabitants of ,thebais worshipped only the immortal and supreme ,god1 whom they called ,eneph4 ,according to the ,egyptian cosmogony1 all things sprung from athor1 or night1 by which they denoted the darkness of chaos before the creation4 ,sanchoniathon relates1 that1 8from the breath of gods and the void were mortals created40 ,this theology differs little from that of ,moses1 who says1 8,the earth was without form1 and void2 darkness was upon the face of the deep2 and the ,spirit of ,god moved upon the face of the waters40 #c4 ,a superstitious reverence for certain animals1 as propitious or hurtful to the human race1 was not peculiar to the ,egyptians4 ,the cow has been venerated in ,india from the most remote antiquity4 ,the serpent has been the object of religious respect to one half of the nations of the known world4 ,the ,romans had sacred animals1 which they kept in their temples1 and distinguished with peculiar honours4 ,we need not therefore be surprised that a nation so superstitious as the ,egyptians should honour1 with peculiar marks of respect1 the ichneumon1 the ibis1 the dog1 the falcon1 the wolf1 and the crocodile4 ,these they entertained at great expense1 and with much magnificence4 ,lands were set apart for their maintenance2 persons of the highest rank were employed in feeding and attending them2 rich carpets were spread in their apartments2 and the pomp at their funerals corresponded to the profusion and luxury which attended them while alive4 ,what chiefly tended to favour the progress of animal worship in ,egypt1 was the language of hieroglyphics4 ,in the hieroglyphic inscriptions on their temples1 and public edifices1 animals1 and even vegetables1 were the symbols of the gods whom they worshipped4 ,in the midst of innumerable superstitions1 the theology of ,egypt contained the two great principles of religion1 the existence of a supreme ,being1 and the immortality of the soul4 ,the first is proved by the inscription on the temple of ,minerva2 the second1 by the care with which dead bodies were embalmed1 and the prayer recited at the hour of death1 by an ,egyptian1 expressing his desire to be received to the presence of the deities4 #d4 ,the opulence of ,egypt was for ages increased by the large share it had in the commerce with the east2 by its own favourable position1 making it the connecting link of intercourse between the eastern and western nations2 and especially by its own remarkable fertility1 particularly in corn1 so that it was1 in times of scarcity1 the granary of the world4 ,its extraordinary fertility was owing to the periodical inundation of the ,nile2 and sufficient proofs of the ancient accounts which we have of its productiveness are afforded to this day4 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,jowett has given a striking example of the extraordinary fertility of the soil of ,egypt1 which is alluded to in ,genesis xli1 #dg3 8,the earth brought forth by handfuls40 8,i picked up at random10 says ,mr4 ,jowett1 8a few stalks out of the thick corn fields4 ,we counted the number of stalks which sprouted from single grains of seed2 carefully pulling to pieces each root1 in order to see that it was but one plant4 ,the first had seven stalks1 the next three1 the next nine1 then eighteen1 then fourteen4 ,each stalk would have been an ear40 #e4 ,the architecture of the early ,egyptians1 at least that of their cities and dwellings1 was rude and simple3 they could indeed boast of little in either external elegance or internal comfort1 since ,herodotus informs us that men and beasts lived together4 ,the materials of their structure were bricks of clay1 bound together with chopped straw1 and baked in the sun4 ,such were the bricks which the ,israelites were employed in making1 and of which the cities of ,pithom and ,rameses were built4 ,their composition was necessarily perishable1 and explains why it is that no remains of the ancient cities of ,egypt are to be found4 ,they would indeed last longer in the dry climate of this country than in any other2 but even here they must gradually decay and crumble to dust1 and the cities so constructed become heaps4 ,of precisely the same materials are the villages of ,egypt built at this day4 8,village after village10 says ,mr4 ,jowett1 speaking of ,tentyra1 8built of unburnt brick1 crumbling into ruins1 and giving place to new habitations1 have raised the earth1 in some parts1 nearly to the level of the summit of the temple4 ,in every part of ,egypt1 we find the towns built in this manner1 upon the ruins1 or rather the rubbish1 of the former habitations4 ,the expression in ,jeremiah xxx1 #ah1 literally applies to ,egypt1 in the meanest sense3 #8,the city shall be builded upon her own heap4' ,and the expression in ,job xv1 #bh1 might be illustrated by many of these deserted hovels3 #8,he dwelleth in desolate cities1 and in houses which no man inhabiteth1 which are ready to become heaps4' ,still more touching is the allusion1 in ,job iv1 #ai1 where the perishing generations of men are fitly compared to habitations of the frailest materials1 built upon the heap of similar dwelling-places1 now reduced to rubbish3 #8,how much less in them that dwell in houses of clay1 whose foundation is in the dust6'0 #f4 ,the splendid temples of ,egypt were not built1 in all probability1 till after the time of ,solomon2 for the recent progress made in the decyphering of hieroglyphics has disappointed the antiquaries as to the antiquity of these stupendous fabrics4 ,it is well observed by ,dr4 ,shuckford1 that temples made no great figure in ,homer's time4 ,if they had1 he would not have lost such an opportunity of exerting his genius on so grand a subject1 as ,virgil has done in his description of the temple built by ,dido at ,carthage4 ,the first ,heathen temples were probably nothing more than mean buildings1 which served merely as a shelter from the weather3 of which kind was1 probably1 the house of the ,philistine god ,dagon4 ,but when the fame of ,solomon's temple had reached other countries1 it excited them to imitate its splendour2 and nation vied with nation in the structures erected to their several deities4 ,all were1 however1 outdone1 at least in massiveness and durability1 by the ,egyptians2 the architectural design of whose temples1 as well as that of the ,grecian edifices1 was borrowed from the stems and branches of the grove temples4 #g4 ,it appears to be an unfounded notion1 that the pyramids were built by the ,israelites3 they were1 probably1 ,mr4 ,faber thinks1 the work of the 8,shepherds10 or ,cushite invaders1 who1 at an early period1 held possession of ,egypt for two hundred and sixty years1 and reduced the ,egyptians to bondage1 so that 8a shepherd was an abomination to the ,egyptians0 in ,joseph's time4 ,the ,israelites laboured in making bricks1 not in forming stones such as the pyramids are constructed with2 and a passage in ,mr4 ,jowett's 8,researches10 before referred to1 will throw light upon this part of their history4 ,mr4 ,jowett saw at one place the people making bricks1 with straw cut into small pieces1 and mingled with the clay1 to bind it4 ,hence it is1 that when villages built of these bricks fall into rubbish1 which is often the case1 the roads are full of small particles of straws1 extremely offensive to the eyes in a high wind4 ,they were1 in fact1 engaged exactly as the ,israelites used to be1 making bricks with straw2 and for a similar purpose1 to build extensive granaries for the bashaw2 8treasure-cities for ,pharaoh40 ,the same intelligent missionary also observes3 8,the mollems transact business between the bashaw and the peasants4 ,he punishes them if the peasants prove that they oppress2 and yet he requires from them that the work of those who are under them shall be fulfilled4 ,they strikingly illustrate the case of the officers placed by the ,egyptian task-masters over the children of ,israel2 and1 like theirs1 the mollems often find their case is evil1 ,exodus v40 #h4 ,it is not necessary to go over those parts of the ,egyptian history which occur in the ,old ,testament4 ,the prophecies respecting this haughty and idolatrous kingdom1 uttered by ,jeremiah and ,ezekiel when it was in the height of its splendour and prosperity1 were fulfilled in the terrible invasions of ,nebuchadnezzar1 ,cambyses1 and the ,persian monarchs4 ,it comes1 however1 again into an interesting connection with the ,jewish history under ,alexander the ,great1 who invaded it as a ,persian dependence4 ,so great1 indeed1 was the hatred of the ,egyptians toward their oppressors1 that they hailed the approach of the ,macedonians1 and threw open their cities to receive them4 ,alexander1 merciless as he was to those who opposed his progress or authority1 knew how to requite those who were devoted to his interests2 and the ,egyptians1 for many centuries afterward1 had reason to recollect with gratitude his protection and foresight4 ,it was he who discerned the local advantages of the spot on which the city bearing his name afterward stood1 who projected the plan of the town1 superintended its erection1 endowed it with many privileges1 and peopled it with colonies drawn from other places for the purpose1 chiefly ,greeks4 ,but1 together with these1 and the most favoured of all1 were the ,jews1 who enjoyed the free exercise of their religion1 and the same civil rights and liberties as the ,macedonians themselves4 ,kindness shown to the people of ,israel has never1 in the providence of ,god1 brought evil on any country2 and there can be no doubt but that the encouragement given to this enterprising and commercial people1 assisted very much to promote the interests of the new city1 which soon became the capital of the kingdom1 the centre of commerce1 of science1 and the arts1 and one of the most flourishing and considerable cities in the world4 ,egypt1 indeed1 was about to see better days2 and1 during the reigns of the ,ptolemies1 enjoyed again1 for nearly three hundred years1 something of its former renown for learning and power4 ,it formed1 during this period1 and before the rapid extension of the ,roman empire toward the termination of these years1 one of the only two ancient kingdoms which had survived the ,assyrian1 ,babylonian1 ,persian1 and ,macedonian empires3 the other was the ,syrian1 where the ,seleucid1 another family of one of the successors of ,alexander1 reigned2 who1 having subdued ,macedonia and ,thrace1 annexed them to the kingdom of ,syria1 and there remained out of the four kingdoms into which the empire of ,alexander was divided these two only2 distinguished1 in the prophetic writings of ,daniel1 by the titles of the kings or kingdoms of the north and the south4 #i4 ,under the reign of the three first ,ptolemies1 the state of the ,jews was exceedingly prosperous4 ,they were in high favour1 and continued to enjoy all the advantages conferred upon them by ,alexander4 ,judea was1 in fact1 at this time1 a privileged province of ,egypt2 the ,jews being governed by their own high priest1 on paying a tribute to the kings of ,egypt4 ,but in the reign of ,ptolemy ,epiphanes1 the fifth of the race1 it was taken by ,antiochus1 king of ,syria2 which was the beginning of fresh sufferings and persecutions2 for although this ,antiochus1 who was the one surnamed the ,great1 was a mild and generous prince1 and behaved favourably toward them1 their troubles began at his death2 his successor1 ,seleucus1 oppressing them with taxes2 and the next was the monster1 ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 whose impieties and cruelties are recorded in the two books of ,maccabees4 ,but still1 in ,egypt1 the ,jews continued in the enjoyment of their privileges1 so late as the reign of the sixth ,ptolemy1 called ,philometor1 who committed the charge of his affairs to two ,jews1 ,onias and ,dositheus2 the former of whom obtained permission to build a temple at ,heliopolis4 ,the introduction of ,christianity into ,egypt is mentioned under the article ,,alexandria4 #aj4 ,the prophecies respecting ,egypt in the ,old ,testament have had a wonderful fulfilment4 ,the knowledge of all its greatness and glory deterred not the ,jewish prophets from declaring1 that ,egypt would become 8a base kingdom1 and never exalt itself any more among the nations40 ,and the literal fulfilment of every prophecy affords as clear a demonstration as can possibly be given1 that each and all of them are the dictates of inspiration4 ,egypt was the theme of many prophecies1 which were fulfilled in ancient times2 and it bears to the present day1 as it has borne throughout many ages1 every mark with which prophecy had stamped its destiny3 8,they shall be a base kingdom4 ,it shall be the basest of kingdoms4 ,neither shall it exalt itself any more among the nations3 for ,i will diminish them1 that they shall no more rule over the nations4 ,the pride of her power shall come down2 and they shall be desolate in the midst of the countries that are desolate2 and her cities shall be in the midst of the cities that are wasted4 ,i will make the land of ,egypt desolate1 and the country shall be desolate of that whereof it was full4 ,i will sell the land into the hand of the wicked4 ,i will make the land waste and all that is therein1 by the hand of strangers4 ,i the ,lord have spoken it4 ,and there shall be no more a prince of the land of ,egypt10 ,ezek4 xxx1 #e1 #g1 #ab1 #ac4 8,the sceptre of ,egypt shall depart away10 ,zech4 x1 #aa4 #aa4 ,egypt became entirely subject to the ,persians about three hundred and fifty years previous to the ,christian ra4 ,it was afterward subdued by the ,macedonians1 and was governed by the ,ptolemies for the space of two hundred and ninety-four years2 until1 about ,b4 ,c4 #cj1 it became a province of the ,roman empire4 ,it continued long in subjection to the ,romans1--tributary first to ,rome1 and afterward to ,constantinople4 ,it was transferred1 ,a4 ,d4 #fda1 to the dominion of the ,saracens4 ,in #abej the ,mamelukes deposed their rulers1 and usurped the command of ,egypt4 ,a mode of government1 the most singular and surprising that ever existed on earth1 was established and maintained4 ,each successive ruler was raised to supreme authority1 from being a stranger and a slave4 ,no son of the former ruler1 no native of ,egypt1 succeeded to the sovereignty2 but a chief was chosen from among a new race of imported slaves4 ,when ,egypt became tributary to the ,turks in #aeag1 the ,mamelukes retained much of their power2 and every pasha was an oppressor and a stranger4 ,during all these ages1 every attempt to emancipate the country1 or to create a prince of the land of ,egypt1 has proved abortive1 and has often been fatal to the aspirant4 ,though the facts relative to ,egypt form too prominent a feature in the history of the world to admit of contradiction or doubt1 yet the description of the fate of that country1 and of the form of its government1 may be left1 says ,keith1 to the testimony of those whose authority no infidel will question1 and whom no man can accuse of adapting their descriptions to the predictions of the event4 ,volney and ,gibbon are our witnesses of the facts3 8,such is the state of ,egypt4 ,deprived1 twenty-three centuries ago1 of her natural proprietors1 she has seen her fertile fields successively a prey to the ,persians1 the ,macedonians1 the ,romans1 the ,greeks1 the ,arabs1 the ,georgians1 and1 at length1 the race of ,tartars distinguished by the name of ,ottoman ,turks4 ,the ,mamelukes1 purchased as slaves1 and introduced as soldiers1 soon usurped the power and elected a leader4 ,if their first establishment was a singular event1 their continuance is not less extraordinary4 ,they are replaced by slaves brought from their original country4 ,the system of oppression is methodical4 ,every thing the traveller sees or hears reminds him he is in the country of slavery and tyranny40 8,a more unjust and absurd constitution cannot be devised than that which condemns the natives of a country to perpetual servitude1 under the arbitrary dominion of strangers and slaves4 ,yet such has been the state of ,egypt above five hundred years4 ,the most illustrious sultans of the ,baharite and ,borgite dynasties were themselves promoted from the ,tartar and ,circassian bands2 and the four-and-twenty beys1 or military chiefs1 have ever been succeeded1 not by their sons1 but by their servants40 ,these are the words of ,volney and of ,gibbon2 and what did the ancient prophets foretel8--8,i will lay the land waste1 and all that is therein1 by the hands of strangers4 ,i the ,lord have spoken it4 ,and there shall be no more a prince of the land of ,egypt4 ,the sceptre of ,egypt shall depart away40 ,the prophecy adds3 8,they shall be a base kingdom3 it shall be the basest of kingdoms40 ,after the lapse of two thousand and four hundred years from the date of this prophecy1 a scoffer at religion1 but an eye witness of the facts1 thus describes the self-same spot3 8,in ,egypt10 says ,volney1 8there is no middle class1 neither nobility1 clergy1 merchants1 landholders4 ,a universal air of misery1 manifest in all the traveller meets1 points out to him the rapacity of oppression1 and the distrust attendant upon slavery4 ,the profound ignorance of the inhabitants equally prevents them from perceiving the causes of their evils1 or applying the necessary remedies4 ,ignorance1 diffused through every class1 extends its effects to every species of moral and physical knowledge4 ,nothing is talked of but intestine troubles1 the public misery1 pecuniary extortions1 bastinadoes1 and murders4 ,justice herself puts to death without formality40 ,other travellers describe the most execrable vices as common1 and represent the moral character of the people as corrupted to the core4 ,as a token of the desolation of the country1 mud-walled cottages are now the only habitations where the ruins of temples and palaces abound4 ,egypt is surrounded by the dominions of the ,turks and of the ,arabs2 and the prophecy is literally true which marked it in the midst of desolation3 8,they shall be desolate in the midst of the countries that are desolate1 and her cities shall be in the midst of the cities that are wasted40 ,the systematic oppression1 extortion1 and plunder1 which have so long prevailed1 and the price paid for his authority and power by every ,turkish pasha1 have rendered the country 8desolate of that whereof it was full10 and still show both how it has been 8wasted by the hands of strangers10 and how it has been 8sold into the hand of the wicked40 #ab4 ,egypt has1 indeed1 lately somewhat risen1 under its present spirited but despotic pasha1 to a degree of importance and commerce4 ,but this pasha is still a stranger1 and the dominion is foreign4 ,nor is there any thing like a general advancement of the people to order1 intelligence and happiness4 ,yet this fact1 instead of militating against the truth of prophecy1 may1 possibly at no distant period1 serve to illustrate other predictions4 8,the ,lord shall smite ,egypt3 he shall smite and heal it2 and they shall return to the ,lord1 and he shall be entreated of them1 and shall heal them4 ,in that day shall ,israel be the third with ,egypt and with ,assyria1 even a blessing in the midst of the land10 c1 ,isaiah xix1 #bb-be4 ,,elam1 the eldest son of ,shem1 who settled in a country to which he gave his name1 ,gen4 x1 #bb4 ,it is frequently mentioned in ,scripture1 as lying to the south-east of ,shinar4 ,susiana1 in later times1 seems to have been a part of this country1 ,daniel viii1 #b2 and before the captivity the ,jews seem always to have intended ,persia by the name of ,elam4 ,stephanus takes it to be a part of ,assyria1 but ,pliny and ,josephus1 more properly1 of ,persia1 whose inhabitants1 this latter tells us1 sprung from the ,elamites4 ,,elath1 or ,,eloth1 a part of ,idumea1 situate upon the ,red ,sea1 the emporium of ,syria in ,asia4 ,it was taken by ,david1 #b ,sam4 viii1 #ad1 who there established an extensive trade4 ,there ,solomon built ships1 #b ,chron4 viii1 #ag1 #ah4 ,the ,israelites held possession of ,elath one hundred and fifty years1 when the ,edomites1 in the reign of ,joram1 recovered it1 #b ,kings viii1 #bj4 ,it was again taken from them by ,azariah1 and by him left to his son1 #b ,kings xiv1 #bb4 ,the king of ,syria took it from his grandson1 #b ,kings xvi1 #f4 ,in process of time it fell to the ,ptolemies1 and lastly to the ,romans4 ,the branch of the ,red ,sea on which this city stood1 obtained among ,heathen writers the name of ,sinus ,elaniticus or ,elanitic ,gulf1 from a town built on its site called ,elana1 and subsequently ,ala2 which1 as we are informed by ,eusebius and ,jerom1 was used as a port in their time4 ,the modern ,arabian town of ,akaba stands upon or near the site either of ,elath or ,ezion-,geber2 which of the two it is impossible to determine1 as both ports1 standing at the head of the gulf1 were probably separated from each other by a creek or small bay only4 ,,eldad and ,medad were appointed by ,moses among the seventy elders of ,israel who were to assist in the government4 ,though not present in the general assembly1 they were1 notwithstanding1 filled with the ,spirit of ,god1 equally with those who were in that assembly1 and they began to prophesy in the camp4 ,joshua would have had ,moses forbid them1 but ,moses replied1 8,enviest thou for my sake8 ,would ,god that all the ,lord's people were prophets1 and that ,god would pour forth his ,spirit upon them60 ,numbers xi1 #bd-bi4 ,,elders1 a name given to certain laymen in the ,presbyterian discipline1 who are ecclesiastical officers1 and in conjunction with the ministers and deacons compose the kirk sessions in ,scotland4 ,the number of elders is proportioned to the extent and population of the parish1 and is seldom less than two or three1 but sometimes exceeds fifty4 ,they are laymen in this respect1 that they have no right to teach1 or to dispense the sacraments2 and on this account they form an office in the ,presbyterian church inferior in rank and power to that of pastors4 ,they generally discharge the office which originally belonged to the deacons1 of attending to the interests of the poor4 ,but their peculiar business is expressed by the name ruling elders2 for in every jurisdiction within the parish they are the spiritual court1 of which the minister is officially moderator2 and in the presbytery1 of which the pastors of all the parishes within its bounds are officially members1 lay elders sit as the representatives of the several sessions or consistories4 ,,elders ,,of ,,israel4 ,by this name we understand the heads of tribes1 or rather of the great families in ,israel1 who1 before the settlement of the ,hebrew commonwealth1 had a government and authority over their own families1 and the people4 ,when ,moses was sent into ,egypt to deliver ,israel1 he assembled the elders of ,israel1 and told them that the ,god of ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 had appeared to him1 ,exod4 iii1 #ae2 iv1 #bi1 c4 ,moses and ,aaron treat the elders of ,israel as the representatives of the nation4 ,when ,god gave the law to ,moses1 he said1 8,take ,aaron1 ,nadab1 and ,abihu1 his sons1 and the seventy elders of ,israel1 and worship ye afar off10 ,exod4 xxiv1 #a1 #i1 #aj4 ,they advanced only to the foot of the mountain4 ,on all occasions afterward1 we find this number of seventy elders4 ,but it is credible1 that as there were twelve tribes1 there were seventy-two elders1 six from each tribe1 and that seventy is set down1 instead of seventy-two2 or rather1 that ,moses and ,aaron should be added to the number seventy1 and that1 exclusive of them1 there were but four elders from the tribe of ,levi4 ,after ,jethro's arrival in the camp of ,israel1 ,moses made a considerable change in the governors of the people4 ,he established over ,israel heads of thousands1 hundreds1 fifties1 and tens1 that justice might be readily administered to applicants2 only difficult cases were referred to himself1 ,exod4 xviii1 #bd1 #be1 c4 ,but this constitution did not continue long2 for on the murmuring of the people at the encampment called the ,graves of ,lust1 ,num4 xi1 #bd-ce1 ,moses appointed seventy elders of ,israel1 to whom ,god communicated part of that legislator's spirit2 they began to prophesy1 and ceased not afterward4 ,this1 according to the generality of interpreters1 was the beginning of the sanhedrim2 but1 to support this opinion1 many things must be supposed1 whereby to infer1 that this court of justice was constantly in being during the ,scripture history4 ,it seems that the establishment of the seventy elders by ,moses continued1 not only during his life1 but under ,joshua likewise1 and under the judges4 ,the elders of the people and ,joshua swore to the treaty with the ,gibeonites1 ,josh1 ix1 #ae4 ,a little before his death1 ,joshua renewed the covenant with the ,lord1 in company with the elders1 the princes1 the heads1 and officers of ,israel1 ,joshua xxiii2 xxiv1 #a1 #bh4 ,after the death of ,joshua1 and the elders who survived him1 the people were several times brought into bondage1 and were delivered by their judges4 ,we do not see distinctly what authority the elders had during this time1 and still less under the kings who succeeded the judges4 ,,eleazar1 the third son of ,aaron1 and his successor in the dignity of high priest1 ,exod4 vi1 #bc4 ,he entered into the land of ,canaan with ,joshua1 and is supposed to have lived there upward of twenty years4 ,the high priesthood continued in his family till the time of ,eli4 ,he was buried in a hill that belonged to the son of ,phineas1 ,joshua xxiv4 #b4 ,,eleazar1 the son of ,aminadab1 to whose care the ark was committed when it was sent back by the ,philistines1 #a ,samuel vii4 ,he is thought to have been a priest1 or at least a ,levite1 though he is not mentioned in the catalogue of the sons of ,levi4 ,,election4 ,of a divine election1 a choosing and separating from others1 we have three kinds mentioned in the ,scriptures4 ,the first is the election of individuals to perform some particular and special service4 ,cyrus was 8elected0 to rebuild the temple2 the twelve ,apostles were 8chosen10 elected1 to their office by ,christ2 ,st4 ,paul was a 8chosen10 or elected 8vessel10 to be the ,apostle of the ,gentiles4 ,the second kind of election which we find in ,scripture1 is the election of nations1 or bodies of people1 to eminent religious privileges1 and in order to accomplish1 by their superior illumination1 the merciful purposes of ,god1 in benefiting other nations or bodies of people4 ,thus the descendants of ,abraham1 the ,jews1 were chosen to receive special revelations of truth2 and to be 8the people of ,god10 that is1 his visible church1 publicly to observe and uphold his worship4 8,the ,lord thy ,god hath chosen thee to be a peculiar people unto himself1 above all people that are upon the face of the earth40 8,the ,lord had a delight in thy fathers to love them1 and he chose their seed after them1 even you1 above all people40 ,it was especially on account of the application of the terms elect1 chosen1 and peculiar1 to the ,jewish people1 that they were so familiarly used by the ,apostles in their epistles addressed to the believing ,jews and ,gentiles1 then constituting the church of ,christ in various places4 ,for ,christians were the subjects1 also1 of this second kind of election2 the election of bodies of men to be the visible people and church of ,god in the world1 and to be endowed with peculiar privileges4 ,thus they became1 though in a more special and exalted sense1 the chosen people1 the elect of ,god4 ,we say 8in a more special sense10 because as the entrance into the ,jewish church was by natural birth1 and the entrance into the ,christian church1 properly so called1 is by faith and a spiritual birth1 these terms1 although many became ,christians by mere profession1 and enjoyed various privileges in consequence of their people or nation being chosen to receive the ,gospel1 have generally respect1 in the ,new ,testament1 to bodies of true believers1 or to the whole body of true believers as such4 ,they are not1 therefore1 to be interpreted according to the scheme of ,dr4 ,taylor of ,norwich1 by the constitution of the ,jewish1 but by the constitution of the ,christian1 church4 #b4 ,to understand the nature of this 8election10 as applied sometimes to particular bodies of ,christians1 as when ,st4 ,peter says1 8,the church which is at ,babylon1 elected together with you10 and sometimes to the whole body of believers every where2 and also the reason of the frequent use of the term election1 and of the occurrence of allusions to the fact2 it is to be remembered1 that a great religious revolution1 so to speak1 had occurred in the age of the ,apostles2 with the full import of which we cannot1 without calling in the aid of a little reflection1 be adequately impressed4 ,this change was no other than the abrogation of the church state of the ,jews1 which had continued for so many ages4 ,they had been the only visibly acknowledged people of ,god in all the nations of the earth2 for whatever pious people might have existed in other nations1 they were not1 in the sight of men1 and collectively1 acknowledged as 8the people of ,jehovah40 ,they had no written revelations1 no appointed ministry1 no forms of authorized initiation into his church and covenant1 no appointed holy days1 or sanctioned ritual4 ,all these were peculiar to the ,jews1 who were1 therefore1 an elected and peculiar people4 ,this distinguished honour they were about to lose4 ,they might have retained it as ,christians1 had they been willing to admit the believing ,gentiles of all nations to share it with them2 but the great reason of their peculiarity and election1 as a nation1 was terminated by the coming of the ,messiah1 who was to be 8a light to lighten the ,gentiles10 as well as 8the glory of his people ,israel40 ,their pride and consequent unbelief resented this1 which will explain their enmity to the believing part of the ,gentiles1 who1 when that which ,st4 ,paul calls 8the fellowship of the mystery0 was fully explained1 chiefly by the glorious ministry of that ,apostle himself1 were called into that church relation and visible acknowledgment as the people of ,god1 which the ,jews had formerly enjoyed1 and that with even a higher degree of glory1 in proportion to the superior spirituality of the new dispensation4 ,it was this doctrine which excited that strong irritation in the minds of the unbelieving ,jews1 and in some partially ,christianized ones1 to which so many references are made in the ,new ,testament4 ,they were 8provoked10 were made 8jealous20 and were often roused to the madness of persecuting opposition by it4 ,there was then a new election of a new people of ,god1 to be composed of ,jews1 not by virtue of their natural descent1 but through their faith in ,christ1 and of ,gentiles of all nations1 also believing1 and put as believers1 on an equal ground with the believing ,jews3 and there was also a rejection1 a reprobation1 but not an absolute one2 for the election was offered to the ,jews first1 in every place1 by offering them the ,gospel4 ,some embraced it1 and submitted to be the elect people of ,god1 on the new ground of faith1 instead of the old one of natural descent2 and therefore the ,apostle1 ,rom4 xi1 #g1 calls the believing part of the ,jews1 8the election10 in opposition to those who opposed this 8election of grace10 and still clung to their former and now repealed election as ,jews and the descendants of ,abraham3 8,but the election hath obtained it1 and the rest were blinded40 ,the offer had been made to the whole nation2 all might have joined the one body of believing ,jews and believing ,gentiles2 but the major part of them refused3 they would not 8come into the supper20 they made 8light of it20 light of an election founded on faith1 and which placed the relation of 8the people of ,god0 upon spiritual attainments1 and offered to them only spiritual blessings4 ,they were1 therefore1 deprived of election and church relationship of every kind3 their temple was burned2 their political state abolished2 their genealogies confounded2 their worship annihilated and all visible acknowledgment of them2 by ,god as a church withdrawn1 and transferred to a church henceforward to be composed chiefly of ,gentiles3 and thus1 says ,st4 ,paul1 8were fulfilled the words of ,moses1 ,i will provoke you to jealousy by them that are no people1 and by a foolish10 ignorant and idolatrous1 8people ,i will anger you40 ,it is easy1 therefore1 to see what is the import of the 8calling0 and 8election0 of the ,christian church1 as spoken of in the ,new ,testament4 ,it was not the calling and the electing of one nation in particular to succeed the ,jews2 but it was the calling and the electing of believers in all nations1 wherever the ,gospel should be preached1 to be in reality what the ,jews typically1 and therefore in an inferior degree1 had been1--the visible church of ,god1 8his people10 under ,christ 8the ,head20 with an authenticated revelation2 with an appointed ministry1 never to be lost2 with authorized worship2 with holy days and festivals2 with instituted forms of initiation2 and with special protection and favour4 #c4 ,the third kind of election is personal election2 or the election of individuals to be the children of ,god1 and the heirs of eternal life4 ,this is not a choosing to particular offices and service1 which is the first kind of election we have mentioned2 nor is it that collective election to religious privileges and a visible church state1 of which we have spoken4 ,for although 8the elect0 have an individual interest in such an election as parts of the collective body1 thus placed in possession of the ordinances of ,christianity2 yet many others have the same advantages1 who still remain under the guilt and condemnation of sin and practical unbelief4 ,the individuals properly called 8the elect10 are they who have been made partakers of the grace and saving efficacy of the ,gospel4 8,many10 says our ,lord1 8are called1 but few chosen40 ,what true personal election is1 we shall find explained in two clear passages of ,scripture4 ,it is explained by our ,lord1 where he says to his disciples1 8,i have chosen you out of the world30 and by ,st4 ,peter1 when he addresses his ,first ,epistle to the 8elect according to the foreknowledge of ,god the ,father1 through sanctification of the ,spirit1 unto obedience and sprinkling of the blood of ,jesus40 ,to be elected1 therefore1 is to be separated from 8the world10 and to be sanctified by the ,spirit1 and by the blood of ,christ4 ,it follows1 then1 not only that election is an act of ,god done in time1 but also that it is subsequent to the administration of the means of salvation4 ,the 8calling0 goes before the 8election20 the publication of the doctrine of 8the ,spirit10 and the atonement1 called by ,peter 8the sprinkling of the blood of ,christ10 before that 8sanctification0 through which they become 8the elect0 of ,god4 ,in a word1 8the elect0 are the body of true believers2 and personal election into the family of ,god is through personal faith4 ,all who truly believe are elected2 and all to whom the ,gospel is sent have1 through the grace that accompanies it1 the power to believe placed within their reach2 and all such might1 therefore1 attain to the grace of personal election4 ,,elements1 1 the elements or first principles of any art1 whence the subsequent parts proceed4 ,the elements or first principles of the ,christian doctrine1 ,heb1 v1 #ab4 ,st4 ,paul calls the ceremonial ordinances of the ,mosaic law1 8worldly elements10 ,gal4 iv1 #c2 ,col4 ii1 #h1 #bj2 8weak and beggarly elements10 ,gal4 iv1 #i4 ,elements1 as containing the rudiments of the knowledge of ,christ1 to which knowledge the law1 as a pedagogue1 ,gal4 iii1 #bd1 was intended1 by means of those ordinances1 to bring the ,jews2 worldly1 as consisting in outward worldly institutions1 ,heb4 ix1 #a2 weak and beggarly1 when considered in themselves1 and set up in opposition to the great realities to which they were designed to lead4 ,but1 in ,col4 ii1 #h1 the elements or rudiments of the world are so closely connected with philosophy and vain deceit1 or an empty and deceitful philosophy1 that they must be understood there to include the dogmas of ,pagan philosophy2 to which1 no doubt1 many of the ,colossians were in their unconverted state attached1 and of which the ,judaizing teachers1 who also were probably themselves infected with them1 took advantage to withdraw the ,colossian converts from the purity of the ,gospel1 and from ,christ their living head4 ,and from the general tenor of this chapter1 and particularly from verses #ah-bc1 it appears1 that these philosophical dogmas1 against which the ,apostle cautioned his converts1 were partly ,platonic1 and partly ,pythagorean2 the former teaching the worship of angels1 or demons1 as mediators between ,god and man2 the latter enjoining such abstinence from particular kinds of meats and drinks1 and such severe mortifications of the body1 as ,god had not commanded4 ,,eli1 a high priest of the ,hebrews1 of the race of ,ithamar1 who succeeded ,abdon1 and governed the ,hebrews1 both as priest and judge1 during forty years4 ,how ,eli came to the high priesthood1 and how this dignity was transferred from ,eleazar's family to that of ,ithamar1 who was ,aaron's youngest son1 we know not4 ,this much1 however1 is certain1 that it was not done without an express declaration of ,god's will1 #a ,sam4 ii1 #bg1 c4 ,in the reign of ,solomon1 the predictions in relation to ,eli's family were fulfilled2 for the high priesthood was taken from ,abiathar1 a descendant of ,eli1 and given to ,zadok1 who was of the race of ,eleazar1 #a ,kings ii1 #bf4 ,eli appears to have been a pious1 but indolent man1 blinded by paternal affection1 who suffered his sons to gain the ascendancy over him2 and for want either of personal courage1 or zeal for the glory of ,god sufficient to restrain their licentious conduct1 he permitted them to go on to their own and his ruin4 ,thus he carried his indulgence to cruelty2 while a more dignified and austere conduct on his part might have rendered them wise and virtuous1 and thereby have preserved himself and family4 ,a striking lesson for parents6 ,god admonished him by ,samuel1 then a child2 and ,eli received those awful admonitions with a mind fully resigned to the divine will4 8,it is the ,lord10 said he1 8let him do what seemeth him good40 ,god deferred the execution of his vengeance many years4 ,at length1 however1 ,hophni and ,phineas1 the sons of ,eli1 were slain by the ,philistines1 the ark of the ,lord was taken1 and ,eli himself1 hearing this melancholy news1 fell backward from his chair and broke his neck1 in the ninety-eighth year of his age1 #a ,sam4 iv1 #ab1 #ah4 ,,eliezer1 a native of ,damascus1 and the steward of ,abraham's house4 ,it seems that ,abraham1 before the birth of ,isaac1 intended to make him his heir3--8,one born in my house10 a domestic slave1 8is mine heir10 ,gen4 xv1 #a-c4 ,he was afterward sent into ,mesopotamia1 to procure a wife for ,isaac1 ,gen4 xxiv1 #b1 #c1 c2 which business he accomplished with fidelity and expedition4 8,it is still the custom in ,india10 says ,forbes1 8especially among the ,mohammedans1 that in default of children1 and sometimes where there are lineal descendants1 the master of a family adopts a slave1 frequently a ,haffshee ,abyssinian1 of the darkest hue1 for his heir4 ,he educates him agreeably to his wishes1 and marries him to one of his daughters4 ,as the reward of superior merit1 or to suit the caprice of an arbitrary despot1 this honour is also conferred on a slave recently purchased1 or already grown up in the family2 and to him he bequeaths his wealth1 in preference to his nephews1 or any collateral branches4 ,this is a custom of great antiquity in the east1 and prevalent among the most refined and civilized nations4 ,in the earliest period of the patriarchal history1 we find ,abraham complaining for want of children2 and declaring that either ,eliezer of ,damascus1 or probably one born from him in his house1 was his heir1 to the exclusion of ,lot1 his favourite nephew1 and all the other collateral branches of his family40 ,,elihu1 one of ,job's friends1 a descendant of ,nahor1 ,job xxxii1 #b4 ,see ,,job4 ,,elijah4 ,elijah or ,elias1 a prophet1 was a native of ,tishbe beyond ,jordan in ,gilead4 ,some think that he was a priest descended from ,aaron1 and say that one ,sabaca was his father2 but this has no authority4 ,he was raised up by ,god1 to be set like a wall of brass1 in opposition to idolatry1 and particularly to the worship of ,baal1 which ,jezebel and ,ahab supported in ,israel4 ,the ,scripture introduces ,elijah saying to ,ahab1 #a ,kings xvii1 #a1 #b1 ,a4 ,m4 #cjib1 8,as the ,lord ,god of ,israel liveth1 before whom ,i stand1 there shall not be dew nor rain these years1 but according to my word40 ,it is remarkable1 that the number of years is not here specified2 but in the ,new ,testament we are informed that it was three years and six months4 ,by the prohibition of dew as well as rain1 the whole vegetable kingdom was deprived of that moisture1 without which neither the more hardy1 nor more delicate kinds of plants could shoot into herbage1 or bring that herbage to maturity4 ,the ,lord commanded ,elijah to conceal himself beyond ,jordan1 near the brook ,cherith4 ,he obeyed1 and ,god sent ravens to him morning and evening1 which brought him flesh and bread4 ,scheuzer observes1 that he cannot think that the orebim of the ,hebrew1 rendered 8ravens10 means1 as some have thought1 the inhabitants of a town called ,oreb1 nor a troop of ,arabs called orbhim2 and contends that the bird called the raven1 or one of the same genus is intended4 ,suppose that ,elijah was concealed from ,ahab in some rocky or mountainous spot1 where travellers never came2 and that here a number of voracious birds had built their nests upon the trees which grew around it1 or upon a projecting rock1 c4 ,these flying every day to procure food for their young1 the prophet availed himself of a part of what they brought2 and while they1 obeying the dictates of nature1 designed only to provide for their offspring1 ,divine providence directed them to provide at the same time for the wants of ,elijah4 ,what1 therefore1 he collected1 whether from their nests1 from what they dropped1 or under a supernatural influence1 brought to him1 or occasionally from all these means1 was enough for his daily support4 8,and the orebim furnished him bread or flesh in the morning1 and bread or flesh in the evening40 ,but as there were probably several of them1 some might furnish bread and others flesh1 as it happened2 so that a little from each formed his solitary but satisfactory meal4 ,to such straits was the exiled prophet driven6 perhaps these orebim were not strictly ravens1 but rooks4 ,the word rendered raven1 includes the whole genus1 among which are some less impure than the raven1 as the rook4 ,rooks living in numerous societies are supposed by some to be the kind of birds employed on this occasion rather than ravens1 which fly only in pairs4 ,but upon all these explanations we may observe1 that when an event is evidently miraculous1 it is quite superfluous1 and often absurd1 to invent hypotheses to make it appear more easy4 ,after a time the brook dried up1 and ,god sent ,elijah to ,zarephath1 a city of the ,sidonians4 ,at the city gate he met with a widow woman gathering sticks1 from whom he desired a little water1 adding1 8,bring me1 ,i pray thee1 also a morsel of bread40 ,she answered1 8,as the ,lord liveth1 ,i have no bread1 but only a handful of meal1 and a little oil in a cruse2 and ,i am gathering some sticks1 that ,i may dress it for me and my son1 that we may eat it1 and die40 ,elijah said1 8,make first a little cake1 and bring it me1 and afterward make for thee and thy son3 for thus saith the ,lord1 the barrel of meal shall not waste1 neither shall the cruse of oil fail1 until the day the ,lord sendeth rain upon the earth40 ,his prediction was fully accomplished1 and he dwelt at the house of this widow4 ,some time after1 the son of this woman fell sick1 and died4 ,the mother1 overwhelmed with grief1 intreated the assistance and interposition of ,elijah1 who taking the child in his arms laid him on his own bed1 and cried to the ,lord for the restoration of the child's life4 ,the ,lord heard the prophet's petition1 and restored the child4 #b4 ,after three years of drought the ,lord commanded ,elijah to show himself to ,ahab4 ,the famine being great in ,samaria1 ,ahab sent the people throughout the country1 to inquire after places where they might find forage for the cattle4 ,obadiah1 an officer of the king's household1 being thus employed1 ,elijah presented himself1 and directed him to tell ,ahab1 8,behold1 ,elijah is here60 ,ahab came to meet the prophet1 and reproached him as the cause of the famine4 ,elijah retorted the charge upon the king1 and his iniquities1 and challenged ,ahab to gather the people together1 and the prophets of ,baal1 that it might be determined by a sign from heaven1 the falling of fire upon the sacrifice1 who was the true ,god4 ,in this the prophet obeyed the impulse of the ,spirit of ,god2 and ,ahab1 either under an influence of which he was not conscious1 or blindly confident in the cause of idolatry1 followed ,elijah's direction1 and convened the people of ,israel1 and four hundred prophets of ,baal4 ,the prophets of ,baal prepared their altar1 sacrificed their bullock1 placed it on the altar1 and called upon their gods4 ,they leaped upon the altar1 and cut themselves after their manner1 crying with all their might4 ,elijah ridiculed them1 and said1 8,cry aloud1 for he is god2 either he is talking1 or he is pursuing1 or he is on a journey1 or peradventure he sleepeth1 and must be awaked40 ,when midday was past1 ,elijah repaired the altar of the ,lord2 and with twelve stones1 in allusion to the twelve tribes of ,israel1 he built a new altar4 ,he then laid his bullock upon the wood1 poured a great quantity of water three times upon the sacrifice and the wood1 so that the water filled the trench which was dug round the altar4 ,after this he prayed1 and1 in answer to his prayer1 the ,lord sent fire from heaven1 and consumed the wood1 the burnt sacrifice1 the stones1 and dust of the place1 and even dried up the water in the trench4 ,upon this1 all the people fell on their faces1 and exclaimed1 8,the ,lord1 he is the ,god40 ,elijah then1 having excited the people to slay the false prophets of ,baal1 said to ,ahab1 8,go home1 eat and drink1 for ,i hear the sound of abundance of rain20 which long-expected blessing descended from heaven according to his prediction1 and gave additional proof to the truth of his mission from the only living and true ,god4 #c4 ,jezebel1 the wife of ,ahab1 threatened ,elijah for having slain her prophets4 ,he therefore fled to ,beersheba1 in the south of ,judah1 and thence into ,arabia ,petrea4 ,in the evening1 being exhausted with fatigue1 he laid himself down under a juniper tree1 and prayed ,god to take him out of the world4 ,an angel touched him1 and he arose1 and saw a cake baked on the coals1 and a cruse of water2 and he ate and drank1 and slept again4 ,the angel again awakened him1 and said1 8,rise and eat1 for the journey is too great for thee20 and he ate and drank1 and went in the strength of that meat forty days and forty nights1 unto ,horeb1 the mount of ,god4 ,here he had visions of the glory and majesty of ,god1 and conversed with him2 and was commanded to return to the wilderness of ,damascus1 to anoint ,hazael king over ,syria1 and ,jehu king over ,israel1 and to appoint ,elisha his successor in the prophetic office4 ,some years after1 ,ahab having seized ,naboth's vineyard1 the ,lord commanded ,elijah to reprove ,ahab for the crime he had committed4 ,elijah met him going to ,naboth's vineyard to take possession of it1 and said1 8,in the place where dogs licked the blood of ,naboth1 shall they lick thy blood1 even thine4 ,and the dogs shall eat ,jezebel by the wall of ,jezreel40 ,both of which predictions were fulfilled in the presence of the people4 ,ahaziah1 king of ,israel1 being hurt by a fall from the platform of his house1 sent to consult ,baalzebub1 the god of ,ekron1 whether he should recover4 ,elijah met the messengers1 and said to them1 8,is it because there is no ,god in ,israel that ye go to inquire of ,baalzebub1 the god of ,ekron8 ,now1 therefore1 saith the ,lord1 ,thou shalt surely die40 ,the messengers of ,ahaziah returned1 and informed the king1 that a stranger had told them he should certainly die2 and ,ahaziah knew that this was the ,prophet ,elijah4 ,the king1 therefore1 sent a captain with his company of fifty men1 to apprehend him2 and when the officer was come to ,elijah1 who was sitting upon a hill1 he said1 8,thou man of ,god1 the king commands thee to come down40 ,elijah answered1 8,if ,i be a man of ,god1 let fire come down from heaven1 and consume thee and thy fifty40 ,the prophet's words were followed with the effect predicted4 ,the king sent another captain1 who was also consumed2 but a third captain going to ,elijah intreated him to save him and his people's lives1 and ,elijah accompanied him to the king4 ,by these fearful miracles he was accredited to this successor of ,ahab as a prophet of the true ,god1 and the destruction of these companies of armed men was a demonstration of ,god's anger against the people at large4 ,elijah could not in this case act from any other impulse than that of the ,spirit of ,god4 #d4 ,elijah1 understanding by revelation that ,god would soon translate him out of this world1 was desirous of concealing this fact from ,elisha1 his inseparable companion4 ,he therefore said to ,elisha1 8,tarry thou here1 for the ,lord hath sent me to ,bethel40 ,but ,elisha answered1 8,i will not leave thee40 ,at ,bethel1 ,elijah said1 8,tarry thou here1 the ,lord hath sent me to ,jericho20 but ,elisha replied1 he would not forsake him4 ,at ,jericho ,elijah desired him to stay2 but ,elisha would not leave him4 ,they went therefore together to ,jordan1 and fifty of the sons of the prophets followed them at a distance4 ,when they were come to the ,jordan1 ,elijah took his mantle1 and with it struck the waters1 which divided1 and they went over on dry ground4 ,elijah then said to ,elisha1 8,ask what ,i shall do for thee before ,i be taken away from thee40 8,i pray thee10 said ,elisha1 8let a double portion of thy spirit be upon me20 that is1 obtain the gift of prophecy from ,god for me1 in the same measure that thou possessest it4 ,double may signify like2 or the gift of prophecy1 and of miracles1 in a degree double to what thou dost possess1 or to what ,i now possess4 ,elijah answered1 8,thou hast asked me a very hard thing2 yet1 if thou see me when ,i am taken from thee1 it shall be so unto thee2 but if not1 it shall not be so40 ,as they journeyed1 a fiery chariot1 with horses of fire1 suddenly separated them1 and ,elijah was carried in a whirlwind to heaven2 while ,elisha exclaimed1 8,my father1 my father1 the chariots of ,israel and the horsemen thereof60 #e4 ,elijah was one of the most eminent of that illustrious and singular race of men1 the ,jewish prophets4 ,every part of his character is marked by a moral grandeur1 which is heightened by the obscurity thrown around his connections1 and his private history4 ,he often wears the air of a supernatural messenger suddenly issuing from another world1 to declare the commands of heaven1 and to awe the proudest mortals by the menace of fearful judgments4 ,his boldness in reproof2 his lofty zeal for the honour of ,god2 his superiority to softness1 ease1 and suffering1 are the characters of a man filled with the ,holy ,spirit2 and he was admitted to great intimacy with ,god1 and enabled to work miracles of a very extraordinary and unequivocal character4 ,these were called for by the stupid idolatry of the age1 and were in some instances equally calculated to demonstrate the being and power of ,jehovah1 and to punish those who had forsaken him for idols4 ,the author of ,ecclesiasticus has an encomium to his memory1 and justly describes him as a prophet 8who stood up as fire1 and whose word burned as a lamp40 ,in the sternness and power of his reproofs he was a striking type of ,john the ,baptist1 and the latter is therefore prophesied of1 under his name4 ,malachi1 iv1 #e1 #f1 has this passage3 8,behold1 ,i will send you ,elijah the prophet1 before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the ,lord40 ,our ,saviour also declares that ,elijah had already come in spirit1 in the person of ,john the ,baptist4 ,at the transfiguration of our ,saviour1 ,elijah and ,moses both appeared and conversed with him respecting his future passion1 ,matt4 xvii1 #c1 #d2 ,mark ix1 #d2 ,luke ix1 #cj4 ,many of the ,jews in our ,lord's time believed him to be ,elijah1 or that the soul of ,elijah had passed into his body1 ,matt4 xvi1 #ad2 ,mark vi1 #ae2 ,luke ix1 #h4 ,in conclusion1 we may observe1 that to assure the world of the future existence of good men in a state of glory and felicity1 and that in bodies changed from mortality to immortality1 each of the three grand dispensations of religion had its instance of translation into heaven2 the patriarchal in the person of ,,enoch1 the ,jewish in the person of ,,elijah1 and the ,christian in the person of ,,christ4 ,,elisha1 the son of ,shaphat1 ,elijah's disciple and successor in the prophetic office1 was of the city of ,abelmeholah1 #a ,kings xix1 #af1 c4 ,elijah having received ,god's command to anoint ,elisha as a prophet1 came to ,abelmeholah2 and finding him ploughing with oxen1 he threw his mantle over the shoulders of ,elisha1 who left the oxen1 and accompanied him4 ,under the article ,elijah1 it has been observed that ,elisha was following his master1 when he was taken up to heaven2 and that he inherited ,elijah's mantle1 with a double portion of his spirit4 ,elisha smote the waters of ,jordan1 and divided them2 and he rendered wholesome the waters of a rivulet near ,jericho4 ,the kings of ,israel1 ,judah1 and ,edom1 having taken the field against the king of ,moab1 who had revolted from ,israel1 were in danger of perishing for want of water4 ,elisha was at that time in the camp2 and seeing ,jehoram1 the king of ,israel1 he said1 8,what have ,i to do with thee8 get thee to the prophets of thy father1 and to the prophets of thy mother4 ,as the ,lord liveth1 were it not out of respect to ,jehoshaphat1 the king of ,judah1 who is here present1 ,i would not so much as look on thee4 ,but now send for a minstrel2 and while this man played1 the ,spirit of the ,lord fell upon ,elisha1 and he said1 ,thus saith the ,lord1 ,make several ditches along this valley2 for ye shall see neither wind nor rain1 yet this valley shall be filled with water1 and you and your cattle shall drink of it40 ,the widow of one of the prophets having told ,elisha1 that her husband's creditor was determined to take her two sons and sell them for slaves1 ,elisha multiplied the oil in the widow's house1 in such quantity that she was enabled to sell it and to discharge the debt4 ,elisha went frequently to ,shunem1 a city of ,manasseh1 on this side ,jordan1 and was entertained by a certain matron at her house4 ,as she had no children1 ,elisha promised her a son2 and his prediction was accomplished4 ,some years after1 the child died4 ,elisha1 who was then at ,mount ,carmel1 was solicited by the mother to come to her house4 ,the prophet went1 and restored the child4 ,at ,gilgal1 during a great famine1 one of the sons of the prophets gathered wild gourds1 which he put into the pot1 and they were served up to ,elisha and the other prophets4 ,it was soon found that they were mortal poison2 but ,elisha ordering meal to be thrown into the pot1 corrected the quality of the pottage4 ,naaman1 general of the king of ,syria's forces1 having a leprosy1 was advised to visit ,elisha in order to be cured4 ,elisha appointed him to wash himself seven times in the ,jordan2 and by this means ,naaman was perfectly healed4 ,he returned to ,elisha1 and offered him large presents1 which the man of ,god resolutely refused4 ,but ,gehazi1 ,elisha's servant1 did not imitate the disinterestedness of his master4 ,he ran after ,naaman1 and in ,elisha's name begged a talent of silver1 and two changes of garments4 ,naaman gave him two talents4 ,elisha1 to whom ,god had discovered ,gehazi's action1 reproached him with it1 and declared1 that the leprosy of ,naaman should cleave to him and his family for ever4 ,this is a striking instance of the disinterestedness of the ,jewish prophets4 ,elisha1 like his master ,elijah1 had learned to contemn the world4 ,the king of ,syria being at war with the king of ,israel1 could not imagine how all his designs were discovered by the enemy4 ,he was told1 that ,elisha revealed them to the king of ,israel4 ,he therefore sent troops to seize the prophet at ,dothan2 but ,elisha struck them with blindness1 and led them in that condition into ,samaria4 ,when they were in the city1 he prayed to ,god to open their eyes2 and after he had made them eat and drink1 he sent them back unhurt to their master4 ,some time after1 ,benhadad1 king of ,syria1 having besieged ,samaria1 the famine became so extreme1 that a certain woman ate her own child4 ,jehoram1 king of ,israel1 imputing to ,elisha these calamities1 sent a messenger to cut off his head4 ,elisha1 who was informed of this design against his life1 ordered the door to be shut4 ,the messenger was scarcely arrived1 when the king himself followed1 and made great complaints of the condition to which the town was reduced4 ,elisha answered1 8,to-morrow about this time shall a measure of fine flour be sold for a shekel1 and two measures of barley for a shekel1 in the gate of ,samaria40 ,upon this1 one of the king's officers said1 8,were the ,lord to open windows in heaven1 might this thing be40 ,this unbelief was punished2 for the prophet answered1 8,thou shalt see it with thine eyes1 but shalt not eat thereof10 which happened according to ,elisha's prediction1 for he was trodden to death by the crowd in the gate4 ,at the end of the seven years' famine1 which the prophet had foretold1 he went to ,damascus1 to execute the command which ,god had given to ,elijah many years before1 of declaring ,hazael king of ,syria4 ,benhadad being at that time indisposed1 and hearing that ,elisha was come into his territories1 sent ,hazael1 one of his principal officers1 to the prophet to consult him1 and inquire of him whether it were possible for him to recover4 ,the prophet told ,hazael1 that he might recover1 but that he was very well assured that he should not2 and then looking steadfastly upon him1 he broke out into tears upon the prospect1 as he told him1 of the many barbarous calamities which he would bring upon ,israel1 when once he was advanced to power1 as he would soon be1 because he was assured by divine revelation that he was to be king of ,syria4 ,hazael1 though offended at the time at being thought capable of such atrocities1 did but too clearly verify these predictions2 for at his return1 having murdered ,benhadad1 and procured himself to be declared king1 he inflicted the greatest miseries upon the ,israelites4 #b4 ,elisha sent one of the sons of the prophets to anoint ,jehu1 the son of ,jehoshaphat1 and grandson of ,nimshi1 to be king1 in pursuance of an order given to ,elijah some years before2 and ,jehu having received the royal unction1 executed every thing that had been foretold by ,elijah against ,ahab's family1 and against ,jezebel4 ,elisha falling sick1 ,joash1 king of ,israel1 came to visit him1 and said1 8,o my father1 my father1 the chariot of ,israel1 and the horsemen thereof40 ,elisha desired the king to bring him a bow and arrows4 ,joash having brought them1 ,elisha requested him to put his hands on the bow1 and at the same time the prophet put his own hand upon the king's1 and said1 ,open the window which looks east1 and let fly an arrow4 ,the king having done this1 ,elisha said1 ,this is the arrow of the ,lord's deliverance3 thou shalt be successful against ,syria at ,aphek4 ,elisha desired him again to shoot1 which he did three times1 and then stopped4 ,but ,elisha with vehemence said1 8,if thou hadst smitten five or six times1 then thou hadst smitten ,syria until thou hadst consumed it2 whereas now thou shalt smite ,syria only thrice40 ,this is the last prediction of ,elisha of which we read in ,scripture1 for soon after he died2 but it was not his last miracle3 for1 some time after his interment1 a company of ,israelites1 as they were going to bury a dead person1 perceiving a band of ,moabites making toward them1 put the corpse for haste into ,elisha's tomb1 and1 as soon as it had touched the prophet's body1 it immediately revived2 so that the man stood upon his feet3 a striking emblem of the life-giving effect of the labours of the servants of ,god1 after they themselves are gathered to their fathers4 ,,elul1 the sixth month of the ,hebrew ecclesiastical year1 and the twelfth of the civil year1 answering to our ,august and part of ,september1 containing twenty-nine days4 ,,embalming1 the art of preserving dead bodies from putrefaction4 ,it was much practised by the ,egyptians of ancient times1 and from them seems to have been borrowed by the ,hebrews4 ,it consisted in opening the body1 taking out the intestines1 and filling the place with odoriferous drugs and spices of a desiccative quality4 ,joseph gave orders for the embalming of the body of his father ,jacob1 ,gen4 l1 #a1 #b2 and ,moses informs us that the process took up forty days4 ,joseph himself also was embalmed1 ,gen4 l1 #bf4 ,asa1 king of ,israel1 seems to have been embalmed1 #b ,chron4 xvi1 #ac1 #ad4 ,see ,,burial4 ,,emerald1 1 ,exod4 xxviii1 #ai2 ,ezek4 xxvii1 #af2 xxviii1 #ac2 1 ,rev4 xxi1 #ai2 ,eccles4 xxxii1 #f2 ,tobit xiii1 #af2 ,judith x1 #ba4 ,this is generally supposed to be the same with the ancient smaragdus4 ,it is one of the most beautiful of all the gems1 and is of a bright green colour1 without the admixture of any other4 ,pliny thus speaks of it3 8,the sight of no colour is more pleasant than green2 for we love to view green fields and green leaves2 and are still more fond of looking at the emerald1 because all other greens are dull in comparison with this4 ,beside1 these stones seem larger at a distance1 by tinging the circumambient air4 ,their lustre is not changed by the sun1 by the shade1 nor by the light of lamps2 but they have always a sensible moderate brilliancy40 ,from the passage in ,ezekiel we learn that the ,tyrians traded in these jewels in the marts of ,syria4 ,they probably had them from ,india1 or the south of ,persia4 ,the true oriental emerald is very scarce1 and is only found at present in the kingdom of ,cambay4 ,,emerods4 ,the disease of the ,philistines1 which is mentioned in #a ,sam4 v1 #f1 #ab2 vi1 #ag1 is denominated1 in the ,hebrew1 4 ,this word occurs1 likewise1 in ,deut4 xxviii1 #bg2 and it is worthy of remark1 that it is every where explained in the keri1 or marginal readings1 by the ,araman word1 2 an expression which1 in the ,syriac dialect1 where it occurs under the forms1 and 1 means the fundament1 and likewise the effort which is made in an evacuation of the system4 ,the authors1 therefore1 of the reading in the keri appear to have assented to the opinion of ,josephus1 and to have understood by this word the dysentery4 ,the corresponding ,arabic words mean a swelling1 answering somewhat in its nature to the hernia in men3 a disease1 consequently1 very different from the hemorrhoids1 which some persons understand to be meant by the word 4 ,among other objections1 it may also be observed1 that the mice1 which are mentioned1 not only in the ,hebrew text1 #a ,sam4 vi1 #e1 #ab2 xvi1 #ah1 but also in the ,alexandrine and ,vulgate versions1 #a ,sam4 v1 #f2 vi1 #e1 #aa1 #ah1 are an objection to understanding the hemorrhoids by the word under consideration1 since if that were in fact the disease1 we see no reason why mice should have been presented as an offering to avert the anger of the ,god of ,israel4 ,lichtenstein has given this solution3 ,the word1 1 which is rendered mice1 he supposes to mean venomous solpugas1 which belong to the spider class1 and yet are so large1 and so similar in their form to mice1 as to admit of their being denominated by the same word4 ,these venomous animals destroy and live upon scorpions4 ,they also bite men1 whenever they can have an opportunity1 particularly in the fundament and the verenda4 ,their bite causes swellings1 which are fatal in their consequences1 called1 in ,hebrew1 4 ,the probable supposition1 then1 is1 that solpugas were at this time multiplied among the ,philistines by the special providence of ,god2 and that1 being very venomous1 they were the means of destroying many individuals4 ,,emims1 ancient inhabitants of the land of ,canaan1 beyond ,jordan1 who were defeated by ,chedorlaomer and his allies1 ,gen4 xiv1 #e4 ,moses tells us that they were beaten at ,shaveh-,kirjathaim1 which was in the country of ,sihon1 conquered from the ,moabites1 ,josh4 xiii1 #ai-ba4 ,the ,emims were a warlike people1 of a gigantic stature1 great and numerous1 tall as the ,anakims1 and were accounted giants as well as they1 ,deut4 ii1 #aj1 #aa4 ,,emmanuel1 or ,,immanuel1 8,god with us40 ,it answers both in the ,,lxx1 and ,matt4 i1 #bc1 to the ,hebrew 1 from 1 with1 1 us1 and 1 ,god1 ,isa4 vii1 #ad2 viii1 #h4 ,,emmaus1 a village about eight miles north-west of ,jerusalem2 on the road to which1 two of the disciples were travelling in sorrow and disappointment after the resurrection1 when our ,lord appeared to them1 and held that memorable conversation with them which is recorded by ,st4 ,luke1 xxiv4 ,,endor1 a city in the tribe of ,manasseh1 where the witch resided whom ,saul consulted a little before the battle of ,gilboa1 ,joshua xvii1 #aa2 #a ,sam4 xxviii1 #ac4 ,mr4 ,bryant derives ,endor from ,en-,ador1 signifying fons pythonis1 8the fountain of light10 or oracle of the god ,ador3 which oracle was probably founded by the ,canaanites1 and had never been totally suppressed4 ,the ancient world had many such oracles3 the most famous of which were that of ,jupiter-,ammon in ,lybia1 and that of ,delphi in ,greece3 and in all of them1 the answers to those who consulted them were given from the mouth of a female2 who1 from the priestess of ,apollo at ,delphi1 has generally received the name of ,pythia4 ,that many such oracles existed in ,canaan1 is evident from the number which ,saul himself is said to have suppressed2 and such a one1 with its ,pythia1 was this at ,endor4 ,at these shrines1 either as mock oracles1 contrived by a crafty and avaricious priesthood1 to impose on the credulity and superstition of its followers2 or1 otherwise1 as is more generally supposed1 as the real instruments of infernal power1 mankind1 having altogether departed from the true ,god1 were permitted to be deluded4 ,that1 in this case1 the real ,samuel appeared is plain both from the affright of the woman herself1 and from the fulfilment of his prophecy4 ,it was an instance of ,god's overruling the wickedness of men1 to manifest his own supremacy and justice4 ,,engedi4 ,it is also called ,hazazon-,tamar1 or city of palm trees1 #b ,chron4 xx1 #b1 because there was a great quantity of palm trees in the territory belonging to it4 ,it abounded with ,cyprus vines1 and trees that produced balm4 ,solomon speaks of the 8vineyards of ,engedi10 ,cant4 i1 #ad4 ,this city1 according to ,josephus1 stood near the lake of ,sodom1 three hundred furlongs from ,jerusalem1 not far from ,jericho1 and the mouth of the river ,jordan1 through which it discharged itself into the ,dead ,sea4 ,there is frequent mention of ,engedi in the ,scriptures4 ,it was in the cave of ,engedi that ,david had it in his power to kill ,saul1 #a ,sam4 xxiv4 ,the spot where this transaction took place1 was a cavern in the rock1 sufficiently large to contain in its recesses the whole of ,david's men1 six hundred in number1 unperceived by ,saul when he entered4 ,many similar caves existed in the ,holy ,land4 ,such were those at ,adullam and ,makkedah1 and that in which ,lot and his daughters dwelt after the destruction of ,sodom4 ,such also is that described by ,mr4 ,maundrell1 near ,sidon1 which contained two hundred smaller caverns4 ,many of these were natural cavities in the limestone rock1 similar to those in ,yorkshire and ,derbyshire1 and in the ,mendip hills in ,somersetshire2 and others1 excavations made by the primeval inhabitants1 for defence1 or for shelter from the sun2 and which subsequently served as retreats for robbers1 as they are at this day4 ,josephus has given an interesting account of these caves1 and the manner in which the robbers were taken by ,herod4 ,and ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke has described similar retreats in the rocks near ,bethlehem2 others1 between ,jerusalem and ,jericho1 are mentioned by ,mr4 ,wilson4 ,into such caves the ,israelites frequently retired for shelter from their enemies1 ,judg4 vi1 #b2 #a ,sam4 xiii1 #f2 xiv1 #aa2 a circumstance which has afforded some striking and terrific images to the prophets1 ,isaiah ii1 #ai2 ,hosea x1 #h2 ,rev4 vi1 #ae1 #af4 ,,enoch1 the son of ,cain1 ,gen4 iv1 #ag1 in honour of whom the first city noticed in ,scripture was called ,enoch1 by his father ,cain1 who was the builder4 ,it was situated on the east of the province of ,eden4 #b4 ,,enoch1 the son of ,jared1 and father of ,methuselah4 ,he was born ,a4 ,m4 #fbb1 and being contemporary with ,adam1 he had every opportunity of learning from him the story of the creation1 the circumstance of the fall1 the terms of the promise1 and other important truths4 ,an ancient author affirms1 that he was the father of astronomy2 and ,eusebius hence infers1 that he is the same with the ,atlas of the ,grecian mythology4 ,enoch's fame rests upon a better basis than his skill in science4 ,the encomium of ,enoch is1 that he 8walked with ,god40 ,while mankind were living in open rebellion against ,heaven1 and provoking the divine vengeance daily by their ungodly deeds1 he obtained the exalted testimony1 8that he pleased ,god40 ,this he did1 not only by the exemplary tenor of his life1 and by the attention which he paid to the outward duties of religion1 but by the soundness of his faith1 and the purity of his heart and life3 see ,heb4 xi1 #e1 #f4 ,the intent of the ,apostle1 in the discourse containing this passage1 is1 to show that there has been but one way of obtaining the divine favour ever since the fall1 and that is1 by faith1 or a firm persuasion and confidence in the atonement to be made for human transgressions by the obedience1 sufferings1 death1 and resurrection of the promised ,messiah4 ,the cloud of witnesses which the ,apostle has produced of ,old ,testament worthies1 all bore1 in their respective generations1 their testimony to this great doctrine1 in opposition to the atheism or theism1 and gross idolatry1 which prevailed around them4 ,all the patriarchs are celebrated for their faith in this great truth1 and for preserving this principle of religion in the midst of a corrupt generation4 ,enoch1 therefore1 is said1 by another evangelical writer1 to have spoken of the coming of ,christ to judgment unto the antediluvian sinners4 ,see ,jude #ad1 #ae4 ,this prophecy is a clear1 and it is also an awful1 description of the day of judgment1 when the ,messiah shall sit upon his throne of justice1 to determine the final condition of mankind1 according to their works2 and it indicates that the different offices of ,messiah both to save and to judge1 or as ,prophet1 ,priest1 and ,king1 were known to the holy patriarchs4 ,on what the ,apostle founded this prediction has been matter of much speculation and inquiry4 ,some1 indeed1 have produced a treatise1 called 8,the ,book of ,enoch10 which1 as they pretend1 contains the cited passage2 but its authority is not proved1 and internal evidence sufficiently marks its spurious origin4 ,it is1 therefore1 reasonable to suppose that the prophecy cited by ,st4 ,jude was either traditionally handed down1 or had been specially communicated to that ,apostle4 ,in the departure of ,enoch from this world of sin and sorrow1 the ,almighty altered the ordinary course of things1 and gave him a dismissal as glorious to himself1 as it was instructive to mankind4 ,to convince them how acceptable holiness is to him1 and to show that he had prepared for those that love him a heavenly inheritance1 he caused ,enoch to be taken from the earth without passing through death4 ,see ,,elijah4 ,,enos1 or ,,enosh1 the son of ,seth1 and father of ,cainan4 ,he was born ,a4 ,m4 #bce4 ,moses tells us that then 8men began to call upon the name of the ,lord10 ,gen iv1 #bf2 that is1 such as abhorred the impiety and immorality which prevailed among the progeny of ,cain1 began to worship ,god in public1 and to assemble together at stated times for that purpose4 ,good men1 to distinguish themselves from the wicked1 began to take the name of sons or servants of ,god2 for which reason ,moses1 ,gen4 vi1 #a1 #b1 says that 8the sons of ,god10 or the descendants of ,enos1 8seeing the daughters of men10 c4 ,the eastern people make the following additions to his history3--that ,seth1 his father1 declared him sovereign prince and high priest of mankind1 next after himself2 that ,enos was the first who ordained public alms for the poor1 established public tribunals for the administration of justice1 and planted1 or rather cultivated1 the palm tree4 ,,ephah1 the eldest son of ,midian1 who gave his name to a city and small extent of land in the country of ,midian1 situated on the eastern shore of the ,dead ,sea1 ,genesis xxv1 #d4 ,this country abounded with camels and dromedaries1 ,isaiah lx1 #f1 c4 #b4 ,,ephah1 a measure both for things dry and liquid1 in use among the ,hebrews4 ,the ephah for the former contained three pecks and three pints4 ,in liquid measure it was of the same capacity as the bath4 ,,ephesus1 a much celebrated city of ,ionia1 in ,asia ,minor1 situated upon the river ,cayster1 and on the side of a hill4 ,it was the metropolis of the ,proconsular ,asia1 and formerly in great renown among ,heathen authors on account of its famous temple of ,diana4 ,this temple was seven times set on fire3 one of the principal conflagrations happened on the very day that ,socrates was poisoned1 four hundred years before ,christ2 the other1 on the same night in which ,alexander the ,great was born1 when a person of the name of ,erostratus set it on fire1 according to his own confession1 to get himself a name6 ,it was1 however1 rebuilt and beautified by the ,ephesians1 toward which the female inhabitants of the city contributed liberally4 ,in the times of the ,apostles it retained much of its former grandeur2 but1 so addicted were the inhabitants of the city to idolatry and the arts of magic1 that the prince of darkness would seem to have1 at that time1 fixed his throne in it4 ,ephesus is supposed to have first invented those obscure mystical spells and charms by means of which the people pretended to heal diseases and drive away evil spirits2 whence originated the 1 or ,ephesian letters1 so often mentioned by the ancients4 #b4 ,the ,apostle ,paul first visited this city1 ,a4 ,d4 #ed2 but being then on his way to ,jerusalem1 he abode there only a few weeks1 ,acts xviii1 #ai-ba4 ,during his short stay1 he found a synagogue of the ,jews1 into which he went1 and reasoned with them upon the interesting topics of his ministry1 with which they were so pleased that they wished him to prolong his visit4 ,he however declined that1 for he had determined1 ,god willing1 to be at ,jerusalem at an approaching festival2 but he promised to return1 which he did a few months afterward1 and continued there three years1 ,acts xix1 #aj2 xx1 #ca4 ,while the ,apostle abode in ,ephesus and its neighbourhood1 he gathered a numerous ,christian church1 to which1 at a subsequent period1 he wrote that epistle1 which forms so important a part of the ,apostolic writings4 ,he was then a prisoner at ,rome1 and the year in which he wrote it must have been #fj or #fa of the ,christian ra4 ,it appears to have been transmitted to them by the hands of ,tychicus1 one of his companions in travel1 ,ephesians vi1 #ba4 ,the critics have remarked that the style of the ,epistle to the ,ephesians is exceedingly elevated2 and that it corresponds to the state of the ,apostle's mind at the time of writing4 ,overjoyed with the account which their messenger brought him of the steadfastness of their faith1 and the ardency of their love to all the saints1 ,eph4 i1 #ae2 and1 transported with the consideration of the unsearchable wisdom of ,god displayed in the work of man's redemption1 and of his amazing love toward the ,gentiles1 in introducing them1 as fellow-heirs with the ,jews1 into the kingdom of ,christ1 he soars into the most exalted contemplation of those sublime topics1 and gives utterance to his thoughts in language at once rich and varied4 ,the epistle1 says ,macknight1 is written as it were in a rapture4 ,grotius remarks that it expresses the sublime matters contained in it in terms more sublime than are to be found in any human language2 to which ,macknight subjoins this singular but striking observation1 that no real ,christian can read the doctrinal part of the ,epistle to the ,ephesians1 without being impressed and roused by it1 as by the sound of a trumpet4 #c4 ,ephesus was one of the seven churches to which special messages were addressed in the book of ,revelation4 ,after a commendation of their first works1 to which they were commanded to return1 they were accused of having left their first love1 and threatened with the removal of their candlestick out of its place1 except they should repent1 ,rev4 ii1 #e4 ,the contrast which its present state presents to its former glory1 is a striking fulfilment of this prophecy4 ,ephesus was the metropolis of ,lydia1 a great and opulent city1 and1 according to ,strabo1 the greatest emporium of ,asia ,minor4 ,its temple of ,diana1 8whom all ,asia worshipped10 was adorned with one hundred and twenty-seven columns of ,parian marble1 each of a single shaft1 and sixty feet high1 and which formed one of the seven wonders of the world4 ,the remains of its magnificent theatre1 in which it is said that twenty thousand people could easily have been seated1 are yet to be seen4 ,but a few heaps of stones1 and some miserable mud cottages1 occasionally tenanted by ,turks1 without one ,christian residing there1 are all the remains of ancient ,ephesus4 ,it is1 as described by different travellers1 a solemn and most forlorn spot4 ,the ,epistle to the ,ephesians is read throughout the world2 but there is none in ,ephesus to read it now4 ,they left their first love1 they returned not to their first works4 ,their 8candlestick has been removed out of its place20 and the great city of ,ephesus is no more4 ,dr4 ,chandler says1 8,the inhabitants are a few ,greek peasants1 living in extreme wretchedness1 dependence1 and insensibility2 the representatives of an illustrious people1 and inhabiting the wreck of their greatness2 some1 in the substructions of the glorious edifices which they raised2 some1 beneath the vaults of the stadium1 once the crowded scene of their diversions2 and some1 by the abrupt precipice1 in the sepulchres which received their ashes4 ,its streets are obscured and overgrown4 ,a herd of goats was driven to it for shelter from the sun at noon2 and a noisy flight of crows from the quarries seemed to insult its silence4 ,we heard the partridge call in the area of the theatre and the stadium4 ,the glorious pomp of its ,heathen worship is no longer remembered2 and ,christianity1 which was here nursed by ,apostles1 and fostered by general councils1 until it increased to fulness of stature1 barely lingers on in an existence hardly visible40 8,i was at ,ephesus10 says ,mr4 ,arundell1 8in ,january1 #ahbd2 the desolation was then complete3 a ,turk1 whose shed we occupied1 his ,arab servant1 and a single ,greek1 composed the entire population2 some ,turcomans excepted1 whose black tents were pitched among the ruins4 ,the ,greek revolution1 and the predatory excursions of the ,samiotes1 in great measure accounted for this total desertion4 ,there is still1 however1 a village near1 probably the same which ,chishull and ,van ,egmont mention1 having four hundred ,greek houses40 ,st4 ,john passed the latter part of his life in ,asia ,minor1 and principally at ,ephesus1 where he died4 ,,ephod1 4 ,this article of dress was worn by laymen as well as by the high priest4 ,the sacred ephod1 the one made for the high priest1 differed from the others1 in being fabricated of cotton1 which was coloured with crimson1 purple1 and blue1 and in being ornamented with gold4 ,in the time of ,josephus1 it was a cubit of the larger size in length1 and was furnished with sleeves4 ,the high priest's ephod had a very rich button upon each shoulder1 made of a large onyx stone set in gold4 ,this stone was so large1 that the names of the twelve tribes of ,israel were engraven1 six on each stone1 ,exod4 xxviii1 #i-ab4 ,the word shoham1 which we render onyx1 is translated1 by the ,septuagint smaragdos1 an emerald2 but as we have no certain knowledge either of this1 or of any of the twelve stones of the breastplate1 we may as well be satisfied with our translation as with any other4 ,to the ephod belonged a curious girdle1 of the same rich fabric as the ephod itself4 ,this girdle is said to be upon the ephod1 ,exod4 xxviii1 #h2 that is1 woven with the ephod1 as ,maimonides understands2 and1 coming out from the ephod on each side1 it was brought under the arms like a sash1 and tied upon the breast4 ,samuel1 though a ,levite only1 and a child1 wore a linen ephod1 #a ,sam4 ii1 #ah4 ,and ,david1 in the ceremony of removing the ark from the house of ,obed-edom to ,jerusalem1 was girt with a linen ephod1 #b ,sam4 vi1 #ad4 ,the ,levites were not generally allowed to wear the ephod2 but in the time of ,agrippa1 as we are told by ,josephus1 a little before the taking of ,jerusalem by the ,romans1 they obtained of that prince permission to wear the linen stole as well as the priests4 ,spencer and ,cunus are of opinion1 that the ,jewish kings had a right to wear the ephod1 because ,david1 coming to ,ziklag1 and finding that the ,amalekites had plundered the city1 and carried away his and the people's wives1 ordered ,abiathar1 the high priest1 to bring him the ephod1 which being done1 ,david inquired of the ,lord1 saying1 8,shall ,i pursue after this troop80 #a ,sam4 xxx1 #h4 ,whence they infer1 that ,david consulted ,god by urim and thummim1 and consequently put on the ephod4 ,but it is probable the text only means that he ordered the priest to do what he is himself said to have done4 ,the ephod of ,gideon is remarkable for having become the occasion of a new kind of idolatry to the ,israelites1 ,judges viii1 #bg4 ,what this consisted in1 is matter of dispute among the learned4 ,some authors are of opinion that this ephod1 as it is called1 was an idol2 others1 that it was only a trophy in memory of the signal victory obtained by ,gideon1 and that the ,israelites paid a kind of divine worship to it2 so that ,gideon was the innocent cause of their idolatry1 in like manner as ,moses had been in making the brazen serpent1 which was afterward worshipped4 ,,ephraim was the name of ,joseph's second son1 by ,asenath1 ,potiphar's daughter4 ,he was born in ,egypt1 ,a4 ,m4 #bbid4 ,ephraim1 with his brother ,manasseh1 was presented by his father ,joseph to ,jacob on his death bed1 ,gen4 xlviii1 #h1 c4 ,jacob laid his right hand on ,ephraim the younger1 and his left on ,manasseh the elder4 ,joseph was desirous to change his hands1 but ,jacob answered1 8,i know it1 my son2 ,manasseh shall be multiplied1 but ,ephraim shall be greater40 ,the sons of ,ephraim having made an inroad into ,palestine1 the inhabitants of ,gath killed them4 ,ephraim their father mourned many days for them1 and his brethren came to comfort him1 #a ,chron4 vii1 #bj1 #ba4 ,afterward1 he had a son named ,beriah1 and a daughter ,sherah4 ,he had also other sons1 ,rephah1 ,resheph1 ,tela1 c4 ,his posterity multiplied in ,egypt to the number of forty thousand five hundred men capable of bearing arms4 ,in the land of promise1 ,joshua1 who was of this tribe1 gave them their portion between the ,mediterranean west1 and the river ,jordan east4 ,the ark and tabernacle remained long in this tribe at ,shiloh2 and after the separation of the ten tribes1 the seat of the kingdom was in ,ephraim1 and hence ,ephraim is frequently used to denote the whole kingdom4 ,the district belonging to this tribe is called ,ephratah1 ,psalm cxxxii1 #f4 ,ephraim was led captive beyond the ,euphrates1 with all ,israel1 by ,salmaneser1 king of ,assyria1 ,a4 ,m4 #cbhc4 #b4 ,,ephraim was also the name of a city1 into which ,christ retired with his disciples a little before his passion1 ,john xi1 #ed4 ,it was situated in the tribe of ,ephraim near the river ,jordan4 ,there was also the wood or forest of ,ephraim1 situated on the other side ,jordan1 in which ,absalom's army was routed and himself killed1 #b ,sam4 xviii1 #f4 ,,ephrath1 ,caleb's second wife1 who was the mother of ,hur1 #a ,chron4 ii1 #ai4 ,from her1 it is believed that the city of ,ephratah1 otherwise called ,bethlehem1 where our ,lord was born1 had its name2 and this city is more than once known in ,scripture by the name of ,ephrath1 ,gen4 xxxv1 #af4 ,,epicureans1 a sect of philosophers in ,greece and ,rome4 ,epicurus was their founder1 who lived about ,b4 ,c4 #cjj4 ,the physical doctrine of ,epicurus was as follows3 ,nothing can ever spring from nothing1 nor can any thing ever return to nothing4 ,the universe always existed1 and will always remain2 for there is nothing into which it can be changed4 ,there is nothing in nature1 nor can any thing be conceived1 beside body and space4 ,body is that which possesses the properties of bulk1 figure1 resistance1 and gravity2 it is this alone which can touch and be touched4 ,space1 or vacuum1 destitute of the properties of body1 incapable of action or passion1 is the region which is or may be occupied by body1 and which affords it an opportunity of moving freely4 ,the existence of bodies is attested by the senses4 ,space must also exist1 in order to allow bodies place in which to move and exist2 and of their existence and motion we have the certain proof of perception4 ,beside body and space1 no third nature can be conceived4 ,but the existence of qualities is not precluded1 because these have no subsistence except in the body to which they belong4 ,the universe1 consisting of body and space1 is infinite4 ,bodies are infinite in multitude2 space is infinite in magnitude4 ,the universe is immovable1 because there is no place beyond it into which it can move4 ,it is also eternal and immutable1 since it is liable to neither increase nor decrease1 to production nor decay4 ,nevertheless1 the parts of the universe are in motion1 and are subject to change4 ,all bodies consist of parts which are either themselves simple principles1 or may be resolved into such4 ,these first principles1 or simple atoms1 are divisible by no force1 and therefore must be immutable4 #b4 ,the formation of the world he conceived to have happened in the following manner3 ,a finite number of that infinite multitude of atoms1 which1 with infinite space1 constitute the universe1 falling fortuitously into the region of the world1 were1 in consequence of their innate motion1 collected into one rude and indigested mass4 ,in this chaos1 the heaviest and largest atoms1 or collections of atoms1 first subsided1 while the smaller1 and those which from their form would move most freely1 were driven upwards4 ,these latter1 after several reverberations1 rose into the outer region of the world1 and formed the heavens4 ,those atoms which1 by their size and figure1 were suited to form fiery bodies1 collected themselves into stars2 those which were not capable of rising so high in the sphere of the world1 being disturbed by the fiery particles1 formed themselves into air4 ,at length1 from those which subsided1 was produced the earth4 ,by the action of air1 agitated by heat from the heavenly bodies1 upon the mixed mass of the earth1 its smoother and lighter particles were separated from the rest1 and water was produced1 which naturally flowed into the lowest places4 ,in the first combination of atoms1 which formed the chaos1 various seeds arose1 which1 being preserved and nourished by moisture and heat1 afterward sprung forth in organized bodies of different kinds4 ,the soul is a subtle corporeal substance1 composed of the finest atoms1 which1 by the extreme tenuity of its particles1 is able to penetrate the whole body1 and to adhere to all its parts4 ,it is composed of four distinct parts3 fire1 which causes animal heat2 an ethereal principle which is moist vapour2 air2 and a fourth principle1 which is the cause of sensation4 ,these four parts are so perfectly combined as to form one subtle substance1 which1 while it remains in the body1 is the cause of all its faculties1 motions1 and passions1 and which cannot be separated from it1 without producing the entire dissolution of the animal system4 #c4 ,in the universe there are1 according to ,epicurus1 without contradiction1 divine natures2 because nature itself has impressed the idea of divinity upon the minds of men4 ,the notion is universal2 nor is it established by custom1 law1 or any human institution2 but it is the effect of an innate principle1 producing universal consent1 and therefore it must be true4 ,this universal notion has probably arisen from images of the gods1 which have casually made their way into the minds of men in sleep1 and have afterward been recollected4 ,but it is inconsistent with our natural notions of the gods1 as happy and immortal beings1 to suppose that they encumber themselves with the management of the world1 or are subject to the cares and passions which must attend so great a charge4 ,hence it is inferred1 that the gods have no intercourse with mankind1 nor any concern with the affairs of the world4 ,nevertheless1 on account of their excellent nature1 they are objects of reverence and worship4 ,in their external shape the gods resemble men2 and though the place of their residence is unknown to mortals2 it is without doubt the mansion of perfect purity1 tranquillity1 and happiness4 ,thus he attempted to account for all the appearances of nature1 even those which respect animated and intelligent beings1 upon the simple principles of matter and motion1 without introducing the agency of a supreme intelligence1 or admitting any other idea of fate1 than that of blind necessity inherent in every atom1 by which it moves in a certain direction4 #d4 ,the ethics of ,epicurus are much less exceptionable than his physics2 of which we may judge from the following summary3 ,the end of living1 or the ultimate good1 which is to be sought for its own sake1 according to the universal opinion of mankind1 is happiness2 which men generally fail of attaining1 because they form wrong notions of the nature of happiness1 or do not use proper means for attaining it4 ,the happiness which belongs to man1 is that state in which he enjoys as many of the good things1 and suffers as few of the evils incident to human nature as possible1 passing his days in a smooth course of permanent tranquillity4 ,perfect happiness cannot possibly be possessed without the pleasure that attends freedom from pain1 and the enjoyment of the good things of life4 ,pleasure is in its nature good1 and ought to be pursued2 and pain is in its nature evil1 and should be avoided4 ,beside1 pleasure or pain is the measure of what is good or evil in every object of desire or aversion4 ,however1 pleasure ought not in every instance to be pursued1 nor pain to be avoided2 but reason is to distinguish and compare the nature and degrees of each1 that the result may be a wise choice of that which shall appear to be1 upon the whole1 good4 ,that pleasure is the first good1 appears from the inclination which every animal1 from its first birth1 discovers to pursue pleasure and avoid pain2 and is confirmed by the universal experience of mankind1 who are incited to action by no other principle1 than the desire of avoiding pain1 or obtaining pleasure4 ,of pleasures there are two kinds2 one consisting in a state of rest1 in which both body and mind are free from pain2 the other arising from an agreeable agitation of the senses1 producing a correspondent emotion in the soul4 ,upon the former of these1 the enjoyment of life chiefly depends4 ,happiness may1 therefore1 be said to consist in bodily ease and mental tranquillity4 ,it is the office of reason to confine the pursuit of pleasure within the limits of nature1 so as to attain this happy state2 which neither resembles a rapid torrent1 nor a standing pool1 but is like a gentle stream1 that glides smoothly and silently along4 ,this happy state can only be attained by a prudent care of the body1 and a steady government of the mind4 ,the diseases of the body are to be prevented by temperance1 or cured by medicine1 or endured tolerably by patience4 ,against the diseases of the mind philosophy provides sufficient antidotes2 the virtues are its instruments for this purpose2 the radical spring of which is prudence1 or wisdom1 and this instructs men to free their understanding from the clouds of prejudice2 to exercise temperance and fortitude in the government of themselves2 and to practise justice toward all others4 ,in a happy life1 pleasure can never be separated from virtue4 ,the followers of ,epicurus1 however1 degenerated into mere sensualists1--an effect which could only result from a system which denied a supreme ,god1 and excluded from all concern with the affairs of men even those divine natures which it allowed to exist4 ,this sect is mentioned ,acts xvii1 #ah4 ,,episcopacy1 ,,diocesan4 ,the number of ,christians in most of the primitive churches was at first small3 they could easily1 when not prevented by persecution1 assemble together2 and they thus formed one church or congregation2 for1 in ,scripture1 the term church is never used in the more modern acceptation of the word1 but is employed to denote either the whole church of ,christ1 or a number of disciples meeting for the celebration of divine worship4 ,the converts1 however1 rapidly increased2 and when they could no longer meet in one place1 other places would be prepared for them4 ,but1 connected as they still were with the parent church1 they would choose from its presbyters their own pastors1 and view themselves as under the inspection of the president and the presbytery1 by whom the affairs of the church had been previously conducted4 ,the pastors would thus remain members of the presbytery1 as they had formerly been1 and would look up to that one of their number who had been accustomed to preside among them4 ,they were1 in fact1 for a considerable time1 considered as one with the original church3 the bishop sent to them the elements of the ,lord's ,supper as the pledge of unity2 and we find it asserted by ancient writers1 that there was one altar and one bishop4 ,there were in this way gradually established1 first in the towns or cities in which the ,apostles had called men to the truth1 and then in the contiguous district of country1 several congregations3 in these pastors officiated1 who were authorized by the bishop and presbytery1 whose superintendence was extended1 so that parochial episcopacy was insensibly but naturally changed into diocesan episcopacy2 many of the presbyters sent out by the bishop residing at their churches1 but nevertheless composing part of his council1 and being summoned to meet with him upon important occasions4 ,this enlargement of the field of inspection rendered the particular superintendence of the bishop more requisite2 and was the means both of adding to his influence1 and of his being regarded as permanently raised above his brethren4 #b4 ,the ministers who were sent to the recently erected churches had probably different powers1 according to the numbers to whom they were to officiate1 the situation of the churches in respect of the original church1 and the tranquillity or persecution which was their lot4 ,in the immediate neighbourhood of the bishop1 and where one person was sufficient1 he would merely perform the duties that had been assigned to him previous to his mission2 but the same reasons that led the ,apostles to plant several presbyters in the churches which they founded might render it expedient that more than one1 sometimes that a considerable number1 should be attached to the newly-formed congregations2 more particularly when the number attending was large1 and when there was the prospect of their still farther increasing4 ,in such cases1 it appears that the bishop gave to one of the presbyters sent1 and did so for the same reasons that had at first created inequality among the pastors1 more extensive powers than were entrusted to the rest1 and made him his representative authorizing him to preside over the others1 and to discharge those parts of the ministerial office which1 in his own church1 he reserved for himself4 ,when this happened1 the person so distinguished was termed choro-episcopus3 he was more than a presbyter1 but he was inferior to the bishop1 acted by his directions1 and could be controlled by him in the exercise of the privileges which had been granted4 ,such subordinate bishops continued for a considerable time2 but it might1 from the beginning1 have been foreseen that they would soon aspire to an equality with the original bishops2 and they were at length suppressed1 under the pretence that1 by multiplying the higher order in places of little consequence1 the church would detract from the respectability of that order1 and lessen the reverence with which it should be regarded4 #c4 ,the different congregations or churches which were established in various cities and the adjoining districts were in so far independent of each other1 that the bishops and presbyters of each had the rule of their particular church1 and of the churches which had sprung from it1 and were entitled1 by their own authority1 to make such regulations as appeared to them to be requisite2 and this species of independence continued for a considerable time1 every bishop presiding in his congregation1 and afterward in his diocess4 ,there was1 however1 always a common tie by which they were united4 ,neighbouring churches1 actuated by ardent zeal for the interests of divine truth1 consulted together upon the best mode of promoting it4 ,we know that the ,apostolic churches were enjoined to communicate to other bodies the epistles which they had received2 and while persecution continued1 it was natural for all who were exposed to it to consider by what means its fury could be avoided4 #d4 ,after the bishops were established as superior to presbyters1 when any meeting was held respecting religion1 or the administration of the church1 it was chiefly composed of this higher order1 and the president of the synod or council was elected from their number4 ,these meetings were generally assembled in the metropolis1 or principal city of the district2 and hence the bishop of this city1 being frequently called to preside1 came1 at length1 to be regarded as entitled to do so3 thus acquiring a superiority over the other bishops1 just as they had acquired superiority over the inferior clergy4 ,he was1 in consequence1 distinguished by a particular name1 being denominated1 from the city in which he presided1 a metropolitan4 ,,episcopalians1 those who maintain that bishops1 presbyters1 or priests1 and deacons1 are three distinct orders in the church2 and that the bishops have a superiority over both the others4 ,the episcopal form of church government professes to find in the days of the ,apostles the model upon which it is framed4 ,while our ,lord remained upon earth1 he acted as the immediate governor of his church4 ,having himself called the ,apostles1 he kept them constantly about his person1 except at one time1 when he sent them forth upon a short progress through the cities of ,judea1 and gave them particular directions how they should conduct themselves4 ,the seventy disciples1 whom he sent forth at another time1 are never mentioned again in the ,new ,testament4 ,but the ,apostles received from him many intimations that their office was to continue after his departure2 and as one great object of his ministry was to qualify them for the execution of this office1 so1 in the interval between his resurrection and his ascension1 he explained to them the duties of it1 and he invested them with the authority which the discharge of those duties implied4 8,go10 said he1 8make disciples of all nations1 baptizing them1 teaching them2 and lo1 ,i am with you always1 even unto the end of the world4 ,as my ,father hath sent me1 even so send ,i you4 ,receive ye the ,holy ,ghost10 ,matt4 xxviii1 #ai1 #bj2 ,john xx1 #ba1 #bb4 ,soon after the ascension of ,jesus1 his ,apostles received those extraordinary gifts of which his promise had given them assurance2 and immediately they began to execute their commission1 not only as the witnesses of his resurrection1 and the teachers of his religion1 but as the rulers of that society which was gathered by their preaching4 ,in ,acts vi1 we find the ,apostles ordering the ,christians at ,jerusalem to 8look out seven men of honest report10 who might take charge of the daily ministrations to the poor1 and to bring the men so chosen to them1 that 8we10 said the ,apostles1 8may appoint them over this business40 ,the men accordingly were 8set before the ,apostles2 and when they had prayed1 they laid their hands on them40 ,here are the ,apostles ordaining deacons4 ,afterward1 we find ,st4 ,paul1 in his progress through ,asia ,minor1 ordaining in every church elders1 2 the name properly expressive of age being transferred1 after the practice of the ,jews1 as a mark of respect1 to ecclesiastical rulers1 ,acts xiv1 #bc4 ,the men thus ordained by ,st4 ,paul appear1 from the book of ,acts and the ,epistles1 to have been teachers1 pastors1 overseers1 of the flock of ,christ2 and to ,timothy1 who was a minister of the word1 the ,apostle speaks of 8the gift which is in thee by the putting on of my hands10 #b ,tim4 i1 #f4 ,over the persons to whom he thus conveyed the office of teaching1 he exercised jurisdiction2 for he sent to ,ephesus1 to the elders of the church to meet him at ,miletus2 and there1 in a long discourse1 gave them a solemn charge1 ,acts xx1 #ag-ce2 and to ,timothy and ,titus he writes epistles in the style of a superior4 #b4 ,as ,st4 ,paul unquestionably conceived that there belonged to him1 as an ,apostle1 an authority over other office-bearers of the church1 so his epistles contain two examples of a delegation of that authority4 ,he not only directs ,timothy1 whom he had besought to abide at ,ephesus1 how to behave himself in the house of ,god as a minister1 but he sets him over other ministers4 ,he empowers him to ordain men to the work of the ministry3 8,the things that thou hast heard of me among many witnesses1 the same commit thou to faithful men1 who shall be able to teach others also10 #b ,tim4 ii1 #b4 ,he gives him directions about the ordination of bishops and deacons2 he places both these kinds of office-bearers in ,ephesus under his inspection1 instructing him in what manner to receive an accusation against an elder who laboured in word and doctrine2 and he commands him to charge some that they teach no other doctrine but the form of sound words4 ,in like manner he says to ,titus1 8,for this cause left ,i thee in ,crete1 that thou shouldest set in order the things that are wanting1 and ordain elders in every city1 as ,i had appointed thee10 ,titus i1 #e4 ,he describes to ,titus the qualifications of a bishop or elder1 making him the judge how far any person in ,crete was possessed of these qualifications2 he gives him authority over all orders of ,christians there2 and he empowers him to reject heretics4 ,here1 then1 is that ,apostle1 with whose actions we are best acquainted1 seemingly aware that there would be continual occasion in the ,christian church for the exercise of that authority over pastors and teachers1 which the ,apostles had derived from the ,lord ,jesus2 and by these two examples of a delegation1 given during his life time1 preparing the world for beholding that authority exercised by the successors of the ,apostles in all ages4 ,accordingly1 the earliest ,christian writers tell us that the ,apostles1 to prevent contention1 appointed bishops and deacons2 giving orders1 too1 that1 upon their death1 other approved men should succeed in their ministry4 ,we are told that the other ,apostles constituted their first-fruits1 that is1 their first disciples1 after they had proved them by the ,spirit1 bishops and deacons of those who were to believe2 and that the ,apostle ,john1 who survived the rest1 after returning from ,patmos1 the place of his banishment1 went about the neighbouring nations1 ordaining bishops1 establishing whole churches1 and setting apart particular persons for the ministry1 as they were pointed out to him by the ,spirit4 #c4 ,as bishops are mentioned in the earliest times1 so ecclesiastical history records the succession of bishops through many ages2 and even during the first three centuries1 before ,christianity was incorporated with the state1 every city1 where the multitude of ,christians required a number of pastors to perform the stated offices1 presents to us1 as far as we can gather from contemporary writers1 an appearance very much the same with that of the church of ,jerusalem in the days of the ,apostles4 ,the ,apostle ,james seems to have resided in that city4 ,but there is also mention of the elders of the church1 who1 according to the ,scripture representation of elders1 must have discharged the ministerial office1 but over whom the ,apostle ,james presided4 ,so1 in ,carthage1 where ,cyprian was bishop1 and in every other ,christian city of which we have particular accounts1 there was a college of presbyters2 and there was one person who had not only presidency1 but jurisdiction and authority1 over the rest4 ,they were his council in matters relating to the church1 and they were qualified to preach1 to baptize1 and to administer the ,lord's ,supper2 but they could do nothing without his permission and authority4 ,it is a principle in ,christian antiquity1 1 1 8one bishop1 and one church40 ,the one bishop had the care of all the ,christians1 who1 although they met in separate congregations1 constituted one church2 and he had the inspection of the pastors1 who1 having received ordination from the bishop1 officiated in the separate congregations1 performed the several parts of duty which he prescribed to them1 and were accountable to him for their conduct4 ,in continuation of this primitive institution1 we find episcopacy in all corners of the church of ,christ4 ,until the time of the reformation1 there were1 in every ,christian state1 persons with the name1 the rank1 and the authority of bishops2 and the existence of such persons was not considered as an innovation1 but as an establishment1 which1 by means of catalogues preserved in ecclesiastical writers1 may be traced back to the days of the ,apostles4 #d4 ,upon the principles which have now been stated1 it is understood1 according to the episcopal form of government1 that there is in the church a superior order of office-bearers1 the successors of the ,apostles1 who possess in their own persons the right of ordination and jurisdiction1 and who are called 1 as being the overseers not only of the people1 but also of the clergy2 and an inferior order of ministers1 called presbyters1 the literal translation of the word 1 which is rendered in our ,english ,bibles elders1 persons who receive1 from the ordination of the bishop1 power to preach and to administer the sacraments1 who are set over the people1 but are themselves under the government of the bishop1 and have no right to convey to others the sacred office1 which he gives them authority to exercise under him4 ,according to a phrase used by ,charles ,i1 who was by no means an unlearned defender of that form of government to which he was a martyr1 the presbyters are episcopi gregis2 bishops of the flock2 but the bishops are episcopi gregis et pastorum1 bishops of the flock and of the pastors4 #e4 ,the liberal writers on that side1 however1 do not contend that this form of government is made so binding in the church as not to be departed from1 and varied according to circumstances4 ,it cannot be proved1 says ,dr4 ,paley1 that any form of church government was laid down in the ,christian1 as it had been in the ,jewish1 ,scriptures1 with a view of fixing a constitution for succeeding ages4 ,the truth seems to have been1 that such offices were at first erected in the ,christian church as the good order1 the instruction1 and the exigencies of the society at that time required2 without any intention1 at least without any declared design1 of regulating the appointment1 authority1 or the distinction1 of ,christian ministers under future circumstances4 ,to the same effect1 also1 ,bishop ,tomline says1 8,it is not contended that the bishops1 priests1 and deacons of ,england are at present precisely the same that bishops1 presbyters1 and deacons were in ,asia ,minor1 seventeen hundred years ago4 ,we only maintain that there have always been bishops1 priests1 and deacons1 in the ,christian church1 since the days of the ,apostles1 with different powers and functions1 it is allowed1 in different countries and at different periods2 but the general principles and duties which have respectively characterized these clerical orders have been essentially the same at all times1 and in all places2 and the variations which they have undergone have only been such as have ever belonged to all persons in public situations1 whether civil or ecclesiastical1 and which are indeed inseparable from every thing in which mankind are concerned in this transitory and fluctuating world4 ,i have thought it right to take this general view of the ministerial office1 and to make these observations upon the clerical orders subsisting in this kingdom1 for the purpose of pointing out the foundation and principles of church authority1 and of showing that our ecclesiastical establishment is as nearly conformable1 as change of circumstances will permit1 to the practice of the primitive church4 ,but1 though ,i flatter myself that ,i have proved episcopacy to be an ,apostolical institution1 yet ,i readily acknowledge that there is no precept in the ,new ,testament which commands that every church should be governed by bishops4 ,no church can exist without some government2 but though there must be rules and orders for the proper discharge of the offices of public worship1 though there must be fixed regulations concerning the appointment of ministers1 and though a subordination among them is expedient in the highest degree1 yet it does not follow that all these things must be precisely the same in every ,christian country2 they may vary with the other varying circumstances of human society1 with the extent of a country1 the manners of its inhabitants1 the nature of its civil government1 and many other peculiarities which might be specified4 ,as it has not pleased our almighty ,father to prescribe any particular form of civil government for the security of temporal comforts to his rational creatures1 so neither has he prescribed any particular form of ecclesiastical polity as absolutely necessary to the attainment of eternal happiness4 ,but he has1 in the most explicit terms1 enjoined obedience to all governors1 whether civil or ecclesiastical1 and whatever may be their denomination1 as essential to the character of a true ,christian4 ,thus the ,gospel only lays down general principles1 and leaves the application of them to men as free agents40 ,bishop ,tomline1 however1 and the high ,episcopalians of the church of ,england1 contend for an original distinction in the office and order of bishops and presbyters2 which notion is controverted by the ,presbyterians1 and is1 indeed1 contradicted by one who may be truly called the founder of the church of ,england1 ,archbishop ,cranmer1 who says1 8,the bishops and priests were at one time1 and were not two things2 but both one office in the beginning of ,christ's religion40 ,the more rigid ,episcopalians admit of no ordination as valid in the church but by the hands of bishops1 and those derived in a right line from the ,apostles4 ,see ,,presbyterians4 #f4 ,the churches of ,rome and of ,england are the principal ,episcopalian churches in the west of ,europe2 and those of the ,greeks and ,arminians in the east2 but1 beside these1 there are ,episcopalians in ,scotland1 and in other countries1 where1 ,presbyterianism being the establishment1 they are1 of course1 ,dissenters4 ,thus a ,presbyterian is a ,dissenter in ,england1 and an ,episcopalian a ,dissenter in ,scotland4 ,there is also an ,episcopalian church in the ,united ,states of ,america2 but there being no established religion1 there are1 of course1 no ,dissenters4 ,the ,episcopal church in ,america is organized very differently from that in ,england4 ,the following particulars are from the best authorities3--,the general convention was formed in #aghi1 by a delegation from the different states1 and meets triennially4 ,they have eleven dioceses1 two of which are without bishops1 and are at liberty to form more in other states4 ,the above convention consists of an upper and lower house2 the former consisting of bishops1 in which the senior bishop presides3 they have no archbishop3 and the lower1 of the other clergy1 and laymen mingled with them4 ,there are also diocesan conventions annually1 in which the bishop presides4 ,the bishops have no salaries as such1 but are allowed to hold parishes as other ministers2 but it has lately been found more convenient in many states to raise a fund for the support of the bishop1 that his time may be more at liberty for visiting the clergy4 ,they have neither patronage nor palaces1 and some of their incomes are extremely small4 ,the ,english ,common ,prayer ,book is adopted1 with the omission of the ,athanasian ,creed1 and some other slight alterations4 ,subscription to the articles is not required by candidates for holy orders4 ,the ,methodists in ,america1 also1 form an episcopal church2 but founded upon the primitive principle that bishops and presbyters are of the same order1 although the oversight of presbyters may be committed to those who are1 by virtue of their office1 also called bishops4 ,the ,methodist ,episcopal ,church was organized in ,december1 #aghd4 ,the fundamental principle on which the episcopacy of this church rests1 is here correctly stated4 ,it is proper to add to ,mr4 ,watson's enumeration1 that the ,roman and ,moravian churches in the ,united ,states are also episcopal2 and that the statement that the bishops of the ,protestant ,episcopal ,church receive no salaries as bishops1 is not at present 7#ahcb7 without exception4 ,their incomes1 too1 though doubtless extremely small compared with those of the bishops of the establishment in ,england1 are not so1 compared with those of other ministers generally in the ,united ,states4 ,,epistles1 which occur under the same ,hebrew word with books1 namely1 1 are mentioned the more rarely1 the farther we go back into antiquity4 ,an epistle is first mentioned1 #b ,sam4 xi1 #ad1 c4 ,afterward1 there is more frequent mention of them2 and sometimes an epistle is meant1 when literally a messenger is spoken of1 as in ,ezra iv1 #ae-ag4 ,in the east1 letters are commonly sent unsealed4 ,in case1 however1 they are sent to persons of distinction1 they are placed in a valuable purse1 which is tied1 closed over with wax or clay1 and then stamped with a signet1 ,isaiah xxix1 #aa2 ,job xxxviii1 #ad4 ,the most ancient epistles begin and end without either salutation or farewell2 but under the ,persian monarchy the salutation was very prolix4 ,it is given in an abridged form in ,ezra iv1 #g-aj2 v1 #g4 ,the ,apostles1 in their epistles1 used the salutation customary among the ,greeks2 but they omitted the usual farewell at the close1 namely1 1 and adopted a benediction more conformable to the spirit of the ,christian religion4 ,st4 ,paul1 when he dictated his letters1 wrote the benediction at the close with his own hand1 #b ,thess4 iii1 #ag4 ,he was more accustomed to dictate his letters than to write them himself4 ,the name ,epistles is given1 by way of eminence1 to the letters written by the ,apostles1 or first preachers of ,christianity1 to particular churches or persons1 on particular occasions or subjects4 ,of these the ,apostle ,paul wrote fourteen4 ,st4 ,james wrote one general epistle2 ,st4 ,peter two2 ,st4 ,john three2 and ,st4 ,jude one4 ,an epistle has its ,hebrew name from its being rolled or folded together4 ,the modern ,arabs roll up their letters1 and then flatten them to the breadth of an inch1 and paste up the end of them1 instead of sealing them4 ,the ,persians make up their letters in a roll about six inches long1 and a bit of paper is fastened round it with gum1 and sealed with an impression of ink1 which resembles our printers' ink1 but is not so thick4 ,letters1 as stated above1 were generally sent to persons of distinction in a bag or purse2 but to inferiors1 or those who were held in contempt1 they were sent open1 that is1 unenclosed4 ,lady ,m4 ,w4 ,montagu says1 the bassa of ,belgrade's answer to the ,english ambassador going to ,constantinople was brought to him in a purse of scarlet satin4 ,but1 in the case of ,nehemiah1 an insult was designed to be offered to him by ,sanballat1 in refusing him the mark of respect usually paid to persons of his station1 and treating him contemptuously1 by sending the letter open1 that is1 without the customary appendages when presented to persons of respectability4 8,futty ,sihng10 says ,mr4 ,forbes1 8sent a chopdar to me at ,dhuboy1 with a letter of invitation to the wedding1 then celebrating at ,brodera at a great expense1 and of long continuance4 ,the letter1 as usual1 from oriental princes1 was written on silver paper1 flowered with gold1 with an additional sprinkling of saffron1 enclosed under a cover of gold brocade4 ,the letter was accompanied with a bag of crimson and gold keem-caub1 filled with sweet-scented seeds1 as a mark of favour and good omen40 ,,epoch1 a term in chronology signifying a fixed point of time1 from which the succeeding years are numbered4 ,scaliger says it means 8a stop10 because 8in epochs stop and terminate the measures of times40 ,it now usually denotes a remarkable date2 as1 the epoch of the destruction of ,troy1 ,b4 ,c4 #aahc1 c4 ,the first epoch is the creation of the world1 which1 according to the ,vulgate ,bible1 ,archbishop ,usher fixes in the year #gaj of the ,julian period1 and #djjd years before ,jesus ,christ4 ,the second is the deluge1 which1 according to the ,hebrew text1 happened in the year of the world #afef4 ,six other epochs are commonly reckoned in sacred history3 the building of the tower of ,babel1 which was1 according to ,dr4 ,hales1 ,b4 ,c4 #beed2 the calling of ,abraham1 ,b4 ,c4 #baec2 the departure of the ,israelites out of ,egypt1 ,b4 ,c4 #afdh2 the dedication of the temple1 ,b4 ,c4 #ajbg2 the end of the ,babylonish captivity1 ,b4 ,c4 #ecf2 and the birth of ,jesus ,christ1 ,a4 ,d4 #a4 ,in profane history are reckoned five epochs3 the founding of the ,assyrian empire1 ,b4 ,c4 #abfg2 the era of ,nabonassar1 or death of ,sardanapalus1 ,b4 ,c4 #gdg2 the reign of ,cyrus at ,babylon1 ,b4 ,c4 #eef2 the reign of ,alexander the ,great over the ,persians1 ,b4 ,c4 #ccj2 and the beginning of the reign of ,augustus1 in which our ,saviour was born1 ,b4 ,c4 #dd4 ,,era4 ,the term era 7not ra1 as incorrectly written7 is ,spanish1 signifying time1 as in the phrase1 de era en era1 8from time to time40 ,it was first used in the ,era ,hispanica1 instituted ,b4 ,c4 #ch1 in honour of ,augustus1 when ,spain was allotted to him in the distribution of the provinces among the second triumvirate1 ,augustus1 ,anthony1 and ,lepidus4 ,it now usually denotes an indefinite series of years1 beginning from some known epoch2 and so differs from a period which is a definite series3 as the era of the foundation of ,rome1 the era of the ,olympiads1 the era of ,nabonassar1 c4 ,see ,,epoch4 ,,esar-,,haddon1 son of ,sennacherib1 and his successor in the kingdom of ,assyria3 called ,sargon1 or ,saragon1 ,isa4 xx1 #a4 ,he reigned twenty-nine years4 ,he made war with the ,philistines1 and took ,azoth1 by ,tartan1 his general3 he attacked ,egypt1 ,cush1 and ,edom1 ,isa4 xx1 xxxiv2 designing1 probably1 to avenge the affront ,sennacherib his father had received from ,tirhakah1 king of ,cush1 and the king of ,egypt1 who had been ,hezekiah's confederates4 ,he sent priests to the ,cuthans1 whom ,salmaneser1 king of ,assyria1 had planted in ,samaria1 instead of the ,israelites3 he took ,jerusalem1 and carried ,king ,manasseh to ,babylon1 of which he had become master1 perhaps1 because there was no heir to ,belesis1 king of ,bayblon4 ,he is said to have reigned twenty-nine or thirty years at ,nineveh1 and thirteen years at ,babylon2 in all forty-two years4 ,he died ,a4 ,m4 #cccf4 ,,esau1 son of ,isaac and ,rebekah1 born ,a4 ,m4 #bafh1 ,b4 ,c4 #ahcf4 ,when the time of ,rebekah's delivery came1 she had twins1 ,gen4 xxv1 #bd-bf3 the first-born was hairy1 therefore called ,esau2 that is1 a man full grown or of perfect age2 but some derive ,esau from the ,arabic gescha or gencheva1 which signifies a hair cloth4 ,esau delighted in hunting1 and his father ,isaac had a particular affection for him4 ,on one occasion1 ,esau1 returning from the fields greatly fatigued1 desired ,jacob to give him some red pottage1 which he was then preparing4 ,jacob consented1 provided ,esau would sell him his birthright4 ,esau complied1 and by oath resigned it to him1 ,gen4 xxv1 #bi-cd4 ,esau1 when aged forty1 married two ,canaanitish women1 ,judith1 daughter of ,beeri1 the ,hittite2 and ,bashemath1 daughter of ,elon1 ,gen4 xxvi1 #cd4 ,these marriages were very displeasing to ,isaac and ,rebekah1 because they intermingled the blood of ,abraham with that of ,canaanite aliens4 ,isaac being old1 and his sight decayed1 directed ,esau to procure him delicate venison by hunting1 that he might give him his chief blessing1 ,gen4 xxvii4 ,the artifice of his mother1 however1 counteracted his purpose2 and she contrived to impose upon ,isaac1 and to obtain the father's principal blessing for her son ,jacob4 ,esau was indignant on account of this treachery and determined to kill ,jacob as soon as their father should die4 ,rebekah again interposed1 and sent ,jacob away to her brother ,laban1 with whom he might be secure4 ,during the period of separation1 which lasted several years1 ,esau married a wife of the family of ,ishmael2 and1 removing to ,mount ,seir1 acquired great power and wealth4 ,when ,jacob returned1 after long absence1 to his father's country1 with a numerous family1 and large flocks and herds1 he dreaded his brother's displeasure2 but they had an amicable and affectionate interview4 ,after their father's death1 they lived in peace and amity2 but1 as their possessions enlarged1 and there was not sufficient room for them in the land in which they were strangers1 ,esau returned to ,mount ,seir1 where his posterity multiplied under the denomination of ,edomites4 7,see ,,edom47 ,the time of his death is not mentioned2 but ,bishop ,cumberland thinks it probable that he died about the same time with his brother ,jacob1 at the age of about one hundred and forty-seven years1 ,gen4 xxv-xxxvi4 #b4 ,on the most important part of this history1 the selling of the birthright1 we may observe1 7#a47 ,that although it was always the design of ,god that the blessing connected with primogeniture in the family of ,abraham should be enjoyed by ,jacob1 and to exercise his sovereignty in changing the succession in which the promises of the ,abrahamic covenant might descend2 yet the conduct of ,rebekah and ,jacob was reprehensible in endeavouring to bring about the divine design by the unworthy means of contrivance and deceit2 and they were punished for their presumption by their sufferings4 7#b47 ,that the conduct of ,esau in selling his birthright was both wanton and profane4 ,it was wanton1 because he1 though faint1 could be in no danger of not obtaining a supply of food in his father's house2 and was therefore wholly influenced by his appetite1 excited by the delicacy of ,jacob's pottage4 ,it was profane1 because the blessings of the birthright were spiritual as well as civil4 ,the church of ,god was to be established in the line of the first-born2 and in that line the ,messiah was to appear4 ,these high privileges were despised by ,esau1 who is therefore made by ,st4 ,paul a type of all apostates from ,christ1 who1 like him1 profanely despise their birthright as the sons of ,god4 ,see ,,birthright4 ,,esdraelon1 ,,plain ,,of1 in the tribe of ,issachar1 extends east and west from ,scythopolis to ,mount ,carmel2 called1 likewise1 the ,great ,plain1 the ,valley of ,jezreel1 the ,plain of ,esdrela4 ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke observes1 it is by far the largest plain in the ,holy ,land2 extending quite across the country from ,mount ,carmel and the ,mediterranean ,sea to the southern extremity of the ,sea of ,galilee2 about thirty miles in length1 and twenty in breadth4 ,it is also a very fertile district1 abounding in pasture2 on which account it has been selected for the purposes of encampment by almost every army that has traversed the ,holy ,land4 ,here ,barak1 descending with his ten thousand men from ,mount ,tabor1 which rises like a cone in the centre of the plain1 defeated ,sisera1 with his 8nine hundred chariots of iron1 and all the people that were with him1 gathered from ,harosheth of the ,gentiles unto the river of ,kishon2 and pursued after the chariots and after the host unto ,harosheth of the ,gentiles2 and all the host of ,sisera fell upon the edge of the sword2 and there was not a man left10 ,judges iv4 ,here ,josiah1 king of ,judah1 fell1 fighting against ,necho1 king of ,egypt1 #b ,kings xxiii1 #bi4 ,and here the ,midianites and the ,amalekites1 who were 8like grasshoppers for multitude1 and their camels without number as the sand of the sea10 encamped1 when they were defeated by ,gideon1 ,judges vi4 ,this plain has likewise been used for the same purpose by the armies of every conqueror or invader1 from ,nabuchodonosor1 king of ,assyria1 to his imitator1 ,napoleon ,buonaparte1 who1 in the spring of #agii1 with a small body of ,french1 defeated an army of several thousand ,turks and ,mamelukes4 ,jews1 ,gentiles1 ,saracens1 ,christians1 crusaders1 and antichristian ,frenchmen1 ,egyptians1 ,persians1 ,druses1 ,turks1 and ,arabs1 warriors out of every nation which is under heaven1 have pitched their tents in the ,plain of ,esdraelon2 and have beheld the various banners of their nations wet with the dews of ,tabor and of ,hermon4 ,and it is to this day generally found to be the place of encampment of large parties of ,arabs4 ,,esdras1 the name of two apocryphal books which were always excluded the ,jewish canon1 and are too absurd to be admitted as canonical by the ,papists themselves4 ,they are supposed to have been originally written in ,greek by some ,hellenistical ,jews2 though some imagine that they were first written in ,chaldee1 and afterward translated into ,greek4 ,it is uncertain when they were composed1 though it is generally agreed that the author wrote before ,josephus4 ,,eshbaal1 or ,,ishbosheth1 the fourth son of ,saul4 ,the ,hebrews1 to avoid pronouncing the word baal1 8lord10 used bosheth1 8confusion40 ,instead of ,mephi-baal1 they said ,mephi-bosheth2 and1 instead of ,esh-baal1 they said ,ish-bosheth1 #b ,sam4 ii1 #h4 ,,eshcol1 one of ,abraham's allies1 who dwelt with him in the valley of ,mamre1 and accompanied him in the pursuit of ,chedorlaomer1 and the other confederated kings1 who pillaged ,sodom and ,gomorrah1 and carried away ,lot1 ,abraham's nephew1 ,gen4 xiv1 #bd4 ,also the valley or brook of ,eshcol was that in which the ,hebrew messengers1 who went to spy the land of ,canaan1 cut a bunch of grapes so large that it was as much as two men could carry4 ,it was situated in the south part of ,judah1 ,num4 xiii1 #bd2 xxxii1 #i4 ,,essenes1 or ,,essenians1 one of the three ancient sects of the ,jews4 ,they appear to have been an enthusiastic sect1 never numerous1 and but little known2 directly opposite to the ,pharisees with respect to their reliance upon tradition1 and their scrupulous regard to the ceremonial law1 but pretending1 like them1 to superior sanctity of manners4 ,they existed in the time of our ,saviour2 and though they are not mentioned in the ,new ,testament1 they are supposed to be alluded to by ,st4 ,paul in his ,epistles to the ,ephesians and ,colossians1 and in his first ,epistle to ,timothy4 ,from the account given of the doctrines and institutions of this sect by ,philo and ,josephus1 we learn that they believed in the immortality of the soul2 that they were absolute predestinarians2 that they observed the seventh day with peculiar strictness2 that they held the ,scriptures in the highest reverence1 but considered them as mystic writings1 and expounded them allegorically2 that they sent gifts to the temple1 but offered no sacrifices2 that they admitted no one into their society till after a probation of three years2 that they lived in a state of perfect equality1 except that they paid respect to the aged1 and to their priests2 that they considered all secular employment as unlawful1 except that of agriculture2 that they had all things in common1 and were industrious1 quiet1 and free from every species of vice2 that they held celibacy and solitude in high esteem2 that they allowed no change of raiment till necessity required it2 that they abstained from wine2 that they were not permitted to eat but with their own sect2 and that a certain portion of food was allotted to each person1 of which they partook together1 after solemn ablutions4 ,the austere and retired life of the ,essenes is supposed to have given rise to monkish superstition4 ,the ,therapeut were a distinct branch of the ,essenes4 ,jahn has thus described the difference between them3 ,the principal ground of difference between the ,essenes or ,essai1 and ,therapeut consisted in this2 the former were ,jews1 who spoke the ,aramean2 the latter were ,greek ,jews1 as the names themselves intimate1 namely1 and 4 ,the ,essenes lived chiefly in ,palestine2 the ,therapeut1 in ,egypt4 ,the ,therapeut were more rigid than the ,essenes1 since the latter1 although they made it a practice to keep at a distance from large cities1 lived1 nevertheless1 in towns and villages1 and practised agriculture and the arts1 with the exception of those arts which were made more directly subservient to the purposes of war4 ,the ,therapeut1 on the contrary1 fled from all inhabited places1 dwelt in fields and deserts and gardens1 and gave themselves up to contemplation4 ,both the ,essenes and the ,therapeut held their property in common1 and those things which they stood in need of for the support and the comforts of life1 were distributed to them from the common stock4 ,the candidates for admission among the ,essenes gave their property to the society2 but those who were destined for a membership with the ,therapeut1 left theirs to their friends2 and both1 after a number of years of probation1 made a profession which bound them to the exercise of the strictest uprightness4 ,the ,romanists pretend1 as ,dr4 ,prideaux observes1 without any foundation1 that the ,essenes were ,christian monks1 formed into a society by ,st4 ,mark1 who founded the first church at ,alexandria4 ,but it is evident1 from the accounts of ,josephus and ,philo1 that the ,essenes were not ,christians1 but ,jews4 ,dr4 ,neander's account of the ,essenes is as follows3--,a company of pious men1 much experienced in the trials of the outward and of the inward life1 had withdrawn themselves out of the strife of theological and political parties1 at first apparently 7according to ,pliny the elder7 to the western side of the ,dead ,sea2 where they lived together in intimate connection1 partly in the same sort of society as the monks of later days1 and partly as mystical orders in all periods have done4 ,from this society1 other smaller ones afterward proceeded1 and spread themselves over all ,palestine4 ,they were called ,essenes1 or 4 ,they employed themselves in the arts of peace1 agriculture1 pasture1 handicraft works1 and especially in the art of healing1 while they took great delight in investigating the healing powers of nature4 ,it is probable1 also1 that they imagined themselves under the guidance of a supernatural illumination in their search into nature1 and their use of her powers4 ,their natural knowledge1 and their art of healing1 appear also to have had a religious1 theosophic character1 as they professed also to have peculiar prophetical gifts4 ,the ,essenes were1 no doubt1 distinguished from the mass of ordinary ,jews by this1 that they knew and loved something higher than the outward ceremonial and a dead faith1 that they did really strive after holiness of heart1 and inward communion with ,god4 ,their quiet1 pious habits also rendered them remarkable1 and by means of these they remained quiet amidst all the political changes1 respected by all parties1 even by the ,heathens2 and by their laborious habits and kindness1 their obedience toward the higher powers1 as ordained of ,god1 their fidelity and love of truth1 they were enabled to extend themselves in all directions4 ,in their society every yea and nay had the force of an oath2 for every oath1 said they1 pre-supposes a mutual distrust1 which ought not to be the case among a society of honest men4 ,only in one case was an oath suffered among them1 namely1 as a pledge for those who after a three years' noviciate were to be received into the number of the initiated4 ,according to the portraiture of them1 given by ,philo1 the ,alexandrian1 in his separate treatise concerning the 8,true ,freedom of the ,virtuous10 we should take the ,essenes for men of an entirely practical religious turn1 far removed from all theosophy and all idle speculation2 and we should ascribe to them an inward religious habit of mind1 free from all mixture of superstition and reliance on outward things4 ,but the account of ,philo does not at all accord with that of ,josephus2 and the more historical ,josephus deserves in general more credit than ,philo1 who was too apt to indulge in philosophizing and idealism4 ,beside1 ,josephus had more opportunity of knowing this sect thoroughly1 than ,philo2 for ,philo lived in ,egypt1 and the ,essenes did not extend beyond ,palestine4 ,josephus had here passed the greater part of his life1 and had certainly taken all necessary pains to inform himself accurately of the nature of the different sects1 among which he was determined1 as a youth of sixteen years of age1 to make choice1 although he can hardly have completely passed through a noviciate in the sect of the ,essenes1 because he made the round of all the three ,jewish sects1 in a period of from three to four years4 ,josephus1 also1 shows himself completely unprejudiced in this description2 while ,philo1 on the contrary1 wished to represent the ,essenes to the more cultivated ,greeks as models of practical wisdom1 and1 therefore1 he allowed himself to represent much1 not as it really was1 but as it suited his purpose4 ,we must conclude that the ,essenes did also busy themselves with theosophy1 and pretended to impart to those of their order disclosures relating to the supernatural world of spirits1 because those who were about to be initiated1 were obliged to swear that they would never make known to any one the names of the angels then to be communicated to them4 ,the manner in which they kept secret the ancient books of their sect is also a proof of this4 ,and1 indeed1 ,philo himself makes it probable1 when he says1 that they employed themselves with a 1 a philosophy which was supported by an allegorical interpretation of ,scripture1 for this kind of allegorizing interpretation was usually the accompaniment of a certain speculative system4 ,according to ,philo1 they rejected the sacrifice of victims1 because they considered1 that to consecrate and offer up themselves wholly to ,god1 was the only true sacrifice1 the only sacrifice worthy of ,god4 ,but according to ,josephus they certainly considered sacrifice as something peculiarly holy1 but they thought that from its peculiar holiness it must have been desecrated by the profane ,jews in the temple of ,jerusalem1 and that it could be worthily celebrated only in their holy community1 just as mystic sects of this nature are constantly accustomed to make the objective acts of religion dependent on the subjective condition of those who perform or take part in them4 ,in the troublesome and superstitious observance of the rest of the ,sabbath1 according to the letter1 and not according to the spirit1 they went even farther than the other ,jews1 only with this difference1 that they were in good earnest in the matter1 while the ,pharisees by their casuistry relaxed their rules1 or drew them tighter1 just as it suited their purpose4 ,the ,essenes1 not only strenuously abhorred1 like the other ,jews1 contact with the uncircumcised1 but1 having divided themselves into four classes1 the ,essenes of a higher grade were averse from contact with those of a lower1 as if they were rendered unclean by it1 and when any thing of this kind did happen1 they purified themselves after it4 ,like many other ,jews1 they attributed great value1 in general1 to lustration by bathing in cold water4 ,to their ascetic notions1 the constant and healthy practice in the east of anointing with oil seemed unholy1 and if it befel any one of them1 he was obliged to purify himself4 ,it was also a great abomination to them to eat any food except such as had been prepared by persons of their own sect4 ,they would die rather than eat of any other4 ,this is a sufficient proof that although the ,essenes might possess a certain inward religious life1 and a certain practical piety1 yet that these qualities with them1 as well as with many other mystical sects1 as for example1 those of the middle ages1 were connected with a theosophy1 which desired to know things hidden from human reason1 1 and therefore lost itself in idle imaginations and dreams1 and were also mixed up with an outward asceticism1 a proud spirit of separation from the rest of mankind1 and superstitious observances and demeanours totally at variance with the true spirit of inward religion4 ,,esther4 ,the book of ,esther is so called1 because it contains the history of ,esther a ,jewish captive1 who by her remarkable accomplishments gained the affection of ,king ,ahasuerus1 and by marriage with him was raised to the throne of ,persia2 and it relates the origin and ceremonies of the feast of ,purim1 instituted in commemoration of the great deliverance1 which she1 by her interest1 procured for the ,jews1 whose general destruction had been concerted by the offended pride of ,haman4 ,there is great diversity of opinion concerning the author of this book2 it has been ascribed to ,ezra1 to ,mordecai1 to ,joachim1 and to the joint labours of the great synagogue2 and it is impossible to decide which of these opinions is the most probable4 ,we are told1 that the facts here recorded happened in the reign of ,ahasuerus king of ,persia1 8who reigned from ,india even unto ,ethiopia1 over a hundred and twenty-seven provinces10 ,esther i1 #a2 and this extent of dominion plainly proves that he was one of the successors of ,cyrus4 ,that point is indeed allowed by all2 but learned men differ concerning the person meant by ,ahasuerus1 whose name does not occur in profane history2 and consequently they are not agreed concerning the precise period to which we are to assign this history4 ,archbishop ,usher supposed1 that by ,ahasuerus was meant ,darius ,hystaspes1 and ,joseph ,scaliger contended that ,xerxes was meant2 but ,dean ,prideaux has very satisfactorily shown1 that by ,ahasuerus we are to understand ,artaxerxes ,longimanus4 ,josephus also considered ,ahasuerus and ,artaxerxes as the same person2 and we may observe1 that ,ahasuerus is always translated ,artaxerxes in the ,septuagint version2 and he is called by that name in the apocryphal part of the book of ,esther4 ,see ,,ecbatana1 and ,,ahasuerus4 ,,eternity is an attribute of ,god4 7,see ,god47 ,the self-existent being1 says the learned ,dr4 ,clarke1 must of necessity be eternal4 ,the ideas of eternity and self-existence are so closely connected1 that because something must of necessity be eternal1 independently and without any outward cause of its being1 therefore it must necessarily be self-existent2 and because it is impossible but something must be self-existent1 therefore it is necessary that it must likewise be eternal4 ,to be self-existent1 is to exist by an absolute necessity in the nature of the thing itself4 ,now this necessity being absolute1 and not depending upon any thing external1 must be always unalterably the same2 nothing being alterable but what is capable of being affected by somewhat without itself4 ,that being therefore which has no other cause of its existence but the absolute necessity of its own nature1 must of necessity have existed from everlasting1 without beginning2 and must of necessity exist to everlasting1 without end4 ,on the eternal duration of the divine ,being1 many have held a metaphysical refinement4 8,the eternal existence of ,god10 it is said1 8is not to be considered as successive2 the ideas we gain from time are not to be allowed in our conceptions of his duration4 ,as he fills all space with his immensity1 he fills all duration with his eternity2 and with him eternity is nunc stans1 a permanent now1 incapable of the relations of past1 present1 and future40 ,such1 certainly1 is not the view given us of this mysterious subject in the ,scriptures2 and if it should be said that they speak popularly1 and are accommodated to the infirmity of the reason of the body of mankind1 we may reply1 that philosophy has not1 with all its boasting of superior light1 carried our views on this attribute of the divine nature at all beyond revelation2 and1 in attempting it1 has only obscured the conceptions of its admirers4 8,filling duration with his eternity10 is a phrase without any meaning3 for how can any man conceive a permanent instant1 which coxists with a perpetually flowing duration8 ,one might as well apprehend a mathematical point coxtended with a line1 a surface1 and all dimensions4 ,as this notion has1 however1 been made the basis of some theological opinions1 it may be proper to examine it4 #b4 ,whether we get our idea of time from the motion of bodies without us1 or from the consciousness of the succession of our own ideas1 or both1 is not important to this inquiry4 ,time1 in our conceptions1 is divisible4 ,the artificial divisions are years1 months1 days1 minutes1 seconds1 c4 ,we can conceive of yet smaller portions of duration2 and1 whether we have given to them artificial names or not1 we can conceive no otherwise of duration1 than continuance of being1 estimated as to degree1 by this artificial admeasurement1 and therefore as substantially answering to it4 ,it is not denied but that duration is something distinct from these its artificial measures2 yet of this every man's consciousness will assure him1 that we can form no idea of duration except in this successive manner4 ,but we are told that the eternity of ,god is a fixed eternal now1 from which all ideas of succession1 of past and future1 are to be excluded2 and we are called upon to conceive of eternal duration without reference to past or future1 and to the exclusion of the idea of that flow under which we conceive of time4 ,the proper abstract idea of duration is1 however1 simple continuance of being1 without any reference to the exact degree or extent of it1 because in no other way can it be equally applicable to all the substances of which it is the attribute4 ,it may be finite or infinite1 momentary or eternal2 but that depends upon the substance of which it is the quality1 and not upon its own nature4 ,our own observation and experience teach us how to apply it to ourselves4 ,as to us1 duration is dependent and finite2 as to ,god1 it is infinite2 but in both cases the originality or dependence1 the finiteness or infinity of it1 arises1 not out of the nature of duration itself1 but out of other qualities of the subjects respectively4 #c4 ,duration1 then1 as applied to ,god1 is no more than an extension of the idea as applied to ourselves2 and to exhort us to conceive of it as something essentially different1 is to require us to conceive what is inconceivable4 ,it is to demand of us to think without ideas4 ,duration is continuance of existence2 continuance of existence is capable of being longer or shorter2 and hence necessarily arises the idea of the succession of the minutest points of duration into which we can conceive it divided4 ,beyond this the mind cannot go1 it forms the idea of duration no other way3 and if what we call duration be any thing different from this in ,god1 it is not duration1 properly so called1 according to human ideas2 it is something else1 for which there is no name among men1 because there is no idea1 and therefore it is impossible to reason about it4 ,as long as meta-physicians use the term1 they must take the idea3 if they spurn the idea1 they have no right to the term1 and ought at once to confess that they can go no farther4 ,dr4 ,cudworth defines infinity of duration to be nothing else but perfection1 as including in it necessary existence and immutability4 ,this1 it is true1 is as much a definition of the moon1 as of infinity of duration2 but it is valuable1 as it shows that1 in the view of this great man1 though an advocate of the nunc stans1 8the standing now10 of eternity1 we must abandon the term duration1 if we give up the only idea under which it can be conceived4 #d4 ,it follows from this1 therefore1 that either we must apply the term duration to the divine ,being in the same sense in which we apply it to creatures1 with the extension of the idea to a duration which has no bounds and limits2 or blot it out of our creeds1 as a word to which our minds1 with all the aid they may derive from the labours of metaphysicians1 can attach no meaning4 ,the only objection to successive duration as applied to ,god1 which has any plausibility1 is1 that it seems to imply change2 but this wholly arises from confounding two very distinct things2 succession in the duration1 and change in the substance4 ,dr4 ,cudworth appears to have fallen into this error4 ,he speaks of the duration of an imperfect nature1 as sliding from the present to the future1 expecting something of itself which is not yet in being2 and of a perfect nature being essentially immutable1 having a permanent and unchanging duration1 never losing any thing of itself once present1 nor yet running forward to meet something of itself which is not yet in being4 ,now1 though this is a good description of a perfect and immutable nature1 it is no description at all of an eternally-enduring nature4 ,duration implies no loss in the substance of any being1 nor addition to it4 ,a perfect nature never loses any thing of itself1 nor expects more of itself than is possessed2 but this does not arise from the attribute of its duration1 however that attribute may be conceived of1 but from its perfection and consequent immutability4 ,these attributes do not flow from the duration1 but the continuance of the duration from them4 ,the argument is clearly good for nothing1 unless it could be proved that successive duration necessarily implies a change in the nature2 but that is contradicted by the experience of finite beings1--their natures are not at all determined by their duration1 but their duration by their natures2 and they exist for a moment1 or for ages1 according to the nature which their ,maker has impressed upon them4 ,if it be said that1 at least1 successive duration imports that a being loses past duration1 and expects the arrival of future existence1 we reply1 that this is no imperfection at all4 ,even finite creatures do not feel it to be an imperfection to have existed1 and to look for continued and interminable being4 ,it is true1 with the past we lose knowledge and pleasure2 and expecting in all future periods increase of knowledge and happiness1 we are reminded by that of our present imperfection2 but this imperfection does not arise from our successive and flowing duration1 and we never refer it to that4 ,it is not the past which takes away our knowledge and pleasure2 nor future duration1 simply considered1 which will confer the increase of both4 ,our imperfections arise out of the essential nature of our being1 not out of the manner in which our being is continued4 ,it is not the flow of our duration1 but the flow of our nature1 which produces these effects4 ,on the contrary1 we think that the idea of our successive duration1 that is of continuance1 is an advantage1 and not a defect4 ,let all ideas of continuance be banished from the mind1 let there be to us a nunc semper stans1 during the whole of our being1 and we appear to gain nothing1--our pleasures surely are not diminished by the idea of successive duration being added to present enjoyment3 that they have been1 and still remain1 and will continue1 on the contrary1 greatly heightens them4 ,without the idea of a flowing duration1 we could have no such measure of the continuance of our pleasures2 and this we should consider an abatement of our happiness4 ,what is so obvious an excellency in the spirit of man1 and in angelic natures1 can never be thought an imperfection in ,god1 when joined with a nature essentially perfect and immutable4 #e4 ,but it may be said1 that 8eternal duration1 considered as successive1 is only an artificial manner of measuring and conceiving of duration2 and is no more eternal duration itself than minutes and moments1 the artificial measures of time1 are time itself40 ,were this granted1 the question would still be1 whether there is any thing in duration considered generally1 or in time considered specially1 which corresponds to these artificial methods of measuring and conceiving of them4 ,the ocean is measured by leagues2 and the extension of the ocean1 and the measure of it1 are distinct2 they1 nevertheless1 answer to each other4 ,leagues are the nominal divisions of an extended surface2 but there is a real extension1 which answers to the artificial conception and admeasurement of it4 ,in like manner1 days1 and hours1 and moments1 are the measures of time3 but there is either something in time which answers to these measures2 or not only the measure1 but the thing itself1 is artificial--an imaginary creation4 ,if any man will contend1 that the period of duration which we call time is nothing1 no farther dispute can be held with him2 and he may be left to deny also the existence of matter1 and to enjoy his philosophic revel in an ideal world4 ,we apply the same argument to duration generally1 whether finite or infinite4 ,minutes and moments1 or smaller portions1 for which we have no name1 may be artificial things1 adopted to aid our conceptions2 but conceptions of what8 ,not of any thing standing still1 but of something going on4 ,of duration we have no other conception2 and if there be nothing in nature which answers to this conception1 then is duration itself imaginary1 and we discourse about nothing4 ,if the duration of the divine ,being admits not of past1 present1 and future1 one of these two consequences must follow1--that no such attribute as that of eternity belongs to him1--or that there is no power in the human mind to conceive of it4 ,in either case1 the ,scriptures are greatly impugned2 for 8,he who was1 and is1 and is to come10 is a revelation of the eternity of ,god1 which is then in no sense true4 ,it is not true1 if used literally3 and it is as little so1 if the language be figurative2 for the figure rests on no basis1 it illustrates nothing1 it misleads4 ,it is1 however1 to be remembered1 that the eternal1 supreme cause1 must of necessity have such a perfect1 independent1 unchangeable comprehension of all things1 that there can be no one point or instant of his eternal duration1 wherein all things that are past1 present1 and to come1 will not be as entirely known and represented to him in one single thought or view1 and all things present and future be equally entirely in his power and direction2 as if there was really no succession at all1 but all things were actually present at once4 #f4 ,the ,hebrew word for eternity is 4 ,this is its proper sense2 but1 as ,gesenius observes1 as with us in common life1 it is often used in an inaccurate or loose manner to express a very long space of time4 ,so it is applied to the ,jewish priesthood2 to the ,mosaic ordinances2 to the possession of the land of ,canaan2 to the hills and mountains2 to the earth1 c4 ,these must1 however1 be considered as exceptions to predominant and certain usage4 ,,ethan1 the ,ezrahite1 one of the wisest men of his time2 nevertheless1 ,solomon was wiser than he1 #a ,kings iv1 #ca4 ,the eighty-ninth psalm bears the name of ,ethan the ,ezrahite4 ,this ,ethan1 and ,ethan son of ,kishi1 of the tribe of ,levi1 and of the family of ,merari1 are the same person1 #a ,chron4 vi1 #dd4 ,he was called likewise ,idithun1 and appears under this name in the titles to several psalms4 ,he was a principal master of the temple music1 #a ,chron4 xv1 #ag1 c4 ,,ethanim1 one of the ,hebrew months1 #a ,kings viii1 #b4 ,in this month the temple of ,solomon was dedicated4 ,after the ,jews returned from the captivity1 the month ,ethanim was called ,tisri1 which answers to our ,september4 ,,ethiopia4 ,see ,,cush4 ,,eucharist1 the sacrament of the ,lord's ,supper4 ,the word1 in its original ,greek1 1 properly signifies giving thanks2 from the hymns and thanksgivings which accompanied that holy service in the primitive church4 ,see ,,lord',s ,,supper4 ,,eunice1 the mother of ,timothy1 who was a ,jewess by birth1 but married to a ,greek1 ,timothy's father1 #b ,tim4 i1 #e4 ,eunice had been converted to ,christianity by some other preacher1 ,acts xvi1 #a1 #b1 and not by ,st4 ,paul2 for when that ,apostle came to ,lystra1 he found there ,eunice and ,timothy1 already far advanced in grace and virtue4 ,,eunuch4 ,the word signifies1 one who guards the bed4 ,in the courts of eastern kings1 the care of the beds and apartments belonging to princes and princesses1 was generally committed to eunuchs2 but they had the charge chiefly of the princesses1 who lived secluded4 ,the ,hebrew saris signifies a real eunuch1 whether naturally born such1 or rendered such4 ,but in ,scripture this word often denotes an officer belonging to a prince1 attending his court1 and employed in the interior of his palace1 as a name of office and dignity4 ,in the ,persian and ,turkish courts1 the principal employments are at this day possessed by real eunuchs4 ,our ,saviour speaks of men who 8made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven10 ,matt4 xix1 #ab2 that is1 who1 from a religious motive1 renounced marriage or carnal pleasures4 ,,euphrates1 a river of ,asiatic ,turkey1 which rises from the mountains of ,armenia1 as some have said1 in two streams1 a few miles to the north-east of ,erzeron1 the streams uniting to the south-west near that city2 and chiefly pursuing a south-west direction to ,semisat1 where it would fall into the ,mediterranean1 if not prevented by a high range of mountains4 ,in this part of its course the ,euphrates is joined by the ,morad1 a stream almost doubling in length that of the ,euphrates1 so that the latter river might more justly be said to spring from ,mount ,ararat1 about one hundred and sixty ,british miles to the east of the imputed source4 ,at ,semisat1 the ancient ,samosata1 this noble river assumes a southerly direction1 then runs an extensive course to the south-east1 and after receiving the ,tigris1 falls by two or three mouths into the gulf of ,persia1 about fifty miles south-east of ,bassora2 north latitude #bi #ej2 east longitude #ff #ee4 ,the comparative course of the ,euphrates may be estimated at about one thousand four hundred ,british miles4 ,this river is navigable for a considerable distance from the sea4 ,in its course it separates ,aladulia from ,armenia1 ,syria from ,diarbekir1 and ,diarbekir from ,arabia1 and passing through the ,arabian ,irak1 joins the ,tigris4 ,the ,euphrates and ,tigris1 the most considerable as well as the most renowned rivers of western ,asia1 are remarkable for their rising within a few miles of each other1 running the same course1 never being more than one hundred and fifty miles asunder1 and sometimes1 before their final junction1 approaching within fifteen miles of each other1 as in the latitude of ,bagdad4 ,the space included between the two is the ancient country of ,mesopotamia4 ,but the ,euphrates is by far the more noble river of the two4 ,sir ,r4 ,k4 ,porter1 describing this river in its course through the ruins of ,babylon1 observes1 8,the whole view was particularly solemn4 ,the majestic stream of the ,euphrates wandering in solitude1 like a pilgrim monarch through the silent ruins of his devastated kingdom1 still appeared a noble river1 even under all the disadvantages of its desert-tracked course4 ,its banks were hoary with reeds2 and the grey osier willows were yet there1 on which the captives of ,israel hung up their harps1 and1 while ,jerusalem was not1 refused to be comforted40 ,the ,scripture calls it 8the great river10 and assigns it for the eastern boundary of that land which ,god promised to the ,israelites1 ,deut4 i1 #g2 ,joshua i1 #d4 ,,euroclydon1 the ,greek name for the north-east wind1 very dangerous at sea1 of the nature of a whirlwind1 which falls of a sudden upon ships1 ,acts xxvii1 #ad4 ,the same wind is now called a ,levanter4 ,,eutychians1 a denomination which arose in the fifth century1 and were so called from ,eutyches1 abbot of a certain convent of monks at ,constantinople4 ,the ,nestorians having explained the two natures in ,christ in such a manner as1 in the opinion of many1 to make them equivalent to two persons1 which was an evident absurdity1 ,eutyches1 to avoid this error1 fell into the opposite extreme1 and maintained that there was only one nature in ,jesus ,christ1 the divine nature1 which1 according to him1 had so entirely swallowed up the human1 that the latter could not be distinguished4 ,hence it was inferred that according to this system our ,lord had nothing of humanity but the appearance4 ,,evangelists1 the inspired authors of the ,gospels4 ,the word is derived from the ,greek1 1 formed of 1 bene1 8well10 and 1 angel1 messenger4 ,the name of evangelists is said by some to have been given in the ancient church to such as preached the ,gospel without being attached to any particular church1 being either commissioned by the ,apostles to instruct the nations1 or1 of their own accord1 abandoning every worldly attachment1 consecrated themselves to the sacred office of preaching the ,gospel4 ,in which sense these interpreters think it is that ,st4 ,philip1 who was one of the seven deacons1 is called 8the evangelist0 in ,acts xxi1 #h2 and that ,st4 ,paul1 writing to ,timothy1 bids him do the work of an evangelist1 #b ,tim4 iv1 #e4 ,it is1 however1 to be remarked1 that the office in which the evangelists chiefly present themselves to our notice in the ,new ,testament1 is that of assistants to the ,apostles2 or1 as they might be termed vice apostles1 who acted under their authority and direction4 ,as they were directed to ordain pastors or bishops in the churches1 but had no authority given them to ordain successors to themselves in their particular office as evangelists1 whatever it might be1 they must be considered as but temporary officers in the church1 like the ,apostles and prophets4 ,the term evangelist is1 at present1 confined to the writers of the four ,gospels4 ,,eve1 the first woman4 ,she was called 1 ,gen4 iii1 #bj1 a word that signifies life1 because she was to be the mother of all that live4 ,our translators1 therefore1 might have called her ,life1 as the ,septuagint1 who render the ,hebrew word by 4 ,soon after the expulsion of the first pair from paradise1 ,eve conceived and bare a son2 and imagining1 as is probable1 that she had given birth to the promised seed1 she called his name ,cain1 which signifies possession1 saying1 8,i have gotten a man from the ,lord40 ,she afterward had ,abel1 and some daughters1 and then ,seth4 ,the ,scriptures name only these three sons of ,adam and ,eve1 but sufficiently inform us1 ,gen4 v1 #d1 that they had many more1 saying1 that 8,adam lived1 after he had begotten ,seth1 eight hundred years1 and begat sons and daughters40 ,see ,,adam4 ,,evil is distinguished into natural and moral4 ,natural evil is whatever destroys or any way disturbs the perfection of natural beings1 such as blindness1 diseases1 death1 c4 ,moral evil is the disagreement between the actions of a moral agent1 and the rule of those actions1 whatever it be4 ,applied to choice1 or acting contrary to the moral or revealed laws of the ,deity1 it is termed wickedness1 or sin4 ,applied to an act contrary to a mere rule of fitness1 it is called a fault4 ,the question concerning the origin of evil has very much perplexed philosophers and divines1 both ancient and modern4 ,plato1 for the solution of this question1 maintained1 that matter1 from its nature1 possesses a blind and refractory force1 from which arises in it a propensity to disorder and deformity2 and that this is the cause of all the imperfection which appears in the works of ,god1 and the origin of evil4 ,matter1 he conceives1 resists the will of the supreme ,artificer1 so that he cannot possibly execute his designs2 and this is the cause of the mixture of good and evil1 which is found in the material world4 8,it cannot be10 says he1 8that evil should be destroyed1 for there must always be something contrary to good20 and again1 8,god wills1 as far as it is possible1 every thing good1 and nothing evil40 ,what that property of matter is which opposes the wise and benevolent intentions of the first ,intelligence1 ,plato has not clearly explained2 but he speaks of it as 1 an innate propensity to disorder1 and says1 that before nature was adorned with its present beautiful forms1 it was inclined to confusion and deformity1 and that from this habitude arises all the evil which happens in the world4 ,plutarch supposes the ,platonic notion to be1 that there is in matter an unconscious1 irrational soul2 and this supposition has been adopted by several modern writers4 ,but the writings of ,plato afford no evidence that he conceived the imperfection of matter to arise from any cause distinct from its nature4 ,such a notion is incongruous with ,plato's general system1 and is contrary to the doctrine of the ,pythagorean school1 to which he was probably indebted for his notions on this subject2 for the philosophers of that sect held that motion is the effect of a power essential to matter4 ,some of the ,stoics adopted the notion of the ,platonists concerning the origin of evil1 and ascribed it to the defective nature of matter1 which it is not in the power of the great ,artificer to change2 asserting1 that imperfections appear in the world1 not through any defect of skill in its author1 but because matter will not admit of the accomplishment of his designs4 ,but it was perceived by others1 that this hypothesis was inconsistent with the fundamental doctrine of the ,stoics concerning nature4 ,for since1 according to their system1 matter itself receives all its qualities from ,god1 if its defects be the cause of evil1 these defects must be ultimately ascribed to him4 ,no other way of relieving this difficulty remained1 than to have recourse to fate1 and say1 that evil was the necessary consequence of that eternal necessity to which the great whole1 comprehending both ,god and matter1 is subject4 ,thus1 when ,chrysippus was asked whether diseases were to be ascribed to ,divine providence1 he replied that it was not the intention of nature that these things should happen2 nor were they conformable to the will of the ,author of nature and ,parent of all good things2 but that1 in framing the world1 some inconveniences had adhered by necessary consequence1 to his wise and useful plan4 ,to others the question concerning the origin of evil appeared so intricate and difficult1 that1 finding themselves unequal to the solution of it1 they denied either that there is any ,god at all1 or1 at least1 any author or governor of the world4 ,the ,epicureans belonged to this class2 nor does ,lucretius allege any other reason for denying the system of the world to be the production of a ,deity beside its being so very faulty4 ,others again judged it to be more rational to assign a double cause of visible effects1 than to assign no cause at all2 as nothing1 indeed1 can be more absurd than to admit actions and effects without any agent and cause4 ,these persons perceiving a mixture of good and evil1 and being persuaded that so many inconsistencies and disorders could not proceed from a good being1 supposed the existence of a malevolent principle1 or god1 directly contrary to the good one2 hence they derived corruption and death1 diseases1 griefs1 mischiefs1 frauds1 and villanies1 while from the good being they deduced nothing but good4 ,this opinion was held by many of the ancients2 by the ,persian magi1 ,manicheans1 ,paulicians1 c4 #b4 ,dr4 ,samuel ,clarke1 in his 8,demonstration of the ,being and ,attributes of ,god10 deduces from the possibility and real existence of human liberty an answer to the question1 ,what is the cause and original of evil8 ,for liberty1 he says1 implying a natural power of doing evil1 as well as good2 and the imperfect nature of finite beings making it possible for them to abuse this their liberty to an actual commission of evil2 and it being necessary to the order and beauty of the whole1 and for displaying the infinite wisdom of the ,creator1 that there should be different and various degrees of creatures1 whereof1 consequently1 some must be less perfect than others2 hence there necessarily arises a possibility of evil1 notwithstanding that the ,creator is infinitely good4 ,in short thus3 all that we call evil is either an evil of imperfection1 as the want of certain faculties and excellencies which other creatures have2 or natural evil1 as pain1 death1 and the like2 or moral evil1 as all kinds of vice4 ,the first of these is not properly an evil3 for every power1 faculty1 or perfection1 which any creature enjoys1 being the free gift of ,god1 which he was no more obliged to bestow1 than he was to confer being or existence itself1 it is plain the want of any certain faculty or perfection in any kind of creatures which never belonged to their nature1 is no more an evil to them than their never having been created1 or brought into being at all1 could properly have been called an evil4 ,the second kind of evil1 which we call natural evil1 is either a necessary consequence of the former2 as death1 to a creature on whose nature immortality was never conferred2 and then it is no more properly an evil than the former2 or else it is counterpoised1 in the whole1 with as great or greater good1 as the afflictions and sufferings of good men1 and then also it is not properly an evil2 or else1 lastly1 it is a punishment2 and then it is a necessary consequent of the third and last sort of evil1 namely1 moral evil4 ,and this arises wholly from the abuse of liberty1 which ,god gave to his creatures for other purposes1 and which it was reasonable and fit to give them for the perfection and order of the whole creation2 only they1 contrary to ,god's intention and command1 have abused what was necessary for the perfection of the whole1 to the corruption and depravation of themselves4 ,and thus all sorts of evils have entered into the world1 without any diminution to the infinite goodness of its ,creator and ,governor4 #c4 ,this is obviously all the answer which the question respecting the origin of evil is capable of receiving4 ,it brings us to the point to which the ,scriptures themselves lead us4 ,and though many questions may yet be asked1 respecting a subject so mysterious as the permission of evil by the ,supreme ,being1 this is a part of his counsels of which we can have no cognizance1 unless he is pleased to reveal them2 and as revelation is silent upon this subject1 except generally1 that all his acts1 his permissive ones as well as others1 are 8wise1 and just1 and good10 we may rest assured1 that beyond what is revealed1 human wisdom in the present state can never penetrate4 ,,excommunication1 is the judicial exclusion of offenders from the religious rites and other privileges of the particular community to which they belong4 ,founded in the natural right which every society possesses to guard its laws and privileges from violation and abuse by the infliction of salutary discipline1 proportioned to the nature of the offences committed against them1 it has found a place1 in one form or another1 under every system of religion1 whether human or divine4 ,that it has been made an engine for the gratification of private malice and revenge1 and been perverted to purposes the most unjustifiable and even diabolical1 the history of the world but too lamentably proves2 yet this1 though unquestionably a consideration which ought to inculcate the necessity of prudence1 as well as impartiality and temperance in the use of it1 affords no valid argument against its legitimate exercise4 ,from ,st4 ,paul's writings we learn that the early excommunication was effected by the offender not being allowed to 8eat0 with the church1 that is1 to partake of the ,lord's ,supper1 the sign of communion4 ,in the early ages of the primitive church also1 this branch of discipline was exercised with moderation1 which1 however1 gradually gave place to an undue severity4 ,from ,tertullian's 8,apology0 we learn1 that the crimes which in his time subjected to exclusion from ,christian privileges1 were murder1 idolatry1 theft1 fraud1 lying1 blasphemy1 adultery1 fornication1 and the like3 and in ,origen's treatise against ,celsus1 we are informed that such persons were expelled from the communion of the church1 and lamented as lost and dead unto ,god2 ut perditos ,deoque mortuos2 but that on making confession and giving evidence of penitence1 they were received back as restored to life4 ,it was at the same time specially ordained1 that no such delinquent1 however suitably qualified in other respects1 could be afterward admitted to any ecclesiastical office4 ,but it does not appear that the infliction of this discipline was accompanied with any of those forms of excommunication1 of delivering over to ,satan1 or of solemn execration1 which were usual among the ,jews1 and subsequently introduced into them by the ,romish church4 ,the authors and followers of heretical opinions which had been condemned1 were also subject to this penalty2 and it was sometimes inflicted on whole congregations when they were judged to have departed from the faith4 ,in this latter case1 however1 the sentence seldom went farther than the interdiction of correspondence with these churches1 or of spiritual communication between their respective pastors4 ,to the same exclusion from religious privileges1 those unhappy persons were doomed1 who1 whether from choice or from compulsion1 had polluted themselves1 after their baptism1 by any act of idolatrous worship2 and the penance enjoined on such persons1 before they could be restored to communion1 was often peculiarly severe4 ,the consequences of excommunication1 even then1 were of a temporal as well as a spiritual nature4 ,the person against whom it was pronounced1 was denied all share in the oblations of his brethren2 the ties both of religious and of private friendship were dissolved2 he found himself an object of abhorrence to those whom he most esteemed1 and by whom he had been most tenderly beloved2 and1 as far as expulsion from a society held in universal veneration could imprint on his character a mark of disgrace1 he was shunned or suspected by the generality of mankind4 #b4 ,it was not1 however1 till churchmen began to unite temporal with spiritual power1 that any penal effects of a civil kind became consequent on their sentences of excommunication2 and that this ghostly artillery was not less frequently employed for the purposes of lawless ambition and ecclesiastical domination1 than for the just punishment of impenitent delinquents1 and the general edification of the faithful4 ,but as soon as this union took place1 and in exact proportion to the degree in which the papal system rose to its predominance over the civil rights as well as the consciences of men1 the list of offences which subjected their perpetrators to excommunication1 was multiplied2 and the severity of its inflictions1 with their penal effects1 increased in the same ratio4 ,the slightest injury1 or even insult1 sustained by an ecclesiastic1 was deemed a sufficient cause for the promulgation of an anathema4 ,whole families1 and even provinces1 were prohibited from engaging in any religious exercise1 and cursed with the most tremendous denunciations of divine vengeance4 ,nor were kings and emperors secure against these thunders of the church2 their subjects were1 on many occasions1 declared1 by a papal bull1 to be absolved from allegiance to them2 and all who should dare to support them1 menaced with a similar judgment4 ,these terrors have passed away2 the true ,scriptural excommunication ought to be maintained in every church2 which is the prohibition of immoral and apostate persons from the use of those religious rites which indicate 8the communion of saints10 but without any temporal penalty4 ,,exodus1 from 1 out1 and 1 a way1 the name of the second book of ,moses1 and is so called in the ,greek version because it relates to the departure of the ,israelites out of ,egypt4 ,it comprehends the history of about a hundred and forty-five years2 and the principal events contained in it are1 the bondage of the ,israelites in ,egypt1 and their miraculous deliverance by the hand of ,moses2 their entrance into the wilderness of ,sinai2 the promulgation of the law1 and the building of the tabernacle4 ,see ,,pentateuch4 ,,expiation1 a religious act1 by which satisfaction or atonement is made for the commission of some crime1 the guilt done away1 and the obligation to punishment cancelled4 ,the chief methods of expiation among the ,jews were by sacrifices2 and it is important always to recollect that the ,levitical sacrifices were of an expiatory character2 because as among the ,jews sacrifices were unquestionably of divine original1 and as the terms taken from them are found applied so frequently to ,christ and to his sufferings in the ,new ,testament1 they serve to explain that peculiarity under which the ,apostles regarded the death of ,christ1 and afford additional proof that it was considered by them as a sacrifice of expiation1 as the grand universal sin-offering for the whole world4 ,for our ,lord is announced by ,john as 8the ,lamb of ,god20 and that not with reference to meekness or any other moral virtue2 but with an accompanying phrase1 which would communicate to a ,jew the full sacrificial sense of the term employed1 8the ,lamb of ,god1 which taketh away the sin of the world40 ,he is called 8our ,passover1 sacrificed for us40 ,he is said to have given 8himself for us1 an offering and a sacrifice to ,god1 for a sweet-smelling savour40 ,as a priest1 it was necessary 8he should have somewhat to offer20 and he offered 8himself10 8his own blood10 to which is ascribed the washing away of sin1 and our eternal redemption4 ,he is declared to have 8put away sin by the sacrifice of himself10 to have 8by himself purged our sins10 to have 8sanctified the people by his own blood10 to have 8offered to ,god one sacrifice for sins40 ,add to these1 and to innumerable other similar expressions and allusions1 the argument of the ,apostle in the ,epistle to the ,hebrews1 in which1 by proving at length1 that the sacrifice of ,christ was superior in efficacy to the sacrifices of the law1 he most unequivocally assumes1 that the death of ,christ was a sacrifice and sin-offering2 for without that it would no more have been capable of comparison with the sacrifices of the law1 than the death of ,john the ,baptist1 ,st4 ,stephen1 or ,st4 ,james1 all martyrs and sufferers for the truth1 who had recently sealed their testimony with their blood4 ,this very comparison1 we may affirm1 is utterly unaccountable and absurd on any hypothesis which denies the sacrifice of ,christ2 for what relation could his death have to the ,levitical immolations and offerings1 if it had no sacrificial character8 ,nothing could1 in fact1 be more misleading1 and even absurd1 than to apply those terms which1 both among ,jews and ,gentiles1 were in use to express the various processes and means of atonement and piacular propitiation1 if the ,apostles and ,christ himself did not intend to represent his death strictly as an expiation for sin3--misleading1 because such would be the natural and necessary inference from the terms themselves1 which had acquired this as their established meaning3--and absurd1 because if1 as ,socinians say1 they used them metaphorically1 there was not even an ideal resemblance between the figure and that which it was intended to illustrate4 ,so totally irrelevant1 indeed1 will those terms appear to any notion entertained of the death of ,christ which excludes its expiatory character1 that to assume that our ,lord and his ,apostles used them as metaphors1 is profanely to assume them to be such writers as would not in any other case be tolerated2 writers wholly unacquainted with the commonest rules of language1 and therefore wholly unfit to be teachers of others1 and that not only in religion but in things of inferior importance4 #b4 ,the use of such terms1 we have said1 would not only be wholly absurd1 but criminally misleading to the ,gentiles1 as well as to the ,jews1 who were first converted to ,christianity4 ,to them the notion of propitiatory offerings1 offerings to avert the displeasure of the gods1 and which expiated the crimes of offenders1 was most familiar1 and terms corresponding to it were in constant use4 ,the bold denial of this by ,dr4 ,priestley might well bring upon him the reproof of ,archbishop ,magee1 who1 after establishing this point from the ,greek and ,latin writers1 observes1 8,so clearly does their language announce the notion of a propitiatory atonement1 that if we would avoid an imputation on ,dr4 ,priestley's fairness1 we are driven1 of necessity1 to question the extent of his acquaintance with those writers40 ,the reader may consult the instances given by this writer1 in ,no4 #e of his 8,illustrations10 appended to his 8,discourses on the ,atonement20 and also the tenth chapter of ,grotius 8,de ,satisfactione10 whose learning has most amply illustrated and firmly settled this view of the ,heathen sacrifices4 ,the use to be made of this in the argument is1 that as the ,apostles found the very terms they used with reference to the nature and efficacy of the death of ,christ1 fixed in an expiatory signification among the ,greeks1 they could not1 in honesty1 use them in a distant figurative sense1 much less in a contrary one1 without giving their readers due notice of their having invested them with a new import4 ,from 1 a pollution1 an impurity1 which was to be expiated by sacrifice1 are derived and 1 which denote the act of expiation2 1 too1 to purify1 cleanse1 is applied to the effect of expiation2 and denotes the method of propitiating the gods by sacrifice4 ,these1 and other words of similar import1 are used by the authors of the ,septuagint1 and by the ,evangelists and ,apostles2 but they give no premonition of using them in any strange and altered sense2 and when they apply them to the death of ,christ1 they must1 therefore1 be understood to use them in their received meaning4 ,in like manner the ,jews had their expiatory sacrifices1 and the terms and phrases used in them are1 in like manner1 employed by the ,apostles to characterize the death of their ,lord2 and they would have been as guilty of misleading their ,jewish as their ,gentile readers1 had they employed them in a new sense1 and without warning1 which1 unquestionably1 they never gave4 #c4 ,as to the expiatory nature of the sacrifices of the law1 it is not required by the argument to show that all the ,levitical offerings were of this character4 ,there were also offerings for persons and for things prescribed for purification1 which were incidental2 but even they grew out of the leading notion of expiatory sacrifice1 and that legal purification which resulted from the forgiveness of sins4 ,it is enough to prove1 that the grand and eminent sacrifices of the ,jews were strictly expiatory1 and that by them the offerers were released from punishment and death1 for which ends they were appointed by the ,lawgiver4 ,when we speak1 too1 of vicarious sacrifice1 we do not mean either1 on the one hand1 such a substitution as that the victim should bear the same quantum of pain and suffering as the offender himself2 or1 on the other1 that it was put in the place of the offender as a mere symbolical act1 by which he confessed his desert of punishment2 but a substitution made by divine appointment1 by which the victim was exposed to sufferings and death instead of the offender1 in virtue of which the offender himself was released4 ,with this view1 one can scarcely conceive why so able a writer as ,archbishop ,magee should prefer to use the term1 8vicarious import10 rather than the simple and established term1 8vicarious20 since the ,antinomian notion of substitution may be otherwise sufficiently guarded against1 and the phrase 8vicarious import0 is certainly capable of being resolved into that figurative notion of mere symbolical action1 which1 however plausible1 does in fact deprive the ancient sacrifices of their typical1 and the oblation of ,christ of its real1 efficacy4 ,vicarious acting1 is acting for another2 vicarious suffering1 is suffering for another2 but the nature and circumstances of that suffering in the case of ,christ are to be determined by the doctrine of ,scripture at large1 and not wholly by the term itself1 which is1 however1 useful for this purpose1 7and therefore to be preserved17 that it indicates the sense in which those who use it understand the declaration of ,scripture1 8,christ died for us10 so as that he died not merely for our benefit1 but in our stead2 in other words1 that1 but for his having died1 those who believe in him would personally have suffered that death which is the penalty of every violation of the law of ,god4 #d4 ,that sacrifices under the law were expiatory and vicarious1 admits of abundant proof4 ,the chief objections made to this doctrine are1 7#a47 ,that under the law in all capital cases1 the offender1 upon legal proof or conviction1 was doomed to die1 and that no sacrifice could exempt him from the penalty4 7#b47 ,that in all lower cases to which the law had not attached capital punishment1 but pecuniary mulcts1 or personal labour or servitude upon their nonpayment1 this penalty was to be strictly executed1 and none could plead any privilege or exemption on account of sacrifice2 and that when sacrifices were ordained with a pecuniary mulct1 they are to be regarded in the light of fine1 one part of which was paid to the state1 the other to the church4 ,this was the mode of argument adopted by the author of 8the ,moral ,philosopher20 and nothing of weight has been added to these objections since his day4 ,now1 much of this may be granted1 without any prejudice to the argument2 and1 indeed1 is no more than the most orthodox writers on this subject have often remarked4 ,the law1 under which the ,jews were placed1 was at once1 as to them1 both a moral and a political law2 and the ,lawgiver excepted certain offences from the benefit of pardon1 because that would have been exemption from temporal death1 which was the state penalty4 ,he therefore would accept no atonement for such transgressions4 ,blasphemy1 idolatry1 murder1 and adultery1 were the 8presumptuous sins0 which were thus exempted2 and the reason will be seen in the political relation of the people to ,god2 for in refusing to exempt them from punishment in this world1 respect was had to the order and benefit of society4 ,running parallel1 however1 with this political application of the law to the ,jews as subjects of the theocracy1 we see the authority of the moral law kept over them as men and creatures2 and if these 8presumptuous sins10 of blasphemy and idolatry1 of murder and adultery1 and a few others1 were the only capital crimes considered politically1 they were not the only capital crimes considered morally2 that is1 there were other crimes which would have subjected the offender to death1 but for this provision of expiatory oblations4 ,the true question then is1 whether such sacrifices were appointed by ,god1 and accepted instead of the personal punishment or life of the offender1 which otherwise would have been forfeited1 as in the other cases2 and if so1 if the life of animal sacrifices was accepted instead of the life of man1 then the notion that 8they were mere mulcts and pecuniary penalties0 falls to the ground1 and the vicarious nature of most of the ,levitical oblations is established4 ,that other offences1 beside those above mentioned1 were capital1 that is1 exposed the offender to death1 is clear from this1 that all offences against the law had this capital character4 ,as death was the sanction of the commandment given to ,adam1 so every one who transgressed any part of the law of ,moses became guilty of death2 every man was 8accursed10 that is1 devoted to die1 who 8continued not in all things written in the book of the law40 8,the man only that doeth these things shall live by them10 was the rule2 and it was1 therefore1 to redeem the offenders from this penalty that sacrifices were appointed4 ,so with reference to the great day of expiation1 we read1 8,for on that day shall the priest make an atonement for you1 to cleanse you1 that you may be clean from all your sins2 and this shall be an everlasting statute unto you1 to make an atonement for the children of ,israel1 for all their sins1 once a year10 ,lev4 xvi1 #cj-cd4 #e4 ,to prove that this was the intention and effect of the annual sacrifices of the ,jews1 we need do little more than refer to ,lev4 xvii1 #aj1 #aa3 8,i will set my face against that soul that eateth blood1 and will cut him off from among his people4 ,for the life of the flesh is in the blood2 and ,i have given it to you upon the altar to make an atonement for your souls3 for it is the blood that maketh an atonement for the soul40 ,here the blood which is said to make an atonement for the soul1 is the blood of the victims2 and to make an atonement for the soul is the same as to be a ransom for the soul1 as will appear by referring to ,,exodus xxx1 #ab-af2 and to be a ransom for the soul is to avert death4 8,they shall give every man a ransom for his soul unto the ,lord1 that there be no plague among them10 by which their lives might be suddenly taken away4 ,the 8soul0 is also here used obviously for the life2 the blood1 or the life of the victims in all sacrifices1 was substituted for the life of man1 to preserve him from death1 and the victims were therefore vicarious4 #f4 ,the ,hebrew word 1 rendered atonement1 signifying primarily to cover1 to overspread1 has been the subject of some evasive criticisms4 ,it comes1 however1 in the secondary sense to signify atonement or propitiation1 because the effect of that is to cover1 or1 in ,scripture meaning1 to remit offences4 ,the ,septuagint also renders it by 1 to appease1 to make propitious4 ,it is used1 indeed1 where the means of atonement are not of the sacrificial kind1 but these instances equally serve to evince the ,scripture sense of the term1 in cases of transgression1 to be that of reconciling the offended ,deity1 by averting his displeasure2 so that when the atonement for sin is said to be made by sacrifice1 no doubt can remain that the sacrifice was strictly a sacrifice of propitiation4 ,agreeably to this conclusion we find it expressly declared1 in the several cases of piacular oblations for transgression of the divine commands1 that the sin for which atonement was made by those oblations should be forgiven4 #g4 ,as the notion that the sacrifices of the law were not vicarious1 but mere mulcts and fines1 is overturned by the general appointment of the blood to be an atonement for the souls1 the forfeited lives1 of men1 so also is it contradicted by particular instances4 ,let us refer to ,leviticus v1 #ae1af3 8,if a soul commit a trespass1 and sin through ignorance in the holy things of the ,lord1 he shall make amends for the harm that he hath done in the holy thing1 and shall add a fifth part thereto1 and shall give it to the priest40 ,here1 indeed1 is the proper fine for the trespass2 but it is added1 8,he shall bring for his trespass unto the ,lord a ram without blemish1 and the priest shall make atonement for him with the ram of the trespass offering1 and it shall be forgiven him40 ,thus1 then1 so far from the sacrifice being the fine1 the fine is distinguished from it1 and with the ram only was the atonement made to the ,lord for his trespass4 ,nor can the ceremonies with which the trespass and sin offerings were accompanied agree with any notion but that of their vicarious character4 ,the worshipper1 conscious of his trespass1 brought an animal1 his own property1 to the door of the tabernacle4 ,this was not a eucharistical act2 not a memorial of mercies received1 but of sins committed4 ,he laid his hands upon the head of the animal1 the symbolical act of transferring punishment2 then slew it with his own hand1 and delivered it to the priest1 who burned the fat and part of the animal upon the altar2 and1 having sprinkled part of the blood upon the altar1 and1 in some cases1 upon the offerer himself1 poured the rest at the bottom of the altar4 ,and thus1 we are told1 8,the priest shall make an atonement for him1 as concerning his sin1 and it shall be forgiven him40 ,so clearly is it made manifest by these actions1 and by the description of their nature and end1 that the animal bore the punishment of the offender1 and that by this appointment he was reconciled to ,god1 and obtained the forgiveness of his offences4 #h4 ,an equally strong proof that the life of the animal sacrifice was accepted in place of the life of man1 is afforded by the fact1 that atonement was required by the law to be made1 by sin offerings and burnt offerings1 for even bodily distempers and disorders4 ,it is not necessary to the argument to explain the distinctions between these various oblations2 nor yet to inquire into the reason for requiring propitiation to be made for corporal infirmities which1 in many cases1 could not be avoided4 ,they were1 however1 thus connected with sin as the cause of all these disorders2 and ,god1 who had placed his residence among the ,israelites1 insisted upon a perfect ceremonial purity1 to impress upon them a sense of his moral purity1 and the necessity of purification of mind4 ,whether these were the reasons1 or some others not at all discoverable by us1 all such unclean persons were liable to death1 and were exempted from it only by animal sacrifices4 ,this appears from the conclusion to all the ,levitical directions concerning the ceremonial to be observed in all such cases3 8,thus shall ye separate the children of ,israel from their uncleanness2 that they die not in10 or by1 8their uncleanness1 when they defile my tabernacle which is among them10 ,lev4 xv1 #ca4 ,so that1 by virtue of the sin offerings1 the children of ,israel were saved from a death which otherwise they would have suffered from their uncleanness1 and that by substituting the life of the animal for the life of the offerer4 ,nor can it be urged that death is1 in these instances1 threatened only as the punishment of not observing these laws of purification2 for the reason given in the passage just quoted shows that the threatening of death was not hypothetical upon their not bringing the prescribed purification1 but is grounded upon the fact of 8defiling the tabernacle of the ,lord which was among them10 which is supposed to be done by all uncleanness1 as such1 in the first instance4 #i4 ,as a farther proof of the vicarious character of the principal sacrifices of the ,mosaic economy1 we may instance those statedly offered for the whole congregation4 ,every day were offered two lambs1 one in the morning1 and the other in the evening1 8for a continual burnt offering40 ,to these daily victims were to be added1 weekly1 two other lambs for the burnt offering of every ,sabbath4 ,none of these could be considered in the light of fines for offences1 since they were offered for no particular persons1 and must be considered1 therefore1 unless resolved into an unmeaning ceremony1 piacular and vicarious4 ,to pass over1 however1 the monthly sacrifices1 and those offered at the great feasts1 it is sufficient to fix upon those1 so often alluded to in the ,epistle to the ,hebrews1 offered on the solemn anniversary of expiation4 ,on that day1 to other prescribed sacrifices were to be added another ram for a burnt offering1 and another goat1 the most eminent of the sacrifices for a sin offering1 whose blood was to be carried by the high priest into the inner sanctuary1 which was not done by the blood of any other victim1 except the bullock1 which was offered the same day as a sin offering for the family of ,aaron4 ,the circumstances of this ceremony1 whereby atonement was to be made 8for all the sins0 of the whole ,jewish people1 are so strikingly significant1 that they deserve a particular detail4 ,on the day appointed for this general expiation1 the priest is commanded to offer a bullock and a goat1 as sin offerings1 the one for himself1 and the other for the people2 and1 having sprinkled the blood of these in due form before the mercy seat1 to lead forth a second goat1 denominated 8the scape-goat20 and1 after laying both his hands upon the head of the scape-goat1 and confessing over him all the iniquities of the people1 to put them upon the head of the goat1 and to send the animal1 thus bearing the sins of the people1 away into the wilderness2 in this manner expressing1 by an action which cannot be misunderstood1 that the atonement1 which1 it is affirmed1 was to be effected by the sacrifice of the sin offering1 consisted in removing from the people their iniquities by this translation of them to the animal4 ,for it is to be remarked1 that the ceremony of the scape-goat is not a distinct one3 it is a continuation of the process1 and is evidently the concluding part and symbolical consummation of the sin offering3 so that the transfer of the iniquities of the people upon the head of the scape-goat1 and the bearing them away into the wilderness1 manifestly imply1 that the atonement effected by the sacrifice of the sin offering consisted in the transfer and consequent removal of those iniquities4 #aj4 ,how1 then1 is this impressive and singular ceremonial to be explained8 ,shall we resort to the notion of mulcts and fines8 ,if so1 then this and other stated sacrifices must be considered in the light of penal enactments4 ,but this cannot agree with the appointment of such sacrifices annually in succeeding generations3 8,this shall be a statute for ever unto you40 ,the law appoints a certain day in the year for expiating the sins both of the high priest himself and of the whole congregation1 and that for all high priests and all generations of the congregation4 ,now1 could a law be enacted1 inflicting a certain penalty1 at a certain time1 upon a whole people1 as well as upon their high priest1 thus presuming upon their actual transgression of it8 ,the sacrifice was also for sins in general2 and yet the penalty1 if it were one1 is not greater than individual persons were often obliged to undergo for single trespasses4 ,nothing1 certainly1 can be more absurd than this hypothesis4 ,shall we account for it by saying that sacrifices were offered for the benefit of the worshipper1 but exclude the notion of expiation8 ,but here we are obliged to confine the benefit to reconciliation and the taking away of sins1 and that by the appointed means of the shedding of blood1 and the presentation of blood in the holy place1 accompanied by the expressive ceremony of imposition of hands upon the head of the victim2 the import of which act is fixed1 beyond all controversy1 by the priest's confessing over that victim the sins of all the people1 and at the same time imprecating upon its head the vengeance due to them1 ,lev4 xvi1 #ba4 ,shall we content ourselves with merely saying that this was a symbol8 ,but the question remains1 ,of what was it the symbol8 ,to determine this1 let the several parts of the symbolic action be enumerated4 ,here is confession of sin2 confession before ,god at the door of the tabernacle2 the substitution of a victim2 the figurative transfer of sins to that victim2 the shedding of blood1 which ,god appointed to make atonement for the soul2 the carrying the blood into the holiest place1 the very permission of which clearly marked the divine acceptance2 the bearing away of iniquity2 and the actual reconciliation of the people to ,god4 ,if1 then1 this is symbolical1 it has nothing correspondent with it1 it never had or can have any thing correspondent to it but the sacrificial death of ,jesus ,christ1 and the communication of the benefits of his passion in the forgiveness of sins to those that believe in him1 and in their reconciliation with ,god4 ,shall we1 finally1 say that those sacrifices had respect1 not to ,god to obtain pardon by expiation1 but to the offerer1 teaching him moral lessons1 and calling forth moral dispositions8 ,we answer1 that this hypothesis leaves many of the essential circumstances of the ceremonial wholly unaccounted for4 ,the tabernacle and temple were erected for the residence of ,god1 by his own command4 ,there it was his will to be approached1 and to these sacred places the victims were required to be brought4 ,any where else they might as well have been offered1 if they had had respect only to the offerer2 but they were required to be brought to ,god1 to be offered according to a prescribed ritual1 and by an order of men appointed for that purpose4 ,now truly there is no reason why they should be offered in the sanctuary rather than in any other place1 except that they were offered to the ,inhabitant of the sanctuary2 nor could they be offered in his presence without having respect to him4 ,there were some victims whose blood1 on the day of atonement1 was to be carried into the inner sanctuary2 but for what purpose can we suppose the blood to have been carried into the most secret place of the divine residence1 except to obtain the favour of ,him in whose presence it was sprinkled8 ,to this we may add1 that the reason given for these sacred services is not in any case a mere moral effect to be produced upon the minds of the worshippers3 they were 8to make atonement10 that is1 to avert ,god's displeasure1 that the people might not 8die40 #aa4 ,we may find1 also1 another more explicit illustration in the sacrifice of the passover4 ,the sacrificial character of this offering is strongly marked2 for it was an offering brought to the tabernacle2 it was slain in the sanctuary2 and the blood was sprinkled upon the altar by the priests4 ,it derives its name from the passing over and sparing of the houses of the ,israelites1 on the door posts of which the blood of the immolated lamb was sprinkled1 when the first-born in the houses of the ,egyptians were slain2 and thus we have another instance of life being spared by the instituted means of animal sacrifice4 ,nor need we confine ourselves to particular instances4 8,almost all things10 says an ,apostle1 who surely knew his subject1 8are by the law purged with blood2 and without shedding of blood there is no remission40 ,thus1 by their very law1 and by constant usage1 were the ,jews familiarized to the notion of expiatory sacrifice1 as well as by the history contained in their sacred books1 especially in ,genesis1 which speaks of the vicarious sacrifices offered by the patriarchs2 and in the book of ,job1 in which that patriarch is said to have offered sacrifices for the supposed sins of his sons2 and where ,eliphaz is commanded1 by a divine oracle1 to offer a burnt offering for himself and his friends1 8lest ,god should deal with them after their folly40 #ab4 ,on the sentiments of the uninspired ,jewish writers on this point1 the substitution of the life of the animal for that of the offerer1 and1 consequently1 the expiatory nature of their sacrifices1 ,outram has given many quotations from their writings1 which the reader may consult in his work on ,sacrifices4 ,two or three only may be adduced by way of specimen4 ,r4 ,levi ,ben ,gerson says1 8,the imposition of the hands of the offerers was designed to indicate that their sins were removed from themselves1 and transferred to the animal40 ,isaac ,ben ,arama3 8,he transfers his sins from himself1 and lays them upon the head of the victim40 ,r4 ,moses ,ben ,nachman says1 with respect to a sinner offering a victim1 8,it was just that his blood should be shed1 and that his body should be burned2 but the ,creator1 of his mercy1 accepted the victim from him1 as his substitute and ransom2 that the blood of the animal might be shed instead of his blood2 that is1 that the blood of the animal might be given for his life40 #ac4 ,full of these ideas of vicarious expiation1 then1 the ,apostles wrote and spoke1 and the ,jews of their time heard and read1 the books of the ,new ,testament4 ,the ,socinian pretence is1 that the inspired penmen used the sacrificial terms which occur in their writings figuratively2 but we not only reply1 as before1 that they could not do this honestly1 unless they had given notice of this new application of the established terms of the ,jewish theology2 but1 if this be assumed1 it leaves us wholly at a loss to discover what that really was which they intended to teach by these sacrificial terms and allusions4 ,they are themselves utterly silent as to this point2 and the varying theories of those who reject the doctrine of atonement1 in fact1 confess that their writings afford no solution of the difficulty4 ,if1 therefore1 it is blasphemous to suppose1 on the one hand1 that inspired men should write on purpose to mislead2 so1 on the other1 it is utterly inconceivable that1 had they only been ordinary writers1 they should construct a figurative language out of terms which had a definite and established sense1 without giving any intimation at all that they employed them otherwise than in their received meaning1 or telling us why they adopted them at all1 and more especially when they knew that they must be interpreted1 both by ,jews and ,greeks1 in a sense which1 if the ,socinians are right1 was in direct opposition to that which they intended to convey4 ,see ,,type1 ,,sacrifice1 ,,propitiation4 ,,expiation1 or ,,atonement1 ,great ,day of1 was the tenth of ,tizri1 which nearly answers to our ,september1 ,o4 ,s4 ,the ,hebrews call it ,,kippur1 or ,,chippur1 8pardon10 or 8expiation10 because the faults of the year were then expiated4 ,the principal ceremonies of this day have been noticed in the preceding article2 but a more particular detail may be useful4 ,the high priest1 after he had washed1 not only his hands and his feet1 as usual at common sacrifices1 but his whole body1 dressed himself in plain linen1 like the other priests1 wearing neither his purple robe1 nor the ephod1 nor the pectoral1 because he was to expiate his own sins1 together with those of the people4 ,he first offered a bullock and a ram for his own sins1 and those of the priests3 putting his hands on the heads of these victims1 he confessed his own sins and the sins of his house4 ,afterward1 he received from the princes of the people two goats for a sin offering1 and a ram for a burnt offering1 to be offered in the name of the whole nation4 ,the lot determined which of the two goats should be sacrificed1 and which set at liberty4 ,after this1 the high priest put some of the sacred fire of the altar of burnt offerings into a censer1 threw incense upon it1 and entered with it1 thus smoking1 into the sanctuary4 ,after he had perfumed the sanctuary with this incense1 he came out1 took some of the blood of the young bullock he had sacrificed1 carried that also into the sanctuary1 and1 dipping his fingers in it1 sprinkled it seven times between the ark and the vail1 which separated the holy from the sanctuary1 or most holy4 ,then he came out a second time1 and1 beside the altar of burnt offerings1 killed the goat which the lot had determined to be the sacrifice4 ,the blood of this goat he carried into the most holy sanctuary1 and sprinkled it seven times between the ark and the vail1 which separated the holy from the sanctuary3 from thence he returned into the court of the tabernacle1 and sprinkled both sides of it with the blood of the goat4 ,during all this1 none of the priests or people were admitted into the tabernacle1 or into the court4 ,after this1 the high priest came to the altar of burnt offerings1 wetted the four horns of it with the blood of the goat and young bullock1 and sprinkled it seven times with the same blood4 ,the sanctuary1 the court1 and the altar1 being thus purified1 the high priest directed the goat which was set at liberty by the lot to be brought to him4 ,he put his hand on the goat's head1 confessed his own sins and the sins of the people1 and then delivered the goat to a person appointed1 who was to carry it to some desert place1 and let it loose1 or1 as others say1 throw it down some precipice4 ,this being done1 the high priest washed himself all over in the tabernacle2 and1 putting on other clothes1 his pontifical dress1 that is1 his robe of purple1 the ephod1 and the pectoral1 he sacrificed two rams for burnt offering1 one for himself1 the other for the people4 ,the great day of expiation was a principal solemnity of the ,hebrews1 a day of rest and strict fasting4 #b4 ,there have been various disputes among the learned respecting the meaning of the word azazel1 the name of the scape-goat on which the lot fell2 but the most prevailing opinion is1 that it is derived from gnez1 8a goat10 and azel1 8to go away40 ,so ,buxtorf and many others explain it2 and so it was understood by our translators1 who have therefore rendered it 8a scape-goat40 ,both goats were typical of ,christ3 that which was sacrificed is understood to have denoted his death1 by means of which sin was expiated2 the other1 which was to have the sins of the people confessed over him1 and1 as it were1 put upon him1 and then to be sent alive into some desert place1 where they could see him no more1 was intended to signify the effect of the expiation1 namely1 the removing of guilt1 indicating that it should never more be charged on the pardoned sinner4 #c4 ,the rites attending the public service of the day of expiation were chiefly performed by the high priest1 whose duties were on this day more arduous than on any other day in the year1 or perhaps on all the rest united4 ,he was to kill and offer the sacrifices1 and sprinkle their blood with his own hands1 ,lev4 xvi1 #aa-ae2 and he was to enter with it into the holy of holies1 which he was not permitted to do at any other time1 ,lev4 xvi1 #b1 c2 ,heb4 ix1 #g4 ,it was thus his peculiar privilege to draw nearer to ,god1 or to the tokens of his special presence1 to the ark of the covenant1 to the mercy seat1 and to the ,shekinah1 than was allowed to any other mortal4 ,the services which he performed in the inmost sanctuary were1 the burning of incense1 and sprinkling the blood of the sacrifices before the mercy seat1 which he was to do with his finger seven times1 ,lev4 xvi1 #ad4 #d4 ,the spiritual meaning of all these rites has been particularly explained by the ,apostle ,paul in ,hebrews ix4 ,as the high priest was a type of ,christ1 his laying aside those vestments which were made 8for glory and beauty10 ,exodus xxviii1 #b1 and appearing in his common garments1 which he did on that day1 probably signified our ,lord's humiliation1 when he emptied himself of the glory which he had with the ,father before the world was1 and 8was made in fashion as a man10 ,phil4 ii1 #f1 #g4 ,the expiatory sacrifices1 offered by the high priest1 were typical of the true expiation which ,christ made for the sins of his people1 when he gave himself for them1 that he might redeem them from all iniquity1 ,titus ii1 #ad2 ,heb4 i1 #c2 and the priest's confessing the sins of the people over them1 and putting them upon the head of the scape-goat1 ,lev4 xvi1 #ba1 was a lively emblem of the imputation of sin to ,christ1 who 8was made sin for us10 #b ,cor4 v1 #ba2 for 8the ,lord hath laid on him the iniquity of us all10 ,isaiah liii1 #f4 ,farther1 the goat's 8bearing upon him all the iniquities of the ,jews into a land not inhabited10 ,lev4 xvi1 #bb1 represents the effect of ,christ's sacrifice in delivering his people from guilt and punishment2 and the priest's entering into the holy of holies with the blood of the sacrifice is explained by the ,apostle to be typical of ,christ's ascension into heaven itself1 and his making intercession for his people in virtue of the sacrifice of his death4 ,,eye1 the organ of sight4 ,the ,hebrews by a curious and bold metaphor call fountains eyes2 and they also give the same name to colours3 8,and the eye10 or colour1 8of the manna was as the eye10 or colour1 8of bdellium10 ,num4 xi1 #g4 ,by an 8evil eye0 is meant1 envy1 jealousy1 grudging1 ill-judged parsimony2 to turn the eyes on any one1 is to regard him and his interests2 to find grace in any one's eyes1 ,ruth ii1 #aj1 is to win his friendship and good will4 8,the eyes of servants look unto the hands of their masters10 ,psalm cxxiii1 #b1 to observe the least motion1 and obey the least signal4 8,their eyes were opened10 ,gen4 iii1 #g1 they began to comprehend in a new manner4 8,the wise man's eyes are in his head10 ,eccles4 ii1 #ad1 he does not act by chance4 ,the eye of the soul1 in a moral sense1 is the intention1 the desire4 ,god threatens to set his eyes on the ,israelites for evil1 and not for good1 ,amos ix1 #d4 ,nebuchadnezzar recommends to ,nebuzaradan that he would 8set his eyes0 on ,jeremiah1 and permit him to go where he pleased1 ,jer4 xxxix1 #ab2 xl1 #d4 ,sometimes expressions of this kind are taken in a quite opposite sense3 8,behold1 the eyes of the ,lord are on the sinful kingdom2 and ,i will destroy it10 ,amos ix1 #h4 ,to be eyes to the blind1 or to serve them instead of eyes1 is sufficiently intelligible1 ,job xxix1 #ae4 ,the ,persians called those officers of the crown who had the care of the king's interests and the management of his finances1 the king's eyes4 ,eye service is peculiar to slaves1 who are governed by fear only2 and is to be carefully guarded against by ,christians1 who ought to serve from a principle of duty and affection1 ,eph4 vi1 #f2 ,col4 iii1 #bb4 ,the lust of the eyes1 or the desire of the eyes1 comprehends every thing that curiosity1 vanity1 c1 seek after2 every thing that the eyes can present to men given up to their passions1 #a ,john ii1 #af4 8,cast ye away every man the abomination of his eyes10 ,ezek4 xx1 #g1 #h2 let not the idols of the ,egyptians seduce you4 ,the height or elevation of the eyes is taken for pride1 ,eccles4 xxiii1 #e4 ,st4 ,paul says that the ,galatians would willingly have 8plucked out their eyes0 for him1 ,gal4 iv1 #ae2 expressing the intensity of their zeal1 affection1 and devotion to him4 ,the ,hebrews call the apple of the eye the black daughter of the eye4 ,to keep any thing as the apple of the eye1 is to preserve it with particular care1 ,deut4 xxxii1 #aj3 8,he that toucheth you1 toucheth the apple of mine eye10 ,zech4 ii1 #h2 attempts to injure me in the tenderest part1 which men instinctively defend4 ,the eye and its actions are occasionally transferred to ,god3 8,the eyes of the ,lord run to and fro through the whole earth10 ,zech4 iv1 #aj2 #b ,chron4 xvi1 #i2 ,psalm xi1 #d4 8,the eyes of the ,lord are in every place1 beholding the evil and the good10 ,proverbs xv1 #c4 8,the ,lord looked down from heaven10 c4 ,we read1 ,matthew vi1 #bb1 8,the light10 or lamp1 8of the body is the eye2 if therefore thine eye be single10 simple1 clear1 1 8thy whole body shall be full of light2 but if thine eye be evil10 distempered1 diseased1 8thy whole body shall be darkened40 ,the direct allusion may hold to a lantern1 or lamp1 2 if the glass of it be clear1 the light will shine through it strongly2 but if the glass be soiled1 dirty1 foul1 but little light will pass through it3 for if they had not glass lanterns1 such as we use1 they had others in the east made of thin linen1 c3 these were very liable to receive spots1 stains1 and foulnesses1 which impeded the passage of the rays of light from the luminary within4 ,so1 in the natural eye1 if the cornea be single1 and the humours clear1 the light will act correctly2 but if there be a film over the cornea1 or a cataract1 or a skin between any of the humours1 the rays of light will never make any impression on the internal seat of sight1 the retina4 ,by analogy1 therefore1 if the mental eye1 the judgment1 be honest1 virtuous1 sincere1 well-meaning1 pious1 it may be considered as enlightening and directing the whole of a person's actions2 but if it be perverse1 malign1 biassed by undue prejudices1 or drawn aside by improper views1 it darkens the understanding1 perverts the conduct1 and suffers a man to be misled by his unwise and unruly passions4 #b4 ,the orientals1 in some cases1 deprive the criminal of the light of day1 by sealing up his eyes4 ,a son of the great ,mogul was actually suffering this punishment when ,sir ,thomas ,roe visited the court of ,delhi4 ,the hapless youth was cast into prison1 and deprived of the light by some adhesive plaster put upon his eyes1 for the space of three years2 after which the seal was taken away1 that he might with freedom enjoy the light2 but he was still detained in prison4 ,other princes have been treated in a different manner1 to prevent them from conspiring against the reigning monarch1 or meddling with affairs of state3 they have been compelled to swallow opium and other stupifying drugs1 to weaken or benumb their faculties1 and render them unfit for business4 ,influenced by such absurd and cruel policy1 ,shah ,abbas1 the celebrated ,persian monarch1 who died in #afbi1 ordered a certain quantity of opium to be given every day to his grandson1 who was to be his successor1 to stupify him1 and prevent him from disturbing his government4 ,such are probably the circumstances alluded to by the prophet3 8,they have not known nor understood2 for he hath shut their eyes that they cannot see2 and their hearts that they cannot understand10 ,isaiah xliv1 #ah4 ,the verb 1 rendered in our version1 to shut1 signifies 8to overlay10 8to cover over the surface20 thus1 the king of ,israel prepared three thousand talents of gold1 and seven thousand talents of refined silver1 to overlay the walls of the temple1 #a ,chron4 xxix1 #d4 ,but it generally signifies to overspread1 or daub over1 as with mortar or plaster1 of which ,parkhurst quotes a number of examples2 a sense which entirely corresponds with the manner in which the eyes of a criminal are sealed up in some parts of the east4 ,the practice of sealing up the eyes1 and stupifying a criminal with drugs1 seems to have been contemplated by the same prophet in another passage of his book3 8,make the heart of this people fat1 and make their ears heavy1 and shut their eyes1 lest they see with their eyes1 and hear with their ears1 and understand with their heart1 and convert and be healed40 #c4 ,deprivation of sight was a very common punishment in the east4 ,it was at first the practice to sear the eyes with a hot iron2 but a discovery that this was not effectual1 led to the cruel method of taking them out altogether with a sharp-pointed instrument4 ,the objects of this barbarity were usually persons who aspired to the throne1 or who were considered likely to make such an attempt4 ,it was also inflicted on chieftains1 whom it was desirable to deprive of power without putting them to death4 ,for this reason the hapless ,zedekiah was punished with the loss of sight1 because he had rebelled against the king of ,babylon1 and endeavoured to recover the independence of his throne3 8,then he put out the eyes of ,zedekiah2 and the king of ,babylon bound him in chains1 and carried him to ,babylon1 and put him in prison till the day of his death10 ,jer4 lii1 #aa4 #d4 ,females used to paint their eyes4 ,the substance used for this purpose is called in ,chaldee 1 cohol2 by the ,,lxx1 4 ,thus we read of ,jezebel1 #b ,kings ix1 #cj1 that1 understanding that ,jehu was to enter ,samaria1 she decked herself for his reception1 and 7as in the original ,hebrew7 8put her eyes in paint40 ,this was in conformity to a custom which prevailed in the earliest ages4 ,as large black eyes were thought the finest1 the women1 to increase their lustre1 and to make them appear larger1 tinged the corner of their eyelids with the impalpable powder of antimony or of black lead4 ,this was supposed also to give the eyes a brilliancy and humidity1 which rendered them either sparkling or languishing1 as suited the various passions4 ,the method of performing this among the women in the eastern countries at the present day1 as described by ,russel1 is by a cylindrical piece of silver or ivory1 about two inches long1 made very smooth1 and about the size of a common probe2 this is wet with water1 and then dipped into a powder finely levigated1 made from what appears to be a rich lead ore1 and applied to the eye2 the lids are closed upon it while it is drawn through between them4 ,this blacks the inside1 and leaves a narrow black rim all round the edge4 ,that this was the method practised by the ,hebrew women1 we infer from ,isaiah iii1 #bb1 where the prophet1 in his enumeration of the articles which composed the toilets of the delicate and luxurious daughters of ,zion1 mentions 8the wimples and the crisping pins10 or bodkins for painting the eyes4 ,the satirist ,juvenal describes the same practice3-- ,ille supercilium madida fuligine tinctum ,obliqua producit acu1 pingitque trementes ,attollens oculos4 ,,sat4 ii4 8,these with a tiring pin their eyebrows dye ,till the full arch give lustre to the eye40 ,,gifford4 ,this custom is referred to by ,jeremiah1 iv1 #cj3-- 8,though thou clothest thyself in scarlet1 ,though thou adornest thyself with ornaments of gold1 ,though thou distendest thine eyes with paint1 ,in vain shalt thou set forth thy beauty2 ,thy paramours have rejected thee40 ,and ,ezekiel1 describing the irregularities of the ,jewish nation1 under the idea of a debauched woman1 says1 1 8,thou didst dress thine eyes with cohol20 which the ,septuagint render1 1 8,thou didst dress thine eyes with stibium10 ,ezek4 xxiii1 #dj4 #e4 ,the passage1 ,psalm cxxiii1 #b1 derives a striking illustration from the customs of the east4 ,the servants or slaves in eastern countries attend their masters or mistresses with the profoundest respect4 ,maundrell observes1 that the servants in ,turkey stand round their master and his guests in deep silence and perfect order1 watching every motion4 ,pococke says1 that at a visit in ,egypt every thing is done with the greatest decency and the most profound silence1 the slaves or servants standing at the bottom of the room1 with their hands joined before them1 watching with the utmost attention every motion of their master1 who commands them by signs4 ,de la ,motraye says1 that the eastern ladies are waited on even at the least wink of the eye1 or motion of the fingers1 and that in a manner not perceptible to strangers4 ,,ezekiel1 like his contemporary ,jeremiah1 was of the sacerdotal race4 ,he was carried away captive to ,babylon with ,jehoiachim1 king of ,judah1 ,b4 ,c4 #eih1 and was placed with many others of his countrymen upon the river ,chebar1 in ,mesopotamia1 where he was favoured with the divine revelations contained in his book4 ,he began to prophesy in the fifth year of his captivity1 and is supposed to have prophesied about twenty-one years4 ,the boldness with which he censured the idolatry and wickedness of his countrymen is said to have cost him his life2 but his memory was greatly revered1 not only by the ,jews1 but also by the ,medes and ,persians4 ,the book which bears his name may be considered under the five following divisions3 the first three chapters contain the glorious appearance of ,god to the prophet1 and his solemn appointment to his office1 with instructions and encouragements for the discharge of it4 ,from the fourth to the twenty-fourth chapter inclusive1 he describes1 under a variety of visions and similitudes1 the calamities impending over ,judea1 and the total destruction of the temple and city of ,jerusalem1 by ,nebuchadnezzar1 occasionally predicting another period of yet greater desolation1 and more general dispersion4 ,from the beginning of the twenty-fifth to the end of the thirty-second chapter1 the prophet foretels the conquest and ruin of many nations and cities1 which had insulted the ,jews in their affliction2 of the ,ammonites1 the ,moabites1 the ,edomites1 and ,philistines2 of ,tyre1 of ,sidon1 and ,egypt2 all of which were to be punished by the same mighty instrument of ,god's wrath against the wickedness of man2 and in these prophecies he not only predicts events which were soon to take place1 but he also describes the condition of these several countries in the remote periods of the world4 ,from the thirty-second to the fortieth chapter1 he inveighs against the accumulated sins of the ,jews collectively1 and the murmuring spirit of his captive brethren2 exhorts them earnestly to repent of their hypocrisy and wickedness1 upon the assurance that ,god will accept sincere repentance2 and comforts them with promises of approaching deliverance under ,cyrus2 subjoining intimations of some far more glorious1 but distant1 redemption under the ,messiah1 though the manner in which it is to be effected is deeply involved in mystery4 ,the last nine chapters contain a remarkable vision of the structure of a new temple and a new polity1 applicable in the first instance to the return from the ,babylonian captivity1 but in its ultimate sense referring to the glory and prosperity of the universal church of ,christ4 ,jerom observes that the visions of ,ezekiel are among the things in ,scripture hard to be understood4 ,this obscurity arises1 in part at least1 from the nature and design of the prophecies themselves2 they were delivered amidst the gloom of captivity2 and though calculated to cheer the drooping spirits of the ,jews1 and to keep alive a watchful and submissive confidence in the mercy of ,god1 yet they were intended to communicate only such a degree of encouragement as was consistent with a state of punishment1 and to excite an indistinct expectation of future blessings1 upon condition of repentance and amendment4 ,it ought also to be observed1 that the last twelve chapters of this book bear a very strong resemblance to the concluding chapters of the ,revelation4 ,the style of this prophet is characterized by ,bishop ,lowth as bold1 vehement1 and tragical2 as often worked up to a kind of tremendous dignity4 ,he is highly parabolical1 and abounds in figures and metaphorical expressions4 ,he may be compared to the ,grecian schylus2 he displays a rough but majestic dignity2 an unpolished though noble simplicity2 inferior perhaps in originality and elegance to others of the prophets1 but unequalled in that force and grandeur for which he is particularly celebrated4 ,he sometimes emphatically and indignantly repeats his sentiments1 fully dilates his pictures1 and describes the idolatrous manners of his countrymen under the strongest and most exaggerated representations that the license of eastern style would admit4 ,the middle part of the book is in some measure poetical1 and contains even some perfect elegies1 though his thoughts are in general too irregular and uncontrolled to be chained down to rule1 or fettered by language4 ,,ezion-,,geber4 ,see ,,elath4 ,,ezra1 the author of the book which bears his name1 was of the sacerdotal family1 being a direct descendant from ,aaron1 and succeeded ,zerubbabel in the government of ,judea4 ,this book begins with the repetition of the last two verses of the second book of ,chronicles1 and carries the ,jewish history through a period of seventy-nine years1 commencing from the edict of ,cyrus4 ,the first six chapters contain an account of the return of the ,jews under ,zerubbabel1 after the captivity of seventy years2 of their restablishment in ,judea2 and of the building and dedication of the temple at ,jerusalem4 ,in the last four chapters1 ,ezra relates his own appointment to the government of ,judea by ,artaxerxes ,longimanus1 his journey thither from ,babylon1 the disobedience of the ,jews1 and the reform which he immediately effected among them4 ,it is to be observed1 that between the dedication of the temple and the departure of ,ezra1 that is1 between the sixth and seventh chapters of this book1 there was an interval of about fifty-eight years1 during which nothing is here related concerning the ,jews1 except that1 contrary to ,god's command1 they intermarried with ,gentiles4 ,this book is written in ,chaldee from the eighth verse of the fourth chapter to the twenty-seventh verse of the seventh chapter4 ,it is probable that the sacred historian used the ,chaldean language in this part of his work1 because it contains chiefly letters and decrees written in that language1 the original words of which he might think it right to record2 and indeed the people1 who were recently returned from the ,babylonian captivity1 were at least as familiar with the ,chaldee as they were with the ,hebrew tongue4 ,till the arrival of ,nehemiah1 ,ezra had the principal authority in ,jerusalem4 ,in the second year of ,nehemiah's government1 the people being assembled in the temple1 at the feast of tabernacles1 ,ezra was desired to read the law4 ,he read it from morning till noon1 and was accompanied by ,levites who stood beside him1 and kept silence4 ,the next day they desired to know of ,ezra how they were to celebrate the feast of tabernacles4 ,this he explained1 and continued eight days reading the law in the temple4 ,all this was followed by a solemn renewal of the covenant with the ,lord4 ,josephus says that ,ezra was buried at ,jerusalem2 but the ,jews believe that he died in ,persia1 in a second journey to ,artaxerxes4 ,his tomb is shown there in the city of ,zamuza4 ,he is said to have lived nearly one hundred and twenty years4 ,ezra was the restorer and publisher of the ,holy ,scriptures1 after the return of the ,jews from the ,babylonian captivity4 #a4 ,he corrected the errors which had crept into the existing copies of the sacred writings by the negligence or mistake of transcribers4 #b4 ,he collected all the books of which the ,holy ,scriptures then consisted1 disposed them in their proper order1 and settled the canon of ,scripture for his time4 #c4 ,he added throughout the books of his edition what appeared necessary for illustrating1 connecting1 or completing them2 and of this we have an instance in the account of the death and burial of ,moses1 in the last chapter of ,deuteronomy4 ,in this work he was assisted by the same ,spirit by which they were at first written4 #d4 ,he changed the ancient names of several places become obsolete1 and substituted for them new names1 by which they were at that time called4 #e4 ,he wrote out the whole in the ,chaldee character2 that language having grown into use after the ,babylonish captivity4 ,the ,jews have an extraordinary esteem for ,ezra1 and say that if the law had not been given by ,moses1 ,ezra deserved to have been the legislator of the ,hebrews4 ,,fable1 a fiction destitute of truth4 ,st4 ,paul exhorts ,timothy and ,titus to shun profane and ,jewish fables1 #a ,tim4 iv1 #g2 ,titus i1 #ad2 as having a tendency to seduce men from the truth4 ,by these fables some understand the reveries of the ,gnostics2 but the fathers generally1 and after them most of the modern commentators1 interpret them of the vain traditions of the ,jews2 especially concerning meats1 and other things1 to be abstained from as unclean1 which our ,lord also styles 8the doctrines of men10 ,matt4 xv1 #i4 ,this sense of the passages is confirmed by their contexts4 ,in another sense1 the word is taken to signify an apologue1 or instructive tale1 intended to convey truth under the concealment of fiction2 as ,jotham's fable of the trees1 ,judges ix1 #g-ae1 no doubt by far the oldest fable extant4 ,,face4 ,moses begs of ,god to show him his face1 or to manifest his glory2 he replies1 8,i will make all my goodness pass before thee10 and ,i will proclaim my name2 8but my face thou canst not see2 for there shall no man see it and live60 ,the persuasion was very prevalent in the world1 that no man could support the sight of ,deity1 ,genesis xvi1 #ac2 xxxii1 #cj2 ,exod4 xx1 #ai2 xxiv1 #aa2 ,judges vi1 #bb1 #bc4 ,we read that ,god spake mouth to mouth with ,moses1 even apparently1 and not in dark speeches1 ,numbers xii1 #h2 8,the ,canaanites have heard that thou art among thy people1 and seen face to face10 ,numbers xiv1 #ad4 ,god talked with the ,hebrews 8face to face out of the midst of the fire10 ,deut4 v1 #d4 ,all these places are to be understood simply1 that ,god so manifested himself to the ,israelites1 that he made them hear his voice as distinctly as if he had appeared to them face to face2 but not that they actually saw more than the cloud of glory which marked his presence4 ,the face of ,god denotes sometimes his anger3 8,the face of the ,lord is against them that do evil40 8,as wax melteth before the fire1 so let the wicked perish before the face of ,god10 ,psalm lxviii1 #b4 ,to turn the face upon any one1 especially when connected with the light or shining of the countenance1 are beautiful representations of the divine kindness and condescension4 ,to regard the face of any one1 is to have respect of persons1 ,proverbs xxviii1 #ba4 ,the ,apostle1 speaking of the difference between our knowledge of ,god here and in heaven1 says1 8,now we see through a glass darkly2 but then face to face10 #a ,cor4 xiii1 #ab2 by which he shows the vast difference between our seeing or knowing ,god and divine things by an imperfect revelation to faith1 and by direct vision4 ,this observation of the ,apostle is rendered the more striking1 when it is recollected that the ,roman glass was not fully transparent as ours1 but dull and clouded4 ,of this1 specimens may be seen in the glass vessels taken out of ,pompeii4 ,,faith1 in ,scripture1 is presented to us under two leading views3 the first is that of assent or persuasion2 the second1 that of confidence or reliance4 ,the former may be separate from the latter1 but the latter cannot exist without the former4 ,faith1 in the sense of an intellectual assent to truth1 is1 by ,st4 ,james1 allowed to devils4 ,a dead1 inoperative faith is also supposed1 or declared1 to be possessed by wicked men1 professing ,christianity2 for our ,lord represents persons coming to him at the last day1 saying1 8,lord1 have we not prophesied in thy name0 c1 to whom he will say1 8,depart from me1 ,i never knew you40 ,and yet the charge in this place does not lie against the sincerity of their belief1 but against their conduct as 8workers of iniquity40 ,as this distinction is taught in ,scripture1 so it is also observed in experience3 assent to the truths of revealed religion may result from examination and conviction1 while yet the spirit and conduct may remain unrenewed and sinful4 #b4 ,the faith which is required of us as a condition of salvation always includes confidence or reliance1 as well as assent or persuasion4 ,that faith by which 8the elders obtained a good report10 was of this character2 it united assent to the truth of ,god's revelations with a noble confidence in his promise4 8,our fathers trusted in thee1 and were not confounded40 ,we have a farther illustration in our ,lord's address to his disciples upon the withering away of the fig tree3 8,have faith in ,god40 ,he did not question whether they believed the existence of ,god1 but exhorted them to confidence in his promises1 when called by him to contend with mountainous difficulties3 8,have faith in ,god2 for verily ,i say unto you1 that whosoever shall say unto this mountain1 ,be thou removed1 and be thou cast into the sea1 and shall not doubt in his heart1 but shall believe 7trust7 that these things which he saith shall come to pass1 he shall have whatsoever he saith40 ,it was in reference to his simple confidence in ,christ's power that our ,lord so highly commended the centurion1 and said1 8,i have not found so great faith1 no1 not in ,israel10 ,matt4 viii1 #aj4 ,and all the instances of faith in the persons miraculously healed by ,christ1 were also of this kind3 their faith was belief in his claims1 and also confidence in his goodness and power4 #c4 ,that faith in ,christ which in the ,new ,testament is connected with salvation1 is clearly of this nature2 that is1 it combines assent with reliance1 belief with trust4 8,whatsoever ye ask the ,father in my name10 that is1 in dependence upon my interest and merits1 8he shall give it you40 ,christ was preached both to ,jews and ,gentiles as the object of their trust1 because he was preached as the only true sacrifice for sin2 and they were required to renounce their dependence upon their own accustomed sacrifices1 and to transfer that dependence to his death and mediation1--and 8in his name shall the ,gentiles trust40 ,he is said to be set forth as a propitiation1 8through faith in his blood20 which faith can neither merely mean assent to the historical fact that his blood was shed by a violent death2 nor mere assent to the general doctrine that his blood had an atoning quality2 but as all expiatory offerings were trusted in as the means of propitiation both among ,jews and ,gentiles1 faith or trust was now to be exclusively rendered to the blood of ,christ1 as the divinely appointed sacrifice for sin1 and the only refuge of the true penitent4 #d4 ,to the most unlettered ,christian this then will be very obvious1 that true and saving faith in ,christ consists both of assent and trust2 but this is not a blind and superstitious trust in the sacrifice of ,christ1 like that of the ,heathens in their sacrifices2 nor the presumptuous trust of wicked and impenitent men1 who depend on ,christ to save them in their sins2 but such a trust as is exercised according to the authority and direction of the word of ,god2 so that to know the ,gospel in its leading principles1 and to have a cordial belief in it1 is necessary to that more specific act of faith which is called reliance1 or in systematic language1 fiducial assent4 ,the ,gospel1 as the scheme of man's salvation1 declares that he is under the law2 that this law of ,god has been violated by all2 and that every man is under sentence of death4 ,serious consideration of our ways1 confession of the fact1 and sorrowful conviction of the evil and danger of sin1 will1 under the influence of divine grace1 follow the cordial belief of the testimony of ,god2 and we shall then turn to ,god with contrite hearts1 and earnest prayers1 and supplications for his mercy4 ,this is called 8repentance toward ,god20 and repentance being the first subject of evangelical preaching1 and then the injunction to believe the ,gospel1 it is plain1 that ,christ is only immediately held out1 in this divine plan of our redemption1 as the object of trust in order to forgiveness to persons in this state of penitence and under this sense of danger4 ,the degree of sorrow for sin1 and alarm upon this discovery of our danger as sinners1 is no where fixed to a precise standard in ,scripture2 only it is supposed every where1 that it is such as to lead men to inquire earnestly1 8,what shall ,i do to be saved80 and with earnest seriousness to use all the appointed means of grace1 as those who feel that their salvation is at issue1 that they are in a lost condition1 and must be pardoned or perish4 ,to all such persons1 ,christ1 as the only atonement for sin1 is exhibited as the object of their trust1 with the promise of ,god1 8that whosoever believeth in him shall not perish1 but have everlasting life40 ,nothing is required of such but this actual trust in1 and personal apprehension or taking hold of1 the merits of ,christ's death as a sacrifice for sin2 and upon their thus believing they are justified1 their 8faith is counted for righteousness10 or1 in other words1 they are forgiven4 #e4 ,this appears to be the plain ,scriptural representation of this doctrine2 and we may infer from it1 7#a47 ,that the faith by which we are justified is not a mere assent to the doctrines of the ,gospel1 which leaves the heart unmoved and unaffected by a sense of the evil and danger of sin and the desire of salvation1 although it supposes this assent2 nor1 7#b47 ,is it that more lively and cordial assent to1 and belief in1 the doctrine of the ,gospel1 touching our sinful and lost condition1 which is wrought in the heart by the ,spirit of ,god1 and from which springeth repentance1 although this must precede it2 nor1 7#c47 ,is it only the assent of the mind to the method by which ,god justifies the ungodly by faith in the sacrifice of his ,son1 although this is an element of it2 but it is a hearty concurrence of the will and affections with this plan of salvation1 which implies a renunciation of every other refuge1 and an actual trust in the ,saviour1 and personal apprehension of his merits3 such a belief of the ,gospel by the power of the ,spirit of ,god as leads us to come to ,christ1 to receive ,christ1 to trust in ,christ1 and to commit the keeping of our souls into his hands1 in humble confidence of his ability and his willingness to save us4 #f4 ,this is that qualifying condition to which the promise of ,god annexes justification2 that without which justification would not take place2 and in this sense it is that we are justified by faith2 not by the merit of faith1 but by faith instrumentally as this condition3 for its connection with the benefit arises from the merits of ,christ and the promise of ,god4 ,if ,christ had not merited1 ,god had not promised2 if ,god had not promised1 justification had never followed upon this faith2 so that the indissoluble connection of faith and justification is from ,god's institution1 whereby he hath bound himself to give the benefit upon performance of the condition4 ,yet there is an aptitude in this faith to be made a condition2 for no other act can receive ,christ as a ,priest propitiating and pleading the propitiation and the promise of ,god for his sake to give the benefit4 ,as receiving ,christ and the gracious promise in this manner1 it acknowledgeth man's guilt1 and so man renounceth all righteousness in himself1 and honoureth ,god the ,father1 and ,christ the ,son1 the only ,redeemer4 ,it glorifies ,god's mercy and free grace in the highest degree4 ,it acknowledges on earth1 as it will be perpetually acknowledged in heaven1 that the whole salvation of sinful man1 from the beginning to the last degree thereof1 whereof there shall be no end1 is from ,god's freest love1 ,christ's merit and intercession1 his own gracious promise1 and the power of his own ,holy ,spirit4 #g4 ,faith1 in ,scripture1 sometimes is taken for the truth and faithfulness of ,god1 ,rom4 iii1 #c2 and it is also taken for the persuasion of the mind as to the lawfulness of things indifferent1 ,rom4 xiv1 #bb1 #bc2 and it is likewise put for the doctrine of the ,gospel1 which is the object of faith1 ,acts xxiv1 #bd2 ,phil4 i1 #bg2 ,jude #c2 for the belief and profession of the ,gospel1 ,rom4 i1 #h2 and for fidelity in the performance of promises4 ,,fall ,,of ,,man4 ,in addition to what is stated on this subject under the article ,adam1 it may be necessary to establish the literal sense of the account given of man's fall in the book of ,genesis4 ,this account is1 that a garden having been planted by the ,creator1 for the use of man1 he was placed in it1 8to dress it1 and to keep it20--that in this garden two trees were specially distinguished1 one as 8the tree of life10 the other as 8the tree of the knowledge of good and evil20--that from eating of the latter ,adam was restrained by positive interdict1 and by the penalty1 8,in the day thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die20--that the serpent1 who was more subtle than any beast of the field1 tempted the woman to eat1 by denying that death would be the consequence1 and by assuring her1 that her eyes and her husband's eyes 8would be opened10 and that they would 8be as gods1 knowing good and evil20--that the woman took of the fruit1 gave of it to her husband1 who also ate2--that for this act of disobedience they were expelled from the garden1 made subject to death1 and laid under other maledictions4 #b4 ,that this history should be the subject of much criticism1 not only by infidels1 but by those who hold false and perverted views of the ,christian system1 was to be expected4 ,taken in its natural and obvious sense1 along with the comments of the subsequent ,scriptures1 it teaches the doctrines of the existence of an evil1 tempting1 invisible spirit1 going about seeking whom he may deceive and devour2 of the introduction of moral corruptness into human nature1 which has been transmitted to all men2 and is connected also with the doctrine of a vicarious atonement for sin2 and wherever the fundamental truths of the ,christian system are denied1 attempts will be made so to interpret this part of the ,mosaic history as to obscure the testimony which it gives to them1 either explicitly1 or by just induction4 ,interpreters have adopted various and often strange theories2 but those whose opinions it seems necessary to notice may be divided into such as deny the literal sense of the relation entirely2 such as take the account to be in part literal and in part allegorical2 and those who1 while they contend earnestly for the literal interpretation of every part of the history1 consider some of the terms used1 and some of the persons introduced1 as conveying a meaning more extensive than the letter1 and as constituting several symbols of spiritual things and of spiritual beings4 #c4 ,those who have denied the literal sense entirely1 and regarded the whole relation as an instructive mythos1 or fable1 have1 as might be expected1 when all restraint of authority was thus thrown off from the imagination1 themselves adopted very different theories4 ,thus we have been taught1 that this account was intended to teach the evil of yielding to the violence of appetite and to its control over reason2 or the introduction of vice in conjunction with knowledge and the artificial refinements of society2 or the necessity of keeping the great mass of mankind from acquiring too great a degree of knowledge1 as being hurtful to society2 or to consider it as another version of the story of the golden age1 and its being succeeded by times more vicious and miserable2 or as designed1 enigmatically1 to account for the origin of evil1 or of mankind4 ,this catalogue of opinions might be much enlarged3 some of them have been held by mere visionaries2 others by men of learning1 especially by several of the semi-infidel theologians and ,biblical critics of ,germany2 nor has our own country been exempt from this class of bold expositors4 ,how to fix upon the moral of 8the fable0 is1 however1 the difficulty2 and the great variety of opinion is a sufficient refutation of the general notion assumed by the whole class1 since scarcely can two of them be found who adopt the same views1 after they have discarded the literal acceptation4 #d4 ,but that the account of ,moses is to be taken as a matter of real history1 and according to its literal import1 is established by two considerations1 against which1 as being facts1 nothing can successfully be urged4 ,the first is1 that the account of the fall of the first pair is a part of a continuous history4 ,the creation of the world1 of man1 of woman2 the planting of the garden of ,eden1 and the placing of man there2 the duties and prohibitions laid upon him2 his disobedience2 his expulsion from the garden2 the subsequent birth of his children1 their lives1 and actions1 and those of their posterity1 down to the flood2 and1 from that event1 to the life of ,abraham1 are given in the same plain and unadorned narrative2 brief1 but yet simple2 and with no intimation at all1 either from the elevation of the style or otherwise1 that a fable or allegory is in any part introduced4 ,as this1 then1 is the case1 and the evidence of it lies upon the very face of the history1 it is clear1 that if the account of the fall be excerpted from the whole narrative as allegorical1 any subsequent part1 from ,abel to ,noah1 from ,noah to ,abraham1 from ,abraham to ,moses1 may be excerpted for the same reason1 which reason is merely this1 that it does not agree with the theological opinions of the interpreter2 and thus the whole of the ,pentateuch may be rejected history1 and converted into fable4 ,either then the account of the fall must be taken as history1 or the historical character of the whole five books of ,moses must be unsettled2 and if none but infidels will go to the latter consequence1 then no one who admits the ,pentateuch to be a true history generally1 can consistently refuse to admit the story of the fall of the first pair to be a narrative of real events1 because it is written in the same style1 and presents the same character of a continuous record of events4 ,so conclusive has this argument been felt1 that the anti-literal interpreters have endeavoured to evade it1 by asserting that the part of the history of ,moses in question bears marks of being a separate fragment1 more ancient than the ,pentateuch itself1 and transcribed into it by ,moses1 the author and compiler of the whole4 ,this point is examined and satisfactorily refuted in ,holden's learned and excellent work1 entitled1 8,dissertation on the ,fall of ,man20 but it is easy to show1 that it would amount to nothing1 if granted1 in the mind of any who is satisfied on the previous question of the inspiration of the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,for let it be admitted that ,moses1 in writing the pentateuchal history1 availed himself of the traditions of the patriarchal ages1 a supposition not in the least inconsistent with his inspiration or with the absolute truth of his history1 since the traditions so introduced have been authenticated by the ,holy ,spirit2 or let it be supposed1 which is wholly gratuitous1 that he made use of previously existing documents2 and that some differences of style in his books may be traced which serve to point out his quotations1 which is a position that some of the best ,hebraists have denied2 yet two things are to be noted3 first1 that the inspired character of the books of ,moses is authenticated by our ,lord and his ,apostles1 so that they must necessarily be wholly true1 and free from real contradictions2 and1 secondly1 that to make it any thing to their purpose who contend that the account of the fall is an older document1 introduced by ,moses1 it ought to be shown that it is not written as truly in the narrative style1 even if it could be proved to be1 in some respects1 a different style1 as that which precedes and follows it4 ,now the very literal character of our translation will enable even the unlearned reader to discover this4 ,whether it be an embodied tradition1 or the insertion of a more ancient document1 7though there is no foundation at all for the latter supposition17 it is obviously a narrative1 and a narrative as simple as any which precedes or follows it4 #e4 ,the other indisputable fact to which ,i just now adverted1 as establishing the literal sense of the history1 is that1 as such1 it is referred to and reasoned upon in various parts of ,scripture3 8,knowest thou not this of old1 since man 7,adam7 was placed upon earth1 that the triumphing of the wicked is short1 and the joy of the hypocrite but for a moment80 ,job xx1 #d1 #e4 ,there is no reason to doubt but that this passage refers to the fall and the first sin of man4 ,the date agrees2 for the knowledge here taught is said to arise from facts as old as the first placing of man upon earth1 and the sudden punishment of the iniquity corresponds to the ,mosaic account3 8,the triumphing of the wicked is short1 his joy but for a moment40 8,if ,i covered my transgressions as ,adam1 by hiding mine iniquity in my bosom10 ,job xxxi1 #cc4 ,magee renders the verse1 8,did ,i cover1 like ,adam1 my transgression1 ,by hiding in a lurking place mine iniquity80 and adds1 8,i agree with ,peters1 that this contains a reference to the history of the first man1 and his endeavours to hide himself after his transgression40 ,our margin reads1 8after the manner of men20 and also the old versions2 but the ,chaldee paraphrase agrees with our translation1 which is also satisfactorily defended by numerous critics4 8,what is man1 that he should be clean8 and he which is born of a woman1 that he should be righteous80 ,job xv1 #ad4 ,why not clean8 ,did ,god make woman or man unclean at the beginning8 ,if he did1 the expostulation would have been more apposite1 and much stronger1 had the true cause been assigned1 and ,job had said1 8,how canst thou expect cleanness in man1 whom thou createdst unclean80 ,but1 as the case now stands1 the expostulation has a plain reference to the introduction of vanity and corruption by the sin of the woman1 and is an evidence that this ancient writer was sensible of the evil consequences of the fall upon the whole race of man4 8,eden0 and 8the garden of the ,lord0 are also frequently referred to in the prophets4 ,we have the 8tree of life0 mentioned several times in the ,proverbs and in the ,revelation4 8,god10 says ,solomon1 8made man upright40 ,the enemies of ,christ and his church are spoken of1 both in the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 under the names of 8the serpent10 and 8the dragon20 and the habit of the serpent to lick the dust is also referred to by ,isaiah4 #f4 ,if the history of the fall1 as recorded by ,moses1 were an allegory1 or any thing but a literal history1 several of the above allusions would have no meaning2 but the matter is put beyond all possible doubt in the ,new ,testament1 unless the same culpable liberties be taken with the interpretation of the words of our ,lord and of ,st4 ,paul as with those of the ,jewish lawgiver4 ,our ,lord says1 8,have ye not read1 that he which made them at the beginning1 made them male and female2 and said1 ,for this cause shall a man leave father and mother1 and shall cleave to his wife2 and they twain shall be one flesh80 ,matt4 xix1 #d1 #e4 ,this is an argument on the subject of divorces1 and its foundation rests upon two of the facts recorded by ,moses3 7#a47 ,that ,god made at first but two human beings1 from whom all the rest have sprung4 7#b47 ,that the intimacy and indissolubility of the marriage relation rests upon the formation of the woman from the man2 for our ,lord quotes the words in ,genesis1 where the obligation of man to cleave to his wife is immediately connected with that circumstance3 8,and ,adam said1 ,this is now bone of my bones1 and flesh of my flesh3 she shall be called woman1 because she was taken out of man4 ,therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother1 and shall cleave unto his wife2 and they shall be one flesh40 ,this is sufficiently in proof that both our ,lord and the ,pharisees considered this early part of the history of ,moses as a narrative2 for1 otherwise1 it would neither have been a reason1 on his part1 for the doctrine which he was inculcating1 nor have had any force of conviction as to them4 8,in ,adam10 says the ,apostle ,paul1 8all die20 8by one man sin entered into the world40 8,but ,i fear lest by any means1 as the serpent beguiled ,eve through his subtlety1 so your minds should be corrupted from the simplicity that is in ,christ40 ,in the last passage1 the instrument of the temptation is said to be a serpent1 1 which is a sufficient answer to those who would make it any other animal2 and ,eve is represented as being first seduced1 according to the account in ,genesis4 ,this ,st4 ,paul repeats in #a ,tim4 ii1 #ac1 #ad3 8,adam was first formed1 then ,eve4 ,and ,adam was not deceived10 first or immediately1 8but the woman being deceived was in the transgression40 ,and he offers this as the reason of an injunction1 8,let the woman learn in silence with all subjection40 ,when1 therefore1 it is considered1 that these passages are introduced1 not for rhetorical illustration1 or in the way of classical quotation1 but are made the basis of grave and important reasonings1 which embody some of the most important doctrines of the ,christian revelation1 and of important social duties and points of ,christian order and decorum2 it would be to charge the writers of the ,new ,testament with the grossest absurdity1 nay1 with even culpable and unworthy trifling1 to suppose them to argue from the history of the fall as a narrative1 when they knew it to be an allegory4 ,and if we are1 therefore1 compelled to allow that it was understood as a real history by our ,lord and his inspired ,apostles1 those speculations of modern critics1 which convert it into a parable1 stand branded with their true character of infidel and semi-infidel temerity4 #g4 ,the effect of the sin or lapse of ,adam was to bring him under the wrath of ,god2 to render him liable to pain1 disease1 and death2 to deprive him of primeval holiness2 to separate him from communion with ,god and that spiritual life which was before imparted by ,god1 and on which his holiness alone depended1 from the loss of which a total moral disorder and depravation of his soul resulted2 and finally to render him liable to everlasting misery4 ,see ,,original ,,sin4 ,for the effect of the fall of ,adam upon his posterity1 see ,,justification4 ,,fasting has been practised in all ages1 and among all nations1 in times of mourning1 sorrow1 and affliction4 ,we see no example of fasting1 properly so called1 before ,moses4 ,since the time of ,moses1 examples of fasting have been very common among the ,jews4 ,joshua and the elders of ,israel remained prostrate before the ark from morning till evening1 without eating1 after ,israel was defeated at ,ai1 ,joshua vii1 #f4 ,the eleven tribes which fought against that of ,benjamin1 fell down on their faces before the ark1 and so continued till evening without eating1 ,judges xx1 #bf4 ,david fasted while the first child he had by ,bathsheba was sick1 #b ,sam4 xii1 #af4 ,the ,heathens sometimes fasted3 the king of ,nineveh1 terrified by ,jonah's preaching1 ordered that not only men1 but also beasts1 should continue without eating or drinking2 should be covered with sackcloth1 and each after their manner should cry to the ,lord1 ,jonah iii1 #e1 #f4 ,the ,jews1 in times of public calamity1 appointed extraordinary fasts1 and made even the children at the breast fast1 ,joel ii1 #af4 ,moses fasted forty days upon ,mount ,horeb1 ,exod4 xxiv1 #ah4 ,elijah passed as many days without eating1 #a ,kings xix1 #h4 ,our ,saviour fasted forty days and forty nights in the wilderness1 ,matt4 iv1 #b4 ,these fasts were miraculous1 and out of the common rules of nature4 #b4 ,beside the solemn fast of expiation instituted by divine authority1 the ,jews appointed certain days of humiliation1 called the fasts of the congregation4 ,the calamities for which these were enjoined1 were a siege1 pestilence1 diseases1 famine1 c4 ,they were observed on the second and fifth days of the week3 they began at sunset1 and continued till midnight of the following day4 ,on these days they wore sackcloth next the skin1 and rent their clothes2 they sprinkled ashes on their heads1 and neither washed their hands1 nor anointed their heads with oil4 ,the synagogues were filled with suppliants1 whose prayers were long and mournful1 and their countenances dejected with all the marks of sorrow and repentance4 #c4 ,as to the fasts observed by ,christians1 it does not appear by his own practice1 or by his commands to his disciples1 that our ,lord instituted any particular fast4 ,but when the ,pharisees reproached him1 that his disciples did not fast so often as theirs1 or as ,john the ,baptist's1 he replied1 8,can ye make the children of the bride-chamber fast while the bride-groom is with them8 ,but the days will come when the bride-groom shall be taken away from them1 and then shall they fast in those days10 ,luke v1 #cd1 #ce4 ,fasting is also recommended by our ,saviour in his sermon on the mount2 not as a stated1 but as an occasional1 duty of ,christians1 for the purpose of humbling their minds under the afflicting hand of ,god2 and he requires that this duty be performed in sincerity1 and not for the sake of ostentation1 ,matt4 vi1 #af4 #d4 ,although ,christians1 says ,dr4 ,neander1 did not by any means retire from the business of life1 yet they were accustomed to devote many separate days entirely to examining their own hearts1 and pouring them out before ,god1 while they dedicated their life anew to him with uninterrupted prayers1 in order that they might again return to their ordinary occupations with a renovated spirit of zeal and seriousness1 and with renewed powers of sanctification4 ,these days of holy devotion1 days of prayer and penitence1 which individual ,christians appointed for themselves1 according to their individual necessities1 were often a kind of fast-days4 ,in order that their sensual feelings might less distract and impede the occupation of their heart with its holy contemplations1 they were accustomed on these days to limit their corporeal wants more than usual1 or to fast entirely4 ,in the consideration of this1 we must not overlook the peculiar nature of that hot climate in which ,christianity was first promulgated4 ,that which was spared by their abstinence on these days was applied to the support of the poorer brethren4 ,,fat4 ,god forbade the ,hebrews to eat the fat of beasts3 8,all the fat is the ,lord's4 ,it shall be a perpetual statute for your generations1 throughout all your dwellings1 that ye eat neither fat nor blood10 ,lev4 iii1 #ag4 ,some interpreters understand these words literally1 and suppose fat as well as blood to be forbidden4 ,josephus says ,moses forbids only the fat of oxen1 goats1 sheep1 and their species4 ,this agrees with ,lev4 vii1 #bc3 8,ye shall eat no manner of fat1 of ox1 or of sheep1 or of goat40 ,this is observed by the modern ,jews1 who think that the fat of other sorts of clean creatures is allowed them1 even that of beasts which have died of themselves1 conformably to ,lev4 vii1 #bd3 8,and the fat of the beast that dieth of itself1 and the fat of that which is torn with beasts1 may be used in any other use2 but ye shall in nowise eat of it40 ,others maintain that the law which forbids the use of fat1 should be restrained to fat separated from the flesh1 such as that which covers the kidneys and the intestines2 and this only in the case of its being offered in sacrifice4 ,this is confirmed by ,lev4 vii1 #be3 8,whosoever eateth of the fat of the beast of which men offer an offering made by fire unto the ,lord1 even the soul that eateth it shall be cut off from his people40 ,in the ,hebrew style1 fat signifies not only that of beasts1 but also the richer or prime part of other things3 8,he should have fed them with the finest0 7in ,hebrew the fat7 8of the wheat40 ,fat denotes abundance of good things3 8,i will satiate the souls of the priests with fatness10 ,jer4 xxxi1 #ad4 8,my soul shall be satisfied with marrow and fatness10 ,psalm lxiii1 #e4 ,the fat of the earth implies its fruitfulness3 8,god give thee of the dew of heaven1 and the fatness of the earth1 and plenty of corn and wine10 ,gen4 xxvii1 #bh4 ,,father4 ,this word1 beside its common acceptation1 is taken in ,scripture for grandfather1 great-grandfather1 or the founder of a family1 how remote soever4 ,so the ,jews in our ,saviour's time called ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 their fathers4 ,jesus ,christ is called the ,son of ,david1 though ,david was many generations distant from him4 ,by father is likewise understood the institutor of a certain profession4 ,jabal 8was father of such as dwell in tents1 and such as have cattle40 ,jubal 8was father of all such as handle the harp and organ10 or flute1 c1 ,gen4 iv1 #bj1 #ba4 ,huram is called father of the king of ,tyre1 #b ,chron4 ii1 #ac2 and1 #b ,chron4 iv1 #af1 even of ,solomon1 because he was the principal workman1 and chief director of their undertakings4 ,the principal prophets were considered as fathers of the younger1 who were their disciples1 and are called sons of the prophets1 #b ,kings ii1 #ab4 ,father is a term of respect given by inferiors to superiors4 8,my father10 said ,naaman's attendants to him1 8if the prophet had bid thee do some great thing10 #b ,kings v1 #ac2 and so the king of ,israel addresses the prophet ,elisha1 #b ,kings vi1 #ba4 ,rechab1 the founder of the ,rechabites1 is called their father1 ,jer4 xxxv1 #f4 ,a man is said to be a father to the poor and orphans1 when he supplies their necessities1 and sympathizes with their miseries1 as a father would do toward them3 8,i was a father to the poor10 says ,job1 xxix1 #af4 ,god declares himself to be the 8,father of the fatherless1 and ,judge of the widow10 ,psalm lxviii1 #e4 ,god is frequently called our heavenly ,father1 and simply our ,father2 eminently the ,father1 ,preserver1 and ,protector of all1 especially of those who invoke him1 and serve him3 8,is he not thy ,father that bought thee80 says ,moses1 ,deut4 xxxii1 #f4 ,since the coming of ,jesus ,christ1 we have a new right to call ,god our ,father1 by reason of the adoption which our ,saviour has merited for us1 by clothing himself in our humanity1 and purchasing us by his death3 8,ye have received the ,spirit of adoption1 whereby we cry1 ,abba1 ,father4 ,the ,spirit itself beareth witness with our spirit1 that we are the children of ,god10 ,romans viii1 #ae4 ,job entitles ,god 8the ,father of rain10 ,job xxxviii1 #bh2 he produces it1 and causes it to fall4 ,the devil is called the father of the wicked and the father of lies1 ,john viii1 #dd4 ,he deceived ,eve and ,adam2 he introduced sin and falsehood2 he inspires his followers with his spirit and sentiments4 ,the father of ,sichem1 the father of ,tekoah1 the father of ,bethlehem1 c1 signify the chief persons who inhabited these cities2 he who built or rebuilt them4 ,adam is the first father1 the father of the living2 ,abraham is the father of the faithful1 the father of the circumcision2 called also the 8father of many nations10 because many people sprung from him2 as the ,jews1 ,ishmaelites1 ,arabs1 c4 ,god is called 8the ,father of spirits10 ,heb4 xii1 #i4 ,he not only creates them1 but he justifies1 sanctifies1 and glorifies them1 and thus confers upon them eternal happiness4 ,,fathers1 a term of honour applied to the first and most eminent writers of the ,christian church4 ,those of the first century are called ,apostolical fathers2 those of the first three centuries1 and till the council of ,nice1 ,ante-,nicene2 and those later than that council1 ,post-,nicene4 ,learned men are not unanimous concerning the degree of esteem which is due to these ancient fathers4 ,some represent them as the most excellent guides1 while others place them in the very lowest rank of moral writers1 and treat their precepts and decisions as perfectly insipid1 and1 in many respects1 pernicious4 ,it appears1 however1 incontestable1 that1 in the writings of the primitive fathers are many sublime sentiments1 judicious thoughts1 and several things well adapted to form a religious temper1 and to excite pious and virtuous affections4 ,at the same time1 it must be confessed1 that1 after the earliest age1 they abound still more with precepts of an excessive and unreasonable austerity1 with stoical and academical dictates1 with vague and indeterminate notions1 and1 what is still worse1 with decisions absolutely false1 and in evident opposition to the commands of ,christ4 ,though the judgment of antiquity in some disputable points may certainly be useful1 yet we ought never to consider the writings of the fathers as of equal authority with the ,scriptures4 ,in many cases they may be deemed competent witnesses1 but we must not confide in their verdict as judges4 ,as ,biblical critics they are often fanciful and injudicious1 and their principal value consists in this1 that the succession of their writings enables us to prove the existence and authenticity of the sacred books1 up to the age of the ,apostles4 ,the following is a list of the entire fathers3 ,contemporaries of the ,apostles1 ,barnabas1 ,clement of ,rome1 ,hermas1 ,ignatius1 and ,polycarp4 ,papias1 ,a4 ,d4 #aaf2 ,justin ,martyr1 #adj2 ,dionysius of ,corinth1 #agj2 ,tatian1 #agb2 ,hegesippus1 #agc2 ,melito1 #agg2 ,irenus1 #agh2 ,athenagoras1 #agh2 ,miltiades1 #ahj2 ,theophilus1 #aha2 ,clement of ,alexandria1 #aid2 ,tertullian1 #bjj2 ,minutius ,felix1 #baj2 ,ammonius1 #bbj2 ,origen1 #bcj2 ,firmilian1 #bcc2 ,dionysius of ,alexandria1 #bdg2 ,cyprian1 #bdh2 ,novatus1 or ,novatian1 #bea2 ,arnobius1 #cjf2 ,lactantius1 #cjf2 ,alexander of ,alexandria1 #cac2 ,eusebius1 #cae2 ,athanasius1 #cbf2 ,cyril of ,jerusalem1 #cdh2 ,hilary1 #ced2 ,epiphanius1 #cfh2 ,basil1 #cgj2 ,gregory of ,nazianzum1 #cgj2 ,gregory of ,nyssa1 #cgj2 ,optatus1 #cgj2 ,ambrose1 #cgd2 ,philaster1 #chj2 ,jerome1 #cib2 ,theodore of ,mopsuestia1 #cid2 ,ruffin1 #cig2 ,augustine1 #cih2 ,chrysostom1 #cih2 ,sulpitius ,severus1 #dja2 ,cyril of ,alexandria1 #dab2 ,theodoret1 #dbc2 and ,gennadius1 #did4 ,archbishop ,wake1 in his ,exposition of the ,doctrine of the ,church of ,england has very satisfactorily shown1 that the deference paid by ,protestants to the ,christian fathers of the first three ages1 is neither of such an idolatrous description as is generally represented1 nor is their authority ever extolled to an equality with that of the ,holy ,scriptures4 8,though we have appealed10 he says1 8to the churches of the first ages for new proofs of the truth of our doctrine1 it is not that we think that the doctors of those times had more right to judge of our faith than those had that followed them2 but it is because after a serious examination we have found1 that1 as for what concerns the common belief that is among us1 they have believed and practised the same things without adding other opinions or superstitions that destroy them1--wherein they have acted conformably to their and our rule1 ,,the ,,word ,,of ,,god3 notwithstanding1 it cannot be denied1 but that they effectually fell into some wrong opinions1 as that of the ,millenaries and infant communion10 c4 ,the usefulness and necessity of studying the ancient fathers have been defended by many persons eminent for their learning and piety4 ,archbishop ,usher was one who beyond all men then living knew the vast importance of these studies1 and had derived the greatest benefits from them4 ,the following brief advice1 in the language of ,dr4 ,parr1 his erudite biographer1 will convey his sentiments on this very interesting subject3 8,indeed he had so great an esteem of the ,,ancient ,,authors1 for the acquiring any solid learning1 whether sacred or profane1 that his advice to young students1 either in divinity or antiquity1 was1 not to spend too much time in epitomes1 but to set themselves to read the ancient authors themselves2 as1 to begin with the ,,fathers1 and to read them according to the ages in which they lived1 7which was the method he had taken himself17 and1 together with them1 carefully to peruse the ,,church ,,historians that treated of that age in which those fathers lived3 by which means the student would be better able to perceive the reason and meaning of divers passages in their writings1 7which otherwise would be obscure17 when he knew the original and growth of those heresies and heterodox opinions against which they wrote1 and may also better judge what doctrines1 ceremonies1 and opinions prevailed in the church in every age1 and by what means introduced40 ,,fear1 a painful apprehension of danger4 ,it is sometimes used for the object of fear2 as1 8the fear of ,isaac10 that is1 the ,god whom ,isaac feared1 ,gen4 xxxi1 #db4 ,god says that he will send his fear before his people1 to terrify and destroy the inhabitants of ,canaan4 ,job speaks of the terrors of ,god1 as set in array against him1 ,job vi1 #d2 the ,psalmist1 that he had suffered the terrors of the ,lord with a troubled mind1 ,psalm lxxxviii1 #ae4 ,fear is used1 also1 for reverence3 8,god is greatly to be feared0 in the assembly of his saints4 ,this kind of fear1 being compatible with confidence and love1 is sometimes called filial fear2 while 8the fear which hath torment10 being the result of conscious guilt1 and the anticipation of punishment1 is removed by that 8love0 to ,god which results from a consciousness of our reconciliation to him4 ,the filial fear of ,god is a holy affection1 or gracious habit1 wrought in the soul by ,god1 ,jer4 xxxii1 #dj1 whereby it is inclined and enabled to obey all ,god's commandments1 even the most difficult1 ,gen4 xxii1 #ab2 ,eccl4 xii1 #ac2 and to hate and avoid evil1 ,nehemiah v1 #ae2 ,prov4 viii1 #ac2 xv1 #f4 ,slavish fear is the consequence of guilt2 it is a judicial impression from the sad thoughts of the provoked majesty of the heaven2 it is an alarm within that disturbs the rest of a sinner4 ,fear is put for the whole worship of ,god3 8,i will teach you the fear of the ,lord10 ,psalm xxxiv1 #aa2 ,i will teach you the true way of worshipping and serving ,god4 ,it is likewise put for the law and word of ,god3 8,the fear of the ,lord is clean1 enduring for ever10 ,psalm xix1 #i4 ,the law is so called1 because it is the object1 the cause1 and the rule of the grace of holy fear4 ,,feasts4 ,god appointed several festivals among the ,jews4 #a4 ,to perpetuate the memory of great events2 so1 the ,sabbath commemorated the creation of the world2 the passover1 the departure out of ,egypt2 the pentecost1 the law given at ,sinai1 c4 #b4 ,to keep them under the influence of religion1 and by the majesty of that service which he instituted among them1 and which abounded in mystical symbols or types of evangelical things1 to convey spiritual instruction1 and to keep alive the expectation of the ,messiah1 and his more perfect dispensation4 #c4 ,to secure to them certain times of rest and rejoicings4 #d4 ,to render them familiar with the law2 for1 in their religious assemblies1 the law of ,god was read and explained4 #e4 ,to renew the acquaintance1 correspondence1 and friendship of their tribes and families1 coming from the several towns in the country1 and meeting three times a year in the holy city4 ,the first and most ancient festival1 the ,sabbath1 or seventh day1 commemorated the creation4 8,the ,lord blessed the seventh day1 and sanctified it10 says ,moses1 8because that in it he had rested from all his work10 ,gen4 ii1 #c4 ,see ,,sabbath4 ,the passover was instituted in memory of the ,israelites' departure out of ,egypt1 and of the favour which ,god showed his people in sparing their first-born1 when he destroyed the first-born of the ,egyptians1 ,exod4 xii1 #ad1 c4 ,see ,,passover4 ,the feast of pentecost was celebrated on the fiftieth day after the passover1 in memory of the law being given to ,moses on ,mount ,sinai1 fifty days after the departure out of ,egypt4 ,they reckoned seven weeks from the passover to pentecost1 beginning at the day after the passover4 ,the ,hebrews call it the feast of weeks1 and the ,christians1 pentecost1 which signifies the fiftieth day4 ,the feast of trumpets was celebrated on the first day of the civil year2 on which the trumpets sounded1 proclaiming the beginning of the year1 which was in the month ,tisri1 answering to our ,september1 ,o4 ,s4 ,we know no religious cause of its establishment4 ,moses commands it to be observed as a day of rest1 and that particular sacrifices should be offered at that time4 ,the new moons1 or first days of every month1 were1 in some sort1 a consequence of the feasts of trumpets4 ,the law did not oblige people to rest upon this day1 but ordained only some particular sacrifices4 ,it appears that1 on these days1 also1 the trumpet was sounded1 and entertainments were made1 #a ,sam4 xx1 #e-ah4 ,the feast of expiation or atonement was celebrated on the tenth day of ,tisri1 which was the first day of the civil year4 ,it was instituted for a general expiation of sins1 irreverences1 and pollutions of all the ,israelites1 from the high priest to the lowest of the people1 committed by them throughout the year1 ,lev4 xxiii1 #bg1 #bh2 ,num4 xxix1 #g4 ,see ,,expiation1 ,day of4 ,the feast of tents1 or tabernacles1 on which all ,israel were obliged to attend the temple1 and to dwell eight days under tents of branches1 in memory of their fathers dwelling forty years in tents1 as travellers in the wilderness4 ,it was kept on the fifteenth of the month ,tisri1 the first of the civil year4 ,the first and seventh day of this feast were very solemn4 ,but during the other days of the octave they might work1 ,lev4 xxiii1 #cd1 #ce2 ,num4 xxix1 #ab1 #ac4 ,at the beginning of the feast1 two vessels of silver were carried in a ceremonious manner to the temple1 one full of water1 the other of wine1 which were poured at the foot of the altar of burnt offerings1 always on the seventh day of this festival4 ,of the three great feasts of the year1 the passover1 pentecost1 and that of the tabernacles1 the octave1 or seventh day after these feasts1 was a day of rest as much as the festival itself2 and all the males of the nation were obliged to visit the temple at these three feasts4 ,but the law did not require them to continue there during the whole octave1 except in the feast of tabernacles1 when they seem obliged to be present for the whole seven days4 ,beside these feasts1 we find the feast of lots1 or purim1 instituted on occasion of the deliverance of the ,jews from ,haman's plot1 in the reign of ,ahasuerus4 ,see ,,purim4 ,the feast of the dedication of the temple1 or rather of the restoration of the temple1 which had been profaned by ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 #a ,mac4 iv1 #eb1 c1 was celebrated in winter1 and is supposed to be the feast of dedication mentioned in ,john x1 #bb4 ,josephus says1 that it was called the feast of lights1 probably because this happiness befel them when least expected1 and they considered it as a new light risen on them4 ,in the ,christian church1 no festival appears to have been expressly instituted by ,jesus ,christ1 or his ,apostles4 ,yet1 as we commemorate the passion of ,christ as often as we celebrate his ,supper1 he seems by this to have instituted a perpetual feast4 ,christians have always celebrated the memory of his resurrection1 and observe this feast on every ,sunday1 which was commonly called the ,lord's day1 ,rev4 i1 #aj4 ,by inference we may conclude this festival to have been instituted by ,apostolic authority4 ,the birth-day of ,christ1 commonly called ,christmas-day1 has been generally observed by his disciples with gratitude and joy4 ,his birth was the greatest blessing ever bestowed on mankind4 ,the angels from heaven celebrated it with a joyful hymn2 and every man1 who has any feeling of his own lost state without a ,redeemer1 must rejoice and be glad in it4 8,unto us a ,child is born1 unto us a ,son is given2 and his name shall be called ,wonderful1 ,counsellor1 the mighty ,god1 the everlasting ,father1 the ,prince of ,peace10 ,isaiah ix1 #f4 ,for this festival1 however1 there is no authority in ,scripture1 nor do we know that it was observed in the age of the ,apostles4 ,on ,easter ,sunday we celebrate our ,saviour's victory over death and hell1 when1 having on the cross made an atonement for the sin of the world1 he rose again from the grave1 brought life and immortality to light1 and opened to all his faithful servants the way to heaven4 ,on this great event rest all our hopes4 8,if ,christ be not risen10 says ,st4 ,paul1 8then is our preaching vain1 and your faith is also vain4 ,but now is ,christ risen from the dead1 and become the first-fruits of them that slept10 #a ,cor4 xv1 #ad1 #bj4 ,forty days after his resurrection1 our ,lord ascended into heaven1 in the sight of his disciples4 ,this is celebrated on what is called ,ascension-day1 or ,holy ,thursday4 ,ten days after his ascension1 our ,lord sent the ,holy ,spirit to be the comforter and guide of his disciples4 ,this blessing is commemorated on ,whit-,sunday1 which is a very great festival1 and may be profitably observed2 for the assistance of the ,holy ,spirit can alone support us through all temptations1 and guide us into all truth4 ,the pretended success of some in discovering the remains of certain holy men1 called 8relics10 multiplied in the fourth century of the ,christian church the festivals and commemorations of the martyrs in a most extravagant manner4 ,these days1 instead of being set apart for pious exercises1 were spent in indolence1 voluptuousness1 and criminal pursuits2 and were less consecrated to the service of ,god1 than employed in the indulgence of sinful passions4 ,many of these festivals were instituted on a ,pagan model1 and perverted to similar purposes4 ,,felix1 ,,claudius4 ,see ,,claudius4 ,,ferret1 1 from 1 or cry out1 ,lev4 xi1 #cj4 ,the ferret is a species of the weasel2 but ,bochart will have the anakah to be the spotted lizard1 called by ,pliny stellio4 ,dr4 ,james takes it for the frog1 in allusion to the name1 which literally signifies the crier1 befitting the croaking of that animal2 but we shall find the frog mentioned under another name4 ,dr4 ,geddes renders it the newt1 or rather the lizard of the ,nile2 and it evidently must be of the lizard species4 ,pliny mentions 8the galleotes1 covered with red spots1 whose cries are sharp10 which may be the gekko1 which is probably the animal here intended4 ,as its name1 in the ,indies tockai1 and in ,egypt gekko1 is formed from its voice1 so the ,hebrew name anakah1 or perhaps anakkah1 seems to be formed in like manner2 the double k being equally observable in all these appellations4 ,if these remarks are admissible1 this lizard is sufficiently identified4 ,,festus4 ,portius ,festus succeeded ,felix in the government of ,judea1 ,a4 ,d4 #fj4 ,felix his predecessor1 to oblige the ,jews1 when he resigned his government1 left ,st4 ,paul in bonds at ,csarea1 in ,palestine1 ,acts xxiv1 #bg4 ,festus1 at his first coming to ,jerusalem1 was entreated by the principal ,jews to condemn ,st4 ,paul1 or to order him up to ,jerusalem1 they having conspired to assassinate him in the way4 ,festus answered1 that it was not customary with the ,romans to condemn any man without hearing him2 but said that he would hear their accusations against ,st4 ,paul at ,csarea4 ,from these accusations ,st4 ,paul appealed to ,csar1 and by this means secured himself from the prosecution of the ,jews1 and the wicked intentions of ,festus1 whom they had corrupted4 ,,fig ,,tree1 1 ,gen4 iii1 #g2 ,num4 xiii1 #bc2 1 ,matthew vii1 #af2 xxi1 #ai2 xxiv1 #cb2 ,mark xi1 #ac1 #bj1 #ba2 xiii1 #bh2 ,luke vi1 #dd2 xiii1 #f1 #g2 xxi1 #bi2 ,john i1 #dh2 ,james iii1 #ab2 ,rev4 vi1 #ac4 ,this tree was very common in ,palestine4 ,it becomes large1 dividing into many branches1 which are furnished with leaves shaped like those of the mulberry1 and affords a friendly shade4 ,accordingly1 we read1 in the ,old ,testament1 of ,juda and ,israel dwelling1 or sitting securely1 every man under his fig tree1 #a ,kings iv1 #be2 ,micah iv1 #d2 ,zech4 iii1 #aj2 #a ,mac4 xiv1 #ab4 ,and1 in the ,new ,testament1 we find ,nathanael under a fig tree1 probably for the purposes of devotional retirement1 ,john i1 #di-ea4 ,hasselquist1 in his journey from ,nazareth to ,tiberias1 says1 8,we refreshed ourselves under the shade of a fig tree1 where a shepherd and his herd had their rendezvous2 but without either house or hut40 ,the fruit which it bears is produced from the trunk and large branches1 and not from the smaller shoots1 as in most other trees4 ,it is soft1 sweet1 and very nourishing4 ,milton is of opinion that the banian tree was that with the leaves of which our first parents made themselves aprons4 ,but his account1 as to the matter of fact1 wants even probability to countenance it2 for the leaves of this are so far from being1 as he has described them1 of the bigness of an ,amazonian target1 that they seldom or never exceed five inches in length1 and three in breadth4 ,therefore1 we must look for another of the fig kind1 that better answers the purpose referred to by ,moses1 ,gen4 iii1 #g2 and as the fruit of the banana tree1 is often1 by the most ancient authors1 called a fig1 may we not suppose this to have been the fig tree of paradise8 ,pliny1 describing this tree1 says that its leaves were the greatest and most shady of all others2 and as the leaves of these are often six feet long1 and about two broad1 are thin1 smooth1 and very flexible1 they may be deemed more proper than any other for the covering spoken of1 especially since they may be easily joined together with the numerous threadlike filaments1 which may1 without labour1 be peeled from the body of the tree4 ,the first ripe fig is still called boccre in the ,levant1 which is nearly its ,hebrew name1 1 ,jer4 xxiv1 #b4 ,thus ,dr4 ,shaw1 in giving an account of the fruits in ,barbary1 mentions 8the black and white boccre1 or #8early fig1' which is produced in ,june1 though the kermes1 or kermouse1 the #8fig1' probably so called1 which they preserve and make up into cakes1 is rarely ripe before ,august40 ,and on ,nahum iii1 #ab1 he observes1 that 8the boccres drop as soon as they are ripe1 and1 according to the beautiful allusion of the prophet1 fall into the mouth of the eater upon being shaken40 ,farther1 8,it frequently falls out in ,barbary10 says he2 8and we need not doubt of the like in this hotter climate of ,judea1 that1 according to the quality of the preceding season1 some of the more forward and vigorous trees will now and then yield a few ripe figs six weeks or more before the full season4 ,something like this may be alluded to by the ,prophet ,hosea1 when he says1 #8,i saw your fathers as 1 the first ripe1 in the fig tree1 at her first time1' ,hosea ix1 #aj4 ,such figs were reckoned a great dainty40 ,see ,isaiah xxviii1 #d4 ,the ,prophet ,isaiah gave orders to apply a lump of figs to ,hezekiah's boil2 and immediately after it was cured4 ,god1 in effecting this miraculous cure1 was pleased to order the use of means not improper for that end4 #b4 ,the account of our ,saviour's denunciation against the barren fig tree1 ,matt4 xxi1 #ai2 ,mark xi1 #ac1 has occasioned some of the boldest cavils of infidelity2 and the vindication of it has exercised the ingenuity of several of the most learned critics and commentators4 ,the whole difficulty arises from the circumstance of his disappointment in not finding fruit on the tree1 when it is expressly said1 that 8the time of figs was not yet40 ,while it was supposed that this expression signified1 that the time for such trees to bring forth fruit was not yet come1 it looked very unaccountable that ,christ should reckon a tree barren1 though it had leaves1 and curse it as such1 when he knew that the time of bearing figs was not come2 and that he should come to seek figs on this tree1 when he knew that figs were not used to be ripe so soon in the year4 ,but the expression does not signify the time of the coming forth of figs1 but the time of the gathering in of ripe figs1 as is plain from the parallel expressions4 ,thus1 8the time of the fruit10 ,matt4 xxi1 #cd1 most plainly signifies the time of gathering in ripe fruits1 since the servants were sent to receive those fruits for their master's use4 ,st4 ,mark and ,st4 ,luke express the same by the word time1 or season3 8,at the season he sent a servant10 c2 that is1 at the season or time of gathering in ripe fruit1 ,mark xii1 #b2 ,luke xx1 #aj4 ,in like manner1 if any one should say in our language1 the season of fruit1 the season of apples1 the season of figs1 every one would understand him to speak of the season or time of gathering in these fruits4 ,when1 therefore1 ,st4 ,mark says1 that 8the time or season of figs was not yet10 he evidently means that the time of gathering ripe figs was not yet past2 and1 if so1 it was natural to expect figs upon all those trees that were not barren2 whereas1 after the time of gathering figs1 no one would expect to find them on a fig tree1 and its having none then would be no sign of barrenness4 ,st4 ,mark1 by saying1 8,for the time of figs was not yet10 does not design to give a reason for 8his finding nothing but leaves20 but he gives a reason for what he said in the clause before3 8,he came1 if haply he might find any thereon20 and it was a good reason for our ,saviour's coming and seeking figs on the tree1 because the time for their being gathered was not come4 ,we have other like instances in the ,gospels1 and1 indeed1 in the writings of all mankind1 of another clause coming in between the assertion and the proof4 ,thus1 in this very evangelist3 8,they said among themselves1 ,who shall roll away the stone from the door of the sepulchre8 and when they looked1 they saw the stone was rolled away2 for it was very great10 ,mark xvi1 #c1 #d2 where its being very great is not assigned as a reason of its being rolled away1 but of the women's wishing for some one to roll it away for them4 ,st4 ,matthew informs us that the tree was 8in the way10 that is1 in the common road1 and therefore1 probably1 no particular person's property2 but if it was1 being barren1 the timber might be as serviceable to the owner as before4 ,so that here was no real injury2 but ,jesus was pleased to make use of this innocent miracle to prefigure the speedy ruin of the ,jewish nation on account of its unfruitfulness under greater advantages than any other people enjoyed at that day2 and1 like all the rest of his miracles1 it was done with a gracious intention1 namely1 to alarm his countrymen1 and induce them to repent4 ,in the blasting of this barren fig tree1 the distant appearance of which was so fair and promising1 he delivered one more awful lesson to a degenerate nation1 of whose hypocritical exterior and flattering but delusive pretensions it was a just and striking emblem4 ,,finger4 ,the finger of ,god signifies his power1 his operation4 ,pharaoh's magicians discovered the finger of ,god in the miracle which ,moses wrought1 ,exodus viii1 #ai4 ,this legislator gave the law written by the finger of ,god to the ,hebrews1 ,exodus xxxi1 #ah4 ,our ,saviour says he cast out devils by the finger and ,spirit of ,god1 which he intimates was a sign that the kingdom of ,god was come2 that ,god's spiritual government of his church was begun to be exercised among the ,jews1 by the ,messiah1 ,luke xi1 #bj4 ,to put forth one's finger1 is a bantering1 insulting gesture4 8,if thou take away from the midst of thee the yoke1 and the putting out of the finger10 ,isaiah lviii1 #i2 if thou take away from the midst of thee the chain1 or yoke1 wherewith thou loadest thy debtors2 and forbear pointing at them1 and using jeering or menacing gestures4 ,,fire4 ,god hath often appeared in fire1 and encompassed with fire1 as when he showed himself in the burning bush2 and descended on ,mount ,sinai1 in the midst of flames1 thunderings1 and lightning1 ,exodus iii1 #b2 xix1 #ah4 ,hence fire is a symbol of the ,deity3 8,the ,lord thy ,god is a consuming fire10 ,deut4 iv1 #bd4 ,the ,holy ,ghost is compared to fire3 8,he shall baptize you with the ,holy ,ghost and with fire10 ,matt4 iii1 #aa4 ,to verify this prediction1 he sent the ,holy ,ghost1 which descended upon his disciples1 in the form of tongues1 or like flames of fire1 ,acts ii1 #c4 ,it is the work of the ,holy ,spirit to enlighten1 purify1 and sanctify the soul2 and to inflame it with love to ,god1 and zeal for his glory4 ,fire from heaven fell frequently on the victims sacrificed to the ,lord1 as a mark of his presence and approbation4 ,it is thought1 that ,god in this manner expressed his acceptance of ,abel's sacrifices1 ,gen4 iv1 #d4 ,when the ,lord made a covenant with ,abraham1 a fire like that of a furnace passed through the divided pieces of the sacrifices1 and consumed them1 ,gen4 xv1 #ag4 ,fire fell upon the sacrifices which ,moses offered at the dedication of the tabernacle1 ,lev4 ix1 #bd2 and upon those of ,manoah1 ,samson's father1 ,judges xiii1 #ai1 #bj2 upon ,solomon's1 at the dedication of the temple1 #b ,chron4 vii1 #a2 and on ,elijah's1 at ,mount ,carmel1 #a ,kings xviii1 #ch4 ,the fire which came down from heaven1 first upon the altar in the tabernacle1 and afterward descended anew upon the altar in the temple of ,solomon1 at its consecration1 was there constantly fed and maintained by the priests1 day and night1 in the same manner as it had been in the tabernacle4 ,the ,jews have a tradition1 that ,jeremiah1 foreseeing the destruction of the temple1 took this fire and hid it in a pit2 but that at the rebuilding of the temple1 being brought again from thence1 it revived upon the altar4 ,but this is a fiction3 and the generality of them allow1 that1 at the destruction of the temple1 it was extinguished3 and in the time of the second temple1 nothing was made use of for all their burnt offerings but common fire only4 ,the ancient ,chaldeans adored the fire1 as well as the old ,persians1 and some other people of the east4 ,the torments of hell are described by fire1 both in the ,old and ,new ,testament4 ,our ,saviour makes use of this similitude1 to represent the punishment of the damned1 ,mark ix1 #dd4 ,he likewise speaks frequently of the eternal fire prepared for the devil1 his angels1 and reprobates1 ,matt4 xxv1 #da4 ,the sting and remorse of conscience is the worm that will never die2 and the wrath of ,god upon their souls and bodies1 the fire that shall never go out4 ,there are writers who maintain1 that by the worm is to be understood a living and sensible1 not an allegorical and figurative1 worm2 and by fire1 a real elementary and material fire4 ,among the abettors of this opinion are ,austin1 ,cyprian1 ,chrysostom1 ,jerom1 c4 ,the word of ,god is compared to fire3 8,is not my word like a fire80 ,jer4 xxiii1 #bj4 ,it is full of life and efficacy2 like a fire it warms1 melts1 and heats2 and is powerful to consume the dross1 and burn up the chaff and stubble4 ,fire is likewise taken for persecution1 dissension1 and division3 8,i am come to send fire on earth10 ,luke xii1 #di2 as if it was said1 upon my coming and publishing the ,gospel1 there will follow1 through the devil's malice and corruption of men1 much persecution to the professors thereof1 and manifold divisions in the world1 whereby men will be tried1 whether they will be faithful or not4 ,,firmament4 ,it is said1 ,gen4 i1 #g1 that ,god made the firmament in the midst of the waters1 to separate the inferior from the superior4 ,the word used on this occasion properly signifies expansion1 or something expanded4 ,this expansion is properly the atmosphere1 which encompasses the globe on all sides1 and separates the water in the clouds from that on the earth4 ,,first-,,born4 ,the first-born1 who was the object of special affection to his parents1 was denominated by way of eminence1 1 the opening of the womb4 ,in case a man married with a widow1 who by a previous marriage had become the mother of children1 the first-born as respected the second husband was the eldest child by the second marriage4 ,before the time of ,moses1 the father might1 if he chose1 transfer the right of primogeniture to a younger child1 but the practice occasioned much contention1 ,gen4 xxv1 #ca1 #cb2 and a law was enacted1 overruling it1 ,deut4 xxi1 #ae-ag4 ,the first-born inherited peculiar rights and privileges4 7#a47 ,he received a double portion of the estate4 ,jacob1 in the case of ,reuben1 his first-born1 bestowed his additional portion upon ,joseph1 by adopting his two sons1 ,gen4 xlviii1 #e-h2 ,deut4 xxi1 #ag4 ,this was done as a reprimand1 and a punishment of his incestuous conduct1 ,genesis xxxv1 #bb2 but ,reuben1 notwithstanding1 was enrolled as the first-born in the genealogical registers1 #a ,chron4 v1 #a4 7#b47 ,the first-born was the priest of the whole family4 ,the honour of exercising the priesthood was transferred1 by the command of ,god communicated through ,moses1 from the tribe of ,reuben1 to whom it belonged by right of primogeniture1 to that of ,levi1 ,num4 iii1 #ab-ah2 viii1 #ah4 ,in consequence of ,god having taken the ,levites from among the children of ,israel instead of all the first-born to serve him as priests1 the first-born of the other tribes were to be redeemed1 at a valuation made by the priest not exceeding five shekels1 from serving ,god in that capacity1 ,numbers xviii1 #ae1 #af2 ,luke ii1 #bb1 c4 7#c47 ,the first-born enjoyed an authority over those who were younger1 similar to that possessed by a father1 ,gen4 xxv1 #bc1 c2 #b ,chron4 xxi1 #c2 ,gen4 xxvii1 #bi2 ,exod4 xii1 #bi3 which was transferred in the case of ,reuben by ,jacob their father to ,judah1 ,gen4 xlix1 #h-aj4 ,the tribe of ,judah1 accordingly1 even before it gave kings to the ,hebrews1 was every where distinguished from the other tribes4 ,in consequence of the authority which was thus attached to the first-born1 he was also made the successor in the kingdom4 ,there was an exception to this rule in the case of ,solomon1 who1 though a younger brother1 was made his successor by ,david at the special appointment of ,god4 ,it is very easy to see in view of these facts1 how the word 8first-born0 came to express sometimes a great1 and sometimes the highest1 dignity4 #b4 ,first-born is not always to be understood literally2 it is sometimes taken for the prime1 most excellent1 most distinguished of any thing4 8,the first-born of the poor10 ,isaiah xiv1 #cj1 signifies the most miserable of the poor2 and 8the first-born of death10 ,job xviii1 #ac1 the most terrible of deaths4 #c4 ,god ordained that all the ,jewish first-born both of men and beasts1 for service1 should be consecrated to him4 ,the male children only were subject to this law4 ,if a woman's first child were a girl1 the father was not obliged to offer any thing for her1 or for the children after her1 though they were males4 ,if a man had many wives1 he was obliged to offer the first-born of each of them to the ,lord4 ,the first-born were offered in the temple1 and were redeemed for the sum of five shekels4 ,the firstling of a clean beast was offered at the temple1 not to be redeemed1 but to be killed4 ,an unclean beast1 a horse1 an ass1 or a camel1 was either redeemed or exchanged4 ,an ass was redeemed by a lamb1 or five shekels2 if not redeemed1 it was killed4 ,,first-,,fruits1 among the ,hebrews1 were presents made to ,god of part of the fruits of the harvest1 to express the submission1 dependence1 and thankfulness of the offerers4 ,they were offered at the temple1 before the crop was touched2 and when the harvest was over1 before any private persons used their corn4 ,the first of these first-fruits1 offered in the name of the nation1 was a sheaf of barley1 gathered on the fifteenth of ,nisan in the evening1 and threshed in a court of the temple4 ,after it was well cleaned1 about three pints of it were roasted and pounded in a mortar4 ,over this was thrown a portion of oil1 and a handful of incense4 ,then the priest took this offering1 waved it before the ,lord toward the four parts of the world1 threw a handful of it into the fire upon the altar1 and kept the rest4 ,after this1 every one was at liberty to get in his harvest4 ,beside these first-fruits1 every private person was obliged to bring his first-fruits to the temple4 ,the ,scripture prescribes neither the time nor the quantity4 ,the rabbins say1 that they were obliged to bring at least the sixtieth part of their fruits and harvest4 ,these first-fruits consisted of wheat1 barley1 grapes1 figs1 apricots1 olives1 and dates4 ,they met in companies of four-and-twenty persons to carry their first-fruits in a ceremonious manner4 ,the company was preceded by an ox appointed for the sacrifice1 with a crown of olives on his head1 and his horns gilded4 ,there was also another sort of first-fruits paid to ,god1 ,num4 xv1 #ai1 #bj1 when the bread in every family was kneaded1 a portion of it was set apart1 and given to the priest or ,levite of the place4 ,if there was no priest or ,levite1 it was cast into the oven1 and consumed by the fire4 ,this is one of the three precepts peculiar to the women2 because they generally made the bread4 ,the first-fruits and tenths were the most substantial revenue of the priests and ,levites4 ,st4 ,paul says1 ,christians have the first-fruits of the ,spirit1 ,rom4 viii1 #bc1 that is1 a greater abundance of ,god's ,spirit1 more perfect and more excellent gifts than the ,jews4 ,christ is called the first-fruits of them that slept2 for as the first-fruits were earnests to the ,jews of the succeeding harvest1 so ,christ is the first-fruits or the earnest of the general resurrection4 ,,fir ,,tree1 1 occurs #b ,sam4 vi1 #e2 #a ,kings v1 #h1 #aj2 vi1 #ae1 #cd2 ix1 #aa2 #b ,kings xix1 #bc2 #b ,chron4 ii1 #h2 iii1 #e2 ,psalm civ1 #ag2 ,isaiah xiv1 #h2 xxxvii1 #bd2 xli1 #ai2 lv1 #ac2 lx1 #ac2 ,ezek4 xxvii1 #e2 xxxi1 #h2 ,hosea xiv1 #h2 ,nahum ii1 #c2 ,zech4 xi1 #b4 ,the ,,lxx render it so variously as to show that they knew not what particular tree is meant2 the ,vulgate1 generally by abietes1 the 8fir tree40 ,celsius asserts that it is the cedar2 but ,millar maintains that it is the fir4 ,the fir tree is an evergreen1 of beautiful appearance1 whose lofty height1 and dense foliage1 afford a spacious shelter and shade4 ,the trunk of the tree is very straight4 ,the wood was anciently used for spears1 musical instruments1 furniture for houses1 rafters in building1 and for ships4 ,in #b ,sam4 vi1 #e1 it is mentioned that ,david played on instruments of fir wood2 and ,dr4 ,burney1 in his 8,history of ,music10 observes1 8,this species of wood1 so soft in its nature1 and sonorous in its effects1 seems to have been preferred by the ancients1 as well as moderns1 to every other kind for the construction of musical instruments1 particularly the bellies of them1 on which the tone of them chiefly depends4 ,those of the harp1 lute1 guitar1 harpsichord1 and violin1 in present use1 are always made of this wood40 ,,fish1 1 1 ,matt4 vii1 #aj2 xvii1 #bg2 ,luke v1 #f2 ,john xxi1 #f1 #h1 #aa1 occurs very frequently4 ,this appears to be the general name in ,scripture of aquatic animals4 ,boothroyd1 in the note upon ,num4 xi1 #d1 says1 8,i am inclined to think that the word 1 here rendered flesh1 denotes only the flesh of fish1 as it certainly does in ,lev4 xi1 #aa2 and indeed the next verse seems to support this explication3 #8,we remember how freely we ate fish4' ,it was then1 particularly1 the flesh of fish1 for which they longed1 which was more relishing than either the beef or mutton of those regions1 which1 unless when young1 is dry and unpalatable4 ,of the great abundance and deliciousness of the fish of ,egypt1 all authors1 ancient and modern1 are agreed40 ,we have few ,hebrew names1 if any1 for particular fishes4 ,moses says in general1 ,lev4 xi1 #i-ab1 that all sorts of river1 lake1 and sea fish1 might be eaten1 if they had scales and fins2 others were unclean4 ,st4 ,barnabas1 in his epistle1 cites1 as from ancient authority1 8,you shall not eat of the lamprey1 the many-feet1 polypes1 nor the cuttle fish40 ,though fish was the common food of the ,egyptians1 yet we learn from ,herodotus and ,chremon1 as quoted by ,porphyry1 that their priests abstained from fish of all sorts4 ,hence we may see how distressing to the ,egyptians was the infliction which turned the waters of the river into blood1 and occasioned the death of the fish1 ,exod4 vii1 #ah-ba4 ,their sacred stream became so polluted as to be unfit for drink1 for bathing1 and for other uses of water to which they were superstitiously devoted1 and themselves obliged to nauseate what was the usual food of the common people1 and held sacred by the priests1 ,exod4 ii1 #e2 vii1 #ae2 viii1 #bj4 ,in ,ezekiel xxix1 #d1 the king of ,egypt is compared to the crocodile3 8,i am against thee1 the great dragon that lieth in the midst of his rivers in ,egypt4 ,i will put hooks in thy jaws1 and ,i will cause the fish in thy rivers to stick to thy scales1 and ,i will bring thee out of the midst of thy rivers1 and all the fish of thy rivers shall stick to thy scales40 ,if the remora is as troublesome to the crocodile as it is to some other tenants of the water1 it may here be referred to4 ,forskal mentions the echeneis neucrates remora at ,gidda1 there called kaml el kersh1 8the louse of the shark10 because it often adheres very strongly to this fish2 and ,hasselquist says that it is found at ,alexandria4 ,the term1 1 a fish1 was1 at an early period of the ,christian era1 adopted as a symbolical word4 ,it was formed from the initial letters of the ,greek words1 1 1 1 8,jesus ,christ1 the ,son of ,god1 our ,saviour40 ,from the use of symbolical terms1 the transition was easy to the adoption of symbolical representations1 and it therefore soon became common for the ,christians to have the letters of the word 1 or the figures of fishes1 sculptured on their monuments for the dead1 struck on their medals1 engraved on their rings and seals1 and even formed on the articles of domestic use4 ,,fitches1 or ,,vetches1 a kind of tare4 ,there are two words in ,hebrew which our translators have rendered fitches1 and 3 the first occurs only in ,isaiah xxviii1 #be1 #bg1 and must be the name of some kind of seed2 but the interpreters differ much in explaining it4 ,jerom1 ,maimonides1 ,r4 ,david ,kimchi1 and the rabbins understand it of the gith2 and rabbi ,obdias de ,bartenora expressly says that its barbarous or vulgar name is 4 ,the gith was called by the ,greeks 1 and by the ,latins nigella2 and is thus described by ,ballester3 8,it is a plant commonly met with in gardens1 and grows to a cubit in height1 and sometimes more1 according to the richness of the soil4 ,the leaves are small like those of fennel1 the flower blue1 which disappearing1 the ovary shows itself on the top1 like that of a poppy1 furnished with little horns1 oblong1 divided by membranes into several partitions1 or cells1 in which are enclosed seeds of a very black colour1 not unlike those of the leek1 but of a very fragrant smell40 ,and ,ausonius observes1 that its pungency is equal to that of pepper3-- ,est inter fruges morsu piper quiparens git4 ,pliny says it is of use in bakehouses1 pistrinis1 and that it affords a grateful seasoning to the bread4 ,the ,jewish rabbins also mention the seeds among condiments1 and mixed with bread4 ,for this purpose it was probably used in the time of ,isaiah2 since the inhabitants of those countries1 to this day1 have a variety of rusks and biscuits1 most of which are strewed on the top with the seeds of sesamum1 coriander1 and wild garden saffron4 ,the other word rendered fitches in our translation of ,ezek4 iv1 #i1 is 2 but in ,exod4 ix1 #cb1 and ,isaiah xxviii1 #be1 8rye40 ,in the latter place the ,septuagint has 1 and in the two former 2 and the ,vulgate in ,exodus1 far1 and in ,isaiah and ,ezekiel1 vicia4 ,saadias1 likewise1 took it to be something of the leguminous kind1 1 cicircula1 7misprinted circula in the ,polyglott version17 or1 8a chickling40 ,aquila has 1 and ,theodotion1 4 ,onkelos and ,targum have and ,syriac1 1 which are supposed to be the millet1 or a species of it called panicum2 ,persian1 1 the spelt2 and this seems to be the most probable meaning of the ,hebrew word2 at least it has the greatest number of interpreters from ,jerom to ,celsius4 ,there are not1 however1 wanting1 who think it was rye2 among whom ,r4 ,d4 ,kimchi1 followed by ,luther1 and our ,english translators3 ,dr4 ,geddes1 too1 has retained it1 though he says that he is inclined to think that the spelt is preferable4 ,dr4 ,shaw thinks that this word may signify rice4 ,hasselquist1 on the contrary1 affirms that rice was brought into cultivation in ,egypt under the ,caliphs4 ,this1 however1 may be doubted4 ,one would think from the intercourse of ancient ,egypt with ,babylon and with ,india1 that this country could not be ignorant of a grain so well suited to its climate4 ,,flag1 1 occurs ,gen4 xli1 #b1 #ah2 ,job viii1 #aa2 and 1 weeds1 ,exod4 ii1 #c1 #e2 ,isa4 xix1 #f2 ,john ii1 #e4 ,the word achu in the first two instances is translated 8meadows10 and in the latter1 8flag40 ,it probably denotes the sedge1 or long grass1 which grows in the meadows of the ,nile1 very grateful to the cattle4 ,it is retained in the ,septuagint in ,genesis1 2 and is used by the son of ,sirach1 ,ecclesiasticus xl1 #af1 and 2 for the copies vary4 8,we have no radix10 says the learned ,chapelow1 8for 1 unless we derive it1 as ,schultens does1 from the ,arabic achi1 #8to bind or join together4'0 ,thus1 ,parkhurst defines it 8a species of plant1 sedge1 or reed1 so called from its fitness for making ropes1 or the like1 to connect or join things together2 as the ,latin juncus1 a #8bulrush1' a jungendo1 from #8joining1' for the same reason20 and he supposes that it is the plant1 or reed1 growing near the ,nile1 which ,hasselquist describes as having numerous narrow leaves1 and growing about eleven feet high1 of the leaves of which the ,egyptians make ropes4 ,the word is called by ,eben ,ezra1 8a reed growing on the borders of the river40 ,bochart1 ,fuller1 ,rivetus1 ,ludolphus1 and ,junius and ,tremellius1 render it by juncus1 carex1 or alga2 and ,celsius thinks it the fucus or alga1 8sea weed40 ,dr4 ,geddes says there is little doubt of its being the sedge called sari1 which1 as we learn from ,theophrastus and ,pliny1 grows on the marshy banks of the ,nile1 and rises to the height of almost two cubits4 ,this1 indeed1 agrees very well with ,exod4 ii1 #c1 #e1 and the thickets of arundinaceous plants1 at some small distances from the ,red ,sea1 observed by ,dr4 ,shaw2 but the place in ,jonah seems to require some submarine plant4 ,,flax1 1 ,exod4 ix1 #ca2 ,lev4 xiii1 #dg1 #dh1 #eb1 #ei2 ,deut4 xxii1 #aa2 ,joshua ii1 #f2 ,judg4 xv1 #ad2 ,prov4 xxxi1 #ac2 ,isaiah xix1 #i2 xlii1 #c2 xliii1 #ag2 ,jer4 xiii1 #a2 ,ezek4 xl1 #c2 xliv1 #ag1 #ah2 ,hosea ii1 #e1 #i2 ,matt4 xii1 #bj2 ,rev4 xv1 #f2 a plant very common1 and too well known to need a description4 ,it is a vegetable upon which the industry of mankind has been exercised with the greatest success and utility4 ,on passing a field of it1 one is struck with astonishment when he considers that this apparently insignificant plant may1 by the labour and ingenuity of man1 be made to assume an entirely new form and appearance1 and to contribute to pleasure and health1 by furnishing us with agreeable and ornamental apparel4 ,this word ,mr4 ,parkhurst thinks is derived from the verb 1 to strip1 because the substance which we term flax is properly the bark or fibrous part of the vegetable1 pilled or stripped off the stalks4 ,from time immemorial ,egypt was celebrated for the production or manufacture of flax4 ,wrought into garments1 it constituted the principal dress of the inhabitants1 and the priests never put on any other kind of clothing4 ,the fine linen of ,egypt is celebrated in all ancient authors1 and its superior excellence mentioned in the sacred ,scriptures4 ,the manufacture of flax is still carried on in that country1 and many writers take notice of it4 ,rabbi ,benjamin ,tudela mentions the manufactory at ,damiata2 and ,egmont and ,heyman describe the article as being of a beautiful colour1 and so finely spun that the threads are hardly discernible4 ,,flea1 1 #a ,sam4 xxiv1 #ad2 xxvi1 #bj4 ,the ,,lxx1 and another ,greek version in the ,hexapla1 render it 1 and the ,vulgate pulex4 ,it seems1 says ,mr4 ,parkhurst1 an evident derivative from free1 and to leap1 bound1 or skip1 on account of its agility in leaping or skipping4 ,the flea is a little wingless insect1 equally contemptible and troublesome4 ,it is thus described by an ,arabian author3 8,a black1 nimble1 extenuated1 hunch-backed animal1 which being sensible when any one looks on it1 jumps incessantly1 now on one side1 now on the other1 till it gets out of sight40 ,david likens himself to this insect2 importing that while it would cost ,saul much pains to catch him1 he would obtain but very little advantage from it4 ,,flesh1 a term of very ambiguous import in the ,scriptures4 ,an eminent critic has enumerated no less than six different meanings which it bears in the sacred writings1 and for which1 he affirms1 there will not be found a single authority in any profane writer3 #a4 ,it sometimes denotes the whole body considered as animated1 as in ,matt4 xxvi1 #da1 8,the spirit is willing1 but the flesh is weak40 #b4 ,it sometimes means a human being1 as in ,luke iii1 #f1 8,all flesh shall see the salvation of ,god40 #c4 ,sometimes a person's kindred collectively considered1 as in ,rom4 xi1 #ad1 8,if by any means ,i may provoke them which are my flesh40 #d4 ,sometimes any thing of an external or ceremonial nature1 as opposed to that which is internal and moral1 as in ,gal4 iii1 #c1 8,having begun in the ,spirit1 are ye now made perfect in the flesh80 #e4 ,the sensitive part of our nature1 or that which is the seat of appetite1 as in #b ,cor4 vii1 #a1 8,let us cleanse ourselves from all filthiness of the flesh and spirit20 where there can be no doubt that the pollutions of the flesh must be those of the appetites1 being opposed to the pollutions of the spirit1 or those of the passions4 #f4 ,it is employed to denote any principle of vice and moral pravity of whatever kind4 ,thus among the works of the flesh1 ,gal4 v1 #ai-ba1 are numbered not only adultery1 fornication1 uncleanness1 lasciviousness1 drunkenness1 and revellings1 which all relate to criminal indulgence of appetite1 but idolatry1 witchcraft1 hatred1 variance1 emulations1 wrath1 strife1 seditions1 heresies1 envyings1 and murders1 which are manifestly vices of a different kind1 and partake more of the diabolical nature than of the beastly4 ,,flies4 ,the kinds of flies are exceedingly numerous2 some with two1 and some with four1 wings4 ,they abound in warm and moist regions1 as in ,egypt1 ,chaldea1 ,palestine1 and in the middle regions of ,africa2 and during the rainy seasons are very troublesome4 ,in the ,hebrew ,scriptures1 or in the ancient versions1 are seven kinds of insects1 which ,bochart classes among musc1 or flies4 ,these are1 #a4 1 ,exod4 viii1 #bj2 ,psa4 lxxviii1 #de2 cv1 #ca1 which those interpreters who1 by residing on the spot1 have had the best means of identifying1 have rendered the dog-fly1 1 and it is supposed to be the same which in ,abyssinia is called the zimb4 #b4 1 #b ,kings i1 #b1 #c1 #f1 #af2 ,eccles4 x1 #a2 ,isa4 vii1 #ah4 ,whether this denotes absolutely a distinct species of fly1 or swarms of all sorts1 may be difficult to determine4 #c4 ,judges xiv1 #ah2 ,psa4 cxviii1 #ab1 rendered bee4 #d4 1 1 ,exodus xxiii1 #bh2 ,joshua xxiv1 #ab2 ,deut4 vii1 #bj1 hornet4 #e4 1 1 ,ezek4 ii1 #f2 ,hosea iv1 #af4 #f4 1 1 ,matt4 xxiii1 #bd1 the gnat4 #g4 1 1 ,exod4 viii1 #af2 ,psa4 cv1 #ca1 lice4 #b4 ,m4 ,sonnini1 speaking of ,egypt1 says1 8,of insects there the most troublesome are the flies4 ,both man and beast are cruelly tormented with them4 ,no idea can be formed of their obstinate rapacity when they wish to fix upon some part of the body4 ,it is in vain to drive them away2 they return again in the self-same moment2 and their perseverance wearies out the most patient spirit4 ,they like to fasten themselves in preference on the corners of the eye1 and on the edge of the eyelid2 tender parts1 toward which a gentle moisture attracts them40 ,the ,egyptians paid a superstitious worship to several sorts of flies and insects4 ,if1 then1 such was the superstitious homage of this people1 nothing could be more determinate than the judgment brought upon them by ,moses4 ,they were punished by the very things they revered2 and though they boasted of spells and charms1 yet they could not ward off the evil4 #c4 8,the word zimb10 says ,bruce1 8is ,arabic1 and signifies the fly in general40 ,the ,chaldee paraphrase is content with calling it simply zebub1 which has the same general signification4 ,the ,ethiopic version calls it tsaltsalya1 which is the true name of this particular fly in ,geez4 ,it is in size very little larger than a bee1 of a thicker proportion2 and its wings1 which are broader1 are placed separate like those of a fly4 ,its head is large2 the upper jaw or lip is sharp1 and has at the end of it a strong pointed hair1 of about a quarter of an inch in length2 the lower jaw has two of these hairs3 and this pencil of hairs1 joined together1 makes a resistance to the finger1 nearly equal to a strong bristle of a hog4 ,its legs are serrated on the inside1 and the whole covered with brown hair1 or down4 ,it has no sting1 though it appears to be of the bee kind4 ,as soon as this winged assassin appears1 and its buzzing is heard1 the cattle forsake their food1 and run wildly about the plain till they die1 worn out with affright1 fatigue1 and pain4 ,the inhabitants of ,melinda down to ,cape ,gardefan1 to ,saba1 and the south coast of the ,red ,sea1 are obliged to put themselves in motion1 and remove to the next sand in the beginning of the rainy season4 ,this is not a partial emigration2 the inhabitants of all the countries1 from the mountains of ,abyssinia northward1 to the confluence of the ,nile and ,astaboras1 are1 once in a year1 obliged to change their abode1 and seek protection in the sands of ,beja1 till the danger of the insect is over4 ,the elephant and the rhinoceros1 which by reason of their enormous bulk1 and the vast quantity of food and water they daily need1 cannot shift to desert and dry places1 are obliged1 in order to resist the zimb1 to roll themselves in mud and mire1 which1 when dry1 coats them over like armour4 ,it was no trifling judgment1 then1 with which the prophet threatened the refractory ,israelites3 8,the ,lord shall hiss for the fly that is in the uttermost parts of the rivers of ,egypt1 and for the bee that is in the land of ,assyria10 ,isaiah vii1 #ah4 ,if the prediction be understood in the literal sense1 it represents the stra or cincinell1 as the armies of ,jehovah1 summoned by him to battle against his offending people2 or1 if it be taken metaphorically1 which is perhaps the proper way of expounding it1 the prophet compares the numerous and destructive armies of ,babylon to the countless swarms of these flies1 whose distant hum is said to strike the quadrupeds with consternation1 and whose bite inflicts1 on man and beast1 a torment almost insupportable4 ,how intolerable a plague of flies can prove1 is evident from the fact1 that whole districts have been laid waste by them4 ,such was the fate of ,myuns in ,ionia1 and of ,alarn4 ,the inhabitants were forced to quit these cities1 not being able to stand against the flies and gnats with which they were pestered4 ,trajan was obliged to raise the siege of a city in ,arabia1 before which he had sat down1 being driven away by the swarms of these insects4 ,hence different people had deities whose office it was to defend them against flies4 ,among these may be reckoned ,baalzebub1 the fly-god of ,ekron3 ,hercules muscarum abactor1 8,hercules1 the expeller of flies20 and hence ,jupiter had the titles of 1 1 1 because he was supposed to expel flies1 and especially to clear his temples of these insects4 #d4 ,solomon observes1 8,dead flies cause the apothecary's ointment to stink10 ,eccles4 x1 #a4 8,a fact well known10 says ,scheuchzer2 8wherefore apothecaries take care to prevent flies from coming to their syrups and other fermentable preparations4 ,for in all insects there is an acrid volatile salt1 which1 mixed with sweet or even alkaline substances1 excites them to a brisk intestine motion1 disposes them to fermentation1 and to putrescence itself2 by which the more volatile principles fly off1 leaving the grosser behind3 at the same time1 the taste and odour are changed1 the agreeable to fetid1 the sweet to insipid40 ,this verse is an illustration1 by a very appropriate similitude1 of the concluding assertion in the preceding chapter1 that 8one sinner destroyeth much good10 as one dead fly spoils a whole vessel of precious ointment1 which1 in eastern countries1 was considered as very valuable1 #b ,kings xx1 #ac4 ,the application of this proverbial expression to a person's good name1 which is elsewhere compared to sweet ointment1 ,eccles4 vii1 #a2 ,cant4 i1 #c1 is remarkably significant4 ,as a fly1 though a diminutive creature1 can taint and corrupt much precious perfume2 so a small mixture of folly and indiscretion will tarnish the reputation of one who1 in other respects1 is very wise and honourable2 and so much the more1 because of the malignity and ingratitude of mankind1 who are disposed rather to censure one error1 than to commend many excellencies1 and from whose minds one small miscarriage is sufficient to blot out the memory of all other deserts4 ,it concerns us1 therefore1 to conduct ourselves unblamably1 that we may not by the least oversight or folly blemish our profession1 or cause it to be offensive to others4 ,,flock4 ,see ,,shepherd4 ,,floor1 for threshing corn1 or threshing floor1 is frequently mentioned in ,scripture4 ,this was a place in the open air1 in which corn was threshed1 by means of a cart or sledge1 or some other instrument drawn by oxen4 ,the threshing floors among the ,jews were only1 as they are to this day in the east1 round level plats of ground in the open air1 where the corn was trodden out by oxen4 ,thus ,gideon's floor appears to have been in the open air1 ,judges vi1 #cg2 and also that of ,araunah the ,jebusite1 #b ,sam4 xxiv1 otherwise it would not have been a proper place for erecting an altar1 and offering sacrifices4 ,in ,hosea xiii1 #c1 we read of the chaff which is driven by the whirlwind from the floor4 ,this circumstance of the threshing floor's being exposed to the agitation of the wind seems to be the principal reason of its ,hebrew name4 ,it appears1 therefore1 that a threshing floor1 which is rendered in our textual translation1 8a void place10 might well be near the entrance of the gate of ,samaria1 and a proper situation in which the kings of ,israel and ,judah might hear the prophets1 #a ,kings xxii1 #aj2 #b ,chron4 xviii1 #i4 ,an instrument sometimes used in ,palestine and the east1 to force the corn out of the ear1 and bruise the straw1 was a heavy kind of sledge made of thick boards1 and furnished beneath with teeth of stone or iron1 ,isa4 xli1 #ae4 ,the sheaves being laid in order1 the sledge was drawn over the straw by oxen1 and at the same time threshed out the corn1 and cut or broke the straw into a kind of chaff4 ,an instrument in the east is still used for the same purpose4 ,this sledge is alluded to in #b ,sam4 xii1 #ca2 ,isa4 xxviii1 #bg2 xli1 #ae2 ,amos i1 #c4 ,dr4 ,lowth1 in his notes on ,isaiah xxviii1 #bg1 #bh1 observes1 that four methods of threshing are mentioned in this passage1 by different instruments1 the flail1 the drag1 the wain1 and the treading of the cattle4 ,the staff1 or flail1 was used for the infirmiora semina1 the grain that was too tender to be treated in the other methods4 ,the drag consisted of a sort of frame of strong planks1 made rough at the bottom with hard stones or iron2 it was drawn by horses or oxen over the corn sheaves on the floor1 the driver sitting upon it4 ,the wain was nearly similar to this instrument1 but had wheels with iron teeth1 or edges like a saw4 ,the last method is well known from the law of ,moses1 which forbids the ox to be muzzled when he treadeth out the corn4 ,niebuhr1 in his ,travels1 gives the following description of a machine which the people of ,egypt use at this day for threshing out their corn3 8,this machine10 says he1 8is called nauridsj4 ,it has three rollers which turn on their axles2 and each of them is furnished with some irons round and flat4 ,at the beginning of ,june1 ,mr4 ,forskall and ,i several times saw1 in the environs of ,dsjise1 how corn was threshed in ,egypt4 ,every peasant chose for himself1 in the open field1 a smooth plat of ground from eighty to a hundred paces in circumference4 ,hither was brought on camels or asses the corn in sheaves1 of which was formed a ring of six or eight feet wide1 and two high4 ,two oxen were made to draw over it again and again the sledge1 traineau1 above mentioned2 and this was done with the greatest convenience to the driver2 for he was seated in a chair fixed on the sledge4 ,two such parcels or layers of corn are threshed out in a day1 and they move each of them as many as eight times1 with a wooden fork of five prongs1 which they call meddre4 ,afterward they throw the straw into the middle of the ring1 where it forms a heap1 which grows bigger and bigger4 ,when the first layer is threshed they replace the straw in the ring1 and thresh it as before4 ,thus the straw becomes every time smaller1 till at last it resembles chopped straw4 ,after this1 with the fork just described1 they cast the whole some yards from thence1 and against the wind2 which driving back the straw1 the corn and the ears not threshed out fall apart from it1 and make another heap4 ,a man collects the clods of dirt1 and other impurities to which any corn adheres1 and throws them into a sieve4 ,they afterward place in a ring the heaps1 in which a good many entire ears are still found1 and drive over them for four or five hours together ten couple of oxen joined two and two1 till by absolute trampling they have separated the grains1 which they throw into the air with a shovel to cleanse them40 ,,fo1 or ,,fuh1 as the ,chinese now call him1 was an ,indian prince1 who was made a god at thirty years of age1 and died at seventy-five4 ,his worshippers form one of the three great sects of ,china1 and it is said to be far the most numerous4 ,the worship of this idol1 they pretend1 was observed a thousand years before the ,christian era1 and was introduced from ,india into ,china within the first century after4 ,many temples are reared to this deity1 some of which are magnificent2 and a number of bonzes1 or priests1 are consecrated to his service4 ,he is represented shining in light1 with his hands hid under his robes1 to show that he does all things invisibly4 ,the doctors of this sect1 like those of ,egypt1 ,greece1 and ,india1 teach a double doctrine2 the one public1 the other private4 ,according to the former1 they say1 all the good are recompensed1 and the wicked punished1 in places destined for each4 ,they enjoin all works of charity2 and forbid cheating1 impurity1 murder1 and even the taking of life from any creature whatever4 ,for they believe that the souls of their ancestors transmigrate into irrational creatures2 either into such as they liked best1 or resembled most in their behaviour2 for which reason they never kill any such animals2 but1 while they live1 feed them well1 and when they die bury them with respect4 ,as they build temples for ,fuh1 which are filled with images1 so also monasteries for his priests1 providing for their maintenance1 as the most effectual means to partake of their prayers4 ,these priests pretend to know into what bodies the dead are transmigrated2 and seldom fail of representing their case to the surviving friends as miserable1 or uncomfortable2 that they may extort money from them to procure for the deceased a passage into a better state1 or pray them out of purgatory1 which forms a part of their system4 ,the interior doctrine of this sect1 which is kept secret from the common people1 teaches a philosophical atheism1 which admits neither rewards nor punishments after death2 and believes not in a providence1 or the immortality of the soul2 acknowledges no other ,god than the void1 or nothing2 and which makes the supreme happiness of mankind to consist in a total inaction1 an entire insensibility1 and a perfect quietude4 ,fuh1 though the idol of the common people1 is considered as a foreign deity in ,china1 imported by the ,boudhists from ,india3 great effects are1 however1 attached to the perpetual reiteration of his name1 and even to meditation upon it4 ,it is supposed to render fate favourable1 and life secure2 to prevent migration into the bodies of inferior animals2 and1 in fine1 to secure a place in the paradise of ,fuh1 whose land is yellow gold1 whose towers are composed of gems1 the bridges of pearls1 c4 ,,fool1 ,,folly1 or ,,foolishness4 ,the term fool is to be understood sometimes according to its plain1 literal meaning1 as denoting a person void of understanding2 but it is often used figuratively1 ,psalm xxxviii1 #e2 lxix1 #e4 8,the fool10 that is1 the impious sinner1 8hath said in his heart1 ,there is no ,god10 ,psalm xiv1 #a4 8,i have sinned3 do away the iniquity of thy servant2 for ,i have done very foolishly10 #a ,chron4 xxi1 #h4 8,fools make a mock at sin10 ,prov4 xiv1 #i4 ,see also the language of ,tamar to her brother ,amnon3 8,do not this folly2 for whither shall ,i cause my shame to go8 ,and as for thee1 thou shalt be as one of the fools in ,israel10 #b ,sam4 xiii1 #ac2 that is1 ,thou wilt be accounted a very wicked person4 ,our ,lord seems to have used the term in a sense somewhat peculiar in ,matthew v1 #bb3 8,whosoever shall say to his brother1 ,thou fool1 shall be in danger of hell fire40 ,but the whole verse shows the meaning to be1 that when any one of his professed disciples indulges a temper and disposition of mind contrary to charity1 or that peculiar love which the brethren of ,christ are bound by his law to have toward each other1 ,john xiii1 #cd1 not only showing anger against another without a cause1 but also treating him with contemptuous language1 and that with malicious intent1 he shall be in danger of eternal destruction4 ,,foot4 ,anciently it was customary to wash the feet of strangers coming off a journey1 because generally they travelled barefoot1 or wore sandals only1 which did not secure them from dust or dirt4 ,jesus ,christ washed the feet of his ,apostles1 and thereby taught them to perform the humblest services for one another4 ,feet1 in the sacred writers1 often mean inclinations1 affections1 propensities1 actions1 motions3 8,guide my feet in thy paths40 8,keep thy feet at a distance from evil40 8,the feet of the debauched woman go down to death40 8,let not the foot of pride come against me40 ,to be at any one's feet1 signifies obeying him1 listening to his instructions and commands4 ,moses says that 8the ,lord loved his people2 all his saints are in thy hand3 and they sat down at his feet10 ,deut4 xxxiii1 #c4 ,st4 ,paul was brought up at the feet of ,gamaliel4 ,mary sat at our ,saviour's feet1 and heard his word1 ,luke x1 #ci4 ,it is said that the land of ,canaan is not like ,egypt1 8where thou sowedst thy seed1 and wateredst it with thy foot10 ,deut4 xi1 #aj4 ,palestine is a country which has rains1 plentiful dews1 springs1 rivulets1 brooks1 c1 that supply the earth with the moisture necessary to its fruitfulness4 ,on the contrary1 ,egypt has no river except the ,nile3 there it seldom rains1 and the lands which are not within reach of the inundation continue parched and barren4 ,to supply this want1 ditches are dug from the river1 and water is distributed throughout the several villages and cantons3 there are great struggles who shall first obtain it2 and1 in this dispute1 they frequently come to blows4 ,notwithstanding these precautions1 many places have no water2 and1 in the course of the year1 those places which are nearest the ,nile require to be watered again by means of art and labour4 ,this was formerly done by the help of machines1 one of which is thus described by ,philo3 ,it is a wheel which a man turns by the motion of his feet1 by ascending successively the several steps that are within it4 ,this is what ,moses means in this place by saying1 that1 in ,egypt1 they water the earth with their feet4 ,the water is thus conveyed to cisterns2 and when the gardens want refreshment1 water is conducted by trenches to the beds in little rills1 which are stopped by the foot1 and turned at pleasure into different directions4 #b4 ,to be under any one's feet1 to be a footstool to him1 signifies the subjection of a subject to his sovereign1 of a slave to his master4 ,to lick the dust of one's feet1 is an abject manner of doing homage4 ,in ,mr4 ,hugh ,boyd's account of his embassy to the king of ,candy1 in ,ceylon1 there is a paragraph which singularly illustrates this1 and shows the adulation and obsequious reverence with which an eastern monarch is approached4 ,describing his introduction to the king1 he says1 8,the removal of the curtain was the signal of our obeisances4 ,mine1 by stipulation1 was to be only kneeling4 ,my companions immediately began the performance of theirs1 which were in the most perfect degree of eastern humiliation4 ,they almost literally licked the dust2 prostrating themselves with their faces almost close to the stone floor1 and throwing out their arms and legs2 then1 rising on their knees1 they repeated1 in a very loud voice1 a certain form of words of the most extravagant meaning that can be conceived1 that the head of the king of kings might reach beyond the sun2 that he might live a thousand years10 c4 ,nakedness of feet was a sign of mourning4 ,god says to ,ezekiel1 8,make no mourning for the dead1 and put on thy shoes upon thy feet10 c4 ,it was also a mark of respect3 8,put off thy shoes from off thy feet2 for the place whereon thou standest is holy ground10 ,exodus iii1 #e4 ,the rabbins say that the priests went barefoot in the temple4 8,if thou turn away thy foot from the ,sabbath1 from doing thy pleasure on my holy day10 ,isaiah lviii1 #ac2 if thou forbear walking and travelling on the ,sabbath day1 and do not then thine own will4 ,we know that journeys were forbidden on the ,sabbath day1 ,matt4 xxiv1 #bj2 ,acts i1 #ab4 ,kissing the feet was often practised as a mark of affection and reverence4 ,,fornication1 whoredom1 or the act of incontinency between single persons2 for if either of the parties be married1 the sin is adultery4 ,,forehead1 ,mark on the1 ,ezekiel ix1 #d4 ,mr4 ,maurice1 speaking of the religious rites of the ,hindoos1 says1 ,before they can enter the great pagoda1 an indispensable ceremony takes place1 which can only be performed by the hand of a brahmin2 and that is1 the impression of their foreheads with the tiluk1 or mark of different colours1 as they may belong either to the sect of ,veeshnu1 or ,seeva4 ,if the temple be that of ,veeshnu1 their foreheads are marked with a longitudinal line1 and the colour used is vermilion4 ,if it be the temple of ,seeva1 they are marked with a parallel line1 and the colour used is turmeric1 or saffron4 ,but these two grand sects being again subdivided into numerous classes1 both the size and the shape of the tiluk are varied1 in proportion to their superior or inferior rank4 ,in regard to the tiluk1 ,i must observe1 that it was a custom of very ancient date in ,asia to mark their servants in the forehead4 ,it is alluded to in these words of ,ezekiel1 where the ,almighty commands his angels to 8go through the midst of the city1 and set a mark on the foreheads of the men who sigh for the abominations committed in the midst thereof40 ,the same idea occurs also in ,rev4 vii1 #c4 ,the divers sects of the ,hindoos have a distinguishing mark of the sect1 by which they are known1 on the forehead1 of powdered sandal wood1 or of the slime of the ,ganges4 ,the mark of the ,wischnites consists of two nearly oval lines down the nose1 which runs from two straight lines on the forehead4 ,the mark of the ,schivites consists of two curved lines1 like a half moon with a point on the nose4 ,it is made either with the slime of the ,ganges1 with sandal wood1 or the ashes of cow dung4 ,,fountain is properly the source or springhead of waters4 ,there were several celebrated fountains in ,judea1 such as that of ,rogel1 of ,gihon1 of ,siloam1 of ,nazareth1 c2 and allusions to them are often to be met with in both the ,old and ,new ,testament4 ,dr4 ,chandler1 in his travels in ,asia ,minor1 says1 8,the reader1 as we proceed1 will find frequent mention of fountains4 ,their number is owing to the nature of the country and the climate4 ,the soil1 parched and thirsty1 demands moisture to aid vegetation2 and a cloudless sun1 which inflames the air1 requires for the people the verdure1 with shade and air1 its agreeable attendants4 ,hence fountains are met with1 not only in the towns and villages1 but in the fields and gardens1 and by the sides of the roads1 and of the beaten tracks on the mountains4 ,many of them are the useful donations of humane persons while living1 or have been bequeathed as legacies on their decease40 ,as fountains of water were so extremely valuable to the inhabitants of the eastern countries1 it is easy to understand why the inspired writers so frequently allude to them1 and thence deduce some of their most beautiful and striking similitudes1 when they would set forth the choicest spiritual blessings4 ,thus ,jeremiah calls the blessed ,god1 8the fountain of living waters10 ,jer4 ii1 #ac4 ,as those springs or fountains of water are the most valuable and highly prized which never intermit or cease to flow1 but are always sending forth their streams2 such is ,jehovah to his people3 he is a perennial source of felicity4 ,zechariah1 pointing in his days to the atonement which was to be made in the fulness of time1 by the shedding of the blood of ,christ1 describes it as a fountain that was to be opened in which the inhabitants of ,jerusalem might wash away all their impurities3 8,in that day there shall be a fountain opened to the house of ,david1 and to the inhabitants of ,jerusalem1 for sin and for uncleanness10 ,zech4 xiii1 #a4 ,joel predicted the salvation which was to come out of ,zion1 under the beautiful figure of 8a fountain which should come forth out of the house of the ,lord1 and water the plain of ,shittim10 ,joel iii1 #ah4 ,the ,psalmist1 expatiating on the excellency of the loving-kindness of ,god1 not only as affording a ground of hope to the children of men1 but also as the source of consolation and happiness1 adds1 8,thou shalt make them drink of the river of thy pleasures2 for with thee is the fountain of life10 ,psalm xxxvi1 #g-i4 ,in short1 the blessedness of the heavenly state is shadowed forth under this beautiful figure2 for as 8in the divine presence there is fulness of joy1 and at ,god's right hand1 pleasures for evermore10 ,psalm xvi1 #aa2 so it is said of those who came out of great tribulation1 that 8the ,lamb that was in the midst of the throne shall lead them unto living fountains of water1 and ,god shall wipe away all tears from their eyes10 ,rev4 vii1 #ag4 ,,fox1 1 ,judges xv1 #d2 ,nehemiah iv1 #c2 xi1 #bg2 ,psalm lxiii1 #aj2 ,cant4 ii1 #ae2 ,lam4 v1 #aa2 ,ezek4 xiii1 #d2 ,matt4 viii1 #bj2 ,luke ix1 #eh2 xiii1 #cb4 ,parkhurst observes that this is the name of an animal1 probably so called from its burrowing1 or making holes in the earth to hide himself or dwell in4 ,the ,,lxx render it by 1 the ,vulgate1 vulpes1 and our ,english version1 fox4 ,it is recorded1 in ,judges xv1 #d1 #e1 that 8,samson went and caught three hundred foxes1 and took firebrands1 and turned tail to tail1 and put a firebrand in the midst between two tails2 and when he had set the brands on fire1 he let them go into the standing corn of the ,philistines1 and burnt up both the shocks1 and also the standing corn1 with the vineyards and olives40 ,dr4 ,shaw thinks jackals to be the animals here intended2 observing1 that 8as these are creatures by far the most common and familiar1 as well as the most numerous of any in the eastern countries1 we may well perceive the great possibility there was for ,samson to take1 or cause to be taken1 three hundred of them4 ,the fox1 properly so called10 he adds1 8is rarely to be met with1 neither is it gregarious40 ,so ,hasselquist remarks3 8,jackals are found in great numbers about ,gaza2 and1 from their gregarious nature1 it is much more probable that ,samson should have caught three hundred of them1 than of the solitary quadruped1 the fox40 #b4 ,at the feast of ,ceres1 the goddess of corn1 celebrated annually at ,rome about the middle of ,april1 there was the observance of this custom1 to fix burning torches to the tails of a number of foxes1 and to let them run through the circus till they were burnt to death4 ,this was done in revenge upon that species of animals1 for having once burnt up the fields of corn4 ,the reason1 indeed1 assigned by ,ovid1 is too frivolous an origin for so solemn a rite2 and the time of its celebration1 the seventeenth of ,april1 it seems1 was not harvest time1 when the fields were covered with corn1 vestitos messibus agros2 for the middle of ,april was seed time in ,italy1 as appears from ,virgil's ,georgics4 ,hence we must infer that this rite must have taken its rise from some other event than that by which ,ovid accounted for it2 and ,samson's foxes are a probable origin of it4 ,the time agrees exactly1 as may be collected from several passages of ,scripture4 ,for instance3 from the book of ,exodus we learn1 that before the passover1 that is1 before the fourteenth day of the month ,abib1 or ,march1 barley in ,egypt was in the ear1 ,exod4 xii1 #ah2 xiii1 #d4 ,and in chapter ix1 #ca1 #cb1 it is said1 that the wheat at that time was not grown up4 ,barley harvest1 then1 in ,egypt1 and so in the country of the ,philistines1 which bordered upon it1 must have fallen about the middle of ,march4 ,wheat harvest1 according to ,pliny1 was a month later3 8,in ,egypto hordeum sexto a satu mense1 frumenta septimo metuntur40 ,in ,egypt barley is reaped in the sixth month from the time of its being sown1 wheat in the seventh4 ,therefore wheat harvest happened about the middle of ,april2 the very time in which the burning of foxes was observed at ,rome4 ,it is certain that the ,romans borrowed many of their rites and ceremonies1 both serious and ludicrous1 from foreign nations2 and ,egypt and ,phenicia furnished them with more perhaps than any other country4 ,from one of these the ,romans might either receive this rite immediately1 or through the hands of their neighbours1 the ,carthaginians1 who were a colony of ,phenicians2 and so its true origin may be referred back to the story which we have been considering4 ,bochart has made it probable that the spoken of in ,isaiah xiii1 #bb2 xxxiv1 #ad2 and ,jer4 #a1 #ci1 rendered by our translators 8the beasts of the islands10 an appellation very vague and indeterminate1 are jackals2 and that the of the ,greeks1 and the beni ani of the ,arabians are the same animal2 and though he takes that to have been their specific name1 yet he thinks1 that1 from their great resemblance to a fox1 they might be comprehended under the ,hebrew name of a fox1 shual2 which is indeed almost the same with sciagal sciugal1 the ,persian names of the jackal4 ,scaliger and ,olearius1 quoted by ,bochart1 expressly call the jackal a fox2 and ,mr4 ,sandys speaks of it in the same manner3 8,the jackals1 in my opinion1 are no other than foxes1 whereof an infinite number10 c4 ,hasselquist calls it the little eastern fox2 and ,kmpfer says that it might not be improperly called the wolf-fox4 ,it is therefore very conceivable that the ancients might comprehend this animal under the general name of fox4 #c4 ,to give an idea of his own extreme poverty1 the ,lord ,jesus says1 ,luke ix1 #eh1 8,foxes have holes1 and birds of the air have nests2 but the ,son of man hath not where to lay his head40 ,and he calls ,herod1 the tetrarch of ,galilee1 a fox1 ,luke xiii1 #cb2 thereby signifying his craft1 and the refinements of his policy4 ,in illustration of the pertinency of this allusion1 we may quote a remark of ,busbequius3 8,i heard a mighty noise1 as if it had been of men who jeered and mocked us4 ,i asked what was the matter2 and was answered1 #8,only the howlings of certain beasts which the ,turks call1 ciagals1 or jackals4' ,they are a sort of wolves1 somewhat bigger than foxes1 but less than common wolves1 yet as greedy and devouring4 ,they go in flocks1 and seldom hurt man or beast2 but get their food more by craft and stealth than by open force4 ,thence it is that the ,turks call subtle and crafty persons by the metaphorical name of ciagals40 ,,frankincense1 1 ,exod4 xxx1 #cd1 c4 1 ,matt4 ii1 #aa2 ,rev4 xviii1 #ac1 a dry1 resinous substance1 of a yellowish white colour1 a strong fragrant smell1 and bitter1 acrid taste4 ,the tree which produces it is not known4 ,dioscorides mentions it as procured from ,india4 ,what is here called the pure frankincense is1 no doubt1 the same with the mascula thura of ,virgil1 and signifies what is first obtained from the tree4 ,,friend is taken for one whom we love and esteem above others1 to whom we impart our minds more familiarly than to others1 and that from a confidence of his integrity and good will toward us3 thus ,jonathan and ,david were mutually friends4 ,solomon1 in his book of ,proverbs1 gives the qualities of a true friend4 8,a friend loveth at all times30 not only in prosperity1 but also in adversity2 and1 8there is a friend that sticketh closer than a brother40 ,he is more hearty in the performance of all friendly offices2 he reproves and rebukes when he sees any thing amiss4 8,faithful are the wounds of a friend40 ,his sharpest reproofs proceed from an upright1 and truly loving and faithful soul4 ,he is known by his good and faithful counsel1 as well as by his seasonable rebukes4 8,ointment and perfume rejoice the heart1 so does the sweetness of a man's friend by hearty counsel30 by such counsel as comes from his very heart and soul1 and is the language of his inward and most serious thoughts4 ,the company and conversation of a friend is refreshing and reviving to a person1 who1 when alone1 is sad1 dull1 and inactive4 8,iron sharpeneth iron1 so a man sharpeneth the countenance of his friend40 ,the title1 8the friend of ,god10 is principally given to ,abraham3 8,art not thou our ,god1 who gavest this land to the seed of ,abraham1 thy friend1 for ever80 ,and in ,isaiah xli1 #h1 8,but thou ,israel art the seed of ,abraham1 my friend40 8,and the ,scripture was fulfilled1 which saith1 ,abraham believed ,god1 and it was imputed to him for righteousness2 and he was called the friend of ,god10 ,james ii1 #bc4 ,this title was given him1 not only because ,god frequently appeared to him1 conversed familiarly with him1 and revealed his secrets to him1 8,shall ,i hide from ,abraham that thing which ,i do80 ,gen4 xviii1 #ag2 but also because he entered into a covenant of perpetual friendship both with him and his seed4 ,our ,saviour calls his ,apostles 8friends30 8,but ,i have called you friends20 and he adds the reason of it1 8for all things that ,i have heard of my ,father1 ,i have made known unto you10 ,john xv1 #ae4 ,as men use to communicate their counsels and their whole mind to their friends1 especially in things which are of any concern1 or may be of any advantage for them to know and understand1 so ,i have revealed to you whatever is necessary for your instruction1 office1 comfort1 and salvation4 ,and this title is not peculiar to the ,apostles only1 but is common with them to all true believers4 ,the friend of the bridegroom is the brideman2 he who does the honours of the wedding1 and leads his friend's spouse to the nuptial chamber4 ,john the ,baptist1 with respect to ,christ and his church1 was the friend of the bridegroom2 by his preaching he prepared the people of the ,jews for ,christ1 ,john iii1 #bi4 ,friend is a word of ordinary salutation1 whether to a friend or foe3 he is called friend who had not on a wedding garment1 ,matt4 xxii1 #ab4 ,and our ,saviour calls ,judas the traitor friend4 ,some are of opinion that this title is given to the guest by an irony1 or antiphrasis2 meaning the contrary to what the word importeth2 or that he is called so1 because he appeared to others to be ,christ's friend2 or was so in his own esteem and account1 though falsely1 being a hypocrite4 ,however1 this being spoken in the person of him who made the feast1 it is generally taken for a usual compellation1 and that ,christ1 following the like courteous custom of appellation and friendly greeting1 did so salute ,judas1 which yet left a sting behind it in his conscience1 who knew himself to be the reverse of what he was called4 ,the name of friend is likewise given to a neighbour4 8,which of you shall have a friend1 and shall go to him at midnight1 and say1 ,friend1 lend me three loaves80 ,luke xi1 #c4 ,,friends1 or ,,quakers1 a religious society which began to be distinguished about the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,their doctrines were first promulgated in ,england1 by ,george ,fox1 about the year #afdg2 for which he was imprisoned at ,nottingham1 in the year #afdi1 and the year following at ,derby4 ,fox evidently considered himself as acting under a divine commission1 and went1 not only to fairs and markets1 but into courts of justice and 8steeple houses10 as he called the churches1 warning all to obey the ,holy ,spirit1 speaking by him4 ,it is said1 that the appellation of ,quakers was given them in reproach by one of the magistrates1 who1 in #afej1 committed ,fox to prison1 on account of his bidding him1 and those about him1 to quake at the word of the ,lord4 ,but they adopted among themselves1 and still retain1 the kind appellation of ,friends4 ,from their first appearance1 they suffered much persecution4 ,in ,new-,england they were treated with peculiar severity1 imprisoned1 scourged1 7women as well as men17 and at ,boston four of them were even hanged1 among whom was one woman2 and this was the more extraordinary and inexcusable1 as the settlers themselves had but lately fled from persecution in the parent country6 ,during these sufferings1 they applied to ,king ,charles ,,ii1 for relief2 who1 in #affa1 granted a mandamus1 to put a stop to them4 ,neither were the good offices of this prince in their favour confined to the colonies2 for in #afgb1 he released1 under the great seal1 four hundred of these suffering people who were imprisoned in ,great ,britain4 ,to what has been alleged against them1 on account of ,james ,naylor and his associates1 they answer that their extravagancies and blasphemies were disapproved at the time1 and the parties disowned2 nor was ,naylor restored till he had given signs of a sincere repentance1 and publicly condemned his errors4 ,in #afha1 ,charles ,,ii1 granted to ,w4 ,penn the province of ,pennsylvania4 ,penn's treaty with the ,indians1 and the liberty of conscience which he granted to all denominations1 even those which had persecuted his own1 do honour to his memory4 ,in the reign of ,james ,,ii1 the ,friends1 in common with other ,english ,dissenters1 were relieved by the suspension of the penal laws4 ,but it was not till the reign of ,william and ,mary that they obtained any thing like a proper legal protection4 ,an act was passed in the year #afif1 which1 with a few exceptions1 allowed to their affirmation the legal force of an oath1 and provided a less oppressive mode for recovering tithes under a certain amount2 which provisions1 under the reign of ,george ,i1 were made perpetual4 ,for refusing to pay tithes1 c1 however1 they are still liable to suffer in the exchequer and ecclesiastical court1 both in ,great ,britain and ,ireland4 ,the true ,friends are orthodox1 as to the leading doctrines of ,christianity1 but express themselves in peculiar phrases4 ,they hold special revelations of the ,holy ,spirit1 yet not to the disparagement of the written word1 which they regard as the infallible rule of faith and practice4 ,they reject a salaried ministry1 and interpret the sacraments mystically4 ,they are advocates of the interior spiritual life of religion1 to which1 indeed1 they have borne constant testimony2 and they are distinguished by probity1 philanthropy1 and a public spirit4 ,in the ,united ,states1 the ,friends are divided into the ,orthodox1 7so called17 and ,hicksites1 or followers of the late ,elias ,hicks4 ,the latter are considered as having departed from the original doctrines of the ,friends1 and very far from the leading doctrines of ,christianity1 as held by ,protestant ,christians in general4 ,,frog1 2 ,arabic1 akurrak2 ,greek1 2 ,exod4 viii1 #b-ad2 ,psalm lxxviii1 #de2 cv1 #cj2 ,rev4 xvi1 #ac4 ,when ,god plagued ,pharaoh and his people1 the river ,nile1 which was the object of great admiration to the ,egyptians1 was made to contribute to their punishment4 8,the river brought forth frogs abundantly20 but the circumstance of their coming up into the bed chambers1 and into the ovens and kneading troughs1 needs explanation to us1 whose domestic apartments and economy are so different from those of the ancient nations4 ,their lodgings were not in upper stories1 but in recesses on the ground floor2 and their ovens were not like ours1 built on the side of a chimney1 and adjacent to a fireplace1 where the glowing heat would frighten away the frogs1 but they dug a hole in the ground1 in which they placed an earthen pot1 which having sufficiently heated1 they stuck their cakes to the inside to be baked4 ,to find such places full of frogs when they came to heat them in order to bake their bread1 and to see frogs in the beds where they sought repose1 must have been both disgusting and distressing in the extreme4 ,frogs were reckoned unclean by the ,hebrews4 ,,frontlets4 ,leo of ,modena thus describes them3 ,the ,jews take four pieces of parchment1 and write1 with an ink made on purpose1 and in square letters1 these four passages1 one on each piece3 #a4 8,sanctify unto me all the first-born10 c1 ,exodus xiii1 #a-aj4 #b4 8,and when the ,lord shall bring thee into the land of the ,canaanites10 c1 verses #aa-af4 #c4 8,hear1 ,o ,israel3 the ,lord our ,god is one ,lord10 c1 ,deut4 vi1 #d-i4 #d4 8,if you shall hearken diligently unto my commandments10 c1 ,deut4 xi1 #ac-ba4 ,this they do in obedience to these words of ,moses3 8,these commandments shall be for a sign unto thee upon thine hand1 and for a memorial between thine eyes40 ,these four little pieces of parchment are fastened together1 and a square formed of them1 on which the letter is written2 then a little square of hard calf's skin is put upon the top1 out of which come two leathern strings an inch wide1 and a cubit and a half1 or thereabouts1 in length4 ,this square is put on the middle of the forehead1 and the strings being girt about the head1 make a knot in the form of the letter 3 they then are brought before1 and fall on the breast4 ,it is called teffila-schel-rosch1 or the tephila of the head4 ,the most devout ,jews put it on both at morning and noon-day prayer2 but the generality of the ,jews wear it only at morning prayer4 ,only the chanter of the synagogue is obliged to put it on at noon as well as morning4 ,it is a question1 whether the use of frontlets1 and other phylacteries1 was literally ordained by ,moses4 ,they who believe their use to be binding1 observe1 that the text of ,moses speaks as positively of this as of other precepts2 he requires the commandments of ,god to be written on the doors of houses1 as a sign on their hands1 and as an ornament on their foreheads1 ,exod4 xiii1 #af4 ,if there be any obligation to write these commandments on their doors1 as the text intimates1 there is the same for writing them on their hands and foreheads4 ,on the contrary1 others maintain that these precepts should be taken figuratively and allegorically1 as denoting that the ,jews should very carefully preserve the remembrance of ,god's law1 and observe his commands2 that they should always have them before them1 and never forget them4 ,prior to the ,babylonish captivity1 no traces of them appear in the history of the ,jews4 ,the prophets never inveigh against the omission or neglect of them1 nor was there any question concerning them in the reformation of manners at any time among the ,hebrews4 ,the almost general custom in the east of wearing phylacteries and frontlets1 determines nothing for the antiquity or usefulness of this practice4 ,the ,caraite ,jews1 who adhere to the letter of the law1 and despise traditions1 call the rabbinical ,jews bridled asses1 because they wear these tephilim and frontlets4 ,see ,,phylactery4 ,,fruit1 the product of the earth1 as trees1 plants1 c4 8,blessed shall be the fruit of thy ground and cattle40 ,the fruit of the body signifies children3 8,blessed shall be the fruit of thy body40 ,by fruit is sometimes meant reward3 8,they shall eat of the fruit of their own ways10 ,prov4 i1 #ca2 they shall receive the reward of their bad conduct1 and punishment answerable to their sins4 ,the fruit of the lips is the sacrifice of praise or thanksgiving1 ,heb4 xiii1 #ae4 ,the fruit of the righteous1 that is1 the counsel1 example1 instruction1 and reproof of the righteous1 is a tree of life1 is a means of much good1 both temporal and eternal2 and that not only to himself1 but to others also1 ,prov4 xi1 #cj4 ,solomon says1 in ,prov4 xii1 #ad1 8,a man shall be satisfied with good by the fruit of his mouth20 that is1 he shall receive abundant blessings from ,god as the reward of that good he has done1 by his pious and profitable discourses4 8,fruits meet for repentance10 ,matt4 iii1 #h1 is such a conduct as befits the profession of penitence4 #b4 ,the fruits of the ,spirit are those gracious habits which the ,holy ,spirit of ,god produces in those in whom he dwelleth and worketh1 with those acts which flow from them1 as naturally as the tree produces its fruit4 ,the ,apostle enumerates these fruits in ,galatians v1 #bb1 #bc4 ,the same ,apostle1 in ,eph4 v1 #i1 comprehends the fruits of the sanctifying ,spirit in these three things2 namely1 goodness1 righteousness1 and truth4 ,the fruits of righteousness are such good works and holy actions as spring from a gracious frame of heart3 8,being filled with the fruits of righteousness10 ,phil4 i1 #aa4 ,fruit is taken for a charitable contribution1 which is the fruit or effect of faith and love3 8,when ,i have sealed unto them this fruit10 ,rom4 xv1 #bh2 when ,i have safely delivered this contribution4 ,when fruit is spoken of good men1 then it is to be understood of the fruits or works of holiness and righteousness2 but when of evil men1 then are meant the fruits of sin1 immorality1 and wickedness4 ,this is our ,saviour's doctrine1 ,matt4 vii1 #af-ah4 #c4 ,uncircumcised fruit1 or impure1 of which there is mention in ,lev4 xix1 #bc1 is the fruit for the first three years of a tree newly planted2 it was reputed unclean1 and no one was permitted to eat of it in all that time4 ,in the fourth year it was offered to the ,lord2 after which it was common1 and generally eaten4 ,various reasons are assigned for this precept4 ,as 7#a47 ,because the first-fruits were to be offered to ,god1 who required the best3 but in this time the fruit was not come to perfection4 7#b47 ,it was serviceable to the trees themselves1 which grew the better and faster2 being early stripped of those fruits which otherwise would have derived to themselves1 and drawn away1 much of the strength from the root and tree4 7#c47 ,it tended to the advantage of men1 both because the fruit was then waterish1 undigestible1 and unwholesome2 and because hereby men were taught to bridle their appetites1 a lesson of great use and absolute necessity in a godly life4 ,,fuel4 ,in preparing their victuals1 the orientals are1 from the extreme scarcity of wood in many countries1 reduced to use cow dung for fuel4 ,at ,aleppo1 the inhabitants use wood and charcoal in their rooms1 but heat their baths with cow dung1 the parings of fruit1 and other things of a similar kind1 which they employ people to gather for that purpose4 ,in ,egypt1 according to ,pitts1 the scarcity of wood is so great1 that at ,cairo they commonly heat their ovens with horse or cow dung1 or dirt of the streets2 what wood they have1 being brought from the shores of the ,black ,sea1 and sold by weight4 ,chardin attests the same fact3 8,the eastern people always used cow dung for baking1 boiling a pot1 and dressing all kinds of victuals that are easily cooked1 especially in countries that have but little wood20 and ,dr4 ,russel remarks1 in a note1 that 8the ,arabs carefully collect the dung of the sheep and camel1 as well as that of the cow2 and that the dung1 offals1 and other matters1 used in the bagnios1 after having been new gathered in the streets1 are carried out of the city1 and laid in great heaps to dry1 where they become very offensive4 ,they are intolerably disagreeable1 while drying1 in the town1 adjoining to the bagnios2 and are so at all times when it rains1 though they be stacked1 pressed hard together1 and thatched at top40 ,these statements exhibit1 in a very strong light1 the extreme misery of the ,jews1 who escaped from the devouring sword of ,nebuchadnezzar3 8,they that did feed delicately are desolate in the streets2 they that were brought up in scarlet embrace dunghills10 ,lam4 iv1 #e4 ,to embrace dunghills1 is a species of wretchedness1 perhaps unknown to us in the history of modern warfare2 but it presents a dreadful and appalling image1 when the circumstances to which it alludes are recollected4 ,what can be imagined more distressing to those who lived delicately1 than to wander without food in the streets8 ,what more disgusting and terrible to those who had been clothed in rich and splendid garments1 than to be forced1 by the destruction of their palaces1 to seek shelter among stacks of dung1 the filth and stench of which it is almost impossible to endure8 ,the dunghill1 it appears from ,holy ,writ1 is one of the common retreats of the mendicant4 ,this imparts great force and beauty to a passage in the song of ,hannah3 8,he raiseth up the poor out of the dust1 and lifteth the beggar from the dunghill1 to set them among princes1 and to make them inherit the throne of glory10 #a ,sam4 ii1 #h4 ,the change in the circumstances of that excellent woman1 she reckoned as great1 7and it was to her as unexpected17 as the elevation of a poor despised beggar from a nauseous and polluting dunghill1 rendered tenfold more fetid by the intense heat of an oriental sun1 to one of the highest and most splendid stations on earth4 #b4 ,dung is used as fuel in the east only when wood cannot be had2 for the latter1 and even any other combustible substance1 is preferred when it can be obtained4 ,the inhabitants of ,aleppo1 according to ,russel1 use thorns and fuel of a similar kind for those culinary purposes which require haste1 particularly for boiling1 which seems to be the reason that ,solomon mentions the 8crackling of thorns under a pot10 rather than in any other way4 ,the same allusion to the use of thorns for boiling occurs in other parts of the sacred volume3 thus1 the ,psalmist speaks of the wicked1 8,before your pots can feel the thorns1 he shall take them away as with a whirlwind1 both living1 and in his wrath40 ,the ,jews are sometimes compared in the prophets to 8a brand plucked out of the burning10 ,amos iv1 #aa2 ,zech4 iii1 #b2 a figure which ,chardin considers as referring to vine twigs1 and other brushwood which the orientals frequently use for fuel1 and which1 in a few minutes1 must be consumed if they are not snatched out of the fire2 and not to those battens1 or large branches1 which will lie a long time in the fire before they are reduced to ashes4 ,if this idea be correct1 it displays in a stronger and more lively manner the seasonable interposition of ,god's mercy1 than is furnished by any other view of the phrase4 ,the same remark applies to the figure by which the ,prophet ,isaiah describes the sudden and complete destruction of ,rezin1 and the son of ,remaliah2 only in this passage1 the firebrands are supposed to be smoking2 that is1 in the opinion of ,harmer1 having the steam issuing with force from one end1 in consequence of the fire burning violently at the other4 ,the words of the prophet are3 8,take heed and be quiet2 fear not1 neither be faint-hearted1 for the two tails of these smoking firebrands1 for the fierce anger of ,rezin with ,syria1 and of the son of ,remaliah10 ,isaiah vii1 #d4 ,it is not easy to conceive an image more striking than this2 the remains of two small twigs burning with violence at one end1 as appears by the steaming of the other1 are soon reduced to ashes2 so shall the kingdoms of ,syria and ,israel sink into ruin and disappear4 #c4 ,the scarcity of fuel in the east obliges the inhabitants to use1 by turns1 every kind of combustible matter4 ,the withered stalks of herbs and flowers1 the tendrils of the vine1 the small branches of myrtle1 rosemary1 and other plants1 are all used in heating their ovens and bagnios4 ,we can easily recognise this practice in these words of our ,lord3 8,consider the lilies of the field1 how they grow2 they toil not1 neither do they spin3 and yet ,i say unto you1 that ,solomon1 in all his glory1 was not arrayed like one of these4 ,wherefore1 if ,god so clothe the grass of the field1 which today is1 and to-morrow is cast into the oven1 shall he not much more clothe you1 ,o ye of little faith80 ,matt4 vi1 #bh-cj4 ,the grass of the field1 in this passage1 evidently includes the lilies of which our ,lord had just been speaking1 and1 by consequence1 herbs in general2 and in this extensive sense the word is not unfrequently taken4 ,these beautiful productions of nature1 so richly arrayed1 and so exquisitely perfumed1 that the splendour even of ,solomon is not to be compared with theirs1 shall soon wither and decay1 and be used as fuel to heat the oven and the bagnio4 ,has ,god so adorned these flowers and plants of the field1 which retain their beauty and vigour but for a few days1 and are then applied to some of the meanest purposes of life2 and will he not much more clothe you who are the disciples of his own ,son1 who are capable of immortality1 and destined to the enjoyment of eternal happiness8 ,,fulness4 8,the fulness of time0 is the time when the ,messiah appeared1 which was appointed by ,god1 promised to the fathers1 foretold by the prophets1 expected by the ,jews themselves1 and earnestly longed for by all the faithful3 8,when the fulness of the time was come1 ,god sent his ,son10 ,gal4 iv1 #d4 ,the fulness of ,christ is the superabundance of grace with which he was filled3 8,of his fulness have all we received10 ,john i1 #af4 ,and whereas men are said to be filled with the ,holy ,ghost1 as ,john the ,baptist1 ,luke i1 #ae2 and ,stephen1 ,acts vi1 #e2 this differs from the fulness of ,christ in these three respects3 7#a47 ,grace in others is by participation1 as the moon hath her light from the sun1 rivers their waters from the fountain3 but in ,christ all that perfection and influence which we include in that term is originally1 naturally1 and of himself4 7#b47 ,the ,spirit is in ,christ infinitely and above measure1 ,john iii1 #cd2 but in the saints by measure according to the gift of ,god1 ,eph4 iv1 #af4 ,the saints cannot communicate their graces to others1 whereas the gifts of the ,spirit are in ,christ as a head and fountain1 to impart them to his members4 8,we have received of his fulness10 ,john i1 #af4 ,it is said1 that 8the fulness of the ,godhead dwells in ,christ bodily10 ,col4 ii1 #b2 that is1 the whole nature and attributes of ,god are in ,christ1 and that really1 essentially1 or substantially2 and also personally1 by nearest union2 as the soul dwells in the body1 so that the same person who is man is ,god also4 ,the church is called the fulness of ,christ1 ,eph4 i1 #bc4 ,it is the church which makes him a complete and perfect head2 for though he has a natural and personal fulness as ,god1 yet1 as ,mediator1 he is not full and complete1 without his mystical body1 7as a king is not complete without his subjects17 but receives an outward1 relative1 and mystical fulness from his members4 ,,funeral ,,rites4 ,see ,,burial4 ,,furnace1 a fireplace for melting gold and other metals4 8,the fining pot is for silver1 the furnace for gold10 ,prov4 xvii1 #c4 ,it signifies also a place of cruel bondage and oppression1 such as ,egypt was to the ,israelites1 who there met with much hardship1 rigour1 and severity1 to try and purge them1 ,deut4 iv1 #bj2 ,jer4 xi1 #d2 the sharp and grievous afflictions and judgments1 wherewith ,god tries his people1 ,ezek4 xxii1 #ah2 xx1 #bb2 also a place of torment1 as ,nebuchadnezzar's fiery furnace1 ,dan4 iii1 #f1 #aa4 ,on the last we may remark1 that this mode of putting to death is not unusual in the east in modern times4 ,after speaking of the common modes of punishing with death in ,persia1 ,chardin says1 8,but there is still a particular way of putting to death such as have transgressed in civil affairs1 either by causing a dearth1 or by selling above the tax by a false weight1 or who have committed themselves in any other manner3 they are put upon a spit and roasted over a slow fire1 ,jer4 xxix1 #bb4 ,bakers1 when they offend1 are thrown into a hot oven4 ,during the dearth in #affh1 ,i saw such ovens heated in the royal square in ,ispahan1 to terrify the bakers1 and deter them from deriving advantage from the general distress40 ,,gabbatha1 a place in ,pilate's palace1 from whence he pronounced sentence of death upon ,jesus ,christ1 ,john xix1 #ac4 ,this was probably an eminence1 or terrace1 paved with marble1 for the ,hebrew means elevated4 ,,gabriel1 one of the principal angels of heaven4 ,he was sent to the ,prophet ,daniel1 to explain to him the visions of the ram and goat1 and the mystery of the seventy weeks1 which had been revealed to him1 ,dan4 viii1 #ae2 ix1 #ba2 xi1 #a1 c4 ,the same angel was sent to ,zechariah1 to declare to him the future birth of ,john the ,baptist1 ,luke i1 #aa1 c4 ,six months after this he appeared to a virgin1 whose name was ,mary1 of the city of ,nazareth1 as related ,luke i1 #bf1 c4 ,,gad was the name of the son of ,jacob and ,zilpah1 ,leah's servant1 ,gen4 xxx1 #i-aa4 ,leah1 ,jacob's wife1 gave him also ,zilpah1 that by her she might have children4 ,zilpah brought a son1 whom ,leah called ,gad1 saying1 8,a troop cometh40 ,gad had seven sons1 ,ziphion1 ,haggi1 ,shuni1 ,ezbon1 ,eri1 ,arodi1 and ,areli1 ,genesis xlvi1 #af4 ,jacob1 blessing ,gad1 said1 8,a troop shall overcome him1 but he shall overcome at the last10 ,gen4 xlix1 #ai2 and ,moses1 in his last song1 mentions ,gad as 8a lion which teareth the arm with the crown of the head10 c1 ,deut4 xxxiii1 #bj1 #ba4 ,the tribe of ,gad came out of ,egypt in number forty-five thousand six hundred and fifty4 ,after the defeat of the kings ,og and ,sihon1 ,gad and ,reuben desired to have their lot in the conquered country1 and alleged their great number of cattle4 ,moses granted their request1 on condition that they would accompany their brethren1 and assist in the conquest of the land beyond ,jordan4 ,gad had his inheritance between ,reuben south1 and ,manasseh north1 with the mountains of ,gilead east1 and ,jordan west4 #b4 ,,gad1 a prophet1 ,david's friend1 who followed him when persecuted by ,saul4 ,the ,scripture calls him a prophet and ,david's seer1 #b ,sam4 xxiv1 #aa4 ,the first time we find him with this prince is when he fled into the land of ,moab1 #a ,sam4 xxii1 #e1 to secure his father and mother in the first year of ,saul's persecution4 ,the ,prophet ,gad warned him to return into the land of ,judah4 ,after ,david had determined to number his people1 the ,lord sent to him the ,prophet ,gad1 to offer him his choice of three scourges3 seven years' famine1 or three months' flight before his enemies1 or three days' pestilence4 ,gad also directed ,david to erect an altar to the ,lord1 in the threshing floor of ,ornan or ,araunah1 the ,jebusite1 #b ,sam4 xxiv1 #ac-ai2 and he wrote a history of ,david's life1 cited in #a ,chron4 xxix1 #bi4 ,,gadara1 a city which gave name to the country of the ,gadarenes2 situated on a steep rocky hill on the river ,hieromax1 or ,yermuck1 about five miles from its junction with the ,jordan4 ,it was a place of considerable note in the time of ,josephus1 and the metropolis of ,pera1 or the country beyond ,jordan4 ,it was also celebrated for its hot baths4 ,the vicinity was likewise called the country of the ,gergesenes1 from ,gerasa1 or ,gergesa1 another considerable city in the same neighbourhood4 ,thus the miracle of our ,lord performed here is represented by ,st4 ,mark to have been done in the country of the ,gadarenes1 ,mark v1 #a2 and by ,st4 ,matthew1 in that of the ,gergesenes1 ,matt4 viii1 #bh4 ,,galatia1 a province of the ,lesser ,asia1 bounded on the west by ,phrygia1 on the east by the river ,haylys1 on the north by ,paphlagonia1 and on the south by ,lycaonia4 ,the ,galatians are said to have been descended from those ,gauls1 who1 finding their own country too strait for them1 left it1 after the death of ,alexander the ,great1 in quest of new settlements4 ,quitting their own country1 they migrated eastward along the ,danube till they came where the ,saave joins that river2 then dividing themselves into three bodies1 under the conduct of different leaders1 one of these bodies entered ,pannonia2 another marched into ,thrace2 a third into ,illyricum and ,macedonia4 ,the party which proceeded into ,thrace1 crossed the ,bosphorus into the ,lesser ,asia1 and hiring themselves to ,nicomedes1 king of ,bithynia1 assisted him to subdue his brother ,zipetes1 with whom he was then at war2 and as a reward of their services they received from him a country in the middle of ,asia ,minor1 which from them was afterward called ,gallo-,grcia1 and1 by contraction1 ,galatia4 ,as their inland situation in a great measure cut them off from all intercourse with more civilized nations1 the ,galatians long remained a rude and illiterate people4 ,and as a proof of this1 it is mentioned by ,jerom1 that when the ,apostle ,paul preached the ,gospel among them1 and for many ages afterward1 they continued to speak the language of the country from whence they came out4 #b4 ,paul and ,barnabas carried the light of the ,gospel into the regions of ,galatia at a very early period2 and it appears from the epistle which the former subsequently wrote to the churches in that country1 that they had at first received it with great joy1 ,gal4 iv1 #ae4 ,but some ,judaizing teachers getting access among them soon after the ,apostle's departure1 their minds became corrupted from the simplicity that was in ,christ ,jesus2 and1 though mostly ,gentiles1 they were beginning to mingle circumcision1 and other ,jewish observances1 with their faith in ,christ1 in order to render it more available to their salvation4 ,this occasioned ,paul's writing his epistle to those churches2 and his object throughout nearly the whole of it is to counteract the pernicious influence of the doctrine of those false teachers particularly as it respected the article of justification1 or a sinner's acceptance with ,god4 ,and in no part of the ,apostle's writings is that important doctrine handled in a more full and explicit manner2 nor does he any where display1 such a firm1 determined1 and inflexible opposition to all who would corrupt the truth from its simplicity4 ,he begins by expressing his astonishment that they were so soon turned aside 8unto another gospel10 but instantly checking himself1 he recals the word and declares1 8it is not another gospel10 but a perversion of the ,gospel of ,christ4 8,and though we1 or an angel from heaven1 preach any other gospel unto you than that which we have preached unto you1 let him be accursed40 ,there are in his epistle several other things equally pointed and severe1 particularly his expostulation on the folly and absurdity of their conduct in subjecting themselves to the ,jewish yoke of bondage1 ,gal4 iii1 #a4 8,the erroneous doctrines of the ,judaizing teachers10 says ,dr4 ,macknight1 8and the calumnies they spread for the purpose of discrediting ,st4 ,paul's apostleship1 no doubt occasioned great uneasiness of mind to him and to the faithful in that age1 and did much hurt1 at least for a while1 among the ,galatians4 ,but in the issue these evils have proved of no small service to the church in general2 for by obliging the ,apostle to produce the evidences of his apostleship1 and to relate the history of his life1 especially after his conversion1 we have obtained the fullest assurance of his being a real ,apostle1 called to the office by ,jesus ,christ himself2 consequently we are assured that our faith in the doctrines of the ,gospel1 as taught by him1 7and it is he who hath taught the peculiar doctrines of the ,gospel most fully17 is not built on the credit of a man1 but on the authority of the ,spirit of ,god1 by whom ,st4 ,paul was inspired in the whole of the doctrine which he has delivered to the world40 ,,galbanum1 1 ,exod4 xxx1 #cd4 ,michalis makes the word a compound of 1 milk or gum1 7for the ,syriac uses the noun in both senses17 and 1 white1 as being the white milk or gum of a plant4 ,it is the thickened sap of an umbelliferous plant1 called metopion1 which grows on ,mount ,amanus1 in ,syria1 and is frequently found in ,persia1 and in some parts of ,africa4 ,it was an ingredient in the holy incense of the ,jews4 ,,galileans4 ,in the twelfth year of ,christ1 about the time that ,archelaus was sent away from his government1 a secession was made from the sect of the ,pharisees1 and a new sect arose1 called the ,galileans4 ,not long after this time1 ,judea1 which was a ,roman province1 was added1 for civil purposes1 to ,syria1 over which ,quirinus was governor4 ,it happened1 when the tax was levied by ,quirinus1 that one ,judas1 of ,galilee1 otherwise called ,gaulonites1 in company with ,zaduk1 a ,sadducee1 publicly taught1 that such taxation was repugnant to the law of ,moses1 according to which the ,jews1 they maintained1 had no king but ,god4 ,the tumults which this man excited were suppressed1 ,acts v1 #cg2 but his disciples1 who were called ,galileans1 continued to propagate this doctrine1 and1 farthermore1 required of all proselytes that they should be circumcised4 ,it was in reference to this sect that the captious question was proposed in ,matt4 xxii1 #ag1 c2 namely1 whether it was lawful to give tribute to ,csar4 ,the ,galileans1 whom ,pilate slew in the temple1 ,luke xiii1 #a1 #b1 appear to have been of this sect4 ,by degrees1 the ,galileans swallowed up almost all the other sects2 and it is highly probable that the zealots1 particularly mentioned at the siege of ,jerusalem1 were of this faction4 ,,galilee was one of the most extensive provinces into which the ,holy ,land was divided4 ,it exceeded ,judea in extent1 but probably varied in its limits at different times4 ,this province is divided by the rabbins into1 #a4 ,the ,upper2 #b4 ,the ,nether2 and1 #c4 ,the ,valley4 ,josephus divides it into only ,upper and ,lower2 and he says that the limits of ,galilee were1 on the south1 ,samaria and ,scythopolis1 unto the flood of ,jordan4 ,galilee contained four tribes1 ,issachar1 ,zebulun1 ,naphtali1 and ,asher2 a part1 also1 of ,dan1 and part of ,pera1 that is1 beyond the river4 ,upper ,galilee abounded in mountains4 ,lower ,galilee1 which contained the tribes of ,zebulun and ,asher1 was sometimes called the ,great ,field1 8the champaign10 ,deut4 xi1 #cj4 ,the ,valley was adjacent to the sea of ,tiberias4 ,josephus describes ,galilee as very populous1 and containing two hundred and four cities and towns4 ,it was also very rich1 and paid two hundred talents in tribute4 ,the natives were brave and good soldiers2 but they were seditious1 and prone to insolence and rebellion4 ,in the books of ,ezra and ,nehemiah1 the inhabitants of ,galilee and ,pera are scarcely mentioned1 whether they were ,jews returned from ,babylon1 or a mixture of different nations4 ,the language of these regions differed considerably from that of ,judea2 as did various customs1 in which each followed its own mode4 ,our ,lord so frequently visited ,galilee1 that he was called a ,galilean1 ,matt4 xxvi1 #fi4 ,the population of ,galilee being very great1 he had many opportunities of doing good in this country2 and1 being there out of the power of the priests at ,jerusalem1 he seems to have preferred it as his abode4 ,nazareth and ,capernaum were in this division4 ,from such a mixture of people1 many provincialisms might be expected4 ,hence1 we find ,peter detected by his language1 probably by his phraseology1 as well as his pronunciation1 ,mark xiv1 #gj4 ,upper ,galilee had ,mount ,lebanon and the countries of ,tyre and ,sidon on the north2 the ,mediterranean ,sea on the west2 ,abilene1 ,itura1 and the country of the ,decapolis1 on the east2 and ,lower ,galilee on the south4 ,its principal city was ,csarea ,philippi4 ,this part of ,galilee1 being less inhabited by ,jews1 was thence called ,galilee of the ,nations1 or of the ,gentiles4 ,lower ,galilee had the upper division of the same country to the north2 the ,mediterranean on the west2 the sea of ,galilee4 or lake of ,gennesareth1 on the east2 and ,samaria on the south4 ,its principal cities were ,tiberias1 ,chorazin1 ,bethsaida1 ,nazareth1 ,cana1 ,capernaum1 ,nain1 ,csarea of ,palestine1 and ,ptolemais4 ,this district was of all others most honoured with the presence of our ,saviour4 ,here he was conceived2 here he was brought back by his mother and reputed father1 after their return from ,egypt2 here he lived with them till he was thirty years of age2 and1 although after his entrance on his public ministry he frequently visited the other provinces1 it was here that he chiefly resided4 ,here1 also1 he made his first appearance after his resurrection to his ,apostles1 who were themselves natives of the same country1 and were thence called men of ,galilee4 ,,galilee1 ,sea of4 ,this inland sea1 or more properly lake1 which derives its several names1 the lake of ,tiberias1 the sea of ,galilee1 and the lake of ,gennesareth1 from the territory which forms its western and south-western border1 is computed to be between seventeen and eighteen miles in length1 and from five to six in breadth4 ,the mountains on the east come close to its shore1 and the country on that side has not a very agreeable aspect3 on the west1 it has the plain of ,tiberias1 the high ground of the plain of ,hutin1 or ,hottein1 the plain of ,gennesareth1 and the foot of those hills by which you ascend to the high mountain of ,saphet4 ,to the north and south it has a plain country1 or valley4 ,there is a current throughout the whole breadth of the lake1 even to the shore2 and the passage of the ,jordan through it is discernible by the smoothness of the surface in that part4 ,various travellers have given different accounts of its general aspect4 ,according to ,captain ,mangles1 the land about it has no striking features1 and the scenery is altogether devoid of character4 8,it appeared10 he says1 8to particular disadvantage to us1 after those beautiful lakes we had seen in ,switzerland2 but it becomes a very interesting object when you consider the frequent allusions to it in the ,gospel narrative40 ,dr4 ,clarke1 on the contrary1 speaks of the uncommon grandeur of this memorable scenery4 8,the lake of ,gennesareth10 he says1 8is surrounded by objects well calculated to heighten the solemn impressions made by such recollections1 and affords one of the most striking prospects in the ,holy ,land4 ,speaking of it comparatively1 it may be described as longer and finer than any of our ,cumberland and ,westmoreland lakes1 although perhaps inferior to ,loch ,lomond4 ,it does not possess the vastness of the lake of ,geneva1 although it much resembles it in certain points of view4 ,in picturesque beauty1 it comes nearest to the lake of ,locarno1 in ,italy1 although it is destitute of any thing similar to the islands by which that majestic piece of water is adorned4 ,it is inferior in magnitude1 and in the height of its surrounding mountains1 to the ,lake ,asphaltites40 ,mr4 ,buckingham may perhaps be considered as having given the most accurate account1 and one which reconciles1 in some degree1 the differing statements above cited1 when1 speaking of the lake as seen from ,tel ,hoom1 he says1 that its appearance is grand1 but that the barren aspect of the mountains on each side1 and the total absence of wood1 give a cast of dulness to the picture3 this is increased to melancholy by the dead calm of its waters1 and the silence which reigns throughout its whole extent1 where not a boat or vessel of any kind is to be found4 ,the situation of the lake1 lying1 as it were1 in a deep basin between the hills which enclose it on all sides1 excepting only the narrow entrance and outlets of the ,jordan at either end1 protects its waters from long-continued tempests3 its surface is in general as smooth as that of the ,dead ,sea4 ,but the same local features render it occasionally subject to whirlwinds1 squalls1 and sudden gusts from the mountains1 of short duration2 especially when the strong current formed by the ,jordan is opposed by a wind of this description from the south-east1 sweeping from the mountains with the force of a hurricane1 it may easily be conceived that a boisterous sea must be instantly raised1 which the small vessels of the country would be unable to resist4 ,a storm of this description is plainly denoted by the language of the evangelist1 in recounting one of our ,lord's miracles3 8,there came down a storm of wind on the lake1 and they were filled with water1 and were in jeopardy4 ,then he arose1 and rebuked the wind and the raging of the water2 and they ceased1 and there was a calm10 ,luke viii1 #bc1 #bd4 ,there were fleets of some force on this lake during the wars of the ,jews with the ,romans1 and very bloody battles were fought between them4 ,josephus gives a particular account of a naval engagement between the ,romans under ,vespasian1 and the ,jews who had revolted during the administration of ,agrippa4 ,titus and ,trajan were both present1 and ,vespasian himself was on board the ,roman fleet4 ,the rebel force consisted of an immense multitude1 who1 as fugitives after the capture of ,taricha by ,titus1 had sought refuge on the water4 ,the vessels in which the ,romans defeated them were built for the occasion1 and yet were larger than the ,jewish ships4 ,the victory was followed by so terrible a slaughter of the ,jews1 that nothing was to be seen1 either on the lake or its shores1 but the blood and mangled corses of the slain2 and the air was infected by the number of dead bodies4 ,six thousand five hundred persons are stated to have perished in this naval engagement1 and in the battle of ,taricha1 beside twelve hundred who were afterward massacred in cold blood1 by order of ,vespasian1 in the amphitheatre at ,tiberias1 and a vast number who were given to ,agrippa as slaves4 ,,gall1 1 something excessively bitter1 and supposed to be poisonous1 ,deut4 xxix1 #ah2 xxxii1 #cb2 ,psalm lxix1 #ba2 ,jer4 viii1 #ad2 ix1 #ae2 xxiii1 #ae2 ,lam4 iii1 #ai2 ,hosea x1 #d2 ,amos vi1 #ab4 ,it is evident1 from the first-mentioned place1 that some herb or plant is meant of a malignant or nauseous kind4 ,it is joined with wormwood1 and1 in the margin of our ,bibles1 explained to be 8a very poisonful herb40 ,in ,psalm lxix1 #ba1 which is justly considered as a prophecy of our ,saviour's sufferings1 it is said1 8,they gave me to eat02 which the ,,lxx have rendered 1 gall4 ,and1 accordingly1 it is recorded in the history1 8,they gave him vinegar to drink1 mingled with gall10 1 ,matt4 xxvii1 #cd4 ,but1 in the parallel passage1 it is said to be1 1 8wine mingled with myrrh10 ,mark xv1 #bc1 a very bitter ingredient4 ,from whence it is probable that 1 and perhaps 1 may be used as a general name for whatever is exceedingly bitter2 and1 consequently1 where the sense requires it1 may be put specially for any bitter herb or plant1 the infusion of which may be called 4 ,,gallio was the name of the brother of ,seneca1 the philosopher4 ,he was at first named ,marcus ,annus ,novatus2 but1 being adopted by ,lucius ,junius ,gallio1 he took the name of his adoptive father4 ,the ,emperor ,claudius made him proconsul of ,achaia4 ,he was of a mild and agreeable temper4 ,to him his brother ,seneca dedicated his books1 8,of ,anger40 ,he shared in the fortunes of his brothers1 as well when out of favour as in their prosperity at court4 ,at length1 ,nero put him1 as well as them1 to death4 ,the ,jews were enraged at ,st4 ,paul for converting many ,gentiles1 and dragged him to the tribunal of ,gallio1 who1 as proconsul1 generally resided at ,corinth1 ,acts xviii1 #ab1 #ac4 ,they accused him of teaching 8men to worship ,god contrary to the law40 ,st4 ,paul being about to speak1 ,gallio told the ,jews1 that if the matter in question were a breach of justice1 or an action of a criminal nature1 he should think himself obliged to hear them2 but1 as the dispute was only concerning their law1 he would not determine such differences1 nor judge them4 ,sosthenes1 the chief ruler of the synagogue1 was beaten by the ,greeks before ,gallio's seat of justice2 but this governor did not concern himself about it4 ,his abstaining from interfering in a religious controversy did credit to his prudence2 nevertheless1 his name has oddly passed into a reproachful proverb2 and a man regardless of all piety is called 8a ,gallio10 and is said 8,gallio-like to care for none of these things40 ,little did this ,roman anticipate that his name would be so immortalized4 ,,gamaliel1 a celebrated rabbi1 and doctor of the ,jewish law1 under whose tuition the great ,apostle of the ,gentiles was brought up1 ,acts xxii1 #c4 ,barnabas and ,stephen are also supposed to have been among the number of his pupils4 ,soon after the day of pentecost1 when the ,jewish sanhedrim began to be alarmed at the progress the ,gospel was making in ,jerusalem1 and consequently wished to put to death the ,apostles1 in the hope of checking its farther progress1 they were apprehended and brought before the national council1 of which ,gamaliel seems to have been a leading member4 ,it is very probable that many zealots among them would have despatched the affair in a very summary manner1 but their impetuosity was checked by the cool and prudent advice of ,gamaliel2 for1 having requested the ,apostles to withdraw for a while1 he represented to the sanhedrim that1 if the ,apostles were no better than impostors1 their fallacy would quickly be discovered2 but on the other hand1 if what they were engaged in was from ,god1 it was vain for them to attempt to frustrate it1 since it was the height of folly to contend with the ,almighty4 ,the assembly saw the wisdom of his counsel1 and very prudently changed the sentence1 upon which they were originally bent against the ,apostles' lives1 into that of corporal punishment4 #b4 ,it may here also be remarked1 that the sanhedrim could not themselves believe that tale which they had diligently circulated among the people1 that the disciples had stolen away the body of ,jesus1 and then pretended that he had arisen from the dead4 ,if the ,jewish council had thought this1 it would have been very absurd in ,gamaliel to exhort them to wait to see whether 8the counsel and work0 was of ,god1 that is1 whether the ,apostles related a fact when they preached the resurrection1 and grounded the divine authority of their religion upon that fact4 ,gamaliel's advice was wholly based upon the admission1 that an extraordinary1 and to them an inexplicable1 event had happened4 ,,games4 ,games and combats were instituted by the ancients in honour of their gods2 and were celebrated with that view by the most polished and enlightened nations of antiquity4 ,the most renowned heroes1 legislators1 and statesmen1 did not think it unbecoming their character and dignity1 to mingle with the combatants1 or contend in the race2 they even reckoned it glorious to share in the exercises1 and meritorious to carry away the prize4 ,the victors were crowned with a wreath of laurel in presence of their country2 they were celebrated in the rapturous effusions of their poets2 they were admired1 and almost adored1 by the innumerable multitudes which flocked to the games1 from every part of ,greece1 and many of the adjacent countries4 ,they returned to their own homes in a triumphal chariot1 and made their entrance into their native city1 not through the gates which admitted the vulgar throng1 but through a breach in the walls1 which were broken down to give them admission2 and at the same time to express the persuasion of their fellow citizens1 that walls are of small use to a city defended by men of such tried courage and ability4 ,hence the surprising ardour which animated all the states of ,greece to imitate the ancient heroes1 and encircle their brows with wreaths1 which rendered them still more the objects of admiration or envy to succeeding times1 than the victories they had gained1 or the laws they had enacted4 #b4 ,but the institutors of those games and combats had higher and nobler objects in view than veneration for the mighty dead1 or the gratification of ambition or vanity2 it was their design to prepare the youth for the profession of arms2 to confirm their health2 to improve their strength1 their vigour1 and activity2 to inure them to fatigue2 and to render them intrepid in close fight1 where1 in the infancy of the art of war1 muscular force commonly decided the victory4 ,this statement accounts for the striking allusions which the ,apostle ,paul makes in his epistles to these celebrated exercises4 ,such references were calculated to touch the heart of a ,greek1 and of every one familiarly acquainted with them1 in the liveliest manner1 as well as to place before the eye of his mind the most glowing and correct images of spiritual and divine things4 ,no passages in the nervous and eloquent epistles from the pen of ,st4 ,paul1 have been more admired by the critics and expositors of all times1 than those into which some allusion to these agonistic exercises is introduced2 and1 perhaps1 none are calculated to leave a deeper impression on the ,christian's mind1 or excite a stronger and more salutary influence on his actions4 ,certain persons were appointed to take care that all things were done according to custom1 to decide controversies that happened among the antagonists1 and to adjudge the prize to the victor4 ,some eminent writers are of opinion that ,christ is called the 8,author and ,finisher of faith10 in allusion to these judges4 ,those who were designed for the profession of athlet1 or combatants1 frequented from their earliest years the academies maintained for that purpose at the public expense4 ,in these places they were exercised under the direction of different masters1 who employed the most effectual methods to inure their bodies for the fatigues of the public games1 and to form them for the combats4 ,the regimen to which they submitted was very hard and severe4 ,at first1 they had no other nourishment than dried figs1 nuts1 soft cheese1 and a gross heavy sort of bread called 2 they were absolutely forbidden the use of wine1 and enjoined continence4 ,when they proposed to contend in the ,olympian games1 they were obliged to repair to the public gymnasium at ,elis1 ten months before the solemnity1 where they prepared themselves by continual exercises4 ,no man that had omitted to present himself at the appointed time1 was allowed to be a candidate for the prizes2 nor were the accustomed rewards of victory given to such persons1 if by any means they insinuated themselves1 and overcame their antagonists2 nor would any apology1 though seemingly ever so reasonable1 serve to excuse their absence4 ,no person that was himself a notorious criminal1 or nearly related to one1 was permitted to contend4 ,farther1 to prevent underhand dealings1 if any person was convicted of bribing his adversary1 a severe fine was laid upon him2 nor was this alone thought a sufficient guard against unfair contracts1 and unjust practices1 but the contenders were obliged to swear they had spent ten whole months in preparatory exercises2 and1 beside all this1 they1 their fathers1 and their brethren1 took a solemn oath1 that they would not1 by any sinister or unlawful means1 endeavour to stop the fair and just proceedings of the games4 #c4 ,the spiritual contest1 in which all true ,christians aim at obtaining a heavenly crown1 has its rules also1 devised and enacted by infinite wisdom and goodness1 which require implicit and exact submission1 which yield neither to times nor circumstances1 but maintain their supreme authority1 from age to age1 uninterrupted and unimpaired4 ,the combatant who violates these rules forfeits the prize1 and is driven from the field with indelible disgrace1 and consigned to everlasting wo4 ,hence the great ,apostle of the ,gentiles exhorts his son ,timothy strictly to observe the precepts of the ,gospel1 without which1 he can no more hope to obtain the approbation of ,god1 and the possession of the heavenly crown1 than a combatant in the public games of ,greece1 who disregarded the established rules1 could hope to receive from the hands of his judge the promised reward3 8,and if a man also strive for masteries1 yet is he not crowned except he strive lawfully10 #b ,tim4 ii1 #e1 or according to the established laws of the games4 ,like the ,grecian combatants1 the ,christian must 8abstain from fleshly lusts10 and 8walk in all the statutes and commandments of the ,lord1 blameless40 ,such was ,st4 ,paul2 and in this manner he endeavoured to act3 8,but ,i keep under my body1 and bring it into subjection3 lest that by any means1 when ,i have preached to others1 ,i myself should be a cast-away10 #a ,cor4 ix1 #bg4 ,the latter part of this verse ,doddridge renders1 8lest after having served as a herald ,i should be disapproved20 and says in a note1 8,i thought it of importance to retain the primitive sense of these gymnastic expressions40 ,it is well known to those who are at all acquainted with the original1 that the word used means to discharge the office of a herald1 whose business it was to proclaim the conditions of the games1 and display the prizes1 to awaken the emulation and resolution of those who were to contend in them4 ,but the ,apostle intimates1 that there was this peculiar circumstance attending the ,christian contest1 that the person who proclaimed its laws and rewards to others1 was also to engage in it himself2 and that there would be a peculiar infamy and misery in his miscarrying4 1 which we render cast-away1 signifies one who is disapproved by the judge of the games1 as not having fairly deserved the prize3 he therefore loses it2 even the prize of eternal life4 ,the rule which the ,apostle applies to himself he extends in another passage to all the members of the ,christian church3 8,those who strive for the mastery are temperate in all things2 now they do it to obtain a corruptible crown1 but we an incorruptible40 ,tertullian uses the same thought to encourage the martyrs4 ,he urges constancy upon them1 from what the hopes of victory made the athlet endure2 and repeats the severe and painful exercises they were obliged to undergo1 the continual anguish and constraint in which they passed the best years of their lives1 and the voluntary privation which they imposed on themselves1 of all that was most grateful to their appetites and passions4 #d4 ,the athlet took care to disencumber their bodies of every article of clothing which could in any manner hinder or incommode them4 ,in the race1 they were anxious to carry as little weight as possible1 and uniformly stripped themselves of all such clothes as1 by their weight1 length1 or otherwise1 might entangle or retard them in the course4 ,the ,christian also must 8lay aside every weight1 and the sin which doth so easily beset0 him1 ,heb4 xii1 #a4 ,in the exercise of faith and self-denial1 he must 8cast off the works of darkness10 lay aside all malice and guile1 hypocrisies1 and envyings1 and evil speakings1 inordinate affections1 and worldly cares1 and whatever else might obstruct his holy profession1 damp his spirits1 and hinder his progress in the paths of righteousness4 #e4 ,the foot race seems to have been placed in the first rank of public games1 and cultivated with a care and industry proportioned to the estimation in which it was held4 ,the ,olympic games generally opened with races1 and were celebrated at first with no other exercise4 ,the lists or course where the athlet exercised themselves in running1 was at first but one stadium in length1 or about six hundred feet2 and from this measure it took its name1 and was called the stadium1 whatever might be its extent4 ,this1 in the language of ,st4 ,paul1 speaking of the ,christian's course1 was 8the race which was set before them10 determined by public authority1 and carefully measured4 ,on each side of the stadium and its extremity1 ran an ascent or kind of terrace1 covered with seats and benches1 upon which the spectators were seated1 an innumerable multitude collected from all parts of ,greece1 to which the ,apostle thus alludes in his figurative description of the ,christian life3 8,seeing we are compassed about with so great a cloud of witnesses1 let us lay aside every weight10 ,heb4 xii1 #a4 ,the most remarkable parts of the stadium were its entrance1 middle1 and extremity4 ,the entrance was marked at first only by a line drawn on the sand1 from side to side of the stadium4 ,to prevent any unfair advantage being taken by the more vigilant or alert candidates1 a cord was at length stretched in front of the horses or men that were to run2 and sometimes the space was railed in with wood4 ,the opening of this barrier1 was the signal for the racers to start4 ,the middle of the stadium was remarkable1 only by the circumstance of having the prizes allotted to the victors set up there4 ,from this custom1 ,crysostom draws a fine comparison3 8,as the judges in the races and other games1 expose in the midst of the stadium1 to the view of the champions1 the crowns which they were to receive2 in like manner1 the ,lord1 by the mouth of his prophets1 has placed the prizes in the midst of the course1 which he designs for those who have the courage to contend for them40 ,at the extremity of the stadium was a goal1 where the foot races ended2 but in those of chariots and horses1 they were to run several times round it without stopping1 and afterward conclude the race by regaining the other extremity of the lists from whence they started4 ,it is therefore to the foot race the ,apostle alludes1 when he speaks of the race set before the ,christian1 which was a straight course1 to be run only once1 and not1 as in the other1 several times without stopping4 #f4 ,according to some writers1 it was at the goal1 and not in the middle of the course1 that the prizes were exhibited2 and they were placed in a very conspicuous situation1 that the competitors might be animated by having them always in their sight4 ,this accords with the view which the ,apostle gives of the ,christian life3 8,brethren1 ,i count not myself to have apprehended2 but this one thing ,i do1 forgetting those things which are behind1 and reaching forth unto those things1 which are before1 ,i press toward the mark for the prize of the high calling of ,god in ,christ ,jesus10 ,phil4 iii1 #ac1 #ad4 ,l',enfant thinks1 the ,apostle here alludes to those who stood at the elevated place at the end of the course1 calling the racers by their names1 and encouraging them by holding out the crown1 to exert themselves with vigour4 ,within the measured and determinate limits of the stadium1 the athlet were bound to contend for the prize1 which they forfeited without hope of recovery1 if they deviated ever so little from the appointed course4 #g4 ,the honours and rewards granted to the victors were of several kinds4 ,they were animated in their course by the rapturous applauses of the countless multitudes that lined the stadium1 and waited the issue of the contest with eager anxiety2 and their success was instantly followed by reiterated and long continued plaudits2 but these were only a prelude to the appointed rewards1 which1 though of little value in themselves1 were accounted the highest honour to which a mortal could aspire4 ,these consisted of different wreaths of wild olive1 pine1 parsley1 or laurel1 according to the different places where the games were celebrated4 ,after the judges had passed sentence1 a public herald proclaimed the name of the victor2 one of the judges put the crown upon his head1 and a branch of palm into his right hand1 which he carried as a token of victorious courage and perseverance4 ,as he might be victor more than once in the same games1 and sometimes on the same day1 he might also receive several crowns and palms4 ,when the victor had received his reward1 a herald1 preceded by a trumpet1 conducted him through the stadium1 and proclaimed aloud his name and country2 while the delighted multitudes1 at the sight of him1 redoubled their acclamations and applauses4 #h4 ,the crown in the ,olympic games was of wild olive2 in the ,pythian1 of laurel2 in the ,isthmian or ,corinthian1 of pine tree2 and in the ,neman1 of smallage or parsley4 ,now1 most of these were evergreens2 yet they would soon grow dry1 and crumble into dust4 ,elsner produces many passages in which the contenders in these exercises are rallied by the ,grecian wits1 on account of the extraordinary pains they took for such trifling rewards2 and ,plato has a celebrated passage1 which greatly resembles that of the ,apostle1 but by no means equals it in force and beauty3 8,now they do it to obtain a corruptible crown1 but we an incorruptible40 ,the ,christian is thus called to fight the good fight of faith1 and to lay hold of eternal life2 and to this he is more powerfully stimulated by considering that the ancient athlet took all their care and pains only for the sake of obtaining a garland of flowers1 or a wreath of laurel1 which quickly fades and perishes1 possessed little intrinsic value1 and only served to nourish their pride and vanity1 without imparting any solid advantage to themselves or others2 but that which is placed in the view of the spiritual combatants1 to animate their exertions1 and reward their labours1 is no less than a crown of glory which never decays2 8an inheritance incorruptible1 undefiled1 and that fadeth not away1 reserved in heaven for them10 #a ,pet4 i1 #d2 v1 #d4 ,but the victory sometimes remained doubtful1 in consequence of which a number of competitors appeared before the judges1 and claimed the prize4 ,the candidates who were rejected on such occasions by the judge of the games1 as not having fairly merited the prize1 were called by the ,greeks 1 or disapproved1 which we render cast away1 in a passage already quoted from ,st4 ,paul's ,first ,epistle to the ,corinthians3 8,but ,i keep under my body1 and bring it into subjection1 lest that by any means1 when ,i have preached to others1 ,i myself should be1 1 cast away10 rejected by the ,judge of all the earth1 and disappointed of my expected crown4 ,what has been observed concerning the spirit and ardour with which the competitors engaged in the race1 and concerning the prize they had in view to reward their arduous contention1 will illustrate the following sublime passage of the same sacred writer in his ,epistle to the ,philippians3 8,not as though ,i had already attained1 either were already perfect2 but ,i follow after1 if that ,i may apprehend that for which also ,i am apprehended of ,christ ,jesus4 ,brethren1 ,i count not myself to have apprehended3 but this one thing ,i do1 forgetting those things which are behind1 and reaching forth unto those things which are before1 ,i press toward the mark1 for the prize of the high calling of ,god in ,christ ,jesus10 ,phil4 iii1 #ab-ad4 ,the affecting passage1 also1 of the same ,apostle1 in the ,second ,epistle of ,timothy1 written a little before his martyrdom1 is beautifully allusive to the above-mentioned race1 to the crown that awaited the victory1 and to the ,hellanodics or judges who bestowed it3 8,i have fought a good fight1 ,i have finished my course1 ,i have kept the faith4 ,henceforth there is laid up for me a crown of righteousness1 which the ,lord1 the righteous ,judge1 shall give me at that day3 and not to me only1 but to all them also that love his appearing10 #b ,tim4 iv1 #h4 ,,gardens4 ,in the language of the ,hebrews1 every place where plants and trees were cultivated with greater care than in the open field1 was called a garden4 ,the idea of such an enclosure was certainly borrowed from the garden of ,eden1 which the bountiful ,creator planted for the reception of our first parents4 ,beside1 the gardens of primitive nations were commonly1 if not in every instance1 devoted to religious purposes4 ,in these shady retreats were celebrated1 for a long succession of ages1 the rites of ,pagan superstition4 ,thus ,jehovah calls the apostate ,jews1 8a people that provoketh me continually to anger to my face1 that sacrificeth in gardens10 ,isa4 lxv1 #c4 ,and in a preceding chapter1 the prophet threatens them in the name of the ,lord3 8,they shall be ashamed of the oaks which ye have desired1 and ye shall be confounded for the gardens which ye have chosen40 ,the oriental gardens were either open plantations1 or enclosures defended by walls or hedges4 ,some fences in the ,holy ,land1 in later times1 are not less beautiful than our living fences of white thorn2 and perfectly answer the description of ancient ,jewish prophets1 who inform us that the hedges in their times consisted of thorns1 and that the spikes of these thorny plants were exceedingly sharp4 ,doubdan found a very fruitful vineyard1 full of olives1 fig trees1 and vines1 about eight miles south-west from ,bethlehem1 enclosed with a hedge2 and that part of it adjoining to the road1 strongly formed of thorns and rose bushes1 intermingled with pomegranate trees of surpassing beauty and fragrance4 ,a hedge composed of rose bushes and wild pomegranate shrubs1 then in full flower1 mingled with other thorny plants1 adorned in the varied livery of spring1 must have made at once a strong and beautiful fence4 ,the wild pomegranate tree1 the species probably used in fencing1 is much more prickly than the other variety2 and when mingled with other thorny bushes1 of which they have several kinds in ,palestine1 some of whose prickles are very long and sharp1 must form a hedge very difficult to penetrate4 ,these facts illustrate the beauty and force of several passages in the sacred volume3 thus1 in the ,proverbs of ,solomon1 8,the way of the slothful man is as a hedge of thorns10 ,prov4 xv1 #ai2 it is obstructed with difficulties1 which the sloth and indolence of his temper represent as galling or insuperable2 but which a moderate share of resolution and perseverance would easily remove or surmount4 ,in the prophecies of ,hosea1 ,god threatens his treacherous and idolatrous people with many painful embarrassments and perplexities1 which would as effectually retard or obstruct their progress in the paths of wickedness1 as a hedge of thorny plants stretching across the traveller's way1 the prosecution of his journey3 8,therefore1 behold1 ,i will hedge up thy way with thorns1 and make a wall1 that she shall not find her paths10 ,hosea ii1 #f4 ,in the days of ,micah1 the magistrates of ,judah had become exceedingly corrupt3 8,the best of them is a brier2 the most upright is sharper than a thorn hedge20 to appear before their tribunal1 or to have any dealings with them1 was to involve one's self in endless perplexities1 and to be exposed to galling disappointments1 if not to certain destruction4 ,they resembled those thorny plants which are twisted together1 whose spines point in every direction1 and are so sharp and strong that they cannot be touched without danger1 and so entangling that when the traveller has with much pain and exertion freed himself from one1 he is instantly seized by another4 8,but the sons of ,belial10 said the king of ,israel1 8shall be all of them as thorns thrust away1 because they cannot be taken with hands3 but the man that shall touch them must be fenced with iron1 and the staff of a spear2 and they shall be utterly burned with fire in the same place10 #b ,sam4 xxiii1 #f1 #g4 ,other enclosures had fences of loose stones1 or mud walls1 some of them very low1 which often furnished a retreat to venomous reptiles4 ,to this circumstance the royal preacher alludes1 in his observations of wisdom and folly3 8,he that diggeth a pit1 shall fall into it3 and whoso breaketh a hedge1 a serpent shall bite him10 ,eccles4 x1 #h4 ,the term which our translators render hedge in this passage1 they might with more propriety have rendered wall1 as they had done in another part of the writings of ,solomon3 8,i went by the field of the slothful1 and by the vineyard of the man void of understanding2 and lo1 it was all grown over with thorns1 and nettles had covered the face thereof1 and the stone wall thereof was broken down10 ,proverbs xxiv1 #cj4 #b4 ,the land of promise has been1 from the earliest ages1 an unenclosed country1 with a few spots defended by a hedge of thorny plants1 or a stone wall built without any cement4 ,at ,aleppo1 most of the vineyards are fenced with stone walls2 for in many parts of ,syria a hedge would not grow for want of moisture4 ,but1 as their various esculent vegetables are now not unfrequently planted in the open fields1 both in ,syria and ,palestine1 so ,chardin seems to suppose they were often unfenced in ancient times2 and1 on this account1 those lodges and booths1 to which ,isaiah refers1 in the first chapter of his prophecy1 were built4 ,in ,hindostan they follow the same custom4 ,at the commencement of the rainy season1 the peasants plant abundance of melons1 cucumbers1 and gourds1 which are then the principal food of the inhabitants4 ,they are planted in the open fields and extensive plains1 and are therefore liable to the depredations of men and beasts4 ,in the centre of the field is an artificial mount1 with a hut on the top1 sufficiently large to shelter a single person from the inclemency of the weather4 ,there1 amid heavy rains and tempestuous winds1 a poor solitary being is stationed day and night to protect the crop4 ,from thence he gives an alarm to the nearest village4 ,few situations can be more unpleasant than a hovel of this kind1 exposed for three or four months to wind1 lightning1 and rain4 ,to such a cheerless station the prophet no doubt alludes1 in that passage where he declares the desolations of ,judah3 8,the daughter of ,zion is left as a cottage in a vineyard1 as a lodge in a garden of cucumbers10 ,isa4 i1 #h4 ,if such watch houses were necessary in those gardens which were defended by walls or hedges1 some of which1 indeed1 it was not difficult to get over1 they must have been still more necessary in those which were perfectly open4 #c4 ,the oriental garden displays little method1 or design2 the whole being commonly no more than a confused medley of fruit trees1 with beds of esculent plants1 and even plots of wheat and barley sometimes interspersed4 ,the garden belonging to the governor of ,eleus1 a ,turkish town on the western border of the ,hellespont1 which ,dr4 ,chandler visited1 consisted only of a very small spot of ground1 walled in1 and containing only two vines1 a fig and a pomegranate tree1 and a well of excellent water4 ,and1 it would seem1 the garden of an ancient ,israelite could not boast of greater variety2 for the grape1 the fig1 and the pomegranate1 are almost the only fruits which it produced4 ,this fact may perhaps give us some insight into the reason of the sudden and irresistible conviction which flashed on the mind of ,nathanael1 when our ,saviour said to him1 8,when thou wast under the fig tree1 ,i saw thee40 ,the good man seems to have been engaged in devotional exercises in a small retired garden1 walled in1 and concealed from the scrutinizing eyes of men4 ,the place was so small1 that he was perfectly certain no man but himself was there2 and so completely defended1 that none could break through1 or look over1 the fence2 and1 by consequence1 that no eye was upon him1 but the all-seeing eye of ,god2 and1 therefore1 since ,christ saw him there1 ,nathanael knew he could be no other than the ,son of ,god1 and the promised ,messiah4 ,,garlick1 4 ,as this word occurs only in ,numbers xi1 #e1 some doubts have arisen respecting the plant intended4 ,from its being coupled with leeks and onions1 there can be but little doubt that the garlick is meant4 ,the ,talmudists frequently mention the use of this plant among the ,jews1 and their fondness for it4 ,that garlicks grew plenteously in ,egypt1 is asserted by ,dioscorides3 there they were much esteemed1 and were both eaten and worshipped3-- 8,then gods were recommended by their taste4 ,such savoury deities must needs be good1 ,which served at once for worship and for food40 ,,garment4 ,see ,,habits4 ,,gate is often used in ,scripture to denote a place of public assembly1 where justice was administered1 ,deut4 xvii1 #e1 #h2 xxi1 #ai2 xxii1 #ae2 xxv1 #f1 #g1 c4 ,one instance of these judgments appears in that given at the gate of ,bethlehem1 between ,boaz and a relation of ,naomi1 on the subject of ,ruth1 chap4 iv1 #b2 another in ,abraham's purchase of a field to bury ,sarah1 ,gen4 xxiii1 #aj1 #ah4 ,the gate of judgment is a term still common to the ,arabians to express a court of justice1 and even introduced by the ,saracens into ,spain4 8,i had several times10 says ,jacob1 8visited the ,alhambra1 the ancient palace and fortress of the ,moorish kings3 it is situated on the top of a hill1 overlooking the city1 and is surrounded by a wall of great height and thickness4 ,the entrance is through an archway1 over which is carved a key1 the symbol of the ,mohammedan monarchs4 ,this gate1 called the gate of judgment1 according to eastern forms1 was the place where the kings administered justice40 ,in ,morocco1 the gate is still the place where judgment is held4 8,all complaints10 says ,host1 8are brought1 in the first instance1 to the cadi1 or governor1 who1 for that purpose1 passes certain hours of the day in the gate of the city1 partly for the sake of the fresh air1 and partly to see all those who go out2 and1 lastly1 to observe a custom which has long prevailed1 of holding judgment there4 ,the gate is contrived accordingly1 being built like a square chamber1 with two doors1 which are not directly opposite to each other1 but on two adjoining sides1 with seats on the other sides4 ,in this manner ,david sat between two gates10 #b ,sam4 xviii1 #bd4 ,gate sometimes signifies power1 dominion1 almost in the same sense as the ,turkish emperor's palace is called the ,porte4 ,god promises ,abraham that his posterity shall possess the gates of their enemies1 their towns1 their fortresses1 ,genesis xxii1 #ag4 ,jesus ,christ says to ,peter1 8,thou art ,peter2 and on this rock will ,i build my church1 and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it10 ,matt4 xvi1 #ah4 ,this may mean either the powers of hell1 or invisible spirits2 or simply death1--the church shall be replenished by living members from generation to generation1 so that death shall never annihilate it4 ,solomon says1 8,he that exalteth his gate seeketh destruction40 ,the ,arabs are accustomed to ride into the houses of those they design to harass4 ,to prevent this1 ,thevenot tells us that the door of the house in which the ,french merchants live at ,rama was not three feet high1 and that all the doors of that town are equally low4 ,agreeably to this account1 the ,abb ,mariti1 speaking of his admission into a monastery near ,jerusalem1 says1 8,the passage is so low1 that it will scarcely admit a horse2 and it is shut by a gate of iron1 strongly secured in the inside4 ,as soon as we entered1 it was again made fast with various bolts and bars of iron3 a precaution extremely necessary in a desert place1 exposed to the incursions1 and insolent attacks of the ,arabs40 ,mr4 ,drummond says1 that in the country about ,roudge1 in ,syria1 8the poor miserable ,arabs are under the necessity of hewing their houses out of the rock1 and cutting very small doors or openings to them1 that they may not be made stables for the ,turkish horse1 as they pass and repass40 ,and thus1 long before him1 ,sandys1 at ,gaza1 in ,palestine3 8,we lodged under an arch in a little court1 together with our asses2 the door exceeding low1 as are all that belong unto ,christians1 to withstand the sudden entrance of the insolent ,turks40 8,to exalt the gate10 would consequently be to court destruction4 ,morier says1 8,a poor man's door is scarcely three feet in height2 and this is a precautionary measure to hinder the servants of the great from entering it on horseback2 which1 when any act of oppression is intended1 they would make no scruple to do4 ,but the habitation of a man in power is known by his gate1 which is generally elevated in proportion to the vanity of its owner4 ,a lofty gate is one of the insignia of royalty3 such is the ,allan ,capi1 at ,ispahan1 and ,bob ,homayan1 or the ,sublime ,porte1 at ,constantinople4 ,it must have been the same in ancient days2 the gates of ,jerusalem1 ,zion1 c1 are often mentioned in the ,scripture1 with the same notion of grandeur annexed to them40 ,,gath1 the fifth of the ,philistine cities4 ,it was a place of strength in the time of the prophets ,amos and ,micah1 and is placed by ,jerom on the road between ,eleutheropolis and ,gaza4 ,it appears to have been the extreme boundary of the ,philistine territory in one direction1 as ,ekron was on the other4 ,hence the expression1 8from ,ekron even unto ,gath10 #a ,sam4 vii1 #ad4 ,,gaulan1 or ,,golan1 a city beyond ,jordan1 from which the small province called ,gaulonitis took its name4 ,it was given to the half tribe of ,manasseh1 on the other side ,jordan1 ,deut4 iv1 #dc2 and became a city of refuge1 ,joshua xxi1 #bg4 ,,gaza1 a city of the ,philistines1 made by ,joshua part of the tribe of ,judah4 ,it was one of the five principalities of the ,philistines1 situated toward the southern extremity of the promised land1 #a ,sam4 vi1 #ag1 between ,raphia and ,askelon4 ,the advantageous situation of ,gaza was the cause of the numerous revolutions which it underwent4 ,it first of all belonged to the ,philistines1 and then to the ,hebrews4 ,it recovered its liberty in the reigns of ,jotham and ,ahaz1 and was reconquered by ,hezekiah1 #b ,kings xviii1 #h4 ,it was subject to the ,chaldeans1 who conquered ,syria and ,phenicia4 ,afterward1 it fell into the hands of the ,persians4 ,it must have been a place of considerable strength4 ,for two months it baffled all the efforts of ,alexander the ,great1 who was repeatedly repulsed1 and wounded in the siege2 which he afterward revenged in a most infamous manner on the person of the gallant defender ,betis1 whom1 while yet alive1 having ordered his ankles to be bored1 he dragged round the walls1 tied to his chariot wheels1 in the barbarous parade of imitating the less savage treatment of the corpse of ,hector by ,achilles4 ,dr4 ,wittman gives the following description of his visit to ,gaza3 8,in pursuing our route toward this place1 the view became still more interesting and agreeable3 the groves of olive trees extending from the place where we had halted to the town1 in front of which a fine avenue of these trees was planted4 ,gaza is situated on an eminence1 and is rendered picturesque by the number of fine minarets which rise majestically above the buildings1 and by the beautiful date trees which are interspersed4 ,the suburbs of ,gaza are composed of wretched mud huts2 but within side the town the buildings make a much better appearance than those we had generally met with in ,syria4 ,the streets are of a moderate breadth4 ,many fragments of statues1 columns1 c1 of marble were seen in the walls and buildings in different parts of the town4 ,the suburbs and environs of ,gaza are rendered infinitely agreeable by a number of large gardens1 cultivated with the nicest care1 which lie in a direction north and south of the town2 while others of the same description run to a considerable distance westward4 ,these gardens are filled with a great variety of choice fruit trees1 such as the fig1 the mulberry1 the pomegranate1 the apricot1 the peach1 and the almond2 together with a few lemon and orange trees4 ,the numerous plantations of olive and date trees which are interspersed contribute greatly to the picturesque effect of the scene exhibited by the surrounding plains4 ,these1 on our arrival1 were overspread with flowers1 the variegated colours of which displayed every tint and every hue4 ,among these were the chrysanthemum1 scarlet ranunculus1 lupin1 pheasant-eye1 tulip1 china-aster1 dwarf-iris1 lintel1 daisy1 c1 all of them growing wild and abundantly1 with the exception of the lupin1 which was cultivated in patches1 regularly ploughed and sowed1 with a view to collect the seeds1 which the inhabitants employ at their meals1 more especially to thicken their ragouts4 ,the few corn fields1 which lay at a distance1 displayed the promise of a rich golden harvest2 and the view of the sea1 distant about a league1 tended to diversify still more the animated features of this luxuriant scene40 ,this and similar descriptions of modern travellers1 which are occasionally introduced into this work1 are given both as interesting in themselves1 and to show that relics of the ancient beauty and fertility of the ,holy ,land are still to be found in many parts of it4 ,,gemara4 ,this word signifies complement1 perfection4 ,the rabbins call the ,pentateuch the law1 without any addition4 ,next to this they have the ,talmud1 which is divided into two parts3 the first is only an application of the law to particular cases1 with the decision of the ancient rabbins1 and is called mishnah1 or 8second law30 the other part1 which is a more extensive application of the same law1 is a collection of determinations by rabbins1 later than the mishnah4 ,this last is termed gemara1 8perfection10 8finishing10 because they consider it as a conclusive explanation of the law1 to which no farther additions can be made4 ,there are two gemaras1 or two ,talmuds1 that of ,jerusalem1 and that of ,babylon4 ,the former was compiled1 according to the ,jews1 about the end of the second or third century1 by a celebrated rabbin1 called ,jochanan2 but father ,morinus maintains that the gemara was not finished till about the seventh century4 ,dr4 ,prideaux says that it was completed about ,a4 ,d4 #cjj4 ,the ,jews have little value for this ,jerusalem ,talmud1 on account of its obscurity4 ,the ,babylonish gemara is1 as the rabbins say1 more modern4 ,it was begun by a ,jewish doctor1 named ,asa1 and continued by ,marmar and ,mar1 his sons or disciples4 ,the ,jews believe that the gemara contains nothing but the word of ,god1 preserved in the tradition of the elders1 and transmitted1 without alteration1 from ,moses to rabbi ,judah1 the holy1 and the other compilers of the ,talmud2 who did not reduce it to writing till they were afraid it would be corrupted by the several transmigrations and persecutions to which their nation was subjected4 ,,genealogy1 1 signifies a list of a person's ancestors4 ,the common ,hebrew expression for it is ,sepher-,toledoth1 8the ,book of ,generations40 ,no nation was ever more careful to preserve their genealogies than the ,jews4 ,the sacred writings contain genealogies extended three thousand five hundred years backward4 ,the genealogy of our ,saviour is deduced by the evangelists from ,adam to ,joseph and ,mary1 through a space of four thousand years and upward4 ,the ,jewish priests were obliged to produce an exact genealogy of their families1 before they were admitted to exercise their function4 ,wherever placed1 the ,jews were particularly careful not to marry below themselves2 and to prevent this1 they kept tables of genealogy in their several families1 the originals of which were lodged at ,jerusalem1 to be occasionally consulted4 ,these authentic monuments1 during all their wars and persecutions1 were taken great care of1 and from time to time renewed4 ,but1 since the last destruction of their city1 and the dispersion of the people1 their ancient genealogies are lost4 ,but to this the ,jews reply1 that either ,elias1 or some other inspired priest or prophet1 shall come1 and restore their genealogical tables before the ,messiah's appearance2 a tradition1 which they ground on a passage in ,nehemiah vii1 #fd1 #fe1 to this effect3 the genealogical register of the families of certain priests being lost1 they were not able to make out their lineal descent from ,aaron2 and therefore1 8as polluted1 were put from the priesthood20 the 8,tirshatha said unto them1 that they should not eat of the most holy things1 till there stood up a priest with ,urim and ,thummim40 ,from hence the ,jews conclude1 that such a priest will stand up1 and restore and complete the genealogies of their families3 though others suppose these words to import1 that they should never exercise their priesthood any more2 and that1 8till there shall stand up a priest with ,urim and ,thummim10 amounts to the same as the ,roman proverb1 ad ,grcas calendas1 never1 since the ,urim and ,thummim were now absolutely and for ever lost4 ,,generation4 ,beside the common acceptation of this word1 as signifying descent1 it is used for the history and genealogy of any individual1 as 8,the book of the generations of ,adam10 ,genesis v1 #a1 the history of ,adam's creation1 and of his posterity4 8,the generations of the heavens and of the earth10 ,genesis ii1 #d1 is a recital of the creation of heaven and earth4 8,the book of the generation of ,jesus ,christ1 the ,son of ,david10 ,matthew i1 #a1 is the genealogy of ,jesus ,christ1 and the history of his life4 ,the ancients sometimes computed by generations3 8,in the fourth generation thy descendants shall come hither again10 ,genesis xv1 #af4 8,joseph saw ,ephraim's children of the third generation10 ,genesis #a1 #bc4 8,a bastard shall not be admitted into the congregation1 till the tenth generation10 ,deut4 xxiii1 #b4 ,among the ancients1 when the duration of generations was not exactly described by the age of four men succeeding one another from father to son1 it was fixed by some at a hundred years1 by others at a hundred and ten1 by others at thirty-three1 thirty1 twenty-five1 and even at twenty years2 being neither uniform nor settled3 only1 it is remarked1 that a generation is longer as it is more ancient4 ,,genesis1 a canonical book of the ,old ,testament1 so called from the ,greek 1 genesis1 or generation1 because it contains an account of the origin of all visible things1 and of the genealogy of the first patriarchs4 ,in the ,hebrew it is called 1 which signifies1 in the beginning1 because it begins with that word4 ,see ,,pentateuch4 ,,gennesareth1 ,,land ,,of1 or ,,gennesar1 a small district of ,galilee1 supposed to have been so called from its pleasantness1 and extending about four miles along the north-western shore of the sea of ,galilee1 or ,gennesareth1 so called from this same region4 ,it is more probable1 however1 that ,gennesareth is nothing more than a word moulded from ,cinnereth1 the ancient name of a city and adjoining tract in this very situation1 as well as of the lake itself4 ,this part of ,galilee is described by ,josephus as possessing a singular fertility1 with a delightful temperature of the air1 and abounding in the fruits of different climates4 ,,gentile4 ,the ,hebrews called the ,gentiles 1 1 the nations1 that is1 those who have not received the faith or law of ,god4 ,all who are not ,jews1 and circumcised1 are goiim4 ,those who were converted1 and embraced ,judaism1 they called proselytes4 ,since the ,gospel1 the true religion is not confined to any one nation or country1 as heretofore1 ,god1 who had promised by his prophets to call the ,gentiles to the faith1 with a superabundance of grace1 has fulfilled his promise2 so that the ,christian church is now composed principally of ,gentile converts2 and the ,jews1 too proud of their particular privileges1 and abandoned to their reprobate sense of things1 have disowned ,jesus ,christ1 their ,messiah and ,redeemer1 for whom1 during so many ages1 they had looked so impatiently4 ,in the writings of ,st4 ,paul1 the ,gentiles are generally denoted as ,greeks1 ,rom4 i1 #ad1 #af2 ii1 #i1 #aj2 iii2 x1 #ab2 #a ,cor4 i1 #bb-bd2 ,gal4 iii1 #bh4 ,st4 ,luke1 in the ,acts1 expresses himself in the same manner1 ,acts vi1 #a2 xi1 #bj2 xviii1 c4 #b4 ,st4 ,paul is commonly called the ,apostle of the ,gentiles1 #a ,tim4 ii1 #g1 or ,greeks2 because he1 principally1 preached ,jesus ,christ to them2 whereas ,peter1 and the other ,apostles1 preached generally to the ,jews1 and are called ,apostles of the circumcision1 ,gal4 ii1 #h4 ,the prophets declared very particularly the calling of the ,gentiles4 ,jacob foretold that the ,messiah1 he who was to be sent1 the ,shiloh1 should gather the ,gentiles to himself4 ,solomon1 at the dedication of his temple1 prays for 8the stranger0 who should there entreat ,god4 ,the ,psalmist says1 that the ,lord would give the ,gentiles to the ,messiah for his inheritance2 that ,egypt and ,babylon shall know him2 that ,ethiopia shall hasten to bring him presents2 that the kings of ,tarshish1 and of the isles1 the kings of ,arabia and ,sheba1 shall be tributary to him1 ,psalm ii1 #h2 lxvii1 #d2 lxxii1 #i1 #aj4 ,isaiah abounds with prophecies of the like nature1 on which account he has justly been distinguished by the name of 8the prophet of the ,gentiles40 ,,gentiles1 ,,court ,,of ,,the4 ,josephus says there was1 in the court of the temple1 a wall1 or balustrade1 breast-high1 with pillars at particular distances1 and inscriptions on them in ,greek and ,latin1 importing that strangers were forbidden from entering farther2 here their offerings were received1 and sacrifices were offered for them1 they standing at the barrier2 but they were not allowed to approach to the altar4 ,pompey1 nevertheless1 went even into the sanctuary1 but behaved with strict decorum2 and the next day he commanded the temple to be purified1 and the customary sacrifices to be offered4 ,a little before the last rebellion of the ,jews1 some mutineers would have persuaded the priests to accept no victim not presented by a ,jew2 and obliged them to reject those which were offered by command of the emperor1 for the ,roman people4 ,the wisest in vain remonstrated with them on the danger this would bring on their country2 urged that their ancestors had never rejected the presents of ,gentiles2 and that the temple was mostly adorned with the offerings of such people2 at the same time1 the most learned priests1 who had spent their whole lives in the study of the law1 testified that their forefathers had always received the sacrifices of strangers4 ,from the above particulars1 we learn the meaning of what the ,apostle ,paul calls 8the middle wall of partition10 between ,jews and ,gentiles broken down by the ,gospel4 ,,gerar1 a royal city of the ,philistines1 situate not far from the angle where the south and west sides of ,palestine meet4 ,,gerizim1 a mount near ,shechem1 in ,ephraim1 a province of ,samaria4 ,shechem lay at the foot of two mountains1 ,ebal and ,gerizim4 ,gerizim was fruitful1 ,ebal was barren4 ,god commanded that the ,hebrews1 after passing the ,jordan1 should be so divided1 that six tribes might be stationed on ,mount ,gerizim1 and six on ,mount ,ebal4 ,the former was to pronounce blessings on those who observed the law of the ,lord2 the others1 curses against those who should violate it1 ,deut4 xi1 #bi2 xxvii1 #ab4 ,as to the original of the temple upon ,gerizim1 we must take ,josephus's relation of it4 ,manasseh1 the grandson of ,eliashib1 the high priest1 and brother to ,jaddus1 high priest of the ,jews1 having been driven from ,jerusalem in the year of the world #cfga1 and not enduring patiently to see himself deprived of the honour and advantages of the priesthood1 ,sanballat1 his father-in-law1 addressed himself to ,alexander the ,great1 who was then carrying on the siege of ,tyre2 and having paid him homage for the province of ,samaria1 whereof he was governor1 he farther offered him eight thousand of his best troops1 which disposed ,alexander to grant what he desired for his son-in-law1 and for many other priests1 who being married1 as well as he1 contrary to the law1 chose rather to forsake their country than their wives1 and had joined ,manasseh in ,samaria4 ,when ,antiochus ,epiphanes began to persecute the ,jews1 ,a4 ,m4 #chcf2 ,b4 ,c4 #ahf1 the ,samaritans entreated him that their temple upon ,gerizim1 which hitherto had been dedicated to an unknown and nameless god1 might be consecrated to ,jupiter the ,grecian1 which was easily consented to by ,antiochus4 ,the temple of ,gerizim subsisted some time after the worship of ,jupiter was introduced into it2 but it was destroyed by ,john ,hircanus ,maccabus1 and was not rebuilt till ,gabinius was governor of ,syria2 who repaired ,samaria1 and called it by his own name4 ,it is certain1 that1 in our ,saviour's time1 this temple was in being2 and that the true ,god was worshipped there1 since the woman of ,samaria1 pointing to ,gerizim1 said to him1 8,our fathers worshipped in this mountain1 and ye say1 that in ,jerusalem is the place where men ought to worship10 ,john iv1 #bj4 ,we are assured1 that ,herod the ,great1 having rebuilt ,samaria1 and called it ,sebaste1 in honour of ,augustus1 would have obliged the ,samaritans to worship in the temple which he had erected there1 but they constantly refused4 ,,gethsemane4 ,see ,,olives1 ,mount of4 ,,giant1 1 ,greek1 1 a monster1 a terrible man1 a chief who beats and bears down other men4 ,scripture speaks of giants before the flood3 8,nephilim1 mighty men who were of old1 men of renown10 ,gen4 vi1 #d4 ,aquila translates nephilim1 1 men who attack1 who fall with impetuosity on their enemies1 which renders very well the force of the term4 ,symmachus translates it 1 violent men1 cruel1 whose only rule of action is violence4 ,scripture sometimes calls giants ,rephaim3 ,chedorlaomer beat the ,rephaim at ,ashteroth-,karnaim4 ,the ,emim1 ancient inhabitants of ,moab1 were of a gigantic stature1 that is1 ,rephaim4 ,the ,rephaim and the ,perizzites are connected as old inhabitants of ,canaan4 ,the ,rephaim in some parts of ,scripture signify spirits in the invisible world1 in a state of misery4 ,job says that the ancient ,rephaim groan under the waters2 and ,solomon1 that the ways of a loose woman lead to the ,rephaim2 that he who deviates from the ways of wisdom1 shall dwell in the assembly of ,rephaim1 that is1 in hell1 ,prov4 ii1 #ah2 iv1 #ah2 xxi1 #af1 c2 ,gen4 xiv1 #e2 ,deut4 ii1 #aa1 #bj2 iii1 #aa1 #ac2 ,joshua xii1 #d2 xiii1 #ab2 ,job xxvi1 #e4 ,the ,anakim1 or the sons of ,anak1 were the most famous giants of ,palestine4 ,they dwelt at ,hebron and thereabouts4 ,the ,israelites sent to view the promised land reported1 that1 in comparison1 they themselves were but grasshoppers1 ,num4 xiii1 #cc4 #b4 ,as to the existence of giants1 several writers1 both ancient and modern1 have thought that the giants of ,scripture were men famous for violence and crime1 rather than for strength or stature4 ,but it cannot be denied1 that there have been races of men of a stature much above that common at present2 although their size has often been absurdly magnified4 ,the ancients considered persons whose stature exceeded seven feet as gigantic4 ,living giants have certainly been seen who were somewhat taller2 but the existence of those who greatly surpassed it1 or were double the height1 has been inferred only from remains discovered in the earth1 but not from the ocular testimony of credible witnesses4 ,were we to admit what has been reported on the subject1 there would be no bounds to the dimensions of giants2 the earth would seem unsuitable for them to tread upon4 ,history1 however1 acquaints us that1 in the reign of ,claudius1 a giant named ,galbara1 ten feet high was brought to ,rome from the coast of ,africa4 ,an instance is cited by ,goropius1 an author with whom we are otherwise unacquainted1 of a female of equal stature4 ,a certain ,greek sophist1 ,proresius1 is said to have been nine feet in height4 ,julius ,capitolinus affirms that ,maximinian1 the ,roman emperor was eight feet and a half2 there was a ,swede1 one of the life guards of ,frederick the ,great1 of that size4 ,m4 ,le ,cat speaks of a giant exhibited at ,rouen1 measuring eight feet and some inches2 and we believe some have been seen in this country1 within the last thirty years1 whose stature was not inferior4 ,in ,plott's 8,history of ,staffordshire10 there is an instance of a man of seven feet and a half high1 and another1 in ,thoresby's account of ,leeds1 of seven feet five inches high4 ,examples may be found elsewhere of several individuals seven feet in height1 below which1 after the opinion of the ancients1 we may cease to consider men gigantic4 ,entire families sometimes1 though rarely1 occur of six feet four1 or six feet six inches high4 ,from all this we may conclude1 that there may have possibly been seen some solitary instances of men who were ten feet in height2 that those of eight feet are extremely uncommon1 and that even six feet and a half far exceeds the height of men in ,europe4 ,we may reasonably understand that the gigantic nations of ,canaan were above the average size of other people1 with instances among them of several families of gigantic stature4 ,this is all that is necessary to suppose1 in order to explain the account of ,moses2 but the notion that men have gradually degenerated in size has no foundation4 ,there is no evidence whatever1 that the modern tribes of mankind have thus degenerated4 ,the catacombs of ancient ,egypt and ,palestine2 the cenotaph1 if it be truly such1 in the great pyramid2 the tomb of ,alexander the ,great1 are all calculated for bodies of ordinary dimensions4 ,the truth is still more satisfactorily established from the mummies which are yet withdrawn from their receptacles in ,egypt1 and the caverns of the ,canary ,islands4 ,in the most ancient sepulchres of ,britain1 those apparently anterior to the introduction of ,christianity1 no remains are discovered which indicate the larger stature of the inhabitants than our own4 ,in every part of the world domestic implements and personal ornaments1 many centuries old1 are obtained from tombs1 from bogs and mosses1 or those cities overwhelmed by volcanic eruptions1 which would be ill adapted to a gigantic race of ancestors4 ,,gibeon1 the capital city of the ,gibeonites1 who took advantage of the oaths of ,joshua1 and of the elders of ,israel1 procured by an artful representation of their belonging to a very remote country1 ,joshua ix4 ,joshua and the elders had not the precaution to consult ,god on this affair1 but inconsiderately made a league with these people4 ,they soon discovered their mistake1 and1 without revoking their promise of saving their lives1 they condemned them to labour in carrying wood and water for the tabernacle2 and to other works1 as slaves and captives2 in which state of servitude they remained1 till the entire dispersion of the ,jewish nation1 ,a4 ,m4 #beec2 ,b4 ,c4 #adea4 ,three days after the ,gibeonites had surrendered to the ,hebrews1 the kings of ,canaan being informed of it1 five of them came and besieged the city of ,gibeon4 ,the ,gibeonites sent to ,joshua1 and desired speedy help4 ,joshua attacked the five kings early in the morning1 put them to flight1 and pursued them to ,bethoron1 ,josh4 x1 #c1 c4 ,the ,gibeonites were descended from the ,hivites1 the old inhabitants of the country1 and possessed four cities3 ,cephirah1 ,beeroth1 ,kirjath-jearim1 and ,gibeon1 their capital2 all afterward given to ,benjamin1 except ,kirjath-jearim1 which fell to ,judah4 ,the ,gibeonites continued subject to those burdens which ,joshua imposed on them1 and were very faithful to the ,israelites4 ,nevertheless1 ,saul destroyed a great number of them1 #b ,sam4 xxi1 #a2 but ,god1 in the reign of ,david1 sent a great famine1 which lasted three years1 ,a4 ,m4 #bihc2 ,b4 ,c4 #ajba2 and the prophets told ,david that this calamity would continue while ,saul's cruelty remained unavenged4 ,david asked the ,gibeonites what satisfaction they desired4 ,they answered1 8,seven of ,saul's sons we will put to death1 to avenge the blood of our brethren40 ,the ,gibeonites crucified them4 ,from this time there is no mention of the ,gibeonites as a distinct people4 ,but they were probably included among the ,nethinim1 appointed for the service of the temple1 #a ,chron4 ix1 #b4 ,afterward1 those of the ,canaanites who were subdued1 and had their lives spared1 were added to the ,gibeonites4 ,we see in ,ezra viii1 #bj2 ii1 #eh2 #a ,kings ix1 #bj1 #ba1 that ,david1 ,solomon1 and the princes of ,judah1 gave many such to the ,lord2 these ,nethinim being carried into captivity with ,judah and the ,levites1 many of them returned with ,ezra1 ,zerubbabel1 and ,nehemiah1 and continued1 as before1 in the service of the temple1 under the priests and ,levites4 ,we neither know when1 nor by whom1 nor on what occasion1 the tabernacle and altar of burnt sacrifices1 made by ,moses in the wilderness1 were removed to ,gibeon2 but this we certainly know1 that1 toward the end of ,david's reign1 and in the beginning of ,solomon's1 they were there1 #a ,chron4 xxi1 #bi1 #cj4 ,david1 seeing an angel of the ,lord at ,araunah's threshing floor1 was so terrified1 that he had not time or strength to go so far as ,gibeon to offer sacrifice2 but ,solomon1 being seated on the throne1 went to sacrifice at ,gibeon1 #a ,kings iii1 #d4 ,,gideon1 the son of ,joash1 of the tribe of ,manasseh2 the same with ,jerubbaal1 the seventh judge of ,israel4 ,he dwelt in the city of ,ophra1 and was chosen by ,god in a very extraordinary manner to deliver the ,israelites from the oppression of the ,midianites1 under which they had laboured for the space of seven years4 ,see ,judges vi1 #ad-bg2 viii1 #a-bd1 c4 ,,gier ,,eagle1 1 ,lev4 xi1 #ah2 ,deut4 xiv1 #ag4 ,as the root of this word signifies tenderness and affection1 it is supposed to refer to some bird remarkable for its attachment to its young2 hence some have thought that the pelican is to be understood2 and ,bochart endeavours to prove that the golden vulture is meant2 but there can be no doubt that it is the percnopterus of the ancients1 the ach-bobba of the ,arabians1 particularly described by ,bruce under the name of rachamah4 ,he says1 8,we know from ,horus ,apollo1 that the rachma1 or she vulture1 was sacred to ,isis1 and adorned the statue of the goddess2 that it was the emblem of parental affection2 and that it was the hieroglyphic for an affectionate mother40 ,he farther says1 that 8this female vulture1 having hatched her young ones1 continues with them one hundred and twenty days1 providing them with all necessaries2 and1 when the stock of food fails them1 she tears off the fleshy part of her thigh1 and feeds them with that and the blood which flows from the wound40 ,hasselquist thus describes the ,egyptian vulture3 8,the appearance of the bird is as horrid as can well be imagined4 ,the face is naked and wrinkled1 the eyes are large and black1 the beak black and crooked1 the talons large1 and extended ready for prey1 and the whole body polluted with filth4 ,these are qualities enough to make the beholder shudder with horror4 ,notwithstanding this1 the inhabitants of ,egypt cannot be enough thankful to ,providence for this bird4 ,all the places round ,cairo are filled with the dead bodies of asses and camels2 and thousands of these birds fly about and devour the carcasses1 before they putrify and fill the air with noxious exhalations40 ,no wonder that such an animal should be deemed unclean4 ,,gift ,,of ,,tongues1 an ability given to the ,apostles and others of readily and intelligibly speaking a variety of languages which they had never learned4 ,this was a glorious and decisive attestation to the ,gospel1 as well as a suitable1 and1 indeed1 in their circumstances1 a necessary qualification for the mission for which the ,apostles and their coadjutors were designed4 ,nor is there any reason1 with ,dr4 ,middleton1 to understand it as merely an occasional gift1 so that a person might speak a language most fluently one hour1 and be entirely ignorant of it the next2 which neither agrees with what is said of the abuse of it1 nor would it have been sufficient to answer the end proposed1 ,acts ii4 ,some appear to have been gifted with one tongue1 others with more4 ,to ,st4 ,paul this endowment was vouchsafed in a more liberal degree1 than to many others2 for1 as to the ,corinthians1 who had received the gift of tongues1 he says1 8that he spake with tongues more than they all40 ,,gifts4 ,the practice of making presents is very common in oriental countries4 ,the custom probably had its origin among those men who first sustained the office of kings or rulers1 and who1 from the novelty and perhaps the weakness attached to their situation1 chose1 rather than make the hazardous attempt of exacting taxes1 to content themselves with receiving those presents which might be freely offered1 #a ,sam4 x1 #bg4 ,hence it passed into a custom1 that whoever approached the king should come with a gift4 ,this was the practice and the expectation4 ,the custom of presenting gifts was subsequently extended to other great men2 to men who were inferior to the king1 but who were1 nevertheless1 men of influence and rank2 it was also extended to those who were equals1 when they were visited1 ,proverbs xviii1 #af4 ,kings themselves were in the habit of making presents1 probably in reference to the custom in question and the feelings connected with it1 to those individuals1 their inferiors in point of rank1 whom they wished to honour1 and also to those who1 like themselves1 were clothed with the royal authority4 ,these presents1 namely1 such as were presented by the king as a token of the royal esteem and honour1 are almost invariably denominated in the ,hebrew1 and 1 #a ,kings xv1 #ai2 #b ,kings xvi1 #h2 xviii1 #ad2 ,isaiah xxxvi1 #af4 ,the more ancient prophets did not deem it discreditable to them to receive presents1 nor unbecoming their sacred calling1 except when1 as was sometimes the case1 they refused by way of expressing their dissatisfaction or indignation1 #b ,kings v1 #ae2 viii1 #i4 ,in later times1 when false prophets1 in order to obtain money1 prophesied without truth and without authority1 the true prophets1 for the purpose of keeping the line of distinction as broad as possible1 rejected every thing that looked like reward4 ,gifts of this kind1 that have now been described1 are not to be confounded with those which are called 1 and which were presented to judges1 not as a mark of esteem and honour1 but for purposes of bribery and corruption4 ,the former was considered an honour to the giver1 but a gift of the latter kind has been justly reprobated in every age1 ,exod4 xxii1 #h2 ,deut4 x1 #ag2 xvi1 #ai2 xxvii1 #be2 ,psalm xv1 #e2 xxvi1 #aj2 ,isaiah i1 #bc2 v1 #bc2 xxxiii1 #ae4 ,the giver was not restricted as to the kind of present which he should make4 ,he might present not only silver and gold1 but clothes and arms1 also different kinds of food1 in a word any thing which could be of benefit to the recipient1 ,gen4 xliii1 #aa2 #a ,sam4 ix1 #g2 xvi1 #bj2 ,job xiii1 #aa4 ,it was the custom anciently1 as it is at the present time in the east1 for an individual when visiting a person of high rank1 to make some presents of small value to the servants or domestics of the person visited1 #a ,sam4 xxv1 #bg4 ,it was the usual practice among kings and princes to present to their favourite officers in the government1 to ambassadors from foreign courts1 to foreigners of distinction1 and to men eminent for their learning1 garments of greater or less value1 ,genesis xiv1 #bb1 #bc2 ,esther viii1 #ae4 ,the royal wardrobe1 in which a large number of such garments was kept1 is denominated in ,hebrew #b ,chronicles xxxiv1 #bb4 ,it was considered an honour of the highest kind1 if a king or any person in high authority thought it proper1 as a manifestation of his favour1 to give away to another the garment which he had previously worn himself1 #a ,sam4 xviii1 #d4 ,in the east1 at the present day1 it is expected1 that every one who has received a garment from the king will immediately clothe himself in it1 and promptly present himself and render his homage to the giver2 otherwise he runs the hazard of exciting the king's displeasure1 ,matt4 xxii1 #aa1 #ab4 ,it was sometimes the case1 that the king1 when he made a feast1 presented vestments to all the guests who were invited1 with which they clothed themselves before they sat down to it1 #b ,kings x1 #bb2 ,gen4 xlv1 #bb2 ,rev4 iii1 #e4 ,in oriental countries1 the presents which are made to kings and princes are to this day carried on beasts of burden1 are attended with a body of men1 and are escorted with much pomp4 ,it matters not how light or how small the present may be1 it must either be carried on the back of a beast of burden1 or by a man1 who must support it with both his hands1 ,judges iii1 #ah2 #b ,kings viii1 #i4 ,,gihon1 the name of one of the four rivers the source of which was in paradise1 ,genesis ii1 #ac4 7,see ,eden47 ,reland1 ,calmet1 c1 think that ,gihon is the ,araxes1 which has its source1 as well as the ,tigris and ,euphrates1 in the mountains of ,armenia1 and1 running with almost incredible rapidity1 falls into the ,caspian ,sea4 ,gihon was also the name of a fountain to the west of ,jerusalem1 at which ,solomon was anointed king by the high priest ,zadok1 and the ,prophet ,nathan1 #a ,kings i1 #cc4 ,,gilboa1 ,,mount1 a ridge of mountains on the north of ,bethshan1 or ,scythopolis1 forming in that part the boundary of the plain of ,jordan to the west4 ,it is memorable from the defeat of ,saul by the ,philistines2 when his three sons were slain1 and he himself died by his own hand1 his armourbearer refusing to kill him1 #a ,sam4 xxxi4 ,,gilead1 the name given to the monument erected by ,laban and ,jacob1 in testimony of a mutual covenant and agreement1 ,gen4 xxxi1 #dg1 #dh4 ,hence the hill upon which it was erected1 was called ,mount ,gilead1 ,cant4 iv1 #a2 vi1 #e2 ,jer4 #a1 #ai4 ,the mountains of ,gilead were part of that ridge of mountains which extend from ,mount ,lebanon southward1 on the east of the ,holy land2 they gave their name to the whole country which lies on the east of the sea of ,galilee1 and included the mountainous region called in the ,new ,testament ,trachonitis4 ,the ,scripture speaks of the balm of ,gilead1 ,jer4 viii1 #bb2 xlvi1 #aa2 li1 #h4 ,the merchants who bought ,joseph came from ,gilead1 and were carrying balm into ,egypt1 ,gen4 xxxvii1 #be4 ,see ,,balm4 ,,gilgal1 a celebrated place situated on the west of ,jordan1 where the ,israelites encamped some time after their passage over that river1 and where ,joshua pitched twelve stones taken out of ,jordan as a memorial4 ,a considerable city was afterward built there1 which became renowned for many events recorded in the history of the ,jews4 ,gilgal was about a league from ,jordan1 and at an equal distance from ,jericho4 ,it received its name from the circumstance of the ,hebrews being there circumcised2 for when by divine command that rite had been performed upon them1 the ,lord said1 8,this day have ,i rolled away from off you the reproach of ,egypt10 ,joshua v1 #b-d1 c4--,the word ,gilgal signifies rolling4 ,here the ark was long stationed1 and consequently the place was much resorted to by the ,israelites4 ,it seems to have been the place in which ,jeroboam or some of the kings of ,israel instituted idolatrous worship2 and hence the allusions to it by the prophets1 ,hosea iv1 #ae2 ,amos iv1 #d4 ,it is probable that there were idols at ,gilgal as early as the days of ,ehud1 who was one of the judges2 for it is said that1 having delivered his presents to the king1 8,ehud went away1 but returned again from the quarries that were by ,gilgal10 ,judges iii1 #ai4 ,the margin of our ,bibles reads1 8the graven images10 or idols set up by the ,moabites1 the viewing of which1 it is thought1 stirred up ,ehud to revenge the affront thereby offered to the ,god of ,israel4 ,at this same place1 the people met to confirm the kingdom to ,saul1 #a ,sam4 xi1 #ad1 #ae4 ,it was at ,gilgal1 too1 that ,saul incurred the divine displeasure1 in offering sacrifice before ,samuel arrived1 #a ,sam4 xiii2 and there also it was that he received the sentence of his rejection for disobeying the divine command1 and sparing the king of ,amalek with the spoils which he had reserved1 #a ,sam4 xv4 ,it has been supposed that the setting up of stones1 as at ,gilgal and other places1 gave rise to the rude stone circular temples of the ,druids1 and other ,heathens4 ,the idea1 however1 appears fanciful1 and there is an essential difference between stones erected for memorials1 and those used to mark sacred1 or supposed sacred1 places for worship4 ,,girdle4 ,the girdle is an indispensable article in the dress of an oriental3 it has various uses2 but the principal one is to tuck up their long flowing vestments1 that they may not incommode them in their work1 or on a journey4 ,the ,jews1 according to some writers1 wore a double girdle1 one of greater breadth1 with which they girded their tunic when they prepared for active exertions3 the other they wore under their shirt1 around their loins4 ,this under girdle they reckon necessary to distinguish between the heart and the less honourable parts of the human frame4 ,the upper girdle was sometimes made of leather1 the material of which the girdle of ,john the ,baptist was made2 but it was more commonly fabricated of worsted1 often very artfully woven into a variety of figures1 and made to fold several times about the body2 one end of which being doubled back1 and sewn along the edges1 serves them for a purse1 agreeably to the acceptation of 1 in the ,scriptures1 which is translated purse1 in several places of the ,new ,testament1 ,matt4 x1 #i2 ,mark vi1 #h4 ,the ancient ,romans1 in this1 as in many other things1 imitated the orientals2 for their soldiers1 and probably all classes of the citizens1 used to carry their money in their girdles4 ,whence1 in ,horace1 qui zonam perdidit1 means one who had lost his purse2 and ,aulus ,gellius1 ,c4 ,gracchus is introduced1 saying1 8,those girdles which ,i carried out full of money when ,i went from ,rome1 ,i have1 at my return from the province1 brought again empty40 ,the ,turks make a farther use of these girdles1 by fixing their knives and poinards in them2 while the writers and secretaries suspend in them their ink-horns2 a custom as old as the ,prophet ,ezekiel1 who mentions 8a person clothed in white linen1 with an ink-horn upon his loins10 ,ezek4 ix1 #b4 ,that part of the ink-holder which passes between the girdle and the tunic1 and receives their pens1 is long and flat2 but the vessel for the ink1 which rests upon the girdle1 is square1 with a lid to clasp over it4 #b4 ,to loose the girdle and give it to another was1 among the orientals1 a token of great confidence and affection4 ,thus1 to ratify the covenant which ,jonathan made with ,david1 and to express his cordial regard for his friend1 among other things1 he gave him his girdle4 ,a girdle curiously and richly wrought was among the ancient ,hebrews a mark of honour1 and sometimes bestowed as a reward of merit2 for this was the recompense which ,joab declared he meant to bestow on the man who put ,absalom to death3 8,why didst thou not smite him there to the ground8 and ,i would have given thee ten shekels of silver1 and a girdle10 #b ,samuel xviii1 #aa4 ,the reward was certainly meant to correspond with the importance of the service which he expected him to perform1 and the dignity of his own station as commander in chief3 we may1 therefore1 suppose that the girdle promised was not a common one of leather1 or plain worsted1 but of costly materials and richly adorned2 for people of rank and fashion in the east wear very broad girdles1 all of silk1 and superbly ornamented with gold and silver1 and precious stones1 of which they are extremely proud1 regarding them as the tokens of their superior station and the proof of their riches4 8,to gird up the loins0 is to bring the flowing robe within the girdle1 and so to prepare for a journey1 or for some vigorous exercise4 ,,glass1 4 ,this word occurs ,rev4 xxi1 #ah1 #ba2 and the adjective 1 ,rev4 iv1 #f2 xv1 #b4 ,parkhurst says that in the later ,greek writers1 and in the ,new ,testament1 denotes the artificial substance1 glass2 and that we may either with ,mintert derive it from 1 splendour1 or immediately from the ,hebrew 1 to shine4 ,there seems to be no reference to glass in the ,old ,testament4 ,the art of making it was not known4 ,our translators have rendered the ,hebrew word 1 in ,exodus xxxviii1 #h1 and ,job xxxvii1 #ah1 8looking-glass40 ,but the making mirrors of glass coated with quicksilver1 is an invention quite modern4 ,the word looking-glass occurs in our version of ,ecclesiasticus xii1 #aa1 8,never trust thine enemy2 for like as iron rusteth1 so is his wickedness4 ,though he humble himself1 and go crouching1 yet take good heed and beware of him1 and thou shalt be unto him as if thou hadst washed a looking-glass1 and thou shalt know that his rust hath not been altogether wiped away40 ,this passage proves1 by its mention of rust1 that mirrors were then made of polished metal4 ,the word 1 or mirror1 occurs in #a ,cor4 xiii1 #ab1 and ,james i1 #bc4 ,dr4 ,pearce thinks that in the former place it signifies any of those transparent substances which the ancients used in their windows1 and through which they saw external objects obscurely4 ,but others are of opinion that the word denotes a mirror of polished metal2 as this1 however1 was liable to many imperfections1 so that the object before it was not seen clearly or fully1 the meaning of the ,apostle is1 that we see things as it were by images reflected from a mirror1 which shows them very obscurely and indistinctly4 ,in the latter place1 a mirror undoubtedly is meant2 8,for if any be a hearer of the word1 and not a doer1 he is like unto a man beholding his natural face in a glass3 for he beholdeth himself1 and goeth his way1 and straightway he forgetteth what manner of man he was30 but in the former1 #a ,cor4 xiii1 #ab1 semi-transparent glass such as that which we see in the ancient glass vases of the ,romans is obviously intended4 ,specimens of ,roman glass may be seen in collections of antiquities1 and some have been dug up at ,pompeii2 but in all it is cloudy and dull1 and objects can only be seen through it with indistinctness4 ,from this we may fully perceive the force of the ,apostle's words1 8now we see through a glass darkly40 ,,glean4 ,to glean is properly to gather ears of corn1 or grapes1 left by the reapers1 c4 ,the ,jews were not allowed to glean their fields1 but were to leave this to the poor1 ,lev4 xix1 #aj2 xxiii1 #bb2 ,deut4 xxiv1 #ba2 ,ruth ii1 #c4 ,,glorify1 to make glorious or honourable1 or to cause to appear so1 ,john xii1 #bh2 xiii1 #ca1 #cb2 xv1 #h2 xvii1 #d1 #e2 xxi1 #ai2 ,acts iii1 #ac4 ,in this view it particularly refers to the resurrection of ,christ1 and his ascension to the right hand of ,god1 ,john vii1 #ci2 xii1 #af4 ,it also expresses that change which shall pass upon believers at the general resurrection1 and their admission into heaven4 ,,glory1 splendour1 magnificence4 ,the glory of ,god in the writings of ,moses1 denotes1 generally1 the divine presence2 as when he appeared on ,mount ,sinai2 or1 the bright cloud which declared his presence1 and descended on the tabernacle of the congregation1 ,exod4 xxiv1 #i1 #aj1 #af1 #ag4 ,moses1 with ,aaron1 ,nadab1 ,abihu1 and seventy elders of ,israel1 went up to ,mount ,sinai1 and 8saw the glory of the ,lord40 ,now 8the glory of the ,lord was1 as it were1 a burning fire on the mountain2 and under his feet was1 as it were1 the brightness of the sapphire stone1 resembling heaven itself in clearness40 ,the glory of the ,lord appeared to ,israel in the cloud also1 when he gave them manna and quails1 ,exod4 xvi1 #g1 #aj4 ,moses having earnestly begged of ,god to show his glory to him1 ,god said1 8,thou canst not see my face1 for there shall no man see me and live4 ,and the ,lord said1 ,there is a place by me1 and thou shalt stand upon a rock3 and it shall come to pass1 while my glory passeth by1 that ,i will put thee in the cleft of the rock1 and will cover thee with my hand while ,i pass by3 and ,i will take away my hand1 and thou shalt see my back parts30 7the train1 the fainter rays of the glory37 8but my face shall not be seen10 ,exod4 xxxiii1 #ah4 ,the ark of ,god is called the glory of ,israel2 and the glory of ,god1 #a ,samuel iv1 #ba1 #bb2 ,psalm xxvi1 #h4 ,the priestly ornaments are called 8garments of glory10 ,exod4 xxviii1 #b1 #dj2 and the sacred vessels1 8vessels of glory10 #a ,macc4 ii1 #i1 #ab4 ,solomon 8in all his glory10 in all his lustre1 in his richest ornaments1 was not so beautifully arrayed as a lily1 ,matt4 vi1 #bi2 ,luke xii1 #bg4 ,when the prophets describe the conversion of the ,gentiles1 they speak of the 8glory of the ,lord0 as filling the earth2 that is1 his knowledge shall universally prevail1 and he shall be every where worshipped and glorified4 ,the term 8glory0 is used also of the ,gospel dispensation by ,st4 ,paul2 and to express the future felicity of the saints in heaven4 ,when the ,hebrews required an oath of any man1 they said1 8,give glory to ,god30 confess the truth1 give him glory1 confess that ,god knows the most secret thoughts1 the very bottom of your hearts1 ,joshua vii1 #ai2 ,john ix1 #bd4 ,,gnat1 1 ,matt4 xxiii1 #bd1 a small-winged insect1 comprehending a genus of the order of diptera4 ,in those hot countries1 as ,servius remarks1 speaking of the east1 gnats and flies are very apt to fall into wine1 if it be not carefully covered2 and passing the liquor through a strainer1 that no gnat or part of one might remain1 became a proverb for exactness about little matters4 ,this may help us to understand that passage1 ,matt4 xxiii1 #bd1 where the proverbial expression of carefully straining out a little fly from the liquor to be drunk1 and yet swallowing a camel1 intimates1 that the scribes and ,pharisees affected to scruple little things1 and yet disregarded those of the greatest moment4 ,,gnostics1 from 1 8knowledge10 men of science and wisdom1 illuminati2 men who1 from blending the philosophy of the east1 or of ,greece1 with the doctrines of the ,gospel1 boasted of deeper knowledge in the ,scriptures and theology than others4 ,it was1 therefore1 not so properly a distinct sect as a generic term1 comprehending all who1 forsaking the simplicity of the ,gospel1 pretended to be 8wise above what is written10 to explain the ,new ,testament by the dogmas of the philosophers1 and to derive from the sacred writings mysteries which never were contained in them4 ,the origin of the ,gnostic heresy1 as it is called1 has been variously stated4 ,the principles of this heresy were1 however1 much older than ,christianity2 and many of the errors alluded to in the apostolic epistles are doubtless of a character very similar to some branches of the ,gnostic system4 7,see ,cabbala47 ,cerinthus1 against whom ,st4 ,john wrote his ,gospel2 the ,nicolaitans1 mentioned in the ,revelation1 and the ,ebionites1 7described under that article17 were all early ,gnostics1 although the system was not then so completely formed as afterward4 ,dr4 ,burton1 in his ,bampton ,lectures1 has thus sketched the ,gnostic system3--,in attempting to give an account of these doctrines1 ,i must begin with observing what we shall see more plainly when we trace the causes of ,gnosticism1 that it was not by any means a new and distinct philosophy1 but made up of selections from almost every system4 ,thus we find in it the ,platonic doctrine of ideas1 and the notion that every thing in this lower world has a celestial and immaterial archetype4 ,we find in it evident traces of that mystical and cabalistic jargon which1 after their return from captivity1 deformed the religion of the ,jews2 and many ,gnostics adopted the oriental notion of two independent coternal principles1 the one the author of good1 the other of evil4 ,lastly1 we find the ,gnostic theology full of ideas and terms which must have been taken from the ,gospel2 and ,jesus ,christ1 under some form or other1 of on1 emanation1 or incorporeal phantom1 enters into all their systems1 and is the means of communicating to them that knowledge which raised them above all other mortals1 and entitled them to their peculiar name4 ,the genius and very soul of ,gnosticism was mystery3 its end and object was to purify its followers from the corruptions of matter1 and to raise them to a higher scale of being1 suited only to those who were become perfect by knowledge4 #b4 ,we have a key to many parts of their system1 when we know that they held matter to be intrinsically evil1 of which1 consequently1 ,god could not be the author4 ,hence arose their fundamental tenet1 that the creator of the world1 or ,demiurgus1 was not the same with the supreme ,god1 the ,author of good1 and the ,father of ,christ4 ,their system allowed some of them to call the creator ,god2 but the title most usually given to him was ,demiurgus4 ,those who embraced the doctrine of two principles supposed the world to have been produced by the evil principle2 and1 in most systems1 the creator1 though not the father of ,christ1 was looked upon as the ,god of the ,jews1 and the author of the ,mosaic law4 ,some1 again1 believed that angels were employed in creating the world2 but all were agreed in maintaining that matter itself was not created1 that it was eternal1 and remained inactive1 till ,dispositam1 quisquis fuit ille ,deorum1 ,congeriem secuit1 sectamque in membra redegit4 ,,ovid4 ,some ,god1 whoever he was1 separated and arranged the mass1 and reduced it1 when separated1 into elements4 ,the supreme ,god had dwelt from all eternity in a pleroma of inaccessible light2 and beside the name of first ,father1 or first ,principle1 they called him also ,bythus1 as if to denote the unfathomable nature of his perfections4 ,this being1 by an operation purely mental1 or by acting upon himself1 produced two other beings of different sexes1 from whom1 by a series of descents1 more or less numerous according to different schemes1 several pairs of beings were formed1 who were called ons1 from the periods of their existence before time was1 or emanations1 from the mode of their production4 ,these successive ons or emanations appear to have been inferior each to the preceding2 and their existence was indispensable to the ,gnostic scheme1 that they might account for the creation of the world without making ,god the author of evil4 ,these ons lived through countless ages with their first father2 but the system of emanations seems to have resembled that of concentric circles2 and they gradually deteriorated1 as they approached nearer and nearer to the extremity of the pleroma4 ,beyond this pleroma was matter1 inert and powerless1 though coternal with the supreme ,god1 and like him without beginning4 ,at length1 one of the ons passed the limits of the pleroma1 and1 meeting with matter1 created the world1 after the form and model of an ideal world which existed in the pleroma or in the mind of the supreme ,god4 ,here it is that inconsistency is added to absurdity in the ,gnostic scheme4 ,for1 let the intermediate ons be as many as the wildest imagination could devise1 still ,god was the remote1 if not the proximate1 cause of creation4 ,added to which1 we are to suppose that the ,demiurgus formed the world without the knowledge of ,god2 and that1 having formed it1 he rebelled against him4 ,here1 again1 we find a strong resemblance to the oriental doctrine of two principles1 good and evil1 or light and darkness4 ,the two principles were always at enmity with each other4 ,god must have been conceived to be more powerful than matter1 or an emanation from ,god could not have shaped and moulded it into form3 yet ,god was not able to reduce matter into its primeval chaos1 nor to destroy the evil which the ,demiurgus had produced4 ,what ,god could not prevent1 he was always endeavouring to cure3 and here it is that the ,gnostics borrowed so largely from the ,christian scheme4 ,the names1 indeed1 of several of their ons were evidently taken from terms which they found in the ,gospel4 ,thus we meet with ,logos1 ,monogenes1 ,zoe1 ,ecclesia1 all of them successive emanations from the supreme ,god1 and all dwelling in the pleroma4 ,at length1 we meet with ,christ and the ,holy ,ghost1 as two of the last ons which were put forth4 ,christ was sent into the world to remedy the evil which the creative on or ,demiurgus had caused4 ,he was to emancipate men from the tyranny of matter1 or of the evil principle2 and1 by revealing to them the true ,god1 who was hitherto unknown1 to fit them1 by a perfection and sublimity of knowledge1 to enter the divine pleroma4 ,to give this knowledge1 was the end and object of ,christ's coming upon earth2 and hence the inventors and believers of the doctrine assumed to themselves the name of ,gnostics4 ,in all their notions concerning ,christ1 we still find them struggling with the same difficulty of reconciling the author of good with the existence of evil4 ,christ1 as being an emanation from ,god1 could have no real connection with matter3 yet1 the ,christ of the ,gnostics was held out to be the same with him who was revealed in the ,gospel2 and it was notorious that he was revealed as the ,son of ,mary1 who appeared in a human form4 ,the methods which they took to extricate themselves from the difficulty1 were principally two3 they either denied that ,christ had a real body at all1 and held that he was an unsubstantial phantom2 or1 granting that there was a man called ,jesus1 the son of human parents1 they believed that one of the ons1 called ,christ1 quitted the pleroma1 and descended upon ,jesus at his baptism4 #c4 ,we have seen that the ,god who was the father or progenitor of ,christ1 was not considered to be the creator of the world4 ,neither was he the ,god of the ,old ,testament1 and the giver of the ,mosaic law4 ,this notion was supported by the same argument which infidels have often urged1 that the ,god of the ,jews is represented as a ,god of vengeance and of cruelty2 but it was also a natural consequence of their fundamental principle1 that the author of good cannot in any manner be the author of evil4 ,in accordance with this notion1 we find all the ,gnostics agreed in rejecting the ,jewish ,scriptures1 or1 at least1 in treating them with contempt4 ,since they held that the supreme ,god was revealed for the first time to mankind by ,christ1 he could not have been the ,god who inspired the prophets2 and yet1 with that strange inconsistency which we have already observed in them1 they appealed to these very ,scriptures in support of their own doctrines4 ,they believed the prophets to have been inspired by the same creative on1 or the same principle of evil1 which acted originally upon matter2 and if their writings had come down to us1 we should perhaps find them arguing1 that1 though the prophets were not inspired by the supreme ,god1 they still could not help giving utterance to truth4 #d4 ,their same abhorrence of matter1 and their same notion concerning that purity of knowledge which ,christ came upon earth to impart1 led them to reject the ,christian doctrines of a future resurrection and a general judgment4 ,they seem to have understood the ,apostles as preaching literally a resurrection of the body2 and it is certain that the fathers insisted upon this very strongly as an article of belief4 ,but to imagine that the body1 a mass of created and corruptible matter1 could ever enter into heaven1 into that pleroma which was the dwelling of the supreme ,god1 was a notion which violated the fundamental principle of the ,gnostics4 ,according to their scheme1 no resurrection was necessary1 much less a final judgment4 ,the ,gnostic1 the man who had attained to perfect knowledge1 was gradually emancipated from the grossness of matter2 and1 by an imperceptible transition1 which none but a ,gnostic could comprehend1 he was raised to be an inhabitant of the divine pleroma4 ,if we would know the effect which the doctrines of the ,gnostics had upon their moral conduct1 we shall find that the same principle led to two very opposite results4 ,though the fathers may have exaggerated the errors of their opponents1 it seems undeniable1 that many ,gnostics led profligate lives1 and maintained upon principle that such conduct was not unlawful4 ,others1 again1 are represented as practising great austerities1 and endeavouring1 by every means1 to mortify the body and its sensual appetites4 ,both parties were actuated by the same common notion1 that matter is inherently evil4 ,the one thought that the body1 which is compounded of matter1 ought to be kept in subjection2 and hence they inculcated self-denial1 and the practice of moral virtue3 while others1 who had persuaded themselves that knowledge was every thing1 despised the distinctions of the moral law1 which was given1 as they said1 not by the supreme ,god1 but by an inferior on1 or a principle of evil1 who had allied himself with matter4 #e4 ,with respect to the origin of this system the same author observes3 ,there is no system of philosophy which has been traced to a greater number of sources than that which we are now discussing2 and the variety of opinions seems to have arisen from persons either not observing the very different aspects which ,gnosticism assumed1 or from wishing to derive it from one exclusive quarter4 ,thus1 some have deduced it from the eastern notion of a good and evil principle1 some from the ,jewish ,cabbala1 and others from the doctrines of the later ,platonists4 ,each of these systems is able to support itself by alleging very strong resemblances2 and those persons have taken the most natural and probably the truest course1 who have concluded that all these opinions contributed to build up the monstrous system1 which was known by the name of ,gnosticism4 ,,goat1 4 ,there are other names or appellations given to the goat1 as1 #a4 1 #a ,kings xx1 #bg1 which means the ram-goat1 or leader of the flock4 #b4 1 a word which never occurs but in the plural1 and means1 the best prepared1 or choicest of the flock2 and metaphorically princes1 as1 ,zech4 x1 #c1 8,i will visit the goats1 saith the ,lord10 that is1 ,i will begin my vengeance with the princes of the people4 8,hell from beneath is moved for thee1 to meet thee at thy coming2 it stirreth up the dead for thee1 even all the great goats of the earth10 ,isaiah xiv1 #i2 all the kings1 all the great men4 ,and ,jeremiah1 speaking of the princes of the ,jews1 says1 8,remove out of the midst of ,babylon1 and be as the he-goats before the flocks10 ,jer4 #a1 #h4 #c4 1 a name for the goat1 of ,chaldee origin1 and found only in ,ezra vi1 #ag2 viii1 #ce2 ,daniel viii1 #e1 #ba4 #d4 1 from 1 a goat1 and 1 to wander about1 ,leviticus xvi1 #h1 8the scape-goat40 #e4 1 hairy1 or shaggy1 whence 1 8the shaggy ones40 ,in ,lev4 xvii1 #g1 it is said1 8,and they shall no more offer their sacrifices unto devils10 7seirim1 8hairy ones107 8after whom they have gone a whoring40 ,the word here means idolatrous images of goats1 worshipped by the ,egyptians4 ,it is the same word that is translated satyrs1 in ,isaiah xiii1 #ba2 where the ,,lxx render it 1 demons4 ,but here they have 1 to vain things or idols1 which comes to the same sense4 ,what gives light to so obscure a passage is what we read in ,maimonides1 that the ,zabian idolaters worshipped demons under the figure of goats1 imagining them to appear in that form1 whence they called them by the names of seirim2 and that this custom1 being spread among other nations1 gave occasion to this precept4 ,in like manner we learn from ,herodotus1 that the ,egyptians of ,mendes held goats to be sacred animals1 and represented the god ,pan with the legs and head of that animal4 ,from those ancient idolaters the same notion seems to have been derived by the ,greeks and ,romans1 who represented their ,pan1 their fauns1 satyrs1 and other idols1 in the form of goats3 from all which it is highly probable1 that the ,israelites had learned in ,egypt to worship certain demons1 or sylvan deities1 under the symbolical figure of goats4 ,though the phrase1 8after whom they have gone a whoring10 is equivalent in ,scripture to that of committing idolatry1 yet we are not to suppose that it is not to be taken in a literal sense in many places1 even where it is used in connection with idolatrous acts of worship4 ,it is well known that ,baal-peor and ,ashtaroth were worshipped with unclean rites1 and that public prostitution formed a grand part of the worship of many deities among the ,egyptians1 ,moabites1 ,canaanites1 c4 ,the goat was one of the clean beasts which the ,israelites might both eat and offer in sacrifice4 ,the kid1 is often mentioned as a food1 in a way that implies that it was considered as a delicacy4 ,the 1 or wild goat1 mentioned ,deut4 xiv1 #e1 and no where else in the ,hebrew ,bible1 is supposed to be the tragelaphus1 or 8goat-deer40 ,schultens conjectures that this animal might have its name1 ob fugacitatem1 from its shyness1 or running away4 ,the word 1 occurs #a ,sam4 xxiv1 #c2 ,job xxxix1 #a2 ,psalm civ1 #ah2 ,prov4 v1 #ai3 and various have been the sentiments of interpreters on the animal intended by it4 ,bochart insists that it is the ibex1 or 8rock-goat40 ,the root whence the name is derived1 signifies to ascend1 to mount2 and the ibex is famous for clambering1 climbing1 and leaping1 on the most craggy precipices4 ,the ,arab writers attribute to the jaal very long horns1 bending backward2 consequently it cannot be the chamois4 ,the horns of the jaal are reckoned among the valuable articles of traffic1 ,ezek4 xxvii1 #ae4 ,the ibex is finely shaped1 graceful in its motions1 and gentle in its manners4 ,the female is particularly celebrated by natural historians for tender affection to her young1 and the incessant vigilance with which she watches over their safety2 and also for ardent attachment and fidelity to her mate4 ,,god1 an immaterial1 intelligent1 and free ,being2 of perfect goodness1 wisdom1 and power2 who made the universe1 and continues to support it1 as well as to govern and direct it1 by his providence4 ,philologists have hitherto considered the word ,god as being of the same signification with good2 and this is not denied by ,m4 ,hallenberg4 ,but he thinks that both words originally denoted unity2 and that the root is 1 unus2 whence the ,syriac ,chad and ,gada2 the ,arabic ,ahd and ,gahd2 the ,persic ,choda and ,chuda2 the ,greek and 2 the ,teutonic ,gud2 the ,german ,gott2 and our ,saxon ,god4 ,the other names of ,god1 this author thinks1 are referable to a similar origin4 #b4 ,by his immateriality1 intelligence1 and freedom1 ,god is distinguished from ,fate1 ,nature1 ,destiny1 ,necessity1 ,chance1 ,anima ,mundi1 and from all the other fictitious beings acknowledged by the ,stoics1 ,pantheists1 ,spinosists1 and other sorts of ,atheists4 ,the knowledge of ,god1 his nature1 attributes1 word1 and works1 with the relations between him and his creatures1 makes the subject of the extensive science called theology4 ,in ,scripture ,god is defined by1 8,i am that ,i am2 ,alpha and ,omega2 the ,beginning and ,end of all things40 ,among philosophers1 he is defined a ,being of infinite perfection2 or in whom there is no defect of any thing which we conceive may raise1 improve1 or exalt his nature4 ,he is the ,first ,cause1 the ,first ,being1 who has existed from the beginning1 has created the world1 or who subsists necessarily1 or of himself4 #c4 ,the plain argument1 says ,maclaurin1 in his 8,account of ,sir ,i4 ,newton's ,philosophical ,discoveries10 for the existence of the ,deity1 obvious to all1 and carrying irresistible conviction with it1 is from the evident contrivance and fitness of things for one another1 which we meet with throughout all parts of the universe4 ,there is no need of nice or subtle reasonings in this matter2 a manifest contrivance immediately suggests a contriver4 ,it strikes us like a sensation2 and artful reasonings against it may puzzle us1 but it is without shaking our belief4 ,no person1 for example1 that knows the principles of optics1 and the structure of the eye1 can believe that it was formed without skill in that science2 or that the ear was formed without the knowledge of sounds2 or that the male and female in animals were not formed for each other1 and for continuing the species4 ,all our accounts of nature are full of instances of this kind4 ,the admirable and beautiful structure of things for final causes1 exalts our idea of the ,contriver2 the unity of design shows him to be one4 ,the great motions in the system performed with the same facility as the least1 suggest his almighty power1 which gave motion to the earth and the celestial bodies with equal ease as to the minutest particles4 ,the subtilty of the motions and actions in the internal parts of bodies1 shows that his influence penetrates the inmost recesses of things1 and that he is equally active and present every where4 ,the simplicity of the laws that prevail in the world1 the excellent disposition of things1 in order to obtain the best ends1 and the beauty which adorns the works of nature1 far superior to any thing in art1 suggest his consummate wisdom4 ,the usefulness of the whole scheme1 so well contrived for the intelligent beings that enjoy it1 with the internal disposition and moral structure of these beings themselves1 shows his unbounded goodness4 ,these are arguments which are sufficiently open to the views and capacities of the unlearned1 while at the same time they acquire new strength and lustre from the discoveries of the learned4 ,the ,deity's acting and interposing in the universe1 show that he governs as well as formed it2 and the depth of his counsels1 even in conducting the material universe1 of which a great part surpasses our knowledge1 keeps up an inward veneration and awe of this great ,being1 and disposes us to receive what may be otherwise revealed to us concerning him4 ,it has been justly observed1 that some of the laws of nature now known to us must have escaped us if we had wanted the sense of seeing4 ,it may be in his power to bestow upon us other senses1 of which we have at present no idea2 without which it may be impossible for us to know all his works1 or to have more adequate ideas of himself4 ,in our present state1 we know enough to be satisfied of our dependency upon him1 and of the duty we owe to him1 the ,lord and ,disposer of all things4 ,he is not the object of sense2 his essence1 and1 indeed1 that of all other substances1 are beyond the reach of all our discoveries2 but his attributes clearly appear in his admirable works4 ,we know that the highest conceptions we are able to form of them1 are still beneath his real perfections2 but his power and dominion over us1 and our duty toward him1 are manifest4 #d4 ,though ,god has given us no innate ideas of himself1 says ,mr4 ,locke1 yet1 having furnished us with those faculties our minds are endowed with1 he hath not left himself without a witness2 since we have sense1 perception1 and reason1 and cannot want a clear proof of him as long as we carry ourselves about us4 ,to show1 therefore1 that we are capable of knowing1 that is1 of being certain that there is a ,god1 and how we may come by this certainty1 ,i think we need go no farther than ourselves1 and that undoubted knowledge we have of our own existence4 ,i think it is beyond question1 that man has a clear perception of his own being2 he knows certainly that he exists1 and that he is something4 ,in the next place1 man knows1 by an intuitive certainty1 that bare nothing can no more produce any real being1 than it can be equal to two right angles4 ,if1 therefore1 we know there is some real ,being1 it is an evident demonstration1 that from eternity there has been something2 since what was not from eternity had a beginning2 and what had a beginning must be produced by something else4 ,next it is evident1 that what has its being from another must also have all that which is in1 and belongs to1 its being from another too2 all the powers it has must be owing to1 and derived from1 the same source4 ,this eternal source1 then1 of all being must be also the source and original of all power2 and so this eternal ,being must be also the most powerful4 ,again3 man finds in himself perception and knowledge3 we are certain1 then1 that there is not only some ,being1 but some knowing1 intelligent ,being1 in the world4 ,there was a time1 then1 when there was no knowing ,being1 or else there has been a knowing ,being from eternity4 ,if it be said there was a time when that eternal ,being had no knowledge1 ,i reply1 that then it is impossible there should have ever been any knowledge2 it being as impossible that things wholly void of knowledge1 and operating blindly1 and without any perception1 should produce a knowing ,being1 as it is impossible that a triangle should make itself three angles bigger than two right ones4 ,thus from the consideration of ourselves1 and what we infallibly find in our own constitutions1 our reason leads us to the knowledge of this certain and evident truth1 that there is an eternal1 most powerful1 and knowing ,being1 which1 whether any one will call ,god1 it matters not4 ,the thing is evident2 and from this idea1 duly considered1 will easily be deduced all those other attributes we ought to ascribe to this eternal ,being4 ,from what has been said1 it is plain to me1 that we have a more certain knowledge of the existence of a ,god1 than of any thing our senses have not immediately discovered to us4 ,nay1 ,i presume ,i may say that we more certainly know that there is a ,god1 than that there is any thing else without us4 ,when ,i say we know1 ,i mean1 there is such a knowledge within our reach1 which we cannot miss1 if we will but apply our minds to that as we do to several other inquiries4 ,it being then unavoidable for all rational creatures to conclude that something has existed from eternity1 let us next see what kind of thing that must be4 ,there are but two sorts of beings in the world that man knows or conceives2 such as are purely material without sense or perception1 and sensible1 perceiving beings1 such as we find ourselves to be4 ,these two sorts we shall call cogitative and incogitative beings2 which to our present purpose are better than material and immaterial4 ,if1 then1 there must be something eternal1 it is very obvious to reason that it must be a cogitative being2 because it is as impossible to conceive that bare incogitative matter should ever produce a thinking1 intelligent being1 as that nothing should of itself produce matter4 ,let us suppose any parcel of matter eternal1 we shall find it in itself unable to produce any thing4 ,let us suppose its parts firmly at rest together1 if there were no other being in the world1 must it not eternally remain so1 a dead inactive lump8 ,is it possible to conceive that it can add motion to itself1 or produce any thing8 ,matter1 then1 by its own strength cannot produce in itself so much as motion4 ,the motion it has must also be from eternity1 or else added to matter by some other being1 more powerful than matter4 ,but let us suppose motion eternal too1 yet matter1 incogitative matter1 and motion could never produce thought3 knowledge will still be as far beyond the power of nothing to produce4 ,divide matter into as minute parts as you will1 vary its figure and motion as much as you please1 it will operate no otherwise upon other bodies of proportionable bulk1 than it did before this division4 ,the minutest particles of matter knock1 impel1 and resist one another1 just as the greater do2 so that if we suppose nothing eternal1 matter can never begin to be2 if we suppose bare matter without motion eternal1 motion can never begin to be2 if we suppose only matter and motion to be eternal1 thought can never begin to be2 for it is impossible to conceive that matter1 either with or without motion1 could have originally in and from itself1 sense1 perception1 and knowledge1 as is evident from hence1 that then sense1 perception1 and knowledge must be a property eternally inseparable from matter1 and every particle of it4 ,since1 therefore1 whatsoever is the first eternal ,being must necessarily be cogitative2 and whatsoever is first of all things must necessarily contain in it1 and actually have1 at least all the perfections that can ever after exist1 it necessarily follows1 that the first eternal ,being cannot be matter4 ,if1 therefore1 it be evident that something must necessarily exist from eternity1 it is also evident that that something must necessarily be a cogitative ,being4 ,for it is as impossible that incogitative matter should produce a cogitative ,being1 as that nothing1 or the negation of all being1 should produce a positive ,being or matter4 ,this discovery of the necessary existence of an eternal mind sufficiently leads us to the knowledge of ,god4 ,for it will hence follow1 that all other knowing beings that have a beginning must depend upon him1 and have no other ways of knowledge or extent of power than what he gives them2 and therefore if he made those1 he made also the less excellent pieces of this universe1 all inanimate bodies1 whereby his omniscience1 power1 and providence will be established1 and from thence all his other attributes necessarily follow4 #e4 ,in the ,scriptures no attempt is made to prove the existence of a ,god2 such an attempt would have been entirely useless1 because the fact was universally admitted4 ,the error of men consisted1 not in denying a ,god1 but in admitting too many2 and one great object of the ,bible is to demonstrate that there is but one4 ,no metaphysical arguments1 however1 are employed in it for this purpose4 ,the proof rests on facts recorded in the history of the ,jews1 from which it appears that they were always victorious and prosperous so long as they served the only living and true ,god1 ,jehovah1 the name by which the ,almighty made himself known to them1 and uniformly unsuccessful when they revolted from him to serve other gods4 ,what argument could be so effectual to convince them that there was no god in all the earth but the ,god of ,israel8 ,the sovereignty and universal providence of the ,lord ,jehovah are proved by predictions delivered by the ,jewish prophets1 pointing out the fate of nations and of empires1 specifying distinctly their rise1 the duration of their power1 and the causes of their decline2 thus demonstrating that one ,god ruled among the nations1 and made them the unconscious instruments of promoting the purposes of his will4 ,in the same manner1 none of the attributes of ,god are demonstrated in ,scripture by reasoning2 they are simply affirmed and illustrated by facts2 and instead of a regular deduction of doctrines and conclusions from a few admitted principles1 we are left to gather them from the recorded feelings and devotional expressions of persons whose hearts were influenced by the fear of ,god4 ,these circumstances point out a marked singularity in the ,scriptures1 considered as a repository of religious doctrines4 ,the writers1 generally speaking1 do not reason1 but exhort and remonstrate2 they do not attempt to fetter the judgment by the subtleties of argument1 but to rouse the feelings by an appeal to palpable facts4 ,this is exactly what might have been expected from teachers acting under a divine commission1 and armed with undeniable facts to enforce their admonitions4 #f4 ,in three distinct ways do the sacred writers furnish us with information on this great and essential subject1 the existence and the character of ,god2 from the names by which he is designated2 from the actions ascribed to him2 and from the attributes with which he is invested in their invocations and praises2 and in those lofty descriptions of his nature which1 under the inspiration of the ,holy ,spirit1 they have recorded for the instruction of the world4 ,these attributes will be considered under their respective heads2 but the impression of the general view of the divine character1 as thus revealed1 is too important to be omitted4 #g4 ,the names of ,god as recorded in ,scripture convey at once ideas of overwhelming greatness and glory1 mingled with that awful mysteriousness with which1 to all finite minds1 and especially to the minds of mortals1 the divine essence and mode of existence must ever be invested4 ,though ,,one he is 1 ,,elohim1 ,,gods1 persons adorable4 ,he is 1 ,,jehovah1 self-existing2 1 ,,el1 strong1 powerful2 1 ,,ehieh1 ,i am1 ,i will be1 self-existence1 independency1 all-sufficiency1 immutability1 eternity2 1 ,,shaddai1 almighty1 all-sufficient2 1 ,,adon1 ,supporter1 ,lord1 ,judge4 ,these are among the adorable appellatives of ,god which are scattered throughout the revelation that he has been pleased to make of himself3 but on one occasion he was pleased more particularly to declare his name1 that is1 such of the qualities and attributes of the divine nature as mortals are the most interested in knowing2 and to unfold1 not only his natural1 but also those of his moral attributes by which his conduct toward his creatures is regulated4 8,and the ,lord passed by and proclaimed1 ,the ,lord1 the ,lord ,god1 merciful and gracious1 long-suffering1 and abundant in goodness and truth1 keeping mercy for thousands1 forgiving iniquity1 transgression1 and sin1 and that will by no means clear the guilty2 visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children1 and upon the children's children1 unto the third and fourth generation10 ,exodus xxxiv4 ,this is the most ample and particular description of the character of ,god1 as given by himself in the sacred records2 and the import of the several titles by which he has thus in his infinite condescension manifested himself1 has been thus exhibited4 ,he is not only ,,jehovah1 self-existent1 and ,,el1 the strong or mighty ,god2 but he is1 says ,dr4 ,a4 ,clarke1 81 ,,rochum1 the merciful ,being1 who is full of tenderness and compassion2 1 ,,chanun1 the gracious ,one1 he whose nature is goodness itself1 the loving ,god4 1 ,,erec ,,apayim1 long-suffering1 the ,being who1 because of his tenderness1 is not easily irritated1 but suffers long and is kind2 ,,rab1 the great or mighty ,one3 1 ,,chesed1 the bountiful ,being1 he who is exuberant in his beneficence2 1 ,,emeth1 the ,truth1 or ,true ,one1 he alone who can neither deceive nor be deceived2 1 ,,notser ,,chesed1 the ,preserver of bountifulness1 he whose beneficence never ends1 keeping mercy for thousands of generations1 showing compassion and mercy while the world endures2 1 ,,nose ,,avon ,,vapesha ,,vechataah1 he who bears away iniquity1 transgression1 and sin2 properly the ,redeemer1 the ,pardoner1 the ,forgiver1 the ,being whose prerogative it is to forgive sin1 and save the soul2 1 ,,nakeh ,,lo ,,yinnakeh1 the righteous ,judge1 who distributes justice with an impartial hand2 and 1 ,,paked ,,avon1 c1 he who visits iniquity1 he who punishes transgressors1 and from whose justice no sinner can escape2 the ,god of retributive and vindictive justice40 #h4 ,the second means by which the ,scriptures convey to us the knowledge of ,god1 is by the actions which they ascribe to him4 ,they contain1 indeed1 the important record of his dealings with men in every age which is comprehended within the limit of the sacred history2 and1 by prophetic declaration1 they also exhibit the principles on which he will govern the world to the end of time3 so that the whole course of the divine administration may be considered as exhibiting a singularly illustrative comment upon those attributes of his nature which1 in their abstract form1 are contained in such declarations as those which have been just quoted4 ,the first act ascribed to ,god is that of creating the heavens and the earth out of nothing2 and by his fiat alone arranging their parts1 and peopling them with living creatures4 ,by this were manifested--his eternity and self-existence1 as he who creates must be before all creatures1 and he who gives being to others can himself derive it from none3--his almighty power1 shown both in the act of creation and in the number and vastness of the objects so produced3--his wisdom1 in their arrangement1 and in their fitness to their respective ends3--and his goodness1 as the whole tended to the happiness of sentient beings4 ,the foundations of his natural and moral government are also made manifest by his creative acts4 ,in what he made out of nothing he had an absolute right and prerogative3 it awaited his ordering1 and was completely at his disposal2 so that to alter or destroy his own work1 and to prescribe the laws by which the intelligent and rational part of his creatures should be governed1 are rights which none can question4 ,thus on the one hand his character of ,lord or ,governor is established1 and on the other our duty of lowly homage and absolute obedience4 #i4 ,agreeably to this1 as soon as man was created1 he was placed under a rule of conduct4 ,obedience was to be followed with the continuance of the divine favour2 transgression1 with death4 ,the event called forth new manifestations of the character of ,god4 ,his tender mercy1 in the compassion showed to the fallen pair2 his justice1 in forgiving them only in the view of a satisfaction to be hereafter offered to his justice by an innocent representative of the sinning race2 his love to that race1 in giving his own ,son to become this ,redeemer1 and in the fulness of time to die for the sins of the whole world2 and his holiness1 in connecting with this provision for the pardon of man the means of restoring him to a sinless state1 and to the obliterated image of ,god in which he had been created4 ,exemplifications of the divine mercy are traced from age to age1 in his establishing his own worship among men1 and remitting the punishment of individual and national offences in answer to prayer offered from penitent hearts1 and in dependence upon the typified or actually offered universal sacrifice3--of his condescension1 in stooping to the cases of individuals2 in his dispensations both of providence and grace1 by showing respect to the poor and humble2 and1 principally1 by the incarnation of ,god in the form of a servant1 admitting men into familiar and friendly intercourse with himself1 and then entering into heaven to be their patron and advocate1 until they should be received unto the same glory1 8and so be for ever with the ,lord30--of his strictly righteous government1 in the destruction of the old world1 the cities of the plain1 the nations of ,canaan1 and all ancient states1 upon their 8filling up the measure of their iniquities20 and1 to show that 8he will by no means clear the guilty20 in the numerous and severe punishments inflicted even upon the chosen seed of ,abraham1 because of their transgressions3--of his long-suffering1 in frequent warnings1 delays1 and corrective judgments inflicted upon individuals and nations1 before sentence of utter excision and destruction3--of faithfulness and truth1 in the fulfilment of promises1 often many ages after they were given1 as in the promises to ,abraham respecting the possession of the land of ,canaan by his seed1 and in all the 8promises made to the fathers0 respecting the advent1 vicarious death1 and illustrious offices of the 8,christ10 the ,saviour of the world3--of his immutability1 in the constant and unchanging laws and principles of his government1 which remain to this day precisely the same1 in every thing universal1 as when first promulgated1 and have been the rule of his conduct in all places as well as through all time3--of his prescience of future events1 manifested by the predictions of ,scripture3--and of the depth and stability of his counsel1 as illustrated in that plan and purpose of bringing back a revolted world to obedience and felicity1 which we find steadily kept in view in the ,scriptural history of the acts of ,god in former ages2 which is still the end toward which all his dispensations bend1 however wide and mysterious their sweep2 and which they will finally accomplish1 as we learn from the prophetic history of the future1 contained in the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 ,thus the course of divine operation in the world has from age to age been a manifestation of the divine character1 continually receiving new and stronger illustrations until the completion of the ,christian revelation by the ministry of ,christ and his inspired followers1 and still placing itself in brighter light and more impressive aspects as the scheme of human redemption runs on to its consummation4 ,from all the acts of ,god as recorded in the ,scriptures1 we are taught that he alone is ,god2 that he is present every where to sustain and govern all things2 that his wisdom is infinite1 his counsel settled1 and his power irresistible2 that he is holy1 just1 and good2 the ,lord and the ,judge1 but the ,father and the ,friend1 of man4 #aj4 ,more at large do we learn what ,god is1 from the declarations of the inspired writings4 ,as to his substance1 that 8,god is a ,spirit40 ,as to his duration1 that 8from everlasting to everlasting he is ,god20 8the ,king1 eternal1 immortal1 invisible40 ,that1 after all the manifestations he has made of himself1 he is1 from the infinite perfection and glory of his nature1 incomprehensible3 8,lo1 these are but parts of his ways1 and how little a portion is heard of him60 8,touching the ,almighty1 we cannot find him out40 ,that he is unchangeable3 8,the ,father of ,lights1 with whom there is no variableness1 neither shadow of turning40 ,that 8he is the fountain of life10 and the only independent ,being in the universe3 8,who only hath immortality40 ,that every other being1 however exalted1 has its existence from him3 8,for by him were all things created1 which are in heaven and in earth1 whether they are visible or invisible40 ,that the existence of every thing is upheld by him1 no creature being for a moment independent of his support3 8,by him all things consist20 8upholding all things by the word of his power40 ,that he is omnipresent3 8,do not ,i fill heaven and earth with my presence1 saith the ,lord80 ,that he is omniscient3 8,all things are naked and open before the eyes of him with whom we have to do40 ,that he is the absolute ,lord and ,owner of all things3 8,the heavens1 even the heaven of heavens1 are thine1 and all the parts of them30 8,the earth is thine1 and the fulness thereof1 the world and them that dwell therein30 8,he doeth according to his will in the armies of heaven1 and among the inhabitants of the earth40 ,that his providence extends to the minutest objects3 8,the hairs of your head are all numbered30 8,are not two sparrows sold for a farthing8 and one of them shall not fall on the ground without your ,father40 ,that he is a ,being of unspotted purity and perfect rectitude3 8,holy1 holy1 holy1 ,lord ,god of hosts60 8,a ,god of truth1 and in whom is no iniquity30 8,of purer eyes than to behold iniquity40 ,that he is just in the administration of his government3 8,shall not the ,judge of the whole earth do right80 8,clouds and darkness are round about him2 judgment and justice are the habitation of his throne40 ,that his wisdom is unsearchable3 8,o the depth of the wisdom and knowledge of ,god6 ,how unsearchable are his judgments1 and his ways past finding out60 ,and1 finally1 that he is good and merciful3 8,thou art good1 and thy mercy endureth for ever30 8,his tender mercy is over all his works30 8,god1 who is rich in mercy1 for his great love wherewith he loved us1 even when we were dead in sins1 hath quickened us together with ,christ30 8,god was in ,christ1 reconciling the world unto himself1 not imputing their trespasses unto them30 8,god hath given to us eternal life1 and this life is in his ,son40 #aa4 ,under these deeply awful but consolatory views1 do the ,scriptures present to us the supreme object of our worship and trust2 and they dwell upon each of the above particulars with inimitable sublimity and beauty of language1 and with an inexhaustible variety of illustration4 ,nor can we compare these views of the divine nature with the conceptions of the most enlightened of ,pagans1 without feeling how much reason we have for everlasting gratitude1 that a revelation so explicit1 and so comprehensive1 should have been made to us on a subject which only a revelation from ,god himself could have made known4 ,it is thus that ,christian philosophers1 even when they do not use the language of the ,scriptures1 are able to speak on this great and mysterious doctrine1 in language so clear1 and with conceptions so noble2 in a manner too so equable1 so different from the sages of antiquity1 who1 if at any time they approach the truth when speaking of the divine nature1 never fail to mingle with it some essentially erroneous or grovelling conception4 8,by the ,word of ,god10 says ,dr4 ,barrow1 8we mean a ,being of infinite wisdom1 goodness1 and power1 the ,creator and the ,governor of all things1 to whom the great attributes of eternity and independency1 omniscience and immensity1 perfect holiness and purity1 perfect justice and veracity1 complete happiness1 glorious majesty1 and supreme right of dominion belong2 and to whom the highest veneration1 and most profound submission and obedience are due40 8,our notion of ,deity10 says ,bishop ,pearson1 8doth expressly signify a ,being or ,nature of infinite perfection2 and the infinite perfection of a being or nature consists in this1 that it be absolutely and essentially necessary2 an actual ,being of itself2 and potential1 or causative of all beings beside itself1 independent from any other1 upon which all things else depend1 and by which all things else are governed40 8,god is a ,being10 says ,lawson1 8and not any kind of being2 but a substance1 which is the foundation of other beings4 ,and not only a substance1 but perfect4 ,yet many beings are perfect in their kind1 yet limited and finite4 ,but ,god is absolutely1 fully1 and every way infinitely perfect2 and therefore above spirits1 above angels1 who are perfect comparatively4 ,god's infinite perfection includes all the attributes1 even the most excellent4 ,it excludes all dependency1 borrowed existence1 composition1 corruption1 mortality1 contingency1 ignorance1 unrighteousness1 weakness1 misery1 and all imperfections whatever4 ,it includes necessity of being1 independency1 perfect unity1 simplicity1 immensity1 eternity1 immortality2 the most perfect life1 knowledge1 wisdom1 integrity1 power1 glory1 bliss1 and all these in the highest degree4 ,we cannot pierce into the secrets of this eternal ,being4 ,our reason comprehends but little of him1 and when it can proceed no farther1 faith comes in1 and we believe far more than we can understand2 and this our belief is not contrary to reason2 but reason itself dictates unto us1 that we must believe far more of ,god than it can inform us of40 ,to these we may add an admirable passage from ,sir ,isaac ,newton3 8,the word ,,god frequently signifies ,lord2 but every lord is not ,god2 it is the dominion of a spiritual ,being or ,lord that constitutes ,god2 true dominion1 true ,god2 supreme1 the ,supreme2 feigned1 the false god4 ,from such true dominion it follows1 that the true ,god is living1 intelligent1 and powerful2 and from his other perfections1 that he is supreme1 or supremely perfect2 he is eternal and infinite2 omnipotent and omniscient2 that is1 he endures from eternity to eternity2 and is present from infinity to infinity4 ,he governs all things that exist1 and knows all things that are to be known2 he is not eternity or infinity1 but eternal and infinite2 he is not duration or space1 but he endures and is present2 he endures always1 and is present every where2 he is omnipresent1 not only virtually1 but also substantially2 for power without substance cannot subsist4 ,all things are contained and move in him1 but without any mutual passion2 he suffers nothing from the motions of bodies2 nor do they undergo any resistance from his omnipresence4 ,it is confessed1 that ,god exists necessarily1 and by the same necessity he exists always and every where4 ,hence also he must be perfectly similar1 all eye1 all ear1 all arm1 all the power of perceiving1 understanding1 and acting2 but after a manner not at all corporeal1 after a manner not like that of men1 after a manner wholly to us unknown4 ,he is destitute of all body1 and all bodily shape2 and therefore cannot be seen1 heard1 or touched2 nor ought he to be worshipped under the representation of any thing corporeal4 ,we have ideas of the attributes of ,god1 but do not know the substance of even any thing2 we see only the figures and colours of bodies1 hear only sounds1 touch only the outward surfaces1 smell only odours1 and taste tastes2 and do not1 cannot1 by any sense1 or reflex act1 know their inward substances2 and much less can we have any notion of the substance of ,god4 ,we know him by his properties and attributes40 #ab4 ,many able works in proof of the existence of ,god have been written1 the arguments of which are too copious for us even to analyze4 ,it must be sufficient to say that they all proceed1 as it is logically termed1 either priori1 from cause to effect1 or1 which is the safest and most satisfactory mode1 posteriori1 from the effect to the cause4 ,the irresistible argument from the marks of design with which all nature abounds1 to one great intelligent1 designing ,cause1 is by no writers brought out in so clear and masterly a manner as by ,howe1 in his 8,living temple10 and ,paley1 in his 8,natural ,theology40 ,,gods1 in the plural1 is used of the false deities of the ,heathens1 many of which were only creatures to whom divine honours and worship were superstitiously paid4 ,the ,greeks and ,latins1 it is observable1 did not mean1 by the name ,god1 an all-perfect being1 whereof eternity1 infinity1 omnipresence1 c1 were essential attributes3 with them the word only implied an excellent and superior nature2 and1 accordingly1 they give the appellation gods to all beings of a rank or class1 higher or more perfect than that of men1 and especially to those who were inferior agents in the divine administration1 all subject to the one ,supreme4 ,thus men themselves1 according to their system1 might become gods after death1 inasmuch as their souls might attain to a degree of excellence superior to what they were capable of in life4 ,the first idols1 or false gods1 that are said to have been adored were the stars1 sun1 moon1 c1 on account of the light1 heat1 and other benefits which we derive from them4 7,see ,idolatry47 ,afterward the earth came to be deified1 for furnishing fruits necessary for the subsistence of men and animals3 then fire and water became objects of divine worship1 for their usefulness to human life4 ,in process of time1 and by degrees1 gods became multiplied to infinity2 and there was scarce any thing but the weakness or caprice of some devotee or other1 elevated into the rank of deity3 things useless or even destructive not excepted4 ,the principal of the ancient gods1 whom the ,romans called dii majorum gentium1 and ,cicero celestial gods1 ,varro select gods1 ,ovid nobiles deos1 others consentes deos1 were ,jupiter1 ,juno1 ,vesta1 ,minerva1 ,ceres1 ,diana1 ,venus1 ,mars1 ,mercury1 ,neptune1 ,vulcan1 and ,apollo4 ,jupiter is considered as the god of heaven2 ,neptune1 as god of the sea2 ,mars1 as the god of war2 ,apollo1 of eloquence1 poetry1 and physic2 ,mercury1 of thieves2 ,bacchus1 of wine2 ,cupid1 of love1 c4 ,a second sort of gods1 called demi-gods1 semi-dii1 dii minorum gentium1 indigetes1 or gods adopted1 were men canonized and deified4 ,as the greater gods had possession of heaven by their own right1 these secondary deities had it by merit and donation1 being translated into heaven because they had lived as gods upon earth4 #b4 ,the ,heathen gods may be all reduced to the following classes3 7#a47 ,created spirits1 angels1 or demons1 whence good and evil gods2 ,genii1 ,lares1 ,lemures1 ,typhones1 guardian gods1 infernal gods1 c4 7#b47 ,heavenly bodies2 as1 the sun1 moon1 and other planets2 also1 the fixed stars1 constellations1 c4 7#c47 ,elements2 as air1 earth1 ocean1 ,ops1 ,vesta2 the rivers1 fountains1 c4 7#d47 ,meteors4 ,thus the ,persians adored the wind3 thunder and lightning were honoured under the name of ,geryon2 and several nations of ,india and ,america have made themselves gods of the same4 ,castor1 ,pollux1 ,helena1 and ,iris1 have also been preferred from meteors to be gods2 and the like has been practised in regard to comets3 witness that which appeared at the murder of ,csar4 7#e47 ,they erected minerals or fossils into deities4 ,such was the ,btylus4 ,the ,finlanders adored stones2 the ,scythians1 iron2 and many nations1 silver and gold4 7#f47 ,plants have been made gods4 ,thus leeks and onions were deities in ,egypt2 the ,sclavi1 ,lithuanians1 ,celt1 ,vandals1 and ,peruvians1 adored trees and forests2 the ancient ,gauls1 ,britons1 and ,druids1 paid a particular devotion to the oak2 and it was no other than wheat1 corn1 seed1 c1 that the ancients adored under the names of ,ceres and ,proserpina4 7#g47 ,they took themselves gods from among the waters4 ,the ,syrians and ,egyptians adored fishes2 and what were the ,tritons1 the ,nereids1 ,syrens1 c1 but fishes8 ,several nations have adored serpents2 particularly the ,egyptians1 ,prussians1 ,lithuanians1 ,samogitians1 c4 7#h47 ,insects1 as flies and ants1 had their priests and votaries4 7#i47 ,among birds1 the stork1 raven1 sparrowhawk1 ibis1 eagle1 grisson1 and lapwing have had divine honours2 the last in ,mexico1 the rest in ,egypt and at ,thebes4 7#aj47 ,four-footed beasts have had their altars2 as the bull1 dog1 cat1 wolf1 baboon1 lion1 and crocodile1 in ,egypt and elsewhere2 the hog in the island of ,crete2 rats and mice in the ,troas1 and at ,tenedos2 weasels at ,thebes2 and the porcupine throughout all ,zoroaster's school4 7#aa47 ,nothing was more common than to place men among the number of deities2 and from ,belus or ,baal1 to the ,roman emperors before ,constantine1 the instances of this kind are innumerable3 frequently they did not wait so long as their deaths for the apotheosis4 ,nebuchadnezzar procured his statue to be worshipped while living2 and ,virgil shows that ,augustus had altars and sacrifices offered to him2 as we learn from other hands that he had priests called ,augustales1 and temples at ,lyons1 ,narbona1 and several other places1 and he must be allowed the first of the ,romans in whose behalf idolatry was carried to such a pitch4 ,the ,ethiopians deemed all their kings gods3 the ,velleda of the ,germans1 the ,janus of the ,hungarians1 and the ,thaut1 ,woden1 and ,assa of the northern nations1 were indisputably men4 7#ab47 ,not men only1 but every thing that relates to man1 has also been deified2 as labour1 rest1 sleep1 youth1 age1 death1 virtues1 vices1 occasion1 time1 place1 numbers1 among the ,pythagoreans2 the generative power1 under the name of ,priapus4 ,infancy alone had a cloud of deities2 as1 ,vagetanus1 ,levana1 ,rumina1 ,edufa1 ,potina1 ,cuba1 ,cumina1 ,carna1 ,ossilago1 ,statulinus1 ,fabulinus1 c4 ,they also adored the gods ,health1 ,fever1 ,fear1 ,love1 ,pain1 ,indignation1 ,shame1 ,impudence1 ,opinion1 ,renown1 ,prudence1 ,science1 ,art1 ,fidelity1 ,felicity1 ,calumny1 ,liberty1 ,money1 ,war1 ,peace1 ,victory1 ,triumph1 c4 ,lastly1 ,nature1 the universe1 or 1 was reputed a great god4 #c4 ,hesiod has a poem under the title of 1 that is1 8,the ,generation of the ,gods10 in which he explains their genealogy and descent1 sets forth who was the first and principal1 who next descended from him1 and what issue each had3 the whole making a sort of system of ,heathen theology4 ,beside this popular theology1 each philosopher had his system1 as may be seen from the 8,timus0 of ,plato1 and ,cicero 8,de ,natura ,deorum40 ,justin ,martyr1 ,tertullian1 ,arnobius1 ,minutius ,felix1 ,lactantius1 ,eusebius1 ,st4 ,augustine1 and ,theodoret1 show the vanity of the ,heathen gods4 ,it is very difficult to discover the real sentiments of the ,heathens with respect to their gods3 they are exceedingly intricate and confused1 and even frequently contradictory4 ,they admitted so many superior and inferior gods1 who shared the empire1 that every place was full of gods4 ,varro reckons up no less than thirty thousand adored within a small extent of ground1 and yet their number was every day increasing4 ,in modern oriental ,paganism they amount to many millions1 and are1 in fact1 innumerable4 #d4 ,the name of ,god1 in ,hebrew1 ,elohim1 is very ambiguous in ,scripture4 ,the true ,god is often called so1 as are sometimes angels1 judges1 and princes1 and sometimes idols and false gods2 for example3 8,god created the heaven and the earth10 ,gen4 i1 #a4 ,the ,hebrew ,elohim denotes1 in this place1 the true ,god4 8,he who sacrificeth unto any god1 7,elohim17 shall be put to death10 ,exodus xxii1 #bj4 ,and again3 8,among the gods there is none like unto thee10 ,psalm lxxxvi1 #h4 ,princes1 magistrates1 and great men are called gods in the following passages3 8,if a slave is desirous to continue with his master1 he shall be brought to the judges10 ,exod4 xxi1 #f1 in the original1 to the gods4 ,again3 8,if the thief be not found1 then the master of the house shall be brought unto the judges10 ,exod4 xxii1 #h1 in the original1 to the gods2 and in the twenty-eighth verse of the same chapter1 8,thou shalt not speak evil of the gods20 that is1 of the judges or great men4 ,the ,psalmist says that the ,lord 8judgeth among the gods10 ,psalm lxxxii1 #a4 ,and again1 ,god says to ,moses1 8,i have made thee a god to ,pharaoh10 ,exod4 vii1 #a4 ,the pious ,israelites had so great an aversion and such an extreme contempt for strange gods1 that they scorned even to mention them2 they disguised and disfigured their names by substituting in the room of them some term of contempt2 for example1 instead of ,elohim1 they called them ,elilim1 8nothings1 gods of no value20 instead of ,mephibaal1 ,meribaal1 and ,jerubaal1 they said 8,mephibosheth1 ,meribosheth1 and ,jeribosheth40 ,baal signifies master1 husband2 and bosheth1 something to be ashamed of1 something apt to put one in confusion4 ,god forbade the ,israelites to swear by strange gods1 and to pronounce the names of them in their oaths1 ,exod4 xxiii1 #ac4 ,,godliness1 strictly taken1 signifies right worship1 or devotion2 but1 in general1 it imports the whole of practical religion1 #a ,tim4 iv1 #h2 #b ,peter i1 #f4 ,,goel1 1 the avenger of blood4 ,the inhabitants of the east1 it is well known1 are now1 what they anciently were1 exceedingly revengeful4 ,if1 therefore1 an individual should unfortunately happen to lay violent hands upon another person and kill him1 the next of kin is bound to avenge the death of the latter1 and to pursue the murderer with unceasing vigilance until he have caught and killed him1 either by force or by fraud4 ,the same custom exists in ,arabia1 and it appears to have been alluded to by ,rebecca3 when she learned that ,esau was threatening to kill his brother ,jacob1 she endeavoured to send the latter out of the country1 saying1 8,why should ,i be bereft of you both in one day80 ,gen4 xxvii1 #ae4 ,she could not be afraid of the magistrate for punishing the murderer1 for the patriarchs were subject to no superior in ,palestine2 and ,isaac was much too partial to ,esau for her to entertain any expectation that he would condemn him to death for it4 ,it would therefore appear that she dreaded lest he should fall by the hand of the blood avenger1 perhaps of some ,ishmaelite4 ,the office1 therefore1 of the goel was in use before the time of ,moses2 and it was probably filled by the nearest of blood to the party killed1 as the right of redeeming a mortgage field is given to him4 ,to prevent the unnecessary loss of life through a sanguinary spirit of revenge1 the ,hebrew legislator made various enactments concerning the blood avenger4 ,in most ages and countries1 certain reputed sacred places enjoyed the privileges of being asylums2 ,moses1 therefore1 taking it for granted that the murderer would flee to the altar1 commanded that when the crime was deliberate and intentional1 he should be torn even from the altar1 and put to death1 ,exod4 xxi1 #ad4 ,but in the case of unintentional murder1 the man-slayer was enjoined to flee to one of the six cities of refuge1 which were appropriated for his residence4 ,the roads to these cities1 it was enacted1 should be kept in such a state that the unfortunate individual might meet with no impediment whatever in his way1 ,deut4 xix1 #c4 ,if the goel overtook the fugitive before he reached an asylum1 and put him to death1 he was not considered as guilty of blood2 but if the man-slayer had reached a place of refuge1 he was immediately protected1 and an inquiry was instituted whether he had a right to such protection and asylum1 that is1 whether he had caused his neighbour's death undesignedly1 or was a deliberate murderer4 ,in the latter case he was judicially delivered to the goel1 who might put him to death in whatever way he chose2 but in the former case the homicide continued in the place of refuge until the high priest's death1 when he might return home in perfect security4 ,if1 however1 the goel found him without the city1 or beyond its suburbs1 he might slay him without being guilty of blood1 ,numbers xxxv1 #bf1 #bg4 ,farther1 to guard the life of man1 and prevent the perpetration of murder1 ,moses positively prohibited the receiving of a sum of money from a murderer in the way of compensation1 ,numbers xxxv1 #ca4 ,it would seem that if no avenger of blood appeared1 or if he were dilatory in the pursuit of the murderer1 it became the duty of the magistrate himself to inflict the sentence of the law2 and thus we find that ,david deemed this to be his duty in the case of ,joab1 and that ,solomon1 in obedience to his father's dying entreaty1 actually discharged it by putting that murderer to death1 #a ,kings ii1 #e2 vi1 #bh-cd4 ,there is a beautiful allusion to the blood avenger in ,heb4 vi1 #ag1 #ah4 ,the following extracts will prove how tenaciously the eastern people adhere to the principle of revenging the death of their relations and friends3--8,among the ,circassians10 says ,pallas1 8all the relatives of the murderers are considered as guilty4 ,this customary infatuation to revenge the blood of relations generates most of the feuds1 and occasions great bloodshed among all the tribes of ,caucasus2 for unless pardon be purchased1 or obtained by intermarriage between the two families1 the principle of revenge is propagated to all succeeding generations4 ,if the thirst of vengeance is quenched by a price paid to the family of the deceased1 this tribute is called thlil-uasa1 or1 #8the price of blood2' but neither princes nor usdens accept such compensation1 as it is an established law among them to demand blood for blood40 8,the ,nubians10 observes ,light1 8possess few traces among them of government1 or law1 or religion4 ,they know no master1 although the cashief claims a nominal command of the country4 ,they look for redress of injuries to their own means of revenge1 which1 in cases of blood1 extends from one generation to another1 till blood is repaid by blood4 ,on this account they are obliged to be ever on the watch1 and armed3 and in this manner even their daily labours are carried on2 the very boys are armed40 8,if one ,nubian10 remarks ,burckhardt1 8happen to kill another1 he is obliged to pay the debt of blood to the family of the deceased1 and a fine to the governors of six camels1 a cow1 and seven sheep1 or they are taken from his relations4 ,every wound inflicted has its stated fine1 consisting of sheep and dhourra1 but varying in quantity1 according to the parts of the body wounded40 8,when a man or woman is murdered10 says ,malcolm1 8the moment the person by whom the act was perpetrated is discovered1 the heir-at-law to the deceased demands vengeance for the blood4 ,witnesses are examined1 and if the guilt be established1 the criminal is delivered into his hands1 to deal with as he chooses4 ,it is alike legal for him to forgive him1 to accept a sum of money as the price of blood1 or to put him to death4 ,it is only a few years ago that the ,english resident at ,abusheher saw three persons delivered into the hands of the relations of those whom they had murdered4 ,they led their victims bound to the burial ground1 where they put them to death2 but the part of the execution that appeared of the most importance1 was to make the infant children of the deceased stab the murderers with knives1 and imbrue their little hands in the blood of those who had slain their father4 ,the youngest princes of the blood that could hold a dagger were made to stab the assassins of ,aga ,mahomed ,khan4 ,when they were executed1 the successor of ,nadir ,shah sent one of the murderers of that monarch to the females of his harem1 who1 we are told1 were delighted to become his executioners40 ,,gog ,,and ,,magog4 ,moses speaks of ,magog1 son of ,japheth1 but says nothing of ,gog1 ,gen4 x1 #b4 ,according to ,ezekiel1 ,gog was prince of ,magog1 ,ezek4 xxxviii1 #b1 #c1 c2 xxxix1 #a1 #b1 c4 ,magog signifies the country or people1 and ,gog the king of that country2 the general name of the northern nations of ,europe and ,asia1 or the districts north of the ,caucasus1 or ,mount ,taurus4 ,the prophecy of ,ezekiel1 xxxix1 #a-bb1 seems to be revived in the ,apocalypse1 where the hosts of ,gog and ,magog are represented as coming to invade 8the beloved city10 and perishing with immense slaughter likewise in ,armageddon1 8the mount of ,mageddo10 or ,megiddo1 ,rev4 xvi1 #ad-af2 xx1 #g-aj4 ,,gold1 1 ,gen4 xxiv1 #bb1 and very frequently in all other parts of the ,old ,testament2 1 ,matt4 xxiii1 #af1 #ag1 c2 the most perfect and valuable of the metals4 ,in ,job xxviii1 #ae-ah1 #ai1 gold is mentioned five times1 and four of the words are different in the original3 #a4 1 which may mean 8gold in the mine10 or 8shut up10 as the root signifies1 8in the ore40 #b4 1 kethem1 from 1 catham1 8to sign10 8seal10 or 8stamp20 gold made current by being coined2 standard gold1 exhibiting the stamp expressive of its value4 #c4 1 wrought gold1 pure1 highly polished gold4 #d4 1 denoting solidity1 compactness1 and strength2 probably gold formed into different kinds of plate1 or vessels4 ,jerom1 in his comment on ,jer4 x1 #i1 writes 8,septem dominibus apud ,hebros appellatur aurum40 ,the seven names1 which he does not mention1 are as follows1 and thus distinguished by the ,hebrews3 #a4 ,zahab1 gold in general4 #b4 ,zahab tob1 good gold1 of a more valuable kind1 ,gen4 ii1 #ab4 #c4 ,zahab ,ophir1 gold of ,ophir1 #a ,kings ix1 #bh1 such as was brought by the navy of ,solomon4 #d4 ,zahab muphaz1 solid gold1 pure1 wrought gold1 translated1 #a ,kings x1 #ah1 8the best gold40 #e4 ,zahab shachut1 beaten gold1 #b ,chron4 ix1 #ae4 #f4 ,zahab segor1 shut up gold2 either as mentioned above1 gold in the ore1 or as the rabbins explain it1 8gold shut up in the treasuries10 gold in bullion4 #g4 ,zahab parvaim1 #b ,chron4 iii1 #f4 ,to these ,buxtorf adds three others3 #a4 1 pure gold of the circulating medium4 #b4 1 gold in the treasury4 #c4 1 choice1 fine gold4 ,arabia had formerly its golden mines4 8,the gold of ,sheba10 ,psalm lxxii1 #ae1 is1 in the ,septuagint and ,arabic versions1 8the gold of ,arabia40 ,sheba was the ancient name of ,arabia ,felix4 ,mr4 ,bruce1 however1 places it in ,africa1 at ,azab4 ,the gold of ,ophir1 so often mentioned1 must be that which was procured in ,arabia1 on the coast of the ,red ,sea4 ,we are assured by ,sanchoniathon1 as quoted by ,eusebius1 and by ,herodotus1 that the ,phenicians carried on a considerable traffic with this gold even before the days of ,job1 who speaks of it1 xxii1 #bd4 ,,goliath1 a famous giant of the city of ,gath1 who was slain by ,david1 #a ,sam4 xvii1 #d1 #e1 c4 ,see ,,giants4 ,,gomer1 the eldest son of ,japheth1 by whom a great part of ,asia ,minor was first peopled1 and particularly that extensive tract which was called ,phrygia1 including the sub-divisions of ,mysia1 ,galatia1 ,bithynia1 ,lycaonia1 c4 ,the colonies of ,gomer extended into ,germany1 ,gaul1 7in both of which traces of the name are preserved17 and ,britain1 which was undoubtedly peopled from ,gaul4 ,among the descendants of the ancient inhabitants of this island1 namely1 the ,welsh1 the words ,kumero and ,kumeraeg1 the names of the people and the language1 sufficiently point out their origin4 ,in fact1 under the names of ,cimmerii1 ,cimbri1 ,cymrig1 ,cumbri1 ,umbri1 and ,cambri1 the tribes of ,gomerians extended themselves from the ,euxine to the ,atlantic1 and from ,italy to the ,baltic2 having added to their original names those of ,celts1 ,gauls1 ,galat1 and ,gaels1 superadded4 ,,gomorrah1 one of the five cities of the ,pentapolis1 consumed by fire1 ,genesis xix1 #bd1 c4 ,see ,,dead ,,sea4 ,,goshen4 ,this was the most fertile pasture ground in the whole of ,lower ,egypt2 thence called ,goshen1 from gush1 in ,arabic1 signifying 8a heart10 or whatsoever is choice or precious4 ,there was also a ,goshen in the territory of the tribe of ,judah1 so called for the same reason1 ,joshua x1 #da4 ,hence ,joseph recommended it to his family as 8the best of the land10 ,gen4 xlvii1 #aa1 and 8the fat of the land10 ,gen4 xlv1 #ah4 ,the land of ,goshen lay along the most easterly branch of the ,nile1 and on the east side of it2 for it is evident that1 at the time of the exode1 the ,israelites did not cross the ,nile4 ,in ancient times1 the fertile land was considerably more extensive1 both in length and breadth1 than at present1 in consequence of the general failure of the eastern branches of the ,nile2 the main body of the river verging more and more to the west continually1 and deepening the channels on that side4 ,,gospel1 a history of the life1 actions1 death1 resurrection1 ascension1 and doctrine of ,jesus ,christ4 ,the word is ,saxon1 and of the same import with the ,latin term evangelium1 or the ,greek 1 which signifies 8glad tidings10 or 8good news20 the history of our ,saviour being the best history ever published to mankind4 ,this history is contained in the writings of ,st4 ,matthew1 ,st4 ,mark1 ,st4 ,luke1 and ,st4 ,john1 who from thence are called evangelists4 ,the ,christian church never acknowledged any more than these four ,gospels as canonical3 notwithstanding which1 several apocryphal gospels are handed down to us1 and others are entirely lost4 ,the four ,gospels contain each of them the history of our ,saviour's life and ministry2 but we must remember1 that no one of the evangelists undertook to give an account of all the miracles which ,christ performed1 or of all the instructions which he delivered4 ,they are written with different degrees of conciseness2 but every one of them is sufficiently full to prove that ,jesus was the promised ,messiah1 the ,saviour of the world1 who had been predicted by a long succession of prophets1 and whose advent was expected at the time of his appearance1 both by ,jews and ,gentiles4 #b4 ,that all the books which convey to us the history of events under the ,new ,testament were written and immediately published by persons contemporary with the events1 is most fully proved by the testimony of an unbroken series of authors1 reaching from the days of the evangelists to the present times2 by the concurrent belief of ,christians of all denominations2 and by the unreserved confession of avowed enemies to the ,gospel4 ,in this point of view the writings of the ancient fathers of the ,christian church are invaluable4 ,they contain not only frequent references and allusions to the books of the ,new ,testament1 but also such numerous professed quotations from them1 that it is demonstratively certain that these books existed in their present state a few years after the conclusion of ,christ's ministry upon earth4 ,no unbeliever in the apostolic age1 in the age immediately subsequent to it1 or1 indeed1 in any age whatever1 was ever able to disprove the facts recorded in these books2 and it does not appear that in the early times any such attempt was made4 ,the facts1 therefore1 related in the ,new ,testament must be admitted to have really happened4 ,but if all the circumstances of the history of ,jesus1 that is1 his miraculous conception in the womb of the virgin1 the time at which he was born1 the place where he was born1 the family from which he was descended1 the nature of the doctrines which he preached1 the meanness of his condition1 his rejection1 death1 burial1 resurrection1 and ascension1 with many other minute particulars2 if all these various circumstances in the history of ,jesus exactly accord with the predictions of the ,old ,testament relative to the promised ,messiah1 in whom all the nations of the earth were to be blessed1 it follows that ,jesus was that ,messiah4 ,and again3 if ,jesus really performed the miracles as related in the ,gospels1 and was perfectly acquainted with the thoughts and designs of men1 his divine mission cannot be doubted4 ,lastly3 if he really foretold his own death and resurrection1 the descent of the ,holy ,ghost1 its miraculous effects1 the sufferings of the ,apostles1 the call of the ,gentiles1 and the destruction of ,jerusalem1 it necessarily follows that he spake by the authority of ,god himself4 ,these1 and many other arguments1 founded in the more than human character of ,jesus1 in the rapid propagation of the ,gospel1 in the excellence of its precepts and doctrines1 and in the constancy1 intrepidity1 and fortitude of its early professors1 incontrovertibly establish the truth and divine origin of the ,christian religion1 and afford to us1 who live in these latter times1 the most positive confirmation of the promise of our ,lord1 that 8the gates of hell shall not prevail against it40 #c4 ,the ,gospels recount those wonderful and important events with which the ,christian religion and its divine ,author were introduced into the world1 and which have produced so great a change in the principles1 the manners1 the morals1 and the temporal as well as spiritual condition of mankind4 ,they relate the first appearance of ,christ upon earth1 his extraordinary and miraculous birth1 the testimony borne to him by his forerunner1 ,john the ,baptist1 the temptation in the wilderness1 the opening of his divine commission1 the pure1 the perfect1 and sublime morality which he taught1 especially in his inimitable sermon on the mount1 the infinite superiority which he showed to every other moral teacher1 both in the matter and manner of his discourses1 more particularly by crushing vice in its very cradle1 in the first risings of wicked desires and propensities in the heart1 by giving a decided preference to the mild1 gentle1 passive1 conciliating virtues1 before that violent1 vindictive1 high-spirited1 unforgiving temper1 which has been always too much the favourite character of the world2 by requiring us to forgive our very enemies1 and to do good to them that hate us2 by excluding from our devotions1 our alms1 and all our virtues1 all regard to fame1 reputation1 and applause2 by laying down two great general principles of morality1 love to ,god1 and love to mankind1 and deducing from thence every other human duty2 by conveying his instructions under the easy1 familiar1 and impressive form of parables2 by expressing himself in a tone of dignity and authority unknown before2 by exemplifying every virtue that he taught in his own unblemished and perfect life and conversation2 and1 above all1 by adding those awful sanctions1 which he alone1 of all moral instructers1 had the power to hold out1 eternal rewards to the virtuous1 and eternal punishments to the wicked4 ,the sacred narratives then represent to us the high character that he assumed2 the claim he made to a divine original2 the wonderful miracles he wrought in proof of his divinity2 the various prophecies which plainly marked him out as the ,messiah1 the great ,deliverer of the ,jews2 the declarations he made that he came to offer himself a sacrifice for the sins of all mankind2 the cruel indignities1 sufferings1 and persecutions to which1 in consequence of this great design1 he was exposed2 the accomplishment of it1 by the painful and ignominious death to which he submitted1 by his resurrection after three days from the grave1 by his ascension into heaven1 by his sitting there at the right hand of ,god1 and performing the office of a ,mediator and ,intercessor for the sinful sons of men1 till he shall come a second time in his glory to sit in judgment on all mankind1 and decide their final doom of happiness or misery for ever4 ,these are the momentous1 the interesting1 truths on which the ,gospels principally dwell4 #d4 ,we find in the ancient records a twofold order1 in which the evangelists are arranged4 ,they stand either thus1 ,matthew1 ,john1 ,luke1 ,mark2 or thus1 ,matthew1 ,mark1 ,luke1 ,john4 ,the first is made with reference to the character and the rank of the persons1 according to which the ,apostles precede their assistants and attendants 71 comitibus47 ,it is observed in the oldest ,latin translations and in the ,gothic2 sometimes also in the works of ,latin teachers2 but among all the ,greek ,,mss4 only in that at ,cambridge4 ,but the other1 namely1 ,matthew1 ,mark1 ,luke1 and ,john1 is1 in all the old translations of ,asia and ,africa1 in all catalogues of the canonical books1 and in ,greek ,,mss4 in general1 the customary and established one as it regarded not personal circumstances1 but as it had respect to chronological2 which is to us a plain indication what accounts concerning the succession of the evangelists1 the ,asiatic1 and ,greek churches1 and also those of ,africa1 had before them1 when the ,christian books were arranged in collections4 ,it is a considerable advantage1 says ,michalis1 that a history of such importance as that of ,jesus ,christ has been recorded by the pens of separate and independent writers1 who1 from the variations which are visible in these accounts1 have incontestably proved that they did not unite with a view of imposing a fabulous narrative on mankind4 ,that ,st4 ,matthew had never seen the ,gospel of ,st4 ,luke1 nor ,st4 ,luke the ,gospel of ,st4 ,matthew1 is evident from a comparison of their writings4 ,the ,gospel of ,st4 ,mark1 which was written later1 must likewise have been unknown to ,st4 ,luke2 and that ,st4 ,mark had ever read the ,gospel of ,st4 ,luke1 is at least improbable1 because their ,gospels so frequently differ4 ,it is a generally received opinion1 that ,st4 ,mark made use of ,st4 ,matthew's ,gospel in the composition of his own2 but this is an unfounded hypothesis4 ,the ,gospel of ,st4 ,john1 being written after the other three1 supplies what they had omitted4 ,thus have we four distinct and independent writers of one and the same history2 and1 though trifling variations may seem to exist in their narratives1 yet these admit of easy solutions2 and in all matters of consequence1 whether doctrinal or historical1 there is such a manifest agreement between them as is to be found in no other writings whatever4 ,though we have only four original writers of the life of ,jesus1 the evidence of the history does not rest on the testimony of four men4 ,christianity had been propagated in a great part of the world before any of them had written1 on the testimony of thousands and tens of thousands1 who had been witnesses of the great facts which they have recorded2 so that the writing of these particular books is not to be considered as the cause1 but rather the effect1 of the belief of ,christianity2 nor could those books have been written and received as they were1 namely1 as authentic histories1 of the subject of which all persons of that age were judges1 if the facts they have recorded had not been well known to be true4 #e4 ,the term ,gospel is often used in ,scripture to signify the whole ,christian doctrine3 hence1 8preaching the ,gospel0 is declaring all the truths1 precepts1 promises1 and threatenings of ,christianity4 ,this is termed1 8the ,gospel of the grace of ,god10 because it flows from ,god's free love and goodness1 ,acts xx1 #bd2 and when truly and faithfully preached1 is accompanied with the influences of the divine ,spirit4 ,it is called1 8the ,gospel of the kingdom10 because it treats of the kingdom of grace1 and shows the way to the kingdom of glory4 ,it is styled1 8the ,gospel of ,christ10 because he is the ,author and great subject of it1 ,romans i1 #af2 and 8the ,gospel of peace and salvation10 because it publishes peace with ,god to the penitent and believing1 gives1 to such1 peace of conscience and tranquillity of mind1 and is the means of their salvation1 present and eternal4 ,as it displays the glory of ,god and of ,christ1 and ensures to his true followers eternal glory1 it is entitled1 8the glorious ,gospel10 and1 8the everlasting ,gospel10 because it commenced from the fall of man1 is permanent throughout all time1 and produces effects which are everlasting4 ,,government ,,of ,,the ,,hebrews4 ,the posterity of ,jacob1 while remaining in ,egypt1 maintained1 notwithstanding the augmentation of their numbers1 that patriarchal form of government which is so prevalent among the nomades4 ,every father of a family exercised a father's authority over those of his own household4 ,every tribe obeyed its own prince1 1 who was originally the first-born of the founder of the tribe1 but who1 in process of time1 appears to have been elected4 ,as the people increased in numbers1 various heads of families united together1 and selected some individual from their own body1 who was somewhat distinguished1 for their leader4 ,perhaps the choice was made merely by tacit consent2 and1 without giving him the title of ruler in form1 they were willing1 while convinced of his virtues1 to render submission to his will4 ,such a union of families was denominated 8the house of the father20 and 8the house of the father of the families10 ,num4 iii1 #bd1 #cj1 #ce4 ,in other instances1 although the number varied1 being sometimes more and sometimes less than a thousand1 it was denominated1 1 a thousand4 8,now therefore present yourselves before the ,lord by your tribes1 and by your thousands20 8the thousands of ,judah20 8the thousands of ,israel10 c1 #a ,sam4 x1 #ai2 xxiii1 #bc2 ,judges vi1 #ae2 ,num4 xxvi1 #e-ej4 ,the heads of these united families were designated 8heads of thousands10 ,num4 i1 #af2 x1 #d4 ,they held themselves in subjection to the 8princes of the tribes40 ,both the princes and heads of families are mentioned under the common names of 1 seniors or senators1 and heads of tribes4 ,following the law of reason1 and the rules established by custom1 they governed with a paternal authority the tribes and united families2 and1 while they left the minor concerns to the heads of individual families1 aimed to superintend and promote the best interests of the community generally4 ,originally1 it fell to the princes of the tribes themselves to keep genealogical tables3 subsequently1 they employed scribes especially for this purpose1 who1 in the progress of time1 acquired so great authority1 that under the name of 1 translated1 in the ,english version1 officers1 they were permitted to exercise a share in the government of the nation4 ,it was by magistrates of this description that the ,hebrews were governed while they remained in ,egypt2 and the ,egyptian kings made no objection to it1 ,exod4 iii1 #af2 v1 #a1 #ad1 #ae1 #ai4 #b4 ,the posterity of ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob were set apart and destined to the great object of preserving and transmitting the true religion1 ,gen4 xviii1 #af-bj2 xvii1 #i-ad2 xii1 #c2 xxii1 #ah2 xxviii1 #ad4 ,having increased in numbers1 it appeared very evident that they could not live among nations given to idolatry without running the hazard of becoming infected with the same evil4 ,they were1 therefore1 in the providence of ,god1 assigned to a particular country1 the extent of which was so small1 that they were obliged1 if they would live independently of other nations1 to give up in a great measure the life of shepherds1 and devote themselves to agriculture4 ,farther3 very many of the ,hebrews during their residence in ,egypt had fallen into idolatrous habits4 ,these were to be brought back again to the knowledge of the true ,god1 and all were to be excited to engage in those undertakings which should be found necessary for the support of the true religion4 ,all the ,mosaic institutions aim at the accomplishment of these objects4 ,the fundamental principle1 therefore1 of those institutions was this1--that the true ,god1 the ,creator and ,governor of the universe1 and none other1 ought to be worshipped4 ,to secure this end the more certainly1 ,god became king to the ,hebrews4 ,accordingly1 the land of ,canaan1 which was destined to be occupied by them1 was declared to be the land of ,jehovah1 of which he was to be the king1 and the ,hebrews merely the hereditary occupants4 ,god promulgated1 from the clouds of ,mount ,sinai1 the prominent laws for the government of his people1 considered as a religious community1 ,exod4 xx4 ,these laws were afterward more fully developed and illustrated by ,moses4 ,the rewards which should accompany the obedient1 and the punishments which should be the lot of the transgressor1 were at the same time announced1 and the ,hebrews promised by a solemn oath to obey1 ,exodus xxi-xxiv2 ,deut4 xxvii-xxx4 #c4 ,in order to keep the true nature of the community fully and constantly in view1 all the ceremonial institutions had reference to ,god1 not only as the ,sovereign of the universe1 but as the ,king of the people4 ,the people were taught to feel that the tabernacle was not only the temple of ,jehovah1 but the palace of their ,king2 that the priests were the royal servants1 and were bound to attend not only to sacred but to secular affairs1 and were to receive1 as their salary1 the first tithes1 which the people1 as subjects1 were led to consider a part of that revenue which was due to ,god1 their immediate ,sovereign4 ,other things of a less prominent and important nature had reference to the same great end4 ,since1 therefore1 ,god was the ,sovereign1 in a civil point of view as well as others1 of ,palestine and its inhabitants1 the commission of idolatry by any inhabitant of that country1 even a foreigner1 was a defection from the true ,king4 ,it was1 in fact1 treason2 was considered a crime equal in aggravation to that of murder2 and was1 consequently1 attended with the severest punishment4 ,whoever invited or exhorted to idolatry was considered seditious1 and was obnoxious to the same punishment4 ,incantations also1 necromancy1 and other practices of this nature1 were looked upon as arts of a kindred aspect with idolatry itself2 and the same punishment was to be inflicted upon the perpetrators of them as upon idolaters4 ,the same rigour of inquiry after the perpetrators of idolatry was enforced1 that was exhibited in respect to other crimes of the deepest aggravation2 and the person who knew of the commission of idolatry in another was bound by the law to complain of the person thus guilty before the judge1 though the criminal sustained the near relationship of a wife or a brother1 a daughter or a son4 #d4 ,many things in the administration of the government remained the same under the ,mosaic economy1 as it had been before4 ,the authority which they had previously possessed1 was continued in the time of ,moses and after his time1 to the princes of the tribes1 to the heads of families and combinations of families1 and to the genealogists1 ,num4 xi1 #af2 ,deut4 xvi1 #ah2 xx1 #e2 xxxi1 #bh4 ,yet ,moses1 by the advice of ,jethro1 his father-in-law1 increased the number of rulers by the appointment of an additional number of judges2 some to judge over ten1 some over fifty1 some over a hundred1 and some over a thousand1 men1 ,exodus xviii1 #ac-bf4 ,these judges were elected by the suffrages of the people from those who1 by their authority and rank1 might be reckoned among the rulers or princes of the people4 ,the inferior judges1 that is1 those who superintended the judicial concerns of the smaller numbers1 were subordinate to the superior judges1 or those who judged a larger number2 and cases1 accordingly1 of a difficult nature went up from the inferior to the superior judges4 ,those of a very difficult character1 so much so as to be perplexing to the superior judges1 were appealed to ,moses himself1 and in some cases from ,moses to the high priest4 ,the judges1 of whom we have now spoken1 sustained a civil as well as a judicial authority1 and were included in the list of those who are denominated the elders and princes of ,israel3 that is to say1 supposing they were chosen from the elders and princes1 they did not forfeit their seat among them by accepting a judicial office2 and1 on the contrary1 the respectability attached to their office1 supposing they were not chosen from them1 entitled them to be reckoned in their number1 ,deut4 xxxi1 #bh2 ,joshua viii1 #cc2 xxiii1 #b2 xxiv1 #a4 ,the various civil officers that have been mentioned1 namely1 judges1 heads of families1 genealogists1 elders1 princes of the tribes1 c1 were dispersed1 as a matter of course1 in different parts of the country4 ,those of them1 accordingly1 who dwelt in the same city1 or the same neighbourhood1 formed the comitia1 senate or legislative assembly of their immediate vicinity1 ,deut4 xix1 #ab2 xxv1 #h1 #i2 ,judges viii1 #ad2 ix1 #c-df2 xi1 #e2 #a ,sam4 viii1 #d2 xvi1 #d4 ,when all that dwelt in any particular tribe were convened1 they formed the legislative assembly of the tribe2 and when they were convened in one body from all the tribes1 they formed in like manner the legislative assembly of the nation1 and were the representatives of all the people1 ,joshua xxiii1 #a1 #b2 xxiv1 #a4 ,the priests1 who were the learned class of the community1 and beside were hereditary officers in the state1 being set apart for civil as well as religious purposes1 had1 by the divine command1 a right to a sitting in this assembly1 ,exod4 xxxii1 #bi2 ,num4 xxxvi1 #ae2 viii1 #e-bf4 ,being thus called upon to sustain very different and yet very important offices1 they became the subjects of that envy which would naturally be excited by the honour and the advantages attached to their situation4 ,in order to confirm them in the duties which devolved upon them1 and to throw at the greatest distance the mean and lurking principle just mentioned1 ,god1 after the sedition of ,korah1 ,dathan1 and ,abiram1 sanctioned the separation of the whole tribe1 which had been previously made to the service of religion and the state1 by a most evident and striking miracle1 ,num4 xvi1 #a-g4 #e4 ,each tribe was governed by its own rulers1 and consequently to a certain extent constituted a civil community1 independent of the other tribes1 ,judges xx1 #aa-df2 #b ,sam4 ii1 #d2 ,judges i1 #ba4 ,if any affair concerned the whole or many of the tribes1 it was determined by them in conjunction in the legislative assembly of the nation1 ,judges xi1 #a-aa2 #a ,chron4 v1 #aj1 #ah1 #ai2 #b ,sam4 iii1 #ag2 #a ,kings xii1 #a-bd4 ,if one tribe found itself unequal to the execution of any proposed plan1 it might connect itself with another1 or even a number of the other tribes1 ,judges i1 #a-c1 #bb2 iv1 #aj2 vii1 #bc1 #bd2 viii1 #a-c4 ,but1 although in many things each tribe existed by itself1 and acted separately1 yet in others they were united1 and formed but one community3 for all the tribes were bound together1 so as to form one church and one civil community1 not only by their common ancestors1 ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob2 not only by the common promises which they had received from those ancestors2 not only by the need in which they stood of mutual counsel and assistance2 but also by the circumstance that ,god was their common ,king1 and that they had a common tabernacle for his palace1 and a common sacerdotal and ,levitical order for his ministers4 ,accordingly1 every tribe exerted a sort of inspection over the others1 as respected their observance of the law4 ,if any thing had been neglected1 or any wrong had been done1 the particular tribe concerned was amenable to the others2 and1 in case justice could not be secured in any other way1 might be punished with war1 ,joshua xxii1 #i-cd2 ,judges xx1 #a1 c4 #f4 ,when we remember that ,god was expressly chosen the ,king of the people1 and that he enacted laws and decided litigated points of importance1 ,numbers xvii1 #a-aa2 xxvii1 #a-aa2 xxxvi1 #a-aj2 when we remember also that he answered and solved questions proposed1 ,num4 xv1 #cb-da2 ,joshua vii1 #af-bb2 ,judges i1 #a1 #b2 xx1 #ah1 #bg1 #bh2 #a ,sam4 xiv1 #cg2 xxiii1 #i-ab2 xxx1 #h2 #b ,sam4 ii1 #a2 that he threatened punishment1 and that1 in some instances1 he actually inflicted it upon the hardened and impenitent1 ,num4 xi1 #cc-ce2 xii1 #a-ae2 xvi1 #a-ej2 ,lev4 xxvi1 #c-df2 ,deut4 xxvi-xxx2 when1 finally1 we take into account1 that he promised prophets1 who were to be1 as it were1 his ambassadors1 ,deut4 xviii1 and afterward sent them according to his promise1 and that1 in order to preserve the true religion1 he governed the whole people by a striking and peculiar providence1 we are at liberty to say1 that ,god was1 in fact1 the ,monarch of the people1 and that the government was a theocracy4 ,but1 although the government of the ,jews was a theocracy1 it was not destitute of the usual forms which exist in civil governments among men4 ,god1 it is true1 was the ,king1 and the high priest1 if we may be allowed so to speak1 was his minister of state2 but still the political affairs were in a great measure under the disposal of the elders1 princes1 c4 ,it was to them that ,moses gave the divine commands1 determined expressly their powers2 and submitted their requests to the decision of ,god1 ,num4 xiv1 #e2 xvi1 #d1 c2 xxvii1 #e2 xxxvi1 #e1 #f4 ,it was in reference to the great power possessed by these men1 who formed the legislative assembly of the nation1 that ,josephus pronounced the government to be aristocratical4 ,but from the circumstance that the people possessed so much influence1 as to render it necessary to submit laws to them for their ratification1 and that they even took upon themselves sometimes to propose laws or to resist those which were enacted2 from the circumstance also that the legislature of the nation had not the power of laying taxes1 and that the civil code was regulated and enforced by ,god himself1 independently of the legislature1 ,lowman and ,michalis are in favour of considering the ,hebrew government a democracy4 ,in support of their opinion such passages are exhibited as the following1 ,exodus xix1 #g1 #h2 xxiv1 #c-h2 ,deut4 xxix1 #i-ad2 ,joshua ix1 #ah1 #ai2 xxiii1 #a1 c2 xxiv1 #b1 c2 #a ,samuel x1 #bd2 xi1 #ad1 #ae2 ,num4 xxvii1 #a-h2 xxxvi1 #a-i4 ,the truth seems to lie between these two opinions4 ,the ,hebrew government1 putting out of view its theocratical feature1 was of a mixed form1 in some respects approaching to a democracy1 in others assuming more of an aristocratical character4 #g4 ,from what has been said1 it is clear1 that the ,ruler and supreme ,head of the political community in question was ,god1 who1 with the design of promoting the good of his subjects1 condescended to exhibit his visible presence in the tabernacle1 wherever it travelled and wherever it dwelt4 ,if1 in reference to the assertion1 that ,god was the ,ruler of the ,jewish state1 it should be inquired what part was sustained by ,moses1 the answer is1 that ,god was the ,ruler1 the people were his subjects1 and ,moses was the mediator or internuncio between them4 ,but the title most appropriate to ,moses1 and most descriptive of the part he sustained1 is that of legislator of the ,israelites and their deliverer from the ,egyptians4 ,if the same question should be put in respect to ,joshua1 the answer would be1 that he was not properly the successor of ,moses1 and that1 so far from being the ruler of the state1 he was designated by the ruler to sustain the subordinate office of military leader of the ,israelites in their conquest of the land of ,canaan4 #h4 ,but1 although the ,hebrew state was so constituted1 that beside ,god1 the invisible ,king1 and his visible servant1 the high priest1 there was no other general ruler of the commonwealth1 yet it is well known that there were rulers of a high rank1 appointed at various times1 called 1 a word which not only signifies a judge in the usual sense of the term1 but any governor1 or administrator of public affairs1 #a ,sam4 viii1 #bj2 ,isaiah xi1 #d2 #a ,kings iii1 #i4 ,the power lodged in these rulers1 who are called judges in the ,scriptures1 seems to have been in some respects paramount to that of the general comitia of the nation1 and we find that they declared war1 led armies1 concluded peace2 and that this was not the whole1 if indeed it was the most important part1 of their duties4 ,for many of the judges1 for instance1 ,jair1 ,ibzan1 ,elon1 ,abdon1 ,eli1 and ,samuel1 ruled the nation in peace4 ,they might appropriately enough be called the supreme executive1 exercising all the rights of sovereignty1 with the exception of enacting laws1 and imposing taxes4 ,they were honoured1 but they bore no external badges of distinction2 they were distinguished1 but they enjoyed no special privileges themselves1 and communicated none to their posterity4 ,they subserved the public good without emolument1 that the state might be prosperous1 that religion might be preserved1 and that ,god alone might be ,king in ,israel4 ,it ought to be observed1 however1 that not all the judges ruled the whole nation3 some of them presided over only a few separate tribes4 #i4 ,god1 in the character of ,king1 had governed the ,israelites for sixteen ages4 ,he ruled them1 on the terms which he himself1 through the agency of ,moses1 had proposed to them1 namely1 that if they observed their allegiance to him1 they should be prosperous2 if not1 adversity and misery would be the consequence1 ,exod4 xix1 #d1 #e2 xxiii1 #bj-cc2 ,lev4 xxvi1 #c-df2 ,deut4 xxviii-xxx4 ,we may learn from the whole book of ,judges1 and from the first eight chapters of ,samuel1 how exactly the result1 from the days of ,joshua down to the time of ,samuel1 agreed with these conditions4 ,but in the time of ,samuel1 the government1 in point of form1 was changed into a monarchy4 ,the election of king1 however1 was committed to ,god1 who chose one by lot3 so that ,god was still the ,ruler1 and the king the vicegerent4 ,the terms of the government1 as respected ,god1 were the same as before1 and the same duties and principles were inculcated on the ,israelites as had been originally1 #a ,sam4 viii1 #g2 x1 #ag-bc2 xii1 #ad1 #ae1 #bj-bb1 #bd1 #be4 ,in consequence of the fact1 that ,saul did not choose at all times to obey the commands of ,god1 the kingdom was taken from him and given to another1 #a ,sam4 xiii1 #e-ad2 xv1 #a-ca4 ,david1 through the agency of ,samuel1 was selected by ,jehovah for king1 who thus gave a proof that he still retained1 and was disposed to exercise1 the right of appointing the ruler under him1 #a ,samuel xvi1 #a-c4 ,david was first made king over ,judah2 but as he received his appointment from ,god1 and acted under his authority1 the other eleven tribes submitted to him1 #b ,sam4 v1 #a-c2 #a ,chron4 xxviii1 #d-f4 ,david expressly acknowledged ,god as the ,sovereign1 and1 as having a right to appoint the immediate ruler of the people1 #a ,chron4 xxviii1 #g-aj2 he religiously obeyed his statutes1 the people adhered firmly to ,god1 and his reign was prosperous4 ,the paramount authority of ,god1 as the ,king of the nation1 and his right to appoint one who should act in the capacity of his vicegerent1 are expressly recognized in the books of ,kings and ,chronicles4 #aj4 ,on the subversion of the ,babylonian empire by ,cyrus1 the founder of the ,persian monarchy1 7,b4 ,c4 #edc17 he authorized the ,jews1 by an edict1 to return into their own country1 with full permission to enjoy their laws and religion1 and caused the city and temple of ,jerusalem to be rebuilt4 ,in the following year1 part of the ,jews returned under ,zerubbabel1 and renewed their sacrifices3 but the rerection of the city and temple being interrupted for several years by the treachery and hostility of the ,samaritans or ,cutheans1 the avowed enemies of the ,jews1 the completion and dedication of the temple did not take place until the year ,b4 ,c4 #eaa1 six years after the accession of ,cyrus4 ,the rebuilding of ,jerusalem was accomplished1 and the reformation of their ecclesiastical and civil polity was effected1 by the two divinely inspired and pious governors1 ,ezra and ,nehemiah2 but the theocratic government does not appear to have been restored4 ,the new temple was not1 as formerly1 ,god's palace2 and the cloud of his presence did not take possession of it4 ,after their death the ,jews were governed by their high priests1 in subjection however to the ,persian kings1 to whom they paid tribute1 ,ezra iv1 #ac2 vii1 #bd1 but with the full enjoyment of their other magistrates1 as well as their liberties1 civil and religious4 ,nearly three centuries of uninterrupted prosperity ensued1 until the reign of ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 king of ,syria1 when they were most cruelly oppressed1 and compelled to take up arms in their own defence4 ,under the able conduct of ,judas1 surnamed ,maccabeus1 and his valiant brothers1 the ,jews maintained a religious war for twenty-six years with five successive kings of ,syria2 and after destroying upward of two hundred thousand of their best troops1 the ,maccabees finally established the independence of their own country and the aggrandizement of their family4 ,this illustrious house1 whose princes united the regal and pontifical dignity in their own persons1 administered the affairs of the ,jews during a period of one hundred and twenty-six years2 until1 disputes arising between ,hyrcanus ,,ii1 and his brother ,aristobulus1 the latter was defeated by the ,romans under ,pompey1 who captured ,jerusalem1 and reduced ,judea to dependence1 ,b4 ,c4 #ei4 ,,governor4 ,judea having been reduced into a province by the ,romans1 they sent governors thither1 who were subject not only to the emperors1 but also to the governors of ,syria1 whereof ,judea made a part4 ,,gourd1 1 ,jonah iv1 #f1 #g1 #i1 #aj4 ,michalis1 in his remarks on this subject1 says1 8,celsius appears to me to have proved that it is the kiki of the ,egyptians40 ,he refers it to the class of the ricinus1 the great catapucus4 ,according to ,dioscorides1 it is of rapid growth1 and bears a berry from which an oil is expressed4 ,in the ,arabic version of this passage1 which is to be found in ,avicenna1 it is rendered1 8from thence is pressed the oil which they call oil of kiki1 which is the oil of ,alkeroa40 ,so ,herodotus says3 8,the inhabitants of the marshy grounds in ,egypt make use of an oil1 which they term the kiki1 expressed from the ,sillicyprian plant4 ,in ,greece this plant springs spontaneously1 without any cultivation2 but the ,egyptians sow it on the banks of the river and of the canals2 it there produces fruit in great abundance1 but of a very strong odour4 ,when gathered1 they obtain from it1 either by friction or pressure1 an unctuous liquid1 which diffuses an offensive smell1 but for burning it is equal in quality to the oil of olives40 ,this plant rises with a strong herbaceous stalk to the height of ten or twelve feet2 and is furnished with very large leaves1 not unlike those of the plane tree4 ,rabbi ,kimchi says that the people of the east plant them before their shops for the sake of the shade1 and to refresh themselves under them4 ,niebuhr says1 8,i saw1 for the first time at ,basra1 the plant ei-keroa1 mentioned in ,michalis's #8,questions4' ,it has the form of a tree4 ,the trunk appeared to me rather to resemble leaves than wood2 nevertheless1 it is harder than that which bears the ,adam's fig4 ,each branch of the keroa has but one large leaf1 with six or seven foldings in it4 ,this plant was near to a rivulet1 which watered it amply4 ,at the end of ,october1 #agfe1 it had risen in five months' time about eight feet1 and bore at once flowers and fruit1 ripe and unripe4 ,another tree of this species1 which had not had so much water1 had not grown more in a whole year4 ,the flowers and leaves of it which ,i gathered withered in a few minutes2 as do all plants of a rapid growth4 ,this tree is called at ,aleppo1 palma ,christi4 ,an oil is made from it called oleum de keroa2 oleum cicinum2 oleum ficus infernalis4 ,the ,christians and ,jews of ,mosul 7,nineveh7 say1 it was not the keroa whose shadow refreshed ,jonah1 but a sort of gourd1 el-kera1 which has very large leaves1 very large fruit1 and lasts but about four months40 ,the epithet which the prophet uses in speaking of the plant1 8son of the night it was1 and1 as a son of the night it died10 does not compel us to believe that it grew in a single night1 but1 either by a strong oriental figure that it was of rapid growth1 or akin to night in the shade it spread for his repose4 ,the figure is not uncommon in the east1 and one of our own poets has called the rose 8child of the summer40 ,nor are we bound to take the expression 8on the morrow10 as strictly importing the very next day1 since the word has reference to much more distant time1 ,exod4 xiii1 #ad2 ,deut4 vi1 #bj2 ,joshua iv1 #f4 ,it might be simply taken as afterward4 ,but the author of 8,scripture ,illustrated0 justly remarks1 8,as the history in ,jonah expressly says1 the ,lord prepared this plant1 no doubt we may conceive of it as an extraordinary one of its kind1 remarkably rapid in its growth1 remarkably hard in its stem1 remarkably vigorous in its branches1 and remarkable for the extensive spread of its leaves and the deep gloom of their shadow2 and1 after a certain duration1 remarkable for a sudden withering1 and a total uselessness to the impatient prophet40 #b4 ,we read of the wild gourd in #b ,kings iv1 #ci2 that ,elisha1 being at ,gilgal during a great famine1 bade one of his servants prepare something for the entertainment of the prophets who were in that place4 ,the servant1 going into the field1 found1 as our translators render it1 some wild gourds1 gathered a lapful of them1 and1 having brought them with him1 cut them in pieces and put them into a pot1 not knowing what they were4 ,when they were brought to table1 the prophets1 having tasted them1 thought they were mortal poison4 ,immediately1 the man of ,god called for flour1 threw it into the pot1 and desired them to eat without any apprehensions4 ,they did so1 and perceived nothing of the bitterness whereof they were before sensible4 ,this plant or fruit is called in ,hebrew and 4 ,there have been various opinions about it4 ,celsius supposes it the colocynth4 ,the leaves of the plant are large1 placed alternate2 the flowers white1 and the fruit of the gourd kind1 of the size of a large apple1 which1 when ripe1 is yellow1 and of a pleasant and inviting appearance1 but1 to the taste intolerably bitter1 and proves a drastic purgative4 ,it seems that the fruit1 whatever it might have been1 was early thought proper for an ornament in architecture4 ,it furnished a model for some of the carved work of cedar in ,solomon's temple1 #a ,kings vi1 #ah2 vii1 #bd4 ,,grace4 ,this word is understood in several senses3 for beauty1 graceful form1 and agreeableness of person1 ,prov4 i1 #i2 iii1 #bb4 ,for favour1 friendship1 kindness1 ,gen4 vi1 #h2 xviii1 #c2 ,rom4 xi1 #f2 #b ,tim4 i1 #i4 ,for pardon1 mercy1 undeserved remission of offences1 ,eph4 ii1 #e2 ,col4 i1 #f4 ,for certain gifts of ,god1 which he bestows freely1 when1 where1 and on whom1 he pleases2 such are the gifts of miracles1 prophecy1 languages1 c1 ,rom4 xv1 #ae2 #a ,cor4 xv1 #aj2 ,eph4 iii1 #h1 c4 ,for the ,gospel dispensation1 in contradistinction to that of the law1 ,rom4 vi1 #ad2 #a ,peter v1 #ab4 ,for a liberal and charitable disposition1 #b ,cor4 viii1 #g4 ,for eternal life1 or final salvation1 #a ,peter i1 #ac4 ,in theological language grace also signifies divine influence upon the soul2 and it derives the name from this being the effect of the great grace or favour of ,god to mankind4 ,austin defines inward actual grace to be the inspiration of love1 which prompts us to practise according to what we know1 out of a religious affection and compliance4 ,he says1 likewise1 that the grace of ,god is the blessing of ,god's sweet influence1 whereby we are induced to take pleasure in that which he commands1 to desire and to love it2 and that if ,god does not prevent us with this blessing1 what he commands1 not only is not perfected1 but is not so much as begun in us4 ,without the inward grace of ,jesus ,christ1 man is not able to do the least thing that is good4 ,he stands in need of this grace to begin1 continue1 and finish all the good he does1 or rather1 which ,god does in him and with him1 by his grace4 ,this grace is free2 it is not due to us3 if it were due to us1 it would be no more grace2 it would be a debt1 ,rom4 xi1 #f2 it is in its nature an assistance so powerful and efficacious1 that it surmounts the obstinacy of the most rebellious human heart1 without destroying human liberty4 ,there is no subject on which ,christian doctors have written so largely1 as on the several particulars relating to the grace of ,god4 ,the difficulty consists in reconciling human liberty with the operation of divine grace2 the concurrence of man with the influence and assistance of the ,almighty4 ,and who is able to set up an accurate boundary between these two things8 ,who can pretend to know how far the privileges of grace extend over the heart of man1 and what that man's liberty exactly is1 who is prevented1 enlightened1 moved1 and attracted by grace8 ,,grape1 1 the fruit of the vine4 ,there were fine vineyards and excellent grapes in the promised land4 ,the bunch of grapes which was cut in the valley of ,eshcol1 and was brought upon a staff between two men to the camp of ,israel at ,kadeshbarnea1 ,num4 xiii1 #bc1 may give us some idea1 of the largeness of the fruit in that country4 ,it would be easy to produce a great number of witnesses to prove that the grapes in those regions grow to a prodigious size4 ,by ,calmet1 ,scheuchzer1 and ,harmer1 this subject has been exhausted4 ,doubdan assures us1 that in the valley of ,eshcol were clusters of grapes to be found of ten or twelve pounds4 ,moses1 in the law1 commanded that when the ,israelites gathered their grapes1 they should not be careful to pick up those that fell1 nor be so exact as to leave none upon the vines3 what fell1 and what were left behind1 the poor had liberty to glean1 ,lev4 xix1 #aj2 ,deut4 xxiv1 #ba1 #bb4 ,for the same beneficent purpose the second vintage was reserved3 this1 in those warm countries1 was considerable1 though never so good nor so plentiful as the former4 ,the wise son of ,sirach says1 8,i waked up last of all1 as one that gleaneth after grape gatherers4 ,by the blessing of the ,lord1 ,i profited1 and filled my wine-press like a gatherer of grapes10 ,ecclus4 xxxiii1 #af4 ,it is frequent in ,scripture to describe a total destruction by the similitude of a vine1 stripped in such a manner1 that there was not a bunch of grapes left for those who came to glean4 ,the prophecy1 8,he shall wash his clothes in wine1 and his garments in the blood of the grape10 ,gen4 xlix1 #aa1 means that he shall reside in a country where grapes were in abundance4 ,the vineyards of ,engedi and of ,sorek1 so famous in ,scripture1 were in the tribe of ,judah2 and so was the valley of ,eshcol1 whence the spies brought those extraordinary clusters4 8,it appears10 says ,manti1 8that the cultivation of the vine was never abandoned in this country4 ,the grapes1 which are white1 and pretty large1 are1 however1 not much superior in size to those of ,europe4 ,this peculiarity seems to be confined to those in this neighbourhood2 for at the distance of only six miles to the south1 is the rivulet and valley called ,escohol1 celebrated in ,scripture for its fertility1 and for producing very large grapes4 ,in other parts of ,syria1 also1 ,i have seen grapes of such an extraordinary size1 that a bunch of them would be a sufficient burden for one man4 ,it is not at all surprising1 therefore1 that when the spies1 sent by ,moses to reconnoitre the promised land1 returned to give him an account of its fertility1 it required two of them to carry a bunch of grapes1 which they brought with them suspended from a pole placed upon their shoulders40 ,many eye witnesses assure us1 that in ,palestine the vines1 and bunches of grapes1 are almost of an incredible size4 8,at ,beidtdjin10 says ,schultz1 a 8village near ,ptolemais1 we took our supper under a large vine1 the stem of which was nearly a foot and a half in diameter1 the height about thirty feet1 and covered with its branches and shoots 7for the shoots must be supported7 a hut of more than fifty feet long and broad4 ,the bunches of these grapes are so large that they weigh from ten to twelve pounds1 and the grapes may be compared to our plumbs4 ,such a bunch is cut off and laid on a board1 round which they seat themselves1 and each helps himself to as many as he pleases40 ,forster1 in his ,hebrew ,dictionary1 7under the word ,eshcol17 says1 that he knew at ,nurnburg1 a monk of the name of ,acacius1 who had resided eight years in ,palestine1 and had also preached at ,hebron1 where he had seen bunches of grapes which were as much as two men could conveniently carry4 ,the wild grapes1 1 are the fruit of the wild or bastard vine2 sour and unpalatable1 and good for nothing but to make verjuice4 ,in ,isaiah v1 #b-d1 the ,lord complains that he had planted his people as a choice vine1 excellent as that of ,sorek2 but that its degeneracy had defeated his purpose1 and disappointed his hopes3 when he expected that it should bring forth choice fruit1 it yielded only such as was bad2 not merely useless and unprofitable grapes1 but clusters offensive and noxious4 ,by the force and intent of the allegory1 says ,bishop ,lowth1 8good grapes0 ought to be opposed 8to fruit of a dangerous and pernicious quality10 as1 in the application of it1 to judgment is opposed tyranny1 and to righteousness oppression4 ,hasselquist is inclined to believe that the prophet here means the solanum incanum1 8hoary nightshade10 because it is common in ,egypt and ,palestine1 and the ,arabian name agrees well with it4 ,the ,arabs call it aneb el dib1 8wolf's grapes40 ,the prophet could not have found a plant more opposite to the vine than this2 for it grows much in the vineyards1 and is very pernicious to them4 ,it is likewise a vine4 ,jeremiah uses the same image1 and applies it to the same purpose1 in an elegant paraphrase of this part of ,isaiah's parable1 in his flowing and plaintive manner3 8,i planted thee a ,sorek1 a scion perfectly genuine4 ,how then art thou changed1 and become to me the degenerate shoot of a strange vine60 ,jer4 ii1 #ba4 ,from some sort of poisonous fruits of the grape kind1 ,moses1 ,deut4 xxxii1 #cb1 #cc1 has taken those strong and highly poetical images with which he has set forth the future corruption and extreme degeneracy of the ,israelites1 in an allegory which has a near relation1 both in its subject and imagery1 to this of ,isaiah3-- 8,their vine is from the vine of ,sodom1 ,and from the fields of ,gomorrah4 ,their grapes are grapes of gall2 ,and their clusters are bitter4 ,their wine is the poison of dragons1 ,and the deadly venom of aspics40 ,,grass1 1 ,gen4 i1 #aa1 the well known vegetable upon which flocks and herds feed1 and which decks our fields1 and refreshes our sight with its grateful verdure4 ,its feeble frame and transitory duration are mentioned in ,scripture as emblematic of the frail condition and fleeting existence of man4 ,the inspired poets draw this picture with such inimitable beauty as the laboured elegies on mortality of ancient and modern times have never surpassed4 ,see ,psalm xc1 #f1 and particularly ,isaiah xl1 #f-h3 8,the voice said1 ,cry6 ,and he said1 ,what shall ,i cry8 ,all flesh is grass1 and all the goodliness thereof is as the flower of the field4 ,the grass withereth1 the flower fadeth1 because the ,spirit of the ,lord bloweth upon it4 ,verily this people is grass4 ,the grass withereth1 the flower fadeth2 but the word of our ,god shall stand for ever40 ,as1 in their decay1 the herbs of the fields strikingly illustrate the shortness of human life1 so1 in the order of their growth1 from seeds dead and buried1 they give a natural testimony to the doctrine of a resurrection4 ,the ,prophet ,isaiah1 and the ,apostle ,peter1 both speak of bodies rising from the dead1 as of so many seeds springing from the ground to renovated existence and beauty1 although they do not1 as some have absurdly supposed1 consider the resurrection as in any sense analogous to the process of vegetation1 ,isaiah xxvi1 #ai2 #a ,peter i1 #bd1 #be4 ,it is a just remark of ,grotius1 that the ,hebrews ranked the whole vegetable system under two classes1 1 and 4 ,the first is rendered 1 or 1 tree3 to express the second1 the ,,lxx have adopted 1 as their common way to translate one ,hebrew word by one ,greek word1 though not quite proper1 rather than by a circumlocution4 ,it is accordingly used in their version of ,genesis i1 #aa1 where the distinction first occurs1 and in most other places4 ,nor is it with greater propriety rendered grass in ,english than in ,greek4 ,the same division occurs in ,matt4 vi1 #cj1 and ,rev4 viii1 #g1 where our translators have in like manner had recourse to the term grass4 ,dr4 ,campbell prefers and uses the word herbage1 as coming nearer the meaning of the sacred writer4 ,under the name herb is comprehended every sort of plant which has not1 like trees and shrubs1 a perennial stalk4 ,that many1 if not all1 sorts of shrubs were included by the ,hebrews under the denomination1 tree1 is evident from ,jotham's apologue of the trees choosing a king1 ,judges ix1 #g1 where the bramble is mentioned as one4 ,see ,,hay4 ,,grasshopper1 1 ,lev4 xi1 #bb2 ,num4 xiii1 #cc2 #b ,chron4 vii1 #ac2 ,eccles4 xii1 #e2 ,isaiah xl1 #bb2 #b ,esdras iv1 #bd2 ,wisdom xvi1 #i2 ,eccles4 xliii1 #ag4 ,bochart supposes that this species of the locust has its name from the ,arabic verb hajaba1 8to veil10 because1 when they fly1 as they often do1 in great swarms1 they eclipse even the light of the sun4 8,but ,i presume10 says ,parkhurst1 8this circumstance is not peculiar to any particular kind of locust3 ,i should rather1 therefore1 think it denotes the cucullated species1 so denominated by naturalists from the cucullus1 8cowl0 or 8hood10 with which they are furnished1 and which distinguishes them from the other kinds4 ,in ,scheuchzer may be seen several of this sort2 and it will appear that this species nearly resemble our grasshopper40 ,our translators render the ,hebrew word locust in the prayer of ,solomon at the dedication of the temple1 #b ,chron4 vii1 #ac1 and with propriety4 ,but it is rendered grasshopper1 in ,eccles4 xii1 #e1 where ,solomon1 describing the infelicities of old age1 says1 8,the grasshopper shall be a burden40 8,to this insect10 says ,dr4 ,smith1 8the preacher compares a dry1 shrunk1 shrivelled1 crumpling1 craggy old man2 his backbone sticking out1 his knees projecting forward1 his arms backward1 his head downward1 and the apophyses or bunching parts of the bones in general enlarged4 ,and from this exact likeness1 without all doubt1 arose the fable of ,tithonus1 who1 living to extreme old age1 was at last turned into a grasshopper40 ,dr4 ,hodgson1 referring it to the custom of eating locusts1 supposes it to imply that luxurious gratification will become insipid2 and ,bishop ,reynolds1 that the lightest pressure of so small a creature shall be uncomfortable to the aged1 as not being able to bear any weight4 ,other commentators suppose the reference to the chirping noise of the grasshopper1 which must be disagreeable to the aged and infirm1 who naturally love quiet1 and are commonly unable to bear much noise4 ,it is probable that here1 also1 a kind of locust is meant2 and these creatures are proverbially loquacious4 ,they make a loud1 screaking1 and disagreeable noise with their wings4 ,if one begins1 others join1 and the hateful concert becomes universal4 ,a pause then ensues1 and1 as it were1 on a signal given1 it again commences2 and in this manner they continue squalling for two or three hours without intermission4 ,the ,prophet ,isaiah contrasts the grandeur and power of ,god1 and every thing reputed great in this world1 by a very expressive reference to this insect3 ,jehovah sitteth on the circle of the earth1 and the inhabitants are to him as grasshoppers1 ,isaiah xl1 #bb4 ,what atoms and inanities are they all before him1 who sitteth on the circle of the immense heavens1 and views the potentates of the earth in the light of grasshoppers1 those poor insects that wander over the barren heath for sustenance1 spend the day in insignificant chirpings1 and take up their contemptible lodging at night on a blade of grass6 ,see ,,locust4 ,,grecia1 or ,,greece1 both names occurring in the ,english ,scriptures4 ,the boundaries of the country which received this name differed under the different governments which ruled over it4 ,thus the ,greece of the ,old ,testament is not exactly the same as that of the ,new3 the former including ,macedonia1 ,thessaly1 ,epirus1 ,hellas or ,greece ,proper1 and the ,peloponnesus or ,morea2 while the latter excludes ,macedonia1 ,thessaly1 and ,epirus4 ,but the ,romans1 in the time of the ,apostles1 had1 in fact1 made two divisions of these countries4 ,the first1 which was that of ,macedonia1 included also ,thessaly and ,epirus2 and the other1 that of ,achaia1 all the rest of ,greece1 which is1 properly speaking1 the ,greece of the ,new ,testament4 ,but the term ,greek admits of a larger interpretation1 and applies not only to the inhabitants of ,greece ,proper1 but to those of ,asia ,minor1 ,syria1 and ,egypt1 over nearly the whole of the former of which countries1 and great part of the two latter1 ,grecian colonies and the ,grecian language had extended themselves4 ,in fact1 in the two books of the ,maccabees1 and in those of the ,new ,testament1 the word ,greek commonly implies a ,gentile4 #b4 ,the ,scripture has but little reference to ,greece till the time of ,alexander1 whose conquests extended into ,asia1 where ,greece had hitherto been of no importance4 ,yet that some intercourse was maintained with these countries from ,jerusalem1 may be inferred from the desire of ,baasha to shut up all passage between ,jerusalem and ,joppa1 which was its port1 by the building of ,ramah2 and the anxiety of ,asa to counteract his scheme1 #a ,kings xv1 #b1 #ag4 ,greece was certainly intended by the ,prophet ,daniel under the symbol of the single-horned goat2 and it is probable that when he calls ,greece ,chittim1 he spoke the language of the ,hebrew nation1 rather than that of the ,persian court4 ,after the establishment of the ,grecian dynasties in ,asia1 ,judea could not but be considerably affected by them2 and the books of the ,maccabees afford proofs of this4 ,the ,roman power1 superseding the ,grecian establishments1 yet left traces of ,greek language1 customs1 c1 to the days of the ,herods1 when the ,gospel history commences4 ,by the activity of the ,apostles1 and especially by that of ,st4 ,paul1 the ,gospel was propagated in those countries which used the ,grecian dialects3 hence1 we are interested in the study of this language4 ,moreover as ,greece1 like all other countries1 had its peculiar manners1 we are not able to estimate properly an epistle written to those who dwell where they prevailed1 without a competent acquaintance with the manners themselves1 with the sentiments and reasonings of those who practised them1 and with the arguments employed in their defence by those who adhered to them4 ,,greek ,,language4 ,it was because of the wide diffusion of this language that the ,new ,testament was written in ,greek4 ,its diction is not1 however1 that of the classical ,greek1 but it was chosen1 no doubt1 with a view to greater usefulness4 ,in the age which succeeded ,alexander the ,great1 the ,greek language underwent an internal change of a double nature4 ,in part1 a prosaic language of books was formed1 1 which was built on the ,attic dialect1 but was intermixed with not a few provincialisms2 but a language of popular intercourse was also formed1 in which the various dialects of the different ,grecian tribes1 heretofore separate1 were more or less mingled together1 while the ,macedonian dialect was peculiarly prominent4 ,the latter language constitutes the basis of the diction employed by the ,,lxx1 the writers of the ,apocrypha1 and of the ,new ,testament4 ,the style of the ,new ,testament has a considerable affinity with that of the ,septuagint version which was executed at ,alexandria1 although it approaches somewhat nearer to the idiom of the ,greek language2 but the peculiarities of the ,hebrew phraseology are discernible throughout3 the language of the ,new ,testament being formed by a mixture of oriental idioms and expressions with those which are properly ,greek4 ,hence it has1 by some philologers1 been termed ,hebraic ,greek1 and 7from the ,jews having acquired the ,greek language1 rather by practice than by grammar1 among the ,greeks1 in whose countries they resided in large communities7 ,hellenistic ,greek4 ,the propriety of this appellation was severely contested toward the close of the seventeenth1 and in the early part of the eighteenth1 century2 and numerous publications were written on both sides of the question1 with considerable asperity1 which1 together with the controversy1 are now almost forgotten4 ,the dispute1 however interesting to the philological antiquarian1 is after all a mere 8strife of words20 and as the appellation of ,hellenistic or ,hebraic ,greek is sufficiently correct for the purpose of characterizing the language of the ,new ,testament1 it is now generally adopted4 ,a large proportion1 however1 of the phrases and constructions of the ,new ,testament is pure ,greek2 that is to say1 of the same degree of purity as the ,greek which was spoken in ,macedonia1 and that in which ,polybius wrote his ,roman history4 ,it should farther be noticed1 that there occur in the ,new ,testament1 words that express both doctrines and practices which were utterly unknown to the ,greeks2 and also words bearing widely different interpretations from those which are ordinarily found in ,greek writers4 ,it contains examples of all the dialects occurring in the ,greek language1 as the olic1 ,btic1 ,doric1 ,ionic1 and especially of the ,attic2 which1 being most generally in use on account of its elegance1 pervades every book of the ,new ,testament4 #b4 ,a variety of solutions has been given to the question1 why the ,new ,testament was written in ,greek4 ,the true reason is1 that it was the language most generally understood both by writers and readers2 being spoken and written1 read and understood1 throughout the ,roman empire1 and particularly in the eastern provinces4 ,to the universality of the ,greek language1 ,cicero1 ,seneca1 and ,juvenal bear ample testimony3 and the circumstances of the ,jews having long had political1 civil1 and commercial relations with the ,greeks1 and being dispersed through various parts of the ,roman empire1 as well as their having cultivated the philosophy of the ,greeks1 of which we have evidence in the ,new ,testament1 all sufficiently account for their being acquainted with the ,greek language4 ,and if the eminent ,jewish writers1 ,philo and ,josephus1 had motives for preferring to write in ,greek1 there is no reason1 at least there is no general presumption1 why the first publishers of the ,gospel might not use the ,greek language4 ,it is indeed probable1 that many of the common people were acquainted with it2 though it is also certain the ,christian churches being in many countries composed chiefly of that class of persons1 some did not understand ,greek4 ,but in every church1 says ,macknight1 there were persons endowed with the gift of tongues1 and of the interpretation of tongues1 who could readily turn the ,apostles' ,greek epistles into the language of the church to which they were sent4 ,in particular1 the president or the spiritual man1 who read the ,apostle's ,greek letter to the ,hebrews in their public assemblies1 could without any hesitation render it into the ,hebrew language1 for the edification of those who did not understand ,greek4 ,and with respect to the ,jews in the provinces1 ,greek being the native language of most of them1 this epistle was much better calculated for their use1 written in the ,greek language1 than if it had been written in the ,hebrew1 which few of them understood4 ,farther1 it was proper that all the apostolical epistles should be written in the ,greek language1 because the different doctrines of the ,gospel being delivered and explained in them1 the explanation of these doctrines could with more advantage be compared so as to be better understood1 being expressed in one language1 than if1 in the different epistles1 they had been expressed in the language of the churches and persons to whom they were sent4 ,now what should that one language be1 in which it was proper to write the ,christian revelation1 but the ,greek1 which was then generally understood1 and in which there were many books extant2 that treated of all kinds of literature1 and on that account were likely to be preserved1 and by the reading of which ,christians1 in after ages1 would be enabled to understand the ,greek of the ,new ,testament8 ,this advantage none of the provincial dialects used in the ,apostles' days could pretend to4 ,being limited to particular countries1 they were soon to be disused2 and few 7if any7 books being written in them which merited to be preserved1 the meaning of such of the ,apostles' letters as were composed in the provincial languages could not easily have been ascertained4 ,,greek ,,church4 ,as the ,gospel spread in the first ages both east and west1 the first ,christian churches were so denominated4 ,from the languages respectively used in their devotions1 they were also called the ,greek and ,latin or ,roman churches4 ,for the first seven centuries these churches preserved a friendly communion with each other1 notwithstanding they disagreed as to the time of keeping ,easter1 and some other points4 ,but about the middle of the eighth century1 disputes arose1 which terminated in a schism1 that continues to this day4 ,it arose out of a controversy respecting the use of images in the churches4 ,it happened that at this time both churches were under prelates equally dogmatical and ambitious4 ,the patriarch of ,constantinople insisted on putting down the use of all images and pictures1 not only in his own church1 but at ,rome also1 which the pope resented with equal violence and asperity4 ,they mutually excommunicated each other2 and the pope of ,rome excommunicated not only the patriarch of ,constantinople1 but the emperor also4 ,the controversy respecting images engendered another1 no less bitter1 respecting the procession of the ,holy ,ghost both from the ,father and the ,son1 which the ,greeks flatly denied1 and charged the ,romans with interpolating the word filioque into the ancient creeds4 ,these controversies occupied the eighth and ninth centuries1 after which some intervals of partial peace occurred2 but in the eleventh century1 the flame broke out afresh1 and a total separation took place4 ,at that time1 the ,patriarch ,michael ,cerularius1 who was desirous to free himself from the papal authority1 published an invective against the ,latin church1 and accused its members of maintaining various errors4 ,pope ,leo retorted the charge1 and sent legates from ,rome to ,constantinople4 ,the ,greek patriarch refused to see them2 upon which they excommunicated him and his adherents1 publicly1 in the church of ,st4 ,sophia1 ,a4 ,d4 #ajed4 ,the ,greek patriarch excommunicated those legates1 with all their adherents and followers1 in a public council2 and procured an order of the emperor for burning the act of excommunication which they had pronounced against the ,greeks4 ,thus the separation was completed1 and at this day a very considerable part of the world profess the religion of the ,greek or eastern church4 ,the ,nicene and ,athanasian creeds1 with the exception of the words above-mentioned1 are the symbols of their faith4 #b4 ,the principal points which distinguish the ,greek church from the ,latin1 are as follows3 they maintain that the ,holy ,ghost proceeds from the ,father only1 and not from the ,father and ,son4 ,they disown the authority of the pope1 and deny that the church of ,rome is the only true catholic church4 ,they do not affect the character of infallibility1 and utterly disallow works of supererogation1 and indulgences4 ,they admit of prayers and services for the dead1 as an ancient and pious custom2 but they will not admit the doctrine of purgatory1 nor determine any thing dogmatically concerning the state of departed souls4 ,in baptism they practise triune immersion1 or dip three times2 but some1 as the ,georgians1 defer the baptism of their children till they are three1 four1 or more years of age4 ,the chrism1 or baptismal unction1 immediately follows baptism4 ,this chrism1 solemnly consecrated on ,maunday ,thursday1 is called the unction with ointment1 and is a mystery peculiar to the ,greek communion1 holding the place of confirmation in that of the ,roman3 it is styled1 8the seal of the gift of the ,holy ,ghost40 ,they administer the ,lord's ,supper in both kinds1 dipping the bread in the cup of wine1 in which a small portion of warm water is also inserted4 ,they give it both to the clergy and laity1 and to children after baptism4 ,they exclude confirmation and extreme unction out of the number of sacraments2 but they use the holy oil1 which is not confined to persons in the close of life1 like extreme unction1 but is administered1 if required1 to all sick persons4 ,three priests1 at least1 are required to administer this sacrament1 each priest1 in his turn1 anointing the sick person1 and praying for his recovery4 ,they deny auricular confession to be a divine command2 but practise confession attended with absolution1 and sometimes penance4 ,though they believe in transubstantiation1 or rather consubstantiation1 they do not worship the elements4 ,they pay a secondary kind of adoration to the virgin and other saints4 ,they do not admit of images or figures in bas-relief1 or embossed work2 but use paintings and silver shrines4 ,they admit matrimony to be a sacrament1 and celebrate it with great formality4 ,their secular clergy1 under the rank of bishops1 are allowed to marry once1 and laymen twice2 but fourth marriages they hold in abomination4 ,they observe a great number of holy days1 and keep four fasts in the year more solemn than the rest1 of which ,good ,friday is the chief4 #c4 ,the service of the ,greek church is too long and complicated to be particularly described in this work2 the greater part consists in psalms and hymns4 ,five orders of priesthood belong to the ,greek church2 namely1 bishops1 priests1 deacons1 sub-deacons1 and readers2 which last includes singers1 c4 ,the episcopal order is distinguished by the titles of metropolitan1 archbishops1 and bishops4 ,the head of the ,greek church1 the patriarch of ,constantinople1 is elected by twelve bishops1 who reside nearest that famous capital4 ,this prelate calls councils by his own authority to govern the church4 ,the other patriarchs are those of ,jerusalem1 ,antioch1 and ,alexandria1 all nominated by the patriarch of ,constantinople1 who enjoys a most extensive jurisdiction4 ,for the administration of ecclesiastical affairs1 a synod1 convened monthly1 is composed of the heads of the church resident in ,constantinople4 ,in this assembly1 the patriarch of ,constantinople presides1 with those of ,antioch and ,jerusalem1 and twelve archbishops4 ,in regard to discipline and worship1 the ,greek church has the same division of the clergy into regular and secular1 the same spiritual jurisdiction of bishops and their officials1 the same distinction of ranks and offices1 with the church of ,rome4 #d4 ,the ,greek church comprehends a considerable part of ,greece1 the ,grecian isles1 ,wallachia1 ,moldavia1 ,egypt1 ,abyssinia1 ,nubia1 ,lybia1 ,arabia1 ,mesopotamia1 ,syria1 ,cilicia1 and ,palestine2 ,alexandria1 ,antioch1 and ,jerusalem2 the whole of the ,russian empire in ,europe2 great part of ,siberia in ,asia1 ,astrachan1 ,casan1 and ,georgia4 ,,grind4 ,see ,,mill4 ,,grove4 ,it is proper to observe1 that in order the more effectually to guard the ,israelites from idolatry1 the blessed ,god1 in instituting the rites of his own worship1 went directly counter to the practice of the idolatrous nations4 ,thus1 because they worshipped in groves1 he expressly forbade 8the planting a grove of trees near his altar10 ,deut4 xvi1 #ba4 ,nor would he suffer his people to offer their sacrifices on the tops of hills and mountains1 as the ,heathens did1 but ordered that they should be brought to one altar in the place which he appointed1 ,deut4 xii1 #ac1 #ad4 ,and as for the groves1 which the ,canaanites had planted1 and the idols and altars which they had erected on the tops of high mountains and hills for the worship of their gods1 the ,israelites are commanded utterly to destroy them1 ,deut4 xii1 #b1 #c4 ,the groves and high places do not seem to have been different1 but the same places1 or groves planted on the tops of hills1 probably round an open area1 in which the idolatrous worship was performed1 as may be inferred from the following words of the ,prophet ,hosea3 8,they sacrifice upon the tops of mountains1 and burn incense upon the hills1 under oaks1 and poplars1 and elms10 ,hosea iv1 #ac4 ,the use of groves for religious worship is generally supposed to have been as ancient as the patriarchal ages2 for we are informed1 that 8,abraham planted a grove in ,beersheba1 and called there on the name of the ,lord10 ,gen4 xxi1 #cc4 ,however1 it is not expressly said1 nor can it by this passage be proved1 that he planted the grove for any religious purpose2 it might only be designed to shade his tent4 ,and this circumstance perhaps is recorded to intimate his rural way of living1 as well as his religious character2 that he dwelt in a tent1 under the shade of a grove1 or tree1 as the word 1 eshel1 may more properly be translated2 and in this humble habitation led a very pious and devout life4 ,the reason and origin of planting sacred groves is variously conjectured2 some imagining it was only hereby intended to render the service more agreeable to the worshippers1 by the pleasantness of the shade2 whereas others suppose it was to invite the presence of the gods4 ,the one or the other of these reasons seems to be intimated in the fore-cited passage of ,hosea3 8,they burn incense under oaks1 and poplars1 and elms1 because the shade thereof is good10 ,hosea iv1 #ac4 ,others conceive their worship was performed in the midst of groves1 because the gloom of such a place is apt to strike a religious awe upon the mind2 or else1 because such dark concealments suited the lewd mysteries of their idolatrous worship4 ,another conjecture1 which seems as probable as any1 is1 that this practice began with the worship of demons1 or departed souls4 ,it was an ancient custom to bury the dead under trees1 or in woods4 8,deborah was buried under an oak1 near ,bethel10 ,genesis xxxv1 #h2 and the bones of ,saul and ,jonathan under a tree at ,jabesh1 #a ,samuel xxxi1 #ac4 ,now an imagination prevailing among the ,heathen1 that the souls of the deceased hover about their graves1 or at least delight to visit their dead bodies1 the idolaters1 who paid divine honours to the souls of their departed heroes1 erected images and altars for their worship in the same groves where they were buried2 and from thence it grew into a custom afterward to plant groves1 and build temples1 near the tombs of departed heroes1 #b ,kings xxiii1 #ae1 #af1 and to surround their temples and altars with groves and trees2 and these sacred groves being constantly furnished with the images of the heroes or gods that were worshipped in them1 a grove and an idol came to be used as convertible terms1 #b ,kings xxiii1 #f4 ,,habakkuk1 the author of the prophecy bearing his name1 ,habakkuk i1 #a1 c4 ,nothing is certainly known concerning the tribe or birth place of ,habakkuk4 ,he is said to have prophesied about ,b4 ,c4 #fje1 and to have been alive at the time of the destruction of ,jerusalem by ,nebuchadnezzar4 ,it is generally believed that he remained and died in ,judea4 ,the principal predictions contained in this book are1 the destruction of ,jerusalem1 and the captivity of the ,jews by the ,chaldeans or ,babylonians2 their deliverance from the oppressor 8at the appointed time20 and the total ruin of the ,babylonian empire4 ,the promise of the ,messiah is confirmed2 the overruling providence of ,god is asserted2 and the concluding prayer1 or rather hymn1 recounts the wonders which ,god had wrought for his people1 when he led them from ,egypt into ,canaan1 and expresses the most perfect confidence in the fulfilment of his promises4 ,the style of ,habakkuk is highly poetical1 and the hymn in the third chapter is perhaps unrivalled for sublimity1 simplicity1 and power4 ,,habits4 ,the dress of oriental nations1 to which the inspired writers often allude1 has undergone almost no change from the earliest times4 ,their stuffs were fabricated of various materials2 but wool was generally used in their finer fabrics2 and the hair of goats1 camels1 and even of horses1 was manufactured for coarser purposes1 especially for sackcloth1 which they wore in time of mourning and distress4 ,sackcloth of black goat's hair was manufactured for mournings2 the colour and the coarseness of which being reckoned more suitable to the circumstances of the wearer1 than the finer and more valuable texture which the hair of white goats supplied4 ,this is the reason why a clouded sky is represented1 in the bold figurative language of ,scripture1 as covered with sackcloth and blackness1 the colour and dress of persons in affliction4 ,in ,egypt and ,syria1 they wore also fine linen1 cotton1 and byssus1 probably fine muslin from ,india1 in ,hebrew 1 the finest cloth known to the ancients4 ,in ,canaan1 persons of distinction were dressed in fine linen of ,egypt2 and according to some authors1 in silk1 and rich cloth1 shaded with the choicest colours1 or1 as the ,vulgate calls it1 with feathered work1 embroidered with gold4 ,the beauty of their clothes consisted in the fineness and colour of the stuffs2 and it seems1 the colour most in use among the ,israelites1 as well as among the ,greeks and ,romans1 was white1 not imparted and improved by the dyer's art1 but the native colour of the wool4 ,the general use of this colour seems to be recognized by ,solomon in his direction3 8,let thy garments be always white10 ,eccles4 ix1 #h4 ,but garments in the native colour of the wool were not confined to the lower orders2 they were also in great esteem among persons of superior station1 and are particularly valued in ,scripture1 as the emblem of knowledge and purity1 gladness and victory1 grace and glory4 ,the priests of ,baal were habited in black2 a colour which appears to have been peculiar to themselves1 and which few others in those countries1 except mourners1 would choose to wear4 ,blue was a colour in great esteem among the ,jews1 and other oriental nations4 ,the robe of the ephod1 in the gorgeous dress of the high priest1 was made all of blue2 it was a prominent colour in the sumptuous hangings of the tabernacle2 and the whole people of ,israel were required to put a fringe of blue upon the border of their garments1 and on the fringe a riband of the same colour4 ,the palace of ,ahasuerus1 the king of ,persia1 was furnished with curtains of this colour1 on a pavement of red1 and blue1 and white marble2 a proof that it was not less esteemed in ,persia than on the ,jordan4 ,and from ,ezekiel we learn1 that the ,assyrian nobles were habited in robes of this colour3 8,she doated on the ,assyrians1 her neighbours1 which were clothed with blue1 captains and rulers1 all of them desirable young men40 #b4 ,the ,jewish nobles and courtiers1 upon great and solemn occasions1 appeared in scarlet robes1 dyed1 not as at present with madder1 with cochineal1 or with any modern tincture1 but with a shrub1 whose red berries give an orient tinge to the cloth4 ,crimson or vermilion1 a colour1 as the name imports1 from the blood of the worm1 was used in the temple of ,solomon1 and by many persons of the first quality2 sometimes they wore purple1 the most sublime of all earthly colours1 says ,mr4 ,harmer1 having the gaudiness of red1 of which it retains a shade1 softened with the gravity of blue4 ,this was chiefly dyed at ,tyre1 and was supposed to take the tincture from the liquor of a shell fish1 anciently found in the adjacent sea2 though ,mr4 ,bruce1 in his ,travels1 inclines to the opinion1 that the murex1 or purple fish at ,tyre1 was only a concealment of their knowledge of cochineal1 as1 if the whole city of ,tyre had applied to nothing else but fishing1 they would not have coloured twenty yards of cloth in a year4 ,the children of wealthy and noble families were dressed in vestments of different colours4 ,this mark of distinction may be traced to the patriarchal age2 for ,joseph was arrayed1 by his indulgent and imprudent father1 in a coat of many colours4 ,a robe of divers colours was anciently reserved for the kings' daughters who were virgins2 and in one of these was ,tamar1 the virgin daughter of ,david1 arrayed1 when she was met by her brother4 #c4 ,in these parts of the world1 the fashion is in a state of almost daily fluctuation1 and different fashions are not unfrequently seen contending for the superiority2 but in the east1 where the people are by no means given to change1 the form of their garments continues nearly the same from one age to another4 ,the greater part of their clothes are long and flowing1 loosely cast about the body1 consisting only of a large piece of cloth1 in the cutting and sewing of which very little art or industry is employed4 ,they have more dignity and gracefulness than ours1 and are better adapted to the burning climates of ,asia4 ,from the simplicity of their form1 and their loose adaptation to the body1 the same clothes might be worn1 with equal ease and convenience1 by many different persons4 ,the clothes of those ,philistines whom ,samson slew at ,askelon required no altering to fit his companions2 nor the robe of ,jonathan1 to answer his friend4 ,the arts of weaving and fulling seem to have been distinct occupations in ,israel1 from a very remote period1 in consequence of the various and skilful operations which were necessary to bring their stuffs to a suitable degree of perfection2 but when the weaver and the fuller had finished their part1 the labour was nearly at an end2 no distinct artizan was necessary to make them into clothes2 every family seems to have made their own4 ,sometimes1 however1 this part of the work was performed in the loom2 for they had the art of weaving robes with sleeves all of one piece3 of this kind was the coat which our ,saviour wore during his abode with men4 ,the loose dresses of these countries1 when the arm is lifted up1 expose its whole length3 to this circumstance the ,prophet ,isaiah refers3 8,to whom is the arm of the ,lord revealed80 that is1 uncovered3 who observes that he is about to exert the arm of his power8 #d4 ,the chosen people were not allowed to wear clothes of any materials or form they chose2 they were forbidden by their law to wear a garment of woollen and linen4 ,this law did not prevent them from wearing many different substances together1 but only these two2 nor did the prohibition extend to the wool of camels and goats1 7for the hair of these animals they called by the same name17 but only to that of sheep4 ,it was lawful for any man who saw an ,israelite dressed in such a garment to fall upon him and put him to death4 ,in the opinion of ,maimonides1 this was principally intended as a preservative from idolatry2 for the ,heathen priests of those times wore such mixed garments of woollen and linen1 in the superstitious hope1 it was imagined1 of having the beneficial influence of some lucky conjunction of the planets or stars1 to bring down a blessing upon their sheep and their flax4 ,the second restraint referred to the sexes1 of which one was not to wear the dress appropriated to the other4 ,this practice is said to be an abomination to the ,lord2 which plainly intimates that the law refers to some idolatrous custom1 of which ,moses and the prophets always spoke in terms of the utmost abhorrence4 ,nothing1 indeed1 was more common among the ,heathen1 in the worship of some of their false deities1 than for the males to assist in women's clothes1 and the females in the dress appropriated to men2 in the worship of ,venus1 in particular1 the women appeared before her in armour1 and the men in women's apparel2 and thus the words literally run in the original ,scriptures1 8,women shall not put on the armour of a man1 nor a man the stole of a woman40 ,maimonides says he found this precept in an old magical book1 8,that men ought to stand before the star of ,venus in the flowered garments of women1 and women to put on the armour of men before the star of ,mars40 ,but whatever there may be in these observations1 it is certain that1 if there were no distinction of sexes made by their habits1 there would be danger of involving mankind in all manner of licentiousness and impurity4 #e4 ,the ancient ,jews very seldom wore any covering upon the head1 except when they were in mourning1 or worshipping in the temple1 or in the synagogue4 ,to pray with the head covered1 was1 in their estimation1 a higher mark of respect for the majesty of heaven1 as it indicated the conscious unworthiness of the suppliant to lift up his eyes in the divine presence4 ,to guard themselves from the wind or the storm1 or from the still more fatal stroke of the sun-beam1 to which the general custom of walking bare headed particularly exposed them1 they wrapped their heads in their mantles1 or upper garments4 ,but during their long captivity in ,babylon1 the ,jews began to wear turbans1 in compliance with the customs of their conquerors2 for ,daniel informs us1 that his three friends were cast into the fiery furnace with their hats1 or1 as the term should be rendered1 their turbans4 ,it is not1 however1 improbable1 that the bulk of the nation continued to follow their ancient custom2 and that the compliance prevailed only among those ,jews who were connected with the ,babylonish court2 for many ages after that1 we find ,antiochus ,epiphanes introducing the habits and fashions of the ,grecians among the ,jews2 and as the history of the ,maccabees relates1 he brought the chief young men under his subjection1 and made them wear a hat1 or turban4 ,their legs were generally bare2 and they never wore any thing upon the feet1 but soles fastened in different ways1 according to the taste or fancy of the wearer4 ,,hadad1 son to the king of ,east ,edom1 was carried into ,egypt by his father's servants1 when ,joab1 general of ,david's troops1 extirpated the males of ,edom4 ,hadad was then a child4 ,the king of ,egypt gave him a house1 lands1 and every necessary subsistence1 and married him to the sister of ,tahpenes1 his queen4 ,by her he had a son1 named ,genubath1 whom ,queen ,tahpenes educated in ,pharaoh's house with the king's children4 ,hadad being informed that ,david was dead1 and that ,joab was killed1 desired leave to return into his own country4 ,pharaoh wished to detain him1 but at last permitted his return to ,edom4 ,here he began to raise disturbances against ,solomon2 but the ,scripture does not mention particulars4 ,josephus says1 that ,hadad did not return to ,edom till long after the death of ,david1 when ,solomon's affairs began to decline1 by reason of his impieties4 ,he also observes1 that1 not being able to engage the ,edomites to revolt1 because of the strong garrisons which ,solomon had placed there1 ,hadad got together such people as were willing1 and carried them to ,razon1 then in rebellion against ,hadadezer1 king of ,syria4 ,razon received ,hadad with joy1 and assisted him in conquering part of ,syria1 where he reigned1 and from whence he insulted ,solomon's territories4 ,,hagar4 ,after ten years' residence in the land of ,canaan1 ,abram1 by the persuasion of his wife1 who had been barren heretofore1 and now despaired of bearing children herself when she was seventy-five years old1 took1 as a second wife1 or concubine1 her handmaid1 ,hagar1 an ,egyptian4 ,when ,hagar conceived1 she despised her mistress1 who dealt hardly with her1 ,abram giving her up to his wife's discretion2 so that she fled toward ,egypt from the face of her mistress1 but was stopped in her flight by the angel of the ,lord1 who foretold that she should bear a son called ,ishmael1 because the ,lord heard her affliction1 and that his race should be numerous1 warlike1 and unconquered2 a prediction1 as seen under the article ,arabia1 remarkably fulfilled to the present day4 ,abram was eighty-six years old when ,hagar bare ,ishmael4 ,when ,isaac was weaned1 ,ishmael1 the son of ,hagar1 who was now about fifteen years of age1 offended ,sarah by some mockery or ill treatment of ,isaac2 the original word signifies elsewhere1 8to skirmish10 or 8fight10 #b ,samuel ii1 #ad2 and ,st4 ,paul represents ,ishmael as 8persecuting0 him1 ,gal4 iv1 #bi4 ,sarah therefore complained to ,abraham1 and said1 8,cast out this bond-woman and her son1 for the son of this bond-woman shall not be heir with my son ,isaac4 ,and the thing was very grievous in ,abraham's sight1 because of his son ,ishmael20 but ,god approved of ,sarah's advice1 and again excluded ,ishmael from the special covenant of grace3 8,for in ,isaac shall thy seed be called3 nevertheless1 the son of the bond-woman will ,i make a nation also1 because he is thy seed40 ,god renewed this promise also to ,hagar1 during her wanderings in the wilderness of ,beersheba1 when she despaired of support3 8,arise1 lift up the lad1 and hold him in thine hands1 for ,i will make him a great nation4 ,and ,god was with the lad1 and he grew1 and dwelt in the wilderness of ,paran1 and became an archer4 ,and his mother took him a wife out of the land of ,egypt40 ,see ,,abraham and ,,ishmael4 ,we do not know when ,hagar died4 ,the rabbins say she was ,pharaoh's daughter2 but ,chrysostom asserts that she was one of those slaves which ,pharaoh gave to ,abraham1 ,gen4 xii1 #af4 ,the ,chaldee paraphrasts1 and many of the ,jews1 believe ,hagar and ,keturah to be the same person2 but this is not credible4 ,philo thinks that ,hagar embraced ,abraham's religion1 which is very probable4 ,the ,mussulmans and ,arabians1 who are descended from ,ishmael1 the son of ,hagar1 speak mightily in her commendation4 ,they call her in eminency1 ,mother ,hagar1 and maintain that she was ,abraham's lawful wife2 the mother of ,ishmael1 his eldest son2 who1 as such1 possessed ,arabia1 which very much exceeds1 say they1 both in extent and riches1 the land of ,canaan1 which was given to his younger son ,isaac4 ,,hagarenes1 the descendants of ,ishmael3 called also ,ishmaelites and ,saracens1 or ,arabians1 from their country4 ,their name1 ,saracens1 is not derived1 as some have thought1 from ,sarah1 ,abraham's wife1 but from the ,hebrew sarak1 which signifies 8to rob0 or 8to steal20 because they mostly carry on the trade of thieving3 or from ,sahara1 the desert2 ,saracens1 inhabitants of the desert4 ,but some writers think ,hagarene imports south1 conformably to the ,arabic2 hence ,hagar1 that is1 the southern woman2 and ,mount ,sinai is called ,hagar1 that is1 the southern mountain1 ,gal4 iv1 #be4 ,but there seems also to have been a particular tribe who bore this name more exclusively1 as the ,hagarenes are sometimes mentioned in ,scripture distinct from the ,ishmaelites1 ,psalm lxxxiii1 #f2 #a ,chron4 v1 #ai4 ,,haggai was one of the ,jews who returned with ,zerubbabel to ,jerusalem in consequence of the edict of ,cyrus2 and it is believed that he was born during the captivity1 and that he was of the sacerdotal race4 ,his prophecy consists of four distinct revelations1 all which took place in the second year of ,darius1 king of ,persia1 ,b4 ,c4 #ebj4 ,the prophet reproves the people for their delay in building the temple of ,god1 and represents the unfruitful seasons which they had experienced as a divine punishment for this neglect4 ,he exhorts them to proceed in the important work2 and by way of encouragement predicts1 that the glory of the second temple1 however inferior in external magnificence1 shall exceed that of the first2 which was accomplished by its being honoured with the presence of the ,saviour of mankind4 ,he farther urges the completion of the temple by promises of divine favour1 and under the type of ,zerubbabel he is supposed by some to foretel the great revolutions which shall precede the second advent of ,christ4 ,the style of ,haggai is in general plain and simple2 but in some passages it rises to a considerable degree of sublimity4 ,,hair4 ,the eastern females wear their hair1 which the prophet emphatically calls the 8instrument of their pride10 very long1 and divided into a great number of tresses4 ,in ,barbary1 the ladies all affect to have their hair hang down to the ground1 which1 after they have collected into one lock1 they bind and plait with ribands4 ,where nature has been less liberal in its ornaments1 the defect is supplied by art1 and foreign is procured to be interwoven with the natural hair4 ,the ,apostle's remark on this subject corresponds entirely with the custom of the east1 as well as with the original design of the ,creator3 8,does not even nature itself teach you1 that1 if a man have long hair1 it is a shame unto him8 ,but if a woman have long hair1 it is a glory to her2 for her hair is given her for a covering10 #a ,cor4 xi1 #ad4 ,the men in the east1 ,chardin observes1 are shaved2 the women nourish their hair with great fondness1 which they lengthen by tresses1 and tufts of silk down to the heels4 ,but among the ,hebrews the men did not shave their heads2 they wore their natural hair1 though not long2 and it is certain that they were1 at a very remote period1 initiated in the art of cherishing and beautifying the hair with fragrant ointments4 ,the head of ,aaron was anointed with a precious oil1 compounded after the art of the apothecary2 and in proof that they had already adopted the practice1 the congregation were prohibited1 under pain of being cut off1 to make any other like it1 after the composition of it1 ,exod4 xxx1 #cb1 #cc4 ,the royal ,psalmist alludes to the same custom in the twenty-third ,psalm3 8,thou anointest my head with oil40 ,we may infer from the direction of ,solomon1 that the custom had at least become general in his time3 8,let thy garments be always white1 and let thy head lack no ointment10 ,eccles4 ix1 #h4 ,after the hair is plaited and perfumed1 the eastern ladies proceed to dress their heads1 by tying above the lock into which they collect it1 a triangular piece of linen1 adorned with various figures in needlework4 ,this1 among persons of better fashion1 is covered with a sarmah1 as they call it1 which is made in the same triangular shape1 of thin flexible plates of gold or silver1 carefully cut through1 and engraven in imitation of lace1 and might therefore answer to 1 the moonlike ornament mentioned by the prophet in his description of the toilette of a ,jewish lady1 ,isaiah iii1 #ah4 ,cutting off the hair was a sign of mourning1 ,jer4 vii1 #bi2 but sometimes in mourning they suffered it to grow long4 ,in ordinary sorrows they neglected their hair2 and in violent paroxysms they plucked it off with their hands4 ,john ,baptist was clothed in a garment made of camel's hair1 not with a camel's skin1 as painters and sculptors represent him1 but with coarse camlet made of camel's hair4 ,the coat of the camel in some places yields very fine silk1 of which are made stuffs of very great price2 but in general this animal's hair is hard1 and scarcely fit for any but coarse habits1 and a kind of hair cloth4 ,some are of opinion that camlet derives its name from the camel1 being originally composed of the wool and hair of camels2 but at present there is no camel's hair in the composition of it1 as it is commonly woven and sold among us4 ,,ham1 or ,,cham1 1 son of ,noah1 and brother to ,shem and ,japheth1 is believed to have been ,noah's youngest son4 ,ham1 says ,dr4 ,hales1 signifies burnt or black1 and this name was peculiarly significant of the regions allotted to his family4 ,to the ,cushites1 or children of his eldest son1 ,cush1 were allotted the hot southern regions of ,asia1 along the coasts of the ,persian ,gulf1 ,susiana or ,chusistan1 ,arabia1 c2 to the sons of ,canaan1 ,palestine and ,syria2 to the sons of ,misraim1 ,egypt and ,libya1 in ,africa4 ,the ,hamites1 in general1 like the ,canaanites of old1 were a sea-faring race1 and sooner arrived at civilization and the luxuries of life than their simpler pastoral and agricultural brethren of the other two families4 ,the first great empires of ,assyria and ,egypt were founded by them2 and the republics of ,tyre1 ,sidon1 and ,carthage1 were early distinguished for their commerce3 but they sooner also fell to decay2 and ,egypt1 which was one of the first1 became the last and 8basest of the kingdoms10 ,ezek4 xxix1 #ae2 and has been successively in subjection to the ,shemites1 and ,japhethites2 as have also the settlements of the other branches of the ,hamites4 ,see ,,canaan4 ,,haman1 son of ,hammedatha1 the ,amalekite1 of the race of ,agag2 or1 according to other copies1 son of ,hamadath the ,bugean or ,gogean1 that is1 of the race of ,gog2 or it may be read1 ,haman the son of ,hamadath1 which ,haman was ,bagua or ,bagoas1 eunuch1 that is1 officer to the king of ,persia4 ,we have no proof of ,haman's being an ,amalekite2 but ,esther iii1 #a1 reads of the race of ,agag4 ,in the apocryphal ,greek1 ,esther ix1 #bd1 and the ,latin1 ,esther xvi1 #aj1 he is called a ,macedonian1 animo et gente ,macedo4 ,king ,ahasuerus1 having taken him into favour1 promoted him above all the princes of his court1 who bent the knee to him 7probably prostrated themselves wholly before him1 as to a deity7 when he entered the palace3 this ,mordecai the ,jew declined1 for which slight1 ,haman plotted the extirpation of the whole ,jewish nation2 which was providentially prevented4 ,he was hanged on a gibbet fifty cubits high1 which he had prepared for ,mordecai2 his house was given to ,queen ,esther2 and his employments to ,mordecai4 ,his ten sons were likewise executed4 ,see ,,esther4 ,,hamath1 a city of ,syria1 capital of a province of the same name1 lying upon the ,orontes1 ,joshua xiii1 #e2 ,judges iii1 #c2 #b ,kings xiv1 #be2 #b ,chron4 vii1 #h4 ,the king of ,hamath cultivated a good understanding with ,david1 #b ,sam4 viii1 #i4 ,this city was taken by the kings of ,judah1 and afterward retaken by the ,syrians1 and recovered from them by ,jeroboam the ,second1 #b ,kings xiv1 #bh4 ,,hand sometimes denotes the vengeance of ,god3 8,the hand of the ,lord was heavy upon them of ,ashdod10 after they had taken the ark1 #a ,samuel v1 #f1 #g4 ,to pour water on any one's hands1 signifies to serve him1 #b ,kings iii1 #aa4 ,to wash one's hands1 denotes innocence3 ,pilate washed his hands to denote his being innocent of the blood of ,jesus1 ,matthew xxvii1 #bd4 ,to kiss one's hand1 is an act of adoration1 #a ,kings xix1 #ah4 8,if ,i beheld the sun when it shined1 and my mouth hath kissed my hand10 ,job xxxi1 #bg4 ,to fill one's hands1 is to take possession of the priesthood1 to perform the functions of that office2 because in this ceremony1 those parts of the victim which were to be offered1 were put into the hand of the newly created priest1 ,judges xvii1 #e1 #ab2 #a ,kings xiii1 #cc4 ,to lean upon any one's hand1 is a mark of familiarity and superiority4 ,the king of ,israel had a confident on whom he thus leaned1 #b ,kings vii1 #ag4 ,the king of ,syria leaned on the hand or arm of ,naaman when he went up to the temple of ,rimmon1 #b ,kings v1 #ah4 ,to lift up one's hand1 is a way of taking an oath which has been in use among all nations4 ,to give one's hand1 signifies to grant peace1 to swear friendship1 to promise entire security1 to make alliance1 #b ,kings x1 #ae4 ,the ,jews say1 they were obliged to give the hand to the ,egyptians and ,assyrians1 that they might procure bread1 #b ,macc4 xiii1 #bb2 that is1 to surrender to them1 to submit4 ,to stretch out one's hand1 signifies to chastise1 to exercise severity or justice1 ,ezek4 xxv1 #g4 ,god delivered his people with a high hand1 and arm stretched out2 by performing many wonders1 and inflicting many chastisements1 on the ,egyptians4 ,to stretch out one's hand1 sometimes denotes mercy3 8,i have spread out my hands10 entreated1 8all the day unto a rebellious people10 ,isaiah lxv1 #b4 ,hand is also frequently taken for the power and impression of the ,holy ,spirit felt by a prophet3 8,the hand of the ,lord was on ,elijah10 #a ,kings xviii1 #df4 ,it is said that ,god gave his law by the hand of ,moses1 that he spoke by the hand of prophets1 c2 that is1 by their means1 by them1 c4 ,the right hand denotes power1 strength4 ,the ,scripture generally imputes to ,god's right hand all the effects of his omnipotence3 8,thy right hand1 ,o ,lord1 hath dashed in pieces the enemy10 ,exodus xv1 #f4 ,the ,son of ,god is often represented as sitting at the right hand of his heavenly ,father3 8,the ,lord said to my ,lord1 ,sit thou at my right hand10 ,psalm cx1 #a2 thou hast done thy work upon earth1 now take possession of that sovereign kingdom and glory which by right belongeth unto thee2 do thou rule with authority and honour1 as thou art ,mediator4 ,the right hand commonly denotes the south1 as the left does the north2 for the ,hebrews speak of the quarters of the world1 in respect of themselves1 having their faces turned to the east1 their backs to the west1 their right hands to the south1 and their left to the north4 ,for example3 8,doth not ,david hide himself with us in strong holds1 in the woods1 in the hill of ,hachilah1 which is on the south of ,jeshimon80 in ,hebrew1 8on the right hand of ,jeshimon40 ,the accuser was commonly at the right hand of the accused3 8,let ,satan stand at his right hand10 ,psalm cix1 #f4 ,and in ,zech4 iii1 #a1 ,satan was at the right hand of the high priest ,joshua1 to accuse him4 ,often1 in a contrary sense1 to be at one's right hand signifies to defend1 to protect1 to support him3 8,i have set the ,lord always before me2 because he is at my right hand1 ,i shall not be moved10 ,psalm xvi1 #h4 ,to turn from the law of ,god1 neither to the right hand nor to the left1 is a frequent ,scripture expression1 the meaning of which is1 that we must not depart from it at all4 ,our ,saviour1 in ,matt1 vi1 #c1 to show with what privacy we should do good works1 says that our left hand should not know what our right hand does4 ,above all things1 we should avoid vanity and ostentation in all the good we undertake to do1 and should not think that thereby we merit any thing4 ,laying on hands1 or imposition of hands1 is understood in different ways both in the ,old and ,new ,testament4 ,it is often taken for ordination and consecration of priests and ministers1 as well among the ,jews as ,christians1 ,num4 viii1 #aj2 ,acts vi1 #f2 xiii1 #c2 #a ,tim4 iv1 #ad4 ,it is sometimes also made use of to signify the establishment of judges and magistrates1 on whom it was usual to lay hands when they were entrusted with these employments4 ,thus1 when ,moses constituted ,joshua his successor1 ,god appointed him to lay his hands upon him1 ,numbers xxvii1 #ah4 ,jacob laid his hands on ,ephraim and ,manasseh1 when he gave them his last blessing1 ,gen4 xlviii1 #ad4 ,the high priest stretched out his hands to the people1 as often as he recited the solemn form of blessing1 ,lev4 ix1 #bb4 ,the ,israelites1 who presented sin offerings at the tabernacle1 confessed their sins while they laid their hands upon them1 ,lev4 i1 #d4 ,this testified that the person acknowledged himself worthy of death1 that he laid his sins upon the sacrifice1 that he trusted in ,christ for the expiation of his sins1 and that he devoted himself to ,god4 ,witnesses laid their hands upon the head of the accused person1 as it were to signify that they charged upon him the guilt of his blood1 and freed themselves from it1 ,deut4 xiii1 #i2 xvii1 #g4 ,our ,saviour laid his hands upon the children that were presented to him1 and blessed them1 ,mark x1 #af4 ,and the ,holy ,ghost was conferred on those who were baptized by the laying on of the hands of the ,apostles1 ,acts viii1 #ag2 xix1 #f4 ,,hannah4 ,see ,,samuel4 ,,haran1 the eldest son of ,terah1 and brother to ,abraham and ,nahor4 ,he was the father of ,lot1 ,milcah1 and ,iscah1 ,gen4 xi1 #bf1 c4 ,haran died before his father ,terah4 #b4 ,,haran1 otherwise called ,charran1 in ,mesopotamia1 a city celebrated for having been the place to which ,abraham removed first1 after he left ,ur1 ,gen4 xi1 #ca1 #cb1 and where ,terah was buried4 ,thither it was likewise that ,jacob repaired to ,laban1 when he fled from ,esau1 ,gen4 xxvii1 #dc2 xxviii1 #aj1 c4 ,haran was situated in the north-western part of ,mesopotamia on a river of the same name running into the ,euphrates4 ,mr4 ,kinneir says1 that ,haran1 which is still so called1 or rather ,harran1 is now peopled by a few families of wandering ,arabs1 who have been led thither by a plentiful supply of good water from several small streams4 ,it is situated in #cf #eb north latitude1 and #ci #e east longitude2 in a flat and sandy plain4 ,some think that it was built by ,terah1 or by ,haran1 his eldest son4 ,,hare1 1 ,arabic arneb1 ,lev4 xi1 #f2 ,deut4 xiv1 #g4 ,this name is derived1 as ,bochart and others suppose1 from 1 to crop1 and 1 the produce of the ground2 these animals being remarkable for devouring young plants and herbage4 ,this animal resembles the rabbit1 but is larger1 and somewhat longer in proportion to its thickness4 ,the hare in ,syria1 says ,dr4 ,russel1 is distinguished into two species1 differing considerably in point of size4 ,the largest is the ,turkman hare1 and chiefly haunts the plains2 the other is the common hare of the desert3 both are abundant4 ,the difficulty as to this animal is1 that ,moses says the arnabeth chews the cud1 which our hares do not3 but ,aristotle takes notice of the same circumstance1 and affirms that the structure of its stomach is similar to that of ruminating animals4 ,the animal here mentioned may then be a variety of the species4 ,,harosheth ,,of ,,the ,,gentiles1 a city supposed to be situated near ,hazor1 in the northern parts of ,canaan1 called afterward ,upper ,galilee1 or ,galilee of the ,gentiles1 for the same reason that this place probably obtained that title1 namely1 from being less inhabited by ,jews1 and being near the great resorts of the ,gentiles1 ,tyre and ,sidon4 ,this is said to have been the residence of ,sisera1 the general of the armies of ,jabin1 king of ,canaan1 who reigned at ,hazor4 ,,harp1 a stringed musical instrument4 ,the ,hebrew word kinaor1 which is translated 8harp0 in our ,english version1 very probably denoted all stringed instruments4 ,by the ,hebrews1 the harp was called the pleasant harp2 and it was employed by them1 not only in their devotions1 but also at their entertainments and pleasures4 ,it is probable1 that the harp was nearly the earliest1 if not the earliest1 instrument of music4 ,david danced when he played on the harp3 the ,levites did the same4 ,hence it appears1 that it was light and portable1 and that its size was restricted within limits which admitted of that service1 and of that manner of using it4 ,,hart1 1 ,deut4 xii1 #ae2 xiv1 #e2 ,psalm xlii1 #a2 ,isaiah xxxv1 #f1 the stag1 or male deer4 ,dr4 ,shaw considers its name in ,hebrew as a generic word including all the species of the deer kind2 whether they are distinguished by round horns1 as the stag2 or by flat ones1 as the fallow deer2 or by the smallness of the branches1 as the roe4 ,mr4 ,good observes that the hind and roe1 the hart and the antelope1 were held1 and still continue to be1 in the highest estimation in all the eastern countries1 for the voluptuous beauty of their eyes1 the delicate elegance of their form1 or their graceful agility of action4 ,the names of these animals were perpetually applied1 therefore1 to persons1 whether male or female1 who were supposed to be possessed of any of their respective qualities4 ,in #b ,sam4 i1 #ai1 ,saul is denominated 8the roe of ,israel20 and in the eighteenth verse of the ensuing chapter1 we are told that 8,asahel was as light of foot as a wild roe30 a phraseology perfectly synonymous with the epithet swift-footed1 which ,homer has so frequently bestowed upon his hero ,achilles4 ,thus again3 8,her princes are like harts which find no pasture2 they are fled without strength before their pursuers10 ,lam4 i1 #f4 8,the ,lord ,jehovah is my strength2 he will make my feet like hinds' feet2 he will cause me to tread again on my own hills10 ,hab4 iii1 #ai4 ,see ,,hind4 ,,harvest4 ,three months intervened between the seed time and the first reaping1 and a month between this and the full harvest4 ,barley is in full ear all over the ,holy ,land1 in the beginning of ,april2 and about the middle of the same month1 it begins to turn yellow1 particularly in the southern districts2 being as forward near ,jericho in the latter end of ,march1 as it is in the plains of ,acre a fortnight afterward4 ,the reaping continues till the middle of ,sivan1 or till about the end of ,may or beginning of ,june1 which1 as the time of wheat harvest1 finishes this part of the husbandman's labours4 #b4 ,the reapers in ,palestine and ,syria make use of the sickle in cutting down their crops1 and1 according to the present custom in this country1 8fill their hand0 with the corn1 and those who bind up the sheaves1 their 8bosom10 ,psalm cxxix1 #g2 ,ruth ii1 #e4 ,when the crop is thin and short1 which is generally the case in light soils1 and with their imperfect cultivation1 it is not reaped with the sickle1 but plucked up by the root with the hand4 ,by this mode of reaping1 they leave the most fruitful fields as naked as if nothing had ever grown on them2 and as no hay is made in the east1 this is done1 that they may not lose any of the straw1 which is necessary for the sustenance of their cattle4 ,the practice of plucking up with the hand is perhaps referred to in these words of the ,psalmist1 to which reference has already been made3 8,let them be as the grass upon the house tops1 which withereth afore it groweth up2 wherewith the mower filleth not his hand1 nor he that bindeth sheaves his bosom40 ,the tops of the houses in ,judea are flat1 and1 being covered with plaster of terrace1 are frequently grown over with grass4 ,as it is but small and weak1 and from its elevation exposed to the scorching sun1 it is soon withered4 ,a more beautiful and striking figure1 to display the weak and evanescent condition of wicked men1 cannot easily be conceived4 #c4 ,the reapers go to the field very early in the morning1 and return home betimes in the afternoon4 ,they carry provisions along with them1 and leathern bottles1 or dried bottle gourds1 filled with water4 ,they are followed by their own children1 or by others1 who glean with much success1 for a great quantity of corn is scattered in the reaping1 and in their manner of carrying it4 ,the greater part of these circumstances are discernible in the manners of the ancient ,israelites4 ,ruth had not proposed to ,naomi1 her mother-in-law1 to go to the field1 and glean after the reapers2 nor had the servant of ,boaz1 to whom she applied for leave1 so readily granted her request1 if gleaning had not been a common practice in that country4 ,when ,boaz inquired who she was1 his overseer1 after informing him1 observes1 that she came out to the field in the morning2 and that the reapers left the field early in the afternoon1 as ,dr4 ,russel states1 is evident from this circumstance1 that ,ruth had time to beat out her gleanings before evening4 ,they carried water and provisions with them2 for ,boaz invited her to come and drink of the water which the young men had drawn2 and at meal-time1 to eat of the bread1 and dip her morsel in the vinegar4 ,and so great was the simplicity of manners in that part of the world1 and in those times1 that ,boaz himself1 although a prince of high rank in ,judah1 sat down to dinner in the field with his reapers1 and helped ,ruth with his own hand4 ,nor ought we to pass over in silence the mutual salutation of ,boaz and his reapers1 when he came to the field1 as it strongly marks the state of religious feeling in ,israel at the time1 and furnishes another proof of the artless1 the happy1 and unsuspecting simplicity1 which characterized the manners of that highly favoured people4 8,and1 behold1 ,boaz came from ,bethlehem1 and said unto the reapers1 ,the ,lord be with you4 ,and they answered him1 ,the ,lord bless thee10 ,ruth ii1 #d4 #d4 ,it appears from the beautiful history of ,ruth1 that1 in ,palestine1 the women lent their assistance in cutting down and gathering in the harvest2 for ,boaz commands her to keep fast by his maidens4 ,the women in ,syria shared also in the labours of the harvest2 for ,dr4 ,russel informs us1 they sang the ziraleet1 or song of thanks1 when the passing stranger accepted their present of a handful of corn1 and made a suitable return4 ,it was another custom among the ,jews to set a confidential servant over the reapers1 to see that they executed their work properly1 that they had suitable provisions1 and to pay them their wages3 the ,chaldees call him rab1 the master1 ruler1 or governor of the reapers4 ,such was the person who directed the labours of the reapers in the field of ,boaz4 ,the right of the poor in ,israel to glean after the reapers was secured by a positive law1 couched in these words3 8,and when ye reap the harvest of your land1 thou shalt not wholly reap the corners of thy land2 neither shalt thou gather the gleanings of thy harvest4 ,and thou shalt not glean thy vineyard1 neither shalt thou gather every grape of thy vineyard3 thou shalt leave them to the poor and the stranger3 ,i am the ,lord your ,god10 ,lev4 xix1 #i4 ,it is the opinion of some writers1 that1 although the poor were allowed the liberty of gleaning1 the ,israelitish proprietors were not obliged to admit them immediately into the field1 as soon as the reapers had cut down the corn1 and bound it up in sheaves1 but when it was carried off3 they might choose1 also1 among the poor1 whom they thought most deserving1 or most necessitous4 ,these opinions receive some countenance from the request which ,ruth presented to the servant of ,boaz1 to permit her to glean 8among the sheaves20 and from the charge of ,boaz to his young men1 8,let her glean even among the sheaves20 a mode of speaking which seems to insinuate that though they could not legally hinder ,ruth from gleaning in the field1 they had a right1 if they chose to exercise it1 to prohibit her from gleaning among the sheaves1 or immediately after the reapers4 ,,hate4 ,to hate is not always to be understood rigorously1 but frequently signifies merely a less degree of love4 8,if a man have two wives1 one beloved and another hated10 ,deut4 xxi1 #ae2 that is1 less beloved4 ,our ,saviour says that he who would follow him must hate father and mother2 that is1 he must love them less than ,christ1 less than his own salvation1 and not prefer them to ,god4 8,jacob have ,i loved1 and ,esau have ,i hated20 that is1 have deprived of the privileges of his primogeniture1 through his own profanity2 and visited him with severe judgment on account of his sins4 ,,hauran4 ,the tract of country of this name is mentioned only twice in ,scripture1 ,ezek4 xlvii1 #af1 #ah4 ,it was probably of small extent in the time of the ,jews2 but was enlarged under the ,romans1 by whom it was called ,auranitis4 ,at present it extends from about twenty miles south of ,damascus to a little below ,bozra1 including the rocky district of ,el ,ledja1 the ancient ,trachonitis1 and the mountainous one of the ,djebel ,haouran4 ,within its limits are also included1 beside ,trachonitis1 ,itura or ,ittur1 now called ,djedour1 and part of ,batana or ,bashan4 ,it is represented by ,burckhardt as a volcanic region1 consisting of a porous tufa1 pumice1 and basalt1 with the remains of a crater on the ,tel ,shoba1 on its eastern side4 ,it produces1 however1 crops of corn1 and has many patches of luxuriant herbage1 which are frequented in the summer by the ,arab tribes for pasturage4 ,it abounds1 also1 with many interesting remains of cities1 scattered over its surface1 with ,grecian inscriptions4 ,the chief of these are ,bozra1 ,ezra1 ,medjel1 ,shoba1 ,shakka1 ,souerda1 ,kanouat1 ,hebran1 ,zarle1 ,oerman1 and ,aatyl2 with ,messema1 ,berak1 and ,om ,ezzeitoun1 in the ,ledja4 ,,havilah1 the son of ,cush1 ,genesis x1 #g4 ,there must have been other1 and perhaps many1 ,havilahs beside the original one1 a part of the numerous and wide-spread posterity of ,cush4 ,by one and the first of these1 it is probable that the western shores of the ,persian ,gulf were peopled2 by another1 the country of ,colchis2 and by another1 the parts about the southern border of the ,dead ,sea and the confines of ,judea1 the country afterward inhabited by the ,amalekites4 ,,hawk1 1 from the root 1 to fly1 because of the rapidity and length of flight for which this bird is remarkable1 ,lev4 xi1 #af2 ,deut4 xiv1 #ae2 ,job xxxix1 #bf4 ,naz is used generically by the ,arabian writers to signify both falcon and hawk2 and the term is given in both these senses by ,meninski4 ,there can be little doubt that such is the real meaning of the ,hebrew word1 and that it imports various species of the falcon family1 as jer-falcon1 goshawk1 and sparrow-hawk4 ,as this is a bird of prey1 cruel in its temper1 and gross in its manners1 it was forbidden as food1 and all others of its kind1 in the ,mosaic ritual4 ,the ,greeks consecrated the hawk to ,apollo2 and among the ,egyptians no animal was held in so high veneration as the ibis and the hawk4 ,most of the species of hawk1 we are told2 are birds of passage4 ,the hawk1 therefore1 is produced1 in ,job xxxix1 #bf1 as a specimen of that astonishing instinct which teaches birds of passage to know their times and seasons1 when to migrate out of one country into another for the benefit of food1 or a warmer climate1 or both4 ,the common translation does not give the full force of the passage3 8,doth the hawk fly by thy wisdom80 ,the real meaning is1 8,doth she know1 through thy skill or wisdom1 the precise period for taking flight1 or migrating and stretching her wings toward a southern or warmer climate80 ,the passage is well rendered by ,sandys3-- 8,doth the wild haggard tower into the sky1 ,and to the south by thy direction fly80 ,her migration is not conducted by the wisdom and prudence of man1 but by the superintending and upholding providence of the only wise ,god4 ,,hay1 4 ,in the two places where this word occurs1 ,prov4 xxvii1 #be1 and ,isaiah xv1 #af1 our translators have very improperly rendered it 8hay40 ,but in those countries they made no hay2 and1 if they did1 it appears from inspection that hay could hardly be the meaning of the word in either of those texts4 ,the author of 8,fragments10 in continuation of ,calmet1 has the following remarks3 8,there is a gross impropriety in our version of ,prov4 xxvii1 #be3 #8,the hay appeareth1 and the tender grass showeth itself1 and the herbs of the mountains are gathered4' ,now1 certainly1 if the tender grass is but just beginning to show itself1 the hay1 which is grass cut and dried after it has arrived at maturity1 ought by no means to be associated with it1 still less ought it to be placed before it4 ,and this leads me to observe1 that none of the dictionaries which ,i have seen seem to me to give the accurate import of the word1 which1 ,i apprehend1 means the first shoots1 the rising1 budding1 spires of grass4 ,so1 in the present passage1 1 #8the tender shoots of the grass rise up2 and the buddings of grass1' grass in its early state1 as is the peculiar import of 1 #8appear2 and the tufts of grass1' proceeding from the same root1 #8collect themselves together1 and1 by their union1 begin to clothe the mountain tops with a pleasing verdure4'0 ,surely1 the beautiful progress of vegetation1 as described in this passage1 must appear too poetical to be lost2 but what must it be to an eastern beholder6 to one who had lately witnessed all surrounding sterility1 a grassless waste6 ,,hazael4 ,elisha coming to ,damascus1 the capital of ,syria1 ,benhadad1 the reigning monarch1 being then indisposed1 sent ,hazael1 who was one of his principal officers1 to wait upon the prophet1 and consult him as to the issue of his disorder1 #b ,kings viii1 #g-ac4 ,the prophet told ,hazael that certainly his master might recover1 because his complaint was not mortal2 yet he was very well assured that he would not recover2 and1 looking him steadfastly in the face1 ,elisha burst into tears4 ,surprised at this conduct1 ,hazael inquired the cause4 8,because ,i know10 said the prophet1 8the evil that thou wilt do to the children of ,israel3 their strong holds wilt thou set on fire1 and their young men wilt thou slay with the sword1 and wilt dash their infants against the stones1 and rip up their women with child40 ,hazael indignantly exclaimed1 8,is thy servant a dog1 that he should do this great thing80 ,elisha merely answered1 8,the ,lord hath showed me that thou shalt be king over ,syria10 #b ,kings viii1 #g-ac4 ,on his return home1 ,hazael concealed from his master ,benhadad the prophet's answer1 and inspired him with hopes of recovery2 but on the following day1 he took effectual means to prevent it1 by stifling the king with a thick cloth dipped with water2 and1 as ,benhadad had no son1 and ,hazael was a man much esteemed in the army1 he was1 without difficulty declared his successor1 ,a4 ,m4 #cabj4 ,hazael soon inflicted upon ,israel all the cruelties which ,elisha had foretold4 ,for when ,jehu broke up the siege of ,ramoth-,gilead1 and came with his army to ,samaria1 ,hazael took advantage of his absence to fall upon his territories beyond ,jordan1 destroying all the land of ,gilead1 ,gad1 ,reuben1 and ,manasseh1 from ,aroer to ,bashan1 #b ,kings x1 #cb4 ,some years passed after this before ,hazael undertook any thing against the kingdom of ,judah1 it being remote from ,damascus2 but in the reign of ,joash1 the son of ,jehoahaz1 ,a4 ,m4 #cafe1 he besieged the city of ,gath1 and1 having taken it1 marched against ,jerusalem1 #b ,kings xii1 #ag1 #ah4 ,but ,joash1 conscious of his inferiority1 bribed him at the price of all the money he could raise1 to evacuate ,judea1 with which he for the moment complied2 yet1 in the following year1 the army of ,hazael returned1 entered the territories of ,judah1 and the city of ,jerusalem1 slew all the princes of the people1 and sent a valuable booty to their royal master1 #b ,kings xiii1 #bb2 #b ,chron4 xxiv1 #bc4 ,,head4 ,this word has several significations1 beside its natural one1 which denotes the head of a man4 ,it is sometimes used in ,scripture for the whole man3 8,blessings are upon the head of the just10 ,prov4 x1 #f2 that is1 upon their persons4 ,god says of the wicked1 8,i will recompense their way upon their head10 ,ezek4 ix1 #aj4 ,it signifies a chief or capital city3 8,the head of ,syria is ,damascus10 ,isaiah vii1 #h4 ,it denotes a chief or principal members in society3 8,the ,lord will cut off from ,israel head and tail4 ,the ancient and honourable he is the head10 ,isaiah ix1 #ad1 #ae4 8,the seed of the woman shall bruise the head of the serpent10 ,gen4 iii1 #ae2 that is1 ,christ ,jesus1 the blessed seed of the woman1 shall overthrow the power1 policy1 and works of the devil4 ,the river in paradise was divided into four heads or branches4 ,in times of grief1 the mourners covered their heads3 they cut and plucked off their hair4 ,amos1 speaking of unhappy times1 says1 8,i will bring baldness upon every head10 ,amos viii1 #aj4 ,in prosperity1 they anointed their heads with sweet oils3 8,let thy head lack no0 perfumed 8ointment10 ,eccles4 ix1 #h4 ,to shake the head at any one1 expresses contempt3 8,the virgin1 the daughter of ,zion1 hath despised thee1 and laughed thee to scorn2 the daughter of ,jerusalem hath shaken her head at thee10 ,isaiah xxxvii1 #bb4 ,head is taken for one that hath rule and preminence over others4 ,thus ,god is the head of ,christ2 as ,mediator1 from him he derives all his dignity and authority4 ,christ is the only spiritual head of the church1 both in respect of eminence and influence2 he communicates life1 motion1 and strength to every believer4 ,also the husband is the head of his wife1 because by ,god's ordinance he is to rule over her1 ,gen4 iii1 #af2 also in regard to preminence of sex1 #a ,peter iii1 #g1 and excellency of knowledge1 #a ,cor4 xiv1 #ce4 ,the ,apostle mentions this subordination of persons in #a ,cor4 xi1 #c3 8,but ,i would have you know1 that the head of every man is ,christ1 and the head of the woman is the man1 and the head of ,christ is ,god40 8,the stone which the builders rejected was made the head of the corner10 ,psalm cxviii1 #bb4 ,it was the first in the angle1 whether it were disposed at the top of that angle to adorn and crown it1 or at the bottom to support it4 ,this1 in the ,new ,testament1 is applied to ,christ1 who is the strength and beauty of the church1 to unite the several parts of it1 namely both ,jews and ,gentiles together4 ,,hear1 ,,hearing4 ,this word is used in several senses in ,scripture4 ,in its obvious and literal acceptation1 it denotes the exercise of that bodily sense of which the ear is the organ2 and as hearing is a sense by which instruction is conveyed to the mind1 and the mind is excited to attention and to obedience1 so the ideas of attention and obedience are also grafted on the expression or sense of hearing4 ,god is said1 speaking after the manner of men1 to hear prayer1 that is1 to attend to it1 and comply with the requests it contains3 8,i love the ,lord1 because he hath heard10 hath attended to1 hath complied with1 8the voice of my supplication10 ,psalm cxvi1 #a4 ,on the contrary1 ,god is said not to hear1 that is1 not to comply with1 the requests of sinners1 ,john ix1 #ca4 ,men are said to hear1 when they attend to1 or comply with1 the request of each other1 or when they obey the commands of ,god3 8,he who is of ,god heareth10 obeyeth1 practiseth1 8,god's words10 ,john viii1 #dg4 8,my sheep hear my voice10 and show their attention to it1 by following me1 ,john x1 #bg4 8,this is my beloved ,son3 hear ye him10 ,matt4 xvii1 #e4 ,this seems to be an allusion to ,deut4 xviii1 #ae1 #ah1 #ai3 8,the ,lord shall raise up unto you a prophet2 him shall ye hear20 which is also expressly applied in ,acts iii1 #bb4 ,the other senses which may be attached to the word 8hear10 seem to rise from the preceding1 and may be referred to the same ideas4 ,,heart4 ,the ,hebrews regarded the heart as the source of wit1 understanding1 love1 courage1 grief1 and pleasure4 ,hence are derived many modes of expression4 8,an honest and good heart10 ,luke viii1 #ae1 is a heart studious of holiness1 being prepared by the ,spirit of ,god to receive the word with due affections1 dispositions1 and resolutions4 ,we read of a broken heart1 a clean heart1 an evil heart1 a liberal heart4 ,to 8turn the heart of the fathers to the children1 and the heart of the children to their fathers10 ,mal4 iv1 #f1 signifies to cause them to be perfectly reconciled1 and that they should be of the same mind4 ,to want heart1 sometimes denotes to want understanding and prudence3 8,ephraim is like a silly dove1 without heart10 ,hosea vii1 #aa4 8,o fools1 and slow of heart10 ,luke xxiv1 #be2 that is1 ignorant1 and without understanding4 8,this people's heart is waxed gross1 lest they should understand with their heart10 ,matt4 xiii1 #ae2 their heart is become incapable of understanding spiritual things2 they resist the light1 and are proof against all impressions of truth4 8,the prophets prophesy out of their own heart10 ,ezekiel xiii1 #b2 that is1 according to their own imagination1 without any warrant from ,god4 ,the heart is said to be dilated by joy1 contracted by sadness1 broken by sorrow1 to grow fat1 and be hardened by prosperity4 ,the heart melts under discouragement1 forsakes one under terror1 is desolate in affliction1 and fluctuating in doubt4 ,to speak to any one's heart is to comfort him1 to say pleasing and affecting things to him4 ,the heart expresses also the middle part of any thing3 8,tyre is in the heart of the seas10 ,ezekiel xxvii1 #d2 in the midst of the seas4 8,we will not fear though the mountains be carried into the heart 7middle7 of the sea10 ,psalm xlvi1 #b4 ,the heart of man is naturally depraved and inclined to evil1 ,jer4 xvii1 #i4 ,a divine power is requisite for its renovation1 ,john iii1 #a-aa4 ,when thus renewed1 the effects will be seen in the temper1 conversation1 and conduct at large4 ,hardness of heart is that state in which a sinner is inclined to1 and actually goes on in1 rebellion against ,god4 ,,heath1 1 ,jer4 xvii1 #f2 xlviii1 #f4 8,he shall be like the heath in the desert4 ,he shall not see when good cometh2 but shall inhabit the parched places in the wilderness1 a salt land40 ,the ,,lxx and ,vulgate render oror1 8the tamarisk20 and this is strengthened by the affinity of the ,hebrew name of this tree with the ,turkish rr4 ,taylor and ,parkhurst render it1 8a blasted tree stripped of its foliage40 ,if it be a particular tree1 the tamarisk is as likely as any4 ,celsius thinks it to be the juniper2 but from the mention of it as growing in a salt land1 in parched places1 the author of 8,scripture ,illustrated0 is disposed to seek it among the lichens1 a species of plants which are the last production of vegetation under the frozen zone1 and under the glowing heat of equatorial deserts2 so that it seems best qualified to endure parched places1 and a salt land4 ,hasselquist mentions several kinds seen by him in ,egypt1 ,arabia1 and ,syria4 ,in ,jer4 xlviii1 #f1 the original word is 1 which the ,septuagint translators have read 1 for they render it 1 wild ass2 and1 as this seems best to agree with the flight recommended in the passage1 it is to be preferred4 ,see ,,wild ,,ass4 ,,heaven1 the place of the more immediate residence of the ,most ,high1 ,gen4 xiv1 #ai4 ,the ,jews enumerated three heavens3 the first was the region of the air1 where the birds fly1 and which are therefore called 8the fowls of heaven10 ,job xxxv1 #aa4 ,it is in this sense also that we read of the dew of heaven1 the clouds of heaven1 and the wind of heaven4 ,the second is that part of space in which are fixed the heavenly luminaries1 the sun1 moon1 and stars1 and which ,moses was instructed to call 8the firmament or expanse of heaven10 ,gen4 i1 #h4 ,the third heaven is the seat of ,god and of the holy angels2 the place into which ,christ ascended after his resurrection1 and into which ,st4 ,paul was caught up1 though it is not like the other heavens perceptible to mortal view4 #b4 ,it is an opinion not destitute of probability1 that the construction of the tabernacle1 in which ,jehovah dwelt by a visible symbol1 termed 8the cloud of glory10 was intended to be a type of heaven4 ,in the holiest place of the tabernacle1 8the glory of the ,lord10 or visible emblem of his presence1 rested between the cherubims2 by the figures of which1 the angelic host surrounding the throne of ,god in heaven was typified2 and as that holiest part of the tabernacle was1 by a thick vail1 concealed from the sight of those who frequented it for the purposes of worship1 so heaven1 the habitation of ,god1 is1 by the vail of flesh1 hidden from mortal eyes4 ,admitting the whole tabernacle1 therefore1 in which the worship of ,god was performed according to a ritual of divine appointment1 to be a representation of the universe1 we are taught by it this beautiful lesson1 that the whole universe is the temple of ,god2 but that in this vast temple there is 8a most holy place10 where the ,deity resides and manifests his presence to the angelic hosts and redeemed company who surround him4 ,this view appears to be borne out by the clear and uniform testimony of ,scripture2 and it is an interesting circumstance1 that heaven1 as represented by 8the holiest of all10 is heaven as it is presented to the eye of ,christian faith1 the place where our ,lord ministers as priest1 to which believers now come in spirit1 and where1 they are gathered together in the disembodied state4 ,thus1 for instance1 ,st4 ,paul tells the believing ,hebrews1 8,ye are come unto ,mount ,zion1 and unto the city of the living ,god1 the heavenly ,jerusalem1 and to an innumerable company of angels1 to the general assembly and church of the first-born1 which are written10 or are enrolled1 8in heaven1 and to ,god the ,judge of all1 and to the spirits of just men made perfect1 and to ,jesus the ,mediator of the new covenant1 and to the blood of sprinkling1 that speaketh better things than the blood of ,abel10 ,heb4 xii1 #bb-bd4 ,here we are presented with the antitype of almost every leading circumstance of the ,mosaic dispensation4 ,instead of the land of ,canaan1 we have heaven2 for the earthly ,jerusalem1 we have the heavenly1 the city of the living ,god2 in place of the congregation of ,israel after the flesh1 we have the general assembly and church of the first-born1 that is1 all true believers 8made perfect20 for just men in the imperfect state of the old dispensation1 we have just men made perfect in evangelical knowledge and holiness2 instead of ,moses1 the mediator of the old covenant1 we have ,jesus the ,mediator of the new and everlasting covenant2 and instead of the blood of slaughtered animals1 which was sprinkled upon the ,israelites1 the tabernacle1 and all the vessels of the sanctuary1 to make a typical atonement1 we have the blood of the ,son of ,god1 which was shed for the remission of the sins of the whole world2 that blood which doth not1 like the blood of ,abel1 call for vengeance but for mercy1 which hath made peace between heaven and earth1 effected the true and complete atonement for sin1 and which therefore communicates peace to the conscience of every sinner that believes the ,gospel4 #c4 ,among the numerous refinements of modern times that is one of the most remarkable which goes to deny the locality of heaven4 8,it is a state10 say many1 8not a place40 ,but if that be the case1 the very language of the ,scriptures1 in regard to this point1 is calculated to mislead us4 ,for that ,god resides in a particular part of the universe1 where he makes his presence known to his intelligent creatures by some transcendent1 visible glory1 is an opinion that has prevailed among ,jews and ,christians1 ,greeks and ,romans1 yea1 in every nation1 civilized or savage1 and in every age2 and1 since it is confirmed by revelation1 why should it be doubted8 ,into this most holy place1 the habitation of the ,deity1 ,jesus1 after his resurrection1 ascended2 and there1 presenting his crucified body before the manifestation of the divine presence1 which is called 8the throne of the ,majesty in the heavens10 he offered unto ,god the sacrifice of himself1 and made atonement for the sins of his people4 ,there he is sat down upon his throne1 crowned with glory and honour1 as king upon his holy hill of ,zion1 and continually officiates as our great ,high ,priest1 ,advocate1 and ,intercessor1 within the vail4 ,there is his ,father's house1 into which he is gone before1 to prepare mansions of bliss for his disciples2 it is the kingdom conferred upon him as the reward of his righteousness1 and of which he has taken possession as their forerunner1 ,acts i1 #aa2 ,heb4 vi1 #ai1 #bj4 #d4 ,some of the ancients imagined that the habitation of good men1 after the resurrection1 would be the sun2 grounding this fanciful opinion on a mistaken interpretation of ,psalm xix1 #d1 which they rendered1 with the ,,lxx and ,vulgate1 8,he has set his tabernacle in the sun40 ,others1 again1 have thought it to lie beyond the starry firmament1 a notion less improbable than the former4 ,mr4 ,whiston supposes the air to be the mansion of the blessed1 at least for the present2 and he imagines that ,christ is at the top of the atmosphere1 and other spirits nearer to or more remote from him according to the degree of their moral purity1 to which he conceives the specific gravity of their inseparable vehicles to be proportionable4 ,mr4 ,hallet has endeavoured to prove that they will dwell upon earth1 when it shall be restored to its paradisaical state4 ,the passages of ,scripture1 however1 on which he grounds his hypothesis1 are capable of another and very different interpretation4 ,after all1 we may observe1 that the place of the blessed is a question of comparatively little importance2 and we may cheerfully expect and pursue it1 though we cannot answer a multitude of curious questions1 relating to various circumstances that pertain to it4 ,we have reason to believe that heaven will be a social state1 and that its happiness will1 in some measure1 arise from mutual communion and converse1 and the expressions and exercises of mutual benevolence4 ,all the views presented to us of this eternal residence of good men are pure and noble2 and form a striking contrast to the low hopes1 and the gross and sensual conceptions of a future state1 which distinguish the ,pagan and ,mohammedan systems4 ,the ,christian heaven may be described to be a state of eternal communion with ,god1 and consecration to hallowed devotional and active services2 from which will result an uninterrupted increase of knowledge1 holiness1 and joy1 to the glorified and immortalized assembly of the redeemed4 ,,heber1 or ,,eber1 the father of ,peleg1 and the son of ,salah1 who was the grandson of ,shem1 one of ,noah's sons1 was born ,a4 ,m4 #agbc2 ,b4 ,c4 #bbha4 ,from him some have supposed that ,abraham and his descendants derived the appellation of ,hebrews4 ,but others have suggested1 with greater probability1 that ,abraham and his family were thus called1 because they came from the other side of the ,euphrates into ,canaan2 ,heber signifying in the ,hebrew language one that passes1 or1 a passage1 that is1 of the river ,euphrates4 ,according to this opinion1 ,hebrew signifies much the same as foreigner among us1 or one that comes from beyond sea4 ,such were ,abraham and his family among the ,canaanites2 and his posterity1 learning and using the language of the country1 still retained the appellation originally given them1 even when they became possessors and settled inhabitants4 #b4 ,,heber the ,kenite1 of ,jethro's family1 husband to ,jael1 who killed ,sisera1 ,judges iv1 #ag1 c4 ,,hebrew ,,of ,,the ,,hebrews1 an appellation which the ,apostle ,paul applies to himself1 ,phil4 iii1 #e1 concerning the meaning of which there has been some difference of opinion4 ,godwin1 in his 8,moses and ,aaron10 understands by this expression1 a ,hebrew both by father's and mother's side4 ,but if it meant no more than this1 there was little occasion for the ,apostle's using it immediately after having declared that he was 8of the stock of ,israel1 and the tribe of ,benjamin10 which1 on ,godwin's supposition1 is the same as a ,hebrew of the ,hebrews2 for the ,jews were not allowed to marry out of their own nation4 ,beside1 it is not likely that ,st4 ,paul would have mentioned it as a distinguishing privilege and honour1 that his parents were not proselytes4 ,it is more probable that a ,hebrew of the ,hebrews signifies a ,hebrew both by nation and language1 which many of ,abraham's posterity1 in those days1 were not2 or one of the ,hebrew ,jews who performed their public worship in the ,hebrew tongue2 for such were reckoned more honourable than the ,jews born out of ,judea1 and who spoke the ,greek tongue4 ,see ,,hellenists4 ,,hebrew ,,language1 called also absolutely ,hebrew1 is the language spoken by the ,hebrews1 and in which all the books of the ,old ,testament are written2 whence it is also called the holy or sacred language4 ,it is said to have been preserved in the midst of the confusion at ,babel1 in the family of ,heber1 or ,eber1 who1 as it is alleged1 was not concerned in the building of ,babel1 and1 consequently1 did not share in the punishment inflicted on the actual transgressors4 ,the ,jews1 in general1 have been of opinion1 that the ,hebrew was the language of ,heber's family1 from whom ,abraham sprung4 ,on the other hand1 it has been maintained that ,heber's family1 in the fourth generation after the dispersion1 lived in ,chaldea1 where ,abraham was born1 ,gen4 xi1 #bg1 #bh1 and that there is no reason to think they used a different language from their neighbours around them4 ,it appears1 moreover1 that the ,chaldee1 and not the ,hebrew1 was the language of ,abraham's country1 and of his kindred1 ,gen4 xxiv1 #d2 xxxi1 #df1 #dg2 and it is probable that ,abraham's native language was ,chaldee1 and that the ,hebrew was the language of the ,canaanites1 which ,abraham and his posterity learned by travelling among them4 ,it is surprising that this adoption of the ,phenician language by the patriarchs should have escaped the notice of several intelligent readers of the ,bible4 ,jacob and ,laban1 it is clear1 by the names they gave to the cairn1 or memorial of stones1 spoke two different dialects2 and it is nearly equally evident1 that the language of ,laban was the dialect of ,ur of the ,chaldees1 the original speech of the ,hebrew race4 ,as the patriarchs disused the true ,hebrew dialect1 it is manifest that they had conformed to the speech of ,canaan2 and that this conformity was complete1 is proved by the identity between all the remains of ,canaanitish names4 ,at the same time1 it must be remarked1 that the ,phenician and the ,chaldean were merely different dialects of the same primitive language which had been spoken by the first ancestors of mankind4 #b4 ,there is no work in all antiquity written in pure ,hebrew1 beside the books of the ,old ,testament2 and even some parts of those are in ,chaldee4 ,the ,hebrew appears to be the most ancient of all the languages in the world2 at least it is so with regard to us1 who know of no older4 ,dr4 ,sharpe adopts the opinion1 that the ,hebrew was the original language2 not indeed that the ,hebrew is the unvaried language of our first parents1 but that it was the general language of men at the dispersion2 and1 however it might have been improved and altered from the first speech of our first parents1 it was the original of all the languages1 or almost all the languages1 rather dialects1 that have since arisen in the world4 ,arguments have also been deduced from the nature and genius of the ,hebrew language1 in order to prove that it was the original language1 neither improved nor debased by foreign idioms4 ,the words of which it is composed are short1 and admit of very little flexion4 ,the names of places are descriptive of their nature1 situation1 accidental circumstances1 c4 ,the compounds are few1 and inartificially conjoined2 and it is less burdened with those artificial affixes which distinguish other cognate dialects1 such as the ,chaldean1 ,syrian1 ,arabian1 ,phenician1 c4 ,the period1 from the age of ,moses to that of ,david1 has been considered the golden age of the ,hebrew language1 which declined in purity from that time to the reign of ,hezekiah or ,manasseh1 having received several foreign words1 particularly ,aramean1 from the commercial and political intercourse of the ,jews and ,israelites with the ,assyrians and ,babylonians4 ,this period has been termed the silver age of the ,hebrew language4 ,in the interval between the reign of ,hezekiah and the ,babylonish captivity1 the purity of the language was neglected1 and so many foreign words were introduced into it1 that this period has not inaptly been designated its iron age4 ,during the seventy years' captivity1 though it does not appear that the ,hebrews entirely lost their native tongue1 yet it underwent so considerable a change from their adoption of the vernacular languages of the countries where they had resided1 that afterward1 on their return from exile1 they spoke a dialect of ,chaldee mixed with ,hebrew words4 ,on this account it was1 that1 when the ,scriptures were read1 it was found necessary to interpret them to the people in the ,chaldean language2 as1 when ,ezra the scribe brought the book of the law of ,moses before the congregation1 the ,levites are said to have caused the people to understand the law1 because 8they read in the book1 in the law of ,god1 distinctly1 and gave the sense1 and caused them to understand the reading10 ,nehem4 viii1 #h4 ,some time after the return from the great captivity1 ,hebrew ceased to be spoken altogether2 though it continued to be cultivated and studied by the priests and ,levites1 as a learned language1 that they might be enabled to expound the law and the prophets to the people1 who1 it appears from the ,new ,testament1 were well acquainted with their general contents and tenor3 this last mentioned period has been called the leaden age of the language4 ,the present ,hebrew characters1 or letters1 are twenty-two in number1 and of a square form2 but the antiquity of these letters is a point that has been most severely contested by many learned men4 ,from a passage in ,eusebius's ,chronicle1 and another in ,st4 ,jerom1 it was inferred by ,joseph ,scaliger1 that ,ezra1 when he reformed the ,jewish church1 transcribed the ancient characters of the ,hebrews into the square letters of the ,chaldeans2 and that this was done for the use of those ,jews who1 being born during the captivity1 knew no other alphabet than that of the people among whom they had been educated4 ,consequently1 the old character1 which we call the ,samaritan1 fell into total disuse4 ,this opinion ,scaliger supported by passages from both the ,talmuds1 as well as from rabbinical writers1 in which it is expressly affirmed that such characters were adopted by ,ezra4 ,but the most decisive confirmation of this point is to be found in the ancient ,hebrew coins1 which were struck before the captivity1 and even previously to the revolt of the ten tribes4 ,the characters engraven on all of them are manifestly the same with the modern ,samaritan1 though with some trifling variations in their forms1 occasioned by the depredations of time4 ,,hebrews1 sometimes called ,israelites1 from their progenitor1 ,jacob1 surnamed ,israel1 and in modern times ,jews1 as the descendants of ,judah1 the name of this leading tribe being given to all4 ,see ,,jews4 ,,hebrews1 ,,epistle ,,to ,,the4 ,though the genuineness of this epistle has been disputed both in ancient and modern times1 its antiquity has never been questioned4 ,it is generally allowed that there are references to it1 although the author is not mentioned1 in the remaining works of ,clement of ,rome1 ,ignatius1 ,polycarp1 and ,justin ,martyr2 and that it contains1 as was first noticed by ,chrysostom and ,theodoret1 internal evidence of having been written before the destruction of ,jerusalem1 ,heb4 viii1 #d2 ix1 #be2 x1 #aa1 #cg2 xiii1 #aj4 ,the earliest writer now extant who quotes this epistle as the work of ,st4 ,paul is ,clement of ,alexandria1 toward the end of the second century2 but1 as he ascribes it to ,st4 ,paul repeatedly and without hesitation1 we may conclude that in his time no doubt had been entertained upon the subject1 or1 at least1 that the common tradition of the church attributed it to ,st4 ,paul4 ,clement is followed by ,origen1 by ,dionysius and ,alexander1 both bishops of ,alexandria1 by ,ambrose1 ,athanasius1 ,hilary of ,poitiers1 ,jerom1 ,chrysostom1 and ,cyril1 all of whom consider this epistle as written by ,st4 ,paul2 and it is also ascribed to him in the ancient ,syriac version1 supposed to have been made at the end of the first century4 ,eusebius says1 8,of ,st4 ,paul there are fourteen epistles manifest and well known2 but yet there are some who reject that to the ,hebrews1 urging for their opinion that it is contradicted by the church of the ,romans1 as not being ,st4 ,paul's40 ,in ,dr4 ,lardner we find the following remark3 8,it is evident that this epistle was generally received in ancient times by those ,christians who used the ,greek language1 and lived in the eastern parts of the ,roman empire40 ,and in another place he says1 8,it was received as an epistle of ,st4 ,paul by many ,latin writers in the fourth1 fifth1 and sixth centuries40 ,the earlier ,latin writers take no notice of this epistle1 except ,tertullian1 who ascribes it to ,barnabas4 ,it appears1 indeed1 from the following expression of ,jerom1 that this epistle was not generally received as canonical ,scripture by the ,latin church in his time3 8,licet eam ,latina consuetudo inter canonicas ,scripturas non recipiat40 ,although the usage of the ,latin church does not receive it among the canonical ,scriptures4 ,the same thing is mentioned in other parts of his works4 ,but many individuals of the ,latin church acknowledged it to be written by ,st4 ,paul1 as ,jerom himself1 ,ambrose1 ,hilary1 and ,philaster2 and the persons who doubted its genuineness were those the least likely to have been acquainted with the epistle at an early period1 from the nature of its contents not being so interesting to the ,latin churches1 which consisted almost entirely of ,gentile ,christians1 ignorant1 probably1 of the ,mosaic law1 and holding but little intercourse with ,jews4 #b4 ,the moderns1 who1 upon grounds of internal evidence1 contend against the genuineness of this epistle1 rest principally upon the two following arguments1 the omission of the writer's name1 and the superior elegance of the style in which it is written4 ,it is indeed certain that all the acknowledged epistles of ,st4 ,paul begin with a salutation in his own name1 and that1 in the ,epistle to the ,hebrews1 there is nothing of that kind2 but this omission can scarcely be considered as conclusive against positive testimony4 ,st4 ,paul might have reasons for departing1 upon this occasion1 from his usual mode of salutation1 which we at this distant period cannot discover4 ,some have imagined that he omitted his name1 because he knew that it would not have much weight with the ,hebrew ,christians1 to whom he was in general obnoxious1 on account of his zeal in converting the ,gentiles1 and in maintaining that the observance of the ,mosaic law was not essential to salvation3 it is1 however1 clear1 that the persons to whom this epistle was addressed knew from whom it came1 as the writer refers to some acts of kindness which he had received from them1 and also expresses a hope of seeing them soon1 ,hebrews x1 #cd2 xiii1 #ah1 #ai1 #bc4 ,as to the other argument1 it must be owned that there does not appear to be such superiority in the style of this epistle1 as should lead to the conclusion that it was not written by ,st4 ,paul4 ,those who have thought differently have mentioned ,barnabas1 ,st4 ,luke1 and ,clement1 as authors or translators of this epistle4 ,the opinion of ,jerom was1 that the sentiments are the ,apostle's1 but the language and composition that of some one else1 who committed to writing the ,apostle's sense1 and1 as it were1 reduced into commentaries the things spoken by his master4 ,dr4 ,lardner says1 8,my conjecture is1 that ,st4 ,paul dictated the epistle in ,hebrew1 and another1 who was a great master of the ,greek language1 immediately wrote down the ,apostle's sentiments in his own elegant ,greek2 but who this assistant of the ,apostle was1 is altogether unknown40 ,but surely the writings of ,st4 ,paul1 like those of other authors1 may not all have the same precise degree of merit2 and if1 upon a careful perusal and comparison1 it should be thought that the ,epistle to the ,hebrews is written with greater elegance than the acknowledged compositions of this ,apostle2 it should also be remembered that the apparent design and contents of this epistle suggest the idea of more studied composition1 and yet1 that there is nothing in it which amounts to a marked difference of style3 on the other hand1 there is the same concise1 abrupt1 and elliptical mode of expression1 and it contains many phrases and sentiments which are found in no part of ,scripture1 except in ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles4 ,we may farther observe1 that the manner in which ,timothy is mentioned in this epistle makes it probable that it was written by ,st4 ,paul4 ,compare ,heb4 xiii1 #bc1 with #b ,cor4 i1 #a1 and ,col4 i1 #a4 ,it was certainly written by a person who had suffered imprisonment in the cause of ,christianity2 and this is known to have been the case of ,st4 ,paul1 but of no other person to whom this epistle has been attributed4 ,upon the whole1 both the external and internal evidence appear to preponderate so greatly in favour of ,st4 ,paul's being the author of this epistle1 that it cannot but be considered as written by that ,apostle4 #c4 8,they of ,italy salute you10 is the only expression in the epistle which can assist us in determining from whence it was written4 ,the ,greek words are1 which should have been translated1 8,those from ,italy salute you20 and the only inference to be drawn from them seems to be1 that ,st4 ,paul1 when he wrote this epistle1 was at a place where some ,italian converts were4 ,this inference is not incompatible with the common opinion1 that this epistle was written from ,rome1 and therefore we consider it as written from that city4 ,it is supposed to have been written toward the end of ,st4 ,paul's first imprisonment at ,rome1 or immediately after it1 because the ,apostle expresses an intention of visiting the ,hebrews shortly3 we therefore place the date of this epistle in the year #fc4 #d4 ,clement1 of ,alexandria1 ,eusebius1 and ,jerom1 thought that this epistle was originally written in the ,hebrew language2 but all the other ancient fathers who have mentioned this subject speak of the ,greek as the original work2 and as no one pretends to have seen this epistle in ,hebrew1 as there are no internal marks of the ,greek being a translation1 and as we know that the ,greek language was at this time very generally understood at ,jerusalem1 we may accede to the more common opinion1 both among the ancients and moderns1 and consider the present ,greek as the original text4 ,it is no small satisfaction to reflect1 that those who have denied either the genuineness or the originality of this epistle have always supposed it to have been written or translated by some fellow labourer or assistant of ,st4 ,paul1 and that almost every one admits that it carries with it the sanction and authority of the inspired ,apostle4 #e4 ,there has been some little doubt concerning the persons to whom this epistle was addressed2 but by far the most general and most probable opinion is1 that it was written to those ,christians of ,judea who had been converted to the ,gospel from ,judaism4 ,that it was written1 notwithstanding its general title1 to the ,christians of one certain place or country1 is evident from the following passages3 8,i beseech you the rather to do this1 that ,i may be restored to you the sooner10 ,heb4 xiii1 #ai4 8,know ye that our brother ,timothy is set at liberty1 with whom1 if he come shortly1 ,i will see you10 ,heb4 xiii1 #bc4 ,and it appears from the following passage in the ,acts1 8,when the number of the disciples was multiplied1 there arose a murmuring of the ,grecians against the ,hebrews10 ,acts vi1 #a1 that certain persons were at this time known at ,jerusalem by the name of ,hebrews4 ,they seem to have been native ,jews1 inhabitants of ,judea1 the language of which country was ,hebrew1 and therefore they were called ,hebrews1 in contradistinction to those ,jews who1 residing commonly in other countries1 although they occasionally came to ,jerusalem1 used the ,greek language1 and were therefore called ,grecians4 #f4 ,the general design of this epistle was to confirm the ,jewish ,christians in the faith and practice of the ,gospel1 which they might be in danger of deserting1 either through the persuasion or persecution of the unbelieving ,jews1 who were very numerous and powerful in ,judea4 ,we may naturally suppose1 that the zealous adherents to the law would insist upon the majesty and glory which attended its first promulgation1 upon the distinguished character of their legislator1 ,moses1 and upon the divine authority of the ancient ,scriptures2 and they might likewise urge the humiliation and death of ,christ as an argument against the truth of his religion4 ,to obviate the impression which any reasoning of this sort might make upon the converts to ,christianity1 the writer of this epistle begins with declaring to the ,hebrews1 that the same ,god who had formerly1 upon a variety of occasions1 spoken to their fathers by means of his prophets1 had now sent his only ,son for the purpose of revealing his will2 he then describes1 in most sublime language1 the dignity of the person of ,christ1 ,heb4 i2 and thence infers the duty of obeying his commands1 the divine authority of which was established by the performance of miracles1 and by the gifts of the ,holy ,ghost2 he points out the necessity of ,christ's incarnation and passion1 ,heb4 ii2 he shows the superiority of ,christ to ,moses1 and warns the ,hebrews against the sin of unbelief1 ,heb4 iii2 he exhorts to steadfastness in the profession of the ,gospel1 and gives an animated description of ,christ as our high priest1 ,heb4 iv-vii2 he shows that the ,levitical priesthood and the old covenant were abolished by the priesthood of ,christ1 and by the new covenant1 ,heb4 viii2 he points out the efficacy of the ceremonies and sacrifices of the law1 and the sufficiency of the atonement made by the sacrifice of ,christ1 ,heb4 ix1 x2 he fully explains the nature1 merit1 and effects of faith1 ,heb4 xi2 and in the last two chapters he gives a variety of exhortations and admonitions1 all calculated to encourage the ,hebrews to bear with patience and constancy any trials to which they might be exposed4 ,he concludes with the valedictory benediction usual in ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles3 8,grace be with you all4 ,amen40 ,the most important articles of our faith are explained1 and the most material objections to the ,gospel are answered with great force1 in this celebrated epistle4 ,the arguments used in it1 as being addressed to persons who had been educated in the ,jewish religion1 are principally taken from the ancient ,scriptures2 and the connection between former revelations and the ,gospel of ,christ1 is pointed out in the most perspicuous and satisfactory manner4 #g4 ,in addition1 it may be observed1 that ,mr4 ,stuart1 an ,american critic1 has published an ample investigation of several of the points referred to in the above remarks1 and the following are the results3-- 7#a47 ,as to the place in which the persons lived to whom the epistle is addressed1 ,i have now examined all the objections against the opinion1 that the ,epistle to the ,hebrews was directed to ,palestine1 which ,i have met with1 and which seem to be of sufficient magnitude to deserve attention4 ,i am unable to perceive that they are very weighty2 and surely they come quite short of being conclusive4 ,on the other hand1 the positive proof1 ,i acknowledge1 is only of a circumstantial nature1 and falls short of the weight which direct and unequivocal testimony in the epistle itself would possess4 ,but uniting the whole of it together2 considering the intimate knowledge of ,jewish rites1 the strong attachment to their ritual1 and the special danger of defection from ,christianity in consequence of it1 which the whole texture of the epistle necessarily supposes1 and combining these things with the other circumstances above discussed1 ,i cannot resist the impression1 that the universal opinion of the ancient church respecting the persons to whom this epistle was addressed1 was well founded1 being built upon early tradition and the contents of the epistle2 and that the doubts and difficulties thrown in the way by modern and recent critics1 are not of sufficient importance to justify us in relinquishing the belief that ,palestine ,christians were addressed by the epistle to the ,hebrews4 ,thousands of facts1 pertaining to criticism and to history1 are believed and treated as realities1 which have less support than the opinion that has now been examined4 7#b47 ,as to the author1 we now come to the result of this investigation4 ,in the ,egyptian and eastern churches1 there were1 it is probable1 at a pretty early period1 some who had doubts whether ,st4 ,paul wrote the ,epistle to the ,hebrews2 but no considerable person or party is definitely known to us1 who entertained these doubts2 and it is manifest1 from ,origen and ,eusebius1 that there was not1 in that quarter1 any important opposition to the general and constant tradition of the church1 that ,paul did write it4 ,not a single witness of any considerable respectability is named1 who has given his voice1 in this part of the church1 for the negative of the question which we are considering4 ,what ,jerom avers1 appears to be strictly true1 namely1 ,ab ecclesiis orientis et ab omnibus retr ecclesiasticis ,grci sermonis scriptoribus1 quasi ,apostoli ,pauli suscipi4 ,in the western churches a diversity of opinion prevailed2 although the actual quantity of negative testimony1 that can be adduced1 is not great4 ,yet the concessions of ,jerom and ,augustine leave no room to doubt the fact1 that the predominant opinion of the western churches1 in their times1 was in the negative4 ,in early times1 we have seen that the case was different1 when ,clement of ,rome wrote his epistle1 and when the old ,latin version was brought into circulation4 ,what produced a change of opinion in the west1 we are left to conjecture4 ,the scanty critical and literary records of those times afford us no means for tracing the history of it4 ,but this is far from being a singular case4 ,many other changes in the opinions of the churches have taken place1 which we are1 for a similar reason1 as little able to trace with any certainty or satisfaction4 ,storr has endeavoured to show1 that ,marcion occasioned this revolution1 when he came from the east to ,rome1 and brought with him a collection of the sacred books1 in which the ,epistle to the ,hebrews was omitted4 ,but it is very improbable1 that an extravagant man1 excommunicated by the ,roman church itself1 should have produced such a revolution there in sentiment4 ,others have with more probability1 attributed it to the zealous disputes at ,rome against the ,montanist party1 whom the ,epistle to the ,hebrews was supposed particularly to favour4 ,the ,montanists strenuously opposed the reception again into the bosom of the church of those persons who had so lapsed as to make defection from the ,christian faith4 ,the passages in ,heb4 vi1 #d-h1 and x1 #bf-ca1 at least seem strongly to favour the views which they maintained4 ,the church at ,rome carried the dispute against the ,montanists very high2 and ,ernesti and many other critics have been led to believe1 that the ,epistle to the ,hebrews was ultimately rejected by them1 because the ,montanists relied on it as their main support4 ,as a matter of fact1 this cannot be established by direct historical evidence4 ,but1 in the absence of all testimony in respect to this subject1 it must be allowed as not improbable1 that the ,epistle to the ,hebrews may have1 in this way1 become obnoxious to the ,roman church4 ,many such instances might be produced from the history of the church4 ,the ,ebionites1 the ,manicheans1 the ,alogi1 and many ancient and modern sects1 have rejected some part of the canon of ,scripture1 because it stood opposed to their party views4 ,the ,apocalypse was rejected by many of the oriental churches1 on account of their opposition to the ,chiliasts1 who made so much use of it4 ,and who does not know1 that ,luther himself rejected the ,epistle of ,james1 because he viewed it as thwarting his favourite notions of justification2 yea1 that he went so far as to give it the appellation of epistola straminea8 an epistle of straw4 ,it cannot be at all strange1 then1 that the ,romish church1 exceedingly imbittered by the dispute with the ,montanists1 should have gradually come to call in question the apostolic origin of the epistle2 because it was to their adversaries a favourite source of appeal1 and because1 unlike ,st4 ,paul's other epistles1 it was anonymous4 ,that all1 even of the ,montanists1 however1 admitted the apostolic origin of our epistle1 does not seem to be true4 ,tertullian1 who took a very active part in favour of this sect1 had1 as we have already seen1 doubts of such an origin1 or rather1 he ascribed it to ,barnabas4 ,but whatever might have been the cause that the epistle in question was pretty generally rejected by the churches of the west1 the fact that it was so cannot be reasonably disputed4 ,a majority of these churches1 from the latter half of the second century to the latter half of the fourth1 seem to have been generally opposed to receiving this epistle as ,st4 ,paul's2 although there were some among them who did receive it4 ,it remains1 then1 to balance the testimony thus collected together and compared4 ,the early testimony is1 of course1 immeasurably the most important4 ,and there seems to me sufficient evidence1 that this was as general and as uniform for the first century after the apostolic age as in respect to many other books of the ,new ,testament2 and more so1 than in respect to several4 ,i cannot hesitate to believe1 that the weight of evidence from tradition is altogether preponderant in favour of the opinion1 that ,st4 ,paul was the author of our epistle4 7#c47 ,as to the language in which the epistle was originally written1 there has been a difference of opinion among critics1 both in ancient and modern times4 ,clement of ,alexandria says that ,st4 ,paul wrote to the ,hebrews in the ,hebrew language1 and that ,st4 ,luke carefully translated it into ,greek4 ,eusebius in the same manner says1 that ,paul wrote to the ,hebrews in his vernacular language1 and that1 according to report1 either ,luke or ,clement translated it4 ,so ,jerom1 also1 scripserat ut ,hebrus ,hebris ,hebraic2 as a ,hebrew he had written to the ,hebrews in ,hebrew2 and then he adds that this epistle was translated into ,greek1 so that the colouring of the style was made diverse1 in this way1 from that of ,st4 ,paul's4 ,of the same opinion1 in respect to this1 was ,clement1 of ,alexandria2 and ,origen1 as we have seen above1 supposes that the thoughts contained in the epistle were ,st4 ,paul's1 while the diction or costume of it must be attributed to the person who wrote down the sentiments of the ,apostle4 ,by the ,hebrew language1 no one can reasonably doubt1 that these fathers meant the ,jerusalem dialect1 which was spoken in the days of the ,apostles1 and not the ancient ,hebrew1 which had long ceased to be a vernacular language4 ,it is quite plain also1 that these fathers were led to the conclusion1 that the ,epistle to the ,hebrews was originally written in the dialect of ,palestine1 from their belief1 so universal in ancient times1 of its having been addressed to some church1 or to the churches1 in that country4 ,it was very natural to draw such a conclusion2 for would not an epistle addressed to ,hebrews in all probability be more acceptable1 if written in their own vernacular language8 ,moreover1 ,st4 ,paul was well acquainted with that language1 for he was brought up at ,jerusalem1 and 8at the feet of ,gamaliel20 and when he had visited that city1 he had addressed the ,jewish multitude1 who were excited against him1 in their native tongue1 ,acts xxii1 #a1 #b4 ,why should it not be supposed1 that if1 as is probable1 this epistle was originally directed to ,palestine1 it was written in the dialect of that country8 ,so the fathers above quoted evidently thought and reasoned2 although other fathers have said nothing on this point1 and do not appear to have coincided in opinion with those to whom ,i have just referred4 ,among the moderns1 also1 several critics have undertaken to defend the same opinion2 and particularly ,michalis1 who has discussed the subject quite at length1 in his introduction to this epistle4 ,i do not think it necessary minutely to examine his arguments4 ,to my own mind they appear altogether unsatisfactory4 ,some of them are built on an exegesis most palpably erroneous1 and which1 if admitted1 would deduce a very strange meaning from the words of the epistle4 ,yet1 assuming such a meaning1 he thence concludes1 that the original writer must have expressed a different idea1 and that the translator mistook his meaning4 ,he then undertakes to conjecture what the original ,hebrew must have been4 ,in other cases1 he deduces his arguments from considerations wholly priori2 as if these were admissible in a question of mere fact4 ,he has not adduced a single instance of what he calls wrong translation1 which wears the appearance of any considerable probability4 ,on the other hand1 ,bolton1 a sharp-sighted critic1 and well acquainted with the ,aramean language1 who has gone through with the ,new ,testament1 and found almost every where marks1 as he thinks1 of translation from ,aramean documents1 confesses1 that1 in respect to this epistle1 he finds not a single vestige of incorrect translation from an ,aramean original1 and no marks that there ever was such an original4 ,this testimony is of considerable importance in respect to the question before us1 as it comes from a critic who spent many years on the study of that which is most intimately connected with the very subject under consideration1 namely1 the detection of the ,aramean originals of the various parts of the ,new ,testament4 7#d47 ,the principal arguments in favour of a ,hebrew original are deduced from two sources3 ,that ,hebrews are addressed in our epistle1 to whom the ,hebrew language would have been more acceptable and intelligible1 and many of whom1 indeed1 could not understand ,greek1 certainly could not read it3 ,that the diversity of style in the ,epistle to the ,hebrews is so great1 when compared with that of ,st4 ,paul's epistles1 that1 unless we suppose the ,greek costume did in fact come from another hand1 we must be led to the conclusion that ,st4 ,paul did not write it4 ,both of these topics have been already discussed4 ,i merely add here1 therefore1 that in case the writer of the epistle designed it should have a wide circulation among the ,jews1 to write in ,greek was altogether the most feasible method of accomplishing this4 ,beside1 if ,st4 ,paul did address it to the church at ,csarea1 it is altogether probable that he wrote in ,greek1 as ,greek was the principal language of that city4 ,even if he did not1 it was not necessary that he should write in ,hebrew2 for in every considerable place in ,palestine1 there were more or less who understood the ,greek language4 ,whoever wishes to see this last position established beyond any reasonable doubt1 may read ,hug's 8,introduction to the ,new ,testament10 vol4 ii1 pp4 #cb-ej4 ,when ,st4 ,paul wrote to the ,romans1 he did not write in ,latin2 yet there was no difficulty in making his epistle understood1 for the knowledge of ,greek was very common in ,rome4 ,if ,st4 ,paul understood the ,latin language1 which is no where affirmed1 and he had not resided when he wrote this epistle1 in any of the countries where it was commonly used1 still he understood ,greek so much better that he would of course prefer writing in it4 ,for a similar reason1 if no other could be given1 one may regard it as more probable1 that he would write the ,epistle to the ,hebrews in the ,greek language4 ,at the time of writing it1 he had been abroad twenty-five years at least1 in ,greek countries1 and had been in ,palestine1 during all that period1 only a few days4 ,the ,jews abroad1 whom he every where saw1 spoke ,greek1 not ,hebrew4 ,in ,greek he preached and conversed4 ,is it any wonder1 then1 that1 after twenty-five years' incessant labour or preaching1 conversing1 and writing1 in this language1 he should have preferred writing in it8 ,indeed1 can it be probable1 that1 under circumstances like these1 he still possessed an equal facility of writing in his native dialect of ,palestine8 ,i cannot think it strange1 therefore1 that although the ,epistle to the ,hebrews was in all probability directed to some part of ,palestine1 yet it was written by ,st4 ,paul in ,greek1 and not in ,hebrew4 ,but1 whatever may be the estimation put upon arguments of this nature1 there are internal marks of its having been originally composed in ,greek1 which cannot well be overlooked4 ,,hebron1 one of the most ancient cities in the world2 for it was built seven years before ,zoan1 the capital of ,lower ,egypt1 ,numbers xiii1 #bb4 ,now1 as the ,egyptians gloried much in the antiquity of their cities1 and their country was indeed one of the first that was peopled after the dispersion of ,babel1 it may be from hence concluded that it was one of the most ancient4 ,some think it was founded by ,arba1 one of the oldest giants in ,palestine2 for which reason it was called ,kirjath-arba1 or ,arba's city1 ,joshua xiv1 #ae2 which name was afterward changed to that of ,hebron1 ,joshua xv1 #ac4 ,arba was the father of ,anak2 and from ,anak the giants1 called ,anakim1 took their name1 who were still dwelling at ,hebron when ,joshua conquered the land of ,canaan4 ,when it was first called ,hebron1 is uncertain2 some think1 not till it was conquered by ,caleb1 and that he called it so from his son of that name4 ,but ,calmet is of opinion that the name of ,hebron is more ancient2 and that ,caleb1 to do honour to his son1 named him after this ancient and celebrated place4 ,hebron was situated upon an eminence1 twenty miles southward from ,jerusalem1 and twenty miles north from ,beersheba4 ,abraham1 ,sarah1 and ,isaac were buried near ,hebron1 in the cave of ,machpelah1 or the double cave1 which ,abraham bought of ,ephron1 ,genesis xxiii1 #g-i4 ,hebron was the allotment of ,judah4 ,the ,lord assigned it for the inheritance of ,caleb1 ,joshua xiv1 #ac2 x1 #c1 #bc1 #cg4 ,joshua first took ,hebron1 and killed the king1 whose name was ,hoham4 ,but afterward ,caleb again made a conquest of it1 assisted by the troops of his tribe1 and the valour of ,othniel1 ,judges i1 #ab1 #ac4 ,it was appointed to be a dwelling for priests1 and declared to be a city of refuge1 ,joshua xxi1 #ac4 ,david1 after the death of ,saul1 fixed the seat of his government there1 #b ,sam4 ii1 #b-e4 ,at ,hebron1 ,absalom began his rebellion1 #b ,sam4 xv1 #g1 #h1 c4 ,during the captivity of ,babylon1 the ,edomites having invaded the southern parts of ,judea1 made themselves masters of ,hebron2 hence ,josephus sometimes makes it a part of ,edom4 ,here ,zacharias and ,elizabeth are believed to have dwelt2 and it is supposed to have been the birth place of ,john the ,baptist4 ,hebron is now called ,el ,khalil2 though not a town of large dimensions1 it has a considerable population4 ,according to ,ali ,bey1 it contains about four hundred families of ,arabs2 but he does not notice either the ,jews1 who are numerous1 or the ,turks4 ,he describes it as situated on the slope of a mountain1 and having a strong castle4 ,provisions1 he says1 are abundant1 and there is a considerable number of shops4 ,the streets are winding1 and the houses unusually high4 ,the country is well cultivated1 to a considerable extent4 ,hebron is computed to be twenty-seven miles south-west of ,jerusalem4 ,,heifer1 a young cow1 used in sacrifice at the temple1 ,num4 xix1 #a-aj4 ,moses and ,aaron were instructed to deliver the divine command to the children of ,israel that they should procure 8a red heifer1 without spot10 that is1 one that was entirely red1 without one spot of any other colour2 8free from blemish1 and on which the yoke had never yet come10 that is1 which had never yet been employed in ploughing the ground or in any other work2 for according to the common sense of all mankind1 those animals which had been made to serve other uses1 became unfit to be offered to ,god1--a sentiment which we find in ,homer and other ,heathen writers4 ,the animal was to be delivered to the priest1 who was to lead her forth out of the camp1 and there to slay her3 the priest was then to take of the blood with his finger1 and sprinkle it seven times before the tabernacle1 and afterward to burn the carcass3 then to take cedar wood and hyssop1 and scarlet wood1 and cast them into the flames4 ,the ashes were to be gathered up1 and preserved in a secure and clean place1 for the use of the congregation1 by the sprinkling of which ashes in water1 it became a water of separation1 by means of which a typical or ceremonial purification for sin was effected1 ,heb4 ix1 #ac4 ,,heliopolis4 ,see ,,on4 ,,hell4 ,this is a ,saxon word1 which is derived from a verb which signifies to hide or conceal4 ,a late eminent ,biblical critic1 ,dr4 ,campbell1 has investigated this subject with his usual accuracy2 and the following is the substance of his remarks4 ,in the ,hebrew ,scriptures the word sheol frequently occurs1 and uniformly1 he thinks1 denotes the state of the dead in general1 without regard to the virtuous or vicious characters of the persons1 their happiness or misery4 ,in translating that word1 the ,,lxx have almost invariably used the ,greek term 1 hades1 which means the receptacle of the dead1 and ought rarely to have been translated hell1 in the sense in which we now use it1 namely1 as the place of torment4 ,to denote this latter object1 the ,new ,testament writers always make use of the ,greek word 1 which is compounded of two ,hebrew words1 ,ge ,hinnom1 that is1 8,the ,valley of ,hinnom10 a place near ,jerusalem1 in which children were cruelly sacrificed by fire to ,moloch1 the idol of the ,ammonites1 #b ,chron4 xxxiii1 #f4 ,this place was also called ,tophet1 #b ,kings xxiii1 #aj1 alluding1 as is supposed1 to the noise of drums1 7toph signifying a drum17 there raised to drown the cries of helpless infants4 ,as in process of time this place came to be considered an emblem of hell1 or the place of torment reserved for the punishment of the wicked in a future state1 the name ,tophet came gradually to be used in this sense1 and at length to be confined to it4 ,in this sense1 also1 the word gehenna1 a synonymous term1 is always to be understood in the ,new ,testament1 where it occurs about a dozen times4 ,the confusion that has arisen on this subject has been occasioned not only by our ,english translators having rendered the ,hebrew word sheol and the ,greek word gehenna frequently by the term hell2 but the ,greek word hades1 which occurs eleven times in the ,new ,testament1 is1 in every instance1 except one1 translated by the same ,english word1 which it ought never to have been4 ,in the following passages of the ,old ,testament it seems1 however1 that a future world of wo is expressed by sheol3 8,they10 the wicked1 8spend their days in wealth1 and in a moment go down to sheol10 ,job xxi1 #ac4 8,the wicked shall be turned into sheol1 and all the nations that forget ,god10 ,psalm ix1 #ag1 #ah4 8,her feet go down to death1 her steps take hold on sheol10 ,prov4 v1 #e4 8,but he knoweth not that the ghosts are there1 and that her guests are in the depths of sheol10 ,prov4 ix1 #ah4 8,thou shalt beat him with a rod1 and shalt deliver his soul from sheol10 ,prov4 xxiii1 #ad4 ,thus1 as ,stuart observes1 in his 8,essay on ,future ,punishment10 while the ,old ,testament employs sheol1 in most cases to designate the grave1 the region of the dead1 the place of departed spirits1 it employs it also1 in some cases1 to designate along with this idea the adjunct one of the place of misery1 place of punishment1 region of wo4 ,in this respect it accords fully with the ,new ,testament use of hades4 ,for though hades signifies the grave1 and often the invisible region of separate spirits1 without reference to their condition1 yet1 in ,luke xvi1 #bc1 8,in hades 1 he lifted up his eyes1 being in torments10 it is clearly used for a place and condition of misery4 ,the word hell is also used by our translators for gehenna1 which means the world of future punishment1 8,how shall ye escape the damnation of hell1 88 ,,hell1 ,gates of4 ,see ,,gates4 ,,hellenists4 ,on this appellation1 ,dr4 ,jennings observes1 ,there is a very remarkable appellation which the ,apostle ,paul1 after glorying in his being 8of the stock of ,israel1 and of the tribe of ,benjamin10 applies to himself1 namely1 that he was 8a ,hebrew of the ,hebrews10 ,phil4 iii1 #e4 ,by this expression ,godwin understands a ,hebrew both by father's and mother's side4 ,but if this be all that the phrase imports1 there seems to be very little occasion for the ,apostle's using it immediately after having declared1 that he was 8of the stock of ,israel1 and the tribe of ,benjamin20 which1 on ,godwin's supposition1 is the same as a ,hebrew of the ,hebrews2 for the ,jews were not allowed to marry out of their own nation2 or if they sometimes married proselytes1 yet their number was comparatively so small among them1 especially while they were under oppression1 as they were at that time by the ,romans1 that methinks ,paul would hardly have mentioned it as a distinguishing privilege and honour1 that neither of his parents were proselytes4 ,it is therefore a much more probable sense1 that a ,hebrew of the ,hebrews signifies a ,hebrew both by nation and language1 which multitudes of ,abraham's posterity1 in those days1 were not2 or one of the ,hebrew ,jews1 who performed their public worship in the ,hebrew tongue2 for such were reckoned more honourable than the ,hellenistic ,jews1 who in their dispersion having1 in a manner1 lost the ,hebrew1 used the ,greek language in sacris1 and read the ,scripture out of the ,septuagint version4 ,we meet with this distinction among the converted ,jews1 in the ,acts of the ,apostles3 8,in those days1 when the number of the disciples was multiplied1 there arose a murmuring of the ,grecians or ,hellenists against the ,hebrews10 ,acts vi1 #a4 ,this is what ,st4 ,paul probably meant by his being a ,hebrew1 as distinguished from an ,israelite3 8,are they ,hebrews8 ,so am ,i4 ,are they ,israelites8 ,so am ,i10 #b ,corinthians xi1 #bb4 ,in one sense1 these were convertible terms1 both signifying ,jews by nation and religion2 but in the sense just mentioned1 there were many1 in those days1 who were ,israelites1 but not ,hebrews4 ,st4 ,paul was both1 not only an ,israelite by birth1 but a ,hebrew1 and not a ,hellenistic ,jew4 ,godwin expresses himself inaccurately1 when he says that those who lived in ,palestine1 and who1 as using the ,hebrew text in their public worship1 were opposed to the 1 are called ,hebrews1 or ,jews4 ,for1 though ,hebrew and ,jew are convertible terms1 when opposed to ,gentiles1 as denoting the seed of ,abraham1 and professors of the ,mosaic religion1 see ,jer4 xxxiv1 #i2 yet1 as opposed to the 1 they are not convertible terms1 there being ,hebrew ,jews and ,hellenistic ,jews2 for it is said1 that when 8they1 who were scattered by the persecution that arose about ,stephen1 travelled into several countries1 preaching the word to none but ,jews only10 yet they spoke1 1 to the ,hellenists or ,grecians1 ,acts xi1 #ai1 #bj4 ,in order to confirm the sense which is here given of the word 1 in opposition to the appellation ,hebrews1 it is proper we should take notice of the distinction between the and 4 ,the former were ,greeks by nation1 and as such distinguished from ,jews1 ,acts xvi1 #a2 xix1 #aj2 and the ,greek empire having been rendered by ,alexander in a manner universal1 and their language being then the most common and general1 the appellation ,greeks is sometimes given to the whole ,heathen world1 or to all who were not ,jews1 ,rom4 i1 #af2 ii1 #i4 ,these ,greeks1 called by ,josephus1 are always styled in the ,new ,testament4 ,on which account ,grotius1 understanding by the 1 or 8,grecians1 to whom some of those who were dispersed on the persecution which arose about ,stephen1 preached the ,lord ,jesus10 ,acts xi1 #ai1 #bj1 ,greeks by nation1 concludes there is a mistake in the text1 and alters it according to the ,syriac and ,vulgate versions3 8,cert legendum10 it ought certainly to be read1 saith he1 8 40 ,so indeed the ,alexandrian manuscript reads1 but it is supported by no other copy4 ,and this is decisive against it--that from the words immediately preceding1 it is evident that these ,grecians were by nation ,jews1 and not ,greeks2 it being expressly said1 that those who were scattered on the persecution 8preached the ,gospel to the ,jews only40 ,as for the 1 or ,greeks mentioned in ,st4 ,john's ,gospel1 as being come to ,jerusalem at the passover to worship in the temple1 ,john xii1 #bj1 and likewise those mentioned in the ,acts1 as worshipping along with the ,jews in the synagogues1 ,acts xiv1 #a2 xviii1 #d2 they were doubtless ,greeks by birth and nation1 yet proselytes to the ,jewish religion4 ,there is a distinction made between ,jews and proselytes1 ,acts ii1 #aj2 but none between ,hebrews and proselytes1 because a proselyte might be either a ,hebrew or a ,hellenist1 according to the language in which he performed public worship4 ,that the ,hellenists or ,grecians1 were ,jews1 is farther argued from the account we have1 that when at ,jerusalem ,st4 ,paul 8disputed against the ,grecians1 they went about to slay him10 ,acts ix1 #bi1 as the ,jews at ,damascus had done before1 ,acts ix1 #bc4 ,now had these ,grecians been strangers of a different nation1 it cannot be imagined they durst have attempted to kill a ,jew1 among his own countrymen1 in the capital1 and without a formal accusation of him before any of their tribunals4 ,upon the whole1 the 1 or ,grecians being ,jews who used the ,greek tongue in their sacred exercises1 the ,hebrew ,jews and ,grecian ,jews were distinguished in those days1 in like manner as the ,portuguese and ,dutch ,jews are among us1 not so much by the place of their birth1 7many being born in ,england1 others abroad17 as by the language they use in their public prayers and sermons4 ,among the wonderful dealings of ,god1 says ,dr4 ,neander1 by which the coming of ,christianity was prepared1 must be placed the spreading of the ,jews among the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,those among them who belonged to the ,pharisees gave themselves much trouble to obtain proselytes2 and the loss of respect for the old popular religion1 and the unsatisfied religious wants of multitudes1 farthered their views4 ,reverence for the national ,god of the ,jews1 as a mighty ,being1 and reverence for the secret sanctuary of the splendid temple of ,jerusalem1 had long gained admittance among the ,heathen4 ,jewish goet 7enchanters1 jugglers1 c7 permitted themselves to make use of a thousand acts of delusion1 in which they were very skilful1 to make an impression of astonishment on the minds of those around them4 ,confidence in ,judaism had in consequence made such wide progress1 especially in large capital towns1 that the ,roman writers in the time of the first emperors openly complain of it2 and ,seneca1 in his book upon superstition1 said of the ,jews1 8,the conquered have given laws to the conquerors40 ,the ,jewish proselyte-makers1 8blind leaders of the blind10 who had themselves no conception of the real nature1 of religion1 could give to others no insight into it4 ,they often allowed their converts to take up a kind of dead monotheism1 and merely exchange one kind of superstition for another2 they taught them1 that1 by the mere outward worship of one ,god1 and outward ceremonials1 they were sure of the grace of ,god1 without requiring any change of life2 and they gave to them only new means of silencing their conscience1 and new support in the sins which they were unwilling to renounce3 and hence our ,saviour reproached these proselyte-makers1 that they made their converts ten times more the children of hell1 than they themselves were4 ,but we must here accurately distinguish between the two classes of proselytes4 ,the proselytes in the strict sense of the word1 the proselytes of righteousness1 who underwent circumcision and took upon themselves the whole of the ceremonial law1 were very different from the proselytes of the gate1 who only bound themselves to renounce idolatry1 to the worship of the one ,god1 and to abstinence from all ,heathenish excess1 as well as from every thing which appeared to have any connection with idolatry4 ,the former often embraced all the fanaticism and superstition of the ,jews1 and allowed themselves to be blindly led by their ,jewish teachers4 ,the more difficult it had been to them to subject themselves to the observance of the ,jewish ceremonial law1 necessarily so irksome to a ,greek or a ,roman1 the less could they find it in their hearts to believe1 that all this had been in vain1 that they had obtained no advantage by it1 and that they must renounce their presumed holiness4 ,what ,justin ,martyr says to the ,jews1 holds good of these proselytes3 8,the proselytes not only do not believe1 but they calumniate the name of ,christ twice as much as you1 and they wish to murder and torture us who believe on him1 because they are desirous to resemble you in every thing40 ,the proselytes of the gate1 on the contrary1 had taken many of the most admirable truths out of ,judaism4 ,without becoming entirely ,jews1 they had become acquainted with the ,holy ,scriptures of the ,jews1 they had heard of the promised messenger from ,god1 of the ,king armed with power from ,god1 of whom a report had been spread1 as ,suetonius says in the life of ,vespasian1 over the whole of the east4 ,much of that which they had heard from their ,jewish teachers1 whose writings they had read1 had remained dark to them1 and they were still to seek in them4 ,by the notions which they had received from the ,jews1 of one ,god1 of the divine government of the world1 of ,god's judgment1 and of the ,messiah1 they were more prepared for the ,gospel than other ,heathens2 and because they still thought that they had too little1 because they had no determined religious system1 and were curious after more instruction in divine things1 and because they had not received many of the prejudices which swayed the ,jews1 they were more fitted to receive the ,gospel than many of the ,jews4 ,from the very beginning they must have been attentive to the preaching of the ,gospel1 which secured to them1 without making them ,jews1 a full share in the fulfilment of those promises of which the ,jews had spoken to them4 ,to these proselytes of the gate1 7the 1 the of the ,new ,testament17 passed1 therefore1 according to the ,acts1 the preaching of the ,gospel1 when it had been rejected by the blinded ,jews2 and here the seed of the divine word found a fitting soil in hearts desirous of holiness4 ,there were1 however1 doubtless1 among the proselytes of the gate1 some who1 wanting in proper earnestness in their search after religious truth1 only desired1 in every case1 an easy road to heaven1 which did not require any self-denial2 and who1 in order to be sure of being on the safe side1 whether power and truth lay with the ,jews or the ,heathens1 sometimes worshipped in the synagogue of ,jehovah1 sometimes in the temples of the gods1 and who1 therefore1 fluttered in suspense between ,judaism and ,heathenism4 ,,hemlock1 and 1 ,deut4 xxix1 #ah2 xxxii1 #cb2 ,psalm lxix1 #ba2 ,jer4 viii1 #ad2 ix1 #ae2 xxiii1 #ae2 ,lam4 iii1 #e1 #ai2 ,hosea x1 #d2 ,amos vi1 #ab4 ,in the two latter places our translators have rendered the word hemlock in the others1 gall4 ,hiller supposes it the centaureum1 described by ,pliny2 but ,celsius shows it to be the hemlock4 ,it is evident1 from ,deut4 xxix1 #ah1 that some herb or plant is meant of a malignant or nauseous kind1 being there joined with wormwood1 and in the margin of our ,bibles explained to be 8a poisonful herb40 ,in like manner see ,jer4 viii1 #ad2 ix1 #ae2 and xxiii1 #ae4 ,in ,hosea x1 #d1 the comparison is to a bitter herb1 which1 growing among grain1 overpowers the useful vegetable1 and substitutes a pernicious weed4 8,if10 says the author of 8,scripture ,illustrated10 8the comparison be to a plant growing in the furrows of the field1 strictly speaking1 then we are much restricted in our plants likely to answer this character2 but if we may take the ditches around1 or the moist or sunken places within the field also1 which ,i partly suspect1 then we may include other plants2 and ,i do not see why hemlock may not be intended4 ,scheuchzer inclines to this rather than wormwood or agrostes1 as the ,,lxx have rendered it4 ,the prophet appears to mean a vegetable which should appear wholesome1 and resemble those known to be salutary1 as judgment1 when just1 properly is2 but experience would demonstrate its malignity1 as unjust judgment is when enforced4 ,hemlock is poisonous1 and water-hemlock especially2 yet either of these may be mistaken1 and some of their parts1 the root particularly1 may deceive but too fatally40 ,,hen1 1 #b ,esdras i1 #cj2 ,matt4 xxiii1 #cg2 ,luke xiii1 #cd4 ,in these last two passages our ,saviour exclaims1 8,o ,jerusalem1 ,jerusalem1 how often would ,i have gathered thy children together1 even as a hen gathereth her chickens under her wings1 and ye would not60 ,the metaphor here used is a very beautiful one4 ,when the hen sees a bird of prey coming1 she makes a noise to assemble her chickens1 that she may cover them with her wings from the danger4 ,the ,roman eagle was about to fall upon the ,jewish state2 our ,lord invited them to himself in order to guard them from threatened calamities3 they disregarded his invitations and warnings1 and fell a prey to their adversaries4 ,the affection of the hen to her brood is so strong as to have become proverbial4 ,there is a beautiful ,greek epigram in the ,anthologia1 which affords a very fine illustration of the affection of this bird in another view4 ,it has been thus translated3-- 8,beneath her fostering wing the hen defends ,her darling offspring1 while the snow descends2 ,and through the winter's day unmoved defies ,the chilling fleeces and inclement skies2 ,till vanquish'd by the cold and piercing blast1 ,true to her charge she perishes at last40 ,plutarch1 in his book ,de ,philostorgi1 represents this parental attachment and care in a very pleasing manner3 8,do we not daily observe with what care the hen protects her chickens2 giving some shelter under her wings1 supporting others upon her back1 calling them around her1 and picking out their food2 and if any animal approaches that terrifies them1 driving it away with a courage and strength truly wonderful80 ,,henoticon1 a decree or edict of the ,emperor ,zeno1 which was dated at ,constantinople in the year #dhb1 and by which he intended to unite all the parties in religion under one faith4 ,for this reason the decree was called henoticon1 which signifies 8union0 or 8uniting40 ,it is generally agreed that it was published by the advice of ,acacius1 bishop of ,constantinople1 who wished to reconcile the contending parties4 ,this decree repeated and confirmed all that had been enacted in the councils of ,nice1 ,constantinople1 ,ephesus1 and ,chalcedon1 against the ,arians1 ,nestorians1 and ,eutychians1 without particularly mentioning the council of ,chalcedon4 ,the henoticon was approved by all those of the two contending parties who were remarkable for their candour and moderation2 but it was opposed by the violent and obstinate1 who complained that it was injurious to the honour and authority of the most holy council of ,chalcedon4 ,hence arose new contests and new divisions not less deplorable than those which this decree was intended to suppress4 ,the ,catholics opposed it with all their strength2 and it was condemned in form by ,pope ,felix ,,ii4 ,,heresy1 hresis1 1 from 1 ,i choose1 signifies an error in some essential point of ,christian faith1 publicly avowed1 and obstinately maintained2 or1 according to the legal definition1 8,sententia rerum divinarum humano sensu excogitata1 palam docta1 et pertinaciter defensa40 ,an opinion of divine things invented by human reason1 openly taught1 and obstinately defended4 ,among the ancients1 the word heresy appears to have had nothing of that odious signification which has been attached to it by ecclesiastical writers in later times4 ,it only signified a peculiar opinion1 dogma1 or sect1 without conveying any reproach2 being indifferently used1 either of a party approved1 or of one disapproved1 by the writer4 ,in this sense they spoke of the heresy of the ,stoics1 of the ,peripatetics1 ,epicureans1 c1 meaning the sect or peculiar system of these philosophers4 ,in the historical part of the ,new ,testament1 the word seems to bear very nearly the same signification1 being employed indiscriminately to denote a sect or party1 whether good or bad4 ,thus we read of the sect or heresy of the ,sadducees1 of the ,pharisees1 of the ,nazarenes1 c4 ,see ,acts v1 #ag2 xv1 #e2 xxiv1 #e2 xxvi1 #e2 xxviii1 #bb4 ,in the two former of these passages1 the term heresy seems to be adopted by the sacred historian merely for the sake of distinction1 without the least appearance of any intention to convey either praise or blame4 ,in ,acts xxvi1 #d1 #e1 ,st4 ,paul1 in defending himself before ,king ,agrippa1 uses the same term1 when it was manifestly his design to exalt the party to which he had belonged1 and to give their system the preference over every other system of ,judaism1 both with regard to soundness of doctrine and purity of morals4 #b4 ,it has been suggested that the acceptation of the word in the epistles is different from what it has been observed to be in the historical books of the ,new ,testament4 ,in order to account for this difference1 it may be observed that the word sect has always something relative in it2 and therefore1 although the general import of the term be the same1 it will convey a favourable or an unfavourable idea1 according to the particular relation which it bears in the application4 ,when it is used along with the proper name1 by way of distinguishing one party from another1 it conveys neither praise nor reproach4 ,if any thing reprehensible or commendable be meant1 it is suggested1 not by the word itself1 but by the words with which it stands connected in construction4 ,thus we may speak of a strict sect1 or a lax sect2 or of a good sect1 or a bad sect4 ,again3 the term may be applied to a party formed in a community1 when considered in reference to the whole4 ,if the community be of such a nature as not to admit of such a subdivision1 without impairing or corrupting its constitution1 a charge of splitting into sects1 or forming parties1 is equivalent to a charge of corruption in that which is most essential to the existence and welfare of the society4 ,hence arises the whole difference in the word1 as it is used in the historical part of the ,new ,testament1 and in the epistles of ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul2 for these are the only ,apostles who employ it4 ,in the history1 the reference is always of the first kind2 in the epistles1 it is always of the second4 ,in these last1 the ,apostles address themselves only to ,christians1 and either reprehend them for1 or warn them against1 forming sects among themselves1 to the prejudice of charity1 to the production of much mischief within their community1 and of great scandal to the unconverted world without4 ,in both applications1 however1 the radical import of the word is the same2 and even in the latter it has no necessary reference to doctrine1 true or false4 ,during the early ages of ,christianity1 the term heresy gradually lost the innocence of its original meaning1 and came to be applied1 in a reproachful sense1 to any corruption of what was considered as the orthodox creed1 or even to any departure from the established rites and ceremonies of the church4 #c4 ,the heresies chiefly alluded to in the apostolical epistles are1 first1 those of the ,judaizers1 or rigid adherents to the ,mosaic rites1 especially that of circumcision2 second1 those of converted ,hellenists1 or ,grecian ,jews1 who held the ,greek eloquence and philosophy in too high an estimation1 and corrupted1 by the speculations of the latter1 the simplicity of the ,gospel2 and third1 those who endeavoured to blend ,christianity with a mixed philosophy of magic1 demonology1 and ,platonism1 which was then highly popular in the world4 ,with respect to the latter1 the remarks of ,hug will tend to illustrate some passages in the writings of ,st4 ,paul3--,without being acquainted with the notions of those teachers who caused the ,apostle so much anxiety and so much vexation1 a considerable part of these treatises must necessarily remain dark and unintelligible4 ,from the criteria by which the ,apostle points them out1 at one time some deemed that they recognised the ,gnostics2 others perceived none but the ,essenes2 and every one found arguments for his assertions from the similarity of the doctrines1 opinions1 and morals4 ,it would1 however1 be as difficult to prove that the ,gnostic school had at that time indeed perfectly developed itself1 as it is unjust to charge the ,essenes with that extreme of immorality of which ,st4 ,paul accused these seducers1 since the contemporaries and acquaintances of this ,jewish sect mention them with honour and respect1 and extol its members as the most virtuous men of their age4 ,the similarity of the principles and opinions1 which will have been observed in both parties compared with ,st4 ,paul's declarations1 flows from a common source1 from the philosophy of that age1 whence both the one and the other have derived their share4 ,we shall therefore go less astray1 if we recede a step1 and consider the philosophy itself1 as the general modeller of these derivative theories4 ,it found its followers among ,judaism as well as among the ,heathens2 it both introduced its speculative preparations into ,christianity1 and endeavoured to unite them or to adjust them to it1 as well as they were able1 by which means ,christianity would have become deformed and unlike to itself1 and would have been merged in the ocean of philosophical reveries1 unless the ,apostles had on this occasion defended it against the follies of men4 ,an oriental1 or1 as it is commonly called1 a ,babylonian or ,chaldean1 doctrinal system had already long become known to the ,greeks1 and even to the ,romans1 before ,augustus1 and still more so in the ,augustan age1 and was in the full progress of its extension over ,asia and ,europe4 ,it set up different deities and intermediate spirits in explanation of certain phenomena of nature1 for the office of governing the world1 and for the solution of other metaphysical questions1 which from time immemorial were reckoned among the difficult propositions of philosophy4 ,the practical part of this system was occupied with the precepts by means of which a person might enter into communication with these spirits or demons4 ,but the result which they promised to themselves from this union with the divine natures1 was that of acquiring1 by their assistance1 superhuman knowledge1 that of predicting future events1 and of performing supernatural works4 ,these philosophers were celebrated under the name of magi and ,chaldeans2 who1 for the sake of better accommodating themselves to the western nations1 modified their system after the ,greek forms1 and then1 as it appears1 knew how to unite it with the doctrine of ,plato1 from whence afterward arose the ,neo-,platonic and in ,christendom the ,gnostical school4 ,these men forced their way even to the throne4 ,tiberius had received instruction in their philosophy1 and was very confident that by means of an intelligence with the demons1 it was possible to learn and perform extraordinary things4 ,nero caused a great number of them to be brought over from ,asia1 not unfrequently at the expense of the provinces4 ,the supernatural spirits would not always appear1 yet he did not discard his belief of them4 ,the magi and ,chaldeans were the persons who were consulted on great undertakings1 who1 when conspiracies arose1 predicted the issue2 who invoked spirits1 prepared offerings1 and in love affairs were obliged to afford aid from their art4 ,even the force of the laws1 to which recourse was frequently necessary to be had at ,rome1 tended to nothing but the augmentation of their authority4 ,as they found access and favour with people of all classes in the capital1 so did they also in the provinces4 ,paul found a magus at the court of the proconsul at ,paphos1 ,acts xiii1 #f4 ,such was that ,simon in ,samaria1 ,acts viii1 #aj1 who was there considered as a higher being of the spiritual class4 ,the expression is remarkable1 as it is a part of the technical language of the ,theurgists2 they called him 1 8,the great power of ,god40 ,so also ,pliny calls some of the demons and intermediate spirits1 by whose coperation particular results were effected1 potestates4 ,powers4 ,justin ,martyr1 the fellow countryman of ,simon1 has preserved to us some technical expressions of his followers4 ,he says that they ascribed to him the high title 1 1 4 ,far above all principality1 and power1 and might4 ,of these classes of spirits1 which appear under such different appellations1 the superior were those who ruled2 but the inferior1 who had more of a material substance1 and who1 on that account1 were able to connect themselves immediately with matter1 were those who executed the commands of the superior4 ,by an intelligence with the superior spirits a person might have the subaltern at his service and assistance2 for the more powerful demons thus commanded the inferior to execute certain commissions in the material world3 1 8,by the prince of the devils10 ,matt4 xii1 #bd4 #d4 ,the ,syrian philosopher1 ,jamblichus1 of ,chalcis1 has furnished us with a circumstantial representation of this system and its several varieties1 in his book on the mysteries of the ,chaldeans and ,egyptians3--,the nature of the gods is a pure1 spiritual1 and perfect unity4 ,with this highest and perfect immateriality no influence on matter is conceivable1 consequently1 no creation and dominion of the world4 ,certain subordinate deities must therefore be admitted1 which are more compounded in their nature1 and can act upon gross matter4 ,these are the 8creators of the world10 1 and the 8rulers of the world10 4 ,the superior deities are1 however1 the real cause of all that exists2 and from their fulness1 from their 1 it derives its existence4 ,the succession from the highest deities down to the lowest is not by a sudden descent1 but by a continually graduating decrease from the highest1 pure1 and spiritual natures1 down to those which are more substantial and material1 which are the nearest related to the gross matter of the creation1 and which consequently possess the property of acting upon it4 ,in proportion to their purer quality1 or coarser composition1 they occupy different places as their residence1 either in a denser atmosphere1 or in higher regions4 ,the highest among these classes of spirits are called 1 or1 4 ,others among the 8divine natures10 1 are 8intermediate beings10 4 ,those which occupy themselves with the laws of the world are also called 1 and 8the ministering spirits0 are and 4 ,the archangels are not generally recognised in this theory2 this class is said to have been of a later origin1 and to have been first introduced by ,porphyry4 7,see ,archangel47 ,if we take here also into consideration the 1 of which ,justin has before spoken1 we shall have enumerated the greater part of the technical appellations of this demonology4 ,but to arrive at a union with the higher orders of the spiritual world1 in which alone the highest bliss of man consists1 it is necessary1 before all things1 to become disengaged from the servitude of the body1 which detains the soul from soaring up to the purely spiritual4 ,matrimony1 therefore1 and every inclination to sexual concupiscence1 must be renounced before the attainment of this perfection4 ,hence1 the offerings and initiations of the magi cannot1 without great injury1 be even communicated to those who have not as yet emancipated themselves from the libido procreandi1 and the propensities to corporeal attachments4 ,to eat meat1 or to partake in general of any slain animal1 nay1 to even touch it1 contaminates4 ,bodily exercises and purifications1 though not productive of the gifts of prophecy1 are nevertheless conducive to them4 ,though the gods only attend to the pure1 they nevertheless sometimes mislead men to impure1 actions4 ,this may perhaps proceed from the totally different ideas of that which is good and righteous1 which subsist between them and mankind4 #e4 ,this philosophy of which the elements had already existed a long time in the east1 formed itself1 in its progress to the west1 into a doctrinal system1 which found there far more approbation and celebrity than it ever had deserved4 ,it was principally welcome in those countries1 to which the epistles of the ,apostle are directed4 ,when ,st4 ,paul had preached at ,ephesus1 a quantity of magical and theurgical books were brought forward by their possessors and burned before his eyes1 ,acts xix1 #ai4 ,this city had long since been celebrated for them1 and the 1 and 1 were spells highly extolled by the ancients for the purpose of procuring an authority over the demons4 ,as late even as the fourth century1 the synod at ,laodicea was obliged to institute severe laws against the worship of angels1 against magic1 and against incantations4 ,these opinions had taken such a deep root in the mind1 that some centuries did not suffice for the extinction of the recollection of them4 ,now1 there are passages in the ,apostle which strikingly characterize this theory4 ,he calls the doctrinal system of his opponents 1 8a philosophy incompatible with ,christianity10 ,col4 ii1 #h2 1 8a worship of angels10 ,col4 ii1 #ah2 1 8a demonology10 #a ,tim4 iv1 #a4 ,he calls it still farther 1 #b ,tim4 iii1 #ac4 ,this is the peculiar expression by which the ancients denoted magical arts and necromantic experiments2 is1 according to ,hesychius1 1 1 1 and 1 1 1 4 4 ,st4 ,paul compares these teachers to ,jannes and ,jambres1 #b ,timothy iii1 #h4 ,these two persons are1 according to the ancient tradition1 the magicians who withstood ,moses by their arts4 ,they were from time immemorial names so notorious in the magical science1 that they did not remain unknown even to the ,neo-,platonics4 ,when the ,apostle enjoins the ,ephesians to array themselves in the arms of faith1 and courageously to endure the combat1 ,ephes4 vi1 #ab1 he says that it is the more necessary1 because their combat is not against human force1 not against 1 8flesh and blood10 but against superhuman natures4 ,where he mentions these1 he enumerates in order the names of this magico-spiritual world1 1 1 particularly the 1 8principalities10 8powers10 8rulers20 and likewise fixes their abode in the upper arial regions1 4 ,in like manner1 in the ,epistle to the ,colossians1 for the sake of representing to them ,christianity in an exalted and important light1 and of praising the divine nature of ,jesus1 he says1 that all that exists is his creation1 and is subjected to him1 not even the spiritual world excepted4 ,he then selects the philosophic appellations to demonstrate that this supposititious demonocracy is wholly subservient to him2 whether they be 1 or 1 1 thrones1 dominions1 principalities1 powers1 ,col4 i1 #af4 ,finally1 to destroy completely and decisively the whole doctrinal system1 he demonstrates1 that ,christ1 through the work of redemption1 has obtained the victory over the entire spiritual creation1 that he drags in triumph the principalities and powers as vanquished1 and that henceforth their dominion and exercise of power have ceased1 ,col4 ii1 #ae4 ,but what he says respecting the seared consciences of these heretics1 respecting their deceptions1 their avarice1 c1 is certainly more applicable to this class of men1 than to any other4 ,none throughout all antiquity are more accused of these immoralities1 than those pretended confidents of the occult powers4 ,if he speaks warmly against any distinction of meats1 against abstinence from matrimony1 this also applies to them2 and if he rejects bodily exercises1 it was because they recommended them1 because they imposed baths1 lustrations1 continence1 and long preparations1 as the conditions by which alone the connection with the spirits became possible4 ,these1 then1 are the persons who passed before the ,apostle's mind1 and who1 when they adopted ,christianity1 established that sect among the professors of ,jesus1 which gave to it the name of ,gnostics1 and which1 together with the different varieties of this system1 is accused by history of magical arts4 ,other adherents of this system among the ,heathens1 to which the ,syrian philosophers1 as well as some ,egyptian1 such as ,plotinus and his scholars1 belonged1 formed the sect of ,neo-,platonism4 #f4 ,but in the above remarks of this learned ,german1 some considerations are wanting1 necessary to the right understanding of several of the above passages quoted from ,st4 ,paul4 ,the philosophic system above mentioned was built on the ,scripture doctrine of good and evil angels1 and so had a basis of truth1 although abused to a gross superstition1 and even idolatry4 ,it was grounded1 too1 upon the notion of different orders among both good and evil spirits1 with subordination and government2 which also is a truth of which some intimation is given in ,scripture4 ,the ,apostle then could use all these terms without giving any sanction to the errors of the day4 ,he knew that the spiritual powers they had converted into subordinate deities1 were either good or evil angels in their various ranks1 and he uproots the whole superstition1 by showing that the 8thrones and dominions0 of heaven are submissive created servants of ,christ2 and that the evil spirits1 the rulers of 8the darkness of this world10 are put under his feet4 ,,hermon1 a celebrated mountain in the ,holy ,land1 often spoken of in ,scripture4 ,it was in the northern boundary of the country1 beyond ,jordan1 and in the territories which originally belonged to ,og1 king of ,bashan1 ,joshua xii1 #e2 xiii1 #e4 ,the ,psalmist connects ,tabor and ,hermon together1 upon more than one occasion1 ,psalm lxxxix1 #ab2 cxxxiii1 #c2 from which it may be inferred that they lay contiguous to each other4 ,this is agreeable to the account that is given us by travellers4 ,mr4 ,maundrell1 in his journey from ,aleppo1 says that in three hours and a half from the river ,kishon1 he came to a small brook near which was an old village and a good kane1 called ,legune2 not far from which his company took up their quarters for the night1 and from whence they had an extensive prospect of the plain of ,esdralon4 ,at about six or seven hours' distance eastward1 stood1 within view1 ,nazareth1 and the two mountains ,tabor and ,hermon4 ,he adds that they were sufficiently instructed by experience what the holy ,psalmist means by the dew of ,hermon2 their tents being as wet with it as if it had rained all night1 ,psalm cxxxiii1 #c4 ,,herod1 surnamed the ,great1 king of the ,jews1 second son of ,antipater the ,idumean1 born ,b4 ,c4 #ga4 ,at the age of twenty-five he was made by his father governor of ,galilee1 and distinguished himself by the suppression of a band of robbers1 with the execution of their leader1 ,hezekiah1 and several of his comrades4 ,as he had performed this act of heroism by his own authority1 and had executed the culprits without the form of trial1 he was summoned before the sanhedrim1 but1 through the strength of his party and zeal of his friends1 he escaped any censure4 ,in the civil war between the republican and ,csarian parties1 ,herod joined ,cassius1 and was made governor of ,clo-,syria2 and when ,mark ,antony arrived victorious in ,syria1 ,herod and his brother found means to ingratiate themselves with him1 and were appointed as tetrarchs in ,judea2 but in a short time an invasion of ,antigonus1 who was aided by the ,jews1 obliged ,herod to make his escape from ,jerusalem1 and retire first to ,idumea1 and then to ,egypt4 ,he at length arrived at ,rome1 and obtained the crown of ,judea upon occasion of a difference between the two branches of the ,asmodean family4 ,hyrcanus had been for a considerable time prince and high priest of the ,jewish nation2 but while the ,roman empire was in an unsettled state1 after the death of ,julius ,csar1 ,antigonus1 son of ,aristobulus1 brother of ,hyrcanus1 made himself master of the city and all ,judea4 ,in this state ,herod found things when he came to ,rome1 and the most that he then aimed at was to obtain the kingdom for ,aristobulus1 his wife's brother2 but the senate of ,rome1 moved by the recommendations of ,mark ,antony1 conferred the kingdom of ,judea upon ,herod himself4 ,having met with this unexpected success at ,rome1 he returned without delay to ,judea1 and in about three years got possession of the whole country4 ,he had1 however1 to fight his way to the throne1 which1 as we have seen1 was in the possession of ,antigonus4 ,though aided by the ,roman army1 he was obliged to lay siege to ,jerusalem1 which held out for six months1 when it was carried by assault1 and a vast slaughter was made of the inhabitants1 till the intercession and bribes of ,herod put an end to it4 ,antigonus was taken prisoner and put to death1 which opened the way to ,herod's quiet possession of the kingdom4 ,his first cares were to replenish his coffers1 and to repress the faction still attached to the ,asmodean race1 and which regarded him as a usurper4 ,he was guilty of many extortions and cruelties in the pursuit of these objects4 ,shortly after this1 an accusation was lodged against ,herod before ,mark ,antony by ,cleopatra1 who had been influenced to the deed by his mother-in-law1 ,alexandra4 ,he was summoned to answer to the charges exhibited against him before the triumvir2 and on this occasion he gave a most remarkable display of the conflict of opposite passions in a ferocious heart4 ,doatingly fond of his wife1 ,mariamne1 and not being able to bear the thought of her falling into the hands of another1 he exacted a solemn promise from ,joseph1 whom he appointed to govern in his absence1 that should the accusation prove fatal to him he would put the queen to death4 ,joseph disclosed the secret to ,mariamne1 who1 abhorring such a savage proof of his love1 from that moment conceived the deepest and most settled aversion to her husband4 ,herod1 by great pecuniary sacrifices1 made his peace with ,antony1 and returned in high credit4 ,some hints were thrown out respecting ,joseph's familiarity with ,mariamne during his absence2 he communicated his suspicions to his wife1 who1 recriminating1 upbraided him with his cruel order concerning her4 ,his rage was unbounded2 he put ,joseph to death for communicating the secret entrusted to him alone1 and he threw his mother-in-law1 ,alexandra1 into prison4 #b4 ,in the war between ,antony and ,octavius1 ,herod raised an army for the purpose of joining the former2 but he was obliged first to engage ,malchus1 king of ,arabia1 whom he defeated and obliged to sue for peace4 ,after the battle of ,actium1 his great object was to make terms with the conqueror2 and1 as a preliminary step1 he put to death ,hyrcanus1 the only surviving male of the ,asmodeans2 and1 having secured his family1 he embarked for ,rhodes1 where ,augustus at that time was4 ,he appeared before the master of the ,roman world in all the regal ornaments excepting his diadem1 and with a noble confidence related the faithful services he had performed for his benefactor1 ,antony1 concluding that he was ready to transfer the same gratitude to a new patron1 from whom he should hold his crown and kingdom4 ,augustus was struck with the magnanimity of the defence1 and replaced the diadem on the head of ,herod1 who remained the most favoured of the tributary sovereigns4 ,when the emperor afterward travelled through ,syria1 in his way to and from ,egypt1 he was entertained with the utmost magnificence by ,herod2 in recompense for which he restored to him all his revenues and dominions1 and even considerably augmented them4 ,his good fortune as a prince1 was poisoned by domestic broils1 and especially by the insuperable aversion of ,mariamne1 whom at length he brought to trial1 convicted1 and executed4 ,she submitted to her fate with all the intrepidity of innocence1 and was sufficiently avenged by the remorse of her husband1 who seems never after to have enjoyed a tranquil hour4 #c4 ,his rage being quenched1 ,herod endeavoured to banish the memory of his evil acts from his mind by scenes of dissipation2 but the charms of his once loved ,mariamne haunted him wherever he went3 he would frequently call aloud upon her name1 and insist upon his attendants bringing her into his presence1 as if willing to forget that she was no longer among the living4 ,at times he would fly from the sight of men1 and on his return from solitude1 which was ill suited to a mind conscious of the most ferocious deeds1 he became more brutal than ever1 and in fits of fury spared neither foes nor friends4 ,alexandra1 whose malignity toward her daughter has been noticed1 was an unpitied victim to his rage4 ,at length he recovered some portion of self-possession1 and employed himself in projects of regal magnificence4 ,he built at ,jerusalem a stately theatre and amphitheatre1 in which he celebrated games in honour of ,augustus1 to the great displeasure of the zealous ,jews1 who discovered an idolatrous profanation in the theatrical ornaments and spectacles4 ,nothing1 it is said1 gave them so much offence as some trophies which he had set round his theatre in honour of ,augustus1 and in commemoration of his victories1 but which the ,jews regarded as images devoted to the purposes of idol worship4 ,for this and other acts of the king a most serious conspiracy was formed against him1 which he1 fortunately for himself1 discovered2 and he exercised the most brutal revenge on all the parties concerned in it4 ,he next built ,samaria1 which he named ,sebaste1 and adorned it with the most sumptuous edifices2 and for his security he built several fortresses throughout the whole of ,judea1 of which the principal was called ,csarea1 in honour of the emperor4 ,in his own palace1 near the temple of ,jerusalem1 he lavished the most costly materials and curious workmanship2 and his palace ,herodion1 at some miles' distance from the capital1 by the beauty of its situation1 and other appropriate advantages1 drew round it the population of a considerable city4 #d4 ,to supply the place of his lost ,mariamne1 he married a new wife of the same name1 the beautiful daughter of a priest1 whom he raised to the high rank of the supreme pontificate4 ,he sent his two sons1 by the first ,mariamne1 to be educated at ,rome1 and so ingratiated himself with ,augustus and his ministers1 that he was appointed imperial procurator for ,syria4 ,to acquire popularity among the ,jews1 and to exhibit an attachment to their religion1 he undertook the vast enterprise of rebuilding the temple of ,jerusalem1 which he finished in a noble style of magnificence in about a year and a half4 ,during the progress of this work he visited ,rome1 and brought back his sons1 who had attained to man's estate4 ,these at length conspired against their father's person and government1 and were tried1 convicted1 and executed4 ,another act deserving of notice1 performed by ,herod1 was the dedication of his new city of ,csarea1 at which time he displayed such profuse magnificence1 that ,augustus said his soul was too great for his kingdom4 ,notwithstanding the execution of his sons1 he was still a slave to conspiracies from his other near relations4 ,in the thirty-third year of his reign1 ,,our ,,saviour was born4 ,this event was followed1 according to the ,gospel of ,st4 ,matthew1 by the massacre of the children of ,bethlehem4 ,about this time1 ,antipater1 returning from ,rome1 was arrested by his father's orders1 charged with treasonable practices1 and was found guilty of conspiring against the life of the king4 ,this and other calamities1 joined to a guilty conscience1 preying upon a broken constitution1 threw the wretched monarch into a mortal disease1 which was doubtless a just judgment of ,heaven on the many foul enormities and impieties of which he had been guilty4 ,his disorder was attended with the most loathsome circumstances that can be imagined4 ,a premature report of his death caused a tumult in ,jerusalem1 excited by the zealots1 who were impatient to demolish a golden eagle which he had placed over the gate of the temple4 ,the perpetrators of this rash act were seized1 and by order of the dying king1 put to death4 ,he also caused his son ,antipater to be slain in prison1 and his remains to be treated with every species of ignominy4 ,he bequeathed his kingdom to his son ,archelaus1 with tetrarchies to his two other sons4 ,herod1 on his dying bed1 had planned a scheme of horrible cruelty which was to take place at the instant of his own death4 ,he had summoned the chief persons among the ,jews to ,jericho1 and caused them to be shut up in the hippodrome1 or circus1 and gave strict orders to his sister ,salome to have them all massacred as soon as he should have drawn his last breath3 8for this10 said he1 8will provide mourners for my funeral all over the land1 and make the ,jews and every family lament my death1 who would otherwise exhibit no signs of concern40 ,salome and her husband1 ,alexas1 chose rather to break their oath extorted by the tyrant1 than be implicated in so cruel a deed2 and accordingly1 as soon as ,herod was dead1 they opened the doors of the circus1 and permitted every one to return to his own home4 ,herod died in the sixty-eighth year of his age4 ,his memory has been consigned to merited detestation1 while his great talents1 and the active enterprise of his reign1 have placed him high in the rank of sovereigns4 ,,herod ,,antipas4 ,see ,,antipas4 ,,herodians1 a sect among the ,jews at the time of ,jesus ,christ1 mentioned ,matt4 xxii1 #af2 ,mark iii1 #f2 viii1 #ae2 xii1 #ac2 but passed over in silence both by ,josephus and ,philo4 ,the critics and commentators on the ,new ,testament are very much divided with regard to the ,herodians2 some making them to be a political party1 and others a religious sect4 ,the former opinion is favoured by the author of the ,syriac version1 who calls them the domestics of ,herod2 and also by ,josephus's having passed them over in silence1 though he professes to give an account of the several religious sects of the ,jews4 ,the latter opinion is countenanced by our ,lord's caution against 8the leaven of ,herod10 which implies that the ,herodians were distinguished from the other ,jews by some doctrinal tenets4 ,m4 ,basnage supposes1 that one thing meant by the leaven of the ,herodians might be a conformity to ,roman customs in some points which were forbidden the ,jews3 if this was the case1 it is not strange that they are not mentioned by ,josephus among the ,jewish sects4 ,st4 ,jerom1 in his ,dialogue against the ,luciferians1 takes the name to have been given to such as owned ,herod for the ,messiah2 and ,tertullian1 ,epiphanius1 ,chrysostom1 and ,theophylact1 among the ancients2 and ,grotius1 and other moderns1 are of the same sentiment4 ,but the same ,st4 ,jerom1 in his ,comment on ,st4 ,matthew1 treats this opinion as ridiculous2 and indeed it must be highly improbable4 ,he maintains that the ,pharisees gave this appellation1 by way of derision1 to ,herod's soldiers1 who paid tribute to the ,romans2 agreeably to which the ,syriac interpreters render the word by the domestics of ,herod1 that is1 his courtiers4 ,m4 ,simon1 in his notes on the twenty-second chapter of ,st4 ,matthew1 advances a more probable opinion4 ,the name ,herodian1 he imagines to have been given to such as adhered to ,herod's party and interest1 and were for preserving the government in his family1 about which there were1 at that time1 great divisions among the ,jews4 ,f4 ,hardouin will have the ,herodians and ,sadducees to have been the same2 nor is it at all improbable that the ,herodians were chiefly of the sect of the ,sadducees2 since that which is called by ,st4 ,mark 8the leaven of ,herod10 is by ,st4 ,matthew styled 8the leaven of the ,sadducees40 #b4 ,dr4 ,prideaux is of opinion that they derived their name from ,herod the ,great1 and that they were distinguished from the other ,jews by their concurrence with ,herod's scheme of subjecting himself and his dominions to the ,romans1 and likewise by complying with many of their ,heathen usages and customs4 ,in their zeal for the ,roman authority they were diametrically opposite to the ,pharisees1 who esteemed it unlawful to submit or pay taxes to the ,roman emperor2 an opinion which they grounded on their being forbidden by the law to set a stranger over them1 who was not one of their own nation1 as their king4 ,the conjunction of the ,herodians1 therefore1 with the ,pharisees1 against ,christ1 is a memorable proof of the keenness of their resentment and malice against him2 especially when we consider that they united together in proposing to him an ensnaring question1 on a subject which was the ground of their mutual dissension2 namely1 whether it was lawful to pay tribute to ,csar4 ,and provided he answered in the negative1 the ,herodians would accuse him of treason against the state2 and should he reply in the affirmative1 the ,pharisees were as ready to excite the people against him1 as an enemy of their civil liberties and privileges4 ,herod had introduced several ,heathen idolatrous usages2 for1 as ,josephus says1 he built a temple to ,csar1 near the head of the river ,jordan2 he erected a magnificent theatre at ,jerusalem1 instituted ,pagan games1 and placed a golden eagle over the gate of the temple of ,jehovah2 and he furnished the temples1 which he reared in several places out of ,judea1 with images for idolatrous worship1 in order to ingratiate himself with the emperor and the people of ,rome2 though to the ,jews he pretended that he did it against his will1 and in obedience to the imperial command4 ,the ,herodians probably complied with1 acquiesced in1 or approved these idolatrous usages4 ,this symbolizing with idolatry upon views of interest and worldly policy1 was probably that leaven of ,herod1 against which our ,saviour cautioned his disciples4 ,,heron1 1 ,lev4 xi1 #ai2 ,deut4 xiv1 #ah4 ,this word has been variously understood4 ,some have rendered it the kite1 others the woodcock1 others the curlieu1 some the peacock1 others the parrot1 and others the crane4 ,the root1 1 signifies to breathe short through the nostrils1 to snuff1 as in anger2 hence to be angry2 and it is supposed that the word is sufficiently descriptive of the heron1 from its very irritable disposition4 ,bochart1 however1 thinks it the mountain falcon2 the same that the ,greeks call 1 mentioned by ,homer2 and this bears a strong resemblance to the ,hebrew name4 ,,heshbon1 a celebrated city beyond ,jordan1 twenty miles eastward of that river1 according to ,eusebius4 ,it was given to the tribe of ,reuben1 ,josh4 xiii1 #ag4 ,it was probably made over to ,gad1 since we meet with it among the cities which were given to the ,levites1 ,joshua xxi1 #ci4 ,,heterodox1 formed of the ,greek 1 a compound of 1 alter1 and 1 opinion1 something that is contrary to the faith or doctrine established in the true church4 ,thus1 we say1 a heterodox opinion1 a heterodox divine1 c4 ,the word stands in opposition to orthodox4 ,,heteroush1 ,,heterousians1 composed of 1 and 1 substance1 a sect or branch of ,arians1 the followers of ,atius1 and from him denominated ,atians4 ,they were called ,heterousii1 because they held1 not that the ,son of ,god was of a substance like1 or similar to1 that of the ,father1 which was the doctrine of another branch of ,arians1 thence called ,homoousians1 ,homoousii2 but that he was of another substance different from that of the ,father4 ,,heth1 the father of the ,hittites1 was the eldest son of ,canaan1 ,gen4 x1 #ae1 and dwelt southward of the promised land1 probably about ,hebron4 ,ephron1 who was an inhabitant of that city1 was of the race of ,heth2 and in the time of ,abraham the whole city were of the family of ,heth4 ,,hexapla1 formed of 1 six1 and 1 ,i open1 or unfold1 a ,bible disposed in six columns1 containing the text1 and divers versions of it1 compiled and published by ,origen1 with a view of securing the sacred text from future corruptions1 and to correct those that had been already introduced4 ,eusebius relates that ,origen after his return from ,rome under ,caracalla1 applied himself to learn ,hebrew1 and began to collect the several versions that had been made of the sacred writings1 and of these to compose his ,tetrapla1 and ,hexapla3 others1 however1 will not allow him to have begun till the time of ,alexander1 after he had retired into ,palestine1 about the year #bca4 ,to conceive what this ,hexapla was1 it must be observed that1 beside the translation of the sacred writings called the ,septuagint1 made under ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 above #bhj years ,b4 ,c41 the ,scripture had been since translated into ,greek by other interpreters4 ,the first of those versions1 or1 reckoning the ,septuagint1 the second1 was that of ,aquila1 a proselyte ,jew1 the first edition of which he published in the twelfth year of the ,emperor ,adrian1 or about ,a4 ,d4 #abh2 the third was that of ,symmachus1 published as is commonly supposed1 under ,marcus ,aurelius1 but1 as some say1 under ,septimius ,severus1 about the year #bjj2 the fourth was that of ,theodotion1 prior to that of ,symmachus1 under ,commodus1 or about the year #age3 these ,greek versions1 says ,dr4 ,kennicott1 were made by the ,jews from their corrupted copies of the ,hebrew1 and were designed to stand in the place of the ,,lxx1 against which they were prejudiced1 because it seemed to favour the ,christians4 ,the fifth was found at ,jericho1 in the reign of ,caracalla1 about the year #bag2 and the sixth was discovered at ,nicopolis1 in the reign of ,alexander ,severus1 about the year #bbh3 lastly1 ,origen himself recovered part of a seventh1 containing only the ,psalms4 ,now1 ,origen1 who had held frequent disputations with the ,jews in ,egypt and ,palestine1 observing that they always objected against those passages of ,scripture quoted against them1 and appealed to the ,hebrew text1 the better to vindicate those passages and confound the ,jews1 by showing that the ,,lxx had given the sense of the ,hebrew1 or rather1 to show1 by a number of different versions1 what the real sense of the ,hebrew was1 undertook to reduce all these several versions into a body1 along with the ,hebrew text1 so as they might be easily confronted1 and afford a mutual light to each other4 ,he made the ,hebrew text his standard2 and1 allowing that corruptions might have happened1 and that the old ,hebrew copies might and did read differently1 he contented himself with marking such words or sentences as were not in his ,hebrew text1 nor the later ,greek versions1 and to add such words or sentences as were omitted in the ,,lxx1 prefixing an asterisk to the additions1 and an obelisk to the others4 ,in order to this he made choice of eight columns3 in the first he gave the ,hebrew text in ,hebrew characters2 in the second1 the same text in ,greek characters3 the rest were filled with the several versions above mentioned2 all the columns answering verse for verse1 and phrase for phrase2 and in the ,psalms there was a ninth column for the seventh version4 ,this work ,origen called 1 ,hexapla1 that is1 sextuple1 or a work of six columns1 as only regarding the first six ,greek versions4 ,indeed1 ,st4 ,epiphanius1 taking in likewise the two columns of the text1 calls the work ,octapla1 as consisting of eight columns4 ,this celebrated work1 which ,montfaucon imagines consisted of fifty large volumes1 perished long ago1 probably with the library at ,csarea1 where it was preserved1 in the year #fec2 though several of the ancient writers have preserved us portions of it1 particularly ,st4 ,chrysostom on the ,psalms1 ,philoponus in his ,hexameron1 c4 ,some modern writers have earnestly endeavoured to collect fragments of the ,hexapla1 ,flaminius ,nobilius1 ,drusius1 and especially ,montfaucon1 in two folio volumes1 printed at ,paris in #agac4 ,in his edition1 ,montfaucon has prefixed prolegomena1 explaining the form and detailing the history of the ,hexapla4 ,the object of ,origen being to correct the differences found in the then existing copies of the ,old ,testament1 he carefully noted all the alterations which he discovered2 and for the information of those who might consult his work1 he made use of the following marks3 #a4 ,where any passages appeared in the ,septuagint1 that were not found in the ,hebrew1 he designated them by an obelus with two bold points 3 annexed4 ,this mark was also used to denote words not extant in the ,hebrew1 but added by the ,septuagint translators1 either for the sake of elegance1 or for the purpose of illustrating the sense4 #b4 ,to passages wanting in the copies of the ,septuagint1 and supplied by himself from the other ,greek versions1 he prefixed an asterisk ,,asterisk with two bold points 3 also annexed1 in order that his additions might be immediately perceived4 ,these supplementary passages1 we are informed by ,jerom1 were for the most part taken from ,theodotion's translation2 not unfrequently from that of ,aquila2 sometimes1 though rarely1 from the version of ,symmachus2 and sometimes from two or three together4 ,but1 in every case1 the initial letter of each translator's name was placed immediately after the asterisk1 to indicate the source whence such supplementary passage was taken4 ,and in lieu of the very erroneous ,septuagint version of ,daniel1 ,theodotion's translation of that book was inserted entire4 #c4 ,farther3 not only the passages wanting in the ,septuagint were supplied by ,origen with the asterisks1 as above noticed1 but also where that version does not appear accurately to express the ,hebrew original1 having noted the former reading with an obelus 31 he added the correct rendering from one of the other translators1 with an asterisk subjoined4 ,concerning the shape and uses of the lemniscus and hypolemniscus1 two other marks used by ,origen1 there is so great a difference of opinion among learned men1 that it is difficult to determine what they were4 ,dr4 ,owen1 after ,montfaucon1 supposes them to have been marks of better and more accurate renderings4 ,these several marks of distinction have been carefully observed1 so far as they have been recovered from various quarters1 in the very accurate edition of the ,septuagint commenced by our learned countryman1 ,dr4 ,holmes1 and continued by his able successor1 the ,rev4 ,j4 ,parsons1 ,b4 ,d4 ,for nearly fifty years was ,origen's stupendous work buried in a corner of the city of ,tyre1 probably on account of the very great expense of transcribing forty or fifty volumes1 which far exceeded the means of private individuals2 and here1 perhaps1 it might have perished in oblivion1 if ,eusebius and ,pamphilus had not discovered it1 and deposited it in the library of ,pamphilus the martyr at ,csarea1 where ,jerome saw it about the middle of the fourth century4 ,as we have no account whatever of ,origen's autograph after this time1 it is most probable that it perished in the year #fec1 on the capture of that city by the ,arabs2 and a few imperfect fragments1 collected from manuscripts of the ,septuagint and the caten of the ,greek fathers1 are all that now remain of a work1 which1 in the present improved state of sacred literature1 would most eminently have assisted in the interpretation and criticism of the ,old ,testament4 ,the ,syro-,estrangelo translation of ,origen's edition of the ,greek ,septuagint was executed in the former part of the seventh century2 the author of it is not known4 ,this version exactly corresponds with the text of the ,septuagint1 especially in those passages in which the latter differs from the ,hebrew4 ,a manuscript of this translation is in the ,ambrosian library at ,milan2 it contains the obelus and other marks of ,origen's ,hexapla2 and a subscription at the end states it to have been literally translated from the ,greek copy1 corrected by ,eusebius himself1 with the assistance of ,pamphilus1 from the books of ,origen1 which were deposited in the library at ,csarea4 ,from this version ,norberg edited the prophecies of ,jeremiah and ,ezekiel in #aghg2 and ,bugati1 the book of ,daniel1 #aghh4 ,,hezekiah1 king of ,judah1 was the son of ,ahaz1 and born in the year of the world #cbea4 ,at the age of five-and-twenty he succeeded his father in the government of the kingdom of ,judah1 and reigned twenty-nine years in ,jerusalem1 namely1 from the year of the world #cbgg to #ccjf1 #b ,kings xviii1 #a1 #b2 #b ,chron4 xxix1 #a4 ,the reign of his father ,ahaz had been most unpropitious for his subjects4 ,a war had raged between the kingdoms of ,israel and ,judah1 in which ,pekah1 king of ,israel1 overthrew the army of ,ahaz1 destroying a hundred and twenty thousand of his men2 after which he carried away two hundred thousand women and children as captives into his own country3 they were1 however1 released and sent home again1 at the remonstrance of the ,prophet ,oded4 ,as idolatry had been established in ,jerusalem and throughout ,judea1 by the command of ,ahaz1 and the service of the temple either intermitted1 or converted into an idolatrous worship1 the first object of his son ,hezekiah1 on his accession to the throne1 was to restore the legal worship of ,god1 both in ,jerusalem and throughout ,judea4 ,he cleansed and repaired the temple1 and held a solemn passover4 ,he improved the city1 repaired the fortifications1 erected magazines of all sorts1 and built a new aqueduct4 ,in the fourth year of his reign1 ,salmanezer1 king of ,assyria1 invaded the kingdom of ,israel1 took ,samaria1 and carried away the ten tribes into captivity1 replacing them by different people sent from his own country4 ,but ,hezekiah was not deterred by this alarming example from refusing to pay that tribute to the ,assyrians which had been imposed on ,ahaz3 this brought on the invasion of ,sennacherib1 in the fourteenth year of the reign of ,hezekiah1 of which we have a very particular account in the writings of the ,prophet ,isaiah1 who was then living1 ,isaiah xxxvi4 ,immediately after the termination of this war1 ,hezekiah 8was sick unto death10 owing1 as the sacred historian strongly intimates1 to his heart being improperly elevated on occasion of this miraculous deliverance1 and not sufficiently acknowledging the hand of ,god in it1 #b ,kings xx2 ,isaiah xxxviii4 ,isaiah was sent to bid him set his house in order1 for he should die and not live4 ,hezekiah had instant recourse to ,god by prayer and supplications for his recovery2 and the prophet had scarcely proceeded out of the threshold1 when the ,lord commanded him to return to ,hezekiah1 and to say to him1 8,thus saith the ,lord1 ,i have heard thy prayer1 and ,i have seen thy tears3 ,i will heal thee3 on the third day thou shalt go up to the house of the ,lord1 and ,i will add unto thy days fifteen years40 ,and to confirm to him the certainty of all these tokens of the divine regard1 the shadow of the sun on the dial of ,ahaz1 at his request1 went backward ten degrees4 ,after his recovery1 he composed an ode of thanksgiving to the ,god of all his mercies1 which the ,prophet ,isaiah has recorded in his writings1 ,isaiah xxxviii1 #aj1 #aa4 ,yet1 as an instance of human fickleness and frailty1 we find ,hezekiah1 with all his excellencies1 again forgetting himself1 and incurring the divine displeasure4 ,the king of ,babylon having been informed of his sickness and recovery1 sent ambassadors to congratulate him on his restoration3 an honour with which the heart of ,hezekiah was greatly elated2 and1 to testify his gratitude1 he made a pompous display to them of all his treasures1 his spices1 and his rich vessels2 and concealed from them nothing that was in his palace4 ,in all this the pride of ,hezekiah was gratified2 and to humble him1 ,isaiah was sent to declare to him that his conduct was displeasing to ,god1 and that a time should come when all the treasures of which he had made so vain a display should be removed to ,babylon1 and even his sons be made eunuchs to serve in the palace of the king of ,babylon4 ,hezekiah bowed submissively to the will of ,god1 and acknowledged the divine goodness toward him1 in ordaining peace and truth to continue during the remainder of his reign4 ,he accordingly passed the latter years of his life in tranquillity1 and contributed greatly to the prosperity of his people and kingdom4 ,he died in the year of the world #ccjf1 leaving behind him a son1 ,manasseh1 who succeeded him in the throne3 a son every way unworthy of such a father4 ,,hiddekel4 ,see ,,eden4 ,,high ,,places4 ,the prophets reproach the ,israelites for nothing with more zeal than for worshipping upon the high places4 ,the destroying of these high places is a commendation given only to few princes in ,scripture2 and many1 though zealous for the observance of the law1 had not courage to prevent the people from sacrificing upon these eminences4 ,before the temple was built1 the high places were not absolutely contrary to the law1 provided ,god only was there adored1 and not idols4 ,they seem to have been tolerated under the judges2 and ,samuel offered sacrifices in several places where the ark was not present4 ,even in ,david's time they sacrificed to the ,lord at ,shiloh1 ,jerusalem1 and ,gibeon4 ,but after the temple was built at ,jerusalem1 and the ark had a fixed settlement1 it was no longer allowed to sacrifice out of ,jerusalem4 ,the high places were much frequented in the kingdom of ,israel4 ,the people sometimes went upon those mountains which had been sanctified by the presence of patriarchs and prophets1 and by appearances of ,god1 to worship the true ,god there4 ,this worship was lawful1 except as to its being exercised where the ,lord had not chosen4 ,but they frequently adored idols upon these hills1 and committed a thousand abominations in groves1 and caves1 and tents2 and hence arose the zeal of pious kings and prophets to suppress the high places4 ,dr4 ,prideaux thinks it probable that the proseuch1 open courts1 built like those in which the people prayed at the tabernacle and the temple1 were the same as those called high places in the ,old ,testament4 ,his reason is1 that the proseuch had groves in or near them1 in the same manner as the high places4 ,,hin1 1 a liquid measure1 as of oil1 or of wine1 ,exodus xxix1 #dj2 xxx1 #bd2 ,lev4 xxiii4 ,according to ,josephus1 it contained two ,attic congii1 and was therefore the sixth part of an ephah4 ,he says that they offered with an ox half a hin of oil2 in ,english measure1 six pints1 twenty-five thousand five hundred and ninety-eight solid inches4 ,with a ram they offered the third part of a hin1 or three pints1 ten thousand four hundred and sixty-nine solid inches3 with a lamb1 the fourth part of a hin1 or two pints1 fifteen thousand and seventy-one solid inches4 ,,hind1 1 ,gen4 xlix1 #ba2 #b ,sam4 xxii1 #cd2 ,job xxxix1 #a2 ,psalm xviii1 #cc2 xxix1 #i2 ,prov4 v1 #ai2 ,cant4 ii1 #g2 iii1 #e2 ,jer4 xiv1 #e2 ,hab4 iii1 #ai2 the mate or female of the stag4 ,it is a lovely creature1 and of an elegant shape4 ,it is noted for its swiftness and the sureness of its step as it jumps among the rocks4 ,david and ,habakkuk both allude to this character of the hind4 8,the ,lord maketh my feet like hinds' feet1 and causeth me to stand on the high places10 ,psalm xviii1 #cc2 ,hab4 iii1 #ai4 ,the circumstance of their standing on the high places or mountains is applied to these animals by ,xenophon4 ,our translators make ,jacob1 prophesying of the tribe of ,naphtali1 say1 8,naphtali is a hind let loose3 he giveth goodly words10 ,gen4 xlix1 #ba4 ,there is a difficulty and incoherence here which the learned ,bochart removes by altering a little the punctuation of the original2 and it then reads1 8,naphtali is a spreading tree1 shooting forth beautiful branches40 ,this1 indeed1 renders the simile uniform2 but another critic has remarked that 8the allusion to a tree seems to be purposely reserved by the venerable patriarch for his son ,joseph1 who is compared to the boughs of a tree2 and the repetition of the idea in reference to ,naphtali is every way unlikely4 ,beside10 he adds1 8the word rendered #8let loose1' imports an active motion1 not like that of the branches of a tree1 which1 however freely they wave1 are yet attached to the parent stock2 but an emission1 a dismission1 or sending forth to a distance3 in the present case1 a roaming1 roaming at liberty4 ,the verb #8he giveth' may denote shooting forth4 ,it is used of production1 as of the earth1 which shoots forth1 yields1 its increase1 ,lev4 xxvi1 #d4 ,the word rendered #8goodly' signifies noble1 grand1 majestic2 and the noun translated #8words' radically signifies divergences1 what is spread forth40 ,for these reasons he proposes to read the passage1 8,naphtali is a deer roaming at liberty2 he shooteth forth spreading branches10 or 8majestic antlers40 ,here the distinction of imagery is preserved1 and the fecundity of the tribe and the fertility of their lot intimated4 ,in our version of ,psalm xxix1 #i1 we read1 8,the voice of the ,lord maketh the hinds to calve1 and discovereth the forests40 ,mr4 ,merrick1 in an ingenious note on the place1 attempts to justify the rendering2 but ,bishop ,lowth1 in his 8,lectures on the ,sacred ,poetry of the ,hebrews10 observes that this agrees very little with the rest of the imagery1 either in nature or dignity2 and that he does not feel himself persuaded1 even by the reasonings of the learned ,bochart on this subject3 whereas the oak1 struck with lightning1 admirably agrees with the context4 ,the ,syriac seems1 for 1 hinds1 to have read 1 oaks1 or rather1 perhaps1 terebinths4 ,the passage may be thus versified3-- 8,hark6 his voice in thunder breaks1 ,and the lofty mountain quakes2 ,mighty trees the tempests tear1 ,and lay the spreading forests bare60 ,,hinnom1 ,,valley ,,of1 called also ,tophet1 and by the ,greeks ,gehenna1 a small valley on the south-east of ,jerusalem1 at the foot of ,mount ,zion1 where the ,canaanites1 and afterward the ,israelites1 sacrificed their children to the idol ,moloch1 by making them 8pass through the fire10 or burning them4 ,to drown the shrieks of the victims thus inhumanly sacrificed1 musical instruments1 called in the ,hebrew tuph1 tympana or timbrels1 were played2 whence the spot derived the name of ,tophet4 ,ge ,hinnom1 or 8,the ,valley of ,hinnom10 from which the ,greeks framed their ,gehenna1 is sometimes used in ,scripture to denote hell or hell fire4 ,see ,,hell4 ,,hiram1 king of ,tyre1 and son of ,abibal1 is mentioned by profane authors as distinguished for his magnificence1 and for adorning the city of ,tyre4 ,when ,david was acknowledged king by all ,israel1 ,hiram sent ambassadors with artificers1 and cedar1 to build his palace4 ,hiram also sent ambassadors to ,solomon1 to congratulate him on his accession to the crown ,solomon desired of him timber and stones for building the temple1 with labourers4 ,these ,hiram promised1 provided ,solomon would furnish him with corn and oil4 ,the two princes lived on the best terms with each other4 ,,hireling4 ,moses requires that the hireling should be paid as soon as his work is over3 8,the wages of him that is hired shall not abide with thee all night unto the morning10 ,lev4 xix1 #ai4 ,a hireling's days or year is a kind of proverb1 signifying a full year1 without abating any thing of it3 8,his days are like the days of a hireling10 ,job vii1 #a2 the days of man are like those of a hireling2 as nothing is deducted from them1 so nothing1 likewise is added to them4 ,and again3 8,till he shall accomplish as a hireling his day10 ,job xiv1 #f2 to the time of death1 which he waits for as the hireling for the end of the day4 ,the following passage from ,morier's ,travels in ,persia1 illustrates one of our ,lord's parables3 8,the most conspicuous building in ,hamadan is the ,mesjid ,jumah1 a large mosque now falling into decay1 and before it a maidan or square1 which serves as a market place4 ,here we observed1 every morning before the sun rose1 that a numerous band of peasants were collected with spades in their hands1 waiting1 as they informed us1 to be hired for the day to work in the surrounding fields4 ,this custom1 which ,i have never seen in any other part of ,asia1 forcibly struck me as a most happy illustration of our ,saviour's parable of the labourers in the vineyard in ,matt4 xx2 particularly when1 passing by the same place late in the day1 we still found others standing idle1 and remembered his words1 #8,why stand ye here all the day idle8' as most applicable to their situation2 for in putting the very same question to them1 they answered us1 #8,because no man hath hired us4'0 ,,hittites1 the descendants of ,heth1 ,gen4 xv1 #bj4 ,,hivites1 a people descended from ,canaan1 ,gen4 x1 #ag4 ,they are also mentioned1 ,deut4 ii1 #bc4 ,the inhabitants of ,shechem1 and the ,gibeonites1 were ,hivites1 ,joshua xi1 #ai2 ,gen4 xxxiv1 #b4 ,mr4 ,bryant supposes the ,hivites to be the same as the ,ophites1 or ancient worshippers of the sun under the figure of a serpent2 which was1 in all probability1 the deity worshipped at ,baal-,hermon4 ,,holy ,,ghost1 the third person in the ,trinity4 ,the orthodox doctrine is1 that as ,christ is ,god by an eternal filiation1 so the ,spirit is ,god by procession from the ,father and the ,son4 8,and ,i believe in the ,holy ,ghost10 says the ,nicene ,creed1 8the ,lord and ,giver of life1 who proceedeth from the ,father and the ,son1 who1 with the ,father and the ,son together1 is worshipped and glorified40 ,and with this agrees the ,athanasian ,creed1 8,the ,holy ,ghost is of the ,father and of the ,son1 neither made1 nor created1 nor begotten1 but proceeding40 ,in the ,articles of the ,english church it is thus expressed3 8,the ,holy ,ghost1 proceeding from the ,father and the ,son1 is of one substance1 majesty1 and glory with the ,father and the ,son1 very and eternal ,god40 ,the ,latin church introduced the term spiration1 from spiro1 8to breathe10 to denote the manner of this procession3 on which ,dr4 ,owen remarks1 8,as the vital breath of a man has a continual emanation from him1 and yet is never separated utterly from his person1 or forsaketh him1 so doth the ,spirit of the ,father and the ,son proceed from them by a continual divine emanation1 still abiding one with them40 ,on this refined view little can be said which has clear ,scriptural authority2 and yet the very term by which the ,third ,person in the ,trinity is designated1 ,wind or ,breath1 may1 as to the ,third ,person1 be designed1 like the term ,son applied to the ,second1 to convey1 though imperfectly1 some intimation of that manner of being by which both are distinguished from each other1 and from the ,father2 and it was a remarkable action of our ,lord1 and one certainly which does not discountenance this idea1 that when he imparted the ,holy ,ghost to his disciples1 8,he breathed on them1 and saith unto them1 ,receive ye the ,holy ,ghost10 ,john xx1 #bb4 #b4 ,but1 whatever we may think as to the doctrine of spiration1 the procession of the ,holy ,ghost rests on more direct ,scriptural authority1 and is thus stated by ,bishop ,pearson3 8,now this procession of the ,spirit1 in reference to the ,father1 is delivered expressly in relation to the ,son1 and is contained virtually in the ,scriptures4 #a4 ,it is expressly said1 that the ,holy ,ghost proceedeth from the ,father1 as our ,saviour testifieth1 #8,when the ,comforter is come1 whom ,i will send unto you from the ,father1 even the ,spirit of truth1 which proceedeth from the ,father1 he shall testify of me1' ,john xv1 #bf4 ,and this is also evident from what hath been already asserted2 for being the ,father and the ,spirit are the same ,god1 and1 being so the same in the unity of the nature of ,god1 are yet distinct in the personality1 one of them must have the same nature from the other2 and because the ,father hath been already shown to have it from none1 it followeth that the ,spirit hath it from him4 #b4 ,though it be not expressly spoken in the ,scripture1 that the ,holy ,ghost proceedeth from the ,father and ,son1 yet the substance of the same truth is virtually contained there2 because those very expressions which are spoken of the ,holy ,spirit in relation to the ,father1 for that reason1 because he proceedeth from the ,father1 are also spoken of the same ,spirit in relation to the ,son2 and therefore there must be the same reason presupposed in reference to the ,son1 which is expressed in reference to the ,father4 ,because the ,spirit proceedeth from the ,father1 therefore it is called #8the ,spirit of ,god1' and #8the ,spirit of the ,father4' #8,it is not ye that speak1 but the ,spirit of your ,father which speaketh in you1' ,matt4 x1 #bj4 ,for by the language of the ,apostle1 #8the ,spirit of ,god' is the ,spirit which is of ,god1 saying1 #8,the things of ,god knoweth no man1 but the ,spirit of ,god4 ,and we have received not the spirit of the world1 but the ,spirit which is of ,god1' #a ,cor4 ii1 #aa1 #ab4 ,now the same ,spirit is also called #8the ,spirit of the ,son3' for #8because we are sons1 ,god hath sent forth the ,spirit of his ,son into our hearts1' ,gal4 iv1 #f4 #8,the ,spirit of ,christ3' #8,now if any man have not the ,spirit of ,christ1 he is none of his1' ,romans viii1 #i2 #8,even the ,spirit of ,christ which was in the prophets1' #a ,peter i1 #aa4 #8,the ,spirit of ,jesus ,christ1' as the ,apostle speaks3 #8,i know that this shall turn to my salvation through your prayer1 and the supply of the ,spirit of ,jesus ,christ1' ,phil4 i1 #ai4 ,if then the ,holy ,ghost be called #8the ,spirit of the ,father1' because he proceedeth from the ,father1 it followeth that1 being called also #8the ,spirit of the ,son1' he proceedeth also from the ,son4 ,again3 because the ,holy ,ghost proceedeth from the ,father1 he is therefore sent by the ,father1 as from him who hath1 by the original communication1 a right of mission2 as1 #8the ,comforter1 which is the ,holy ,ghost1 whom the ,father will send1' ,john xiv1 #bf4 ,but the same ,spirit which is sent by the ,father1 is also sent by the ,son1 as he saith1 #8,when the ,comforter is come1 whom ,i will send unto you4' ,therefore the ,son hath the same right of mission with the ,father1 and consequently must be acknowledged to have communicated the same essence4 ,the ,father is never sent by the ,son1 because he received not the ,godhead from him2 but the ,father sendeth the ,son1 because he communicated the ,godhead to him3 in the same manner1 neither the ,father nor the ,son is ever sent by the ,holy ,spirit2 because neither of them received the divine nature from the ,spirit3 but both the ,father and the ,son sendeth the ,holy ,ghost1 because the divine nature1 common to the ,father and the ,son1 was communicated by them both to the ,holy ,ghost4 ,as therefore the ,scriptures declare expressly1 that the ,spirit proceedeth from the ,father2 so do they also virtually teach1 that he proceedeth from the ,son40 #c4 ,arius regarded the ,spirit not only as a creature1 but as created by ,christ1 1 the creature of a creature4 ,some time afterward1 his personality was wholly denied by the ,arians1 and he was considered as the exerted energy of ,god4 ,this appears to have been the notion of ,socinus1 and1 with occasional modifications1 has been adopted by his followers4 ,they sometimes regard him as an attribute2 and at others1 resolve the passages in which he is spoken of into a periphrasis1 or circumlocution1 for ,god himself2 or1 to express both in one1 into a figure of speech4 #d4 ,in establishing the proper personality and deity of the ,holy ,ghost1 the first argument may be drawn from the frequent association1 in ,scripture1 of a ,person under that appellation with two other ,persons1 one of whom1 the ,father1 is by all acknowledged to be divine2 and the ascription to each of them1 or to the three in union1 of the same acts1 titles1 and authority1 with worship1 of the same kind1 and1 for any distinction that is made1 of an equal degree4 ,the manifestation of the existence and divinity of the ,holy ,spirit may be expected in the law and the prophets1 and is1 in fact1 to be traced there with certainty4 ,the ,spirit is represented as an agent in creation1 8moving upon the face of the waters20 and it forms no objection to the argument1 that creation is ascribed to the ,father1 and also to the ,son1 but is a great confirmation of it4 ,that creation should be effected by all the three ,persons of the ,godhead1 though acting in different respects1 yet so that each should be a ,creator1 and1 therefore1 both a ,person and a divine ,person1 can be explained only by their unity in one essence4 ,on every other hypothesis this ,scriptural fact is disallowed1 and therefore no other hypothesis can be true4 ,if the ,spirit of ,god be a mere influence1 then he is not a ,creator1 distinct from the ,father and the ,son1 because he is not a ,person2 but this is refuted both by the passage just quoted1 and by ,psalm xxxiii1 #f3 8,by the ,word of the ,lord were the heavens made2 and all the host of them by the breath 7,heb4 ,spirit7 of his mouth40 ,this is farther confirmed by ,job xxxiii1 #d3 8,the ,spirit of ,god hath made me1 and the breath of the ,almighty hath given me life20 where the second clause is obviously exegetic of the former3 and the whole text proves that1 in the patriarchal age1 the followers of the true religion ascribed creation to the ,spirit1 as well as to the ,father2 and that one of his appellations was1 8the ,breath of the ,almighty40 ,did such passages stand alone1 there might1 indeed1 be some plausibility in the criticism which resolves them into a personification2 but1 connected as they are with the whole body of evidence1 as to the concurring doctrine of both ,testaments1 they are inexpugnable4 ,again3 ,if the personality of the ,son and the ,spirit be allowed1 and yet it is contended that they were but instruments in creation1 through whom the creative power of another operated1 but which creative power was not possessed by them2 on this hypothesis1 too1 neither the ,spirit nor the ,son can be said to create1 any more than ,moses created the serpent into which his rod was turned1 and the ,scriptures are again contradicted4 ,to this association of the three ,persons in creative acts1 may be added a like association in acts of preservation1 which has been well called a continued creation1 and by that term is expressed in the following passage3 8,these wait all upon thee1 that thou mayest give them their meat in due season4 ,thou hidest thy face1 they are troubled2 thou takest away their breath1 they die1 and return to dust3 thou sendest forth thy ,spirit1 they are created2 and thou renewest the face of the earth10 ,psalm civ1 #bg-cj4 ,it is not surely here meant1 that the ,spirit by which the generations of animals are perpetuated1 is wind2 and if he be called an attribute1 wisdom1 power1 or both united1 where do we read of such attributes being 8sent10 8sent forth from ,god80 ,the personality of the ,spirit is here as clearly marked as when ,st4 ,paul speaks of ,god 8sending forth the ,spirit of his ,son10 and when our ,lord promises to 8send0 the ,comforter2 and as the upholding and preserving of created things is ascribed to the ,father and the ,son1 so here they are ascribed1 also1 to the ,spirit1 8sent forth from0 ,god to 8create and renew the face of the earth40 #e4 ,the next association of the three ,persons we find in the inspiration of the prophets3 8,god spake unto our fathers by the prophets10 says ,st4 ,paul1 ,heb4 i1 #a4 ,st4 ,peter declares that these 8holy men of ,god spake as they were moved by the ,holy ,ghost10 #b ,peter i1 #ba2 and also that it was 8the ,spirit of ,christ which was in them10 #a ,peter i1 #aa4 ,we may defy any ,socinian to interpret these three passages by making the ,spirit an influence or attribute1 and thereby reducing the term ,holy ,ghost into a figure of speech4 8,god10 in the first passage1 is1 unquestionably1 ,god the ,father2 and the 8holy men of ,god10 the prophets1 would then1 according to this view1 be moved by the influence of the ,father2 but the influence1 according to the third passage1 which was the source of their inspiration1 was the ,spirit1 or the influence of 8,christ40 ,thus the passages contradict each other4 ,allow the trinity in unity1 and you have no difficulty in calling the ,spirit1 the ,spirit of the ,father1 and the ,spirit of the ,son1 or the ,spirit of either2 but if the ,spirit be an influence1 that influence cannot be the influence of two persons1--one of them ,god1 and the other a creature4 ,even if they allowed the pre-existence of ,christ1 with ,arians1 these passages are inexplicable by the ,socinians2 but1 denying his prexistence1 they have no subterfuge but to interpret1 8the ,spirit of ,christ10 the spirit which prophesied of ,christ1 which is a purely gratuitous paraphrase2 or 8the spirit of an anointed one1 or prophet20 that is1 the prophet's own spirit1 which is just as gratuitous and as unsupported by any parallel as the former4 ,if1 however1 the ,holy ,ghost be the ,spirit of the ,father and of the ,son1 united in one essence1 the passages are easily harmonized4 ,in conjunction with the ,father and the ,son1 he is the source of that prophetic inspiration under which the prophets spoke and acted4 ,so the same ,spirit which raised ,christ from the dead1 is said by ,st4 ,peter to have preached by ,noah while the ark was preparing2--in allusion to the passage1 8,my ,spirit shall not always strive 7contend1 debate7 with man40 ,this1 we may observe1 affords an eminent proof1 that the writers of the ,new ,testament understood the phrase1 8the ,spirit of ,god10 as it occurs in the ,old ,testament1 personally4 ,for1 whatever may be the full meaning of that difficult passage in ,st4 ,peter1 ,christ is clearly declared to have preached by the ,spirit in the days of ,noah2 that is1 he1 by the ,spirit1 inspired ,noah to preach4 ,if1 then1 the ,apostles understood that the ,holy ,ghost was a ,person1 a point which will presently be established1 we have1 in the text just quoted from the book of ,genesis1 a key to the meaning of those texts in the ,old ,testament where the phrases1 8,my ,spirit10 8the ,spirit of ,god10 and 8the ,spirit of the ,lord10 occur2 and inspired authority is thus afforded us to interpret them as of a ,person2 and if of a ,person1 the very effort made by ,socinians to deny his personality1 itself1 indicates that that ,person must1 from the lofty titles and works ascribed to him1 be inevitably divine4 ,such phrases occur in many passages of the ,hebrew ,scriptures2 but1 in the following1 the ,spirit is also eminently distinguished from two other ,persons3 8,and now the ,lord ,god1 and his ,spirit1 hath sent me10 ,isaiah xlviii1 #af2 or1 rendered better1 8hath sent me and his ,spirit10 both terms being in the accusative case4 8,seek ye out of the book of the ,lord1 and read3 for my mouth it hath commanded1 and his ,spirit it hath gathered them10 ,isaiah xxxiv1 #af4 8,i am with you1 saith the ,lord of ,hosts1 according to the word that ,i covenanted with you when ye came out of ,egypt1 so my ,spirit remaineth among you3 fear ye not4 ,for thus saith the ,lord of ,hosts1 ,i will shake all nations1 and the ,desire of all nations shall come10 ,hag4 ii1 #d-g4 ,here1 also1 the ,spirit of the ,lord is seen collocated with the ,lord of ,hosts and the ,desire of all nations1 who is the ,messiah4 #f4 ,three ,persons1 and three only1 are associated also1 both in the ,old and ,new ,testament1 as objects of supreme worship2 and form the one 8name0 in which the religious act of solemn benediction is performed1 and to which men are bound by solemn baptismal covenant4 ,in the plural form of the name of ,god1 each received equal adoration4 ,this threefold personality seems to have given rise to the standing form of triple benediction used by the ,jewish high priest4 ,the very important fact1 that1 in the vision of ,isaiah1 the ,lord of hosts1 who spake unto the prophet1 is1 in ,acts xxviii1 #be1 said to be the ,holy ,ghost1 while ,st4 ,john declares that the glory which ,isaiah saw was the glory of ,christ1 proves1 indisputably1 that each of the three ,persons bears this august appellation2 it gives also the reason for the threefold repetition1 8,holy1 holy1 holy60 and it exhibits the prophet and the very seraphs in deep and awful adoration before the ,triune ,lord of hosts4 ,both the prophet and the seraphim were1 therefore1 worshippers of the ,holy ,ghost and of the ,son1 at the very time and by the very acts in which they worshipped the ,father2 which proves that1 as the three ,persons received equal homage in a case which does not admit of the evasion of pretended superior and inferior worship1 they are equal in majesty1 glory1 and essence4 #g4 ,as in the tabernacle form of benediction1 the ,triune ,jehovah is recognised as the source of all grace and peace to his creatures2 so also we have the apostolic formula3 8,the grace of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 and the love of ,god1 and the communion of the ,holy ,spirit be with you all4 ,amen40 ,here the personality of the three is kept distinct2 and the prayer is1 that ,christians may have a common participation of the ,holy ,spirit1 that is1 doubtless1 as he was promised by our ,lord to his disciples1 as a ,comforter1 as the ,source of light and spiritual life1 as the ,author of regeneration4 ,thus the ,spirit is acknowledged1 equally with the ,father and the ,son1 to be the ,source and the ,giver of the highest spiritual blessings2 while this solemn ministerial benediction is1 from its specific character1 to be regarded as an act of prayer to each of the three ,persons1 and therefore is at once1 an acknowledgment of the divinity and personality of each4 ,the same remark applies to ,revelation i1 #d1 #e3 8,grace be unto you1 and peace1 from ,him which was1 and which is1 and which is to come2 and from the seven spirits which are before his throne10 7an emblematical reference1 probably to the golden branch with its seven lamps17 8and from ,jesus ,christ40 ,the style of this book sufficiently accounts for the ,holy ,spirit being called 8the seven spirits20 but no created spirit or company of created spirits is ever spoken of under that appellation3 and the place assigned to the seven spirits1 between the mention of the ,father and the ,son1 indicates1 with certainty1 that one of the sacred ,three1 so eminent1 and so exclusively eminent in both dispensations1 is intended4 #h4 ,the form of baptism next presents itself with demonstrative evidence on the two points before us1 the personality and divinity of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,it is the form of covenant by which the sacred ,three become our one or only ,god1 and we become his people3 8,go ye1 therefore1 and teach all nations1 baptizing them in the name of the ,father1 and of the ,son1 and of the ,holy ,ghost40 ,in what manner is this text to be disposed of1 if the personality of the ,holy ,ghost is denied8 ,is the form of baptism to be so understood as to imply that baptism is in the name of one ,god1 one creature1 and one attribute8 ,the grossness of this absurdity refutes it1 and proves that here1 at least1 there can be no personification4 ,if all the ,three1 therefore1 are persons1 are we to have baptism in the name of one ,god and two creatures8 ,this would be too near an approach to idolatry1 or1 rather1 it would be idolatry itself2 for1 considering baptism as an act of dedication to ,god1 the acceptance of ,god as our ,god1 on our part1 and the renunciation of all other deities and all other religions1 what could a ,heathen convert conceive of the two creatures so distinguished from all other creatures in heaven and in earth1 and so associated with ,god himself as to form together the one name1 to which1 by that act1 he was devoted1 and which he was henceforward to profess and honour1 but that they were equally divine1 unless special care were taken to instruct him that but one of the ,three was ,god1 and the two others but creatures8 ,but of this care1 of this cautionary instruction1 though so obviously necessary upon this theory1 no single instance can be given in all the writings of the ,apostles4 #i4 ,but other arguments are not wanting to prove both the personality and the divinity of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,with respect to the former1 7#a47 ,the mode of his subsistence in the sacred ,trinity proves his personality4 ,he proceeds from the ,father and the ,son1 and cannot1 therefore1 be either4 ,to say that an attribute proceeds and comes forth1 would be a gross absurdity4 7#b47 ,many passages of ,scripture are wholly unintelligible and even absurd1 unless the ,holy ,ghost is allowed to be a person4 ,for as those who take the phrase as ascribing no more than a figurative personality to an attribute1 make that attribute to be the energy or power of ,god1 they reduce such passages as the following to utter unmeaningness3 8,god anointed ,jesus with the ,holy ,ghost and with power20 that is1 with the power of ,god and with power4 8,that ye may abound in hope through the power of the ,holy ,ghost20 that is1 through the power of power4 8,in demonstration of the ,spirit and of power20 that is1 in demonstration of power and of power4 7#c47 ,personification of any kind is1 in some passages in which the ,holy ,ghost is spoken of1 impossible4 ,the reality which this figure of speech is said to present to us1 is either some of the attributes of ,god1 or else the doctrine of the ,gospel4 ,let this theory1 then1 be tried upon the following passages3 8,he shall not speak of himself2 but whatsoever he shall hear1 that shall he speak40 ,what attribute of ,god can here be personified8 ,and if the doctrine of the ,gospel be arrayed with personal attributes1 where is there an instance of so monstrous a prosopopia as this passage would exhibit8--the doctrine of the ,gospel not speaking 8of himself10 but speaking 8whatsoever he shall hear60--8,the ,spirit maketh intercession for us40 ,what attribute is capable of interceding1 or how can the doctrine of the ,gospel intercede8 ,personification1 too1 is the language of poetry1 and takes place naturally only in excited and elevated discourse2 but if the ,holy ,spirit be a personification1 we find it in the ordinary and cool strain of mere narration and argumentative discourse in the ,new ,testament1 and in the most incidental conversations4 8,have ye received the ,holy ,ghost since ye believed8 ,we have not so much as heard whether there be any ,holy ,ghost40 ,how impossible is it here to extort1 by any process whatever1 even the shadow of a personification of either any attribute of ,god1 or of the doctrine of the ,gospel6 ,so again3 8,the ,spirit said unto ,philip1 ,go near1 and join thyself to this chariot40 ,could it be any attribute of ,god which said this1 or could it be the doctrine of the ,gospel8 ,finally1 that the ,holy ,ghost is a person1 and not an attribute1 is proved by the use of masculine pronouns and relatives in the ,greek of the ,new ,testament1 in connection with the neuter noun 1 ,spirit1 and also by many distinct personal acts being ascribed to him1 as1 8to come10 8to go10 8to be sent10 8to teach10 8to guide10 8to comfort10 8to make intercession10 8to bear witness10 8to give gifts10 8dividing them to every man as he will10 8to be vexed10 8grieved10 and 8quenched40 ,these cannot be applied to the mere fiction of a person1 and they therefore establish the ,spirit's true personality4 #aj4 ,some additional arguments to those before given to establish the divinity of the ,holy ,ghost may also be adduced4 ,the first is taken from his being the subject of blasphemy3 8,the blasphemy against the ,holy ,ghost shall not be forgiven unto men10 ,matt4 xii1 #ca4 ,this blasphemy consisted in ascribing his miraculous works to ,satan2 and that he is capable of being blasphemed proves him to be as much a person as the ,son2 and it proves him to be divine1 because it shows that he may be sinned against1 and so sinned against that the blasphemer shall not be forgiven4 ,a person he must be1 or he could not be blasphemed3 a divine person he must be1 to constitute this blasphemy a sin against him in the proper sense1 and of so malignant a kind as to place it beyond the reach of mercy4 ,he is called ,god3 8,why hath ,satan filled thine heart to lie unto the ,holy ,ghost8 ,why hast thou conceived this in thine heart8 ,thou hast not lied unto men1 but unto ,god10 ,acts v1 #c1 #d4 ,ananias is said to have lied particularly 8unto the ,holy ,ghost10 because the ,apostles were under his special direction in establishing the temporary regulation among ,christians that they should have all things in common3 the detection of the crime itself was a demonstration of the divinity of the ,spirit1 because it showed his omniscience1 his knowledge of the most secret acts4 ,in addition to the proof of his divinity thus afforded by this history1 he is also called ,god3 8,thou hast not lied unto men1 but unto ,god40 ,he is also called the ,lord3 8,now the ,lord is that ,spirit10 #b ,cor4 iii1 #ag4 ,he is eternal3 8,the eternal ,spirit10 ,heb4 ix1 #ad4 ,omnipresence is ascribed to him3 8,your body is the temple of the ,holy ,ghost10 #a ,cor4 vi1 #ai4 8,as many as are led by the ,spirit of ,god1 they are the sons of ,god10 ,rom4 viii1 #ad4 ,for1 as all true ,christians are his temples1 and are led by him1 he must be present to them at all times and in all places4 ,he is omniscient3 8,the ,spirit searcheth all things1 yea1 the deep things of ,god10 #a ,cor4 ii1 #aj4 ,here the ,spirit is said to search or know 8all things0 absolutely2 and then1 to make this more emphatic1 that he knows even 8the deep things of ,god10 things hidden from every creature1 the depths of his essence1 and the secrets of his counsels2 for1 that this is intended1 appears from the next verse1 where he is said to know 8the things of ,god10 as the spirit of a man knows the things of a man4 ,supreme majesty is also attributed to him1 so that to 8lie0 to him1 to 8blaspheme0 him1 to 8vex0 him1 to do him 8despite10 are sins1 and as such render the offender liable to divine punishment4 ,how impracticable then is it to interpret the phrase1 8the ,holy ,ghost10 as a periphrasis for ,god himself6 ,a ,spirit1 which is the ,spirit of ,god1 which is so often distinguished from the ,father1 which 8sees0 and 8hears0 the ,father1 which searches 8the deep things0 of ,god1 which is 8sent0 by the ,father1 which 8proceedeth0 from him1 and who has special prayer addressed to him at the same time as the ,father1 cannot1 though 8one with him10 be the ,father2 and that he is not the ,son is acknowledged on both sides4 ,as a divine person1 our regards are therefore justly due to him as the object of worship and trust1 of prayer and blessing4 #aa4 ,various are the gracious offices of the ,holy ,spirit in the work of our redemption4 ,he it is that first quickens the soul1 dead in trespasses and sins1 to spiritual life2 it is by him we are 8born again10 and made new creatures2 he is the living root of all the ,christian graces1 which are therefore called 8the fruits0 of the ,spirit2 and by him all true ,christians are aided in the 8infirmities0 and afflictions of this present life4 ,eminently1 he is promised to the disciples as 8the ,comforter10 which is more fully explained by ,st4 ,paul by the phrase 8the ,spirit of adoption20 so that it is through him that we receive a direct inward testimony to our personal forgiveness and acceptance through ,christ1 and are filled with peace and consolation4 ,this doctrine1 so essential to the solid and habitual happiness of those who believe in ,christ1 is thus clearly explained in a sermon on that subject by the ,rev4 ,john ,wesley3-- 87#a47 ,but what is the witness of the ,spirit8 ,the original word1 1 may be rendered either1 as it is in several places1 the witness1 or1 less ambiguously1 the testimony1 or1 the record3 so it is rendered in our translation3 #8,this is the record1' the testimony1 the sum of what ,god testifies in all the inspired writings1 #8that ,god hath given unto us eternal life1 and this life is in his ,son1' #a ,john v1 #aa4 ,the testimony now under consideration is given by the ,spirit of ,god to and with our spirit4 ,he is the person testifying4 ,what he testifies to us is1 #8that we are the children of ,god4' ,the immediate result of this testimony is1 #8the fruit of the ,spirit2' namely1 #8love1 joy1 peace1 long suffering1 gentleness1 goodness4' ,and without these1 the testimony itself cannot continue4 ,for it is inevitably destroyed1 not only by the commission of any outward sin1 or the omission of known duty1 but by giving way to any inward sin3 in a word1 by whatever grieves the ,holy ,spirit of ,god4 7#b47 ,i observed many years ago1 ,it is hard to find words in the language of men to explain the deep things of ,god4 ,indeed1 there are none that will adequately express what the ,spirit of ,god works in his children4 ,but1 perhaps1 one might say1 7desiring any who are taught of ,god to correct1 soften1 or strengthen the expression17 by the #8testimony of the ,spirit1' ,i mean1 an inward impression on the soul1 whereby the ,spirit of ,god immediately and directly witnesses with my spirit1 that ,i am a child of ,god2 that #8,jesus ,christ hath loved me1 and given himself for me2' that all my sins are blotted out1 and ,i1 even ,i1 am reconciled to ,god4 7#c47 ,after twenty years' farther consideration1 ,i see no cause to retract any part of this4 ,neither do ,i conceive how any of these expressions may be altered1 so as to make them more intelligible4 ,i can only add1 that if any of the children of ,god will point out any other expressions which are more clear1 or more agreeable to the word of ,god1 ,i will readily lay these aside4 7#d47 ,meantime1 let it be observed1 ,i do not mean hereby1 that the ,spirit of ,god testifies this by any outward voice2 no1 nor always by an inward voice1 although he may do this sometimes4 ,neither do ,i suppose1 that he always applies to the heart1 though he often may1 one or more texts of ,scripture4 ,but he so works upon the soul by his immediate influence1 and by a strong1 though inexplicable1 operation1 that the stormy wind and troubled waves subside1 and there is a sweet calm3 the heart resting as in the arms of ,jesus1 and the sinner being clearly satisfied that all his #8iniquities are forgiven1 and his sins covered4' 7#e47 ,now what is the matter of dispute concerning this8 ,not1 whether there be a witness or testimony of the ,spirit4 ,not1 whether the ,spirit does testify with our spirit1 that we are the children of ,god4 ,none can deny this1 without flatly contradicting the ,scriptures1 and charging a lie upon the ,god of truth4 ,therefore1 that there is a testimony of the ,spirit1 is acknowledged by all parties4 7#f47 ,neither is it questioned1 whether there is an indirect witness or testimony1 that we are the children of ,god4 ,this is nearly1 if not exactly1 the same with #8the testimony of a good conscience toward ,god2' and is the result of reason or reflection on what we feel in our own souls4 ,strictly speaking1 it is a conclusion drawn partly from the word of ,god1 and partly from our own experience4 ,the word of ,god says1 ,every one who has the fruit of the ,spirit is a child of ,god4 ,experience or inward consciousness tells me1 that ,i have the fruit of the ,spirit2 and hence ,i rationally conclude1 ,therefore ,i am a child of ,god4 ,this is likewise allowed on all hands1 and so is no matter of controversy4 7#g47 ,nor do we assert1 that there can be any real testimony of the ,spirit1 without the fruit of the ,spirit4 ,we assert1 on the contrary1 that the fruit of the ,spirit immediately springs from this testimony2 not always indeed in the same degree even when the testimony is first given2 and much less afterward3 neither joy nor peace is always at one stay4 ,no1 nor love3 as neither is the testimony itself always equally strong and clear4 7#h47 ,but the point in question is1 whether there be any direct testimony of the ,spirit at all2 whether there be any other testimony of the ,spirit1 than that which arises from a consciousness of the fruit4 ,i believe there is1 because that is the plain1 natural meaning of the text1 #8,the ,spirit itself beareth witness with our spirit1 that we are the children of ,god4' ,it is manifest here are two witnesses mentioned1 who together testify the same thing1 the ,spirit of ,god1 and our own spirit4 ,the late bishop of ,london1 in his sermon on this text1 seems astonished that any one can doubt of this1 which appears upon the very face of the words4 ,now1 #8the testimony of our own spirit1' says the bishop1 #8is one which is the consciousness of our own sincerity2' or1 to express the same thing a little more clearly1 the consciousness of the fruit of the ,spirit4 ,when our spirit is conscious of this1 of love1 joy1 peace1 long suffering1 gentleness1 goodness1 it easily infers from these premises1 that we are the children of ,god4 ,it is true1 that great man supposes the other witness to be #8the consciousness of our own good works4' ,this1 he affirms1 is #8the testimony of ,god's ,spirit4' ,but this is included in the testimony of our own spirit3 yea1 and in sincerity1 even according to the common sense of the word4 ,so the ,apostle3 #8,our rejoicing is this1 the testimony of our conscience1 that in simplicity and godly sincerity we have our conversation in the world2' where it is plain1 sincerity refers to our words and actions1 at least1 as much as to our inward dispositions4 ,so that this is not another witness1 but the very same that he mentioned before3 the consciousness of our good works being only one branch of the consciousness of our sincerity4 ,consequently1 here is only one witness still4 ,if therefore1 the text speaks of two witnesses1 one of these is not the consciousness of our good works1 neither of our sincerity2 all this being manifestly contained in #8the testimony of our spirit4' ,what1 then1 is the other witness8 ,this might easily be learned1 if the text itself were not sufficiently clear1 from the verse immediately preceding3 #8,ye have received1 not the spirit of bondage1 but the ,spirit of adoption1 whereby we cry1 ,abba1 ,father4' ,it follows1 #8,the ,spirit itself beareth witness with our spirit1 that we are the children of ,god4' ,this is farther explained by the parallel text1 ,gal4 iv1 #f3 #8,because ye are sons1 ,god hath sent forth the ,spirit of his ,son into your hearts1 crying1 ,abba1 ,father4' ,is not this something immediate and direct1 not the result of reflection or argumentation8 ,does not this ,spirit cry1 #8,abba1 ,father1' in our hearts1 the moment it is given8 antecedently to any reflection upon our sincerity1 yea1 to any reasoning whatsoever8 ,and is not this the plain1 natural sense of the words1 which strikes any one as soon as he hears them8 ,all these texts1 then1 in their most obvious meaning1 describe a direct testimony of the ,spirit4 ,that the testimony of the ,spirit of ,god1 must1 in the very nature of things1 be antecedent to the testimony of our own spirit1 may appear from this single consideration3 ,we must be holy in heart and life1 before we can be conscious that we are so4 ,but we must love ,god before we can be holy at all1 this being the root of all holiness4 ,now1 we cannot love ,god1 till we know he loves us3 #8,we love him1 because he first loved us4' ,and we cannot know his love to us1 till his ,spirit witnesses it to our spirit4 ,since1 therefore1 the testimony of his ,spirit must precede the love of ,god and all holiness1 of consequence it must precede our consciousness thereof40 #ab4 ,the precedence of the direct witness of the ,spirit of ,god to the indirect witness of our own1 and the dependence of the latter upon the former1 are also clearly stated by other divines of great authority4 ,calvin1 on ,romans viii1 #af1 says1 8,st4 ,paul means that the ,spirit of ,god gives such a testimony to us1 that he being our guide and teacher1 our spirit concludes our adoption of ,god to be certain4 ,for our own mind1 of itself1 independent of the preceding testimony of the ,spirit1 nisi prunte ,spirits testimonio1 could not produce this persuasion in us4 ,for while the ,spirit witnesses that we are the sons of ,god1 he at the same time inspires this confidence into our minds1 that we are bold to call ,god our ,father40 ,on the same passage ,dr4 ,john ,owen says1 8,the ,spirit itself beareth witness with our spirits that we are the sons of ,god2 the witness which our own spirits do give unto our adoption is the work and effect of the ,holy ,spirit in us2 if it were not1 it would be false1 and not confirmed by the testimony of the ,spirit himself1 who is the ,spirit of truth4 #8,and none knoweth the things of ,god but the ,spirit of ,god1' #a ,cor4 ii1 #aa4 ,if he declare not our sonship in us and to us1 we cannot know it4 ,how doth he then bear witness to our spirits8 ,what is the distinct testimony8 ,it must be some such act of his as evidenceth itself to be from him immediately1 unto them that are concerned in it1 that is1 those unto whom it is given40 ,poole on the same passage remarks1 8,the ,spirit of adoption doth not only excite us to call upon ,god as our ,father1 but it doth ascertain and assure us1 as before1 that we are his children4 ,and this it doth not by an outward voice1 as ,god the ,father to ,jesus ,christ1 nor by an angel1 as to ,daniel and the ,virgin ,mary1 but by an inward and secret suggestion1 whereby he raiseth our hearts to this persuasion1 that ,god is our ,father1 and we are his children4 ,this is not the testimony of the graces and operations of the ,spirit1 but of the ,spirit itself40 ,bishop ,pearson1 in his elaborate work on the ,creed1 and ,dr4 ,barrow1 in his ,sermons1 are equally explicit in stating this ,scriptural doctrine4 ,,homoiousians1 a branch of the high ,arians1 who maintained that the nature of the ,son1 though not the same1 was similar to that of the ,father4 ,,homoousians1 or ,,homousiasts1 was1 on the other hand1 a name applied to the ,athanasians1 who held the ,son to be homousios1 or consubstantial with the ,father1 that is1 of the same nature and substance4 ,,honey1 4 ,it is probable1 that it was in order to keep the ,jews at a distance from the customs of the ,heathen1 who were used to offer honey in their sacrifices1 that ,god forbade it to be offered to him1 that is to say1 burnt upon the altar1 ,lev4 ii1 #aa2 but at the same time he commanded that the first-fruits of it should be presented4 ,these first-fruits and offerings were designed for the support and sustenance of the priests1 and were not consumed upon the altar4 ,in hot weather1 the honey burst the comb1 and ran down the hollow trees or rocks1 where1 in the land of ,judea1 the bees deposited great store of it4 ,this1 flowing spontaneously1 was the best and most delicious1 as it was quite pure1 and clear from all dregs and wax4 ,the ,israelites called it 1 wood honey4 ,it is therefore improperly rendered 8honeycomb10 #a ,sam4 xiv1 #bg2 ,cant4 v1 #a2 in both which places it means the honey that has distilled from the trees1 as distinguished from the domestic1 which was eaten with the comb4 ,hasselquist says1 that between ,acra and ,nazareth1 great numbers of wild bees breed1 to the advantage of the inhabitants2 and ,maundrell observes of the great plain near ,jericho1 that he perceived in it1 in many places1 a smell of honey and wax as strong as if he had been in an apiary4 ,milk and honey were the chief dainties of the earlier ages1 and continue to be so of the ,bedoween ,arabs now4 ,so butter and honey are several times mentioned in ,scripture as among the most delicious refreshments1 #b ,sam4 xvii1 #bi2 ,job xx1 #ag2 ,cant4 iv1 #aa2 ,isaiah vii1 #ae4 ,thus ,irby and ,mangles1 in their ,travels1 relate1 8,they gave us some honey and butter together1 with bread to dip in it1 ,narsah desiring one of his men to mix the two ingredients for us1 as we were awkward at it4 ,the ,arab1 having stirred the mixture up well with his fingers1 showed his dexterity at consuming1 as well as mixing1 and recompensed himself for his trouble by eating half of it40 ,the wild honey1 1 mentioned to have been a part of the food of ,john the ,baptist1 ,matt4 iii1 #d1 was probably such as he got in the rocks and hollows of trees4 ,thus1 8honey out of the stony rock10 ,psalm lxxxi1 #af2 ,deut4 xxxii1 #ac4 ,,hophni4 ,see ,,eli4 ,,hopkinsians1 or ,,hopkinsonians1 so called from the ,rev4 ,samuel ,hopkins1 ,d4,d41 pastor of the first ,congregational church at ,newport1 ,rhode ,island1 ,north ,america1 about ,a4 ,d4 #aggj4 ,dr4 ,hopkins1 in his sermons and tracts1 made several additions to the sentiments previously advanced by the celebrated ,president ,edwards1 of ,new-,jersey ,college4 ,the following is a summary of their distinguishing tenets3-- #a4 ,that all true virtue or real holiness consists in disinterested benevolence4 ,the object of benevolence is universal being1 including ,god1 and all intelligent creatures4 ,it wishes and seeks the good of every individual1 so far as is consistent with the greatest good of the whole1 which is comprised in the glory of ,god1 and the perfection and happiness of his kingdom4 ,the law of ,god is the standard of all moral rectitude or holiness4 ,this is reduced into love to ,god and to our neighbour2 and universal good will comprehends all the love to ,god1 our neighbour1 and ourselves1 required in the divine law1 and therefore must be the whole of holy obedience4 ,let any person reflect on what are the particular branches of true piety1 and he will find that disinterested affection is the distinguishing characteristic of each4 ,for instance1 all which distinguishes pious fear from the fear of the wicked consists in love4 ,holy gratitude is nothing but good will to ,god and man1 ourselves included1 excited by a view of the good will and kindness of ,god4 ,justice1 truth1 and faithfulness1 are comprised in universal benevolence4 ,so are temperance and chastity2 for an undue indulgence of our appetites and passions is contrary to benevolence1 as tending to hurt ourselves or others1 and so opposite to the general good1 and the divine command4 ,in short1 all virtue is nothing but love to ,god and our neighbour1 made perfect in all its genuine exercises and expressions4 #b4 ,that all sin consists in selfishness4 ,by this is meant an interested affection1 by which a person sets himself up as the supreme or only object of regard2 and nothing is lovely in his view1 unless suited to promote his private interest4 ,this self-love is1 in its whole nature1 and every degree of it1 enmity against ,god3 it is not subject to the law of ,god1 and it is the only affection that can oppose it4 ,it is the foundation of all spiritual blindness1 and the source of all idolatry and false religion4 ,it is the foundation of all covetousness and sensuality2 of all falsehood1 injustice1 and oppression2 as it excites mankind1 by undue methods1 to invade the property of others4 ,self-love produces all the violent passions1 envy1 wrath1 clamour1 and evil speaking2 and every thing contrary to the divine law is briefly comprehended in this fruitful source of iniquity1 self-love4 #c4 ,that there are no promises of regenerating grace made to the actions of the unregenerate4 ,for as far as men act from self-love1 they act from a bad end2 for those who have no true love to ,god really fulfil no duty when they attend on the externals of religion4 ,also1 that inability1 which consists in disinclination1 never renders any thing improper to be the subject of a command4 #d4 ,that the impotency of sinners1 with respect to believing in ,christ1 is not natural1 but moral2 for it is a plain dictate of common sense1 that natural impossibility excludes all blame4 ,but an unwilling mind is universally considered as a crime1 and not as an excuse2 and is the very thing wherein our wickedness consists4--,also1 #e4 ,that in order to faith in ,christ1 a sinner must approve in his heart of the divine conduct1 even though ,god should cast him off for ever2 which1 however1 neither implies love to misery1 nor hatred of happiness4 ,but as a particle of water is small1 in comparison of a generous stream1 so the man of humility feels small before the great family of his fellow creatures4 ,he values his soul2 but1 when he compares it to the great soul of mankind1 he almost forgets and loses sight of it3 for the governing principle of his heart is1 to estimate things according to their worth4 ,when1 therefore1 he indulges an humble comparison with his ,maker1 he feels lost in the infinite fulness and brightness of divine love1 as a ray of light is lost in the sun1 and a particle of water in the ocean4 ,it inspires him with the most grateful feelings of heart1 that he has opportunity to be in the hand of ,god1 as clay in the hand of the potter2 and as he considers himself in this humble light1 he submits the nature and size of his future vessel entirely to ,god4 ,as his pride is lost in the dust1 he looks up with pleasure toward the throne of ,god1 and rejoices1 with all his heart1 in the rectitude of the divine administration4 ,he also considers that1 if the law be good1 death is due to those who have broken it2 and 8the ,judge of all the earth cannot but do right10 ,gen4 xviii1 #be4 ,it would bring everlasting reproach upon his government to spare us1 considered merely as in ourselves4 ,when this is felt in our hearts1 and not till then1 we shall be prepared to look to the free grace of ,god1 through ,christ's redemption4 #f4 ,that the infinitely wise and holy ,god has exerted his omnipotent power1 in such a manner as he purposed should be followed with the existence and entrance of moral evil in the system3 for it must be admitted1 on all hands1 that ,god has a perfect knowledge1 foresight1 and view of all possible existences and events4 ,if that system and scene of operation1 in which moral evil should never have existence1 was actually preferred in the divine mind1 certainly the ,deity is infinitely disappointed in the issue of his own operations4 ,dr4 ,hopkins maintains1 therefore1 that 8,god was the author1 origin1 and positive cause of ,adam's sin30 yea1 8that he is the origin and cause of moral evil1 as really as he is of the existence of any thing that he wills40 #g4 ,that the introduction of sin is1 upon the whole1 for the general good4 ,for the wisdom and power of the ,deity are displayed in carrying on designs of the greatest good3 and the existence of moral evil has1 undoubtedly1 occasioned a more full1 perfect1 and glorious discovery of the infinite perfections of the divine nature1 than could otherwise have been made to the view of creatures4 #h4 ,that repentance is before faith in ,christ4 ,by this1 is not intended1 that repentance is before a speculative conviction of the being and perfections of ,god1 and of the person and character of ,christ2 but only1 that true repentance is previous to a saving faith in ,christ1 by which the believer is united to ,christ1 and entitled to the benefits of his mediation and atonement4 ,so ,christ commanded1 8,repent ye1 and believe the ,gospel20 and ,paul preached 8repentance toward ,god1 and faith in our ,lord ,jesus ,christ40 #i4 ,that though men became sinners by ,adam1 according to a divine constitution1 yet they were and are accountable for no sins but personal3 for1 7#a47 ,adam's act1 in eating the forbidden fruit1 was not the act of his posterity2 therefore they did not sin at the same time that he did4 7#b47 ,the sinfulness of that act could not be transferred to them afterward2 because the sinfulness of an act can no more be transferred from one person to another1 than an act itself4 7#c47 ,therefore ,adam's act1 in eating the forbidden fruit1 was not the cause1 but only the occasions of his posterity being sinners4 ,adam sinned1 and now ,god brings his posterity into the world sinners4 #aj4 ,that though believers are justified through ,christ's righteousness1 yet his righteousness is not transferred to them4 ,for personal righteousness cannot be transferred from one person to another1 nor personal sin2 otherwise the sinner would become innocent1 and ,christ the sinner4 ,the ,scripture1 therefore1 represents believers as receiving only the benefits of ,christ's righteousness in justification1 or their being pardoned and accepted for ,christ's righteousness' sake2 and this is the proper ,scripture notion of imputation4 ,jonathan's righteousness was imputed to ,mephibosheth1 when ,david showed kindness to him for his father ,jonathan's sake1 #b ,samuel ix1 #g4 #aa4 ,the ,hopkinsians warmly advocate the doctrine of the divine decrees1 not only particular election1 but also reprobation2 they hold also the total depravation of human nature1 the special influences of the ,spirit of ,god in regeneration1 justification by faith alone1 the final perseverance of the saints1 and the consistency between entire freedom and absolute dependence2 and therefore claim it as their just due1 since the world will make distinctions1 to be called ,hopkinsian ,calvinists4 ,calvinists1 however1 have demurred against several of these propositions1 and a long and warm controversy was occasioned by them in the ,united ,states2 to a few points of which we shall advert4--7#a47 ,selfishness1 as confining our affections and exertions to ourselves1 is confessedly a vice2 but that self is not to be excluded from our affections1 is evident even from the terms of the divine law1--8,thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself40 ,and the ,scriptures teach us1 that 8no man hateth his own flesh40 ,such a 8disinterested benevolence10 therefore1 as implies no peculiar anxiety for our personal salvation and happiness1 can never be required of us4 ,a good man may and must be convinced1 that ,god would be just in his final condemnation1 considered out of ,christ2 but it is impossible to acquiesce in such a prospect2 it is making holiness to consist in being satisfied with remaining for ever unholy1 which is as impious as it is contradictory2 and the strong and strange things which some ,hopkinsonians have said on this subject1 can only be accounted for from the love of paradox4 7#b47 ,the other principal point on which ,calvinists dissent1 is the making ,god 8the author and efficient cause of sin40 ,it is true that the ,doctor says elsewhere1 that 8in causing or originating sin1 there is no sin20 this1 however1 is a position so dangerous1 so unsupported1 and so contrary to the common sense of mankind1 that we may well shrink from it2 and should risk no speculation that can implicate the divine character1 or furnish an excuse for sin4 8,is ,god unrighteous who taketh vengeance80 saith the ,apostle4 8,god forbid6 for how then shall ,god judge the world80 ,rom4 iii1 #e1 #f4 ,those who feel interested in the controversy1 may be fully gratified in the 8,contrast between ,calvinism and ,hopkinsianism10 by ,ezra ,styles ,ely1 ,a4 ,m41 7,new-,york1 #ahaa17 and other ,american publications4 ,in this country the controversy is but little known2 but we may remark that the theory of ,hopkins appears to be an attempt to unite some points of mystic theology with the ,calvinism commonly received1 and that where it differs from the latter system1 it relieves no difficulty4 ,,hor4 ,this mountain1 in its general acceptation1 is probably the same with ,mount ,seir1 ,hor being the name by which that mountainous tract was denominated before it was exchanged for ,seir4 ,but one particular mountain of this region retained the name of ,hor long after2 as it was a mountain of this name1 8by the coast of the land of ,edom10 that ,aaron was commanded to ascend1 in order to die there1 ,num4 xx1 #bc4 ,this mountain1 or at least the one to which tradition assigns the tomb of ,aaron1 was visited by ,burckhardt2 from whose account it appears to form a conspicuous object in the chain of the ,djebel ,shera1 or ,mount ,seir1 rising abruptly from the valley of ,el ,araba1 or desert of ,zin1 about fifty miles north of ,akaba1 or ,ezion-,geber4 ,,horeb1 a mountain in ,arabia ,petra1 a part of which1 or near to which1 was ,sinai4 ,at ,horeb ,god appeared to ,moses in the burning bush1 ,exod4 iii1 #a1 c4 ,hither ,elijah retired to avoid the persecution of ,jezebel1 #a ,kings xix1 #h4 ,sinai and ,horeb seem to be two parts of the same mountain2 hence the law is sometimes said to be given there4 ,,horn4 ,by horns the ,hebrews sometimes understood an eminence1 or angle1 a corner1 or a rising4 ,by horns of the altar of burnt offerings1 many understand the angles of that altar2 but there were also horns1 or eminences1 at the corners of that altar1 ,exod4 xxvii1 #b2 xxx1 #b4 ,horn also signifies glory1 brightness1 rays4 ,god's 8brightness was as the light1 he had horns coming out of his hand10 ,hab4 iii1 #d2 that is1 refulgent beams issuing from the hollow of it4 ,as the ancients frequently used horns to hold liquors1 vessels containing oil and perfumes are often called horns1 whether made of horn or not4 8,fill thine horn with oil10 says the ,lord to ,samuel1 8and anoint ,david10 #a ,sam4 xvi1 #a4 ,zadok took a horn of oil out of the tabernacle1 and anointed ,solomon1 #a ,kings i1 #ci4 ,job called one of his daughters ,kerenhappuch1 horn of antimony1 or horn to put antimony 7stibium7 in1 which the women of the east still use at this day1 ,job xliii1 #ad4 ,the principal defence and strength of horned beasts consist in their horns2 and hence the ,scripture mentions the horn as a symbol of strength4 ,the ,lord exalted the horn of ,david1 the horn of his people2 he breaketh the horn of the ungodly2 he cutteth off the horn of ,moab2 he cutteth off the horn of ,israel2 he promiseth to make the horn of ,israel to bud forth2 to restablish the honour of it1 and restore its former vigour4 ,moses compares ,joseph to a young bull1 and says that he has horns like those of a unicorn4 ,kingdoms and great powers are often in ,scripture described by the symbol of horns4 ,in ,daniel vii1 viii1 horns represent the power of the ,persians1 of the ,greeks1 of ,syria1 of ,egypt1 or of ,pagan and ,papal ,rome4 ,the prophet represents three animals as having many horns1 one of which grew from the other4 ,this emblem is a natural one1 since in the east are rams which have many horns4 ,,hornet1 1 ,exod4 xxiii1 #bh2 ,deut4 vii1 #bj2 ,joshua xxiv1 #ab4 ,the hornet1 in natural history1 belongs to the species crabo1 of the genus vespa or wasp4 ,it is a most voracious insect1 and is exceedingly strong for its size1 which is generally an inch in length1 and sometimes more4 ,in each of the instances where this creature is mentioned in ,scripture1 it is as sent among the enemies of the ,israelites1 to drive them out of the land4 ,some explain the word metaphorically1 as 8,i will send my terror as the hornet10 c4 ,but ,bochart contends that it is to be taken in its proper literal meaning1 and has accumulated examples of several other people having been chased from their habitations by insects of different kinds4 lian records that the ,phaselites1 who dwelt about the mountains of ,solyma1 were driven out of their country by wasps4 ,as these people were ,phenicians or ,canaanites1 it is probable that the event to which he refers is the same as took place in the days of ,joshua4 ,how distressing and destructive a multitude of these fierce and severely stinging insects might be1 any person may conjecture4 ,no armour1 no weapons could avail against them4 ,a few thousands of them would be sufficient to overthrow the best disciplined army and put it into confusion and rout4 ,from ,joshua xxiv1 #ab1 we find that two kings of the ,amorites were actually driven out of the land by these hornets1 so that the ,israelites were not obliged to use either sword or bow in the conquest4 ,one of these1 according to the ,jewish commentaries of ,r4 ,nachman1 was the nation of the ,girgashites1 who retired into ,africa1 fearing the power of ,god4 ,and ,procopius1 in his history of the ,vandals1 mentions an ancient inscription in ,mauritania ,tingitana1 stating1 that the inhabitants had fled thither from the face of ,joshua1 the son of ,nun4 ,this account accords with ,scripture1 in which1 though the ,girgashites are included in the general list of the seven devoted nations either to be driven out or destroyed by the ,israelites1 ,gen4 xv1 #bj1 #ba2 ,deut4 vii1 #a2 ,josh4 iii1 #aj2 xxiv1 #aa2 yet they are omitted in the list of those to be utterly destroyed1 ,deut4 xx1 #ag2 and among whom1 in neglect of the divine decree1 the ,israelites lived and intermarried1 ,judges iii1 #a-f4 ,that the name of the ,girgashites1 however1 was not extirpated1 we may collect from the ,gergesenes1 in our ,saviour's time1 inhabiting the same country1 ,matt4 viii1 #bh4 ,other tribes of the ,hivites1 ,canaanites1 and ,hittites1 were also expelled by the hornet gradually2 not in one year1 lest the land should become desolate1 and the wild beasts multiply to the prejudice of the ,israelites1 ,exod4 xxiii1 #bh-cj4 ,the 8arms of ,jove10 to which ,virgil refers1 7neid viii1 #cee-ceh17 in describing the flight of ,saturn from the east1 were the hornets sent by the ,god of ,israel1 ,iahoh1 or by contraction ,io1 to which also his description of the ,asilus exactly corresponds3-- ,plurimus--volitans1 7cui nomen ,asilo ,romanum est2 1 ,graii vertere vocantes17 ,asper1 acerba sonans1 quo tota exterrita sylvis ,diffugiunt armenta4 ,georg4 iii1 #ade4 8,about the ,alburnian groves1 with holly green1 ,of winged insects mighty swarms are seen2 ,this flying plague1 to mark its quality1 ,,stros the ,grecians call2 ,,asylus1 we3 ,a fierce loud buzzing breeze2 their stings draw blood1 ,and drive the cattle gadding through the wood4 ,seized with unusual pains1 they loudly cry40 ,,dryden4 ,dr4 ,hales is of opinion1 that the ,latin asilus and ,greek 1 were probably only different pronunciations of the same oriental term1 1 hatsiraah1 as this fly is called by ,moses and ,joshua4 ,the vindictive power that presided over this dreadful scourge was worshipped at ,ekron1 in ,palestine1 through fear1 the reigning motive of ,pagan superstition1 under the title of ,baal-zebub1 8master or lord of the hornet10 whence ,beelzebub1 in the ,new ,testament1 8the prince of demons10 ,matt4 xii1 #bd4 ,isaiah1 denouncing a wo against ,abyssinia1 describes it as 8the land of the winged cymbal10 7tsaltsal canaphim17 ,isaiah xviii1 #a2 by the same analogy that tsaltsal signifies 8a locust10 ,deut4 xxviii1 #db2 a streper voce sic dictam4 ,so called from its streperous sound4 ,bruce1 in his ,travels in ,abyssinia1 has given an accurate description of this tremendous fly1 which in ,arabic is called zimb1 and by the ,abyssinians tsaltsal-ya1 8the cymbal of the ,lord10 from its sonorous buzzing4 ,and in his ,appendix he has given a drawing of it1 magnified1 for distinctness' sake1 something above twice the natural size3 after which he observes1 8,he has no sting1 though he seems to me to be rather of the bee kind2 but his motion is more rapid and sudden than that of the bee1 7volitans17 and resembles that of the gad-fly in ,england4 ,there is something particular in the sound or buzzing of this insect2 it is a jarring noise1 together with a humming1 7acerba sonans17 which induces me to believe it proceeds1 in part at least1 from a vibration made with the three hairs at his snout40 ,bruce does not cite or refer to ,virgil's description1 though his account furnishes the most critical and exact explanation of it4 ,such undesigned coincidences are most satisfactory and convincing2 they show that the poet and the naturalist both copied from nature4 ,and the terror impressed by this insect on all the cattle1 quo tota exterrita sylvis diffugiunt1 affrighted at which the entire herds flee to the thickets1 according to ,virgil1 is thus illustrated by ,bruce3 8,as soon as this plague appears1 and their buzzing is heard1 all the cattle forsake their food1 and run wildly about the plain till they die1 worn out with fatigue1 fright1 and hunger4 ,no remedy remains but to leave the black earth1 where they breed1 and hasten down to the sands of ,atbara2 and there they remain while the periodical rains last1 this cruel enemy 7asper7 never daring to pursue them farther4 ,the camel1 emphatically called by the ,arabs the ship of the desert1 though his size is immense as is his strength1 and his body covered with a thick skin1 defended with strong hair1 still is not able to sustain the violent punctures the fly makes with his pointed proboscis4 ,he must lose no time in removing to the sands of ,atbara2 for when once attacked by this fly1 his body1 head1 and legs1 break out into large bosses1 which swell1 break1 and putrefy1 to the certain destruction of the creature4 ,i have found some of these tubercles upon almost every elephant and rhinoceros that ,i have seen1 and attribute them to this cause4 ,all the inhabitants of the sea coast are obliged to put themselves in motion1 and remove to the next sand1 in the beginning of the rainy season1 to prevent all their stock of cattle from being destroyed4 ,nor is there any alternative1 or means of avoiding this1 though a hostile band was in the way1 capable of spoiling them of half their substance1 as was actually the case when we were at ,sennaar4 ,of such consequence is the weakest instrument in the hand of ,providence40 ,see ,,flies and ,,beelzebub4 ,,horse1 4 ,horses were very rare among the ,hebrews in the early ages4 ,the patriarchs had none2 and after the departure of the ,israelites from ,egypt1 ,god expressly forbade their ruler to procure them3 8,he shall not multiply horses to himself1 nor cause the people to return to ,egypt1 to the end that he should multiply horses3 forasmuch as the ,lord hath said1 ,ye shall henceforth return no more that way10 ,deut4 xvii1 #af4 ,as horses appear to have been generally furnished by ,egypt1 ,god prohibits these1 #a4 ,lest there should be such commerce with ,egypt as might lead to idolatry4 #b4 ,lest the people might depend on a well appointed cavalry1 as a means of security1 and so cease from trusting in the promised aid and protection of ,jehovah4 #c4 ,that they might not be tempted to extend their dominion by means of cavalry1 and so get scattered among the surrounding idolatrous nations1 and thus cease in process of time1 to be that distinct and separate people which ,god intended they should be1 and without which the prophecies relative to the ,messiah could not be known to have their due and full accomplishment4 ,in the time of the ,judges we find horses and war chariots among the ,canaanites1 but still the ,israelites had none2 and hence they were generally too timid to venture down into the plains1 confining their conquests to the mountainous parts of the country4 ,in the reign of ,saul1 it would appear1 that horse breeding had not yet been introduced into ,arabia2 for1 in a war with some of the ,arabian nations1 the ,israelites got plunder in camels1 sheep1 and asses1 but no horses4 ,david's enemies brought against him a strong force of cavalry into the field2 and in the book of ,psalms the horse commonly appears only on the side of the enemies of the people of ,god2 and so entirely unaccustomed to the management of this animal had the ,israelites still continued1 that1 after a battle1 in which they took a considerable body of cavalry prisoners1 #b ,sam4 viii1 #d1 ,david caused most of the horses to be cut down1 because he did not know what use to make of them4 ,solomon was the first who established a cavalry force4 ,under these circumstances1 it is not wonderful that the ,mosaic law should take no notice of an animal which we hold in such high estimation4 ,to ,moses1 educated as he was in ,egypt1 and1 with his people1 at last chased out by ,pharaoh's cavalry1 the use of the horse for war and for travelling was well known2 but as it was his object to establish a nation of husbandmen1 and not of soldiers for the conquest of foreign lands1 and as ,palestine1 from its situation1 required not the defence of cavalry1 he might very well decline introducing among his people the yet unusual art of horse breeding4 ,solomon1 having married a daughter of ,pharaoh1 procured a breed of horses from ,egypt2 and so greatly did he multiply them1 that he had four hundred stables1 forty thousand stalls1 and twelve thousand horsemen1 #a ,kings iv1 #bf2 #b ,chron4 ix1 #be4 ,it seems that the ,egyptian horses were in high repute1 and were much used in war4 ,when the ,israelites were disposed to place too implicit confidence in the assistance of cavalry1 the prophet remonstrated in these terms3 8,the ,egyptians are men1 and not ,god2 and their horses are flesh1 not spirit10 ,isaiah xxxi1 #c4 ,,horse-,,leech1 1 from a root which signifies to adhere1 stick close1 or hang fast1 ,prov4 xxx1 #ae4 ,a sort of worm that lives in water1 of a black or brown colour1 which fattens upon the flesh1 and does not quit it till it is entirely full of blood4 ,solomon says1 8,the horse-leech hath two daughters1 ,give1 give40 ,this is so apt an emblem of an insatiable rapacity and avarice1 that it has been generally used by different writers to express it4 ,thus ,plautus makes one say1 speaking of the determination to get money1 8,i will turn myself into a horse-leech1 and suck out their blood20 and ,cicero1 in one of his letters to ,atticus1 calls the common people of ,rome horse-leeches of the treasury4 ,solomon1 having mentioned those that devoured the property of the poor as the worst of all the generations which he had specified1 proceeds to state the insatiable cupidity with which they prosecuted their schemes of rapine and plunder4 ,as the horse-leech had two daughters1 cruelty and thirst of blood1 which cannot be satisfied1 so the oppressor of the poor has two dispositions1 rapacity and avarice1 which never say they have enough1 but continually demand additional gratifications4 ,,hosanna1 8,save1 ,i beseech thee10 or1 8,give salvation10 a well known form of blessing1 ,matthew xxi1 #i1 #ae2 ,mark xi1 #i1 #aj2 ,john xii1 #ac4 ,,hosea1 son of ,beeri1 the first of the minor prophets4 ,he is generally considered as a native and inhabitant of the kingdom of ,israel1 and is supposed to have begun to prophesy about ,b4 ,c4 #hjj4 ,he exercised his office sixty years2 but it is not known at what periods his different prophecies now remaining were delivered4 ,most of them are directed against the people of ,israel1 whom he reproves and threatens for their idolatry and wickedness1 and exhorts to repentance1 with the greatest earnestness1 as the only means of averting the evils impending over their country4 ,the principal predictions contained in this book1 are the captivity and dispersion of the kingdom of ,israel2 the deliverance of ,judah from ,sennacherib2 the present state of the ,jews2 their future restoration1 and union with the ,gentiles in the kingdom of the ,messiah2 the call of our ,saviour out of ,egypt1 and his resurrection on the third day4 ,the style of ,hosea is peculiarly obscure2 it is sententious1 concise1 and abrupt2 the transitions of persons are sudden2 and the connexive and adversative particles are frequently omitted4 ,the prophecies are in one continued series1 without any distinction as to the times when they were delivered1 or the different subjects to which they relate4 ,they are not so clear and detailed1 as the predictions of those prophets who lived in succeeding ages4 ,when1 however1 we have surmounted these difficulties1 we shall see abundant reason to admire the force and energy with which this prophet writes1 and the boldness of the figures and similitudes which he uses4 #b4 ,,hosea1 or ,,hoshea1 son of ,elah1 was the last king of ,israel4 ,having conspired against ,pekah1 son of ,remaliah1 king of ,israel1 he killed him1 ,a4 ,m4 #cbfe2 ,b4 ,c4 #gci4 ,however1 the elders of the land seem to have taken the government into their hands2 for ,hoshea was not in possession of the kingdom till nine years after1 #b ,kings xv1 #cj2 xvii1 #a4 ,hoshea did evil in the sight of the ,lord1 but not equal to the kings of ,israel who preceded him2 that is1 say the ,jewish doctors1 he did not restrain his subjects from going to ,jerusalem to worship1 if they would2 whereas the kings of ,israel1 his predecessors1 had forbidden it1 and had placed guards on the road to prevent it4 ,salmaneser1 king of ,assyria1 being informed that ,hoshea meditated a revolt1 and had concerted measures with ,so1 king of ,egypt1 to shake off the ,assyrian yoke1 marched against him1 and besieged ,samaria4 ,after a siege of three years1 in the ninth year of ,hoshea's reign1 the city was taken1 and was reduced to a heap of ruins1 ,a4 ,m4 #cbhb4 ,the king of ,assyria removed the ,israelites of the ten tribes to countries beyond the ,euphrates1 and thus terminated the kingdom of the ten tribes4 ,,hospitality4 ,instances of ancient hospitality occur frequently in the ,old ,testament4 ,so in the case of ,abraham1 ,gen4 xviii1 where he invites the angels who appeared in the form of men to rest and refreshment1 8,and he stood by them under the tree1 and they did eat40 8,nothing is more common in ,india10 says ,mr4 ,ward1 8than to see travellers and guests eating under the shade of trees4 ,even feasts are never held in houses4 ,the house of a ,hindoo serves for the purposes of sleeping and cooking1 and of shutting up the women2 but is never considered as a sitting or a dining room40 8,on my return to the boat10 says ,belzony1 8,i found the aga and all his retinue seated on a mat1 under a cluster of palm trees1 close to the water4 ,the sun was then setting1 and the shades of the western mountains had reached across the ,nile1 and covered the town4 ,it is at this time the people recreate themselves in various scattered groups1 drinking coffee1 smoking their pipes1 and talking of camels1 horses1 asses1 dhourra1 caravans1 or boats40 8,the aga having prepared a dinner for me10 says ,mr4 ,light1 8invited several of the natives to sit down4 ,water was brought in a skin by an attendant1 to wash our hands4 ,two fowls roasted were served up on wheaten cakes1 in a wooden bowl1 covered with a small mat1 and a number of the same cakes in another3 in the centre of these were liquid butter1 and preserved dates4 ,these were divided1 broken up1 and mixed together by some of the party1 while others pulled the fowls to pieces3 which done1 the party began to eat as fast as they could3 getting up1 one after the other1 as soon as their hunger was satisfied40 8,hospitality to travellers10 says ,mr4 ,forbes1 8prevails throughout ,guzerat3 a person of any consideration passing through the province is presented1 at the entrance of a village1 with fruit1 milk1 butter1 fire wood1 and earthen pots for cookery2 the women and children offer him wreaths of flowers4 ,small bowers are constructed on convenient spots1 at a distance from a well or lake1 where a person is maintained by the nearest villages1 to take care of the water jars1 and supply all travellers gratis4 ,there are particular villages1 where the inhabitants compel all travellers to accept of one day's provisions3 whether they be many or few1 rich or poor1 ,european or native1 they must not refuse the offered bounty40 8,so when angelic forms to ,syria sent ,sat in the cedar shade1 by ,abraham's tent1 ,a spacious bowl th' admiring patriarch fills ,with dulcet water from the scanty rills2 ,sweet fruits and kernels gathers from his hoard1 ,with milk and butter piles the plenteous board2 ,while on the heated hearth his consort bakes ,fine flour well kneaded in unleavened cakes1 ,the guests ethereal quaff the lucid flood1 ,smile on their hosts1 and taste terrestrial food2 ,and while from seraph lips sweet converse springs1 ,they lave their feet1 and close their silver wings40 ,,darwin4 ,,hours4 ,see ,,day4 ,,houses4 ,the following description of oriental houses will serve to illustrate several passages of ,scripture4 ,from the gate of the porch1 one is conducted into a quadrangular court1 which1 being exposed to the weather1 is paved with stone1 in order to carry off the water in the rainy season4 ,the principal design of this quadrangle1 is to give light to the house1 and admit the fresh air into the apartments2 it is also the place where the master of the house entertains his company1 who are seldom or never honoured with admission into the inner apartments4 ,this open space bears a striking resemblance to the impluvium1 or cava dium1 of the ,romans1 which was also an uncovered area1 from whence the chambers were lighted4 ,for the accommodation of the guests1 the pavement is covered with mats or carpets2 and as it is secured against all interruption from the street1 is well adapted to public entertainments4 ,it is called1 says ,dr4 ,shaw1 the middle of the house1 and literally answers to of the evangelist1 into which the man afflicted with the palsy was let down through the ceiling1 with his couch1 before ,jesus1 ,luke v1 #ai4 ,hence1 he conjectures that our ,lord was at this time instructing the people in the court of one of these houses2 and it is by no means improbable1 that the quadrangle was to him and his ,apostles a favourite situation1 while they were engaged in disclosing the mysteries of redemption4 ,to defend the company from the scorching sun-beams1 or 8windy storm and tempest10 a veil was expanded upon ropes from one side of the parapet wall to the other1 which might be unfolded or folded at pleasure4 ,the court is for the most part surrounded with a cloister1 over which1 when the house has a number of stories1 a gallery is erected of the same dimensions with the cloister1 having a balustrade1 or else a piece of carved or latticed work1 going round about1 to prevent people from falling from it into the court4 ,the doors of the enclosure round the house are made very small2 but the doors of the houses very large1 for the purpose of admitting a copious stream of fresh air into their apartments4 ,the windows which look into the street are very high and narrow1 and defended by lattice work2 as they are only intended to allow the cloistered inmate a peep of what is passing without1 while he remains concealed behind the casement4 ,this kind of window the ancient ,hebrews called arubah1 which is the same term that they used to express those small openings through which pigeons passed into the cavities of the rocks1 or into those buildings which were raised for their reception4 ,thus the prophet asks3 8,who are these that fly as a cloud1 and as the doves1 -1 to their small or narrow windows40 ,the word is derived from a root which signifies to lie in wait for the prey2 and is very expressive of the concealed manner in which a person examines through that kind of window an external object4 ,irwin describes the windows in ,upper ,egypt as having the same form and dimensions2 and says expressly1 that one of the windows of the house in which they lodged1 and through which they looked into the street1 more resembled a pigeon hole than any thing else4 ,but the sacred writers mention another kind of window1 which was large and airy2 it was called 1 and was large enough to admit a person of mature age being cast out of it2 a punishment which that profligate woman ,jezebel suffered by the command of ,jehu1 the authorized extirminator of her family4 ,these large windows admit the light and the breeze into spacious apartments of the same length with the court1 but which seldom or never communicate with one another4 ,in the houses of the fashionable and the gay1 the lower part of the walls is adorned with rich hangings of velvet or damask1 tinged with the liveliest colours1 suspended on hooks1 or taken down at pleasure4 ,a correct idea of their richness and splendour may be formed from the description1 which the inspired writer has given of the hangings in the royal garden at ,shushan1 the ancient capital of ,persia3 8,where were white1 green1 and blue hangings1 fastened with cords of fine linen and purple1 to silver rings and pillars of marble10 ,esther i1 #f4 ,the upper part of the walls is adorned with the most ingenious wreathings and devices1 in stucco and fret-work4 ,the ceiling is generally of wainscot1 painted with great art1 or else thrown into a variety of pannels with gilded mouldings4 ,in the days of ,jeremiah the prophet1 when the profusion and luxury of all ranks in ,judea were at their height1 their chambers were ceiled with fragrant and costly wood1 and painted with the richest colours4 ,of this extravagance the indignant seer loudly complains3 8,wo unto him that saith1 ,i will build me a wide house and large chambers1 and cutteth him out windows3 and it is ceiled with cedar1 and painted with vermilion10 ,jer4 xxii1 #ad4 ,the floors of these splendid apartments were laid with painted tiles1 or slabs of the most beautiful marble4 ,a pavement of this kind is mentioned in the book of ,esther2 at the sumptuous entertainment which ,ahasuerus made for the princes and nobles of his vast empire1 8the beds10 or couches1 upon which they reclined1 8were of gold and silver1 upon a pavement of red and blue1 and white and black marble40 ,plaster of terrace is often vised for the same purpose2 and the floor is always covered with carpets1 which are for the most part of the richest materials4 ,upon these carpets1 a range of narrow beds1 or mattresses1 is often placed along the sides of the wall1 with velvet or damask bolsters1 for the greater ease and convenience of the company4 ,to these luxurious indulgences the prophets occasionally seem to allude3 ,ezekiel was commanded to pronounce a 8wo to the women that sew pillows to all armholes10 ,ezek4 xiii1 #ah2 and ,amos denounces the judgments of his ,god against them 8that lie upon beds of ivory1 and stretch themselves upon their couches1 and eat the lambs out of the flock1 and the calves out of the midst of the stall10 ,amos vi1 #d4 ,at one end of each chamber is a little gallery1 raised three or four feet above the floor1 with a balustrade in front1 to which they go up by a few steps4 ,here they place their beds2 a situation frequently alluded to in the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,thus ,jacob addressed his undutiful son1 in his last benediction3 8,thou wentest up to thy father's bed1--he went up to my couch10 ,gen4 xlix1 #d4 ,the allusion is again involved in the declaration of ,elijah to the king of ,samaria3 8,now1 therefore1 thus saith the ,lord1 ,thou shalt not come down from that bed on which thou art gone up1 but shalt surely die10 #b ,kings i1 #d1 #af4 ,and the ,psalmist sware unto the ,lord1 and vowed unto the mighty ,god of ,jacob1 8,surely ,i will not come into the tabernacle of my house1 nor go up into my bed1 until ,i find out a place for the ,lord10 ,psalm cxxxii1 #c4 ,this arrangement may likewise illustrate the circumstance of ,hezekiah's 8turning his face to the wall1 when he prayed10 that the greatness of his sorrow1 and the fervour of his devotion1 might1 as much as possible1 be concealed from his attendants1 #b ,kings xx4 ,the roof is always flat1 and often composed of branches of wood laid across rude beams2 and1 to defend it from the injuries of the weather1 to which it is peculiarly exposed in the rainy season1 it is covered with a strong plaster of terrace4 ,it is surrounded by a wall breast-high1 which forms the partition with the contiguous houses1 and prevents one from falling into the street on the one side1 or into the court on the other4 ,this answers to the battlements which ,moses commanded the people of ,israel to make for the roof of their houses1 for the same reason4 8,when thou buildest a new house1 then thou shalt make a battlement1 1 for thy roof1 that thou bring not blood upon thine house1 if any man fall from thence10 ,deut4 xxii1 #h4 ,instead of the parapet wall1 some terraces are guarded1 like the galleries1 with balustrades only1 or latticed work4 ,of the same kind1 probably1 was the lattice or net1 as the term seems to import1 through which ,ahaziah1 the king of ,samaria1 fell down into the court1 #b ,kings i1 #b4 ,this incident proves the necessity of the law which was graciously dictated from ,sinai1 and furnishes a beautiful example of ,god's paternal care and goodness2 for the terrace was a place where many offices of the family were performed1 and business of no little importance was occasionally transacted4 ,rahab concealed the spies on the roof1 with the stalks of flax which she had laid in order to dry1 ,joshua ii1 #f2 the king of ,israel1 according to the custom of his country1 rose from his bed1 and walked upon the roof of his house1 to enjoy the refreshing breezes of the evening1 #b ,sam4 xi1 #b2 upon the top of the house the prophet conversed with ,saul1 about the gracious designs of ,god1 respecting him and his family1 #a ,sam4 ix1 #be2 to the same place ,peter retired to offer up his devotions1 ,acts x1 #i2 and in the feast of tabernacles1 under the government of ,nehemiah1 booths were erected1 as well upon the terraces of their houses1 as in their courts1 and in the streets of the city1 ,neh4 viii1 #af4 ,in ,judea1 the inhabitants sleep upon the tops of their houses during the heats of summer1 in arbours made of the branches of trees1 or in tents of rushes4 ,when ,dr4 ,pococke was at ,tiberias1 in ,galilee1 he was entertained by the sheik's steward1 and with his company supped upon the top of the house for coolness1 according to their custom1 and lodged there likewise1 in a sort of closet of about eight feet square1 formed of wicker-work1 plastered round toward the bottom1 but without any door1 each person having his cell4 ,in like manner1 the ,persians take refuge during the day in subterraneous chambers1 and pass the night on the flat roofs of their houses4 ,the expression1 8to dig through houses10 occurs1 ,job xxiv1 #af4 8,thieves10 says ,mr4 ,ward1 8in ,bengal very frequently dig through the mud walls1 and under the clay floors of houses1 and1 entering unperceived1 plunder them while the inhabitants are asleep40 ,our ,lord's parable of the foolish man who built his house on the sand derives illustration from the following passages in ,ward's 8,view10 and ,belzoni's 8,travels30 8,the fishermen in ,bengal build their huts in the dry season on the beds of sand1 from which the river has retired4 ,when the rains set in1 which they often do very suddenly1 accompanied by violent north-west winds1 the water pours down in torrents from the mountains4 ,in one night multitudes of these huts are frequently swept away1 and the place where they stood is the next morning undiscoverable40 8,it so happened1 that we were to witness one of the greatest calamities that have occurred in ,egypt in the recollection of any one living4 ,the ,nile rose this season three feet and a half above the highest mark left by the former inundation1 with uncommon rapidity1 and carried off several villages1 and some hundreds of their inhabitants4 ,i never saw any picture that could give a more correct idea of a deluge than the valley of the ,nile in this season4 ,the ,arabs had expected an extraordinary inundation this year1 in consequence of the scarcity of water the preceding season2 but they did not apprehend it would rise to such a height4 ,they generally erect fences of earth and reeds around their villages1 to keep the water from their houses2 but the force of this inundation baffled all their efforts4 ,their cottages1 being built of earth1 could not stand one instant against the current2 and no sooner did the water reach them1 than it levelled them with the ground4 ,the rapid stream carried off all that was before it2 men1 women1 children1 cattle1 corn1 every thing was washed away in an instant1 and left the place where the village stood without any thing to indicate that there had ever been a house on the spot40 ,house is taken for family3 8,the ,lord plagued ,pharaoh and his house10 ,gen4 xii1 #ag4 8,what is my house1 that thou hast brought me hitherto80 #b ,sam4 vii1 #ah4 ,so ,joseph was of the house of ,david1 ,luke i1 #bg2 ii1 #d2 but more especially he was of his royal lineage1 or family2 and1 as we conceive1 in the direct line or eldest branch of the family2 so that he was next of kin to the throne1 if the government had still continued in possession of the descendants of ,david4 ,house is taken for kindred3 it is a ,christian's duty to provide first for those of his own house1 #a ,tim4 v1 #h1 his family1 his relatives4 ,,husbandry4 ,in the primitive ages of the world1 agriculture1 as well as the keeping of flocks1 was a principal employment among men ,gen4 ii1 #ae2 iii1 #ag-ai2 iv1 #b4 ,it is an art which has ever been a prominent source1 both of the necessaries and the conveniences of life4 ,those states and nations1 especially ,babylon and ,egypt1 which made the cultivation of the soil their chief business1 arose in a short period to wealth and power4 ,to these communities just mentioned1 which excelled in this particular all the others of antiquity1 may be added that of the ,hebrews1 who learned the value of the art while remaining in ,egypt1 and ever after that time were famous for their industry in the cultivation of the earth4 ,moses1 following the example of the ,egyptians1 made agriculture the basis of the state4 ,he accordingly apportioned to every citizen a certain quantity of land1 and gave him the right of tilling it himself1 and of transmitting it to his heirs4 ,the person who had thus come into possession could not alienate the property for any longer period than the year of the coming jubilee3 a regulation which prevented the rich from coming into possession of large tracts of land1 and then leasing them out in small parcels to the poor3 a practice which anciently prevailed1 and does to this day1 in the east4 ,it was another law of ,moses1 that the vender of a piece of land1 or his nearest relative1 had a right to redeem the land sold1 whenever they chose1 by paying the amount of profits up to the year of jubilee1 ,ruth iv1 #d2 ,jer4 xxxii1 #g4 ,another law enacted by ,moses on this subject was1 that the ,hebrews1 as was the case among the ,egyptians after the time of ,joseph1 should pay a tax of two-tenths of their income unto ,god1 whose servants they were to consider themselves to be1 and whom they were to obey as their ,king and ,lord1 ,lev4 xxvii1 #cj2 ,deut4 xii1 #ag-ai2 xiv1 #bb-bi2 ,gen4 xxviii1 #bb4 ,the custom of marking the boundaries of lands by stones1 although it prevailed a long time before1 ,job xxiv1 #b1 was confirmed and perpetuated in the time of ,moses by an express law2 and a curse was pronounced against him who without authority removed them4 ,these regulations having been made in respect to the tenure1 incumbrances1 c1 of landed property1 ,joshua divided the whole country which he had occupied1 first among the respective tribes1 and then among individual ,hebrews1 running it out with the aid of a measuring line1 ,joshua xvii1 #e1 #ad2 ,amos vii1 #ag2 ,micah ii1 #e2 ,psalm lxxviii1 #ee2 ,ezek4 xl1 #c4 ,the word1 1 a line1 is accordingly used by a figure of speech1 for the heritage itself1 ,psalm xvi1 #f3 8,the lines have fallen to me in pleasant places1 yea ,i have a goodly heritage40 ,though ,moses was the friend of the agriculturist1 he by no means discouraged the keeper of the flock4 ,the occupation of the husbandman was held in honour1 not only for the profits which it brought1 but from the circumstance that it was supported and protected by the fundamental laws of the state4 ,all who were not set apart for religious duties1 such as the priests and the ,levites1 whether inhabitants of the country1 or of towns and cities1 were considered by the laws1 and were1 in fact1 agriculturists4 ,the rich and the noble1 it is true1 in the cultivation of the soil1 did not always put themselves on a level with their servants2 but none were so rich or so noble as to disdain to put their hand to the plough1 #a ,sam4 xi1 #g2 #a ,kings xix1 #ai2 #b ,chron4 xxvi1 #aj4 ,the priests and ,levites were indeed engaged in other employments1 yet they could not withhold their honour from an occupation which supplied them with their income4 ,the esteem in which agriculture was held diminished as luxury increased2 but it never wholly came to an end4 ,even after the captivity1 when many of the ,jews had become merchants and mechanics1 the esteem and honour attached to this occupation still continued1 especially under the dynasty of the ,persians1 who were agriculturists from motives of religion4 ,the soil of ,palestine is very fruitful1 if the dews and vernal and autumnal rains are not withheld4 ,the country1 in opposition to ,egypt1 is eulogized for its rains in ,deut4 xi1 #aj4 ,the ,hebrews1 notwithstanding the richness of the soil1 endeavoured to increase its fertility in various ways4 ,they not only divested it of stones1 but watered it by means of canals1 communicating with the rivers or brooks2 and thereby imparted to their fields the richness of gardens1 ,psalm i1 #c2 lxv1 #aj2 ,prov4 xxi1 #a2 ,isa4 xxx1 #be2 xxxii1 #b1 #bj4 ,springs1 therefore1 fountains1 and rivulets1 were held in as much honour and worth by husbandmen as by shepherds1 ,joshua xv1 #i2 ,judges i1 #ae2 and we accordingly find that the land of ,canaan was extolled for those fountains of water of which ,egypt was destitute4 ,the soil was enriched1 also1 in addition to the method just mentioned1 by means of ashes2 to which the straw1 the stubble1 the husks1 the brambles1 and grass1 that overspread the land during the sabbatical year1 were reduced by fire4 ,the burning over the surface of the land had also another good effect1 namely1 that of destroying the seeds of the noxious herbs1 ,isa4 vii1 #bc2 xxxii1 #ac2 ,prov4 xxiv1 #ca4 ,finally1 the soil was manured with dung4 ,the ,hebrew word1 1 which is translated variously by the ,english words1 grain1 corn1 c1 is of general signification1 and comprehends in itself different kinds of grain and pulse1 such as wheat1 millet1 spelt1 wall-barley1 barley1 beans1 lentils1 meadow-cumin1 pepperwort1 flax1 cotton2 to these may be added various species of the cucumber1 and perhaps rice4 ,rye and oats do not grow in the warmer climates2 but their place is1 in a manner1 supplied by barley4 ,barley1 mixed with broken straw1 affords the fodder for beasts of burden1 which is called 4 ,wheat1 1 which1 by way of eminence1 is called 1 grew in ,egypt in the time of ,joseph1 as it now does in ,africa1 on several branches from one stalk1 each one of which produced an ear1 ,gen4 xii1 #dg4 ,this sort of wheat does not flourish in ,palestine3 the wheat of ,palestine is of a much better kind4 ,,husks1 1 ,luke xv1 #af2 the husks of leguminous plants1 so named from their resemblance to 1 a horn2 but ,bochart thinks that the were the ceretonia1 the husks or fruit of the carob tree1 a tree very common in the ,levant4 ,we learn from ,columella1 that these pods afforded food for swine2 and they are mentioned as what the prodigal desired to eat1 when reduced to extreme hunger4 ,,hutchinsonians1 the followers of ,john ,hutchinson1 ,esq41 a learned and respectable layman1 who was born at ,spennythorn1 in ,yorkshire1 in #afgd4 ,in #agbd1 he published the first part of that curious work1 8,moses's ,principia10 in which he ridiculed ,dr4 ,woodward's 8,natural ,history of the ,earth10 and exploded the doctrine of gravitation established in ,sir ,isaac ,newton's 8,principia40 ,in the second part of this work1 published in #agbg1 he maintained1 in opposition to the ,newtonian system1 that a plenum is the principle of the ,scripture philosophy4 ,in this work he also intimated that the idea of a ,trinity is to be taken from the grand agents in the natural system1 fire1 light1 and spirit4 ,from this time he continued to publish a volume every year or two till his death2 and a correct and elegant edition of his works1 including the ,,mss4 which he left was published in #agdh1 in #ab vols4 #hvo4 ,mr4 ,hutchinson thought that the ,hebrew ,scriptures comprise a perfect system of natural philosophy1 theology1 and religion4 ,he entertained so high an opinion of the ,hebrew language1 that he thought the ,almighty must have employed it to communicate every species of knowledge1 human and divine2 and that1 accordingly1 every species of knowledge is to be found in the ,old ,testament4 ,both he and his followers laid a great stress on the evidence of ,hebrew etymology4 ,after ,origen1 and other eminent commentators1 he asserted that the ,scriptures are not to be understood and interpreted in a literal but in a typical sense1 and according to the radical import of the ,hebrew expressions2 that even the historical parts1 and particularly those relating to the ,jewish ceremonies and ,levitical law1 are to be considered in this light2 and he also asserted that1 agreeably to this mode of interpretation1 the ,hebrew ,scriptures would be found amply to testify concerning the nature and offices of ,jesus ,christ4 ,his plan was to find natural philosophy in the ,bible1 where hitherto it had been thought no such thing was to be met with1 or ever intended4 ,his editors tell us1 he found1 upon examination1 that the ,hebrew ,scriptures nowhere ascribe motion to the body of the sun1 nor fixedness to the earth2 that they describe the created system to be a plenum without any vacuum at all1 and reject the assistance of gravitation1 attraction1 or any such occult qualities1 for performing the stated operations of nature1 which are carried on by the mechanism of the heavens1 in their threefold condition of fire1 light1 and spirit1 or air1 the material agents set to work at the beginning2 that the heavens1 thus framed by almighty ,wisdom1 are an instituted emblem and visible substitute of ,jehovah ,aleim1 the eternal ,three1 the coqual and co-adorable ,trinity in ,unity2 that the unity of substance in the heavens points out the unity of essence and the distinction of conditions1 the personality in ,deity1 without confounding the persons or dividing the substance2 and that1 from their being made emblems1 they are called in ,hebrew shemim1 the names1 representatives1 or substitutes1 expressing by their names that they are emblems1 and1 by their conditions or offices1 what it is they are emblems of4 ,he also found that the ,hebrew ,scriptures have some capital words1 which he has proved1 or endeavoured to prove1 contain1 in their radical meaning1 the greatest and most comfortable truths4 ,thus1 the word ,elohim1 which we call ,god1 or1 as he reads it1 ,aleim1 he refers to the oath or conditional execration1 by which the eternal covenant of grace among the persons in ,jehovah was and is confirmed4 ,the word berith1 which our translation renders 8covenant10 signifies1 8he or that which purifies0 and so the ,purifier or purification for1 not with1 man4 ,the cherubim1 which have been thought 8angels placed as a guard to deter ,adam from breaking into ,eden again10 he explains to have been a hieroglyphic of divine construction1 or a sacred image1 to describe1 as far as figures could go1 the ,aleim and man taken in1 or humanity united to deity4 ,in like manner1 he treats several other words of similar1 though not quite so solemn1 import4 ,hence he drew this conclusion1 8that all the rites and ceremonies of the ,jewish dispensation were so many delineations of ,christ1 in what he was to be1 to do1 and to suffer2 and that the early ,jews knew them to be types of his actions and sufferings1 and1 by performing them as such1 were in so far ,christians1 both in faith and practice40 ,his followers maintain1 that the cherubim1 and the glory around them1 with the divine presence in them1 were not only emblematical figures1 representing the persons of the ever blessed ,trinity1 as engaged in covenant for the redemption of man1 but also that they were intended 8to keep or preserve the way of the tree of life1 to show man the way to life eternal1 and keep him from losing or departing from it40 ,that ,melchizedec was an eminent type of ,christ1 there can be little doubt2 but that he was actually the second person of the ,trinity1 in a human form1 is a tenet of the ,hutchinsonians1 though not entirely peculiar to them4 ,mr4 ,hutchinson supposes that 8the air exists in three conditions1 fire1 light1 and spirit2 the two latter are the finer and grosser parts of the air in motion3 from the earth to the sun1 the air is finer and finer till it becomes pure light near the confines of the sun1 and fire in the orb of the sun1 or solar focus40 ,from the earth toward the circumference of this system1 in which he includes the fixed stars1 the air becomes grosser and grosser till it becomes stagnant1 in which condition it is at the utmost verge of this system2 from whence1 in his opinion1 the expression of 8outer darkness10 and 8blackness of darkness10 used in the ,new ,testament1 seems to be taken4 ,these are some of the principal outlines of this author's doctrines1 which have been patronized by several eminent divines1 both of the church and among the ,dissenters4 #b4 ,the followers of ,mr4 ,hutchinson have not erected themselves into a sect or separate community4 ,among them may be reckoned some eminent and respectable divines1 both in ,england and ,scotland2 but their numbers seem at present to be rather on the decrease4 ,of those who1 in their day1 were ranked in the list of ,hutchinsonians1 perhaps the most eminent were the following3 ,mr4 ,julius ,bate1 and ,mr4 ,parkhurst1 the lexicographers2 ,mr4 ,holloway1 author of 8,originals10 and 8,letter and ,spirit20 ,dr4 ,hodges1 provost of ,oriel ,college1 ,oxford2 ,mr4 ,henry ,lee1 author of 8,sophron1 or ,nature's ,characteristics of the ,truth20 ,dr4 ,wetherell1 late master of ,university ,college1 ,oxford2 ,mr4 ,romaine2 ,bishop ,horne2 and ,mr4 ,william ,jones1 the bishop's learned friend and biographer4 ,,hymn1 a song1 or ode1 composed in honour of ,god4 ,the ,jewish hymns were accompanied with trumpets1 drums1 and cymbals1 to assist the voices of the ,levites and people4 ,the word is used as synonymous with canticle1 song1 or psalm1 which the ,hebrews scarcely distinguish1 having no particular term for a hymn1 as distinct from a psalm or canticle4 ,st4 ,paul requires ,christians to edify one another with 8psalms1 and hymns1 and spiritual songs40 ,st4 ,matthew says1 that ,christ1 having supped1 sung a hymn1 and went out4 ,he recited the hymns or psalms which the ,jews were used to sing after the passover2 which they called the ,halal2 that is1 the ,hallelujah ,psalms4 ,,hyperbole4 ,this figure1 in its representation of things or objects1 either magnifies or diminishes them beyond or below their proper limits3 it is common in all languages1 and is of frequent occurrence in the ,scriptures4 ,thus1 things which are lofty are said to reach up to heaven1 ,deut4 i1 #bh2 ix1 #a2 ,psalm cvii1 #bf4 ,so things which are beyond the reach or capacity of man are said to be in 8heaven10 in the 8deep10 or 8beyond the sea10 ,deut4 xxx1 #ab2 ,rom4 x1 #f1 #g4 ,so a great quantity or number is commonly expressed by the 8sand of the sea10 the 8dust of the earth10 and the 8stars of heaven10 ,genesis xiii1 #af2 xli1 #di2 ,judges vii1 #ab2 #a ,sam4 xiii1 #e2 #a ,kings iv1 #bi2 #b ,chron4 i1 #i2 ,jer4 xv1 #h2 ,heb4 xi1 #ab4 ,in like manner we meet with 8smaller than grasshoppers10 ,num4 xiii1 #cc1 to denote extreme diminutiveness2 8swifter than eagles10 #b ,sam4 i1 #bc1 to intimate extreme celerity2 the 8earth trembled10 the 8mountains melted10 ,judges v1 #d1 #e2 the 8earth rent10 #a ,kings i1 #dj4 8,i make my bed to swim20 8rivers of tears run down mine eyes40 ,so we read of 8angels' food10 ,psalm vi1 #f2 cxix1 #acf2 lxxviii1 #be2 the 8face of an angel10 ,acts vi1 #ae2 and the 8tongue of an angel10 #a ,cor4 xiii1 #a4 ,see also ,gal4 i1 #h2 iv1 #ad4 ,we read 8sigh with the breaking of thy loins10 ,ezek4 xxi1 #f1 that is1 most deeply4 ,so we read that 8the stones would cry out10 and 8they shall not leave in thee one stone upon another10 ,luke xix1 #dj1 #dd2 that is1 there shall be a total desolation4 ,,hypocrite1 a word from the ,greek1 which signifies one who feigns to be what he is not2 who puts on a masque or character1 like actors in tragedies and comedies4 ,it is generally applied to those who assume appearances of a virtue1 without possessing it in reality4 ,our ,saviour accused the ,pharisees of hypocrisy4 ,in the ,old ,testament1 the ,hebrew word caneph1 which is rendered 8hypocrite10 8counterfeit10 signifies also a profane wicked man1 a man polluted1 corrupted1 a man of impiety1 a deceiver4 ,it was ingeniously said by ,basil1 that the hypocrite did not put off the old man1 but put the new man upon it4 ,,hypostatical ,,union2 the union of the divine and human natures of ,christ in one person4 ,this is the doctrine generally received in the church of ,christ2 but there have been some who have denied this1 who yet acknowledge our ,lord's divinity4 ,nestorius1 who had been taught to distinguish accurately between the divine and human nature of ,christ1 was offended with some expressions commonly used by ,christians in the beginning of the fifth century1 which seemed to destroy that distinction1 and particularly with their calling the ,virgin ,mary 1 as if it were possible for the ,godhead to be born4 ,his zeal provoked opposition2 in the eagerness of controversy he was led to use unguarded expressions2 and he was condemned by the third of the general councils1 the council of ,ephesus1 in the year #dca4 ,it is a matter of doubt whether the opinions of ,nestorius1 if he had been allowed by his adversaries fairly to explain them1 would have appeared inconsistent with the doctrine established by the council of ,ephesus1 that ,christ is one person1 in whom two natures were most closely united4 ,but whatever was the extent of the error of ,nestorius1 from him is derived that system concerning the incarnation of ,christ1 which is held by a large body of ,christians in ,chaldea1 ,assyria1 and other regions of the east1 and which is known in the ecclesiastical history of the west by the name of the ,nestorian heresy4 ,the object of the ,nestorians is to avoid every appearance of ascribing to the divinity of ,christ the weakness of humanity2 and therefore they distinguish between ,christ1 and ,god who dwelt in ,christ as in a temple4 ,they say1 that from the moment of the virgin's conception1 there commenced an intimate and indissoluble union between ,christ and ,god1 that these two persons presented in ,jesus ,christ one 1 or aspect1 but that the union between them is merely a union of will and affection1 such in kind as that which subsists between two friends1 although much closer in degree4 ,opposite to the ,nestorian opinion is the ,eutychian1 which derives its name from ,eutyches1 an abbot of ,constantinople1 who1 about the middle of the fifth century1 in his zeal to avoid the errors of ,nestorius1 was carried to the other extreme4 ,those who did not hold the ,nestorian opinions had been accustomed to speak of the 8one incarnate nature0 of ,christ4 ,but ,eutyches used this phrase in such a manner as to appear to teach that the human nature of ,christ was absorbed in the divine1 and that his body had no real existence4 ,this opinion was condemned in the year #dea1 by the council of ,chalcedon1 the fourth general council1 which declared1 as the faith of the catholic church1 that ,christ is one person2 that in this unity of person there are two natures1 the divine and the human2 and that there is no change1 or mixture1 or confusion of these two natures1 but that each retains its distinguishing properties4 ,the decree of ,chalcedon was not universally submitted to4 ,but many of the successors of ,eutyches1 wishing to avoid the palpable absurdity which was ascribed to him1 of supposing that one nature was absorbed by another1 and anxious at the same time to preserve that unity which the ,nestorians divided1 declared their faith to be1 that in ,christ there is one nature1 but that this nature is twofold or compounded4 ,from this tenet the successors of ,eutyches derive the name of ,monophysites2 and from ,jacob ,baradus1 who in the following century was a zealous and successful preacher1 of the system of the ,monophysites1 they are more commonly known by the name of ,jacobites4 ,the ,monophysites1 or ,jacobites1 are found chiefly near the ,euphrates and ,tigris2 they are much less numerous than the ,nestorians2 and1 although they profess to have corrected the errors which were supposed to adhere to the ,eutychian heresy1 they may be considered as having formed their peculiar opinions upon the general principles of that system4 ,the ,monothelites1 an ancient sect1 of whom a remnant is found in the neighbourhood of ,mount ,libanus1 disclaim any connection with ,eutyches1 and agree with the ,catholics in ascribing two natures to ,christ2 but they have received their name from their conceiving that ,christ1 being one person1 can only have one will3 whereas the ,catholics1 considering both natures as complete1 think it essential to each to have a will1 and say that every inconvenience which can be supposed to arise from two wills in one person1 is removed by the perfect harmony between that will which belongs to the divine1 and that which belongs to the human nature of ,christ4 ,,hyssop1 1 ,exod4 xii1 #bb2 ,lev4 xiv1 #d1 #f1 #di1 #ea1 #eb2 ,num4 xix1 #f1 #ah2 #a ,kings iv1 #cc2 ,psalm li1 #g2 ,matt1 xxvii1 #dh2 ,mark xv1 #cf2 1 ,john xix1 #bi2 ,heb4 ix1 #ai4 ,it grows plentifully on the mountains near ,jerusalem4 ,it is of a bitter taste2 and1 from being considered as possessing detersive and cleansing qualities1 derived probably its ,hebrew name4 ,the original word has been variously translated2 and ,celsius has devoted forty-two pages to remove difficulties1 occasioned by the discordant opinions of the ,talmudical writers1 and to ascertain the plant intended4 ,that it is the hyssop seems most probable3 the passage in ,heb4 ix1 #ai1 sufficiently identifies it4 ,under the law1 it was commonly used in purifications as a sprinkler4 ,when the children of ,israel came out of ,egypt1 they were commanded to take a bunch of hyssop1 to dip it in the blood of the paschal lamb1 and sprinkle it on the lintel and the two side-posts of the door4 ,it was also used in sprinkling the leper4 ,the hyssop is extremely well adapted to such purposes1 as it grows in bunches1 and puts out many suckers from a single root4 ,,iconium1 the chief city of ,lycaonia1 in ,asia ,minor4 ,an assault being meditated at the place by the unbelieving ,jews and ,gentiles upon the ,apostles ,paul and ,barnabas1 who1 by preaching in the synagogue1 had converted many ,jews and ,greeks1 they fled to ,lystra2 where the designs of their enemies were put in execution1 and ,st4 ,paul miraculously escaped with his life1 ,acts xiv4 ,the church planted at this place by ,st4 ,paul continued to flourish1 until1 by the persecutions of the ,saracens1 and afterward of the ,seljukian ,turks1 who made it the capital of one of their sultanies1 it was nearly extinguished4 ,but some ,christians of the ,greek and ,armenian churches1 with a ,greek archbishop1 are yet found in the suburbs of this city1 who are not permitted to reside within the walls4 ,iconium is now called ,cogni1 and is still a considerable city2 being the capital of the extensive province of ,caramania1 as it was formerly of ,lycaonia1 and the seat of a ,turkish beglerberg1 or viceroy4 ,it is the place of chief strength and importance in the central parts of ,asiatic ,turkey1 being surrounded by a strong wall of four miles in circumference2 but1 as is the case with most eastern cities1 much of the enclosed space is waste4 ,it is situated about a hundred and twenty miles inland from the ,mediterranean1 on the lake ,trogilis4 ,mr4 ,kinneir says1 ,iconium1 the capital of ,lycaonia1 is mentioned by ,xenophon1 and afterward by ,cicero and ,strabo2 but does not appear to have been a place of any consideration until after the taking of ,nice by the crusaders in #ajii1 when the ,seljukian sultans of ,roum chose it as their residence4 ,these sultans rebuilt the walls1 and embellished the city3 they were1 however1 expelled in #aahi by ,frederic ,barbarossa1 who took it by assault2 but after his death they rentered their capital1 where they reigned in splendour till the irruption of ,tchengis ,khan1 and his grandson1 ,holukow1 who broke the power of the ,seljukians4 ,iconium1 under the name of ,cogni1 or ,konia1 has been included in the dominions of the grand seignior ever since the time of ,bajazet1 who finally extirpated the ,ameers of ,caramania4 ,the modern city has an imposing appearance from the number and size of its mosques1 colleges1 and other public buildings2 but these stately edifices are crumbling into ruins1 while the houses of the inhabitants consist of a mixture of small huts built of sun-dried bricks1 and wretched hovels thatched with reeds4 ,the city1 according to the same authority1 contains about eighty thousand inhabitants1 principally ,turks1 with only a small proportion of ,christians4 ,it is represented as enjoying a fine climate1 and pleasantly situated among gardens and meadows2 while it is nearly surrounded1 at some distance1 with mountains which rise to the regions of perpetual snow4 ,it was formerly the capital of an extensive government1 and the seat of a powerful pasha1 who maintained a military force competent to the preservation of peace and order1 and the defence of his territories4 ,but it has now dwindled into insignificance1 and exhibits upon the whole a mournful scene of desolation and decay4 ,,iconoclastes1 image breakers2 or ,,iconomachi1 image opposers1 were names given to those who rejected the use of images in churches1 and1 on certain occasions1 vented their zeal in destroying them4 ,the great opposition to images began under ,bardanes1 a ,greek emperor1 in the beginning of the eighth century2 and was revived again1 a few years after1 under ,leo1 the ,isaurian1 who issued an edict against image worship1 which occasioned a civil war in the islands of the ,archipelago1 and afterward in ,italy2 the ,roman pontiffs and ,greek councils alternately supporting it4 ,at length images were rejected by the ,greek church1 which however retains pictures in churches1 though her members do not worship them2 but the ,latin church1 more corrupt1 not only retained images1 but made them the medium1 if not the object1 of their worship1 and are therefore ,iconoduli1 or ,iconolatr1 image worshippers4 ,,iddo1 a prophet of the kingdom of ,judah1 who wrote the actions of ,rehoboam's and ,abijah's reigns1 #b ,chron4 xii1 #ae4 ,it seems by #b ,chron4 xiii1 #bb1 that he had entitled his work1 ,midrasch1 or1 8,inquiries40 ,we know nothing particularly concerning the life of this prophet4 ,it is probable that he likewise wrote some prophecies against ,jeroboam1 the son of ,nebat1 #b ,chron4 ix1 #bi1 wherein part of ,solomon's life was included4 ,josephus1 and many others after him1 are of opinion that it was ,iddo who was sent to ,jeroboam1 while he was at ,bethel1 and was there dedicating an altar to the golden calves2 and that it was he who was killed by a lion1 #a ,kings xiii4 ,,idolatry1 from 1 composed of 1 image1 and 1 to serve1 the worship and adoration of false gods2 or the giving those honours to creatures1 or the works of man's hands1 which are only due to ,god4 ,several have written of the origin and causes of idolatry3 among the rest1 ,vossius1 ,selden1 ,godwyn1 ,tenison1 and ,faber2 but it is still a doubt who was the first author of it4 ,it is generally allowed1 however1 that it had not its beginning till after the deluge2 and many are of opinion1 that ,belus1 who is supposed to be the same with ,nimrod1 was the first man that was deified4 ,but whether they had not paid divine honours to the heavenly bodies before that time1 cannot be determined2 our acquaintance with those remote times being extremely slender4 ,the first mention we find made of idolatry is where ,rachel is said to have taken the idols of her father2 for though the meaning of the ,hebrew word 1 be disputed1 yet it is pretty evident they were idols4 ,laban calls them his gods1 and ,jacob calls them strange gods1 and looks on them as abominations4 ,the original idolatry by image worship is by many attributed to the age of ,eber1 ,b4 ,c4 #bbdg1 about a hundred and one years after the deluge1 according to the ,hebrew chronology2 four hundred and one years according to the ,samaritan2 and five hundred and thirty-one years according to the ,septuagint2 though most of the fathers place it no higher than that of ,serug2 which seems to be the more probable opinion1 considering that for the first hundred and thirty-four years of ,eber's life all mankind dwelt in a body together2 during which time it is not reasonable to suppose that idolatry broke in upon them2 then some time must be allowed after the dispersion of the several nations1 which were but small at the beginning1 to increase and settle themselves2 so that if idolatry was introduced in ,eber's time1 it must have been toward the end of his life1 and could not well have prevailed so universally1 and with that obstinacy which some authors have imagined4 ,terah1 the father of ,abraham1 who lived at ,ur1 in ,chaldea1 about ,b4 ,c4 #bjjj1 was unquestionably an idolater2 for he is expressly said in ,scripture to have served other gods4 ,the authors of the ,universal ,history think1 that the origin and progress of idolatry are plainly pointed out to us in the account which ,moses gives of ,laban's and ,jacob's parting1 ,gen4 xxxi1 #dd1 c4 ,from the custom once introduced of erecting monuments in memory of any solemn covenants1 the transition was easy into the notion1 that some deity took its residence in them1 in order to punish the first aggressors2 and this might be soon improved by an ignorant and degenerate world1 till not only birds1 beasts1 stocks1 and stones1 but sun1 moon1 and stars1 were called into the same office2 though used1 perhaps1 at first1 by the designing part of mankind1 as scare-crows1 to overawe the ignorant4 ,sanchoniathon1 who wrote his 8,phenician ,antiquities10 apparently with a view to apologize for idolatry1 traces its origin to the descendants of ,cain1 the elder branch1 who began with the worship of the sun1 and afterward added a variety of other methods of idolatrous worship3 proceeding to deify the several parts of nature1 and men after their death2 and even to consecrate the plants shooting out of the earth1 which the first men judged to be gods1 and worshipped as those that sustained the lives of themselves and of their posterity4 ,the ,chaldean priests1 in process of time1 being by their situation early addicted to celestial observations1 instead of conceiving as they ought to have done concerning the omnipotence of the ,creator and ,mover of the heavenly bodies1 fell into the impious error of esteeming them as gods1 and the immediate governors of the world1 in subordination1 however1 to the ,deity1 who was invisible except by his works1 and the effects of his power4 ,concluding that ,god created the stars and great luminaries for the government of the world1 partakers with himself and as his ministers1 they thought it but just and natural that they should be honoured and extolled1 and that it was the will of ,god they should be magnified and worshipped4 ,accordingly1 they erected temples1 or sacella1 to the stars1 in which they sacrificed and bowed down before them1 esteeming them as a kind of mediators between ,god and man4 ,impostors afterward arose1 who gave out1 that they had received express orders from ,god himself concerning the manner in which particular heavenly bodies should be represented1 and the nature and ceremonies of the worship which was to be paid them4 ,when they proceeded to worship wood1 stone1 or metal1 formed and fashioned by their own hands1 they were led to apprehend1 that these images had been1 in some way or other1 animated or informed with a supernatural power by supernatural means2 though ,dr4 ,prideaux imagines1 that1 being at a loss to know how to address themselves to the planets when they were below the horizon1 and invisible1 they recurred to the use of images4 ,but it will be sufficient to suppose1 that they were persuaded that each star or planet was actuated by an intelligence2 and that the virtues of the heavenly body were infused into the image that represented it4 ,it is certain1 that the sentient nature and divinity of the sun1 moon1 and stars1 was strenuously asserted by the philosophers1 particularly by ,pythagoras and his followers1 and by the ,stoics1 as well as believed by the common people1 and was1 indeed1 the very foundation of the ,pagan idolatry4 ,the heavenly bodies were the first deities of all the idolatrous nations1 were esteemed eternal1 sovereign1 and supreme2 and distinguished by the title of the natural gods4 ,thus we find that the primary gods of the ,heathens in general were ,saturn1 ,jupiter1 ,mars1 ,apollo1 ,mercury1 ,venus1 and ,diana2 by which we can understand no other than the sun and moon1 and the five greatest luminaries next to these4 ,plutarch expressly censures the ,epicureans for asserting that the sun and moon1 whom all men worshipped1 are void of intelligence4 ,sanchoniathon represents the most ancient nations1 particularly the ,phenicians and ,egyptians1 as acknowledging only the natural gods1 the sun1 moon1 planets1 and elements2 and ,plato declares it as his opinion1 that the first ,grecians likewise held these only to be gods1 as many of the barbarians did in his time4 ,beside these natural gods1 the ,heathens believed that there were certain spirits who held a middle rank between the gods and men on earth1 and carried on all intercourse between them2 conveying the addresses of men to the gods1 and the divine benefits to men4 ,these spirits were called demons4 ,from the imaginary office ascribed to them1 they became the grand objects of the religious hopes and fears of the ,pagans1 of immediate dependence and divine worship4 ,in the most learned nations1 they did not so properly share1 as engross1 the public devotion4 ,to these alone sacrifices were offered1 while the celestial gods were worshipped only with a pure mind1 or with hymns and praises4 ,as to the nature of these demons1 it has been generally believed1 that they were spirits of a higher origin than the human race2 and1 in support of this opinion1 it has been alleged1 that the supreme deity of the ,pagans is called the greatest demon2 that demons are described as beings placed between the gods and men2 and that demons are expressly distinguished from heroes1 who were the departed souls of men4 ,some1 however1 have combatted this opinion1 and maintained1 on the contrary1 that by demons1 such as were the more immediate objects of the established worship among the ancient nations1 particularly the ,egyptians1 ,greeks1 and ,romans1 we are to understand beings of an earthly origin1 or such departed human souls as were believed to become demons4 ,although the ,hindoo inhabitants of the ,east ,indies deny the charge of idolatry1 using the same description of arguments as are so inconclusively urged by superstitious ,europeans in defence of image worship1 it is still evident that the mass of the ,hindoos are addicted to gross idolatry4 ,the gods of ,rome were even less numerous1 certainly less whimsical and monstrous1 than those at ,benares4 ,in ,moore's ,hindoo ,pantheon are given exact portraits of many scores of deities worshipped1 with appropriate ceremonies1 and under various forms and names1 by different sects of that grossly superstitious race4 ,some of these portraits are of images colossal to a degree perhaps unequalled by any existing statues2 others are exceedingly diminutive4 ,some are metallic casts1 and some apparently extremely ancient1 which exhibit every gradation of art from the rudest imaginable specimen1 up to a very respectable portion of skill1 so as to approach to elegance of form1 and to ease and expression of attitude4 ,the principal causes which have been assigned for idolatry are1 the indelible idea which every man has of ,god1 and the evidence which he gives of it to himself2 an inviolable attachment to the senses1 and a habit of judging and deciding by them1 and them only2 the pride and vanity of the human mind1 which is not satisfied with simple truth1 but mingles and adulterates it with fables2 men's ignorance of antiquity1 or of the first times1 and the first men1 of whom they had but very dark and confused knowledge by tradition1 they having left no written monuments1 or books2 the ignorance and change of languages2 the style of the oriental writings1 which is figurative and poetical1 and personifies every thing2 the scruples and fears inspired by superstition2 the flattery and fictions of poets2 the false relations of travellers2 the imaginations of painters and sculptors2 a smattering of physics1 that is1 a slight acquaintance with natural bodies and appearances1 and their causes2 the establishment of colonies1 and the invention of arts1 mistaken by barbarous people2 the artifices of priests2 the pride of certain men1 who affected to pass for gods2 the love and gratitude borne by the people to certain of their great men and benefactors2 and1 finally1 the historical events of the ,scriptures ill understood4 8,one great spring and fountain of all idolatry10 says ,sir ,william ,jones1 8was the veneration paid by men to the sun1 or vast body of fire1 which #8looks from his sole dominion like the god of this world2' and another1 the immoderate respect shown to the memory of powerful or virtuous ancestors and warriors1 of whom the sun and the moon were wildly supposed to be the parents40 ,but the ,scriptural account of the matter refers the whole to wilful ignorance and a corrupt heart3 8,they did not like to retain ,god in their knowledge40 ,to this may be added1 what indeed proceeds from the same sources1 the disposition to convert religion into outward forms2 the endeavour to render it more impressive upon the imagination through the senses2 the substitution of sentiment for real religious principle2 and the license which this gave to inventions of men1 which in process of time became complicated and monstrous4 ,that debasement of mind1 and that alienation of the heart from ,god1 and the gross immoralities and licentious practices which have ever accompanied idolatry1 will sufficiently account for the severity with which it is denounced1 both in the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 ,the veneration which the ,papists pay to the ,virgin ,mary1 and other saints and angels1 and to the bread in the sacrament1 the cross1 relics1 and images1 affords ground for the ,protestants to charge them with being idolaters1 though they deny that they are so4 ,it is evident that they worship these persons and things1 and that they justify the worship1 but deny the idolatry of it1 by distinguishing subordinate from supreme worship4 ,this distinction is justly thought by ,protestants to be futile and nugatory1 and certainly has no support from ,holy ,writ4 ,under the government of ,samuel1 ,saul1 and ,david1 there was little or no idolatry in ,israel4 ,solomon was the first ,hebrew king1 who1 in complaisance to his foreign wives1 built temples and offered incense to strange gods4 ,jeroboam1 the son of ,nebat1 who succeeded him in the greater part of his dominions1 set up golden calves at ,dan and ,bethel4 ,under the reign of ,ahab1 this disorder was at its height1 occasioned by ,jezebel1 the wife of ,ahab1 who did all she could to destroy the worship of the true ,god1 by driving away and persecuting his prophets4 ,god1 therefore1 incensed at the sins and idolatry of the ten tribes1 abandoned those tribes to the kings of ,assyria and ,chaldea1 who transplanted them beyond the ,euphrates1 from whence they never returned4 ,the people of ,judah were no less corrupted4 ,the prophets give an awful description of their idolatrous practices4 ,they were punished after the same manner1 though not so severely1 as the ten tribes2 being led into captivity several times1 from which at last they returned1 and were settled in the land of ,judea1 after which we hear no more of their idolatry4 ,they have been1 indeed1 ever since that period1 distinguished for their zeal against it4 ,see ,image4 ,,idum,a is properly the ,greek name for the land of ,edom1 which lay to the south of ,judea1 and extended from the ,dead ,sea to the ,elanitic ,gulf of the ,red ,sea1 where were the ports of ,elath and ,ezion-,gaber4 ,but the ,iduma of the ,new ,testament applies only to a small part adjoining ,judea on the south1 and including even a portion of that country2 which was taken possession of by the ,edomites1 or ,idumans1 while the land lay unoccupied during the ,babylonish captivity4 ,the capital of this country was ,hebron1 which had formerly been the metropolis of the tribe of ,judah4 ,these ,idumans were so reduced by the ,maccabees1 that1 in order to retain their possessions1 they consented to embrace ,judaism2 and their territory became incorporated with ,judea2 although1 in the time of our ,saviour1 it still retained its former name of ,iduma1 ,mark iii1 #h4 ,the proper ,idumans1 or those who remained in the ancient land of ,edom1 became in process of time mingled with the ,ishmaelites2 the two people thus blended1 being1 from ,nabaioth1 or ,nabath1 the son of ,ishmael1 termed ,nabathans2 under which names they are frequently mentioned in history4 ,see ,,edom4 ,,illyricum1 a province lying to the north and north-west of ,macedonia1 along the eastern coast of the ,adriatic ,gulf1 or ,gulf of ,venice4 ,it was distinguished into two parts3 ,liburnia to the north1 where is now ,croatia1 and ,dalmatia to the south1 which still retains the same name1 and to which1 as ,st4 ,paul informs ,timothy1 ,titus went1 #b ,tim4 iv1 #aj4 ,st4 ,paul says1 that he preached the ,gospel from ,jerusalem round about to ,illyricum1 ,rom4 xv1 #ai4 ,,image1 in a religious sense1 is an artificial representation of some person or thing used as an object of adoration1 and is synonymous with idol4 ,nothing can be more clear1 full1 and distinct1 than the expressions of ,scripture prohibiting the making and worship of images1 ,exod4 xx1 #d1 #e2 ,deut4 xvi1 #bb4 ,no sin is so strongly and repeatedly condemned in the ,old ,testament as that of idolatry1 to which the ,jews1 in the early part of their history1 were much addicted1 and for which they were constantly punished4 ,st4 ,paul was greatly affected1 when he saw that the city of ,athens was 8wholly given to idolatry10 ,acts xvii1 #af2 and declared to the ,athenians1 that they ought not 8to think that the ,godhead is like unto gold1 or silver1 or stone1 graven by art and man's device10 ,acts xvii1 #bi4 ,he condemns those who 8changed the glory of the incorruptible ,god into an image made like unto corruptible man1 and to birds1 and four-footed beasts1 and creeping things10 ,romans i1 #bc4 ,that the first ,christians had no images1 is evident from this circumstance1--that they were reproached by the ,heathens1 because they did not use them2 and we find almost every ecclesiastical writer of the first four centuries arguing against the ,gentile practice of image worship1 from the plain declarations of ,scripture1 and from the pure and spiritual nature of ,god4 ,the introduction of images into places of ,christian worship1 dates its origin soon after the times of ,constantine the ,great2 but the earlier ,christians reprobated every species of image worship in the strongest language4 ,it is sometimes pretended by the ,papists1 that they do not worship the images1 but ,god through the medium of images2 or1 that the worship which they pay to images is inferior to that which they pay to the ,deity himself4 ,these distinctions would be scarcely understood by the common people2 and formerly an enlightened ,heathen or ,jew would probably have urged the same thing4 ,the practice is in direct opposition to the second commandment1 and notwithstanding every sophistical palliation1 it has always led to a transfer of human trust from ,god to something else4 ,hence idolatry1 in general1 is condemned in ,scripture2 and all use of images in the worship of ,god1 making or bowing to any likeness1 is absolutely forbidden4 ,see ,,iconoclastes and ,,idolatry4 ,,immateriality1 abstraction from matter2 or what we understand by pure spirit4 ,,immortal4 ,that which will endure to all eternity1 as having in itself no principle of alteration or corruption4 ,god is absolutely immortal1--he cannot die4 ,angels are immortal2 but ,god1 who made them1 can terminate their being4 ,man is immortal in part1 that is1 in his spirit2 but his body dies4 ,inferior creatures are not immortal2 they die wholly4 ,thus the principle of immortality is differently communicated according to the will of him who can render any creature immortal1 by prolonging its life2 who can confer immortality on the body of man1 together with his soul2 and will do so at the resurrection4 ,god only is absolutely perfect1 and1 therefore1 absolutely immortal4 ,see ,,soul4 ,,imposition ,,of ,,hands4 ,an ecclesiastical action1 by which1 among ,episcopalians1 a bishop lays his hands on the head of a person1 in ordination1 confirmation1 or in uttering a blessing4 ,in ,presbyterian churches1 the imposition is by the hands of the presbytery4 ,this practice is also frequently observed by the ,independents and others at their ordinations1 when all the ministers present place their hands on the head of him whom they are ordaining1 while one of them prays for a blessing on him and his future labours4 ,this they retain as an ancient practice1 justified by the example of the ,apostles1 when no extraordinary gifts were conveyed4 ,however1 ,christians are not agreed as to the propriety of this ceremony2 nor do they all consider it as an essential part of ordination4 ,imposition of hands was a ,jewish ceremony1 introduced1 not by any divine authority1 but by custom2 it being the practice among that people1 whenever they prayed to ,god for any person1 to lay their hands on his head4 ,our ,saviour observed the same custom1 both when he conferred his blessing on children1 and when he cured the sick4 ,the ,apostles likewise laid hands on those upon whom they bestowed the ,holy ,ghost1 but it was a form accompanied by prayer1 through which only the blessing was obtained4 ,and the ,apostles themselves sometimes underwent the imposition of hands afresh1 when they entered upon any new design4 ,in the ancient church1 imposition of hands was practised on persons when they married2 which custom the ,abyssinians still observe4 ,but this ceremony of laying on of hands is now restrained1 by custom1 chiefly to that imposition which is practised at the ordination of ministers4 ,in the ,methodist ,episcopal ,church1 a bishop is constituted by the election of the general conference1 and the laying on of the hands of three bishops1 or at least of one bishop and two elders2 unless it happen that1 by death or otherwise1 there be no bishop remaining in the church3 in this case1 the general conference is empowered to elect a bishop1 and the elders1 or any three of them appointed by the general conference for that purpose1 to ordain him4 ,an elder is constituted by the election of an annual conference1 and the laying on of the hands of a bishop and of two or more elders4 ,a deacon1 by the election of an annual conference1 and the laying on of the hands of a bishop4 ,,imputed ,,righteousness4 ,see ,,justification4 ,,incense4 ,thus2 so called by the dealers of drugs in ,egypt from thur1 or thor1 the name of a harbour in the north bay of the ,red ,sea1 near ,mount ,sinai2 thereby distinguishing it from the gum arabic1 which is brought from ,suez1 another port in the ,red ,sea1 not far from ,cairo4 ,it differs also in being more pellucid and white4 ,it burns with a bright and strong flame1 not easily extinguished4 ,it was used in the temple service as an emblem of prayer1 ,psalm cxli1 #b2 ,rev4 viii1 #c1 #d4 ,authors give it1 or the best sort of it1 the epithets white1 pure1 pellucid2 and so it may have some connection with a word1 derived from the same root1 signifying unstained1 clear1 and so applied to moral whiteness and purity1 ,psalm li1 #g2 ,dan4 xii1 #aj4 ,this gum is said to distil from incisions made in the tree during the heat of summer4 ,what the form of the tree is which yields it1 we do not certainly know4 ,pliny one while says1 it is like a pear tree2 another1 that it is like a mastic tree2 then1 that it is like the laurel2 and1 in fine1 that it is a kind of turpentine tree4 ,it has been said to grow only in the country of the ,sabeans1 a people in ,arabia ,felix2 and ,theophrastus and ,pliny affirm that it is found in ,arabia4 ,dioscorides1 however1 mentions an ,indian as well as an ,arabian frankincense4 ,at the present day it is brought from the ,east ,indies1 but not of so good a quality as that from ,arabia4 ,the 8sweet incense10 mentioned ,exodus xxx1 #g1 and elsewhere1 was a compound of several drugs1 agreeably to the direction in the thirty-fourth verse4 ,to offer incense was an office peculiar to the priests4 ,they went twice a day into the holy place2 namely1 morning and evening1 to burn incense there4 ,upon the great day of expiation1 the high priest took incense1 or perfume1 pounded and ready for being put into the censer1 and threw it upon the fire1 the moment he went into the sanctuary4 ,one reason of this was1 that so the smoke which rose from the censer might prevent his looking with too much curiosity on the ark and mercy-seat4 ,god threatened him with death upon failing to perform this ceremony1 ,lev4 xvi1 #ac4 ,generally incense is to be considered as an emblem of the 8prayers of the saints10 and is so used by the sacred writers4 ,,incest1 an unlawful conjunction of persons related within the degrees of kindred prohibited by ,god4 ,in the beginning of the world1 and again1 long after the deluge1 marriages between near relations were allowed4 ,in the time of ,abraham and ,isaac1 these marriages were permitted1 and among the ,persians much later3 it is even said to be esteemed neither criminal nor ignominious among the remains of the old ,persians at this day4 ,some authors believe that marriages between near relations were permitted1 or1 at least1 tolerated1 till the time of ,moses1 who first prohibited them among the ,hebrews2 and that among other people they were allowed even after him4 ,others hold the contrary2 but it is hard to establish either of these opinions1 for want of historical documents4 ,the degrees of consanguinity within which marriage was prohibited are stated in ,lev4 xviii1 #f-ah4 ,most civilized people have looked on incests as abominable crimes4 ,st4 ,paul1 speaking of the incestuous man of ,corinth1 says1 8,it is reported commonly1 that there is fornication among you1 and such fornication as is not so much as named among the ,gentiles1 that one should have his father's wife10 #a ,cor4 v1 #a4 ,in order to preserve chastity in families1 and between persons of different sexes1 brought up and living together in a state of unreserved intimacy1 it is necessary1 by every method possible1 to inculcate an abhorrence of incestuous conjunctions2 which abhorrence can only be upholden by the absolute reprobation of all commerce of the sexes between near relations4 ,upon this principle1 the marriage1 as well as other cohabitations1 of brothers and sisters1 of lineal kindred1 and of all who usually live in the same family1 may be said to be forbidden by the law of nature4 ,restrictions which extend to remoter degrees of kindred than what this reason makes it necessary to prohibit from intermarriage1 are founded in the authority of the positive law which ordains them1 and can only be justified by their tendency to diffuse wealth1 to connect families1 or to promote some political advantage4 ,the ,levitical law1 which is received in this country1 and from which the rule of the ,roman law differs very little1 prohibits marriages between relations within three degrees of kindred2 computing the generations1 not from1 but through1 the common ancestor1 and accounting affinity the same as consanguinity4 ,the issue1 however1 of such marriages are not bastardized1 unless the parents be divorced during their life time4 ,,inchantments4 ,the law of ,god condemns inchantments and inchanters4 ,several terms are used in ,scripture to denote inchantments3 #a4 1 which signifies to mutter1 to speak with a low voice1 like magicians in their evocations and magical operations1 ,psalm lviii1 #f4 #b4 1 secrets1 whence ,moses speaks of the inchantments wrought by ,pharaoh's magicians4 #c4 1 meaning those who practise juggling1 legerdemain1 tricks1 and witchery1 deluding people's eyes and senses1 #b ,chron4 xxxiii1 #f4 #d4 1 which signifies1 properly1 to bind1 assemble1 associate1 reunite3 this occurs principally among those who charm serpents1 who tame them1 and make them gentle and sociable1 which before were fierce1 dangerous1 and untractable1 ,deut4 xviii1 #aa4 ,we have examples of each of these ways of inchanting4 ,it was common for magicians1 sorcerers1 and inchanters1 to speak in a low voice1 to whisper3 they are called ventriloqui1 because they spake1 as one would suppose1 from the bottom of their stomachs4 ,they affected secrecy and mysterious ways1 to conceal the vanity1 folly1 or infamy of their pernicious art4 ,their pretended magic often consisted in cunning tricks only1 in sleight of hand1 or some natural secrets1 unknown to the ignorant4 ,they affected obscurity and night1 or would show their skill only before the uninformed or mean persons1 and feared nothing so much as serious examinations1 broad day-light1 and the inspection of the intelligent4 ,respecting the inchantments practised by ,pharaoh's magicians1 7see ,exod4 viii1 #ah1 #ai17 in order to imitate the miracles which were wrought by ,moses1 it must be said either that they were mere illusions1 whereby they imposed on the spectators2 or that1 if they performed such miracles1 and produced real changes of their rods1 and the other things said to be performed by them1 it must have been by a supernatural power which ,god had permitted ,satan to give them1 but the farther operation of which he afterward thought proper to prevent4 ,,independents1 a denomination of ,protestants in ,england and ,holland1 originally called ,brownists4 ,they derive their name from their maintaining that every particular congregation of ,christians has1 according to the ,new ,testament1 a full power of ecclesiastical jurisdiction over its members1 independent of the authority of bishops1 synods1 presbyteries1 or any other ecclesiastical assemblies4 ,this denomination appeared in ,england in the year #afaf4 ,john ,robinson1 a ,norfolk divine1 who1 being banished from his native country for non-conformity1 afterward settled at ,leyden1 was considered as their founder and father4 ,he possessed sincere piety1 and no inconsiderable share of learning4 ,perceiving defects in the denomination of the ,brownists1 to which he belonged1 he employed his zeal and diligence in correcting them and in new modelling the society4 ,though the ,independents considered their own form of ecclesiastical government as of divine institution1 and as originally introduced by the authority of the ,apostles1 nay1 by the ,apostles themselves2 yet they did not always think it necessary to condemn other denominations1 but often acknowledged that true religion might flourish in those communities which were under the jurisdiction of bishops1 or the government of presbyteries4 ,they approved1 also1 of a regular and educated ministry2 nor is any person among them now permitted to speak in public before he has submitted to a proper examination of his capacity and talents1 and has been approved of by the church to which he belonged4 ,their grounds of separation from the established church are different from those of other puritans4 ,many of the latter objected chiefly to certain rites1 ceremonies1 vestments1 or forms1 or to the government of the church2 while yet they were disposed to arm the magistrate in support of the truth1 and regretted and complained that they could not on these accounts conform to it4 ,but ,robinson and his companions not only rejected the appointments of the church on these heads1 but denied its authority to enact them2 contending1 that every single congregation of ,christians was a church1 and independent of all legislation1 save that of ,christ2 standing in need of no such provision or establishment as the state can bestow1 and incapable of soliciting or receiving it4 ,hence they sought not to reform the church1 but chose to dissent from it4 ,they admitted there were many godly men in its communion1 and that it was reformed from the grossest errors of the man of sin2 but thought it still wanted some things essential to a true church of ,christ2 in particular1 a power of choosing its own ministers1 and a stricter discipline among its members4 ,the creed of the ,independents is uniformly ,calvinistic1 though with considerable shades of difference2 and many in ,scotland and ,ireland have symbolized with the ,sandemanians1 or the ,scottish ,baptist denominations4 ,the ,congregationalist and ,independent have been generally considered as convertible and synonymous3 many1 however1 in the present day1 prefer the former appellation1 considering it desirable1 in many cases1 to unite1 for mutual advice and support1 more closely than the term independent seems to warrant4 ,,indulgences4 ,in the primitive church very severe penalties were inflicted on those who had been guilty of any sins1 whether public or private2 and1 in particular1 they were forbidden to partake1 for a certain time1 of the sacrament of the ,lord's ,supper1 or to hold any communion with the church4 ,general rules were formed upon these subjects2 but as it was often found expedient to make a discrimination in the degrees of punishment1 according to the different circumstances of the offenders1 and especially when they showed marks of contrition and repentance1 power was given to bishops1 by the council of ,nice1 to relax or remit those punishments as they should see reason4 ,every favour of this kind was called an indulgence or pardon4 ,after the bishops had enjoyed this privilege for some centuries1 and had begun to abuse it1 the popes discovered that in their own hands it might be rendered a powerful instrument to promote both their ambition and their avarice4 ,they could not but perceive that if they could persuade men they had the power of granting pardon for sin1 it would give them a complete influence over their consciences2 and if they could at the same time prevail upon them to purchase these pardons for money1 it must add greatly to the wealth of the ,roman see4 ,in the eleventh century1 therefore1 when the dominion of the popes was rising to its zenith1 and their power was almost irresistible1 they took to themselves the exclusive prerogative of dispensing indulgences1 which they carried to a most unwarrantable length4 ,instead of confining them1 according to their original institution1 to the ordinary purposes of ecclesiastical discipline1 they extended them to the punishment of the wicked in the world to come2 instead of shortening the duration of earthly penance1 they pretended that they could deliver men from the pains of purgatory2 instead of allowing them gratuitously1 and upon just grounds1 to the penitent offender1 they sold them in the most open and corrupt manner to the profligate and abandoned1 who still continued in their vices4 ,they did not scruple to call these indulgences a plenary remission of all sins1 past1 present1 and future1 and to offer them as a certain and immediate passport from the troubles of this world to the eternal joys of heaven4 ,to give some sort of colour and support to this infamous traffic1 they confidently asserted that the superabundant merits of ,christ1 and of his faithful servants1 formed a fund of which the pope was the sole manager2 and that he could1 at his own discretion1 dispense those merits1 as the sure means of procuring pardon from ,god1 in any proportions1 for any species of wickedness1 and to any person he pleased4 ,the bare statement of this doctrine is a sufficient refutation of it2 and it is scarcely necessary to add1 that it has no foundation whatever in ,scripture4 ,it is an arrogant and impious usurpation of a power which belongs to ,god alone2 and it has an obvious tendency to promote licentiousness and sin of every description1 by holding out an easy and certain method of absolution4 ,the popes derived very large sums from the sale of these indulgences2 and it is well known that the gross abuses practised in granting them were among the immediate and principal causes of bringing about the reformation4 ,they continue still to be sold at ,rome1 and are to be purchased by any who are weak enough to buy them4 ,the sums required for indulgences were first published by ,anthony ,egane1 a ,franciscan friar1 in #afgc2 and the original pamphlet was republished by ,baron ,maseres1 in #ahji1 in his last volume of 8,occasional ,essays40 ,,ink4 ,the ink of the ancients was not so fluid as ours4 ,demosthenes reproaches schines with labouring in the grinding of ink1 as painters do in the grinding of their colours4 ,the substance also found in an inkstand at ,herculaneum1 looks like a thick oil or paint1 with which the manuscripts there have been written in a relievo visible in the letters1 when you hold a leaf to the light in a horizontal direction4 ,such vitriolic ink as has been used on the old parchment manuscripts would have corroded the delicate leaves of the papyrus1 as it has done the skins of the most ancient manuscripts of ,virgil and ,terence1 in the ,vatican library2 the letters are sunk into the parchment1 and some have eaten quite through it1 in consequence of the corrosive acid of the vitriolic ink1 with which they were written4 ,the inkhorn is also mentioned in ,scripture3 8,and one man among them was clothed with linen1 with a writer's inkhorn by his side10 ,ezek4 ix1 #b4 ,the eastern mode and apparatus for writing differs so materially from those with which we are conversant1 that it is necessary particularly to describe them4 ,d',arvieux informs us that 8the ,arabs of the desert1 when they want a favour of their emir1 get his secretary to write an order agreeable to their desire1 as if the favour were granted1 this they carry to the prince1 who1 after having read it1 sets his seal to it with ink1 if he grants it2 if not1 he returns the petitioner his paper torn1 and dismisses him4 ,these papers are without date1 and have only the emir's flourish or cypher at the bottom1 signifying the poor1 the abject ,mohammed1 son of ,turabeye40 ,pococke says1 that 8they make the impression of their name with their seal1 generally of cornelian1 which they wear on their finger1 and which is blacked when they have occasion to seal with it40 ,the custom of placing the inkhorn by the side1 ,olearius says1 continues in the east to this day4 ,dr4 ,shaw informs us1 that1 among the ,moors in ,barbary1 8the hojas1 that is1 the writers or secretaries1 suspend their inkhorns in their girdles2 a custom as old as the ,prophet ,ezekiel1 ix1 #b40 ,and in a note he adds1 8that part of these inkhorns 7if an instrument of brass may be so called7 which passes between the girdle and the tunic1 and holds their pens1 is long and flat2 but the vessel for the ink which rests upon the girdle is square1 with a lid to clasp over it40 ,so ,mr4 ,hanway3 8,their writers carry their ink and pens about them in a case1 which they put under their sash40 ,,inn4 ,the inns or caravanserais of the east1 in which travellers are accommodated1 are not all alike1 some being simply places of rest1 by the side of a fountain1 if possible1 and at a proper distance on the road4 ,many of these places are nothing more than naked walls2 others have an attendant1 who subsists either by some charitable donation1 or the benevolence of passengers2 others are more considerable establishments1 where families reside1 and take care of them1 and furnish the necessary provisions4 8,caravanserais10 says ,campbell1 8were originally intended for1 and are now pretty generally applied to1 the accommodation of strangers and travellers1 though1 like every other good institution1 sometimes perverted to the purposes of private emolument1 or public job4 ,they are built at proper distances through the roads of the ,turkish dominions1 and afford to the indigent or weary traveller an asylum from the inclemency of the weather1 are in general built of the most solid and durable materials1 have commonly one story above the ground floor1 the lower of which is arched1 and serves for warehouses to store goods1 for lodgings1 and for stables1 while the upper is used merely for lodgings2 beside which they are always accommodated with a fountain1 and have cooks' shops and other conveniences to supply the wants of lodgers4 ,in ,aleppo1 the caravanserais are almost exclusively occupied by merchants1 to whom they are1 like other houses1 rented40 8,in all other ,turkish provinces10 observes ,antes1 8particularly those in ,asia1 which are often thinly inhabited1 travelling is subject to numberless inconveniences1 since it is necessary not only to carry all sorts of provisions along with one1 but even the very utensils to dress them in1 beside a tent for shelter at night and in bad weather1 as there are no inns1 except here and there a caravanserai1 where nothing but bare rooms1 and those often very bad1 and infested with all sorts of vermin1 can be procured40 8,there are no inns anywhere10 says ,volney1 8but the cities1 and commonly the villages1 have a large building called a kan or kervanserai1 which serves as an asylum for all travellers4 ,these houses of reception are always built without the precincts of towns1 and consist of four wings round a square court1 which serves by way of enclosure for the beasts of burden4 ,the lodgings are cells1 where you find nothing but bare walls1 dust1 and sometimes scorpions4 ,the keeper of this kan gives the traveller the key and a mat1 and he provides himself the rest2 he must therefore carry with him his bed1 his kitchen utensils1 and even his provisions1 for frequently not even bread is to be found in the villages4 ,on this account the orientals contrive their equipage in the most simple and portable form4 ,the baggage of a man who wishes to be completely provided1 consists in a carpet1 a mattress1 a blanket1 two sauce pans with lids contained within each other1 two dishes1 two plates1 and a coffee pot1 all of copper1 well tinned1 a small wooden box for salt and pepper1 a round leathern table1 which he suspends from the saddle of his horse1 small leathern bottles or bags for oil1 melted butter1 water1 and brandy1 if the traveller be a ,christian1 a tinder box1 a cup of cocoa nut1 some rice1 dried raisins1 dates1 ,cyprus cheese1 and1 above all1 coffee berries1 with a roaster and wooden mortar to pound them40 ,the ,scriptures use two words to express a caravanserai1 in both instances translated inn3 8,there was no room for them in the inn10 1 ,luke ii1 #g2 the place of untying1 that is1 of beasts for rest4 8,and brought him to the inn10 1 ,luke x1 #cd1 whose keeper is called in the next verse 4 ,this word properly signifies 8a receptacle open to all comers40 8,the serai or principal caravansary at ,surat10 observes ,forbes1 8was much neglected4 ,most of the eastern cities contain one1 at least1 for the reception of strangers2 smaller places1 called choultries1 are erected by charitable persons1 or munificent princes1 in forests1 plains1 and deserts1 for the accommodation of travellers4 ,near them is generally a well1 and a cistern for the cattle2 a brahmin1 or fakeer1 often resides there to furnish the pilgrim with food1 and the few necessaries he may stand in need of4 ,in the deserts of ,persia and ,arabia1 these buildings are invaluable2 in those pathless plains1 for many miles together1 not a tree1 a bush1 nor even a blade of grass1 is to be seen2 all is one undulating mass of sand1 like waves on the trackless ocean4 ,in these ruthless wastes1 where no rural village or cheerful hamlet1 no inn or house of refreshment1 is to be found1 how noble is the charity that rears the hospitable roof1 that plants the shady grove1 and conducts the refreshing moisture into reservoirs60 ,,inspiration1 the conveying of certain extraordinary and supernatural notices or thoughts into the soul2 or it denotes any supernatural influence of ,god upon the mind of a rational creature1 whereby he is formed to a degree of intellectual improvement1 to which he could not have attained in his present circumstances in a natural way4 ,in the first and highest sense1 the prophets1 evangelists1 and ,apostles are said to have spoken and written by divine inspiration4 ,this inspiration of the ,old ,testament ,scriptures is so expressly attested by our ,lord and his ,apostles1 that among those who receive them as a divine revelation the only question relates to the inspiration of the ,new ,testament4 ,on this subject it has been well observed3-- #a4 ,that the inspiration of the ,apostles appears to have been necessary for the purposes of their mission2 and1 therefore1 if we admit that ,jesus came from ,god1 and that he sent them forth to make disciples1 we shall acknowledge that some degree of inspiration is highly probable4 ,the first light in which the books of the ,new ,testament lead us to consider the ,apostles1 is1 as the historians of ,jesus4 ,after having been his companions during his ministry1 they came forth to bear witness of him2 and as the benefit of his religion was not to be confined to the age in which he or they lived1 they left in the four ,gospels a record of what he did and taught4 ,two of the four were written by the ,apostles ,matthew and ,john4 ,st4 ,mark and ,st4 ,luke1 whose names are prefixed to the other two1 were probably of the seventy whom our ,lord sent out in his life time2 and we learn from the most ancient ,christian historians1 that the ,gospel of ,st4 ,mark was revised by ,st4 ,peter1 and the ,gospel of ,st4 ,luke by ,st4 ,paul1 and that both were afterward approved by ,st4 ,john2 so that all the four may be considered as transmitted to the church with the sanction of apostolical authority4 ,now1 if we recollect the condition of the ,apostles1 and the nature of their history1 we shall perceive that1 even as historians1 they stood in need of some measure of inspiration4 ,plato might feel himself at liberty to feign many things of his master ,socrates1 because it mattered little to the world whether the instruction that was conveyed to them proceeded from the one philosopher or from the other4 ,but the servants of a divine teacher1 who appeared as his witnesses1 and professed to be the historians of his life1 were bound by their office to give a true record4 ,and their history was an imposition upon the world1 if they did not declare exactly and literally what they had seen and heard4 ,this was an office which required not only a love of the truth1 but a memory more retentive and more accurate than it was possible for the ,apostles to possess4 ,to relate1 at the distance of twenty years1 long moral discourses1 which were not originally written1 and which were not attended with any striking circumstances that might imprint them upon the mind2 to preserve a variety of parables1 the beauty and significancy of which depended upon particular expressions2 to record long and minute prophecies1 where the alteration of a single phrase might have produced an inconsistency between the event and the prediction2 and to give a particular detail of the intercourse which ,jesus had with his friends and with his enemies2--all this is a work so very much above the capacity of unlearned men1 that1 had they attempted to execute it by their own natural powers1 they must have fallen into such absurdities and contradictions as would have betrayed them to every discerning eye4 ,it was therefore highly expedient1 and even necessary1 for the faith of future ages1 that1 beside those opportunities of information which the ,apostles enjoyed1 and that tried integrity which they possessed1 their understanding and their memory should be assisted by a supernatural influence1 which might prevent them from mistaking the meaning of what they had heard1 which might restrain them from putting into the mouth of ,jesus any words which he did not utter1 or omitting what was important1 and which might thus give us perfect security1 that the ,gospels are as faithful a copy as if ,jesus himself had left in writing those sayings and those actions which he wished posterity to remember4 ,but we consider the ,apostles in the lowest view1 when we speak of them as barely the historians of their ,master4 ,in their epistles they assume a higher character1 which renders inspiration still more necessary4 ,all the benefit which they derived from the public and the private instructions of ,jesus before his death had not so far opened their minds as to qualify them for receiving the whole counsel of ,god4 ,and he who knows what is in man declares to them1 the night on which he was betrayed1 8,i have yet many things to say unto you1 but you cannot bear them now10 ,john xv1 #ab4 ,the purpose of many of his parables1 the full meaning even of some of his plain discourses1 had not been attained by them4 ,they had marvelled when he spake to them of earthly things4 ,but many heavenly things of his kingdom had not been told them2 and they who were destined to carry his religion to the ends of the earth themselves needed1 at the times of their receiving this commission1 that some one should instruct them in the doctrine of ,christ4 ,it is true that1 after his resurrection1 ,jesus opened their understandings1 and explained to them the ,scriptures2 and he continued upon earth forty days1 speaking to them of the things pertaining to the kingdom of ,god4 ,it appears1 however1 from the history which they have recorded in the book of ,acts1 that some farther teaching was necessary for them1 ,acts i4 ,immediately before our ,lord ascended1 their minds being still full of the expectation of a temporal kingdom1 they say unto him1 8,lord1 wilt thou at this time restore the kingdom to ,israel80 ,it was not till some time after they received the gift of the ,holy ,ghost1 that they understood that the ,gospel had taken away the obligation to observe the ceremonies of the ,mosaic law2 and the action of ,st4 ,peter in baptizing ,cornelius1 a devout ,heathen1 gave offence to some of the ,apostles and brethren in ,judea when they first heard it1 ,acts xi4 ,yet1 in their epistles1 we find just notions of the spiritual nature of the religion of ,jesus as a kingdom of righteousness1 the subjects of which are to receive remission of sins1 and sanctification through his blood1 and just notions also of the extent of this religion as a dispensation the spiritual blessings of which are to be communicated to all1 in every land1 who receive it in faith and love4 ,these notions appear to us to be the explication both of the ancient predictions1 and of many particular expressions that occur in the discourses of our ,lord4 ,but it is manifest that they had not been acquired by the ,apostles during the teaching of ,jesus4 ,they are so adverse to every thing which men educated in ,jewish prejudices had learned and had hoped1 that they could not be the fruit of their own reflections2 and therefore they imply the teaching of that ,spirit who gradually impressed them upon the mind1 guiding the ,apostles gently1 as they were able to follow him1 into all the truth connected with the salvation of mankind4 ,as inspiration was necessary to give the minds of the ,apostles possession of the system that is unfolded in their epistles1 so many parts of that system are removed to such a distance from human discoveries1 and are liable to such misapprehension1 that unless we suppose a continued superintendence of the ,spirit by whom it was taught1 succeeding ages would not have a sufficient security that those who were employed to deliver it had not been guilty of gross mistakes in some most important doctrines4 ,inspiration will appear still farther necessary1 when we recollect that the writings of the ,apostles contain several predictions of things to come4 ,st4 ,paul foretels1 in his epistles1 the corruptions of the church of ,rome1 and many other circumstances which have taken place in the history of the ,christian church2 and the ,revelation is a book of prophecy1 of which part has been already fulfilled1 while the rest will no doubt be explained by the events which are to arise in the course of ,providence4 ,but prophecy is a kind of writing which implies the highest degree of inspiration4 ,when predictions1 like those in ,scripture1 are particular and complicated1 and the events are so remote and so contingent as to be out of the reach of human sagacity1 it is plain that the writers of the predictions do not speak according to the measure of information which they had acquired by natural means1 but are merely the instruments through which the ,almighty communicates1 in such measure and such language as he thinks fit1 that knowledge of futurity which is denied to man4 ,and although the full meaning of their own predictions was not understood by themselves1 they will be acknowledged to be true prophets when the fulfilment comes to reflect light upon that language1 which1 for wise purposes1 was made dark at the time of its being put into their mouth4 ,thus the nature of the writings of the ,apostles suggests the necessity of their having been inspired4 ,they could not be accurate historians of the life of ,jesus without divine inspiration1 nor safe expounders of his doctrine1 nor prophets of distant events4 #b4 ,inspiration was promised by our ,lord to his ,apostles4 ,it is not unfair reasoning to adduce promises contained in the ,scriptures themselves1 as proofs of their divine inspiration4 ,it were1 indeed1 reasoning in a circle1 to bring the testimony of the ,scriptures in proof of the divine mission of ,jesus4 ,but that being established by sufficient evidence1 and the books of the ,new ,testament having been proved to be the authentic genuine records of the persons whose names they bear1 we are warranted to argue1 from the declarations contained in them1 what is the measure of inspiration which ,jesus was pleased to bestow upon his servants4 ,he might have been a divine teacher1 and they might have been his ,apostles1 although he had bestowed none at all4 ,but his character gives us security that they possessed all that he promised4 ,we read in the ,gospels that ,jesus ordained twelve that they should be with him1 and that he might send them forth to preach1 ,mark iii1 #ad4 ,and as this was the purpose for which they were first called1 so it was the charge left them at his departure4 8,go10 said he1 8preach the ,gospel to every creature3 make disciples of all nations10 ,mark xvi1 #af2 ,matt4 xxviii1 #ai4 ,his constant familiar intercourse with them was intended to qualify them for the execution of this charge2 and the promises made to them have a special reference to the office in which they were to be employed4 ,when he sent them1 during his life1 to preach in the cities of ,israel1 he said1 8,but when they deliver you up1 take no thought how or what ye shall speak2 for it shall be given you in that same hour what ye shall speak4 ,for it is not ye that speak1 but the ,spirit of your ,father which speaketh in you10 ,matt4 x1 #ai1 #bj4 ,and when he spake to them in his prophecy of the destruction of ,jerusalem1 of the persecution which they were to endure after his death1 he repeats the same promise3 8,for ,i will give you a mouth and wisdom1 which all your adversaries shall not be able to gainsay nor resist10 ,luke xxi1 #ae4 ,it is admitted that the words in both these passages refer properly to that assistance which the inexperience of the ,apostles was to derive from the suggestions of the ,spirit1 when they should be called to defend their conduct and their cause before the tribunals of the magistrates4 ,but the fulfilment of this promise was a pledge1 both to the ,apostles and to the world1 that the measure of inspiration necessary for the more important purpose implied in their commission would not be withheld2 and1 accordingly1 when that purpose came to be unfolded to the ,apostles1 the promise of the assistance of the ,spirit was expressed in a manner which applies it to the extent of their commission4 ,in the long affectionate discourse recorded by ,st4 ,john1 when our ,lord took a solemn farewell of the disciples1 after eating the last passover with them1 he said1 8,and ,i will pray the ,father1 and he shall give you another ,comforter1 that he may abide with you for ever2 even the ,spirit of truth1 whom the world cannot receive1 because it seeth him not1 neither knoweth him4 ,but ye know him2 for he dwelleth with you1 and shall be in you4 ,the ,comforter1 which is the ,holy ,ghost1 whom the ,father will send in my name1 he shall teach you all things1 and bring all things to your remembrance1 whatsoever ,i have said unto you4 ,i have yet many things to say unto you1 but you cannot bear them now4 ,howbeit1 when he1 the ,spirit of truth1 is come1 he will guide you into all truth2 for he shall not speak of himself1 but whatsoever he shall hear that shall he speak2 and he will show you things to come10 ,john xiv1 #af1 #ag1 #bf2 xvi1 #ab1 #ac4 ,here are all the degrees of inspiration which we have seen to be necessary for the ,apostles3 the ,spirit was to bring to their remembrance what they had heard2 to guide them into the truth1 which they were not then able to bear2 and to show them things to come2 and all this they were to derive1 not from occasional illapses1 but from the perpetual inhabitation of the ,spirit4 ,that this inspiration was vouchsafed to them1 not for their own sakes1 but in order to qualify them for the successful discharge of their office as the messengers of ,christ1 and the instructers of mankind1 appears from several expressions of that prayer which immediately follows the discourse containing the promise of inspiration2 particularly from these words3 8,neither pray ,i for these alone1 but for them also which shall believe on me through their word2 that they all may be one1 as thou1 ,father1 art in me1 and ,i in thee2 that they may be one in us2 that the world may believe that thou hast sent me10 ,john xvii1 #bj1 #ba4 ,in conformity to this prayer1 so becoming him who was not merely the friend of the ,apostles1 but the light of the world1 is that charge which he gives them immediately before his ascension3 8,go ye1 therefore1 and teach all nations1 baptizing them in the name of the ,father1 and of the ,son1 and of the ,holy ,ghost2 teaching them to observe all things whatsoever ,i have commanded you3 and1 lo1 ,i am with you alway1 even unto the end of the world10 ,matt4 xxviii1 #ai1 #bj2 ,i am with you alway1 not by my bodily presence2 for immediately after he was taken out of their sight2 but ,i am with you by the ,holy ,ghost1 whom ,i am to send upon you not many days hence1 and who is to abide with you for ever4 ,the promise of ,jesus1 then1 implies1 according to the plain construction of the words1 that the ,apostles1 in executing their commission1 were not to be left wholly to their natural powers1 but were to be assisted by that illumination and direction of the ,spirit which the nature of the commission required2 and we may learn the sense which our ,lord had of the importance and effect of this promise from one circumstance1 that he never makes any distinction between his own words and those of his ,apostles1 but places the doctrines and commandments which they were to deliver upon a footing with those which he had spoken3 8,he that heareth you1 heareth me2 and he that despiseth you1 despiseth me2 and he that despiseth me1 despiseth him that sent me10 ,luke x1 #af4 ,these words plainly imply that ,christians have no warrant to pay less regard to any thing contained in the epistles than to that which is contained in the ,gospels2 and teach us that every doctrine and precept clearly delivered by the ,apostles comes to the ,christian world with the same stamp of the divine authority as the words of ,jesus1 who spake in the name of him that sent him4 ,the ,author of our religion having thus made the faith of the ,christian world to hang upon the teaching of the ,apostles1 gave the most signal manifestation of the fulfilment of that promise which was to qualify them for their office1 by the miraculous gifts with which they were endowed on the day of pentecost1 and by the abundance of those gifts which the imposition of their hands was to diffuse through the church4 ,one of the twelve1 indeed1 whose labours in preaching the ,gospel were the most abundant and the most extensive1 was not present at this manifestation2 for ,st4 ,paul was not called to be an ,apostle till after the day of pentecost4 ,but it is very remarkable that the manner of his being called was expressly calculated to supply this deficiency4 ,as he journeyed to ,damascus1 about noon1 to bring the ,christians who were there bound to ,jerusalem1 there shone from heaven a great light round about him4 ,and he heard a voice1 saying1 8,i am ,jesus whom thou persecutest4 ,and ,i have appeared unto thee for this purpose1 to make thee a minister and a witness both of these things which thou hast seen1 and of those things in the which ,i will appear unto thee2 and now ,i send thee to the ,gentiles to open their eyes10 ,acts xxvi1 #ab-ah4 ,in reference to this manner of his being called1 ,st4 ,paul generally inscribes his epistles with these words3 8,paul1 an ,apostle of ,jesus ,christ1 by the will0 or 8by the commandment of ,god20 and he explains very fully what he meant by the use of this expression1 in the beginning of his ,epistle to the ,galatians1 where he gives an account of his conversion3 8,paul1 an ,apostle1 not of men1 neither by man1 but by ,jesus ,christ1 and ,god the ,father1 who raised him from the dead4 ,i neither received the ,gospel of man1 neither was ,i taught it1 but by the revelation of ,jesus ,christ4 ,when it pleased ,god1 who separated me from my mother's womb1 and called me by his grace1 to reveal his ,son in me1 that ,i might preach him among the ,heathen3 immediately ,i conferred not with flesh and blood1 neither went ,i up to ,jerusalem to them which were ,apostles before me2 but ,i went into ,arabia10 ,gal4 i1 #a1 #ab1 #ae-ag4 ,all that we said of the necessity of inspiration1 and of the import of the promise which ,jesus made to the other ,apostles1 receives very great confirmation from this history of ,st4 ,paul1 who1 being called to be an ,apostle after the ascension of ,jesus1 received the ,gospel by immediate revelation from heaven1 and was thus put upon a footing with the rest1 both as to his designation1 which did not proceed from the choice of man1 and as to his qualifications1 which were imparted1 not by human instruction1 but by the teaching of the ,author of ,christianity4 ,the ,lord ,jesus who appeared to him might furnish ,st4 ,paul with the same advantages which the other ,apostles had derived from his presence on earth1 and might give him the same assurance of the inhabitation of the ,spirit that the promises1 which we have been considering1 had imparted to those4 #c4 ,inspiration was claimed by the ,apostles2 and their claim may be considered as the interpretation of the promise of their ,master4 ,we shall not find the claim to inspiration formally advanced in the ,gospels4 ,this omission has sometimes been stated by those superficial critics1 whose prejudices serve to account for their haste1 as an objection against the existence of inspiration4 ,but if you attend to the reason of the omission1 you will perceive that it is only an instance of that delicate propriety which pervades all the ,new ,testament4 ,the ,gospels are the record of the great facts which vouch the truth of ,christianity4 ,these facts are to be received upon the testimony of men who had been eye-witnesses of them4 ,the foundation of ,christian faith being laid in an assent to these facts1 it would have been preposterous to have introduced in support of them that influence of the ,spirit which preserved the minds of the ,apostles from error4 ,for there can be no proof of the inspiration of the ,apostles1 unless the truth of the facts be previously admitted4 ,the ,apostles1 therefore1 bring forward the evidence of ,christianity in its natural order1 when they speak in the ,gospels as the companions and eye-witnesses of ,jesus1 claiming that credit which is due to honest men who had the best opportunities of knowing what they declared4 ,this is the language of ,st4 ,john3 8,many other signs did ,jesus in the presence of his disciples4 ,but these are written that ye may believe2 and this is the disciple which testifieth these things10 ,john xx1 #cj1 #ca2 xxi1 #bd4 ,the ,evangelist ,luke appears to speak differently in the introduction to his ,gospel1 ,luke i1 #a-d2 and opposite opinions have been entertained respecting the information conveyed by that introduction4 ,there is a difference of opinion1 first1 with regard to the time when ,st4 ,luke wrote his ,gospel4 ,it appears to some to be expressly intimated that he wrote after ,st4 ,matthew and ,st4 ,mark1 because he speaks of other ,gospels then in circulation2 and it is generally understood that ,st4 ,john wrote his after the other three4 ,but the manner in which ,st4 ,luke speaks of these other ,gospels does not seem to apply to those of ,st4 ,matthew and ,st4 ,mark4 ,he calls them many1 which implies that they were more than two1 and which would confound these two canonical ,gospels with imperfect accounts of our ,lord's life1 which we know from ancient writers were early circulated1 but were rejected after the four ,gospels were published4 ,it is hardly conceivable that ,st4 ,luke would have alluded to the two ,gospels of ,st4 ,matthew and ,st4 ,mark without distinguishing them from other very inferior productions2 and therefore it is probable that when he used this mode of expression1 no accounts of our ,lord's life were then in existence but those inferior productions4 ,there appears1 also1 to very sound critics1 to be internal evidence that ,st4 ,luke wrote first4 ,he is much more particular than the other evangelists in his report of our ,lord's birth1 and of the meetings with his ,apostles after his resurrection4 ,they might think it unnecessary to introduce the same particulars into their ,gospels after ,st4 ,luke4 ,but if they wrote before him1 the want of these particulars gives to their ,gospels an appearance of imperfection which we cannot easily explain4 ,the other point suggested by this introduction1 upon which there has been a difference of opinion1 is1 whether ,st4 ,luke1 who was not an ,apostle1 wrote his ,gospel from personal knowledge1 attained by his being a companion of ,jesus1 or from the information of others4 ,our translation certainly favours the last opinion2 and it is the more general opinion1 defended by very able critics4 ,dr4 ,randolph1 in the first volume of his works1 which contains a history of our ,saviour's life1 supports the first opinion1 and suggests a punctuation of the verses1 and an interpretation of one word1 according to which that opinion may be defended4 ,read the second and third verses in connection3 ' 1 1 1 8,even as they who were eye-witnesses and ministers of the word from the beginning delivered them to us1 it seemed good to me also1 having accurately traced10 c4 ,by is understood the ,christian world1 who had received information1 both oral and written1 from those that had been 1 8eye-witnesses and ministers40 means ,st4 ,luke1 who proposed to follow the example of those in writing what he knew2 and he describes his own knowledge by the word 1 which is more precise than the circumlocution1 by which it is translated1 8having had understanding of all things40 ,perfect understanding may be derived from various sources2 but properly means1 8,i go along with as a companion1 and derive knowledge from my own observation40 ,and it is remarkable that the word is used in this very sense by the ,jewish historian1 ,josephus1 who published his history not many years after ,st4 ,luke wrote1 and who1 in his introduction1 represents himself as worthy of credit1 because he had not merely inquired of those who knew1 but 1 which he explains by this expression3 1 and to state in the third verse that he1 ' 1 an actor in many things1 and an eye-witness of most4 ,if this interpretation is not approved of1 then1 according to the sense of those verses which is most commonly adopted1 ,st4 ,luke will be understood to give in the second verse an account of that ground upon which the knowledge of the ,christian world with regard to these things rested1 the reports of the 8eye-witnesses and ministers10 having collected and collated these reports1 and employed the most careful and minute investigation1 he had resolved to write an account of the life of ,jesus4 ,here he does not claim inspiration3 he does not even say that he was an eye-witness4 ,but he says that1 having1 like others1 heard the report of eye-witnesses1 he had accurately examined the truth of what they said1 and presented to the ,christian world the fruit of his researches4 ,the foundation is still the same as in ,st4 ,john's ,gospel1 the report of those in whose presence ,jesus did and said what is recorded4 ,to this report is added1 7#a47 ,the investigation of ,st4 ,luke1 a contemporary of the ,apostles1 the companion of ,st4 ,paul in a great part of his journeyings1 and honoured by him with this title1 8,luke1 the beloved physician10 ,col4 iv1 #ad4 7#b47 ,the approbation of ,st4 ,paul1 who is said1 by the earliest ,christian writers1 to have revised this ,gospel written by his companion1 so that it came abroad with apostolical authority4 7#c47 ,the universal consent of the ,christian church1 which1 although jealous of the books that were then published1 and rejecting many that claimed the sanction of the ,apostles1 has uniformly1 from the earliest times1 put the ,gospel of ,st4 ,luke upon a footing with those of ,st4 ,matthew and ,st4 ,mark3 a clear demonstration that they who had access to the best information knew that it had been revised by an ,apostle4 ,as1 then1 the authors of the ,gospels appear under the character of eye-witnesses1 attesting what they had seen1 there would have been an impropriety in their resting the evidence of the essential facts of ,christianity upon inspiration4 ,but after the respect which their character and their conduct procured to their testimony1 and the visible confirmation which it received from heaven1 had established the faith of a part of the world1 a belief of their inspiration became necessary4 ,they might have been credible witnesses of facts1 although they had not been distinguished from other men4 ,but they were not qualified to execute the office of ,apostles without being inspired4 ,and therefore1 as soon as the circumstances of the church required the execution of that office1 the claim which had been conveyed to them by the promise of their ,master1 and which is implied in the apostolical character1 appears in their writings4 ,they instantly exercised the authority derived to them from ,jesus1 by planting ministers in the cities where they had preached the ,gospel1 by setting every thing pertaining to these ,christian societies in order1 by controlling the exercise of those miraculous gifts which they had imparted1 and by correcting the abuses which happened even in their time4 ,but they demanded from all who had received the faith of ,christ submission to the doctrines and commandments of his ,apostles1 as the inspired messengers of ,heaven4 8,but ,god hath revealed it10 not them1 as our translators have supplied the accusative1 8revealed the wisdom of ,god1 the dispensation of the ,gospel unto us by his ,spirit2 for the ,spirit searcheth all things1 yea1 the deep things of ,god4 ,now we have received not the spirit of the world1 but the ,spirit which is of ,god2 that we might know the things which are freely given us of ,god2 which things1 also1 we speak1 not in the words which man's wisdom teacheth1 but which the ,holy ,ghost teacheth10 #a ,cor4 ii1 #aj1 #ab1 #ac4 8,if any man think himself to be a prophet1 or spiritual1 let him acknowledge that the things that ,i write unto you are the commandments of the ,lord10 #a ,cor4 xiv1 #cg2 that is1 ,let no eminence of spiritual gifts be set up in opposition to the authority of the ,apostles1 or as implying any dispensation from submitting to it4 8,for this cause1 also1 thank we ,god without ceasing1 because when ye received the word of ,god which ye heard of us1 ye received it not as the word of men1 but1 as it is in truth1 the word of ,god10 #a ,thess4 ii1 #ac4 ,st4 ,peter1 speaking of the epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 says1 8,even as our beloved brother ,paul1 also1 according to the wisdom given unto him1 hath written unto you10 #b ,peter iii1 #ae4 ,and ,st4 ,john makes the same claim of inspiration for the other ,apostles1 as well as for himself3 8,we are of ,god3 he that knoweth ,god1 heareth us3 he that is not of ,god1 heareth not us10 #a ,john iv1 #f4 ,the claim to inspiration is clearly made by the ,apostles in those passages where they place their own writings upon the same footing with the books of the ,old ,testament2 for ,st4 ,paul1 speaking of the 1 8,holy ,scriptures10 a common expression among the ,jews1 in which ,timothy had been instructed from his childhood1 says1 8,all ,scripture is given by inspiration of ,god10 #b ,tim4 iii1 #af4 ,st4 ,peter1 speaking of the ancient prophets1 says1 8,the ,spirit of ,christ was in them10 #a ,peter i1 #aa2 and1 8,the prophecy came not in old time by the will of man2 but holy men of ,god spake as they were moved by the ,holy ,ghost10 #b ,peter i1 #ba4 ,and the quotations of our ,lord and his ,apostles from the books of the ,old ,testament are often introduced with an expression in which their inspiration is directly asserted3 8,well spake the ,holy ,ghost by ,esaias20 8,by the mouth of thy servant ,david thou hast said10 c1 ,acts i1 #af2 iv1 #be2 xxviii1 #be4 ,but with this uniform testimony to that inspiration of the ,jewish ,scriptures1 which was universally believed among that people1 we are to conjoin this circumstance1 that ,st4 ,paul and ,st4 ,peter in different places rank their own writings with the books of the ,old ,testament4 ,st4 ,paul commands that his epistles should be read in the churches1 where none but those books which the ,jews believed to be inspired were ever read1 ,col4 iv1 #af4 ,he says that ,christians 8are built upon the foundation of the ,apostles and prophets10 1 ,eph4 ii1 #bj3 a conjunction which would have been highly improper1 if the former had not been inspired as well as the latter2 and ,st4 ,peter charges the ,christians to 8be mindful of the words which were spoken before by the holy prophets1 and of the commandment of us the ,apostles10 #b ,peter iii1 #b4 ,the nature of the book of ,revelation led the ,apostle ,john to assert most directly his personal inspiration2 for he says that 8,jesus sent and signified by his angel to his servant ,john the things that were to come to pass20 and that the divine ,person1 like the ,son of man1 who appeared to him when he was in the ,spirit1 commanded him to write in a book what he saw4 ,and in one of the visions there recorded1 when the dispensation of the ,gospel was presented to ,st4 ,john under the figure of a great city1 the ,new ,jerusalem1 descending out of heaven1 there is one part of the image which is a beautiful expression of that authority in settling the form of the ,christian church1 and teaching articles of faith1 which the ,apostles derived from their inspiration3 8,the wall of the city had twelve foundations1 and in them the names of the twelve ,apostles of the ,lamb10 ,rev4 i1 #a1 #aj-ai2 xxi1 #ad4 ,these are only a few of the many passages to the same purpose which occur in reading the ,new ,testament4 ,but it is manifest1 even from them1 that the manner in which the ,apostles speak of their own writings is calculated to mislead every candid reader1 unless they really wrote under the direction of the ,spirit of ,god4 ,so gross and daring an imposture is absolutely inconsistent not only with their whole character1 but also with those gifts of the ,holy ,ghost of which there is unquestionable evidence that they were possessed2 and which1 being the natural vouchers of the assertion made by them concerning their own writings1 cannot be supposed1 upon the principles of sound theism1 to have been imparted for a long course of years to persons who continued during all that time asserting such a falsehood1 and appealing to those gifts for the truth of what they said4 #d4 ,the claim of the ,apostles derives much confirmation from the reception which it met with among the ,christians of their days4 ,it appears from an expression of ,st4 ,peter1 that at the time when he wrote his second epistle1 the epistles of ,st4 ,paul were classed with 8the other ,scriptures10 the books of the ,old ,testament2 that is1 were accounted inspired writings1 #b ,peter iii1 #af4 ,it is well known to those who are versed in the early history of the church1 with what care the first ,christians discriminated between the apostolical writings and the compositions of other authors however much distinguished by their piety1 and with what reverence they received those books which were known by their inscription1 by the place from which they proceeded1 or the manner in which they were circulated1 to be the work of an ,apostle4 ,in ,lardner's 8,credibility of the ,gospel ,history10 will be found the most particular information upon this subject2 and it will be perceived that the whole history of the supposititious writings which appeared in early times1 conspires in attesting the veneration in which the authority of the ,apostles was held by the ,christian church4 ,we learn from ,justin ,martyr1 that1 before the middle of the second century1 8the memoirs of the ,apostles1 and the compositions of the prophets10 were read together in the ,christian assemblies4 ,we know1 that from the earliest times1 the church has submitted to the writings of the ,apostles as the infallible standard of faith and practice2 and we find the ground of this peculiar respect expressed by the first ,christian writers as well as by their successors1 who speak of the writings of the ,apostles as 8divine writings from the inspiration of the ,holy ,ghost40 ,to this general argument we may add that right views on the subject of the inspiration of the sacred writers are also necessary1 because even some ,christian writers have spoken obscurely and unsatisfactorily on the subject1 dividing inspiration into different kinds1 and assigning each to different portions of the holy volume4 ,by inspiration we are to understand1 that the sacred writers composed their works under so plenary and immediate an influence of the ,holy ,spirit1 that ,god may be said to speak by those writers to man1 and not merely that they spoke to men in the name of ,god1 and by his authority2 and there is a considerable difference between the two propositions4 ,each supposes an authentic revelation from ,god2 but the former view secures the ,scriptures from all error both as to the subjects spoken1 and the manner of expressing them4 ,this1 too1 is the doctrine taught in the ,scriptures themselves1 which declare not only that the prophets and ,apostles spake in the name of ,god1 but that ,god spake by them as his instruments4 8,the ,holy ,ghost by the mouth of ,david spake40 8,well spake the ,holy ,ghost by ,esaias the prophet40 8,the prophecy came not of old time1 by the will of man2 but holy men of ,god spake as they were moved by the ,holy ,ghost40 ,for this reason1 not only that the matter contained in the book of 8the ,law1 the ,prophets1 and the ,psalms10 7the usual phrase by which the ,jews designated the whole ,old ,testament17 was true2 but that the books were written under divine inspiration1 they are called collectively by our ,lord and by his ,apostles1 8,the ,scriptures10 in contradistinction to all other writings2--a term which the ,apostle ,peter1 as stated above1 applies also to the writings of ,st4 ,paul1 and which therefore verifies them as standing on the same level with the books of the ,old ,testament as to their inspiration3 8,even as our beloved brother ,paul also1 according to the wisdom given unto him1 hath written unto you2 as also in all his epistles1 speaking of these things1 in which are some things hard to be understood1 which they that are unlearned and unstable wrest1 as they do also the other ,scriptures1 unto their own destruction40 ,the ,apostles also1 as we have seen1 expressly claim an inspiration1 not only as to the subjects on which they wrote1 but as to the words in which they expressed themselves4 ,farther1 our ,lord promised to them the ,holy ,spirit 8to guide them into all truth20 and that he was not to fulfil his office by suggesting thoughts only1 but words1 is clear from ,christ's discourse with them on the subject of the persecutions they were to endure for 8his name's sake30 8,and when they bring you into the synagogues1 and unto magistrates and powers1 take ye no thought how or what thing ye shall answer1 or what ye shall say2 for the ,holy ,ghost shall teach you in the same hour what ye ought to say2 for it is not ye that speak2 but the ,spirit of your ,father which speaketh in you40 ,this inspiration of words is also asserted by ,st4 ,paul as to himself and his brethren1 when he says to the ,corinthians1 8,which things also we speak1 not in the words which man's wisdom teacheth2 but which the ,holy ,ghost teacheth40 ,thus we find that the claim which the sacred writers make on this subject is1 that they were in truth what they have been aptly called1 8the penmen of the ,holy ,ghost20 and that the words in which they clothed 8the wisdom given unto them0 were words 8taught0 by the ,holy ,spirit4 ,but it may be asked1 ,how are we to account for that difference of style which is observable in each8 that manner1 too1 so natural to each1 and so distinct in all8 with those reasonings1 recollections of memory1 and other indications of the working of the mind of each writer in its own character and temperament8 ,some persons1 indeed1 observing this1 have concluded their style and manner to be entirely human1 while their thoughts were either wholly divine1 or so superintended by the ,holy ,ghost as to have been adopted by him1 and therefore1 although sometimes natural1 to be of equal authority as if they had been exclusively of divine suggestion4 ,this1 indeed1 would be sufficient to oblige our implicit credence to their writings1 as being from ,god2 but it falls below the force of the passages above cited1 and which attribute to a divine agency their words also4 ,the matter may be rightly conceived by considering1 that an inspiration of words took place either by suggesting those most fit to express the thoughts1 or by overruling the selection of such words from the common as if they had been exclusively of divine suggestion4 ,this1 indeed1 would be sufficient to oblige our implicit credence to their writings1 as being from ,god2 but it falls below the force of the passages above cited1 and which attribute to a divine agency the store acquired by1 and laid up in1 the mind of each writer1 which is quite compatible with the fact1 that a peculiarity and appropriateness of manner might still be left to them separately4 ,to suppose that an inspiration of terms1 as well as thoughts1 could not take place without producing one uniform style and manner1 is to suppose that the minds of the writers would thus become entirely passive under the influence of the ,holy ,spirit2 whereas it is easily conceivable that the verbiage1 style1 and manner of each1 was not so much displaced1 as elevated1 enriched1 and controlled by the ,holy ,spirit2 and that there was a previous fitness1 in all these respects1 in all the sacred penmen1 for which they were chosen to be the instruments under the aid and direction of the ,holy ,ghost1 of writing such portions of the general revelation as the wisdom of ,god assigned to each of them4 ,on the other hand1 while it is so conceivable that the words and manner of each might be appropriated to his own design by the inspiration of the ,holy ,ghost1 it by no means follows that both were not greatly altered1 as well as controlled1 although they still retained a general similarity to the uninfluenced style and manner of each1 and still presented a characteristic variety4 ,as none of their writings on ordinary occasions1 and when uninspired1 have come down to us1 we cannot judge of the degree of this difference2 and therefore no one can with any just reason affirm that their writings are 8the word of ,god as to the doctrine1 but the word of man as to the channel of conveyance40 ,certain it is1 that a vast difference may be remarked between the writings of the ,apostles1 and those of the most eminent fathers of the times nearest to them2 and that not only as to precision and strength of thought1 but also as to language4 ,this circumstance is at least strongly presumptive1 that although the style of inspired men was not stripped of the characteristic peculiarity of the writers1 it was greatly exalted and influenced4 ,but the same force of inspiration1 so to speak1 was not probably exerted upon each of the sacred writers1 or upon the same writer throughout his writings1 whatever might be its subject4 ,there is no necessity that we should so state the case1 in order to maintain what is essential to our faith1--the plenary inspiration of each of the sacred writers4 ,in miracles there was no needless application of divine power4 ,traditional history and written chronicles1 facts of known occurrence1 and opinions which were received by all1 are often inserted or referred to by the sacred writers4 ,there needed no miraculous operation upon the memory to recall what the memory was furnished with1 or to reveal a fact which the writers previously and perfectly knew3 but their plenary inspiration consisted in this1 that they were kept from all lapses of memory1 or inadequate conceptions1 even on these subjects2 and on all others the degree of communication and influence1 both as to doctrine1 facts1 and the terms in which they were to be recorded for the edification of the church1 was proportioned to the necessity of the case1 but so that the whole was authenticated or dictated by the ,holy ,spirit with so full an influence1 that it became truth without mixture of error1 expressed in such terms as he himself ruled or suggested4 ,this1 then1 seems the true notion of plenary inspiration1 that for the revelation1 insertion1 and adequate enunciation of truth1 it was full and complete4 ,the principal objections to this view of the inspiration of words are well answered by ,dr4 ,woods1 an ,american divine1 in a recent publication1 from which1 as the subject has been lately debated in this country1 the following extracts will be acceptable1 although there is in them a repetition of some of the preceding observations3-- 8,one argument which has been urged against the supposition that divine inspiration had a respect to language1 is1 that the language employed by the inspired writers exhibits no marks of a divine interference1 but is perfectly conformed to the genius and taste of the writers4 ,the fact here alleged is admitted4 ,but how does it support the opinion of those who allege it8 ,is it not evident1 that ,god may exercise a perfect superintendency over inspired writers as to the language they shall use1 and yet that each one of them shall write in his own style1 and in all respects according to his own taste8 ,may not ,god give such aid to his servants1 that1 while using their own style1 they will certainly be secured against all mistakes1 and exhibit the truth with perfect propriety8 ,it is unquestionable1 that ,isaiah1 and ,st4 ,paul1 and ,st4 ,john might be under the entire direction of the ,holy ,spirit1 even as to language1 and1 at the same time1 that each one of them might write in his own manner2 and that the peculiar manner of each might be adopted to answer an important end2 and that the variety of style1 thus introduced into the sacred volume1 might be suited to excite a livelier interest in the minds of men1 and to secure to them a far greater amount of good1 than could ever have been derived from any one mode of writing4 ,the great variety existing among men as to their natural talents1 and their peculiar manner of thinking and writing may1 in this way1 be turned to account in the work of revelation1 as well as in the concerns of common life4 ,now1 is it not clearly a matter of fact1 that ,god has made use of this variety1 and given the ,holy ,spirit to men1 differing widely from each other in regard to natural endowments1 and knowledge1 and style1 and employed them1 with all their various gifts1 as agents in writing the ,holy ,scriptures8 ,and what colour of reason can we have to suppose1 that the language which they used was less under the divine direction on account of this variety1 than if it had been perfectly uniform throughout8 8,to prove that divine inspiration had no respect to the language of the sacred writers1 it is farther alleged1 that even the same doctrine is taught and the same event described in a different manner by different writers4 ,this fact ,i also admit4 ,but how does it prove that inspiration had no respect to language8 ,is not the variety alleged a manifest advantage1 as to the impression which is likely to be made upon the minds of men8 ,is not testimony1 which is substantially the same1 always considered as entitled to higher credit1 when it is given by different witnesses in different language1 and in a different order8 ,and is it not perfectly reasonable to suppose1 that1 in making a revelation1 ,god would have respect to the common principles of human nature and human society1 and would exert his influence and control over inspired men in such a manner1 that1 by exhibiting the same doctrines and facts in different ways1 they should make a more salutary impression1 and should more effectually compass the great ends of a revelation8 ,all ,i have to advance on this part of the subject may be summed up in these two positions3 #a4 ,the variety of manner apparent among different inspired writers1 even when treating of the same subjects1 is far better suited to promote the object of divine revelation1 than a perfect uniformity4 #b4 ,it is agreeable to our worthiest conceptions of ,god and his administration1 that he should make use of the best means for the accomplishment of his designs2 and1 of course1 that he should impart the gift of inspiration to men of different tastes and habits as to language1 and should lead them1 while writing the ,scriptures1 to exhibit all the variety of manner naturally arising from the diversified character of their minds4 8,but there is another argument1 perhaps the most plausible of all1 against supposing that inspiration had any respect to language2 which is1 that the supposition of a divine influence in this respect is wholly unnecessary2 that the sacred writers1 having the requisite information in regard to the subjects on which they were to write1 might1 so far as language is concerned1 be left entirely to their own judgment and fidelity4 ,but this view of the subject is not satisfactory4 ,for whatever may be said as to the judgment and fidelity of those who wrote the ,scriptures1 there is one important circumstance which cannot be accounted for1 without supposing them to have enjoyed a guidance above that of their own minds2 namely1 that they were infallibly preserved from every mistake or impropriety in the manner of writing4 ,if we should admit that the divine superintendence and guidance afforded to the inspired writers had no relation at all to the manner in which they exhibited either doctrines or facts2 how easily might we be disturbed with doubts1 in regard to the propriety of some of their representations8 ,we should most certainly consider them as liable to all the inadvertencies and mistakes1 to which uninspired men are commonly liable2 and we should think ourselves perfectly justified in undertaking to charge them with real errors and faults as to style1 and to show how their language might have been improved2 and1 in short1 to treat their writings just as we treat the writings of ,shakspeare and ,addison4 #8,here1' we might say1 #8,paul was unfortunate in the choice of words2 and here his language does not express the ideas which he must have intended to convey4' #8,here the style of ,st4 ,john was inadvertent2 and here it was faulty3 and here it would have been more agreeable to the nature of the subject1 and would have more accurately expressed the truth1 had it been altered thus4' ,if the language of the sacred writers did not in any way come under the inspection of the ,holy ,spirit1 and if they were left1 just as other writers are1 to their own unaided faculties in regard to every thing which pertained to the manner of writing2 then1 evidently1 we might use the same freedom in animadverting upon their style1 as upon the style of other writers4 ,but who could treat the volume of inspiration in this manner1 without impiety and profaneness8 ,and rather than make any approach to this1 who would not choose to go to an excess1 if there could be an excess1 in reverence for the word of ,god8 8,on this subject1 far be it from me to indulge a curiosity which would pry into things not intended for human intelligence4 ,and far be it from me to expend zeal in supporting opinions not warranted by the word of ,god4 ,but this one point ,i think it specially important to maintain2 namely1 that the sacred writers had such direction of the ,holy ,spirit1 that they were secured against all liability to error1 and enabled to write just what ,god pleased2 so that what they wrote is1 in truth1 the word of ,god1 and can never be subject to any charge of mistake either as to matter or form4 ,whether this perfect correctness and propriety as to language resulted from the divine guidance directly or indirectly1 is a question of no particular consequence4 ,if the ,spirit of ,god directs the minds of inspired men1 and gives them just conceptions relative to the subjects on which they are to write2 and if he constitutes and maintains a connection1 true and invariable1 between their conceptions and the language they employ to express them1 the language must1 in this way1 be as infallible1 and as worthy of ,god1 as though it were dictated directly by the ,holy ,spirit4 ,but to assert that the sacred writers used such language as they chose1 or such as was natural to them1 without any special divine superintendence1 and that1 in respect to style1 they are to be regarded in the same light1 and equally liable to mistakes1 as other writers1 is plainly contrary to the representations which they themselves make1 and is suited to diminish our confidence in the word of ,god4 ,for how could we have entire confidence in the representations of ,scripture1 if1 after ,god had instructed the minds of the sacred writers in the truth to be communicated1 he gave them up to all the inadvertencies and errors to which human nature in general is exposed1 and took no effectual care that their manner of writing should be according to his will8 8,let us then briefly examine the subject1 as it is presented in the ,holy ,scriptures1 and see whether we find sufficient reason to affirm that inspiration had no relation whatever to language4 #a4 ,the ,apostles were the subjects of such a divine inspiration as enabled them to speak #8with other tongues3' here inspiration related directly to language4 #b4 ,it is the opinion of most writers1 that1 in some instances1 inspired men had not in their own minds a clear understanding of the things which they spake or wrote4 ,one instance of this1 commonly referred to1 is the case of ,daniel1 who heard and repeated what the angel said1 though he did not understand it1 ,dan4 xii1 #g-i4 ,this has also been thought to be in some measure the case with the prophets referred to1 #a ,peter i1 #aj-ab4 ,and is there not reason to think this may have been the case with many of the prophetic representations contained in the ,psalms1 and many of the symbolical rites of the ,mosaic institute8 ,various matters are found in the ,old ,testament1 which were not intended so much for the benefit of the writers1 or their contemporaries1 as for the benefit of future ages4 ,and this might have been a sufficient reason why they should be left without a clear understanding of the things which they wrote4 ,in such cases1 if the opinion above stated is correct1 inspired men were led to make use of expressions1 the meaning of which they did not fully understand4 ,and1 according to this view1 it would seem that the teaching of the ,spirit which they enjoyed1 must have related rather to the words than to the sense4 #c4 ,those who deny that the divine influence afforded to the sacred writers had any respect to language1 can find no support in the texts which most directly relate to the subject of inspiration4 ,and it is surely in such texts1 if any where1 that we should suppose they would find support4 ,the passage1 #b ,peter i1 #ba1 is a remarkable one4 ,it asserts that #8holy men of ,god spake as they were moved by the ,holy ,ghost4' ,there is surely nothing here which limits the divine influence to the conceptions of their minds4 ,they were moved by the ,holy ,ghost to speak or write4 #8,all ,scripture is divinely inspired1' #b ,tim4 iii1 #af4 ,does this text afford any proof that the divine influence granted to the inspired penmen was confined to their inward conceptions1 and had no respect whatever to the manner in which they expressed their conceptions8 ,what is ,scripture8 ,is it divine truth conceived in the mind1 or divine truth written8 ,in ,heb4 i1 #a1 it is said that #8,god spake to the fathers by the prophets4' ,does this afford any proof that the divine guidance which the prophets enjoyed related exclusively to the conceptions of their own minds1 and had no respect to the manner in which they communicated those conceptions8 ,must we not rather think the meaning to be1 that ,god influenced the prophets to utter or make known important truths8 ,and how could they do this1 except by the use of proper words8 8,i have argued in favour of the inspiration of the ,apostles1 from their commission4 ,they were sent by ,christ to teach the truths of religion in his stead4 ,it was an arduous work2 and in the execution of it they needed and enjoyed much divine assistance4 ,but forming right conceptions of ,christianity in their own minds1 was not the great work assigned to the ,apostles4 ,if the divine assistance reached only to this1 it reached only to that which concerned them as private men1 and which they might have possessed though they had never been commissioned to teach others4 ,as ,apostles1 they were to preach the ,gospel to all who could be brought to hear it1 and to make a record of divine truth for the benefit of future ages4 ,now is it at all reasonable to suppose1 that the divine assistance afforded them had no respect to their main business1 and that1 in the momentous and difficult work of communicating the truths of religion1 either orally or by writing1 they were left to themselves1 and so exposed to all the errors and inadvertencies of uninspired men8 ,but our reasoning does not stop here4 ,for that divine assistance which we might reasonably suppose would have been granted to the ,apostles in the work of teaching divine truth1 is the very thing which ,christ promised them in the texts before cited4 ,i shall refer only to ,matt4 x1 #ai1 #bj1 #8,when they shall deliver you up1 take no thought how or what ye shall speak2 for it shall be given you in the same hour what ye shall speak4 ,for it is not ye that speak1 but the ,spirit of your ,father that speaketh in you4' ,this promise1 as ,knapp understands it1 implies1 that divine assistance should extend not only to what they should say1 but to the manner in which they should say it4 ,it is not1 however1 to be understood as implying1 that the ,apostles were not rational and voluntary agents in the discharge of their office4 ,but it implies that1 in consequence of the influence of the ,spirit to be exercised over them1 they should say what ,god would have them to say1 without any liability to mistake1 either as to matter or manner4 ,from the above-cited promise1 taken in connection with the instances of its accomplishment which are recorded in the ,acts of the ,apostles1 it becomes evident that ,god may exert his highest influence upon his servants1 so as completely to guide them in thought and in utterance1 in regard to subjects which lie chiefly within the province of their natural faculties4 ,for in those speeches of the ,apostles which are left on record1 we find that most of the things which they declared1 were things which1 for aught that appears1 they might have known1 and might have expressed to others1 in the natural exercise of their own faculties4 ,this principle being admitted1 and kept steadily in view1 will relieve us of many difficulties in regard to the doctrine of inspiration4 ,the passage1 #a ,cor4 ii1 #ab1 #ac1 already cited as proof of the inspiration of the ,apostles1 is very far from favouring the opinion that inspiration had no respect whatever to their language1 or that it related exclusively to their thoughts4 #8,which things we speak1 not in the words which man's wisdom teacheth1 but which the ,holy ,ghost teacheth4' ,the ,apostle avoided the style and the manner of teaching which prevailed among the wise men of ,greece1 and made use of a style which corresponded with the nature of his subject1 and the end he had in view4 ,and this1 he tells us1 he did1 under the guidance of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,his language1 or manner of teaching1 was the thing to which the divine influence imparted to him particularly referred4 ,storr and ,flatt give the following interpretation of this text3 ,paul1 they say1 asserts that the doctrines of ,christianity were revealed to him by the almighty agency of ,god himself2 and1 finally1 that the inspiration of the divine ,spirit extended even to his words1 and to all his exhibitions of revealed truths4 ,they add1 that ,st4 ,paul clearly distinguishes between the doctrine itself1 and the manner in which it is communicated40 ,,intermediate ,,state4 ,beside questions concerning the nature of the happiness of heaven1 there have also arisen questions concerning the state of the soul in the interval between death and the general resurrection4 ,if we believe1 with ,dr4 ,priestley1 that the soul is not a substance distinct from the body1 we must believe with him that the whole of the human machine is at rest after death1 till it be restored to its functions at the last day2 but if we are convinced of the immateriality of the soul1 we shall not think it so entirely dependent in all its operations upon its present companion1 but that it may exist and act in an unembodied state4 ,and if once we are satisfied that a state of separate existence is possible1 we shall easily attach credit to the interpretation commonly given of the various expressions in ,scripture1 which intimate that the souls of good men are admitted to the presence of ,god immediately after death1 although we soon find that a bound is set to our speculations concerning the nature of this intermediate state4 ,but when we leave philosophical probability1 and come to the doctrine of ,scripture1 the only ground of certainty on all such subjects1 a great number of passages are so explicit1 that no ingenuity of interpretation has been sufficient to weaken their evidence on this point4 ,one branch of the opinions that have been held concerning an intermediate state is the ,popish doctrine of purgatory2 a doctrine which appears upon the slightest inspection of the texts that have been adduced in support of it to derive no evidence from ,scripture2 which originated in the error of the church of ,rome in assigning to personal suffering a place in the justification of a sinner2 and which is completely overturned by the doctrine of justification by faith1 and by the general strain of ,scripture1 which represents this life as a state of probation1 upon our conduct during which our everlasting condition depends4 ,the holy ,lazarus is carried by angels into ,abraham's bosom2 and the rich and careless sinner lifts up his eyes in hell1 and is separated from the place of bliss by an impassable gulf4 ,this at once disproves the doctrine of purgatory1 and demonstrates an intermediate conscious state of happiness and misery4 ,,iron1 2 occurs first in ,gen4 iv1 #bb1 and afterward frequently2 and the ,chaldee 1 in ,dan4 ii1 #cc1 #da1 and elsewhere often in that book2 1 ,rev4 xviii1 #ab1 and the adjectives1 ,acts xii1 #aj2 ,rev4 ii1 #bg2 ix1 #i2 xii1 #e2 xix1 #ae2 a well known and very serviceable metal4 ,the knowledge of working it was very ancient1 as appears from ,genesis iv1 #bb4 ,we do not1 however1 find that ,moses made use of iron in the fabric of the tabernacle in the wilderness1 or ,solomon in any part of the temple at ,jerusalem4 ,yet1 from the manner in which the ,jewish legislator speaks of iron1 the metal1 it appears1 must have been in use in ,egypt before his time4 ,he celebrates the great hardness of it1 ,lev4 xxvi1 #ai2 ,deut4 xxviii1 #bc1 #dh2 takes notice that the bedstead of ,og1 king of ,bashan1 was of iron1 ,deut4 iii1 #aa2 he speaks of mines of iron1 ,deut4 viii1 #i2 and he compares the severity of the servitude of the ,israelites in ,egypt to the heat of a furnace for melting iron1 ,deut4 iv1 #bj4 ,we find1 also1 that swords1 ,num4 xxxv1 #af1 axes1 ,deut4 xix1 #e1 and tools for cutting stones1 ,deut4 xxvii1 #e1 were made of iron4 ,by the 8northern iron10 ,jer4 xv1 #ab1 we may probably understand the hardened iron1 called in ,greek 1 from the ,chalybes1 a people bordering on the ,euxine sea1 and consequently lying on the north of ,judea1 by whom the art of tempering steel is said to have been discovered4 ,strabo speaks of this people by the name of ,chalybes1 but afterward ,chaldi2 and mentions their iron mines4 ,these1 however1 were a different people from the ,chaldeans1 who were united with the ,babylonians4 ,,isaac1 the son of ,abraham and ,sarah1 was born in the year of the world #bajh4 ,his name1 which signifies laughter1 was given him by his mother1 because when it was told her by an angel that she should have a son1 and that at a time of life when1 according to the course of nature1 she was past child-bearing1 she privately laughed1 ,gen4 xviii1 #aj-ab4 ,and when the child was born she said1 8,god hath made me to laugh1 so that all that hear will laugh with me10 ,gen4 xxi1 #f4 ,the life of ,isaac1 for the first seventy-five years of it1 is so blended with that of his illustrious father1 that the principal incidents of it have been already noticed under the article ,abraham4 ,his birth was attended with some extraordinary circumstances3 it was the subject of various promises and prophecies2 an event most ardently desired by his parents1 and yet purposely delayed by ,divine ,providence till they were both advanced in years1 no doubt for the trial of their faith1 and that ,isaac might more evidently appear to be the gift of ,god1 and 8the child of promise40 ,at an early period of life he was the object of the profane contempt of ,ishmael1 the son of the bond woman1 by whom he was persecuted2 and as in the circumstances attending his birth there was something typical of the birth of ,abraham's greater ,son1 the ,messiah1 the promised ,seed2 so1 in the latter instance1 we contemplate in him a resemblance of real ,christians1 who1 as ,isaac was1 are 8the children of promise10 invested in all the immunities and blessings of the new covenant2 but1 as then1 8he that was born after the flesh persecuted him that was born after the ,spirit1 even so it is now10 ,gal4 iv1 #bi4 ,when ,isaac had arrived at a state of manhood1 he was required to give a signal proof of his entire devotedness to ,god4 ,abraham was commanded to offer up his beloved son in sacrifice1 ,genesis xxii1 #a4 ,this remarkable transaction1 so far as ,abraham was concerned in it1 has already been considered under the article ,abraham4 ,but1 if from this trial of the faith of the parent we turn our attention to the conduct of ,isaac1 the victim destined for the slaughter1 we behold an example of faith and of dutiful obedience equally conspicuous with that of his honoured parent4 ,isaac submitted1 as it should seem1 without resistance1 to be bound and laid on the altar1 exposing his body to the knife that was lifted up to destroy him4 ,how strikingly calculated is this remarkable history to direct our thoughts to a more exalted personage1 whom ,isaac prefigured2 and to a more astonishing transaction represented by that on ,mount ,moriah6 ,behold ,jesus ,christ1 that ,seed of ,abraham1 in whom all the families of the earth were to be blessed1 voluntarily going forth1 in obedience to the command of his heavenly ,father1 and laying down his life1 as a sacrifice for the sins of the world4 ,in the progress of ,isaac's history1 we find him1 in the time of his greatest activity and vigour1 a man of retired habits and of remarkable calmness of mind4 ,he appears to have been affectionately attached to his mother ,sarah1 and1 even at the age of forty1 was not insusceptible of great sorrow on occasion of her death4 ,but he allows his father to choose for him a suitable partner in life2 and ,rebekah was selected from among his own kindred1 in preference to the daughters of ,canaan1 in the midst of whom he dwelt4 ,in a few years afterward1 he who had mourned for his mother1 was called to weep over his father's grave2 and in that last act of filial duty1 it is pleasing to find the two rival brothers1 ,isaac and ,ishmael1 meeting together for the interment of ,abraham4 ,the occasion1 indeed1 was well calculated to allay all existing jealousies and contentions1 and cause every family broil to cease1 ,gen4 xxv1 #i4 ,after the death of ,abraham1 8,god blessed his son ,isaac20 but1 though the latter had now been married twenty years1 ,rebekah was childless4 8,isaac entreated the ,lord for his wife1 because she was barren2 and the ,lord was entreated of him1 and ,rebekah his wife conceived10 ,gen4 xxv1 #ba4 ,god also promised to multiply ,isaac's seed1 and his promise was fulfilled4 ,two children were born to him at one time1 concerning whom the divine purpose was declared to the mother1 and no doubt to the father also1 that 8the elder should serve the younger40 ,a famine which came upon the country in the days of ,isaac1 obliged him to remove his family and flocks and retire to ,gerar1 in the country of the ,philistines1 of which ,abimelech was at that time king4 ,the possessions of ,isaac multiplied so prodigiously1 that the inhabitants of the country became envious of him1 and even ,abimelech1 to preserve peace among them1 was under the necessity of requesting him to retire1 because he was become too powerful4 ,he accordingly withdrew1 and pitched his tent in the valley of ,gerar1 where he digged new wells1 and1 after a time1 returned to ,beersheba1 where he fixed his habitation1 ,genesis xxvi1 #a-bc4 ,here the ,lord appeared to him1 and renewed to him the covenant which he had made with ,abraham1 promising to be his ,god1 and to make him a blessing to others4 ,abimelech now sought his friendship1 and1 to form an alliance with him1 paid him a visit2 on which occasion ,isaac displayed his magnificence by a sumptuous entertainment1 ,a4 ,m4 #bbdj4 ,when he was a hundred and thirty-seven years of age1 and his sight had so failed him that he could not distinguish one of his sons from the other1 ,jacob craftily obtained from him the blessing of primogeniture4 ,yet ,isaac survived many years after this1 to him1 distressing occurrence4 ,he sent ,jacob into ,mesopotamia1 there to take a wife of his own family1 ,genesis xxviii1 #a1 #b1 and to prevent his marrying among the ,canaanites as his brother ,esau had done4 ,and when ,jacob returned1 after a lapse of twenty years1 ,isaac was still living1 and continued to live twenty-three years longer4 ,he then died at the age of a hundred and eighty years1 and was buried with ,abraham by his sons ,esau and ,jacob1 ,gen4 xxxv1 #bi4 ,see ,,esau and ,,jacob4 ,,isaiah4 ,though fifth in the order of time1 the writings of the ,prophet ,isaiah are placed first in order of the prophetical books1 principally on account of the sublimity and importance of his predictions1 and partly also because the book which bears his name is larger than all the twelve minor prophets put together4 ,concerning his family and descent1 nothing certain has been recorded1 except what he himself tells us1 ,isaiah1 i1 #a1 namely1 that he was the son of ,amos1 and discharged the prophetic office 8in the days of ,uzziah1 ,jotham1 ,ahaz1 and ,hezekiah1 kings of ,judah10 who successively flourished between ,a4 ,m4 #caid and #ccje4 ,there is a current tradition that he was of the blood royal2 and some writers have affirmed that his father ,amoz or ,amos was the son of ,joash1 and consequently brother of ,uzziah1 king of ,judah4 ,jerom1 on the authority of some rabbinical writers1 says1 that the prophet gave his daughter in marriage to ,manasseh1 king of ,judah2 but this opinion is scarcely credible1 because ,manasseh did not commence his reign until about sixty years after ,isaiah had begun to discharge his prophetic functions4 ,he must1 indeed1 have exercised the office of a prophet during a long period of time1 if he lived to the reign of ,manasseh2 for the lowest computation1 beginning from the year in which ,uzziah died1 when he is by some supposed to have received his first appointment to that office1 brings it to sixty-one years4 ,but the tradition of the ,jews1 which has been adopted by most ,christian commentators1 that he was put to death by ,manasseh1 is very uncertain2 and ,aben ,ezra1 one of the most celebrated ,jewish writers1 is rather of opinion that he died before ,hezekiah2 which ,bishop ,lowth thinks most probable4 ,it is1 however1 certain1 that he lived at least to the fifteenth or sixteenth year of ,hezekiah2 which makes the least possible term of the duration of his prophetic office to be about forty-eight years4 ,the name of ,isaiah1 as ,vitringa has remarked after several preceding commentators1 is in some measure descriptive of his high character1 since it signifies the salvation of ,jehovah2 and was given with singular propriety to him1 who foretold the advent of the ,messiah1 through whom 8all flesh shall see the salvation of ,god10 ,isa4 xl1 #e2 ,luke iii1 #f2 ,acts iv1 #ab4 ,isaiah was contemporary with the ,prophets ,amos1 ,hosea1 ,joel1 and ,micah4 ,isaiah is uniformly spoken of in the ,scriptures as a prophet of the highest dignity3 ,bishop ,lowth calls him the prince of all the prophets1 and pronounces the whole of his book to be poetical1 with the exception of a few detached passages4 ,it is remarkable1 that his wife is styled a prophetess in ,isaiah viii1 #c2 whence the rabbinical writers have concluded that she possessed the spirit of prophecy3 but it is very probable that the prophets' wives were called prophetesses1 as the priests' wives were termed priestesses1 only from the quality of their husbands4 ,although nothing farther is recorded in the ,scriptures concerning the wife of ,isaiah1 we find two of his sons mentioned in his prophecy1 who were types or figurative pledges2 and their names and actions were intended to awaken a religious attention in the persons whom they were commissioned to address and to instruct4 ,thus1 ,shear-jashub signifies1 8a remnant shall return10 and showed that the captives who should be carried to ,babylon should return thence after a certain time1 ,isaiah vii1 #c2 and ,maher-shalal-hash-baz1 which denotes1 8make speed 7or run swiftly7 to the spoil10 implied that the kingdoms of ,israel and ,syria would in a short time be ravaged1 ,isaiah viii1 #a1 #c4 ,beside the volume of prophecies1 which we are now to consider1 it appears from #b ,chron4 xxvi1 #bb1 that ,isaiah wrote an account of 8the acts of ,uzziah10 king of ,judah3 this has perished with some other writings of the prophets1 which1 as probably not written by inspiration1 were never admitted into the canon of ,scripture4 ,there are also two apocryphal books ascribed to him1 namely1 ,the ,ascension of ,isaiah1 and ,the ,apocalypse of ,isaiah2 but these are evidently forgeries of a later date1 and the ,apocalypse has long since perished4 ,the scope of ,isaiah's predictions is threefold1 namely1 #a4 ,to detect1 reprove1 aggravate1 and condemn1 the sins of the ,jewish people especially1 and also the iniquities of the ten tribes of ,israel1 and the abominations of many ,gentile nations and countries2 denouncing the severest judgments against all sorts and degrees of persons1 whether ,jews or ,gentiles4 #b4 ,to invite persons of every rank and condition1 both ,jews and ,gentiles1 to repentance and reformation1 by numerous promises of pardon and mercy4 ,it is worthy of remark1 that no such promises are intermingled with the denunciations of divine vengeance against ,babylon1 although they occur in the threatenings against every other people4 #c4 ,to comfort all the truly pious1 in the midst of all the calamities and judgments denounced against the wicked1 with prophetic promises of the true ,messiah1 which seem almost to anticipate the ,gospel history1 so clearly do they foreshow the divine character of ,christ4 ,isaiah has1 with singular propriety1 been denominated the evangelical prophet1 on account of the number and variety of his prophecies concerning the advent and character1 the ministry and preaching1 the sufferings and death1 and the extensive permanent kingdom1 of the ,messiah4 ,so explicit and determinate are his predictions1 as well as so numerous1 that he seems to speak rather of things past than of events yet future2 and he may rather be called an evangelist than a prophet4 ,no one1 indeed1 can be at a loss in applying them to the mission and character of ,jesus ,christ1 and to the events which are cited in his history by the writers of the ,new ,testament4 ,this prophet1 says ,bishop ,lowth1 abounds in such transcendent excellencies1 that he may be properly said to afford the most perfect model of prophetic poetry4 ,he is at once elegant and sublime1 forcible and ornamented2 he unites energy with copiousness1 and dignity with variety4 ,in his sentiments there is uncommon elevation and majesty2 in his imagery1 the utmost propriety1 elegance1 dignity1 and diversity2 in his language1 uncommon beauty and energy2 and1 notwithstanding the obscurity of his subjects1 a surprising degree of clearness and simplicity4 ,to these we may add1 that there is such sweetness in the poetical composition of his sentences1 whether it proceed from art or genius1 that1 if the ,hebrew poetry at present is possessed of any remains of its native grace and harmony1 we shall chiefly find them in the writings of ,isaiah3 so that the saying of ,ezekiel may most justly be applied to this prophet3-- 8,thou art the confirmed exemplar of measures1 ,full of wisdom1 and perfect in beauty40 ,ezekiel xxviii1 #ab4 ,isaiah also greatly excels in all the graces of method1 order1 connection1 and arrangement3 though in asserting this we must not forget the nature of the prophetic impulse1 which bears away the mind with irresistible violence1 and frequently in rapid transitions from near to remote objects1 from human to divine4 ,we must likewise be careful in remarking the limits of particular predictions1 since1 as they are now extant1 they are often improperly connected1 without any marks of discrimination2 which injudicious arrangement1 on some occasions1 creates almost insuperable difficulties4 ,bishop ,lowth has selected the thirty-fourth and thirty-fifth chapters of this prophet1 as a specimen of the poetic style in which ,isaiah delivers his predictions1 and has illustrated at some length the various beauties which eminently distinguish the simple1 regular1 and perfect poem contained in those chapters4 ,but the grandest specimen of his poetry is presented in the fourteenth chapter1 which is one of the most sublime odes occurring in the ,bible1 and contains the noblest personifications to be found in the records of poetry4 ,the prophet1 after predicting the liberation of the ,jews from their severe captivity in ,babylon1 and their restoration to their own country1 verses #a-c1 introduces a chorus of them1 expressing their surprise and astonishment at the sudden downfall of ,babylon1 and the great reverse of fortune that had befallen the tyrant1 who1 like his predecessors1 had oppressed his own1 and harassed the neighbouring kingdoms4 ,these oppressed kingdoms1 or their rulers1 are represented under the image of the fir trees and the cedars of ,libanus1 which is frequently used to express any thing in the political or religious world that is supereminently great and majestic3 the whole earth shouts for joy2 the cedars of ,libanus utter a severe taunt over the fallen tyrant1 and boast their security now he is no more1 verses #d-h4 ,this is followed1 verse #i1 by one of the boldest and most animated personifications of hades1 or the regions of the dead1 that was ever executed in poetry4 ,hades excites his inhabitants1 the shades of princes1 and the departed spirits of monarchs4 ,these illustrious shades rise at once from their couches as from their thrones2 and1 advancing to the entrance of the cavern to meet the king of ,babylon1 they insult and deride him on being reduced to the same low state of impotence and dissolution with themselves1 verses #aj1 #aa4 ,the ,jews now resume the speech1 verse #ab2 they address the king of ,babylon as the morning star fallen from heaven1 as the first in splendour and dignity1 in the political world fallen from his high state3 they introduce him as uttering the most extravagant vaunts of his power and ambitious designs in his former glory2 these are strongly contrasted1 in the close1 with his present low and abject condition1 verses #ac-ae4 ,immediately follows a different scene1 and a most happy image1 to diversify the same subject1 and give it a new turn and additional force4 ,certain persons are introduced1 who light upon the corpse of the king of ,babylon1 cast out and lying naked upon the bare ground1 among the common slain1 just after the taking of the city1 covered with wounds1 and so disfigured1 that it is some time before they know him4 ,they accost him with the severest taunts1 and bitterly reproach him with his destructive ambition1 and his cruel usage of the conquered2 which have deservedly brought upon him this ignominious treatment1 so different from what those of his high rank usually meet with1 and which shall cover his posterity with disgrace1 verses #af-bj4 ,to complete the whole1 ,god is introduced1 declaring the fate of ,babylon2 the utter extirpation of the royal family1 and the total desolation of the city2 the deliverance of his people1 and the destruction of their enemies2 confirming the irreversible decree by the awful sanction of his oath1 verses #ba-bg4 ,how forcible1 says ,bishop ,louth1 is this imagery1 how diversified1 how sublime6 ,how elevated the diction1 the figures1 the sentiments6 ,the ,jewish nation1 the cedars of ,lebanon1 the ghosts of departed kings1 the ,babylonish monarch1 the travellers who find his corpse1 and last of all ,jehovah himself1 are the characters which support this beautiful lyric drama4 ,one continued action is kept up1 or rather1 a series of interesting actions are connected together in an incomparable whole3 this1 indeed1 is the principal and distinguished excellence of the sublimer ode1 and is displayed in its utmost perfection in this poem of ,isaiah1 which may be considered as one of the most ancient1 and certainly one of the most finished1 specimens of that species of composition which has been transmitted to us4 ,the personifications here are frequent1 yet not confused2 bold1 yet not improbable2 a free1 elevated1 and truly divine spirit pervades the whole2 nor is there any thing wanting in this ode to defeat its claim to the character of perfect pathos and sublimity4 ,there is not a single instance in the whole compass of ,greek and ,roman poetry which1 in every excellence of composition1 can be said to equal or even to approach it4 ,,iscariot1 the name of that disciple who betrayed our ,saviour4 ,he was so called1 probably1 as belonging to ,karioth1 or ,cerioth2 that is1 a man of ,kerioth1 ,matt4 x1 #d4 ,,ishbosheth1 a son of ,king ,saul1 and his successor in the throne4 ,he was acknowledged king by a part of the tribes of ,israel1 ,a4 ,m4 #bidi1 while ,david reigned at ,hebron1 over the tribe of ,judah1 #b ,sam4 ii1 #h1 #i1 c2 iii4 ,he reigned two years in peace1 but the remaining eight years were spent in perpetual wars between his troops and those of ,david1 till in the end he perished1 and with him ended the royal dignity of the house of ,saul4 ,,ishmaelites1 the descendants of ,ishmael1 the son of ,abraham by ,hagar1 his ,egyptian bond-maid4 ,ishmael was born ,b4 ,c4 #aiaj1 and his name1 founded on a circumstance which afforded relief to his mother1 when she was wandering from her master's house toward ,egypt1 her native country1 is derived from the ,hebrew 1 formed of 1 to hear1 and 1 ,god1 and denoting1 8the ,lord hath hearkened40 ,the heavenly messenger who appeared to ,hagar in the wilderness1 and instructed her by what name to call her future son1 predicted also that he and his posterity would prove fierce and warlike1 engaged in repeated hostilities1 and yet able to maintain their independence4 ,hagar1 deriving encouragement from this circumstance1 returned to the house of ,abraham1 and was soon delivered of her promised son4 ,the father regarded ,ishmael as the heir of his wealth1 till ,sarah had the promise of her son ,isaac4 ,after the birth of ,isaac1 ,abraham was persuaded by his wife to dismiss ,hagar and her son2 and the patriarch probably provided for their subsistence in some distant situation1 where they could not encroach on the patrimony of ,isaac4 ,having wandered for some time in the wilderness of ,beersheba1 they proceeded farther to the wilderness of ,paran1 which bordered on ,arabia2 and here ,ishmael arrived at maturity1 and became an expert archer1 or a hunter and warrior4 ,in process of time his mother procured for him a wife out of ,egypt1 by whom he had twelve sons1 who eventually established themselves as the heads of so many distinct ,arabian tribes4 ,accordingly1 the descendants of ,ishmael are mentioned in history under the general name of ,arabians and ,ishmaelites4 ,of ,ishmael's personal history1 we merely learn from the sacred writings1 that he joined with his brother ,isaac in paying the last tribute of respect to the remains of their father2 and that he died at the age of a hundred and thirty-seven years1 ,b4 ,c4 #aggc1 ,gen4 xxv1 #i1 #ah4 ,his descendants1 according to the ,scripture account1 spread themselves 8from ,havilah to ,shur1 that is1 before ,egypt1 as thou goest toward ,assyria40 ,from this brief statement1 we may conjecture how far their territory extended2 for ,havilah1 according to the generality of writers1 was situated near the confluence of the ,tigris and ,euphrates1 and ,shur1 on the isthmus which separates ,arabia from ,egypt1 now called the ,isthmus of ,suez4 ,from thence we may well imagine1 that they spread themselves on both sides so far as to have taken possession of the greatest part of ,arabia2 and1 indeed1 ,josephus does not scruple to style their progenitor the founder of the ,arabian nation4 ,see ,,arabia4 ,,ishtob1 a country situated at the northern extremity of the mountains of ,gilead1 toward ,mount ,libanus1 #b ,sam4 x1 #f4 ,see ,,tob4 ,,israel1 a prince of ,god1 or prevailing1 or wrestling with ,god4 ,this is the name which the angel gave ,jacob1 after having wrestled with him all night at ,mahanaim1 or ,peniel1 ,genesis xxxii1 #a1 #b1 #bh1 #bi1 #cj2 ,hosea xii1 #d4 ,by the name of ,israel is sometimes understood the person of ,jacob1 sometimes the whole people of ,israel1 the whole race of ,jacob2 sometimes the kingdom of ,israel1 or ten tribes1 distinct from the kingdom of ,judah2 and finally1 the spiritual ,israel1 the true church of ,god4 ,,israelites1 the descendants of ,israel1 who were first called ,hebrews by reason of ,abraham1 who came from the other side of the ,euphrates2 and afterward ,israelites1 from ,israel1 the father of the twelve tribes2 and1 lastly1 ,jews1 particularly after their return from the captivity of ,babylon2 because the tribe of ,judah was then much stronger and more numerous than the other tribes1 and foreigners had scarcely any knowledge but of this tribe4 ,see ,,jews4 ,,issachar1 the fifth son of ,jacob and ,leah1 ,gen4 xxx1 #ad-ah4 ,he had four sons1 ,tola1 ,phovah1 ,job1 and ,shimron4 ,we know nothing particular of his life4 ,the tribe of ,issachar had its portion in one of the best parts of the land of ,canaan1 along the great plain or valley of ,jezreel1 with the half tribe of ,manasseh to the south1 that of ,zebulun to the north1 the ,mediterranean to the west1 and ,jordan1 with the extremity of the sea of ,tiberias1 to the east4 ,,ithamar1 ,aaron's fourth son1 ,exod4 vi1 #bc4 ,there is no probability that he ever exercised the high priesthood4 ,he and his sons continued in the rank of simple priests1 till this dignity came into his family in the person of ,eli4 ,,itur,a1 so called from ,itur1 or ,jetur1 one of the sons of ,ishmael1 who settled in it1 but whose posterity were either driven out or subdued by the ,amorites2 when it is supposed to have formed a part of the kingdom of ,bashan1 and subsequently of the half tribe of ,manasseh east of ,jordan2 but as it was situated beyond the southern spur of ,mount ,hermon1 called the ,djebel ,heish1 this is doubtful4 ,it lay on the north-eastern side of the land of ,israel1 between it and the territory of ,damascus1 or ,syria2 and is supposed to have been the same country at present known by the name of ,djedour1 on the east of the ,djebel ,heish1 between ,damascus and the lake of ,tiberias4 ,the ,iturans being subdued by ,aristobulus1 the high priest and governor of the ,jews1 ,b4 ,c4 #ajf1 were forced by him to embrace the ,jewish religion2 and were at the same time incorporated into the state4 ,philip1 one of the sons of ,herod the ,great1 was tetrarch1 or governor1 of this country when ,john the ,baptist commenced his ministry4 ,,ivory4 2 from 1 a tooth1 and 1 elephants2 1 ,rev4 xviii1 #ab4 ,the first time that ivory is mentioned in ,scripture is in the reign of ,solomon4 ,if the forty-fifth ,psalm was written before the ,canticles1 and before ,solomon had constructed his royal and magnificent throne1 then that contains the first mention of this commodity4 ,it is spoken of as used in decorating those boxes of perfume1 whose odours were employed to exhilarate the king's spirits4 ,it is probable that ,solomon1 who traded to ,india1 first brought thence elephants and ivory to ,judea4 8,for the king had at sea a navy of ,tharshish1 with the navy of ,hiram3 once in three years came the navy of ,tharshish1 bringing gold and silver1 and ivory10 #a ,kings x1 #bb2 #b ,chron4 ix1 #ba4 ,it seems that ,solomon had a throne decorated with ivory1 and inlaid with gold2 the beauty of these materials relieving the splendour1 and heightening the lustre of each other1 #a ,kings x1 #ah4 ,cabinets and wardrobes were ornamented with ivory1 by what is called marquetry1 ,psalm xlv1 #h4 ,quale per artem ,inclusum buxo aut ,oricia terebintho ,lucet ebur4 ,,virgil4 8,so shines a gem1 illustrious to behold1 ,on some fair virgin's neck1 enchased in gold3 ,so the surrounding ebon's darker hue ,improves the polish'd ivory to the view40 ,,pitt4 ,these were named 8houses of ivory10 probably because made in the form of a house1 or palace2 as the silver of ,diana1 mentioned ,acts xix1 #bd1 were in the form of her temple at ,ephesus2 and as we have now ivory models of the ,chinese pagodas1 or temples4 ,in this sense we may understand what is said of the ivory house which ,ahab made1 #a ,kings xxii1 #ci2 for the ,hebrew word translated 8house is used10 as ,dr4 ,taylor well observes1 for 8a place1 or case1 wherein any thing lieth1 is contained1 or laid up40 ,ezekiel gives the name of house to chests of rich apparel1 ,ezek4 xxvii1 #bd4 ,dr4 ,durell1 in his note on ,psalm xlv1 #h1 quotes places from ,homer and ,euripides1 where the same appropriation is made4 ,hesiod makes the same4 ,as to dwelling houses1 the most1 ,i think1 we can suppose in regard to them is1 that they might have ornaments of ivory1 as they sometimes have of gold1 silver1 or other precious materials1 in such abundance as to derive an appellation from the article of their decoration2 as the ,emperor ,nero's palace1 mentioned by ,suetonius1 was named aurea1 or 8golden10 because lita auro1 8overlaid with gold40 ,this method of ornamental buildings1 or apartments1 was very ancient among the ,greeks4 ,homer mentions ivory as employed in the palace of ,menelaus at ,lacedmon3-- 1 '1 1 ' 4 ,odyss4 iv1 #gb4 8,above1 beneath1 around the palace1 shines ,the sumless treasure of exhausted mines2 ,the spoils of elephants the roof inlay1 ,and studded amber darts a golden ray40 ,bacchylides1 cited by ,athenus1 says1 that1 in the island of ,ceos1 one of the ,cyclades1 the houses of the great men 8glister with gold and ivory40 ,,jabbok1 a small river which falls into the ,jordan below the sea of ,tiberias4 ,near this brook the angel wrestled with ,jacob1 ,gen4 xxxii1 #bb4 ,mr4 ,buckingham thus describes it3 8,the banks of this stream are so thickly wooded with oleander and plane trees1 wild olives1 and wild almonds in blossom1 with many flowers1 the names of which were unknown to us2 with tall and waving reeds1 at least fifteen feet in height2 that we could not perceive the water through them from above1 though the presence of these luxuriant borders marked the winding of its course1 and the murmur of its flow1 echoing through its long deep channel1 was to be heard distinctly from afar4 ,on this side of the stream1 at the spot where we forded it1 was a piece of wall1 solidly built upon the inclined slope1 constructed in a uniform manner1 though of small stones1 and apparently finished at the end toward the river1 so that it never could have been carried across1 as we at first supposed1 either for a bridge1 or to close the pass4 ,this was called by the ,arabs #8,shugl beni ,israel1' or the work of the sons of ,israel2 but they knew of no other traditions regarding it4 ,the river1 where we crossed it at this point1 was not more than ten yards wide1 but it was deeper than the ,jordan1 and nearly as rapid2 so that we had some difficulty in fording it4 ,as it ran in a rocky bed1 its waters were clear1 and we found their taste agreeable40 ,,jabesh1 or ,,jabesh-,,gilead1 the name of a city in the half tribe of ,manasseh1 east of ,jordan4 ,naash1 king of the ,ammonites1 besieged it1 #a ,sam4 xi1 #a1 c4 ,the inhabitants were friendly to ,saul and his family1 #a ,sam4 xxxi1 #aa1 #ab4 ,,jachin1 the name of a pillar in ,solomon's temple1 #a ,kings vii1 #ba4 ,see ,,boaz4 ,,jacob1 the son of ,isaac and ,rebekah4 ,he was the younger brother of ,esau1 and a twin4 ,it was observed1 that at his birth he held his brother ,esau's heel1 and for this reason was called ,jacob1 ,gen4 xxv1 #bf1 which signifies 8he supplanted40 ,jacob was of a meek and peaceable temper1 and loved a quiet pastoral life2 whereas ,esau was of a fierce and turbulent nature1 and was fond of hunting4 ,isaac had a particular fondness for ,esau2 but ,rebekah was more attached to ,jacob4 ,the manner in which ,jacob purchased his brother's birthright for a mess of pottage1 and supplanted him by obtaining ,isaac's blessing1 is already referred to in the article ,,esau4 ,the events of the interesting and chequered life of ,jacob are so plainly and consecutively narrated by ,moses1 that they are familiar to all2 but upon some of them a few remarks may be useful4 ,as to the purchase of the birthright1 ,jacob appears to have been innocent so far as any guile on his part or real necessity from hunger on the part of ,esau is involved in the question2 but his obtaining the ratification of this by the blessing of ,isaac1 though agreeable1 indeed1 to the purpose of ,god1 that the elder should serve the younger1 was blamable as to the means employed4 ,the remarks of ,dr4 ,hales on this transaction implicate ,isaac also3--,thirty-seven years after1 when ,jacob was seventy-seven years old1 according to ,abulfaragi1 and ,isaac a hundred and thirty-seven1 when he was old1 and his sight had failed1 and he expected soon to die1 his partiality for ,esau led him to attempt to set aside the oracle1 and the cession of ,esau's birthright to ,jacob1 by conferring on him the blessing of ,abraham1 in reward for bringing him savoury venison to eat1 before his death4 ,in this design1 however1 he was disappointed by the artifice of ,rebekah1 who dressed her favourite ,jacob in his brother's clothes1 and made him personate ,esau1 and thereby surreptitiously obtained for him the blessing3 8,let people serve thee1 and nations bow down to thee3 be lord over thy brethren1 and let thy mother's sons bow down to thee3 cursed be every one that curseth thee1 and blessed be he that blesseth thee10 ,gen4 xxvii1 #a-bi4 ,it is remarkable that1 notwithstanding the agitation of ,isaac1 when 8he trembled very exceedingly10 at the detection of the fraud1 he did not attempt to rescind the blessing1 nor transfer it to ,esau2 but1 on the contrary1 confirmed it on ,jacob3 8,yea1 and he shall be blessed40 ,his wishes were overruled and controlled by that higher power which he vainly endeavoured to counteract2 and that he spoke as the ,spirit gave him utterance1 appears from his prediction respecting ,esau's family3 8,and it shall come to pass1 when thou shalt have the dominion1 that thou shalt break thy brother's yoke from off thy neck10 ,gen4 xxvii1 #dj2 which was fulfilled in the days of ,jehoram1 king of ,judah1 when 8the ,edomites revolted from under the dominion of ,judah1 and made themselves a king unto this day10 #b ,chron4 xxi1 #h-aj4 ,according to this view1 all the parties were more or less culpable2 ,isaac1 for endeavouring to set aside the oracle which had been pronounced in favour of his younger son2 but of which he might have an obscure conception2 ,esau1 for wishing to deprive his brother of the blessing which he had himself relinquished2 and ,rebekah and ,jacob1 for securing it by fraudulent means1 not trusting wholly in the ,lord4 ,that their principal object1 however1 was the spiritual part of the blessing1 and not the temporal1 was shown by the event4 ,for ,jacob afterward reverenced ,esau as his elder brother1 and insisted on ,esau's accepting a present from his band in token of submission1 ,gen4 xxxiii1 #c-ae4 ,esau also appears to have possessed himself of his father's property during ,jacob's long exile4 ,but though the intention of ,rebekah and ,jacob might have been free from worldly or mercenary motives1 they ought not to have done evil that good might come4 ,and they were both severely punished in this life for their fraud1 which destroyed the peace of the family1 and planted a mortal enmity in the breast of ,esau against his brother3 8,is he not rightly named ,jacob80 a supplanter2 8for he hath supplanted me these two times3 he took away my birthright1 and lo1 now he hath taken away my blessing4 ,the days of mourning for my father are at hand2 then will ,i slay my brother ,jacob10 ,gen4 xxvii1 #cf-da4 ,and there can be little doubt of his intention of executing his threat1 when he came to meet him on his return1 with such an armed force as strongly alarmed ,jacob's fears1 had not ,god changed the spirit of ,esau into mildness1 so that 8he ran to meet ,jacob1 and fell on his neck1 and they wept10 ,gen4 xxxiii1 #d4 ,rebekah1 also1 was deprived of the society of her darling son1 whom 8she sent away for one year10 as she fondly imagined1 8until his brother's fury should turn away10 ,genesis xxvii1 #db-dd2 but whom she saw no more2 for she died during his long exile of twenty years1 though ,isaac survived1 ,gen4 xxxv1 #bg4 ,thus was 8she pierced through with many sorrows40 ,jacob1 also1 had abundant reason to say1 8,few and evil have been the days of the years of my pilgrimage10 ,gen4 xlvii1 #i4 ,though he had the consolation of having the blessing of ,abraham voluntarily renewed to him by his father1 before he was forced to fly from his brother's fury1 ,gen4 xxviii1 #a-d1 and had the satisfaction of obeying his parents in going to ,padan-aram1 or ,charran1 in quest of a wife of his own kindred1 ,gen4 xxviii1 #g2 yet he set out on a long and perilous journey of six hundred miles and upward1 through barren and inhospitable regions1 unattended and unprovided1 like a pilgrim1 indeed1 with only his staff in his hand1 ,gen4 xxxii1 #aj4 ,and though he was supported with the assurance of the divine protection1 and the renewal of the blessing of ,abraham by ,god himself1 in his remarkable vision at ,bethel1 and solemnly devoted himself to his service1 wishing only for food and raiment1 and vowing to profess the worship of ,god1 and pay tithe unto him should he return back in peace1 ,gen4 xxviii1 #aj-bb2 yet he was forced to engage in a tedious and thankless servitude of seven years1 at first for ,rachel1 with ,laban1 who retaliated upon him the imposition he had practised on his own father2 and substituted ,leah1 whom he hated1 for ,rachel1 whom he loved2 and thereby compelled him to serve seven years more2 and changed his wages several times during the remainder of his whole servitude of twenty years2 in the course of which1 as he pathetically complained1 8the drought consumed him by day1 and the frost by night1 and the sleep departed from his eyes10 in watching ,laban's flocks1 ,gen4 xxxi1 #dj2 and at last he was forced to steal away1 and was only protected from ,laban's vengeance1 as afterward from ,esau's1 by divine interposition4 ,add to these his domestic troubles and misfortunes2 the impatience of his favourite wife1 8,give me children1 or ,i die20 her death in bearing her second son1 ,benjamin2 the rape of his daughter ,dinah2 the perfidy and cruelty of her brothers1 ,simeon and ,levi1 to the ,shechemites2 the misbehaviour of ,reuben2 the supposed death of ,joseph1 his favourite and most deserving son3--these were1 all together1 sufficient to have brought down his gray hairs with sorrow to the grave1 had he not been divinely supported and encouraged throughout the whole of his pilgrimage4 ,for the circumstances which led ,jacob into ,egypt1 see ,,joseph4 ,when ,jacob1 at the invitation of ,joseph1 went down to ,egypt1 ,joseph introduced his father to his royal master2 and the patriarch1 in his priestly character1 blessed ,pharaoh1 and supplicated the divine favour for the king4 ,the venerable appearance and the pious demeanour of ,jacob led the monarch to inquire his years2 to which he replied1 8,the days of the years of my pilgrimage are a hundred and thirty years3 few and evil have the days of the years of my life been2 and ,i have not attained unto the days of the years of the life of my fathers in the days of their pilgrimage40 ,this answer of the patriarch was not the language of discontent1 but the solemn reflection of a man who had experienced a large share of trouble1 and who knew that the whole of human life is indeed but 8a vain show10 ,genesis xlvii1 #a-aj4 ,jacob spent the remainder of his days in tranquillity and prosperity1 enjoying the society of his beloved child seventeen years4 ,the close of his life was a happy calm1 after a stormy voyage4 ,the patriarch1 perceiving that his dissolution was near1 sent for ,joseph1 and bound him by a solemn promise to bury him with his fathers in ,canaan4 ,shortly after this1 ,jacob was taken ill1 and it being reported to ,joseph1 he hastened to the bedside of his father1 taking with him his two sons1 ,manasseh and ,ephraim4 ,on hearing that his son was come1 ,jacob exerted all his strength1 and sat up in his bed to receive him1 and to impart that blessing which1 in the spirit of prophecy1 he was commissioned to bequeath4 ,he next blessed the infant children of ,joseph2 but1 as he placed his hands upon their heads1 he crossed them1 putting his right upon ,ephraim the younger1 and his left upon ,manasseh the elder4 ,joseph wished to correct the mistake of his father1 but ,jacob persisted1 being guided by a divine impulse2 and he gave to each of the lads a portion in ,israel1 at the same time declaring that the younger should be greater than the elder1 ,gen4 xlviii1 #bb4 ,when this interview was ended1 ,jacob caused all his sons to assemble round his dying bed1 that he might inform them what would befall them in the last days1 ,gen4 xlix1 #a1 #b4 ,of all the predictions which he pronounced with his expiring breath1 the most remarkable and the most interesting is that relating to ,judah3 8,the sceptre shall not depart from ,judah1 nor a lawgiver from between his feet1 until ,shiloh come2 and unto him shall the gathering of the people be10 ,gen4 xlix1 #aj4 ,one grand personage was in the mind of the patriarch1 as it had been in the contemplation of his predecessors1 even the illustrious ,deliverer who should arise in after ages to redeem his people1 and bring salvation to the human race4 ,the promised ,seed was the constant object of faithful expectation2 and all the patriarchal ordinances1 institutions1 and predictions1 had an allusion1 positive or incidental1 to the ,messiah4 ,hitherto the promise was confined generally to ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 that from them the glorious blessing should arise2 but now1 under the divine direction1 the dying patriarch foretels in what tribe1 and at what period1 the great ,restorer shall come4 ,the sovereign authority was to continue in the possession of ,judah1 till from that tribe ,shiloh should appear1 and then the royalty must cease4 ,this was fulfilled2 for the tribe of ,judah possessed legislative power till the time of ,christ1 and from that period the ,jewish people have neither had dominion nor priesthood4 ,jesus ,christ1 therefore1 must either be the true ,shiloh1 or the prophecy has failed2 for the ,jews cannot prove that they have had any thing like temporal power since his crucifixion4 ,when they were so clamorous for the execution of ,jesus1 and ,pilate told them to take the law into their own hands1 they shrunk fearfully from the proposal1 and acknowledged their slavish state by saying1 8,it is not lawful for us to put any man to death10 ,john xviii1 #ca4 ,here1 then1 we have a glorious proof of the veracity of ,scripture1 and an incontestible evidence of the truth of our religion4 ,when ,jacob had finished blessing his sons1 he charged them to bury him in the cave of ,machpelah1 with ,abraham and ,isaac1 and1 8gathering his feet into the bed1 he yielded up the ghost1 and was gathered unto his people10 ,gen4 xlix1 #cc4 ,joseph1 having closed the eyes of his father1 and wept over him1 commanded the physicians to embalm the body4 ,after a general mourning of seventy days1 he solicited the king's permission to go with the remains of ,jacob into ,canaan1 to which ,pharaoh consented2 and with ,joseph went up all the state officers and principal nobility of ,egypt1 so that when they came to the place of interment1 the ,canaanites were astonished1 and said1 8,this is a grievous mourning to the ,egyptians10 ,gen4 l1 #a-aa4 ,,jacobites1 a denomination of eastern ,christians1 who first made their appearance in the fifth century1 and were called ,monophysites4 ,jacob ,albardai1 or ,baradus1 who flourished about ,a4 ,d4 #ecj1 restored the sect1 then almost expiring1 to its former vigour1 and modelled it anew2 and hence from him they obtained the name of ,jacobites4 ,see ,,hypostatical ,,union4 ,,jacob's ,,well1 or fountain1 a well near ,shechem1 at which our ,saviour conversed with the woman of ,samaria1 ,john iv1 #ab4 ,jacob dwelt near this place1 before his sons slew the inhabitants of ,shechem4 ,if any thing1 says ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke1 connected with the remembrance of past ages be calculated to awaken local enthusiasm1 the land around this city is preminently entitled to consideration4 ,the sacred story of events transacted in the fields of ,sichem1 ,gen4 xxxvii1 from our earliest years1 is remembered with delight2 but with the territory before our eyes1 where those events took place1 and in the view of objects existing as they were described above three thousand years ago1 the grateful impression kindles into ecstacy4 ,along the valley may still be seen1 as in the days of ,reuben and ,judah1 8a company of ,ishmaelites coming from ,gilead1 with their camels bearing spicery1 and balm1 and myrrh10 who would gladly purchase another ,joseph of his brethren1 and convey him as a slave to some ,potiphar in ,egypt4 ,upon the hills around1 flocks and herds are seen feeding as of old2 nor in the simple garb of the shepherds of ,samaria1 at this day1 is there any thing repugnant to the notions we may entertain of the appearance formerly presented by the sons of ,jacob4 ,in the time of ,alexander the ,great1 ,sichem1 or ,napolose1 as it is now called1 was considered as the capital of ,samaria4 ,its inhabitants were called ,samaritans1 not merely as people of ,samaria1 but as a sect at variance with the ,jews2 and they have continued to maintain their peculiar tenets to this day4 ,the inhabitants1 according to ,procopius1 were much favoured by the ,emperor ,justinian1 who restored their sanctuaries1 and added largely to the edifices of the city4 ,the principal object of veneration among them is ,jacob's well1 over which a church was formerly erected4 ,this is situated at a small distance from the town in the road to ,jerusalem1 and has been visited by pilgrims of all ages1 but particularly since the ,christian era1 as the place where ,christ revealed himself to the woman of ,samaria4 ,the spot is so distinctly marked by the evangelist1 ,john iv1 and so little liable to uncertainty from the circumstance of the well itself1 and the features of the country1 that1 if no tradition existed to identify it1 the site of it could scarcely be mistaken4 ,perhaps no ,christian scholar ever read the fourth chapter of ,st4 ,john's ,gospel attentively1 without being struck with the numerous internal evidences of truth which crowd upon the mind in its perusal4 ,within so small a compass1 it is impossible to find in other writings so many sources of reflection and of interest4 ,independently of its importance as a theological document1 it concentrates so much information1 that a volume might be filled with the illustration it reflects upon the history of the ,jews1 and upon the geography of their country4 ,all that can be gathered from ,josephus on these subjects seems to be as a comment to illustrate this chapter4 ,the journey of our ,lord from ,judea into ,galilee2 the cause of it2 his passage through the territory of ,samaria2 his approach to the metropolis of that country2 its name2 his arrival at the ,amorite field1 which terminates the narrow valley of ,sichem2 the ancient custom of halting at a well2 the female employment of drawing water2 the disciples sent into the city for food1 by which its situation out of the town is so obviously implied2 the question of the woman referring to existing prejudices which separated the ,jews from the ,samaritans2 the depth of the well2 the oriental allusion contained in the expression1 8living water20 the history of the well1 and the customs illustrated by it2 the worship upon ,mount ,gerizim3--all these occur within the space of twenty verses2 and if to these be added that remarkable circumstance mentioned in the fifty-first verse of the chapter1 where it is stated that 8as he was now going down1 his servants met him10 his whole route from ,cana being a continual descent toward ,capernaum1 we may consider it as a record1 signally confirmed in its veracity by circumstances which remain in indelible character1 to give them evidence1 to this day4 ,,jah1 one of the names of ,god1 which we meet with in the composition of many ,hebrew words2 as1 ,adonijah1 ,allelujah1 ,malachiah2 that is1 8,my ,lord10 ,praise the ,lord10 8,the ,lord is my ,king40 ,,jair1 of the family of ,manasseh4 ,he possessed a large canton beyond ,jordan2 the whole country of ,argob1 as far as the borders of ,geshur and ,maachathi1 ,judges x1 #c4 ,he succeeded ,tola in the judicature or government of the ,israelites1 and was himself succeeded by ,jephthah4 ,his government continued twenty-two years2 from ,a4 ,m4 #bgie to #bhag4 ,jair had thirty sons1 who rode on asses1 and were lords or governors of thirty towns1 called ,havoth-jair4 ,he was buried at ,camon beyond ,jordan4 ,,james1 1 of the same import as ,jacob4 ,james1 surnamed the greater or1 the elder1 to distinguish him from ,james the younger1 was brother to ,john the evangelist1 and son to ,zebedee and ,salome1 ,matt4 iv1 #ba4 ,he was of ,bethsaida1 in ,galilee1 and left all to follow ,christ4 ,salome requested our ,saviour1 that her two sons1 ,james and ,john1 might sit at his right hand1 when he should be in possession of his kingdom4 ,our ,saviour answered1 that it belonged to his heavenly ,father alone to dispose of these places of honour1 ,matt4 xx1 #ba4 ,before their vocation1 ,james and ,john followed the trade of fishermen with their father ,zebedee2 and they did not quit their profession till our ,saviour called them1 ,mark i1 #ah1 #ai4 ,they were witnesses of our ,lord's transfiguration1 ,matt4 xvii1 #b4 ,when certain ,samaritans refused to admit ,jesus ,christ1 ,james and ,john wished for fire from heaven to consume them1 ,luke ix1 #ed2 and for this reason1 it is thought1 the name of ,boanerges1 or sons of thunder1 was given them4 ,some days after the resurrection of our ,saviour1 ,james and ,john went to fish in the sea of ,tiberias1 where they saw ,jesus4 ,they were present at the ascension of our ,lord4 ,st4 ,james is said to have preached to all the dispersed tribes of ,israel2 but for this there is only report4 ,his martyrdom is related1 ,acts xii1 #a1 #b1 about ,a4 ,d4 #db1 or #dd1 for the date is not well ascertained4 ,herod ,agrippa1 king of the ,jews1 and grandson of ,herod the ,great1 caused him to be seized and executed at ,jerusalem4 ,clemens ,alexandrinus informs us1 that he who brought ,st4 ,james before the judges was so much affected with his constancy in confessing ,jesus ,christ1 that he also declared himself a ,christian1 and was condemned1 as well as the ,apostle1 to be beheaded4 ,,james ,,the ,,less1 surnamed the brother of our ,lord1 ,gal4 i1 #ai1 was the son of ,cleophas1 otherwise called ,alpheus1 and ,mary1 sister to the blessed virgin2 consequently1 he was cousin-german to ,jesus ,christ4 ,he was surnamed the ,just1 on account of the admirable holiness and purity of his life4 ,he is said to have been a priest1 and to have observed the laws of the ,nazarites from his birth4 ,our ,saviour appeared to ,james the less1 eight days after his resurrection1 #a ,cor4 xv1 #g4 ,he was at ,jerusalem1 and was considered as a pillar of the church1 when ,st4 ,paul first came thither after his conversion1 ,gal4 i1 #ai1 ,a4 ,d4 #cg4 ,in the council of ,jerusalem1 held in the year #ea1 ,st4 ,james gave his vote last2 and the result of the council was principally formed from what ,st4 ,james said1 who1 though he observed the ceremonies of the law1 and was careful that others should observe them1 was of opinion1 that such a yoke was not to be imposed on the faithful converted from among the ,heathens1 ,acts xv1 #ac1 c4 ,james the less was a person of great prudence and discretion1 and was highly esteemed by the ,apostles and other ,christians4 ,such1 indeed1 was his general reputation for piety and virtue1 that1 as we learn1 from ,origen1 ,eusebius1 and ,jerom1 ,josephus thought1 and declared it to be the common opinion1 that the sufferings of the ,jews1 and the destruction of their city and temple1 were owing to the anger of ,god1 excited by the murder of ,james4 ,this must be considered as a strong and remarkable testimony to the character of this ,apostle1 as it is given by a person who did not believe that ,jesus was the ,christ4 ,the passages of ,josephus1 referred to by those fathers upon this subject1 are not found in his works now extant4 ,,james1 ,,general ,,epistle ,,of4 ,clement of ,rome and ,hermas allude to this epistle2 and it is quoted by ,origen1 ,eusebius1 ,athanasius1 ,jerom1 ,chrysostom1 ,augustine1 and many other fathers4 ,but though the antiquity of this epistle had been always undisputed1 some few formerly doubted its right to be admitted into the canon4 ,eusebius says1 that in his time it was generally1 though not universally1 received as canonical2 and publicly read in most1 but not in all1 churches2 and ,estius affirms1 that after the fourth century1 no church or ecclesiastical writer is found who ever doubted its authenticity2 but that1 on the contrary1 it is included in all subsequent catalogues of canonical ,scripture1 whether published by councils1 churches1 or individuals4 ,it has1 indeed1 been the uniform tradition of the church1 that this epistle was written by ,james the ,just2 but it was not universally admitted till after the fourth century1 that ,james the ,just was the same person as ,james the less1 one of the twelve ,apostles2 that point being ascertained1 the canonical authority of this epistle was no longer doubted4 ,it is evident that this epistle could not have been written by ,james the elder1 for he was beheaded by ,herod ,agrippa in the year #dd1 and the errors and vices reproved in this epistle show it to be of a much later date2 and the destruction of ,jerusalem is also here spoken of as being very near at hand1 ,james v1 #h1 #i4 ,it has always been considered as a circumstance very much in favour of this epistle1 that it is found in the ,syriac version1 which was made as early as the end of the first century1 and for the particular use of converted ,jews1--the very description of persons to whom it was originally addressed4 ,hence we infer1 that it was from the first acknowledged by those for whose instruction it was intended2 and 8,i think10 says ,dr4 ,doddridge1 8it can hardly be doubted but they were better judges of the question of its authenticity than the ,gentiles1 to whom it was not written2 among whom1 therefore1 it was not likely to be propagated so early2 and who at first might be prejudiced against it1 because it was inscribed to the ,jews40 ,the immediate design of this epistle was to animate the ,jewish ,christians to support with fortitude and patience any sufferings to which they might be exposed1 and to enforce the genuine doctrine and practice of the ,gospel1 in opposition to the errors and vices which then prevailed among them4 ,st4 ,james begins by showing the benefits of trials and afflictions1 and by assuring the ,jewish ,christians that ,god would listen to their sincere prayers for assistance and support2 he reminds them of their being the distinguished objects of divine favour1 and exhorts them to practical religion2 to a just and impartial regard for the poor1 and to a uniform obedience to all the commands of ,god1 without any distinction or exception2 he shows the inefficacy of faith without works1 that is1 unless followed by moral duties2 he inculcates the necessity of a strict government of the tongue1 and cautions them against censoriousness1 strife1 malevolence1 pride1 indulgence of their sensual passions1 and rash judgment2 he denounces threats against those who make an improper use of riches2 he intimates the approaching destruction of ,jerusalem2 and concludes with exhortations to patience1 devotion1 and a solicitous concern for the salvation of others4 ,this epistle is written with great perspicuity and energy1 and it contains an excellent summary of those practical duties and moral virtues which are required of ,christians4 ,although the author wrote to the ,jews dispersed throughout the world1 yet the state of his native land passed more immediately before his eyes4 ,its final overthrow was approaching2 and oppressions1 factions1 and violent scenes troubled all ranks1 and involved some professing ,christians in suffering1 others in guilt4 ,,jannes and ,,jambres1 or1 as ,pliny calls them1 ,jamne and ,jotape1 two magicians1 who resisted ,moses in ,egypt1 #b ,tim4 iii1 #h4 ,he speaks1 likewise1 of the faction or sect of magicians1 of which1 he says1 ,moses1 ,jannes1 and ,jocabel1 or ,jopata1 were heads4 ,by this last word he meant probably the patriarch ,joseph1 whom the ,egyptians considered as one of their most celebrated sages4 ,the ,mussulmans have several particulars to the same purpose4 ,the paraphrast ,jonathan says they were the sons of ,balaam1 who accompanied him to ,balak1 king of ,moab4 ,they are called by several names in several translations2 by the ,septuagint1 1 poisoners1 and 1 enchanters2 by ,sulpitius ,severus1 ,chaldans1 that is1 astrologers2 by others1 sapientes and malefici1 wise men1 that is1 so esteemed among the ,egyptians1 philosophers1 and witches4 ,artapanus tells us1 that ,pharaoh sent for magicians from ,upper ,egypt to oppose ,moses4 ,ambrosiaster1 or ,hilary1 the deacon1 says they were brothers4 ,he cites a book entitled 8,jannes and ,mambres10 which is likewise quoted by ,origen1 and ranked as apocryphal by ,pope ,gelasius4 ,some of the ,hebrews call them ,janes and ,jambres2 others1 ,jochana and ,mamr1 or ,jonas and ,jombros4 ,jerom translates their names ,johannes and ,mambres2 and there is a tradition1 they say1 in the ,talmud1 that ,juhanni and ,mamr1 chief of ,pharaoh's physicians1 said to ,moses1 8,thou bringest straw into ,egypt where abundance of corn grew20 that is1 to bring your magical arts hither is to as much purpose as to bring water to the ,nile4 ,some say their names are the same as ,john and ,ambrose4 ,some will have it that they fled away with their father2 others1 that they were drowned in the ,red ,sea with the ,egyptians2 others1 that they were killed by ,phinehas in the war against the ,midianites4 ,numenius1 cited by ,aristobulus1 says that ,jannes and ,jambres were sacred scribes of the ,egyptians1 who excelled in magic at the time when the ,jews were driven out of ,egypt4 ,see ,,plagues ,,of ,,egypt4 ,,jansenists1 a denomination of ,roman ,catholics in ,france1 which was formed in the year #afdj4 ,they follow the opinions of ,jansenius1 bishop of ,ypres1 from whose writings the following propositions are said to have been extracted3--#a4 ,that there are divine precepts which good men1 notwithstanding their desire to observe them1 are1 nevertheless1 absolutely unable to obey2 nor has ,god given them that measure of grace which is essentially necessary to render them capable of such obedience4 #b4 ,that no person1 in this corrupt state of nature1 can resist the influence of divine grace1 when it operates upon the mind4 #c4 ,that1 in order to render human actions meritorious1 it is not requisite that they be exempt from necessity2 but that they be free from constraint4 #d4 ,that the ,semi-,pelagians err greatly1 in maintaining that the human will is endowed with the power of either receiving or resisting the aids and influences of preventing grace4 #e4 ,that whoever affirms that ,jesus ,christ made expiation1 by his sufferings and death1 for the sins of all mankind1 is a ,semi-,pelagian4 ,of these propositions1 ,pope ,innocent ,x4 condemned the first four as heretical1 and the last as rash and impious4 ,but he did this without asserting that these were the doctrines of ,jansenius1 or even naming him2 which did not satisfy his adversaries1 nor silence him4 ,the next pope1 however1 ,alexander ,,vii4 was more particular1 and determined the said propositions to be the doctrines of ,jansenius2 which excited no small trouble in the ,gallican church4 ,this denomination was also distinguished from many of the ,roman ,catholics1 by their maintaining that the ,holy ,scriptures and public liturgies should be given to the people in their mother tongue2 and they consider it as a matter of importance to inculcate upon all ,christians1 that true piety does not consist in the performance of external devotions1 but in inward holiness and divine love4 ,as to ,jansenius1 it must be confessed that he was more diligent in the search of truth1 than courageous in its defence4 ,it is said that he read through the whole of ,st4 ,augustine's works ten1 and some parts thirty1 times4 ,from these he made a number of excerpta1 extracts1 which he collected in his book called 8,augustinus40 ,this he had not the courage to publish2 but it was printed after his death1 and from it his enemies1 the ,jesuits1 extracted the propositions above named2 but the correctness and fidelity of their extracts may be justly questioned4 ,jansenius himself1 undoubtedly1 held the opinions of ,calvin on unconditional election1 though he seems to have been reserved in avowing them4 ,the ,jansenists of ,port ,royal may be denominated the evangelical party of the ,catholic church3 among their number were the famous ,father ,quesnel1 ,pierre ,nicole1 ,pascal1 ,de ,sacy1 ,duguet1 and ,arnauld2 the last of whom is styled by ,boileau1 8the most learned mortal that ever lived40 ,they consecrated all their great powers to the service of the cross2 and for their attachment to the grand article of the ,protestant reformation1--justification by faith1 with other capital doctrines1 they suffered the loss of all things4 ,the ,jesuits1 their implacable enemies1 never ceased until they prevailed upon their sovereign1 ,louis ,,xiv4 to destroy the abbey of ,port ,royal1 and banish its inhabitants4 ,it must be confessed1 however1 that all the ,jansenists were not like the eminent men whom we have just mentioned2 and even these were tinged with enthusiasm and superstition4 ,some of them even pretended to work miracles1 by which their cause was greatly injured4 ,,japheth1 the son of ,noah1 who is commonly named the third in order of ,noah's sons1 was born in the five hundredth year of that patriarch1 ,genesis v1 #cb2 but ,moses1 ,genesis x1 #ba1 says expressly he was the oldest of ,noah's sons1 according to our translation1 and those of the ,septuagint and ,symmachus4 ,abraham was named the first of ,terah's sons1 8not from primogeniture1 but from preminence10 as the father of the faithful1 and the illustrious ancestor of the ,israelites1 and of the ,jews1 whose 8seed was ,christ10 according to the flesh2 with whose history the ,old ,testament properly commences3 8,now these are the generations of ,terah10 c1 ,gen4 xi1 #bg2 all the preceding parts of ,genesis being only introductory to this4 ,by the same analogy1 ,shem1 the second son of ,noah1 is placed first of his three sons1 ,gen4 v1 #cb1 and ,japheth1 8the eldest10 last4 ,compare ,gen4 x1 #ba2 xi1 #bj4 ,thus ,isaac is put before ,ishmael1 though fourteen years younger1 #a ,chron4 i1 #bh4 ,and ,solomon1 the eldest1 is reckoned the last of ,bathsheba's children1 #a ,chron4 iii1 #e4 ,japheth signifies enlargement2 and how wonderfully did ,providence enlarge the boundaries of ,japheth6 ,his posterity diverged eastward and westward2 from the original settlement in ,armenia1 through the whole extent of ,asia1 north of the great range of ,taurus1 distinguished by the general names of ,tartary and ,siberia1 as far as the ,eastern ,ocean3 and in process of time1 by an easy passage across ,behring's straits1 the entire continent of ,america2 and they spread in the opposite direction1 throughout the whole of ,europe1 to the ,atlantic ,ocean2 thus literally encompassing the earth1 within the precincts of the northern temperate zone4 ,while the enterprising and warlike genius of this hardy hunter race frequently led them to encroach on the settlements1 and to dwell in 8the tents of ,shem10 whose pastoral occupations rendered them more inactive1 peaceable1 and unwarlike2 as when the ,scythians invaded ,media1 and overran western ,asia southwards1 as far as ,egypt1 in the days of ,cyaxares2 and when the ,greeks1 and afterward the ,romans1 subdued the ,assyrians1 ,medes1 and ,persians1 in the east1 and the ,scythians and ,jews in the south1 as foretold by the ,assyrian ,prophet ,balaam3 8,and ships shall come from the coast of ,chittim1 ,and shall afflict the ,assyrians1 and afflict the ,hebrews2 ,but he the invader shall perish himself at last40 ,numb4 xxiv1 #bd4 ,and by ,moses3 8,and the ,lord shall bring thee the ,jews into ,egypt or bondage again with ships10 c1 ,deut4 xxviii1 #bh4 ,and by ,daniel3 8,for the ships of ,chittim shall come against him0 ,antiochus1 king of ,syria1 ,dan4 xi1 #cj4 ,in these passages ,chittim denotes the southern coasts of ,europe1 bordering on the ,mediterranean ,sea1 called the 8isles of the ,gentiles10 ,gen4 x1 #e4 ,and1 in later times1 the ,tartars in the east have repeatedly invaded and subdued the ,hindoos and ,chinese2 while the warlike and enterprising genius of the ,british isles has spread their colonies1 their arms1 their arts1 and their language1 and1 in some measure1 their religion1 from the rising to the setting sun4 ,the sons of ,japheth were ,gomer1 ,magog1 ,madai1 ,javan1 ,tubal1 ,meshech1 and ,tiras4 ,the ,scripture says1 that they peopled the isles of the ,gentiles1 and settled in different countries1 each according to his language1 family1 and people1 ,genesis x1 #e4 ,it is supposed that ,gomer peopled ,galatia1 and that from him the ,cimmerians1 or ,cimbrians1 and also the ,phrygians1 derived their origin2 that ,magog was the father of the ,scythians1 and ,tartars1 or ,tatars2 that ,madai was the progenitor of the ,medes1 though some make him the founder of a people in ,macedonia1 called ,macdi2 that from ,javan sprung the ,ionians and ,greeks2 that ,tubal was the father of the ,iberians1 and that at least a part of ,spain was peopled by him and his descendants2 that ,meshech was the founder of the ,cappadocians1 from whom proceeded the ,muscovites1 or ,russians2 and that from ,tiras the ,thracians derived their origin4 ,japheth was known1 by profane authors1 under the name of ,japetus4 ,the poets make him father of heaven and earth4 ,the ,greeks believed that ,japheth was the father of their race1 and acknowledged nothing more ancient than him4 ,,jar1 the ,hebrew month which answers to our ,april4 ,it consisted but of twenty-nine days4 ,,jasper1 1 ,exod4 xxviii1 #bj2 xxxix1 #ac2 and ,ezek4 xxviii1 #ac2 1 ,rev4 iv1 #c1 and xxi1 #aa1 #ah1 #ai4 ,the ,greek and ,latin name1 jaspis1 as well as the ,english jasper1 is plainly derived from the ,hebrew1 and leaves little room to doubt what species of gem is meant by the original word4 ,the jasper is usually defined1 a hard stone1 of a bright1 beautiful1 green colour2 sometimes clouded with white1 and spotted with red or yellow4 ,,javan1 or ,,ion1 7for the ,hebrew word1 differently pointed1 forms both names17 was the fourth son of ,japheth1 and the father of all those nations which were included under the name of ,grecians1 or ,ionians1 as they were invariably called in the east4 ,javan had four sons1 by whom the different portions of ,greece ,proper were peopled3 ,elisha1 ,tharsis1 ,chittim1 and ,dodanim4 ,elisha1 ,eliza1 or ,ellas1 as it is written in the ,chaldee1 and from whom the ,greeks took the name of ,h1 settled in the ,peloponnesus2 where1 in the ,elysian fields and the river ,ilissus1 his name is still preserved4 ,tharsis settled in ,achaia2 ,chittim1 in ,macedonia2 and ,dodanim1 in ,thessaly and ,epirus2 where the city of ,dodona gives ample proof of the origin of its name4 ,but the ,greeks did not remain pure ,javanim4 ,it appears from history that1 at a very early age1 they were invaded and subjugated by the ,pelasgi1 a ,cuthite race from the east1 and by colonies of ,phenicians and ,egyptians from the south3 so that the ,greeks1 so famous in history1 were a compound of all these people4 ,the aboriginal ,greeks were called ,jaones1 or ,jonim2 from which similarity of sound1 the ,jonim and the ,javanim1 although belonging to two essentially different families1 have been confounded together4 ,javan is the name used in the ,old ,testament for ,greece and the ,greeks4 ,see ,,division ,,of ,,the ,,earth4 ,,jealousy1 ,,waters ,,of4 ,see ,,adultery4 ,,jebus1 the son of ,canaan1 ,gen4 x1 #af1 and father of the people of ,palestine called ,jebusites4 ,their dwelling was in ,jerusalem and round about1 in the mountains4 ,this people were very warlike1 and held ,jerusalem till ,david's time1 ,josh4 xv1 #fe2 #b ,sam4 v1 #f1 c4 ,,jeduthun1 a ,levite of ,merari's family1 and one of the four great masters of music belonging to the temple1 #a ,chron4 xvi1 #ch1 #da1 #db2 xv1 #ag2 ,psalm lxxxix1 title4 ,he is the same as ,ethan4 ,some of the ,psalms are said to have been composed by him2 such as the eighty-ninth1 thirty-ninth1 sixty-second1 seventy-seventh2 all of which go under his name4 ,some believe1 that ,david1 having composed these ,psalms1 gave them to ,jeduthun and his company to sing2 and that this is the reason of their going by this name4 ,but there are some ,psalms which have the name of ,jeduthun1 that seem to have been composed either during the captivity1 or after it2 and consequently the name of ,jeduthun prefixed to them1 can signify nothing else1 but that some of his descendants1 and of ,jeduthun's class1 composed them long after the death of the famous ,jeduthun1 one of their ancestors4 ,,jehoahaz1 otherwise ,,shallum1 the son of ,josiah1 king of ,judah1 ,jer4 xxii1 #aa4 ,josiah having been wounded mortally by ,necho1 king of ,egypt1 and dying of his wounds at ,megiddo1 ,jehoahaz was made king in his room1 though he was not ,josiah's eldest son1 #b ,kings xxiii1 #cj1 #ca1 #cb4 ,he was in all probability thought fitter than any of his brethren to make head against the king of ,egypt4 ,he was twenty-three years old when he began to reign1 and he reigned about three months only in ,jerusalem1 in the year of the world #ccie4 ,king ,necho1 at his return from the expedition against ,carchemish1 provoked at the people of ,judah for having placed this prince upon the throne without his consent1 sent for him to ,riblah1 in ,syria1 divested him of the kingdom1 loaded him with chains1 and sent him into ,egypt1 where he died1 ,jer4 xxii1 #aa1 #ab4 ,jehoiakim1 or ,eliakim his brother1 was made king in his room4 ,,jehoiachin1 otherwise called ,coniah1 ,jer4 xxii1 #bd1 and ,jeconiah1 #a ,chron4 iii1 #ag1 the son of ,jehoiakim1 king of ,judah1 and grandson of ,josiah4 ,he ascended the throne1 and reigned only three months4 ,it seems he was born about the time of the first ,babylonish captivity1 ,a4 ,m4 #ccih1 when ,jehoiakim1 or ,eliakim1 his father1 was carried to ,babylon4 ,jehoiakim returned from ,babylon1 and reigned till ,a4 ,m4 #cdje1 when he was killed by the ,chaldeans1 in the eleventh year of his reign2 and was succeeded by this ,jehoiachin1 who reigned alone three months and ten days2 but he reigned about ten years in conjunction with his father4 ,thus #b ,kings xxiv1 #h1 is reconciled with #b ,chron4 xxxvi1 #i4 ,in the former of these passages1 he is said to have been eighteen when he began to reign1 and in ,chronicles only eight2 that is1 he was only eight when he began to reign with his father1 and eighteen when he began to reign alone4 ,he was a bad man1 and did evil in the sight of the ,lord1 ,jer4 xxii1 #bd4 ,the time of his death is uncertain2 and the words of the ,prophet ,jeremiah1 xxii1 #cj1 are not to be taken in the strictest sense2 since he was the father of ,salathiel and others1 #a ,chron4 iii1 #ag1 #ah2 ,matt4 i1 #ab4 ,,jehoiakim1 or ,,eliakim1 the brother and successor of ,jehoahaz1 king of ,judah1 was advanced to the throne by ,pharaoh-,necho1 king of ,egypt1 ,a4 ,m4 #ccie1 #b ,kings xxiii1 #cd4 ,he reigned eleven years in ,jerusalem1 and did evil in the sight of the ,lord4 ,when ,jerusalem was taken by ,nebuchadnezzar1 this prince was also taken and put to death1 and his body thrown into the common sewer1 according to the prediction of ,jeremiah1 xxii1 #ah1 #ai4 ,,jehoshaphat1 king of ,judah1 son of ,asa1 king of ,judah1 and ,azabah1 daughter of ,shilhi1 ascended the throne at the age of thirty-five1 and reigned twenty-five years4 ,he had the advantage over ,baasha1 king of ,israel2 and he placed good garrisons in the cities of ,judah and of ,ephraim1 which had been conquered by his father4 ,god was with him1 because he was faithful4 ,he demolished the high places and groves4 ,in the third year of his reign he sent some of his officers1 with priests and ,levites1 through all the parts of ,judah1 with the book of the law1 to instruct the people4 ,god blessed the zeal of this prince1 who was feared by all his neighbours4 ,the ,philistines and ,arabians were tributaries to him4 ,he built several houses in ,judah in the form of towers1 and fortified several cities4 ,he generally kept an army of eleven hundred thousand men1 without reckoning the troops in his strong holds4 ,this number seems prodigious for so small a state as that of ,judah2 but1 probably1 these troops were only an enrolled militia4 ,the ,scripture reproaches ,jehoshaphat for his alliance with ,ahab1 king of ,israel1 #a ,kings xx2 #b ,chronicles xviii4 ,some time after1 he went to visit ,ahab in ,samaria2 and ,ahab invited him to march with him against ,ramoth-,gilead4 ,jehoshaphat consented1 but first asked for an opinion from a prophet of the ,lord4 ,afterward1 he went into the battle in his robe1 and the enemy supposed him to be ,ahab2 but he crying out1 they discovered their mistake1 and ,jehoshaphat returned in peace to ,jerusalem4 ,the ,prophet ,jehu reproved him for assisting ,ahab1 #b ,chron4 xix1 #a1 #b1 #c1 c4 ,jehoshaphat repaired this fault by the good regulations1 and the good order1 which he established in his dominions1 both as to civil and religious affairs1 by appointing honest and able judges1 by regulating the discipline of the priests and ,levites1 and by enjoining them to perform their duty with punctuality4 ,after this1 in the year #cajh1 the ,moabites1 ,ammonites1 and other nations of ,arabia ,petra1 declared war against ,jehoshaphat1 #b ,chron4 xx1 #a1 #b1 #c1 c4 ,they advanced to ,hazaron-,tamar1 otherwise ,engedi4 ,jehoshaphat went with his people to the temple1 and put up prayers to ,god4 ,jahaziel1 the son of ,zechariah1 by the ,spirit of the ,lord1 encouraged the king1 and promised that the next day he should obtain a victory without fighting4 ,accordingly1 these people being assembled the next day against ,judah1 quarrelled1 and killed one another2 and ,jehoshaphat and his army had only to gather their spoils4 ,this prince continued to walk in the ways of the ,lord2 yet he did not destroy the high places1 and the hearts of the people were not entirely directed to the ,god of their fathers4 ,jehoshaphat died after a reign of twenty-five years1 and was buried in the royal sepulchre2 and his son1 ,jehoram reigned in his stead4 #b4 ,,jehoshaphat1 ,,valley ,,of4 ,this valley is a deep and narrow glen1 which runs from north to south1 between the ,mount of ,olives and ,mount ,moriah2 the brook ,cedron flowing through the middle of it1 which is dry the greatest part of the year1 but has a current of a red colour1 after storms1 or in rainy seasons4 ,the ,prophet ,joel1 iii1 #b1 #ab1 says1 8,the ,lord will gather all nations in the valley of ,jehoshaphat1 and will plead with them there40 ,abenezra is of opinion1 that this valley is the place where ,king ,jehoshaphat obtained a signal victory over the ,moabites1 ,ammonites1 and ,meonians of ,arabia ,petra1 #b ,chron4 xx1 #a1 c1 toward the ,dead ,sea1 beyond the wilderness of ,tekoah1 which after that event was called the valley of blessing1 verse #bf4 ,others think it lies between the walls of ,jerusalem and the ,mount of ,olives4 ,cyril1 of ,alexandria1 on ,joel iii1 says that this valley is but a few furlongs distant from ,jerusalem4 ,lastly1 some maintain that the ancient ,hebrews had named no particular place the valley of ,jehoshaphat2 but that ,joel intended generally the place where ,god would judge the nations1 and will appear at the last judgment in the brightness of his majesty4 ,jehoshaphat1 in ,hebrew1 signifies 8the judgment of ,god40 ,it is very probable that the valley of ,jehoshaphat1 that is1 of ,god's judgment1 is symbolical1 as well as the valley of slaughter1 in the same chapter4 ,from this passage1 however1 the ,jews and many ,christians have been of opinion1 that the last judgment will be solemnized in the valley of ,jehoshaphat4 ,,jehovah1 the proper and incommunicable name of the ,divine ,essence4 ,that this divine name1 ,jehovah1 was well known to the ,heathens1 there can be no doubt4 ,sanchoniathon writes ,jebo2 ,diodorus1 the ,sicilian1 ,macrobius1 ,st4 ,clemens ,alexandrinus1 ,st4 ,jerom1 and ,origen1 pronounce ,jao2 ,epiphanius1 ,theodoret1 and the ,samaritans1 ,jabe1 ,jav4 ,we likewise find in the ancients1 ,jahoh1 ,javo1 ,javu1 ,jaod4 ,the ,moors call their god ,jaba1 whom some believe to be the same as ,jehovah4 ,the ,latins1 in all probability1 took their ,javis1 or ,jovis ,pater1 from ,jehovah4 ,the ,jews1 after their captivity in ,babylon1 out of an excessive and superstitious respect for this name1 left off to pronounce it1 and thus lost the true pronunciation4 ,the ,septuagint generally renders it 1 8the ,lord40 ,origen1 ,st4 ,jerom1 and ,eusebius1 testify that in their time the ,jews left the name of ,jehovah written in their copies in ,samaritan characters1 instead of writing it in the common ,chaldee or ,hebrew characters2 which shows their veneration for this holy name3 and the fear they were under1 lest strangers1 who were not unacquainted with the ,chaldee letters and language1 should discover and misapply it4 ,the ,jews call this name of ,god the ,tetragrammaton1 or the name with four letters4 ,it would be waste of time and patience to repeat all that has been said on this incommunicable name3 it may not be amiss1 however1 to remind the reader1 #a4 ,that although it signifies the state of being1 yet it forms no verb4 #b4 ,it never assumes a plural form4 #c4 ,it does not admit an article1 or take an affix4 #d4 ,neither is it placed in a state of construction with other words2 though other words may be in construction with it4 ,it seems to be a compound of 1 the essence1 and 1 existing2 that is1 always existing2 whence the word eternal appears to express its import2 or1 as it is well rendered1 8,he who is1 and who was1 and who is to come10 ,rev4 i1 #d2 xi1 #ag2 that is1 eternal1 as the schoolmen speak1 both a parte ante1 and a parte post4 ,compare ,john viii1 #eh4 ,it is usually marked by an abbreviation1 1 in ,jewish books1 where it must be alluded to4 ,it is also abbreviated in the term 1 ,jah1 which1 the reader will observe1 enters into the formation of many ,hebrew appellations4 ,see ,,jah4 ,,jehu1 the son of ,jehoshaphat1 and grandson of ,nimshi1 captain of the troops of ,joram the king of ,israel1 was appointed by ,god to reign over ,israel1 and to avenge the sins committed by the house of ,ahab1 #a ,kings xix1 #af4 ,the ,prophet ,elisha received a commission to anoint him2 but the order does not appear to have been executed until more than twenty years afterward1 and then it was done by one of the sons of the prophets1 #b ,kings ix1 #a-c4 ,jehu was then at the siege of ,ramoth-,gilead1 commanding the army of ,joram1 the king of ,israel1 when a young prophet appeared1 who took him aside from the officers of the army1 in the midst of whom he was sitting1 and1 when alone in a chamber1 poured oil on his head1 and said to him1 8,thus saith the ,lord1 ,i have anointed thee king over ,israel2 thou shalt smite the house of ,ahab1 and avenge the blood of the prophets which hath been shed by ,jezebel4 ,for the whole house of ,ahab shall perish1 and ,i will make it as that of ,jeroboam1 the son of ,nebat1 and that of ,baasha1 the son of ,ahijah4 ,jezebel shall be eaten by the dogs in the fields of ,jezreel1 and there shall be none to bury her10 #b ,kings ix1 #a-aj4 ,no sooner had the prophet delivered his message1 than1 to avoid being known1 he instantly withdrew2 and ,jehu1 returning to the company of his brother officers1 was by them interrogated respecting what had taken place4 ,he informed them that a prophet had been sent from ,god to anoint him to the kingly office2 on which they all rose up1 and each taking his cloak1 they made a kind of throne for ,jehu1 and then sounding the trumpets1 cried out1 8,jehu is king40 ,joram1 who at that time reigned over the kingdom of ,israel1 was then at ,jezreel in a state of indisposition1 having been wounded at the siege of ,ramoth-,gilead4 ,jehu1 intending to surprise him1 immediately gave orders that no one should be permitted to depart out of the city of ,ramoth1 and himself set off for ,jezreel4 ,as he approached that city1 a centinel gave notice that he saw a troop coming in great haste2 on which ,joram despatched an officer to discover who it was2 but ,jehu1 without giving the latter any answer1 ordered him to follow in his rear4 ,joram sent a second1 and ,jehu laid upon him the same command4 ,finding that neither of them returned1 ,joram himself1 accompanied by ,ahaziah1 king of ,judah1 proceeded in his chariot toward ,jehu1 whom they met in the field of ,naboth the ,jezreelite4 ,joram inquired1 8,is it peace1 ,jehu80 ,to which the latter replied1 8,how can there be peace so long as the whoredoms of thy mother ,jezebel1 and her witchcrafts1 are so many80 ,joram instantly took the alarm1 and1 turning to ,ahaziah1 said1 8,we are betrayed40 ,at the same time ,jehu drew his bow1 and smote ,joram between his shoulders1 so that the arrow pierced his heart1 and he died in his chariot4 ,jehu then gave orders that his body should be cast out into the field of ,naboth the ,jezreelite1 thus fulfilling the prediction of the ,prophet ,elijah1 #b ,kings ix1 #aa-bf4 ,jehu next proceeded to ,jezreel1 where ,jezebel herself at that time resided4 ,as he rode through the streets of the city1 ,jezebel1 who was standing at her window and looking at him1 exclaimed1 8,can he who has killed his master hope for peace80 ,jehu1 lifting up his head and seeing her1 commanded her servants instantly to throw her out at the window2 which they did1 and she was immediately trampled to death under the horses' feet as they traversed the city4 ,to complete her destiny1 and fulfil the threatenings of ,elijah1 the dogs came and devoured her corpse2 so that when ,jehu sent to have her buried1 her bones only were found1 #b ,kings ix1 #bg-cg4 ,after this1 ,jehu sent to inform the inhabitants of ,samaria1 who had the bringing up of ,ahab's seventy children1 that they might select which of them they thought proper to place upon the throne of ,israel4 ,but overwhelmed with fear1 they replied that they were ,jehu's servants1 and would in all things obey him4 ,he then commanded them to put to death all the king's children1 and send their heads to him2 which was accordingly done on the following day4 ,jehu also caused to be put to death all ,ahab's relatives and friends1 the officers of his court1 and the priests whom he had entertained at ,jezreel1 #b ,kings x1 #a-aa4 ,after this1 ,jehu proceeded to ,samaria1 and on his way thither met the friends of ,ahaziah1 king of ,judah1 who were going to ,jezreel to salute the children of ,ahab's family1 with the death of whom they were as yet unacquainted4 ,they were forty-two in number2 but ,jehu gave orders to have them apprehended and put to death4 ,soon after this1 he met with ,jonathan1 the son of ,rechab2 and taking him up into his chariot1 8,come with me10 said he1 8and see my zeal for the ,lord40 ,and when he was come to ,samaria he extirpated every remaining branch of ,ahab's family1 without sparing an individual4 ,then convening the people of ,samaria1 he said1 8,ahab paid some honours to ,baal1 but ,i will pay him greater4 ,send now and gather together all the ministers1 priests1 and prophets of ,baal40 ,when they were all assembled in ,baal's temple1 ,jehu commanded to give each of them a particular habit1 to distinguish them2 at the same time directing that no stranger should mingle with them2 and then ordered his people to put them all to the sword1 not sparing one of them2 the image of ,baal was also pulled down1 broken to pieces1 and burned1 the temple itself destroyed1 and the place where it stood reduced to a dunghill1 #b ,kings x1 #ab-bh4 ,such were the sanguinary exploits of ,jehu toward the idolatrous house of ,ahab2 but he acted agreeably to divine direction1 and the ,lord in these instances so far approved his conduct1 as to promise him that his children should sit upon the throne of ,israel to the fourth generation4 ,yet1 though ,jehu had been the instrument in the hand of ,god for taking vengeance on the profane house of ,ahab1 we find him accused in ,scripture of not entirely forsaking the sins of ,jeroboam1 the son of ,nebat1 who made ,israel to sin in worshipping the golden calves1 #b ,kings x1 #bi1 #ca4 ,it appears also that1 in executing the divine indignation on the wicked house of ,ahab1 he was actuated more by the spirit of ambition and animosity than the fear of ,god1 or a regard to the purity of his worship4 ,and thus it is that ,god1 in the course of his providence1 makes use of tyrants and wicked men1 as his instruments to execute his righteous judgments in the earth4 ,after a reign of eight-and-twenty years over ,israel1 ,jehu died1 and was succeeded by his son1 ,jehoahaz2 but his reign was embittered by the war which ,hazael1 king of ,syria1 long waged against him1 #b ,kings x1 #cb-cf4 ,his four descendants1 who succeeded him in the throne1 were ,jehoahaz1 ,joash1 ,jeroboam ,,ii4 and ,zechariah4 ,,jephthah1 one of the judges of ,israel1 was the son of ,gilead by a concubine1 ,judges xi1 #a1 #b4 ,his father having several other children by his lawful wife1 they conspired to expel ,jephthah from among them1 insisting that he who was the son of a strange woman should have no part of the inheritance with them4 ,like ,ishmael1 therefore1 he withdrew1 and took up his residence beyond ,jordan1 in the land of ,tob1 where he appears to have become the chief of a banditti1 or marauding party1 who probably lived by plunder1 ,judges xi1 #c4 ,in process of time1 a war broke out between the ,ammonites and the children of ,israel who inhabited the country beyond ,jordan2 and the latter1 finding their want of an intrepid and skilful leader1 applied to ,jephthah to take the command of them4 ,he at first reproached them with the injustice they had done him1 in banishing him from his father's house2 but he at length yielded to their importunity1 on an agreement that1 should he be successful in the war against the ,ammonites1 the ,israelites should acknowledge him for their chief1 ,judges xi1 #d-aa4 ,as soon as ,jephthah was invested with the command of the ,israelites he sent a deputation to the ,ammonites1 demanding to know on what principle the latter had taken up arms against them4 ,they answered that it was to recover the territory which the former had taken from them on their first coming out of ,egypt4 ,jephthah replied that they had made no conquests in that quarter but from the ,amorites2 adding1 8,if you think you have a right to all that ,chemosh1 your god1 hath given you1 why should not we possess all that the ,lord our ,god hath conferred on us by right of conquest80 ,jephthah's reasoning availed nothing with the ,ammonites2 and as the latter persisted in waging war1 the former collected his troops together and put himself at their head4 ,the ,spirit of the ,lord is said to have now come upon ,jephthah2 by which we are here to understand1 that the ,lord endowed him with a spirit of valour and fortitude1 adequate to the exigence of the situation in which he was placed1 animating him with courage for the battle1 and especially inspired him with unshaken confidence in the ,god of the armies of ,israel1 ,judges xi1 #ag2 ,heb4 xi1 #cb2 #a ,sam4 xi1 #f2 ,num4 xxiv1 #b4 ,jephthah at this time made a vow to the ,lord that if he delivered the ,ammonites into his hand1 whatever came forth out of the doors of his house to meet him when he returned should be the ,lord's2 it is also added in our ,english version1 8and ,i will offer it up for a burnt-offering10 ,judges xi1 #ca4 ,the battle terminated auspiciously for ,jephthah2 the ,ammonites were defeated1 and the ,israelites ravaged their country4 ,but on returning toward his own house1 his daughter1 an only child1 came out to meet her father with timbrels and dances1 accompanied by a chorus of virgins1 to celebrate his victory4 ,on seeing her1 ,jephthah rent his clothes1 and said1 8,alas1 my daughter6 thou hast brought me very low2 for ,i have opened my mouth to the ,lord1 and cannot go back40 ,his daughter intimated her readiness to accede to any vow he might have made in which she was personally interested2 only claiming a respite of two months1 during which she might go up to the mountains and bewail her virginity with her companions4 ,jephthah yielded to this request1 and at the end of two months1 according to the opinion of many1 her father offered her up in sacrifice1 as a burnt-offering to the ,lord1 ,judges xi1 #cd-ci4 ,it is1 however1 scarcely necessary to mention1 that almost from the days of ,jephthah to the present time1 it has been a subject of warm contest among the critics and commentators1 whether the judge of ,israel really sacrificed his daughter1 or only devoted her to a state of celibacy4 ,among those who contend for the former opinion1 may be particularly mentioned the very learned ,professor ,michalis1 who insists most peremptorily that the words1 8did with her as he had vowed10 cannot mean any thing else but that her father put her to death1 and burned her body as a burnt-offering4 ,on this point1 however1 the remarks of ,dr4 ,hales are of great weight3--,when ,jephthah went forth to battle against the ,ammonites 8he vowed a vow unto the ,lord1 and said1 ,if thou wilt surely give the children of ,ammon into my hand1 then it shall be1 that whatsoever cometh out of the doors of my house to meet me1 when ,i return in peace from the children of ,ammon1 shall either be the ,lord's1 or ,i will offer it up for a burnt-offering10 ,judges xi1 #cj1 #ca4 ,according to this rendering of the two conjunctions1 1 in the last clause1 either1 or1 which is justified by the ,hebrew idiom1 the paucity of connecting particles in that language making it necessary that this conjunction should often be understood disjunctively1 the vow consisted of two parts1 #a4 ,that what person soever met him should be the ,lord's1 or be dedicated to his service4 #b4 ,that what beast soever met him1 if clean1 should be offered up for a burnt-offering unto the ,lord4 ,this rendering1 and this interpretation1 is warranted by the ,levitical law about vows4 ,the 1 or vow in general1 included either persons1 beasts1 or things1 dedicated to the ,lord for pious uses2 which1 if it was a simple vow1 was redeemable at certain prices1 if the person repented of his vow1 and wished to commute it for money1 according to the age and sex of the person1 ,lev4 xxvii1 #a-h4 ,this was a wise regulation to remedy rash vows4 ,but if the vow was accompanied with 1 devotement1 it was irredeemable1 as in the following cases3 8,notwithstanding1 no devotement which a man shall devote unto the ,lord1 either of man1 or of beast1 or of land of his own property1 shall be sold or redeemed4 ,every thing devoted is most holy unto the ,lord10 ,lev4 xxvii1 #bh4 ,here the three vaus in the original should necessarily be rendered disjunctively1 or1 as the last actually is in our public translation1 because there are three distinct subjects of devotement1 to be applied to distinct uses2 the man1 to be dedicated to the service of the ,lord1 as ,samuel by his mother1 ,hannah1 #a ,sam4 i1 #aa2 the cattle1 if clean1 such as oxen1 sheep1 goats1 turtle doves1 or pigeons1 to be sacrificed2 and if unclean1 as camels1 horses1 asses1 to be employed for carrying burdens in the service of the tabernacle or temple2 and the lands1 to be sacred property4 ,this law1 therefore1 expressly applied1 in its first branch1 to ,jephthah's case1 who had devoted his daughter to the ,lord1 or opened his mouth unto the ,lord1 and therefore could not go back2 as he declared in his grief at seeing his daughter1 and his only child1 coming to meet him with timbrels and dances4 ,she was1 therefore1 necessarily devoted1 but with her own consent1 to perpetual virginity1 in the service of the tabernacle1 ,judges xi1 #cf1 #cg4 ,and such service was customary2 for in the division of the spoils taken in the first ,midianite war1 of the whole number of captive virgins1 8the ,lord's tribute was thirty-two persons10 ,num4 xxxi1 #ce-dj4 ,this instance appears to be decisive of the nature of her devotement4 ,her father's extreme grief on this occasion1 and her requisition of a respite of two months to bewail her virginity1 are both perfectly natural3 having no other issue1 he could only look forward to the extinction of his name or family2 and a state of celibacy1 which is reproachful among women every where1 was peculiarly so among the ,israelites2 and was therefore no ordinary sacrifice on her part1 who1 though she generously gave up1 could not but regret the loss of becoming 8a mother in ,israel40 ,and he did with her according to his vow which he had vowed1 and she knew no man10 or remained a virgin all her life1 ,judges xi1 #cd-di4 ,there was also another case of devotement which was irredeemable1 and follows the former3 8,no one devoted1 who shall be devoted of man1 shall be redeemed1 but shall surely be put to death10 ,levit4 xxvii1 #bi4 ,this case differs materially from the former3 #a4 ,it is confined to persons devoted1 omitting beasts and lands4 #b4 ,it does not relate to private property1 as in the foregoing4 #c4 ,the subject of it was to be utterly destroyed1 instead of being 8most holy unto the ,lord40 ,this law1 therefore1 related to aliens or public enemies devoted to destruction1 either by ,god1 by the people1 or by the magistrate4 ,of all these we have instances in the ,scriptures3 #a4 ,the ,amalekites and ,canaanites were devoted by ,god himself4 ,saul1 therefore1 was guilty of a breach of this law for sparing ,agag1 the king of the ,amalekites1 as ,samuel reproached him1 #a ,sam4 xv1 #bc3 and 8,samuel hewed ,agag in pieces before the ,lord10 not as a sacrifice1 according to ,voltaire1 but as a criminal1 8whose sword had made many women childless40 ,by this law the ,midianite women1 who had been spared in battle1 were slain1 ,num4 xxxi1 #ad-ag4 #b4 ,in ,mount ,hor1 when the ,israelites were attacked by ,arad1 king of the southern ,canaanites1 who took some of them prisoners1 they vowed a vow unto the ,lord1 that they would utterly destroy these ,canaanites1 and their cities1 if the ,lord should deliver them into their hand2 which the ,lord ratified4 ,whence the place was called ,hhormah1 because the vow was accompanied by cherem1 or devotement to destruction1 ,num4 xxi1 #a-c4 ,and the vow was accomplished1 ,judges i1 #ag4 #c4 ,in the ,philistine war1 ,saul adjured the people1 and cursed any one that should taste food until the evening4 ,his own son1 ,jonathan1 inadvertently ate a honey comb1 not knowing of his father's oath1 for which ,saul sentenced him to die4 ,but the people interposed1 and rescued him1 for his public services2 thus assuming the power of dispensing1 in their collective capacity1 with an unreasonable oath1 #a ,sam4 xiv1 #bd-de4 ,this latter case1 therefore1 is utterly irrelative to ,jephthah's vow1 which did not regard a foreign enemy1 or a domestic transgressor1 devoted to destruction1 but1 on the contrary1 was a vow of thanksgiving1 and therefore properly came under the former case4 ,and that ,jephthah could not possibly have sacrificed his daughter1 according to the vulgar opinion1 founded on incorrect translation1 may appear from the following considerations3 #a4 ,the sacrifice of children to ,moloch was an abomination to the ,lord1 of which in numberless passages1 he expresses his detestation2 and it was prohibited by an express law1 under pain of death1 as 8a defilement of ,god's sanctuary1 and a profanation of his holy name10 ,levit4 xx1 #b1 #c4 ,such a sacrifice1 therefore1 unto the ,lord himself1 must be a still higher abomination4 ,and there is no precedent of any such under the law1 in the ,old ,testament4 #b4 ,the case of ,isaac before the law1 is irrelevant2 for ,isaac was not sacrificed2 and it was only proposed for a trial of ,abraham's faith4 #c4 ,no father1 merely by his own authority1 could put an offending1 much less an innocent1 child to death1 upon any account1 without the sentence of the magistrates1 ,deut4 xxi1 #ah-ba1 and the consent of the people1 as in ,jonathan's case4 #d4 ,the ,mischna1 or traditional law of the ,jews1 is pointedly against it3 8,if a ,jew should devote his son or daughter1 his man or maid servant1 who are ,hebrews1 the devotement would be void2 because no man can devote what is not his own1 or of whose life he has not the absolute disposal40 ,these arguments appear to be decisive against the sacrifice2 and that ,jephthah could not even have devoted his daughter to celibacy against her will1 is evident from the history1 and from the high estimation in which she was always held by the daughters of ,israel1 for her filial duty1 and her hapless fate1 which they celebrated by a regular anniversary commemoration four days in the year1 ,judges xi1 #dj4 ,we may1 however1 remark1 that1 if it could be more clearly established that ,jephthah actually immolated his daughter1 there is not the least evidence that his conduct was sanctioned by ,god4 ,jephthah was manifestly a superstitious and ill-instructed man1 and1 like ,samson1 an instrument of ,god's power1 rather than an example of his grace4 ,,jeremiah4 ,the ,prophet ,jeremiah was of the sacerdotal race1 being1 as he records himself1 one of the priests that dwelt at ,anathoth1 in the land of ,benjamin1 a city appropriated out of that tribe to the use of the priests1 the sons of ,aaron1 ,joshua xxi1 #ah1 and situate1 as we learn from ,st4 ,jerom1 about three miles north of ,jerusalem4 ,some have supposed his father to have been that ,hilkah1 the high priest1 by whom the book of the law was found in the temple in the reign of ,josiah3 but for this there is no better ground than his having borne the same name1 which was no uncommon one among the ,jews2 whereas1 had he been in reality the high priest1 he would doubtless have been mentioned by that distinguishing title1 and not put upon a level with priests of an ordinary and inferior class4 ,jeremiah appears to have been very young when he was called to the exercise of the prophetical office1 from which he modestly endeavoured to excuse himself by pleading his youth and incapacity2 but being overruled by the divine authority1 he set himself to discharge the duties of his function with unremitted diligence and fidelity during a period of at least forty-two years1 reckoned from the thirteenth year of ,josiah's reign4 ,in the course of his ministry he met with great difficulties and opposition from his countrymen of all degrees1 whose persecution and ill usage sometimes wrought so far upon his mind1 as to draw from him expressions1 in the bitterness of his soul1 which many have thought hard to reconcile with his religious principles2 but which1 when duly considered1 may be found to demand our pity for his unremitted sufferings1 rather than our censure for any want of piety and reverence toward ,god4 ,he was1 in truth1 a man of unblemished piety and conscientious integrity2 a warm lover of his country1 whose misery he pathetically deplores2 and so affectionately attached to his countrymen1 notwithstanding their injurious treatment of him1 that he chose rather to abide with them1 and undergo all hardships in their company1 than separately to enjoy a state of ease and plenty1 which the favour of the king of ,babylon would have secured to him4 ,at length1 after the destruction of ,jerusalem1 being carried with the remnant of the ,jews into ,egypt1 whither they had resolved to retire1 though contrary to his advice1 upon the murder of ,gedaliah1 whom the ,chaldeans had left governor in ,judea1 he there continued warmly to remonstrate against their idolatrous practices1 foretelling the consequences that would inevitably follow4 ,but his freedom and zeal are said to have cost him his life2 for the ,jews at ,tahpanhes1 according to tradition1 took such offence at him that they stoned him to death4 ,this account of the manner of his end1 though not absolutely certain1 is at least very probable1 considering the temper and disposition of the parties concerned4 ,their wickedness1 however1 did not long pass without its reward2 for1 in a few years after1 they were miserably destroyed by the ,babylonian armies which invaded ,egypt according to the prophet's prediction1 ,jer4 xliv1 #bg1 #bh4 ,the idolatrous apostasy1 and other criminal enormities of the people of ,judah1 and the severe judgments which ,god was prepared to inflict upon them1 but not without a distant prospect of future restoration and deliverance1 are the principal subject matters of the prophecies of ,jeremiah2 excepting only the forty-fifth chapter1 which relates personally to ,baruch1 and the six succeeding chapters1 which respect the fortunes of some particular ,heathen nations4 ,it is observable1 however1 that though many of these prophecies have their particular dates annexed to them1 and other dates may be tolerably well conjectured from certain internal marks and circumstances1 there appears much disorder in the arrangement1 not easy to be accounted for on any principle of regular design1 but probably the result of some accident or other1 which has disturbed the original order4 ,the best arrangement of the chapters appears to be according to the list which will be subjoined2 the different reigns in which the prophecies were delivered were most probably as follows3 ,the first twelve chapters seem to contain all the prophecies delivered in the reign of the good ,king ,josiah4 ,during the short reign of ,shallum1 or ,jehoahaz1 his second son1 who succeeded him1 ,jeremiah does not appear to have had any revelation4 ,jehoiakim1 the eldest son of ,josiah1 succeeded4 ,the prophecies of this reign are continued on from the thirteenth to the twentieth chapter inclusively2 to which we must add the twenty-second1 twenty-third1 twenty-fifth1 twenty-sixth1 thirty-fifth1 and thirty-sixth chapters1 together with the forty-fifth1 forty-sixth1 forty-seventh1 and most probably the forty-eighth1 and as far as the thirty-fourth verse of the forty-ninth chapter4 ,jeconiah1 the son of ,jehoiakim1 succeeded4 ,we read of no prophecy that ,jeremiah actually delivered in this king's reign2 but the fate of ,jeconiah1 his being carried into captivity1 and continuing an exile till the time of his death1 were foretold early in his father's reign1 as may be particularly seen in the twenty-second chapter4 ,the last king of ,judah was ,zedekiah1 the youngest son of ,josiah4 ,the prophecies delivered in his reign are contained in the twenty-first and twenty-fourth chapters1 the twenty-seventh to the thirty-fourth1 and the thirty-seventh to the thirty-ninth inclusively1 together with the last six verses of the forty-ninth chapter1 and the fiftieth and fifty-first chapters concerning the fall of ,babylon4 ,the siege of ,jerusalem1 in the reign of ,zedekiah1 and the capture of the city1 are circumstantially related in the fifty-second chapter2 and a particular account of the subsequent transactions is given in the fortieth to the forty-fourth inclusively4 ,the arrangement of the chapters1 alluded to above1 is here subjoined3 i-xx1 xxii1 xxiii1 xxv1 xxvi1 xxxv1 xxxvi1 xlv1 xxiv1 xxix-xxxi1 xxvii1 xxviii1 xxi1 xxxiv1 xxxvii1 xxxii1 xxxiii1 xxxviii1 xxxix1 from the fifteenth to the eighteenth verse1 xxxix1 from the first to the fourteenth verse1 xl-xliv1 xlvi1 and so on4 ,the prophecies of ,jeremiah1 of which the circumstantial accomplishment is often specified in the ,old and ,new ,testament1 are of a very distinguished and illustrious character4 ,he foretold the fate of ,zedekiah1 ,jer4 xxxiv1 #b-e2 #b ,chron4 xxxvi1 #aa-ba2 #b ,kings xxv1 #e2 ,jer4 lii1 #aa2 the ,babylonish captivity1 the precise time of its duration1 and the return of the ,jews4 ,he describes the destruction of ,babylon1 and the downfall of many nations1 ,jer4 xxv1 #ab2 ix1 #bf2 xxv1 #ai-be2 xlii1 #aj-ah2 xlvi1 and the following chapters1 in predictions1 of which the gradual and successive completion kept up the confidence of the ,jews for the accomplishment of those prophecies1 which he delivered relative to the ,messiah and his period1 ,jer4 xxiii1 #e1 #f2 xxx1 #i2 xxxi1 #ae2 xxxii1 #ad-ah2 xxxiii1 #i-bf4 ,he foreshowed the miraculous conception of ,christ1 ,jer4 xxxi1 #bb1 the virtue of his atonement1 the spiritual character of his covenant1 and the inward efficacy of his laws1 ,jer4 xxxi1 #ca-cf2 xxxiii1 #h4 ,jeremiah1 contemplating those calamities which impended over his country1 represented1 in the most descriptive terms1 and under the most impressive images1 the destruction that the invading enemy should produce4 ,he bewailed1 in pathetic expostulation1 the shameless adulteries which had provoked the ,almighty1 after long forbearance1 to threaten ,judah with inevitable punishment1 at the time that false prophets deluded the nation with the promises of 8assured peace10 and when the people1 in impious contempt of 8the ,lord's word10 defied its accomplishment4 ,jeremiah intermingles with his prophecies some historical relations relative to his own conduct1 and to the completion of those predictions which he had delivered4 ,the reputation of ,jeremiah had spread among foreign nations1 and his prophecies were deservedly celebrated in other countries4 ,many ,heathen writers also have undesignedly borne testimony to the truth and accuracy of his prophetic and historical descriptions4 ,as to the style of ,jeremiah1 says ,bishop ,lowth1 this prophet is by no means wanting either in elegance or sublimity1 although1 generally speaking1 inferior to ,isaiah in both4 ,his thoughts1 indeed1 are somewhat less elevated1 and he is commonly more large and diffuse in his sentences2 but the reason of this may be1 that he is mostly taken up with the gentler passions of grief and pity1 for the expression of which he has a peculiar talent4 ,this is most evident in the ,lamentations1 where those passions altogether predominate2 but it is often visible also in his prophecies1 in the former part of the book more especially1 which is principally poetical2 the middle parts are chiefly historical2 but the last part1 consisting of six chapters1 is entirely poetical1 and contains several oracles distinctly marked1 in which this prophet falls very little short of the lofty style of ,isaiah4 ,but of the whole book of ,jeremiah it is hardly the one half which ,i look upon as poetical4 ,jeremiah survived to behold the sad accomplishment of all his darkest predictions4 ,he witnessed all the horrors of the famine1 and1 when that had done its work1 the triumph of the enemy4 ,he saw the strong holds of the city cast down1 the palace of ,solomon1 the temple of ,god1 with all its courts1 its roofs of cedar and of gold1 levelled to the earth1 or committed to the flames2 the sacred vessels1 the ark of the covenant itself1 with the cherubim1 pillaged by profane hands4 ,what were the feelings of a patriotic and religious ,jew at this tremendous crisis1 he has left on record in his unrivalled elegies4 ,never did city suffer a more miserable fate1 never was ruined city lamented in language so exquisitely pathetic4 ,jerusalem is1 as it were1 personified1 and bewailed with the passionate sorrow of private and domestic attachment2 while the more general pictures of the famine1 the common misery of every rank1 and age1 and sex1 all the desolation1 the carnage1 the violation1 the dragging away into captivity1 the remembrance of former glories1 of the gorgeous ceremonies and the glad festivals1 the awful sense of the divine wrath heightening the present calamities1 are successively drawn with all the life and reality of an eye-witness4 ,they combine the truth of history with the deepest pathos of poetry4 ,,jericho was a city of ,benjamin1 about seven leagues from ,jerusalem1 and two from the ,jordan1 ,joshua xviii1 #ba4 ,moses calls it the city of palm trees1 ,deut4 xxxiv1 #c1 because of palm trees growing in the plain of ,jericho4 ,josephus says1 that in the territory of this city were not only many palm trees1 but also the balsam tree4 ,the valley of ,jericho was watered by a rivulet which had been formerly salt and bitter1 but was sweetened by the ,prophet ,elisha1 #b ,kings ii1 #ai4 ,jericho was the first city in ,canaan taken by ,joshua1 ii1 #a1 #b1 c4 ,he sent thither spies1 who were received by ,rahab1 lodged in her house1 and preserved from the king of ,jericho4 ,joshua received orders to besiege ,jericho1 soon after his passage over ,jordan1 ,joshua vi1 #a-c1 c4 ,god commanded the ,hebrews to march round the city once a day for seven days together4 ,the soldiers marched first1 probably out of the reach of the enemies' arrows1 and after them the priests1 the ark1 c4 ,on the seventh day1 they marched seven times round the city2 and at the seventh1 while the trumpets were sounding1 and all the people shouting1 the walls fell down4 ,the rabbins say1 that the first day was our ,sunday1 and the seventh the ,sabbath day4 ,during the first six days1 the people continued in profound silence2 but on the seventh ,joshua commanded them to shout4 ,accordingly they all exerted their voices1 and the walls being overthrown1 they entered the city1 every man in the place opposite to him4 ,jericho being devoted by ,god1 they set fire to the city1 and consecrated all the gold1 silver1 and brass4 ,then ,joshua said1 8,cursed be the man before the ,lord who shall rebuild ,jericho40 ,about five hundred and thirty years after this1 ,hiel1 of ,bethel1 undertook to rebuild it2 but he lost his eldest son1 ,abiram1 at laying the foundations1 and his youngest son1 ,segub1 when he hung up the gates4 ,however1 we are not to imagine that there was no city of ,jericho till the time of ,hiel4 ,there was a city of palm trees1 probably the same as ,jericho1 under the ,judges1 ,judges iii1 #ac4 ,david's ambassadors1 who had been insulted by the ,ammonites1 resided at ,jericho till their beards were grown1 #b ,sam4 x1 #d4 ,there was1 therefore1 a city of ,jericho which stood in the neighbourhood of the original ,jericho4 ,these two places are distinguished by ,josephus4 ,after ,hiel of ,bethel had rebuilt old ,jericho1 no one scrupled to dwell there4 ,our ,saviour wrought miracles at ,jericho4 ,according to ,pococke1 the mountains to which the absurd name of ,quarantania has been arbitrarily given1 are the highest in all ,judea2 and he is probably correct2 they form part of a chain extending from ,scythopolis into ,idumea4 ,the fountain of ,elisha he states to be a soft water1 rather warm2 he found in it some small shell fish of the turbinated kind4 ,close by the ruined aqueduct are the remains of a fine paved way1 with a fallen column1 supposed to be a ,roman milestone4 ,the hills nearest to ,jerusalem consist1 according to ,hasselquist1 of a very hard limestone2 and different sorts of plants are found on them1 in particular the myrtle1 the carob tree1 and the turpentine tree2 but farther toward ,jericho they are bare and barren1 the hard limestone giving way to a looser kind1 sometimes white and sometimes grayish1 with interjacent layers of a reddish micaceous stone1 saxum purum micaceum4 ,the vales1 though now bare and uncultivated1 and full of pebbles1 contain good red mould1 which would amply reward the husbandman's toil4 ,nothing can be more savage than the present aspect of these wild and gloomy solitudes1 through which runs the very road where is laid the scene of that exquisite parable1 the good ,samaritan1 and from that time to the present1 it has been the haunt of the most desperate bandits1 being one of the most dangerous in ,palestine4 ,sometimes the track leads along the edges of cliffs and precipices1 which threaten destruction on the slightest false step2 at other times it winds through craggy passes1 overshadowed by projecting or perpendicular rocks4 ,at one place the road has been cut through the very apex of a hill1 the rocks overhanging it on either side4 ,here1 in #ahbj1 an ,english traveller1 ,sir ,frederick ,henniker1 was attacked by the ,arabs with fire-arms1 who stripped him naked1 and left him severely wounded3 8,it was past mid-day1 and burning hot10 says ,sir ,frederick2 8,i bled profusely2 and two vultures1 whose business it is to consume corpses1 were hovering over me4 ,i should scarcely have had strength to resist1 had they chosen to attack me40 ,the modern village of ,jericho is described by ,mr4 ,buckingham as a settlement of about fifty dwellings1 all very mean in their appearance1 and fenced in front with thorny bushes1 while a barrier of the same kind1 the most effectual that could be raised against mounted ,arabs1 encircles the town4 ,a fine brook flows by it1 which empties itself into the ,jordan2 the nearest point of that river is about three miles distant4 ,the grounds in the immediate vicinity of the village1 being fertilized by this stream1 bear crops of dourra1 ,indian corn1 rice1 and onions4 ,the population is entirely ,mohammedan1 and is governed by a sheikh3 their habits are those of ,bedouins1 and robbery and plunder form their chief and most gainful occupation4 ,the whole of the road from ,jerusalem to the ,jordan1 is held to be the most dangerous in ,palestine2 and indeed1 in this portion of it1 the very aspect of the scenery is sufficient1 on the one hand1 to tempt to robbery and murder1 and1 on the other1 to occasion a dread of it in those who pass that way4 ,one must be amid these wild and gloomy solitudes1 surrounded by an armed band1 and feel the impatience of the traveller who rushes on to catch a new view at every pass and turn2 one must be alarmed at the very tramp of the horses' hoofs rebounding through the caverned rocks1 and at the savage shouts of the footmen1 scarcely less loud than the echoing thunder produced by the discharge of their pieces in the valleys2 one must witness all this upon the spot1 before the full force and beauty of the admirable story of the good ,samaritan can be perceived4 ,here1 pillage1 wounds1 and death would be accompanied with double terror1 from the frightful aspect of every thing around4 ,here1 the unfeeling act of passing by a fellow creature in distress1 as the priest and ,levite are said to have done1 strikes one with horror1 as an act almost more than inhuman4 ,and here1 too1 the compassion of the good ,samaritan is doubly virtuous1 from the purity of the motive which must have led to it1 in a spot where no eyes were fixed on him to draw forth the performance of any duty1 and from the bravery which was necessary to admit of a man's exposing himself1 by such delay1 to the risk of a similar fate to that from which he was endeavouring to rescue his fellow creature4 ,,jeroboam1 the son of ,nebat and ,zeruah1 was born at ,zereda1 in the tribe of ,ephraim1 #a ,kings xi1 #bf4 ,he is the subject of frequent mention in ,scripture1 as having been the cause of the ten tribes revolting from the dominion of ,rehoboam1 and also of his having 8made ,israel to sin10 by instituting the idolatrous worship of the golden calves at ,dan and ,bethel1 #a ,kings xii1 #bf-cc4 ,he seems to have been a bold1 unprincipled1 and enterprising man1 with much of the address of a deep politician about him2 qualities which probably pointed him out to ,king ,solomon as a proper person to be entrusted with the obnoxious commission of levying certain taxes throughout the tribes of ,ephraim and ,manasseh4 ,on a certain day1 as ,jeroboam was going out of ,jerusalem into the country1 having a new cloak wrapped about his shoulders1 the ,prophet ,ahijah met him in a field where they were alone1 and seizing the cloak of ,jeroboam1 he cut it into twelve pieces1 and then addressing him1 said1 8,take ten of them to thyself2 for thus saith the ,lord1 ,i will divide and rend the kingdom of ,solomon1 and will give ten tribes to thee4 ,if1 therefore1 thou obeyest my word and walkest in my ways as ,david my servant has done1 ,i will be with thee1 and will establish thy house for ever1 and put thee in possession of the kingdom of ,israel10 #a ,kings xi1 #ad-ci4 ,whether it were that the promises thus made by ,ahijah prompted ,jeroboam to aim at taking their accomplishment into his own hands1 and1 with a view to that1 began to solicit the subjects of ,solomon to revolt2 or whether the bare information of what had passed between the prophet and ,jeroboam1 excited his fear and jealousy1 it appears evident that the aged monarch took the alarm1 and attempted to apprehend ,jeroboam1 who1 getting notice of what was intended him1 made a precipitate retreat into ,egypt1 where he remained till the death of ,solomon4 ,he then returned1 and found that ,rehoboam1 who had succeeded his father ,solomon in the throne of ,david1 had already excited the disgust of ten of the tribes by some arbitrary proceedings1 in consequence of which they had withdrawn their allegiance from the new monarch4 ,these tribes no sooner heard of his return than they invited him to appear among them in a general assembly1 in which they elected him to be king over ,israel4 ,jeroboam fixed his residence at ,shechem1 and there fortified himself2 he also rebuilt ,penuel1 a city beyond ,jordan1 putting it into a state of defence1 in order to keep the tribes quiet which were on that side ,jordan1 #a ,kings xii1 #a-be4 ,but ,jeroboam soon forgot the duty which he owed to ,god1 who had given him the kingdom2 and thought of nothing but how to maintain himself in the possession of it1 though he discarded the worship of the true ,god4 ,the first suggestion of his unbelieving heart was1 that if the tribes over whom he reigned were to go up to ,jerusalem to sacrifice and keep the annual festivals1 they would be under continual temptations to return to the house of ,david4 ,to counteract this1 he caused two golden calves to be made as objects of religious worship1 one of which he placed at ,dan1 and the other at ,bethel1 the two extremities of his dominions2 and caused a proclamation to be made throughout all his territories1 that in future none of his subjects should go up to ,jerusalem to worship2 and1 directing them to the two calves which had been recently erected1 he cried out1 8,behold thy gods1 ,o ,israel1 which brought thee up out of ,egypt60 ,he also caused idolatrous temples to be built1 and priests to be ordained of the lowest of the people1 who were neither of the family of ,aaron nor of the tribe of ,levi1 #a ,kings xii1 #bf-cc4 ,having appointed a solemn public festival to be observed on the fifteenth day of the eighth month1 in order to dedicate his new altar and consecrate his golden calves1 he assembled the people at ,bethel1 and himself went up to the altar for the purpose of offering incense and sacrifices4 ,at that instant a prophet1 who had come1 divinely directed1 from ,judah to ,bethel1 accosted ,jeroboam1 and said1 8,o altar1 altar1 thus saith the ,lord1 ,a child shall be born to the house of ,david1 ,josiah by name2 and upon thee shall he sacrifice the priests of the high places who now burn incense upon thee3 he shall burn men's bones upon thee40 ,to confirm the truth of this threatening1 the prophet also added a sign1 namely1 that the altar should immediately be rent asunder1 and the ashes and every thing upon it poured upon the earth4 ,jeroboam1 incensed at this interference of the prophet1 stretched out his hand and commanded him to be seized2 but the hand which he had stretched out was instantly paralyzed1 and he was unable to draw it back again4 ,the altar1 too1 was broken1 and the ashes upon it fell to the ground according to the prediction of the prophet4 ,jeroboam now solicited his prayers that his hand might be restored to him4 ,the man of ,god interposed his supplication to ,heaven1 and the king's hand was restored to him sound as before4 ,jeroboam then entreated him that he would accompany him to his own house1 and accept a reward2 but he answered1 8,though thou shouldst give me the half of thine house1 ,i would not go with thee1 nor will ,i taste any thing in this place1 for the ,lord hath expressly forbidden me to do so10 #a ,kings xiii1 #a-aj4 ,but notwithstanding this manifest indication of the displeasure of ,heaven1 it failed of recovering ,jeroboam from his impious procedure4 ,he continued to encourage his subjects in idolatry1 by appointing priests of the high places1 and engaging them in such worship as was contrary to the divine law4 ,this was the sin of ,jeroboam's family1 and it was the cause of its utter extirpation4 ,some time after his accession to the throne of ,israel1 his favourite son ,abijah fell sick1 and1 to relieve his parental solicitude1 ,jeroboam instructed his wife to disguise herself1 and in that state to go and consult the ,prophet ,ahijah concerning his recovery4 ,this was the same prophet who had foretold to ,jeroboam that he should be king of ,israel4 ,he was now blind through old age2 but the prophet was warned of her approach1 and1 before she entered his threshold1 he called her by name1 told her that her son should die1 and then1 in appalling terms1 denounced the impending ruin of ,jeroboam's whole family1 which shortly after came to pass4 ,after a reign of two-and-twenty years1 ,jeroboam died1 and ,nadab1 his son1 succeeded to the crown1 #a ,kings xiii1 #cc1 #cd2 xiv1 #a-bj4 #b4 ,,jeroboam1 the second of that name1 was the son of ,jehoash1 king of ,israel4 ,he succeeded to his father's royal dignity1 ,a4 ,m4 #cagi1 and reigned forty-one years4 ,though much addicted to the idolatrous practices of the son of ,nebat1 yet the ,lord was pleased so far to prosper his reign1 that by his means1 according to the predictions of the ,prophet ,jonah1 the kingdom of the ten tribes was restored from a state of great decay1 into which it had fallen1 and was even raised to a pitch of extraordinary splendour4 ,the ,prophets ,amos and ,hosea1 as well as ,jonah1 lived during this reign4 ,,jerusalem1 formerly called ,jebus1 or ,salem1 ,joshua xviii1 #bh2 ,heb4 vii1 #b1 the capital of ,judea1 situated partly in the tribe of ,benjamin1 and partly in that of ,judah4 ,it was not completely reduced by the ,israelites till the reign of ,david1 #b ,sam4 v1 #f-i4 ,as ,jerusalem was the centre of the true worship1 ,psalm cxxii1 #d1 and the place where ,god did in a peculiar manner dwell1 first in the tabernacle1 #b ,sam4 vi1 #g1 #ab2 #a ,chron4 xv1 #a2 xvi1 #a2 ,psalm cxxxii1 #ac2 cxxxv1 #b1 and afterward in the temple1 #a ,kings vi1 #ac2 so it is used figuratively to denote the church1 or the celestial society1 to which all that believe1 both ,jews and ,gentiles1 are come1 and in which they are initiated1 ,gal4 iv1 #bf2 ,heb4 xii1 #bb2 ,rev4 iii1 #ab2 xxi1 #b1 #aj4 ,jerusalem was situated in a stony and barren soil1 and was about sixty furlongs in length1 according to ,strabo4 ,the territory and places adjacent were well watered1 having the fountains of ,gihon and ,siloam1 and the brook ,kidron1 at the foot of its walls2 and1 beside these1 there were the waters of ,ethan1 which ,pilate had conveyed through aqueducts into the city4 ,the ancient city of ,jerusalem1 or ,jebus1 which ,david took from the ,jebusites1 was not very large4 ,it was seated upon a mountain southward of the temple4 ,the opposite mountain1 situated to the north1 is ,sion1 where ,david built a new city1 which he called the city of ,david1 wherein was the royal palace1 and the temple of the ,lord4 ,the temple was built upon ,mount ,moriah1 which was one of the little hills belonging to ,mount ,sion4 ,through the reigns of ,david and ,solomon1 ,jerusalem was the metropolis of the whole ,jewish kingdom1 and continued to increase in wealth and splendour4 ,it was resorted to at the festivals by the whole population of the country2 and the power and commercial spirit of ,solomon1 improving the advantages acquired by his father ,david1 centred in it most of the eastern trade1 both by sea1 through the ports of ,elath and ,ezion-,geber1 and over land1 by the way of ,tadmor or ,palmyra4 ,or1 at least1 though ,jerusalem might not have been made a depot of merchandise1 the quantity of precious metals flowing into it by direct importation1 and by duties imposed on goods passing to the ports of the ,mediterranean1 and in other directions1 was unbounded4 ,some idea of the prodigious wealth of ,jerusalem at this time may be formed by stating1 that the quantity of gold left by ,david for the use of the temple amounted to #ba1fjj1jjj sterling1 beside #c1aej1jjj in silver2 and ,solomon obtained #c1bdj1jjj in gold by one voyage to ,ophir1 while silver was so abundant1 8that it was not any thing accounted of40 ,these were the days of ,jerusalem's glory4 ,universal peace1 unmeasured wealth1 the wisdom and clemency of the prince1 and the worship of the true ,god1 marked ,jerusalem1 above every city1 as enjoying the presence and the especial favour of the ,almighty4 ,but these days were not to last long3 intestine divisions and foreign wars1 wicked and tyrannical princes1 and1 last of all1 the crime most offensive to ,heaven1 and the one least to be expected among so favoured a people1 led to a series of calamities1 through the long period of nine hundred years1 with which no other city or nation can furnish a parallel4 ,after the death of ,solomon1 ten of the twelve tribes revolted from his successor ,rehoboam1 and1 under ,jeroboam1 the son of ,nebat1 established a separate kingdom3 so that ,jerusalem1 no longer the capital of the whole empire1 and its temple frequented only by the tribes of ,judah and ,benjamin1 must have experienced a mournful declension4 ,four years after this1 the city and temple were taken and plundered by ,shishak1 king of ,egypt1 #a ,kings xiv1 #bf1 #bg2 #b ,chron4 xii1 #b-i4 ,one hundred and forty-five years after1 under ,amaziah1 they sustained the same fate from ,joash1 king of ,israel1 #b ,kings xiv2 #b ,chron4 xxv4 ,one hundred and sixty years from this period1 the city was again taken1 by ,esarhaddon1 king of ,assyria2 and ,manasseh1 the king1 carried a prisoner to ,babylon1 #b ,chron4 xxxiii4 ,within the space of sixty-six years more it was taken by ,pharaoh-,necho1 king of ,egypt1 whom ,josiah1 king of ,judah1 had opposed in his expedition to ,carchemish2 and who1 in consequence1 was killed at the battle of ,megiddo1 and his son ,eliakim placed on the throne in his stead by ,necho1 who changed his name to ,jehoiakim1 and imposed a heavy tribute upon him1 having sent his elder brother1 ,jehoahaz1 who had been proclaimed king at ,jerusalem1 a prisoner to ,egypt1 where he died1 #b ,kings xxiii2 #b ,chron4 xxxv4 ,jerusalem was three times besieged and taken by ,nebuchadnezzar1 king of ,babylon1 within a very few years4 ,the first1 in the reign of the last mentioned king1 ,jehoiakim1 who was sent a prisoner to ,babylon1 and the vessels of the temple transported to the same city1 #b ,chron4 xxxvi4 ,the second1 in that of his son ,jehoiachin2 when all the treasures of the palace and the temple1 and the remainder of the vessels of the latter which had been hidden or spared in the first capture1 were carried away or destroyed1 and the best of the inhabitants1 with the king1 led into captivity1 #b ,kings xxiv2 #b ,chron4 xxxvi4 ,and the third1 in the reign of ,zedekiah1 the successor of ,jehoiachin2 in whose ninth year the most formidable siege which this ill fated city ever sustained1 except that of ,titus1 was commenced4 ,it continued two years2 during a great part of which the inhabitants suffered all the horrors of famine3 when1 on the ninth day of the fourth month1 in the eleventh year of ,zedekiah1 which answers to ,july in the year ,b4 ,c4 #ehh1 the garrison1 with the king1 endeavoured to make their escape from the city1 but were pursued and defeated by the ,chaldeans in the plains of ,jericho2 ,zedekiah taken prisoner2 his sons killed before his face at ,riblah1 whither he was taken to the king of ,babylon2 and he himself1 after his eyes were put out1 was bound with fetters of brass1 and carried prisoner to ,babylon1 where he died3 thus fulfilling the prophecy of ,ezekiel1 which declared that he should be carried to ,babylon1 but should not see the place1 though he should die there1 ,ezekiel xii1 #ac4 ,in the following month1 the ,chaldean army1 under their general1 ,nebuzaradan1 entered the city1 took away every thing that was valuable1 and then burned and utterly destroyed it1 with its temple and walls1 and left the whole razed to the ground4 ,the entire population of the city and country1 with the exception of a few husbandmen1 were then carried captive to ,babylon4 ,during seventy years1 the city and temple lay in ruins3 when those ,jews who chose to take immediate advantage of the proclamation of ,cyrus1 under the conduct of ,zerubbabel1 returned to ,jerusalem1 and began to build the temple2 all the vessels of gold and silver belonging to which1 that had been taken away by ,nebuchadnezzar1 being restored by ,cyrus4 ,their work1 however1 did not proceed far without opposition2 for in the reign of ,cambyses1 the son of ,cyrus1 who in ,scripture is called ,ahasuerus1 the ,samaritans presented a petition to that monarch to put a stop to the building1 ,ezra iv1 #f4 ,cambyses appears to have been too busily engaged in his ,egyptian expedition to pay any attention to this malicious request4 ,his successor1 ,smerdis1 the ,magian1 however1 who in ,scripture is called ,artaxerxes1 to whom a similar petition was sent1 representing the ,jews as a factious and dangerous people1 listened to it1 and1 in the true spirit of a usurper1 issued a decree putting a stop to the farther building of the temple1 ,ezra iv1 #g1 c2 which1 in consequence1 remained in an unfinished state till the second year1 according to the ,jewish1 and third1 according to the ,babylonian and ,persian account1 of ,darius ,hystaspes1 who is called simply ,darius in ,scripture4 ,to him also a representation hostile to the ,jews was made by their inveterate enemies1 the ,samaritans2 but this noble prince refused to listen to it1 and having searched the rolls of the kingdom1 and found in the palace at ,acmetha the decree of ,cyrus1 issued a similar one1 which reached ,jerusalem in the subsequent year1 and even ordered these very ,samaritans to assist the ,jews in their work2 so that it was completed in the sixth year of the same reign1 ,ezra iv1 #bd2 v2 vi1 #a-ae4 ,but the city and walls remained in a ruinous condition until the twentieth year of ,artaxerxes1 the ,artaxerxes ,longimanus of profane history2 by whom ,nehemiah was sent to ,jerusalem1 with a power granted to him to rebuild them4 ,accordingly1 under the direction of this zealous servant of ,god1 the walls were speedily raised1 but not without the accustomed opposition on the part of the ,samaritans2 who1 despairing of the success of an application to the court of ,persia1 openly attacked the ,jews with arms4 ,but the building1 notwithstanding1 went steadily on2 the men working with an implement of work in one hand1 and a weapon of war in the other2 and the wall1 with incredible labour1 was finished in fifty-two days1 in the year ,b4 ,c4 #dde2 after which1 the city itself was gradually rebuilt1 ,neh4 ii1 iv1 vi4 ,from this time ,jerusalem remained attached to the ,persian empire1 but under the local jurisdiction of the high priests1 until the subversion of that empire by ,alexander1 fourteen years after4 ,see ,,alexander4 ,at the death of ,alexander1 and the partition of his empire by his generals1 ,jerusalem1 with ,judea1 fell to the kings of ,syria4 ,but in the frequent wars which followed between the kings of ,syria and those of ,egypt1 called by ,daniel1 the kings of the north and south1 it belonged sometimes to one and sometimes to the other1--an unsettled and unhappy state1 highly favourable to disorder and corruption1--the high priesthood was openly sold to the highest bidder2 and numbers of the ,jews deserted their religion for the idolatries of the ,greeks4 ,at length1 in the year ,b4 ,c4 #agj1 ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 king of ,syria1 enraged at hearing that the ,jews had rejoiced at a false report of his death1 plundered ,jerusalem1 and killed eighty thousand men4 ,not more than two years afterward1 this cruel tyrant1 who had seized every opportunity to exercise his barbarity on the ,jews1 sent ,apollonius with an army to ,jerusalem2 who pulled down the walls1 grievously oppressed the people1 and built a citadel on a rock adjoining the temple1 which commanded that building1 and had the effect of completely overawing the seditious4 ,having thus reduced this unfortunate city into entire submission1 and rendered resistance useless1 the next step of ,antiochus was to abolish the ,jewish religion altogether1 by publishing an edict which commanded all the people of his dominions to conform to the religion of the ,greeks3 in consequence of which1 the service of the temple ceased1 and a statue of ,jupiter ,olympus was set up on the altar4 ,but this extremity of ignominy and oppression led1 as might have been expected1 to rebellion2 and those ,jews who still held their insulted religion in reverence1 fled to the mountains1 with ,mattathias and ,judas ,maccabeus2 the latter of whom1 after the death of ,mattathias1 who with his followers and successors1 are known by the name of ,maccabees1 waged successful war with the ,syrians2 defeated ,apollonius1 ,nicanor1 and ,lysias1 generals of ,antiochus2 obtained possession of ,jerusalem1 purified the temple1 and restored the service1 after three years' defilement by the ,gentile idolatries4 ,from this time1 during several succeeding ,maccabean rulers1 who were at once high priests and sovereigns of the ,jews1 but without the title of king1 ,jerusalem was able to preserve itself from ,syrian violence4 ,it was1 however1 twice besieged1 first by ,antiochus ,eupator1 in the year #afc1 and afterward by ,antiochus ,sidetes1 in the year ,b4 ,c4 #acd4 ,but the ,jews had caused themselves to be sufficiently respected to obtain conditions of peace on both occasions1 and to save their city2 till1 at length1 ,hyrcanus1 in the year #acj ,b4 ,c41 shook off the ,syrian yoke1 and reigned1 after this event1 twenty-one years in independence and prosperity4 ,his successor1 ,judas1 made an important change in the ,jewish government1 by taking the title of king1 which dignity was enjoyed by his successors forty-seven years1 when a dispute having arisen between ,hyrcanus ,,ii4 and his brother ,aristobulus1 and the latter having overcome the former1 and made himself king1 was1 in his turn1 conquered by the ,romans under ,pompey1 by whom the city and temple were taken1 ,aristobulus made prisoner1 and ,hyrcanus created high priest and prince of the ,jews1 but without the title of king4 ,by this event ,judea was reduced to the condition of a ,roman province1 in the year #fc ,b4 ,c4 ,nor did ,jerusalem long after enjoy the dignity of a metropolis1 that honour being transferred to ,csarea4 ,julius ,csar1 having defeated ,pompey1 continued ,hyrcanus in the high priesthood1 but bestowed the government of ,judea upon ,antipater1 an ,iduman by birth1 but a ,jewish proselyte1 and father of ,herod the ,great4 ,for the siege and destruction of ,jerusalem by the ,romans1 see ,,jews4 ,jerusalem lay in ruins about forty-seven years1 when the ,emperor lius ,adrian began to build it anew1 and erected a ,heathen temple1 which he dedicated to ,jupiter ,capitolinus4 ,the city was finished in the twentieth year of his reign1 and called1 after its founder1 lia1 or lia ,capitolina1 from the ,heathen deity who presided over it4 ,in this state ,jerusalem continued1 under the name of lia1 and inhabited more by ,christians and ,pagans than by ,jews1 till the time of the ,emperor ,constantine1 styled the ,great2 who1 about the year #cbc1 having made ,christianity the religion of the empire1 began to improve it1 adorned it with many new edifices and churches1 and restored its ancient name4 ,about thirty-five years afterward1 ,julian1 named the ,apostate1 not from any love he bore the ,jews1 but out of hatred to the ,christians1 whose faith he had abjured1 and with the avowed design of defeating the prophecies1 which had declared that the temple should not be rebuilt1 wrote to the ,jews1 inviting them to their city1 and promising to restore their temple and nation4 ,he accordingly employed great numbers of workmen to clear the foundations2 but balls of fire bursting from the earth1 soon put a stop to their proceeding4 ,this miraculous interposition of ,providence is attested by many credible witnesses and historians2 and1 in particular1 by ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 a ,heathen1 and friend of ,julian2 ,zemuch ,david1 a ,jew2 ,nazianzen1 ,chrysostom1 ,ambrose ,ruffinus1 ,theodoret1 ,sozomen1 and ,socrates1 who wrote his account within fifty years after the transaction1 and while many eye-witnesses of it were still living4 ,so stubborn1 indeed1 is the proof of this miracle1 that even ,gibbon1 who strives to invalidate it1 is obliged to acknowledge the general fact4 ,jerusalem continued in nearly the same condition till the beginning of the seventh century1 when it was taken and plundered by the celebrated ,chosroes1 king of ,persia1 by whom many thousands of the ,christian inhabitants were killed1 or sold for slaves4 ,the ,persians1 however1 did not hold it long1 as they were soon after entirely defeated by the ,emperor ,heraclius1 who rescued ,jerusalem1 and restored it1 not to the unhappy ,jews1 who were forbidden to come within three miles of it1 but to the ,christians4 ,a worse calamity was1 however1 speedily to befall this ill fated city4 ,the ,mohammedan imposture arose about this time2 and the fanatics who had adopted its creed carried their arms and their religion with unprecedented rapidity over the greater part of the east4 ,the ,caliph ,omar1 the third from ,mohammed1 invested the city1 which1 after once more suffering the horrors of a protracted siege1 surrendered on terms of capitulation in the year #fcg2 and has ever since1 with the exception of the short period that it was occupied by the crusaders1 been trodden under foot by the followers of the false prophet4 #b4 ,the accounts of modern ,jerusalem by travellers are very numerous4 ,mr4 ,conder1 in his 8,palestine10 has abridged them with judgment2 and we give the following extract3 ,the approach to ,jerusalem from ,jaffa is not the direction in which to see the city to the best effect4 ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke entered it by the ,damascus gate3 and he describes the view of ,jerusalem1 when first descried from the summit of a hill1 at about an hour's distance1 as most impressive4 ,he confesses1 at the same time1 that there is no other point of view in which it is seen to so much advantage4 ,in the celebrated prospect from the ,mount of ,olives1 the city lies too low1 is too near the eye1 and has too much the character of a bird's eye view1 with the formality of a topographical plan4 8,we had not been prepared10 says this lively traveller1 8for the grandeur of the spectacle which the city alone exhibited4 ,instead of a wretched and ruined town1 by some described as the desolated remnant of ,jerusalem1 we beheld1 as it were1 a flourishing and stately metropolis1 presenting a magnificent assemblage of domes1 towers1 palaces1 churches1 and monasteries2 all of which1 glittering in the sun's rays1 shone with inconceivable splendour4 ,as we drew nearer1 our whole attention was engrossed by its noble and interesting appearance4 ,the lofty hills surrounding it give the city itself an appearance of elevation less than it really has40 ,dr4 ,clarke was fortunate in catching this first view of ,jerusalem under the illusion of a brilliant evening sunshine2 but his description is decidedly overcharged4 ,m4 ,chateaubriand1 ,mr4 ,buckingham1 ,mr4 ,brown1 ,mr4 ,jolliffe1 ,sir ,f4 ,henniker1 and almost every other modern traveller1 confirm the representation of ,dr4 ,richardson4 ,mr4 ,buckingham says1 8,the appearance of this celebrated city1 independent of the feelings and recollections which the approach to it cannot fail to awaken1 was greatly inferior to my expectations1 and had certainly nothing of grandeur or beauty1 of stateliness or magnificence1 about it4 ,it appeared like a walled town of the third or fourth class1 having neither towers1 nor domes1 nor minarets within it1 in sufficient numbers to give even a character to its impressions on the beholder2 but showing chiefly large flat-roofed buildings of the most unornamented kind1 seated amid rugged hills1 on a stony and forbidding soil1 with scarcely a picturesque object in the whole compass of the surrounding view40 ,chateaubriand's description is very striking and graphical4 ,after citing the language of the ,prophet ,jeremiah1 in his lamentations on the desolation of the ancient city1 as accurately portraying its present state1 ,lam4 i1 #a-f2 ii1 #a-i1 #ae1 he thus proceeds3 8,when seen from the ,mount of ,olives1 on the other side of the ,valley of ,jehoshaphat1 ,jerusalem presents an inclined plane1 descending from west to east4 ,an embattled wall1 fortified with towers1 and a ,gothic castle1 encompasses the city all round2 excluding1 however1 part of ,mount ,zion1 which it formerly enclosed4 ,in the western quarter1 and in the centre of the city1 the houses stand very close2 but1 in the eastern part1 along the brook ,kedron1 you perceive vacant spaces2 among the rest1 that which surrounds the mosque erected on the ruins of the temple1 and the nearly deserted spot where once stood the castle of ,antonia and the second palace of ,herod4 ,the houses of ,jerusalem are heavy square masses1 very low1 without chimneys or windows3 they have flat terraces or domes on the top1 and look like prisons or sepulchres4 ,the whole would appear to the eye one uninterrupted level1 did not the steeples of the churches1 the minarets of the mosques1 the summits of a few cypresses1 and the clumps of nopals1 break the uniformity of the plan4 ,on beholding these stone buildings1 encompassed by a stony country1 you are ready to inquire if they are not the confused monuments of a cemetry in the midst of a desert4 ,enter the city1 but nothing will you there find to make amends for the dulness of its exterior4 ,you lose yourself among narrow1 unpaved streets1 here going up hill1 there down1 from the inequality of the ground2 and you walk among clouds of dust or loose stones4 ,canvas stretched from house to house increases the gloom of this labyrinth4 ,bazaars1 roofed over1 and fraught with infection1 completely exclude the light from the desolate city4 ,a few paltry shops expose nothing but wretchedness to view2 and even these are frequently shut1 from apprehension of the passage of a cadi4 ,not a creature is to be seen in the streets1 not a creature at the gates1 except now and then a peasant gliding through the gloom1 concealing under his garments the fruits of his labour1 lest he should be robbed of his hard earnings by the rapacious soldier4 ,aside1 in a corner1 the ,arab butcher is slaughtering some animal1 suspended by the legs from a wall in ruins3 from his haggard and ferocious look1 and his bloody hands1 you would suppose that he had been cutting the throat of a fellow creature1 rather than killing a lamb4 ,the only noise heard from time to time in the city is the galloping of the steed of the desert3 it is the janissary who brings the head of the ,bedouin1 or who returns from plundering the unhappy ,fellah4 ,amid this extraordinary desolation1 you must pause a moment to contemplate two circumstances still more extraordinary4 ,among the ruins of ,jerusalem1 two classes of independent people find in their religion sufficient fortitude to enable them to surmount such complicated horrors and wretchedness4 ,here reside communities of ,christian monks1 whom nothing can compel to forsake the tomb of ,christ2 neither plunder1 nor personal ill treatment1 nor menaces of death itself4 ,night and day they chant their hymns around the holy sepulchre4 ,driven by the cudgel and the sabre1 women1 children1 flocks1 and herds1 seek refuge in the cloisters of these recluses4 ,what prevents the armed oppressor from pursuing his prey1 and overthrowing such feeble ramparts8 ,the charity of the monks3 they deprive themselves of the last resources of life to ransom their suppliants4 ,cast your eyes between the temple and ,mount ,zion2 behold another petty tribe cut off from the rest of the inhabitants of this city4 ,the particular objects of every species of degradation1 these people bow their heads without murmuring2 they endure every kind of insult without demanding justice2 they sink beneath repeated blows without sighing2 if their head be required1 they present it to the scimitar4 ,on the death of any member of this proscribed community1 his companion goes at night1 and inters him by stealth in the ,valley of ,jehoshaphat1 in the shadow of ,solomon's temple4 ,enter the abodes of these people1 you will find them1 amid the most abject wretchedness1 instructing their children to read a mysterious book1 which they in their turn will teach their offspring to read4 ,what they did five thousand years ago1 these people still continue to do4 ,seventeen times have they witnessed the destruction of ,jerusalem1 yet nothing can discourage them1 nothing can prevent them from turning their faces toward ,sion4 ,to see the ,jews scattered over the whole world1 according to the word of ,god1 must doubtless excite surprise4 ,but to be struck with supernatural astonishment1 you must view them at ,jerusalem2 you must behold these rightful masters of ,judea living as slaves and strangers in their own country2 you must behold them expecting1 under all oppressions1 a king who is to deliver them4 ,crushed by the cross that condemns them1 skulking near the temple1 of which not one stone is left upon another1 they continue in their deplorable infatuation4 ,the ,persians1 the ,greeks1 the ,romans1 are swept from the earth2 and a petty tribe1 whose origin preceded that of those great nations1 still exists unmixed among the ruins of its native land40 ,to the same effect are the remarks of ,dr4 ,richardson3 8,in passing up to the synagogue1 ,i was particularly struck with the mean and wretched appearance of the houses on both sides of the streets1 as well as with the poverty of their inhabitants4 ,the sight of a poor ,jew in ,jerusalem has in it something peculiarly affecting4 ,the heart of this wonderful people1 in whatever clime they roam1 still turns to it as the city of their promised rest4 ,they take pleasure in her ruins1 and would kiss the very dust for her sake4 ,jerusalem is the centre around which the exiled sons of ,judah build1 in imagination1 the mansions of their future greatness4 ,in whatever part of the world he may live1 the heart's desire of a ,jew is to be buried in ,jerusalem4 ,thither they return from ,spain and ,portugal1 from ,egypt and ,barbary1 and other countries among which they have been scattered3 and when1 after all their longings1 and all their struggles up the steeps of life1 we see them poor1 and blind1 and naked1 in the streets of their once happy ,zion1 he must have a cold heart that can remain untouched by their sufferings1 without uttering a prayer that ,god would have mercy on the darkness of ,judah2 and that the ,day ,star of ,bethlehem might arise in their hearts40 8,jerusalem10 remarks ,sir ,frederick ,henniker1 8is called1 even by ,mohammedans1 the ,blessed ,city 7,el ,gootz1 ,el ,koudes47 ,the streets of it are narrow and deserted1 the houses dirty and ragged1 the shops few and forsaken2 and throughout the whole there is not one symptom of either commerce1 comfort1 or happiness4 ,the best view of it is from the ,mount of ,olives3 it commands the exact shape and nearly every particular2 namely1 the church of the holy sepulchre1 the ,armenian convent1 the mosque of ,omar1 ,st4 ,stephen's gate1 the round-topped houses1 and the barren vacancies of the city4 ,without the walls are a ,turkish burial ground1 the tomb of ,david1 a small grove near the tombs of the kings1 and all the rest is a surface of rock1 on which are a few numbered trees4 ,the mosque of ,omar is the ,st4 ,peter's of ,turkey1 and the respective saints are held respectively by their own faithful in equal veneration4 ,the building itself has a light pagoda appearance2 the garden in which it stands occupies a considerable part of the city1 and1 contrasted with the surrounding desert1 is beautiful4 ,the burial place of the ,jews is over the valley of ,kedron1 and the fees for breaking the soil afford a considerable revenue to the governor4 ,the burial place of the ,turks is under the walls1 near ,st4 ,stephen's gate4 ,from the opposite side of the valley1 ,i was witness to the ceremony of parading a corpse round the mosque of ,omar1 and then bringing it forth for burial4 ,i hastened to the grave1 but was soon driven away3 as far as my on dit tells me1 it would have been worth seeing4 ,the grave is strown with red earth1 supposed to be of the ,ager ,damascenus of which ,adam was made2 by the side of the corpse is placed a stick1 and the priest tells him that the devil will tempt him to become a ,christian1 but that he must make good use of his stick2 that his trial will last three days1 and that he will then find himself in a mansion of glory10 c4 ,the ,jerusalem of sacred history is1 in fact1 no more4 ,not a vestige remains of the capital of ,david and ,solomon2 not a monument of ,jewish times is standing4 ,the very course of the walls is changed1 and the boundaries of the ancient city are become doubtful4 ,the monks pretend to show the sites of the sacred places2 but neither ,calvary1 nor the holy sepulchre1 much less the ,dolorous ,way1 the house of ,caiaphas1 c1 have the slightest pretensions to even a probable identity with the real places to which the tradition refers4 ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke has the merit of being the first modern traveller who ventured to speak of the preposterous legends and clumsy forgeries of the priests with the contempt which they merit4 8,to men interested in tracing1 within its walls1 antiquities referred to by the documents of sacred history1 no spectacle10 remarks the learned traveller1 8can be more mortifying than the city in its present state4 ,the mistaken piety of the early ,christians1 in attempting to preserve1 has either confused or annihilated the memorials it was anxious to render conspicuous4 ,viewing the havoc thus made1 it may now be regretted that the ,holy ,land was ever rescued from the dominion of ,saracens1 who were far less barbarous than their conquerors4 ,the absurdity1 for example1 of hewing the rocks of ,judea into shrines and chapels1 and of disguising the face of nature with painted domes and guilded marble coverings1 by way of commemorating the scenes of our ,saviour's life and death1 is so evident and so lamentable1 that even ,sandys1 with all his credulity1 could not avoid a happy application of the reproof conveyed by the ,roman satirist against a similar violation of the ,egerian fountain40 ,dr4 ,richardson remarks1 8,it is a tantalizing circumstance for the traveller who wishes to recognise in his walks the site of particular buildings1 or the scenes of memorable events1 that the greater part of the objects mentioned in the description both of the inspired and the ,jewish historian1 are entirely removed1 and razed from their foundation1 without leaving a single trace or name behind to point out where they stood4 ,not an ancient tower1 or gate1 or wall1 or hardly even a stone1 remains4 ,the foundations are not only broken up1 but every fragment of which they were composed is swept away1 and the spectator looks upon the bare rock with hardly a sprinkling of earth to point out her gardens of pleasure1 or groves of idolatrous devotion4 ,and when we consider the palaces1 and towers1 and walls about ,jerusalem1 and that the stones of which some of them were constructed were thirty feet long1 fifteen feet broad1 and seven and a half feet thick1 we are not more astonished at the strength1 and skill1 and perseverance1 by which they were constructed1 than shocked by the relentless and brutal hostility by which they were shattered and overthrown1 and utterly removed from our sight4 ,a few gardens still remain on the sloping base of ,mount ,zion1 watered from the pool of ,siloam2 the gardens of ,gethsemane are still in a sort of ruined cultivation2 the fences are broken down1 and the olive trees decaying1 as if the hand that dressed and fed them were withdrawn2 the ,mount of ,olives still retains a languishing verdure1 and nourishes a few of those trees from which it derives its name2 but all round about ,jerusalem the general aspect is blighted and barren2 the grass is withered2 the bare rock looks through the scanty sward2 and the grain itself1 like the staring progeny of famine1 seems in doubt whether to come to maturity1 or die in the ear4 ,the vine that was brought from ,egypt is cut off from the midst of the land2 the vineyards are wasted2 the hedges are taken away2 and the graves of the ancient dead are open and tenantless40 #c4 ,on the accomplishment of prophecy in the condition in which this celebrated city has lain for ages1 ,keith well remarks3--,it formed the theme of prophecy from the death bed of ,jacob2 and1 as the seat of the government of the children of ,judah1 the sceptre departed not from it till the ,messiah appeared1 on the expiration of seventeen hundred years after the death of the patriarch1 and till the period of its desolation1 prophesied of by ,daniel1 had arrived4 ,it was to be trodden down of the ,gentiles1 till the time of the ,gentiles should be fulfilled4 ,the time of the ,gentiles is not yet fulfilled1 and ,jerusalem is still trodden down of the ,gentiles4 ,the ,jews have often attempted to recover it3 no distance of space or of time can separate it from their affections3 they perform their devotions with their faces toward it1 as if it were the object of their worship as well as of their love2 and1 although their desire to return be so strong1 indelible1 and innate1 that every ,jew1 in every generation1 counts himself an exile1 yet they have never been able to rebuild their temple1 nor to recover ,jerusalem from the hands of the ,gentiles4 ,but greater power than that of a proscribed and exiled race has been added to their own1 in attempting to frustrate the counsel that professed to be of ,god4 ,julian1 the emperor of the ,romans1 not only permitted but invited the ,jews to rebuild ,jerusalem and their temple2 and promised to restablish them in their paternal city4 ,by that single act1 more than by all his writings1 he might have destroyed the credibility of the ,gospel1 and restored his beloved but deserted ,paganism4 ,the zeal of the ,jews was equal to his own2 and the work was begun by laying again the foundations of the temple4 ,it was never accomplished1 and the prophecy stands fulfilled4 ,but even if the attempt of ,julian had never been made1 the truth of the prophecy itself is unassailable4 ,the ,jews have never been reinstated in ,judea4 ,jerusalem has ever been trodden down of the ,gentiles4 ,the edict of ,adrian was renewed by the successors of ,julian2 and no ,jews could approach unto ,jerusalem but by bribery or by stealth4 ,it was a spot unlawful for them to touch4 ,in the crusades1 all the power of ,europe was employed to rescue ,jerusalem from the ,heathens1 but equally in vain4 ,it has been trodden down for nearly eighteen centuries by its successive masters2 by ,romans1 ,grecians1 ,persians1 ,saracens1 ,mamelukes1 ,turks1 ,christians1 and again by the worst of rulers1 the ,arabs and the ,turks4 ,and could any thing be more improbable to have happened1 or more impossible to have been foreseen by man1 than that any people should be banished from their own capital and country1 and remain expelled and expatriated for nearly eighteen hundred years8 ,did the same fate ever befall any nation1 though no prophecy existed respecting it8 ,is there any doctrine in ,scripture so hard to be believed as was this single fact at the period of its prediction8 ,and even with the example of the ,jews before us1 is it likely1 or is it credible1 or who can foretel1 that the present inhabitants of any country upon earth shall be banished into all nations1 retain their distinctive character1 meet with an unparalleled fate1 continue a people1 without a government and without a country1 and remain for an indefinite period1 exceeding seventeen hundred years1 till the fulfilment of a prescribed event which has yet to be accomplished8 ,must not the knowledge of such truths be derived from that prescience alone which scans alike the will and the ways of mortals1 the actions of future nations1 and the history of the latest generations8 ,,jeshurun1 a name given to the collective political body of ,israelites4 ,some derive the word from 1 just or righteous1 and so make it to signify a righteous people4 ,montanus renders it rectitudo1 and so does the ,samaritan version4 ,but it seems a considerable objection against this sense1 that ,israel is called ,jeshurun at the very time that they are upbraided with their sins and their rebellion3 8,jeshurun waxed fat1 and kicked10 c1 ,deut4 xxxii1 #ae4 ,it is replied1 ,jeshurun is the diminutive of 1 7for nomen auctum in fine est nomen diminutivum17 and so imports1 that though1 in general and on the whole1 they were a righteous people1 yet they were not without great faults4 ,perhaps ,cocceius has given as probable an interpretation as any4 ,he derives the word from 1 which signifies to see1 behold1 or discover2 from whence1 in the future tense1 plural1 comes 1 which1 with the addition of nun paragogicum1 makes ,jeshurun2 that is1 8the people who had the vision of ,god40 ,this makes the name of ,jeshurun to be properly applied to ,israel1 not only when ,moses is called their king1 but when they are upbraided with their rebellion against ,god2 since the peculiar manifestation which ,god had made of himself to them was a great aggravation of their ingratitude and rebellion4 ,,jesse4 ,see ,,david and ,,ruth4 ,,jesuits1 or the society of ,jesus1 one of the most celebrated monastic orders of the ,romish church1 was founded in the year #aedj1 by ,ignatius ,loyola1 ,forsaking the military for the ecclesiastical profession1 he engaged himself in the wildest and most extravagant adventures1 as the knight of the blessed virgin4 ,after performing a pilgrimage to the ,holy ,land1 and pursuing a multitude of visionary schemes1 he returned to prosecute his theological studies in the universities of ,spain1 when he was about thirty-three years of age4 ,he next went to ,paris1 where he collected a small number of associates2 and1 prompted by his fanatical spirit1 or the love of distinction1 began to conceive the establishment of a new religious order4 ,he produced a plan of its constitution and laws1 which he affirmed to have been suggested by the immediate inspiration of ,heaven1 and applied to the ,roman pontiff1 ,paul ,,iii4 for the sanction of his authority to confirm the institution4 ,at a time when the papal authority had received so severe a shock from the progress of the ,reformation1 and was still exposed to the most powerful attacks in every quarter1 this was an offer too tempting to be resisted4 ,the reigning pontiff1 though naturally cautious1 and though scarcely capable1 without the spirit of prophecy1 of foreseeing all the advantages to be derived from the services of this nascent order1 yet clearly perceiving the benefit of multiplying the number of his devoted servants1 instantly confirmed by his bull the institution of the ,jesuits1 granted the most ample privileges to the members of the society1 and appointed ,loyola to be the first general of the order4 #b4 ,the simple and primary object of the society1 says a writer in the ,edinburgh ,encyclopdia1 was to establish a spiritual dominion over the minds of men1 of which the pope should appear as the ostensible head1 while the real power should reside with themselves4 ,to accomplish this object1 the whole constitution and policy of the order were singularly adapted1 and exhibited various peculiarities which distinguished it from all other monastic orders4 ,the immediate design of every other religious society was to separate its members from the world2 that of the ,jesuits1 to render them masters of the world4 ,the inmate of the convent devoted himself to work out his own salvation by extraordinary acts of devotion and self-denial2 the follower of ,loyola considered himself as plunging into all the bustle of secular affairs1 to maintain the interests of the ,romish church4 ,the monk was a retired devotee of heaven2 the ,jesuit a chosen soldier of the pope4 ,that the members of the new order might have full leisure for this active service1 they were exempted from the usual functions of other monks4 ,they were not required to spend their time in the long ceremonial offices and numberless mummeries of the ,romish worship4 ,they attended no processions1 and practised no austerities4 ,they neither chanted nor prayed4 8,they cannot sing10 said their enemies2 8for birds of prey never do40 ,they were sent forth to watch every transaction of the world which might appear to affect the interests of religion1 and were especially enjoined to study the dispositions and cultivate the friendship of persons in the higher ranks4 ,nothing could be imagined more open and liberal than the external aspect of the institution1 yet nothing could be more strict and secret than its internal organization4 ,loyola1 influenced1 perhaps1 by the notions of implicit obedience which he had derived from his military profession1 resolved that the government of the ,jesuits should be absolutely monarchical4 ,a general1 chosen for life by deputies from the several provinces1 possessed supreme and independent power1 extending to every person1 and applying to every case4 ,every member of the order1 the instant that he entered its pale1 surrendered all freedom of thought and action2 and every personal feeling was superseded by the interests of that body to which he had attached himself4 ,he went wherever he was ordered2 he performed whatever he was commanded2 he suffered whatever he was enjoined2 he became a mere passive instrument incapable of resistance4 ,the gradation of ranks was only a gradation in slavery2 and so perfect a despotism over a large body of men1 dispersed over the face of the earth1 was never before realized4 ,the maxims of policy adopted by this celebrated society were1 like its constitution1 remarkable for their union of laxity and rigour4 ,nothing could divert them from their original object2 and no means were ever scrupled which promised to aid its accomplishment4 ,they were in no degree shackled by prejudice1 superstition1 or real religion4 ,expediency1 in its most simple and licentious form1 was the basis of their morals1 and their principles and practices were uniformly accommodated to the circumstances in which they were placed2 and even their bigotry1 obdurate as it was1 never appears to have interfered with their interests4 ,the paramount and characteristic principle of the order1 from which none of its members ever swerved1 was simply this1 that its interests were to be promoted by all possible means1 at all possible expense4 ,in order to acquire more easily an ascendancy over persons of rank and power1 they propagated a system of the most relaxed morality1 which accommodated itself to the passions of men1 justified their vices1 tolerated their imperfections1 and authorized almost every action which the most audacious or crafty politician would wish to perpetrate4 ,to persons of stricter principles they studied to recommend themselves by the purity of their lives1 and sometimes by the austerity of their doctrines4 ,while sufficiently compliant in the treatment of immoral practices1 they were generally rigidly severe in exacting a strict orthodoxy in opinions4 8,they are a sort of people10 said the ,abb ,boileau1 8who lengthen the creed and shorten the decalogue40 ,they adopted the same spirit of accommodation in their missionary undertakings2 and their ,christianity1 chamelionlike1 readily assumed the colour of every religion where it happened to be introduced4 ,they freely permitted their converts to retain a full proportion of the old superstitions1 and suppressed1 without hesitation1 any point in the new faith which was likely to bear hard on their prejudices or propensities4 ,they proceeded to still greater lengths2 and1 beside suppressing the truths of revelation1 devised the most absurd falsehoods1 to be used for attracting disciples1 or even to be taught as parts of ,christianity4 ,one of them in ,india produced a pedigree to prove his own descent from ,brama2 and another in ,america assured a native chief that ,christ had been a valiant and victorious warrior1 who1 in the space of three years1 had scalped an incredible number of men1 women1 and children4 ,it was1 in fact1 their own authority1 not the authority of true religion1 which they wished to establish2 and ,christianity was generally as little known1 when they quitted the foreign scenes of their labours as when they entered them4 ,these detestable objects and principles1 however1 were long an impenetrable secret3 and the professed intention of the new order was to promote1 with unequalled and unfettered zeal1 the salvation of mankind4 ,its progress1 nevertheless1 was at first remarkably slow4 ,charles ,v41 who is supposed1 with his usual sagacity1 to have discerned its dangerous tendency1 rather checked than encouraged its advancement2 and the universities of ,france resisted its introduction into that kingdom4 ,thus1 roused by obstacles1 and obliged to find resources within themselves1 the ,jesuits brought all their talents and devices into action4 ,they applied themselves to every useful function and curious art2 and neither neglected nor despised any mode1 however humble1 of gaining employment or reputation4 ,the satirist's description of the ,greeks in ,rome has been aptly chosen to describe their indefatigable and universal industry3-- ,grammaticus1 rhetor1 geometres1 pictor1 aliptes1 ,augur1 schnobates1 medicus1 magus2 omnia novit ,grculus4 ,juvenal1 lib4 iii1 #gf4 8,a ,protean tribe1 one knows not what to call1 ,which shifts to every form1 and shines in all3 ,grammarian1 painter1 augur1 rhetorician1 ,rope-dancer1 conjuror1 fiddler1 and physician1-- ,all trades his own1 your hungry ,greekling counts40 ,,gifford4 ,they laboured with the greatest assiduity to qualify themselves as the instructers of youth2 and succeeded1 at length1 in supplanting their opponents in every ,catholic kingdom4 ,they aimed1 in the next place1 to become the spiritual directors of the higher ranks2 and soon established themselves in most of the courts which were attached to the papal faith1 not only as the confessors1 but frequently also as the guides and ministers1 of superstitious princes4 ,the governors of the society pursuing one uniform system with unwearied perseverance1 became entirely successful2 and1 in the space of half a century1 had in a wonderful degree extended the reputation1 the number1 and influence of the order4 ,when ,loyola1 in #aedj1 petitioned the pope to authorize the institution of the ,jesuits1 he had only ten disciples2 but in #afjh the number amounted to #aj1eha4 ,before the expiration of the sixteenth century they had obtained the chief direction of the education of youth in every ,catholic country in ,europe1 and had become the confessors of almost all its noblest monarchs4 ,in spite of their vow of poverty1 their wealth increased with their power2 and they soon rivalled1 in the extent and value of their possessions1 the most opulent monastic fraternities4 ,about the beginning of the seventeenth century1 they obtained from the court of ,madrid the grant of the large and fertile province of ,paraguay1 which stretches across the southern continent of ,america1 from the mountains of ,potosi to the banks of the river ,la ,plata2 and1 after every deduction which can reasonably be made from their own accounts of their establishment1 enough will remain to excite the astonishment and applause of mankind4 ,they found the inhabitants in the first stage of society1 ignorant of the arts of life1 and unacquainted with the first principles of subordination4 ,they applied themselves to instruct and civilize these savage tribes4 ,they commenced their labours by collecting about fifty families of wandering ,indians1 whom they converted and settled in a small township4 ,they taught them to build houses1 to cultivate the ground1 and to rear tame animals2 trained them to arts and manufactures1 and brought them to relish the blessings of security and order4 ,by a wise and humane policy1 they gradually attracted new subjects and converts2 till at last they formed a powerful and well organized state of three hundred thousand families4 ,though the power of the ,jesuits had become so extensive1 and though their interests generally prospered during a period of more than two centuries1 their progress was by no means uninterrupted2 and1 by their own misconduct1 they soon excited the most formidable counteractions4 ,scarcely had they effected their establishment in ,france1 in defiance of the parliaments and universities1 when their existence was endangered by the fanaticism of their own members4 ,john ,chastel1 one of their pupils1 made an attempt upon the life of ,henry ,,iv42 and ,father ,guiscard1 another of the order1 was convicted of composing writings favourable to regicide4 ,the parliaments seized the moment of their disgrace1 and procured their banishment from every part of the kingdom1 except the provinces of ,bourdeaux and ,toulouse4 ,from these rallying points1 they speedily extended their intrigues in every quarter1 and in a few years obtained their re-establishment4 ,even ,henry1 either dreading their power1 or pleased with the exculpation of his licentious habits1 which he found in their flexible system of morality1 became their patron1 and selected one of their number as his confessor4 ,they were favoured by ,louis ,,xiii4 and his minister ,richelieu1 on account of their literary exertions2 but it was in the succeeding reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 that they reached the summit of their prosperity4 ,the ,fathers ,la ,chaise and ,le ,teltier were successively confessors to the king2 and did not fail to employ their influence for the interest of their order3 but the latter carried on his projects with so blind and fiery a zeal1 that one of the ,jesuits is reported to have said of him1 8,he drives at such a rate1 that he will overturn us all40 ,the ,jansenists were peculiarly the objects of his machinations1 and he rested not till he had accomplished the destruction of their celebrated college and convent at ,port ,royal4 ,before the fall1 however1 of this honoured seminary1 a shaft from its bow had reached the heart of its proud oppressor4 ,the 8,provincial ,letters of ,pascal0 had been published1 in which the quibbling morality and unintelligible metaphysics of the ,jesuits were exposed in a strain of inimitable humour1 and a style of unrivalled elegance4 ,the impression which they produced was wide and deep1 and gradually sapped the foundation of public opinion1 on which the power of the order had hitherto rested4 ,under the regency of the duke of ,orleans1 the ,jesuits1 and all theological personages and principles were disregarded with atheistical superciliousness2 but under ,louis ,,xv4 they partly recovered their influence at court1 which1 even under ,cardinal ,fleury1 they retained in a considerable degree4 ,but they soon revived the odium of the public by their intolerant treatment of the ,jansenists1 and probably accelerated their ruin by refusing1 from political rather than religious scruples1 to undertake the spiritual guidance of ,madame de la ,pampadour1 as well as by imprudently attacking the authors of the 8,encyclopdie40 ,voltaire directed against them all the powers of his ridicule1 and finished the piece which ,pascal had sketched4 ,their power was brought to a very low ebb1 when the war of #agef broke out1 which occasioned the famous law-suit that led to their final overthrow4 ,in the mean time the king of ,portugal was assassinated2 and ,carvalho1 the minister1 who detested the ,jesuits1 found means to load them with the odium of the crime4 ,malagrida1 and a few more of these fathers1 were charged with advising and absolving the assassins2 and1 having been found guilty1 were condemned to the stake4 ,the rest were banished with every brand of infamy1 and were treated with the most iniquitous cruelty4 ,they were persecuted without discrimination1 robbed of their property without pity1 and embarked for ,italy without previous preparation2 so that1 no provision having been made for their reception1 they were literally left to perish with hunger in their vessels4 ,these incidents prepared the way for a similar catastrophe in ,france4 ,in ,march1 #agfb1 the ,french court received intelligence of the capture of ,martinico by the ,british2 and1 dreading a storm of public indignation1 resolved to divert the exasperated feelings of the nation1 by yielding the ,jesuits to their impending fate4 ,on the sixth of ,august1 #agfb1 their institute was condemned by the parliament1 as contrary to the laws of the state1 to the obedience due to the sovereign1 and to the welfare of the kingdom4 ,the order was dissolved1 and their effects alienated4 ,but in certain quarters1 where the provincial parliaments had not decided against them1 ,jesuits still subsisted2 and a royal edict was afterward promulgated1 which formally abolished the society in ,france1 but permitted its members to reside within the kingdom under certain restrictions4 ,in ,spain1 where they conceived their establishment to be perfectly secure1 they experienced an overthrow equally complete1 and much more unexpected4 ,the necessary measures were concerted under the direction of ,de ,choiseul1 by the ,marquis ,d',ossun1 the ,french ambassador at ,madrid1 with ,charles ,,iii41 king of ,spain1 and his prime minister1 the ,count ,d',aranda4 ,the execution of their purposes was as sudden as their plans had been secret4 ,at midnight1 ,march #cast1 #agfg1 large bodies of military surrounded the six colleges of the ,jesuits in ,madrid1 forced the gates1 secured the bells1 collected the fathers in the refectory1 and read to them the king's order for their instant transportation4 ,they were immediately put into carriages previously placed at proper stations2 and were on their way to ,carthagena before the inhabitants of the city had any intelligence of the transaction4 ,three days afterward1 the same measures were adopted with regard to every other college of the order in the kingdom2 and1 ships having been provided at the different sea ports1 they were all embarked for the ecclesiastical states in ,italy4 ,all their property was confiscated1 and a small pension assigned to each individual as long as he should reside in a place appointed1 and satisfy the ,spanish court as to his peaceable demeanour4 ,all correspondence with the ,jesuits was prohibited1 and the strictest silence on the subject of their expulsion was enjoined under penalties of high treason4 ,a similar seizure and deportation took place in the ,indies1 and an immense property was acquired by the government4 ,many crimes and plots were laid to the charge of the order2 but whatever may have been their demerit1 the punishment was too summary to admit of justification2 and many innocent individuals were subjected to sufferings beyond the deserts even of the guilty4 ,pope ,clement ,,iii4 prohibited their landing in his dominions2 and1 after enduring extreme miseries in crowded transports1 the survivors1 to the number of two thousand three hundred1 were put ashore on ,corsica4 ,the example of the king of ,spain was immediately followed by ,ferdinand ,,vi4 of ,naples1 and soon after by the prince of ,parma4 ,they had been expelled from ,england in #afjd2 from ,venice in #afjf2 and from ,portugal in #agei1 upon the charge of having instigated the families of ,tavora and ,d',aveiro to assassinate ,king ,joseph ,i4 ,frederick the ,great1 of ,prussia1 was the only monarch who showed a disposition to afford them protection2 but in #aggc the order was entirely suppressed by ,pope ,clement ,,xiv41 who is supposed to have fallen a victim to their vengeance4 ,in #ahja the society was restored in ,russia by the ,emperor ,paul2 and in #ahjd1 by ,king ,ferdinand1 in ,sardinia4 ,in ,august1 #ahad1 a bull was issued by ,pope ,pius ,,vii41 restoring the order to all their former privileges1 and calling upon all ,catholic princes to afford them protection and encouragement4 ,this act of their revival is expressed in all the solemnity of papal authority2 and even affirmed to be above the recall or revision of any judge1 with whatever power he may be clothed2 but to every enlightened mind it cannot fail to appear as a measure altogether incapable of justification1 from any thing either in the history of ,jesuitism1 or in the character of the present times4 #c4 ,it would be in vain to deny that many considerable advantages were derived by mankind from the labours of the ,jesuits4 ,their ardour in the study of ancient literature1 and their labours in the instruction of youth1 greatly contributed to the progress of polite learning4 ,they have produced a greater number of ingenious authors than all the other religious fraternities taken together2 and though there never was known among their order one person who could be said to possess an enlarged philosophical mind1 they can boast of many eminent masters in the separate branches of science1 many distinguished mathematicians1 antiquarians1 critics1 and even some orators of high reputation4 ,they were in general1 also1 as individuals1 superior in decency1 and even purity of manners1 to any other class of regular clergy in the church of ,rome4 ,but all these benefits by no means counterbalanced the pernicious effects of their influence and intrigues on the best interests of society4 ,the essential principles of the institution1 namely1 that their order is to be maintained at the expense of the society at large1 and that the end sanctifies the means1 are utterly incompatible with the welfare of any community of men4 ,their system of lax and pliant morality1 justifying every vice1 and authorizing every atrocity1 has left deep and lasting ravages on the face of the moral world4 ,their zeal to extend the jurisdiction of the court of ,rome over every civil government1 gave currency to tenets respecting the duty of opposing princes who were hostile to the ,catholic faith1 which shook the basis of all political allegiance1 and loosened the obligations of every human law4 ,their indefatigable industry1 and countless artifices in resisting the progress of reformed religion1 perpetuated the most pernicious errors of ,popery1 and postponed the triumph of tolerant and ,christian principles4 ,whence1 then1 it may well be asked1 whence the recent restoration8 ,what long latent proof has been discovered of the excellence1 or even the expedience1 of such an institution8 ,the sentence of their abolition was passed by the senates1 and monarchs1 and statesmen1 and divines1 of all religions1 and of almost every civilized country in the world4 ,almost every land has been stained and torn by their crimes2 and almost every land bears on its public records the most solemn protests against their existence4 ,,jesus ,,christ1 the ,son of ,god1 the ,messiah1 and ,saviour of the world1 the first and principal object of the prophecies1 prefigured and promised in the ,old ,testament1 expected and desired by the patriarchs2 the hope of the ,gentiles2 the glory1 salvation1 and consolation of ,christians4 ,the name ,jesus1 or1 as the ,hebrews pronounce it1 1 ,jehoshua1 or ,joshua1 1 signifies1 he who shall save4 ,no one ever bore this name with so much justice1 nor so perfectly fulfilled the signification of it1 as ,jesus ,christ1 who saves even from sin and hell1 and hath merited heaven for us by the price of his blood4 ,it is not necessary here to narrate the history of our ,saviour's life1 which can no where be read with advantage except in the writings of the four evangelists2 but there are several general views which require to be noticed under this article4 #a4 ,jesus of ,nazareth was the ,christ or ,messiah promised under the ,old ,testament4 ,that he professed himself to be that ,messiah to whom all the prophets gave witness1 and who was1 in fact1 at the time of his appearing1 expected by the ,jews2 and that he was received under that character by his disciples1 and by all ,christians ever since1 is certain4 ,and if the ,old ,testament ,scriptures afford sufficiently definite marks by which the long announced ,christ should be infallibly known at his advent1 and these presignations are found realized in our ,lord1 then is the truth of his pretensions established4 ,from the books of the ,old ,testament we learn that the ,messiah was to authenticate his claim by miracles2 and in those predictions respecting him1 so many circumstances are recorded1 that they could meet only in one person2 and so1 if they are accomplished in him1 they leave no room for doubt1 as far as the evidence of prophecy is deemed conclusive4 ,as to ,,miracles1 we refer to that article2 here only observing1 that if the miraculous works wrought by ,christ were really done1 they prove his mission1 because1 from their nature1 and having been wrought to confirm his claim to be the ,messiah1 they necessarily imply a divine attestation4 ,with respect to ,,prophecy1 the principles under which its evidence must be regarded as conclusive will be given under that head2 and here therefore it will only be necessary to show the completion of the prophecies of the sacred books of the ,jews relative to the ,messiah in one person1 and that person the founder of the ,christian religion4 ,the time of the ,messiah's appearance in the world1 as predicted in the ,old ,testament1 is defined1 says ,keith1 by a number of concurring circumstances1 which fix it to the very date of the advent of ,christ4 ,the last blessing of ,jacob to his sons1 when he commanded them to gather themselves together that he might tell them what should befall them in the last days1 contains this prediction concerning ,judah3 8,the sceptre shall not depart from ,judah1 nor a lawgiver from between his feet1 until ,shiloh come2 and unto him shall the gathering of the people be10 ,gen4 xlix1 #aj4 ,the date fixed by this prophecy for the coming of ,shiloh1 or the ,saviour1 was not to exceed the time during which the descendants of ,judah were to continue a united people1 while a king should reign among them1 while they should be governed by their own laws1 and while their judges should be from among their brethren4 ,the prophecy of ,malachi adds another standard for measuring the time3 8,behold1 ,i send my messenger1 and he shall prepare the way before me2 and the ,lord1 whom ye seek1 shall come suddenly to his temple1 even the messenger of the covenant1 whom ye delight in3 behold1 he shall come1 saith the ,lord of ,hosts10 ,mal4 iii1 #a4 ,no words can be more expressive of the coming of the promised ,messiah2 and they as clearly imply his appearance in the second temple before it should be destroyed4 ,in regard to the advent of the ,messiah before the destruction of the second temple1 the words of ,haggai are remarkably explicit3 8,the desire of all nations shall come1 and ,i will fill this house with glory1 saith the ,lord of ,hosts4 ,the glory of this latter house shall be greater than of the former1 and in this place will ,i give peace10 ,hag4 ii1 #g4 ,the ,saviour was thus to appear1 according to the prophecies of the ,old ,testament1 during the time of the continuance of the kingdom of ,judah1 previous to the demolition of the temple1 and immediately subsequent to the next prophet4 ,but the time is rendered yet more definite4 ,in the prophecies of ,daniel1 the kingdom of the ,messiah is not only foretold as commencing in the time of the fourth monarchy1 or ,roman empire1 but the express number of years that were to precede his coming are plainly intimated3 8,seventy weeks are determined upon thy people1 and upon thy holy city1 to finish the transgression1 and to make an end of sin1 and to make reconciliation for iniquity1 and to bring in everlasting righteousness1 and to seal up the vision and prophecy1 and to anoint the ,most ,holy4 ,know1 therefore1 and understand1 that from the going forth of the commandment to restore and to build ,jerusalem1 unto ,messiah the ,prince1 shall be seven weeks and threescore and two weeks10 ,dan4 ix1 #bd1 #be4 ,computation by weeks of years was common among the ,jews1 and every seventh was the sabbatical year2 seventy weeks1 thus amounted to four hundred and ninety years4 ,in these words the prophet marks the very time1 and uses the very name of ,messiah1 the ,prince2 so entirely is all ambiguity done away4 ,the plainest inference may be drawn from these prophecies4 ,all of them1 while1 in every respect1 they presuppose the most perfect knowledge of futurity2 while they were unquestionably delivered and publicly known for ages previous to the time to which they referred2 and while they refer to different contingent and unconnected events1 utterly undeterminable and inconceivable by all human sagacity2 accord in perfect unison to a single precise period where all their different lines terminate at once1--the very fulness of time when ,jesus appeared4 ,a king then reigned over the ,jews in their own land2 they were governed by their own laws2 and the council of their nation exercised its authority and power4 ,before that period1 the other tribes were extinct or dispersed among the nations4 ,judah alone remained1 and the last sceptre in ,israel had not then departed from it4 ,every stone of the temple was then unmoved2 it was the admiration of the ,romans1 and might have stood for ages4 ,but in a short space1 all these concurring testimonies to the time of the advent of the ,messiah passed away4 ,during the very year1 the twelfth of his age1 in which ,christ first publicly appeared in the temple1 ,archelaus the king was dethroned and banished2 ,coponius was appointed procurator2 and the kingdom of ,judea1 the last remnant of the greatness of ,israel1 was debased into a part of the province of ,syria4 ,the sceptre was smitten from the tribe of ,judah2 the crown fell from their heads2 their glory departed2 and1 soon after the death of ,christ1 of their temple one stone was not left upon another2 their commonwealth itself became as complete a ruin1 and was broken in pieces2 and they have ever since been scattered throughout the world1 a name but not a nation4 ,after the lapse of nearly four hundred years posterior to the time of ,malachi1 another prophet appeared who was the herald of the ,messiah4 ,and the testimony of ,josephus confirms the account given in ,scripture of ,john the ,baptist4 ,every mark that denoted the time of the coming of the ,messiah was erased soon after the crucifixion of ,christ1 and could never afterward be renewed4 ,and with respect to the prophecies of ,daniel1 it is remarkable1 at this remote period1 how little discrepancy of opinion has existed among the most learned men1 as to the space from the time of the passing out of the edict to rebuild ,jerusalem1 after the ,babylonish captivity1 to the commencement of the ,christian era1 and the subsequent events foretold in the prophecy4 ,the predictions contained in the ,old ,testament respecting both the family out of which the ,messiah was to arise1 and the place of his birth1 are almost as circumstantial1 and are equally applicable to ,christ1 as those which refer to the time of his appearance4 ,he was to be an ,israelite1 of the tribe of ,judah1 of the family of ,david1 and of the town of ,bethlehem4 ,that all these predictions were fulfilled in ,jesus ,christ2 that he was of that country1 tribe1 and family1 of the house and lineage of ,david1 and born in ,bethlehem1 we have the fullest evidence in the testimony of all the evangelists2 in two distinct accounts of the genealogies1 by natural and legal succession1 which1 according to the custom of the ,jews1 were carefully preserved2 in the acquiescence of the enemies of ,christ in the truth of the fact1 against which there is not a single surmise in history2 and in the appeal made by some of the earliest ,christian writers to the unquestionable testimony of the records of the census1 taken at the very time of our ,saviour's birth by order of ,csar4 ,here1 indeed1 it is impossible not to be struck with the exact fulfilment of prophecies which are apparently contradictory and irreconcilable1 and with the manner in which they were providentially accomplished4 ,the spot of ,christ's nativity was distant from the place of the abode of his parents1 and the region in which he began his ministry was remote from the place of his birth2 and another prophecy respecting him was in this manner verified3 8,in the land of ,zebulun and ,naphtali1 by the way of the sea beyond ,jordan1 in ,galilee of the nations1 the people that walked in darkness have seen a great light2 they that dwell in the land of the shadow of death1 upon them hath the light shined10 ,isaiah ix1 #a1 #b2 ,matt4 iv1 #af4 ,thus1 the time at which the predicted ,messiah was to appear2 the nation1 the tribe1 and the family from which he was to be descended2 and the place of his birth1--no populous city1 but of itself an inconsiderable place1--were all clearly foretold2 and as clearly refer to ,jesus ,christ2 and all meet their completion in him4 ,but the facts of his life1 and the features of his character1 are also drawn with a precision that cannot be misunderstood4 ,the obscurity1 the meanness1 and the poverty of his external condition are thus represented3 8,he shall grow up before the ,lord like a tender plant1 and as a root out of a dry ground3 he hath no form or comeliness2 and when we shall see him1 there is no beauty that we should desire him4 ,thus saith the ,lord to him whom man despiseth1 to him whom the nation abhorreth1 to a servant of rulers1 ,kings shall see and arise1 princes also shall worship10 ,isaiah liii1 #b2 xlix1 #g4 ,that such was the condition in which ,christ appeared1 the whole history of his life abundantly testifies4 ,and the ,jews1 looking in the pride of their hearts for an earthly king1 disregarded these prophecies concerning him1 were deceived by their traditions1 and found only a stone of stumbling1 where1 if they had searched their ,scriptures aright1 they would have discovered an evidence of the ,messiah4 8,is not this the carpenter's son8 ,is not this the son of ,mary8 said they and they were offended at him40 ,his riding in humble triumph into ,jerusalem2 his being betrayed for thirty pieces of silver1 and scourged1 and buffeted1 and spit upon2 the piercing of his hands and of his feet2 the last offered draught of vinegar and gall2 the parting of his raiment1 and casting lots upon his vesture2 the manner of his death and of his burial1 and his rising again without seeing corruption1 were all expressly predicted1 and all these predictions were literally fulfilled1 ,zech4 ix1 #i2 xi1 #ab2 ,isaiah l1 #f2 ,psalm xxii1 #af2 lxix1 #ba2 xxii1 #ah2 ,isaiah liii1 #i2 ,psalm xvi1 #aj4 ,if all these prophecies admit of any application to the events of the life of any individual1 it can only be to that of the ,author of ,christianity4 ,and what other religion can produce a single fact which was actually foretold of its founder8 ,the death of ,christ was as unparalleled as his life2 and the prophecies are as minutely descriptive of his sufferings as of his virtues4 ,not only did the paschal lamb1 which was to be killed every year in all the families of ,israel1 which was to be taken out of the flock1 to be without blemish1 to be eaten with bitter herbs1 to have its blood sprinkled1 and to be kept whole that not a bone of it should be broken2 not only did the offering up of ,isaac1 and the lifting up of the brazen serpent in the wilderness1 by looking upon which the people were healed1 and many ritual observances of the ,jews1 prefigure the manner of ,christ's death1 and the sacrifice which was to be made for sin2 but many express declarations abound in the prophecies1 that ,christ was indeed to suffer4 ,but ,isaiah1 who describes1 with eloquence worthy of a prophet1 the glories of the kingdom that was to come1 characterizes1 with the accuracy of a historian1 the humiliation1 the trials1 and the agonies which were to precede the triumphs of the ,redeemer of a world2 and the history of ,christ forms1 to the very letter1 the commentary and the completion of his every prediction4 ,in a single passage1 ,isaiah lii1 #ac1 c2 liii1 the connection of which is uninterrupted1 its antiquity indisputable1 and its application obvious1 the sufferings of the servant of ,god 7who under that same denomination1 is previously described as he who was to be the light of the ,gentiles1 the salvation of ,god to the ends of the earth1 and the elect of ,god in whom his soul delighted1 ,isa4 xiii1 #aj2 xlix1 #f7 are so minutely foretold1 that no illustration is requisite to show that they testify of ,jesus4 ,the whole of this prophecy thus refers to the ,messiah4 ,it describes both his debasement and his dignity2 his rejection by the ,jews2 his humility1 his affliction1 and his agony2 his magnanimity and his charity2 how his words were disbelieved2 how his state was lowly2 how his sorrow was severe2 how he opened not his mouth but to make intercession for the transgressors4 ,in diametrical opposition to every dispensation of ,providence which is registered in the records of the ,jews1 it represents spotless innocence suffering by the appointment of ,heaven2 death as the issue of perfect obedience2 ,god's righteous servant as forsaken of him2 and one who was perfectly immaculate bearing the chastisement of many guilty2 sprinkling many nations from their iniquity1 by virtue of his sacrifice2 justifying many by his knowledge2 and dividing a portion with the great and the spoil with the strong1 because he hath poured out his soul in death4 ,this prophecy1 therefore1 simply as a prediction prior to the event1 renders the very unbelief of the ,jews an evidence against them1 converts the scandal of the cross into an argument in favour of ,christianity1 and presents us with an epitome of the truth1 a miniature of the ,gospel in some of its most striking features4 ,the simple exposition of it sufficed at once for the conversion of the eunuch of ,ethiopia4 ,to these prophecies may1 in fact1 be added all those which relate to his spiritual kingdom1 or the circumstances of the promulgation1 the opposition1 and the triumphs of his religion2 the accomplishment of which equally proves the divine mission of its ,author1 and points him out as that great personage with whom they stand inseparably connected4 #b4 ,but if ,jesus of ,nazareth was the ,messiah1 in that character his ,deity also is necessarily involved1 because the ,messiah is surrounded with attributes of divinity in the ,old ,testament2 and our ,lord himself as certainly lays claim to those attributes as to the office of 8the ,christ40 ,without referring here to the ,scriptural doctrine of a ,trinity of divine ,persons in the unity of the ,godhead1 7see ,trinity17 it is sufficient now to show that both in the ,old and ,new ,testament ,scriptures1 the ,messiah is contemplated as a divine ,person4 ,in the very first promise of redemption1 his superiority to that great and malignant spirit who destroyed the innocence of man1 and blighted the fair creation of ,god1 is unquestionably implied2 while the ,angel of the ,divine ,presence1 the ,angel of the ,covenant1 who appears so prominent in the patriarchal times1 and the early periods of ,jewish history1 and was understood by the early ,jews as the future ,messiah1 is seen at once as a being distinct from ,jehovah and yet ,jehovah himself2 bearing that incommunicable name2 and performing acts1 and possessing qualities of unquestionable divinity4 ,as the 8,redeemer0 of ,job1 he is the object of his trust and hope1 and is said to be then a 8living ,redeemer20 to see whom at the last was to 8see ,god40 ,as 8,shiloh10 in the prophecy of ,jacob1 he is represented as having an indefinitely extensive reign over 8the people0 gathered to him2 and in all subsequent predictions respecting this reign of ,christ1 it is represented so vast1 so perfect1 so influential upon the very thoughts1 purposes1 and affections of men1 that no mere creature can be reasonably supposed capable of exercising it4 ,of the second ,psalm1 so manifestly appropriated to the ,messiah1 it has been justly said1 that the high titles and honours ascribed in this ,psalm to the extraordinary person who is the chief subject of it1 far transcend any thing that is ascribed in ,scripture to any mere creature4 ,but if the ,psalm be inquired into more narrowly1 and compared with parallel prophecies2 if it be duly considered1 that not only is the extraordinary person here spoken of called1 8the ,son of ,god10 but that title is so ascribed to him as to imply1 that it belongs to him in a manner that is absolutely singular1 and peculiar to himself1 seeing he is said to be begotten of ,god1 verse #g1 and is called1 by way of eminence1 8the ,son10 verse #ab2 that the danger of provoking him to anger is spoken of in so very different a manner from what the ,scripture uses in speaking of the anger of any mere creature1 8,kiss the ,son1 lest he be angry1 and ye perish from the way when his wrath is kindled but a little20 that when the kings and judges of the earth are commanded to serve ,god with fear1 they are at the same time commanded to kiss the ,son1 which in those times and places was frequently an expression of adoration2 and1 particularly1 that1 whereas other ,scriptures contain awful and just threatenings against those who trust in any mere man1 the ,psalmist nevertheless expressly calls them blessed who trust in the ,son here spoken of2--all these things taken together make up a character of unequivocal divinity3 and1 on the other hand1 when it is said1 that ,god would set this his ,son as his ,king on his holy hill of ,zion1 verse #f1 this1 and various other expressions in this ,psalm1 contain characters of that subordination which is appropriate to that divine ,person who was to be incarnate1 and engage in a work assigned to him by the ,father4 ,the former part of the forty-fifth ,psalm is by the inspired authority of ,st4 ,paul applied to the ,christ1 who is addressed in these lofty words1 8,thy throne1 ,o ,god1 is for ever and ever2 a sceptre of righteousness is the sceptre of thy kingdom40 ,in the same manner ,psalm cii1 #be-bi1 is applied to ,christ by the same authority1 and there he is represented as the ,creator of all things1 changing his creations as a vesture1 and yet himself continuing the same unchanged being amidst all the mutations of the universe4 ,in ,psalm cx1 ,david says1 8,jehovah said unto my ,lord1 7,adonai17 ,sit thou upon my right hand until ,i make thine enemies thy footstool40 ,and in ,isaiah vi1 the same ,adonai is seen by the prophet 8seated upon a throne1 high and lifted up10 receiving the adoration of seraphs1 and bearing the title1 8,jehovah1 ,lord of ,hosts10 of which passage ,st4 ,john makes a direct application to ,christ4 ,isaiah predicts his birth of a virgin1 under the title of 8,immanuel1 ,god with us40 ,the same prophet gives to this wonderful child the style of 8the ,mighty ,god10 the ,everlasting ,father10 and the 8,prince of ,peace20 so that1 as ,dr4 ,pye ,smith justly observes1 8if there be any dependence on words1 the ,messiah is here drawn in the opposite characters of humanity and ,deity1--the nativity and frailty of a mortal child1 and the incommunicable attributes of the omnipresent and eternal ,god40 ,twice is he called by ,jeremiah1 8,jehovah our righteousness40 ,daniel terms him the 8,ancient of ,days10 or 8,the ,immortal20 and ,micah declares1 in a passage which the council of the ,jews1 assembled by ,herod1 applied to the ,messiah1 that he who was to be born in ,bethlehem was 8even he whose comings forth are from eternity1 from the days of the everlasting period40 ,thus the prophetic testimony describes him1 as entitled to the appellation of 8,wonderful10 since he should be1 in a sense peculiar to himself1 the ,son of ,god1 ,psalm ii1 #g2 ,isaiah ix1 #f2 as existing and acting during the patriarchal and the ,jewish ages1 and even from eternity1 ,psalm xl1 #g-i2 ,micah v1 #b2 as the guardian and protector of his people1 ,isaiah xl1 #i-aa2 as the proper object of the various affections of piety1 of devotional confidence for obtaining the most important blessings1 and of religious homage from angels and men1 ,psalm ii1 #ab2 xcvii1 #g2 and1 finally1 declares him to be the eternal and immutable ,being1 the ,creator1 ,god1 the ,mighty ,god1 ,adonai1 ,elohim1 ,jehovah4 ,in perfect accordance with these views1 does our ,saviour speak of himself4 ,he asserts his prexistence1 as having 8come down from heaven20 and as existing 8before ,abraham20 and as being 8in heaven0 while yet before the eyes of his disciples on earth4 ,in the same peculiar manner does he apply the term 8,son of ,god0 to himself1 and that with so manifest an intention to assume it in the sense of divinity1 that the ,jews attempted on that account to stone him as a blasphemer4 ,the whole force of the argument by which he silenced the ,pharisees when he asked how the ,messiah1 who was to be the ,son of ,david1 could be ,david's ,lord1 in reference to the passage in the ,psalms before quoted1 arose out of the doctrine of the ,messiah's divinity2 and when he claims that all men should honour him as they honour the ,father1 and asserts that as the ,father hath life in himself1 so he has given to the ,son to have life in himself1 that he 8quickeneth whom he will10 that 8where two or three meet in his name he is in the midst of them10 and would be with his disciples 8to the end of the world20 who does not see that the ,jews concluded right1 when they said that he made himself 8equal with ,god10--an impression which he took no pains to remove1 although his own moral character bound him to do so1 had he not intended to confirm that conclusion4 ,so numerous are the passages in which divine titles1 acts1 and qualities1 are ascribed to ,christ1 in the apostolical epistles1 and so unbroken is the stream of testimony from the apostolic age1 that the ,deity of their ,saviour was the undoubted and universal faith of his inspired followers1 and of those who immediately succeeded them1 that it is not necessary to quote proofs4 ,the whole argument is this3 ,if the ,old ,testament ,scriptures represent the ,messiah as a divine ,person2 the proofs which demonstrate ,jesus to be the ,messiah1 demonstrate him also by farther and necessary consequence to be divine4 ,yet1 though there is a union of natures in ,christ1 there is no mixture or confusion of their properties3 his humanity is not changed into his ,deity1 nor his ,deity absorbed by his humanity2 but the two natures are distinct in one ,person4 ,how this union exists1 is above our comprehension2 and1 indeed1 if we cannot explain how our bodies and souls are united1 it is not to be supposed that we can comprehend the mystery of 8,god manifest in the flesh40 ,so truly does ,christ bear the name given to him in prophecy1--8,wonderful40 #c4 ,the doctrine of the ,deity of ,christ derives farther confirmation from the consideration1 that in no sound sense can the ,scriptures of the ,old and ,new ,testaments be interpreted so as to make their very different and often apparently contradictory statements respecting him harmonize4 ,how1 for instance1 is it that he is arrayed in the attributes of divinity1 and yet is capable of being raised to a kingdom and glory8--that he is addressed1 8,thy throne1 ,o ,god1 is for ever and ever10 and yet that it should follow 8,god1 even thy ,god1 hath anointed thee with the oil of gladness above thy fellows80--that he should be ,god1 and yet1 by a human birth1 8,god with us80--that he should1 say1 8,i and my ,father are one10 and1 8,my ,father is greater than ,i80--that he is supreme1 and yet a servant8--that he is equal and yet subordinate8--that he1 a man1 should require and receive worship and trust8--that he should be greater than angels1 and yet 8made lower than the angels80--that he should be 8made flesh10 and yet be the ,creator of all things8--that he should raise himself from the dead1 and yet be raised by the power of the ,father8 ,these and many other declarations respecting him1 all accord with the orthodox view of his person2 and are intelligible so far as they state the facts respecting him2 but are wholly beyond the power of interpretation into any rational meaning on any theory which denies to him a real humanity on the one hand1 or a real and personal divinity on the other4 ,so powerfully1 in fact1 has this been felt1 that1 in order to evade the force of the testimony of ,scripture1 the most licentious criticisms have been resorted to by the deniers of his divinity2 such as would not certainly have been tolerated by scholars in the case of an attempt to interpret any other ancient writing4 #d4 ,being1 therefore1 not only 8a teacher sent from ,god10 but the divine ,son of ,god himself1 it might be truly said by his wondering hearers1 8,never man spake like this man40 ,on our ,lord's character as a teacher1 therefore1 many striking and just remarks have been made by different writers1 not excepting some infidels themselves1 who1 in this respect1 have been carried into admiration by the overwhelming force of evidence4 ,this article1 however1 shall not be indebted to a desecrated source for an estimate of the character of his teaching1 and shall rather be concluded with the following admirable remarks of a ,christian prelate3-- 8,when our ,lord is considered as a teacher1 we find him delivering the justest and most sublime truths with respect to the divine nature1 the duties of mankind1 and a future state of existence2 agreeable in every particular to reason1 and to the wisest maxims of the wisest philosophers2 without any mixture of that alloy which so often debased their most perfect production2 and excellently adapted to mankind in general1 by suggesting circumstances and particular images on the most awful and interesting subjects4 ,we find him filling1 and1 as it were1 overpowering our minds with the grandest ideas of his own nature2 representing himself as appointed by his ,father to be our ,instructer1 our ,redeemer1 our ,judge1 and our ,king2 and showing that he lived and died for the most benevolent and important purposes conceivable4 ,he does not labour to support the greatest and most magnificent of all characters2 but it is perfectly easy and natural to him4 ,he makes no display of the high and heavenly truths which he utters2 but speaks of them with a graceful and wonderful simplicity and majesty4 ,supernatural truths are as familiar to his mind1 as the common affairs of life are to other men4 ,he revives the moral law1 carries it to perfection1 and enforces it by peculiar and animating motives3 but he enjoins nothing new beside praying in his name1 mutual love among his disciples1 as such1 and the observance of two simple and significant positive laws which serve to promote the practice of the moral law4 ,all his precepts1 when rightly explained1 are reasonable in themselves and useful in their tendency3 and their compass is very great1 considering that he was an occasional teacher1 and not a systematical one4 ,if from the matter of his instructions we pass on to the manner in which they were delivered1 we find our ,lord usually speaking as an authoritative teacher2 though occasionally limiting his precepts1 and sometimes assigning the reasons of them4 ,he presupposes the original law of ,god1 and addresses men as rational creatures4 ,from the grandeur of his mind1 and the magnitude of his subjects1 he is often sublime2 and the beauties interspersed throughout his discourses are equally natural and striking4 ,he is remarkable for an easy and graceful manner of introducing the best lessons from incidental objects and occasions4 ,the human heart is naked and open to him2 and he addresses the thoughts of men1 as others do the emotions of their countenance or their bodily actions4 ,difficult situations1 and sudden questions of the most artful and ensnaring kind1 serve only to display his superior wisdom1 and to confound and astonish all his adversaries4 ,instead of showing his boundless knowledge on every occasion1 he checks and restrains it1 and prefers utility to the glare of ostentation4 ,he teaches directly and obliquely1 plainly and covertly1 as wisdom points out occasions4 ,he knows the inmost character1 every prejudice and every feeling of his hearers2 and1 accordingly1 uses parables to conceal or to enforce his lessons3 and he powerfully impresses them by the significant language of actions4 ,he gives proofs of his mission from above1 by his knowledge of the heart1 by a chain of prophecies1 and by a variety of mighty works4 8,he sets an example of the most perfect piety to ,god1 and of the most extensive benevolence and the most tender compassion to men4 ,he does not merely exhibit a life of strict justice1 but of overflowing benignity4 ,his temperance has not the dark shades of austerity2 his meekness does not degenerate into apathy4 ,his humility is signal1 amidst a splendour of qualities more than human4 ,his fortitude is eminent and exemplary1 in enduring the most formidable external evils and the sharpest actual sufferings3 his patience is invincible2 his resignation entire and absolute4 ,truth and sincerity shine throughout his whole conduct4 ,though of heavenly descent1 he shows obedience and affection to his earthly parents4 ,he approves1 loves1 and attaches himself to amiable qualities in the human race4 ,he respects authority1 religious and civil2 and he evidences his regard for his country by promoting its most essential good in a painful ministry dedicated to its service1 by deploring its calamities1 and by laying down his life for its benefit4 ,every one of his eminent virtues is regulated by consummate prudence2 and he both wins the love of his friends1 and extorts the approbation and wonder of his enemies4 ,never was a character at the same time so commanding and natural1 so resplendent and pleasing1 so amiable and venerable4 ,there is a peculiar contrast in it between an awful greatness1 dignity1 and majesty1 and the most conciliating loveliness1 tenderness1 and softness4 ,he now converses with prophets1 lawgivers1 and angels2 and the next instant he meekly endures the dulness of his disciples1 and the blasphemies and rage of the multitude4 ,he now calls himself greater than ,solomon1 one who can command legions of angels1 the ,giver of life to whomsoever he pleaseth1 the ,son of ,god who shall sit on his glorious throne to judge the world4 ,at other times we find him embracing young children1 not lifting up his voice in the streets1 not breaking the bruised reed1 nor quenching the smoking flax2 calling his disciples1 not servants1 but friends and brethren1 and comforting them with an exuberant and parental affection4 ,let us pause an instant1 and fill our minds with the idea of one who knew all things heavenly and earthly1 searched and laid open the inmost recesses of the heart1 rectified every prejudice1 and removed every mistake1 of a moral and religious kind1 by a word exercised a sovereignty over all nature1 penetrated the hidden events of futurity1 gave promises of admission into a happy immortality1 had the keys of life and death1 claimed a union with the ,father2 and yet was pious1 mild1 gentle1 humble1 affable1 social1 benevolent1 friendly1 affectionate4 ,such a character is fairer than the morning star4 ,each separate virtue is made stronger by opposition and contrast2 and the union of so many virtues forms a brightness which fitly represents the glory of that ,god #8who inhabiteth light inaccessible4' ,such a character must have been a real one4 ,there is something so extraordinary1 so perfect1 and so godlike in it1 that it could not have been thus supported throughout by the utmost stretch of human art1 much less by men confessedly unlearned and obscure40 ,we may add1 that such a character must also have been divine4 ,his virtues are human in their class and kind1 so that he was our 8example20 but they were sustained and heightened by that divinity which was impersonated in him1 and from which they derived their intense and full perfection4 #e4 ,a great deal has been written concerning the form1 beauty1 and stature of ,jesus ,christ4 ,some have asserted1 that he was in person the noblest of all the sons of men4 ,others have maintained1 that there was no beauty nor any graces in his outward appearance4 ,the fathers have not expressed themselves on this matter in a uniform manner4 ,st4 ,jerom believes that the lustre and majesty which shone about our ,saviour's face were capable of winning all hearts3 it was this that drew the generality of his ,apostles with so much ease to him2 it was this majesty which struck those down who came to seize him in the olive garden4 ,st4 ,bernard and ,st4 ,chrysostom contend in like manner for the beauty of ,jesus ,christ's person2 but the most ancient fathers have acknowledged1 that he was not at all handsome4 ,homo indecorus et passibilis1 says ,irenus4 ,celsus objected to the ,christians1 that ,jesus ,christ1 as a man1 was little1 and ill made1 which ,origen acknowledged in his answer to have been written of him4 ,clemens ,alexandrinus owns1 in several places1 that the person of ,jesus ,christ was not beautiful1 as does also ,cyril of ,alexandria4 ,tertullian says plainly1 vultu et aspectu inglorius2 that his outward form had nothing that could attract consideration and respect4 ,st4 ,austin confesses1 that ,jesus ,christ1 as a man1 was without beauty and the advantage of person2 and the generality of the ancients1 as ,eusebius1 ,basil1 ,theodoret1 ,ambrose1 ,isidore1 c1 explain the passage in the ,psalms1 8,thou art fairer than the children of men10 as relating to the beauty of ,jesus ,christ according to his divinity4 ,this difference in opinion shows that no certain tradition was handed down on this subject4 ,the truth probably is1 that all which was majestic and attractive in the person of our ,lord1 was in the expression of the countenance1 the full influence of which was displayed chiefly in his confidential intercourse with his disciples2 while his general appearance presented no striking peculiarity to the common observer4 ,,jews1 the appropriate denomination of the descendants of ,judah1 which soon included under it the ,benjamites1 who joined themselves to the tribe of ,judah1 on the revolt of the other ten tribes from the house of ,david4 ,after the ,babylonish captivity1 when many individuals of these ten tribes returned with the men of ,judah and ,benjamin to rebuild ,jerusalem1 the term ,,jews included them also1 or rather was then extended to all the descendants of ,israel who retained the ,jewish religion1 whether they belonged to the two or to the ten tribes1 whether they returned into ,judea or not4 ,hence1 not only all the ,israelites of future times have been called ,jews1 but all the descendants of ,jacob1 from the earliest times1 are frequently so called by us at present1 and we speak even of their original dispensation as the ,jewish dispensation4 ,the history of this singular people is recorded in the sacred books of the ,old ,testament2 and in place of epitomizing the accounts of the sacred writers1 it will be more useful to fill up the chasm between the close of the historical books there contained1 and the coming of our ,lord4 ,when the kingdom of ,judah had been seventy years in captivity1 and the period of their affliction was completed1 ,cyrus1 7,b4 ,c4 #ecf17 under whom were united the kingdoms of ,persia1 ,media1 and ,babylon1 issued a decree1 permitting all the ,jews to return to their own land1 and to rebuild their temple at ,jerusalem4 ,this decree had been expressly foretold by the ,prophet ,isaiah1 who spoke of ,cyrus by name1 above a hundred years before his birth1 as the deliverer of ,god's chosen people from their predicted captivity4 ,though the decree issued by ,cyrus was general1 a part only of the nation took advantage of it4 ,the number of persons who returned at this time was forty-two thousand three hundred and sixty1 and seven thousand three hundred and thirty-seven servants4 ,they were conducted by ,zerubbabel and ,joshua4 ,zerubbabel1 frequently called in ,scripture ,shashbazzar1 was the grandson of ,jeconias1 and consequently descended from ,david4 ,he was called 8the prince of ,judah10 and was appointed their governor by ,cyrus1 and with his permission carried back a part of the gold and silver vessels which ,nebuchadnezzar had taken out the temple of ,jerusalem4 ,the rest of the treasures of the temple were carried thither afterward by ,ezra4 ,joshua was the son of ,josedec1 the high priest1 and grandson of ,seraiah1 who was high priest when the temple was destroyed4 ,darius1 the successor of ,cyrus1 confirmed this decree1 and favoured the restablishment of the people4 ,but it was in the reign of ,artaxerxes ,longimanus1 called in ,scripture ,ahasuerus1 that ,ezra obtained his commission1 and was made governor of the ,jews in their own land1 which government he held thirteen years3 then ,nehemiah was appointed with fresh powers1 probably through the interest of ,queen ,esther2 and ,ezra applied himself solely to correcting the canon of the ,scriptures1 and restoring and providing for the continuance of the worship of ,god in its original purity4 ,the first care of the ,jews1 after their arrival in ,judea1 was to build an altar for burnt-offerings to ,god3 they then collected materials for rebuilding the temple2 and all necessary preparations being made1 in the beginning of the second year after their return under ,zerubbabel1 they began to build it upon the old foundations4 ,the ,samaritans1 affirming that they worshipped the ,god of ,israel1 offered to assist the ,jews2 but their assistance being refused1 they did all in their power to impede the work2 and hence originated that enmity which ever after subsisted between the ,jews and ,samaritans4 ,the temple1 after a variety of obstructions and delays1 was finished and dedicated1 in the seventh year of ,king ,darius1 ,b4 ,c4 #eae1 and twenty years after it was begun4 ,though this second temple1 or1 as it is sometimes called1 the temple of ,zerubbabel1 who was at that time governor of the ,jews1 was of the same size and dimensions as the first1 or ,solomon's temple1 yet it was very inferior to it in splendour and magnificence2 and the ark of the covenant1 the ,shechinah1 the holy fire upon the altar1 the ,urim and ,thummim1 and the spirit of prophecy1 were all wanting to this temple of the remnant of the people4 ,at the feast of the dedication1 offerings were made for the twelve tribes of ,israel1 which seems to indicate that some of all the tribes returned from captivity2 but by far the greater number were of the tribe of ,judah1 and therefore from this period the ,israelites were generally called ,judi or ,jews1 and their country ,judea4 ,many1 at their own desire1 remained in those provinces where they had been placed by the kings of ,assyria and ,babylon4 ,the settlement of the people1 8after their old estate10 according to the word of the ,lord1 together with the arrangement of all civil and ecclesiastical matters1 and the building of the walls of ,jerusalem1 were completed by ,ezra and ,nehemiah4 ,but we soon after find ,malachi1 the last of the prophets under the ,old ,testament1 reproving both priests and people very severely1 not for idolatry1 but for their scandalous lives and gross corruptions4 ,the ,scriptural history ends at this period1 ,b4 ,c4 #dcj2 and we must have recourse to uninspired writings1 principally to the books of the ,maccabees1 and to ,josephus1 for the remaining particulars of the ,jewish history1 to the destruction of ,jerusalem by the ,romans4 ,judea continued subject to the kings of ,persia about two hundred years2 but it does not appear that it had a separate governor after ,nehemiah4 ,from his time it was included in the jurisdiction of the governor of ,syria1 and under him the high priest had the chief authority4 ,when ,alexander the ,great was preparing to besiege ,tyre1 he sent to ,jaddua1 the high priest at ,jerusalem1 to supply him with that quantity of provisions which he was accustomed to send to ,persia4 ,jaddua refused1 upon the ground of his oath of fidelity to the king of ,persia4 ,this refusal irritated ,alexander2 and when he had taken ,tyre1 he marched toward ,jerusalem to revenge himself upon the ,jews4 ,jaddua had notice of his approach1 and1 by the direction of ,god1 went out of the city to meet him1 dressed in his pontifical robes1 and attended by the ,levites in white garments4 ,alexander1 visibly struck with this solemn appearance1 immediately laid aside his hostile intentions1 advanced toward the high priest1 embraced him1 and paid adoration to the name of ,god1 which was inscribed upon the frontlet of his mitre3 he afterward went into the city with the high priest1 and offered sacrifices in the temple to the ,god of the ,jews4 ,this sudden change in the disposition of ,alexander excited no small astonishment among his followers2 and when his favourite ,parmenio inquired of him the cause1 he answered1 that it was occasioned by the recollection of a remarkable dream he had in ,macedonia1 in which a person1 dressed precisely like the ,jewish high priest1 had encouraged him to undertake the conquest of ,persia1 and had promised him success3 he therefore adored the name of that ,god by whose direction he believed he acted1 and showed kindness to his people4 ,it is also said1 that while he was at ,jerusalem the prophecies of ,daniel were pointed out to him1 which foretold that 8the king of ,grecia0 should conquer ,persia1 ,dan4 viii1 #ba4 ,before he left ,jerusalem he granted the ,jews the same free enjoyment of their laws and their religion1 and exemption from tribute every sabbatical year1 which they had been allowed by the kings of ,persia2 and when he built ,alexandria1 he placed a great number of ,jews there1 and granted them many favours and immunities4 ,whether any ,jews settled in ,europe so early as while the nation was subject to the ,macedonian empire1 is not known2 but it is believed that they began to ,hellenize about this time4 ,the ,greek tongue became more common among them1 and ,grecian manners and opinions were soon introduced4 ,see ,,alexander4 ,at the death of ,alexander1 7,b4 ,c4 #cbc17 in the division of his empire among his generals1 ,judea fell to the share of ,laomedon4 ,but ,ptolemy ,soter1 son of ,lagus1 king of ,egypt1 soon after made himself master of it by a stratagem3 he entered ,jerusalem on a ,sabbath day1 under pretence of offering sacrifice1 and took possession of the city without resistance from the ,jews1 who did not on this occasion dare to transgress their law by fighting on a ,sabbath day4 ,ptolemy carried many thousands captive into ,egypt1 both ,jews and ,samaritans1 and settled them there3 he afterward treated them with kindness1 on account of their acknowledged fidelity to their engagements1 particularly in their conduct toward ,darius1 king of ,persia2 and he granted them equal privileges with the ,macedonians themselves at ,alexandria4 ,ptolemy ,philadelphus is said to have given the ,jews who were captives in ,egypt their liberty1 to the number of a hundred and twenty thousand4 ,he commanded the ,jewish ,scriptures to be translated into the ,greek language1 which translation is called the ,septuagint4 7,see ,alexandria47 ,after the ,jewish nation had been tributary to the kings of ,egypt for about a hundred years1 it became subject to the kings of ,syria4 ,they divided the land1 which now began to be called ,palestine1 into five provinces1 three of which were on the west side of the ,jordan1 namely1 ,galilee1 ,samaria1 and ,judea1 and two on the east side1 namely1 ,trachonitis and ,pera2 but they suffered them to be governed by their own laws1 under the high priest and council of the nation4 ,seleucus ,nicanor gave them the right of citizens in the cities which he built in ,asia ,minor and ,clo-,syria1 and even in ,antioch1 his capital1 with privileges1 which they continued to enjoy under the ,romans4 ,antiochus the ,great granted considerable favours and immunities to the city of ,jerusalem2 and1 to secure ,lydia and ,phrygia1 he established colonies of ,jews in those provinces4 ,in the series of wars which took place between the kings of ,syria and ,egypt1 ,judea1 being situated between those two countries1 was1 in a greater or less degree1 affected by all the revolutions which they experienced1 and was frequently the scene of bloody and destructive battles4 ,the evils to which the ,jews were exposed from these foreign powers were considerably aggravated by the corruption and misconduct of their own high priests1 and other persons of distinction among them4 ,to this corruption and misconduct1 and to the increasing wickedness of the people1 their sufferings ought indeed to be attributed1 according to the express declarations of ,god by the mouth of his prophets4 ,it is certain that about this time a considerable part of the nation was become much attached to ,grecian manners and customs1 though they continued perfectly free from the sin of idolatry4 ,near ,jerusalem places were appropriated to gymnastic exercises2 and the people were led by ,jason1 who had obtained the high priesthood from ,antiochus ,epiphanes by the most dishonourable means1 to neglect the temple worship1 and the observance of the law1 in a far greater degree than at any period since their return from the captivity4 ,it pleased ,god to punish them for this defection1 by the hand of the very person whom they particularly sought to please4 ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 irritated at having been prevented by the ,jews from entering the holy place when he visited the temple1 soon after made a popular commotion the pretence for the exercise of tyranny3 he took the city1 7,b4 ,c4 #agj17 plundered the temple1 and slew or enslaved great numbers of the inhabitants1 with every circumstance of profanation and of cruelty which can be conceived4 ,for three years and a half1 the time predicted by ,daniel1 the daily sacrifice was taken away1 the temple defiled and partly destroyed1 the observance of the law prohibited under the most severe penalties1 every copy burned which the agents of the tyrant could procure1 and the people required to sacrifice to idols1 under pain of the most agonizing death4 ,numerous as were the apostates1 7for the previous corruption of manners had but ill prepared the nation for such a trial17 a remnant continued faithful2 and the complicated miseries which the people endured under this cruel yoke excited a general impatience4 ,at length the moment of deliverance arrived4 ,mattathias1 a priest1 7,b4 ,c4 #afg17 eminent for his piety and resolution1 and the father of five sons1 equally zealous for their religion1 encouraged the people by his example and exhortations1 8to stand up for the law20 and having soon collected an army of six thousand men1 he eagerly undertook to free ,judea from the oppression and persecution of the ,syrians1 and to restore the worship of the ,god of ,israel2 but being very old when he engaged in this important and arduous work1 he did not live to see its completion4 ,at his death1 his son1 ,judas ,maccabus1 succeeded to the command of the army2 and having defeated the ,syrians in several engagements1 he drove them out of ,judea1 and established his own authority in the country4 ,his first care was to repair and purify the temple for the restoration of divine worship2 and1 to preserve the memory of this event1 the ,jews ordained a feast of eight days1 called the feast of the dedication1 to be yearly observed4 ,judas ,maccabus was slain in battle1 and his brother ,jonathan succeeded him in the government4 ,he was also made high priest1 and from that time the ,maccaban princes continued to be high priests4 ,judas ,maccabus and his brothers were so successful1 by their valour and conduct1 in asserting the liberty of their country1 that in a few years they not only recovered its independence1 but regained almost all the possessions of the twelve tribes1 destroying at the same time the temple on ,mount ,gerizim1 in ,samaria4 ,but they and their successors were almost always engaged in wars1 in which1 though generally victorious1 they were sometimes defeated1 and their country for a short time oppressed4 ,aristobulus was the first of the ,maccabees who assumed the name of king4 ,about forty-two years after1 a contest arising between the two brothers1 ,hyrcanus and ,aristobulus1 the sons of ,alexander ,jaddus1 relative to the succession of the crown1 both parties applied to the ,romans for their support and assistance4 ,scaurus1 the ,roman general1 suffered himself to be bribed by ,aristobulus1 and placed him on the throne4 ,not long after1 ,pompey returned from the east into ,syria1 and both the brothers applied to him for his protection1 and pleaded their cause before him1 7,b4 ,c4 #fc47 ,pompey considered this as a favourable opportunity for reducing ,palestine under the power of the ,romans1 to which the neighbouring nations had already submitted2 and therefore1 without deciding the points in dispute between the two brothers1 he marched his army into ,judea1 and1 after some pretended negociation with ,aristobulus and his party1 besieged and took possession of ,jerusalem4 ,he appointed ,hyrcanus high priest1 but would not allow him to take the title of king3 he gave him1 however1 the specious name of prince1 with very limited authority4 ,pompey did not take away the holy utensils or treasures of the temple1 but he made ,judea subject and tributary to the ,romans2 and ,crassus1 about nine years after1 plundered the temple of every thing valuable belonging to it4 ,julius ,csar confirmed ,hyrcanus in the pontificate1 and granted fresh privileges to the ,jews2 but about four years after the death of ,julius ,csar1 ,antigonus1 the son of ,aristobulus1 with the assistance of the ,parthians1 while the empire of ,rome was in an unsettled state1 deposed his uncle ,hyrcanus1 7,b4 ,c4 #da17 seized the government1 and assumed the title of king4 ,herod1 by birth an ,idumean1 but of the ,jewish religion1 whose father1 ,antipater1 as well as himself1 had enjoyed considerable posts of honour and trust under ,hyrcanus1 immediately set out for ,rome1 and prevailed upon the senate1 through the interest of ,antony and ,augustus1 to appoint him king of ,judea4 ,armed with this authority1 he returned1 and began hostilities against ,antigonus4 ,about three years after1 he took ,jerusalem1 and put an end to the government of the ,maccabees or ,asmonans1 after it had lasted nearly a hundred and thirty years4 ,antigonus was sent prisoner to ,rome1 and was there put to death by ,antony4 ,herod married ,mariamne1 who lived to be the only representative of the ,asmonan family1 and afterward caused her to be publicly executed from motives of unfounded jealousy4 ,herod considerably enlarged the kingdom of ,judea1 but it continued tributary to the ,romans2 he greatly depressed the civil power of the high priesthood1 and changed it from being hereditary and for life to an office granted and held at the pleasure of the monarch2 and this sacred office was now often given to those who paid the highest price for it1 without any regard to merit3 he was an inexorable1 cruel tyrant to his people1 and even to his children1 three of whom he put to death2 a slave to his passions1 and indifferent by what means he gratified his ambition2 but to preserve the ,jews in subjection1 and to erect a lasting monument to his own name1 he repaired the temple of ,jerusalem at a vast expense1 and added greatly to its magnificence4 ,at this time there was a confident expectation of the ,messiah among the ,jews2 and indeed1 a general idea prevailed among the ,heathen1 also1 that some extraordinary conqueror or deliverer would soon appear in ,judea4 ,in the thirty-sixth year of the reign of ,herod1 while ,augustus was emperor of ,rome1 the ,saviour of mankind was born of the virgin ,mary1 of the lineage of ,david1 in the city of ,bethlehem of ,judea1 according to the word of prophecy4 ,herod1 misled by the opinion1 which was then common among the ,jews1 that the ,messiah was to appear as the temporal prince1 and judging from the inquiries of the wise men of the east1 that the child was actually born1 sent to ,bethlehem1 and ordered that all the children of two years old and under should be put to death1 with the hope of destroying one whom he considered as the rival of himself1 or at least of his family4 ,he was soon after smitten with a most loathsome and tormenting disease1 and died1 a signal example of divine justice1 about a year and a quarter after the birth of our ,saviour1 and in the thirty-seventh year of his reign1 computing from the time he was declared king by the ,romans4 ,see ,,herod4 ,herod made his will not long before his death1 but left the final disposal of his dominions to ,augustus4 ,the emperor ratified this will in all its material points1 and suffered the countries over which ,herod had reigned to be divided among his three sons4 ,archelaus succeeded to the largest share1 namely1 to ,judea ,propria1 ,samaria1 and ,idumea4 ,herod ,antipas1 called ,herod the ,tetrarch1 who afterward beheaded ,john the ,baptist1 succeeded to ,galilee and ,pera2 and ,philip1 to ,trachonitis1 and to the neighbouring region of ,iturea4 ,the sons of ,herod the ,great were not suffered to take the title of king3 they were only called ethnarchs or tetrarchs4 ,beside the countries already mentioned1 ,abilene1 which had belonged to ,herod during the latter part of his life1 and of which ,lysanias is mentioned in ,luke iii1 #a1 as tetrarch1 and some cities were given to ,salome1 the sister of ,herod the ,great1 7,a4 ,d4 #g47 ,archelaus acted with great cruelty and injustice2 and in the tenth year of his government1 upon a regular complaint being made against him by the ,jews1 ,augustus banished him to ,vienne1 in ,gaul1 where he died4 ,after the banishment of ,archelaus1 ,augustus sent ,publius ,sulpitius ,quirinus1 who1 according to the ,greek way of writing that name1 is by ,st4 ,luke called ,cyrenius1 president of ,syria1 to reduce the countries over which ,archelaus had reigned1 to the form of a ,roman province2 and appointed ,coponius1 a ,roman of the equestrian order1 to be governor1 under the title of procurator of ,judea1 but subordinate to the president of ,syria4 ,the power of life and death was now taken out of the hands of the ,jews1 and taxes were from this time paid immediately to the ,roman emperor4 ,justice was administered in the name and by the laws of ,rome2 though in what concerned their religion1 their own laws1 and the power of the high priest1 and sanhedrim1 or great council1 were continued to them2 and they were allowed to examine witnesses1 and exercise an inferior jurisdiction in other causes1 subject to the control of the ,romans1 to whom their tetrarchs or kings were also subject2 and it may be remarked that1 at this very period of time1 our ,saviour1 who was now in the twelfth year of his age1 being at ,jerusalem with ,joseph and ,mary upon occasion of the passover1 appeared first in the temple in his prophetic office1 and in the business of his ,father1 on which he was sent1 sitting among the doctors of the temple1 and declaring the truth of ,god to them4 ,after ,coponius1 ,ambivius1 ,annius ,rufus1 ,valerius ,gratus1 and ,pontius ,pilate1 were successively procurators2 and this was the species of government to which ,judea and ,samaria were subject during the ministry of our ,saviour4 ,herod ,antipas was still tetrarch of ,galilee1 and it was he to whom our ,saviour was sent by ,pontius ,pilate4 ,lardner is of opinion that there was no procurator in ,judea after ,pontius ,pilate1 who was removed ,a4 ,d4 #cf1 but that it was governed for a few years by the presidents of ,syria1 who occasionally sent officers into ,judea4 ,philip continued tetrarch of ,trachonitis thirty-seven years1 and died in the twentieth year of the reign of ,tiberius4 ,caligula gave his tetrarchy to ,agrippa1 the grandson of ,herod the ,great1 with the title of king2 and afterward he added the tetrarchy of ,herod ,antipas1 whom he deposed and banished after he had been tetrarch forty-three years4 ,the ,emperor ,claudius gave him ,judea1 ,samaria1 the southern parts of ,idumea1 and ,abilene2 and thus at last the dominions of ,herod ,agrippa became nearly the same as those of his grandfather1 ,herod the ,great4 ,it was this ,agrippa1 called also ,herod ,agrippa1 and by ,st4 ,luke ,herod only1 who put to death ,james1 the brother of ,john1 and imprisoned ,peter4 ,he died in the seventh year of his reign1 and left a son called also ,agrippa1 then seventeen years old2 and ,claudius1 thinking him too young to govern his father's extensive dominions1 made ,cuspus ,fadus governor of ,judea4 ,fadus was soon succeeded by ,tiberius1 and he was followed by ,alexander ,cumanus1 ,felix1 and ,festus2 but ,claudius afterward gave ,trachonitis and ,abilene to ,agrippa1 and ,nero added a part of ,galilee and some other cities4 ,it was this younger ,agrippa1 who was also called king1 before whom ,paul pleaded at ,csarea1 which was at that time the place of residence of the governor of ,judea4 ,several of the ,roman governors severely oppressed and persecuted the ,jews2 and at length1 in the reign of ,nero1 and in the government of ,florus1 who had treated them with greater cruelty than any of his predecessors1 they openly revolted from the ,romans4 ,then began the ,jewish war1 which was terminated1 after an obstinate defence and unparalleled sufferings on the part of the ,jews1 by the total destruction of the city and temple of ,jerusalem1 by the overthrow of their civil and religious polity1 and the reduction of the people to a state of the most abject slavery2 for though1 in the reign of ,adrian1 numbers of them collected together1 in different parts of ,judea1 it is to be observed1 they were then considered and treated as rebellious slaves2 and these commotions were made a pretence for the general slaughter of those who were taken1 and tended to complete the work of their dispersion into all countries under heaven4 ,since that time the ,jews have no where subsisted as a nation4 #b4 ,,jews1 ,,modern4 ,the ,jews divide the books of the ,old ,testament into three classes3 the law1 the prophets1 and the hagiographa1 or holy writings4 ,they have counted not only the large and small sections1 the verses and the words1 but even the letters in some of the books2 and they have likewise reckoned which is the middle letter of the ,pentateuch1 which is the middle clause of each book1 and how often each letter of the alphabet occurs in the ,hebrew ,scriptures4 ,beside the ,scriptures1 the ,jews pay great attention to the ,targums1 or ,chaldee paraphrases of them4 ,it seems probable that these were written either during the ,babylonish captivity1 or immediately afterward1 when the ,jews had forgotten their own language1 and acquired the ,chaldee of the ,targums1 at present received by the ,jews4 ,the most ancient are that of ,onkelos on the law1 and that of ,jonathan ,ben ,uzziel on the prophets3 the former is supposed to be of greater antiquity than the latter1 and it approaches1 in simplicity and purity of style1 to the ,chaldee of ,daniel and ,ezra4 ,the ,targum on the prophets is believed to have been written before the birth of ,christ2 and1 though inferior in respect of style to the ,targum of ,onkelos1 is much superior to any other ,targum4 ,the ,jews also regard with great veneration1 what is called the ,talmud4 ,this work consists of two parts3 the ,mishna1 which signifies a second law2 and the ,gemara1 which means either a supplement or a commentary4 ,the ,jews suppose that ,god first dictated the text of the law to ,moses1 which he commanded to be put in writing1 and which exists in the ,pentateuch1 and then gave him an explication of every thing comprehended in it1 which he ordered to be committed to memory4 ,hence the former is called the written1 and the latter the oral1 law4 ,these two laws were recited by ,moses to ,aaron four times1 to his sons three times1 to the seventy elders twice1 and to the rest of the people once3 after this1 the repetition was renewed by ,aaron1 his two sons1 and the seventy elders4 ,the last month of ,moses's life was spent1 according to the ,jews1 in repeating and explaining the law to the people1 and especially to ,joshua1 his successor4 ,a prophet might suspend any law1 or authorize the violation of any precept1 except those against idolatry4 ,if there was any difference of opinion respecting the meaning of any law or precept1 it was determined by the majority4 ,when ,joshua died1 all the interpretations he had received from ,moses1 as well as those made in his time1 were transmitted to the elders3 they conveyed them to the prophets1 and by one prophet they were delivered to another4 ,this law was only oral till the days of ,rabbi ,jehuda1 who1 perceiving that the students of the law were gradually decreasing1 and that the ,jews were dispersed over the face of the earth1 collected all the traditions1 arranged them under distinct heads1 and formed them into a methodical code of traditional law2 thus the ,mishna was formed4 ,it is written in a concise style1 chiefly in the form of aphorisms1 which admit of a variety of interpretations4 ,on this account1 a ,gemara or commentary was written by a president of a school in ,palestine1 which1 together with the ,mishna1 forms the ,jerusalem ,talmud4 ,the ,jews in ,chaldea1 however1 not being satisfied with this ,gemara1 one of their rabbies compiled another2 which1 together with the ,mishna1 forms the ,babylonian ,talmud4 ,one of the principal branches of modern ,judaism is the cabala1 the study of which is regarded as the sublimest of all sciences4 ,by the cabala1 the ,jews mean those mystical interpretations of the ,scripture1 and metaphysical speculations concerning the ,deity1 angels1 c1 which they regard as having been handed down by a secret tradition from the earliest ages4 ,in the eleventh century1 the famous ,rabbi ,maimonides drew up a summary of the doctrines of ,judaism1 which every ,jew is required to believe1 on pain of excommunication in this world1 and condemnation in the next4 ,this summary consists of thirteen articles1 which he calls foundations or roots of the faith4 ,the articles are as follows3 #a4 ,that ,god is the ,creator and active ,supporter of all things4 #b4 ,that ,god is one1 and eternally unchangeable4 #c4 ,that ,god is incorporeal1 and cannot have any material properties4 #d4 ,that ,god must eternally exist4 #e4 ,that ,god alone is to be worshipped4 #f4 ,that whatever is taught by the prophets is true4 #g4 ,that ,moses is the head and father of all contemporary doctors1 and of all those who lived before or shall live after him4 #h4 ,that the law was given by ,moses4 #i4 ,that the law shall always exist1 and never be altered4 #aj4 ,that ,god knows all the thoughts and actions of men4 #aa4 ,that ,god will reward the observance1 and punish the breach1 of the laws4 #ab4 ,that the ,messiah is to come1 though he tarry a long time4 #ac4 ,that there shall be a resurrection of the dead1 when ,god shall think fit4 ,the ,jewish religion is1 perhaps1 more a religion of minute and trifling rites and ceremonies than even the ,catholic religion4 ,the minutest circumstances in dressing and undressing1 washing and wiping the face and hands1 and other necessary actions of common and daily life1 are enjoined by the rabbies to be performed exactly according to the prescribed regulations4 ,their prayers also are numerous1 and some of them relate to the most trifling circumstances4 ,those esteemed the most solemn and important are called ,shemoneh ,esreh1 or the eighteen prayers1 though they actually consist of nineteen1 the last having been added against heretics and apostates4 ,they are enjoined to be said by all ,jews above the age of thirteen1 wherever they may be1 three times a day4 ,the members of the synagogue are required to repeat at least a hundred benedictions every day4 ,a son who survives his father is enjoined to attend the nocturnal service in the synagogue every evening for a year1 and to repeat the ,kodesh1 in order that his father may be delivered from hell4 ,this service may be suspended by any person going up to the desk and closing the book4 ,this is not unfrequently done in case of quarrels2 and the prayers cannot be renewed till a reconciliation takes place4 ,nothing is to be undertaken on ,friday which cannot be finished before the evening4 ,in the afternoon they wash and clean themselves1 trim their hair1 and pare their nails4 ,every ,jew1 of whatever rank1 must assist in the preparation for the ,sabbath4 ,two loaves1 baked on the ,friday1 are set on a table4 ,this is done in memory of the manna1 of which a double portion fell on the sixth day of the week4 ,the table remains spread all the ,sabbath4 ,before the sun is set the candles are to be lighted2 one1 at least1 with seven wicks1 in allusion to the number of days in a week1 is to be lighted in each house4 ,the ,talmudical directions respecting the wicks and oil form part of the ,sabbath evening service2 they are most ridiculously and childishly minute4 ,the lesson appointed for the ,sabbath is divided into seven parts1 and read to seven persons at the altar4 ,the first called up to hear it is a descendant of ,aaron1 the second of ,levi1 the third an ,israelite of any tribe2 the same order is then repeated3 the seventh may be of any tribe4 ,the portion read from the law is followed by a portion from the prophets4 ,there are three services2 morning1 afternoon1 and evening4 ,of the festivals of the ,jews we can mention only a few1 and those merely in a cursory manner4 ,the principal are those of the new moon1 of the passover1 of pentecost1 of the new year1 the fast of atonement1 and the feast of tabernacles4 ,that the festival of the new moon might be celebrated as nearly as possible on the day of the moon's conjunction with the sun1 most of the months contain alternately twenty-nine and thirty days2 and the feast of the new moon is held on the first1 or on the first and second days of the month4 ,the women are not allowed to work3 the men may4 ,good eating and drinking particularly distinguish this festival4 ,the feast of the passover commences on the fifteenth day of the month ,nisan1 and continues among ,jews who live in or near ,jerusalem seven days1 and elsewhere eight days4 ,the ,sabbath preceding is called the great ,sabbath1 and is kept with most scrupulous strictness4 ,the mode and materials for making the unleavened cakes for the passover are most minutely described by the rabbies1 as well as all the ceremonies of this feast4 ,it is customary for every ,jew to honour it by an exhibition of the most sumptuous furniture he can afford4 ,the table for the feast is covered with a clean linen cloth1 on which are placed several dishes3 on one is the shank bone of a shoulder of lamb or kid1 and an egg2 on another1 three cakes1 wrapped in two napkins2 on a third1 some lettuce1 parsley1 celery1 or other herbs3 these are their bitter herbs4 ,near the salad is a cruet of vinegar1 and some salt and water4 ,there is also a dish representing the bricks which their forefathers were required to make in ,egypt3 this is composed of apples1 almonds1 nuts1 and figs1 formed into a paste1 dressed in wine and cinnamon4 ,the first two days1 and the last two1 are kept with particular solemnity and strictness4 ,contracts of marriage may be made1 but no marriage is to be solemnized during this festival4 ,the feast of pentecost1 on the sixth day of the month ,sivan1 continues two days1 and is kept with the same strictness as the first two days of the passover4 ,it is a received opinion of the ,jews1 that the world was created on the day of their new year2 and they therefore celebrate the festival of the new year by a discontinuance of all labour1 and by repeated services in the synagogue4 ,the fast of atonement is on the tenth day of ,tisri3 the first ten days of the month are called days of penitence during which the ,jews believe that ,god examines the actions of mankind2 but he defers passing sentence till the tenth4 ,on the eve of the fast1 a ceremony1 evidently designed as a substitute for their ancient sacrifices1 is performed4 ,this consists in killing a cock with great formality4 ,the cocks must on no account be red3 white is the preferable colour4 ,before the fast begins1 they endeavour to settle all their disputes4 ,in the afternoon they make a hearty meal1 to prepare for the fast1 which is of the most rigid kind4 ,the feast of tabernacles commences on the fifteenth of ,tisri1 and is kept nine days4 ,every ,jew who has a court or garden is required to erect a tabernacle on this occasion2 respecting the materials and erection of which the rabbies have given special directions4 ,the eighth and ninth are high days1 particularly the last1 which is called the day of the rejoicing of the land4 ,such are the opinions1 traditions1 rites1 and ceremonies of the great majority of the modern ,jews2 but1 beside these1 there is a small sect denominated ,caraites1 that is1 textualists1--persons attached to the text of the ,scriptures4 ,they reside chiefly in the ,crimea1 ,lithuania1 and ,persia2 and at ,damascus1 ,constantinople1 and ,cairo3 their whole number is very inconsiderable4 ,they agree with other ,jews in denying the advent of the ,messiah4 ,the principal difference between them consists in their adherence to the letter of the ,scripture1 and in the rejection of all paraphrases and interpretations of the rabbies4 ,they also differ from the rabbies in various particulars respecting the feasts of the passover1 pentecost1 and tabernacles4 ,they observe the ,sabbath with far greater strictness4 ,they extend the degrees of affinity within which marriage is prohibited2 but they are more strict in matters of divorce4 #c4 ,,jews1 ,,calamities ,,of ,,the4 ,all history cannot furnish us with a parallel to the calamities and miseries of the ,jews3 rapine and murder1 famine and pestilence within1 fire and sword1 and all the terrors of war without4 ,our ,saviour wept at the foresight of these calamities2 and it is almost impossible for persons of any humanity to read the account without being affected4 ,the predictions concerning them were remarkable1 and the calamities that came upon them were the greatest the world ever saw4 ,see ,deut4 xxviii1 xxix2 ,matt4 xxiv4 ,now1 what heinous sin was it that could be the cause of such heavy judgments8 ,can any other be assigned than that which the ,scripture assigns8 8,they both killed the ,lord ,jesus and their own prophets1 and persecuted the ,apostles10 #a ,thess4 ii1 #ae2 and so filled up their sins1 and wrath came upon them to the utmost4 ,it is hardly possible to consider the nature and extent of their sufferings1 and not conclude their own imprecation to be singularly fulfilled upon them3 8,his blood be on us1 and on our children10 ,matt4 xxvii1 #be4 ,at ,csarea twenty thousand of the ,jews were killed by the ,syrians in their mutual broils4 ,at ,damascus1 ten thousand unarmed ,jews were killed2 and at ,bethshan1 the ,heathen inhabitants caused their ,jewish neighbours to assist them against their brethren1 and then murdered thirteen thousand of these inhabitants4 ,at ,alexandria1 the ,jews murdered multitudes of the ,heathens1 and were murdered1 in their turn1 to about sixty thousand4 ,the ,romans1 under ,vespasian1 invaded the country1 and took the cities of ,galilee1 ,chorazin1 ,bethsaida1 ,capernaum1 c1 where ,christ had been especially rejected1 and murdered numbers of the inhabitants4 ,at ,jerusalem the scene was most wretched of all4 ,at the passover1 when there might have been two or three millions of people in the city1 the ,romans surrounded it with troops1 trenches1 and walls1 that none might escape4 ,the three different factions within murdered one another4 ,titus did all in his power to persuade them to an advantageous surrender1 but they scorned every proposal4 ,the multitudes of unburied carcasses corrupted the air1 and produced a pestilence4 ,the people fed on one another2 and even ladies1 it is said1 boiled their suckling infants1 and ate them4 ,after a siege of six months1 the city was taken4 ,they murdered almost every ,jew they met with4 ,titus was bent to save the temple1 but could not3 six thousand ,jews who had taken shelter in it were all burned or murdered4 ,the outcries of the ,jews1 when they saw it1 were most dreadful3 the whole city1 except three towers1 and a small part of the wall1 was razed to the ground1 and the foundations of the temple and other places were ploughed up4 ,soon after the forts of ,herodian and ,machron were taken1 the garrison of ,massada murdered themselves rather than surrender4 ,at ,jerusalem alone1 it is said1 one million one hundred thousand perished by sword1 famine1 and pestilence4 ,in other places1 we hear of two hundred and fifty thousand that were cut off1 beside vast numbers sent into ,egypt1 to labour as slaves4 ,about fifty years after1 the ,jews murdered about five hundred thousand of the ,roman subjects1 for which they were severely punished by ,trajan4 ,about ,a4 ,d4 #acj1 one ,barcocaba pretended that he was the ,messiah1 and raised a ,jewish army of two hundred thousand1 who murdered all the ,heathens and ,christians that came in their way2 but he was defeated by ,adrian's forces4 ,in this war1 it is said1 about six hundred thousand ,jews were slain1 or perished by famine and pestilence4 ,adrian built a city on ,mount ,calvary1 and erected a marble statue of a swine over the gate that led to ,bethlehem4 ,no ,jew was allowed to enter the city1 or to look to it at a distance1 under pain of death4 ,in ,a4 ,d4 #cfj1 the ,jews1 encouraged by ,julian1 ,constantine's nephew1 and now emperor1 wishing to give ,jesus the lie1 began to rebuild their city and temple2 but a terrible earthquake1 and flames of fire issuing from the earth1 killed the workmen1 and scattered their materials4 ,and after the death of ,julian1 the edict of ,adrian being revived against them1 and ,roman guards prohibiting their approach1 till the seventh century they durst not so much as creep over the rubbish to bewail the destruction of the city1 without bribing the guards4 ,in the third1 fourth1 and fifth centuries they were many of them furiously harassed and murdered4 ,in the sixth century1 twenty thousand of them were slain1 and as many taken and sold for slaves4 ,they were severely punished1 ,a4 ,d4 #fjb1 for their horrible massacre of the ,christians at ,antioch4 ,in ,spain1 ,a4 ,d4 #gjj1 they were ordered to be enslaved4 ,in the eighth and ninth centuries they were greatly derided and abused2 in some places they were made to wear leathern girdles1 and ride without stirrups upon asses and mules4 ,in ,france and ,spain they were much insulted4 ,in the tenth1 eleventh1 and twelfth centuries1 their miseries rather increased2 and they were greatly persecuted in ,egypt4 ,beside what they suffered in the east by the ,turkish and sacred war1 it is shocking to think what multitudes of them the eight crusades murdered in ,germany1 ,hungary1 ,lesser ,asia1 and elsewhere4 ,in ,france multitudes were burned4 ,in ,england1 ,a4 ,d4 #ajbj1 they were banished2 and at the coronation of ,richard ,i4 the mob fell upon them1 and murdered a great many of them4 ,about one thousand five hundred of them were burned in the palace in the city of ,york1 which they themselves set fire to1 after killing their wives and children4 ,in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries1 their condition was no better4 ,in ,egypt1 ,canaan1 and ,syria1 the crusaders still harassed them4 ,provoked with their mad running after pretended ,messiahs1 ,califf ,nasser scarce left any of them alive in his dominions of ,mesopotamia4 ,in ,persia1 the ,tartars murdered them in multitudes4 ,in ,spain1 ,ferdinand persecuted them furiously4 ,about #acdi1 the terrible massacre of them at ,toledo forced many of them to murder themselves1 or change their religion4 ,about #abec1 many were murdered in1 and others banished from1 ,france1 but in #abge1 recalled4 ,the crusades of the fanatic shepherds1 ,a4 ,d4 #acbj and #accj1 who wasted the south of ,france1 massacred them2 beside fifteen thousand of them that were murdered on another occasion4 ,they were finally banished from ,france1 ,a4 ,d4 #aceh2 since which1 few of them have entered that country4 ,king ,edward expelled them from ,england1 ,a4 ,d4 #abia1 to the number of a hundred and sixty thousand4 ,in the fifteenth1 sixteenth1 and seventeenth centuries1 their misery continued4 ,in ,persia they have been terribly used2 from #affc to #afff1 the murder of them was so universal1 that but a few escaped to ,turkey4 ,in ,portugal and ,spain they have been miserably treated4 ,about #adib1 six or eight hundred thousand of them were banished from ,spain4 ,some were drowned in their passage to ,africa2 some perished by hard usage2 and many of their carcasses lay in the fields till wild beasts devoured them4 ,in ,germany1 they have endured many hardships4 ,they have been banished from ,bohemia1 ,bavaria1 ,cologne1 ,nuremberg1 ,augsburg1 and ,vienna2 they have been terribly massacred in ,moravia1 and plundered in ,bonn and ,bamberg4 ,except in ,portugal and ,spain1 their present condition is generally tolerable4 #d4 ,,jews1 ,,preservation ,,of ,,the4 ,the preservation of the ,jews1 says ,basnage1 in the midst of the miseries which they have undergone during one thousand eight hundred years1 is the greatest prodigy that can be imagined4 ,as most religions depend on temporal prosperity1 they triumph under the protection of a conqueror2 they languish and sink with sinking monarchies4 ,paganism1 which once covered the earth1 is1 in the civilized world1 extinct4 ,the ,christian church was considerably diminished by the persecutions to which it was exposed2 nor was it easy to repair the wastes made in it by those acts of violence4 ,but here we behold a people hated and persecuted for one thousand eight hundred years1 and yet sustaining itself1 and widely extended4 ,kings have often employed the severity of edicts and the hand of executioners to ruin it4 ,the seditious multitudes1 by murders and massacres1 have committed outrages against it still more violent and tragical4 ,princes and people1 ,pagans1 ,mohammedans1 ,christians1 disagreeing in so many things1 have united in the design of exterminating it1 and have not been able to succeed4 ,the bush of ,moses1 surrounded with flames1 ever burns1 and is not consumed4 ,the ,jews have been expelled1 in different times1 from every part of the world1 which hath only served to spread them in all regions4 ,from age to age they have been exposed to misery and persecution2 yet still they subsist1 in spite of the ignominy and the hatred which hath pursued them in all places1 while the greatest monarchies are fallen1 and nothing remains of them beside the name4 ,the judgments which ,god hath exercised upon this people are terrible1 extending to the men1 the religion1 and the very land in which they dwelt4 ,the ceremonies essential to their religion can no more be observed3 the ritual law1 which cast a splendour on the national worship1 and struck the ,pagans so much that they sent their presents and their victims to ,jerusalem1 is absolutely fallen2 for they have no temple1 no altar1 no sacrifices4 ,their land itself seems to lie under a never-ceasing curse4 ,pagans1 ,christians1 ,mohammedans1 in a word1 almost all nations have1 by turns1 seized and held ,jerusalem4 ,to the ,jews only hath ,god refused the possession of this small tract of ground1 so supremely necessary for them1 since1 as ,jews1 they ought to worship on ,mount ,zion4 ,in all this there is no exaggeration3 we are only pointing out known facts2 and far from having the least design to raise an odium against the nation from its miseries1 we conclude that it ought to be looked upon as one of those prodigies which we admire without comprehending2 since1 in spite of evils so durable1 and a patience so long exercised1 it is preserved by a particular providence4 ,the ,jew ought to be weary of expecting a ,messiah1 who so unkindly disappoints his vain hopes2 and the ,christian ought to have his attention and his regard excited toward men whom ,god preserves1 for so great a length of time under calamities which would have been the total ruin of any other people4 ,the whole is a standing proof of the truth of the word of ,god2 as it so signally1 and beyond all contradiction1 fulfils1 even to particulars wonderfully minute1 its ancient and numerous predictions4 ,the long protracted existence of the ,jews as a separate people1 is not only a standing evidence of the truth of the ,bible1 but is of that kind which defies hesitation1 imitation1 or parallel4 ,were this people totally extinct1 some might affect to say1 that they never had existed2 or1 that if they had existed1 they never practised such rites as were imputed to them2 or1 that they were not a numerous people1 but merely a small tribe of ignorant and unsettled ,arabs4 ,the care with which the ,jews preserve their sacred books1 and the conformity of those preserved in the east with those of the west1 as lately attested1 is a satisfactory argument in favour of the genuineness of both2 and farther1 the dispersion of the nation has proved the security of these documents2 as it has not been in the power of any one enemy1 however potent1 to destroy the entire series1 or to consign the whole to oblivion4 ,,jezebel1 daughter of ,ethbaal1 king of the ,zidonians1 and wife of ,ahab1 king of ,israel1 #a ,kings xvi1 #ca4 ,this princess introduced into the kingdom of ,samaria the public worship of ,baal1 ,astarte1 and other ,phenician deities1 which the ,lord had expressly forbidden2 and with this impious worship1 a general prevalence of those abominations which had formerly incensed ,god against the ,canaanites1 to their utter extirpation4 ,jezebel was so zealous1 that she fed at her own table four hundred prophets belonging to the goddess ,astarte2 and her husband ,ahab1 in like manner1 kept four hundred of ,baal's prophets1 as ministers of his false gods4 ,the name of ,jezebel is used proverbially1 ,rev4 ii1 #bj4 ,see ,,jehu4 ,,jezreel1 a royal city of the kings of ,israel1 who sometimes resided here as well as at ,samaria4 ,ahab1 in particular1 is known to have made this his residence2 near to whose palace was the vineyard of the unfortunate ,naboth4 ,the name of ,jezreel was by the ,greeks moulded into that of ,esdraela2 which is described by ,eusebius and ,jerom1 in the fourth century1 as a considerable town4 ,in like manner1 the valley of ,jezreel obtained the name of the valley or plain of ,esdraelon2 which is still described as very fertile1 and much frequented by the ,arabs for its fine pasturage4 ,this is the largest1 and at the same time the most fertile1 plain in the land of ,canaan2 and is called1 by way of eminence1 the ,great ,plain4 ,it may be estimated at thirty miles in length1 and twenty in breadth4 ,the river ,kishon flows through it4 ,see ,,esdraelon4 ,,joab was the son of ,zeruiah1 ,david's sister1 and brother to ,abishai and ,asahel4 ,he was one of the most valiant soldiers and greatest generals in ,david's time2 but he was also cruel1 revengeful1 and imperious4 ,he performed great services for ,david1 to whose interests he was always firm1 and was commander-in-chief of his troops1 when ,david was king of ,judah only4 ,his history is related in the second book of ,samuel and the first book of ,kings4 ,see ,,david1 ,,abner1 and ,,amasa4 ,,joanna1 the wife of ,chuza1 ,herod's steward1 was one of those women who1 having been cured by our ,saviour1 followed him as disciples1 and ministered to his necessities1 ,luke viii1 #c4 ,,joash1 son of ,ahaziah1 king of ,judah4 ,when the impious ,athaliah undertook to extinguish the race of the kings of ,judah1 that she might seize the crown herself1 she ordered all the princes1 her grandchildren1 to be murdered4 ,but ,jehosheba1 the sister of ,ahaziah1 and wife to the ,high ,priest ,jehoiada1 rescued young ,joash1 then a child1 from the cruelty of ,athaliah1 and lodged him in the temple with his nurse4 ,here he abode six years4 ,in the seventh year ,jehoiada procured him to be acknowledged king1 and so well concerted his plan1 that young ,joash was placed on the throne1 and saluted king in the temple1 before the queen was informed of it4 ,she was killed without the temple1 #b ,kings xi1 #a1 c4 ,joash received the diadem1 together with the book of the law1 from the hands of ,jehoiada1 the high priest1 who1 in the young king's name1 made a covenant between the ,lord1 the king1 and the people1 for their future fidelity to ,god4 ,he also obliged the people to take an oath of fidelity to the king4 ,joash was only seven years old when he began to reign1 and he reigned forty years at ,jerusalem4 ,his mother's name was ,zibiah of ,beersheba4 ,he governed with justice and piety1 so long as he was guided by the ,high ,priest ,jehoiada4 ,yet he did not abolish the high places4 ,jehoiada1 during the king's minority1 had issued orders for collecting voluntary offerings to the holy place1 with the design of repairing the temple2 but his orders were ill executed till the twentieth year of ,joash4 ,then this prince directed chests to be placed at the entrance of the temple1 and an account to be given him of what money was received from them1 that it might be faithfully employed in repairing the house of ,god4 ,jehoiada dying at the age of a hundred and thirty years1 ,joash was misled by the evil counsel of his courtiers1 who had before been restrained by the high priest's authority4 ,they began to forsake the temple of the ,lord1 and to worship idols1 and groves consecrated to idols4 ,then the ,spirit of the ,lord coming upon the ,high ,priest ,zechariah1 son of ,jehoiada1 he reproved the people2 but they who heard him stoned him1 according to orders from their king4 ,it was not long before ,god inflicted on ,joash the just punishment of his ingratitude to ,jehoiada1 whose son he had so lately murdered4 ,hazael1 king of ,syria1 besieged ,gath1 which belonged to ,judah2 and having taken it he marched against ,jerusalem4 ,joash1 to redeem himself from the difficulties of a siege1 and from the danger of being plundered1 took what money he could find in the temple1 which had been consecrated by ,ahaziah his father1 ,jehoram his grandfather1 and himself1 and gave the whole to ,hazael4 ,it is believed by some1 that the next year the ,syrian army marched again into ,judah2 but ,hazael was not there in person4 ,the ,syrians made great havoc1 defeated the troops of ,joash1 entered ,jerusalem1 slew the princes of ,judah1 and sent a great booty to the king of ,syria at ,damascus4 ,they treated ,joash himself with great ignominy1 and left him extremely ill4 ,his servants then revolted against him1 and killed him in his bed1 by which the blood of ,zechariah the high priest was avenged4 ,he was buried in ,jerusalem1 but not in the royal sepulchre4 ,amaziah his son succeeded him4 ,,job1 a patriarch celebrated for his patience1 and the constancy of his piety and virtue4 ,that ,job was a real1 and not a fictitious1 character1 may be inferred from the manner in which he is mentioned in the ,scriptures4 ,thus1 the ,prophet ,ezekiel speaks of him3 8,though these three men1 ,noah1 ,daniel1 and ,job1 were in it1 they should deliver but their own souls by their righteousness1 saith the ,lord ,god10 ,ezek4 xiv1 #ad4 ,now since ,noah and ,daniel were unquestionably real characters1 we must conclude the same of ,job4 8,behold10 says the ,apostle ,james1 8we count them happy which endure3 ye have heard of the patience of ,job1 and have seen the end of the ,lord1 that the ,lord is very pitiful1 and of tender mercy10 ,james v1 #aa4 ,it is scarcely to be believed that a divinely inspired ,apostle would refer to an imaginary character as an example of patience1 or in proof of the mercy of ,god4 ,but1 beside the authority of the inspired writers1 we have the strongest internal evidence1 from the book itself1 that ,job was a real person2 for it expressly specifies the names of persons1 places1 facts1 and other circumstances usually related in true histories4 ,thus1 we have the name1 country1 piety1 wealth1 c1 of ,job described1 ,job i2 the names1 number1 and acts of his children are mentioned2 the conduct of his wife is recorded as a fact1 ii2 his friends1 their names1 countries1 and discourses with him in his afflictions are minutely delineated1 ,job ii1 #aa1 c4 ,farther3 no reasonable doubt can be entertained respecting the real existence of ,job1 when we consider that it is proved by the concurrent testimony of all eastern tradition3 he is mentioned by the author of the book of ,tobit1 who lived during the ,assyrian captivity2 he is also repeatedly mentioned by ,arabian writers as a real character4 ,the whole of his history1 with many fabulous additions1 was known among the ,syrians and ,chaldeans2 and many of the noblest families among the ,arabs are distinguished by his name1 and boast of being descended from him4 ,since1 then1 says ,horne1 the book of ,job contains the history of a real character1 the next point is the age in which he lived1 a question concerning which there is as great a diversity of opinion1 as upon any other subject connected with this venerable monument of sacred antiquity4 ,one thing1 however1 is generally admitted with respect to the age of the book of ,job1 namely1 its remote antiquity4 ,even those who contend for the later production of the book of ,job are compelled to acquiesce in this particular4 ,grotius thinks the events of the history are such as cannot be placed later than the sojourning of the ,israelites in the wilderness4 ,bishop ,warburton1 in like manner1 admits them to bear the marks of high antiquity2 and ,michalis confesses the manners to be perfectly ,abrahamic1 that is1 such as were common to all the seed of ,abraham1 ,israelites1 ,ishmaelites1 and ,idumeans4 ,the following are the principal circumstances from which the age of ,job may be collected and ascertained3--#a4 ,the ,usserian or ,bible chronology dates the trial of ,job about the year #aebj before the ,christian era1 twenty-nine years before the departure of the ,israelites from ,egypt2 and that the book was composed before that event1 is evident from its total silence respecting the miracles which accompanied the exode2 such as the passage of the ,red ,sea1 the destruction of the ,egyptians1 the manna in the desert1 c2 all of which happened in the vicinity of ,job's country1 and were so apposite in the debate concerning the ways of ,providence that some notice could not but have been taken of them1 if they had been coeval with the poem of ,job4 #b4 ,that it was composed before ,abraham's migration to ,canaan1 may also be inferred from its silence respecting the destruction of ,sodom and ,gomorrah1 and the other cities of the plain1 which were still nearer to ,idumea1 where the scene is laid4 #c4 ,the length of ,job's life places him in the patriarchal times4 ,he survived his trial one hundred and forty years1 ,job xlii1 #af1 and was probably not younger at that time2 for we read that his seven sons were all grown up1 and had been settled in their own houses for a considerable time1 ,job i1 #d1 #e4 ,he speaks of the sins of his youth1 ,job xiii1 #bf1 and of the prosperity of his youth2 and yet ,eliphaz addresses him as a novice3 8,with us are both the gray-headed and very aged men1 much elder than thy father10 ,job xv1 #aj4 #d4 ,that he did not live at an earlier period1 may be collected from an incidental observation of ,bildad1 who refers ,job to their forefathers for instruction in wisdom3-- 8,inquire1 ,i pray thee1 of the former age1 ,and prepare thyself to the search of their fathers30 assigning as a reason the comparative shortness of human life1 and consequent ignorance of the present generation3-- 8,for we are but of yesterday1 and know nothing2 ,because our days upon earth are a shadow40 ,job viii1 #h1 #i4 ,but the fathers of the former age1 or grandfathers of the present1 were the contemporaries of ,peleg and ,joktan1 in the fifth generation after the deluge2 and they might easily have learned wisdom from the fountain head by conversing with ,shem1 or perhaps with ,noah himself2 whereas1 in the seventh generation1 the standard of human life was reduced to about two hundred years1 which was a shadow compared with the longevity of ,noah and his sons4 #e4 ,the general air of antiquity which pervades the manners recorded in the poem1 is a farther evidence of its remote date4 ,the manners and customs1 indeed1 critically correspond with that early period4 ,thus1 ,job speaks of the most ancient kind of writing1 by sculpture1 ,job xix1 #bd2 his riches also are reckoned by his cattle1 ,job xlii1 #ab4 ,farther3 ,job acted as high priest in his family1 according to the patriarchal usage1 ,gen4 viii1 #bj2 for the institution of an established priesthood does not appear to have taken place any where until the time of ,abraham4 ,melchizedec1 king of ,salem1 was a priest of the primitive order1 ,gen4 xiv1 #ah2 such also was ,jethro1 the father-in-law of ,moses1 in the vicinity of ,idumea1 ,exod4 xviii1 #ab4 ,the first regular priesthood was probably instituted in ,egypt1 where ,joseph was married to the daughter of the priest of ,on1 ,gen4 xli1 #de4 #f4 ,the slavish homage of prostration to princes and great men1 which prevailed in ,egypt1 ,persia1 and the east in general1 and which still subsists there1 was unknown in ,arabia at that time4 ,though ,job was one of the greatest men of all the east1 we do not find any such adoration paid to him by his contemporaries1 in the zenith of his prosperity1 among the marks of respect so minutely described in the twenty-ninth chapter3 8,when the young men saw him1 they hid themselves10 7rather1 shrunk back1 through respect or rustic bashfulness17 8the aged arose and stood up0 in his presence1 7more correctly1 ranged themselves about him17 8the princes refrained from talking1 and laid their hand upon their mouth2 the nobles held their peace10 and were all attention while he spoke4 ,all this was highly respectful1 indeed1 but still it was manly1 and showed no cringing or servile adulation4 ,with this description correspond the manners and conduct of the genuine ,arabs of the present day1 a majestic race1 who were never conquered1 and who have retained their primitive customs1 features1 and character1 with scarcely any alteration4 #g4 ,the allusion made by ,job to that species of idolatry alone1 which by general consent is admitted to have been the most ancient1 namely1 ,zabianism1 or the worship of the sun and moon1 and also to the exertion of the judicial authority against it1 ,job xxxi1 #bf-bh1 is an additional and most complete proof of the high antiquity of the poem1 as well as a decisive mark of the patriarchal age4 #h4 ,a farther evidence of the remote antiquity of this book is the language of ,job and his friends2 who1 being all ,idumeans1 or at least ,arabians of the adjacent country1 yet conversed in ,hebrew4 ,this carries us up to an age so early as that in which all the posterity of ,abraham1 ,israelites1 ,idumeans1 and ,arabians1 yet continued to speak one common language1 and had not branched into different dialects4 ,the country in which the scene of this poem is laid1 is stated1 ,job i1 #a1 to be the land of ,uz1 which by some geographers has been placed in ,sandy1 and by others in ,stony1 ,arabia4 ,bochart strenuously advocated the former opinion1 in which he has been powerfully supported by ,spanheim1 ,calmet1 ,carpzov1 ,heidegger1 and some later writers2 ,michalis and ,ilgen place the scene in the valley of ,damascus2 but ,bishops ,lowth and ,magee1 ,dr4 ,hales1 ,dr4 ,good1 and some later critics and philologers1 have shown that the scene is laid in ,idumea4 ,in effect1 nothing is clearer than that the history of an inhabitant of ,idumea is the subject of the poem which bears the name of ,job1 and that all the persons introduced into it were ,idumeans1 dwelling in ,idumea1 in other words1 ,edomite ,arabs4 ,these characters are1 ,job himself1 of the land of ,uz2 ,eliphaz1 of ,teman1 a district of as much repute as ,uz1 and which1 it appears from the joint testimony of ,jeremiah1 ,ezekiel1 ,amos1 and ,obadiah1 ,jer4 xlix1 #g1 #bj2 ,ezek4 xxv1 #ac2 ,amos i1 #aa1 #ab2 ,obadiah #h1 #i1 formed a principal part of ,idumea2 ,bildad1 of ,shuah1 who is always mentioned in conjunction with ,sheba and ,dedan1 the first of whom was probably named after one of the brothers of ,joktan or ,kahtan1 and the two last from two of his sons1 all of them being uniformly placed in the vicinity of ,idumea1 ,gen4 xxv1 #b1 #c2 ,jer4 xlix1 #h2 ,zophar of ,naama1 a city importing pleasantness1 which is also stated by ,joshua1 xv1 #ba1 #da1 to have been situate in ,idumea1 and to have lain in a southern direction toward its coast1 on the shores of the ,red ,sea2 and ,elihu1 of ,buz1 which1 as the name of a place1 occurs only once in ,sacred ,writ1 ,jer4 xxv1 #bc1 but is there mentioned in conjunction with ,teman and ,dedan2 and hence necessarily1 like them1 a border city upon ,uz or ,idumea4 ,allowing this chorography to be correct1 7and such1 upon a fair review of facts1 we may conclude it to be17 there is no difficulty in conceiving that hordes of nomadic ,chaldeans as well as ,sabeans1 a people addicted to rapine1 and roving about at immense distances for the sake of plunder1 should have occasionally infested the defenceless country of ,idumea1 and roved from the ,euphrates even to ,egypt4 ,the different parts of the book of ,job are so closely connected together1 that they cannot be detached from each other4 ,the exordium prepares the reader for what follows1 supplies us with the necessary notices concerning ,job and his friends1 unfolds the scope1 and places the calamities full in our view as an object of attention4 ,the epilogue1 or conclusion1 again1 has reference to the exordium1 and relates the happy termination of ,job's trials2 the dialogues which intervene flow in regular order4 ,now1 if any of these parts were to be taken away1 the poem would be extremely defective4 ,without the prologue the reader would be utterly ignorant who ,job was1 who were his friends1 and the cause of his being so grievously afflicted4 ,without the discourse of ,elihu1 ,job xxxii-xxxvii1 there would be a sudden and abrupt transition from the last words of ,job to the address of ,god1 for which ,elihu's discourse prepares the reader4 ,and without the epilogue1 or conclusion1 we should remain in ignorance of the subsequent condition of ,job4 ,hence it is evident1 that the poem is the composition of a single author2 but who that was1 is a question concerning which the learned are very much divided in their sentiments4 ,elihu1 ,job1 ,moses1 ,solomon1 ,isaiah1 an anonymous writer in the reign of ,manasseh1 ,ezekiel1 and ,ezra1 have all been contended for4 ,the arguments already adduced respecting the age of ,job1 prove that it could not be either of the latter persons4 ,dr4 ,lightfoot1 from an erroneous version of ,job xxxii1 #af1 #ag1 has conjectured that it is the production of ,elihu2 but the correct rendering of that passage refutes this notion4 ,ilgen ascribes it probably to a descendant of ,elihu4 ,another and more generally received opinion attributes this book to ,moses2 this conjecture is founded on some apparent striking coincidences of sentiment1 as well as from some marks of later date which are supposed to be discoverable in it4 ,but1 independently of the characters of antiquity already referred to1 and which place the book of ,job very many centuries before the time of ,moses1 the total absence of even the slightest allusion to the manners1 customs1 ceremonies1 or history of the ,israelites1 is a direct evidence that the great legislator of the ,hebrews was not1 and could not have been1 the author4 ,to which may be added1 that the style of ,job1 as ,bishop ,lowth has remarked1 is materially different from the poetical style of ,moses2 for it is much more compact1 concise1 or condensed1 more accurate in the poetical conformation of the sentences2 as may be observed also in the prophecies of ,balaam the ,mesopotamian1 a foreigner1 indeed1 with respect to the ,israelites1 but not unacquainted either with their language1 or with the worship of the true ,god4 ,upon the whole1 then1 we have sufficient ground to conclude that this book was not the production of ,moses1 but of some earlier age4 ,bishop ,lowth favours the opinion of ,schultens1 ,peters1 and others1 which is adopted by ,bishop ,tomline and ,dr4 ,hales1 who suppose ,job himself1 or some contemporary1 to have been the author of this poem2 and there seems to be no good reason for supposing that it was not written by ,job himself4 ,it appears1 indeed1 highly probable that ,job was the writer of his own story1 of whose inspiration we have the clearest evidence in the forty-second chapter of this book1 in which he thus addresses the ,almighty3 8,i have heard of thee by the hearing of the ear1 but now mine eye seeth thee40 ,it is plain that in this passage some privilege is intended which he never had enjoyed before1 and which he calls the sight of ,god4 ,the book of ,job contains the history of ,job1 a man equally distinguished for purity and uprightness of character1 and for honours1 wealth1 and domestic felicity1 whom ,god permitted1 for the trial of his faith1 to be suddenly deprived of all his numerous blessings1 and to be at once plunged into the deepest affliction1 and most accumulated distress4 ,it gives an account of his eminent piety1 patience1 and resignation under the pressure of these severe calamities1 and of his subsequent elevation to a degree of prosperity and happiness1 still greater than that which he had before enjoyed4 ,how long the sufferings of ,job continued1 we are not informed2 but it is said1 that after ,god turned his captivity1 and blessed him a second time1 he lived one hundred and forty years1 ,job xlii1 #af4 ,its style is in many parts peculiarly sublime2 and it is not only adorned with poetical embellishments1 but most learned men consider it as written in metre4 ,through the whole work we discover religious instruction shining forth amidst the venerable simplicity of ancient manners4 ,it every where abounds with the noblest sentiments of piety1 uttered with the spirit of inspired conviction4 ,it is a work unrivalled for the magnificence of its language1 and for the beautiful and sublime images which it presents4 ,in the wonderful speech of the ,deity1 ,job xxxviii1 xxxix1 every line delineates his attributes1 every sentence opens a picture of some grand object in creation1 characterized by its most striking features4 ,add to this1 that its prophetic parts reflect much light on the economy of ,god's moral government2 and every admirer of sacred antiquity1 every inquirer after religious instruction1 will seriously rejoice that the enraptured sentence of ,job1 xix1 #bc1 is realized to a more effectual and unforeseen accomplishment2 that while the memorable records of antiquity have mouldered from the rock1 the prophetic assurance and sentiments of ,job are graven in ,scriptures that no time shall alter1 no changes shall efface4 ,,joel1 the second of the twelve lesser prophets4 ,it is impossible to ascertain the age in which he lived1 but it seems most probable that he was contemporary with ,hosea4 ,no particulars of his life or death are certainly known4 ,his prophecies are confined to the kingdom of ,judah4 ,he inveighs against the sins and impieties of the people1 and threatens them with divine vengeance2 he exhorts to repentance1 fasting1 and prayer2 and promises the favour of ,god to those who should be obedient4 ,the principal predictions contained in this book are the ,chaldean invasion1 under the figurative representation of locusts2 the destruction of ,jerusalem by ,titus2 the blessings of the ,gospel dispensation2 the conversion and restoration of the ,jews to their own land2 the overthrow of the enemies of ,god2 and the glorious state of the ,christian church in the end of the world4 ,the style of ,joel is perspicuous and elegant1 and his descriptions are remarkably animated and poetical4 ,,john ,,the ,,baptist1 the forerunner of the ,messiah1 was the son of ,zechariah and ,elizabeth1 and was born about six months before our ,saviour4 ,his birth was foretold by an angel1 sent purposely to deliver this joyful message1 when his mother ,elizabeth was barren1 and both his parents far advanced in years4 ,the same divine messenger foretold that he should be great in the sight of the ,lord2 that he should be filled with the ,holy ,spirit from his mother's womb2 that he should prepare the way of the ,lord by turning many of the ,jews to the knowledge of ,god2 and that he should be the greatest of all the prophets1 ,luke i1 #e-ae4 ,of the early part of the ,baptist's life we have but little information4 ,it is only observed that 8he grew and waxed strong in spirit1 and was in the deserts till the day of his showing unto ,israel10 ,luke i1 #hj4 ,though consecrated from the womb to the ministerial office1 ,john did not enter upon it in the heat of youth1 but after several years spent in solitude and a course of self-denial4 ,the prophetical descriptions of the ,baptist in the ,old ,testament are various and striking4 ,that by ,isaiah is3 8,the voice of him that crieth in the wilderness1 ,prepare ye the way of the ,lord1 make straight in the desert a high way for our ,god10 ,isaiah xl1 #c4 ,malachi has the following prediction3 8,behold1 ,i will send you ,elijah the prophet before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the ,lord4 ,and he shall turn the hearts of the fathers to the children1 and the hearts of the children to the fathers1 lest ,i come and smite the earth with a curse10 ,mal4 iv1 #e4 ,that this was meant of the ,baptist1 we have the testimony of our ,lord himself1 who declared1 8,for all the prophets and the law prophesied until ,john4 ,and if ye will receive it1 this is ,elias who was to come10 ,matt4 xi1 #ad4 ,the appearance and manners of the ,baptist1 when he first came out into the world1 excited general attention4 ,his clothing was of camel's hair1 bound round him with a leathern girdle1 and his food consisted of locusts and wild honey1 ,matt4 iii1 #d4 ,the message which he declared was authoritative3 8,repent ye1 for the kingdom of heaven is at hand20 and the impression produced by his faithful reproofs and admonitions was powerful and extensive1 and in a great number of instances lasting4 ,most of the first followers of our ,lord appear to have been awakened to seriousness and religious inquiry by ,john's ministry4 ,his character was so eminent1 that many of the ,jews thought him to be the ,messiah2 but he plainly declared that he was not that honoured person4 ,nevertheless1 he was at first unacquainted with the person of ,jesus ,christ2 only the ,holy ,ghost had told him that he on whom he should see the ,holy ,spirit descend and rest was the ,messiah4 ,when ,jesus ,christ presented himself to receive baptism from him1 this sign was vouchsafed2 and from that time he bore his testimony to ,jesus1 as the ,christ4 ,herod ,antipas1 having married his brother ,philip's wife while ,philip was still living1 occasioned great scandal4 ,john the ,baptist1 with his usual liberty and vigour1 reproved ,herod to his face2 and told him that it was not lawful for him to have his brother's wife1 while his brother was yet alive4 ,herod1 incensed at this freedom1 ordered him into custody1 in the castle of ,machrus2 and he was ultimately put to death4 7,see ,antipas47 ,thus fell this honoured prophet1 a martyr to ministerial faithfulness4 ,other prophets testified of ,christ2 he pointed to him as already come4 ,others saw him afar off2 he beheld the advancing glories of his ministry eclipsing his own1 and rejoiced to 8decrease0 while his ,master 8increased40 ,his ministry stands as a type of the true character of evangelical repentance3 it goes before ,christ and prepares his way2 it is humbling1 but not despairing2 for it points to 8the ,lamb of ,god which taketh away the sins of the world40 ,the ,jews had such an opinion of this prophet's sanctity1 that they ascribed the overthrow of ,herod's army1 which he had sent against his father-in-law1 ,aretas1 to the just judgment of ,god for putting ,john the ,baptist to death4 ,the death of ,john the ,baptist happened1 as is believed1 about the end of the thirty-first year of the vulgar era1 or in the beginning of the thirty-second4 ,the baptism of ,john was much more perfect than that of the ,jews1 but less perfect than that of ,jesus ,christ4 8,it was10 says ,st4 ,chrysostom1 8as it were1 a bridge1 which1 from the baptism of the ,jews1 made a way to that of our ,saviour1 and was more exalted than the first1 but inferior to the second40 ,that of ,st4 ,john promised what that of ,jesus ,christ executed4 ,notwithstanding ,st4 ,john did not enjoin his disciples to continue the baptism of repentance1 which was of his institution1 after his death1 because1 after the manifestation of the ,messiah1 and the establishment of the ,holy ,ghost1 it became of no use2 yet there were many of his followers who still administered it1 and several years after the death and resurrection of ,jesus ,christ1 did not so much as know that there was any other baptism than that of ,john4 ,of this number was ,apollos1 a learned and zealous man1 who was of ,alexandria1 and came to ,ephesus twenty years after the resurrection of our ,saviour1 ,acts xviii1 #be4 ,and when ,st4 ,paul came after ,apollos to the same city1 there were still many ,ephesians who had received no other baptism1 and were not yet informed that the ,holy ,ghost was received by baptism in the name of ,jesus ,christ1 ,acts xix1 #a4 ,the ,jews are said by the ,apostle ,paul to have been 8baptized unto ,moses10 at the time when they followed him through the ,red ,sea1 as the servant of ,god sent to be their leader4 ,those who went out to ,john 8were baptized unto ,john's baptism20 that is1 into the expectation of the person whom ,john announced1 and into repentance of those sins which ,john condemned4 ,christians are 8baptized into the name of the ,father1 the ,son1 and the ,holy ,ghost10 because in this expression is implied that whole system of truth which the disciples of ,christ believe2 into the name of the ,father1 the one true and living ,god whom ,christians profess to serve2 of the ,son1 that divine person revealed in the ,new ,testament whom the ,father sent to be the ,saviour of the world2 of the ,holy ,ghost1 the divine person also revealed there as the ,comforter1 the ,sanctifier1 and the ,guide of ,christians4 ,,john ,,the ,,evangelist was a native of ,bethsaida1 in ,galilee1 son of ,zebedee and ,salome1 by profession a fisherman4 ,some have thought that he was a disciple of ,john the ,baptist before he attended ,jesus ,christ4 ,he was brother to ,james the greater4 ,it is believed that ,st4 ,john was the youngest of the ,apostles4 ,tillemont is of opinion that he was twenty-five or twenty-six years of age when he began to follow ,jesus4 ,our ,saviour had a particular friendship for him2 and he describes himself by the name of 8that disciple whom ,jesus loved40 ,st4 ,john was one of the four ,apostles to whom our ,lord delivered his predictions relative to the destruction of ,jerusalem1 and the approaching calamities of the ,jewish nation1 ,mark xiii1 #c4 ,st4 ,peter1 ,st4 ,james1 and ,st4 ,john were chosen to accompany our ,saviour on several occasions1 when the other ,apostles were not permitted to be present4 ,when ,christ restored the daughter of ,jairus to life1 ,mark v1 #cg2 ,luke viii1 #ea2 when he was transfigured on the mount1 ,matt4 xvii1 #a1 #b2 ,mark ix1 #b2 ,luke ix1 #bh2 and when he endured his agony in the garden1 ,matt4 xxvi1 #cf1 #cg2 ,mark xiv1 #cb1 #cc2 ,st4 ,peter1 ,st4 ,james1 and ,st4 ,john were his only attendants4 ,that ,st4 ,john was treated by ,christ with greater familiarity than the other ,apostles1 is evident from ,st4 ,peter desiring him to ask ,christ who should betray him1 when he himself did not dare to propose the question1 ,john xiii1 #bd4 ,he seems to have been the only ,apostle present at the crucifixion1 and to him ,jesus1 just as he was expiring upon the cross1 gave the strongest proof of his confidence and regard1 by consigning to him the care of his mother1 ,john xix1 #bf1 #bg4 ,as ,st4 ,john had been witness to the death of our ,saviour1 by seeing the blood and water issue from his side1 which a soldier had pierced1 ,john xix1 #cd1 #ce1 so he was one of the first made acquainted with his resurrection4 ,without any hesitation1 he believed this great event1 though 8as yet he knew not the ,scripture1 that ,christ was to rise from the dead10 ,john xx1 #i4 ,he was also one of those to whom our ,saviour appeared at the sea of ,galilee2 and he was afterward1 with the other ten ,apostles1 a witness of his ascension into heaven1 ,mark xvi1 #ai2 ,luke xxiv1 #ea4 ,st4 ,john continued to preach the ,gospel for some time at ,jerusalem3 he was imprisoned by the sanhedrim1 first with ,peter only1 ,acts iv1 #a1 c1 and afterward with the other ,apostles1 ,acts v1 #ag1 #ah4 ,some time after this second release1 he and ,st4 ,peter were sent by the other ,apostles to the ,samaritans1 whom ,philip the deacon had converted to the ,gospel1 that through them they might receive the ,holy ,ghost1 ,acts viii1 #ad1 #ae4 ,st4 ,john informs us1 in his ,revelations1 that he was banished to ,patmos1 an island in the gean ,sea1 ,rev4 i1 #i4 ,this banishment of the ,apostle to the isle of ,patmos is mentioned by many of the early ecclesiastical writers2 all of whom1 except ,epiphanius in the fourth century1 agree in attributing it to ,domitian4 ,epiphanius says that ,john was banished by command of ,claudius2 but this deserves the less credit1 because there was no persecution of the ,christians in the time of that emperor1 and his edicts against the ,jews did not extend to the provinces4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton was of opinion that ,john was banished to ,patmos in the time of ,nero2 but even the authority of this great man is not of sufficient weight against the unanimous voice of antiquity4 ,dr4 ,lardner has examined and answered his arguments with equal candour and learning4 ,it is not known at what time ,john went into ,asia ,minor4 ,lardner thought that it was about the year #ff4 ,it is certain that he lived in ,asia ,minor the latter part of his life1 and principally at ,ephesus4 ,he planted churches at ,smyrna1 ,pergamos1 and many other places2 and by his activity and success in propagating the ,gospel1 he is supposed to have incurred the displeasure of ,domitian1 who banished him to ,patmos at the end of his reign4 ,he himself tells us that he 8was in the isle that is called ,patmos1 for the word of ,god1 and for the testimony of ,jesus ,christ20 and ,irenus1 speaking of the vision which he had there1 says1 8,it is not very long ago that it was seen1 being but a little before our time1 at the latter end of ,domitian's reign40 ,on the succession of ,nerva to the empire in the year #if1 ,john returned to ,ephesus1 where he died at an advanced age1 in the third year of ,trajan's reign1 ,a4 ,d4 #ajj4 ,an opinion has prevailed1 that he was1 by order of ,domitian1 thrown into a caldron of boiling oil at ,rome1 and came out unhurt2 but this account rests almost entirely on the authority of ,tertullian1 and seems to deserve little credit4 #b4 ,the genuineness of ,st4 ,john's ,gospel has always been unanimously admitted by the ,christian church4 ,it is universally agreed that ,st4 ,john published his ,gospel in ,asia2 and that1 when he wrote it1 he had seen the other three ,gospels4 ,it is1 therefore1 not only valuable in itself1 but also a tacit confirmation of the other three2 with none of which it disagrees in any material point4 ,the time of its publication is placed by some rather before1 and by others considerably after1 the destruction of ,jerusalem4 ,if we accede to the opinion of those who contend for the year #ig1 this late date1 exclusive of the authorities which support it1 seems favoured by the contents and design of the ,gospel itself4 ,the immediate design of ,st4 ,john in writing his ,gospel1 as we are assured by ,irenus1 ,jerom1 and others1 was to refute the ,cerinthians1 ,ebionites1 and other heretics1 whose tenets1 though they branched out into a variety of subjects1 all originated from erroneous opinions concerning the person of ,christ1 and the creation of the world4 ,these points had been scarcely touched upon by the other evangelists2 though they had faithfully recorded all the leading facts of our ,saviour's life1 and his admirable precepts for the regulation of our conduct4 ,st4 ,john1 therefore1 undertook1 perhaps at the request of the true believers in ,asia1 to write what ,clement of ,alexandria called a spiritual ,gospel2 and1 accordingly1 we find in it more of doctrine1 and less of historical narrative1 than in any of the others4 ,it is also to be remembered1 that this book1 which contains so much additional information relative to the doctrines of ,christianity1 and which may be considered as a standard of faith for all ages1 was written by that ,apostle who is known to have enjoyed1 in a greater degree than the rest1 the affection and confidence of the divine ,author of our religion2 and to whom was given a special revelation concerning the state of the ,christian church in all succeeding generations4 ,we have three epistles by this ,apostle4 ,some critics have thought that all these epistles were written during ,st4 ,john's exile in ,patmos2 the first1 to the ,ephesian church2 the others to individuals2 and that they were sent along with the ,gospel1 which the ,apostle is supposed also to have written in ,patmos4 ,thus ,hug observes1 in his 8,introduction30 ,if ,st4 ,john sent his ,gospel to the continent1 an epistle to the community was requisite1 commending and dedicating it to them4 ,other evangelists1 who deposited their works in the place of their residence1 personally superintended them1 and delivered them personally2 consequently they did not require a written document to accompany them4 ,an epistle was therefore requisite1 and1 as we have abundantly proved the first of ,john's epistles to be inseparable from the ,gospel1 its contents demonstrate it to be an accompanying writing1 and a dedication of the ,gospel4 ,it went consequently to ,ephesus4 ,we can particularly corroborate this by the following observation3 ,john1 in the ,apocalypse1 has individually distinguished each of the ,christian communities1 which lay the nearest within his circle and his superintendence1 by criteria1 taken from their faults or their virtues4 ,the church at ,ephesus he there describes by the following traits3 ,it was thronged with men who arrogated to themselves the ministry and apostolical authority1 and were impostors1 4 ,but in particular he feelingly reproaches it because its 8first love was cooled10 4 ,the circumstance of impostors and false teachers happens in more churches4 ,but decreasing love is an exclusive criterion and failing1 which the ,apostle reprimands in no other community4 ,according to his judgment1 want of love was the characteristic fault of the ,ephesians3 but this epistle is from beginning to the end occupied with admonitions to love1 with recommendations of its value1 with corrections of those who are guilty of this fault1 #a ,john ii1 #e1 #i-aa1 #ae2 iii1 #a1 #aa1 #ab1 #ad-ah1 #bc2 iv1 #g-aj1 #ab1 #af-ba2 v1 #a-c4 ,must not we therefore declare1 if we compare the opinion of the ,apostle respecting the ,ephesians with this epistle1 that1 from its peculiar tenor1 it is not so strikingly adapted to any community in the first instance as to this8 ,the second epistle is directed to a female1 who is not named1 but only designated by the honourable mention1 1 8the elect lady40 ,the two chief positions1 which are discussed in the first epistle1 constitute the contents of this brief address4 ,he again alludes to the words of our ,saviour1 8,a new commandment10 c1 as in #a ,john ii1 #g1 and recommends love1 which is manifested by observance of the commandments4 ,after this he warns her against false teachers1 who deny that ,jesus entered into the world as the ,christ1 or ,messiah1 and forbids an intercourse with them4 ,at the end1 he hopes soon to see her himself1 and complains of the want of writing materials4 ,the whole is a short syllabus of the first epistle1 or it is the first in a renewed form4 ,the words also are the same4 ,it is still full of the former epistle3 nor are they separated from each other as to time4 ,the female appears before his mind in the circumstances and dangers of the society1 in instructing and admonishing which he had just been employed4 ,if we may judge from local circumstances1 she also lived at ,ephesus4 ,but as for the author1 his residence was in none of the ,ionian or ,asiatic cities1 where the want of writing materials is not conceivable3 he was still therefore in the place of his exile4 ,the other circumstances noticed in it1 are probably the following3 ,the sons of the had visited ,john1 #b ,john #d4 ,the sister of this matron wishing to show to him an equal respect and sympathy in his fate1 sent her sons likewise to visit the ,apostle4 ,while the latter were with the ,apostle1 there was an opportunity of sending to the continent1 #b ,john #ac1 namely1 of despatching the two epistles and the ,gospel4 ,the third epistle is written to ,caius4 ,the author consoles himself with the hope1 as in the former epistle1 of soon coming himself1 #c ,john #ad4 ,he still experiences the same want of writing materials1 #c ,john #ac4 ,consequently1 he was still living in the same miserable place3 also1 if we may judge from his hopes1 the time was not very different4 ,the residence of ,caius is determined by the following criteria3 ,the most general of them is the danger of being misled by false teachers1 #c ,john #c1 #d4 ,that which leads us nearer to the point1 is the circumstance of ,john sometimes sending messages thither1 and receiving accounts from thence1 #c ,john #e-h1 that he supposes his opinions to be so well known and acknowledged in this society1 that he could appeal to them1 as judges respecting them1 #c ,john #ab1 and that1 finally1 he had many particular friends among them1 #c ,john #ae4 ,the whole of this is applicable to a considerable place1 where the ,apostle had resided for a long time2 and in the second epoch of his life1 it is particularly applicable to ,ephesus4 ,he had lately written to the community1 of which ,caius was a member1 1 8,i wrote to the church10 #c ,john #i4 ,if this is to be referred to the first epistle1 7for we are not aware of any other to a community17 then certainly ,ephesus is the place to which the third epistle was also directed1 and was the place where ,caius resided4 ,from hence1 the rest contains its own explanation4 ,john had sent his first epistle thither2 it was the accompanying writing to the ,gospel1 and with it he also sent the ,gospel4 ,who was better qualified to promulgate the ,gospel among the believers than ,caius1 especially if it was to be published at ,ephesus8 ,the above view is ingenious1 and in its leading parts satisfactory2 but the argument from the ,apostle's supposed want of 8writing materials0 is founded upon a very forced construction of the texts4 ,there seems1 however1 no reason to doubt of the close connection1 in point of time1 between the epistles and the ,gospel2 and1 that being remembered1 the train of thought in the mind of the ,apostle sufficiently explains the peculiar character of the latter4 ,,jonah1 son of ,amittai1 the fifth of the minor prophets1 was born at ,gath-hepher1 in ,galilee4 ,he is generally considered as the most ancient of the prophets1 and is supposed to have lived ,b4 ,c4 #hdj4 ,the book of ,jonah is chiefly narrative4 ,he relates that he was commanded by ,god to go to ,nineveh1 and preach against the inhabitants of that capital of the ,assyrian empire2 that1 through fear of executing this commission1 he set sail for ,tarshish2 and that1 in his voyage thither1 a tempest arising1 he was cast by the mariners into the sea1 and swallowed by a large fish2 that1 while he was in the belly of this fish1 he prayed to ,god1 and was1 after three days and three nights1 delivered out of it alive2 that he then received a second command to go and preach against ,nineveh1 which he obeyed2 that1 upon his threatening the destruction of the city within forty days1 the king and people proclaimed a fast1 and repented of their sins2 and that1 upon this repentance1 ,god suspended the sentence which he had ordered to be pronounced in his name4 ,upon their repentance1 ,god deferred the execution of his judgment till the increase of their iniquities made them ripe for destruction1 about a hundred and fifty years afterward4 ,the last chapter gives an account of the murmuring of ,jonah at this instance of divine mercy1 and of the gentle and condescending manner in which it pleased ,god to reprove the prophet for his unjust complaint4 ,the style of ,jonah is simple and perspicuous2 and his prayer1 in the second chapter1 is strongly descriptive of the feelings of a pious mind under a severe trial of faith4 ,our ,saviour mentions ,jonah in the ,gospel1 ,matt4 xii1 #da2 ,luke xi1 #cb4 ,see ,,nineveh and ,,gourd4 ,,jonathan1 the son of ,saul1 a prince of an excellent disposition1 and in all varieties of fortune a sincere and steady friend to ,david4 ,jonathan gave signal proofs of courage and conduct upon all occasions that offered1 during the wars between his father and the ,philistines4 ,the death of ,jonathan was lamented by ,david1 in one of the noblest and most pathetic odes ever uttered by genius consecrated by pious friendship4 ,see #a ,sam4 xiii1 #af1 c2 xiv1 #a1 #b1 c4 ,,joppa1 called also ,japho in the ,old ,testament1 which is still preserved in its modern name of ,jaffa or ,yafah1 a sea port of ,palestine1 situated on an eminence in a sandy soil1 about seventy miles north-west of ,jerusalem4 ,joppa was anciently the port to ,jerusalem4 ,here all the materials sent from ,tyre for the building of ,solomon's temple were brought and landed3 it was1 indeed1 the only port in ,judea1 though rocky and dangerous4 ,it possesses still1 in times of peace1 a considerable commerce with the places in its vicinity2 and is well inhabited1 chiefly by ,arabs4 ,this was the place of landing of the western pilgrims2 and here the promised pardons commenced4 ,here ,st4 ,peter raised ,dorcas from the dead1 and resided many days in the house of one ,simon1 a tanner1 ,acts ix1 #cf-dc2 and it was from this place that the ,prophet ,jonah embarked for ,tarshish4 ,,joram1 the son and successor of ,ahab1 king of ,israel4 ,see ,,jehu ,,jordan1 the largest and most celebrated stream in ,palestine4 ,it is much larger1 according to ,dr4 ,shaw1 than all the brooks and streams of the ,holy ,land united together2 and1 excepting the ,nile1 is by far the most considerable river either of the coast of ,syria or of ,barbary4 ,he computed it to be about thirty yards broad1 and found it nine feet deep at the brink4 ,this river1 which divides the country into two unequal parts1 has been commonly said to issue from two fountains1 or to be formed by the junction of two rivulets1 the ,jor and the ,dan2 but the assertion seems to be totally destitute of any solid foundation4 ,the ,jewish historian1 ,josephus1 on the contrary1 places its source at ,phiala1 a fountain which rises about fifteen miles from ,csarea ,philippi1 a little on the right hand1 and not much out of the way to ,trachonitis4 ,it is called ,phiala1 or the ,vial1 from its round figure2 its water is always of the same depth1 the bason being brimful1 without either shrinking or overflowing4 ,from ,phiala to ,panion1 which was long considered as the real source of the ,jordan1 the river flows under ground4 ,the secret of its subterraneous course was first discovered by ,philip1 the tetrarch of ,trachonitis1 who cast straws into the fountain of ,phiala1 which came out again at ,panion4 ,leaving the cave of ,panion1 it crosses the bogs and fens of the lake ,semichonitis2 and after a course of fifteen miles1 passes under the city of ,julias1 the ancient ,bethsaida2 then expands into a beautiful sheet of water1 named the lake of ,gennesareth2 and1 after flowing a long way through the desert1 empties itself into the lake ,asphaltites1 or the ,dead ,sea4 ,as the cave ,panion lies at the foot of ,mount ,lebanon1 in the northern extremity of ,canaan1 and the lake ,asphaltites extends to the southern extremity1 the river ,jordan pursues its course through the whole extent of the country from north to south4 ,it is evident1 also1 from the history of ,josephus1 that a wilderness or desert of considerable extent stretched along the river ,jordan in the times of the ,new ,testament2 which was undoubtedly the wilderness mentioned by the evangelists1 where ,john the ,baptist came preaching and baptizing4 ,the ,jordan has a considerable depth of water4 ,chateaubriand makes it six or seven feet deep close at the shore1 and about fifty paces in breadth a considerable distance from its entrance into the ,dead ,sea4 ,according to the computation of ,volney1 it is hardly sixty paces wide at the mouth2 but the author of 8,letters from ,palestine0 states1 that the stream when it enters the lake ,asphaltites1 is deep and rapid1 rolling a considerable volume of waters2 the width appears from two to three hundred feet1 and the current is so violent1 that a ,greek servant belonging to the author1 who attempted to cross it1 though strong1 active1 and an excellent swimmer1 found the undertaking impracticable4 ,it may be said to have two banks1 of which the inner marks the ordinary height of the stream2 and the outer1 its ancient elevation during the rainy season1 or the melting of the snows on the summits of ,lebanon4 ,in the days of ,joshua1 and1 it is probable1 for many ages after his time1 the harvest was one of the seasons when the ,jordan overflowed his banks4 ,this fact is distinctly recorded by the sacred historian3 8,and as they that bare the ark were come unto ,jordan1 and the feet of the priests that bare the ark were dipped in the brim of the water2 for ,jordan overfloweth all his banks all the time of harvest10 ,joshua iii1 #ae4 ,this happens in the first month of the ,jewish year1 which corresponds with ,march1 #a ,chronicles xii1 #ae4 ,but in modern times1 whether the rapidity of the current has worn the channel deeper than formerly1 or whether its waters have taken some other direction1 the river seems to have forgotten his ancient greatness4 ,when ,maundrell visited ,jordan on the thirtieth of ,march1 the proper time for these inundations1 he could discern no sign or probability of such overflowing2 nay1 so far was it from overflowing1 that it ran1 says our author1 at least two yards below the brink of its channel4 ,after having descended the outer bank1 he went about a furlong upon the level strand1 before he came to the immediate bank of the river4 ,this inner bank was so thickly covered with bushes and trees1 among which he observed the tamarisk1 the willow1 and the oleander1 that he could see no water till he had made his way through them4 ,in this entangled thicket1 so conveniently planted near the cooling stream1 and remote from the habitations of men1 several kinds of wild beasts were accustomed to repose1 till the swelling of the river drove them from their retreats4 ,this circumstance gave occasion to that beautiful allusion of the prophet3 8,he shall come up like a lion1 from the swelling of ,jordan1 against the habitation of the strong10 ,jer4 xlix1 #ai4 ,the figure is highly poetical and striking4 ,it is not easy to present a more terrible image to the mind1 than a lion roused from his den by the roar of the swelling river1 and chafed and irritated by its rapid and successive encroachments on his chosen haunts1 till1 forced to quit his last retreat1 he ascends to the higher grounds and the open country1 and turns the fierceness of his rage against the helpless sheep cots1 or the unsuspecting villages4 ,a destroyer equally fierce1 and cruel1 and irresistible1 the devoted ,edomites were to find in ,nebuchadnezzar and his armies4 ,the water of the river at the time of ,maundrell's visit was very turbid1 and too rapid to allow a swimmer to stem its course4 ,its breadth might be about twenty yards2 and in depth1 it far exceeded his height4 ,the rapidity and depth of the river1 which are admitted by every traveller1 although the volume of water seems now to be much diminished1 illustrate those parts of ,scripture which mention the fords and passages of ,jordan4 ,it no longer1 indeed1 rolls down into the ,salt ,sea so majestic a stream as in the days of ,joshua2 yet its ordinary depth is still about ten or twelve feet1 so that it cannot even at present be passed but at certain places4 ,of this well known circumstance1 the men of ,gilead took advantage in the civil war1 which they were compelled to wage with their brethren3 8,the ,gileadites took the passages of ,jordan before the ,ephraimites3--then they took him1 and slew him at the passages of ,jordan10 ,judg4 xii1 #f4 ,the people of ,israel1 under the command of ,ehud availed themselves of the same advantage in the war with ,moab3 8,and they went down after him1 and took the fords of ,jordan toward ,moab1 and suffered not a man to pass over10 ,judg4 iii1 #bh4 ,but although the state of this river in modern times completely justifies the incidental remarks of the sacred writers1 it is evident that ,maundrell was disconcerted by the shallowness of the stream1 at the time of the year when he expected to see it overflowing all its banks2 and his embarrassment seems to have increased when he contemplated the double margin within which it flowed4 ,this difficulty1 which has perhaps occurred to some others1 may be explained by a remark which ,dr4 ,pococke has made on the river ,euphrates3 ,the bed of the ,euphrates1 says that writer1 was measured by some ,english gentlemen at ,beer1 and found to be six hundred and thirty yards broad2 but the river only two hundred and fourteen yards over2 then they thought it to be nine or ten feet deep in the middle2 and were informed that it sometimes rises twelve feet perpendicularly4 ,he observed that it had an inner and outer bank2 but says1 it rarely overflows the inner bank2 that when it does1 they sow water mellons and other fruits of that kind1 as soon as the water retires1 and have a great produce4 ,from this passage1 ,mr4 ,harmer argues3 8,might not the overflowings of the ,jordan be like those of the ,euphrates1 not annual1 but much more rare80 ,the difficulty1 therefore1 will be completely removed1 by supposing1 that it does not1 like the ,nile1 overflow every year1 as some authors1 by mistake1 had supposed1 but1 like the ,euphrates1 only in some particular years2 but when it does it is in the time of harvest4 ,if it did not in ancient times annually overflow its banks1 the majesty of ,god in dividing its waters to make way for ,joshua and the armies of ,israel1 was certainly the more striking to the ,canaanites2 who1 when they looked upon themselves as defended in an extraordinary manner by the casual swelling of the river1 its breadth and rapidity being both so extremely increased1 yet1 found it in these circumstances part asunder1 and leave a way on dry land for the people of ,jehovah4 ,the common receptacle into which the ,jordan empties his waters1 is the lake ,asphaltites1 from whence they are continually drained off by evaporation4 ,some writers1 unable to find a discharge for the large body of water which is continually rushing into the lake1 have been inclined to suspect it had some communication with the ,mediterranean2 but1 beside that we know of no such gulf1 it has been demonstrated by accurate calculations1 that evaporation is more than sufficient to carry off the waters of the river4 ,it is1 in fact1 very considerable1 and frequently becomes sensible to the eye1 by the fogs with which the lake is covered at the rising of the sun1 and which are afterward dispersed by the heat4 ,,joseph1 son of ,jacob and ,rachel1 and brother to ,benjamin1 ,gen4 xxx1 #bb1 #bd4 ,the history of ,joseph is so fully and consecutively given by ,moses1 that it is not necessary to abridge so familiar an account4 ,in place of this1 the following beautiful argument by ,mr4 ,blunt for the veracity of the account drawn from the identity of ,joseph's character1 will be read with pleasure3--,i have already found an argument for the veracity of ,moses in the identity of ,jacob's character1 ,i now find another in the identity of that of ,joseph4 ,there is one quality1 as it has been often observed1 though with a different view from mine1 which runs like a thread through his whole history1 his affection for his father4 ,israel loved him1 we read1 more than all his children2 he was the child of his age2 his mother died while he was yet young1 and a double care of him consequently devolved upon his surviving parent4 ,he made him a coat of many colours2 he kept him at home when his other sons were sent to feed the flocks4 ,when the bloody garment was brought in1 ,jacob in his affection for him1--that same affection which1 on a subsequent occasion1 when it was told him that after all ,joseph was alive1 made him as slow to believe the good tidings as he was now quick to apprehend the sad2 in this his affection for him1 ,i say1 ,jacob at once concluded the worst1 and 8he rent his clothes and put sackcloth upon his loins1 and mourned for his son many days1 and all his daughters rose up to comfort him2 but he refused to be comforted1 and he said1 ,for ,i will go down into the grave unto my son mourning40 ,now1 what were the feelings in ,joseph which responded to these8 ,when the sons of ,jacob went down to ,egypt1 and ,joseph knew them1 though they knew not him2 for they1 it may be remarked1 were of an age not to be greatly changed by the lapse of years1 and were still sustaining the character in which ,joseph had always seen them2 while he himself had meanwhile grown out of the stripling into the man1 and from a shepherd boy was become the ruler of a kingdom2 when his brethren thus came before him1 his question was1 8,is your father yet alive80 ,gen4 xliii1 #g4 ,they went down a second time1 and again the question was1 8,is your father well1 the old man of whom ye spake1 is he yet alive80 ,more he could not venture to ask1 while he was yet in his disguise4 ,by a stratagem he now detains ,benjamin1 leaving the others1 if they would1 to go their way4 ,but ,judah came near unto him1 and entreated him for his brother1 telling him how that he had been surety to his father to bring him back2 how that his father was an old man1 and that this was the child of his old age1 and that he loved him2 how it would come to pass that if he should not see the lad with him he would die1 and his gray hairs be brought with sorrow to the grave2 for 8how shall ,i go to my father1 and the lad be not with me1 lest1 peradventure1 ,i see the evil that shall come on my father80 ,here1 without knowing it1 he had struck the string that was the tenderest of all4 ,joseph's firmness forsook him at this repeated mention of his father1 and in terms so touching3 he could not refrain himself any longer2 and1 causing every man to go out1 he made himself known to his brethren4 ,then1 even in the paroxysm which came on him1 7for he wept aloud1 so that the ,egyptians heard17 still his first words uttered from the fulness of his heart were1 8,doth my father yet live80 ,he now bids them hasten and bring the old man down1 bearing to him tokens of his love and tidings of his glory4 ,he goes to meet him2 he presents himself unto him1 and falls on his neck1 and weeps on his neck a good while2 he provides for him and his household out of the fat of the land2 he sets him before ,pharaoh4 ,by and by he hears that he is sick1 and hastens to visit him2 he receives his blessing2 watches his death bed2 embalms his body2 mourns for him threescore and ten days2 and then carries him1 as he had desired1 into ,canaan to bury him1 taking with him1 as an escort to do him honour1 8all the elders of ,israel1 and all the servants of ,pharaoh1 and all his house1 and the house of his brethren1 chariots1 and horsemen1 a very great company40 ,how natural was it now for his brethren to think that the tie by which alone they could imagine ,joseph to be held to them was dissolved1 that any respect he might have felt or feigned for them must have been buried in the cave of ,machpelah1 and that he would now requite to them the evil they had done6 8,and they sent a messenger unto ,joseph1 saying1 ,thy father did command before he died1 saying1 ,so shall ye say unto ,joseph1 ,forgive1 ,i pray thee now1 the trespass of thy brethren1 and their sin2 for they did unto thee evil40 ,and then they add of themselves1 as if well aware of the surest road to their brother's heart1 8,forgive1 we pray thee1 the trespass of the servants of the ,god of thy father40 ,in every thing the father's name is still put foremost3 it is his memory which they count upon as their shield and buckler4 ,it is not the singular beauty of these scenes1 or the moral lesson they teach1 excellent as it is1 with which ,i am now concerned1 but simply the perfect artless consistency which prevails through them all4 ,it is not the constancy with which the son's strong affection for his father had lived through an interval of twenty years' absence1 and1 what is more1 through the temptation of sudden promotion to the highest estate2--it is not the noble-minded frankness with which he still acknowledges his kindred1 and makes a way for them1 8shepherds0 as they were1 to the throne of ,pharaoh himself2--it is not the simplicity and singleness of heart which allow him to give all the first-born of ,egypt1 men over whom he bore absolute rule1 an opportunity of observing his own comparatively humble origin1 by leading them in attendance upon his father's corpse to the valleys of ,canaan and the modest cradle of his race2--it is not1 in a word1 the grace1 but the identity1 of ,joseph's character1 the light in which it is exhibited by himself1 and the light in which it is regarded by his brethren1 to which ,i now point as stamping it with marks of reality not to be gainsayed4 ,some writers have considered ,joseph as a type of ,christ2 and it requires not much ingenuity to find out some resemblances1 as his being hated by his brethren1 sold for money1 plunged into deep affliction1 and then raised to power and honour1 c2 but as we have no intimation in any part of ,scripture that ,joseph was constituted a figure of our ,lord1 and that this was one design of recording his history at length1 all such applications want authority1 and cannot safely be indulged4 ,the account seems rather to have been left for its moral uses1 and that it should afford1 by its inimitable simplicity and truth to nature1 a point of irresistible internal evidence of the truth of the ,mosaic narrative4 #b4 ,,joseph1 the husband of ,mary1 and reputed father of ,jesus1 was the son of ,jacob1 and grandson of ,matthan1 ,matt4 i1 #ae1 #af4 ,the place of his stated residence was ,nazareth1 particularly after the time of his marriage4 ,we learn from the evangelists that he followed the occupation of a carpenter1 ,matt4 xiii1 #ee2 and that he was a just man1 or one of those pious ,israelites who looked for the coming of the ,messiah1 ,matt4 i1 #ai4 ,it is probable that ,joseph died before ,christ entered upon his public ministry2 for upon any other supposition we are at a loss to account for the reason why ,mary1 the mother of ,jesus1 is frequently mentioned in the evangelic narrative1 while no allusion is made to ,joseph2 and1 above all1 why the dying ,saviour should recommend his mother to the care of the beloved disciple ,john1 if her husband had been then living1 ,john xix1 #be-bg4 #c4 ,,joseph ,,of ,,arimathea1 a ,jewish senator1 and a believer in the divine mission of ,jesus ,christ1 ,john xix1 #ch4 ,st4 ,luke calls him a counsellor1 and also informs us that he was a good and just man1 who did not give his consent to the crucifixion of ,christ1 ,luke xxiii1 #ej1 #ea4 ,and though he was unable to restrain the sanhedrim from their wicked purposes1 he went to ,pilate by night1 and solicited from him the body of ,jesus4 ,having caused it to be taken down from the cross1 he wrapped it in linen1 and laid it in his own sepulchre1 which1 being a rich man1 he appears to have recently purchased1 and then closed the entrance with a stone cut purposely to fit it1 ,matt4 xxvii1 #eg-fj2 ,john xix1 #ch-db4 ,,joshua1 the son of ,nun4 ,he was of the tribe of ,ephraim1 and born ,a4 ,m4 #bdfj4 ,he devoted himself to the service of ,moses1 and in ,scripture he is commonly called the servant of ,moses1 ,exodus xxiv1 #ac2 xxxiii1 #aa2 ,deuteronomy i1 #ch1 c4 ,his first name was ,hosea1 or ,oshea2 ,hoseah signifying saviour2 ,jehoshua1 the salvation of ,god1 or he will save4 ,the first opportunity which ,joshua had to signalize his valour was in the war made by the divine command against the ,amalekites1 ,exodus xvii1 #i1 #aj4 ,he defeated and routed their whole army4 ,when ,moses ascended ,mount ,sinai to receive the law of the ,lord1 and remained there forty days and forty nights without eating or drinking1 ,joshua remained with him1 though1 in all probability1 not in the same place1 nor with the same abstinence1 ,exod4 xxiv1 #ac2 xxxii1 #ag4 ,joshua was 8filled with the spirit of wisdom10 qualifying him for the arduous and important station of governing ,israel1 to which he was called by the special command of ,god1 ,num4 xxvii1 #ah-bj2 ,deut4 xxxi1 #g1 #ad2 xxxiv1 #i2 ,joshua i1 #e4 ,his piety1 courage1 and disinterested integrity are conspicuous throughout his whole history2 and1 exclusive of the inspiration which enlightened his mind and writings1 he derived divine information1 sometimes by immediate revelation from ,god1 ,joshua iii1 #g2 v1 #ac-ae2 at others from the sanctuary1 through the medium of ,eleazar1 the high priest1 the son of ,aaron1 who1 having on the breast plate1 presented himself before the mercy seat on which the ,shechinah1 or visible symbol of the divine presence1 rested1 and there consulted ,jehovah by the ,urim and ,thummim1 to which an answer was returned by an audible voice4 ,joshua succeeded ,moses in the government of ,israel about the year of the world #beec1 and died at ,timnath-serah in the hundred and tenth year of his age1 ,a4 ,m4 #begh4 ,he was about the age of eighty-four when he received the divine command to pass over ,jordan1 and take possession of the promised land1 ,joshua i1 #a1 #b4 ,having accomplished that arduous enterprise1 and settled the chosen tribes in the peaceable possession of their inheritance1 he retired to ,shechem1 or1 according to some ,greek copies1 to ,shiloh2 where he assembled the elders of ,israel1 the heads of families1 the judges and other officers2 and1 presenting themselves before ,god1 he recapitulated the conduct of ,divine ,providence toward them1 from the days of ,abraham to that moment2 recounted the miraculous and gracious dispensations of ,god toward their fathers and themselves2 reminded them of their present enviable lot1 and concluded his solemn address with an exhortation in these emphatic words3 8,now1 therefore1 fear the ,lord1 and serve him in sincerity and truth2 and put away the gods which your fathers served on the other side of the flood1 and in ,egypt2 and serve ye the ,lord10 ,joshua xxiv4 ,the book of ,joshua continues the sacred history from the period of the death of ,moses to that of the death of ,joshua and of ,eleazar2 a space of about thirty years4 ,it contains an account of the conquest and division of the land of ,canaan1 the renewal of the covenant with the ,israelites1 and the death of ,joshua4 ,there are two passages in this book which show that it was written by a person contemporary with the events it records4 ,in the first verse of the fifth chapter1 the author speaks of himself as being one of those who had passed into ,canaan3 8,and it came to pass when all the kings of the ,amorites1 which were on the side of ,jordan westward1 and all the kings of the ,canaanites1 which were by the sea1 heard that the ,lord had dried up the waters of ,jordan from before the children of ,israel1 until we were passed over1 that their heart melted40 ,and from the twenty-fifth verse of the following chapter1 it appears that the book was written before the death of ,rahab3 8,and ,joshua saved ,rahab the harlot alive1 and her father's household1 and all that she had2 and she dwelleth in ,israel even unto this day2 because she hid the messengers which ,joshua sent to spy out ,jericho40 ,though there is not a perfect agreement among the learned concerning the author of this book1 yet by far the most general opinion is1 that it was written by ,joshua himself2 and1 indeed1 in the last chapter it is said that 8,joshua wrote these words in the book of the law of ,god20 which expression seems to imply that he subjoined this history to that written by ,moses4 ,the last five verses1 giving an account of the death of ,joshua1 were added by one of his successors2 probably by ,eleazar1 ,phinehas1 or ,samuel4 ,,josiah1 king of ,judah1 deserves particular mention on account of his wisdom and piety1 and some memorable events that occurred in the course of his reign4 ,he succeeded to the throne1 upon the assassination of his father ,amon1 at the age of eight years1 ,b4 ,c4 #fdj2 and at a period when idolatry and wickedness1 encouraged by his father's profligate example1 very generally prevailed4 ,josiah1 who manifested the influence of pious and virtuous principles at a very early age1 began1 in his sixteenth year1 to project the reformation of the kingdom1 and to adopt means for restoring the worship of the true ,god4 ,at the age of twenty years he vigorously pursued the execution of the plans which he had meditated4 ,he began with abolishing idolatry1 first at ,jerusalem1 and then through different parts of the kingdom2 destroying the altars which had been erected1 and the idols which had been the objects of veneration and worship4 ,he then proceeded1 in his twenty-sixth year1 to a complete restoration of the worship of ,god1 and the regular service of the temple4 ,while he was prosecuting this pious work1 and repairing the temple1 which had been long neglected1 and which had sunk into a state of dilapidation1 the book of the law1 which had been concealed in the temple1 was happily discovered4 ,this was1 probably1 a copy of the the ,pentateuch1 which had been lodged there for security by some pious priest in the reign of ,ahaz or ,manasseh4 ,josiah1 desirous of averting from himself and the kingdom threatened judgments1 determined to adhere to the directions of the law1 in the business of reformation which he had undertaken2 and to observe the festivals enjoined by ,moses1 which had been shamefully neglected4 ,with this view he assembled all the elders of the people in the temple at ,jerusalem2 and1 having ascended the throne1 read the book of the ,mosaic law1 and then entered into a solemn covenant to observe the statutes and ordinances which it enjoined4 ,to this covenant the whole assembly testified their consent4 ,the ark was restored to its proper place2 the temple was purified2 idolatrous utensils were removed1 and those appropriate to the worship of ,god substituted in their room4 ,after these preparations1 the passover was observed with singular zeal and magnificence4 ,this took place in the eighteenth year of ,josiah's reign3 but1 in pursuing his laudable plans of reformation1 he was resisted by the inveterate habits of the ,israelites2 so that his zealous and persevering efforts were ineffectual4 ,their degeneracy was so invincible1 that the almighty ,sovereign was provoked to inflict upon them those calamities which were denounced by the ,prophet ,zephaniah4 ,in the thirty-second year of ,josiah's reign1 ,pharaoh-,necho1 king of ,egypt1 advanced with his army against ,carchemish1 a city situated on the river ,euphrates4 ,he was opposed by the king of ,judah2 so that a bloody battle ensued at ,megiddo1 in which ,josiah received a mortal wound1 which terminated in his death1 after he had been conveyed to ,jerusalem1 in the thirty-ninth year of his reign1 ,b4,c4 #fji4 ,his death was greatly lamented by all his subjects2 and an elegy was written on the occasion by the ,prophet ,jeremiah1 which is not now extant1 #b ,kings xxii1 xxiii2 #b ,chronicles xxxiv1 xxxv4 ,,jubal1 a son of ,lamech1 the inventor of musical instruments1 ,gen4 iv1 #ba4 ,,jubilee1 among the ,jews1 denotes every fiftieth year2 being that following the revolution of seven weeks of years2 at which time all the slaves were made free1 and all lands reverted to their ancient owners4 ,the jubilees were not regarded after the ,babylonish captivity4 ,the political design of the law of the jubilee was to prevent the too great oppression of the poor1 as well as their being liable to perpetual slavery4 ,by this means the rich were prevented from accumulating lands for perpetuity1 and a kind of equality was preserved through all the families of ,israel4 ,the distinction of tribes was also preserved1 in respect both to their families and possessions2 that they might be able1 when there was occasion1 on the jubilee year1 to prove their right to the inheritance of their ancestors4 ,thus1 also1 it would be known with certainty of what tribe or family the ,messiah sprung4 ,it served1 also1 like the ,olympiads of the ,greeks1 and the ,lustra of the ,romans1 for the readier computation of time4 ,the jubilee has also been supposed to be typical of the ,gospel state and dispensation1 described by ,isaiah lxi1 #a1 #b1 in reference to this period1 as 8the acceptable year of the ,lord40 ,the word jubilee1 in a more modern sense1 denotes a grand church solemnity or ceremony celebrated at ,rome1 in which the pope grants a plenary indulgence to all sinners2 at least1 to as many as visit the churches of ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul at ,rome4 ,the jubilee was first established by ,boniface ,,vii41 in #acjj1 which was only to return every hundred years2 but the first celebration brought in such store of wealth1 that ,clement ,,vi41 in #acdc1 reduced it to the period of fifty years4 ,urban ,,vi41 in #achi1 appointed it to be held every thirty-five years1 that being the age of our ,saviour2 and ,paul ,,ii4 and ,sixtus ,,iv41 in #adge1 brought it down to every twenty-five1 that every person might have the benefit of it once in his life4 ,boniface ,,ix4 granted the privilege of holding jubilees to several princes and monasteries2 for instance1 to the monks of ,canterbury1 who had a jubilee every fifty years2 when people flocked from all parts to visit the tomb of ,thomas-a-,becket4 ,afterward1 jubilees became more frequent3 there is generally one at the inauguration of a new pope2 and he grants them as often as the church or himself have occasion for them4 ,to be entitled to the privileges of the jubilee1 the bull enjoins fasting1 alms1 and prayers4 ,it gives the priests a full power to absolve in all cases even those otherwise reserved to the pope2 to make commutations of vows1 c2 in which it differs from a plenary indulgence4 ,during the time of jubilee1 all other indulgences are suspended4 ,,judah1 the son of ,jacob and ,leah1 who was born in ,mesopotamia1 ,genesis xxix1 #ce4 ,it was he who advised his brethren to sell ,joseph to the ,ishmaelite merchants1 rather than stain their hands with his blood1 ,gen4 xxxvii1 #bf4 ,there is little said of his life1 and the little that is recorded does not raise him high in our estimation4 ,in the last prophetic blessing pronounced on him by his father ,jacob1 ,gen4 xlix1 #h1 #i1 there is a promise of the regal power2 and that it should not depart from his family before the coming of the ,messiah4 ,the whole southern part of ,palestine fell to ,judah's lot2 but the tribes of ,simeon and ,dan possessed many cities which at first were given to ,judah4 ,this tribe was so numerous1 that at the departure out of ,egypt it contained seventy-four thousand six hundred men capable of bearing arms1 ,num4 i1 #bf1 #bg4 ,the crown passed from the tribe of ,benjamin1 of which ,saul and his sons were1 to that of ,judah1 which was ,david's tribe1 and the tribe of the kings1 his successors1 until the ,babylonish captivity4 ,,judaism1 the religious doctrines and rites of the ,jews1 the descendants of ,abraham4 ,with ,abraham ,judaism may be said1 in some sense1 to have begun2 but it was not till the promulgation of the law upon ,mount ,sinai1 that the ,jewish economy was established1 and that to his posterity was committed a dispensation which was to distinguish them ever after from every other people on earth4 ,the ,mosaic dispensation consisted of three parts2 the religious faith and worship of the ,jews1 their civil polity1 and precepts for the regulation of their moral conduct4 ,their civil government1 as well as their sacred polity1 was of divine institution2 and1 on all important occasions1 their public affairs were conducted by the ,deity himself1 or by persons bearing his commission4 ,the laws of the ,jews1 religious and moral1 civil1 political1 and ritual1 that is1 a complete system of pure ,judaism1 are contained in the books of the ,old ,testament1 and chiefly in the five books of ,moses4 ,see ,,government ,,of ,,the ,,hebrews4 ,the religion of the ancestors of the ,jews1 before the time of ,moses1 consisted in the worship of the one living and true ,god1 under whose immediate direction they were2 in the hope of a ,redeemer2 in a firm reliance on his promises under all difficulties and dangers2 and in a thankful acknowledgment for all his blessings and deliverances4 ,in that early age1 we read of altars1 pillars1 and monuments raised1 and sacrifices offered to ,god4 ,they used circumcision as a seal of the covenant which ,god had made with ,abraham4 ,as to the mode and circumstances of divine worship1 they were much at liberty till the time of ,moses2 but that legislator1 by the direction and appointment of ,god himself1 prescribed an instituted form of religion1 and regulated ceremonies1 feasts1 days1 priests1 and sacrifices1 with the utmost exactness4 ,the rites and observances of their religion under the law were numerous1 and its sanctions severe4 ,notwithstanding ,god's prophets1 and oracles1 and ordinances1 and the symbol of his presence1 were among them1 the ,jews were ever very prone to idolatry1 till the ,babylonish furnace served to purify them from that corruption4 ,after their seventy years' captivity1 many among them gave too much place to the ,greek idolatries1 but as a nation they were never again guilty of the crime4 ,their religious worship and character in our ,saviour's time had become formal and superstitious2 and such it still continues to be1 in a greater or less degree1 at the present day4 ,ancient ,judaism1 compared with all religions except the ,christian1 was distinguished for its superior purity and spirituality2 and the whole ,mosaic ritual was of a typical nature4 ,see ,,jews4 ,,judaizing ,,christians4 ,concerning the divine origin of the religion of ,moses1 there was among the ,jews no diversity of sentiment1 and they not unnaturally drew the conclusion1 that1 as it had proceeded from ,god1 it must be of perpetual obligation4 ,they were indeed fully aware1 that another communication from heaven was to be made to mankind1 and that this was to be announced by a messenger more distinguished than even the lawgiver whom they revered2 but they had satisfied themselves1 that the great design of the ,messiah's mission would be to rescue them from the oppression of a foreign yoke1 and to lay in ,jerusalem the foundation of universal empire4 ,for accomplishing these purposes1 it was requisite that their ,messiah should be invested with temporal power2 and in this idea1 which so many circumstances in their history tended to endear to them1 they were confirmed by those passages in the books of their prophets which described him as destined to sit on the throne of ,david1 to sway a righteous sceptre1 and to establish an everlasting kingdom4 ,when1 accordingly1 ,christ appeared in the humblest condition of life1 and when1 after the commencement of his ministry1 he declared1 that the hopes of empire which his countrymen had long cherished were fallacious1 the predictions on which they had been rested suggesting1 when combined with other predictions1 a very different view of the designs of the ,almighty1 they were filled with indignation1 and the greater part of them1 although they saw the miracles which ,jesus wrought1 and heard those appeals to their own ,scriptures which1 however eager to do so1 they found themselves unable to confute1 rejected his pretensions on account of the meanness of his situation1 and reprobated him as a deceiver of the people4 ,there was1 however1 a considerable number who could not adopt this conclusion1 and who1 satisfied that the mighty works which he performed fully established the reality of the divine commission to which he laid claim1 relinquished their prejudices respecting a temporal sovereignty1 and embraced his doctrine as the revealed will of ,god4 ,but1 notwithstanding this1 they do not seem to have formed the most distant conception that there was any thing in that doctrine to set aside the system which had been transmitted to them by their fathers4 ,they regarded the two dispensations as forming one whole2 and believed that the rites which had distinguished from the rest of mankind those who belonged to the commonwealth of ,israel1 would in the same manner mark the disciples of the ,messiah's kingdom4 ,agreeably to this1 as they conceived1 they saw that ,jesus conformed to their ceremonial institutions1 he frequented the temple1 he purified it from abuses by which it had been profaned1 and they interpreted1 in the sense most in harmony with their favourite notions1 the declaration which he had publicly made1 that he came not to destroy the law but to fulfil it4 ,even the apostles who had constantly attended him1 who had listened not merely to his public discourses1 but to the interpretation of them1 which1 in tender condescension to their weakness1 he often in private gave1 were so thoroughly established in this opinion that it required a peculiar revelation to be made to him before ,peter would open the kingdom of ,god to a ,gentile4 ,it cannot1 therefore1 be matter of surprise that the sentiment prevailed among the whole of the ,jews who had been converted to ,christianity2 or that even after it was opposed by the declaration of the ,apostles as individuals1 and by their solemn determination1 when assembled to decide with respect to it1 that the law was not binding upon ,gentile converts1 they should still have adhered to it1 when from not having a written record of faith they might have imagined1 either that the representation of the apostolic decision was erroneous1 or that the sanction which it gave to their own adherence to their ceremonies virtually confirmed the doctrine which they felt such aversion to relinquish4 ,they accordingly displayed much zeal in support of the ,mosaical economy1 represented the strict observance of what it required as essential for justification1 and looked with a kind of abhorrence upon that large proportion of believers who paid to this no respect1 and who even did not hesitate to condemn it as subversive of the fundamental principle of the ,gospel dispensation4 ,a great part of the epistles of ,st4 ,paul is directed against the ,judaizing teachers who inculcated the original tenet of their brethren4 ,the ,apostle earnestly presses upon the churches1 that by the works of the law we cannot be justified1 that circumcision is of no avail1 that by grace we are saved1 and that ,christ hath redeemed us by his blood4 ,he1 indeed1 uniformly represents the idea which he opposed as inconsistent with ,christianity1 as an idea which could not be held without detracting from what our ,saviour has done to accomplish our redemption4 ,what effect his writings produced upon the ,jewish believers1 cannot be accurately ascertained2 but it is quite certain that a very large proportion of them adhered to their ritual observances either as national1 or as instrumental in obtaining the divine favour2 and this survived the destruction of the temple and of ,jerusalem1--events which might have been expected to convince every one of the temporary nature of the ,mosaical economy4 ,but after ,adrian1 by again directing the ,roman arms against the ,jews1 blasted the hopes which had been fondly cherished1 that their city would be rebuilt1 and their temple opened with greater splendour than before1 a vast number of them1 either from being convinced by what they had seen1 or from their eagerness to gain admission into the city which the emperor had erected1 but from which he had ordered that all who persisted in ,judaism should be excluded1 for the first time embraced the religion of ,christ2 and many1 who had previously done so1 abandoning the ,jewish ritual1 acquiesced fully in the representation of the faith given by ,st4 ,paul1 choosing as their bishop a ,gentile convert4 ,there were1 however1 not a few who remained steadfast in their principles1 who were now consequently separated from the great body of their believing countrymen1 and who retained the appellation of ,nazarenes1 which had probably been given to the whole of the ,jewish ,christians4 ,this remnant soon split into two parties4 ,the one party1 although they held that the law of ,moses was obligatory upon the descendants of the house of ,israel1 did not extend it to those who had never been of the family of ,abraham2 they revered ,jesus as being more than man1 and in fact approached so near to the prevailing sentiments of the church1 that1 notwithstanding their peculiar sentiments in relation to the ,mosaical law1 they were not ranked by the earliest writers among heretics4 ,the other party1 who were called ,ebionites1 either from ,ebion1 the name1 it is alleged1 of their leader1 from their poverty1 or from the low notions which they entertained of ,christ1 for all these reasons have been specified1 showing sufficiently that the matter is really uncertain1--maintained the original tenet that their law was binding upon all men1 and that without observing what it required it was impossible to be justified4 ,as this was in direct opposition to the declarations of ,st4 ,paul1 instead of submitting to apostolic authority they set it at defiance1 rejecting his epistles1 and branding him as an enemy to the truth4 ,they disregarded even the ,gospels which were received by the generality of ,christians1 and used a gospel of their own which they had so modelled as to support the tenets to which they were attached4 ,one of these tenets1 one which1 indeed1 naturally followed from their conceptions of the ,gospel dispensation1 was1 that its author was merely a man raised solely by the commission with which he had been honoured above the rest of his fellow creatures4 ,,judas ,,iscariot1 or1 as he is usually called1 the traitor1 and betrayer of our ,lord4 8,the treachery of ,judas ,iscariot10 says ,dr4 ,hales1 8his remorse1 and suicide1 are occurrences altogether so strange and extraordinary1 that the motives by which he was actuated require to be developed1 as far as may be done1 where the evangelists are1 in a great measure1 silent concerning them1 from the circumstances of the history itself1 and from the feelings of human nature4 ,judas1 the leading trait in whose character was covetousness1 was probably induced to follow ,jesus at first with a view to the riches1 honours1 and other temporal advantages1 which he1 in common with the rest1 expected the ,messiah's friends would enjoy4 ,the astonishing miracles he saw him perform left no room to doubt of the reality of his ,master's pretensions1 who had1 indeed1 himself in private actually accepted the title from his ,apostles2 and ,judas must have been much disappointed when ,jesus repeatedly refused the proffered royalty from the people in ,galilee1 after the miracle of feeding the five thousand1 and again after his public procession to ,jerusalem4 ,he might naturally have grown impatient under the delay1 and dissatisfied also with ,jesus for openly discouraging all ambitious views among his disciples2 and1 therefore1 he might have devised the scheme of delivering him up to the sanhedrim1 or great council of the nation1 7composed of the chief priests1 scribes1 and elders17 in order to compel him to avow himself openly as the ,messiah before them2 and to work such miracles1 or to give them the sign which they so often required1 as would convince and induce them to elect him in due form1 and by that means enable him to reward his followers4 ,even the rebukes of ,jesus for his covetousness1 and the detection of his treacherous scheme1 although they unquestionably offended ,judas1 might only serve to stimulate him to the speedier execution of his plot1 during the feast of the passover1 while the great concourse of the ,jews1 from all parts assembled1 might powerfully support the sanhedrim and their ,messiah against the ,romans4 ,the success of this measure1 though against his ,master's will1 would be likely to procure him pardon1 and even to recommend him to favour afterward4 ,such might have been the plausible suggestions by which ,satan tempted him to the commission of this crime4 ,but when ,judas1 who attended the whole trial1 saw that it turned out quite contrary to his expectations1 that ,jesus was capitally convicted by the council1 as a false ,christ and false prophet1 notwithstanding he had openly avowed himself2 and that he wrought no miracle1 either for their conviction or for his own deliverance1 as ,judas well knew he could1 even from the circumstance of healing ,malchus1 after he was apprehended2 when he farther reflected1 like ,peter1 on his ,master's merciful forewarnings of his treachery1 and mild and gentle rebuke at the commission of it2 he was seized with remorse1 and offered to return the paltry bribe of thirty pieces of silver to the chief priests and elders instantly on the spot1 saying1 #8,i sinned in delivering up innocent blood2' and expected that on this they would have desisted from the prosecution4 ,but they were obstinate1 and not only would not relent1 but threw the whole load of guilt upon him1 refusing to take their own share2 for they said1 #8,what is that to us8 see thou to that2' thus1 according to the aphorism1 loving the treason1 but hating the traitor1 after he had served their wicked turn4 ,stung to the quick at their refusal to take back the money1 while they condemned himself1 he went to the temple1 cast down the whole sum in the treasury1 or place for receiving the offerings of the people2 and1 after he had thus returned the wages of iniquity1 he retired to some lonely place1 not far1 perhaps1 from the scene of ,peter's repentance2 and1 in the frenzy of despair1 and at the instigation of the devil1 hanged himself2 crowning with suicide the murder of his ,master and his friend2 rejecting his compassionate ,saviour1 and plunging his own soul into perdition6 ,in another place it is said that1 #8falling headlong1 he burst asunder1 and all his bowels gushed out1' ,acts i1 #ah4 ,both these accounts might be true3 he might first have hanged himself from some tree on the edge of a precipice2 and1 the rope or branch breaking1 he might be dashed to pieces by the fall40 ,the above view of the case of ,judas endeavours ingeniously to account for his conduct by supposing him influenced by the motive of compelling our ,lord to declare himself1 and assume the ,messiahship in its earthly glory4 ,it will1 however1 be recollected1 that the only key which the evangelic narrative affords1 is1 ,judas's covetousness2 which passion was1 in him1 a growing one4 ,it was this which destroyed whatever of honest intention he might at first have in following ,jesus2 and when fully under its influence he would be blinded by it to all but the glittering object of the reward of iniquity4 ,in such a mind there could be no true faith1 and no love2 what wonder1 then1 when avarice was in him a ruling and unrestrained passion1 that he should betray his ,lord8 ,still it may be admitted that the knowledge which ,judas had of our ,lord's miraculous power1 might lead him the more readily to put him into the hands of the chief priests4 ,he might suppose that he would deliver himself out of their hands2 and thus ,judas attempted to play a double villany1 against ,christ and against his employers4 ,,jude1 ,,epistle ,,of1 a canonical book of the ,new ,testament1 written against the heretics1 who1 by their impious doctrines and disorderly lives1 corrupted the faith and good morals of ,christians4 ,the author of this epistle1 called ,judas1 and also ,thaddeus and ,lebbeus1 was one of the twelve ,apostles2 he was the son of ,alpheus1 brother of ,james the less1 and one of those who were called our ,lord's brethren4 ,we are not informed when1 or how1 he was called to be an ,apostle2 but it has been conjectured1 that1 before his vocation to the ,apostleship1 he was a husbandman1 that he was married1 and that he had children4 ,the only account we have of him in particular1 is that which occurs in ,john xiv1 #ba-bc4 ,it is not unreasonable to suppose that1 after having received1 in common with other ,apostles1 extraordinary gifts at the pentecost1 he preached the ,gospel for some time in several parts of the land of ,israel1 and wrought miracles in the name of ,christ4 ,and1 as his life seems to have been prolonged1 it is probable that he afterward left ,judea1 and went abroad preaching the ,gospel to ,jews and ,gentiles in other countries4 ,some have said that he preached in ,arabia1 ,syria1 ,mesopotamia1 and ,persia2 and that he suffered martyrdom in the last mentioned country4 ,but we have no account of his travels upon which we can rely2 and it may be questioned whether he was a martyr4 ,in the early ages of ,christianity1 several rejected the ,epistle of ,st4 ,jude1 because the apocryphal books of ,enoch1 and the ascension of ,moses1 are quoted in it4 ,nevertheless1 it is to be found in all the ancient catalogues of the sacred writings2 and ,clement1 of ,alexandria1 ,tertullian1 and ,origen quote it as written by ,jude1 and reckon it among the books of sacred ,scripture4 ,in the time of ,eusebius it was generally received4 ,as to the objections that have been urged against its authority1 ,dr4 ,lardner suggests1 that there is no necessity for supposing that ,st4 ,jude quoted a book called ,enoch1 or ,enoch's prophecies2 and even allowing that he did quote it1 he gives it no authority2 it was no canonical book of the ,jews2 and if such a book existed among the ,jews1 it was apocryphal1 and yet there might be in it some right things4 ,instead of referring to a book called the 8,assumption or ,ascension of ,christ10 which probably was a forgery much later than his time1 it is much more credible that ,st4 ,jude refers to the vision in ,zech4 iii1 #a-c4 ,it has been the opinion of several writers1 and1 among others1 of ,hammond and ,benson1 that ,st4 ,jude addressed his epistle to the ,jewish ,christians2 but ,dr4 ,lardner infers1 from the words of the inscription of the epistle1 verses #a1 #c1 that it was designed for the use of all in general who had embraced the ,christian religion4 ,the last mentioned author supposes that this epistle was written ,a4 ,d4 #fd1 #fe1 or #ff4 ,,judea1 a district of ,asia ,minor1 which is described both by ancient and modern geographers under a great variety of names1 and with great diversity of extent4 ,in the most extensive application of the name1 it comprehends the whole country possessed by the ,jews1 or people of ,israel2 and included1 therefore1 very different portions of territory at different periods of their history4 ,upon the conquest of the country by ,joshua1 it was divided into twelve portions1 according to the number of the tribes of ,israel2 and a general view of their respective allotments 7though the intermediate boundaries cannot be very precisely ascertained7 may convey some idea of its extent at that period4 ,the portion of the tribe of ,judah comprised all the country between ,edom1 or ,idumea1 on the south1 the ,mediterranean on the west1 the ,salt ,sea on the east1 and an imaginary line on the north1 from the northern extremity of the ,salt ,sea to the ,mediterranean4 ,the portion of ,simeon was included within that of ,judah1 and formed the south-west corner of the country2 comprehending the towns of ,bersaba1 ,gerar1 ,rapha1 ,gaza1 ,ascalon1 and ,azotus4 ,the portion of ,benjamin was situated to the north of ,judah1 near the centre of the kingdom1 bounded on the east by the river ,jordan1 and containing part of ,jerusalem1 ,jericho1 ,bethel1 ,rama1 c4 ,the portion of ,dan lay to the north-west of ,judah1 between that of ,benjamin and the ,mediterranean1 reaching as far north as the latter1 and containing ,accaron and ,jamnia4 ,the portion of ,ephraim stretched along the northern limits of ,dan and ,benjamin1 between the river ,jordan on the east1 and the ,mediterranean sea on the west2 containing ,sichem1 ,joppa1 ,lydda1 ,gazara1 c4 ,the portion of the half tribe of ,manasseh was situated north of ,ephraim1 between the river ,jordan and the ,mediterranean1 reaching as far north as ,dora1 at the foot of ,mount ,carmel4 ,the portion of ,issachar stretched northward from ,manasseh1 and westward from ,jordan1 as far as ,mount ,tabor4 ,the portion of ,asher comprehended the maritime tract between ,mount ,carmel1 as far as ,sidon4 ,the portion of ,zebulon1 bounded by ,asher on the west1 and ,mount ,tabor on the south1 joined on the east the portion of ,naphtali1 which occupied the borders of the lake ,gennesareth1 or sea of ,tiberias4 ,the portion of ,reuben lay to the eastward of the river ,jordan1 bounded on the south by the torrent of ,arnon1 and on the north by the river ,jabok4 ,the portion of ,gad1 also on the east of the ,jordan1 stretched from the ,jabok toward the north1 where it was bounded by the other half tribe of ,manasseh1 which occupied the country east of the lake ,gennesareth1 to the northern limits of the country4 ,the whole of this extent between ,clo-,syria on the north1 and ,arabia ,petra on the south1 the ,mediterranean on the west1 and ,arabia ,deserta on the east1 may be considered as situated between #ca #aj and #cc #ae of north latitude1 about a hundred and forty miles in length1 and nearly a hundred in breadth4 ,reckoning from ,dan to ,beersheba1 which are often mentioned in sacred ,scripture as including the more settled and permanent possessions of the ,israelites1 its length would not exceed a hundred and twenty miles4 ,but1 if estimated from its boundaries in the reigns of ,david and ,solomon1 and several succeeding princes1 its extent must be enlarged more than threefold2 including both the land of ,palestine1 or of the ,philistines1 on the south1 and the country of ,phenice on the north1 with part of ,syria to the north-east4 ,all this extent was originally comprehended in the land of promise1 ,genesis xv1 #ah2 ,deut4 xi1 #bd2 and was actually possessed by ,david and ,solomon1 #a ,kings ix1 #bj2 #b ,chron4 viii1 #g4 ,it is described in numerous passages of the sacred writings1 as all comprised in the ,holy ,land1 from ,hamath on the north1 to the river of ,egypt on the south2 and from the ,great or ,mediterranean ,sea on the west1 to the deserts of ,arabia on the east2 a tract of country at least four hundred and sixty miles in length1 and more than a hundred in breadth1 ,joshua xv1 #b1 c2 xix1 #bd1 c2 #a ,chron4 xiii1 #e2 #b ,chron4 vii1 #h2 ,ezekiel xlvii1 #af1 #bj2 ,amos vi1 #ad4 ,after the death of ,solomon1 when the kingdom of the ,hebrews had attained its greatest extent1 it was divided1 in consequence of a revolt of ten tribes1 into two distinct sovereignties1 named ,israel and ,judah2 the former of which had its seat of government in ,samaria1 and the latter in ,jerusalem4 ,the territories of both were gradually curtailed and laid waste by the revolt of tributary princes1 and the incursions of powerful neighbours2 and both were at length completely overthrown2 that of ,israel1 by the king of ,assyria1 about ,b4 ,c4 #gbj2 and that of ,judah1 by ,nebuchadnezzar1 about a hundred and fourteen years later4 ,after a captivity of seventy years1 the ,jews1 who had been the subjects of ,judah1 having received permission from ,cyrus to return to their native country1 not only occupied the former territories of that kingdom1 but extended themselves over great part of what had belonged to the ten tribes of the kingdom of ,israel2 and then1 for the first time1 gave the name of ,judea to the whole country over which they had again established their dominion4 ,the same name was given to that kingdom as possessed by ,herod the ,great under the ,romans2 but1 in the enumeration of the provinces of the empire1 it was recognised only by the name of ,palestine4 ,all traces of its ancient division among the twelve tribes were now abolished1 and it was distributed into four provinces2 namely1 ,judea ,proper in the south1 ,galilee in the north1 ,samaria in the centre1 and ,pera on the east of the river ,jordan4 ,judea ,proper1 situated in #ca #dj north latitude1 was bounded on the north by ,samaria1 on the west by the ,mediterranean1 on the east by the river ,jordan1 on the south by ,arabia ,petra2 and comprised the ancient settlements of ,judah1 ,benjamin1 ,dan1 and ,simeon1 with ,philistia and ,idumea4 ,it is divided by ,josephus into eleven toparchies1 and by ,pliny into ten2 but these subdivisions are little noticed by ancient writers1 and their boundaries are very imperfectly ascertained4 ,the principal places in the north-east quarter of the province were ,jerusalem1 the capital1 which was entirely destroyed in the reign of ,hadrian1 and replaced by a new city named lia1 a little farther north1 which is now the site of the modern ,jerusalem2 ,jericho1 the city of palm trees1 about nineteen miles eastward of ,jerusalem1 and eight from the river ,jordan2 ,phaselis1 built by ,herod in memory of his brother1 fifteen miles north-west of ,jericho2 ,archelais1 built by ,archelaus1 ten miles north of ,jericho2 ,gophna1 fifteen miles north of ,jerusalem1 in the road to ,sichem2 ,bethel1 twelve miles north of ,jerusalem1 originally called ,luz2 ,gilgal1 about one mile and a half from ,jericho2 ,engeddi1 a hundred furlongs south south-east of ,jericho1 near the northern extremity of the ,dead ,sea2 ,masada1 a strong fortress built by ,judas ,maccabeus1 the last refuge of the ,jews after the fall of ,jerusalem2 ,ephraim1 a small town westward of ,jericho2 ,anathoth1 a ,levitical town1 nearly four miles north of ,jerusalem4 ,in the south-east quarter of the province were situated ,bethlehem1 or ,ephrath1 about six miles south from the capital2 ,bethzur1 now ,st4 ,philip1 a strong place on the road to ,hebron1 ten miles south of ,jerusalem2 ,ziph1 a small town between ,hebron and the ,dead ,sea2 ,zoar1 at the southern extremity of the ,dead ,sea1 near the situation of ,sodom2 ,hebron1 formerly ,kirjath-arba1 a very ancient town in a hilly country1 twenty-five miles south of the capital2 ,arad1 about twenty-four miles southward from ,hebron1 and near the ,ascensus ,avrabim1 or ,scorpion ,mountains1 on the border of ,arabia ,petra2 and ,thamar1 on the southern limit of the province1 near the south extremity of the ,dead ,sea4 ,in the north-west quarter were ,bethshemesh1 or ,heliopolis1 a ,levitical city1 about ten miles west of the capital2 ,rama1 six miles north from ,jerusalem2 ,emmaus1 a village eight miles north north-west from ,jerusalem1 afterward called ,nicopolis1 in consequence of a victory gained by ,vespasian over the revolted ,jews2 ,bethoron1 a populous ,levitical city on the road to ,lydda1 a few miles north-west of ,emmaus2 ,kirjath-jearim1 on the road to ,joppa1 nine miles westward from the capital2 ,lydda1 now ,lod1 and called by the ,greeks ,diospolis1 about twelve miles east of ,joppa2 ,ramla1 supposed to be the same as ,arimathea1 about five miles south-west of ,lydda2 ,joppa1 a maritime town1 now ,jaffa1 about twelve leagues north-west of ,jerusalem2 ,jabne1 a walled sea-port town between ,joppa and ,azotus2 and ,ekron1 a town on the north boundary of the ,philistines4 ,in the south-west quarter of ,judea were ,gath1 about twenty miles west from ,jerusalem1 near to which were the city of ,eleutheropolis1 a flourishing place in the second century2 ,makkedah1 a strong place1 eight miles north-east from ,eleutheropolis2 ,bersabe1 or ,beersheba1 about twenty-six miles south from ,eleutheropolis2 ,gerar1 between ,beersheba and the sea coast2 ,azotus1 or ,ashdod1 to the west of ,eleutheropolis1 within a few miles of the sea1 and the seat of a bishop in the first ages of the ,christian church2 ,ascalon1 a considerable maritime town1 above forty-three miles south-west of ,jerusalem2 ,gaza1 fifteen miles southward from ,ascalon2 and ,raphia1 between ,gaza and ,rhinocurura1 remarkable for a great battle in its neighbourhood1 in which ,philopater1 king of ,egypt1 defeated ,antiochus1 king of ,syria4 ,samaria1 lying between ,judea and ,galilee1 in #cb #ae north latitude1 extended along the sea coast from ,joppa to ,dora1 and along the river ,jordan from the rivulet of ,alexandrium to the southern extremity of the sea of ,tiberias2 comprehending the territory of the tribe of ,ephraim1 of the half tribe of ,manasseh1 and part of ,issachar4 ,its principal cities were ,samaria1 the capital of the kingdom of ,israel1 north of ,sichem1 and equally distant from ,jordan and the sea coast1 afterward named ,sebaste by ,herod1 in honour of ,augustus2 ,jezrael1 or ,esdraelon1 about four leagues north from ,samaria2 ,sichem1 or ,sychar1 called by the ,romans ,neapolis1 eight miles south of ,samaria1 in a valley between the mountains ,gerizim and ,ebal2 ,bethsan1 called by the ,greek writers ,scythopolis1 about twenty miles north-east of ,sichem2 ,csarea of ,palestine1 anciently called ,turris ,stratonis1 greatly enlarged by ,herod1 and long the principal city of the province1 about nineteen leagues north north-west from ,jerusalem2 ,dora1 now ,tartura1 nine miles north from ,csarea1 on the road to ,tyre2 ,apollonia1 now ,arzuf1 on the sea coast1 twenty-two miles south of ,csarea2 and ,hadadrimmon1 afterward called ,maximianopolis1 about seventeen miles eastward of ,csarea4 ,galila1 in #cc north latitude1 bounded on the south by ,samaria1 on the west by the ,mediterranean1 on the north by ,syria1 on the east by the river ,jordan and the lake ,gennesareth1 comprehended the possessions of ,asher1 ,naphtali1 and ,zabulon1 with part of the allotment of ,issachar4 ,the northern division of the province was thinly inhabited by ,jews1 and was sometimes called ,galilee of the ,gentiles2 but the southern portion was very populous4 ,its principal towns were ,capernaum1 at the northern extremity of the lake of ,gennesareth2 ,bethsaida1 a considerable village a few leagues south of ,capernaum2 ,cinnereth1 south of ,bethsaida1 rebuilt by ,herod ,antipas1 and named ,tiberias2 ,taricha1 a considerable town at the efflux of the river ,jordan from the sea of ,tiberias1 thirty stadia south from the town of ,tiberias2 ,nazareth1 two leagues north-west of ,mount ,tabor1 and equally distant from the lake of ,gennesareth and the sea coast2 ,arbela1 six miles west of ,nazareth2 ,sepphoris1 or ,dio-,csarea1 now ,sefouri1 a large and well fortified town1 about five leagues north north-west of ,mount ,tabor2 ,zabulon1 a strong and populous place1 sixty stadia south-east of ,ptolemais2 ,acre1 or ,accon1 seven miles north from the promontory of ,carmel1 afterward enlarged and called ,ptolemais by ,ptolemy ,i41 of ,egypt1 and in the time of the crusades distinguished by the name of ,acre1 the last city possessed by the ,christians in ,syria1 and was taken and destroyed by the ,sultan ,serapha1 of ,egypt1 in #abia2 ,kedes1 or ,cydissus1 a ,levitical city at the foot of ,mount ,panium1 twenty miles south-east of ,tyre2 ,dan1 originally ,laish1 on the north boundary of the ,holy ,land1 about thirty miles south-east of ,sidon2 ,paneas1 near to ,dan1 or1 according to some1 only a different name for the same place1 was repaired by ,philip1 son of ,herod the ,great1 and by him named ,csarea1 in honour of ,augustus1 with the addition of ,philippi1 to distinguish it from the other town of the same name in ,samaria2 ,jotapata1 the strongest town in ,galilee1 about four leagues north north-east of ,dio-,csarea2 and ,japha and ,gischala1 two other fortified places in the same district4 ,pera1 though the name would denote any extent of country beyond ,jordan1 is more particularly applied to that district in #cb north latitude1 which formerly composed the territories of ,sihon1 the ,amorite1 and ,og1 king of ,bashan2 extending from the river ,arnon 7which flows through an extensive plain into the ,dead ,sea7 to the mount of ,gilead1 where the ,jordan issues from the sea of ,tiberias2 and which fell to the lot of the tribes of ,reuben and ,gad1 and the half tribe of ,manasseh4 ,this province was about sixty miles from north to south1 and forty from east to west4 ,the principal places were ,penuel1 on the left of the ,jabbok1 which forms the northern border of the country2 ,succoth1 on the banks of the ,jordan1 a little farther south2 ,bethabara1 a little below ,succoth1 where was a place of passage over the river2 ,amathus1 afterward named ,assalt1 a strong town below the influx of the torrent ,jazer2 ,livias1 between ,mount ,nebo and the northern extremity of the ,dead ,sea1 a town which was so named by ,herod1 in honour of ,livia1 the wife of ,augustus2 ,machrus1 a citadel on a steep rock1 south of ,livias1 near the upper end of the ,dead ,sea2 ,lasa1 or ,calle-rhoe1 celebrated for its hot springs1 between ,machrus and the river ,arnon2 ,herodium1 a fort built by ,herod a few miles farther inland1 as a protection against the ,moabites2 ,aroer1 a town of ,moab1 seven leagues east of the ,dead ,sea2 ,castra ,amonensia1 a ,roman station1 supposed to be the ancient ,mephoath1 seven leagues north-east of ,aroer2 ,hesbon1 or ,esbus1 the capital of ,sihon1 anciently famed for its fish pools1 seven leagues east from the ,jordan1 three from ,mount ,nebo1 and nearly in the centre of the province2 ,madaba1 now ,el-,belkaa1 three leagues south-east of ,hesbon2 ,jazer1 or ,tira1 a ,levitical city on a small lake1 five leagues north-east of ,hesbon4 ,to the south of ,pera lies a territory called ,moabites1 the capital of which was ,rabbath-,moab1 afterward named ,areopolis2 and to the south-west of which was ,charac-,moab1 or ,karak1 a fortress on the summit of a hill1 at the entrance of a deep valley4 ,to the north of ,pera were situated several districts1 which1 as forming part of the kingdom of ,judea under ,herod the ,great1 require to be briefly noticed in this account2 and which do properly come under the general name of ,pera1 as being situated on the eastward of the river ,jordan4 ,these were ,galaadites1 or ,gileadites1 in #cb #bj north latitude1 now ,zarca1 east from ,jordan1 and north from the ,jabbok2 containing the cities of ,ramoth-,gilead1 ,mahanaim1 ,jabesh-,gilead1 at the foot of ,mount ,gilead4 ,batana1 anciently ,basan1 now ,bitinia1 in #cb #be north latitude1 formerly celebrated for its oaks and pastures1 was situated to the north of ,galaadites1 and contained the cities of ,adrea1 or ,edrei1 ,astaroth1 and ,bathyra4 ,gaulonitis1 a narrow strip of land between ,batana and the shore of the sea of ,tiberias1 stretching northward to ,mount ,hermon1 and containing ,gamala1 a strong town near the southern extremity of the sea of ,tiberias2 ,argob1 between this sea and ,mount ,hippos2 ,julias1 supposed to be the same as ,chorazin1 and by others to be ,bethsaida2 and ,seleuca1 a fortified place on the east border of ,lacus ,samochonitis4 ,auranitis1 or ,itura1 a mountainous and barren tract north of ,batana1 and bounded on the west by a branch of ,mount ,hermon1 contained ,bostra1 or ,bozra1 about fifty miles east from the sea of ,tiberias1 bordering on ,arabia ,petra1 afterward enlarged by ,trajan1 and named ,trajana ,bostra2 and ,trachonitis1 in #cc #ae north latitude1 between ,hermon and ,antilibanus1 eastward from the sources of ,jordan1 and containing ,baalgad1 ,mispah1 ,paneas1 or ,csarea ,philippi1 and nos1 nearly twenty-five miles east of ,panas1 and as far south south-west of ,damascus4 ,there remains to be noticed the ,decapolis1 or confederation of ten cities in the last mentioned districts1 which having been occupied during the ,babylonish captivity by ,heathen inhabitants1 refused to adopt the ,mosaic ritual after the restoration of the ,jews1 and found it necessary to unite their strength against the enterprises of the ,asmonean princes4 ,one of them1 namely1 ,scythopolis1 already described in the account of ,samaria1 was situated to the west of ,jordan2 but the other nine were all to the east of that river1 namely1 ,gadara1 or ,kedar1 a strong place on a hill1 the capital of ,pera in the time of ,josephus1 about sixty stadia east from the sea of ,tiberias1 and much frequented for its hot baths3 ,hippos1 sometimes called ,susitha1 thirty stadia north-west of ,gadara2 ,dium1 or ,dion1 of which the situation is unknown1 but conjectured by ,d',anville to have been about seven leagues eastward from ,pella1 a considerable town supplied with copious fountains1 on the river ,jabbok1 fourteen miles south-east of ,gadara1 and celebrated as the place to which the ,christians retired1 by divine admonition1 before the destruction of ,jerusalem2 ,canatha1 south-east of ,csarea1 and between the ,jordan and ,mount ,hermon2 ,garasa1 afterward ,jaras1 three leagues north-east from the upper extremity of the sea of ,tiberias1 and much noted during the crusades2 ,rabbath-,ammon1 the capital of the ,ammonites1 south-east of ,ramoth1 and near the source of the ,jabbok1 on the confines of ,arabia1 afterward called ,philadelphia by ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 from whom it had received considerable improvements1 of which the ruins are still visible2 ,abila1 four leagues east from ,gadara1 in a fertile tract between the river ,hieromax and ,mount ,gilead2 and ,capitolais1 a town in ,batana1 five or six leagues east north-east of ,gadara4 ,,judea1 ,,wilderness ,,of1 a wild and desert country along the southern course of the river ,jordan1 east of ,jerusalem2 that which by ,st4 ,matthew is called the wilderness of ,judea1 being described by ,st4 ,luke as 8all the country about ,jordan20 from whence this wilderness extended southward along the western side of the ,dead ,sea4 ,this is a stony and desolate region1 of hopeless sterility1 and most savage aspect2 consisting almost entirely of disordered piles of rocks1 and rocky mountains4 ,this was the wilderness in which ,john first preached and baptized1 and into which our ,lord1 after his own baptism1 was led by the ,spirit to be tempted1 ,matthew iv2 ,luke iv4 ,here1 also1 the mountain was situated which formed the scene of one of the most striking parts of this temptation4 ,maundrell describes this region as a most miserable1 dry1 and barren place2 consisting of high rocky mountains1 so torn and disordered1 as if the earth had here suffered some great convulsion4 ,mr4 ,buckingham1 who visited the same part in #ahaf1 says1 8,as we proceeded to the northward1 we had on our left a lofty peak of the range of hills which border the plain of the ,jordan on the west1 and ended in this direction the mountains of ,judea4 ,this peak is considered to be that to which ,jesus was transported by the devil during his fast of forty days in the wilderness2 #8after which he was an hungered4' ,nothing can be more forbidding than the aspect of these hills2 not a blade of verdure is to be seen over all their surface1 and not the sound of any living being is to be heard throughout all their extent4 ,they form1 indeed1 a most appropriate scene for that wilderness in which the ,son of ,god is said to have dwelt with the wild beasts1 #8while the angels ministered unto him4'0 ,,judges is applied to certain eminent persons chosen by ,god himself to govern the ,jews from the time of ,joshua till the establishment of the kings4 ,for the nature and duration of their office1 and the powers with which they were invested1 see ,,jews4 ,the judges were not ordinary magistrates1 but were appointed by ,god on extraordinary occasions2 as to head the armies1 to deliver the people from their enemies1 c4 ,salian has observed1 that they not only presided in courts of justice1 but were also at the head of the councils1 the armies1 and of every thing that concerned the government of the state2 though they never assumed the title either of princes1 governors1 or the like4 ,salian remarks seven points wherein they differed from kings3 #a4 ,they were not hereditary4 #b4 ,they had no absolute power of life and death1 but only according to the laws1 and dependently upon them4 #c4 ,they never undertook war at their own pleasure1 but only when they were commanded by ,god1 or called to it by the people4 #d4 ,they exacted no tribute4 #e4 ,they did not succeed each other immediately1 but after the death of one there was frequently an interval of several years before a successor was appointed4 #f4 ,they did not use the ensigns of sovereignty1 the sceptre or diadem4 #g4 ,they had no authority to make any laws1 but were only to take care of the observance of those of ,moses4 ,godwin1 in his 8,moses and ,aaron10 compares them to the ,roman dictators1 who were appointed only on extraordinary emergencies1 as in case of war abroad1 or conspiracies at home1 and whose power1 while they continued in office1 was great1 and even absolute4 ,thus the ,hebrew judges seem to have been appointed only in cases of national trouble and danger4 ,this was the case particularly with respect to ,othniel1 ,ehud1 and ,gideon4 ,the power of the judges1 while in office1 was very great2 nor does it seem to have been limited to a certain time1 like that of the ,roman dictators1 which continued for half a year2 nevertheless1 it is reasonable to suppose1 that1 when they had performed the business for which they were appointed1 they retired to a private life4 ,this ,godwin infers from ,gideon's refusing to take upon him the perpetual government of ,israel1 as being inconsistent with the theocracy4 ,beside these superior judges1 every city in the commonwealth had its elders1 who formed a court of judicature1 with a power of determining lesser matters in their respective districts4 ,the rabbies say1 there were three such elders or judges in each lesser city1 and twenty-three in the greater4 ,but ,josephus1 whose authority has greater weight1 speaks of seven judges in each1 without any such distinction of greater and less4 ,sigonius supposes that these elders and judges of cities were the original constitution settled in the wilderness by ,moses1 upon the advice given him by ,jethro1 ,exod4 xviii1 #ba1 #bb1 and continued by divine appointment after the settlement in the land of ,canaan2 whereas others imagine that the ,jethronian prefectures were a peculiar constitution1 suited to their condition while encamped in the wilderness1 but laid aside after they came into ,canaan4 ,it is certain1 however1 that there was a court of judges and officers1 appointed in every city1 by the law of ,moses1 ,deut4 xvi1 #ah4 ,how far1 and in what respects1 these judges differed from the elders of the city1 it is not easy to ascertain2 and whether they were the same or different persons4 ,perhaps the title elders may denote their seniority and dignity2 and that of judges1 the office they sustained4 ,the lower courts of justice1 in their several cities1 were held in their gates1 ,deut4 xvi1 #ae4 ,each tribe had its respective prince1 whose office related chiefly1 if not altogether1 to military affairs4 ,we read also of the princes of the congregation1 who presided in judiciary matters4 ,these are called elders1 and were seventy in number1 ,num4 xi1 #af1 #ag1 #bd1 #be4 ,but it does not appear whether or not this consistory of seventy elders was a perpetual1 or only a temporary1 institution4 ,some have supposed that it was the same that afterward became famous under the appellation of sanhedrim2 but others conceive the institution of the seventy elders to have been only temporary1 for the assistance of ,moses in the government1 before the settlement in the land of ,canaan2 and that the sanhedrim was first set up in the time of the ,maccabees4 ,see ,,sanhedrim4 ,,judges1 ,,book ,,of1 a canonical book of the ,old ,testament1 containing the history of the ,israelitish judges1 of whom we have been speaking in the preceding article4 ,the author is not known4 ,it is probable the work did not come from any single hand1 being rather a collection of several little histories1 which at first were separate1 but were afterward collected by ,ezra or ,samuel into a single volume2 and1 in all likelihood1 were taken from the ancient journals1 annals1 or memoirs1 composed by the several judges4 ,the antiquity of this book is unquestionable1 as it must have been written before the time of ,david1 since the description1 ,judges i1 #ba1 was no longer true of ,jerusalem after he had taken possession of it1 and had introduced a third class of inhabitants of the tribe of ,judah4 ,eichorn acknowledges that it does not bear the marks of subsequent interpolation4 ,dr4 ,patrick is of opinion that the five last chapters are a distinct history1 in which the author gives an account of several memorable transactions1 which occurred in or about the time of the judges2 whose history he would not interrupt by intermixing these matters with it1 and therefore reserved them to be related by themselves in the second part1 or appendix4 ,,judgment1 ,,day ,,of1 is that important period which shall terminate the present dispensation of grace toward the fallen race of ,adam1 put an end to time1 and introduce the eternal destinies of men and angels1 ,acts xvi1 #ca2 #a ,cor4 xv1 #bd-bf2 #a ,thess4 iv1 #ad-ag2 ,matt4 xxv1 #ca-df4 ,it is in reference to this solemn period that the ,apostle ,peter says1 8,the heavens and the earth which now exist are by the word of ,god reserved in store unto fire1 against the day of judgment1 and perdition of ungodly men10 #b ,peter iii1 #g4 ,several eminent commentators understand this prophecy as a prediction of the destruction of ,jerusalem4 ,in support of their interpretation1 they appeal to the ancient ,jewish prophecies1 where1 as they contend1 the revolutions in the political state of empires and nations are foretold in the same forms of expression with those introduced in ,peter's prediction4 ,the following are the prophecies to which they appeal3--,isaiah xxxiv1 #d1 where the destruction of ,idumea is foretold under the figures of dissolving the host of heaven1 and of rolling the heaven together as a scroll1 and of the falling down of all their host as the leaf falleth off from the vine4 ,ezekiel xxxii1 #g1 where the destruction of ,egypt is described by the figures of covering the heaven1 and making the stars thereof dark2 and of covering the sun with a cloud1 and of hindering the moon from giving her light4 ,in ,joel ii1 #aj1 the invasion of ,judea by foreign armies is thus foretold3 8,the earth shall quake before them2 the heavens shall tremble2 the sun and the moon shall be dark1 and the stars shall withdraw their shining40 ,and in verses #cj1 #ca1 the destruction of ,jerusalem by the ,romans is thus predicted3 8,i will show wonders in the heavens and in the earth1 blood1 and fire1 and pillars of smoke4 ,the sun shall be turned into darkness1 and the moon into blood1 before the great and terrible day of the ,lord come40 ,god1 threatening the ,jews1 is introduced saying1 8,in that day ,i will cause the sun to go down at noon1 and ,i will darken the earth in the clear day10 ,amos viii1 #i4 ,the overthrow of ,judaism and ,heathenism is thus foretold3 8,yet once and ,i will shake the heavens and the earth1 and the sea and the dry land10 ,haggai ii1 #f4 ,lastly3 our ,lord1 in his prophecy of the destruction of ,jerusalem1 has the following expressions3 8,after the tribulation of those days shall the sun be darkened1 and the moon shall not give her light1 and the stars shall fall from heaven1 and the powers of heaven shall be shaken10 ,matt4 xxiv1 #bi4 ,now it is remarkable that1 in these prophecies1 none of the prophets have spoken1 as ,peter has done1 of the entire destruction of this mundane system1 nor of the destruction of any part thereof4 ,they mention only the rolling of the heavens together as a scroll1 the obscuring of the light of the sun and of the moon1 the shaking of the heavens and the earth1 and the falling down of the stars3 whereas ,peter speaks of the utter destruction of all the parts of this mundane system by fire4 ,this difference affords room for believing that the events foretold by the prophets are different in their nature from those foretold by the ,apostle2 and that they are to be figuratively understood1 while those predicted by the ,apostle are to be understood literally4 ,to this conclusion1 likewise1 the phraseology of the prophets1 compared with that of the ,apostle1 evidently leads3 for the prophetic phraseology1 literally interpreted1 exhibits impossibilities2 such as the rolling of the heavens together as a scroll2 the turning of the moon into blood1 and the falling down of the stars from heaven as the leaf of a tree4 ,not so the apostolic phraseology3 for the burning of the heavens1 or atmosphere1 and its passing away with a great noise2 and the burning of the earth and the works thereon1 together with the burning and melting of the elements1 that is1 the constituent parts of which this terraqueous globe is composed2 are all things possible1 and therefore may be literally understood2 while the things mentioned by the prophets can only be taken figuratively4 ,this1 however1 is not all4 ,there are things in the ,apostle's prophecy which show that he intended it to be taken literally4 ,as1 #a4 ,he begins with an account of the perishing of the old world1 to demonstrate against the scoffers the possibility of the perishing of the present heavens and earth4 ,but that example would not have suited his purpose2 unless1 by the burning of the present heavens and earth1 he had meant the destruction of the material fabric4 ,wherefore1 the opposition stated in this prophecy between the perishing of the old world by water1 and the perishing of the present world by fire1 shows that the latter is to be as real a destruction of the material fabric as the former was4 #b4 ,the circumstance of the present heavens and earth being treasured up and kept1 ever since the first deluge1 from all after deluges1 in order to their being destroyed by fire at the day of judgment1 shows1 we think1 that the ,apostle is speaking of a real1 and not of a metaphorical1 destruction of the heavens and earth4 #c4 ,this appears1 likewise1 from the ,apostle's foretelling that1 after the present heavens and earth are burned1 new heavens and a new earth are to appear1 in which the righteous are for ever to dwell4 #d4 ,the time fixed by the ,apostle for the burning of the heavens and the earth1 namely1 the day of judgment and punishment of ungodly men1 shows that the ,apostle is speaking1 not of the destruction of a single city or nation during the subsistence of the world1 but of the earth itself1 with all the wicked who have dwelt thereon4 ,these circumstances persuade us that this prophecy1 as well as the one recorded1 #b ,thess4 i1 #i1 is not to be interpreted metaphorically of the destruction of ,jerusalem2 but should be understood literally of the general judgment1 and of the destruction of our mundane system4 ,but 8it is appointed unto men once to die1 and after death the judgment40 ,these two events are inseparably linked together in the divine decree1 and they reciprocally reflect importance on each other4 ,death is1 indeed1 the terror of our nature4 ,men may contrive to keep it from their thoughts1 but they cannot think of it without fearful apprehensions of its consequences4 ,it was justly to be dreaded by man in his state of innocence2 and to the unrenewed man it ever was1 and ever will be1 a just object of abhorrence4 ,the ,gospel of ,jesus ,christ1 which has brought life and immortality to light1 is the only sovereign antidote against this universal evil4 ,to the believer in ,christ1 its rough aspect is smoothed1 and its terrors cease to be alarming4 ,to him it is the messenger of peace2 its sting is plucked out2 its dark valley is the road to perfect bliss and life immortal4 ,to him1 8to live is ,christ1 and to die is gain10 ,phil4 i1 #ba4 ,to die6 speaking properly1 he cannot die4 ,he has already died in ,christ1 and with him3 his 8life is hid with ,christ in ,god10 ,romans vi1 #h2 ,col4 iii1 #c4 ,with this conquest of the fear of death is nearly allied another glorious privilege resulting from union with the ,redeemer2 that1 when he shall appear1 we may have confidence1 and 8not be ashamed before him at his coming10 #a ,john ii1 #bh4 ,were death all that we have to dread1 death might be braved4 ,but after death there is a judgment2 a judgment attended with circumstances so tremendous as to shake the hearts of the boldest of the sons of nature4 ,then 8men shall seek death1 and shall not find it2 and shall desire to die1 and death shall flee from them10 ,rev4 ix1 #f4 ,then shall come indeed an awful day2 a day to which all that have preceded it are intended to be subservient2 when the ,lord shall appear in the united splendour of creating1 of governing1 and of judicial majesty1 to finish his purposes respecting man and earth1 and to pronounce the final1 irreversible sentence1 8,it is done60 ,rev4 xxi1 #f4 ,nothing of terror or magnificence hitherto beheld1--no glory of the rising sun after a night of darkness and of storm1--no convulsions of the earth1--no wide irruption of waters1--no flaming comet dragging its burning train over half the heaven1 can convey to us an adequate conception of that day of terrible brightness and irresistible devastation4 ,creation then shall be uncreated4 8,the heavens shall pass away with a great noise1 and the elements shall melt with fervent heat2 the earth also1 and the works that are therein1 shall be burned up10 #b ,peter iii1 #aj4 ,the ,lord shall be revealed from heaven in flaming fire1 #b ,thess4 i1 #g1 #h1 arrayed in all the glory of his ,godhead1 and attended by his mighty angels1 ,matt4 xvi1 #bg2 xxv1 #ca4 ,all that are in the grave shall hear his voice1 and shall come forth1 ,john v1 #bh1 #bi4 ,earth and sea shall give up the dead which are in them4 ,all that ever lived shall appear before him1 ,rev4 xx1 #ab1 #ac4 ,the judgment shall sit2 and the books shall be opened1 ,dan4 vii1 #aj4 ,the eye of ,omniscience detects every concealment by which they would screen from observation themselves1 or their iniquity4 ,the last reluctant sinner is finally separated from the congregation of the righteous1 ,psalm i1 #e2 and inflexible justice1 so often disregarded1 derided1 and defied1 gives forth their eternal doom6 ,but to the saints this shall be a day of glory and honour4 ,they shall be publicly acknowledged by ,god as his people2 publicly justified from the slanders of the world2 invested with immortal bodies2 presented by ,christ to the ,father2 and admitted into the highest felicity in the immediate presence of ,god for ever4 ,these are the elevating1 the transporting views1 which made the ,apostle ,paul speak with so much desire and earnest expectation of the 8day of ,christ40 ,,justice is in ,scripture taken for that essential perfection in ,god1 whereby he is infinitely righteous and just1 both in himself and in all his proceedings with his creatures1 ,psalm lxxxix1 #ad4 #b4 ,that political virtue which renders to every man his due2 and is first1 distributive1 which concerns princes1 magistrates1 c1 ,job xxix1 #ad2 secondly1 communicative1 which concerns all persons in their dealings one with another1 ,gen4 xviii1 #ai4 ,,justice1 ,,administration ,,of4 ,according to the ,mosaic law1 there were to be judges in all the cities1 whose duty it was likewise to exercise judicial authority in the neighbouring villages2 but weighty causes and appeals went up to the supreme judge or ruler of the commonwealth1 and1 in case of a failure here1 to the high priest1 ,deut4 xvii1 #h1 #i4 ,in the time of the monarchy1 weighty causes and appeals went up1 of course1 to the king1 who1 in very difficult cases1 seems to have consulted the high priest1 as is customary at the present day among the ,persians and ,ottomans4 ,the judicial establishment was reorganized after the captivity1 and two classes of judges1 the inferior and superior1 were appointed1 ,ezra vii1 #be4 ,the more difficult cases1 nevertheless1 and appeals1 were either brought before the ruler of the state1 called 1 or before the high priest2 until1 in the age of the ,maccabees1 a supreme1 judicial tribunal was instituted1 which is first mentioned under ,hyrcanus ,,ii4 ,this tribunal is not to be confounded with the seventy-two counsellors1 who were appointed to assist ,moses in the civil administration of the government1 but who never filled the office of judges4 ,see ,,sanhedrim4 ,josephus states1 that in every city there was a tribunal of seven judges1 with two ,levites as apparitors1 and that it was a ,mosaic institution4 ,that there existed such an institution in his time1 there is no reason to doubt1 but he probably erred in referring its origin to so early a period as the days of ,moses4 7,see ,judges47 ,this tribunal1 which decided causes of less moment1 is denominated in the ,new ,testament 1 or the judgment1 ,matt4 v1 #bb4 ,the ,talmudists mention a tribunal of twenty-three judges1 and another of three judges2 but ,josephus is silent in respect to them4 ,the courts of twenty-three judges were the same with the synagogue tribunals1 mentioned in ,john xvi1 #b2 which merely tried questions of a religious nature1 and sentenced to no other punishment than 8forty stripes save one10 #b ,cor4 xi1 #bd4 ,the court of three judges was merely a session of referees1 which was allowed to the ,jews by the ,roman laws2 for the ,talmudists themselves1 in describing this court1 go on to observe1 that one judge was chosen by the accuser1 another by the accused1 and a third by the two parties conjunctly2 which shows at once the nature of the tribunal4 ,the time at which courts were held1 and causes were brought before them for trial1 was in the morning1 ,jer4 xxi1 #ab2 ,psalm ci1 #h4 ,according to the ,talmudists1 it was not lawful to try causes of a capital nature in the night2 and it was equally unlawful to examine a cause1 pass sentence1 and put it in execution on the same day4 ,the last particular was very strenuously insisted on4 ,it is worthy of remark1 that all of these practices1 which were observed in other trials1 were neglected in the tumultuous trial of ,jesus1 ,matt4 xxvi1 #eg2 ,john xviii1 #ac-ah4 ,the places for judicial trials were in very ancient times the gates of cities1 which were well adapted to this purpose4 7,see ,gates47 ,originally1 trials were every where very summary1 excepting in ,egypt2 where the accuser committed the charge to writing1 the accused replied in writing1 the accuser repeated the charge1 and the accused answered again1 c1 ,job xiv1 #ag4 ,it was customary in ,egypt for the judge to have the code of laws placed before him1 a practice which still prevails in the east4 ,moses interdicted1 in the most express and decided manner1 gifts or bribes1 which were intended to corrupt the judges1 ,exod4 xxii1 #bj1 #ba2 xxiii1 #a-i2 ,lev4 xix1 #ae2 ,deut4 xxiv1 #ad1 #ae4 ,moses also1 by legal precautions1 prevented capital punishments1 and corporal punishments which were not capital1 from being extended1 as was done in other nations1 both to parents and their children1 and thus involving the innocent and the guilty in that misery which was justly due only to the latter1 ,exod4 xxiii1 #g2 ,deut4 xxiv1 #af2 ,dan4 vi1 #bd4 ,the ceremonies which were observed in conducting a judicial trial1 were as follows3 #a4 ,the accuser and the accused both made their appearance before the judge or judges1 ,deut4 xxv1 #a1 who sat with legs crossed upon the floor1 which was furnished for their accommodation with carpet and cushions4 ,a secretary was present1 at least in more modern times1 who wrote down the sentence1 and1 indeed1 every thing in relation to the trial2 for instance1 the articles of agreement that might be entered into previous to the commencement of the judicial proceedings1 ,isaiah x1 #a1 #b2 ,jer4 xxxii1 #a-ad4 ,the ,jews assert that there were two secretaries1 the one being seated to the right of the judge1 who wrote the sentence of not guilty1 the other to the left1 who wrote the sentence of condemnation1 ,matt4 xxv1 #cc-df4 ,that an apparitor or beadle was present1 is apparent from other sources4 #b4 ,the accuser was denominated in ,hebrew 1 or the adversary1 ,zech4 iii1 #a-c2 ,psalm cix1 #f4 ,the judge or judges were seated1 but both of the parties implicated stood up1 the accuser standing to the right hand of the accused3 the latter1 at least after the captivity1 when the cause was one of great consequence1 appeared with hair dishevelled1 and in a garment of mourning4 #c4 ,the witnesses were sworn1 and1 in capital cases1 the parties concerned1 #a ,sam4 xiv1 #cg-dj2 ,matt4 xxvi1 #fc4 ,in order to establish the charges alleged1 two witnesses were necessary1 and1 including the accuser1 three4 ,the witnesses were examined separately1 but the person accused had the liberty to be present when their testimony was given in1 ,num4 xxxv1 #cj2 ,deut4 xvii1 #a-ae2 ,matt4 xxvi1 #ei4 ,proofs might be brought from other sources2 for instance1 from written contracts1 or from papers in evidence of any thing purchased or sold1 of which there were commonly taken two copies1 the one to be sealed1 the other to be left open1 as was customary in the time of ,jerom1 ,jer4 xxxii1 #aj-ac4 #d4 ,the parties sometimes1 as may be inferred from ,prov4 xviii1 #ah1 made use of the lot in determining the points of difficulty between them1 but not without a mutual agreement4 ,the sacred lot of ,urim and ,thummim was anciently resorted to1 in order to detect the guilty1 ,joshua vii1 #ad-bd2 #a ,sam4 xiv2 but the determination of a case of right or wrong in this way was not commanded by ,moses4 #e4 ,the sentence1 very soon after the completion of the examination1 was pronounced2 and the criminal1 without any delay1 even if the offence were a capital one1 was hastened away to the place of punishment1 ,joshua vii1 #bb1 c2 #a ,sam4 xxii1 #ah2 #a ,kings ii1 #bc4 ,a few additional remarks will cast some light upon some passages of ,scripture3 the station of the accused was in an eminent place in the court1 that the people might see them1 and hear what was alleged against them1 and the proofs of it1 together with the defence made by the criminals4 ,this explains the reason of the remark by the ,evangelist ,matthew1 concerning the posture of our ,lord at his trial3 8,jesus stood before the governor20 and that1 in a mock trial1 many ages before the birth of ,christ1 in which some attention was also paid to public forms1 ,naboth was set on high among the people1 #a ,kings xxi1 #i4 ,the accusers and the witnesses also stood1 unless they were allowed to sit by the indulgence of the judges1 when they stated the accusation1 or gave their testimony4 ,to this custom of the accusers rising from their seats1 when called by the court to read the indictment1 our ,lord alludes in his answer to the scribes and ,pharisees1 who expressed a wish to see him perform some miracle3 8,the queen of the south shall rise up in the judgment with this generation1 and shall condemn it10 ,matt4 xii1 #db4 ,according to this rule1 which seems to have been invariably observed1 the ,jews who accused the ,apostle ,paul at the bar of ,festus the ,roman governor1 8stood round about10 while they stated the crimes which they had to lay to his charge1 ,acts xxv1 #g4 ,they were compelled to stand as well as the prisoner1 by the established usage of the courts of justice in the east4 ,the ,romans often put criminals to the question1 or endeavoured to extort a confession from them by torture4 ,agreeably to this cruel and unjust custom1 8the chief captain commanded ,paul to be brought into the castle1 and bade that he should be examined by scourging10 ,acts xxii1 #bd4 ,it was usual1 especially among the ,romans1 when a man was charged with a capital crime1 and during his arraignment1 to let down his hair1 suffer his beard to grow long1 to wear filthy1 ragged garments1 and appear in a very dirty and sordid habit2 on account of which they were called sordidati4 ,when the person accused was brought into court to be tried1 even his near relations1 friends1 and acquaintances1 before the court voted1 appeared with dishevelled hair1 and clothed with garments foul and out of fashion1 weeping1 crying1 and deprecating punishment4 ,the accused sometimes appeared before the judges clothed in black1 and his head covered with dust4 ,in allusion to this ancient custom1 the ,prophet ,zechariah represents ,joshua1 the high priest1 when he appeared before the ,lord1 and ,satan stood at his right hand to accuse him1 as clothed with filthy garments1 ,zech4 iii1 #c4 ,after the cause was carefully examined1 and all parties impartially heard1 the public crier1 by command of the presiding magistrate1 ordered the judges to bring in their verdict4 ,the most ancient way of giving sentence1 was by white and black sea shells1 or pebbles4 ,this custom has been mentioned by ,ovid in these lines3-- ,mos erat antiquis1 niveis atrisque lapillis1 ,his damnare reos1 illis absolvere culpa4 8,it was a custom among the ancients1 to give their votes by white or black stones2 with these they condemned the guilty1 with those acquitted the innocent40 ,in allusion to this ancient custom1 our ,lord promises to give the spiritual conqueror 8a white stone10 ,rev4 ii1 #ag2 the white stone of absolution or approbation4 ,when sentence of condemnation was pronounced1 if the case was capital1 the witnesses put their hands on the head of the criminal1 and said1 8,thy blood be upon thine own head40 ,to this custom the ,jews alluded1 when they cried out at the trial of ,christ1 8,his blood be on us and on our children40 ,then was the malefactor led to execution1 and none were allowed openly to lament his misfortune4 ,his hands were secured with cords1 and his feet with fetters2 a custom which furnished ,david with an affecting allusion1 in his lamentation over the dust of ,abner3 8,thy hands were not bound1 nor thy feet put in fetters10 #b ,sam4 iii1 #cd2 that is1 he was put treacherously to death1 without form of justice4 #b4 ,executions in the east are often very prompt and arbitrary1 when resulting from royal authority4 ,in many cases the suspicion is no sooner entertained1 or the cause of offence given1 than the fatal order is issued2 the messenger of death hurries to the unsuspecting victim1 shows his warrant1 and executes his orders that instant in silence and solitude4 ,instances of this kind are continually occurring in the ,turkish and ,persian histories4 ,when the enemies of a great man among the ,turks have gained influence enough over the prince to procure a warrant for his death1 a capidgi1 the name of the officer who executes these orders1 is sent to him1 who shows him the order he has received to carry back his head2 the other takes the warrant of the grand signior1 kisses it1 puts it on his head in token of respect1 and then1 having performed his ablutions and said his prayers1 freely resigns his life4 ,the capidgi1 having strangled him1 cuts off his head1 and brings it to ,constantinople4 ,the grand signior's order is implicitly obeyed2 the servants of the victim never attempt to hinder the executioner1 although these capidgis come very often with few or no attendants4 ,it appears from the writings of ,chardin1 that the nobility and grandees of ,persia are put to death in a manner equally silent1 hasty1 and unobstructed4 ,such executions were not uncommon among the ,jews under the government of their kings4 ,solomon sent ,benaiah as his capidgi1 or executioner1 to put ,adonijah1 a prince of his own family1 to death2 and ,joab1 the commander-in-chief of the forces in the reign of his father4 ,a capidgi likewise beheaded ,john the ,baptist in prison1 and carried his head to the court of ,herod4 ,to such silent and hasty executioners the royal preacher seems to refer in that proverb1 8,the wrath of a king is as messengers of death2 but a wise man will pacify it10 ,prov4 xvi1 #ad3 his displeasure exposes the unhappy offender to immediate death1 and may fill the unsuspecting bosom with terror and dismay1 like the appearance of a capidgi2 but by wise and prudent conduct a man may sometimes escape the danger4 ,from the dreadful promptitude with which ,benaiah executed the commands of ,solomon on ,adonijah and ,joab1 it may be concluded that the executioner of the court was as little ceremonious1 and the ancient ,jews1 under their kings1 nearly as passive1 as the ,turks or ,persians4 ,the ,prophet ,elisha is the only person on the inspired record who ventured to resist the bloody mandate of the sovereign2 the incident is recorded in these terms3 8,but ,elisha sat in his house1 and the elders sat with him2 and the king sent a man from before him2 but ere the messenger came to him1 he said to the elders1 ,see how this son of a murderer hath sent to take away mine head8 ,look ye1 when the messenger cometh1 shut the door and hold him fast at the door2 is not the sound of his master's feet behind him80 #b ,kings vi1 #cb4 ,but if such mandates had not been too common among the ,jews1 and in general submitted to without resistance1 ,jehoram had scarcely ventured to despatch a single messenger to take away the life of so eminent a person as ,elisha4 ,criminals were at other times executed in public2 and then commonly without the city4 ,to such executions without the gate1 the ,psalmist undoubtedly refers in this complaint3 8,the dead bodies of thy saints have they given to be meat unto the fowls of the heaven2 the flesh of thy saints unto the beasts of the earth2 their blood have they shed like water round about ,jerusalem1 and there was none to bury them10 ,psalm lxxix1 #b1 #c4 ,the last clause admits of two senses3 #a4 ,there was no friend or relation left to bury them4 #b4 ,none were allowed to perform this last office4 ,the despotism of eastern princes often proceeds to a degree of extravagance which is apt to fill the mind with astonishment and horror4 ,it has been thought1 from time immemorial1 highly criminal to bury those who had lost their lives by the hand of an executioner1 without permission4 ,in ,morocco1 no person dares to bury the body of a malefactor without an order from the emperor2 and ,windus1 who visited that country1 speaking of a man who was sawn in two1 informs us1 that his body must have remained to be eaten by the dogs if the emperor had not pardoned him2 an extravagant custom to pardon a man after he is dead2 but unless he does so1 no person dares bury the body4 ,to such a degree of savage barbarity it is probable the enemies of ,god's people carried their opposition1 that no person dared to bury the dead bodies of their innocent victims4 ,in ancient times1 persons of the highest rank and station were employed to execute the sentence of the law4 ,they had not then1 as we have at present1 public executioners2 but the prince laid his commands on any of his courtiers whom he chose1 and probably selected the person for whom he had the greatest favour4 ,gideon commanded ,jether1 his eldest son1 to execute his sentence on the kings of ,midian2 the king of ,israel ordered the footmen who stood around him1 and who were probably a chosen body of soldiers for the defence of his person1 to put to death the priests of the ,lord2 and when they refused1 ,doeg1 an ,edomite1 one of his principal officers4 ,long after the days of ,saul1 the reigning monarch commanded ,benaiah1 the chief captain of his armies1 to perform that duty4 ,sometimes the chief magistrate executed the sentence of the law with his own hands2 for when ,jether shrunk from the duty which his father required1 ,gideon1 at that time the supreme magistrate in ,israel1 did not hesitate to do it himself4 ,in these times such a command would be reckoned equally barbarous and unbecoming2 but the ideas which were entertained in those primitive ages of honour and propriety1 were in many respects extremely different from ours4 ,in ,homer1 the exasperated ,ulysses commanded his son ,telemachus to put to death the suitors of ,penelope1 which was immediately done4 ,the custom of employing persons of high rank to execute the sentence of the law1 is still retained in the principality of ,senaar1 where the public executioner is one of the principal nobility2 and1 by virtue of his office1 resides in the royal palace4 ,,justification1 in common language1 signifies a vindication from any charge which affects the moral character2 but in theology it is used for the acceptance of one1 by ,god1 who is1 and confesses himself to be1 guilty4 ,to justify a sinner1 says ,mr4 ,bunting1 in an able sermon on this important subject1 is to account and consider him relatively righteous2 and to deal with him as such1 notwithstanding his past actual unrighteousness1 by clearing1 absolving1 discharging1 and releasing him from various penal evils1 and especially from the wrath of ,god1 and the liability to eternal death1 which1 by that past unrighteousness1 he had deserved2 and by accepting him as if just1 and admitting him to the state1 the privileges1 and the rewards of righteousness4 ,hence it appears that justification1 and the remission or forgiveness of sin1 are substantially the same thing4 ,these expressions relate to one and the same act of ,god1 to one and the same privilege of his believing people4 ,accordingly1 ,st4 ,paul clearly uses justification and forgiveness as synonymous terms1 when he says1 8,be it known unto you1 therefore1 men and brethren1 that through this man is preached unto you the forgiveness of sins3 and by him all that believe are justified from all things1 from which ye could not be justified by the law of ,moses10 ,acts xiii1 #ch1 #ci4 ,also in the following passage3 8,to him that worketh not1 but believeth on him that justifieth the ungodly1 his faith is counted for righteousness4 ,even as ,david also describeth the blessedness of the man1 unto whom ,god imputeth righteousness without works1 saying1 ,blessed are they whose iniquities are forgiven1 and whose sins are covered4 ,blessed is the man to whom the ,lord will not impute sin10 ,rom4 iv1 #e-h4 ,here1 the justification of the ungodly1 the counting or imputation of righteousness1 the forgiveness of iniquity1 and the covering and non-imputation of sin1 are phrases which have all1 perhaps1 their various shades of meaning1 but which express the very same blessing under different views4 ,but 7#a47 the justification of a sinner does not in the least degree alter or diminish the evil nature and desert of sin4 ,for we know 8it is ,god10 the holy ,god1 8that justifieth40 ,and he can never regard sin1 on any consideration1 or under any circumstances1 with less than perfect and infinite hatred4 ,sin1 therefore1 is not changed in its nature1 so as to be made less 8exceedingly sinful10 or less worthy of wrath1 by the pardon of the sinner4 ,the penalty is remitted1 and the obligation to suffer that penalty is dissolved2 but it is still naturally due1 though graciously remitted4 ,hence appear the propriety and duty of continuing to confess and lament even pardoned sin with a lowly and contrite heart4 ,though released from its penal consequences by an act of divine clemency1 we should still remember that the dust of self-abasement is our proper place before ,god1 and should temper our exultation in his mercy by an humbling recollection of our natural liability to his wrath4 8,i will establish my covenant with thee1 and thou shalt know that ,i am the ,lord3 that thou mayest remember1 and be confounded1 and never open thy mouth any more because of thy shame1 when ,i am pacified toward thee for all that thou hast done1 saith the ,lord ,god10 ,ezek4 xvi1 #fb1 #fc4 7#b47 ,the account which has been given of justification1 if correct1 sufficiently points out the error of many of the ,roman ,catholic divines1 and of some mystic theologians1 who seem to suppose that to be justified is to be1 not reckoned righteous1 but actually made righteous1 by the infusion of a sanctifying influence1 producing a positive and inherent conformity to the moral image of ,god4 ,this notion confounds the two distinct though kindred blessings of justification and regeneration4 ,the former1 in its ,scriptural sense1 is an act of ,god1 not in or upon man1 but for him1 and in his favour2 an act which1 abstractedly considered1 to use the words of ,dr4 ,barrow1 8respects man only as its object1 and translates him into another relative state4 ,the inherent principle of righteousness is a consequent of this act of ,god2 connected with it1 but not formally of it40 7#c47 ,the justification extends to all past sins2 that is1 to all guilt contracted previously to that time at which the act of justification takes place4 ,in respect of this1 it is1 while it remains in force1 a most full1 perfect1 and entire absolution from wrath4 8,all manner of sin0 is then forgiven4 ,the pardon which is granted is a 8justification10 not merely from some things1 from many things1 from most things1 but 8from all things10 ,acts xiii1 #ci4 ,god does not justify us1 or pardon our innumerable offences1 by degrees1 but at once4 ,as by the law of works he is cursed1 who 8continueth not in all things0 which that law enjoined1 so he who is truly absolved by the ,gospel is cleared from all and every thing which before stood against him2 and 8there is no condemnation to them that are in ,christ ,jesus40 ,well may that ,gospel which reveals and offers such a benefit be termed a 8great salvation60 7#d47 ,another remark1 which it may not be unnecessary to make1 is1 that justification1 however effectual to our release from past guilt1 does not terminate our state of probation4 ,it is not irreversible1 any more than eternal4 ,as he who is now justified was once condemned1 so he may in future come again into condemnation1 by relapsing into sin and unbelief1 although at present 8accepted in the ,beloved40 ,thus ,adam1 before transgression1 was in a state of favour2 but as he had not then fulfilled1 to the end of his probation1 the righteousness of that law under which he was placed1 his ultimate and final acceptance was not absolutely certain4 ,his privilege1 as one accepted of ,god1 might be forfeited1 and was actually forfeited1 by his subsequent sin4 ,now our own justification or pardon only places us1 as to this point1 in similar circumstances4 ,though ever so clearly and fully forgiven1 we are yet on our trial for eternity1 and should 8look to ourselves1 that we lose not the things which we have gained40 ,that justification may for our sin be reversed1 appears from our ,lord's parable of the two debtors1 in which one who had obtained the blessing of forgiveness is represented as incurring the forfeiture of it by the indulgence of an unforgiving spirit toward his fellow servant1 ,matt4 xviii1 #bc-ce4 ,let us therefore 8watch and pray1 that we enter not into temptation40 #b4 ,the immediate results of justification are 7#a47 ,the restoration of amity and intercourse between the pardoned sinner and the pardoning ,god4 ,for1 8being justified by faith1 we have peace with ,god10 and1 consequently1 unforbidden access to him4 ,the matter and ground of ,god's controversy with us being then removed by his act of gracious absolution1 we become the objects of his friendship4 8,abraham believed ,god1 and it was imputed to him for righteousness2 and he was0 immediately 8called the friend of ,god10 ,jas4 ii1 #bc2 and so are all those who are similarly justified4 ,this reconciliation1 however1 does not extend to their instant and absolute deliverance from all those evils which transgression has entailed on man4 ,they are still liable1 for a season1 to affliction and pain1 to temporal suffering and mortality4 ,these are portions of the original curse from which their justification does not as yet release them4 ,but it entitles them to such supports under all remaining trouble1 and to such promises of a sanctifying influence with it1 as will1 if embraced1 8turn the curse into a blessing40 ,whom the ,lord loveth1 he may still chasten1 and in very faithfulness afflict them4 ,but these are acts of salutary discipline1 rather than of vindictive displeasure4 ,his friendship1 not his righteous hostility1 is the principle from which they all proceed2 and the salvation1 not the destruction1 of the sufferer is the end to which they are all directed4 7#b47 ,another immediate result of justification is the adoption of the persons justified into the family of ,god1 and their consequent right to eternal life of body and soul4 ,god condescends to become not only their ,friend1 but their ,father2 they are the objects not merely of his amicable regard1 but of his paternal tenderness4 ,and1 admitted to the relation of children1 they become entitled to the children's inheritance2 for1 8if children1 then heirs2 heirs of ,god1 and joint heirs with ,christ2 if so be that we suffer with him1 that we may be also glorified together10 ,rom4 viii1 #ag4 7#c47 ,with these results of justification is inseparably connected another1 of the utmost value and importance2 namely1 the habitual indwelling of the ,holy ,spirit4 8,christ hath redeemed us from the curse of the law1 being made a curse for us2 that the blessing of ,abraham might come on the ,gentiles through ,jesus ,christ2 that we might receive the promise of the ,spirit through faith10 ,gal4 iii1 #ac1 #ad4 8,because ye are sons1 ,god hath sent forth the ,spirit of his ,son into your hearts10 ,gal4 iv1 #f4 ,with the remission of sins1 ,st4 ,peter also connects1 as an immediate result1 as a distinct but yet a simultaneous blessing1 8the gift of the ,holy ,ghost10 ,acts ii1 #ch4 ,and in the fifth verse of this chapter1 the ,holy ,ghost is said to be given to those who are justified by faith4 ,of this indwelling the immediate effects are1 7i47 ,tranquillity of conscience4 ,for he testifies and manifests to those in whom he dwells their free justification and gracious adoption4 ,the spirit which such persons have received is 8not the spirit of bondage to fear1 but the ,spirit of adoption1 whereby we cry1 ,abba1 ,father4 ,the ,spirit itself beareth witness with our spirit that we are the children of ,god10 ,rom4 viii1 #ae1 #af4 7ii47 ,power over sin2 a prevailing desire and ability to walk before ,god in holy obedience4 ,no sooner is the ,holy ,spirit enthroned in the heart1 than he begins to make all things new4 ,in his genuine work1 purity is always connected with consolation4 ,those to whom he witnesses their freedom from condemnation he also enables to 8walk1 not after the flesh1 but after the ,spirit10 ,rom4 viii1 #a4 7iii47 ,a joyous hope of heaven4 ,their title results from the fact of their adoption2 their power to rejoice in hope1 from the ,spirit's testimony of that fact4 8,we1 through the ,spirit1 wait for the hope of righteousness by faith10 and 8abound in hope1 through the power of the ,holy ,ghost10 ,gal4 v1 #e2 ,rom4 xv1 #ac4 #c4 ,to have a complete view of the method by which justification and all its consequent blessings are attained1 we must consider the originating1 the meritorious1 and the instrumental cause of justification4 7#a47 ,the originating cause is the grace1 the free1 undeserved1 and spontaneous love of ,god toward fallen man4 ,he remembered and pitied us in our low estate2 for his mercy endureth for ever4 8,after that the kindness and love of ,god our ,saviour toward man appeared1 not by works of righteousness which we have done1 but according to his mercy he saved us4 ,the grace of ,god bringeth salvation10 ,titus ii1 #aa2 iii1 #d1 #e4 ,we are 8justified freely by his grace10 ,rom4 iii1 #bd4 ,but ,god is wise1 and holy1 and just1 as well as merciful and gracious4 ,and his wisdom determined1 that1 in order to reconcile the designs of his mercy toward sinners with the claims of his purity and justice1 those designs should be accomplished only through the intervention of a divine ,redeemer4 ,we are justified 8through our ,lord ,jesus ,christ10 ,rom4 i1 #e4 7#b47 ,our ,lord ,jesus ,christ is the sole meritorious cause of our justification4 ,all he did and all he suffered in his mediatorial character may be said to have contributed to this great purpose4 ,for what he did1 in obedience to the precepts of the law1 and what he suffered1 in satisfaction of its penalty1 taken together1 constitute that mediatorial righteousness1 for the sake of which the ,father is ever well pleased in him4 ,now1 in this mediatorial righteousness all who are justified have a saving interest4 ,it is not meant that it is personally imputed to them in its formal nature or distinct acts2 for against any such imputation there lie insuperable objections both from reason and from ,scripture4 ,but the collective merit and moral effects of all which the ,mediator did and suffered are so reckoned to our account when we are justified1 that1 for the sake of ,christ and in consideration of his obedience unto death1 we are released from guilt1 and accepted of ,god4 ,from this statement of the meritorious cause of justification1 it appears that while our pardon is1 in its origin1 an act of the highest grace1 it is also1 in its mode1 an act most perfectly consistent with ,god's essential righteousness1 and demonstrative of his inviolable justice4 ,it proceeds not on the principle of abolishing the law or its penalty2 for that would have implied that the law was unduly rigorous1 either in its precepts or in its sanctions4 ,but it rests on the ground that the law has been magnified and vindicated1 and that its penalty1 or sufferings1 which were fully equivalent to that penalty in a moral view1 when the dignity of the sufferer is considered1 have been sustained by our voluntary ,substitute4 ,thus 8grace reigns through righteousness10 not at the expense of righteousness4 8,now1 the righteousness of ,god without the law is manifested1 being witnessed by the law and the prophets2 even the righteousness of ,god which is by faith of ,jesus ,christ unto all and upon all them that believe3 being justified freely by his grace1 through the redemption that is in ,christ ,jesus2 whom ,god hath set forth to be a propitiation through faith in his blood1 to declare his righteousness for the remission of sins that are past1 through the forbearance of ,god2 to declare1 ,i say1 at this time his righteousness2 that he might be just1 and the justifier of him which believeth in ,jesus10 ,romans iii1 #ba-bf4 7#c47 ,as to the instrumental cause of justification1 the merit of the blood of ,jesus does not operate necessarily so as to produce our pardon as an immediate and unavoidable effect1 but through the instrumentality of faith4 ,the faith by which we are justified is present faith1 faith actually existing and exercised4 ,we are not justified by to-morrow's faith foreseen2 for that would lead to the ,antinomian notion of justification from eternity1 a notion which to mention is to confute4 ,we are not justified by yesterday's faith recorded or remembered2 for that would imply the opinion that justification is irreversible4 ,the justification offered in the ,scriptures is a justification upon believing1 in which we are never savingly interested until we believe1 and which continues in force only so long as we continue to believe4 ,on all unbelievers the wrath of ,god abides4 ,the atonement of ,jesus was indeed accepted1 as from him1 at the time when it was offered2 but it is not accepted1 as for us1 to our individual justification1 until we individually believe1 nor after we cease to believe4 ,the ,,object of justifying faith may be inferred from what has been before said1 as to the originating and meritorious causes of justification4 ,it has respect1 in general1 to all that ,christ is set forth in the ,gospel as doing or suffering1 by the gracious appointment of the ,father1 in order to our redemption and pardon4 ,but it has respect1 in particular1 to the atoning sacrifice of ,christ1 as exhibited by divine authority in the ,scriptures1 and as attested to be acceptable and sufficient by his resurrection from the dead1 and by his mediatorial exaltation at the right hand of ,god4 ,the acts or exercises of this faith seem to be three2 or rather1 that faith which is required in order to our justification is a complex act of the mind1 which includes three distinct but concurrent exertions of its powers4 ,it includes1 7#a47 ,the assent of the understanding to the truth of the testimony of ,god in the ,gospel2 and especially to that part of it which concerns the design and efficacy of the death of ,jesus as a sacrifice for sin4 7#b47 ,the consent of the will and affections to this plan of salvation2 such an approbation and choice of it as imply a renunciation of every other refuge1 and a steady and decided preference of this4 ,unbelief is called a disallowing of the foundation laid in ,zion2 whereas faith includes a hearty allowance of it1 and a thankful acquiescence in ,god's revealed method of forgiveness4 7#c47 ,from this assent of the enlightened understanding1 and consent of the rectified will1 to the evangelical testimony concerning ,christ crucified1 results the third thing1 which is supposed to be implied in justifying faith2 namely1 actual trust in the ,saviour1 and personal apprehension of his merits4 ,when1 under the promised leading and influence of the ,holy ,ghost1 the penitent1 sinner thus confidently relies and individually lays hold on ,christ1 then the work of justifying faith is complete2 then1 and not till then1 he is immediately justified4 ,on the whole1 it may be said that the faith to which the privilege of justification is annexed1 is such a belief of the ,gospel1 by the power of the ,spirit of ,god1 as leads us to come to ,christ1 to receive ,christ1 to trust in ,christ1 and to commit the keeping of our souls into his hands1 in humble confidence of his ability and his willingness to save us4 ,the grand doctrine of the ,reformation was that of justification by faith1 and was therefore held by all the ,lutheran and ,reformed churches4 ,the ,papists assert that man's inherent righteousness is the meritorious cause of his justification2 many ,protestant divines have endeavoured to unite the two1 and have held that men are justified by faith and good works2 and others have equally departed from the opinions of the earliest reformers on the subject of justification1 in representing it as resulting from the imputation of ,christ's active and passive righteousness to those that believe1 instead of confining the imputation to the moral consequence and effect of both4 ,in other words1 that which is reckoned to us in our justification for righteousness is our faith in ,christ's merits1 and that not because of any intrinsic value in faith2 but only for the sake of those merits4 ,in a mere moral sense man's sin or righteousness is imputed to him1 when he is considered as actually the doer of sinful or of righteous acts4 ,a man's sin or righteousness is imputed to him in its legal consequence1 under a government of rewards and punishments2 and then to impute sin or righteousness signifies1 in a legal sense1 to reckon and to account it1 to acquit or condemn1 and forthwith to punish1 or to exempt from punishment4 ,thus ,shimei entreats ,david1 that he would 8not impute folly to him10 that is1 that he would not punish his folly4 ,in this sense1 too1 ,david speaks of the blessedness of the man whose 8transgression is forgiven10 and to whom the ,lord 8imputeth not sin10 that is1 whom he forgives1 so that the legal consequence of his sin shall not fall upon him4 ,this non-imputation of sin1 to a sinner1 is expressly called the 8imputation of righteousness1 without works20 the imputation of righteousness is1 then1 the non-punishment1 or the pardon of sin2 and if this passage be read in its connection1 it will also be seen1 that by 8imputing0 faith for righteousness1 the ,apostle means precisely the same thing3 8,but to him that worketh not1 but believeth on him that justifieth the ungodly1 his faith is counted for righteousness2 even as ,david also describeth the man to whom ,god imputeth righteousness without works1 saying1 ,blessed is the man whose iniquities are forgiven1 and whose sins are covered4 ,blessed is the man to whom the ,lord imputeth not sin40 ,this quotation from ,david would have been nothing to the ,apostle's purpose1 unless he had understood the forgiveness of sins1 and the imputation of righteousness1 and the non-imputation of sin1 to signify the same thing as 8counting faith for righteousness10 with only this difference1 that the introduction of the term 8faith0 marks the manner in which the forgiveness of sin is obtained4 ,to have faith imputed for righteousness1 is nothing more than to be justified by faith1 which is also called by ,st4 ,paul1 8being made righteous10 that is1 being placed by an act of free forgiveness1 through faith in ,christ1 in the condition of righteous men1 in this respect1 that the penalty of the law does not lie against them1 and that they are the acknowledged objects of the divine favour4 ,see ,,faith4 ,,kadesh-,,barnea1 a station of the ,israelites1 to which they returned again after thirty-eight years1 is said to be in the wilderness of ,zin1 ,num4 xiii1 #ba2 xx1 #a2 ,deut4 xxxii1 #ea2 but in the wilderness of ,paran1 ,num4 xii1 #af4 ,in the ,itinerary it is simply called ,rithmah1 8the wilderness40 ,dr4 ,hales observes1 that ,wells1 ,shaw1 the authors of the 8,universal ,history10 c1 have greatly perplexed and obscured the geography of this ,itinerary1 by supposing that there were two places of this name distinct from each other4 ,they consider the latter of them as situated on the western side of ,mount ,hor1 toward the land of ,canaan1 and thus confound it with that ,kadesh in the land of the ,philistines1 where ,abraham sojourned1 ,gen4 xvi1 #ac2 xx1 #a4 ,but that it lay on the east side of ,mount ,hor1 is evident2 for why should ,moses send messengers from ,kadesh to the king of ,edom1 requesting permission to pass through his territories in the way to ,canaan1 if they were already at the verge of ,palestine1 ,num4 xx1 #ad8 ,this application1 however1 was necessary if his territories were situated between ,canaan and the ,israelites4 ,the true situation of ,kadesh is ascertained beyond a doubt1 from its lying between ,mount ,hor and ,ezion-,geber1 on the ,elanitic ,gulf1 ,num4 xxxiii1 #ce-cg4 ,,kadmonites1 ancient inhabitants of the land of ,canaan1 whose habitation was beyond ,jordan1 to the east of ,phenicia1 ,gen4 xv1 #ai4 ,the ,kadmonites were descended from ,canaan1 the son of ,ham4 ,it has been conjectured that the celebrated ,cadmus1 the founder of ,thebes in ,botia1 was originally a ,kadmonite2 and that his wife1 ,hermione1 was so named from ,mount ,hermon4 ,,kedar4 ,this name signifies black in the original2 and hence ,bochart concludes that it refers to a people or tribe of ,arabs who were more than others burned by the sun2 but none of the ,arabs are black4 ,the name is also supposed to refer to the black tents made of felt1 which are still in use2 and ,cant4 i1 #e1 is quoted in support of this usage of the word3 8,i am black1 but comely as the tents of ,kedar40 ,but the ,arabic root is by some said to signify power and dignity4 ,kedar was the second son of ,ishmael1 whose family probably became more numerous1 or more warlike1 than those of his brethren1 and so took precedence of name4 ,this latter supposition appears probable from the manner in which they are mentioned by ,isaiah1 xxi1 #af1 #ag1 who speaks of 8the glory of ,kedar10 and 8the archers and mighty men of ,kedar40 ,their flocks are also spoken of by the same ,prophet1 ,isaiah lx1 #g1 together with those of ,nebaioth1 whose tribe or family both shared and outlived the glory of ,kedar4 ,,kedron1 a small brook which1 rising near ,jerusalem1 runs through the valley on the east of the city1 between it and the ,mount of ,olives4 ,descending into the valley from ,st4 ,stephen's gate1 the traveller comes to the bed of the brook ,kedron1 which is but a few paces over4 ,this brook is stated by ,pococke to have its rise a little way farther to the north1 but its source does not appear to have been ascertained4 ,like the ,ilissus1 it is dry at least nine months in the year2 its bed is narrow and deep1 which indicates that it must formerly have been the channel for waters that have found some other and probably subterranean course4 ,there is now no water in it1 except after heavy rains4 ,a bridge is thrown over it a little below the gate of ,st4 ,stephen2 and they say1 that when there is water1 unless the torrent swells much1 which very rarely occurs1 it all runs under ground to the north of this bridge4 ,the course of the brook is along the valley of ,jehoshaphat1 to the south-west corner of the city1 and then turning to the south1 it runs to the ,dead ,sea4 ,,kenites1 people who dwelt westward of the ,dead ,sea1 and extended themselves pretty far into ,arabia ,petra2 for ,jethro1 the priest of ,midian1 and father-in-law to ,moses1 was a ,kenite1 ,judges i1 #af2 #a ,chron4 ii1 #ee2 #a ,sam4 xv1 #f4 ,when ,saul was sent to destroy the ,amalekites1 the ,kenites1 who had joined them1 perhaps by compulsion1 were ordered to depart from them1 that they might not share in their fate2 and the reason assigned was1 that they 8showed kindness to the children of ,israel when they came up out of ,egypt10 #a ,sam4 xv1 #f4 ,which1 according to the margin of our ,bible1 is to be understood of the father-in-law of ,moses and his family4 ,from the story of ,jethro1 who is expressly said to be a ,midianite1 they appear to have retained the worship of the true ,god among them2 for which1 and their kindness to the ,israelites when passing their country1 they were spared in the general destruction of the nations bordering on ,canaan4 ,of these ,kenites were the ,rechabites1 the ,tirathites1 the ,shimeathites1 and the ,suchathites1 mentioned in #a ,chron4 ii1 #ee1 whose chief office was that of scribes4 7,see ,rechabites47 ,balaam1 when invited by ,balak1 king of ,moab1 to curse ,israel1 stood upon a mountain1 whence he addressed the ,kenites1 and said1 8,strong is thy dwelling place1 and thou puttest thy nest in a rock2 nevertheless1 the ,kenite shall be wasted until ,ashur shall carry thee away captive10 ,num4 xxiv1 #ba1 #bb4 ,the ,kenites dwelt in mountains and rocks almost inaccessible4 ,they were conquered and carried into captivity by ,nebuchadnezzar4 ,after ,saul the ,kenites are not mentioned2 but they subsisted1 being mingled among the ,edomites and other nations of ,arabia ,petra4 ,,kenizzites1 an ancient people of ,canaan1 whose land ,god promised to the descendants of ,abraham1 ,gen4 xv1 #ai4 ,it is thought that this people dwelt in the mountains south of ,judea4 ,,keturah1 the name of ,abraham's second wife4 ,abraham married ,keturah1 when he was one hundred and forty years of age1 and by her he had six sons1 ,zimram1 ,jokshan1 ,medan1 ,midian1 ,ishbak1 and ,shuah4 ,some chronologers1 as ,bishop ,clayton1 ,hallet1 c1 thinking it improbable that ,abraham should marry again at such an advanced age1 have dislocated the chronology of this period1 by supposing that ,abraham took ,keturah as a concubine1 in consequence of his wife ,sarah's barrenness1 even before he left ,charran2 and that ,keturah's children were among the souls born to him and ,lot during their residence in that country4 ,but it seems evident from the whole tenor of the history1 that ,abraham was childless until the birth of ,ishmael1 ,gen4 xv1 #b1 #c2 that he had no other son than ,ishmael when he received the promise of ,isaac1 ,gen4 xvii1 #ah2 and that ,isaac and ,ishmael jointly1 as his eldest sons1 celebrated his funeral1 ,gen4 xxv1 #i4 ,his second marriage1 at the age of one hundred and forty years1 shows his faith in the divine promise1 that he should be 8a father of many nations20 for which purpose his constitution might be miraculously renewed1 as ,sarah's was4 ,beside1 ,abraham himself was born when his father ,terah was one hundred and thirty years of age4 ,abraham settled the sons of ,keturah in the east country of ,arabia1 near the residence of ,ishmael4 ,,key is frequently mentioned in ,scripture1 as well in a natural as in a figurative sense4 ,the keys of the ancients were very different from ours2 because their doors and trunks were closed generally with bands1 and the key served only to loosen or fasten these bands in a certain manner4 ,in a moral sense key has many significations3 8,and the key of the house of ,david will ,i lay upon his shoulder3 so he shall open1 and none shall shut2 and he shall shut1 and none shall open10 ,isaiah xxii1 #bb1--;he shall be grand master and principal officer of his prince's house4 ,christ promises to ,st4 ,peter1 that he should first open the gate of his kingdom1 both to ,jew and ,gentile1 in making the first converts among them1 ,matt4 xvi1 #ai4 ,it is observable that no supremacy is here given to ,st4 ,peter2 as the power of binding and loosing belonged equally to all the ,apostles1 ,matt4 xviii1 #ah4 ,the term binding and loosing was customarily applied by the ,jews to a decision respecting doctrines or rites1 establishing which were lawful and which unlawful4 7,see ,bind47 ,and it may also denote1 to bind with sickness1 and to loose by restoring to health4 ,jesus ,christ says that he has the key of death and hell1 ,rev4 i1 #ah2 that is1 it is in his power to bring to the grave1 or to deliver from it2 to appoint to life or to death4 ,,kibroth ,,hataavah1 one of the encampments of the ,israelites in the wilderness1 ,numbers xi1 #cd1 #ce4 ,,kid1 1 the young of the goat4 ,among the ,hebrews the kid was reckoned a great delicacy2 and appears to have been served for food in preference to the lamb4 7,see ,goat47 ,it continues to be a choice dish in the neighbouring countries4 8,after drinking10 says ,salt1 8caf la ,sultane1 as it is termed by ,french writers1 hookahs were offered to us2 and soon afterward1 to my great surprise1 dinner was announced4 ,we accordingly retired with the dola of ,aden to another apartment1 where a kid1 broiled and cut into small pieces1 with a quantity of pillaued rice1 was served up to us1 agreeably to the fashion of the country4 ,no people in the world is more straitened than the ,abyssinians with respect to the necessaries of life3 a little juwarry bread1 a small quantity of fish1 an adequate supply of goat's and camel's milk1 and a kid on very particular occasions1 constitute the whole of their subsistence4 ,as soon as we arrived at the village of ,howakil1 a very neat hut was prepared for me2 and as the evening was far advanced1 ,i consented to stay for the night4 ,nothing could exceed the kindness of these good people2 a kid was killed1 and a quantity of fresh milk was brought and presented in straw baskets made of the leaves of the doom tree1 seared over with wax1 a manufacture in which the natives of these islands particularly excel40 ,the village of ,engedi1 situate in the neighbourhood of ,jericho1 derives its name from the ,hebrew word 1 a fountain1 and 1 a kid4 ,it is suggested by the situation among lofty rocks1 which1 overhanging the valleys1 are very precipitous4 ,a fountain of pure water rises near the summit1 which the inhabitants called ,engedi1 8the fountain of the goat10 because it is hardly accessible to any other creature4 ,,kingdom1 in ,scripture1 is a term of frequent occurrence1 and variously applied4 ,thus we read of the kingdom of ,god1 ,psalm ciii1 #ai2 ,dan4 iv1 #c2 or his universal empire and dominion over all creatures2 in reference to which it is said1 8,jehovah is a great ,god1 and a great ,king above all gods10 ,psalm xcv1 #c4 8,his throne is established in the heavens1 and his kingdom ruleth over all40 ,again3 we frequently read in the evangelists of the kingdom of heaven2 a phrase1 says ,dr4 ,campbell1 in which there is a manifest allusion to the predictions in which the dispensation of the ,messiah was revealed by the prophets in the ,old ,testament1 particularly by ,daniel1 who mentions it as 8a kingdom which the ,god of heaven would set up1 and which should never be destroyed10 ,dan4 ii1 #dd4 ,the same prophet also speaks of it as a kingdom to be given1 with glory and dominion over all people1 nations1 and languages1 to one like unto the ,son of man1 ,dan4 vii1 #ac1 #ad4 ,and the ,prophet ,micah1 speaking of the same era1 represents it as a time when ,jehovah1 having removed all the afflictions of his people1 would reign over them in ,mount ,zion thenceforth even for ever1 ,micah iv1 #f1 #g4 ,according to the prophecy of ,daniel1 this kingdom was to take place during the existence of the ,roman empire1 the last of the four great monarchies that had succeeded each other1 ,dan4 ii1 #dd4 ,and as it was set up by the ,god of heaven1 it is1 in the ,new ,testament1 termed 8the kingdom of ,god10 or 8the kingdom of heaven40 ,it was typified by the ,jewish theocracy1 and declared to be at hand by ,john the ,baptist1 and by ,christ and his ,apostles also in the days of his flesh2 but it did not come with power till ,jesus rose from the dead and sat down on the right hand of the ,majesty on high1 ,acts ii1 #cb-cg4 ,then was he most solemnly inaugurated1 and proclaimed ,king of the ,new ,testament church1 amidst adoring myriads of attendant angels1 and 8the spirits of just men made perfect40 ,then were fulfilled the words of ,jehovah by the ,psalmist ,david1 8,i have set my ,king upon my holy hill of ,zion10 ,psalm ii1 #f4 ,this is that spiritual empire to which he himself referred when interrogated before ,pontius ,pilate1 and in reference to which he said1 8,my kingdom is not of this world10 ,john xviii1 #cf1 #cg4 ,his empire1 indeed1 extends to every creature2 for all authority is committed into his hands1 both in heaven and on earth10 and he is head over all things to the church20 but his kingdom primarily imports the ,gospel church1 which is the subject of his laws1 the seat of his government1 and the object of his care2 and1 being surrounded with powerful opposers1 he is represented as ruling in the midst of his enemies4 ,this kingdom is not of a worldly origin1 or nature1 nor has it this world for its end or object4 ,it can neither be promoted nor defended by worldly power1 influence1 or carnal weapons1 but by bearing witness unto the truth1 or by the preaching of the ,gospel with the ,holy ,ghost sent down from heaven4 ,its real subjects are only those who are of the truth1 and hear ,christ's voice2 for none can enter it but such as are born from above1 ,john iii1 #c-e2 nor can any be visible subjects of it1 but such as appear to be regenerated1 by a credible profession of faith and obedience4 ,its privileges and immunities are not of this world1 but such as are spiritual and heavenly2 they are all spiritual blessings in heavenly things in ,christ ,jesus1 ,ephesians i1 #c4 ,,kings4 ,this word does not always imply the same degree of power1 nor the same degree of importance2 nor does it imply the magnitude of the dominion or territory of these officers4 ,in ,scripture many persons are called kings1 whom we should rather denominate chiefs or leaders2 and many single towns1 or1 at most1 together with their adjacent villages1 are said to have had kings4 ,not aware of this lower sense of the word king1 or unwilling to adopt it1 many persons have been embarrassed by the following passage3 ,moses commanded us a law1--he was king in ,jeshurun10 ,deut4 xxxiii1 #d1 #e1 or king among the ,israelites2 that is1 he was the principal among the assembly of the superiors of the ,israelites4 ,some refer this to ,jehovah4 ,moses was the chief1 the leader1 the guide of his people1 fulfilling the duties of a king2 but he was not king in the same sense as ,david or ,solomon was afterward4 ,this remark reconciles the following observation3 ,these kings reigned in ,edom1 before there reigned any king over the children of ,israel10 ,gen4 xxxvi1 #ca2 for ,moses1 though he was king in an inferior sense1 did not reign1 in the stronger sense1 over the children of ,israel1 their constitution not being monarchical under him4 ,beside1 we find in ,joshua1 that almost every town in ,canaan had its king2 and we know that the territories of these towns must have been very inconsiderable1 ,joshua xii1 #i-bd4 ,adonizedek1 himself no very powerful king1 mentions seventy kings whom he had subdued and mutilated4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,judah ,,and ,,israel4 ,illustrating the ,,books ,,of ,,kings4 ,,kings1 ,,books ,,of4 ,the first book of ,kings commences with an account of the death of ,david1 and contains a period of a hundred and twenty-six years1 to the death of ,jehoshaphat2 and the second book of ,kings continues the history of the kings of ,israel and ,judah through a period of three hundred years1 to the destruction of the city and temple of ,jerusalem by ,nebuchadnezzar4 ,these two books formed only one in the ,hebrew canon1 and they were probably compiled by ,ezra from the records which were regularly kept1 both in ,jerusalem and ,samaria1 of all public transactions4 ,these records appear to have been made by the contemporary prophets1 and frequently derived their names from the kings whose history they contained4 ,they are mentioned in many parts of ,scripture2 thus #a ,kings xi1 #da1 we read of the book of the ,acts of ,solomon1 which is supposed to have been written by ,nathan1 ,ahijah1 and ,iddo1 #b ,chron4 ix1 #bi4 ,we elsewhere read that ,shemaiah the prophet1 and ,iddo the seer1 wrote the ,acts of ,rehoboam1 #b ,chron4 xii1 #ae2 that ,jehu wrote the ,acts of ,jehoshaphat1 #b ,chron4 xx1 #cd2 and ,isaiah those of ,uzziah and ,hezekiah1 #b ,chron4 xxvi1 #bb2 xxxii1 #cb4 ,we may therefore conclude1 that from these public records1 and other authentic documents1 were composed the two books of ,kings2 and the uniformity of their style favours the opinion of their being put into their present shape by the same person4 ,,kishon4 ,that ancient river1 the river ,kishon10 falls into the bay of ,acre1 and has its source in the hills to the east of the plain of ,esdraelon1 which it intersects4 ,being enlarged by several small streams1 it passes between ,mount ,carmel and the hills to the north1 and then falls into the sea at this point4 ,in the condition we saw it1 says ,maundrell1 its waters were low and inconsiderable2 but in passing along the side of the plain1 we discerned the tracts of many lesser torrents1 falling down into it from the mountains1 which must needs make it swell exceedingly upon sudden rains1 as doubtless it actually did at the destruction of ,sisera's host4 ,,kiss1 a mode of salutation1 and token of respect1 which has been practised in all nations4 ,it was also in ordinary use among the ,jews2 hence ,judas in this way saluted his ,master4 ,but there was also the kiss of homage1 as one of the ceremonies performed at the inauguration of the kings of ,israel4 ,the ,jews called it the kiss of majesty4 ,psalm ii1 #ab1 seems to be an allusion to this4 ,st4 ,paul speaks frequently of the kiss of peace1 which was in use among believers1 and was given by them to one another as a token of charity and union1 publicly in their religious assemblies1 ,heb4 xiii1 #bd4 ,kissing the feet is in eastern countries expressive of exuberant gratitude or reverence4 ,,kite1 1 ,lev4 xi1 #ad2 ,deut4 xiv1 #ac2 ,job xxviii1 #g4 ,bochart supposes this to be the bird which the ,arabians call the ja-jao1 from its note2 and which the ancients named salon1 the merlin10 a bird celebrated for its sharp-sightedness4 ,this faculty is referred to in ,job xxviii1 #g1 where the word is rendered vulture40 ,as a noun masculine plural1 1 in ,isaiah xiii1 #bb2 xxxiv1 #ad2 and ,jer4 #a1 #ci1 ,bochart says that jackals are intended2 but1 by the several contexts1 particularly the last1 it may well mean a kind of unclean bird1 and so be the same with that mentioned above4 ,,kohath1 the second son of ,levi1 and father of ,amram1 ,izhar1 ,hebron1 and ,uzziel1 ,gen4 xlvi1 #aa2 ,exod4 vi1 #ah4 ,kohath's family was appointed to carry the ark and sacred vessels of the tabernacle1 while the ,israelites marched through the wilderness1 ,num4 iv1 c4 ,,korah was the son of ,izhar1 of the race of ,levi1 and father of ,asher1 ,elkanah1 and ,aliasaph1 and head of the ,korites1 a celebrated family among the ,levites4 ,korah1 being dissatisfied with the rank he held among the sons of ,levi1 and envying the authority of ,moses and ,aaron1 formed a party against them1 in which he engaged ,dathan1 ,abiram1 and ,on1 with two hundred and fifty of the principal ,levites1 ,num4 xvi1 #a-c1 c4 ,korah1 at the head of the rebels1 went to ,moses and ,aaron1 and complained that they alone arrogated to themselves all the authority over the people of the ,lord4 ,moses falling with his face on the earth1 answered them as follows3 ,tomorrow1 in the morning1 the ,lord will discover who are his4 ,let every one of you take1 therefore1 his censer1 and to-morrow he shall put incense into it1 and offer it before the ,lord2 and he shall be acknowledged priest whom the ,lord shall choose and approve40 ,the next day1 ,korah1 with two hundred and fifty of his faction1 presenting themselves with their censers before the ,lord1 the glory of the ,lord appeared visibly over the tabernacle1 and a voice was heard to say1 ,separate yourselves from among this congregation1 that ,i may consume them in a moment40 ,upon this1 ,moses and ,aaron1 falling with their faces to the ground1 said1 ,o ,god1 the ,god of the spirits of all flesh1 shall one man sin1 and wilt thou be wroth with all the congregation80 ,and the ,lord said unto ,moses1 ,command all the people to depart from about the tents of ,korah1 ,dathan1 and ,abiram40 ,when1 therefore1 the people were retired1 ,moses said1 ,if these men die the common death of all men1 then the ,lord hath not sent me2 but if the earth open and swallow them up quick1 ye shall know that they have blasphemed the ,lord40 ,as soon as he had spoken1 the earth opened from under their feet1 and swallowed them up with what belonged to them4 ,there was one thing which added to this surprising wonder1 and which was1 that when ,korah was thus swallowed up in the earth1 his sons were preserved from his misfortunes4 ,we know not the exact year in which the death of ,korah and his companions happened4 ,the sons of ,korah continued as before to serve in the tabernacle of the ,lord4 ,david appointed them their office in the temple1 to guard the doors1 and sing the praises of ,god4 ,to them are ascribed several psalms1 which are designated by the name of ,korah2 as the forty-second1 forty-fourth to the forty-ninth1 eighty-fourth to the eighty-seventh2 in all1 eleven psalms4 ,,laban1 the son of ,bethuel1 grandson of ,nahor1 brother to ,rebekah1 and father of ,rachel and ,leah1 ,gen4 xxviii1 #b1 c4 ,of this man1 the first thing we hear is his entertainment of ,abraham's servant when he came on his errand to ,rebekah4 ,hospitality was the virtue of his age and country4 ,in his case1 however1 it seems to have been no little stimulated by the sight of 8the ear ring and the bracelets on his sister's hands10 which the servant had already given her1 ,gen4 xxiv1 #cj2 so he speedily made room for the camels4 ,he next is presented to us as beguiling that sister's son1 who had sought a shelter in his house1 and whose circumstances placed him at his mercy1 of fourteen years' service1 when he had covenanted with him for seven only2 endeavouring to retain his labour when he would not pay him his labour's worth1 himself devouring the portion which he should have given to his daughters1 counting them but as strangers1 ,gen4 xxxi1 #ae4 ,compelled1 at length1 to pay ,jacob wages1 he changes them ten times1 and1 in the spirit of a crafty1 griping worldling1 makes him account for whatever of the flock was torn of beasts or stolen1 whether by day or night4 ,when ,jacob flies from this iniquitous service with his family and cattle1 ,laban still pursues and persecutes him1 intending1 if his intentions had not been overruled by a mightier hand1 to send him away empty1 even after he had been making1 for so long a period1 so usurious a profit of him4 ,,lachish1 a city of ,palestine1 ,joshua x1 #bc2 xv1 #ci4 ,sennacherib besieged ,lachish1 but did not make himself master of it4 ,from thence it was that he sent ,rabshakeh against ,jerusalem1 #b ,kings xviii1 #ag2 xix1 #h2 #b ,chron4 xxxii1 #i4 ,,lamaism1 the religion of the people of ,thibet4 ,the ,delai ,lama1 ,grand ,lama10 is at once the high priest1 and the visible object of adoration1 to this nation1 to the hordes of wandering ,tartars1 and to the prodigious population of ,china4 ,he resides at ,patoli1 a vast palace on a mountain near the banks of the ,burampooter1 about seven miles from ,lahasse4 ,the foot of the mountain is surrounded by twenty thousand lamas1 or priests1 in attendance on their sovereign pontiff1 who is considered as the viceregent of the ,deity on earth2 and the remote ,tartars are said to regard him absolutely as the ,deity himself1 and call him ,god1 the everlasting ,father of heaven4 ,they believe him to be immortal1 and endowed with all knowledge and virtue4 ,every year they come up from different parts to worship1 and make rich offerings at his shrine4 ,even the emperor of ,china1 who is a ,mantchou ,tartar1 does not fail in acknowledgments to him in his religious capacity2 and entertains in the palace of ,pekin an inferior lama1 deputed as his nuncio from ,thibet4 ,the grand lama is only to be seen in a secret place of his palace1 amidst a great number of lamps1 sitting cross-legged on a cushion1 and decked all over with gold and precious stones2 while1 at a distance1 the people prostrate themselves before him1 it being not lawful for any so much as to kiss his feet4 ,he returns not the least sign of respect1 nor ever speaks1 even to the greatest princes2 but only lays his hand upon their heads1 and they are fully persuaded that they thereby receive a full forgiveness of their sins4 ,the ,sunniasses1 or ,indian pilgrims1 often visit ,thibet as a holy place2 and the lama entertains a body of two or three hundred in his pay4 ,beside his religious influence and authority1 he is possessed of unlimited power throughout his dominions1 which are very extensive4 ,the inferior lamas1 who form the most numerous as well as the most powerful body in the state1 have the priesthood entirely in their hands1 and1 beside1 fill up many monastic orders1 which are held in great veneration among them4 ,the whole country1 like ,italy1 abounds with priests2 and they entirely subsist on the rich presents sent them from the utmost extent of ,tartary1 from the empire of the great mogul1 and from almost all parts of the ,indies4 ,the opinion of the orthodox among the ,thibetians is1 that when the grand lama seems to die1 either of old age or infirmities1 his soul1 in fact1 only quits a crazy habitation to enter another1 younger and better2 and is discovered again in the body of some child1 by certain tokens1 known only to the lamas1 or priests1 in which order he always appears4 ,almost all the nations of the east1 except the ,mohammedans1 believe the metempsychosis1 or transmigration of the soul1 as the most important article of their faith2 especially the inhabitants of ,thibet and ,ava1 the ,peguans1 the ,siamese1 the greater part of the ,chinese and ,japanese1 and the ,monguls and ,kalmucks4 ,according to their doctrine1 the soul no sooner leaves her old habitation than she enters a new one4 ,the delai lama1 therefore1 or rather the god ,foe or ,fuh1 residing in the delai lama1 passes to his successor2 and he being a god1 to whom all things are known1 the grand lama is therefore acquainted with every thing which happened during his residence in his former bodies4 ,this religion1 which was early adopted in a large part of the globe1 is said to have been of three thousand years' standing2 and neither time1 nor the influence of men1 has had the power of shaking the authority of the grand lama4 ,this theocracy1 which extends as fully to temporal as to spiritual concerns1 is professed all over ,thibet and ,mongalia2 is almost universal in ,greater and ,less ,bucharia1 and several provinces of ,tartary2 has some followers in the kingdom of ,cashmere1 in ,india2 and is the predominant religion of ,china4 ,it has been observed that the religion of ,thibet is the counterpart of the ,roman ,catholic1 since the inhabitants of that country use holy water1 and a singing service4 ,they also offer alms1 prayers1 and sacrifices for the dead4 ,they have a vast number of convents filled with monks and friars1 amounting to thirty thousand1 and confessors chosen by their superiors4 ,they use beads1 wear the mitre1 like the bishops2 and their delai lama is nearly the same among them as the sovereign pontiff was formerly1 in the zenith of his power1 among the ,roman ,catholics4 ,so complete is the resemblance1 that1 when one of the first ,romish missionaries penetrated ,thibet1 he came to the conclusion that the devil had set up there an imitation of the rites of the ,catholic church1 in order the more effectually to destroy the souls of men4 ,captain ,turner1 speaking of the religion of ,thibet1 says1 ,it seems to be the schismatical offspring of the religion of the ,hindoos1 deriving its origin from one of the followers of that faith1 a disciple of ,bouddhu1 who first broached the doctrine which now prevails over the wide extent of ,tartary4 ,it is reported to have received its earliest admission in that part of ,tibet1 or ,thibet1 bordering upon ,india1 which from hence became the seat of the sovereign lamas1 to have traversed over ,mantchieux ,tartary1 and to have been ultimately disseminated over ,china and ,japan4 ,though it differs from the ,hindoo in many of its outward forms1 yet it still bears a very close affinity with the religion of ,brumha in many important particulars4 ,the principal idol in the temples of ,tibet1 or ,thibet1 is ,muha-,moonee1 the ,booddhu of ,bengal1 who is worshipped under these and various other epithets1 throughout the great extent of ,tartary1 and among all nations to the eastward of the ,brumhapootru4 ,in the wide-extended space over which this faith prevails1 the same object of veneration is acknowledged under numerous titles3 among others1 he is styled ,godumu1 or ,gotumu1 in ,assam and ,ava1 ,shumunu in ,siam1 ,amida ,buth in ,japan1 ,fohi in ,china10 c4 ,,lambeth ,,articles4 ,see ,,predestination4 ,,lamech1 a descendant of ,cain1 the son of ,mathusael1 and father of ,jabal1 ,jubal1 ,tubal-,cain1 and ,naamah1 ,gen4 iv1 #ah-bj1 c4 ,he stands branded as the father of polygamy1 the first who dared to violate the sacred command1 ,gen4 ii1 #bd2 giving way to his unbridled passion1 and thus overleaping the divine mound raised by the wisdom of our great ,creator2 which restraint is enforced by the laws of nature herself1 who peoples the earth with an equal number of males and females1 and thereby teaches foolish man that polygamy is incompatible with her wise regulations4 ,he married ,adah and ,zillah3 the former was the mother of ,jabal and ,jubal1 and the latter of ,tubal-,cain and ,naamah1 his sister4 #b4 ,,lamech1 the son of ,methuselah1 and father of ,noah4 ,he lived a hundred fourscore and two years before the birth of ,noah1 ,gen4 v1 #be1 #ca2 after which he lived five hundred and ninety-five years longer3 thus the whole term of his life was seven hundred and seventy-seven years4 ,,lamentations ,,of ,,jeremiah4 ,this book was formerly annexed to his prophecies1 though it now forms a separate book4 ,josephus1 and several other learned men1 have referred them to the death of ,josiah2 but the more common opinion is1 that they were applicable only to some period subsequent to the destruction of ,jerusalem by ,nebuchadnezzar4 ,but though it be allowed that the ,lamentations were primarily intended as a pathetic description of present calamities1 yet while ,jeremiah mourns the desolation of ,judah and ,jerusalem during the ,babylonian captivity1 he may be considered as prophetically painting the still greater miseries they were to suffer at some future time3 this seems plainly indicated by his referring to the time when the punishment of their iniquity shall be accomplished1 and they shall no more be carried into captivity1 ,lam4 iv1 #bb4 ,the ,lamentations are written in metre1 and consist of a number of plaintive effusions1 composed after the manner of funeral dirges4 ,they seem to have been originally written by their author as they arose in his mind1 and to have been afterward joined together as one poem4 ,there is no regular arrangement of the subject1 or disposition of the parts3 the same thought is frequently repeated with different imagery1 or expressed in different words4 ,there is1 however1 no wild incoherency1 or abrupt transition2 the whole appears to have been dictated by the feelings of real grief4 ,tenderness and sorrow form the general character of these elegies2 and an attentive reader will find great beauty in many of the images1 and great energy in some of the expressions4 ,this book of ,lamentations is divided into five chapters2 in the first1 second1 and fourth1 the prophet speaks in his own person1 or by an elegant and interesting personification introduces the city of ,jerusalem as lamenting her calamities1 and confessing her sins2 in the third chapter a single ,jew1 speaking in the name of a chorus of his countrymen1 like the ,coryphus of the ,greeks1 describes the punishment inflicted upon him by ,god1 but still acknowledges his mercy1 and expresses some hope of deliverance2 and in the fifth chapter1 the whole nation of the ,jews pour forth their united complaints and supplications to almighty ,god4 ,every chapter1 with the exception of the third1 contains twenty-two verses1 corresponding in number with the letters of the ,hebrew alphabet2 and each verse commences with a different letter1 the first with aleph1 the second with beth1 the third with gimel1 c4 ,the third chapter1 consisting of sixty-six verses1 has three verses together beginning with the same letter1 the following three with the next letter1 c4 ,this peculiarity may be seen in ,psalm cxix2 the first eight verses in which commence with aleph1 the next eight with beth1 c1 till the whole alphabet has been consecutively taken4 ,this mode of versification1 which has some distant resemblance to the modern acrostic style1 seems to have been employed by the ,hebrews in some of their elegiac poetry1 perhaps to assist the memory4 ,,lamp1 4 ,there is frequent mention of lamps in ,scripture1 and the word is often used figuratively4 ,the houses in the east were1 from the remotest antiquity1 lighted with lamps2 and hence it is so common in ,scripture to call every thing which enlightens the body or mind1 which guides or refreshes1 by the name of a lamp4 ,these lamps were sustained by a large candlestick set upon the ground4 ,the houses of ,egypt1 in modern times1 are never without lights3 they burn lamps all the night long1 and in every occupied apartment4 ,so requisite to the comfort of a family is this custom reckoned1 or so imperious is the power which it exercises1 that the poorest people would rather retrench part of their food than neglect it4 ,as this custom no doubt prevailed in ,egypt and the adjacent regions of ,arabia and ,palestine in former times1 it imparts a beauty and force to some passages of ,scripture which have been little observed4 ,thus1 in the language of ,jeremiah1 to extinguish the light in an apartment is a convertible phrase for total destruction2 and nothing can more properly and emphatically represent the total destruction of a city than the extinction of the lights3 ,i will take from them the light of a candle1 and this whole land shall be a desolation and an astonishment40 ,job describes the destruction of a family among the ,arabs1 and the desolation of their dwellings1 in the very language of the prophet3 ,how oft is the candle of the wicked put out1 and how oft cometh their destruction upon them60 ,job xxi1 #ag4 ,bildad expresses the same idea in the following beautiful passage3 ,yea1 the light of the wicked shall be put out1 and the spark of his fire shall not shine4 ,the light shall be dark in his tabernacle1 and his candle shall be put out with him10 ,job xviii1 #e1 #f4 ,a burning lamp is1 on the other hand1 the chosen symbol of prosperity1 a beautiful instance of which occurs in the complaint of ,job3 ,o that ,i were as in months past1 as in the days when ,god preserved me2 when his candle shined upon my head1 and when by his light ,i walked through darkness10 ,job xxix1 #b1 #c4 ,when the ten tribes were taken from ,rehoboam1 and given to his rival1 ,jehovah promised to reserve one tribe1 and assigns this reason3 ,that ,david my servant may have a light always before me in ,jerusalem10 #a ,kings xi1 #cf4 ,in many parts of the east1 and in particular in the ,indies1 instead of torches and flambeaux1 they carry a pot of oil in one hand1 and a lamp full of oily rags in the other4 ,,language1 the faculty of human speech1 concerning the origin of which there have been entertained different opinions among philosophers and learned men4 ,the ,mosaic history1 which gives us an account of the formation and first occupations of man1 represents him as being immediately capable of conversing with his ,maker2 of giving names to the various tribes and classes of animals2 and of reasoning consecutively1 and in perfectly appropriate terms1 concerning his own situation1 and the relation he stood in to the other creatures4 ,as in man's first attempt at speech1 according to this account1 there appear no crudeness of conception1 no barrenness of ideas1 and no inexpressive or unappropriate terms1 we must certainly infer1 that ,god who made and endued him with corporeal and mental powers perfectly suited to his state and condition in life1 endued him1 also1 not only with the faculty of speech1 but with speech or language itself2 which latter was as necessary to his comfort1 and to the perfection and end of his being1 as any other power or faculty which his ,creator thought proper to bestow upon him4 ,among the antediluvians there was but one language2 and even now the indications that the various languages of the earth have had one common source are very convincing4 ,whether this primitive language was the same with any of the languages of which we have still any remains1 has been a subject of much dispute4 ,that the primitive language continued at least till the dispersion of mankind1 consequent upon the building of ,babel1 there seems little reason to doubt4 ,when1 by an immediate interposition of divine power1 the language of men was confounded1 we are not informed to what extent this confusion of tongues prevailed4 ,under the article ,confusion of ,tongues some reasons are given to show that the primitive language was not lost at that event1 but continued in the form of the ,hebrew4 ,there are1 however1 other opinions on the oft disputed subject as to the primitive language4 ,the ,armenians allege1 that as the ark rested in their country1 ,noah and his children must have remained there a considerable time1 before the lower and marshy country of ,chaldea could be fit to receive them2 and it is therefore reasonable to suppose they left their language there1 which was probably the very same that ,adam spoke4 ,some have fancied the ,greek the most ancient tongue1 because of its extent and copiousness4 ,the ,teutonic1 or that dialect of it which is spoken in the ,lower ,germany and ,brabant1 has found a strenuous patron in ,geropius ,becanus1 who endeavours to derive even the ,hebrew itself from that tongue4 ,the pretensions of the ,chinese to this honour have been allowed by several ,europeans4 ,the patrons of this opinion endeavour to support it1 partly1 by the great antiquity of the ,chinese1 and their having preserved themselves so many ages from any considerable mixture or intercourse with other nations4 ,it is a notion advanced by ,dr4 ,allix1 and maintained by ,mr4 ,whiston1 with his usual tenacity and fervour1 that the ,chinese are the posterity of ,noah1 by his children born after the flood2 and that ,fohi1 the first king of ,china1 was ,noah4 ,as for those which are called the oriental languages1 they have each their partisans4 ,the generality of eastern writers allow the preference to the ,syriac1 except the ,jews1 who assert the antiquity of the ,hebrew with the greatest warmth2 and with them several ,christian writers agree1 particularly ,chrysostom1 ,austin1 ,origen1 and ,jerome1 among the ancients2 and among the moderns1 ,bochart1 ,heidegger1 ,selden1 and ,buxtorf4 ,the ,sanscrit has also put in its claims2 and some have thought that the ,pali bears the character of the highest antiquity4 ,all these are however useless speculations4 ,the only point worth contending for is1 that language was conveyed at once to the first pair in sufficient degree for intellectual intercourse with each other1 and devotional intercourse with ,god2 and that man was not left1 as infidel writers have been pleased to say1 to form it for himself out of rude and instinctive sounds4 ,on this subject the remarks of ,delaney are conclusive3 8,that ,god made man a sociable creature1 does not need to be proved2 and that when he made him such1 he withheld nothing from him that was in any wise necessary for his well being in society1 is a clear consequence from the wisdom and goodness of ,god2 and if he withheld nothing any way necessary to his well being1 much less would he withhold from him that which is the instrument of the greatest happiness a reasonable creature is capable of in this world4 ,if the ,lord ,god made #8,adam a help meet for him1' because #8it was not good for man to be alone1' can we imagine he would leave him unfurnished with the means to make that help useful and delightful to him8 ,if it was not good for him to be alone1 certainly neither was it good for him to have a companion to whom he could not readily communicate his thoughts1 with whom he could neither ease his anxieties1 nor divide or double his joys1 by a kind1 a friendly1 a reasonable1 a religious conversation2 and how he could do this in any degree of perfection1 or to any height of rational happiness1 is utterly inconceivable without the use of speech4 8,if it be said1 that the human organs being admirably fitted for the formation of articulate sounds1 these1 with the help of reason1 might in time lead men to the use of language4 ,i own it imaginable that they might3 but still1 till that end were attained in perfection1 which possibly might not be in a series of many generations1 it must be owned that brutes were better dealt by1 and could better attain all the ends of their creation4 ,and if that be absurd to be supposed1 certainly the other is not less absurd to be believed4 ,nay1 ,i think it justly doubtful1 whether1 without inspiration from ,god in this point1 man could ever attain the true ends of his being2 at least1 if we may judge in this case1 by the example of those nations who1 being destitute of the advantages of a perfect language1 are1 in all probability1 from the misfortune of that sole defect1 sunk into the lowest condition of barbarism and brutality4 ,and as to the perfection in which the human organs are framed and fitted for the formation of articulate sounds1 this is clearly an argument for believing that ,god immediately blessed man with the use of speech1 and gave him wherewithal to exert those organs to their proper ends2 for this is surely as credible1 as that when he gave him an appetite for food1 and proper organs to eat and to digest it1 he did not leave him to seek painfully for a necessary supply1 7till his offence had made such a search his curse and punishment17 but placed him at once in the midst of abundant plenty4 ,the consequence from all which is1 that the perfection and felicity of man1 and the wisdom and goodness of ,god1 necessarily required that ,adam should be supernaturally endowed with the knowledge and use of language4 ,and therefore1 as certain as it can be1 that man was made perfect and happy1 and that ,god is wise and good2 so certain is it1 that1 when ,adam and ,eve were formed1 they were immediately enabled by ,god to converse and communicate their thoughts1 in all the perfection of language necessary to all the ends of their creation4 ,and as this was the conduct most becoming the goodness of ,god1 so we are assured from ,moses1 that it was that to which his infinite wisdom determined him2 for we find that ,adam gave names to all the creatures before ,eve was formed2 and1 consequently1 before necessity taught him the use of speech40 ,it is true that many languages bear marks of being raised to their improved state from rude and imperfect elements1 and that all are capable of being enriched and rendered more exact2 and it is this which has given some colour to those theories which trace all language itself up from elemental sounds1 as the necessities of men1 their increasing knowledge1 and their imagination led to the invention of new words and combinations4 ,all this is1 however1 consistent with the ,scripture fact1 that language was taught at first by ,god to our first parents4 ,the dispersion of mankind carried many tribes to great distances1 and wars still farther scattered them1 and often into wide regions where they were farther dispersed to live chiefly by the chase1 by fishing1 or at best but an imperfect agriculture4 ,in various degrees we know they lost useful arts2 and for the same reasons they would lose much of their original language2 those terms being chiefly retained which their immediate necessities1 and the common affairs of a gross life1 kept in use4 ,but when civilization again overtook these portions of mankind1 and kingdoms and empires were founded among them1 or they became integral parts of the old empires1 then their intercourse with each other becoming more rapid1 and artificial1 and intellectual1 their language was put into a new process of improvement1 and to the eye of the critic would exhibit the various stages of advancement2 and in many it would be pushed beyond that perfection which it had when it first began to deteriorate4 ,see ,,letters4 ,,lantern4 ,the word occurs1 ,john xviii1 #c3 3 with torches and lanterns30 but both terms appear to signify torches2 the former of a ruder kind than the latter1 being formed of split laths bound into bundles1 throwing around a strong glare of light4 ,they came thus furnished to apprehend our ,lord1 lest he should escape through the darkness of the night4 ,,laodicea4 ,there were several cities of this name1 but the ,scripture speaks only of that in ,phrygia1 upon the river ,lycus1 near ,colosse4 ,its ancient name was ,diospolis3 it was afterward called ,rhoas4 ,lastly1 ,antiochus1 the son of ,stratonice1 rebuilt it1 and called it ,laodicea1 from the name of his wife ,laodice4 ,it became the mother church of sixteen bishoprics4 ,its three theatres1 and the immense circus1 which was capable of containing upward of thirty thousand spectators1 the spacious remains of which 7with other ruins buried under ruins7 are yet to be seen1 give proof of the greatness of its ancient wealth and population2 and indicate too strongly that in that city where ,christians were rebuked1 without exception1 for their lukewarmness1 there were multitudes who were lovers of pleasure more than lovers of ,god4 ,the amphitheatre was built after the ,apocalypse was written1 and the warning of the ,spirit had been given to the church of the ,laodiceans to be zealous and repent4 ,there are no sights of grandeur1 nor scenes of temptation around it now4 ,its own tragedy may be briefly told4 ,it was lukewarm1 and neither cold nor hot2 and therefore it was loathsome in the sight of ,god4 ,and it has been blotted from the world4 ,it is now as desolate as its inhabitants were destitute of the fear and love of ,god4 ,it is1 as described in his ,travels by ,dr4 ,smith1 utterly desolated1 and without any inhabitant except wolves1 and jackals1 and foxes40 ,it can boast of no human inhabitants1 except occasionally when wandering ,turcomans pitch their tents in its spacious amphitheatre4 ,the finest sculptured fragments are to be seen at a considerable depth1 in excavations which have been made among the ruins4 ,and ,colonel ,lake observes1 ,there are few ancient cities more likely than ,laodicea to preserve many curious remains of antiquity beneath the surface of the soil4 ,its opulence1 and the earthquakes to which it was subject1 render it probable that valuable works of art were often there buried beneath the ruins of the public and private edifices40 ,,lapwing1 1 ,levit4 xi1 #ai2 ,deut4 xiv1 #ah4 ,the bird intended by the ,hebrew name in these places is undoubtedly the hoopoe2 a very beautiful1 but most unclean and filthy1 species of birds4 ,the ,septuagint renders it 2 and the ,vulgate1 upupa2 which is the same with the ,arabian interpreters4 ,the ,egyptian name of the bird is kukuphah2 and the ,syrian1 kikuphah2 which approach the ,hebrew dukiphath4 ,it may have its name from the noise or cry it makes1 which is very remarkable1 and may be heard a great way4 ,,latitudinarians1 a term applied to those divines who1 in the seventeenth century1 attempted to bring ,episcopalians1 ,presbyterians1 and ,independents1 into one communion1 by compromising the differences between them4 ,the chief leaders of this party were the great ,chillingworth and ,john ,hales2 to whom may be added ,more1 ,cudworth1 ,gale1 ,tillotson1 and ,whitchcot4 ,they were zealously attached to the church of ,england1 but did not look upon episcopacy as indispensable to the constitution of the ,christian church4 ,hence they maintained that those who adopted other forms of government and worship1 were not on that account to be excluded from the communion1 or to forfeit the title of brethren4 ,they reduced the fundamental doctrines of ,christianity to a few points4 ,by this way of proceeding1 they endeavoured to show that neither the ,episcopalians1 who1 generally speaking1 were then ,arminians1 nor the ,presbyterians and ,independents1 who as generally adopted the doctrines of ,calvin1 had any reason to oppose each other with such animosity and bitterness2 since the subjects of their debates were matters non-essential to salvation1 and might be variously explained and understood without prejudice to their eternal interests4 ,this plan failing1 through the violence of the bishops on one hand1 7though sanctioned by the ,lord ,chancellor ,clarendon17 and by the jealousy of the more rigid on the other1 the name ,latitudinarian became a term of reproach1 as implying an indifferency to all religions1 and has been generally so used ever since4 ,,laver4 ,between the altar and the tabernacle1 a little to the south1 stood a circular laver1 which1 together with its base1 was made of the brazen ornaments which the women had presented for the use of the tabernacle1 and was thence called 1 ,exodus xxx1 #ah2 xl1 #g4 ,the priests1 when about to perform their duties1 washed their hands in this laver4 ,,law1 a rule of action2 a precept or command1 coming from a superior authority1 which an inferior is bound to obey4 ,the manner in which ,god governs rational creatures is by a law1 as the rule of their obedience to him1 and this is what we call ,god's moral government of the world4 ,the term1 however1 is used in ,scripture with considerable latitude of meaning2 and to ascertain its precise import in any particular place1 it is necessary to regard the scope and connection of the passage in which it occurs4 ,thus1 for instance1 sometimes it denotes the whole revealed will of ,god as communicated to us in his word4 ,in this sense it is generally used in the book of ,psalms1 i1 #b2 xix1 #g2 cxix2 ,isaiah viii1 #bj2 xlii1 #ba4 ,sometimes it is taken for the ,mosaical institution distinguished from the ,gospel1 ,john i1 #ag2 ,matt4 xi1 #ac2 xii1 #e2 ,acts xxv1 #h4 ,hence we frequently read of the law of ,moses as expressive of the whole religion of the ,jews1 ,heb4 ix1 #ai2 x1 #bh4 ,sometimes1 in a more restricted sense1 for the ritual or ceremonial observances of the ,jewish religion4 ,in this sense the ,apostle speaks of the law of commandments contained in ordinances10 ,eph4 ii1 #ae2 ,heb4 x1 #a2 and which1 being only a shadow of good things to come10 ,christ ,jesus abolished by his death1 and so in effect destroyed the ancient distinction between ,jew and ,gentile1 ,gal4 iii1 #ag4 ,very frequently it is used to signify the decalogue1 or ten precepts which were delivered to the ,israelites from ,mount ,sinai4 ,it is in this acceptation of the term that the ,lord ,jesus declares he came not to destroy the law1 but to fulfil it10 ,matt4 v1 #ag2 and he explains its import as requiring perfect love to ,god and man1 ,luke x1 #bg4 ,it is in reference to this view that ,st4 ,paul affirms1 ,by the deeds of the law shall no flesh living be justified2 for by the law is the knowledge of sin10 ,rom4 iii1 #bj4 ,the language of this law is1 ,the soul that sinneth it shall die10 and ,cursed is every one that continueth not in all things that are written10 or required1 in the book of the law1 to do them10 ,gal4 iii1 #aj4 ,to deliver man from this penalty1 ,christ hath redeemed us from the curse of the law1 being himself made a curse for us10 ,gal4 iii1 #ac4 ,the law1 in this sense1 was not given that men should obtain righteousness or justification by it1 but to convince them of sin1 to show them their need of a ,saviour1 to shut them up1 as it were1 from all hopes of salvation from that source1 and to recommend the ,gospel of divine grace to their acceptance1 ,gal4 iii1 #ai-be4 ,again1 the law often denotes the rule of good and evil1 or of right and wrong1 revealed by the ,creator and inscribed on man's conscience1 even at his creation1 and consequently binding upon him by divine authority2 and in this respect it is in substance the same with the decalogue4 ,that such a law was connate with1 and1 as it were1 implanted in1 man1 appears from its traces1 which1 like the ruins of some noble building1 are still extant in every man4 ,it is from those common notions1 handed down by tradition1 though often imperfect and perverted1 that the ,heathens themselves distinguished right from wrong1 by which they were a law unto themselves1 showing the work of the law written in their hearts1 their conscience bearing witness10 ,rom4 ii1 #ab-ae1 although they had no express revelation4 ,the term law1 is1 however1 eminently given to the ,mosaic law2 on the principles and spirit of which1 a few general remarks may be offered4 ,the right consideration of this divine institute1 says ,dr4 ,graves1 will surround it with a glory of truth and holiness1 not only worthy of its claims1 but which has continued to be the light of the world on theological and moral subjects1 and often on great political principles1 to this day4 ,if we examine the ,jewish law1 to discover the principle on which the whole system depends1 the primary truth1 to inculcate and illustrate which is its leading object1 we find it to be that great basis of all religion1 both natural and revealed1 the self-existence1 essential unity1 perfections1 and providence of the supreme ,jehovah1 the ,creator of heaven and earth4 ,the first line of the ,mosaic writings inculcates this great truth3 ,in the beginning ,god created the heaven and the earth40 ,when the lawgiver begins to recapitulate the statutes and judgments he had enjoined to his nation1 it is with this declaration3 ,hear1 ,o ,israel1 the ,lord our ,god is one ,lord10 ,deut4 vi1 #d2 or1 as it might be more closely expressed1 ,jehovah our ,elohim1 or ,god1 is one ,jehovah4 ,and at the commencement of that sublime hymn1 delivered by ,moses immediately before his death1 in which this illustrious prophet sums up the doctrines he had taught1 the wonders by which they had been confirmed1 and the denunciations by which they were enforced1 he declares this great tenet with the sublimity of eastern poetry1 but at the same time with the precision of philosophic truth3 ,give ear10 says he1 ,o ye heavens1 and ,i will speak3 and hear1 ,o earth1 the words of my mouth4 ,my doctrine shall drop rain3 my speech shall distil as the dew1 as the small rain upon the tender herb1 and as the showers upon the grass10 ,deut4 xxxii1 #a1 c4 ,what1 is that doctrine so awful1 that the whole universe is thus invoked to attend to it8 so salutary as to be compared with the principle whose operation diffuses beauty and fertility over the vegetable world8 ,hear the answer3 ,because ,i will publish the name of ,jehovah2 ascribe ye greatness unto our ,god4 ,he is the rock1 his work is perfect3 a ,god of truth1 and without iniquity1 just and right is he40 ,this1 then1 is one great leading doctrine of the ,jewish code4 ,but the manner in which this doctrine is taught displays such wise accommodation to the capacity and character of the nation to whom it is addressed1 as deserves to be carefully remarked4 ,that character by which the supreme ,being is most clearly distinguished from every other1 however exalted2 that character from which the acutest reasoners have endeavoured demonstratively to deduce1 as from their source1 all the divine attributes1 is self-existence4 ,is it not then highly remarkable1 that it is under this character the ,divinity is described on his first manifestation to the ,jewish lawgiver8 ,the ,deity at first reveals himself unto him as the ,god of ,abraham1 of ,isaac1 and of ,jacob2 and therefore the peculiar national and guardian ,god of the ,jewish race4 ,moses1 conscious of the degeneracy of the ,israelites1 their ignorance of1 or their inattention to1 the true ,god1 and the difficulty and danger of any attempt to recall them to his exclusive worship1 and to withdraw them from ,egypt1 seems to decline the task2 but when absolutely commanded to undertake it1 he said unto ,god1 ,behold1 when ,i come unto the children of ,israel1 and shall say unto them1 ,the ,god of your fathers hath sent me unto you2 and they shall say to me1 ,what is his name8 what shall ,i say unto them8 ,and ,god said unto ,moses1 ,i am that ,i am3 and he said1 ,thus shalt thou say unto the children of ,israel1 ,i ,am hath sent me unto you10 ,exod4 iii1 #ac1 #ad4 ,here we observe1 according to the constant method of the divine wisdom1 when it condescends to the prejudices of men1 how in the very instance of indulgence it corrects their superstition4 ,the religion of names arose from an idolatrous polytheism2 and the name given here directly opposes this error1 and in the ignorance of that dark and corrupted period establishes that great truth1 to which the most enlightened philosophy can add no new lustre1 and on which all the most refined speculations on the divine nature ultimately rest1 the self-existence1 and1 by consequence1 the eternity and immutability1 of the one great ,jehovah4 ,but though the self-existence of the ,deity was a fact too abstract to require its being frequently inculcated1 his essential unity was a practical principle1 the sure foundation on which to erect the structure of true religion1 and form a barrier against the encroachments of idolatry3 for this commenced not so frequently in denying the existence1 or even the supremacy1 of the one true ,god1 as in associating with him for objects of adoration inferior intermediate beings1 who were supposed to be more directly employed in the administration of human affairs4 ,to confute and resist this false principle was1 therefore1 one great object of the ,jewish scheme4 ,hence the unity of ,god is inculcated with perpetual solicitude2 it stands at the head of the system of moral law promulgated to the ,jews from ,sinai by the divine voice1 heard by the assembled nation1 and issuing from the divine glory1 with every circumstance which could impress the deepest awe upon even the dullest minds3 ,i am the ,lord thy ,god1 which have brought thee out of the land of ,egypt1 out of the house of bondage2 thou shalt have no other gods beside me10 ,exod4 xx1 #b1 #c4 ,and in the recapitulation of the divine laws in ,deuteronomy1 it is repeatedly enforced with the most solemn earnestness3 ,hear1 ,o ,israel1 ,the ,lord our ,god is one ,lord10 ,deut4 vi1 #d4 ,and again3 ,unto thee it was showed1 that thou mightest know that the ,lord he is ,god2 there is none else beside him4 ,know1 therefore1 this day1 and consider it in thine heart1 that the ,lord he is ,god in heaven above1 and in the earth beneath3 there is none else10 ,deut4 iv1 #ce1 #ci4 ,this self-existent1 supreme and only ,god is moreover described as possessed of every perfection which can be ascribed to the ,divinity3 ,ye shall be holy10 says the ,lord to the people of the ,jews2 for ,i the ,lord your ,god am holy10 ,lev4 xix1 #b4 ,ascribe ye10 says the legislator1 greatness unto our ,god2 he is the rock2 his work is perfect2 a ,god of truth1 and without iniquity1 just and right is he10 ,deut4 xxxii1 #d4 ,and in the hymn of thanksgiving on the miraculous escape of the ,israelites at the ,red ,sea1 this is its burden3 ,who is like unto thee1 ,o ,lord1 among the gods8 who is like unto thee1 glorious in holiness1 fearful in praises1 doing wonders80 ,exod4 xv1 #aa4 ,and when the ,lord delivered to ,moses the two tables of the moral law1 he is described as descending in the cloud1 and proclaiming the name of the ,lord3 ,and the ,lord passed by before him1 and proclaimed1 ,the ,lord1 the ,lord ,god1 merciful and gracious1 long-suffering1 and abundant in goodness1 keeping mercy for thousands1 forgiving iniquity1 transgression1 and sin1 and that will by no means clear the guilty10 ,exod4 xxxiv1 #f1 #g4 ,but to teach the self-existence1 the unity1 the wisdom1 and the power of the ,deity1 nay1 even his moral perfections of mercy1 justice1 and truth1 would have been insufficient to arrest the attention1 and command the obedience of a nation1 the majority of which looked no farther than mere present objects1 and at that early period cherished scarcely any hopes higher than those of a temporal kind1--if1 in addition to all this1 care had not been taken to represent the providence of ,god as not only directing the government of the universe by general laws1 but also perpetually superintending the conduct and determining the fortune of every nation1 of every family1 nay1 of every individual4 ,it was the disbelief or the neglect of this great truth which gave spirit and energy1 plausibility and attraction1 to the whole system of idolatry4 ,while men believed that the supreme ,god and ,lord of all was too exalted in his dignity1 too remote from this sublunary scene1 to regard its vicissitudes with an attentive eye1 and too constantly engaged in the contemplation of his own perfections1 and the enjoyment of his own independent and all-perfect happiness1 to interfere in the regulation of human affairs1 they regarded with indifference that supreme ,divinity who seemed to take no concern in their conduct1 and not to interfere as to their happiness4 ,however exalted and perfect such a ,being might appear to abstract speculation1 he was to the generality of mankind as if he did not exist2 as their happiness or misery were not supposed to be influenced by his power1 they referred not their conduct to his direction4 ,if he delegated to inferior beings the regulation of this inferior world2 if all its concerns were conducted by their immediate agency1 and all its blessings or calamities distributed by their immediate determination2 it seemed rational1 and even necessary1 to supplicate their favour and submit to their authority2 and neither unwise nor unsafe to neglect that ,being1 who1 though all-perfect and supreme1 would1 on this supposition appear1 with respect to mankind1 altogether inoperative4 ,in truth1 this fact of the perpetual providence of ,god extending even to the minutest events1 is inseparably connected with every motive which is offered to sway the conduct of the ,jews1 and forcibly inculcated by every event of their history4 ,this had been manifested in the appointment of the land of ,canaan for the future settlement of the chosen people on the first covenant which ,god entered into with the ,patriarch ,abraham2 in the prophecy1 that for four hundred years they should be afflicted in ,egypt1 and afterward be thence delivered2 in the increase of their nation1 under circumstances of extreme oppression1 and their supernatural deliverance from that oppression4 ,the same providence was displayed in the destruction of the ,egyptians in the ,red ,sea2 the travels of the thousands of ,israel through the wilderness1 sustained by food from heaven2 and in their subsequent settlement in the promised land by means entirely distinct from their own strength4 ,reliance on the same providence was the foundation of their civil government1 the spirit and the principle of their constitution4 ,on this only could they be commanded to keep the sabbatic year without tilling their land1 or even gathering its spontaneous produce2 confiding in the promise1 that ,god would send his blessing on the sixth year1 so that it should bring forth fruit for three years1 ,lev4 xxv1 #ba4 ,the same faith in ,divine ,providence alone could prevail on them to leave their properties and families exposed to the attack of their surrounding enemies2 while all the males of the nation assembled at ,jerusalem to celebrate the three great festivals1 enjoined by divine command1 with the assurance that no man should desire their land when they went up to appear before the ,lord their ,god thrice in the year1 ,exodus xxxiv1 #bd4 ,and1 finally1 it is most evident1 that1 contrary to all other lawgivers1 the ,jewish legislator renders his civil institutions entirely subordinate to his religious2 and announces to his nation that their temporal adversity or prosperity would entirely depend1 not on their observance of their political regulations2 not on their preserving a military spirit1 or acquiring commercial wealth1 or strengthening themselves by powerful alliances2 but on their continuing to worship the one true ,god according to the religious rites and ceremonies by him prescribed1 and preserving their piety and morals untainted by the corruptions and vices which idolatry tended to introduce4 ,such was the theology of the ,jewish religion1 at a period when the whole world was deeply infected with idolatry2 when all knowledge of the one true ,god1 all reverence for his sacred name1 all reliance on his providence1 all obedience to his laws1 were nearly banished from the earth2 when the severest chastisements had been tried in vain2 when no hope of reformation appeared from the refinements of civilization or the researches of philosophy2 for the most civilized and enlightened nations adopted with the greatest eagerness1 and disseminated with the greatest activity1 the absurdities1 impieties1 and pollutions of idolatry4 ,then was the ,jewish law promulgated to a nation1 who1 to mere human judgment1 might have appeared incapable of inventing or receiving such a high degree of intellectual and moral improvement2 for they had been long enslaved to the ,egyptians1 the authors and supporters of the grossest idolatry2 they had been weighed down by the severest bondage1 perpetually harassed by the most incessant manual labours2 for the ,egyptians made their lives bitter with hard bondage1 in mortar1 and in brick1 and in all manner of service in the field10 ,exod4 i1 #ad4 ,at this time1 and in this nation1 was the ,mosaic law promulgated1 teaching the great principles of true religion1 the self-existence1 the unity1 the perfections1 and the providence of the one great ,jehovah2 reprobating all false gods1 all image worship1 all the absurdities and profanations of idolatry4 ,at this time1 and in this nation1 was a system of government framed1 which had for its basis the reception of1 and steady adherence to1 this system of true religion2 and establishing many regulations1 which would be in the highest degree irrational1 and could never hope to be received1 except from a general and thorough reliance on the superintendence of ,divine ,providence1 controlling the course of nature1 and directing every event1 so as to proportion the prosperity of the ,hebrew people1 according to their obedience to that law which they had received as divine4 ,it is an obvious1 but it is not therefore a less important remark1 that to the ,jewish religion we owe that admirable summary of moral duty1 contained in the ten commandments4 ,all fair reasoners will admit that each of these must be understood to condemn1 not merely the extreme crime which it expressly prohibits1 but every inferior offence of the same kind1 and every mode of conduct leading to such transgression2 and1 on the contrary1 to enjoin opposite conduct1 and the cultivation of opposite dispositions4 ,thus1 the command1 ,thou shalt not kill10 condemns not merely the single crime of deliberate murder1 but every kind of violence1 and every indulgence of passion and resentment1 which tends either to excite such violence1 or to produce that malignant disposition of mind1 in which the guilt of murder principally consists3 and similarly of the rest4 ,in this extensive interpretation of the commandments1 we are warranted1 not merely by the deductions of reason1 but by the letter of the law itself4 ,for the addition of the last1 ,thou shalt not covet10 proves clearly that in all1 the dispositions of the heart1 as much as the immediate outward act1 is the object of the divine ,legislator2 and thus it forms a comment on the meaning1 as well as a guard for the observance1 of all the preceding commands4 ,interpreted in this natural and rational latitude1 how comprehensive and important is this summary of moral duty6 ,it inculcates the adoration of the one true ,god1 who made heaven and earth1 the sea1 and all that in them is20 who must1 therefore1 be infinite in power1 and wisdom1 and goodness2 the object of exclusive adoration2 of gratitude for every blessing we enjoy2 of fear1 for he is a jealous ,god2 of hope1 for he is merciful4 ,it prohibits every species of idolatry2 whether by associating false gods with the true1 or worshipping the true by symbols and images4 ,commanding not to take the name of ,god in vain1 it enjoins the observance of all outward respect for the divine authority1 as well as the cultivation of inward sentiments and feelings suited to this outward reverence2 and it establishes the obligation of oaths1 and1 by consequence1 of all compacts and deliberate promises2 a principle1 without which the administration of laws would be impracticable1 and the bonds of society must be dissolved4 ,by commanding to keep holy the ,sabbath1 as the memorial of the creation1 it establishes the necessity of public worship1 and of a stated and outward profession of the truths of religion1 as well as of the cultivation of suitable feelings2 and it enforces this by a motive which is equally applicable to all mankind1 and which should have taught the ,jew that he ought to consider all nations as equally creatures of that ,jehovah whom he himself adored2 equally subject to his government1 and1 if sincerely obedient1 entitled to all the privileges his favour could bestow4 ,it is also remarkable1 that this commandment1 requiring that the rest of the ,sabbath should include the man-servant1 and the maid-servant1 and the stranger that was within their gates1 nay1 even their cattle1 proved that the ,creator of the universe extended his attention to all his creatures2 that the humblest of mankind were the objects of his paternal love2 that no accidental differences1 which so often create alienation among different nations1 would alienate any from the divine regard2 and that even the brute creation shared the benevolence of their ,creator1 and ought to be treated by men with gentleness and humanity4 ,when we proceed to the second table1 comprehending more expressly our social duties1 we find all the most important principles on which they depend clearly enforced4 ,the commandment which enjoins1 ,honour thy father and mother10 sanctions the principles1 not merely of filial obedience1 but of all those duties which arise from our domestic relations2 and1 while it requires not so much any one specific act1 as the general disposition which should regulate our whole course of conduct in this instance1 it impresses the important conviction1 that the entire law proceeds from a ,legislator able to search and judge the heart of man4 ,the subsequent commands coincide with the clear dictates of reason1 and prohibit crimes which human laws in general have prohibited as plainly destructive of social happiness4 ,but it was of infinite importance to rest the prohibitions1 ,thou shalt not kill10 ,thou shalt not commit adultery10 ,thou shalt not steal10 ,thou shalt not bear false witness10 not merely on the deductions of reason1 but also on the weight of a divine authority4 ,how often have false ideas of public good in some places1 depraved passions in others1 and the delusions of idolatry in still more1 established a law of reputation contrary to the dictates of reason1 and the real interests of society4 ,in one country we see theft allowed1 if perpetrated with address2 in others1 piracy and rapine honoured1 if conducted with intrepidity4 ,sometimes we perceive adultery permitted1 the most unnatural crimes committed without remorse or shame2 nay1 every species of impurity enjoined and consecrated as a part of divine worship4 ,in others1 we find revenge honoured as spirit1 and death inflicted at its impulse with ferocious triumph4 ,again1 we see every feeling of nature outraged1 and parents exposing their helpless children to perish for deformity of body or weakness of mind2 or1 what is still more dreadful1 from mercenary or political views2 and this inhuman practice familiarized by custom1 and authorized by law4 ,and1 to close the horrid catalogue1 we see false religions leading their deluded votaries to heap the altars of their idols with human victims2 the master butchers his slave1 the conqueror his captive2 nay1 dreadful to relate1 the parent sacrifices his children1 and1 while they shriek amidst the tortures of the flames1 or in the agonies of death1 he drowns their cries by the clangour of cymbals and the yells of fanaticism4 ,yet these abominations1 separate or combined1 have disgraced ages and nations which we are accustomed to admire and celebrate as civilized and enlightened1--,babylon and ,egypt1 ,phenicia and ,carthage1 ,greece and ,rome4 ,many of these crimes legislators have enjoined1 or philosophers defended4 ,what1 indeed1 could be hoped from legislators and philosophers1 when we recollect the institutions of ,lycurgus1 especially as to purity of manners1 and the regulations of ,plato on the same subject1 in his model of a perfect republic2 when we consider the sensuality of the ,epicureans1 and immodesty of the ,cynics2 when we find suicide applauded by the ,stoics1 and the murderous combats of gladiators defended by ,cicero1 and exhibited by ,trajan8 ,such variation and inconstancy in the rule and practice of moral duty1 as established by the feeble or fluctuating authority of human opinion1 demonstrates the utility of a clear divine interposition1 to impress these important prohibitions2 and it is difficult for any sagacity to calculate how far such an interposition was necessary1 and what effect it may have produced by influencing human opinions and regulating human conduct1 when we recollect that the ,mosaic code was probably the first written law ever delivered to any nation2 and that it must have been generally known in those eastern countries1 from which the most ancient and celebrated legislators and sages derived the models of their laws and the principles of their philosophy4 ,but the ,jewish religion promoted the interests of moral virtue1 not merely by the positive injunctions of the decalogue2 it also inculcated clearly and authoritatively the two great principles on which all piety and virtue depend1 and which our blessed ,lord recognised as the commandments on which hang the law and the prophets1--the principles of love to ,god and love to our neighbour4 ,the love of ,god is every where enjoined in the ,mosaic law1 as the ruling disposition of the heart1 from which all obedience should spring1 and in which it ought to terminate4 ,with what solemnity does the ,jewish lawgiver impress it at the commencement of his recapitulation of the divine law3 ,hear1 ,o ,israel3 the ,lord our ,god is one ,lord3 ,and thou shalt love the ,lord thy ,god with all thine heart1 and with all thy soul1 and with all thy might10 ,deut4 vi1 #d1 #e4 ,and again3 ,and now1 ,israel1 what doth the ,lord thy ,god require of thee1 but to fear the ,lord thy ,god1 to walk in all his ways1 and to love him1 and to serve the ,lord thy ,god with all thy heart and with all thy soul80 ,deut4 x1 #ab4 ,nor is the love of our neighbour less explicitly enforced3 ,thou shalt not10 says the law1 avenge1 nor bear any grudge against the children of thy people1 but thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself3 ,i am the ,lord10 ,lev4 xix1 #ah4 ,the operation of this benevolence1 thus solemnly required1 was not to be confined to their own countrymen2 it was to extend to the stranger1 who1 having renounced idolatry1 was permitted to live among them1 worshipping the true ,god1 though without submitting to circumcision or the other ceremonial parts of the ,mosaic law3 ,if a stranger10 says the law1 sojourn with thee in your land1 ye shall not vex him4 ,but the stranger that dwelleth with you shall be unto you as one born among you1 and thou shalt love him as thyself2 for ye were strangers in the land of ,egypt3 ,i am the ,lord thy ,god10 ,lev4 xix1 #cc1 #cd4 ,thus1 on a review of the topics we have discussed1 it appears that the ,jewish law promulgated the great principles of moral duty in the decalogue1 with a solemnity suited to their high preminence2 that it enjoined love to ,god with the most unceasing solicitude1 and love to our neighbour1 as extensively and forcibly1 as the peculiar design of the ,jewish economy1 and the peculiar character of the ,jewish people1 would permit2 that it impressed the deepest conviction of ,god's requiring1 not mere external observances1 but heart-felt piety1 well regulated desires1 and active benevolence2 that it taught sacrifice could not obtain pardon without repentance1 or repentance without reformation and restitution2 that it described circumcision itself1 and1 by consequence1 every other legal rite1 as designed to typify and inculcate internal holiness1 which alone could render men acceptable to ,god2 that it represented the love of ,god as designed to act as a practical principle1 stimulating to the constant and sincere cultivation of purity1 mercy1 and truth2 and that it enforced all these principles and precepts by sanctions the most likely to operate powerfully on minds unaccustomed to abstract speculations and remote views1 even by temporal rewards and punishments2 the assurance of which was confirmed from the immediate experience of similar rewards and punishments1 dispensed to their enemies and to themselves by that supernatural ,power which had delivered the ,hebrew nation out of ,egypt1 conducted them through the wilderness1 planted them in the land of ,canaan1 regulated their government1 distributed their possessions1 and to which alone they could look to obtain new blessings1 or secure those already enjoyed4 ,from all this we derive another presumptive argument for the divine authority of the ,mosaic code2 and it may be contended1 that a moral system thus perfect1 promulgated at so early a period1 to such a people1 and enforced by such sanctions as no human power could undertake to execute1 strongly bespeaks a divine original4 #b4 ,the moral law is sometimes called the ,mosaic law1 because it was one great branch of those injunctions which1 under divine authority1 ,moses enjoined upon the ,israelites when they were gathered into a political community under the theocracy4 ,but it existed previously as the law of all mankind2 and it has been taken up into the ,christian system1 and there more fully illustrated4 ,as the obligation of the moral law upon ,christians has1 however1 been disputed by some perverters of the ,christian faith1 or held by others on loose and fallacious grounds1 this subject ought to be clearly understood4 ,it is1 nevertheless1 to be noticed1 that the morals of the ,new ,testament are not proposed to us in the form of a regular code4 ,even in the books of ,moses1 which have the legislative form to a great extent1 not all the principles and duties which constituted the full character of godliness10 under that dispensation1 are made the subjects of formal injunction by particular precepts4 ,they are partly infolded in general principles1 or often take the form of injunction in an apparently incidental manner1 or are matters of obvious inference4 ,a preceding code of traditionary moral law is all along supposed in the writings of ,moses and the prophets1 as well as a consuetudinary ritual and a doctrinal theology1 both transmitted from the patriarchs4 ,this1 too1 is eminently the case with ,christianity4 ,it supposes that all who believed in ,christ admitted the divine authority of the ,old ,testament2 and it assumes the perpetual authority of its morals1 as well as the truth of its fundamental theology4 ,the constant allusions in the ,new ,testament to the moral rules of the ,jews and patriarchs1 either expressly as precepts1 or as the data of argument1 sufficiently guard us against the notion1 that what has not in so many words been re-enacted by ,christ and his ,apostles is of no authority among ,christians4 ,in a great number of instances1 however1 the form of injunction is directly preceptive1 so as to have all the explicitness and force of a regular code of law1 and is1 as much as a regular code could be1 a declaration of the sovereign will of ,christ1 enforced by the sanctions of eternal life and death4 ,this1 however1 is a point on which a few confirmatory observations may be usefully adduced4 ,no part of the preceding dispensation1 designated generally by the appellation of the law10 is repealed in the ,new ,testament1 but what is obviously ceremonial1 typical1 and incapable of coxisting with ,christianity4 ,our ,lord1 in his discourse with the ,samaritan woman1 declares1 that the hour of the abolition of the temple worship was come2 the ,apostle ,paul1 in the ,epistle to the ,hebrews1 teaches us that the ,levitical services were but shadows1 the substance and end of which is ,christ2 and the ancient visible church1 as constituted upon the ground of natural descent from ,abraham1 was abolished by the establishment of a spiritual body of believers to take its place4 ,no precepts of a purely political nature1 that is1 which respect the civil subjection of the ,jews to their theocracy1 are1 therefore1 of any force to us as laws1 although they may have1 in many cases1 the greatest authority as principles4 ,no ceremonial precepts can be binding1 since they were restrained to a period terminating with the death and resurrection of ,christ2 nor are even the patriarchal rites of circumcision and the passover obligatory upon ,christians1 since we have sufficient evidence that they were of an adumbrative character1 and were laid aside by the first inspired teachers of ,christianity4 ,with the moral precepts which abound in the ,old ,testament the case is very different1 as sufficiently appears from the different1 and even contrary1 manner in which they are always spoken of by ,christ and his ,apostles4 ,when our ,lord1 in his sermon on the mount1 says1 ,think not that ,i am come to destroy the law or the prophets2 ,i am not come to destroy the law1 but to fulfil20 that is1 to confirm or establish it2 the entire scope of his discourse shows that he is speaking exclusively of the moral precepts of the law10 eminently so called1 and of the moral injunctions of the prophets founded upon them1 and to which he thus gives an equal authority4 ,and in so solemn a manner does he enforce this1 that he adds1 doubtless as foreseeing that attempts would be made by deceiving or deceived men professing his religion1 to lessen the authority of the moral law1 ,whosoever1 therefore1 shall break one of these least commandments1 and shall teach men so1 he shall be called the least in the kingdom of heaven20 that is1 as ,st4 ,chrysostom interprets1 ,he shall be the farthest from attaining heaven and happiness1 which imports that he shall not attain it at all40 ,in like manner ,st4 ,paul1 after having strenuously maintained the doctrine of justification by faith alone1 anticipates an objection by asking1 ,do we then make void the law through faith80 and subjoins1 ,god forbid3 yea1 we establish the law20 meaning by the law10 as the context and his argument clearly show1 the moral and not the ceremonial law4 ,after such declarations1 it is worse than trifling for any to contend that1 in order to establish the authority of the moral law of the ,jews over ,christians1 it ought to have been formally renacted4 ,to this we may1 however1 farther reply1 not only that many important moral principles and rules found in the ,old ,testament were never formally enacted among the ,jews2 were traditional from an earlier age2 and received at different times the more indirect authority of inspired recognition2 but1 to put the matter in a stronger light1 that all the leading moral precepts of the ,jewish ,scriptures are1 in point of fact1 proposed in the ,new ,testament in a manner which has the full force of formal renactment1 as the laws of the ,christian church4 ,this argument1 from the want of formal renactment1 will therefore have no weight4 ,the summary of the law and the prophets1 which is to love ,god with all our heart1 and to serve him with all our strength1 and to love our neighbour as ourselves1 is unquestionably enjoined1 and even renacted by the ,christian lawgiver4 ,when our ,lord is explicitly asked by one who came unto him and said1 ,good ,master1 what good thing shall ,i do1 that ,i may have eternal life80 the answer given shows that the moral law contained in the decalogue is so in force under the ,christian dispensation1 that obedience to it is necessary to final salvation3--8,if thou wilt enter into life1 keep the commandments40 ,and that nothing ceremonial is intended by this term1 is manifest from what follows3 ,he saith unto him1 ,which8 ,jesus said1 ,thou shalt do no murder4 ,thou shalt not commit adultery4 ,thou shalt not steal10 c4 ,matt4 xix1 #ag-ai4 ,here1 also1 we have all the force of a formal renactment of the decalogue1 a part of it being evidently put for the whole4 ,nor were it difficult to produce passages from the discourses of ,christ and the writings of the ,apostles1 which enjoin all the precepts of this law taken separately1 by their authority1 as indispensable parts of ,christian duty1 and that1 too1 under their original sanctions of life and death2 so that the two circumstances which form the true character of a law in its highest sense1 divine authority and penal sanctions1 are found as truly in the ,new ,testament as in the ,old4 ,it will not1 for instance1 be contended1 that the ,new ,testament does not enjoin the acknowledgment and worship of one ,god alone2 nor that it does not prohibit idolatry2 nor that it does not level its maledictions against false and profane swearing2 nor that the ,apostle ,paul does not use the very words of the fifth commandment preceptively1 when he says1 ,honour thy father and mother1 which is the first commandment with promise10 ,eph4 vi1 #b2 nor that murder1 adultery1 theft1 false witness1 and covetousness are not all prohibited under pain of exclusion from the kingdom of ,god4 ,thus1 then1 we have the whole decalogue brought into the ,christian code of morals1 by a distinct injunction of its separate precepts1 and by their recognition as of permanent and unchangeable obligation2 the fourth commandment1 respecting the ,sabbath only1 being so far excepted1 that its injunction is not so expressly marked4 ,this1 however1 is no exception in fact2 for beside that its original place in the two tables sufficiently distinguishes it from all positive1 ceremonial1 and typical precepts1 and gives it a moral character1 in respect to its ends1 which are1 first1 mercy to servants and cattle1 and1 second1 the worship of almighty ,god1 undisturbed by worldly interruptions and cares1 it is necessarily included in that law0 which our ,lord declares he came not to destroy1 or abrogate2 in that law0 which ,st4 ,paul declares to be established by faith10 and among those commandments0 which our ,lord declares must be kept10 if any one would enter into life40 ,to this1 also1 the practice of the ,apostles is to be added1 who did not cease themselves from keeping one day in seven holy1 nor teach others so to do2 but gave to 8the ,lord's day0 that eminence and sanctity in the ,christian church which the seventh day had in the ,jewish1 by consecrating it to holy uses2 an alteration not affecting the precept at all1 except in an unessential circumstance1 7if indeed in that17 and in which we may suppose them to have acted under divine suggestion4 ,thus1 then1 we have the obligation of the whole decalogue as fully established in the ,new ,testament as in the ,old1 as if it had been formally renacted2 and that no formal renactment of it took place1 is itself a presumptive proof that it was never regarded by the lawgiver as temporary1 which the formality of republication might have supposed4 ,it is important to remark1 however1 that1 although the moral laws of the ,mosaic dispensation pass into the ,christian code1 they stand there in other and higher circumstances2 so that the ,new ,testament is a more perfect dispensation of the knowledge of the moral will of ,god than the ,old4 ,in particular1 7#a47 ,they are more expressly extended to the heart1 as by our ,lord1 in his sermon on the mount2 who teaches us that the thought and inward purpose of any offence is a violation of the law prohibiting its external and visible commission4 7#b47 ,the principles on which they are founded are carried out in the ,new ,testament into a greater variety of duties1 which1 by embracing more perfectly the social and civil relations of life1 are of a more universal character4 7#c47 ,there is a much more enlarged injunction of positive and particular virtues1 especially those which constitute the ,christian temper4 7#d47 ,by all overt acts being inseparably connected with corresponding principles in the heart1 in order to constitute acceptable obedience1 which principles suppose the regeneration of the soul by the ,holy ,ghost4 ,this moral renovation is1 therefore1 held out as necessary to our salvation1 and promised as a part of the grace of our redemption by ,christ4 7#e47 ,by being connected with promises of divine assistance1 which is peculiar to a law connected with evangelical provisions4 7#f47 ,by their having a living illustration in the perfect and practical example of ,christ4 7#g47 ,by the higher sanctions derived from the clearer revelation of a future state1 and the more explicit promises of eternal life1 and threatenings of eternal punishment4 ,it follows from this1 that we have in the ,gospel the most complete and perfect revelation of moral law ever given to men2 and a more exact manifestation of the brightness1 perfection1 and glory of that law1 under which angels and our progenitors in paradise were placed1 and which it is at once the delight and the interest of the most perfect and happy beings to obey4 ,,lazarus1 brother to ,martha and ,mary4 ,he dwelt at ,bethany with his sisters1 near ,jerusalem2 and the ,lord ,jesus did him the honour sometimes of lodging at his house when he visited the city4 ,see the account of his resurrection related at large in ,john xi1 #e1 c4 ,,lead1 1 ,exod4 xv1 #aj2 ,num4 xxxi1 #bb2 ,job xix1 #bd2 ,jer4 vi1 #bi2 ,ezek4 xxii1 #ah2 xxvii1 #ab2 ,zech4 v1 #g1 #h2 a mineral of a bluish white colour4 ,it is the softest next to gold1 but has no great tenacity1 and is not in the least sonorous4 ,it is mentioned with five other species of metal1 ,num4 xxxi1 #bb2 and there is no doubt but that this is the meaning of the word2 so the ,septuagint render it throughout1 or 4 ,,leaven4 ,the ,hebrews were forbidden by the law to eat leavened bread1 or a food with leaven in it1 during the seven days of the passover1 ,exod4 xii1 #ae-ai2 ,lev4 ii1 #aa4 ,they were very careful in purifying their houses from all leaven before this feast began4 ,god forbad either leaven or honey to be offered to him in his temple2 that is1 in cakes or in any baked meats4 ,but on other occasions they might offer leavened bread or honey4 ,st4 ,paul1 #a ,cor4 v1 #g1 #h1 expresses his desire that the faithful should celebrate the ,christian passover with unleavened bread2 which1 figuratively1 signifies sincerity and truth4 ,in this he teaches us two things2 first1 that the law which obliged the ,jews to a literal observance of the passover is no longer in force2 and1 secondly1 that by unleavened bread1 truth and purity of heart were denoted4 ,the same ,apostle alludes to the ceremony used at the passover1 when he says1 ,a little leaven leaveneth the whole lump20 that is1 a small portion of leaven1 in a quantity of bread or paste1 corrupts the whole1 and renders it unclean4 ,our ,saviour1 in the ,gospel1 ,matthew xvi1 #aa1 warns his ,apostles to beware of the leaven of the ,herodians and ,pharisees2 meaning their doctrines4 ,,lebanon1 or ,,libanus1 signifying white1 from its snows1--the most elevated mountain or mountain chain in ,syria1 celebrated in all ages for its cedars2 which1 as is well known1 furnished the wood for ,solomon's temple4 ,this mountain is the centre1 or nucleus1 of all the mountain ridges which1 from the north1 the south1 and the east1 converge toward this point2 but it overtops them all4 ,this configuration of the mountains1 and the superiority of ,lebanon1 are particularly striking to the traveller approaching both from the ,mediterranean on the west1 and the desert on the east4 ,on either side1 he first discovers1 at a great distance1 a clouded ridge1 stretching from north to south1 as far as the eye can see2 the central summits of which are capped with clouds1 or tipped with snow4 ,this is ,lebanon1 which is often referred to in ,holy ,writ for its streams1 its timber1 and its wines2 and at the present day the seat of the only portion of freedom of which ,syria can boast4 ,the altitude of ,lebanon is so considerable1 that it appears from the reports of travellers to have snow on its highest eminences all the year round4 ,volney says1 that it thus remains toward the north-east1 where it is sheltered from the sea winds and the rays of the sun4 ,maundrell found that part of the mountain which he crossed1 and which in all probability was by no means the highest1 covered with deep snow in the month of ,may4 ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke1 in the month of ,july1 saw some of the eastern summits of ,lebanon1 or ,anti-,libanus1 near ,damascus1 covered with snow1 not lying in patches1 as is common in the summer season with mountains which border on the line of perpetual congelation1 but do not quite reach it1 but with that perfect white1 smooth1 and velvetlike appearance1 which snow only exhibits when it is very deep1--a striking spectacle in such a climate1 where the beholder1 seeking protection from a burning sun1 almost considers the firmament to be on fire4 ,at the time this observation was made1 the thermometer1 in an elevated situation near the sea of ,tiberias1 stood at #ajb in the shade4 ,sir ,frederic ,henniker passed over snow in ,july2 and ,ali ,bey describes the same eastern ridge as covered with snow in ,september4 ,of the noble cedars which once adorned the upper parts of this mountain but few now remain1 and those much decayed4 ,burckhardt1 who crossed ,mount ,libanus in #ahaj1 counted about thirty-six large ones1 fifty of middle size1 and about three hundred smaller and young ones3 but more might exist in other parts of the mountain4 ,the wine1 especially that made about the convent of ,canobin1 still preserves its ancient celebrity2 and is reported by travellers1 more particularly by ,rauwolff1 ,le ,bruyn1 and ,de la ,roque1 to be of the most exquisite kind for flavour and fragrance4 ,the rains which fall in the lower regions of ,lebanon1 and the melting of the snow in the upper ones1 furnish an abundance of perennial streams1 which are alluded to by ,solomon1 ,cant4 iv1 #ae4 ,on the declivities of the mountain grew the vines which furnished the rich and fragrant wine which ,hosea celebrated1 xiv1 #g1 and which may still be obtained by proper culture4 ,the cedar of ,lebanon has1 in all ages1 been reckoned as an object of unrivalled grandeur and beauty in the vegetable kingdom4 ,it is1 accordingly1 one of the natural images which frequently occur in the poetical style of the ,hebrew prophets2 and is appropriated to denote kings1 princes1 and potentates of the highest rank4 ,thus1 the ,prophet ,isaiah1 whose writings abound with metaphors and allegories of this kind1 in denouncing the judgments of ,god upon the proud and arrogant1 declares that the day of the ,lord of ,hosts shall be upon all the cedars of ,lebanon that are high and lifted up1 and upon all the oaks of ,bashan10 ,isaiah ii1 #ac4 ,the king of ,israel used the same figure in his reply to the challenge of the king of ,judah3 ,the thistle that was in ,lebanon sent to the cedar that was in ,lebanon1 saying1 ,give thy daughter to my son to wife3 and there passed by a wild beast that was in ,lebanon1 and trod down the thistle10 #b ,kings xiv1 #i4 ,the spiritual prosperity of the righteous man is compared by the ,psalmist to the same noble plant3 ,the righteous shall flourish as the palm tree2 he shall grow as the cedar in ,lebanon40 ,to break the cedars1 and shake the enormous mass on which they grow1 are the figures that ,david selects to express the awful majesty and power of ,jehovah3 ,the voice of the ,lord is powerful2 the voice of the ,lord is full of majesty4 ,the voice of the ,lord breaketh the cedars3 yea1 the ,lord breaketh the cedars of ,lebanon4 ,he maketh them also to skip like a calf2 ,lebanon and ,sirion like a young unicorn10 ,psalm xxix1 #d-f4 ,this description of the divine majesty and power possesses a character of awful sublimity4 ,the stupendous size1 the extensive range1 and great elevation of ,libanus2 its towering summits capped with perpetual snow1 or crowned with fragrant cedars2 its olive plantations2 its vineyards1 producing the most delicious wines2 its clear fountains1 and cold-flowing brooks2 its fertile vales1 and odoriferous shrubberies1--combine to form in ,scripture language1 the glory of ,lebanon40 ,but that glory1 liable to change1 has1 by the unanimous consent of modern travellers1 suffered a sensible decline4 ,the extensive forests of cedar1 which adorned and perfumed the summits and declivities of those mountains1 have almost disappeared4 ,only a small number of these trees of ,god1 planted by his almighty hand10 which1 according to the usual import of the phrase1 signally displayed the divine power1 wisdom1 and goodness1 now remain4 ,their countless number in the days of ,solomon1 and their prodigious bulk1 must be recollected1 in order to feel the force of that sublime declaration of the prophet3 ,lebanon is not sufficient to burn1 nor the beasts thereof sufficient for a burnt-offering10 ,isaiah xl1 #af4 ,though the trembling sinner were to make choice of ,lebanon for the altar2 were to cut down all its forests to form the pile2 though the fragrance of this fuel1 with all its odoriferous gums1 were the incense2 the wine of ,lebanon pressed from all its vineyards1 the libation2 and all its beasts1 the propitiatory sacrifice2 all would prove insufficient to make atonement for the sins of men2 would be regarded as nothing in the eyes of the supreme ,judge for the expiation of even one transgression4 ,the just and holy law of ,god requires a nobler altar1 a costlier sacrifice1 and a sweeter perfume1--the obedience and death of a divine ,person to atone for our sins1 and the incense of his continual intercession to secure our acceptance with the ,father of mercies1 and admission into the mansions of eternal rest4 ,the conversion of the ,gentile nations from the worship of idols and the bondage of corruption1 to the service and enjoyment of the true ,god1 is foretold in these beautiful and striking terms3 ,the wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for them3 and the desert shall rejoice1 and blossom as the rose4 ,it shall blossom abundantly1 and rejoice even with joy and singing2 the glory of ,lebanon shall be given unto it1 the excellency of ,carmel and ,sharon3 they shall see the glory of the ,lord1 and the excellency of our ,god10 ,isaiah xxxv1 #d4 ,,leek1 1 in ,numbers xi1 #e1 translated leek20 in #a ,kings xviii1 #e2 #b ,kings xix1 #bf2 ,job xl1 #ae2 ,psalm xxxvii1 #b2 xc1 #e2 ciii1 #ae2 civ1 #ad2 cxxix1 #f2 cxlvii1 #h2 ,isaiah xxxv1 #g2 xxxvii1 #bg2 xl1 #f1 it is rendered grass20 in ,job viii1 #ab1 herb20 in ,prov4 xxvii1 #be2 ,isaiah xv1 #f1 hay20 and in ,isaiah xxxiv1 #ac1 a court40 ,it is much of the same nature with the onion4 ,the kind called karrat by the ,arabians1 the allium porrum of ,linnus1 ,hasselquist says1 must certainly have been one of those desired by the children of ,israel1 as it has been cultivated and esteemed from the earliest times to the present in ,egypt4 ,the inhabitants are very fond of eating it raw1 as sauce for their roasted meat2 and the poor people eat it raw with their bread1 especially for breakfast4 ,there is reason1 however1 to doubt whether this plant is intended in ,num4 xi1 #e1 and so differently rendered every where else3 it should rather intend such vegetables as grow promiscuously with grass4 ,ludolphus supposes that it may mean lettuce and sallads in general2 and ,maillet observes1 that the succory and endive are eaten with great relish by the people in ,egypt3 some or all of these may be meant4 ,,legion4 ,the ,roman legions were composed each of ten cohorts2 a cohort1 of fifty maniples2 a maniple1 of fifteen men2 consequently1 a full legion contained six thousand soldiers4 ,jesus cured one who called himself legion10 as if possessed by a legion of devils1 ,mark v1 #i4 ,he also said to ,peter1 who drew his sword to defend him in the olive garden3 ,thinkest thou that ,i cannot now pray to my ,father1 who shall presently give me more than twelve legions of angels80 ,matt4 xxvi1 #ec4 ,,lemuel4 ,see ,,agur4 ,,lentil1 1 ,gen4 xxv1 #cd2 #b ,sam4 xvii1 #bh2 xxiii1 #aa2 ,ezek4 iv1 #i1 a sort of pulse2 in the ,septuagint 1 and ,vulgate lens4 ,the lentils of ,egypt were very much esteemed among the ancients4 ,st4 ,austin says1 they grow abundantly in ,egypt1 are much used as a food there1 and those of ,alexandria are considered particularly valuable4 ,dr4 ,shaw says1 beans1 lentils1 kidney beans1 and garvancos are the chief of their pulse kind4 ,beans1 when boiled and stewed with oil and garlic1 are the principal food of persons of all distinctions4 ,lentils are dressed in the same manner as beans1 dissolving easily into a mass1 and making a pottage of a chocolate colour4 ,this1 we find1 was the red pottage0 which ,esau1 from thence called ,edom1 exchanged for his birthright4 ,,leopard1 1 ,cant4 iv1 #h2 ,isaiah xi1 #f2 ,jer4 v1 #f2 xiii1 #bc2 ,hosea xiii1 #g2 ,hab4 i1 #h2 ,dan4 vii1 #f2 1 ,rev4 xiii1 #b2 ,ecclus4 xxviii1 #bc4 ,there can be no doubt that the pard or leopard is the animal mentioned4 ,bochart shows that the name is similar in the ,chaldee1 ,syriac1 ,arabic1 and ,ethiopic4 ,the ,,lxx uniformly render it by 2 and ,jerom1 pardus4 ,probably1 these animals were numerous in ,palestine2 as we find places with a name intimating their having been the haunts of leopards3 ,nimrah1 ,num4 xxxii1 #c2 ,beth-,nimrah1 ,num4 xxxii1 #cf2 ,joshua xiii1 #bg2 and waters of ,nimrim10 ,isa4 xv1 #f2 ,jer4 xlviii1 #cd2 and mountains of leopards10 ,cant4 iv1 #h4 ,nimrod might have his name from this animal3 ,he was a mighty hunter before the ,lord2 wherefore it is said1 ,even as ,nimrod the mighty hunter before the ,lord10 ,gen4 x1 #i4 ,it is supposed1 however1 that his predations were not confined to the brute creation4 ,dr4 ,geddes remarks1 that the word hunter0 expresses too little4 ,he was a freebooter1 in the worst sense of the word2 a lawless despot3 ,proud ,nimrod first the bloody chase began1 ,a mighty hunter1 and his prey was man4 ,isaiah1 describing the happy state of the reign of ,messiah1 says1 ,the leopard shall lie down with the kid10 ,isaiah xi1 #f4 ,even animals shall lose their fierceness and cruelty1 and become gentle and tame4 ,jeremiah1 v1 #f1 mentions the artful ambuscades of this animal2 and in xiii1 #bc1 alludes to his spots3 ,can a ,cushite change his skin2 or a leopard his spots8 ,then may ye prevail with them to do good who are habituated to do evil20 and ,habakkuk1 i1 #h1 refers to its alertness4 ,,leprosy4 ,see ,,diseases4 ,,letters1 marks for the purpose of expressing sounds1 used in writing4 ,few subjects have given rise to more discussion than the origin of alphabetic characters4 ,if they are of human invention1 they must be considered as one of the most admirable efforts of the ingenuity of man4 ,so wonderful is the facility which they afford for recording human thought2 so ingenious1 and at the same time so simple1 is the analysis which they furnish for the sounds of articulate speech1 and for all the possible variety of words2 that we might expect the author of this happy invention to have been immortalized by the grateful homage of succeeding ages1 and his name delivered down to posterity with the ample honours it so justly merited4 ,but the author and the era of this discovery1 if such it be1 are both lost in the darkness of remote antiquity4 ,even the nation to which the invention is due cannot now be ascertained4 ,the ,egyptians1 the ,assyrians1 the ,phenicians1 the ,persians1 the ,indians1 have all laid claim to the honour of it2 and each has named its inventor among the remote1 and probably fabulous1 personages that figure in the earlier ages of their history4 ,in consequence of this uncertainty respecting the author of alphabetic writing1 and the high value and extreme difficulty of the invention itself1 many have been inclined to attribute this art to an immediate revelation from the ,deity2 contending that it was communicated with other invaluable gifts from above1 in remote ages1 to the descendants of ,abraham1 and probably to the ,patriarch ,moses1 who was the author of the most ancient compositions in alphabetical writing that we at present possess4 ,the arguments which are brought in support of the divine revelation of the alphabet1 are chiefly these3 #a4 ,the high antiquity of the use of letters2 the ,hebrew characters having existed in a perfect state when ,moses composed the ,pentateuch1 the most ancient writing now known to be extant4 #b4 ,the similarity between the various alphabets of different nations1 which1 for the most part1 are the same1 in the order1 power1 and even form1 of their letters with the ,hebrew4 #c4 ,the complete want of alphabetic characters among those nations1 which have been cut off from all communication with the ancient civilized world1 as the aboriginal ,americans2 or that part of the human race which had no opportunity of borrowing the system of written characters revealed to the ,hebrews1 as ,china4 ,had man been left to himself1 the first and most natural way of making his thoughts visible to the eye would be by pictorial representations4 ,the second step would1 for convenience' sake1 be to invent an abbreviated form of these pictures1 sufficiently legible to call to mind the original picture in full1 and yet so reduced and intermixed with a few easily remembered arbitrary characters1 or symbols1 as to be more extensively useful4 ,the next and most difficult step would be the alphabet so formed as to express all the sounds of the language1 by convenient combination4 ,the ,egyptian monuments show specimens of each2 the hieroglyph1 the mixed and abbreviated1 and the alphabetical4 ,the magnificent ruins of ,persepolis1 the capital of ancient ,persia1 exhibit also the pure pictorial style1 and tablets of abbreviated emblems4 ,the characters on the bricks dug up from the ruins of ancient ,babylon have characters1 which are supposed to be1 not alphabetic1 but abbreviated symbols1 and therefore suppose the existence of the larger picture writing1 whether the people possessed a proper alphabet or not4 ,all the savage tribes of ,america had their picture writings1 and this style was carried to great perfection by the ,mexicans4 ,the latter had1 likewise1 abbreviated marks1 which were used as symbols2 and thus made an approach to letters1 although they never reached this discovery4 ,it is a curious fact1 that in our day a ,cherokee chief has actually invented an alphabet1 and that in the process he commenced with a pictorial representation of animals which uttered sounds somewhat like those of his own tongue2 which thought seems not to have entered into the picture writing of the ancients1 whose delineations spoke wholly to the eye1 and not at all to the ear4 ,finding this method imperfect and cumbersome1 he at last hit upon the expedient of arbitrary characters1 which he gradually reduced in number1 and so perfected1 that1 with a few ,european improvements1 books are now printed in them for the use of his nation4 ,in ,china the language is a complete system of abbreviated pictures1 emblems1 or symbols2 and there is no proper alphabet to this day4 ,these facts are urged as direct proofs or strong presumptions that all alphabetical characters have been preceded by picture or imitative characters2 and that as the whole is within the compass of human ingenuity1 the notion of a divine suggestion of letters1 or of the important art of alphabetical writing1 is bringing in the divine agency without necessity4 ,but the assumption that alphabets have in all cases been formed through this process1 is wholly hypothetic4 ,certain it is that we can prove from the ,scriptures that literal writing was in use at an earlier period than can be assigned to any picture writing whatever4 ,writing and reading were familiar to ,moses and the ,israelites when the law was given1 and must have long previously existed among them1 and1 probably1 among the ,egyptians of the same age too2 which is much earlier than any of those monuments bearing hieroglyphical characters reach4 ,we have given sufficient reason to conclude that ,job lived at an earlier period still1 and as he expresses a wish that his words should be written in a book1 and engraven on the rock1 the knowledge of reading as well as writing must have been pretty general in his country1 or the book and the inscription could not have been a testimony of his faith and hope to his countrymen1 as he passionately desired it to be4 ,here1 too1 it is to be observed1 that in the early ,mosaic history we have not the least intimation of writing by pictures or symbols1 nor any that the art of writing had been revealed from heaven in the days of ,moses1 preparatory to the giving of a written law and the introduction of inspired books for the religious instruction of the people4 ,we must trace it up higher2 though whether of divine revelation1 or human invention1 cannot certainly be determined4 ,its importance was assuredly worthy of the former2 and if this was not done by particular revelation1 doubtless we may reasonably and piously ascribe it to a divine suggestion4 ,it may1 indeed1 be asked1 ,how then is it that in other nations we can so accurately trace the progress from the picture to the symbol1 and thence on to the alphabet2 as for instance in ,egypt8 ,we answer1 that if this were allowed1 still it might be1 and probably was1 a part of the divine procedure with reference to the preservation of the true religion1 that the knowledge of letters should be early given to the ,abrahamic family1 or1 at least1 preserved among them1 while many others of the more dispersed branches of the human race becoming barbarous1 as stated under the article ,language1 might lose it2 because picture writing was easily convertible to idolatrous purposes1 and in reality was greatly encouraged from that source4 ,the same care would be exerted to prevent pictorial representations of spiritual beings and things as the forming of images2 and the race of true worshippers of ,god was never therefore placed under the necessity of thus expressing their thoughts by such delineations4 ,but it is1 in fact1 far from being proved1 that the hieroglyph1 or picture writing1 of ,egypt for example1 was more ancient among that people than alphabetic writing4 ,one of the most recent writers on this side is the ,marquis ,spineto1 in his ,lectures on ,egyptian ,hieroglyphics40 ,his theory is1 in fact1 that of ,warburton2 and he thinks that the recent discoveries as to the hieroglyphics of ,egypt fully establish it4 ,the opinion of this learned prelate was1 that the primitive mode of writing among the ,egyptians was by figurative delineations or hieroglyphics2 that this becoming too tedious and voluminous1 by degrees they perfected another character1 which he calls the running-hand of hieroglyphics1 resembling the ,chinese characters2 which being at first formed only by the outlines of figures1 became at length a kind of marks2 and at last led to the compendious use of letters by an alphabet4 ,his argument against the knowledge of letters by the immediate descendants of ,noah is as follows3 ,for1 if the invention of the alphabet had preceded the dispersion1 we should have found the use of it generally established among mankind1 and hieroglyphics and picture writing entirely lain aside4 ,but this is not the case4 ,the ,mexicans and the ,peruvians1 up to the fifteenth century1 and1 to this day1 the ,chinese1 have no knowledge of the alphabet4 ,they all1 like the ,egyptians1 made use of hieroglyphics1 more or less abridged1 more or less symbolical1 or1 if you please1 more or less arbitrary2 but they had no knowledge of the alphabet4 ,the invention of letters1 therefore1 must have happened after the dispersion1 at a time when picture or hieroglyphical writing was generally used2 it was thus imported into the respective countries1 by the primitive inhabitants1 as they separated themselves from the common society1 carrying in their migrations those partly true and partly false notions of the ,deity1 and of the great event which had submerged the world2 notions which1 in fact1 are to be found in the theology and ritual of all the nations in the universe1 although more or less disfigured and altered40 ,but as the running-hand hieroglyphics1 spoken of by ,warburton1 were no more alphabetical than the hieroglyphics themselves1 still we are left to make the inquiry1 ,who was the inventor of the ,egyptian alphabet8 ,this is supposed by the ,marquis on the authority of a passage in ,plato1 to be a secretary of one of the kings of ,egypt4 ,this king is called ,thamus2 who forbade his ingenius secretary1 ,thouth1 or ,theuth1 to make the invention public2 lest the people should no longer pay attention to the hieroglyphics1 which would then be soon forgotten4 ,the secret1 however1 soon escaped2 and as it diminished to a prodigious degree the difficulty of writing1 it was generally adopted by the ,egyptians1 and from them passed into other nations4 ,the first10 says the ,marquis1 who seem to have got a knowledge of this system1 were the ,phenicians2 they imparted it to the ,arabians1 to the ,jews1 and carried it over to ,greece4 ,from that country it was exported to the several islands1 carried to the continent1 and reached the northern nations4 ,the ,chinese alone refused to adopt the valuable discovery2 proud of the antiquity of their social establishment1 believing themselves superior to the rest of mankind1 they still adhered to their ancient mode of writing4 ,this1 as ,i have already observed1 though originally the same with that used by the ,egyptians1 became1 in process of time1 materially different1 being made up of arbitrary marks1 which are for the most part ideographical4 ,with the discovery of the alphabet1 however1 a very material change took place in regard to hieroglyphics4 ,originally1 as we have seen1 they had been the common1 nay1 the sole mode of writing1 employed by the nation at large1 in all the transactions of life1 and through the policy of ,king ,thamus1 the alphabetical letters were kept secret3 but1 as soon as this discovery became known1 the contrary happened2 alphabetical writing became common1 and hieroglyphics mysterious1 not because they were purposely hidden in mystery1 but simply because they required greater application and greater trouble4 ,they indeed still continued to be used in matters of religion1 funerals1 public monuments1 and the like2 but in all business1 and common transactions1 the alphabetical writing was employed4 ,this was a necessary consequence of the general use of hieroglyphics in their primitive state2 for although the ,egyptians might1 and1 in fact1 did1 give the preference to the alphabet1 yet they did not think it necessary to erase the old hieroglyphical characters from their temples1 from their obelisks1 from their tombs1 and religious vases4 ,the priests1 therefore1 still continued to study and preserve the knowledge of hieroglyphics2 and these1 partly by their showy nature1 partly by the continuation of the old custom1 continued still to be used in public monuments of a votive and funeral nature4 ,to distinguish them1 therefore1 from the alphabetical letters newly invented1 they obtained the name of sacred1 on the score of their being employed only in matters of religion4 ,the priests1 however1 who had already invented a new set of arbitrary marks1 as a shorter way of hieroglyphical writing1 which they employed exclusively in transactions which concerned their body and their pursuits1 after the invention of the alphabet turned these marks into letters1 and thus they formed another set of characters1 or mode of writing1 to which they gave the appellation of hieratic1 as belonging exclusively to their order4 ,in these characters they wrote all historical1 political1 and religious transactions4 ,and as the common1 or demotic letters were employed in all the common business of life1 and hieroglyphics confined to public monuments1 and funereal and votive ceremonies1 the ,egyptians became possessed of at least three different modes of writing1 or sets of characters1 which were hieroglyphic1 demotic1 and hieratic4 ,whether the priests had invented another set of characters1 unknown to the people1 and in which they concealed their doctrine and their knowledge1 is a question which cannot be solved at present4 ,the want of monuments disables us from saying any thing of a decisive nature on this subject4 ,one thing alone we can suppose with certainty1 that if such a mode of writing did ever exist1 and for the purpose for which it is supposed to have existed1 the knowledge of it must have been confined to the priests only1 and the records so written concealed with the greatest care from the eye of the nation4 ,if1 therefore1 such records exist1 they must be sought for in the dwelling of the hierophant1 in the most recondite places of the temples2 perhaps in those subterraneous passages which now lie hidden under mountains of sand1 and in which no one but the priests were ever permitted to enter40 ,the whole of this account1 we may however observe1 is far from being satisfactory4 ,whether the early ,egyptians wrote hieroglyphics at all1 no monuments yet discovered are so ancient as to prove2 since all such characters now known must have been written subsequently to the advancement of the kingdom into great power1 and after considerable progress had been made in architecture and other arts4 ,the passage1 too1 in ,plato1 on which the argument is made to depend1 may just as well refer to the running-hand or abridged hieroglyphical signs1 as to alphabetical writing2 and the supposition1 that the priests gave an alphabetical character to this kind of abridged pictorial writing after the discovery of the real alphabet1 7and alphabetical ,ackerblad and ,dr4 ,young have proved it to be17 is quite hypothetic4 ,we think it more probable that alphabetical writing is much older than the hieroglyphics2 that the phonetic hieroglyphics were fanciful representations of the alphabetic characters1 intermingled with those symbols which idolatry and the natural peculiarities of ,egypt would suggest2 that the whole was originally easy to be deciphered by those who knew letters at all2 and that the leading motive of fixing them on public monuments in preference to literal inscriptions1 was the taste of the day1 which custom1 and antiquity1 and superstition at length consecrated4 ,we have thus an easy way of accounting for the alphabetical1 though obscure1 character of the hieroglyphic running-hand1 or hieratic writing1 so much used in manuscripts4 ,as an abridged form of the hieroglyphical outline1 it would at least be phonetic wherever the hieroglyphic was so2 and where that was symbolical1 it would naturally present greater difficulty in deciphering1 which1 in fact1 has been proved to be the case1 by modern students in the art4 ,it is1 indeed1 acknowledged by those who advocate the priority of the hieroglyphic to the alphabetic signs1 that the number of ideas which could thus be expressed is few2 and this the ,marquis ,spineto considers as a presumptive proof of his theory4 ,in these early ages1 the position of mankind after the flood10 he observes1 was such as to preclude the possibility of supposing that they had many ideas and many wants2 therefore we may reasonably conclude1 that their language consisted of words only which were intended to express the things most necessary to life1 and consequently contained a small number of words40 ,we know1 indeed1 that it is the notion of many infidel writers1 that the original race or races of mankind were a sort of savages2 and that a state of society gradually increased the ideas1 and enriched the language of those who at first were capable of uttering but a few simple articulate sounds2 but that any person should talk in a similar strain1 who professes to receive the ,mosaic history1 is absurd4 ,the antediluvians had surely much knowledge4 ,many arts were invented before the flood2 and the ark itself is a vast monument of mechanical skill4 ,arts1 science1 morals1 legislation1 theology1 were all known before the flood2 and were all transmitted from the old world to the new1 by ,noah and his sons4 ,these were not men of few ideas10 nor was the pastoral mode of life incompatible with great moral knowledge1 eloquence1 and the highest and richest poetry1 as we see in the book of ,job4 ,men were not then1 as many moderns have supposed1 a race of babies1 able only to ask for what they needed to eat and drink1 or childishly to play with2 and we may therefore rest assured that they had a language so copious1 and enunciations of ideas so various in their respective tongues1 that picture writing neither was nor could be adequate to their full expression4 ,the true origin of hieroglyphic writing is still unexplained2 and will1 after all1 probably1 remain inexplicable3 but it has little claim to be considered as the first mode of expressing the sounds of language4 ,as for the ,chinese language1 it is evident that it cannot be urged in proof of alphabetical writing having in all cases passed through the process above mentioned2 for to this day the ,chinese have no alphabet4 ,as a language it is indeed peculiar1 as being wholly monosyllabic2 and we must be better acquainted with the early circumstances of that people before we can account for either4 ,see ,,writing4 ,,leviathan1 1 ,job iii1 #h2 xli1 #a2 ,psalm lxxiv1 #ad2 civ1 #bf2 ,isa4 xxvii1 #a4 ,the old commentators concurred in regarding the whale as the animal here intended4 ,beza and ,diodati were among the first to interpret it the crocodile3 and ,bochart has since supported this last rendering with a train of argument which has nearly overwhelmed all opposition1 and brought almost every commentator over to his opinion4 ,it is very certain that it could not be the whale1 which does not inhabit the ,mediterranean1 much less the rivers that empty themselves into it2 nor will the characteristics at all apply to the whale4 ,the crocodile1 on the contrary1 is a natural inhabitant of the ,nile1 and other ,asiatic and ,african rivers2 of enormous voracity and strength1 as well as fleetness in swimming2 attacks mankind and the largest animals with most daring impetuosity2 when taken by means of a powerful net1 will often overturn the boats that surround it2 has1 proportionally1 the largest mouth of all monsters whatever2 moves both its jaws equally1 the upper of which has not less than forty1 and the lower than thirty-eight sharp1 but strong and massy1 teeth2 and is furnished with a coat of mail1 so scaly and callous as to resist the force of a musket ball in every part1 except under the belly4 ,indeed1 to this animal the general character of the leviathan seems so well to apply1 that it is unnecessary to seek farther4 ,,levites4 ,under this name may be comprised all the descendants of ,levi2 but it principally denotes those who were employed in the lowest ministries of the temple1 by which they were distinguished from the priests1 who1 being descended from ,aaron1 were likewise of the race of ,levi by ,kohath1 but were employed in higher offices4 ,the ,levites were descendants of ,levi1 by ,gershom1 ,kohath1 and ,merari1 excepting the family of ,aaron2 for the children of ,moses had no part in the priesthood1 and were only common ,levites4 ,god chose the ,levites instead of the first-born of all ,israel1 for the service of his tabernacle and temple1 ,num4 iii1 #f1 c4 ,they obeyed the priests in the ministrations of the temple1 and brought to them wood1 water1 and other things necessary for the sacrifices4 ,they sung and played on instruments1 in the temple1 c2 they studied the law1 and were the ordinary judges of the country1 but subordinate to the priests4 ,god provided for the subsistence of the ,levites1 by giving them the tithe of corn1 fruit1 and cattle2 but they paid to the priests the tenth of their tithes2 and as the ,levites possessed no estates in the land1 the tithes which the priests received from them were looked on as the first-fruits which they were to offer to the ,lord1 ,num4 xviii1 #ba-bd4 ,god assigned them for their habitations forty-eight cities1 with fields1 pastures1 and gardens1 ,num4 xxxv4 ,of these thirteen were given to the priests1 six of which were cities of refuge1 ,joshua xx1 #g2 xxi1 #ai1 #bj1 c4 ,while the ,levites were actually employed in the temple1 they were subsisted out of the provisions in store there1 and out of the daily offerings there made2 and if any ,levite quitted the place of his abode1 to serve the temple1 even out of the time of his half-yearly or weekly waiting1 he was received there1 kept and provided for1 in like manner as his other brethren1 who were regularly in waiting1 ,deut4 xviii1 #f-h4 ,the consecration of ,levites was without much ceremony4 ,they wore no particular habit to distinguish them from the other ,israelites1 and ,god ordained nothing particularly for their mourning1 #b ,chron4 xxix1 #cd4 ,the manner of their consecration may be seen in ,num4 viii1 #e-g1 c4 ,josephus says1 that in the reign of ,agrippa1 king of the ,jews1 about ,a4 ,d4 #fb1 six years before the destruction of the temple by the ,romans1 the ,levites desired permission from that prince to wear the linen tunic like the priests2 and this was granted4 ,this innovation was displeasing to the priests2 and the ,jewish historian remarks1 that the ancient customs of the country were never forsaken with impunity4 ,he adds1 that ,agrippa permitted likewise the families of the ,levites1 whose duty it was to guard the doors1 and perform other troublesome offices1 to learn to sing and play on instruments1 that they might be qualified for the temple service as musicians4 ,the ,levites were divided into different classes3 ,gershonites1 ,kohathites1 ,merarites1 and ,aaronites or priests1 ,num4 iii1 c4 ,the ,gershonites1 whose number was seven thousand five hundred1 were employed in the marches through the wilderness in carrying the veils and curtains of the tabernacle2 the ,kohathites1 whose number was eight thousand six hundred1 in carrying the ark and sacred vessels of the tabernacle2 the ,merarites1 whose number was six thousand two hundred1 in carrying the several pieces of the tabernacle which could not be placed upon the chariots2 and the ,aaronites were the priests who served the sanctuary4 ,when the ,hebrews encamped in the wilderness1 the ,levites were placed around the tabernacle2 ,moses and ,aaron at the east1 ,gershon at the west1 ,kohath at the south1 and ,merari at the north4 ,moses ordained that the ,levites should not begin in the service of the tabernacle till they were five-and-twenty years of age1 ,num4 viii1 #bd-bf2 or1 as he says elsewhere1 from thirty to fifty years old1 ,num4 iv1 #c4 ,but ,david1 finding that they were no longer employed in these grosser offices of transporting the vessels of the tabernacle1 appointed them to enter on service at the temple at twenty years of age4 ,the priests and ,levites waited by turns1 weekly1 in the temple4 ,they began their weeks on one ,sabbath day1 and on the ,sabbath day in the following week went out of waiting1 #a ,chronicles xxiii1 #bd2 #b ,chron4 xxi1 #ag2 ,ezra iii1 #h4 ,when an ,israelite made a religious entertainment in the temple1 ,god required that the ,levites should be invited to it1 ,deut4 xii1 #ah1 #ai4 ,,leviticus1 a canonical book of ,scripture1 being the third book of the ,pentateuch of ,moses2 thus called because it contains principally the laws and regulations relating to the ,levites1 priests1 and sacrifices2 for which reason the ,hebrews call it the law of the priests1 because it includes many ordinances concerning their services4 ,see ,,pentateuch4 ,,libation4 ,this word is used in sacrificial language1 to express an affusion of liquors1 poured upon victims to be sacrificed to the ,lord4 ,the quantity of wine for a libation was the fourth part of a hin1 rather more than two pints4 ,libations among the ,hebrews were poured on the victim after it was killed1 and the several pieces of it were laid on the altar1 ready to be consumed by the flames1 ,lev4 vi1 #bj2 viii1 #be1 #bf2 ix1 #d2 xvi1 #ab1 #bj4 ,these libations consisted in offerings of bread1 wine1 and salt4 ,the ,greeks and ,latins offered libations with the sacrifices1 but they were poured on the victim's head while it was living4 ,so ,sinon1 relating the manner in which he was to be sacrificed1 says he was in the priest's hands ready to be slain1 was loaded with bands and garlands2 that they were preparing to pour upon him the libations of grain and salted meal3-- ,jamque dies infanda aderat1 mihi sacra parari1 ,et sals fruges1 et circum tempora vitt4 neid ii1 #acj1 #aca4 ,and now the horrible day being come1 they began to prepare for me the sacred rites4 ,the salted barley on my front was spread1 ,the sacred fillets bound my destined head40 ,,pitt4 ,and ,dido1 beginning to sacrifice1 pours wine between the horns of the victim3-- ,ipsa tenens dextra pateram pulcherrima ,dido1 ,candentsi vacc media inter cornua fudit4 neid iv4 ,the queen before the snowy heifer stands1 ,amid the shrines1 a goblet in her hands2 ,between the horns she sheds the sacred wine1 ,and pays due honours to the powers divine40 ,,pitt4 ,st4 ,paul describes himself1 as it were1 a victim about to be sacrificed1 and that the accustomed libations of meal and wine were already1 in a manner1 poured upon him3 ,for ,i am ready to be offered1 and the time of my departure is at hand10 #b ,tim4 iv1 #f4 ,the same expressive sacrificial term occurs in ,phil4 ii1 #ag1 where the ,apostle represents the faith of the ,philippians as a sacrifice1 and his own blood as a libation poured forth to hallow and consecrate it3 8,yea1 and if ,i be offered1 1 upon the sacrifice and service of your faith1 1 ,i joy and rejoice with you all40 ,,libertines4 ,mention is made of the synagogue of the ,libertines1 ,acts vi1 #i2 concerning whom there are different opinions1 two of which bid fairest for the truth4 ,the first is that of ,grotius and ,vitringa1 that they were ,italian ,jews or proselytes4 ,the ancient ,romans distinguished between libertus and libertinus4 ,libertus was one who had been a slave1 and obtained his freedom2 libertinus was the son of a libertus4 ,but this distinction in after ages was not strictly observed2 and libertinus also came to be used for one not born1 but made free1 in opposition to ingenuus1 or one born free4 ,whether the libertini mentioned in this passage of the ,acts were ,gentiles1 who had become proselytes to ,judaism1 or native ,jews1 who having been made slaves to the ,romans were afterward set at liberty1 and in remembrance of their captivity called themselves libertini1 and formed a synagogue by themselves1 is differently conjectured by the learned4 ,it is probable the ,jews of ,cyrenia1 ,alexandria1 c1 built synagogues at ,jerusalem at their own charge1 for the use of their brethren who came from those countries2 as the ,danes1 ,swedes1 c1 build churches for the use of their own countrymen in ,london2 and that the ,italian ,jews did the same2 and because the greatest number of them were libertini1 their synagogue was therefore called the synagogue of the ,libertines4 ,the other opinion1 which is hinted by cumenius on the ,acts1 and mentioned by ,dr4 ,lardner1 as more lately advanced by ,mr4 ,daniel ,gerdes1 professor of divinity in the university of ,groningen1 is this1 that the ,libertines are so called from a city or country called ,libertus1 or ,libertina1 in ,africa1 about ,carthage4 ,suidas1 in his ,lexicon1 on the word 1 says it was 1 nomen gentis4 ,the name of a nation4 ,and the glossa interlinearis1 of which ,nicolas de ,lyra made great use in his notes1 hath over the word libertini1 e regione1 denoting that they were so styled from a country4 ,in the acts of the famous conference with the ,donatists at ,carthage1 ,a4 ,d4 #daa1 there is mentioned one ,victor1 bishop of the church of ,libertina3 and in the acts of the ,lateran council1 which was held in #fdi1 there is mention of ,januarius grati ,dei episcopus sanct ecclesi ,libertinensis2 ,januarius by the grace of ,god bishop of the holy church of ,libertina2 and therefore ,fabricius1 in his ,geographical ,index of ,christian ,bishoprics10 has placed ,libertina in what was called ,africa ,propria1 or the proconsular province of ,africa4 ,now1 as all the other people of the several synagogues1 mentioned in this passage of the ,acts1 are denominated from the places from whence they came1 it is probable that the ,libertines were so too2 and as the ,cyrenians and ,alexandrians1 who came from ,africa1 are placed next to the ,libertines in that catalogue1 it is probable they also belonged to the same country4 ,so that1 upon the whole1 there is little reason to doubt of the ,libertines being so called from the place from whence they came2 and the order of the names in the catalogue might lead us to think1 that they were farther off from ,jerusalem than ,alexandria and ,cyrenia1 which will carry us to the proconsular province in ,africa about ,carthage4 ,,libnah1 a city in the southern part of the tribe of ,judah1 ,joshua xv1 #db1 of which a cession was made to the priests for their habitation1 and which was declared a city of refuge1 #a ,chron4 vi1 #eg4 ,,libya4 ,the name1 in its largest sense1 was used by the ,greeks to denote the whole of ,africa4 ,but ,libya ,proper1 or the ,libya of the ,new ,testament1 the country of the ,lubims of the ,old1 was a large country lying along the ,mediterranean1 on the west of ,egypt4 ,it was called ,pentapolitana ,regio by ,pliny1 from its five chief cities1 ,berenice1 ,arsinoe1 ,ptolemais1 ,apollonia1 and ,cyrene2 and ,libya ,cyrenaica by ,ptolemy1 from ,cyrene its capital4 ,libya is supposed to have been first peopled by1 and to have derived its name from1 the ,lehabim1 or ,lubim4 ,these1 its earlier inhabitants1 appear in the times of the ,old ,testament1 to have consisted of wandering tribes1 who were sometimes in alliance with ,egypt1 and at others with the ,ethiopians of ,arabia2 as they are said to have assisted both ,shishak and ,zerah in their expeditions into ,judea1 #b ,chron4 xii1 xiv1 xvi4 ,they were for a time sufficiently powerful to maintain a war with the ,carthaginians1 by whom they were in the end entirely overcome4 ,since that period1 ,libya1 in common with the rest of the east1 has successively passed into the hands of the ,greeks1 ,romans1 ,saracens1 and ,turks4 ,the city ,cyrene1 built by a ,grecian colony1 was the capital of this country1 in which1 and other parts1 dwelt many ,jews1 who came up to ,jerusalem at the feast of pentecost1 together with those dispersed among other nations1 and are called by ,st4 ,luke dwellers in the parts of ,libya about ,cyrene10 ,acts ii1 #aj4 ,,lice4 ,swarms of lice was the third plague with which ,god punished the ,egyptians1 ,exod4 viii1 #af4 ,the ,hebrew word 1 which the ,,lxx render 1 some translate flies10 and think them the same as gnats4 ,origen says that the sciniphe is so small a fly1 that it is scarcely perceptible to the eye1 but that it occasions a sharp stinging pain4 ,however1 the original1 according to the ,syriac1 and several good interpreters1 signifies lice40 ,but ,josephus1 the ,jewish rabbins1 and most of the modern translators render the ,hebrew word at large lice2 and ,bochart and ,bryant support this interpretation4 ,the former argues that gnats could not be meant4 #a4 ,because the creatures here mentioned sprang from the dust of the earth1 and not from the waters4 #b4 ,because they were both on men and cattle1 which cannot be spoken of gnats4 #c4 ,because their name comes from the radix 1 which signifies to make firm1 fix1 establish1 which can never agree to gnats1 flies1 c1 which are ever changing their place1 and are almost constantly on the wing4 #d4 ,because is the term by which the talmudists express the term louse1 c4 ,to which may be added1 that if they were winged and stinging insects1 as ,jerom1 ,origen1 and others have supposed1 the plague of flies is unduly anticipated2 and the next miracle will be only a repetition of the former4 ,mr4 ,bryant1 in illustrating the aptness of this miracle1 has the following remarks3 8,the ,egyptians affected great external purity1 and were very nice both in their persons and clothing2 bathing and making ablutions continually4 ,uncommon care was taken not to harbour any vermin4 ,they were particularly solicitous on this head2 thinking it would be a great profanation of the temple which they entered1 if any animalcule of this sort were concealed in their garments40 ,the priests1 says ,herodotus1 are shaved1 both as to their heads and bodies1 every third day1 to prevent any louse1 or any other detestable creature1 being found upon them when they are performing their duty to the gods4 ,the same is mentioned by another author1 who adds1 that all woollen was considered as foul1 as from a perishable animal2 but flax is the product of the immortal earth1 affords a delicate and pure covering1 and is not liable to harbour lice4 ,we may hence see what an abhorrence the ,egyptians showed toward this sort of vermin1 and what care was taken by the priests to guard against them4 ,the judgments1 therefore1 inflicted by the hands of ,moses1 were adapted to their prejudices4 ,it was1 consequently1 not only most noisome to the people in general1 but was no small odium to the most sacred order in ,egypt1 that they were overrun with these filthy and detestable vermin4 ,,light1 1 is used in a physical sense1 ,matt4 xvii1 #b2 ,acts ix1 #c2 xii1 #g2 #b ,cor4 iv1 #f2 for a fire giving light1 ,mark xiv1 #ed2 ,luke xxii1 #ef2 for a torch1 candle1 or lamp1 ,acts xvi1 #bi2 and for the material light of heaven1 as the sun1 moon1 or stars1 ,psalm cxxxvi1 #g2 ,james i1 #ag4 ,figuratively taken1 it signifies a manifest or open state of things1 ,matt4 x1 #bg2 ,luke xii1 #c2 also prosperity1 truth1 and joy4 ,god is said to dwell in light inaccessible1 #a ,tim4 vi1 #af4 ,this seems to contain a reference to the glory and splendour which shone in the holy of holies1 where ,jehovah appeared in the luminous cloud above the mercy seat1 and which none but the high priest1 and he only once a year1 was permitted to approach unto1 ,lev4 xvi1 #b2 ,ezek4 i1 #bb1 #bf1 #bh2 but this was typical of the glory of the celestial world4 ,it signifies1 also1 instruction1 both by doctrine and example1 ,matt4 v1 #af2 ,john v1 #ce2 or persons considered as giving such light1 ,matt4 v1 #ad2 ,rom4 ii1 #ai4 ,it is applied figuratively to ,christ1 the true ,light1 the ,sun of ,righteousness1 who is that in the spiritual1 which the material light is in the natural1 world2 who is the great ,author1 not only of illumination and knowledge1 but of spiritual life1 health1 and joy to the souls of men4 ,the images of light and darkness1 says ,bishop ,lowth1 are commonly made use of in all languages to imply or denote prosperity and adversity1 agreeably to the common sense and perception which all men have of the objects themselves4 ,but the ,hebrews employ those metaphors more frequently and with less variation than other people3 indeed1 they seldom refrain from them whenever the subject requires or will even admit of their introduction4 ,these expressions1 therefore1 may be accounted among those forms of speech1 which in the parabolic style are established and defined2 since they exhibit the most noted and familiar images1 and the application of them on this occasion is justified by an acknowledged analogy1 and approved by constant and unvarying custom4 ,in the use of images1 so conspicuous and so familiar among the ,hebrews1 a degree of boldness is excusable4 ,the ,latins introduce them more sparingly1 and therefore are more cautious in the application of them4 ,but the ,hebrews1 upon a subject more sublime indeed1 in itself1 and illustrating it by an idea which was more habitual to them1 more daringly exalt their strains1 and give a loose rein to the spirit of poetry4 ,they display1 for instance1 not the image of the spring1 of ,aurora1 of the dreary night1 but the sun and stars as rising with increased splendour in a new creation1 or again involved in chaos and primeval darkness4 ,does the sacred bard promise to his people a renewal of the divine favour1 and a recommencement of universal prosperity8 ,in what magnificent colours does he depict it6 ,such1 indeed1 as no translation can illustrate1 but such as none can obscure3-- ,the light of the moon shall be as the light of the sun1 ,and the light of the sun shall be sevenfold40 ,isaiah xxx1 #bf4 ,but even this is not sufficient3-- ,no longer shalt thou have the sun for thy light by day2 ,nor by night shall the brightness of the moon enlighten thee3 ,for ,jehovah shall be to thee an everlasting light1 ,and thy ,god shall be thy glory4 ,thy sun shall no more decline2 ,neither shall thy moon wane2 ,for ,jehovah shall be thine everlasting light2 ,and the days of thy mourning shall cease40 ,isaiah lx1 #ai1 #bj4 ,in another place he has admirably diversified the same sentiment3-- ,and the moon shall be confounded1 and the sun shall be ashamed2 ,for ,jehovah1 ,god of ,hosts1 shall reign ,on ,mount ,sion1 and in ,jerusalem3 ,and before his ancients shall he be glorified40 ,isaiah xxiv1 #be4 ,on the other hand1 denouncing ruin against the proud king of ,egypt3-- ,and when ,i shall put thee out1 ,i will cover the heavens1 ,and the stars thereof will ,i make dark3 ,i will involve the sun in a cloud1 ,nor shall the moon give out her light4 ,all the bright lights of heaven will ,i make dark over thee1 ,and ,i will set darkness upon thy land1 saith the ,lord ,jehovah40 ,ezekiel xxvii1 #g1 #h4 ,these expressions are bold and daring2 but the imagery is well known1 the use of it is common1 the signification definite3 they are therefore perspicuous1 clear1 and truly magnificent4 ,,lign-,,aloes4 ,see ,,aloe4 ,,ligure1 1 ,exod4 xxviii1 #ai2 xxxix1 #ab1 a precious stone of a deep red colour1 with a considerable tinge of yellow4 ,theophrastus and ,pliny describe it as resembling the carbuncle1 of a brightness sparkling like fire4 ,,lily1 1 #a ,kings vii1 #ai1 #bb1 #bf2 #b ,chron4 iv1 #e2 ,cant4 ii1 #b1 #af2 iv1 #e2 v1 #ac2 vi1 #b1 #c2 vii1 #b2 ,hosea xiv1 #e2 1 ,matt4 vi1 #bh2 ,luke xii1 #bg2 a well known sweet and beautiful flower1 which furnished ,solomon with a variety of charming images in his ,song1 and with graceful ornaments in the fabric and furniture of the temple4 ,the title of some of the ,psalms upon ,shushan10 or ,shoshanim10 ,psalms xlv2 lx2 lxix2 lxxx1 probably means no more than that the music of these sacred compositions was to be regulated by that of some odes1 which were known by those names or appellations4 ,by the lily of the valley10 ,cant4 ii1 #b1 we are not to understand the humble flower1 generally so called with us1 the lilium convallium1 but the noble flower which ornaments our gardens1 and which in ,palestine grows wild in the fields1 and especially in the valleys4 ,pliny reckons the lily the next plant in excellency to the rose2 and the gay ,anacreon compares ,venus to this flower4 ,in the east1 as with us1 it is the emblem of purity and moral excellence4 ,so the ,persian poet1 ,sadi1 compares an amiable youth to the white lily in a bed of narcissuses10 because he surpassed all the young shepherds in goodness4 ,as1 in ,cant4 v1 #ac1 the lips are compared to the lily1 ,bishop ,patrick supposes the lily here instanced to be the same which1 on account of its deep red colour1 is particularly called by ,pliny rubens lilium1 and which1 he tells us1 was much esteemed in ,syria4 ,such may have been the lily mentioned in ,matt4 vi1 #bh-cj2 for the royal robes were purple3 ,consider the lilies of the field1 how they grow2 they toil not1 neither do they spin3 and yet ,i say unto you1 that ,solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these30 so in ,luke xii1 #bg4 ,the scarcity of fuel in the east obliges the inhabitants to use1 by turns1 every kind of combustible matter4 ,the withered stalks of herbs and flowers1 the tendrils of the vine1 the small branches of rosemary1 and other plants1 are all used in heating their ovens and bagnios4 ,we can easily recognize this practice in that remark of our ,lord1 ,if ,god so clothe the grass of the field1 which to-day is1 and to-morrow is cast into the oven1 shall he not much more clothe you1 ,o ye of little faith80 ,matt4 vi1 #cj4 ,the grass of the field1 in this passage1 evidently includes the lilies of which he had just been speaking1 and1 by consequence1 herbs in general2 and in this extensive sense the word is not unfrequently taken4 ,those beautiful productions of nature1 so richly arrayed1 and so exquisitely perfumed1 that the splendour even of ,solomon is not to be compared to theirs1 shall soon wither and decay1 and be used as fuel4 ,god has so adorned these flowers and plants of the field1 which retain their beauty and vigour but for a few days1 and are then applied to some of the meanest purposes of life3 will he not much more take care of his servants who are so precious in his sight1 and designed for such important services in the world8 ,this passage is one of those of which ,sir ,thomas ,browne says1 ,the variously interspersed expressions from plants and flowers elegantly advantage the significancy of the text40 ,mr4 ,salt1 in his ,voyage to ,abyssinia10 says1 8,at a few miles from ,adowa1 we discovered a new and beautiful species of amaryllis1 which bore from ten to twelve spikes of bloom on each stem1 as large as those of the belladonna1 springing from one common receptacle4 ,the general colour of the corolla was white1 and every petal was marked with a single streak of bright purple down the middle4 ,the flower was sweet scented1 and its smell1 though much more powerful1 resembled that of the lily of the valley4 ,this superb plant excited the admiration of the whole party2 and it brought immediately to my recollection the beautiful comparison used on a particular occasion by our ,saviour3 #8,i say unto you1 that ,solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these4'0 ,and ,sir ,james ,e4 ,smith observes1 8,it is natural to presume the divine ,teacher1 according to his usual custom1 called the attention of his hearers to some object at hand2 and as the fields of the ,levant are overrun with the amaryllis lutea1 whose golden lilaceous flowers in autumn afford one of the most brilliant and gorgeous objects in nature1 the expression of #8,solomon in all his glory not being arrayed like one of these1' is peculiarly appropriate4 ,i consider the feeling with which this was expressed as the highest honour ever done to the study of plants2 and if my botanical conjecture be right1 we learn a chronological fact respecting the season of the year when the sermon on the mount was delivered40 ,,lime1 1 ,deut4 xxvii1 #b1 #d2 ,isaiah xxxiii1 #ab2 ,amos ii1 #a2 a soft friable substance1 obtained by calcining or burning stones1 shells1 or the like4 ,from ,isa4 xxxiii1 #ab1 it appears that it was made in a kiln lighted with thorn bushes2 and from ,amos ii1 #a1 that bones were sometimes calcined for lime4 ,the use of it was for plaster or cement1 the first mention of which is in ,deut4 xxvii1 where ,moses directed the elders of the people1 saying1 ,keep all the commandments which ,i command you this day4 ,and it shall be on the day when you shall pass over ,jordan unto the land which the ,lord your ,god giveth you1 that you shall set up great stones1 and plaster them with plaster1 and shall write upon them all the words of this law10 c4 ,the book of the law1 in order to render it the more sacred1 was deposited beside the ark of the covenant4 ,the guardians of the law1 to whom was entrusted the duty of making faithful transcripts of it1 were the priests4 ,but ,moses did not account even this precaution sufficient for the due preservation of his law in its original purity2 for he commanded that it should beside be engraven on stones1 and these stones kept on a mountain near ,sichem1 in order that a genuine exemplar of it might be transmitted even to the latest generations4 ,,lion1 1 or 1 ,genesis xlix1 #i2 ,deut4 xxxiii1 #bb2 ,psalm vii1 #b2 xxii1 #ac2 ,hosea xiii1 #h2 ,micah v1 #h2 a large beast of prey1 for his courage and strength called the king of beasts4 ,this animal is produced in ,africa1 and the hottest parts of ,asia4 ,it is found in the greatest numbers in the scorched and desolate regions of the torrid zone1 in the deserts of ,zaara and ,billdulgerid1 and in all the interior parts of the vast continent of ,africa4 ,in these desert regions1 from whence mankind are driven by the rigorous heat of the climate1 this animal reigns sole master4 ,his disposition seems to partake of the ardour of his native soil4 ,inflamed by the influence of a burning sun1 his rage is tremendous1 and his courage undaunted4 ,happily1 indeed1 the species is not numerous1 and is said to be greatly diminished2 for1 if we may credit the testimony of those who have traversed those vast deserts1 the number of lions is not nearly so great as formerly4 ,mr4 ,shaw observes that the ,romans carried more lions from ,libya in one year for their public spectacles1 than could be found in all that country at this time4 ,the lion was also found in ,palestine1 and the neighbouring countries4 ,the length of the largest lion is between eight and nine feet1 the tail about four1 and its height about four feet and a half4 ,the female is about one-fourth part less1 and without a mane4 ,as the lion advances in years1 his mane grows longer and thicker4 ,the hair on the rest of the body is short and smooth1 of a tawny colour1 but whitish on the belly4 ,its roaring is loud and dreadful4 ,when heard in the night it resembles distant thunder4 ,its cry of anger is much louder and shorter4 ,the attachment of a lioness to her young is remarkably strong4 ,for their support she is more ferocious than the lion himself2 makes her incursions with greater boldness2 destroys1 without distinction1 every animal that falls in her way1 and carries it reeking to her cubs4 ,she usually brings forth in the most retired and inaccessible places2 and when afraid that her retreat should be discovered1 endeavours to hide her track by brushing the ground with her tail4 ,when much disturbed or alarmed1 she will sometimes transport her young1 which are usually three or four in number1 from one place to another in her mouth2 and1 if obstructed in her course1 will defend them to the last extremity4 ,the habits of the lion and the lioness afford many spirited1 and often sublime1 metaphors to the sacred writers4 ,the lion has several names in ,scripture1 according to his different ages or character3 #a4 1 a little lion1 a lion's whelp1 ,deut4 xxxiii1 #bb2 ,jer4 li1 #ch2 ,ezek4 xix1 #b2 ,nahum ii1 #ac4 #b4 1 a young lion that has done sucking the lioness1 and1 leaving the covert1 begins to seek prey for himself4 ,so ,ezekiel xix1 #b1 #c3 ,the lioness hath brought up one of her whelps2 it became a chephir2 it learned to catch the prey2 it devoured men40 ,see ,psalm xci1 #ac2 ,prov4 xix1 #ab4 #c4 1 a grown and vigorous lion1 having whelps1 eager in pursuit of prey for them1 ,nahum ii1 #ab2 valiant1 #b ,sam4 xvii1 #aj2 arrogantly opposing himself1 ,num4 xxiii1 #bd4 ,this is1 indeed1 the general name1 and occurs frequently4 #d4 1 one in the full strength of his age2 a black lion1 ,job iv1 #aj2 x1 #af2 ,psalm xci1 #ac2 ,prov4 xxvi1 #ac2 ,hosea v1 #ad2 xiii1 #g4 #e4 1 a fierce or enraged lion1 ,job iv1 #aa2 ,prov4 xxx1 #cj2 ,isaiah xxv1 #f4 ,a regard to these characteristics and distinctions is very important for illustrating the passages of ,scripture where the animal is spoken of1 and discovering the propriety of the allusions and metaphors which he so often furnishes to the ,hebrew poets4 ,the lion of the tribe of ,judah1 mentioned ,rev4 v1 #e1 is ,jesus ,christ1 who sprung from the tribe of ,judah1 and overcame death1 the world1 and the devil4 ,the lion from the swelling of ,jordan1 ,jer4 l1 #dd1 is ,nebuchadnezzar marching against ,judea1 with the strength and fierceness of a lion4 ,isaiah1 describing the happy time of the ,messiah1 says1 that then the calf1 and the young lion1 and the fatling should lie down together2 and that a little child should lead them2 and that the lion should eat straw like the ox1 ,isaiah xi1 #f1 #g1 which is hyperbolical1 and signifies the peace and happiness which the church of ,christ should enjoy4 ,the lion hath roared1 and who shall not fear80 ,amos iii1 #h4 8,the king's wrath is as the roaring of a lion4 ,who provoketh him to anger sinneth against his own soul10 ,prov4 xix1 #ab2 xx1 #b2 that is1 he seeketh his own death4 ,solomon says1 ,a living dog is better than a dead lion10 ,eccles4 x1 #d2 showing that death renders those contemptible who otherwise are the greatest1 most powerful1 and most terrible4 ,then went ,samson down and1 behold1 a young lion roared against him1 and the ,spirit of the ,lord came mightily upon him1 and he rent him as he would have rent a kid1 and he had nothing in his hand10 ,judges xiv1 #e1 #f4 ,an instance in quite modern times of an unarmed man attempting to combat a lion is related by ,poiret3 8,in a douar1 or a camp of ,bedouin ,arabs1 near ,la ,calle1 a ,french factory1 a young lion had seized a cow4 ,a young ,moor threw himself upon the savage beast1 to tear his booty from him1 and as it were to stifle him in his arms1 but he would not let go his prey4 ,the father of the young man hastened to him1 armed with a kind of hoe2 and aiming at the lion1 struck his son's hand1 and cut off three of his fingers4 ,it cost a great deal of trouble to rescue the prey from the lion4 ,i saw this young man1 who was attended by ,mr4 ,gay1 at that time surgeon to the hospital of ,la ,calle40 ,david1 according to #a ,sam4 xvii1 #cd1 had1 when a shepherd1 once fought with a lion1 and another time with a bear1 and rescued their prey from them4 ,tellez relates1 that an ,abyssinian shepherd had once killed a lion of extraordinary size with only two poles4 ,behold1 he shall come up like a lion from the swelling of ,jordan against the habitation of the strong10 ,jer4 xlix1 #ai4 ,the comparison used by the prophet in these words will be perfectly understood by the account which ,mr4 ,maundrell gives of the river ,jordan3 ,after having descended10 says he1 8the outermost bank of ,jordan1 you go about a furlong upon a level strand1 before you come to the immediate bank of the river4 ,this second bank is so beset with bushes and trees1 such as tamarisks1 willows1 oleanders1 c1 that you can see no water till you have made your way through them4 ,in this thicket anciently1 and the same is reported of it at this day1 several sorts of wild beasts were wont to harbour themselves1 whose being washed out of the covert by the overflowings of the river gave occasion to that allusion3 #8,he shall come up like a lion from the swelling of ,jordan4'0 ,he shall be cast into the den of lions10 ,dan4 vi1 #g4 ,in ,morocco10 says ,hst1 8the king has a lions' den1 into which men1 particularly ,jews1 are sometimes thrown2 but the latter generally come off unhurt1 because the keepers of these animals are ,jews1 who may safely be with them1 with a rod in the hand1 if they only take care to go out backward1 as the lion does not suffer any one to turn his back upon him4 ,the other ,jews do not let their brethren remain longer than a night among the lions1 as they might otherwise become too hungry2 but ransom them with money1 which is1 in fact1 the king's object40 ,in another place in the same work we find the following description of the construction of this lions' den3 8,at one end of the royal palace there is a place for ostriches and their young2 and beyond the other end1 toward the mountains1 there is a large lions' den1 which consists of a large square hole in the ground1 with a partition1 in the middle of which there is a door1 which the ,jews1 who are obliged to maintain and keep them for nothing1 are able to open and shut from above1 and can thus entice the lions1 by means of the food1 from one division to the other1 to clean the other in the mean time4 ,it is all in the open air1 and a person may look down over a wall1 which is a yard and a quarter high40 ,,litany1 a solemn form of supplication to ,god4 ,the word is derived from 1 supplication4 ,at first the use of litanies was not fixed to any stated time2 but they were employed only as exigencies required4 ,they were observed in imitation of the ,ninevites with ardent supplications and fastings1 to avert the threatened judgments of fire1 earthquake1 inundations1 or hostile invasions4 ,the days on which they were used were called rogation days4 ,several of these days were appointed by the canons of different councils1 till the seventeenth council of ,toledo decreed that litanies should be used in every month4 ,thus1 by degrees1 these solemn supplications came to be used weekly1 on ,wednesdays and ,fridays1 the ancient stationary days in all churches4 ,as to the form in which litanies are made1 namely1 in short petitions by the priest with responses by the people1 ,st4 ,chrysostom derives the custom from the primitive ages1 when the priest began and uttered by the ,spirit some things fit to be prayed for1 and the people joined the intercessions1 saying1 ,we beseech thee to hear us1 good ,lord40 ,when the miraculous gift of the ,spirit began to cease1 they wrote down several of these forms1 which were the original of our present litanies4 ,st4 ,ambrose has left us one1 which agrees in many particulars with that of our own church4 ,about the year #djj1 litanies began to be used in processions1 the people walking barefoot1 and repeating them with great devotion4 ,it is pretended that several countries were delivered from great calamities by this means4 ,about the year #fjj1 ,gregory the ,great1 from all the litanies extant1 composed the famous sevenfold litany1 by which ,rome1 it is said1 was delivered from a grievous mortality4 ,this has served as a pattern to all the western churches since2 and to it ours of the church of ,england comes nearer than that of the ,romish missal1 in which later popes have inserted the invocation of saints1 which our ,reformers properly expunged4 ,these processional litanies having occasioned much scandal1 it was decreed that in future the litanies should be used only within the walls of the church4 ,before the last review of the ,common ,prayer1 the litany was a distinct service by itself1 and used some time after the morning prayer was ended4 ,at present it forms one office with the morning service1 being ordered to be read after the third collect for grace1 instead of the intercessional prayers in the daily service4 ,,liturgy denotes all the ceremonies in general belonging to divine service4 ,the word comes from the ,greek1 1 public service1 or public ministry2 formed of 1 public1 and 1 work4 ,in a more restrained signification1 liturgy is used among the ,romanists to signify the mass2 and among us1 the common prayer4 ,all who have written on liturgies agree that1 in primitive days1 divine service was exceedingly simple1 clogged with very few ceremonies1 and consisted of but a very small number of prayers2 but1 by degrees1 they increased the number of ceremonies1 and added new prayers1 to render the office more awful and venerable to the people4 ,at length1 things were carried to such a pitch that a regulation became necessary2 and it was found needful to put the service1 and the manner of performing it1 into writing2 and this was what they called a liturgy4 ,liturgies have been different at different times and in different countries4 ,we have the liturgy of ,st4 ,chrysostom1 of ,st4 ,peter1 the ,armenian liturgy1 ,gallican liturgy1 c4 ,the properties required in a public liturgy10 says ,paley1 are these3 it must be compendious2 express just conceptions of the divine attributes2 recite such wants as a congregation are likely to feel1 and no other2 and contain as few controverted propositions as possible40 ,the liturgy of the church of ,england was composed ,a4 ,d4 #aedg1 and established in the second year of ,king ,edward ,,vi4 ,in the fifth year of this prince1 it was reviewed1 because some things were contained in that liturgy which showed a compliance with the superstitions of those times2 and exceptions were taken against it by learned men at home1 and by ,calvin abroad4 ,some alterations were made in it1 which consisted in adding the general confession and absolution1 and the communion service1 to begin with the commandments4 ,the use of oil in confirmation and extreme unction1 was left out1 and also prayers for souls departed1 and what related to a belief of the real presence of ,christ in the eucharist4 ,the liturgy1 so reformed1 was established by the acts of #eth and #fth of ,edward ,,vi41 chap4 #a4 ,however1 it was abolished by ,queen ,mary1 who enacted that the service should stand as it was commonly used in the last year of ,king ,henry ,,viii4 ,that of ,edward ,,vi4 was restablished1 with some few alterations1 by ,elizabeth4 ,some farther alterations were introduced1 in consequence of the review of the ,common ,prayer ,book1 by order of ,king ,james1 in the first year of his reign2 particularly in the office of private baptism1 in several rubrics1 and other passages1 with the addition of five or six new prayers and thanksgivings1 and all that part of the catechism which contains the doctrines of the sacraments4 ,this ,book of ,common ,prayer1 so altered1 remained in force from the first year of ,king ,james to the fourteenth of ,charles ,,ii4 ,the last review of the liturgy was in the year #affa4 ,it is an invidious cavil1 says ,dr4 ,nichols1 that our liturgy was compiled out of popish books4 ,our reformers took nothing from them1 but what was taken before from the oldest writers4 ,we have many things out of the ,greek liturgies of ,basil and ,chrysostom2 more out of the litanies of ,ambrose and ,gregory2 very much out of the ancient forms of the church dispersed in the works of the fathers1 who wrote long before the ,roman ,breviary1 and ,canon of the ,mass4 ,our ,reformers added many prayers1 and thanksgivings1 and exhortations1 to supply the defect4 ,,lizard1 1 ,levit4 xi1 #cj4 ,all interpreters agree that the original word here signifies a sort of lizard4 ,bochart takes it for that kind which is of a reddish colour1 lies close to the earth1 and is of a venomous nature4 ,,locust1 4 ,the word is probably derived from 1 which signifies to multiply1 to become numerous1 c2 because of the immense swarms of these animals by which different countries1 especially in the east1 are infested4 ,see this circumstance referred to1 ,judges vi1 #e2 vii1 #ab2 ,psalm cv1 #cd2 ,jer4 xlvi1 #bc2 li1 #ad2 ,joel i1 #d2 ,nahum iii1 #ae2 ,judith ii1 #ai1 #bj2 where the most numerous armies are compared to the arbeh1 or locust4 ,the locust1 in entomology1 belongs to a genus of insects known among naturalists by the name of grylli4 ,the common great brown locust is about three inches in length1 has two antenn about an inch long1 and two pairs of wings4 ,the head and horns are brown2 the mouth1 and insides of the larger legs1 bluish2 the upper side of the body1 and upper wings1 brown2 the former spotted with black1 and the latter with dusky1 spots4 ,the back is defended by a shield of a greenish hue2 the under wings are of a light brown hue1 tinctured with green1 and nearly transparent4 ,the general form and appearance of the insect is that of the grasshopper so well known in this country4 ,these creatures are frequently mentioned in the ,old ,testament4 ,they were employed as one of the plagues for the punishment of the ,egyptians2 and their visitation was threatened to the ,israelites as a mark of the divine displeasure4 ,their numbers and destructive powers very aptly fit them for this purpose4 ,when they take the field1 they always follow a leader1 whose motions they invariably observe4 ,they often migrate from their native country1 probably in quest of a greater supply of food4 ,on these occasions they appear in such large flocks as to darken the air2 forming many compact bodies or swarms1 of several hundred yards square4 ,these flights are very frequent in ,barbary1 and generally happen at the latter end of ,march or beginning of ,april1 after the wind has blown from the south for some days4 ,the month following1 the young brood also make their appearance1 generally following the track of the old ones4 ,in whatever country they settle1 they devour all the vegetables1 grain1 and1 in fine1 all the produce of the earth2 eating the very bark off the trees2 thus destroying at once the hopes of the husbandman1 and all the labours of agriculture3 for though their voracity is great1 yet they contaminate a much greater quantity than they devour2 as their bite is poisonous to vegetables1 and the marks of devastation may be traced for several succeeding seasons4 ,there are various species of them1 which consequently have different names2 and some are more voracious and destructive than others1 though all are most destructive and insatiable spoilers4 ,bochart enumerates ten different kinds which he thinks are mentioned in the ,scripture4 ,writers in natural history bear abundant testimony to the ,scriptural account of these creatures4 ,dr4 ,shaw describes at large the numerous swarms and prodigious broods of those locusts which he saw in ,barbary4 ,dr4 ,russel says1 ,of the noxious kinds of insects may well be reckoned the locusts1 which sometimes arrive in such incredible multitudes1 that it would appear fabulous to give a relation of them2 destroying the whole of the verdure wherever they pass40 ,captain ,woodroffe1 who was for some time at ,astrachan1 a city near the ,volga1 sixty miles to the north-west of the ,caspian ,sea1 in latitude #dg1 assures us1 that1 from the latter end of ,july to the beginning of ,october1 the country about that city is frequently infested with locusts1 which fly in such prodigious numbers as to darken the air1 and appear at a distance as a heavy cloud4 ,as for the ,mosaic permission to the ,jews of eating the locusts1 ,lev4 xi1 #bb1 however strange it may appear to the mere ,english reader1 yet nothing is more certain than that several nations1 both of ,asia and ,africa1 anciently used these insects for food2 and that they are still eaten in the east to this day4 ,niebhur gives some account of the several species of locusts eaten by the ,arabs1 and of their different ways of dressing them for food4 ,the ,europeans10 he adds1 do not comprehend how the ,arabs can eat locusts with pleasure2 and those ,arabs who have had no intercourse with the ,christians will not believe1 in their turn1 that these latter reckon oysters1 crabs1 shrimps1 cray-fish1 c1 for dainties4 ,these two facts1 however1 are equally certain40 ,locusts are often used figuratively by the prophets1 for invading armies2 and their swarms aptly represented the numbers1 the desolating march of the vast military hordes and their predatory followers1 which the ancient conquerors of the east poured down upon every country they attacked4 ,,log1 ,lev4 xiv1 #ab1 a ,hebrew measure for things liquid1 containing five-sixths of a pint4 ,,lollards1 the supposed followers of ,walter ,lollard1 or rather of ,walter the ,lollard1 who1 according to ,dr4 ,mosheim1 was a ,dutchman of remarkable eloquence and piety1 though tinctured with mysticism1 and who1 for teaching sentiments contrary to the church of ,rome1 and nearly corresponding with those of ,wickliffe1 was burned alive at ,cologne in #acbb4 ,but before this there existed1 in different parts of ,germany and ,flanders1 various societies of ,cellites1 to whom the term ,lollards was applied1 and who were protected by the magistrates and inhabitants1 on account of their usefulness to the sick1 and in burying the dead4 ,they received the name ,lollards1 from the old ,german or ,belgic word lullen1 7,latin1 lallo17 to sing with a low voice10 to lull to sleep10 7whence lullaby17 because when they carried to the grave1 the bed of death1 such as died of the plague1 which at that period ravaged all ,europe1 they sung a dirge or hymn1 probably1 in a soft and mournful tone4 ,these ,lollards obtained many papal grants1 by which their institution was confirmed1 their persons exempted from the cognizance of the inquisitors1 and subjected entirely to the jurisdiction of the bishops2 and1 at last1 for their farther security1 ,charles1 duke of ,burgundy1 in #adgb1 obtained a bull from ,pope ,sixtus ,,iv41 by which they were ranked among the religious orders1 and delivered from the jurisdiction of their bishops2 which privileges were yet more extended by ,pope ,julius ,,ii4 in #aejf4 ,in ,england the followers of ,wickliffe were called ,lollards by way of reproach1 either on account of the humble offices of the original ,lollards1 7the ,cellites17 or from the attachment of the ,wickliffites to singing hymns4 ,their enemies probably meant to describe them as poor melancholy creatures1 only fit to sing psalms at a funeral4 ,,looking ,,glass4 ,moses states that the women who waited all night at the door of the tabernacle1 cheerfully offered their looking glasses1 to be employed in making a brazen laver for the purification of the priests1 ,exod4 xxxviii1 #h4 ,these looking glasses were doubtless of brass1 since the basin here mentioned1 and the basis thereof1 were made from them4 ,the ancient looking glasses were mirrors1 not made of glass as ours2 but of brass1 tin1 silver1 and a mixture of brass and silver1 which last were the best and most valuable4 ,,lord's ,,day4 ,see ,,sabbath4 ,,lord's ,,supper1 an ordinance instituted by our ,saviour in commemoration of his death and sufferings4 ,the institution of this sacrament is recorded by the first three evangelists1 and by the ,apostle ,paul1 whose words differ very little from those of his companion ,st4 ,luke2 and the only difference between ,st4 ,matthew and ,st4 ,mark is1 that the latter omits the words1 for the remission of sins40 ,there is so general an agreement among them all1 that it will only be necessary to recite the words of one of them3 ,now1 when the even was come1 he sat down with the twelve10 to eat the passover which had been prepared by his direction2 and as they were eating1 ,jesus took bread1 and blessed it1 and brake it1 and gave it to the disciples1 and said1 ,take1 eat3 this is my body4 ,and he took the cup1 and gave thanks1 and gave it to them1 saying1 ,drink ye all of it2 for this is my blood of the ,new ,testament1 which is shed for many for the remission of sins10 ,matt4 xxvi1 #bj1 #bf-bh4 ,the sacrament of the ,lord's ,supper being thus instituted1 was adopted by all the early ,christians1 with very few exceptions2 and no modern sect rejects it1 except the ,quakers and some mystics1 who make the whole of religion to consist of contemplative love4 ,in the early times of the ,gospel the celebration of the ,lord's ,supper was both frequent and numerously attended4 ,voluntary absence was considered as a culpable neglect2 and exclusion from it1 by the sentence of the church1 as a severe punishment4 ,every one brought an offering proportioned to his ability2 these offerings were chiefly of bread and wine2 and the priests appropriated as much as was necessary for the administration of the eucharist4 ,the clergy had a part of what was left for their maintenance2 and the rest furnished the repast called 1 or love-feast1 which immediately followed the celebration of the ,lord's ,supper1 and of which all the communicants1 both rich and poor1 partook4 ,the sacrament of the ,lord's ,supper greatly resembled the religious feasts to which the ,jews were accustomed4 ,at those feasts they partook of bread and wine in a serious and devout manner1 after a solemn blessing or thanksgiving to ,god for his manifold mercies4 ,this was particularly the case at the feast of the passover1 which our ,saviour was celebrating with his ,apostles when he instituted this holy sacrament4 ,at that feast1 they commemorated the deliverance of their own peculiar nation from the bondage of ,egypt2 and there could not be a more suitable opportunity for establishing an ordinance which was to commemorate the infinitely more important deliverance of all mankind from the bondage of sin4 ,the former deliverance was typical of the latter2 and instead of keeping the ,jewish passover1 which was now to be abrogated1 they were to commemorate ,christ1 their passover1 who was sacrificed for them2 the bread broken was to represent his body offered upon the cross2 and the wine poured out was to represent his blood1 which was shed for the salvation of men4 ,the nourishment which these elements afford to our bodies is figurative of the salutary effects which the thing signified has upon our souls4 ,and as the celebration of the passover was not only a constant memorial of the deliverance of the ,israelites out of the land of ,egypt1 but also a symbolical action1 by which they had a title to the blessings of the old covenant2 so the celebration of the ,lord's ,supper is not only a constant memorial of the death of ,christ1 but also a pledge or earnest to the communicant of the benefits promised by the new covenant4 ,as the passover was instituted the night before the actual deliverance of the ,israelites1 so the ,lord's ,supper was instituted the night before the redemption of man was accomplished by the crucifixion of the blessed ,jesus4 ,it is to be partaken of by all who look for remission of sins by the death of ,christ2 we are not only to cherish that trust in our minds1 and express it in our devotions1 but we are to give an outward proof of our reliance upon the merits of his passion as the means of our salvation1 by eating that bread1 and drinking that wine1 which are typical representations of the body and blood of ,christ1 who by his one oblation of himself once offered1 made a full1 perfect1 and sufficient sacrifice1 oblation1 and satisfaction for the sins of the whole world40 ,see ,,sacraments4 ,,lot1 the son of ,haran1 and nephew to ,abraham4 ,he accompanied his uncle from ,ur to ,haran1 and from thence to ,canaan2 a proof of their mutual attachment1 and similarity of principles respecting the true religion4 ,with ,abraham he descended into ,egypt1 and afterward returned with him into ,canaan3 but the multiplicity of their flocks1 and still more the quarrels of their servants1 rendered a friendly separation necessary4 ,when ,god destroyed the cities of the plain with fire and brimstone1 he delivered just ,lot0 from the conflagration1 according to the account of the divine historian4 ,the whole time that ,lot resided there was twenty-three years4 ,during all this period he had been a preacher of righteousness among this degenerate people4 ,in him they had before their eyes an illustrious example of the exercise of genuine piety1 supported by unsullied justice and benevolent actions4 ,and doubtless it was for these purposes that ,divine ,providence placed him for a time in that city4 ,the losses which ,lot sustained on this melancholy occasion were very great2 his wife1 property1 and all the prospects of the future settlement of his family blasted4 ,pity must therefore draw a friendly veil over the closing scene of this man of affliction2 and let him that thinketh he standeth1 take heed lest he fall into deeds more reprehensible than those of ,lot1 without having equal trials and sufferings to plead in his favour4 ,respecting his wife1 whether grieving for the loss of her property1 or inwardly censuring the severity of the divine dispensation1 or whether moved by unbelief or curiosity1 cannot now be known2 but1 looking back1 she became a pillar of salt1 ,gen4 xix1 #bf4 ,it would be endless to present the reader with all the opinions on this subject4 ,some contend that nothing more is meant than that she was suffocated3 others1 that a column or monument of metallic salt was erected upon her grave3 others affirm that she became encrusted with the sulphur1 insomuch that she appeared like an ,egyptian mummy1 which is embalmed with salt4 ,our ,lord warns his disciples to remember ,lot's wife in their flight from ,jerusalem1 and not to imitate her tardiness1 ,luke xvii1 #cb4 #b4 ,lot1 any thing cast or drawn in order to determine any matter in question1 ,proverbs xviii1 #ah4 ,we see the use of lots among the ,hebrews in many places of ,scripture3 ,god commands1 for example1 that lots should be cast upon the two goats which were offered for the sins of the people1 upon the solemn day of expiation1 to know which of the two should be sacrificed1 and which liberated1 ,lev4 xvi1 #h-aj4 ,he required also that the land of promise should be divided by lot as soon as it was conquered2 which command ,joshua accordingly executed1 ,num4 xxvi1 #ee1 #ef2 xxxiii1 #ed2 xxxiv1 #ac1 c2 ,joshua xiv-xvi2 hence the term lot0 is used for an inheritance1 ,thou maintainest my lot20 and figuratively for a happy state or condition4 ,the priests and ,levites had their cities appointed by lot4 ,lastly1 in the time of ,david1 the four and twenty classes of the priests and ,levites were distributed by lot1 to determine in what order they should wait in the temple1 #a ,chron4 vi1 #ed1 #fa2 xxiv1 #e2 xxv1 #h4 ,in the division of the spoil1 after victory1 lots were likewise cast1 to give every man his portion1 ,obadiah #aa2 ,nahum iii1 #aj1 c4 ,in the ,new ,testament1 after the death of ,judas1 lots were cast to decide who should occupy the place of the traitor1 ,acts i1 #bf4 ,from the above instances1 it is clear that when men have recourse to this method1 the matter ought to be of the greatest importance1 and no other apparent way left to determine it2 and the manner of making the appeal should be solemn and grave1 if we would escape the guilt of taking the name of ,god in vain4 ,it unquestionably implies a solemn appeal to the ,most ,high to interpose by his decision2 and so every thinking man will be very careful that he has a true and religious ground for so serious a proceeding2 and few if any cases can now occur in which it can have any justification4 ,the ancient manner of casting lots1 was either in some person's lap10 or fold of the robe2 into a helmet1 or urn1 or other vessel1 in which they might be shaken before they were drawn or cast4 ,,love-,,feasts4 ,it is ,godwin's opinion1 that the agap1 or love-feasts1 of the primitive ,christians1 were derived from the or feasts upon the sacrifices1 at which the ,jews entertained their friends1 and fed the poor2 ,deut4 xii1 #ah2 xxvi1 #ab4 ,there were also feasts of much the same kind in use among the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,the former were wont to offer certain sacrifices to their gods1 which were afterward given to the poor4 ,they had likewise public feasts for certain districts1 suppose for a town or a city1 toward which all who could afford it1 contributed1 in proportion to their different abilities1 and all partook of it in common4 ,of this sort were the of the ,cretans2 and the of the ,lacedmonians1 instituted by ,lycurgus1 and so called 1 7the being changed into according to their usual orthography17 as denoting that love and friendship which they were intended to promote among neighbours and fellow citizens4 ,the ,romans likewise had a feast of the same kind1 called charistia2 which was a meeting only of those who were akin to each other2 and the design of it was1 that if any quarrel or misunderstanding had happened among any of them1 they might there be reconciled4 ,to this ,ovid alludes in the second book of his ,fasti3-- ,proxima cognati dixere charistia cari1 ,et venit ad socios turba propinqua deos4 v4 #fag4 ,the feasts next in order beloved relatives called charistia1 at which the kindred throng assembled under their family household gods4 ,in imitation either of these ,jewish or ,gentile love-feasts1 or probably of both1 the primitive ,christians1 in each particular church1 had likewise their love-feasts1 which were supplied by the contribution of the members1 according to their several abilities1 and partaken of by all in common4 ,and whether they were converts from among the ,jews or ,gentiles1 they retained their old custom with very little alteration1 and as their had been commonly annexed to their sacrifices1 so they were now annexed to the commemoration of the sacrifice of ,christ at the ,lord's ,supper2 and were therefore held on the ,lord's day before or after the celebration of that ordinance4 ,it would seem at ,corinth1 in the ,apostles' days1 they were ordinarily held before2 for when the ,corinthians are blamed for unworthily receiving the ,lord's ,supper1 it is partly charged upon this1 that some of them came drunk to that ordinance1 having indulged to excess at the preceding love-feast3 ,every one taketh before1 1 his own supper1 and one is hungry1 and another is drunken10 #a ,cor4 xi1 #ba4 ,this shows1 says ,dr4 ,whitby1 that this banquet1 namely1 the love-feast1 was celebrated before the ,lord's ,supper4 ,but ,chrysostom gives an account of it1 as being in his time kept after it4 ,it is commonly supposed1 that when ,st4 ,jude mentions certain persons1 who were spots in the feasts of charity1 1 verse #ab1 he means in the ,christian love-feasts2 though ,dr4 ,lightfoot and ,dr4 ,whitby apprehend the reference in this passage is rather a custom of the ,jews1 who1 on the evening of their ,sabbath1 had their 1 or communion1 when the inhabitants of the same city met in a common place to eat together4 ,however that be1 all antiquity bears testimony to the reality of the ,christian 1 or love-feasts4 ,the most circumstantial account1 says ,dr4 ,townley1 of the manner in which the ancient agap were celebrated1 is given by ,tertullian1 in his ,apology10 written in the second century3 ,our supper10 says he1 which you accuse of luxury1 shows its reason in its very name1 for it is called 1 that is1 love4 ,whatever charge we are at1 it is gain to be at expense upon the account of piety4 ,for we therewith relieve and refresh the poor4 ,there is nothing vile or immodest committed in it4 ,for we do not sit down before we have first offered up prayer to ,god4 ,we eat only to satisfy hunger1 and drink only so much as becomes modest persons4 ,we fill ourselves in such a manner1 as that we remember still that we are to worship ,god by night4 ,we discourse as in the presence of ,god1 knowing that he hears us4 ,then1 after water to wash our hands1 and lights brought in1 every one is moved to sing some hymn to ,god1 either out of ,scripture1 or1 as he is able1 of his own composing1 and by this we judge whether he has observed the rules of temperance in drinking4 ,prayer again concludes our feast2 and thence we depart1 not to fight and quarrel2 not to run about and abuse all we meet2 not to give up ourselves to lascivious pastime2 but to pursue the same care of modesty and chastity1 as men that have fed at a supper of philosophy and discipline1 rather than a corporeal feast40 ,ignatius1 in his epistle to the church of ,smyrna1 in the first century1 affords us the additional information1 that it was not lawful to baptize1 or celebrate the love-feasts1 without the bishop1 or minister40 ,lucian1 the epicurean1 has also a passage which seems to refer to the agap4 ,he tells us that when ,peregrinus1 a ,christian1 was in prison1 you might have seen1 early in the morning1 old women1 some widows1 and orphans1 waiting at the prison4 ,their presidents bribed the guards1 and lodged in the prison with him4 ,afterward 7that is1 in the evening7 various suppers 7that is1 suppers consisting of various dishes1 and various kinds of meat1 brought thither by various persons of the company7 were brought in1 and they held their sacred conversations1 1 or their sacred discourses were delivered40 ,pliny1 in his celebrated epistle to ,trajan1 mentions the 8cibus promiscuus et innoxius10--8common and harmless meal0 of the ,christians1 which they ate together after the celebration of the eucharist4 ,this primitive practice1 though under a simpler form1 and more expressly religious1 is retained in modern times1 only by the ,moravians1 and by the ,wesleyan ,methodists4 ,,love ,,to ,,god4 ,to serve and obey ,god on the conviction that it is right to serve and obey him1 is in ,christianity joined with that love to ,god which gives life and animation to service1 and renders it the means of exalting our pleasures1 at the same time that it accords with our convictions4 ,the supreme love of ,god is the chief1 therefore1 of what have sometimes been called our theopathetic affections4 ,it is the sum and the end of the law2 and though it has been lost by us in ,adam1 it is restored to us by ,christ4 ,when it regards ,god absolutely1 and in himself1 as a ,being of infinite and harmonious perfections and moral beauties1 it is that movement of the soul toward him which is produced by admiration1 approval1 and delight4 ,when it regards him relatively1 it fixes upon the ceaseless emanations of his goodness to us all in the continuance of the existence which he at first bestowed2 the circumstances which render that existence felicitous2 and1 above all1 upon that great love wherewith he loved us10 manifested in the gift of his ,son for our redemption1 and in saving us by his grace2 or1 in the forcible language of ,st4 ,paul1 upon the exceeding riches of his grace in his kindness to us through ,christ ,jesus40 ,under all these views an unbounded gratitude overflows the heart which is influenced by this spiritual affection4 ,but the love of ,god is more than a sentiment of gratitude3 it rejoices in his perfections and glories1 and devoutly contemplates them as the highest and most interesting subjects of thought2 it keeps the idea of this supremely beloved object constantly present to the mind2 it turns to it with adoring ardour from the business and distractions of life2 it connects it with every scene of majesty and beauty in nature1 and with every event of general and particular providence2 it brings the soul into fellowship with ,god1 real and sensible1 because vital2 it moulds the other affections into conformity with what ,god himself wills or prohibits1 loves or hates2 it produces an unbounded desire to please him1 and to be accepted of him in all things2 it is jealous of his honour1 unwearied in his service1 quick to prompt to every sacrifice in the cause of his truth and his church2 and it renders all such sacrifices1 even when carried to the extent of suffering and death1 unreluctant and cheerful4 ,it chooses ,god as the chief good of the soul1 the enjoyment of which assures its perfect and eternal interest and happiness3 ,whom have ,i in heaven but thee8 and there is none upon earth that ,i desire beside thee10 is the language of every heart1 when its love of ,god is true in principle and supreme in degree4 ,if1 then1 the will of ,god is the perfect rule of morals2 and if supreme and perfect love to ,god must produce a prompt and unwearied1 a delightful subjection to his will1 or rather an entire and most free choice of it as the rule of all our principles1 affections1 and actions2 the importance of this affection in securing that obedience to the law of ,god in which true morality consists1 is manifest2 and we clearly perceive the reason why an inspired writer has affirmed1 that love is the fulfilling of the law40 ,the necessity of keeping this subject before us under those views in which it is placed in the ,christian system1 and of not surrendering it to mere philosophy1 is1 however1 an important consideration4 ,with the philosopher the love of ,god may be the mere approval of the intellect2 or a sentiment which results from the contemplation of infinite perfection1 manifesting itself in acts of power and goodness4 ,in the ,scriptures it is much more than either1 and is produced and maintained by a different process4 ,we are there taught that the carnal mind is enmity to ,god10 and is not1 of course1 capable of loving ,god4 ,yet this carnal mind may consist with deep attainments in philosophy1 and with strongly impassioned poetic sentiment4 ,the mere approval of the understanding1 and the susceptibility of being impressed with feelings of admiration1 awe1 and even pleasure1 when the character of ,god is manifested in his works1 as both may be found in the carnal mind which is enmity to ,god1 are not therefore the love of ,god4 ,they are principles which enter into that love1 since it cannot exist without them2 but they may exist without this affection itself1 and be found in a vicious and unchanged nature4 ,the love of ,god is a fruit of the ,holy ,spirit2 that is1 it is implanted by him only in the souls which he has regenerated2 and as that which excites its exercise is chiefly1 and in the first place1 a sense of the benefits bestowed by the grace of ,god in our redemption1 and a well grounded persuasion of our personal interest in those benefits1 it necessarily presupposes our reconciliation to ,god through faith in the atonement of ,christ1 and that attestation of it to the heart by the ,spirit of adoption4 ,we here see1 then1 another proof of the necessary connection of ,christian morals with ,christian doctrine1 and how imperfect and deceptive every system must be which separates them4 ,love is essential to true obedience2 for when the ,apostle declares love to be the fulfilling of the law10 he declares1 in effect1 that the law cannot be fulfilled without love2 and that every action which has not this for its principle1 however virtuous in its show1 fails of accomplishing the precepts which are obligatory upon us4 ,but this love to ,god cannot be felt so long as we are sensible of his wrath1 and are in dread of his judgments4 ,these feelings are incompatible with each other1 and we must be assured of his reconciliation to us1 before we are capable of loving him4 ,thus the very existence of love to ,god implies the doctrines of atonement1 repentance1 faith1 and the gift of the ,spirit of adoption to believers2 and unless it be taught in this connection1 and through this process of experience1 it will be exhibited only as a bright and beauteous object to which man has no access2 or a fictitious and imitative sentimentalism will be substituted for it1 to the delusion of the souls of men4 ,,lucian1 a philosopher and wit1 who appeared as one of the early opposers of the ,christian religion and its followers4 ,the hostile sentiments of the ,heathens toward ,christianity1 says ,dr4 ,neander1 were different according to the difference of their philosophical and religious views4 ,there entered then upon the contest two classes of men1 who have never since ceased to persecute ,christianity4 ,these were the superstitious1 to whom the honouring ,god in spirit and in truth was a stumbling stone1 and the careless unbeliever1 who1 unacquainted with all feelings of religious wants1 was accustomed to laugh and to mock at every thing which proceeded from them1 whether he understood it or not1 and at all which supposed such feelings1 and proposed to satisfy them4 ,such was ,lucian4 ,to him ,christianity1 like every other remarkable religious phenomenon1 appeared only as a fit object for his sarcastic wit4 ,without giving himself the trouble to examine and to discriminate1 he threw ,christianity1 superstition1 and fanaticism1 into the same class4 ,it is easy enough1 in any system which lays deep hold on man's nature1 to find out some side open to ridicule1 if a man brings forward only that which is external in the system1 abstracted from all its inward power and meaning1 and without either understanding1 or attempting to understand1 this power4 ,he1 therefore1 who looked on ,christianity with cold indifference1 and the profane every-day feelings of worldly prudence1 might easily here and there find objects for his satire4 ,the ,christian might indeed have profited by that ridicule1 and have learned from the children of darkness to join the wisdom of the serpent with the meekness of the dove4 ,in the end the scoffer brings himself to derision1 because he ventures to pass sentence on the phenomena of a world of which he has not the slightest conception1 and which to his eyes1 buried as they are in the films of the earth1 is entirely closed4 ,such was ,lucian4 ,he sought to bring forward all that is striking and remarkable in the external conduct and circumstances of ,christians1 which might serve for the object of his sarcastic raillery1 without any deeper inquiry as to what the religion of the ,christians really was4 ,and yet even in that at which he scoffed1 there was much which might have taught him to remark in ,christianity no common power over the hearts of men1 had he been capable of such serious impressions4 ,the firm hope of eternal life which taught them to meet death with tranquillity1 their brotherly love one toward another1 might have indicated to him some higher spirit which animated these men2 but instead of this he treats it all as delusion1 because many gave themselves up to death with something like fanatical enthusiasm4 ,he scoffs at the notion of a crucified man having taught them to regard all mankind as their brethren1 the moment they should have abjured the gods of ,greece2 as if it were not just the most remarkable part of all this1 that an obscure person in ,jerusalem1 who was deserted by every one1 and executed as a criminal1 should be able1 a good century after his death1 to cause such effects as ,lucian1 in his own time1 saw extending in all directions1 and in spite of every kind of persecution4 ,how blinded must he have been to pass thus lightly over such a phenomenon6 ,but men of his ready wit are apt to exert it with too great readiness on all subjects4 ,they are able to illustrate every thing out of nothing2 with their miserable nil admirari10 they can close their hearts against all lofty impressions4 ,with all his wit and keenness1 with all his undeniably fine powers of observation in all that has no concern with the deeper impulses of man's spirit1 he was a man of very little mind4 ,but hear his own language3 ,the wretched people have persuaded themselves that they are altogether immortal1 and will live for ever2 therefore they despise death1 and many of them meet it of their own accord4 ,their first lawgiver has persuaded them also to regard all mankind as their brethren1 as soon as they have abjured the ,grecian gods1 and1 honouring their crucified ,master1 have begun to live according to his laws4 ,they despise every thing ,heathen equally1 and regard all but their own notions as profaneness1 while they have yet embraced those notions without sufficient examination40 ,he has no farther accusation to make against them here1 except the ease with which they allowed their benevolence toward their fellow ,christians to be abused by impostors1 in which there may be much truth1 but there is1 nevertheless1 some exaggeration4 ,,ludim4 ,there were two ,luds2 the one the son of ,shem1 from whom the ,lydians of ,asia ,minor are supposed to have sprung1 and the other the son of ,mizraim1 whose residence was in ,africa4 ,the descendants of the latter only are mentioned in ,scripture3 they are joined by ,isaiah1 lxvi1 #ai1 with ,pul1 whose settlement is supposed to have been about the island ,philoe1 near the first cataract of the ,nile2 by ,jeremiah1 xlvi1 #i1 with the ,ethiopians and ,libyans2 by ,ezekiel1 xxvii1 #aj1 with ,phut1 as the mercenary soldiers of ,tyre1 and xxx1 #e1 with the ,ethiopians and ,libyans2 all plainly denoting their ,african position2 but in what particular part of that continent this position was1 is not known4 ,,luke4 ,the ,new ,testament informs us of very few particulars concerning ,st4 ,luke4 ,he is not named in any of the ,gospels4 ,in the ,acts of the ,apostles1 which were1 as will hereafter be shown1 written by him1 he uses the first person plural1 when he is relating some of the travels of ,st4 ,paul2 and thence it is inferred1 that at those times he was himself with that ,apostle4 ,the first instance of this kind is in the eleventh verse of the sixteenth chapter2 he there says1 ,loosing from ,troas1 we came up with a straight course to ,samothracia40 ,thus1 we learn that ,st4 ,luke accompanied ,st4 ,paul in this his first voyage to ,macedonia4 ,from ,samothracia they went to ,neapolis1 and thence to ,philippi4 ,at this last place we conclude that ,st4 ,paul and ,st4 ,luke separated1 because in continuing the history of ,st4 ,paul1 after he left ,philippi1 ,st4 ,luke uses the third person1 saying1 ,now when they had passed through ,amphipolis10 c1 ,acts xvii1 #a2 and he does not resume the first person till ,st4 ,paul was in ,greece the second time4 ,we have no account of ,st4 ,luke during this interval2 it only appears that he was not with ,st4 ,paul4 ,when ,st4 ,paul was about to go to ,jerusalem from ,greece1 after his second visit into that country1 ,st4 ,luke1 mentioning certain persons1 says1 ,these going before tarried for us at ,troas2 and we sailed away from ,philippi10 ,acts xx1 #e1 #f4 ,thus again we learn that ,st4 ,luke accompanied ,st4 ,paul out of ,greece1 through ,macedonia to ,troas2 and the sequel of ,st4 ,paul's history in the ,acts1 and some passages in his epistles1 #b ,tim4 iv1 #aa2 ,col4 iv1 #ad1 ,philemon #bd1 written while he was a prisoner at ,rome1 informs us that ,st4 ,luke continued from that time with ,paul1 till he was released from his confinement at ,rome2 which was a space of about five years1 and included a very interesting part of ,st4 ,paul's life1 ,acts xx-xxviii4 ,here ends the certain account of ,st4 ,luke4 ,it seems probable1 however1 that he went from ,rome into ,achaia2 and some authors have asserted that he afterward preached the ,gospel in ,africa4 ,none of the most ancient fathers having mentioned that ,st4 ,luke suffered martyrdom1 we may suppose that he died a natural death2 but at what time1 or in what place1 is not known4 ,we are told by some that ,st4 ,luke was a painter1 and ,grotius and ,wetstein thought that he was in the earlier part of his life a slave2 but ,i find1 says ,bishop ,tomline1 no foundation for either opinion in any ancient writer4 ,it is probable that he was by birth a ,jew1 and a native of ,antioch in ,syria2 and ,i see no reason to doubt that ,luke1 the beloved physician10 mentioned in the ,epistle to the ,colossians1 iv1 #ad1 was ,luke the evangelist4 ,lardner thinks that there are a few allusions to this ,gospel in some of the apostolical fathers1 especially in ,hermas and ,polycarp2 and in ,justin ,martyr there are passages evidently taken from it2 but the earliest author1 who actually mentions ,st4 ,luke's ,gospel1 is ,irenus2 and he cites so many peculiarities in it1 all agreeing with the ,gospel which we now have1 that he alone is sufficient to prove its genuineness4 ,we may however observe1 that his testimony is supported by ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,tertullian1 ,origen1 ,eusebius1 ,jerom1 ,chrysostom1 and many others4 ,dr4 ,owen and ,dr4 ,townson have compared many parallel passages of ,st4 ,mark's and ,st4 ,luke's ,gospels2 and ,dr4 ,townson has concluded that ,st4 ,luke had seen ,st4 ,mark's ,gospel1 and ,dr4 ,owen1 that ,st4 ,mark had seen ,st4 ,luke's2 but there does not appear to be a sufficient similarity of expression to justify either of these conclusions4 ,there was among the ancients a difference of opinion concerning the priority of these two ,gospels2 and it must be acknowledged to be a very doubtful point4 ,there is also great doubt about the place where this ,gospel was published4 ,it seems most probable that it was published in ,greece1 and for the use of ,gentile converts4 ,dr4 ,townson observes1 that the evangelist has inserted many explanations1 particularly concerning the scribes and ,pharisees1 which he would have omitted if he had been writing for those who were acquainted with the customs and sects of the ,jews4 ,we must conclude that the histories of our ,saviour1 referred to in the preface to this ,gospel1 were inaccurate and defective1 or ,st4 ,luke would not have undertaken this work4 ,it does not1 however1 appear that they were written with any bad design2 but being merely human compositions1 and perhaps put together in great haste1 they were full of errors4 ,they are now entirely lost1 and the names of their authors are not known4 ,when the four authentic ,gospels were published1 and came into general use1 all others were quickly disregarded and forgotten4 ,st4 ,luke's ,gospel is addressed to ,theophilus2 but there was a doubt1 even in the time of ,epiphanius1 whether a particular person1 or any good ,christian in general1 be intended by that name4 ,theophilus was probably a real person1 that opinion being more agreeable to the simplicity of the sacred writings4 ,we have seen that ,st4 ,luke was for several years the companion of ,st4 ,paul2 and many ancient writers consider this ,gospel as having the sanction of ,st4 ,paul1 in the same manner as ,st4 ,mark's had that of ,st4 ,peter4 ,whoever will examine the evangelist's and the ,apostle's account of the eucharist in their respective original works1 will observe a great coincidence of expression1 ,luke xxii2 #a ,cor4 xi4 ,st4 ,luke seems to have had more learning than any other of the evangelists1 and his language is more varied1 copious1 and pure4 ,this superiority in style may perhaps be owing to his longer residence in ,greece1 and greater acquaintance with ,gentiles of good education1 than fell to the lot of the writers of the other three ,gospels4 ,this ,gospel contains many things which are not found in the other ,gospels2 among which are the following3 the birth of ,john the ,baptist2 the ,roman census in ,judea2 the circumstances attending ,christ's birth at ,bethlehem2 the vision granted to the shepherds2 the early testimony of ,simeon and ,anna2 ,christ's conversation with the doctors in the temple when he was twelve years old2 the parables of the good ,samaritan1 of the prodigal son1 of ,dives and ,lazarus1 of the wicked judge1 and of the publican and ,pharisee2 the miraculous cure of the woman who had been bowed down by illness eighteen years2 the cleansing of the ten lepers2 and the restoring to life the son of a widow at ,nain2 the account of ,zaccheus1 and of the penitent thief2 and the particulars of the journey to ,emmaus4 ,it is very satisfactory that so early a writer as ,irenus has noticed most of these peculiarities2 which proves not only that ,st4 ,luke's ,gospel1 but that the other ,gospels also1 are the same now that they were in the second century4 ,,lunatics1 1 lunatici1 ,matt4 iv1 #bd4 ,thus those sick persons were called1 who were thought to suffer most severely at the changes of the moon2 for example1 epileptical persons1 or those who have the falling sickness1 insane persons1 or those tormented with fits of morbid melancholy4 ,mad people are still called lunatics1 from an ancient1 but now almost exploded1 opinion1 that they are much influenced by that planet4 ,a sounder philosophy has taught us1 that1 if there be any thing in it1 it must be accounted for1 not in the manner the ancients imagined1 nor otherwise than by what the moon has in common with other heavenly bodies1 occasioning various alterations in the gravity of our atmosphere1 and thereby affecting human bodies4 ,however1 there is considerable reason to doubt the fact2 and it is certain that the moon has no perceivable influence on our most accurate barometers4 ,it has been the fashion to decry and ridicule the doctrine of demoniacal possessions1 and to represent the patients merely as lunatics or madmen4 ,and some think that this is countenanced by the calumny of the unbelieving ,jews concerning ,christ1 ,he hath a demon1 and is mad10 ,john x1 #bj2 both possession and madness often producing the same symptoms of convulsions1 paralysis1 c1 ,matt4 xvii1 #ae-ah4 ,but that they were distinct diseases1 may be collected from the following considerations3 #a4 ,the evangelists1 enumerating the various descriptions of patients1 distinguish 1 demoniacs1 1 lunatics1 and 1 paralytics1 from persons afflicted with other kinds of diseases1 ,matt4 iv1 #bd2 ,mark i1 #cd2 ,luke vi1 #ag1 #ah4 #b4 ,that a real dispossession took place1 seems to follow from the number of these impure inmates4 ,mary of ,magdala1 or the ,magdalene1 was afflicted with seven demons1 ,mark xvi1 #i4 ,a legion0 besought ,christ's permission to enter into a numerous herd of two thousand swine2 which they did1 and drove the whole herd down a precipice into the sea1 where they were all drowned4 ,this remarkable case is noticed by the three evangelists most circumstantially1 ,matt4 viii1 #bh2 ,mark v1 #a2 ,luke viii1 #bf4 #c4 ,the testimony of the demoniacs to ,christ was not that of madmen or idiots4 ,it evinced an intimate knowledge both of his person and character1 which was hidden from the wise and prudent0 of the nation1 the chief priests1 scribes1 and ,pharisees4 ,their language was1 ,what hast thou to do with us1 ,jesus of ,nazareth8 ,art thou come to torment us before the time80 ,i know thee who thou art1 the ,holy ,one of ,god30 thou art the ,christ1 the ,son of ,god1 the ,son of the most high ,god10 ,matt4 viii1 #bi2 ,mark i1 #bd2 iii1 #aa2 ,luke iv1 #cd-da4 ,and they repeatedly besought him not to torment them1 not to order them to depart into the abyss1 ,luke viii1 #bh-ca4 ,see ,,demoniacs4 ,,lutherans1 or the ,,lutheran ,,church1 the disciples and followers of ,martin ,luther1 an ,augustine friar1 who was born at ,isleben1 in ,upper ,saxony1 in the year #adhc4 ,he possessed an invincible magnanimity1 and uncommon vigour and acuteness of genius4 ,he first took offence at the indulgences which were granted in #aeag1 by ,pope ,leo ,x41 to those who contributed toward finishing ,st4 ,peter's church at ,rome1 ,luther being then professor of divinity at ,wittemberg4 ,those indulgences promised remission of all sins1 past1 present1 and to come1 however enormous their nature1 to all who were rich enough to purchase them4 ,at this ,luther raised his warning voice2 and in ninety-five propositions1 which he maintained publicly at ,wittemberg1 ,september #cj1 #aeag1 exposed the doctrine of indulgences1 which led him to attack also the authority of the pope4 ,this was the commencement of that memorable revolution in the church which is styled the ,reformation2 though ,mosheim fixes the era of the ,reformation from #aebj1 when ,luther was excommunicated by the pope4 ,in #aebc ,luther drew up a liturgy1 that1 in many things1 differed but little from the ,mass ,book2 but he left his followers to make farther reforms1 as they saw them necessary2 and1 in consequence1 the forms of worship in the ,lutheran churches vary in points of minor importance3 but they agree in reading the ,scriptures publicly1 in offering prayers and praises to ,god through the ,mediator in their own language1 in popular addresses to the congregation1 and the reverend administration of the sacraments4 ,the ,augsburgh ,confession 7see ,confessions7 forms the established creed of the ,lutheran church4 ,the following are a few of the principal points of doctrine maintained by this great reformer1 and a few of the ,scriptures by which he supported them4 #a4 ,that the ,holy ,scriptures are the only source whence we are to draw our religious sentiments1 whether they relate to faith or practice1 ,john v1 #ci2 #a ,cor4 iv1 #af2 #b ,tim4 iii1 #ae-ag4 ,reason also confirms the sufficiency of the ,scriptures2 for1 if the written word be allowed to be a rule in one case1 how can it be denied to be a rule in another8 #b4 ,that justification is the effect of faith exclusive of good works2 and that faith ought to produce good works purely in obedience to ,god1 and not in order to our justification2 for ,st4 ,paul1 in his ,epistle to the ,galatians1 strenuously opposed those who ascribed our justification1 though but in part1 to works3 ,if righteousness come by the law1 then ,christ is dead in vain10 ,gal4 ii1 #ba4 ,therefore it is evident we are not justified by the law1 or by our works2 but to him that believeth1 sin is pardoned1 and ,christ's righteousness imputed4 ,this article of justification by faith alone1 ,luther used frequently to call articulus stantis vel cadentis ecclesi20 that by which the church must stand or fall4 #c4 ,that no man is able to make satisfaction for his sins2 for our ,lord teaches us to say1 when we have done all things that are commanded us1 ,we are unprofitable servants10 ,luke xvii1 #aj4 ,christ's sacrifice is alone sufficient to satisfy for sin1 and nothing need be added to the infinite value of his atonement4 ,luther also rejected tradition1 purgatory1 penance1 auricular confession1 masses1 invocation of saints1 monastic vows1 and other doctrines of the church of ,rome4 ,luther differed widely from ,calvin on matters of church discipline2 and on the presence of ,christ's body in the sacrament4 ,his followers also deviated from him in some things2 but the following may be considered as a fair statement of their principles1 and the difference between them and the ,calvinists3 #a4 ,the ,lutherans in ,germany reject both ,episcopacy and ,presbyterianism1 but appoint superintendents for the government of the church1 who preside in their consistories1 when that office is not supplied by a delegate from the civil government2 and they hold meetings in the different towns and villages1 to inquire into the state of the congregations and the schools4 ,the appointment of superintendents1 and the presentation to livings1 is generally in the prince1 or ecclesiastical courts4 ,the ,swedes and ,danes have an ecclesiastical hierarchy1 similar to that of ,england4 #b4 ,they differ in their views of the sacrament of the ,lord's ,supper4 ,all the ,lutherans reject trans-substantiation1 but affirm that the body and blood of ,christ are materially present in the sacrament1 though in an incomprehensible manner3 this they called con-substantiation4 ,the ,calvinists hold1 on the contrary1 that ,jesus ,christ is only spiritually present in the ordinance1 by the external signs of bread and wine4 #c4 ,they differ as to the doctrine of the eternal decrees of ,god respecting man's salvation4 ,the modern ,lutherans maintain that the divine decrees1 respecting the salvation and misery of men1 are founded upon the divine prescience4 ,the ,calvinists1 on the contrary1 consider these decrees as absolute and unconditional4 ,the ,lutherans are generally divided into the moderate and the rigid4 ,the moderate ,lutherans are those who submitted to the ,interim published by the ,emperor ,charles ,v4 ,melancthon was the head of this party1 and they were called ,adiaphorists4 ,the rigid ,lutherans are those who would not endure any change in their master's sentiments1 of whom ,m4 ,flaccius was the head4 ,the ,lutherans are partial to the use of instrumental music in their churches1 and admit statues and paintings1 as the church of ,england does1 without allowing them any religious veneration2 but the rigid ,calvinists reject these1 and allow only the simplest forms of psalmody4 ,the modern ,lutherans1 about the close of the seventeenth century1 enlarged their liberality toward other sects1 and gave up the supposed right of persecution2 confessing that ,christians are accountable to ,god only for their religious faith4 ,they admit1 also1 into their sacred canon the ,epistle of ,st4 ,james1 which ,luther rashly rejected1 because he could not reconcile it with ,st4 ,paul's doctrine of justification2 and the ,revelation of ,st4 ,john1 which ,luther also rejected1 because he could not explain it4 ,on some of the doctrines of the early ,german reformers the following remarks by ,archbishop ,laurence are entitled to high consideration3--,against the church of ,rome1 which always1 when attacked1 fled for protection to the shield of scholastical sophistry1 ,luther had waged a dauntless1 unwearied1 and effectual warfare4 ,he entered the field of contest without distrust or apprehension1 under a rooted persuasion that the victory over superstition would prove easy at an era when learning had already begun to extend itself in every direction1 and was become closely allied to theological attainments4 ,when the light of day appeared1 the genuine doctrines of ,scripture and the primitive opinions of antiquity began to be more distinctly perceived1 and more accurately investigated4 ,with an attachment to classical pursuits arose a zeal for ,biblical inquiries4 ,taste and truth went hand in hand4 ,luther1 than whom no one was more capable of infusing energy into the cause in which he had embarked1 was of all men the worst adapted to conduct it with moderation3 he was calculated to commence1 but not to complete1 reformation4 ,prompt1 resolute1 and impetuous1 he laboured with distinguished success in the demolition of long established error2 he also hastily threw together the rough and cumbrous materials of a better system4 ,but the office of selecting1 modelling1 and arranging them was consigned to a correcter hand4 ,melancthon was of a character directly opposite to that of ,luther1 possessing every requisite to render truth alluring and reformation respectable2 and hence upon him1 in preference1 the princes of ,germany conferred the honour of compiling the public profession of their faith4 ,but it ought not to be concealed1 that1 previously to the time when ,lutheranism first became settled upon a permanent basis1 and added public esteem to public notice1 tenets were advanced1 which retarded the progress of truth more than all the subtleties of scholastic argument1 or the terrors of papal anathema4 ,at the beginning of the ,reformation1 as ,melancthon frankly observed to ,cranmer1 there existed among its advocates stoical disputations respecting fate1 offensive in their nature1 and noxious in their tendency4 ,the duration1 however1 of these stoical disputations was but short2 and the substitution of a more rational as well as practical system1 for the space of more than twenty years before the appearance of our ,articles1 prevented the founders of our church from mistaking1 for the doctrines of the ,lutherans1 those which they themselves wished to forget1 and were anxious to obliterate4 ,as we descend to particulars1 it will be necessary to keep our eye upon one prominent doctrine1 which was eminently conspicuous in all the controversies of the ,lutherans1--the doctrine of ,,complete ,,redemption ,,by ,,christ1 which in their idea their adversaries 7the ,papists7 disregarded1 who denied in effect the depravity of our nature1 believed the favour of ,heaven in this life recoverable by what was denominated merit of congruity1 and1 in the life to come1 by that which was termed merit of condignity1 and founded predestination upon merits of such a description2 thus in every instance1 while retaining the name of ,christians1 rendering ,christianity itself superfluous4 ,in opposition to opinions so repugnant in many respects to reason1 and in almost all so subversive of ,scripture1 the ,lutherans constantly pressed the unsophisticated tenet of the atonement1 not contractedly in a ,calvinistical1 but comprehensively in a ,christian1 point of view1--in one in which both ,calvinists and ,arminians alike embrace it4 ,upon original sin the doctrine of the schoolmen was no less fanciful and remote from every ,scriptural idea1 than flattering to human pride4 ,they contended that the infection of our nature is not a mental but a mere corporeal taint2 that the body alone receives and transmits the contagion1 while the soul in all instances proceeds immaculate from the hands of her ,creator4 ,this disposition to disease1 such as they allowed it to be1 was considered by some of them as the effect of a peculiar quality in the forbidden fruit2 by others1 as having been contracted from the poisonous breath of the infernal spirit which inhabited the serpent's body4 ,on one point they were all united2 by preserving to the soul the bright traces of her divine origin unimpaired1 they founded on a deceitful basis an arrogant creed1 which1 in declaring peace and pardon to the sinner1 rested more upon personal merit than the satisfaction of a ,saviour4 ,in commenting upon the celebrated ,book of ,sentences1 a work once not much less revered than the ,scriptures themselves1 the disciples of ,lombard never failed to improve every hint which tended to degrade the grace of ,god and exalt the pride of man4 ,original sin the ,romish schoolmen directly opposed to original righteousness2 and this they considered not as something connatural with man1 but as a superinduced habit or adventitious ornament1 the removal of which could not prove detrimental to the native powers of his mind4 ,when1 therefore1 they contemplated the effects of the fall1 by confining the evil to a corporeal taint1 and not extending it to the nobler faculties of the soul1 they regarded man as an object of divine displeasure1 not because he possessed that which was offensive1 but because he was defective in that which was pleasing to the ,almighty4 ,adam1 they said1 received for himself and his posterity the gift of righteousness1 which he subsequently forfeited2 in his loins we were included1 and by him were virtually represented3 his will was ours1 and hence the consequence of his lapse is justly imputable to us his descendants4 ,by our natural birth1 therefore1 under this idea1 we are alienated from ,god1 innocent in our individual persons1 but guilty in that of him from whom we derived our existence2 a guilt which1 although contracted through the fault of another1 yet so closely adheres to us that it effectually precludes our entrance at the gate of everlasting life1 until the reception of a new birth in baptism4 ,thus they contended1 that the sin of ,adam conveys to us solely imputed guilt2 the corporeal infection which they admitted not being sin itself1 but only the subject matter of it1--not peccatum1 but1 according to their phraseology1 fomes peccati1 a kind of fuel which the human will kindles or not at pleasure4 ,such was the outline of the doctrine maintained in the church of ,rome4 ,the tenet of the ,lutherans1 on the other hand1 is remarkable for its simplicity and perspicuity4 ,avoiding all intricate questions upon the subject1 they taught that original sin is a corruption of our nature in a general sense1 a depravation of the mental faculties and the corporeal appetites2 that the resplendent image of the ,deity1 which man received at the creation of the world1 although not annihilated1 is nevertheless greatly impaired2 and that1 in consequence1 the bright characters of unspotted sanctity1 once deeply engraven on his mind by the hand of the living ,god1 are become obliterated1 the injury extending to his intellect1 and affecting as well his reason and his will as his affections and passions4 ,to conceive that inclination to evil incurs not in itself the disapprobation of ,heaven1 appeared to them little better than an apology for crime1 or at least a dangerous palliation of that which the ,christian's duty compels him not only to repress but abhor4 ,the case of ,cornelius1 whose prayers and alms are said to have ascended up for a memorial before ,god1 was often quoted1 by the advocates of the church of ,rome1 to prove the merit of works before the reception of grace2 to prove the human will capable1 by its own inherent rectitude1 of deserving the favour and approbation of ,heaven4 ,the ,lutherans1 on the other hand1 contended1 that the argument supported not the conclusion drawn from it1 and was therefore irrelevant2 that the works of ,cornelius were not the causes but the effects of grace2 and that this is sufficiently apparent from the context1 in which he is described as a devout man1 who feared ,god and prayed continually40 ,the disciples of ,lombard1 in whatever mode disposed to pervert reason and annihilate ,scripture1 universally held1 that neither before nor after the fall was man in himself capable of meriting heaven2 that by the gratuitous endowments of his creation1 even in paradise1 he was only enabled to preserve his innocence1 and not to sin2 and that he was utterly incompetent to proceed one step farther1 efficaciously to will a remunerable good1 and by his natural exertions to obtain a reward above his nature2 original righteousness being reputed not a connate quality1 but a supernatural habit4 ,thus1 he could resist evil1 but not advance good to perfection2 could in some sense live well1 by living free from sin1 but could not without divine aid so live as to deserve everlasting life4 ,for such a purpose they asserted that grace was necessary1 to operate upon his will in its primary determinations1 and to co-operate with it in its ultimate acts4 ,it was1 therefore1 in the loss of this celestial aid1 this superadded gift1 and not in any depravity of his mind1 that they supposed the principal evil derivable from his lapse to consist2 a loss1 however1 which1 by a due exertion of his innate abilities1 they deemed to be retrievable2 and hence sprung that offensive doctrine of human sufficiency which1 in the ,lutheran's eye1 completely obscured the glory of the ,gospel1 and which1 when applied to the sinner's conscience1 taught the haughty to presume1 and the humble to despair4 ,according1 then1 to the system under consideration1 the favour of ,god in this life1 and his beatific vision in the life to come1 are both attainable by personal merit2 the former by congruous1 as it was termed1 the latter by condign2 the one without1 the other with1 the assistance of grace4 ,by our natural strength1 it was said1 we can fulfil the commands of ,god as far as their obligation extends2 yet was it added1 that we cannot fulfil them according to the intention of the divine ,legislator2 an intention of rewarding only those who obey them in virtue formed by charity1 under the influence of a quality rather regulating the tendency1 than augmenting the purity1 of the action4 ,they stated1 that we may so prepare ourselves for grace as to become entitled to it congruously1 not as to a debt which in strict justice ,god is bound to pay1 but as to a grant which it is congruous in him to give1 and which it would be inconsistent with his attributes to withhold4 ,this favourite doctrine was supported by every denomination of scholastics1 and by every individual of the church of ,rome4 ,congruous merit was universally esteemed a pearl above all price1 the intrinsic value of which attracted the regard1 and conciliated the benevolence1 of the ,almighty4 ,according to their conception1 we are endowed with an innate propensity to good1 which vice itself can never obliterate1 and are able not only to reverence and adore the supreme ,being1 but to love him above other objects4 ,they supposed man competent no less to the efficient practice1 than to the barren admiration1 of holiness2 enabled as well to obey the laws1 as to love the goodness1 of the ,almighty2 and1 if not to deserve the rewards1 at least to discharge the obligations1 of religion4 ,impressed1 therefore1 with such exalted notions of human ability1 and forgetful of the ,christian propitiation for sin1 the sophists of the schools maintained1 that the soul of man possesses in the freedom1 or rather in the capacity1 of her ,,will a faculty almost divine4 ,stimulated by the most upright propensities1 and undepraved in her noblest powers1 she directs her progress in the path of truth and the road to bliss1 by the pure and inextinguishable light of an unperverted reason4 ,although mutable in her decisions1 nevertheless complete controller of her conduct1 she becomes at pleasure either the servant of righteousness or the slave of sin2 and1 disdaining to be anticipated by ,god himself1 prevents him in his supernatural gifts by a previous display of her own meritorious deeds1 challenging1 as a congruous right1 that which only could have been otherwise conferred as a favour undeserved4 ,by the bare observance of my holy order10 exclaimed the secluded devotee1 ,i am able not solely to obtain grace for myself1 but1 by the works which ,i then may do1 can accumulate merit sufficient both to supply my own wants and those of others2 so that ,i may sell the superabundance of my acquired treasure40 ,can we be surprised that a reformer of ,luther's manly disposition1 who wrote without reserve and reasoned without control1 when adverting to opinions of so noxious a tendency1 should sometimes1 from excess of zeal1 lose sight of moderation in his censures8 ,the ,lutherans commenced the attack upon these unscriptural dogmas1 under a persuasion that the position of their opponents militated against the leading principles of ,christianity4 ,if man10 they said1 be capable of pleasing ,god by his own works abstractedly considered1 without divine assistance1 where is the necessity1 and what is the utility1 of that assistance80 ,they argued1 that1 were it possible for the moral virtues of the mind by their own efficiency to render our persons acceptable to ,god and obtain his lost favour1 no need would exist of any other satisfaction for sin1 and thus the whole scheme of ,gospel redemption would have been fruitless1 and ,christ have died in vain4 ,while1 therefore1 the doctrine of the atonement presented nothing but a cloud and darkness to their adversaries1 it gave light by night to these2 on them it shone1 amidst surrounding gloom1 with lustre unobscured4 ,luther advanced a proposition which proved highly offensive to the ,papists1 and which they never ceased to condemn and calumniate4 ,his assertion was1 that he who exerts himself to the utmost of his ability still continues to sin4 ,on the other side1 unassisted man was thought incapable of performing an action remunerably good1 or1 as it was usually termed1 condignly meritorious1 even before his lapse2 and that consequently1 in his fallen state1 all to which he was conceived competent by his innate strength was not to sin4 ,when ,luther therefore drew up his thesis for public disputation against the tenet of congruous works1 if little delicacy1 yet some caution1 and much discrimination1 appeared requisite4 ,had he stated them to be thus good in a scholastic sense1 he would have completely lost sight of his object1 and allowed more than even his opponents themselves4 ,had he described them as not demeritorious1 or1 in other words1 not sinful1 he would have precisely maintained the adverse position1 and might consequently have spared his labour1 at the same time that he would have tacitly acknowledged them to possess1 what he could not consistently with truth attribute to them1 every natural perfection of virtue and holiness4 ,under what denomination1 then1 could he class them1 except under that of sinful8 a denomination which he the more readily adopted because1 even among his adversaries themselves1 the words ,,sin and ,,grace1 as he remarked1 were in general immediately opposed to each other4 ,anxious to rescue ,christian theology from the grasp of those who embraced only to betray1 the ,lutherans laboured to restore that importance to the doctrine of redemption with which the ,scriptures invest it1 but of which1 by a subtle perversity1 it had been deprived4 ,the principal object1 therefore1 in their view evidently was1 to ,christianize the speculations of the schools2 and the principal drift of their argument is to prove1 that human virtue1 how extravagantly soever extolled by a vain philosophy1 is wholly insufficient 7because imperfect7 to merit the favour of ,heaven4 ,allowing no medium between righteousness and unrighteousness1 the approbation and disapprobation of the ,almighty1 characterizing that as sinful which is confessedly not holy1 and thus annihilating every ground of self-presumption1 they inculcated the necessity of contemplating with the eye of faith those means of reconciliation which ,christianity alone affords4 ,but it has been insinuated1 that the ,lutheran doctrine went to prove man's total inability to extricate himself from crime1 until the arrival of some uncertain moment1 which brings with it a regeneration from on high1 the sudden transfusion of a new light and new virtues4 ,but those who thus conceive of it are not probably aware1 that ,melancthon1 the venerable author of the ,augsburgh ,confession1 warmly reprobates this precise idea1 which he denominates a ,manichean conceit and a horrible falsehood4 ,upon the abstract question of free will it is indeed true1 that ,melancthon1 no less than ,luther1 at first held opinions which he was happy to retract4 ,but when this is acknowledged it should be added1 that he made ample amends for his indiscretion by not only expunging the offensive passages from the single work which contained them1 but by introducing others of a nature diametrically opposite4 ,and although the more inflexible coadjutor of ,melancthon was too lofty to correct what he had once made public1 and too magnanimous to regard the charge of inconsistency which his adversaries urged against him2 yet what his better judgment approved clearly appears from a preface written not long before his death2 in which1 while he expressed an anxiety to have his own chaotic labours1 as he styled them1 buried in eternal oblivion1 he recommended in strong terms1 as a work admirably adapted to form the ,christian divine1 that very performance of his friend which was remarkable for something more than a mere recantation of the opinions alluded to4 ,it was not against any conceived deficiency in the quality of our virtue that they argued1 but against its supposed competency1 whether wrought in or out of grace1 with greater or less degrees of purity1 to effect that which the oblation of ,christ alone accomplishes4 ,upon both points ,luther treated the doctrine of his adversaries as altogether frivolous1 and incapable of corroboration by a single fact4 ,futile1 however1 as the scholastical tenet appeared to be1 although deficient in proof and unsupported by example1 upon this1 he remarked with indignation and grief1 was founded the whole system of papal delusion4 ,justification was on both sides supposed to consist entirely in the remission of sins4 ,the popish scholastics1 on this head1 were remarkably distinct in their ideas1 and express in their language4 ,they represented it as an effect produced by the infusion of divine grace into the mind2 not as a consequent to a well spent life1 but as preceding all remunerable obedience1 as the intervening point between night and day1 the gloom of a guilty and the light of a self-approving conscience2 or1 in other words1 and to adopt their own phraseology1 as the exact boundary where merit of congruity ends and where merit of condignity begins1 the infallible result of a previous disposition on our part1 which never fails of alluring from on high that supernatural quality which1 being itself love1 renders the soul beloved4 ,while the ,lutherans1 however1 adhered to the general import of the term as understood in the schools1 they waged an incessant warfare upon another point2 while they allowed that justification consists in the remission of sin1 they denied that this remission is to be acquired by the merit of the individual4 ,their scholastic opponents maintained that man is justified in the sight of ,god in consequence of his own preparation1 and on account of his personal qualities4 ,they1 on the other band1 argued with an inflexibility which admitted of no compromise1 that1 possessing not merits of his own to plead1 man freely received forgiveness through the mercy of ,god solely on account of the merits of ,christ4 ,the effective principle1 therefore1 or meritorious cause of justification1 was the great point contested4 ,the doctrine of the popish divines1 explained more at large1 was this3 ,when the sinner1 conscious of his past transgressions1 inquired where he was to seek the expiation of his crime1 and deliverance from the dreadful consequences of it1 the general answer was1 ,in the merit of penitence2 a merit capable of annihilating guilt1 and appeasing the anger of incensed ,omnipotence4 ,he1 they argued1 who1 having disobeyed the laws of ,heaven1 is desirous of returning into that state of acceptance from which he has fallen1 must not expect free forgiveness2 but previously by unfeigned sorrow of heart deserve the restoration of grace1 and1 with it1 the obliteration of his offences4 ,to effect this desirable purpose he is bound strictly to survey and detest his former conduct1 accurately to enumerate his transgressions and deeply feel them2 and1 impressed with a due sense of their magnitude1 impurity1 and consequences1 to condemn his folly and deplore his fault1 which have made him an outcast of ,heaven1 and exposed him to eternal misery4 ,so far he can proceed by that operation of the mind which they denominated ,,attrition1 and which1 being within the sphere of his natural powers1 they regarded as congruous piety meritorious of justification1 as a preparation of the soul more or less necessary to receive and merit justifying grace4 ,when1 therefore1 he is arrived at this point1 ,,attrition ceases and ,,contrition commences2 the habit of sin is expelled1 while that of holiness is superinduced in its stead1 and with the infusion of charity1 the plastic principle of a new obedience1 justification becomes complete4 ,but even here it was not conceived that a total deliverance takes place2 a liberation from guilt and eternal punishment is effected1 but not from temporal1 which is never remitted unless either by the infliction of some personal suffering or satisfactory compensation required of him who is already justified and approved by ,heaven4 ,however1 to accomplish this remaining object1 nothing more is wanting than a continuation1 to a sufficient intensity1 of that compunction of heart which is now denominated ,,contrition1 grace supplying the defects of nature1 and enabling penitential merit not only to justify1 but to obtain exemption from punishment of every species4 ,but so great appeared to the popish scholastics the frailty of man and the severity of ,god1 that no inconsiderable difficulty occurred in the due application of this favourite doctrine to individuals2 for the means of expiation1 they imagined1 ought always to be proportionate to the magnitude of the offences4 ,how10 they reasoned1 are we to be assured that our contrition has been either sufficient or sincere1 and whether it has been so in the obliteration not only of one crime1 but of all2 whether it has atoned for past transgressions of every kind1 the number of which may perplex1 as well as their guilt confound1 us80 ,instead1 therefore1 of penitence in its strictest acceptation as a perfect virtue1 ,god1 they said1 in condescension to human infirmity1 has substituted for general practice the sacrament of penitence1 which1 for the attainment of full remission1 requires only a moderate compunction of soul1 with confession to the priest1 and the discharge of such satisfaction as he may enjoin4 ,and1 still lower to reduce the terms of acceptance1 they even argued that it is not absolutely necessary for the penitent to experience an entire conversion of heart1 but only not to oppose the impediment of mortal crime1 to feel some displeasure at his past conduct1 and to express a resolution of amending it in future4 ,but1 after all1 and in spite of the boasted authority of the keys1 complete confidence in divine forgiveness was never inculcated2 for it was neither the interest nor the inclination of the church of ,rome to teach the simple doctrine of ,christian faith1 but rather to involve it in metaphysical obscurity4 ,under the pretext1 therefore1 of relieving the throbbing breast from its apprehensions1 they had recourse to numerous inventions for propping the insecure fabric of penitential hope2 asserting1 among other extravagancies1 that the sacraments are in themselves efficacious by virtue of their own operation1 exclusively of all merit in the recipient2 and that the sacrament of the altar1 in particular1 acts so powerful in this respect as to communicate grace not only to those who partake of it1 but to others from whom it is received by substitution1 provided its operation be not hindered by confessedly flagrant immorality4 ,so deeply rooted in the minds of the papists had become the persuasion of its thus effecting the best of purposes1 and that even without the necessity of an actual participation of it by him upon whom the benefit is conferred1 that the celebration of the mass was universally regarded as the means of appeasing the anger of ,heaven1 and obtaining pardon and peace1 of procuring divine assistance for the living1 and1 for the dead1 deliverance from the bitter pains of purgatory4 ,nor by the sacraments alone1 but by every good external work1 as well as internal disposition1 was justifying grace supposed to be merited congruously1 and satisfaction for sin to be made condignly4 ,in monastical institutions1 likewise1 were found no mean materials for similar purposes2 for in those feigned religions10 as the homily ,on ,good ,works describes them1 the devotees boasted of having lamps which ran always over1 able to satisfy not only for their own sins1 but also for all other their benefactors1 brothers and sisters of religion1 as most ungodly and craftily they had persuaded the multitude of ignorant people2 keeping in divers places marts or markets of merits1 being full of their holy relics1 images1 shrines1 and works of overflowing abundance1 ready to be sold40 ,yet1 whether the dubious penitent was instructed to derive consolation from the efficacy of the sacraments1 from his own personal qualities1 or from any of what ,cranmer aptly termed 8the fantastical works of man's invention10 it should be observed that he was not directly taught to consider these as wholly superseding the virtue of repentance1 but as supplying his deficiencies in the performance of it2 an incongruous system of atonement1 fabricated by the avarice of ,rome1 and the obsequiousness of scholastical philosophy1 to augment the treasures and extend the influence of the church1 to extinguish the light of ,gospel truth1 and1 while keeping the world at large in ignorance1 to hold the conscience of the individual in slavery4 ,upon the whole1 then1 the scholastics maintained that justification is unattainable without repentance1 at least1 without some degree of attrition on our part2 but in the common apprehension of the doctrine even this seems to have been forgotten1 and merit of congruity considered in a general point of view as alone efficacious4 ,thus good works of every species preceding grace were said to deserve it1 and1 by deserving grace1 to deserve the justifying principle4 ,and always were they careful to impute the cause of forgiveness1 not to the mercy of ,god in ,christ1 but to the sole change in the individual1 to his transmutation from a state of unrighteousness to one of righteousness1 to his possession of a quality which renders him a worthy object of divine approbation4 ,for in every instance personal merit was conceived to be the solid basis upon which rests the complete remission of sin4 ,upon no one point1 perhaps1 has the opinion of ,luther been more misrepresented than upon this4 ,some have ascribed to it a solifidian tendency1 if not of the most enthusiastical1 at least1 of the most unqualified1 description4 ,but it seems indeed impossible accurately to comprehend the position which he maintained1 if we examine it in an insulated point of view1 unless we connect it with that of which in the church of ,rome it properly formed a part1 and from which he never intended to separate it1--the doctrine of penitence4 ,in opposing the absurdity of papal indulgences1 7the first impiety against which his manly mind revolted17 a ray of light1 before unnoticed1 darted upon him1 and opened a completely new scene1 which1 while it stimulated his efforts as a reformer1 animated his hopes as a ,christian4 ,hence1 averting with disdain from the speculations of sophists1 and turning to the sacred page of revelation1 he there beheld an affiance very different from what the schools inculcated2 and thus1 while their vain language was1 ,repent1 and trust to the efficacy of your contrition1 either with or without extraneous works1 according to the degree of its intensity1 for the expiation of your offences20 his1 more ,scriptural and more consoling1 became simply this3 ,repent1 and trust not for expiation to your own merits of any kind1 but solely to those of your ,redeemer40 ,rejecting the dreams of their adversaries with respect to the nature and effects of this important duty1 they represented it as consisting of two essential parts1 ,,contrition and ,,faith1 the latter as always associated with the former4 ,hence1 in the ,apology of their ,confession1 they repeatedly declared a disavowal of all faith1 except such as exists in the contrite heart4 ,far was it from their intention to encourage the presumptuous or fanatical sinner in a false security2 their object was very different and laudable1--they laboured to fix the eye of him who both laments and detests his offences1 upon the only deserving object of human confidence and divine complacency4 ,properly1 then1 as they frequently remarked1 their doctrine of justification was appropriated to troubled consciences1 at every period of true repentance1 and particularly at the awful hour of death1 when the time for habitual proofs of amendment has elapsed1 and when the past appears replete with guilt and the future with terror4 ,at such moments1 they taught not1 with the schools1 an affiance in human merit1 but in the gratuitous mercy of ,god through ,christ3 to contrition1 as a preparatory qualification or previous requisite1 they added faith2 and from faith they deemed every principle of real piety and virtue inseparable4 ,good works1 or the outward fruits of an inward renovation of mind1 were said to follow remission of sins2 internal necessarily preceding external reformation4 ,for the individual1 they argued1 must himself be good before the action can be so denominated1 be justified before it can be deemed just1 and accepted before it can prove acceptable1--distinguishing between the primary admission into ,god's favour1 and the subsequent preservation of that favour4 ,the unfathomable depths of divine predestination and predetermination human reason in vain attempts to sound1 finite faculties to scan infinite1 or the limited intellect of man to comprehend the immensity of the ,godhead4 ,erasmus1 a peculiar favourite with the reformers of our own country1 when contemplating this inexplicable subject1 observed1 that in the ,holy ,scriptures there are certain secret recesses1 which ,god is unwilling for us too minutely to explore2 and which1 if we endeavour to explore1 in proportion as we penetrate farther1 our minds become more and more oppressed with darkness and stupefaction2 that thus we might acknowledge the inscrutable majesty of the divine wisdom1 and the imbecility of the human mind40 ,congenial1 also1 with the feelings and sentiments of ,erasmus upon this point were those of ,luther4 ,to acquire any knowledge10 he remarked1 of a deity not revealed in ,scripture1 to know what his existence is1 his actions and dispositions1 belongs not to me4 ,my duty is only this2 to know what are his precepts1 his promises1 and his threatenings4 ,pernicious and pestilent is the thought of investigating causes1 and brings with it inevitable ruin1 especially when we ascend too high1 and wish to philosophize upon predestination40 ,how differently ,calvin felt upon the same subject1 and with what little reserve1 or rather with what bold temerity1 he laboured to scrutinize the unrevealed ,divinity1 is too well known to require any thing beyond a bare allusion to the circumstance4 ,his sentiments1 however1 were much less regarded than some are disposed to allow2 and upon this particular question1 so far were they from having attained their full celebrity at the period when the articles of the church of ,england were framed1 that they were not taught without opposition even in his own unimportant territory of ,geneva4 ,for at that precise era he was publicly accused 7by ,sebastian ,castellio7 of making ,god the author of sin2 and although1 not contented with silencing1 he first imprisoned and afterward banished his accuser1 yet he could not expel the opinions of his adversary4 ,while the church of ,rome maintained a predestination to life of one man in preference to another individually on account of personal merit1 the ,lutherans taught a gratuitous predestination of ,christians collectively1 of those whom ,god has chosen in ,christ out of mankind2 and by this single point of difference were the contending opinions principally contradistinguished4 ,with us the system of ,calvin still retains so many zealous advocates1 that to a modern ear the very term ,,predestination seems to convey a meaning only conformable with his particular system4 ,it should1 however1 be observed that this word was in familiar use for centuries before the ,reformation1 in a sense1 very different from what ,calvin imputed to it1 not as preceding the divine prescience1 but as resulting from it1 much in the same sense as that in which it has since been supported by the ,arminians4 ,yet1 obvious as this appears1 writers of respectability strangely persuade themselves1 that1 immediately prior to the ,reformation1 the doctrines of the church of ,rome were completely ,calvinistical2 a conclusion to which1 certainly1 none can subscribe who are sufficiently conversant with the favourite productions of that time4 ,so far1 indeed1 was this from being the fact1 that ,calvin peculiarly prided himself on departing from the common definition of the term1 which had long been adopted by the adherents of the schools1 and retained with a scrupulous precision4 ,for while they held that the expression predestinati is exclusively applicable to the elect1 whom ,god1 foreknowing as meritorious objects of his mercy1 predestinates to life2 and while they appropriated that of prsciti to the non-elect1 whose perseverance in transgression is simply foreknown2 ,calvin1 on the other side1 treating the distinction as a frivolous subterfuge1 contended that ,god1 decreeing the final doom of the elect and non-elect irrespectively1 predestinates both1 not subsequently but previously to all foreknowledge of their individual dispositions1 especially devotes the latter to destruction through the medium of crime1 and creates them by a fatal destiny to perish4 ,whatever1 therefore1 modern conjecture may have attributed to the popish scholastics1 it is certain that1 abhorring every speculation which tends in the remotest degree to make ,god the author of sin1 they believed that only salutary good is predestinated2 grace to those who deserve it congruously1 and glory to those who deserve it condignly4 ,they maintained that almighty ,god1 before the foundations of the world were laid1 surveying in his comprehensive idea1 or1 as they phrased it1 in his prescience of simple intelligence1 the possibilities of all things before he determined their actual existence1 foresaw that1 if mankind were created1 7although he willed the salvation of all1 and was inclined to assist all indifferently1 yet7 some would deserve eternal happiness1 and others eternal misery2 and that therefore he approved and elected the former1 but disapproved or reprobated the latter4 ,thus1 grounding election upon foreknowledge1 they contemplated it1 not as an arbitrary principle1 separating one individual from another under the influence of a blind chance or an irrational caprice2 but1 on the contrary1 as a wise and just principle1 which presupposes a diversity between those who are accepted and those who are rejected4 ,hence it was1 that in order to systematize upon this principle of election1 and to show how consistent it is as well with the justice as the benevolence of the ,deity1 the will of ,god was considered in a double point of view1 as absolute and conditional1 or1 in the technical language of the schools1 as antecedent and consequent4 ,in the first instance1 by his absolute or antecedent will1 he was said to desire the salvation of every man2 in the latter1 by his conditional or consequent will1 that only of those whom he foresaw abstaining from sin and obeying his commandments3 the one expressed his general inclination1 the other his particular resolution upon the view of individual circumstances and conditions4 ,to the inquiry1 why some are unendowed with grace1 their answer was1 ,because some are not willing to receive it1 and not because ,god is unwilling to give it40 ,he10 they said1 offers his light to all4 ,he is absent from none2 but man absents himself from the present ,deity1 like one who shuts his eyes against the noon-day blaze40 ,to the foregoing statement it should be added1 that they held an election1 or rather an ordination1 to grace 7which they expressly asserted to be defectible7 distinct from an election to glory2 that according to them1 a name may be written in the book of life at one period1 which at another many be erased from it2 and that predestination to eternal happiness solely depends upon final perseverance in well doing4 ,on the whole it is evident1 that they considered the dignity or worthiness of the individual as the meritorious basis of predestination2 merit of congruity as the basis of a preordination to grace1 and merit of condignity as that of a preordination to glory4 ,thus1 not more fastidious in the choice of their terms than accurate in the use of them1 while they denied that the prescience of human virtue1 correctly speaking1 could be the primary cause of the divine will1 because nothing in time can properly give birth to that which has existed from eternity1 they strenuously maintained it to be a secondary cause1 the ratio or rule in the mind of the ,deity which regulated his will in the formation of its ultimate decisions4 ,although in the established confession of their faith the ,lutherans avoided all allusion to the subject of predestination1 it was nevertheless introduced into another work of importance1 and of considerable public authority1 the ,loci ,theologici of ,melancthon1 a production which was every where received as the standard of ,lutheran divinity4 ,both ,luther and ,melancthon1 after the ,diet of ,augsburgh1 kept one object constantly in view1--to inculcate only what was plain and practical1 and never to attempt philosophizing4 ,but to what1 it may be asked1 did the ,lutherans object in the theory of their opponents when they themselves abandoned the tenet of necessity8 ,certainly1 not to the sobriety and moderation of that part of it which vindicated the justice1 and displayed the benevolence1 of the ,almighty2 but1 generally1 to the principles upon which it proceeded2 to the presumption1 in overleaping the boundary which ,heaven has prescribed to our limited faculties1 and which we cannot pass without plunging into darkness and error2 and to its impiety in disregarding1 if not despising1 the most important truths of ,christianity4 ,a system of such a nature they hesitated not to reject1 anxious to conduct themselves by the light of ,scripture alone1 nor presuming to be wise above what ,god has been pleased to discover4 ,maintaining not a particular election of personal favourites1 either by an absolute will1 or even a conditional one1 dependent upon the ratio of merit1 but a general election of all who1 by baptism in their infancy1 or by faith and obedience in mature years1 become the adopted heirs of ,heaven2 they conceived this to be the only election to which the ,gospel alludes1 and1 consequently1 the only one upon which we can speak with confidence1 or reason without presumption4 ,if it be observed1 that the selection of an integral body necessarily infers that of its component parts1 the answer is obvious3 ,the latter1 although indeed it be necessarily inferred by the former1 is nevertheless not a prior requisite1 but a posterior result of the divine ordination4 ,what they deemed absolute on the part of ,god was his everlasting purpose to save his elect in ,christ1 or real ,christians considered as a whole1 and contrasted with the remainder of the human race2 the completion of this purpose being regulated by peculiar circumstances1 operating as inferior causes of a particular segregation4 ,for1 persuaded of his good will toward all men without distinction1 of his being indiscriminately disposed to promote the salvation of all1 and of his seriously 7not fictitiously1 as ,calvin taught7 including all in the universal promise of ,christianity1 they imputed to him nothing like a partial choice1 no limitation of favours1 no irrespective exclusion of persons2 but assuming the ,christian character as the sole ground of individual preference1 they believed that every baptized infant1 by being made a member of ,christ1 not by being comprised in a previous arbitrary decree1 is truly the elect of ,god1 and1 dying in infancy1 certain of eternal happiness2 that he who1 in maturer years1 becomes polluted by wilful crime1 loses that state of salvation which before he possessed2 that nevertheless by true repentance1 and conversion to the ,father of mercy and ,god of all consolation1 he is again reinstated in it2 and that1 by finally persevering in it1 he at length receives the kingdom prepared for every sincere ,christian before the foundation of the world4 ,can any man1 whom prejudice has not blinded1 rank these sentiments with those of ,calvin8 ,it may seem almost unnecessary to subjoin1 that the ,lutherans held the defectibility of grace2 its indefectibility being a position supported but by those who think that the ,redeemer died for a selected few alone4 ,upon the whole then it appears1 that the ,lutherans1 affecting not in any way to philosophize1 but committing themselves solely to the guidance of ,scripture1 differed from the church of ,rome in several important particulars4 ,for1 although on some points they coincided with her1 although they inculcated1 with equal zeal and upon a better principle1 both the universality and the defectibility of grace1 as well as a conditional admission into the number of the elect1 they nevertheless were entirely at variance with her upon the very foundation of the system4 ,thus while their opponents taught1 that predestination consists in the prospective discrimination of individuals by divine favour1 according to the foreseen ratio of every man's own merit1--works of congruity deserving grace here1 and works of condignity eternal life hereafter1 and that in this way it principally rests upon human worth2 the ,lutherans1 disclaiming every idea of such a discrimination1 placed it upon the same basis as they assumed in the case of justification1--that of an effectual redemption by ,christ4 ,instead1 therefore1 of holding the election of individuals as men on account of personal dignity or worthiness1 they maintained the election of a general mass as ,christians on account of ,christ alone2 adding that we are admitted into that number1 or discarded from it1 in the eye of ,heaven1 proportionably as we embrace or reject the salvation offered to all1 embracing it with a faith inseparable from genuine virtue1 or rejecting it by incredulity and crime4 ,for neither in this1 nor in the instance of justification1 did they exclude repentance and a true conversion of the heart and life1 as necessary requisites1 but only as meritorious causes1 from the contemplation of ,god's omniscient intellect4 ,let those10 said ,luther1 who wish to be elected avoid an evil conscience1 and not transgress the divine commandments40 ,instructed then by the unerring page of truth1 they asserted no other predestination than what is there expressly revealed2 that of the good and gracious ,father of mankind1 who from eternity has been disposed to promote the happiness and welfare of all men1 has destined ,christ to be the ,saviour of the whole world1 and withholden from none the exalted hope of the ,christian calling4 ,convinced that this is the only predestination which ,christianity discloses1 and consequently the only one which we can either with safety or certainty embrace1 they discouraged every attempt at investigating the will1 out of the word1 of ,god2 every attempt at effecting impossibilities1 at unveiling the secret counsels of ,him who shrouds his divine perfections in darkness impervious to mortal eyes4 ,with such investigations1 indeed1 the world had already been sufficiently bewildered by the scholastics1 who1 endowed with a ready talent at perplexing what before was plain1 and at rendering abstruseness still more abstruse1 had made the subject totally inexplicable1 vainly labouring to develope with precision that mysterious will upon which the wise must ever think it folly1 and the good impiety1 to speculate4 ,disquisitions of this presumptuous nature1 from a personal experience of their mischievous tendency1 ,luther abjured himself1 and deprecated in others4 ,are we1 miserable men10 he exclaimed1 8who as yet are incapable of comprehending the rays of ,god's promises1 the glimmerings of his precepts and his works1 although confirmed by words and miracles1 are we1 infirm and impure1 eager to comprehend all that is great and glorious in the solar light itself1 in the incomprehensible light of a miraculous ,godhead8 ,do we not know1 that ,god dwells in splendour inaccessible8 ,and yet do we approach1 or rather do we presume to approach it8 ,are we not aware1 that his judgments are inscrutable8 ,and yet do we endeavour to scrutinize them8 ,and these things we do1 before we are habituated even to the faint lustre of his promises and precepts1 with a vision still imperfect1 blindly rushing into the majesty of that light which1 secret and unseen1 has never been by words or miracles exhibited4 ,what wonder1 then1 if1 while we explore its majesty1 we are overwhelmed with its glory80 ,for a farther account of the ,lutheran views on predestination1 see the last pages of the article ,,calvinism4 ,after this very ample exposition of the sentiments of the ,german reformers on the chief points of ,christian doctrine1 it is only necessary to give a few additional particulars in corroboration of some portions of the preceding statement4 ,the high estimation in which ,luther held the productions of the judicious ,melancthon is apparent from a passage in the preface to the first volume of ,luther's works1 dated #aede4 ,in that year also appeared the last amended edition of ,melancthon's ,common ,places10 to which he alludes4 ,long and earnestly10 he says1 have ,i resisted the importunity of those who have wished me to publish my works1 or1 to speak more correctly1 my confused and disorderly lucubrations2 not only because ,i was unwilling that the labours of the ancients should be turned aside by my novelties1 and that the reader should be hindered from perusing them1 but likewise because now1 by the grace of ,god1 a great number of methodical books are extant2 among which the ,common ,places of our ,philip claim the preference1 for by them a divine and a bishop may be abundantly and satisfactorily confirmed1 so as to become powerful in the word of the doctrine of piety1 especially when the ,holy ,bible itself can now be procured in almost every language4 ,but the want of order in the matters to be discussed in my books induced1 nay compelled1 me to render them a sort of rude and indigested chaos1 which it would now require even on my part no small exertion to digest into a methodical form4 ,under the influence of such motives as these1 ,i was desirous that all my productions should be buried in perpetual oblivion1 that they might give place to others of a better description40 ,in this preface ,luther also gives the following testimony to the general usefulness of ,melancthon's labours3 ,in the same year ,philip ,melancthon had been called to this university by ,prince ,frederick to fill the chair of ,greek professor1 but no doubt with the intention that ,i should have him as my colleague in the labours of the divinity professorship4 ,for his works are sufficiently in proof of what the ,lord hath effected by this his choice instrument1 not only in polite literature1 but in theology1 although ,satan be enraged and all his party40 ,though the early opinions of ,luther upon the doctrine of a philosophical necessity appear to have been occasionally expressed in a harsh and repulsive manner1 yet his followers pertinaciously contend that even the harshest of them cannot1 with propriety1 be construed into a sense favourable to the ,calvinistical system4 ,those of ,melancthon in the first edition of his ,loci ,theologici1 although occurring but in one or two instances1 were nevertheless still more offensive1 and less capable of a mitigated interpretation4 ,so far indeed did he carry the doctrine of divine predetermination as to degrade man to a level with the brutes1 as will be obvious from the following passage in the edition of #aebe4 ,lastly1 divine predestination takes away human liberty4 ,for all things come to pass according to divine predestination1 not only external works1 but also internal thoughts in all creatures40 ,after the ,diet of ,augsburgh in #aecj1 we hear no more of this obnoxious tenet4 ,indeed so early as #aebg these reformers seem to have abandoned it4 ,at least1 when in that year a form of doctrine was drawn up for the churches of ,saxony1 free will in acts of morality was thus inculcated3 ,the human will is so far free as to be able in some sort to perform the righteousness of the flesh1 or civil justice1 when it is obliged by the law and by force not to steal1 not to kill1 not to commit adultery1 c4 ,therefore let ministers teach1 that it is in a measure in our own hands to restrain carnal affections1 and to perform civil justice2 and let them diligently exhort men to a strict and proper course of life1 because ,god also requires this kind of righteousness1 and will grievously punish those men who live so negligent of their duty4 ,for as we are bound to make a good use of the other gifts of ,god1 so is it likewise our duty to employ to good purpose those powers which ,god has bestowed on nature40 ,for ,god takes no delight in that ferocious mode of life which is adopted by some men1 who1 after having heard that we are not justified by our own powers and works1 foolishly dream that they will wait until they be drawn by ,god1 and in the mean time their course of life is most impure4 ,such persons ,god will most severely punish2 and they must therefore be earnestly reprehended and admonished by those whose province it is to teach in the churches40 ,this work1 which is generally termed1 ,libellus ,visitationis ,saxonic1 was first composed in ,german by ,melancthon in #aebg1 and afterward republished by ,luther with a preface1 in which he thus expresses himself3 ,we do not publish these as rigorous precepts1 nor do we again employ ourselves in drawing up pontifical decrees1 but we relate matters of history and public deeds1 and present the confession and symbol of our belief40 ,the previous controversy between ,luther and ,erasmus1 on the topic of free will1 had probably tended to produce an amelioration of the doctrinal system of the ,lutheran church4 ,in this view it was not without reason that ,erasmus made the following reflections in a letter dated #aebh1 soon after he had seen this production3 ,the ,lutheran fever1 every succeeding day1 assumes a milder form2 so that ,luther himself now writes recantations on almost every thing1 and on this account he is considered by the rest as a heretic and a madman40 ,similar caustic remarks occur in other letters of ,erasmus2 and as1 in those days of high religious excitement1 taunts of this kind were considered too good to be confined as secrets within the breast of the correspondents to whom they were addressed1 it is not improbable that ,luther might be prevented through them1 among other reasons1 from making farther doctrinal concessions2 it being no uncommon circumstance in the history of the human mind for persons of otherwise strong understandings to be under the influence of this pitiable weakness4 ,that ,melancthon not only abandoned but reprehended the doctrine in #aebi1 we cannot doubt1 because his own express testimony in proof of it remains on record4 ,in a letter to ,christopher ,stathmio1 dated ,march #bjth1 #aeei1 which was not long before his death1 he notices the subject in these words3 ,thirty years ago1 not through the desire of contention1 but on account of the glory of ,god1 and for the sake of discipline1 ,i sharply reprehended the ,stoical paradoxes concerning necessity1 because they are reproachful toward ,god and injurious to morals4 ,at this time the legions of the ,stoics are waging war against me2 but in the answer which ,i have written in opposition to the ,bavarian inquisition1 ,i have once more pointed out in a modest manner that opinion 7on fate or predestination7 in which anxious minds may acquiesce and be at rest40 ,on consulting the tract to which his letter alludes1 we find him employing this strong and unequivocal language3 ,i also openly reject and abhor those ,stoical and ,manichean furies who affirm that all things necessarily happen1 evil as well as good actions4 ,but concerning these ,i refrain at present from any lengthened discussion2 only ,i entreat young people to avoid these monstrous opinions1 which are contumelious against ,god1 and pernicious to morals40 ,from the ,loci ,theologici1 in which ,melancthon had first introduced this obnoxious tenet1 he expunged necessity in the edition of #aecc1 and inserted in its place the opposite one of contingency4 ,the following are extracts from this amended work3 ,the discussion on the cause of sin and that on contingency have sometimes greatly agitated the church1 and excited mighty tragedies4 ,men of acute minds collect multitudes of inextricable and absurd things about both these subjects4 ,because there is some danger in them1 young people must be warned to abstain from these interminable disputes1 and in preference to search out a simple and pious opinion1 beneficial to religion and morals1 in which they may abide1 nor suffer themselves to be withdrawn from it by those fallacious tricks of disputations4 ,but this is a pious and true sentiment to be embraced with both hands1 and to be retained rather by the whole heart1--that ,god is not the cause of sin1 and that he does not will sin4 ,but the causes of sin are the will of the devil1 and the will of man40 ,but this sentiment being once laid down1 that ,god is not the cause of sin1 it evidently follows that contingency must be granted4 ,the freedom of the will is the cause of the contingency of our actions40 ,neither must the delirious doatings about ,stoical fate1 or about necessity1 be conveyed into the church1 because they are inextricable and sometimes injurious to piety and morals40 ,from these opinions it becomes the pious to be abhorrent in their ears and in their hearts40 ,these extracts serve to prove1 that ,melancthon reprobated the idea of introducing into the church the doctrine of ,stoical fate1 before ,calvin had distinguished himself either as an author or a reformer4 ,into his subsequent productions of almost every description ,melancthon introduced the doctrine of contingency1 and strenuously defended it1 particularly in the amended edition of his ,loci ,theologici in #aede4 ,luther never formally revoked any of his own writings2 but on this last corrected production of his friend1 as we have shown1 he bestowed the highest commendations4 ,yet he did not scruple publicly to assert1 that at the beginning of the ,reformation he had not completely settled his creed4 ,in the seventh volume of his works this sentence is found3 ,i have also published the confession of my faith2 in which ,i have openly testified what and how ,i believe1 and in what articles ,i think myself at length to be at rest40 ,he seems1 indeed1 to have generally avoided the subject1 from the period of his controversy with ,erasmus1 to the publication of his ,commentary on ,genesis1--his last work of any importance4 ,but in this1 after a long argument to prove that1 as we have no knowledge of the unrevealed ,deity1 we have nothing to do with those things which are above our comprehension2 and that we are not to reason upon predestination out of ,christianity2 he thus apologizes for his former opinions3 8,it has been my wish diligently and accurately to deliver these charges and admonitions2 because1 after my death1 many persons will publish my books to the world1 and by that course will confirm errors of every kind and their own delirious ravings4 ,but among other matters ,i have written1 that all things are absolute and necessary2 but at the same time ,i added1 that we must behold ,god as he is revealed to us1 as we sing in the ,psalm1 #8,jesus ,christ is the ,lord of sabaoth1 nor is there any other ,god4' ,in several other passages ,i have used similar expressions4 ,but these people will pass by all such passages1 and will only seize upon those concerning a hidden ,deity4 ,you1 therefore1 who now hear me1 recollect that ,i have taught this1--,we must not inquire concerning the predestination of a hidden ,god1 but we must abide and acquiesce in those things which are revealed by calling and by the ministry of the word40 ,but in other passages of my different works ,i have inculcated the same sentiments1 and ,i now deliver them again with an audible voice2 therefore ,i am excused40 ,for the more modern state of the ,lutheran church see ,,neology4 ,the following account of the union between the ,lutheran and ,calvinistic churches1 as given in the advertisement to ,baron ,von ,wessenberg's ,correspondence with the ,court of ,rome10 may not be uninteresting to the reader3 ,the ,germans have just set the noble example of forming a union between these two branches of the ,protestant faith4 ,this union1 which originated1 we believe1 in the grand duchy of ,nassau1 has taken place almost universally throughout ,germany2 and the separate appellations of ,lutheran and ,calvinistic churches have merged in the common appellation of the ,evangelical church4 ,the ,lutheran and ,reformed churches of ,prussia met in synod together1 on the invitation of their monarch1 the first of ,october1 #ahag1 and soon came to an agreement2 and the union was celebrated on the day of the tri-centenary festival of the ,reformation4 ,a similar synod of the ,lutherans and ,calvinists in ,hesse-,cassel was held at ,hanau in ,may and ,june1 #ahah1 and attended with the same result4 ,the royal confirmation was given to the ,bavarian union on the first of ,october following4 ,saxe-,weimar1 and most of the other small states have followed this example4 ,the ,protestant ,germans have now1 therefore1 only one ,gospel1 one temple1 one divine ,instructer1 and one mode of communion2 and1 what is singular1 and highly honourable to their liberality1 this union was every where accomplished with the greatest ease1 and without a dissentient voice having been raised against it40 ,how different was this result from that of the synods and councils of other times2 and what a change in the state of public opinion does it indicate6 ,and yet it is to be feared that the liberality from which this union has resulted1 is rather indifference to the grand peculiarities of the ,christian faith than mutual charity4 ,,lycaonia1 a province of ,asia ,minor1 accounted a part of ,cappadocia1 having ,pisidia on the west1 and ,cilicia on the south4 ,in it were the cities of ,iconium1 ,lystra1 and ,derbe1 mentioned in the travels of ,st4 ,paul4 ,the former was the capital1 and the country itself at that time a ,roman province4 ,the speech of ,lycaonia10 mentioned ,acts xiv1 #aa1 is supposed to have been a corrupt ,greek1 intermingled with many oriental words4 ,,lycia1 a country of ,asia ,minor1 having ,phrygia on the north1 ,pamphylia on the east1 the ,mediterranean on the south1 and ,caria on the west4 ,the greatest part of the country1 however1 is a peninsula projecting into the ,mediterranean4 ,lycia derived its name from ,lycus1 the son of ,pandion1 who settled here4 ,it was conquered by ,crsus1 king of ,lydia1 and passed with his kingdom into the hands of the ,persians4 ,it afterward1 in common with the neighbouring countries of ,asia ,minor1 formed part of the ,macedonian empire1 under ,alexander2 then of that of the ,seleucid1 his successors in those countries2 and1 at the time of the ,apostles1 was reduced to the state of a ,roman province4 ,,lydda1 by the ,greeks called ,diospolis4 ,it lay in the way from ,jerusalem to ,csarea1 four or five leagues to the east of ,joppa4 ,lydda belonged to the tribe of ,ephraim4 ,it seems to have been inhabited by the ,benjamites1 at the return of the ,jews from the ,babylonish captivity1 ,neh4 xi1 #ce4 ,st4 ,peter coming to ,lydda1 cured a sick man of the palsy named ,eneas1 ,acts ix1 #cc1 #cd4 ,,lydia1 a woman of ,thyatira1 a seller of purple1 who dwelt in the city of ,philippi1 in ,macedonia4 ,she was converted to the faith by ,st4 ,paul1 and both she and her family were baptized4 ,she offered her house to the ,apostle1 and pressed him to abide there so earnestly1 that he yielded to her entreaties4 ,she was not a ,jewess by birth1 but a proselyte1 ,acts xvi1 #ad1 #ae1 #dj4 #b4 ,,lydia1 an ancient celebrated kingdom of ,asia ,minor1 which1 in the time of the ,apostles1 was reduced to a ,roman province4 ,sardis was the capital4 ,,lystra1 a city of ,lycaonia1 the native place of ,timothy4 ,the ,apostle ,paul and ,barnabas having preached here1 and healed a cripple1 were taken for gods4 ,but so fickle are human praise and popular encomiums1 that1 in the space of a few hours1 those who had been deemed gods were regarded as less than mortals1 and were stoned by the very persons who so lately deified them4 ,see ,acts xiv4 ,,maacah1 or ,,beth-,,maacha1 a little province of ,syria to the east and the north of the sources of the river ,jordan1 upon the road to ,damascus4 ,abel or ,abela was in this country1 whence it was called ,abelbeth-,maachah4 ,we learn from ,joshua xiii1 #ac1 that the ,israelites did not destroy the ,maachathites1 but permitted them to dwell in the land among them4 ,the distribution of the half tribe of ,manasseh1 beyond ,jordan1 extended as far as this country1 ,deut4 iii1 #ad2 ,joshua xii1 #e4 ,,maccabees1 two apocryphal books of ,scripture1 containing the history of ,judas and his brothers1 and their wars against the ,syrian kings in defence of their religion and liberties1 so called from ,judas1 the son of ,mattathias1 surnamed ,maccabus1 as some authors say1 from the word 1 formed of the initials of - 1 ,who is like unto thee1 ,o ,lord1 among the gods80 ,exod4 xv1 #aa1 which was the motto of his standard2 whence those who fought under his standard were called ,maccabees1 and the name was generally applied to all who suffered in the cause of true religion1 under the ,egyptian or ,syrian kings4 ,this name1 formed by abbreviation according to the common practice of the ,jews1 distinguished ,judas ,maccabus by way of eminence1 as he succeeded his father1 ,b4 ,c4 #aff1 in the command of those forces which he had with him at his death2 and1 being joined by his brothers1 and all others that were zealous for the law1 he erected his standard1 on which he inscribed the above mentioned motto4 ,those1 also1 who suffered under ,ptolemy ,philopater of ,alexandria1 fifty years before this period1 were afterward called ,maccabees2 and so were ,eleazar1 and the mother and her seven sons1 though they suffered before ,judas erected his standard with the motto from which the appellation originated4 ,and therefore1 as these books which contain the history of ,judas and his brothers1 and their wars against the ,syrian kings1 in defence of their religion and liberties1 are called the first and second books of the ,maccabees2 so that book which gives us the history of those who1 in the like cause1 under ,ptolemy ,philopater1 were exposed to his elephants at ,alexandria1 is called the third book of the ,maccabees2 and that which is written by ,josephus1 of the martyrdom of ,eleazar1 and the seven brothers and their mother1 is called the fourth book of the ,maccabees4 ,the first book of the ,maccabees is an excellent history1 and comes nearest to the style and manner of the sacred historians of any extant4 ,it was written originally in the ,chaldee language1 of the ,jerusalem dialect1 and was extant in this language in the time of ,jerom1 who bad seen it4 ,from the ,chaldee it was translated into ,greek1 from the ,greek into ,latin4 ,theodotion is conjectured to have translated it into ,greek2 but this version was probably more ancient1 as we may infer from its use by ancient authors1 as ,tertullian1 ,origen1 and others4 ,it is supposed to have been written by ,john ,hyrcanus1 the son of ,simon1 who was prince and high priest of the ,jews near thirty years1 and began his government at the time where this history ends4 ,it contains the history of forty years1 from the reign of ,antiochus ,epiphanes to the death of ,simon1 the high priest2 that is1 from the year of the world #chbi to the year #chfi1 ,b4 ,c4 #aca4 ,the second book of the ,maccabees begins with two epistles sent from the ,jews of ,jerusalem to the ,jews of ,egypt and ,alexandria1 to exhort them to observe the feast of the dedication of the new altar erected by ,judas1 on his purifying the temple4 ,the first was written in the #afith year of the era of the ,seleucid1 that is1 ,b4 ,c4 #add2 and the second1 in the #ahhth year of the same era1 or ,b4 ,c4 #abe2 and both appear to be spurious4 ,after these epistles follows the preface of the author to his history1 which is an abridgment of a larger work1 composed by one ,jason1 a ,jew of ,cyrene1 who wrote in ,greek the history of ,judas ,maccabus1 and his brethren1 and the wars against ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 and ,eupator his son4 ,the two last chapters contain events under the reign of ,demetrius ,soter1 the successor of ,antiochus ,eupator1 and contain such varieties in their style1 as render it doubtful whether they had the same author as the rest of the work4 ,this second book does not by any means equal the accuracy and excellency of the first4 ,it contains a history of about fifteen years1 from the execution of ,heliodorus's commission1 who was sent by ,seleucus to fetch away the treasures of the temple1 to the victory obtained by ,judas ,maccabus over ,nicanor2 that is1 from the year of the world #chbh to the year #chdc1 ,b4 ,c4 #aeg4 ,there are in the ,polyglott ,bibles1 both of ,paris and ,london1 ,syriac versions of both these books2 but they1 as well as the ,english versions which we have among the apocryphal writers in our ,bibles1 are derived from the ,greek4 ,for a farther account of ,judas ,maccabus1 and of his brothers1 whose history is recorded in the first and second books of the ,maccabees1 and also by ,josephus1 we refer to the article ,,jews4 ,the third book of the ,maccabees contains the history of the persecution of ,ptolemy ,philopater against the ,jews in ,egypt1 and their sufferings under it2 and seems to have been written by some ,alexandrian ,jew in the ,greek language1 not long after the time of ,siracides4 ,this book1 with regard to its subject1 ought to be called the first1 as the things which are related in it occurred before the ,maccabees1 whose history is recorded in the first and second books2 but as it is of less authority and repute than the other two1 it is reckoned after them4 ,it is extant in ,syriac1 though the translator did not seem to have well understood the ,greek language4 ,it is in most of the ancient manuscript copies of the ,greek ,septuagint1 particularly in the ,alexandrian and ,vatican1 but was never inserted into the vulgar ,latin version of the ,bible1 nor1 consequently1 into any of our ,english copies4 ,the first authentic mention we have of this book is in ,eusebius's ,chronicon40 ,it is also named with two other books of the ,maccabees in the eighty-fifth of the apostolic canons4 ,but it is uncertain when that canon was added4 ,grotius thinks that this book was written after the two first books1 and shortly after the book of ,ecclesiasticus1 from which circumstance it was called the third book of ,maccabees4 ,moreover1 ,josephus's history of the martyrs that suffered under ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 is found in some manuscript ,greek ,bibles1 under the name of the fourth book of the ,maccabees4 ,this book1 ascribed to ,josephus1 occurs under the title1 ,concerning the ,empire or ,government of ,reason20 but learned men have expressed a doubt whether this was the book known to the ancients as the fourth book of the ,maccabees4 ,,macedonia1 a kingdom of ,greece1 having ,thrace to the north1 ,thessaly south1 ,epirus west1 and the gean ,sea east4 ,alexander the ,great1 son of ,philip1 king of ,macedonia1 having conquered ,asia1 and subverted the ,persian empire1 the name of the ,macedonians became very famous throughout the east2 and it is often given to the ,greeks1 the successors of ,alexander in the monarchy4 ,in like manner1 the name of ,greeks is often put for ,macedonians1 #b ,maccabees iv1 #cf4 ,when the ,roman empire was divided1 ,macedonia fell to the share of the emperor of the east4 ,after it had long continued subject to the ,romans1 it fell under the power of the ,ottoman ,turks1 who are the present masters of it4 ,st4 ,paul was invited by an angel of the ,lord1 who appeared to him at ,troas1 to come and preach the ,gospel in ,macedonia1 ,acts xvi1 #i4 ,after this vision1 the ,apostle no longer doubted his divine call to preach the ,gospel in ,macedonia2 and the success that attended his ministry confirmed him in his persuasion4 ,here he laid the foundation of the churches of ,thessalonica and ,philippi4 ,,magdala1 a city on the west side of the sea of ,galilee1 near ,dalmanutha2 ,jesus1 after the miracle of the seven loaves1 being said by ,st4 ,matthew to have gone by ship to the coasts of ,magdala1 ,matt4 xv1 #ci2 and by ,st4 ,mark1 to the parts of ,dalmanutha10 ,mark viii1 #aj4 ,mr4 ,buckingham came to a small village in this situation called ,migdal1 close to the edge of the lake1 beneath a range of high cliffs1 in which small grottoes are seen1 with the remains of an old square tower1 and some larger buildings1 of rude construction1 apparently of great antiquity4 ,migdol implies a tower1 or fortress2 and this place1 from having this name particularly applied to it1 was doubtless1 like the ,egyptian ,migdol1 one of considerable importance2 and may be considered as the site of the ,migdal of the ,naphtalites1 as well as the ,magdala of the ,new ,testament4 ,,magi1 or ,,magians1 a title which the ancient ,persians gave to their wise men1 or philosophers4 ,magi1 among the ,persians1 answers to 1 or 1 among the ,greeks2 sapientes1 among the ,latins2 druids1 among the ,gauls2 gymnosophists1 among the ,indians2 and priests1 among the ,egyptians4 ,the ancient magi1 according to ,aristotle and ,laertius1 were the sole authors and conservators of the ,persian philosophy2 and the philosophy principally cultivated among them was theology and politics2 they being always esteemed as the interpreters of all law1 both divine and human2 on which account they were wonderfully revered by the people4 ,hence ,cicero observes that none were admitted to the crown of ,persia1 but such as were well instructed in the discipline of the magi2 who taught 1 and showed princes how to govern4 ,plato1 ,apuleius1 ,laertius1 and others1 agree that the philosophy of the magi related principally to the worship of the gods3 they were the persons who were to offer prayers1 supplications1 and sacrifices1 as if the gods would be heard by them alone4 ,but1 according to ,lucian1 ,suidas1 c1 this theology1 or worship of the gods1 as it is called1 about which the magi were employed1 was little more than the diabolical art of divination2 so that 41 strictly taken1 was the art of divination4 ,these people were held in such veneration among the ,persians1 that ,darius1 the son of ,hystaspes1 among other things1 had it engraven on his monument1 that he was the master of the magi4 ,philo ,judus describes the magi to be diligent inquirers into nature1 out of the love they bear to truth2 and who1 setting themselves apart from other things1 contemplate the divine virtues the more clearly1 and initiate others in the same mysteries4 ,the magi1 or magians1 formed one of the two grand sects into which the idolatry of the world was divided between #ejj and #fjj years before ,christ4 ,these abominated all those images which were worshipped by the other sect1 denominated ,sabians1 and paid their worship to the ,deity under the emblem of fire4 ,their chief doctrine was1 that there were two principles1 one of which was the cause of all good1 and the other the cause of all evil4 ,the former was represented by light1 and the latter by darkness1 as their truest symbols2 and of the composition of these two they supposed that all things in the world were made4 ,the sect of the magians was revived and reformed by ,zoroaster4 ,this celebrated philosopher1 called by the ,persians ,zerdusht1 or ,zaratush1 began about the thirty-sixth year of the reign of ,darius to restore and reform the magian system of religion4 ,he was not only excellently skilled in all the learning of the east that prevailed in his time1 but likewise thoroughly versed in the ,jewish religion1 and in all the sacred writings of the ,old ,testament that were then extant3 whence some have inferred that he was a native ,jew both by birth and profession2 and that he had been servant to one of the prophets1 probably ,ezekiel or ,daniel4 ,he made his first appearance in ,media1 in the city of ,xix1 now called ,aderbijan1 as some say2 or1 according to others in ,ecbatana1 now called ,tauris4 ,instead of admitting the existence of two first causes1 with the magians1 he asserted the existence of one supreme ,god1 who created both these1 and out of these two produced1 according to his sovereign pleasure1 every thing else4 ,according to his doctrine1 there was one supreme ,being independently and self-existing from all eternity4 ,under him there are two angels3 one the angel of light1 the author and director of all good2 and the other the angel of darkness1 who is the author and director of all evil4 ,these two1 probably speaking figuratively1 out of the mixture of light and darkness1 made all things that are2 and they are in a state of perpetual conflict2 so that where the angel of light prevails1 there the most is good2 and where the angel of darkness prevails1 there the most is evil4 ,this struggle shall continue to the end of the world2 and then there shall be a general resurrection1 and a day of judgment3 after which1 the angel of darkness and his disciples shall go into a world of their own1 where they shall suffer in everlasting darkness the punishment of their evil deeds2 and the angel of light and his disciples shall go into a world of their own1 where they shall receive in everlasting light the reward due unto their good deeds3 and henceforward they shall for ever remain separate4 ,of the controversy as to ,zoroaster1 ,zeratusht1 or ,zertushta1 and the sacred books said to have been written by him1 called ,zend or ,zendavesta1 which has divided the most eminent critics1 it would answer no important end to give an abstract4 ,those who wish for information on the subject are referred to ,hyde's ,religio ,veterum ,persarum20 ,prideaux's ,connection20 ,warburton's ,divine ,legation20 ,bryant's ,mythology20 ,the ,universal ,history20 ,sir ,w4 ,jones's ,works1 vol4 iii1 p4 #aae2 ,m4 ,du ,perron1 and ,richardson's ,dissertation10 prefixed to his ,persian and ,arabic ,dictionary4 ,but whatever may become of the authority of the whole or part of the ,zendavesta1 and with whatever fables the history of the reformer of the magian religion may be mixed1 the learned are generally agreed that such a reformation took place by his instrumentality4 ,zeratusht10 says ,sir ,w4 ,jones1 reformed the old religion by the addition of genii or angels1 of new ceremonies in the veneration shown to fire1 of a new work which he pretended to have received from heaven1 and1 above all1 by establishing the actual adoration of the supreme ,being20 and he farther adds1 ,the reformed religion of ,persia continued in force till that country was conquered by the ,musselmans2 and1 without studying the ,zend1 we have ample information concerning it in the modern ,persian writings of several who profess it4 ,bahman always named ,zeratusht with reverence2 he was1 in truth1 a pure ,theist1 and strongly disclaimed any adoration of the fire or other elements2 and he denied that the doctrine of two coval principles1 supremely good and supremely bad1 formed any part of his faith40 ,the ,zeratusht of ,persia1 or the ,zoroaster of the ,greeks10 says ,richardson1 was highly celebrated by the most discerning people of ancient times2 and his tenets1 we are told1 were most eagerly and rapidly embraced by the highest in rank1 and the wisest men in the ,persian empire40 ,he distinguished himself by denying that good and evil1 represented by light and darkness1 were coval1 independent principles2 and asserted the supremacy of the true ,god1 in exact conformity with the doctrine contained in a part of that celebrated prophecy of ,isaiah in which ,cyrus is mentioned by name3 ,i am the ,lord1 and there is none else1 there is no ,god beside me10 no coval power4 ,i form the light1 and create darkness1 ,i make peace10 or good1 and create evil1 ,i the ,lord do all these things40 ,fire1 by ,zerdushta1 appears to have been used emblematically only2 and the ceremonies for preserving and transmitting it1 introduced by him1 were manifestly taken from the ,jews1 and the sacred fire of their tabernacle and temple4 ,the old religion of the ,persians was corrupted by ,sabianism1 or the worship of the host of heaven1 with its accompanying superstition4 ,the magian doctrine1 whatever it might be at first1 had degenerated2 and two eternal principles1 good and evil1 had been introduced4 ,it was therefore necessarily idolatrous also1 and1 like all other false systems1 flattering to the vicious habits of the people4 ,so great an improvement in the moral character and influence of the religion of a whole nation as was effected by ,zoroaster1 a change which is not certainly paralleled in the ancient history of the religion of mankind1 can scarcely1 therefore1 be thought possible1 except we suppose a divine interposition1 either directly1 or by the occurrence of some very impressive events4 ,now as there are so many authorities for fixing the time of ,zoroaster or ,zeratusht not many years subsequent to the death of the great ,cyrus1 the events connected with the conquest of ,babylon may account for his success in that reformation of religion of which he was the author4 ,for1 had not the minds of men been prepared for this change by something extraordinary1 it is not supposable that they would have adopted a purer faith from him4 ,that he gave them a better doctrine1 is clear from the admission of even ,dean ,prideaux1 who has very unjustly branded him as an impostor4 ,let it then be remembered1 that as the ,most ,high ruleth in the kingdoms of men10 he often overrules great political events for moral purposes4 ,the ,jews were sent into captivity to ,babylon to be reformed from their idolatrous propensities1 and their reformation commenced with their calamity4 ,a miracle was there wrought in favour of three ,hebrew confessors of the existence of one only ,god1 and that under circumstances to put shame upon a popular idol in the presence of the king and all the rulers of the provinces10 that the issue of this controversy between ,jehovah and idolatry might be made known throughout that vast empire4--,worship was refused to the idol by a few ,hebrew captives1 and the idol had no power to punish the public affront3--the servants of ,jehovah were cast into a furnace1 and he delivered them unhurt2 and a royal decree declared that there was no god who could deliver after this sort40 ,the proud monarch himself also is smitten with a singular disease2--he remains subject to it until he acknowledges the true ,god2 and1 upon his recovery1 he publicly ascribes to him both the justice and the mercy of the punishment4 ,this event takes place1 also1 in the accomplishment of a dream which none of the wise men of ,babylon could interpret4 ,it was interpreted by ,daniel1 who made the fulfilment to redound to the honour of the true ,god1 by ascribing to him the perfection of knowing the future1 which none of the false gods1 appealed to by the ,chaldean sages1 possessed2 as the inability of their servants to interpret the dream sufficiently proved4 ,after these singular events1 ,cyrus takes ,babylon1 and he finds there the sage and the statesman1 ,daniel1 the worshipper of the true ,god1 who creates both good and evil10 who makes the light1 and forms the darkness40 ,there is little doubt but that he and the principal ,persians throughout the empire would have the prophecy of ,isaiah respecting ,cyrus1 delivered more than a hundred years before he was born1 and in which his name stood recorded1 along with the predicted circumstances of the capture of ,babylon1 pointed out to them4 ,every reason1 religious and political1 urged the ,jews to make the prediction a matter of notoriety2 and from ,cyrus's decree in ,ezra it is certain that he was acquainted with it2 because there is in the decree an obvious reference to the prophecy4 ,this prophecy1 so strangely fulfilled1 would give mighty force to the doctrine connected with it1 and which it proclaims with so much majesty3-- ,i am ,,jehovah1 and none else1 ,forming ,,light1 and creating ,,darkness1 ,making ,,peace1 and creating ,,evil2 ,i ,,jehovah am the author of all these things40 ,here the great principle of corrupted magianism was directly attacked2 and1 in proportion as the fulfilment of the prophecy was felt to be singular and striking1 the doctrine blended with it would attract notice4 ,its force was both felt and acknowledged1 as we have seen1 in the decree of ,cyrus for the rebuilding of the temple4 ,in that ,cyrus acknowledged the true ,god to be supreme1 and thus renounced his former faith2 and the example1 the public example1 of a prince so beloved1 and whose reign was so extended1 could not fail to influence the religious opinions of his people4 ,that the effect did not terminate in ,cyrus1 we know2 for1 from the book of ,ezra1 it appears that both ,darius and ,artaxerxes made decrees in favour of the ,jews1 in which ,jehovah has the emphatic appellation repeatedly given to him1 the ,god of heaven10 the very terms used by ,cyrus himself4 ,nor are we to suppose the impression confined to the court2 for the history of the three ,hebrew youths1 of ,nebuchadnezzar's dream1 sickness1 and reformation from idolatry1 of the interpretation of the hand writing on the wall by ,daniel the servant of the living ,god1 of his deliverance from the lions1 and the publicity of the prophecy of ,isaiah respecting ,cyrus1 were too recent1 too public1 and too striking in their nature1 not to be often and largely talked of4 ,beside1 in the prophecy respecting ,cyrus1 the intention of almighty ,god in recording the name of that monarch in an inspired book1 and showing beforehand that he had chosen him to overturn the ,babylonian empire1 is expressly mentioned as having respect to two great objects1 first1 the deliverance of ,israel1 and1 second1 the making known his supreme divinity among the nations of the earth4 ,we again quote ,lowth's translation3-- ,for the sake of my servant ,jacob1 ,and of ,israel my chosen1 ,i have even called thee by thy name1 ,i have surnamed thee1 though thou knewest me not4 ,i am ,,jehovah1 and none else1 ,beside me there is no ,god2 ,i will gird thee1 though thou hast not known me1 ,that they may know1 from the rising of the sun1 ,and from the west1 that there is ,,none ,,beside ,,me40 ,it was therefore intended by this proceeding on the part of ,providence to teach1 not only ,cyrus1 but the people of his vast empire1 and surrounding nations1 #a4 ,that the ,god of the ,jews was ,jehovah1 the self-subsistent1 the eternal ,god2 #b4 ,that he was ,god alone1 there being no deity beside himself2 and1 #c4 ,that good and evil1 represented by light and darkness1 were neither independent nor eternal subsistences1 but his great instruments1 and under his control4 ,the ,persians1 who had so vastly extended their empire by the conquest of the countries formerly held by the monarchs of ,babylon1 were thus prepared for such a reformation of their religion as ,zoroaster effected4 ,the principles he advocated had been previously adopted by ,cyrus and other ,persian monarchs1 and probably by many of the principal persons of that nation4 ,zoroaster himself thus became acquainted with the great truths contained in this famous prophecy1 which attacked the very foundations of every idolatrous and ,manichean system4 ,from the other sacred books of the ,jews1 who mixed with the ,persians in every part of the empire1 he evidently learned more4 ,this is sufficiently proved from the many points of similarity between his religion and ,judaism1 though he should not be allowed to speak so much in the style of the ,holy ,scriptures as some passages in the ,zendavesta would indicate4 ,he found the people1 however1 prepared of the ,lord0 to admit his reformations1 and he carried them4 ,this cannot but be looked upon as one instance of several merciful dispensations of ,god to the ,gentile world1 through his own peculiar people1 the ,jews1 by which the idolatries of the ,heathen were often checked1 and the light of truth rekindled among them4 ,in this view the ancient ,jews evidently considered the ,jewish church as appointed not to preserve only but to extend true religion4 ,god be merciful to us and bless us2 that thy way may be known upon earth1 thy saving health unto all nations40 ,this renders ,pagan nations more evidently without excuse40 ,that this dispensation of mercy was afterward neglected among the ,persians1 is certain4 ,how long the effect continued we know not1 nor how widely it spread2 perhaps longer and wider than may now distinctly appear4 ,if the magi1 who came from the east to seek ,christ1 were ,persians1 some true worshippers of ,god would appear to have remained in ,persia to that day2 and if1 as is probable1 the prophecies of ,isaiah and ,daniel were retained among them1 they might be among those who waited for redemption10 not at ,jerusalem1 but in a distant part of the world4 ,the ,parsees1 who were nearly extirpated by ,mohammedan fanaticism1 were charged by their oppressors with the idolatry of fire1 and this was probably true of the multitude4 ,some of their writers1 however1 warmly defended themselves against the charge4 ,a considerable number of them remain in ,india to this day1 and profess to have the books of ,zoroaster4 #b4 ,the term magi was also anciently used generally throughout the east1 to distinguish philosophers1 and especially astronomers4 ,pliny and ,ptolemy mention ,arabi as synonymous with magi2 and it was the opinion of many learned men in the first ages of ,christianity1 that the magi who presented offerings to the infant ,saviour1 ,matt4 ii1 #a1 came from southern ,arabia2 for it is certain that gold1 frankincense1 and myrrh10 were productions of that country4 ,they were philosophers among whom the best parts of the reformed magian system1 which was extensively diffused1 were probably preserved4 ,they were pious men1 also1 who had some acquaintance1 it may be1 with the ,hebrew prophecies1 and were favoured themselves with divine revelations4 ,they are to be regarded as members of the old patriarchal church1 never quite extinguished among the ,heathen2 and they had the special honour to present the homage of the ,gentile world to the infant ,saviour4 ,,magician not unfrequently occurs in ,scripture4 ,generally it signifies a diviner1 a fortune teller1 c4 ,moses forbids recourse to such on pain of death3 ,the soul that turneth after such as have familiar spirits1 and after wizards1 to go a whoring after them1 ,i will even set my face against that soul1 and even cut him off from among his people10 ,leviticus xix1 #ca2 xx1 #f4 ,the ,hebrew is - -1 which signify literally1--the first1 those possessed with a spirit of ,python1 or a demon that fortels future events2--the second1 knowers1 they who boast of the knowledge of secret things4 ,it was such sort of people that ,saul extirpated out of the land of ,israel1 #a ,sam4 xxviii1 #c4 ,daniel also speaks of magicians and diviners in ,chaldea1 under ,nebuchadnezzar1 ,daniel i1 #bj1 c2 4 ,he names four sorts3 ,chartumim1 ,asaphim1 ,mecasphim1 and ,casdim1 ,daniel ii1 #b4 ,the first1 ,chartumim1 according to ,theodotion1 signifies enchanters20 according to the ,,lxx1 sophists20 according to ,jerom1 hariolas1 diviners1 fortune tellers1 casters of nativities40 ,the second word1 ,asaphim1 has a great resemblance to the ,greek word 1 wise man20 whether the ,greeks took this word from the ,babylonians1 or vice vers4 ,theodotion and ,jerom have rendered it magicians20 the ,,lxx1 philosophers40 ,the third word1 ,mecasphim1 by ,jerom and the ,greeks1 is translated malefici1 enchanters20 such as used noxious herbs and drugs1 the blood of victims1 and the bones of the dead1 for their superstitious operations4 ,the fourth word1 ,casdim1 or ,chaldeans1 has two significations3 first1 the ,chaldean people1 over whom ,nebuchadnezzar was monarch2 the second1 a sort of philosophers1 who dwelt in a separate part of the city1 who were exempt from all public offices and employments4 ,their studies were physic1 astrology1 divination1 foretelling of future events by the stars1 interpretation of dreams1 augury1 worship of the gods1 c4 ,all these inquisitive and superstitious arts were prohibited among the ,israelites1 as founded on imposture or devilism1 and as inconsistent with faith in ,god's providence1 and trust in his supremacy4 ,,magog4 ,see ,,gog4 ,,mahanaim1 a city of the ,levites1 of the family of ,merari1 in the tribe of ,gad1 upon the brook ,jabbok1 ,joshua xxi1 #ch2 xiii1 #bf4 ,the name ,mahanaim signifies two hosts10 or two fields40 ,the patriarch gave it this name because in this place he had a vision of angels coming to meet him1 ,genesis xxxii1 #b4 ,mahanaim was the seat of the kingdom of ,ishbosheth1 after the death of ,saul1 #b ,sam4 ii1 #i1 #ab4 ,it was also to this place that ,david retired during the usurpation of ,absalom1 #b ,sam4 xvii1 #bd2 and this rebellious son was subdued1 and suffered death1 not far from this city4 ,,mahometanism4 ,mohammed1 its distinguished founder1 was born in ,arabia1 toward the conclusion of the sixth century4 ,although he had been reduced to poverty1 he was descended from ancestors who had long been conspicuous by rank and by influence2 but having been shut out from the advantages of education1 which in his peculiar case might have rather cramped than invigorated the astonishing powers of his mind1 he had been compelled to seek his subsistence by devoting himself to a menial occupation4 ,yet although thus unfavourably situated1 he was led1 in conducting the commercial transactions which1 in the service of ,cadijah1 a woman of great wealth1 he was employed to arrange1 to survey the state of several of the neighbouring nations2 became acquainted with the most striking features in the characters of those by whom he was surrounded2 and he was enabled to profit by the information which he thus procured1 from his adding to the graces of personal elegance and beauty1 the most captivating manners1 and the most winning address4 ,exalted by the partiality of ,cadijah1 who conferred on him her hand and her extensive possessions1 he seems early to have formed the scheme of announcing himself as the author of a new religion1 and1 in virtue of this sacred office1 of ascending to that supremacy of political influence which it was his singular fortune1 soon after he unfolded his pretensions1 to attain4 ,taking advantage of that insensibility into which1 by the attacks of epilepsy1 he was occasionally thrown1 he pretended that he was wrapped in divine contemplation1 or was actually holding communication with higher orders of beings1 who were committing to him the divine instructions which he was to disseminate through the world4 ,when the time which he conceived to be favourable for the grand object of his ambition had arrived1 he openly declared that he was the prophet of the most high ,god2 but the magistrates of ,mecca1 despising his pretensions1 or dreading the evils which might result from religious innovation1 vigorously opposed him1 and he found himself compelled1 in order to avoid the punishment which they were preparing to inflict on him1 to have recourse to flight4 ,he did not1 however1 relinquish the scheme upon which he had so long meditated1 and which he was convinced that he was qualified to carry into execution4 ,after his departure from ,mecca1 from which event the ,mohammedan era of the hegira takes its commencement1 he was joined by a few followers determined to share his fate2 and having solemnly consecrated the banner under which he was to extend his power and propagate his tenets1 he commenced hostilities against those by whom he had been opposed4 ,his first efforts1 however1 were not crowned with success1 but he had infused into his attendants a spirit which misfortune could not subdue3 they renewed their enterprise1 and ,mecca at length submitted to his arms4 ,from this period his exaltation was very rapid2 he was venerated as the favoured messenger of ,heaven1 and his countrymen bowed down before a sovereign protected1 as they believed1 by the ,omnipotent1 and commissioned to reveal his will4 ,there were many causes which satisfactorily account for his success4 ,the ,christian religion1 in the corrupted form in which it existed in the regions contiguous to the country of the prophet1 was not interwoven with the affections of its professors2 they were split into factions1 contending about the most frivolous distinctions and the most ridiculous tenets2 and the sword of persecution was mutually wielded by them all1 to spread misery where there should have been the ties of charity and love4 ,thus divided1 they presented no steady resistance to the attempt made to wrest from them their religion2 and1 indeed1 as many of them had adopted that religion1 not from conviction1 but from dread of the tyranny by which it had been imposed on them1 they only did what they had previously done1 when1 shrinking from the ferocious zeal of the emissaries of the prophet1 they submitted to his doctrine4 ,with admirable address1 too1 he had framed his religious system1 so as to gratify those to whom it was announced4 ,laying down the sublime and unquestionable doctrine of the unity of ,god1 he professed to revere the patriarchs1 whose memory the ,arabs held in veneration2 he admitted that ,moses was a messenger from ,god2 he acknowledged ,jesus as an exalted prophet2 and he founded his own pretensions upon the intimation which our ,saviour had given that the ,paraclete1 or ,comforter1 was to be sent to lead the world into all truth4 ,thus each party found in the ,koran much of what it had been accustomed to believe2 and the transition was in this way rendered more easy to the admission that a new revelation had been vouchsafed4 ,this effect was facilitated by the ignorance which prevailed in ,arabia4 ,accustomed to a wandering life1 the ,arabs had devoted no time to the acquisition of knowledge2 most of them were even unable to read the ,koran1 the sublimity and beauty of which were held forth to them as incontestable proofs of the inspiration of its author4 ,had ,mohammed1 indeed rested his doctrine upon miracles1 it might have happened that the imposture by some would have been detected2 but1 with his usual policy1 he avoided what he knew was so hazardous2 and1 with the exception of his reference to the ,koran1 as surpassing the capacity of man1 he explicitly disclaimed having been authorized to do such mighty works as had been wrought to establish the previous dispensations of the ,almighty4 ,the fascinating representation that he gave of the joys of paradise1 which he accommodated to the conceptions and wishes of the eastern nations1 also made a deep and favourable impression2 the wantonness of imagination was gratified with the anticipation of a state abounding with sensual gratification raised to the highest degree of exquisiteness2 while the dismal fate allotted through eternity to all who rejected the message which he brought1 alarmed the fears of the credulous and superstitious multitude whom he was eager to allure4 ,when with these causes are combined the vigour of his administration1 and the certainty of suffering or of death in the event of withstanding his doctrine1 there is sufficient to account for the success of his religion2 and there is in that success nothing which can1 with the shadow of reason1 be employed1 as1 with strange perversion of argument1 it has sometimes been1 to invalidate the proof for the truth of ,christianity deduced from its rapid diffusion4 ,that proof does not rest upon the mere circumstance that the religion of ,jesus was widely and speedily propagated2 there might1 under particular circumstances1 have been in this nothing wonderful2 but on the facts that it was so propagated1 when all the human means to which they who preached it could have recourse1 would have retarded rather than promoted what actually took place2 that it employed no force2 that it held out no earthly advantages2 that it accommodated itself to no previous religious prejudices2 and that it opposed and reproved all1 and did not gratify any1 of the corruptions and lusts of human nature4 ,but ,mohammed did not limit his views to the sovereignty of ,arabia3 he was elevated by the hope of universal empire2 and he moulded his system so as to promote what he was eager to attain4 ,for this purpose he promised to all who enrolled themselves under his banner full license to plunder the nations against which they were led2 and he made it a fundamental tenet of his faith that they who fell in the warlike enterprises destined to enlarge the number of believers were at once delivered from the guilt and misery of their sins1 and were admitted to the happy scenes prepared for the faithful4 ,he thus collected around him an army thoroughly devoted1 prepared for meeting every danger1 stimulated to the most laborious exertions by the hope of plunder1 and steeled against all which can weaken courage or exhaust resolution1 by the enthusiasm of hope2 whatever was their fate1 they had nothing to dread2 if they escaped the weapons of their enemies1 they were loaded with spoil1 and invited to indulgence2 and if they fell1 they were canonized by those who survived1 and exchanged the vicissitudes and troubles of this world for the delights of a sensual paradise4 ,an army thus constituted and thus impelled must1 under any circumstances1 have been formidable2 against them the usual methods to defeat invasion and to prevent conquest would have failed2 they could have been successfully encountered only by men who had imbibed a similar spirit1 and who identified patience and courage in the field with the most sacred duty required by religion4 ,of the advantages which1 after ,arabia had acknowledged his sway1 and hailed him as the prophet of the ,lord1 he might confidently anticipate1 ,mohammed was abundantly sensible2 but while he was preparing to bring into action the mighty machine which he had erected1 his earthly career was terminated1 and he left to others to execute the schemes which he had fondly devised4 ,the energy of the system remained after the author of it was removed from the world2 and his successors lost no time in extending their dominions far beyond the bounds of ,arabia4 ,the obstacles opposed to them instantly yielded2 a feeble and degenerate empire sinking under its own weight1 and unable to resist any power acting against it1 at once submitted to the host of fanatical plunderers1 who spread desolation as they advanced2 the richest provinces soon were wrested from it2 and the most fertile regions of ,asia fell under the conquering fury of the caliphs4 ,persia1 which had long persecuted ,christianity1 was added to their increasing territories2 ,syria submitted to their yoke2 and1 what filled with horror and with anguish the believers in the ,gospel1 ,palestine1 that holy land from which the light of divine truth had beamed upon the nations1 which had been the scene of those awful or interesting events recorded in the inspired ,scriptures1 which had witnessed the life1 the ministry1 the death1 the resurrection1 and ascension of the ,redeemer of mankind1 bent under the iron sceptre of an infidel sovereign1 nominally1 indeed1 revering the ,founder of its religion1 but filled with bigoted and implacable hatred against the most attached and conscientious of his disciples4 ,but the caliphs did not accomplish their principal object when they reduced to subjection the countries which they ravaged3 to them it was of infinitely more moment to propagate the ,musselman faith2 and1 accordingly1 although in the commencement of that faith some indulgence was1 from political considerations1 granted to the ,christians1 there was soon no alternative left to the trembling captives but to embrace the doctrine of the prophet1 or to submit to slavery or death4 ,we cannot wonder that tenets thus enforced rapidly spread2 they supplanted1 in many extensive regions1 the religion of ,jesus2 and1 incorporating themselves with civil governments1 or rather founding all governments upon the ,koran1 they continue1 at the distance of eleven hundred years1 to be believed through a large proportion of the world4 ,the effect of this signal revolution was first experienced by those ,christians who inhabited the eastern parts of the empire2 but the account of it must have been speedily conveyed throughout ,christendom1 and the gigantic enterprises of the ,saracens soon threatened all nations with slavery and superstition4 ,the successors of the prophet1 in the eighth century1 directed their steps toward ,europe2 and having at length crossed the narrow sea which separates ,africa from ,spain1 they dispersed the troops of ,roderick1 king of the ,goths1 took possession of the greater part of his dominions1 subverted the empire of the ,visigoths1 which had been established in ,spain for upward of three centuries1 and planted themselves along the coast of ,gaul1 from the ,pyrenean mountains to the ,rhine4 ,charlemagne1 alarmed at their progress1 made a great effort to crush them2 but he failed in accomplishing his object1 and they committed1 in various parts of ,europe which they visited1 the most shocking devastations4 ,when a great part of the life of ,mohammed had been spent in preparatory meditation on the system he was about to establish1 the chapters of the ,alcoran or ,koran1 which was to contain the rule of the faith and practice of his followers1 were dealt out slowly and separately during the long period of three-and-twenty years4 ,he entrusted his beloved wife1 ,raphsa1 the daughter of ,omar1 with the keeping of the chest of his apostleship1 in which were laid up all the originals of the revelations he pretended to have received by the ministration of the ,angel ,gabriel1 and out of which the ,koran1 consisting of one hundred and fourteen surats1 or chapters1 of very unequal length1 was composed after his death4 ,yet1 defective in its structure1 and not less exceptionable in its doctrines and precepts1 was the work which he thus delivered to his followers as the oracles of ,god4 ,we will not detract from the real merit of the ,koran2 we allow it to be generally elegant and often sublime2 but at the same time we reject with disdain its arrogant pretensions to any thing supernatural4 ,nay1 if1 descending to a minute investigation of it1 we consider its perpetual inconsistency and absurdity1 we shall indeed have cause for astonishment at that weakness of humanity which could ever have received such compositions as the work of the ,deity1 and which could still hold it in such high admiration as it is held by the followers of ,mohammed to the present day4 ,far from supporting its arrogant claim to a supernatural work1 it sinks below the level of many compositions confessedly of human original2 and still lower does it fall when compared with that pure and perfect pattern which we justly admire in the ,scriptures of truth4 ,the first praise of all the productions of genius is invention2 but the ,koran bears little impression of this transcendent character4 ,it does not contain one single doctrine which may not fairly be derived either from the ,jewish and ,christian ,scriptures1 from the spurious and apocryphal ,gospels1 then current in the east1 from the ,talmudical legends1 or from the traditions1 customs1 and opinions of the ,arabians4 ,and the materials collected from these several sources are here heaped together with perpetual and needless repetitions1 without any settled principle1 or visible connection4 ,the most prominent feature of the ,koran1 that point of excellence in which the partiality of its admirers has ever delighted to view it1 is the sublime notion it generally impresses of the nature and attributes of ,god4 ,but if its author had really derived these just conceptions from the inspiration of that ,being whom they attempt to describe1 they would not have been surrounded1 as they now are1 on every side with error and absurdity4 ,by attempting to explain what is inconceivable1 to describe what is ineffable1 and to materialize what in itself is spiritual1 he absurdly and impiously aimed to sensualize the purity of the divine essence4 ,but it might easily be proved1 that whatever the ,koran justly defines of the divine attributes1 was borrowed from our ,holy ,scriptures2 which1 even from their first promulgation1 but especially from the completion of the ,new ,testament1 have extended the views1 and enlightened the understandings1 of mankind4 ,the ,koran1 indeed1 every where inculcates that grand and fundamental doctrine of the unity of the supreme ,being1 the establishment of which was constantly alleged by the impostor as the primary object of his pretended mission2 but on the subject of the ,christian trinity1 its author seems to have entertained very gross and mistaken ideas1 and to have been totally ignorant of the perfect consistency of that opinion with the unity of the ,deity4 ,with respect to the great doctrine of a future life1 and the condition of the soul after its departure from the body1 it must indeed be acknowledged that the prophet of ,arabia has presented us with a nearer prospect of the invisible world1 and disclosed to us a thousand particulars concerning it1 which the ,holy ,scriptures had wrapped in the most profound and mysterious silence4 ,but in his various representations of another life1 he generally descends to an unnecessary minuteness and particularity1 which excite disgust and ridicule1 instead of reverence4 ,he constantly pretended to have received these stupendous secrets by the ministry of the ,angel ,gabriel1 from that eternal book in which the divine decrees have been written by the finger of the ,almighty from the foundation of the world2 but the learned inquirer will discover a more accessible1 and a far more probable1 source whence they might be derived1 partly in the wild and fanciful opinions of the ancient ,arabs1 and chiefly in those exhaustless stores of marvellous and improbable fiction1 the works of the rabbins4 ,hence1 that romantic fable of the angel of death1 whose peculiar office it is1 at the destined hour1 to dissolve the union between soul and body1 and to free the departing spirit from its prison of flesh4 ,hence1 too1 the various descriptions of the general resurrection and final judgment with which the ,koran every where abounds2 and hence the vast but ideal balance in which the actions of all mankind shall then be impartially weighed1 and their eternal doom be assigned them1 either in the regions of bliss or misery1 according as their good or evil deeds shall preponderate4 ,here1 too1 may be traced the grand and original outlines of that sensual paradise1 and those luxurious enjoyments1 which were so successfully employed in the ,koran1 to gratify the ardent genius of the ,arabs1 and allure them to the standard of the prophet4 ,the same observation which has been applied with respect to the sources whence the doctrines were drawn1 may1 with some few limitations1 be likewise extended to the precepts which the ,arabian legislator has enjoined4 ,that the ,koran1 amidst a various and confused heap of ridiculous and even immoral precepts1 contains many interesting and instructive lessons of morality1 cannot with truth be denied4 ,of these1 however1 the merit is to be ascribed1 not to the feeble imitation1 but to the great and perfect original from which they were manifestly drawn4 ,instead of improving on the ,christian precepts by a superior degree of refinement2 instead of exhibiting a purer and more perfect system of morals than that of the ,gospel2 the prophet of ,arabia has miserably debased and weakened even what he has borrowed from that system4 ,we are told by our ,saviour1 that a man is to be the husband of one wife1 and that there is to be an inseparable union between them4 ,by ,mohammed's confession1 ,jesus ,christ was a prophet of the true ,god1 and the ,holy ,spirit was with him4 ,yet in the ,koran we find permission for any person to have four wives1 and as many concubines as he can maintain4 ,again3 our ,saviour expressly tells us1 that1 at the resurrection1 they will neither marry nor be given in marriage2 but be like the angels of ,god in heaven40 ,we are informed also by ,st4 ,paul1 that we shall be changed1 and have a spiritual and glorified body2 for flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of heaven2 neither can corruption inherit incorruption40 ,but ,mohammed gives a very different account3 it is clear1 from his own confession1 that the happiness promised in the ,koran consists in base and corporeal enjoyments4 ,according to its author1 there will not only be marriage1 but also servitude in the next world4 ,the very meanest in paradise will have eighty thousand servants1 and seventy-two wives of the girls of paradise1 beside the wives he had in this world2 he will also have a tent erected for him of pearls1 hyacinths1 and emeralds4 ,and as marriage will take place1 so a new race will be introduced in heaven2 for1 says the ,koran1 ,if any of the faithful in paradise be desirous of issue1 it shall be conceived1 born1 and grown up in the space of an hour40 ,but on the contradictions in point of doctrine1 though sufficient of themselves to confute the pretensions of ,mohammed1 we forbear to insist4 ,the impure designs which gave birth to the whole system may be traced in almost every subordinate part2 even its sublimest descriptions of the ,deity1 even its most exalted moral precepts1 not unfrequently either terminate in1 or are interwoven with1 some provision to gratify the inordinate cravings of ambition1 or some license for the indulgence of the corrupt passions of the human heart4 ,it has allowed private revenge1 in the case of murder2 it has given a sanction to fornication2 and1 if any weight be due to the example of its author1 it has justified adultery4 ,it has made war1 and rapine1 and bloodshed1 provided they be exercised against unbelievers1 not only meritorious acts1 but even essential duties to the good ,musselman2 duties by the performance of which he may secure the constant favour and protection of ,god and his prophet in this life1 and in the next entitle himself to the boundless joys of paradise4 ,in the ,koran are advanced the following assertions1 among others already noticed3 ,that both ,jews and ,christians are idolaters2 that the patriarchs and ,apostles were ,mohammedans2 that the angels worshipped ,adam1 and that the fallen angels were driven from heaven for not doing so2 that our blessed ,saviour was neither ,god1 nor the ,son of ,god2 and that he assured ,mohammed of this in a conference with the ,almighty and him2 yet that he was both the word and ,spirit of ,god3 not to mention numberless absurdities concerning the creation1 the deluge1 the end of the world1 the resurrection1 the day of judgment1 too gross to be received by any except the most debased understandings4 ,it was frequently the triumphant boast of ,st4 ,paul1 that the ,gospel of ,jesus ,christ had for ever freed mankind from the intolerable burden of ceremonial observances4 ,but the ,koran renews and perpetuates the slavery1 by prescribing to its votaries a ritual still more oppressive1 and entangling them again in a yoke of bondage yet more severe than that of the law4 ,of this kind1 amidst a variety of instances1 is that great and meritorious act of ,mohammedan devotion1 the pilgrimage to the holy city of ,mecca2 an act which the ,koran has enjoined1 and the pious ,musselman implicitly performs1 as necessary to the obtaining pardon of his sins1 and qualifying him to be a partaker of the alluring pleasures and exquisite enjoyments of paradise4 ,to the several articles of faith to which all his followers were to adhere1 ,mohammed added four fundamental points of religious practice2 namely1 prayer five times a day1 fasting1 alms-giving1 and the pilgrimage to ,mecca4 ,under the first of these are comprehended those frequent washings or purifications which he prescribed as necessary preparations for the duty of prayer4 ,so necessary did he think them1 that he is said to have declared1 that the practice of religion is founded upon cleanliness1 which is one half of faith1 and the key of prayer4 ,the second of these he conceived to be a duty of so great moment1 that he used to say it was the gate of religion1 and that the odour of the mouth of him who fasteth is more grateful to ,god than that of musk4 ,the third is looked upon as so pleasing in the sight of ,god1 that the ,caliph ,omar ,ebn ,abdalaziz used to say1 ,prayer carries us half way to ,god2 fasting brings us to the door of his palace2 and alms procure us admission40 ,the last of these practical religious duties is deemed so necessary1 that1 according to a tradition of ,mohammed1 he who dies without performing it1 may as well die a ,jew or a ,christian40 ,as to the negative precepts and institutions of this religion1 the ,mohammedans are forbidden the use of wine1 and are prohibited from gaming1 usury1 and the eating of blood and swine's flesh1 and whatever dies of itself1 or is strangled1 or killed by a blow1 or by another beast4 ,they are said1 however1 to comply with the prohibition of gaming1 7from which chess seems to be excepted17 much better than they do with that of wine1 under which all strong and inebriating liquors are included2 for both the ,persians and ,turks are in the habit of drinking freely4 ,however successful and triumphant from without1 the progress of the followers of ,mohammed received a considerable check by the civil dissensions which arose among themselves soon after his death4 ,abubeker and ,ali1 the former the father-in-law1 the latter the son-in-law1 of this pretended prophet1 aspired both to succeed him in the empire which he had erected4 ,upon this arose a cruel and tedious contest1 whose flames produced that schism which divided the ,mohammedans into two great factions2 and this separation not only gave rise to a variety of opinions and rites1 but also excited the most implacable hatred1 and the most deadly animosities1 which have been continued to the present day4 ,with such furious zeal is this contention still carried on between these two factions1 who are distinguished by the name of ,sonnites and ,schiites1 that each party detest and anathematize the other as abominable heretics1 and farther from the truth than either the ,christians or the ,jews4 ,the chief points in which they differ are3 #a4 ,the ,schiites reject ,abubeker1 ,omar1 and ,othman1 the first three caliphs1 as usurpers and intruders2 but the ,sonnites acknowledge and respect them as rightful caliphs or imams4 #b4 ,the ,schiites prefer ,ali to ,mohammed1 or1 at least1 esteem them both equal2 but the ,sonnites admit neither ,ali1 nor any of the prophets1 to be equal to ,mohammed4 #c4 ,the ,sonnites charge the ,schiites with corrupting the ,koran1 and neglecting its precepts2 and the ,schiites retort the same charge on the ,sonnites4 #d4 ,the ,sonnites receive the ,sonna1 or book of traditions of their prophet1 as of canonical authority2 but the ,schiites reject it as apocryphal1 and unworthy of credit4 ,the ,sonnites are subdivided into four chief sects1 of which the first is that of the ,hanefites1 who generally prevail among the ,turks and ,tartars2 the second1 that of the ,malecites1 whose doctrine is chiefly followed in ,barbary1 and other parts of ,africa2 the third1 that of the ,shafeites1 who are chiefly confined to ,arabia and ,persia2 and the fourth orthodox sect is that of the ,hanbalites1 who are not very numerous1 and seldom to be met with out of the limits of ,arabia4 ,the heretical sects among the ,mohammedans are those which are counted to hold heterodox opinions in fundamentals1 or matters of faith2 and they are variously compounded and decompounded of the opinions of four chief sects2 the ,motazalites1 the ,safatians1 the ,kharejites1 and the ,schiites4 ,ever since the valour of ,john ,sobieski rolled back the hosts of ,islamism from eastern and central ,europe1 the civil dominion of the false prophet has been rather retrograde than advancing4 ,a free philosophy in many places is destroying the influence of the system among the better informed2 and the barbarism and misery which a bad government inflicts upon the people1 weakens its power1 and is preparing the way for great changes4 ,the throwing off the ,turkish yoke by the ,greeks1 and the rising greatness of ,russia1 are symptoms of the approaching subversion of ,mohammedanism as a power2 and thus the fall of this eastern antichrist cannot long be delayed4 ,it is1 indeed1 even now supported only by the rival interests of ,christian powers2 and a new combination among them would suddenly withdraw its only support4 ,,malachi1 the last of the twelve minor prophets4 ,malachi prophesied about ,b4 ,c4 #djj2 and some traditionary accounts state that he was a native of ,sapha1 and of the tribe of ,zebulun4 ,he reproves the people for their wickedness1 and the priests for their negligence in the discharge of their office2 he threatens the disobedient with the judgments of ,god1 and promises great rewards to the penitent and pious2 he predicts the coming of ,christ1 and the preaching of ,john the ,baptist2 and with a solemnity becoming the last of the prophets1 he closes the sacred canon with enjoining the strict observance of the ,mosaic law1 till the forerunner1 already promised1 should appear in the spirit of ,elias1 to introduce the ,messiah1 who was to establish a new and everlasting covenant4 ,,mammon1 a ,syriac word which signifies riches1 ,matt4 vi1 #bd4 ,,mamre1 an ,amorite1 brother of ,aner and ,eshcol1 and friend of ,abraham1 ,gen4 xiv1 #ac4 ,it was with these three persons1 together with his own and their domestics1 that ,abraham pursued and overcame the kings after their conquest of ,sodom and ,gomorrah4 #b4 ,,mamre1 the same as ,hebron4 ,in ,gen4 xxiii1 #ai1 it is said1 that ,abraham buried ,sarah in the cave of the field of ,machpelah1 before ,mamre3 the same is ,hebron in the land of ,canaan40 ,and in ,gen4 xxxv1 #bg1 it is said1 that ,jacob came unto ,isaac his father1 unto ,mamre1 unto the city of ,arba1 which is ,hebron40 ,the city probably derived its name from that ,mamre who joined ,abraham in the pursuit of ,chedorlaomer1 and the rescue of ,lot1 ,gen4 xiv4 ,,mamre1 ,,plain ,,of1 a plain near ,mamre1 or ,hebron1 said to be about two miles to the south of the town4 ,here ,abraham dwelt after his separation from ,lot2 here he received from ,god himself a promise of the land1 in which he was then a stranger1 for his posterity2 here he entertained the angels under an oak1 and received a second promise of a son2 and here he purchased a burying place for ,sarah2 which served also as a sepulchre for himself and the rest of his family4 ,,manahem was the sixteenth king of ,israel1 and son of ,gadi4 ,he revenged the death of his master ,zachariah1 by killing ,shallum1 son of ,jabesh1 who had usurped the crown of ,israel1 ,a4 ,m4 #cbcb1 #b ,kings xv1 #ac1 c4 ,manahem reigned in his stead4 ,,manasseh1 the eldest son of ,joseph1 and grandson of the patriarch ,jacob1 ,gen4 xii1 #ej1 was born1 ,a4 ,m4 #bbij1 ,b4 ,c4 #agad4 ,the name ,manasseh signifies forgetfulness1 because ,joseph said1 8,god hath made me forget all my toil1 and all my father's house40 ,when ,jacob was going to die1 ,joseph brought his two sons to him1 that his father might give them his last blessing1 ,gen4 xlviii4 ,jacob1 having seen them1 adopted them4 ,the tribe of ,manasseh came out of ,egypt in number thirty-two thousand two hundred men1 upward of twenty years old1 under the conduct of ,gamaliel1 son of ,pedahzur1 ,num4 ii1 #bj1 #ba4 ,this tribe was divided in the land of promise4 ,one half tribe of ,manasseh settled beyond the river ,jordan1 and possessed the country of ,bashan1 from the river ,jabbok1 to ,mount ,libanus2 and the other half tribe of ,manasseh settled on this side ,jordan1 and possessed the country between the tribe of ,ephraim south1 and the tribe of ,issachar north1 having the river ,jordan east1 and the ,mediterranean ,sea west1 ,joshua xvi2 xvii4 #b4 ,,manasseh1 the fifteenth king of ,judah1 and son and successor of ,hezekiah1 was twelve years old when he began to reign1 and reigned fifty-five years1 #b ,kings xx1 #ba2 xxi1 #a1 #b2 #b ,chron4 xxxiii1 #a1 #b1 c4 ,his mother's name was ,hephzibah4 ,he did evil in the sight of the ,lord2 worshipped the idols of the land of ,canaan2 rebuilt the high places that his father ,hezekiah had destroyed2 set up altars to ,baal2 and planted groves to false gods4 ,he raised altars to the whole host of heaven1 in the courts of ,god's house2 made his son pass through the fire in honour of ,moloch2 was addicted to magic1 divinations1 auguries1 and other superstitions2 set up the idol ,astarte in the house of ,god2 finally1 he involved his people in all the abomination of the idolatrous nations to that degree1 that ,israel committed more wickedness than the ,canaanites1 whom the ,lord had driven out before them4 ,to all these crimes ,manasseh added cruelty2 and he shed rivers of innocent blood in ,jerusalem4 ,the ,lord being provoked by so many crimes1 threatened him by his prophets1 ,i will blot out ,jerusalem as a writing is blotted out of a writing tablet40 ,the calamities which ,god had threatened began toward the twenty-second year of this impious prince4 ,the king of ,assyria sent his army against him1 who1 seizing him among the briers and brambles where he was hid1 fettered his hands and feet1 and carried him to ,babylon1 #b ,chron4 xxxiii1 #aa1 #ab1 c4 ,it was probably ,sargon or ,esar-haddon1 king of ,assyria1 who sent ,tartan into ,palestine1 and who taking ,azoth1 attacked ,manasseh1 put him in irons1 and led him away1 not to ,nineveh1 but to ,babylon1 of which ,esar-haddon had become master1 and had reunited the empires of the ,assyrians and the ,chaldeans4 ,manasseh1 in bonds at ,babylon1 humbled himself before ,god1 who heard his prayers1 and brought him back to ,jerusalem2 and ,manasseh acknowledged the hand of the ,lord4 ,manasseh was probably delivered out of prison by ,saosduchin1 the successor of ,esar-haddon1 #b ,chron4 xxxiii1 #ac1 #ad1 c4 ,being returned to ,jerusalem1 he restored the worship of the ,lord2 broke down the altars of the false gods2 abolished all traces of their idolatrous worship2 but he did not destroy the high places3 which is the only thing ,scripture reproaches him with1 after his return from ,babylon4 ,he caused ,jerusalem to be fortified2 and he inclosed with a wall another city1 which in his time was erected west of ,jerusalem1 and which went by the name of the second city1 #b ,chron4 xxxiii1 #ad4 ,he put garrisons into all the strong places of ,judah4 ,manasseh died at ,jerusalem1 and was buried in the garden of his house1 in the garden of ,uzza1 #b ,kings xxi1 #ah4 ,he was succeeded by his son ,amon4 ,,mandrake1 1 ,gen4 xxx1 #ad-af2 ,cant4 vii1 #ac4 ,interpreters have wasted much time and pains in endeavouring to ascertain what is intended by the ,hebrew word dudaim4 ,some translate it by violet10 others1 lilies10 jasmines10 truffle or mushroom10 and some think that the word means flowers10 or fine flowers10 in general4 ,bochart1 ,calmet1 and ,sir ,thomas ,browne1 suppose the citron intended2 ,celsius is persuaded that it is the fruit of the lote tree2 ,hiller1 that cherries are spoken of2 and ,ludolf maintains that it is the fruit which the ,syrians call mauz1 resembling in figure and taste the ,indian fig2 but the generality of interpreters and commentators understand by dudaim1 mandrakes1 a species of melon2 and it is so rendered in the ,septuagint1 and in both the ,targums1 on ,gen4 xxx1 #ad4 ,it appears from ,scripture1 that they were in perfection about the time of wheat harvest1 have an agreeable odour1 may be preserved1 and are placed with pomegranates4 ,hasselquist1 the pupil and intimate friend of ,linnus1 who travelled into the ,holy ,land to make discoveries in natural history1 imagines that the plant commonly called mandrake1 is intended4 ,speaking of ,nazareth1 in ,galilee1 he says1 8,what ,i found most remarkable at this village was the great number of mandrakes which grew in a vale below it4 ,i had not the pleasure to see this plant in blossom1 the fruit now 7,may #eth1 ,o4 ,s47 hanging ripe on the stem1 which lay withered on the ground4 ,from the season in which this mandrake blossoms and ripens fruit1 one may form a conjecture that it was ,rachel's dudaim4 ,these were brought her in the wheat harvest1 which in ,galilee is in the month of ,may1 about this time1 and the mandrake was now in fruit40 ,,manich,,ans1 or ,,manichees1 a denomination founded in the latter part of the third century1 by ,mani1 ,manes1 or ,manichus4 ,being a ,persian or ,chaldean by birth1 and educated among the magi1 he attempted a coalition of their doctrine with the ,christian system1 or rather1 the explication of the one by the other4 ,dr4 ,lardner1 so far from taking ,mani and his followers for enthusiasts1 as some have done1 thinks they erred on the other side1 and were rather a sect of reasoners and philosophers1 than visionaries and enthusiasts4 ,so ,faustus1 one of their leaders1 says1 the doctrine of ,mani taught him not to receive every thing recommended as said by our ,saviour1 but first to examine and consider whether it be true1 sound1 right1 genuine2 while the ,catholics1 he says1 swallowed every thing1 and acted as if they despised the benefit of human reason1 and were afraid to examine and distinguish between truth and falsehood4 ,st4 ,augustine1 it is well known1 was for some time among this sect2 but they were not pretensions to inspiration1 but specious and alluring promises of rational discoveries1 by which ,augustine was deluded1 as he particularly states in his letter to his friend ,honoratus4 ,so ,beausobre remarks3 ,these heretics were philosophers1 who1 having formed certain systems1 accommodated revelation to them1 which was the servant of their reason1 not the mistress40 ,mani1 according to ,dr4 ,lardner1 believed in an eternal self-existent ,being1 completely happy and perfect in goodness1 whom alone he called ,god1 in a strict and proper sense2 but he believed1 also1 in an evil principle or being1 which he called hyle1 or the devil1 whom he considered as the god of this world1 blinding the eyes of them that believe not1 #b ,cor4 iv1 #d4 ,god1 the supreme and good1 they considered as the ,author of the universe2 and1 according to ,st4 ,augustine1 they believed1 also1 in a consubstantial trinity1 though they strangely supposed the ,father to dwell in light inaccessible1 the ,son to have his residence in the solar orb1 and the ,holy ,spirit to be diffused throughout the atmosphere2 on which account they paid a superstitious1 and perhaps an idolatrous1 reverence to the sun and moon4 ,their belief in the evil principle was1 no doubt1 adopted to solve the mysterious question of the origin of evil1 which1 says ,dr4 ,lardner1 was the ruin of these men1 and of many others4 ,as to the hyle1 or the devil1 though they dared not to consider him as the creature of ,god1 neither did they believe in his eternity2 for they contended1 from the ,greek text of ,john viii1 #dd1 that he had a father4 ,but they admitted the eternity of matter1 which they called darkness2 and supposed hyle to be the result of some wonderful and unaccountable commotion in the kingdom of darkness1 which idea seems to be borrowed from the ,mosaic chaos4 ,in this commotion darkness became mingled with light1 and thus they account for good and evil being so mixed together in the world4 ,having thus brought hyle1 or ,satan1 into being1 they next found an empire and employment for him4 ,every thing1 therefore1 which they conceived unworthy of the fountain of goodness1 they attributed to the evil being2 particularly the material world1 the ,mosaic dispensation1 and the ,scriptures on which it was founded4 ,this accounts for their rejecting the ,old ,testament4 ,dr4 ,lardner contends1 however1 that they received generally the books of the ,new ,testament1 though they objected to particular passages as corrupted1 which they could not reconcile to their system4 ,on ,rom4 vii1 ,mani founded the doctrine of two souls in man1 two active principles2 one1 the source and cause of vicious passions1 deriving its origin from matter2 the other1 the cause of the ideas of just and right1 and of inclinations to follow those ideas1 deriving its origin from ,god4 ,considering all sensual enjoyments to be in some degree criminal1 they were enemies to marriage2 though1 at the same time1 knowing that all men cannot receive this saying1 they allowed it to the second class of their disciples1 called auditors2 but by no means to the perfect or confirmed believers4 ,another absurd consequence of believing the moral evil of matter was1 that they denied the real existence of ,christ's human nature1 and supposed him to suffer and die in appearance only4 ,according to them1 he took the form only of man2 a notion that was afterward adopted by ,mohammed1 and which necessarily excludes all faith in the atonement4 ,construing too literally the assertion that flesh and blood could not inherit the kingdom of ,god1 they denied the doctrine of the resurrection4 ,christ came1 they said1 to save the souls of men1 and not the bodies4 ,no part of matter1 according to them1 could be worthy of salvation4 ,in many leading principles they thus evidently agreed with the ,gnostics1 of whom1 indeed1 they may be considered a branch4 ,,manna1 1 ,exod4 xvi1 #ae1 #cc1 #ce2 ,num4 xi1 #f1 #g1 #i2 ,josh4 v1 #ab2 ,neh4 ix1 #bj2 ,psa4 lxxviii1 #bd2 1 ,john vi1 #ca1 #di1 #eh2 ,heb4 ix1 #d2 ,rev4 ii1 #ag2 the food which ,god gave the children of ,israel during their continuance in the deserts of ,arabia1 from the eighth encampment in the wilderness of ,sin4 ,moses describes it as white like hoar frost1 round1 and of the bigness of coriander seed4 ,it fell every morning upon the dew2 and when the dew was exhaled by the heat of the sun1 the manna appeared alone1 lying upon the rocks or the sand4 ,it fell every day except on the ,sabbath1 and this only around the camp of the ,israelites4 ,every sixth day there fell a double quantity2 and though it putrefied and bred maggots when it was kept any other day1 yet on the ,sabbath there was no such alteration4 ,the same substance which was melted by the heat of the sun when it was left abroad1 was of so hard a consistence when brought into the tent1 that it was beaten in mortars1 and would even endure the fire1 being made into cakes and baked in pans4 ,it fell in so great quantities during the whole forty years of their journey1 that it was sufficient to feed the whole multitude of above a million of souls4 ,every man1 that is1 every male or head of a family1 was to gather each day the quantity of an omer1 about three quarts ,english measure2 and it is observed that he that gathered much had nothing over1 and he that gathered little had no lack10 because his gathering was in proportion to the number of persons for whom he had to provide4 ,or every man gathered as much as he could2 and then1 when brought home and measured by an omer1 if he had a surplus1 it went to supply the wants of some other family that had not been able to collect a sufficiency1 the family being large1 and the time in which the manna might be gathered1 before the heat of the day1 not being sufficient to collect enough for so numerous a household1 several of whom might be so confined as not to be able to collect for themselves4 ,thus there was an equality2 and in this light the words of ,st4 ,paul lead us to view the passage1 #b ,cor4 viii1 #ae4 ,to commemorate their living upon manna1 the ,israelites were directed to put one omer of it into a golden vase2 and it was preserved for many generations by the side of the ark4 ,our translators and others make a plain contradiction in the relation of this account of the manna1 by rendering it thus3 ,and when the children of ,israel saw it1 they said one to another1 ,it is manna2 for they knew not what it was20 whereas the ,septuagint1 and several authors1 both ancient and modern1 have translated the text according to the original3 8,the ,israelites seeing this1 said one to another1 ,what is it8 2 for they knew not what it was10 and therefore they could not give it a name4 ,moses immediately answers the question1 and says1 ,this is the bread which the ,lord hath given you to eat40 ,from ,exod4 xvi1 #ca1 we learn that this substance was afterward called 1 probably in commemoration of the question they had asked on its first appearance4 ,what this substance was1 we know not4 ,it was nothing that was common in the wilderness4 ,it is evident that the ,israelites never saw it before2 for ,moses says1 ,he fed thee with manna which thou knewest not1 neither did thy fathers know10 ,deut4 viii1 #c1 #af2 and it is very likely that nothing of the kind had ever been seen before2 and by a pot of it being laid up in the ark1 it is as likely that nothing of the kind ever appeared after the miraculous supply in the wilderness had ceased4 ,the author of the book of ,wisdom1 xvi1 #bj1 #ba1 says1 that the manna so accommodated itself to every one's taste that it proved palatable and pleasing to all4 ,it has been remarked that at this day1 what is called manna is found in several places2 in ,arabia1 on ,mount ,libanus1 ,calabria1 and elsewhere4 ,the most famous is that of ,arabia1 which is a kind of condensed honey1 which exudes from the leaves of trees1 from whence it is collected when it has become concreted4 ,salmasius thinks this of the same kind which fed the children of ,israel2 and that the miracle lay1 not in creating any new substance1 but in making it fall duly at a set time every day throughout the whole year1 and that in such plenty as to suffice so great a multitude4 ,but in order for this1 the ,israelites must he supposed every day to have been in the neighbourhood of the trees on which this substance is formed2 which was not the case1 neither do these trees grow in those deserts4 ,beside1 this kind of manna is purgative1 and the stomach could not endure it in such quantity as is implied by its being eaten for food4 ,the whole history of the giving the manna is evidently miraculous2 and the manna was truly bread from heaven10 as sent by special interposition of ,god4 ,,manoah1 the father of ,samson1 was of the tribe of ,dan1 and a native of the city of ,zorah1 ,judges xiii1 #f-bc4 ,see ,,samson4 ,,marah1 or ,,mara1 a word which signifies bitterness4 ,when the ,israelites came out of ,egypt1 and had arrived at the desert of ,etham1 they found the water so bitter that neither themselves nor their cattle could drink of it1 ,exod4 xv1 #bc4 ,on this account they gave the name of ,marah to that encampment4 ,and here their murmurings began against ,moses2 for they asked1 ,what shall we drink80 ,moses prayed to the ,lord1 who instructed him to take a particular kind of wood1 and cast it into the water1 which he did2 and immediately the water became palatable4 ,according to the orientals1 this wood was called ,alnah4 ,,maranatha4 ,see ,,anathema4 ,,marble1 1 #a ,chron4 xxix1 #b2 ,esther i1 #f2 ,canticles v1 #ae2 a valuable kind of stone1 of a texture so hard and compact1 and of a grain so fine1 as readily to take a beautiful polish4 ,it is dug out of quarries in large masses1 and is much used in buildings1 ornamental pillars1 c4 ,marble is of different colours1 black1 white1 c2 and is sometimes elegantly clouded and variegated4 ,the stone mentioned in the places cited above is called the stone of sis or sish3 the ,,lxx and ,vulgate render it ,parian stone10 which was remarkable for its bright white colour4 ,probably the cliff ,ziz1 #b ,chron4 xx1 #af1 was so called from being a marble crag3 the place was afterward called ,petra4 ,the variety of stones1 1 1 1 1 mentioned in the pavement of ,ahasuerus1 might be marble of different colours4 ,the ancients sometimes made pavements wherein were set very valuable stones4 ,,mark was the nephew of ,barnabas1 being his sister's son2 and he is supposed to have been converted to the ,gospel by ,st4 ,peter1 who calls him his son1 #a ,peter v1 #ac2 but no circumstances of his conversion are recorded4 ,the first historical fact mentioned of him in the ,new ,testament is1 that he went1 in the year #dd1 from ,jerusalem to ,antioch1 with ,paul and ,barnabas4 ,not long after1 he set out from ,antioch with those ,apostles upon a journey1 which they undertook by the direction of the ,holy ,spirit1 for the purpose of preaching the ,gospel in different countries3 but he soon left them1 probably without sufficient reason1 at ,perga in ,pamphylia1 and went to ,jerusalem1 ,acts xiii4 ,afterward1 when ,paul and ,barnabas had determined to visit the several churches which they had established1 ,barnabas proposed that they should take ,mark with them2 to which ,paul objected1 because ,mark had left them in their former journey4 ,this produced a sharp contention between ,paul and ,barnabas1 which ended in their separation4 ,mark accompanied his uncle ,barnabas to ,cyprus1 but it is not mentioned whither they went when they left that island4 ,we may conclude that ,st4 ,paul was afterward reconciled to ,st4 ,mark1 from the manner in which he mentions him in his epistles written subsequently to this dispute2 and particularly from the direction which he gives to ,timothy3 ,take ,mark1 and bring him with thee2 for he is profitable to me for the ministry10 #b ,tim4 iv1 #aa4 ,no farther circumstances are recorded of ,st4 ,mark in the ,new ,testament2 but it is believed1 upon the authority of ancient writers1 that soon after his journey with ,barnabas he met ,peter in ,asia1 and that he continued with him for some time2 perhaps till ,peter suffered martyrdom at ,rome4 ,epiphanius1 ,eusebius1 and ,jerom1 all assert that ,mark preached the ,gospel in ,egypt2 and the two latter call him bishop of ,alexandria4 ,dr4 ,lardner thinks that ,st4 ,mark's ,gospel is alluded to by ,clement of ,rome2 but the earliest ecclesiastical writer upon record who expressly mentions it is ,papias4 ,it is mentioned1 also1 by ,irenus1 ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,tertullian1 ,origen1 ,eusebius1 ,epiphanius1 ,jerom1 ,augustine1 ,chrysostom1 and many others4 ,the works of these fathers contain numerous quotations from this ,gospel2 and1 as their testimony is not contradicted by any ancient writer1 we may safely conclude that the ,gospel of ,st4 ,mark is genuine4 ,the authority of this ,gospel is not affected by the question concerning the identity of ,mark the evangelist1 and ,mark the nephew of ,barnabas2 since all agree that the writer of this ,gospel was the familiar companion of ,st4 ,peter1 and that he was qualified for the work which he undertook1 by having heard1 for many years1 the public discourses and private conversation of that ,apostle4 ,some writers have asserted that ,st4 ,peter revised and approved this ,gospel1 and others have not scrupled to call it the ,gospel according to ,st4 ,peter2 by which title they did not mean to question ,st4 ,mark's right to be considered as the author of this ,gospel1 but merely to give it the sanction of ,st4 ,peter's name4 ,the following passage in ,eusebius appears to contain so probable an account of the occasion of writing this ,gospel1 and comes supported by such high authority1 that we think it right to transcribe it3 8,the lustre of piety so enlightened the minds of ,peter's hearers at ,rome1 that they were not contented with the bare hearing and unwritten instruction of his divine preaching1 but they earnestly requested ,st4 ,mark1 whose ,gospel we have1 being an attendant upon ,st4 ,peter1 to leave with them a written account of the instructions which had been delivered to them by word of mouth2 nor did they desist till they had prevailed upon him2 and thus they were the cause of the writing of that ,gospel1 which is called according to ,st4 ,mark2 and they say1 that the ,apostle being informed of what was done1 by the revelation of the ,holy ,ghost1 was pleased with the zeal of the men1 and authorized the writing to be introduced into the churches4 ,clement gives this account in the sixth book of his ,institutions2 and ,papias1 bishop of ,hierapolis1 bears testimony to it40 ,jerom also says1 that ,st4 ,mark wrote a short ,gospel from what he had heard from ,st4 ,peter1 at the request of the brethren at ,rome1 which1 when ,st4 ,peter knew1 he approved1 and published it in the church1 commanding the reading of it by his own authority4 ,different persons have assigned different dates to this ,gospel2 but there being almost a unanimous concurrence of opinion1 that it was written while ,st4 ,mark was with ,st4 ,peter at ,rome1 and not finding any ancient authority for supposing that ,st4 ,peter was in that city till ,a4 ,d4 #fd1 we are inclined to place the publication of this ,gospel about ,a4 ,d4 #fe4 ,st4 ,mark having written this ,gospel for the use of the ,christians at ,rome1 which was at that time the great metropolis and common centre of all civilized nations1 we accordingly find it free from all peculiarities1 and equally accommodated to every description of persons4 ,quotations from the ancient prophets1 and allusions to ,jewish customs1 are1 as much as possible1 avoided2 and such explanations are added as might be necessary for ,gentile readers at ,rome2 thus1 when ,jordan is first mentioned in this ,gospel1 the word river is prefixed1 ,mark i1 #e2 the oriental word corban is said to mean a gift1 ,mark vii1 #aa2 the preparation is said to be the day before the ,sabbath1 ,mark xv1 #db2 and defiled hands are said to mean unwashed hands1 ,mark vii1 #b2 and the superstition of the ,jews upon that subject is stated more at large than it would have been by a person writing at ,jerusalem4 ,some learned men1 from a collation of ,st4 ,matthew's and ,st4 ,mark's ,gospels have pointed out the use of the same words and expressions in so many instances that it has been supposed ,st4 ,mark wrote with ,st4 ,matthew's ,gospel before him2 but the similarity is not strong enough to warrant such a conclusion2 and seems no greater than might have arisen from other causes4 ,st4 ,peter would naturally recite in his preaching the same events and discourses which ,st4 ,matthew recorded in his ,gospel2 and the same circumstances might be mentioned in the same manner by men who sought not after excellency of speech10 but whose minds retained the remembrance of facts or conversations which strongly impressed them1 even without taking into consideration the idea of supernatural guidance4 ,we may farther observe that the idea of ,st4 ,mark's writing from ,st4 ,matthew's ,gospel does not correspond with the account given by ,eusebius and ,jerom as stated above4 ,,mark ,,on ,,the ,,forehead4 ,see ,,forehead4 ,,maronites1 a sect of eastern ,christians who follow the ,syrian rite1 and are subject to the pope2 their principal habitation being on ,mount ,libanus1 or between the ,ansarians to the north and the ,druses to the south4 ,mosheim informs us1 that the ,monothelites1 condemned and exploded by the council of ,constantinople1 found a place of refuge among the ,mardaites1 signifying in ,syriac rebels1 a people who took possession of ,lebanon1 ,a4 ,d4 #fgf1 which became the asylum of vagabonds1 slaves1 and all sorts of rabble2 and about the conclusion of the seventh century they were called ,maronites1 after ,maro1 their first bishop2 a name which they still retain4 ,none1 he says1 of the ancient writers1 give any certain account of the first person who instructed these mountaineers in the doctrine of the ,monothelites2 it is probable1 however1 from several circumstances1 that it was ,john ,maro1 whose name they have adopted2 and that this ecclesiastic received the name of ,maro from his having lived in the character of a monk1 in the famous convent of ,st4 ,maro1 upon the borders of the ,orontes1 before his settlement among the ,mardaites of ,mount ,libanus4 ,one thing is certain1 from the testimony of ,tyrius1 and other unexceptionable witnesses1 as also from the most authentic records1 namely1 that the ,maronites retained the opinions of the ,monothelites until the twelfth century1 when1 abandoning and renouncing the doctrine of one will in ,christ1 they were redmitted into the communion of the ,roman church4 ,the most learned of the modern ,maronites have left no method unemployed to defend their church against this accusation2 they have laboured to prove1 by a variety of testimonies1 that their ancestors always persevered in the ,catholic faith1 and in their attachment to the ,roman pontiff1 without ever adopting the doctrine of the ,monophysites or ,monothelites4 ,but all their efforts are insufficient to prove the truth of these assertions1 and the testimonies they allege will appear absolutely fictitious and destitute of authority4 ,the nation may be considered as divided into two classes1 the common people and the shaiks1 by whom must be understood the most eminent of the inhabitants1 who1 from the antiquity of their families1 and the opulence of their fortunes are superior to the ordinary class4 ,they all live dispersed in the mountains1 in villages1 hamlets1 and even detached houses2 which is never the case in the plains4 ,the whole nation consists of cultivators4 ,every man improves the little domain he possesses1 or farms1 with his own hands4 ,even the shaiks live in the same manner1 and are only distinguished from the rest by a bad peliss1 a horse1 and a few slight advantages in food and lodging2 they all live frugally1 without many enjoyments1 but also with few wants1 as they are little acquainted with the inventions of luxury4 ,in general1 the nation is poor1 but no one wants necessaries2 and if beggars are sometimes seen1 they come rather from the sea coast than the country itself4 ,property is as sacred among them as in ,europe2 nor do we see there those robberies and extortions so frequent with the ,turks4 ,travellers may journey there1 either by night or by day1 with a security unknown in any other part of the empire1 and the stranger is received with hospitality1 as among the ,arabs3 it must be owned1 however1 that the ,maronites are less generous1 and rather inclined to the vice of parsimony4 ,conformably to the doctrines of ,christianity1 they have only one wife1 whom they frequently espouse without having seen1 and always without having been much in her company4 ,contrary to the precepts of that same religion1 however1 they have admitted1 or retained1 the ,arab custom of retaliation1 and the nearest relation of a murdered person is bound to avenge him4 ,from a habit founded on distrust1 and the political state of the country1 every one1 whether shaik or peasant1 walks continually armed with a musket and poinards4 ,this is1 perhaps1 an inconvenience2 but this advantage results from it1 that they have no novices in the use of arms among them1 when it is necessary to employ them against the ,turks4 ,as the country maintains no regular troops1 every man is obliged to join the army in time of war2 and if this militia were well conducted1 it would be superior to many ,european armies4 ,from accounts taken in late years1 the number of men fit to bear arms1 amounts to thirty-five thousand4 ,in religious matters the ,maronites are dependent on ,rome4 ,though they acknowledge the supremacy of the pope1 their clergy continue1 as heretofore1 to elect a head1 with the title of batrak1 or patriarch of ,antioch4 ,their priests marry1 as in the first ages of the church2 but their wives must be maidens1 and not widows2 nor can they marry a second time4 ,they celebrate mass in ,syriac1 of which the greatest part of them comprehend not a word4 ,the ,gospel1 alone1 is read aloud in ,arabic1 that it may be understood by the people4 ,the communion is administered in both kinds4 ,in the small country of the ,maronites there are reckoned upward of two hundred convents for men and women4 ,these religious are of the order of ,st4 ,anthony1 whose rules they observe with an exactness which reminds us of earlier times4 ,the court of ,rome1 in affiliating the ,maronites1 has granted them a hospitium at ,rome1 to which they may send several of their youth to receive a gratuitous education4 ,it should seem that this institution might introduce among them the ideas and arts of ,europe2 but the pupils of this school1 limited to an education purely monastic1 bring home nothing but the ,italian language1 which is of no use1 and a stock of theological learning1 from which as little advantage can be derived2 they accordingly soon assimilate with the rest4 ,nor has a greater change been operated by the three or four missionaries maintained by the ,french capuchins at ,gazir1 ,tripoli1 and ,bairout4 ,their labours consist in preaching in their church1 in instructing children in the catechism1 ,thomas a ,kempis1 and the ,psalms1 and in teaching them to read and write4 ,formerly1 the ,jesuits had two missionaries at their house at ,antoura1 and the ,lazarites have now succeeded them in their mission4 ,the most valuable advantage that has resulted from these labours is1 that the art of writing has become more common among the ,maronites1 and rendered them1 in this country1 what the ,copts are in ,egypt1 that is1 they are in possession of all the posts of writers1 intendants1 and kaiyas among the ,turks1 and especially of those among their allies and neighbours1 the ,druses4 ,mosheim observes1 that the subjection of the ,maronites to the spiritual jurisdiction of the ,roman pontiff was agreed to with this express condition1 that neither the popes nor their emissaries should pretend to change or abolish any thing that related to the ancient rites1 moral precepts1 or religious opinions of this people2 so that1 in reality1 there is nothing to be found among the ,maronites that savours of popery1 if we except their attachment to the ,roman pontiff4 ,it is also certain that there are ,maronites in ,syria1 who still behold the church of ,rome with the greatest aversion and abhorrence2 nay1 what is still more remarkable1 great numbers of that nation residing in ,italy1 even under the eye of the pontiff1 opposed his authority during the seventeenth century1 and threw the court of ,rome into great perplexity4 ,one body of these non-conforming ,maronites retired into the valleys of ,piedmont1 where they joined the ,waldenses2 another1 above six hundred in number1 with a bishop1 and several ecclesiastics at their head1 flew into ,corsica1 and implored the protection of the republic of ,genoa1 against the violence of the inquisitors4 ,,marriage1 a civil and religious contract1 by which a man is joined and united to a woman1 for the ends of procreation4 ,the essence of marriage consists in the mutual consent of the parties4 ,marriage is a part of the law of nations1 and is in use among all people4 ,the public use of marriage institutions consists1 according to ,archdeacon ,paley1 in their promoting the following beneficial effects3 #a4 ,the private comfort of individuals4 #b4 ,the production of the greatest number of healthy children1 their better education1 and the making of due provision for their settlement in life4 #c4 ,the peace of human society1 in cutting off a principal source of contention1 by assigning one or more women to one man1 and protecting his exclusive right by sanctions of morality and law4 #d4 ,the better government of society1 by distributing the community into separate families1 and appointing over each the authority of a master of a family1 which has more actual influence than all civil authority put together4 #e4 ,the additional security which the state receives for the good behaviour of its citizens1 from the solicitude they feel for the welfare of their children1 and from their being confined to permanent habitations4 #f4 ,the encouragement of industry4 ,whether marriage be a civil or a religious contract1 has been a subject of dispute4 ,the truth seems to be that it is both4 ,it has its engagements to men1 and its vows to ,god4 ,a ,christian state recognizes marriage as a branch of public morality1 and a source of civil peace and strength4 ,it is connected with the peace of society by assigning one woman to one man1 and the state protects him1 therefore1 in her exclusive possession4 ,christianity1 by allowing divorce in the event of adultery1 supposes1 also1 that the crime must be proved by proper evidence before the civil magistrate2 and lest divorce should be the result of unfounded suspicion1 or be made a cover for license1 the decision of the case could safely be lodged no where else4 ,marriage1 too1 as placing one human being more completely under the power of another than any other relation1 requires laws for the protection of those who are thus so exposed to injury4 ,the distribution of society into families1 also1 can only be an instrument for promoting the order of the community1 by the cognizance which the law takes of the head of a family1 and by making him responsible1 to a certain extent1 for the conduct of those under his influence4 ,questions of property are also involved in marriage and its issue4 ,the law must1 therefore1 for these and many other weighty reasons1 be cognizant of marriage2 must prescribe various regulations respecting it2 require publicity of the contract2 and guard some of the great injunctions of religion in the matter by penalties4 ,in every well ordered society marriage must be placed under the cognizance and control of the state4 ,but then those who would have the whole matter to lie between the parties themselves1 and the civil magistrate1 appear wholly to forget that marriage is also a solemn religious act1 in which vows are made to ,god by both persons1 who1 when the rite is properly understood1 engage to abide by all those laws with which he has guarded the institution2 to love and cherish each other2 and to remain faithful to each other until death4 ,for if1 at least1 they profess belief in ,christianity1 whatever duties are laid upon husbands and wives in ,holy ,scripture1 they engage to obey1 by the very act of their contracting marriage4 ,the question1 then1 is whether such vows to ,god as are necessarily involved in marriage1 are to be left between the parties and ,god privately1 or whether they ought to be publicly made before his ministers and the church4 ,on this the ,scriptures are silent2 but though ,michalis has shown that the priests under the law were not appointed to celebrate marriage2 yet in the practice of the modern ,jews it is a religious ceremony1 the chief rabbi of the synagogue being present1 and prayers being appointed for the occasion4 ,this renders it probable that the character of the ceremony under the law1 from the most ancient times1 was a religious one4 ,the more direct connection of marriage with religion in ,christian states1 by assigning its celebration to the ministers of religion1 appears to be a very beneficial custom1 and one which the state has a right to enjoin4 ,for since the welfare and morals of society are so much interested in the performance of the mutual duties of the married state2 and since those duties have a religious as well as a civil character1 it is most proper that some provision should be made for explaining those duties2 and for this a standing form of marriage is best adapted4 ,by acts of religion1 also1 they are more solemnly impressed upon the parties4 ,when this is prescribed in any state1 it becomes a ,christian cheerfully1 and even thankfully1 to comply with a custom of so important a tendency1 as matter of conscientious subjection to lawful authority1 although no ,scriptural precept can be pleaded for it4 ,that the ceremony should be confined to the clergy of an established church1 is a different consideration4 ,we think that the religious effect would be greater1 were the ministers of each religious body to be authorized by the state to celebrate marriages among their own people1 due provision being previously made by the civil magistrate for the regular and secure registry of them1 and to prevent the laws respecting marriage from being evaded2 which is indeed his business4 ,the offices of religion would then come in by way of sanction and moral enforcement4 ,when this important contract is once made1 then certain rights are acquired by the parties mutually1 who are also bound by reciprocal duties1 in the fulfilment of which the practical virtue of each consists4 ,and here the superior character of the morals of the ,new ,testament1 as well as their higher authority1 is illustrated4 ,it may1 indeed1 be within the scope of mere moralists to show that fidelity1and affection1 and all the courtesies necessary to maintain affection1 are rationally obligatory upon those who are connected by the nuptial bond2 but in ,christianity nuptial fidelity is guarded by the express law1 ,thou shalt not commit adultery20 and by our ,lord's exposition of the spirit of that law which forbids the indulgence of loose thoughts and desires1 and places the purity of the heart under the guardianship of that hallowed fear which his authority tends to inspire4 ,affection1 too1 is made a matter of diligent cultivation upon considerations1 and by a standard1 peculiar to our religion4 ,husbands are placed in a relation to their wives1 similar to that which ,christ bears to his church1 and his example is thus made their rule4 ,as ,christ loved the church1 so husbands are to love their wives2 as ,christ gave himself10 his life1 for the church10 ,eph4 v1 #be1 so are they to hazard life for their wives2 as ,christ saves his church1 so is it the bounden duty of husbands to endeavour1 by every possible means1 to promote the religious edification and salvation of their wives4 ,the connection is thus exalted into a religious one2 and when love which knows no abatement1 protection at the hazard of life1 and a tender and constant solicitude for the salvation of a wife1 are thus enjoined1 the greatest possible security is established for the exercise of kindness and fidelity4 ,the oneness of this union is also more forcibly stated in ,scripture than any where beside4 ,they twain shall be one flesh40 ,so ought men to love their wives as their own bodies2 he that loveth his wife loveth himself4 ,for no man ever yet hated his own flesh1 but nourisheth and cherisheth it1 even as the ,lord the church40 ,precept and illustration can go no higher than this2 and nothing evidently is wanting either of direction or authority to raise the state of marriage into the highest1 most endearing1 and sanctified relation in which two human beings can stand to each other4 #b4 ,we find but few laws in the books of ,moses concerning the institution of marriage4 ,though the ,mosaic law no where obliges men to marry1 the ,jews have always looked upon it as an indispensable duty implied in the words1 ,increase and multiply10 ,gen4 i1 #bh2 so that a man who did not marry his daughter before she was twenty years of age1 was looked upon as accessary to any irregularities the young woman might be guilty of for want of being timely married4 ,moses restrained the ,israelites from marrying within certain degrees of consanguinity2 which had till then been permitted1 to prevent their taking wives from among the idolatrous nations among whom they lived4 ,abraham gave this as a reason for choosing a wife for ,isaac from among his own kindred1 ,gen4 xxxiv1 #c1 c4 ,but when his descendants became so exceedingly multiplied1 this reason ceased2 and the great lawgiver prohibited1 under pain of death1 certain degrees of kindred as incestuous4 ,polygamy1 though not expressly allowed1 is however tacitly implied in the laws of ,moses1 ,gen4 xxxi2 ,exod4 xxi1 #aj4 ,this practice likewise was authorized by the example of the patriarchs4 ,thus ,jacob married both the daughters of ,laban4 ,in respect to which custom1 ,moses enjoins that1 upon the marriage of a second wife1 a man shall be bound to continue to the first her food1 raiment1 and the duty of marriage4 ,the ,jews did not always content themselves with the allowance of two wives1 as may be seen in the examples of ,david1 ,solomon1 and many others4 ,however1 they made a distinction between the wives of the first rank1 and those of the second4 ,the first they called nashim1 and the other pilgashim2 which last1 though most versions render it by the words concubines10 harlots10 and prostitutes10 yet it has no where in ,scripture any such bad sense4 ,there is a particular law called the ,levirate1 which obliged a man1 whose brother died without issue1 to marry his widow1 and raise up seed to his brother1 ,deut4 xxv1 #e1 c4 ,but ,moses in some measure left it to a man's choice1 whether he would comply with this law or not2 for in case of a refusal1 the widow could only summon him before the judges of the place1 when1 if he persisted1 she untied his shoe1 and spit in his face1 and said1 8,thus shall it be done unto the man who refuses to build up his brother's house40 ,a man was at liberty to marry not only in the twelve tribes1 but even out of them1 provided it was among such nations as used circumcision2 such were the ,midianites1 ,ishmaelites1 ,edomites1 ,moabites1 and ,egyptians4 ,accordingly1 we find ,moses himself married to a ,midianite1 and ,boaz to a ,moabite4 ,amasa was the son of ,jether1 an ,ishmaelite1 by ,abigail1 ,david's sister2 and ,solomon1 in the beginning of his reign1 married ,pharaoh's daughter4 ,whenever we find him and other kings blamed for marrying strange women1 we must understand it of those nations which were idolatrous and uncircumcised4 ,it appears almost impossible to ,europeans1 says ,mr4 ,hartley1 that a deception like that of ,laban's could be practised4 ,but the following extract1 from a journal which ,i kept at ,smyrna1 presents a parallel case3 8,the ,armenian brides are veiled during the marriage ceremony2 and hence deceptions have occurred1 in regard to the person chosen for wife4 ,i am informed that1 on one occasion1 a young ,armenian at ,smyrna solicited in marriage a younger daughter1 whom he admired4 ,the parents of the girl consented to the request1 and every previous arrangement was made4 ,when the time for solemnizing the marriage arrived1 the elder daughter1 who was not so beautiful1 was conducted by the parents to the altar1 and the young man was unconsciously married to her4 ,and #8it came to pass1 that in the morning1 behold1 it was the elder daughter4' ,the deceit was not discovered1 till it could not be rectified2 and the manner in which the parents justified themselves was precisely that of ,laban3 #8,it must not be so done in our country1 to give the younger before the first-born4' ,it is really the rule among the ,armenians1 that neither a younger son nor daughter be married1 till their elder brother or sister have preceded them40 ,i was once present at the solemnization of matrimony among the ,armenians2 and some recollections of it may tend to throw light on this and other passages of ,scripture4 ,the various festivities attendant on these occasions continue for three days2 and during the last night the marriage is celebrated4 ,i was conducted to the house of the bride1 where ,i found a very large assemblage of persons4 ,the company was dispersed through various rooms2 reminding me of the directions of our ,saviour1 in regard to the choice of the lowermost rooms at feasts4 ,on the ground floor ,i actually observed that the persons convened were of an inferior order of the community1 while in the upper rooms were assembled those of higher rank4 ,the large number of young females who were present1 naturally reminded me of the wise and foolish virgins in our ,saviour's parable4 ,these being friends of the bride1 the virgins1 her companions1 had come to meet the bridegroom1 ,psalm xlv1 #ad4 ,it is usual for the bridegroom to come at midnight2 so that1 literally1 at midnight the cry is made1 ,behold1 the bridegroom cometh6 go ye out to meet him10 ,matt4 xxv1 #f4 ,but1 on this occasion the bridegroom tarried3 it was two o'clock before he arrived4 ,the whole party then proceeded to the ,armenian church1 where the bishop was waiting to receive them2 and there the ceremony was completed4 ,see ,,divorce and ,,bride4 ,,martha was sister of ,lazarus and ,mary1 and mistress of the house where our ,saviour was entertained1 in the village of ,bethany4 ,martha is always named before ,mary1 probably because she was the elder sister4 ,,mary1 the mother of ,jesus1 and wife of ,joseph4 ,she is called by the ,jews the daughter of ,eli2 and by the early ,christian writers1 the daughter of ,joakim and ,anna3 but ,joakim and ,eliakim are sometimes interchanged1 #b ,chron4 xxxvi1 #d2 and ,eli1 or ,heli1 is therefore the abridgment of ,eliakim1 ,luke iii1 #bc4 ,she was of the royal race of ,david1 as was also ,joseph her husband2 and she was also cousin to ,elizabeth1 the wife of ,zacharias the priest1 ,luke i1 #e1 #cf4 ,mary being espoused to ,joseph1 the ,angel ,gabriel appeared to her1 to announce to her that she should be the mother of the ,messiah1 ,luke i1 #bf1 #bg1 c4 ,to confirm his message1 and to show that nothing is impossible to ,god1 he added that her cousin ,elizabeth1 who was old1 and had been hitherto barren1 was then in the sixth month of her pregnancy4 ,mary answered1 ,behold the handmaid of the ,lord1 be it unto me according to thy word20 and presently she conceived4 ,she set out for ,hebron1 a city in the mountains of ,judah1 to visit her cousin ,elizabeth4 ,as soon as ,elizabeth heard the voice of ,mary1 her child1 ,john the ,baptist1 leaped in her womb2 and she was filled with the ,holy ,ghost1 and spake with a loud voice1 saying1 ,blessed art thou among women10 c4 ,then ,mary praised ,god1 saying1 ,my soul doth magnify the ,lord1 and my spirit hath rejoiced in ,god my ,saviour10 c4 ,mary continued with ,elizabeth about three months1 and then returned to her own house4 ,an edict of ,csar ,augustus having decreed1 that all subjects of the empire should go to their own cities1 to register their names according to their families1 ,joseph and ,mary1 who were both of the lineage of ,david1 went to ,bethlehem1 from whence sprung their family4 ,but while they were here1 the time being fulfilled in which ,mary was to be delivered1 she brought forth her first-born son4 ,she wrapped him in swaddling clothes1 and laid him in the manger of the stable or cavern whither they had retired1 because there was no room in the inn4 ,angels made this event known to shepherds1 who were in the fields near ,bethlehem1 and these came in the night to ,joseph and ,mary1 and saw the child lying in the manger1 and paid him their adoration4 ,the presentation of ,christ in the temple1 the flight into ,egypt1 the slaughter of the innocents1 and other events connected with the birth and infancy of our ,lord1 are plainly related in the ,gospels4 ,mary and ,joseph went every year to ,jerusalem to the passover2 and when ,jesus was twelve years of age1 they took him with them4 ,when they were returning1 the youth continued at ,jerusalem1 without their perceiving it4 ,three days after1 they found him in the temple1 sitting among the doctors1 hearing them and asking them questions4 ,afterward1 he returned with them to ,nazareth1 and lived in filial submission to them4 ,but his mother laid up all these things in her heart1 ,luke ii1 #ea1 c4 ,the ,gospel speaks nothing more of the ,virgin ,mary till the marriage at ,cana of ,galilee1 at which she was present with her son ,jesus4 ,she was at ,jerusalem at the last passover our ,saviour celebrated there4 ,there she saw all that was transacted2 followed him to ,calvary2 and stood at the foot of his cross with an admirable constancy and courage4 ,jesus seeing his mother1 and his beloved disciple near1 he said to his mother1 ,woman1 behold thy son2 and to the disciple1 ,behold thy mother4 ,and from that hour the disciple took her home to his own house40 ,no farther particulars of this favoured woman are mentioned1 except that she was a witness of ,christ's resurrection4 ,a veil is drawn over her character and history2 as though with the design to reprove that wretched idolatry of which she was made the subject when ,christianity became corrupt and paganized4 #b4 ,,mary1 the mother of ,john ,mark1 a disciple of the ,apostles4 ,she had a house in ,jerusalem1 whither1 it is thought1 the ,apostles retired after the ascension of our ,lord1 and where they received the ,holy ,ghost4 ,after the imprisonment of ,st4 ,peter1 the faithful assembled in this house1 and were praying there when ,peter1 delivered by the ministry of an angel1 knocked at the door of the house1 ,acts xii1 #ab4 #c4 ,,mary1 of ,cleophas4 ,st4 ,jerom says1 she bore the name of ,cleophas1 either because of her father1 or for some other reason which cannot now be known4 ,others believe1 with greater probability1 that she was wife of ,cleophas1 as our version of the ,new ,testament makes her1 by supplying the word wife1 ,john xix1 #be1 and mother of ,james the less1 and of ,simon1 brethren of our ,lord4 ,these last mentioned authors take ,mary mother of ,james1 and ,mary wife of ,cleophas1 to be the same person1 ,matthew xxvii1 #ef2 ,mark xv1 #dj1 #da2 ,luke xxiv1 #aj2 ,john xix1 #be4 ,st4 ,john gives her the name of ,mary of ,cleophas2 and the other evangelists1 the name of ,mary1 mother of ,james4 ,cleophas and ,alpheus are the same person2 as ,james1 son of ,mary1 wife of ,cleophas1 is the same as ,james1 son of ,alpheus4 ,it is thought she was the sister of the ,virgin ,mary1 and that she was the mother of ,james the less1 of ,joses1 of ,simon1 and of ,judas1 who in the ,gospel are named the brethren of ,jesus ,christ1 ,matt4 xiii1 #ee2 xxvii1 #ef2 ,mark vi1 #c2 that is1 his cousin-germans4 ,she was an early believer in ,jesus ,christ1 and attended him on his journeys1 to minister to him4 ,she was present at the last passover1 and at the death of our ,saviour she followed him to ,calvary2 and during his passion she was with the mother of ,jesus at the foot of the cross4 ,she was also present at his burial2 and on the ,friday before had1 in union with others1 prepared the perfumes to embalm him1 ,luke xxiii1 #ef4 ,but going to his tomb very early on the ,sunday morning1 with other women1 they there learned from the mouth of an angel1 that he was risen2 of which they carried the news to the ,apostles1 ,luke xxiv1 #a-e2 ,matt4 xxviii1 #i4 ,by the way1 ,jesus appeared to them2 and they embraced his feet1 worshipping him4 ,this is all we know with certainty concerning ,mary1 the wife of ,cleophas4 #d4 ,,mary1 sister of ,lazarus1 who has been preposterously confounded with that female sinner spoken of1 ,luke vii1 #cg-ci4 ,she lived with her brother and her sister ,martha at ,bethany2 and ,jesus ,christ1 having a particular affection for this family1 often retired to their house with his disciples4 ,six days before the passover1 after having raised ,lazarus from the dead1 he came to ,bethany with his disciples1 and was invited to sup with ,simon the leper1 ,john xii1 #a1 c2 ,matthew xxvi1 #f1 c2 ,mark xiv1 #c1 c4 ,martha attended at the table1 and ,lazarus was one of the guests4 ,upon this occasion1 ,mary1 taking a pound of spikenard1 which is the most precious perfume of its kind1 poured it upon the head and feet of ,jesus4 ,she wiped his feet with her hair1 and the whole house was filled with the odour of the perfume4 ,judas ,iscariot murmured at this2 but ,jesus justified ,mary in what she had done1 saying1 that by this action she had prevented his embalmment1 and in a manner had declared his death and burial1 which were at hand4 ,from this period the ,scriptures make no mention of either ,mary or ,martha4 #e4 ,,mary ,,magdalene1 so called1 it is probable1 from ,magdala1 a town of ,galilee1 of which she was a native1 or where she had resided during the early part of her life4 ,out of her1 ,st4 ,luke tells us1 ,jesus had cast seven devils1 ,luke viii1 #b4 ,he informs us1 also1 in the same place1 that ,jesus1 in company with his ,apostles1 preached the ,gospel from city to city2 and that there were several women with them1 whom he had delivered from evil spirits1 and healed of their infirmities2 among whom was this ,mary1 whom some1 without a shadow of proof1 have supposed to be the sinful woman spoken of1 ,luke vii1 #cg-ci2 as others have as erroneously imagined her to be ,mary1 the sister of ,lazarus4 ,mary ,magdalene is mentioned by the evangelists as being one of those women that followed our ,saviour1 to minister to him1 according to the custom of the ,jews4 ,she attended him in the last journey he made from ,galilee to ,jerusalem1 and was at the foot of the cross with the holy virgin1 ,john xix1 #be2 ,mark xv1 #dg2 after which she returned to ,jerusalem1 to buy and prepare with others certain perfumes1 that she might embalm him after the ,sabbath was over1 which was then about to begin4 ,all the ,sabbath day she remained in the city2 and the next day1 early in the morning1 went to the sepulchre along with ,mary1 the mother of ,james1 and ,salome1 ,mark xvi1 #a1 #b2 ,luke xxiv1 #a1 #b4 ,for other particulars respecting her1 see also ,matt4 xxviii1 #a-e2 ,john xx1 #aa-ag4 ,in ,dr4 ,townley's ,essays1 there is one of considerable research on ,mary ,magdalene2 and his conclusion is1 that it is probable that the woman mentioned by ,st4 ,luke1 and called in the ,english translation a sinner10 had formerly been a ,heathen2 but whether subsequently a proselyte to ,judaism or not1 is uncertain2 and that1 having been brought to the knowledge of ,christian truth1 and having found mercy from the ,redeemer1 she pressed into ,simon's house1 and gave the strongest proofs of her gratitude and veneration by anointing the ,saviour's feet1 bedewing them with her tears1 and wiping them with the hairs of her head3--that by a wilful and malicious misrepresentation1 the ,jews confounded ,mary ,magdalene with ,mary the mother of ,jesus1 and represented her as an infamous character3--and that1 from the blasphemous calumny of the ,jews1 a stigma of infamy has been affixed to the name of ,mary ,magdalene1 and caused her to be regarded in the false light of a penitent prostitute4 ,there is no doubt but that ,mary ,magdalene1 both in character and circumstances1 was a woman of good reputation4 ,,maschil1 a title1 or inscription1 at the head of several psalms of ,david and others1 in the book of ,psalms4 ,thus ,psalm xxxii is inscribed1 ,a ,psalm of ,david1 ,maschil20 and ,psalm xlii1 ,to the chief musician1 ,maschil1 for the sons of ,korah40 ,the word ,maschil1 in the ,hebrew1 signifies1 he that instructs20 though some interpreters take it for the name of a musical instrument4 ,some of the rabbins believe that1 in repeating the psalms which have this inscription1 it was usual to add an interpretation or explication to them4 ,others1 on the contrary1 think it shows the clearness and perspicuity of such psalms1 and that they needed no particular explication4 ,the most probable opinion is1 that ,maschil means an instructive song4 ,,mass1 ,,missa1 in the church of ,rome1 the office of prayers used at the celebration of the eucharist2 or1 in other words1 the consecrating the bread and wine so that it is transubstantiated into the body and blood of ,christ1 and offer them as an expiatory sacrifice for the quick and the dead4 ,nicod1 after ,baronius1 observes that the word comes from the ,hebrew missach1 7oblatum17 or from the ,latin missa missorum2 because in former times the catechumens and excommunicated were sent out of the church1 when the deacons said1 ,ite1 missa est10 after sermon and reading of the epistle and ,gospel2 they not being allowed to assist at the consecration4 ,menage derives the word from missio1 dismissing20 others1 from missa1 sending20 because in the mass the prayers of men on earth are sent up to heaven4 ,as the mass is in general believed to be a representation of the passion of our blessed ,saviour1 so every action of the priest1 and every particular part of the service1 are supposed to allude to the particular circumstances of his passion and death4 ,the general division of masses is into high and low mass4 ,the first is that sung by the choristers1 and celebrated with the assistance of a deacon and sub-deacon3 low masses are those in which the prayers are barely rehearsed without singing4 ,there are a great number of different or occasional masses in the ,romish church1 many of which have nothing peculiar but the name4 ,such are the masses of the saints3 that of ,st4 ,mary of the ,snow1 celebrated on the fifth of ,august2 that of ,st4 ,margaret1 patroness of lying-in women2 that at the feast of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1 at which are said three masses2 that of the ,innocents1 at which the ,gloria in excelsis and ,hallelujah are omitted2 and1 it being a day of mourning1 the altar is of a violet colour4 ,as to ordinary masses1 some are said for the dead1 and1 as is supposed1 contribute to extricate the soul out of purgatory4 ,at these masses the altar is put in mourning1 and the only decorations are a cross in the middle of six yellow wax lights2 the dress of the celebrant1 and the very mass book1 are black2 many parts of the office are omitted1 and the people are dismissed without the benediction4 ,if the mass be said for a person distinguished by his rank or virtues1 it is followed with a funeral oration2 they erect a chapelle ardente1 that is1 a representation of the deceased1 with branches and tapers of yellow wax1 either in the middle of the church1 or near the deceased's tomb1 where the priest pronounces a solemn absolution of the deceased4 ,there are likewise private masses said for stolen or strayed goods or cattle1 for health1 for travellers1 c1 which go under the name of votive masses4 ,there is still a farther distinction of masses1 denominated from the countries in which they were used3 thus the ,gothic mass1 or missa mosarabum1 is that used among the ,goths when they were masters of ,spain1 and which is still observed at ,toledo and ,salamanca2 the ,ambrosian mass is that composed by ,st4 ,ambrose1 and used only at ,milan1 of which city he was bishop2 the ,gallic mass1 used by the ancient ,gauls2 and the ,roman mass1 used by almost all the churches in the ,roman communion4 ,,materialism1 the doctrine which resolves the thinking principle in man1 or the immaterial and immortal soul with which ,god was pleased to endue ,adam at his creation1 into mere matter1 or into a faculty resulting from its organization4 ,much has been written of late years against this doctrine1 and the different modifications which it has assumed2 but in substance nothing new has been said on either side2 and the able and condensed argument of ,wollaston in his ,religion of ,nature ,delineated10 if well considered1 will furnish every one with a most clear and satisfactory refutation of this antiscriptural and irrational error3--,the soul cannot be mere matter3 for if it is1 then either all matter must think2 or the difference must arise from the different modification1 magnitude1 figure1 or motion of some parcels of matter in respect of others2 or a faculty of thinking must be superadded to some systems of it1 which is not superadded to others4 ,but in the first place1 that position1 which makes all matter to be cogitative1 is contrary to all the apprehensions and knowledge we have of the nature of it2 nor can it be true1 unless our senses and faculties be contrived only to deceive us4 ,we perceive not the least symptom of cogitation or sense in our tables1 chairs1 c4 ,why doth the scene of thinking lie in our heads1 and all the ministers of sensation make their reports to something there1 if all matter be apprehensive and cogitative8 ,for in that case there would be as much thought and understanding in our heels1 and every where else1 as in our heads4 ,if all matter be cogitative1 then it must be so quatenus so far forth as matter1 and thinking must be of the essence and definition of it2 whereas by matter no more is meant than a substance extended and impenetrable to other matter4 ,and since1 for this reason1 it cannot be necessary for matter to think1 7because it may be matter without this property17 it cannot think as matter only2 if it did1 we should not only continue to think always1 till the matter of which we consist is annihilated1 and so the asserter of this doctrine would stumble upon immortality unawares2 but we must also have thought always in time past1 ever since that matter was in being2 nor could there be any the least intermission of actual thinking2 which does not appear to be our case4 ,if thinking1 self-consciousness1 c1 were essential to matter1 every part of it must have them2 and then no system could have them4 ,for a system of material parts would be a system of things conscious1 every one by itself of its own existence and individuality1 and1 consequently1 thinking by itself2 but there could be no one act of self-consciousness or thought common to the whole4 ,juxtaposition1 in this case1 could signify nothing2 the distinction and individuation of the several particles would be as much retained in their vicinity1 as if they were separated by miles4 ,in the next place1 the faculties of thinking1 c1 cannot arise from the size1 figure1 texture1 or motion of it2 because bodies by the alteration of these only become greater or less1 round or square1 c1 rare or dense1 translated from one place to another with this or that new direction or velocity1 or the like2 all which ideas are quite different from that of thinking2 there can be no relation between them4 ,these modifications and affections of matter are so far from being principles or causes of thinking and acting1 that they are themselves but effects1 proceeding from the action of some other matter or thing upon it1 and are proofs of its passivity1 deadness and utter incapacity of becoming cogitative3 this is evident to sense4 ,they who place the essence of the soul in a certain motion given to some matter1 7if any such men there really be17 should consider1 among many other things1 that to move the body spontaneously1 is one of the faculties of the soul2 and that this1 which is the same with the power of beginning motion1 cannot come from motion already begun1 and impressed ab extra4 ,let the materialist examine well1 whether he does not feel something within himself that acts from an internal principle2 whether he does not experience some liberty1 some power of governing himself1 and choosing2 whether he does not enjoy a kind of invisible empire in which he commands his own thoughts1 sends them to this or that place1 employs them about this or that business1 forms such and such designs and schemes2 and whether there is any thing like this in bare matter1 however fashioned or proportioned2 which1 if nothing should protrude or communicate motion to it1 would for ever remain fixed to the place where it happens to be1 an eternal monument of its own being dead4 ,can such an active being as the soul is1 the subject of so many powers1 be itself nothing but an accident8 ,when ,i begin to move myself1 ,i do it for some reason1 and with respect to some end1 the means to effect which ,i have1 if there be occasion for it1 concerted within myself2 and this does not at all look like motion merely material1 or in which matter is only concerned1 which is all mechanical4 ,who can imagine matter to be moved by arguments1 or ever placed syllogisms and demonstrations among levers and pullies8 ,we not only move ourselves upon reasons which we find in ourselves1 but upon reasons imparted by words or writings from others1 or perhaps merely at their desire or bare suggestion3 in which case1 again1 nobody surely can imagine that the words spoken or written1 the sound in the air1 or the strokes on the paper1 can1 by any natural or mechanical efficience1 cause the reader or hearer to move in any determinate manner1 or at all4 ,the reason1 request1 or friendly admonition1 which is the true motive1 can make no impression upon matter4 ,it must be some other kind of being that apprehends the force and sense of them4 ,do not we see in conversation1 how a pleasant thing said makes people break out into laughter1 a rude thing into passion1 and so on8 ,these affections cannot be the physical effects of the words spoken2 because then they would have the same effect1 whether they were understood or not4 ,and this is farther demonstrable from hence1 that though the words do really contain nothing which is either pleasant or rude1 or perhaps words are thought to be spoken which are not spoken2 yet if they are apprehended to do that1 or the sound to be otherwise than it was1 the effect will be the same4 ,it is therefore the sense of the words1 which is an immaterial thing1 that by passing through the understanding1 and causing that which is the subject of the intellectual faculties to influence the body1 produces these motions in the spirits1 blood1 and muscles4 ,they who can fancy that matter may come to live1 think1 and act spontaneously1 by being reduced to a certain magnitude1 or having its parts placed after a certain manner1 or being invested with such a figure1 or excited by such a particular motion2 they1 ,i say1 would do well to discover to us that degree of fineness1 that alteration in the situation of its parts1 c1 at which matter may begin to find itself alive and cogitative2 and which is the critical minute1 that introduces these important properties4 ,if they cannot do this1 nor have their eye upon any particular crisis1 it is a sign that they have no good reason for what they say4 ,for if they have no reason to charge this change upon any particular degree or difference1 one more than another1 they have no reason to charge it upon any degree or difference at all2 and then they have no reason by which they can prove that such a change is made at all4 ,beside all which1 since magnitude1 figure1 and motion are but accidents of matter1 not matter1 and only the substance is truly matter2 and since the substance of any one part of matter does not differ from that of another1 if any matter can be by nature cogitative1 all must be so3 but this we have seen cannot be4 ,so then1 in conclusion1 if there is any such thing as matter that thinks1 c1 this must be a particular privilege granted to it2 that is1 a faculty of thinking must be superadded to certain parts or parcels of it2 which1 by the way1 must infer the existence of some being able to confer this faculty2 who1 when the ineptness of matter has been well considered1 cannot appear to be less than omnipotent1 or ,god4 ,but the truth is1 matter seems not to be capable of such improvement1 of being made to think4 ,for since it is not the essence of matter1 it cannot be made to be so without making matter another kind of substance from what it is4 ,nor can it be made to arise from any of the modifications or accidents of matter2 and in respect of what else can any matter be made to differ from other matter4 ,the accidents of matter are so far from being made by any power to produce cogitation1 that some even of them show it incapable of having a faculty of thinking superadded4 ,the very divisibility of it does this4 ,for that which is made to think must either be one part1 or more parts joined together4 ,but we know no such thing as a part of matter purely one1 or indivisible4 ,it may1 indeed1 have pleased the ,author of nature1 that there should be atoms1 whose parts are actually indiscerptible1 and which may be the principles of other bodies2 but still they consist of parts1 though firmly adhering together4 ,and if the seat of cogitation be in more parts than one1 whether they lie close together1 or are loose1 or in a state of fluidity1 it is the same thing1 how can it be avoided1 but that either there must be so many several minds1 or thinking substances1 as there are parts1 and then the consequence which has been mentioned would return upon us again2 or else that there must be something else superadded for them to centre in1 to unite their acts1 and make their thoughts to be one8 ,and then what can this be but some other substance1 which is purely one8 ,matter by itself can never entertain abstracted and general ideas1 such as many in our minds are4 ,for could it reflect upon what passes within itself1 it could possibly find there nothing but material and particular impressions2 abstractions and metaphysical ideas could not be printed upon it4 ,how could one abstract from matter who is himself nothing but matter8 ,if the soul were mere matter1 external visible objects could only be perceived within us according to the impressions they make upon matter1 and not otherwise4 ,for instance3 the image of a cube in my mind1 or my idea of a cube1 must be always under some particular prospect1 and conform to the rules of perspective2 nor could ,i otherwise represent it to myself2 whereas now ,i can form an idea of it as it is in itself1 and almost view all its hedr at once1 as it were encompassing it with my mind4 ,i can within myself correct the external appearances and impressions of objects1 and advance1 upon the reports and hints received by my senses1 to form ideas of things that are not extant in matter4 ,by seeing a material circle ,i may learn to form the idea of a circle1 or figure generated by the revolution of a ray about its centre2 but then1 recollecting what ,i know of matter upon other occasions1 ,i can conclude there is no exact material circle4 ,so that ,i have an idea1 which perhaps was raised from the hints ,i received from without1 but is not truly to be found there4 ,if ,i see a tower at a great distance1 which1 according to the impressions made upon my material organs1 seems little and round1 ,i do not therefore conclude it to be either2 there is something within that reasons upon the circumstances of the appearance1 and as it were commands my sense1 and corrects the impression2 and this must be something superior to matter1 since a material soul is no otherwise impressible itself but as material organs are3 instances of this kind are endless4 ,if we know any thing of matter1 we know that by itself it is a lifeless thing1 inert and passive only2 and acts necessarily1 or rather is acted1 according to the laws of motion and gravitation4 ,this passiveness seems to be essential to it4 ,and if we know any thing of ourselves1 we know that we are conscious of our own existence and acts1 that is1 that we live2 that we have a degree of freedom2 that we can move ourselves spontaneously2 and1 in short1 that we can1 in many instances1 take off the effect of gravitation1 and impress new motions upon our spirits1 or give them new directions1 only by a thought4 ,therefore1 to make mere matter do all this is to change the nature of it2 to change death into life1 incapacity of thinking into cogitativity1 necessity into liberty4 ,and to say that ,god may superadd a faculty of thinking1 moving itself1 c1 to matter1 if by this be meant1 that he may make matter to be the suppositum of these faculties1 that substance in which they inhere1 is the same in effect as to say1 that ,god may superadd a faculty of thinking to incogitativity1 of acting freely to necessity1 and so on4 ,what sense is there in this8 ,and yet so it must be1 while matter continues to be matter4 ,that faculty of thinking1 so much talked of by some as superadded to certain systems of matter1 fitly disposed1 by virtue of ,god's omnipotence1 though it be so called1 must in reality amount to the same thing as another substance with the faculty of thinking4 ,for a faculty of thinking alone will not make up the idea of a human soul1 which is endued with many faculties2 apprehending1 reflecting1 comparing1 judging1 making deductions and reasoning1 willing1 putting the body in motion1 continuing the animal functions by its presence1 and giving life2 and therefore1 whatever it is that is superadded1 it must be something which is endued with all those other faculties4 ,and whether that can be a faculty of thinking1 and so these other faculties be only faculties of a faculty1 or whether they must not all be rather the faculties of some substance1 which1 being by their own concession1 superadded to matter1 must be different from it1 we leave the unprejudiced to determine4 ,if men would but seriously look into themselves1 the soul would not appear to them as a faculty of the body1 or a kind of appurtenance to it1 but rather as some substance1 properly placed in it1 not only to use it as an instrument1 and act by it1 but also to govern it1 or the parts of it1 as the tongue1 hands1 feet1 c1 according to its own reason4 ,for ,i think it is plain enough1 that the mind1 though it acts under great limitations1 doth1 however1 in many instances govern the body arbitrarily2 and it is monstrous to suppose this governor to be nothing but some fit disposition or accident1 superadded1 of that matter which is governed4 ,a ship1 it is true1 would not be fit for navigation1 if it was not built and provided in a proper manner2 but then1 when it has its proper form1 and is become a system of materials fitly disposed1 it is not this disposition that governs it3 it is the man1 that other substance1 who sits at the helm1 and they who manage the sails and tackle1 that do this4 ,so our vessels without a proper organization and conformity of parts would not be capable of being acted as they are2 but still it is not the shape1 or modification1 or any other accident1 that can govern them4 ,the capacity of being governed or used can never be the governor1 applying and using that capacity4 ,no1 there must be at the helm something distinct1 that commands the body1 and without which the vessel would run adrift or rather sink4 ,for the foregoing reasons it is plain1 that matter cannot think1 cannot be made to think4 ,but if a faculty of thinking can be superadded to a system of matter1 without uniting an immaterial substance to it2 yet a human body is not such a system1 being plainly void of thought1 and organized in such a manner as to transmit the impressions of sensible objects up to the brain1 where the percipient1 and that which reflects upon them1 certainly resides2 and therefore that which there apprehends1 thinks1 and wills1 must be that system of matter to which a faculty of thinking is superadded4 ,all the premises then well considered1 judge whether1 instead of saying that this inhabitant of our heads 7the soul7 is a system of matter to which a faculty of thinking is superadded1 it might not be more reasonable to say1 it is a thinking substance intimately united to some fine material vehicle1 which has its residence in the brain4 ,though ,i understand not perfectly the manner how a cogitative and spiritual substance can be thus closely united to such a material vehicle1 yet ,i can understand this union as well as how it can be united to the body in general1 perhaps as how the particles of the body itself cohere together1 and much better than how a thinking faculty can be superadded to matter2 and beside1 several phenomena may more easily be solved by this hypothesis2 which1 in short1 is this1 that the human soul is a cogitative substance united to a material vehicle2 that these act in conjunction1 that which affects the one affecting the other2 that the soul is detained in the body till the habitation is spoiled1 and their mutual tendency interrupted1 by some hurt or disease1 or by the decays and ruins of old age1 or the like4 ,but many a man1 says ,mr4 ,rennell1 has maintained1 that the brain has the power of thought1 from the conclusions which his own experience1 and1 perhaps1 his extended knowledge of the human frame1 have enabled him to draw4 ,he has observed the action of the brain1 has watched the progress of its diseases1 and has seen the close connection which exists between many of its afflictions1 and the power of thought4 ,but in this1 as in most other cases1 partial knowledge leads him to a more mistaken view of the matter than total ignorance4 ,satisfied with the correctness of his observations1 he hastily proceeds to form his opinion1 forgetting that it is not on the truth only1 but on the whole truth1 that he should rest his decision4 ,by an accidental blow1 the scull is beaten in1 the brain is pressed upon1 and the patient lies without sense or feeling4 ,no sooner is the pressure removed than the power of thought immediately returns4 ,it is known1 again1 that the phenomena of fainting arise from a temporary deficiency of blood in the brain2 the vessels collapse1 and the loss of sense immediately ensues4 ,restore the circulation1 and the sense is as instantly recovered4 ,on the contrary1 when the circulation in the brain is too rapid1 and inflammation of the organ succeeds1 we find that delirium1 frenzy1 and other disorders of the mind arise in proportion to the inflammatory action1 by which they are apparently produced4 ,it is observed1 also1 that when the stomach is disordered by an excess of wine1 or of ardent spirits1 the brain is also affected through the strong sympathies of the nervous system1 the intellect is disordered1 and the man has no longer a rational command over himself or his actions4 ,from these1 and other circumstances of a similar nature1 it is concluded1 that thought is a quality or function of the brain1 that it is inseparable from the organ in which it resides1 and as ,mr4 ,lawrence1 after the ,french physiologists1 represents it1 that medullary matter thinks40 ,now it must certainly be inferred from all these circumstances1 that there is a close connection between the power of thinking and the brain2 but it by no means follows1 that they are1 therefore1 one and the same4 ,allowing1 however1 for a moment1 the justice of the inference1 from the premises which have been stated1 we must remember1 that we have not as yet taken in all the circumstances of the case4 ,we have watched the body rather than the mind1 and that only in a diseased state2 and from this partial and imperfect view of the subject1 our conclusions have been deduced4 ,let us take a healthy man in a sound sleep4 ,he lies without sense or feeling1 yet no part of his frame is diseased1 nor is a single power of his life of vegetation suspended4 ,all within his body is as active as ever4 ,the blood circulates as regularly1 and1 almost as rapidly1 in the sleeping as in the waking subject4 ,digestion1 secretion1 nutrition1 and all the functions of the life of vegetation proceed1 and yet the understanding is absent4 ,sleep1 therefore1 is an affection of the mind1 rather than of the body2 and the refreshment which the latter receives from it1 is from the suspension of its active and agitating principle4 ,now if thought was identified with the brain1 when the former was suspended1 the latter would undergo a proportionate change4 ,memory1 imagination1 perception1 and all the stupendous powers of the human intellect are absent2 and yet the brain is precisely the same1 the same in every particle of matter1 the same in every animal function4 ,of not a single organ is the action suspended4 ,when1 again1 the man awakens1 and his senses return1 no change is produced by the recovery2 the brain1 the organs of sense1 and all the material parts of his frame remain precisely in the same condition4 ,dreaming may perhaps be adduced as an exception to this statement4 ,but it is first to be remarked1 that this affection is by no means general4 ,there are thousands who never dream at all1 and thousands who dream only occasionally4 ,dreaming therefore1 even though it were to be allowed as an exception1 could not be admitted to invalidate the rule4 ,and if there be a circumstance1 which to any philosophic mind will clearly intimate the independency of thought upon matter1 it is the phenomenon of dreaming4 ,perception1 that faculty of the soul which unites it with the external world1 is then suspended1 and the avenues of sense are closed4 ,all communication with outward objects being thus removed1 the soul is transported1 as it were1 into a world of its own creation4 ,there appears to be an activity in the motions1 and a perfection in the faculties1 of the mind1 when disengaged from the body1 and disencumbered of its material organs4 ,the slumber of its external perception seems to be but the awakening of every other power4 ,the memory is far more keen1 the fancy far more vivid1 in the dreaming than in the waking man4 ,ideas rise in rapid succession1 and are varied in endless combination2 so that the judgment1 which1 next to the perception1 depends most upon external objects1 is unable to follow the imagination in all its wild and unwearied flights4 ,a better notion of the separate and independent existence of the soul cannot be formed1 than that which we derive from our observations on the phenomena of dreaming4 ,again3 when the mind is anxiously engaged in any train of thought1 whether in company or alone1 it frequently neglects the impressions made upon the external organs4 ,when a man is deeply immersed in meditation1 or eagerly engaged in a discussion1 he often neither hears a third person when he speaks1 nor observes what he does1 nor even when gently touched does he feel the pressure4 ,yet there is no defect either in the ear1 the eye1 or the nervous system2 the brain is not disordered1 for if his mind were not so fully occupied1 he would perceive every one of those impressions which he now neglects4 ,in this case1 therefore1 as in sleep1 the independence of mind upon the external organ is clearly shown4 ,but let us take the matter in another point of view4 ,we have observed the action of the brain upon thought1 and have seen that when the former is unnaturally compressed1 the latter is immediately disordered or lost4 ,let us now turn our attention to the action of thought upon the brain4 ,a letter is brought to a man containing some afflicting intelligence4 ,he casts his eye upon its contents1 and drops down without sense or motion4 ,what is the cause of this sudden affection8 ,it may be said that the vessels have collapsed1 that the brain is consequently disordered1 and that loss of sense is the natural consequence4 ,but let us take one step backward1 and inquire what is the cause of the disorder itself1 the effects of which are thus visible4 ,it is produced by a sheet of white paper distinguished by a few black marks4 ,but no one would be absurd enough to suppose1 that it was the effect of the paper alone1 or of the characters inscribed upon it1 unless those characters conveyed some meaning to the understanding4 ,it is thought then which so suddenly agitates and disturbs the brain1 and makes its vessels to collapse4 ,from this circumstance alone we discover the amazing influence of thought upon the external organ2 of that thought which we can neither hear1 nor see1 nor touch1 which yet produces an affection of the brain fully equal to a blow1 a pressure1 or any other sensible injury4 ,now this very action of thought upon the brain clearly shows that the brain does not produce it1 while the mutual influence which they possess over each other1 as clearly shows that there is a strong connection between them4 ,but it is carefully to be remembered1 that connection is not identity4 ,while we acknowledge then1 on the one side1 the mutual connection of the understanding and the brain1 we must acknowledge1 on the other1 their mutual independence4 ,the phenomena which we daily observe lead us of necessity to the recognition of these two important principles4 ,if then from the observations which we are enabled to make on the phenomena of the understanding and of the brain1 we are led to infer mutual independence1 we shall find our conclusions still farther strengthened by a consideration of the substance and composition of the latter4 ,not only is the brain a material substance1 endowed with all those properties of matter which we have before shown to be inconsistent with thought1 but it is a substance1 which1 in common with the rest of our body1 is undergoing a perpetual change4 ,indeed experiments and observations give us abundant reason for concluding that the brain undergoes within itself precisely the same change with the remainder of the body4 ,a man will fall down in a fit of apoplexy1 and be recovered2 in a few years he will be attacked by another1 which will prove fatal4 ,upon dissection it will be found that there is a cavity formed by the blood effused from the ruptured vessel1 and that a certain action had been going on1 which gradually absorbed the coagulated blood4 ,if then an absorbent system exists in the brain1 and the organ thereby undergoes1 in the course of a certain time1 a total change1 it is impossible that this flux and variable substance can be endowed with consciousness or thought4 ,if the particles of the brain1 either separately or in a mass1 were capable of consciousness1 then after their removal the consciousness which they produced must for ever cease4 ,the consequence of which would be1 that personal identity must be destroyed1 and that no man could be the same individual being that he was ten years ago4 ,but our common sense informs us1 that as far as our understanding and our moral responsibility are involved1 we are the same individual beings that we ever were4 ,if the body alone1 or any substance subject to the laws of body1 were concerned1 personal identity might reasonably be doubted3 but it is something beyond the brain that makes the man at every period of his life the same3 it is consciousness1 that1 amidst the perpetual change of our material particles1 unites every link of successive being in one indissoluble chain4 ,the body may be gradually changed1 and yet by the deposition of new particles1 similar to those which absorption has removed1 it may preserve the appearance of identity4 ,but in consciousness there is real1 not an apparent1 individuality1 admitting of no change or substitution4 ,so inconsistent with reason is every attempt which has been made to reduce our thoughts to a material origin1 and to identify our understanding with any part of our corporeal frame6 ,the more carefully we observe the operation1 both of the mind and of the brain1 the more clearly we shall distinguish1 and the more forcibly shall we feel1 the independence of the one upon the other4 ,we know that the brain is the organ or instrument by which the mind operates on matter1 and we know that the brain again is the chain of communication between the mind and the material world4 ,that certain disorders therefore in the chain should either prevent or disturb this communication is reasonably to be expected2 but nothing more is proved from thence than we knew before1 namely1 that the link is imperfect4 ,and when that link is again restored1 the mind declares its identity1 by its memory of things which preceded the injury or the disease2 and where the recovery is rapid1 the patient awakes as it were from a disturbed dream4 ,how indeed the brain and the thinking principle are connected1 and in what manner they mutually affect each other1 is beyond the reach of our faculties to discover4 ,we must1 for the present1 be contented with our ignorance of the cause1 while from the effects we are persuaded both of their connection on the one hand1 and of their independence on the other4 ,,matthew1 called also ,levi1 was the son of ,alpheus1 but probably not of that ,alpheus who was the father of the ,apostle ,james the less4 ,he was a native of ,galilee2 but it is not known in what city of that country he was born1 or to what tribe of the people of ,israel he belonged4 ,though a ,jew1 he was a publican or tax-gatherer under the ,romans2 and his office seems to have consisted in collecting the customs due upon commodities which were carried1 and from persons who passed1 over the lake of ,gennesareth4 ,our ,saviour commanded him1 as he was sitting at the place where he received these customs1 to follow him4 ,he immediately obeyed2 and from that time he became a constant attendant upon our ,saviour1 and was appointed one of the twelve ,apostles4 ,st4 ,matthew1 soon after his call1 made an entertainment at his house1 at which were present ,christ and some of his disciples1 and also several publicans4 ,after the ascension of our ,saviour1 he continued1 with the other ,apostles1 to preach the ,gospel for some time in ,judea2 but as there is no farther account of him in any writer of the first four centuries1 we must consider it as uncertain into what country he afterward went1 and likewise in what manner and at what time he died4 ,in the few writings which remain of the apostolical fathers1 ,barnabas1 ,clement of ,rome1 ,hermas1 ,ignatius1 and ,polycarp1 there are manifest allusions to several passages in ,st4 ,matthew's ,gospel2 but the ,gospel itself is not mentioned in any one of them4 ,papias1 the companion of ,polycarp1 is the earliest author on record who has expressly named ,st4 ,matthew as the writer of a ,gospel2 and we are indebted to ,eusebius for transmitting to us this valuable testimony4 ,the work itself of ,papias is lost2 but the quotation in ,eusebius is such as to convince us that in the time of ,papias no doubt was entertained of the genuineness of ,st4 ,matthew's ,gospel4 ,this ,gospel is repeatedly quoted by ,justin ,martyr1 but without mentioning the name of ,st4 ,matthew4 ,it is both frequently quoted1 and ,st4 ,matthew mentioned as its author1 by ,irenus1 ,origen1 ,athanasius1 ,cyril1 ,epiphanius1 ,jerom1 ,chrysostom1 and a long train of subsequent writers4 ,it was1 indeed1 universally received by the ,christian church2 and we do not find that its genuineness was controverted by any early profane writer4 ,we may therefore conclude1 upon the concurrent testimony of antiquity1 that this ,gospel is rightly ascribed to ,st4 ,matthew4 ,it is generally agreed1 upon the most satisfactory evidence1 that ,st4 ,matthew's ,gospel was the first which was written2 but though this is asserted by many ancient authors1 none of them1 except ,irenus and ,eusebius1 have said any thing concerning the exact time at which it was written4 ,the only passage in which the former of these fathers mentions this subject1 is so obscure1 that no positive conclusion can be drawn from it2 ,dr4 ,lardner1 and ,dr4 ,townson1 understand it in very different senses2 and ,eusebius1 who lived a hundred and fifty years after ,irenus1 barely says1 that ,matthew wrote his ,gospel just before he left ,judea to preach the religion of ,christ in other countries2 but when that was1 neither he nor any other ancient author informs us with certainty4 ,the impossibility of settling this point upon ancient authority has given rise to a variety of opinions among moderns4 ,of the several dates assigned to this ,gospel1 which deserve any attention1 the earliest is ,a4,d4 #ch1 and the latest1 ,a4,d4 #fd4 ,it appears very improbable that the ,christians should be left any considerable number of years without a written history of our ,saviour's ministry4 ,it is certain that the ,apostles1 immediately after the descent of the ,holy ,ghost1 which took place only ten days after the ascension of our ,saviour into heaven1 preached the ,gospel to the ,jews with great success2 and surely it is reasonable to suppose1 that an authentic account of our ,saviour's doctrines and miracles would very soon be committed to writing1 for the confirmation of those who believed in his divine mission1 and for the conversion of others2 and1 more particularly1 to enable the ,jews to compare the circumstances of the birth1 death1 and resurrection of ,jesus with their ancient prophecies relative to the ,messiah2 and we may conceive that the ,apostles would be desirous of losing no time in writing an account of the miracles which ,jesus performed1 and of the discourses which he delivered1 because the sooner such an account was published1 the easier it would be to inquire into its truth and accuracy2 and1 consequently1 when these points were satisfactorily ascertained1 the greater would be its weight and authority4 ,we must own that these arguments are so strong in favour of an early publication of some history of our ,saviour's ministry1 that we cannot but accede to the opinion of ,jones1 ,wetstein1 and ,dr4 ,owen1 that ,st4 ,matthew's ,gospel was written ,a4,d4 #ch4 ,there has also of late been great difference of opinion concerning the language in which this ,gospel was originally written4 ,among the ancient fathers1 ,papias1 as quoted by ,eusebius1 ,irenus1 ,origen1 ,cyril1 ,epiphanius1 ,chrysostom1 and ,jerom1 positively assert that it was written by ,st4 ,matthew in ,hebrew1 that is1 in the language then spoken in ,palestine2 and indeed ,dr4 ,campbell says1 that this point was not controverted by any author for fourteen hundred years4 ,erasmus was one of the first who contended that the present ,greek is the original2 and he has been followed by ,le ,clerc1 ,wetstein1 ,basnage1 ,whitby1 ,jortin1 ,hug1 and many other learned men4 ,on the other hand1 ,grotius1 ,du ,pin1 ,simon1 ,walton1 ,cave1 ,hammond1 ,mill1 ,michalis1 ,owen1 and ,campbell have supported the opinion of the ancients4 ,in a question of this sort1 which is a question of fact1 the concurrent voice of antiquity is decisive4 ,though the fathers are unanimous in declaring that ,st4 ,matthew wrote his ,gospel in ,hebrew1 yet they have not informed us by whom it was translated into ,greek4 ,no writer of the first three centuries makes any mention whatever of the translator2 nor does ,eusebius3 and ,jerom tells us1 that in his time it was not known who was the translator4 ,it is1 however1 universally allowed1 that the ,greek translation was made very early1 and that it was more used than the original4 ,this last circumstance is easily accounted for4 ,after the destruction of ,jerusalem1 the language of the ,jews1 and every thing which belonged to them1 fell into great contempt2 and the early fathers1 writing in ,greek1 would naturally quote and refer to the ,greek copy of ,st4 ,matthew's ,gospel1 in the same manner as they constantly used the ,septuagint version of the ,old ,testament4 ,there being no longer any country in which the language of ,st4 ,matthew's original ,gospel was commonly spoken1 that original would soon be forgotten2 and the translation into ,greek1 the language then generally understood1 would be substituted in its room4 ,this early and exclusive use of the ,greek translation is a strong proof of its correctness1 and leaves us but little reason to lament the loss of the original4 ,as the sacred writers10 says ,dr4 ,campbell1 8especially the evangelists1 have many qualities in common1 so there is something in every one of them1 which1 if attended to1 will be found to distinguish him from the rest4 ,that which principally distinguishes ,st4 ,matthew1 is the distinctness and particularity with which he has related many of our ,lord's discourses and moral instructions4 ,of these1 his sermon on the mount1 his charge to the ,apostles1 his illustrations of the nature of his kingdom1 and his prophecy on ,mount ,olivet1 are examples4 ,he has also wonderfully united simplicity and energy in relating the replies of his ,master to the cavils of his adversaries4 ,being early called to the apostleship1 he was an eye-witness and ear-witness of most of the things which he relates2 and though ,i do not think it was the scope of any of these historians to adjust their narratives to the precise order of time wherein the events happened1 there are some circumstances which incline me to think1 that ,st4 ,matthew has approached at least as near that order as any of them40 ,and this1 we may observe1 would naturally be the distinguishing characteristic of a narrative1 written very soon after the events had taken place4 ,the most remarkable things recorded in ,st4 ,matthew's ,gospel1 and not found in any other1 are the following3 the visit of the eastern magi2 our ,saviour's flight into ,egypt2 the slaughter of the infants at ,bethlehem2 the parable of the ten virgins2 the dream of ,pilate's wife2 the resurrection of many saints at our ,saviour's crucifixion2 and the bribing of the ,roman guard appointed to watch at the holy sepulchre by the chief priests and elders4 ,,matthias the ,apostle was first in the rank of our ,saviour's disciples1 and one of those who continued with him from his baptism to his ascension1 ,acts i1 #ba1 #bb4 ,it is very probable he was of the number of the seventy1 as ,clemens ,alexandrinus and other ancients inform us4 ,we have no particulars of his youth or education1 for we may reckon as nothing what is read in ,abdias1 or ,obadiah1 concerning this matter4 ,after the ascension of our ,lord1 the ,apostles retiring to ,jerusalem in expectation of the effusion of the ,holy ,ghost1 as had been promised1 ,peter proposed to fill up the place of ,judas3 to this the disciples agreed4 ,they then presented two persons1 ,joseph ,barsabas1 surnamed ,justus1 and ,matthias4 ,the lot falling on ,matthias1 he was from that time associated with the eleven ,apostles4 ,the ,greeks believe that ,matthias preached and died at ,colchis4 ,,measure1 that by which any thing is measured1 or adjusted1 or proportioned1 ,prov4 xx1 #aj2 ,micah vi1 #aj4 ,tables of ,scripture measures of length and capacity are found at the end of this volume4 ,,meats4 ,the ,hebrews had several kinds of animals which they refused to eat4 ,among domestic animals they only ate the cow1 the sheep1 and the goat2 the hen and pigeon1 among domestic birds2 beside several kinds of wild animals4 ,to eat the flesh with the blood was forbidden them1 much more to eat the blood without the flesh4 ,we may form a judgment of their taste by what the ,scripture mentions of ,solomon's table1 #a ,kings iv1 #bb1 #bc4 ,thirty measures of the finest wheat flour were provided for it every day1 and twice as much of the ordinary sort2 twenty stall-fed oxen1 twenty pasture oxen1 a hundred sheep1 beside the venison of deer and roebucks1 and wild fowls4 ,it does not appear that the ancient ,hebrews were very nice about the seasoning and dressing of their food4 ,we find among them roast meat1 boiled meat1 and ragouts4 ,they roasted the paschal lamb4 ,at the first settling of the ,christian church1 very great disputes arose concerning the use of meats offered to idols4 ,some newly converted ,christians1 convinced that an idol was nothing1 and that the distinction of clean and unclean creatures was abolished by our ,saviour1 ate indifferently of whatever was served up to them1 even among ,pagans1 without inquiring whether these meats had been first offered to idols4 ,they took the same liberty in buying meat sold in the markets1 not regarding whether it was pure or impure according to the ,jews1 or whether it was that which had been offered to idols4 ,but other ,christians1 weaker or less instructed1 were offended at this liberty2 and thought to eat of meat that had been once offered to idols1 was a kind of partaking of that wicked and sacrilegious offering4 ,this diversity in opinion produced some scandal1 to which ,st4 ,paul thought it behoved him to provide a suitable remedy1 ,rom4 xiv1 #bj2 ,titus i1 #ae4 ,he determined1 therefore1 that all things were clean to such as were clean1 and that an idol was nothing at all2 that a man might safely eat of whatever was sold in the shambles1 and though it might be a part of what had been previously offered in the temple1 and there exposed to sale1 he need not scrupulously inquire whence it came2 that if an unbeliever should invite a believer to eat with him1 the believer might eat of whatever was set before him1 c1 #a ,cor4 x1 #be-bg4 ,but at the same time he enjoins1 that the law of charity and prudence should be observed2 that men should be cautious of scandalizing or offending weak minds2 that though all things may be lawful1 yet all things are not always expedient2 that no one ought to seek his own accommodation or satisfaction1 but that of his neighbour2 that if any one should say to us1 ,this has been offered to idols10 we may not then eat of it1 for the sake of him who gives the information2 not so much for fear of wounding our own conscience1 but his2 in a word1 that he who is weak1 and thinks he may not indifferently use all sorts of food1 should forbear1 and eat herbs1 rather than offend a brother1 ,rom4 xiv1 #a1 #b4 ,yet it is certain1 that generally ,christians abstained from eating meat that had been offered to idols4 ,,media4 ,it has been commonly thought that ,media was peopled by the descendants of ,madai1 son of ,japheth1 ,gen4 x1 #b4 ,the ,greeks maintain that this country took its name from ,medus1 the son of ,medea4 ,if1 however1 ,madai and his immediate descendants did not people this country1 some of his posterity might have carried his name thither1 since we find it so often given to ,media1 from the times of the ,prophets ,isaiah and ,jeremiah1 and from the transportation of the ten tribes1 and the destruction of ,samaria under ,salmaneser1 ,a4 ,m4 #cbhc4 ,media ,proper was bounded by ,armenia and ,assyria ,proper on the west1 by ,persia on the east1 by the ,caspian provinces on the north1 and by ,susiana on the south4 ,it was an elevated and mountainous country1 and formed a kind of pass between the cultivated parts of eastern and western ,asia4 ,hence1 from its geographical position1 and from the temperature1 verdure1 and fertility of its climate1 ,media was one of the most important and interesting regions of ,asia4 ,into this country the ten tribes who composed the kingdom of ,israel were transplanted1 in the ,assyrian captivity1 by ,tiglath-pileser and ,salmaneser4 ,the former prince carried away the tribes of ,reuben1 ,gad1 and half ,manasseh1 on the east side of ,jordan1 to ,halah1 and ,habor1 and ,hara1 and to the river of ,gozan4 ,his successor carried away the remaining seven tribes and a half1 to the same places1 which are said to be cities of the ,medes1 by the river of ,gozan10 #a ,chron4 v1 #bf2 #b ,kings xvii1 #f4 ,the geographical position of ,media was wisely chosen for the distribution of the great body of the captives2 for1 it was so remote1 and so impeded and intersected with great mountains and numerous and deep rivers1 that it would be extremely difficult for them to escape from this natural prison1 and return to their own country4 ,they would also be opposed in their passage through ,kir1 or ,assyria ,proper1 not only by the native ,assyrians1 but also by their enemies1 the ,syrians1 transplanted thither before them4 ,the superior civilization of the ,israelites1 and their skill in agriculture and in the arts1 would tend to civilize and improve those wild and barbarous regions4 ,,mediator1 one who stands in a middle office or capacity between two differing parties1 and has a power of transacting every thing between them1 and of reconciling them to each other4 ,hence a mediator between ,god and man is one whose office properly is to mediate and transact affairs between them relating to the favour of almighty ,god1 and the duty and happiness of man4 ,no sooner had ,adam transgressed the law of ,god in paradise1 and become a sinful creature1 than the ,almighty was pleased in mercy to appoint a ,mediator or ,redeemer1 who1 in due time should be born into the world1 to make an atonement both for his transgression1 and for all the sins of men4 ,this is what is justly thought to be implied in the promise1 that 8the seed of the woman should bruise the serpent's head20 that is1 that there should some time or other be born1 of the posterity of ,eve1 a ,redeemer1 who1 by making satisfaction for the sins of men1 and reconciling them to the mercy of almighty ,god1 should by that means bruise the head of that old serpent1 the devil1 who had beguiled our first parents into sin1 and destroy his empire and dominion among men4 ,thus it became a necessary part of ,adam's religion after the fall1 as well as that of his posterity after him1 to worship ,god through hope in this ,mediator4 ,to keep up the remembrance of it ,god was pleased1 at this time1 to appoint sacrifices of expiation or atonement for sin1 to be observed through all succeeding generations1 till the ,redeemer himself should come1 who was to make the true and only proper satisfaction and atonement4 ,the particular manner in which ,christ interposed in the redemption of the world1 or his office as ,mediator between ,god and man1 is thus represented to us in the ,scripture4 ,he is the light of the world1 ,john i2 viii1 #ab2 the revealer of the will of ,god in the most eminent sense4 ,he is a propitiatory sacrifice1 ,rom4 iii1 #be2 v1 #aa2 #a ,cor4 v1 #g2 ,eph4 v1 #b2 #a ,john ii1 #b2 ,matt4 xxvi1 #bh2 ,john i1 #bi1 #cf2 and1 as because of his peculiar offering1 of a merit transcending all others1 he is styled our ,high ,priest4 ,he was also described beforehand in the ,old ,testament1 under the same character of a priest1 and an expiatory victim1 ,isa4 liii2 ,dan4 ix1 #bd2 ,psa4 cx1 #d4 ,and whereas it is objected1 that all this is merely by way of allusion to the sacrifices of the ,mosaic law1 the ,apostle on the contrary affirms1 that the law was a shadow of good things to come1 and not the very image of the things10 ,heb4 x1 #a2 and that the priests that offer gifts according to the law1 serve unto the example and shadow of heavenly things1 as ,moses was admonished of ,god1 when he was about to make the tabernacle3 for see1 saith he1 that thou make all things according to the pattern showed to thee in the mount10 ,heb4 viii1 #d1 #e2 that is1 the ,levitical priesthood was a shadow of the priesthood of ,christ2 in like manner as the tabernacle made by ,moses was according to that showed him in the mount4 ,the priesthood of ,christ1 and the tabernacle in the mount1 were the originals2 of the former of which1 the ,levitical priesthood was a type2 and of the latter1 the tabernacle made by ,moses was a copy4 ,the doctrine of this epistle1 then1 plainly is1 that the legal sacrifices were allusions to the great atonement to be made by the blood of ,christ2 and not that it was an allusion to those4 ,nor can any thing be more express or determinate than the following passage3 ,it is not possible that the blood of bulls and of goats should take away sin4 ,wherefore when he ,christ cometh into the world1 he saith1 ,sacrifice and offering10 that is1 of bulls and of goats1 thou wouldest not1 but a body hast thou prepared me4 ,lo1 ,i come to do thy will1 ,o ,god6 ,by which will we are sanctified1 through the offering of the body of ,jesus ,christ once for all10 ,heb4 x1 #d1 #e1 #g1 #i1 #aj4 ,and to add one passage more of the like kind3 ,christ was once offered to bear the sins of many2 and unto them that look for him shall he appear the second time1 without sin20 that is1 without bearing sin1 as he did at his first coming1 by being an offering for it2 without having our iniquities again laid upon him2 without being any more a sin-offering3--8,and unto them that look for him shall he appear the second time without sin unto salvation10 ,heb4 ix1 #bh4 ,nor do the inspired writers at all confine themselves to this manner of speaking concerning the satisfaction of ,christ2 but declare that there was an efficacy in what he did and suffered for us1 additional to and beyond mere instruction and example4 ,this they declare with great variety of expression3 that he suffered for sins1 the just for the unjust10 #a ,peter iii1 #ah2 that he gave his life a ransom10 ,matt4 xx1 #bh2 ,mark x1 #de2 #a ,tim4 ii1 #f2 that we are bought with a price10 #b ,pet4 ii1 #a2 ,rev4 xiv1 #d2 #a ,cor4 vi1 #bj2 that he redeemed us with his blood10 redeemed us from the curse of the law1 being made a curse for us10 #a ,peter i1 #ai2 ,rev4 v1 #i2 ,gal4 iii1 #ac2 that he is our advocate1 intercessor1 and propitiation10 ,heb4 vii1 #be2 #a ,john ii1 #a1 #b2 that he was made perfect1 through sufferings2 and being thus made perfect1 he became the author of salvation10 ,heb4 ii1 #aj2 v1 #i2 that ,god was in ,christ1 reconciling the world to himself1 not imputing their trespasses unto them10 #b ,cor4 v1 #ai2 ,rom4 v1 #aj2 ,eph4 ii1 #af2 and that through death he destroyed him that had the power of death10 ,heb4 ii1 #ad4 ,christ1 then1 having thus humbled himself1 and become obedient to death1 even the death of the cross2 ,god1 also1 hath highly exalted him1 and given him a name which is above every name20 hath commanded us to pray in his name2 constituted him man's advocate and intercessor2 distributes his grace only through him1 and in honour of his death2 hath given all things into his hands2 and hath committed all judgment unto him2 that at the name of ,jesus every knee should bow10 and that all men should honour the ,son even as they honour the ,father10 ,phil4 ii1 #h-aj2 ,john iii1 #ce2 v1 #bb1 #bc4 ,all the offices of ,christ1 therefore1 arise out of his gracious appointment1 and voluntary undertaking1 to be the ,mediator between ,god and man20 between ,god offended1 and man offending2 and therefore under the penalty of ,god's violated law1 which denounces death against every transgressor4 ,he is the ,prophet who came to teach us the extent and danger of our offences1 and the means which ,god had appointed for their remission4 ,he is the great ,high ,priest of our profession10 who1 having offered himself without spot to ,god10 has entered the holiest to make intercession for us1 and to present our prayers and services to ,god1 securing to them acceptance by virtue of his own merits4 ,he is ,king1 ruling over the whole earth1 for the maintenance and establishment and enlargement of his church1 and for the punishment of those who reject his authority2 and he is the final ,judge of the quick and the dead1 to whom is given the power of distributing the rewards and penalties of eternity4 ,see ,,atonement and ,,jesus ,,christ4 ,there is an essential connection between the mediation of our ,lord and the covenant of grace4 7,see ,covenant47 ,he is therefore called the ,mediator of a better covenant10 and of a new covenant40 ,the word literally means a person in the middle10 between two parties2 and the fitness of there being a ,mediator of the covenant of grace arises from this1 that the nature of the covenant implies that the two parties were at variance4 ,those who hold the ,socinian principles understand a mediator to mean nothing more than a messenger sent from ,god to give assurance of forgiveness to his offending creatures4 ,those who hold the doctrine of the atonement understand1 that ,jesus is called the ,mediator of the new covenant1 because he reconciles the two parties1 by having appeased the wrath of ,god which man had deserved1 and by subduing that enmity to ,god by which their hearts were alienated from him4 ,it is plain that this is being a mediator in the strict and proper sense of the word2 and there seems to be no reason for resting in a meaning less proper and emphatical4 ,this sense of the term mediator coincides with the meaning of another phrase applied to him1 ,heb4 vii1 #bb1 where he is called 4 ,if he is a ,mediator in the last sense1 then he is also 1 the sponsor1 the surety1 of the covenant4 ,he undertook1 on the part of the supreme ,lawgiver1 that the sins of those who repent shall be forgiven2 and he fulfilled this undertaking by offering1 in their stead1 a satisfaction to divine justice4 ,he undertook1 on their part1 that they should keep the terms of the covenant2 and he fulfils this undertaking by the influence of his ,spirit upon their hearts4 ,if a mediator be essential to the covenant of grace1 and if all who have been saved from the time of the first transgression were saved by that covenant1 it follows that the ,mediator of the new covenant acted in that character before he was manifested in the flesh4 ,hence the importance of that doctrine respecting the person of ,christ2 that all the communications which the ,almighty condescended to hold with the human race were carried on from the beginning by this person2 that it is he who spake to the patriarchs1 who gave the law by ,moses1 and who is called in the ,old ,testament1 the angel of the covenant40 ,these views open to us the full importance of a doctrine which manifestly unites in one faith all who obtain deliverance from that condition2 for1 according to this doctrine1 not only did the virtue of the blood which he shed as a priest extend to the ages past before his manifestation1 but all the intimations of the new covenant established in his blood were given by him as the great ,prophet1 and the blessings of the covenant were applied in every age by the ,spirit1 which he1 as the ,king of his people1 sends forth4 ,the ,socinians1 who consider ,jesus as a mere man1 having no existence till he was born of ,mary1 necessarily reject the doctrine now stated3 and the church of ,rome1 although they admit the divinity of our ,saviour1 yet1 by the system which they hold with regard to the mediation of ,christ1 agree with the ,socinians in throwing out of the dispensations of the grace of ,god that beautiful and complete unity which arises from their having been conducted by one person4 ,the church of ,rome considers ,christ as ,mediator only in respect of his human nature4 ,as that nature did not exist till he was born of ,mary1 they do not think it possible that he could exercise the office of ,mediator under the ,old ,testament2 and as they admit that a mediator is essential to the covenant of grace1 they believe that those who lived under the ,old ,testament1 not enjoying the benefit of his mediation1 did not obtain complete remission of sins4 ,they suppose1 therefore1 that persons in former times who believed in a ,saviour that was to come1 and who obtained justification with ,god by this faith1 were detained after death in a place of the infernal regions1 which received the name of limbus patrum2 a kind of prison where they did not endure punishment1 but remained without partaking of the joys of heaven1 in earnest expectation of the coming of ,christ1 who1 after suffering on the cross1 descended to hell that he might set them free4 ,this fanciful system has no other foundation than the slender support which it appears to receive from some obscure passages of ,scripture that admit of another interpretation4 ,but if ,christ acted as the ,mediator of the covenant of grace from the time of the first transgression1 this system becomes wholly unnecessary2 and we may believe1 according to the general strain of ,scripture1 and what we account the analogy of faith1 that all who died in faith10 since the world began1 entered immediately after death into that heavenly country which they desired40 ,although the members of the church of ,rome adopt the language of ,scripture1 in which ,jesus is styled the ,mediator of the new covenant1 they differ from all ,protestants in acknowledging other mediators2 and the use which they make of the doctrine that ,christ is ,mediator only in his human nature is to justify their admitting those who had no other nature to share that office with him4 ,saints1 martyrs1 and especially the ,virgin ,mary1 are called mediatores secundarii1 because it is conceived that they hold this character under ,christ1 and that1 by virtue of his mediation1 the superfluity of their merits may be applied to procure acceptance with ,god for our imperfect services4 ,under this character1 supplications and solemn addresses are presented to them2 and the mediatores secundarii receive in the church of ,rome1 not only the honour due to eminent virtue1 but a worship and homage which that church wishes to vindicate from the charge of idolatry1 by calling it the same kind of inferior and secondary worship which is offered to the man ,christ ,jesus1 who in his human nature acted as ,mediator4 ,in opposition to all this1 we hold that ,jesus ,christ was qualified to act as ,mediator by the union between his divine and his human nature2 that his divine nature gave an infinite value to all that he did1 rendering it effectual for the purpose of reconciling us to ,god1 while the condescension by which he approached to man1 in taking part of flesh and blood1 fulfilled the gracious intention for which a ,mediator was appointed2 that the introducing any other mediator is unnecessary1 derives no warrant from ,scripture1 and is derogatory to the honour of him who is there called the one ,mediator between ,god and men20 and that as the union of the divine to the human nature is the foundation of that worship which in ,scripture is often paid to the ,mediator of the new covenant1 this worship does not afford the smallest countenance to the idolatry and will worship of those who ascribe divine honours to any mortal4 ,,megiddo1 a city of the tribe of ,manasseh1 famous for the battle fought there between ,pharaoh-,necho and ,king ,josiah1 in which the latter was defeated and mortally wounded1 ,josh4 xvii1 #aa2 ,judges i1 #bg2 #b ,kings xxiii1 #bi4 ,,melchizedek4 ,when ,abram returned from the slaughter of the ,assyrians1 in his way to ,hebron1 he was met at ,shaveh1 or ,king's ,dale1 afterward the valley of ,jehoshaphat1 between ,jerusalem and ,mount ,olivet1 by ,melchizedek1 king of ,salem1 the most ancient quarter of ,jerusalem1 a priest of the most high ,god1 who gave him bread and wine1 and blessed him in the name of the most high ,god1 ,creator of heaven and earth20 to whom ,abram in return piously gave tithes1 or the tenth part of all the spoils as an offering to ,god1 ,heb4 vii1 #b4 ,this ,canaanitish prince was early considered as a type of ,christ in the ,jewish church3 ,thou art a priest for ever1 after the order of ,melchizedek10 ,psalm cx1 #d4 ,he resembled ,christ in the following particulars3 #a4 ,in his name1 ,melchizedek1 ,king of ,righteousness20 #b4 ,in his city1 ,salem1 ,peace20 #c4 ,in his offices of king and priest of the most high ,god2 and #d4 ,in the omission of the names of his parents and genealogy1 the time of his birth and length of his life1 exhibiting an indefinite reign and priesthood1 according to the ,apostle's exposition1 ,heb4 vii1 #e4 ,the import of this is1 that he came not to his office by right of primogeniture1 7which implies a genealogy17 or by the way of succession1 but was raised up and immediately called of ,god to it4 ,in that respect ,christ is said to be a priest after his order40 ,then1 again1 that he had no successor1 nor could have2 for there was no law to constitute an order of succession1 so that he was a priest only upon an extraordinary call4 ,in this respect our ,lord's priesthood answers to his1 because it is wholly in himself1 who has no successor4 ,an infinite number of absurd opinions have been at different times held respecting this mystic personage1 as that he was ,shem1 or ,ham2 or1 among those who think he was more than human1 that he was the ,holy ,ghost1 or the ,son of ,god himself2 absurdities which are too obsolete to need refutation4 ,,melita1 now called ,malta1 an island in the ,african or ,mediterranean ,sea1 between ,africa and ,sicily1 twenty miles in length and twelve in breadth1 formerly reckoned a part of ,africa1 but now belonging to ,europe4 ,st4 ,paul suffered shipwreck upon the coast of ,malta1 ,acts xviii1 #a-c4 ,in the opinion of ,dr4 ,hales1 the island where this happened was not ,malta1 but ,meleda4 ,his words are3 8,that this island was ,meleda1 near the ,illyrian coast1 not ,malta1 on the southern coast of ,sicily1 may appear from the following considerations3 #a4 ,it lies confessedly in the ,adriatic ,sea1 but ,malta a considerable distance from it4 #b4 ,it lies nearer the mouth of the ,adriatic than any other island of that sea2 and would of course1 be more likely to receive the wreck of any vessel driven by tempests toward that quarter4 ,and it lies north-west by north of the south-west promontory of ,crete2 and came nearly in the direction of a storm from the south-east quarter4 #c4 ,an obscure island called ,melite1 whose inhabitants were #8barbarous1' was not applicable to the celebrity of ,malta at that time1 which ,cicero represents as abounding in curiosities and riches1 and possessing a remarkable manufacture of the finest linen2 and ,diodorus ,siculus more fully3 #8,malta is furnished with many and very good harbours1 and the inhabitants are very rich2 for it is full of all sorts of artificers1 among whom there are excellent weavers of fine linen4 ,their houses are very stately and beautiful1 adorned with graceful eaves1 and pargetted with white plaster4 ,the inhabitants are a colony of ,phenicians1 who1 trading as merchants1 as far as the western ocean1 resorted to this place on account of its commodious ports and convenient situation for maritime commerce2 and by the advantage of this place1 the inhabitants frequently became famous both for their wealth and their merchandise4' #d4 ,the circumstance of the viper1 or venomous snake1 which fastened on ,st4 ,paul's hand1 agrees with the damp and woody island of ,meleda1 affording shelter and proper nourishment for such1 but not with the dry and rocky island of ,malta1 in which there are no serpents now1 and none in the time of ,pliny4 #e4 ,the disease with which the father of ,publius was affected1 dysentery combined with fever1 probably intermittent1 might well suit a country woody and damp1 and probably1 for want of draining1 exposed to the putrid effluvia of confined moisture2 but was not likely to affect a dry1 rocky1 and remarkably healthy island like ,malta40 ,,melon1 1 ,numbers xi1 #e1 a luscious fruit so well known that a description of it would be superfluous4 ,it grows to great perfection1 and is highly esteemed in ,egypt1 especially by the lower class of people1 during the hot months4 ,the juice is peculiarly cooling and agreeable in that sultry climate1 where it is justly pronounced one of the most delicious refreshments that nature1 amidst her constant attention to the wants of man1 affords in the season of violent heat4 ,there are varieties of this fruit2 but that more particularly referred to in the text must be the water melon4 ,it is cultivated1 says ,hasselquist1 on the banks of the ,nile1 in the rich clayey earth1 which subsides during the inundation4 ,this serves the ,egyptians for meat1 drink1 and physic4 ,it is eaten in abundance during the season1 even by the richer sort of people2 but the common people1 on whom ,providence has bestowed nothing but poverty and patience1 scarcely eat any thing but these1 and account this the best time of the year1 as they are obliged to put up with worse fare at other seasons4 ,this fruit sometimes serves them for drink1 the juice refreshing these poor creatures1 and they have less occasion for water than if they were to live on more substantial food in this burning climate4 ,this well explains the regret expressed by the ,israelites for the loss of this fruit1 whose pleasant liquor had so often quenched their thirst1 and relieved their weariness in their servitude1 and which would have been exceedingly grateful in a dry scorching desert4 ,,memphis4 ,see ,,noph4 ,,mennonites1 a society of ,baptists in ,holland1 so called from ,menno ,simon of ,friesland1 who lived in the sixteenth century4 ,he was originally a ,romish priest1 but joined a party of the ,anabaptists1 and1 becoming their leader1 cured them of many extravagancies1 and reduced the system to consistency and moderation4 ,the ,mennonites maintain that practical piety is the essence of religion1 and that the surest mark of the true church is the sanctity of its members4 ,they plead for universal toleration in religion1 and debar none from their societies who lead pious lives1 and own the ,scriptures for the word of ,god4 ,they teach that infants are not the proper subjects of baptism2 that ministers of the ,gospel ought to receive no salary4 ,they also object to the terms person and trinity1 as not consistent with the simplicity of the ,scriptures4 ,they are1 like the ,society of ,friends1 utterly averse to oaths and war1 and to capital punishments1 as contrary to the spirit of the ,christian dispensation4 ,in their private meetings every one has the liberty to speak1 to expound the ,scriptures1 and to pray4 ,they assemble1 or used to do so1 twice every year from all parts of ,holland1 at ,rynsbourg1 a village two leagues from ,leyden1 at which time they receive the communion1 sitting at a table in the manner of the ,independents2 but in their form of discipline they are said more to resemble the ,presbyterians4 ,the ancient ,mennonites professed a contempt of erudition and science1 and excluded all from their communion who deviated in the least from the most rigorous rules of simplicity and gravity3 but this primitive austerity is greatly diminished in their most considerable societies4 ,those who adhere to their ancient discipline are called ,flemings or ,flandrians4 ,the whole sect were formerly called ,waterlandians1 from the district in which they lived4 ,the ,mennonites in ,pennsylvania do not baptize by immersion1 though they administer the ordinance to none but adult persons4 ,their common method is this3 ,the person to be baptized kneels1 the minister holds his hands over him1 into which the deacon pours water1 so that it runs on the head of the baptized2 after which follow imposition of hands and prayer4 ,divine worship is conducted among the ,mennonites much as among the churches of the reformed1 or among the ,dissenters in ,england1 only with this peculiarity1 that collections are made every ,sabbath day1 sometimes in the middle of the sermon1 in two bags1 one for the poor1 and the other for the expenses of public worship4 ,they have a ,mennonite college at ,amsterdam1 and the ministers are chosen in some places by the congregation1 and in others by the elders only4 ,as they reject infant baptism1 they refuse to commune at the ,lord's table with any who administer the ordinance to children1 unless resprinkled4 ,they train up catechumens under their ministers1 and1 about the age of sixteen1 baptize them1 taking from the candidate1 before the minister and elders1 an account of his repentance and faith4 ,in some parts of ,north ,holland1 young people are baptized on the day of their marriage4 ,they baptize by pouring or sprinkling thrice4 ,with respect to their confession of faith1 as it is stated by one of their ministers1 ,mr4 ,gan1 of ,ryswick1 they believe that in the fall man lost his innocence1 and that all his posterity are born with a natural propensity to evil1 and with fleshly inclinations1 and are exposed to sickness and death4 ,the posterity of ,adam derive no moral guilt from his fall3 sin is personal1 and the desert of punishment cannot be inherited4 ,the incarnate ,son of ,god is set forth to us as inferior to the ,father1 not only in his state of humiliation1 but in that of his exaltation1 and as subject to the ,father3 he is nevertheless an object of religious trust and confidence in like manner as the ,father4 ,with respect to the number of ,mennonites in ,holland1 they are calculated at only thirty thousand1 including children1 and form about a hundred and thirty churches4 ,in the ,united ,states of ,america1 it appears1 there are more than two hundred ,mennonite churches1 some of which contain as many as three hundred members in each4 ,they are mostly the descendants of the ,mennonites who emigrated in great numbers from ,paltz4 ,,mercy ,,seat1 1 propitiatory4 ,this word is properly an adjective1 agreeing with 1 a lid1 understood1 which is expressed by the ,,lxx1 ,exod4 xxv1 #ag4 ,in that version1 generally answers to the ,hebrew 1 from the verb 1 to cover1 expiate1 and was the lid or covering of the ark of the covenant1 made of pure gold1 on and before which the high priest was to sprinkle the blood of the expiatory sacrifices on the great day of atonement1 and where ,god promised to meet his people1 ,exod4 xxv1 #ag1 #bb2 xxix1 #db2 xxx1 #cf2 ,lev4 xvi1 #b1 #ad4 ,st4 ,paul1 by applying this name to ,christ1 ,rom4 iii1 #be1 assures us that he is the true mercy seat1 the reality of what the represented to the ancient believers2 by him our sins are covered or expiated1 and through him ,god communes with us in mercy4 ,the mercy seat also represents our approach to ,god through ,christ2 we come to the throne of grace20 which is only a variation of the term mercy seat40 ,,merom1 ,,waters ,,of1 or lacus ,samechonitis3 the most northern and the smallest of the three lakes which are supplied by the waters of the ,jordan4 ,indeed the numerous branches of this river1 descending from the mountains1 unite in this small piece of water2 out of which issues the single stream which may be considered as the ,jordan ,proper4 ,it is at present called the lake of ,houle2 and is situated in a hollow or valley1 about twelve miles wide1 called the ,ard ,houle1 formed by the ,djebel ,heish on the west1 and ,djebel ,safat on the east1 the two branches into which the mountains of ,hasbeya1 or ,djebel ,esheikh1 the ancient ,hermon1 divides itself about fifteen miles to the north4 ,,meroz1 a place in the neighbourhood of the brook ,kishon1 whose inhabitants1 refusing to come to the assistance of their brethren1 when they fought with ,sisera1 were put under an anathema1 ,judges v1 #bc4 ,,meshech1 ,,country ,,of4 ,meshech was the sixth son of ,japheth1 and is generally mentioned in conjunction with his brother ,tubal2 and both were first seated in the northeastern angle of ,asia ,minor1 from the shores of the ,euxine1 along to the south of ,caucasus2 where were the ,montes ,moschisi1 and where1 in after times1 were the ,iberi1 ,tibareni1 and ,moschi2 near to whom also1 or mingled with them1 were the ,chalybes1 who1 it is probable1 derived their ,grecian appellation from the general occupation of the families of ,tubal and ,meshech1 as workers in brass and iron1 as the inhabitants of the same countries have been in all ages1 for the supply of ,tyre1 ,persia1 ,greece1 and ,armenia4 ,there appears also to have been in the same neighbourhood1 namely1 in ,armenia1 a river and country termed ,rosh3 for so1 ,bochart says1 the river ,araxes is called by the ,arabs2 and that there was a people in the adjoining country called ,rhossi4 ,that passage in ,ezekiel1 xxxviii1 also1 which in our ,bibles is rendered the chief prince of ,meshech and ,tubal10 is1 in the ,septuagint1 the prince of ,rosh1 ,meshech1 and ,tubal40 ,these ,rossi and ,moschi1 who were neighbours in ,asia1 dispersed their colonies jointly over the vast empire of ,russia2 and preserve their names still in those of ,russians and ,muscovites4 ,,mesopotamia1 an extensive province of ,asia1 the ,greek name of which denotes between the rivers10 and on this account ,strabo says1 1 that it was situated between the ,euphrates and the ,tigris40 ,in ,scripture this country is called ,aram1 and ,aramea4 ,but as ,aram also signifies ,syria1 it is denominated ,aram ,naharaim1 or the ,syria of the rivers4 ,this province1 which inclines from the south-east to the north-west1 commenced at #cc #bj ,n4 lat41 and terminated near #cg #cj ,n4 lat4 ,toward the south it extended as far as the bend formed by the ,jordan at ,cunaxa1 and to the wall of ,semiramis which separated it from ,messene4 ,toward the north1 it comprehended part of ,taurus and the ,mesius1 which lay between the ,euphrates and the ,tigris4 ,the modern name1 given by the ,arabs to this part1 is of the same import with the ancient appellation2 they call it isle10 or1 in their language1 ,al-,dgezera4 ,in this northern part is found ,osrhoene1 which seems to have been the same place with ,anthemusir4 ,the northern part of ,mesopotamia is occupied by chains of mountains passing from north-west to south-east1 in the situation of the rivers4 ,the central parts of these mountains were called ,singar ,montes4 ,the principal rivers were ,chaboras1 7,al ,kabour17 which commenced at ,charr1 7,harran17 east of the mountains1 and discharged itself into the ,euphrates at ,circesium 7,kirkisieh27 the ,mygdonius1 7,hanali17 the source of which was near ,nisibis1 and its termination in the ,chaboras4 ,the principal towns in the eastern part along the ,tigris and near it1 are ,nisibis1 7,nisibin17 ,bezabde1 7,zabda17 ,singora1 7,sindja17 ,labbana on the ,tigris1 7,mosul17 ,hatru1 7,harder17 and ,apamea-,mesenes4 ,at some distance to the south1 upon the ,tigris and on the borders of ,mesopotamia1 was the town of ,antiochia1 near which commenced the wall that passed from the ,tigris to the ,euphrates1 under the name of ,murus ,medi1 or ,semiramidis4 ,in the western part were ,edessa1 called also ,callin-,rh1 7,orfa17 ,charr1 7,harran17 ,nicephorium1 7,racca17 ,circesium at the mouth of the ,chaboras1 ,anatho1 7,anah17 ,neharda1 7,hadith ,unnour17 upon the right of the ,euphrates4 ,there are several other towns of less importance4 ,according to ,strabo1 this country was fertile in vines1 and afforded abundance of good wine4 ,according to ,ptolemy1 ,mesopotamia had on the north a part of ,armenia1 on the west the ,euphrates on the side of ,syria1 on the east the ,tigris on the borders of ,assyria1 and on the south the ,euphrates which joined the ,tigris4 ,mesopotamia was a satrapy under the kings of ,syria4 ,in the earliest accounts we have of this country1 subsequent to the time of ,abraham1 it was subject to a king1 called ,cushan-,rishathaim1 then perhaps the most powerful potentate of the east1 and the first by whom the ,israelites were made captive1 which happened soon after the death of ,joshua1 and about ,b4 ,c4 #adjj1 ,judges iii1 #h4 ,the name of this king bespeaks him a descendant of ,nimrod2 and it was probably of the ,lower ,mesopotamia only1 or ,babylonia1 of which he was sovereign2 the northern parts being in the possession of the ,arameans4 ,this is implied in the history of ,abraham2 who1 when ordered to depart from his country1 namely1 ,chaldea1 in the southern part of ,mesopotamia1 removed to ,charran1 still in ,mesopotamia1 but beyond the boundary of the ,chaldees1 and in the territory of ,aram4 ,about four hundred years after ,cushan-,rishathaim1 we find the northern parts of ,mesopotamia in the hands of the ,syrians of ,zobah2 as we are told1 in #b ,sam4 x1 that ,hadarezer1 king of ,zobah1 after his defeat by ,joab1 sent and brought out the ,syrians that were beyond the river0 ,euphrates4 ,the whole country was afterward seized by the ,assyrians2 to whom it pertained till the dissolution of their empire1 when it was divided between the ,medes and the ,babylonians4 ,it subsequently formed a part of the ,medo-,persian1 second ,syrian or ,macedonian1 and ,parthian empires1 as it does at the present day of the modern ,persian4 ,the southern part of ,mesopotamia answers nearly to the country anciently called the land of ,shinar2 to which the ,prophet ,daniel1 i1 #b1 refers1 and ,zechariah v1 #aa4 ,on the fifth or sixth day after leaving ,aleppo10 says ,campbell in his ,overland ,journey to ,india1 8we arrived at the city of ,diarbeker1 the capital of the province of that name2 having passed over an extent of country of between three and four hundred miles1 most of it blessed with the greatest fertility1 and abounding with as rich pastures as ,i ever beheld1 covered with numerous herds and flocks4 ,the air was charmingly temperate in the day time1 but1 to my feeling1 extremely cold at night4 ,yet notwithstanding the extreme fertility of this country1 the bad administration of government1 conspiring with the indolence of the inhabitants1 leaves it unpeopled and uncultivated4 ,diarbeker ,proper1 called also ,mesopotamia from its lying between two famous rivers1 and by ,moses called ,,padanaram1 that is1 #8the fruitful ,syria1' abounds with corn1 wine1 oil1 fruits1 and all the necessaries of life4 ,it is supposed to have been the seat of the earthly paradise2 and all geographers agree that here the descendants of ,noah settled immediately after the flood4 ,to be treading that ground which ,abraham trod1 where ,nahor the father of ,rebecca lived1 where holy ,job breathed the pure air of piety and simplicity1 and where ,laban the father-in-law of ,jacob resided1 was to me a circumstance productive of delightful sensations4 ,as ,i rode along1 ,i have often mused upon the contemptible stratagems to which ,i was reduced1 in order to get through this country1 for no other reason than because ,i was a ,christian2 and ,i could not avoid reflecting with sorrow on the melancholy effects of superstition1 and regretting that this fine tract of country1 which ought to be considered above all others as the universal inheritance of mankind1 should now be cut off from all except a horde of senseless bigots1 barbarous fanatics1 and inflexible tyrants40 ,,messiah4 ,the ,greek word 1 from whence comes ,christ and ,christian1 exactly answers to the ,hebrew ,messiah1 which signifies him that hath received unction1 a prophet1 a king1 or a priest4 ,see ,,jesus ,,christ4 ,our ,lord warned his disciples that false messiahs should arise1 ,matt4 xxiv1 #bd2 and the event has verified the prediction4 ,no less than twenty-four false ,christs have arisen in different places and at different times3 ,caziba was the first of any note who made a noise in the world4 ,being dissatisfied with the state of things under ,adrian1 he set himself up as the head of the ,jewish nation1 and proclaimed himself their long expected messiah4 ,he was one of those banditti that infested ,judea1 and committed all kinds of violence against the ,romans2 and had become so powerful that he was chosen king of the ,jews1 and by them acknowledged their messiah4 ,however1 to facilitate the success of this bold enterprise1 he changed his name from ,caziba1 which it was at first1 to that of ,barchocheba1 alluding to the star foretold by ,balaam2 for he pretended to be the star sent from heaven to restore his nation to its ancient liberty and glory4 ,he chose a forerunner1 raised an army1 was anointed king1 coined money inscribed with his own name1 and proclaimed himself messiah and prince of the ,jewish nation4 ,adrian raised an army1 and sent it against him2 he retired into a town called ,bither1 where he was besieged4 ,barchocheba was killed in the siege1 the city was taken1 and a dreadful havoc succeeded4 ,the ,jews themselves allow1 that1 during this short war against the ,romans in defence of this false messiah1 they lost five or six hundred thousand souls4 ,this was in the former part of the second century4 ,in the reign of ,theodosius the younger1 ,a4 ,d4 #dcd1 another impostor arose1 called ,moses ,cretensis4 ,he pretended to be a second ,moses1 sent to deliver the ,jews who dwelt in ,crete1 and promised to divide the sea1 and give them a safe passage through it4 ,their delusion proved so strong and universal1 that they neglected their lands1 houses1 and other concerns1 and took only so much with them as they could conveniently carry4 ,and on the day appointed1 this false ,moses1 having led them to the top of a rock1 men1 women1 and children threw themselves headlong down into the sea1 without the least hesitation or reluctance1 till so great a number of them were drowned as opened the eyes of the rest1 and made them sensible of the cheat4 ,they then began to look for their pretended leader2 but he had disappeared1 and escaped out of their hands4 ,in the reign of ,justin1 about ,a4 ,d4 #ebj1 another impostor appeared1 who called himself the son of ,moses4 ,his name was ,dunaan4 ,he entered into a city of ,arabia ,felix1 and there he greatly oppressed the ,christians2 but he was taken prisoner1 and put to death by ,elesban1 an ,ethiopian general4 ,the ,jews and ,samaritans rebelled against the ,emperor ,justinian1 ,a4 ,d4 #ebi1 and set up one ,julian for their king1 and accounted him the messiah4 ,the emperor sent an army against them1 killed great numbers of them1 took their pretended messiah prisoner1 and immediately put him to death4 ,in the time of ,leo ,isaurus1 about ,a4 ,d4 #gba1 arose another false messiah in ,spain2 his name was ,serenus4 ,he drew great numbers after him1 to their no small loss and disappointment2 but all his pretensions came to nothing4 ,the twelfth century was fruitful in messiahs4 ,about ,a4 ,d4 #aacg1 there appeared one in ,france1 who was put to death1 and numbers of those who followed him4 ,in ,a4 ,d4 #aach1 the ,persians were disturbed with a ,jew1 who called himself the messiah4 ,he collected a vast army2 but he too was put to death1 and his followers treated with great inhumanity4 ,a false messiah stirred up the ,jews at ,corduba in ,spain1 ,a4 ,d4 #aaeg4 ,the wiser and better sort looked upon him as a madman1 but the great body of the ,jews in the nation believed in him4 ,on this occasion nearly all the ,jews in ,spain were destroyed4 ,another false messiah arose in the kingdom of ,fez1 ,a4 ,d4 #aafg1 which brought great troubles and persecutions upon the ,jews that were scattered throughout that country4 ,in the same year1 an ,arabian professed to be the messiah1 and pretended to work miracles4 ,when search was made for him1 his followers fled1 and he was brought before the ,arabian king4 ,being questioned by him1 he replied1 that he was a prophet sent from ,god4 ,the king then asked him what sign he could show to confirm his mission4 ,cut off my head10 said he1 and ,i will return to life again40 ,the king took him at his word1 promising to believe him if his prediction was accomplished4 ,the poor wretch1 however1 never came to life again1 and the cheat was sufficiently discovered4 ,those who had been deluded by him were grievously punished1 and the nation condemned to a very heavy fine4 ,not long after this1 a ,jew who dwelt beyond the ,euphrates1 called himself the messiah1 and drew vast multitudes of people after him4 ,he gave this for a sign of it1 that he had been leprous1 and had been cured in the course of one night4 ,he1 like the rest1 perished1 and brought great persecution on his countrymen4 ,a magician and false christ arose in ,persia1 ,a4 ,d4 #aagd1 who seduced many of the common people1 and brought the ,jews into great tribulation4 ,another of these impostors arose1 ,a4 ,d4 #aagf1 in ,moravia1 who was called ,david ,almusser4 ,he pretended he could make himself invisible2 but he was soon taken and put to death1 and a heavy fine laid upon the ,jews4 ,a famous cheat and rebel exerted himself in ,persia1 ,a4 ,d4 #aaii1 called ,david el ,david4 ,he was a man of learning1 a great magician1 and pretended to be the messiah4 ,he raised an army against the king1 but was taken and imprisoned2 and1 having made his escape1 was afterward retaken and beheaded4 ,vast numbers of the ,jews were butchered for taking part with this impostor4 ,rabbi ,lemlem1 a ,german ,jew of ,austria1 declared himself a forerunner of the messiah1 ,a4 ,d4 #aejj1 and pulled down his own oven1 promising his brethren that they should bake their bread in the holy land next year4 ,a false christ arose in the ,east ,indies1 ,a4 ,d4 #afae1 and was greatly followed by the ,portuguese ,jews who are scattered over that country4 ,another in the ,low ,countries declared himself to be the messiah of the family of ,david1 and of the line of ,nathan1 ,a4 ,d4 #afbd4 ,he promised to destroy ,rome1 and to overthrow the kingdom of antichrist1 and the ,turkish empire4 ,in ,a4 ,d4 #afff1 appeared the false messiah ,sabatai ,tzevi1 who made a great noise1 and gained a great number of proselytes4 ,he was born at ,aleppo1 and imposed on the ,jews for a considerable time2 but afterward1 with a view of saving his life1 he turned ,mohammedan1 and was at last beheaded4 ,the last false christ that made any considerable number of converts was one rabbi ,mordecai1 a ,jew of ,germany3 he appeared1 ,a4 ,d4 #afhb4 ,it was not long before he was found out to be an impostor1 and was obliged to flee from ,italy to ,poland to save his life3 what became of him afterward does not seem to be recorded4 ,,metempsychosis1 the doctrine of the transmigration of souls into other bodies4 ,this tenet has been attributed to the sect of the ,pharisees4 ,josephus1 who was himself a ,pharisee1 gives this account of their doctrine in these points3 ,every soul is immortal2 those of the good only enter into another body1 but those of the bad are tormented with everlasting punishment40 ,from whence it has been pretty generally concluded1 that the resurrection they held was only a ,pythagorean one1 namely1 the transmigration of the soul into another body2 from which they excluded all that were notoriously wicked1 who were doomed at once to eternal punishment2 but their opinion was1 that those who were guilty only of lesser crimes were punished for them in the bodies into which their souls were next sent4 ,it is also supposed1 that it was upon this notion the disciples asked our ,lord1 ,did this man sin1 or his parents1 that he was born blind80 ,john ix1 #b2 and that some said1 ,christ was ,john the ,baptist1 some ,elias1 others ,jeremias1 or one of the prophets10 ,matt4 xvi1 #ad4 ,the transmigration of souls into other bodies was undoubtedly the opinion of the ,pythagoreans and ,platonists1 and was embraced by some among the ,jews2 as by the author of the ,book of ,wisdom1 who says1 that being good1 he came into a body undefiled10 viii1 #bj4 ,nevertheless1 it is questioned by some persons1 whether the words of ,josephus1 before quoted1 are a sufficient evidence of this doctrine of the metempsychosis being received by the whole sect of the ,pharisees2 for passing into another or different body10 may only denote its receiving a body at the resurrection2 which will be another1 not in substance1 but in quality2 as it is said of ,christ at his transfiguration1 1 the fashion of his countenance was0 another1 or1 as we render it1 was altered10 ,luke ix1 #bi4 ,as to the opinion which some entertained concerning our ,saviour1 that he was either ,john the ,baptist1 or ,elias1 or ,jeremias1 or one of the prophets1 ,matt4 xvi1 #ad1 it is not ascribed to the ,pharisees in particular1 and if it were1 one cannot see how it could be founded on the doctrine of the metempsychosis2 since the soul of ,elias1 now inhabiting the body of ,jesus1 would no more make him to be ,elias1 than several others had been1 in whose bodies the soul of ,elias1 according to this doctrine1 is supposed to have dwelt since the death of that ancient prophet1 near a thousand years before4 ,beside1 how was it possible any person that saw ,christ1 who did not appear to be less than thirty years old1 should1 according to the notion of the metempsychosis1 conceive him to be ,john the ,baptist1 who had been so lately beheaded8 ,surely this apprehension must be grounded on the supposition of a proper resurrection4 ,it was probably1 therefore1 upon the same account1 that others took him to be ,elias1 and others ,jeremias4 ,accordingly1 ,st4 ,luke expresses it thus3 ,others say1 that one of the old prophets is risen from the dead10 ,luke ix1 #ai4 ,it may farther be observed1 that the doctrine of the resurrection1 which ,st4 ,paul preached1 was not a present metempsychosis1 but a real future resurrection1 which he calls the hope and resurrection of the dead10 ,acts xxiii1 #f4 ,this he professed as a ,pharisee1 and for this profession the partisans of that sect vindicated him against the ,sadducees1 ,acts xxiii1 #g-i4 ,upon the whole1 therefore1 it appears most reasonable to adopt the opinion of ,reland1 though in opposition to the sentiments of many other learned men1 that the ,pharisees held the doctrine of the resurrection in a proper sense4 ,,methodists1 a name given in derision at different times to religious persons and parties which have appeared in this country2 but which now principally designates the followers of the ,rev4 ,john ,wesley4 ,the societies raised up by the instrumentality of the ,rev4 ,george ,whitefield were also called ,methodists1 and in ,wales especially are still known by that appellation4 ,for distinction's sake1 therefore1 and also because a number of smaller sects have broken off from the ,methodist societies since ,mr4 ,wesley's death1 the religious body which he raised up and left organized under his rules1 have of late been generally denominated the ,,wesleyan ,,methodists4 ,in the year #agbi1 ,mr4 ,john ,wesley1 being then fellow of ,lincoln ,college1 began to spend some evenings in reading the ,greek ,testament with ,charles ,wesley1 student1 and ,mr4 ,morgan1 commoner of ,christ ,church1 and ,mr4 ,kirkham1 of ,merton ,college4 ,not long after1 two or three of the pupils of ,mr4 ,john ,wesley1 and one pupil of ,mr4 ,charles ,wesley1 obtained leave to attend these meetings4 ,they then began to visit the sick in different parts of the town1 and the prisoners also1 who were confined in the castle4 ,two years after1 they were joined by ,mr4 ,ingham1 of ,queen's ,college1 ,mr4 ,broughton1 and ,mr4 ,hervey2 and in #agce1 by the celebrated ,mr4 ,george ,whitefield1 then in his eighteenth year4 ,at this time their number in ,oxford amounted to about fourteen4 ,they obtained the name of ,methodists1 from the exact regularity of their lives1 and the manner of spending their time4 ,in ,october1 #agce1 ,john and ,charles ,wesley1 ,mr4 ,ingham1 and ,mr4 ,delamotte1 son of a merchant in ,london1 embarked for ,georgia1 having been engaged by the trustees of that colony as chaplains2 but their ultimate design was to preach the ,gospel to the ,indians4 ,no favourable opportunity offering itself for this pious work1 and the strict and faithful preaching of the ,wesleys having involved them in much persecution1 and many disputes with the colonists1 they returned to ,england1 ,mr4 ,charles ,wesley in #agcg1 ,mr4 ,john ,wesley in #agch4 ,on the passage to ,america1 and while in ,georgia1 ,mr4 ,john had met with several pious ,moravians2 whose doctrines of justification by faith alone1 conscious pardon of sin1 and peace with ,god1 confirmed by their own calmness in danger and freedom from the fear of death1 greatly impressed him4 ,on his return to ,england1 he was more fully instructed in these views by ,bohler1 a ,moravian minister2 and having proved their truth in his own experience1 he began to preach in the churches of the metropolis1 and other places1 and then in rooms1 fields1 and streets1 the doctrine of salvation by faith4 ,in this his brother ,charles was his zealous coadjutor2 and the effect was the awakening of great multitudes to a religious concern1 and the commencement of a great revival of religion throughout the land1 which has in its effects extended itself to the most distant parts of the world4 ,at the time of ,mr4 ,wesley's death1 the societies in connection with him in ,europe1 ,america1 and the ,west ,indies1 amounted to eighty thousand members2 they are now #ahca upward of three hundred thousand1 beside about half a million in the ,united ,states of ,america1 who since the acquisition of independence by that country have formed a separate church4 ,the rules of this religious society were drawn up by ,messrs4 ,john and ,charles ,wesley in #agdc1 and continue to be in force4 ,they state the nature and design of a ,methodist society in the following words3 8,such a society is no other than a company of men1 having the form and seeking the power of godliness3 united1 in order to pray together1 to receive the word of exhortation1 and to watch over one another in love1 that they may help each other to work out their own salvation4 ,that it may the more easily be discerned whether they are indeed working out their own salvation1 each society is divided into smaller companies1 called classes1 according to their respective places of abode4 ,there are about twelve persons1 sometimes fifteen1 twenty1 or even more1 in each class2 one of whom is styled the leader4 ,it is his business1 #a4 ,to see each person in his class once a week1 at least1 in order to inquire how their souls prosper2 to advise1 reprove1 comfort1 or exhort1 as occasion may require2 to receive what they are willing to give to the poor1 or toward the support of the ,gospel4 #b4 ,to meet the minister and the stewards of the society once a week1 to inform the minister of any that are sick1 or of any that walk disorderly and will not be reproved2 to pay to the stewards what they have received of their several classes in the week preceding2 and to show their account of what each person has contributed4 ,there is only one condition previously required of those who desire admission into these societies1 namely1 a desire to flee from the wrath to come2 to be saved from their sins3 but wherever this is really fixed in the soul1 it will be shown by its fruits4 ,it is therefore expected of all who continue therein1 that they should continue to evidence their desire of salvation1 #a4 ,by doing no harm2 by avoiding evil in every kind1 especially that which is most generally practised1 such as taking the name of ,god in vain2 profaning the day of the ,lord1 either by doing ordinary work thereon1 or by buying or selling2 drunkenness2 buying and selling spirituous liquors1 or drinking them1 unless in cases of extreme necessity2 fighting1 quarrelling1 brawling2 brother going to law with brother2 returning evil for evil1 or railing for railing2 the using many words in buying or selling2 the buying or selling uncustomed goods2 the giving or taking things on usury1 that is1 unlawful interest2 uncharitable or unprofitable conversation1 particularly speaking evil of magistrates or of ministers2 doing to others as we would not they should do unto us2 doing what we know is not for the glory of ,god1 as the putting on of gold or costly apparel2 the taking such diversions as cannot be used in the name of the ,lord ,jesus2 singing those songs1 or reading those books1 which do not tend to the knowledge or love of ,god2 softness1 or needless self-indulgence2 laying up treasure upon earth2 borrowing without a probability of paying2 or taking up goods1 without a probability of paying for them4 ,it is expected of all who continue in these societies1 that they should continue to evidence their desire of salvation1 #b4 ,by doing good2 by being in every kind merciful after their power1 as they have opportunity2 doing good of every possible sort1 and1 as far as possible1 to all men2 to their bodies1 of the ability which ,god giveth1 by giving food to the hungry1 by clothing the naked1 by visiting or helping them that are sick or in prison2 to their souls1 by instructing1 reproving1 or exhorting all we have any intercourse with2 trampling under foot that enthusiastic doctrine of devils1--that we are not to do good unless our hearts be free to it3 by doing good1 especially to them that are of the household of faith1 or groaning so to be2 employing them preferably to others2 buying one of another2 helping each other in business1 and so much the more as the world will love its own1 and them only2 by all possible diligence and frugality1 that the ,gospel be not blamed2 by running with patience the race set before them1 denying themselves1 and taking up their cross daily2 submitting to bear the reproach of ,christ2 to be as the filth and off-scouring of the world1 and looking that men should say all manner of evil of them falsely for the ,lord's sake4 ,it is expected of all who continue in these societies1 that they should continue to evidence their desire of salvation1 #c4 ,by attending on all the ordinances of ,god3 such are1 the public worship of ,god2 the ministry of the word either read or expounded2 the supper of the ,lord2 family and private prayer2 searching the ,scriptures1 and fasting and abstinence4 ,these are the general rules of our societies1 all which we are taught of ,god to observe1 even in his written word1 the only rule1 and the sufficient rule1 both of our faith and practice2 and all these we know his ,spirit writes on every truly awakened heart4 ,if there be any among us who observe them not1 who habitually breaks any of them1 let it be made known to them who watch over that soul1 as they that must give an account4 ,we will admonish him of the error of his ways2 we will bear with him for a season2 but then1 if he repent not1 he hath no more place among us3 we have delivered our own souls40 ,the effect produced by the preaching of the two brothers in various parts of the kingdom1 and those frequently the most populous and rude1 rendered it necessary to call out preachers to their assistance1 and especially since the clergy generally remained negligent1 and rather opposed and persecuted1 than encouraged1 the ,wesleys in their endeavours to effect a national reformation4 ,the association of preachers with themselves in the work led to an annual meeting of the ministers1 then and since called the conference4 ,the first conference was held in ,june #agdd1 at which ,mr4 ,wesley met his brother1 two or three other clergymen1 and a few of the preachers1 whom he had appointed to come from various parts1 to confer with them on the affairs of the societies4 ,monday1 ,june #be10 observes ,mr4 ,wesley1 and the five following days1 we spent in conference with our preachers1 seriously considering by what means we might the most effectually save our own souls1 and them that heard us2 and the result of our consultations we set down to be the rule of our future practice40 ,since that time a conference has been annually held2 ,mr4 ,wesley himself having presided at forty-seven4 ,the subjects of their deliberations were proposed in the form of questions1 which were amply discussed2 and the questions1 with the answers agreed upon1 were afterward printed under the title of ,minutes of several ,conversations between the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,wesley and others10 commonly called ,minutes of ,conference4 ,as the kingdom had been divided into circuits1 to each of which several preachers were appointed for one or two years1 a part of the work of every conference was to arrange these appointments and changes4 ,in the early conferences various points of doctrine were discussed with reference to the agreement of all in a common standard2 and when this was settled1 and the doctrinal discussions discontinued1 new regulations continued to be adopted1 as the state of the societies1 and the enlarging opportunities of doing good1 required4 ,the character of all those who were engaged in the ministry was also annually examined2 and those who had passed the appointed term of probation1 were solemnly received into the ministry4 ,all the preachers were itinerants1 and1 animated by the example of ,mr4 ,wesley1 went through great labours1 and endured many privations and persecutions1 but with such success that societies and congregations were in a few years raised up in almost every part of ,england1 and in a very considerable number of places in ,ireland1 ,wales1 and ,scotland4 ,the doctrines held by the ,methodists1 ,mr4 ,wesley declared repeatedly in his writings to be those contained in the ,articles of the church of ,england2 for he understood the article on predestination1 as many others have done1 in a sense not contrary to the doctrine of the redemption and the possible salvation of the whole human race4 ,it will1 therefore1 be merely necessary to state those views of certain doctrines which it has been thought the ,wesleyan ,methodists hold in a somewhat peculiar way1 or on which they have been most liable to misrepresentation4 ,they maintain the total fall of man in ,adam1 and his utter inability to recover himself1 or take one step toward his recovery1 without the grace of ,god preventing him1 that he may have a good will1 and working with him when he has that good will40 ,they assert that ,christ1 by the grace of ,god1 tasted death for every man40 ,this grace they call free1 as extending itself freely to all4 ,they say that ,christ is the ,saviour of all men1 especially of them that believe20 and that1 consequently1 they are authorized to offer salvation to all1 and to preach the ,gospel to every creature40 ,they hold justification by faith4 ,justification10 says ,mr4 ,wesley1 8sometimes means our acquittal at the last day1 ,matt4 xii1 #cg3 but this is altogether out of the present question2 for that justification whereof our ,articles and ,homilies speak1 signifies present forgiveness1 pardon of sins1 and consequently acceptance with ,god1 who therein declares his righteousness1 or justice1 and mercy1 by or for the remission of sins that are past1 ,romans iii1 #be1 saying1 #8,i will be merciful to thy unrighteousness1 and thine iniquities ,i will remember no more4' ,i believe the condition of this is faith1 ,rom4 iv1 #e1 c2 ,i mean1 not only that without faith we cannot be justified1 but also that as soon as any one has true faith1 in that moment he is justified4 ,faith1 in general1 is a divine supernatural evidence1 or conviction1 of things not seen1 not discoverable by our bodily senses1 as being either past1 future1 or spiritual4 ,justifying faith implies1 not only a divine evidence1 or conviction1 that #8,god was in ,christ1 reconciling the world unto himself1' but a full reliance on the merits of his death1 a sure confidence that ,christ died for my sins2 that he loved me1 and gave himself for me3 and the moment a penitent sinner believes this1 ,god pardons and absolves him40 ,this faith1 ,mr4 ,wesley affirms1 8is the gift of ,god4 ,no man is able to work it in himself4 ,it is a work of ,omnipotence4 ,it requires no less power thus to quicken a dead soul1 than to raise a body that lies in the grave4 ,it is a new creation2 and none can create a soul anew but ,he who at first created the heavens and the earth4 ,it is the free gift of ,god1 which he bestows not on those who are worthy of his favour1 not on such as are previously holy1 and so fit to be crowned with all the blessings of his goodness2 but on the ungodly and unholy1 on those who till that hour were fit only for everlasting destruction2 those in whom is no good thing1 and whose only plea was1 #8,god be merciful to me1 a sinner6' ,no merit1 no goodness1 in man1 precedes the forgiving love of ,god4 ,his pardoning mercy supposes nothing in us but a sense of mere sin and misery2 and to all who see and feel and own their wants1 and their utter inability to remove them1 ,god freely gives faith1 for the sake of ,him in whom he is always well pleased4 ,good works follow this faith1 ,luke vi1 #dc1 but cannot go before it2 much less can sanctification1 which implies a continued course of good works springing from holiness of heart40 ,as to repentance he insisted that it is conviction of sin1 and that repentance1 and works meet for repentance1 go before justifying faith2 but he held1 with the church of ,england1 that all works1 before justification1 had the nature of sin20 and that1 as they had no root in the love of ,god1 which can only arise from a persuasion of his being reconciled to us1 they could not constitute a moral worthiness preparatory to pardon4 ,that true repentance springs from the grace of ,god1 is most certain2 but1 whatever fruits it may bring forth1 it changes not man's relation to ,god4 ,he is a sinner1 and is justified as such2 for it is not a saint1 but a sinner1 that is forgiven1 and under the notion of a sinner40 ,god justifieth the ungodly1 not the godly4 ,repentance1 according to his statement1 is necessary to true faith2 but faith alone is the direct and immediate instrument of pardon4 ,they hold also the direct internal testimony of the ,holy ,spirit to the believer's adoption2 for an exposition of which see ,,holy ,,spirit4 ,they maintain also that1 by virtue of the blood of ,jesus ,christ1 and the operations of the ,holy ,spirit1 it is their privilege to arrive at that maturity in grace1 and participation of the divine nature1 which excludes sin from the heart1 and fills it with perfect love to ,god and man4 ,this they denominate ,christian perfection4 ,on this doctrine ,mr4 ,wesley observes1 8,christian perfection does not imply an exemption from ignorance or mistake1 infirmities or temptations2 but it implies the being so crucified with ,christ1 as to be able to testify1 #8,i live not1 but ,christ liveth in me1' ,gal4 ii1 #bc1 and #8hath purified their hearts by faith1' ,acts xv1 #i40 ,again3 ,to explain myself a little farther on this head3 #a4 ,not only sin1 properly so called1 that is1 a voluntary transgression of a known law2 but sin1 improperly so called1 that is1 an involuntary transgression of a divine law known or unknown1 needs the atoning blood4 #b4 ,i believe there is no such perfection in this life as excludes these involuntary transgressions1 which ,i apprehend to be naturally consequent on the ignorance and mistakes inseparable from mortality4 #c4 ,therefore1 sinless perfection is a phrase ,i never use1 lest ,i should seem to contradict myself4 #d4 ,i believe a person filled with the love of ,god is still liable to these involuntary transgressions4 #e4 ,such transgressions you may call sins1 if you please2 ,i do not1 for the reasons above mentioned40 ,the rules of the ,methodist societies have been already given2 but1 in order to have a general view of their ecclesiastical economy1 it must be remarked1 that a number of these societies united together form what is called a circuit4 ,a circuit generally includes a large market town1 and the circumjacent villages to the extent of ten or fifteen miles4 ,to one circuit two or three1 and sometimes four1 preachers are appointed1 one of whom is styled the superintendent2 and this is the sphere of their labour for at least one year1 or not more than three years4 ,once a quarter the preachers meet all the classes1 and speak personally to each member4 ,those who have walked orderly the preceding quarter then receive a ticket4 ,these tickets are in some respects analogous to the tesser of the ancients1 and answer all the purposes of the commendatory letters spoken of by the ,apostle4 ,their chief use is to prevent imposture4 ,after the visitation of the classes a meeting is held1 consisting of all the preachers1 leaders1 and stewards in the circuit4 ,at this meeting the stewards deliver their collections to a circuit steward1 and every thing relating to temporal matters is publicly settled4 ,at this meeting the candidates for the ministry are proposed1 and the stewards1 after officiating a definite period1 are changed4 ,a number of circuits1 from five to ten1 more or fewer1 according to their extent1 form a district1 the preachers of which meet annually4 ,every district has a chairman1 who fixes the time of meeting4 ,these assemblies have authority1 #a4 ,to examine candidates for the ministry1 and probationers1 and to try and suspend preachers who are found immoral1 erroneous in doctrine1 or deficient in abilities4 #b4 ,to decide concerning the building of chapels4 #c4 ,to examine the demands from the poorer circuits respecting the support of the preachers and of their families1 from the public funds4 #d4 ,to elect a representative to attend and form a committee to sit previously to the meeting of the conference1 in order to prepare a draught of the stations of all the preachers for the ensuing year4 ,the judgment of this meeting is conclusive until conference1 to which an appeal is allowed in all cases4 ,the conference1 strictly speaking1 consists only of a hundred of the senior preachers1 according to the arrangements prescribed in a deed of declaration1 executed by ,mr4 ,wesley1 and enrolled in chancery4 ,but the preachers elected at the preceding district meetings as representatives1 the superintendents of the circuits1 and such preachers as the districts allow to attend1 sit and vote usually as one body4 ,at the conference1 every preacher's character undergoes the strictest scrutiny2 and if any charge be proved against him1 he is dealt with accordingly4 ,the preachers are also stationed1 the proceedings of the subordinate meetings reviewed1 and the state of the connection at large is considered4 ,the conference is commonly held in ,london1 ,leeds1 ,bristol1 ,manchester1 ,liverpool1 and ,sheffield1 in rotation1 at the latter end of ,july4 ,by the minutes of the last conference1 #ahca1 it appears that this religious body had three hundred and sixty-three circuits in ,england1 ,wales1 and ,scotland2 forty-five in ,ireland2 and a hundred and fifty-six mission stations1 most of them being also circuits1 in ,sweden1 ,france1 the ,mediterranean1 ,continental ,india1 ,ceylon1 the ,south ,seas1 ,africa1 the ,west ,indies1 and ,british ,america4 ,the number of members in the societies were1 in ,great ,britain1 two hundred and forty-nine thousand one hundred and nineteen2 in ,ireland1 twenty-two thousand four hundred and seventy2 in the foreign stations1 forty-two thousand seven hundred and forty-three4 ,their regular preachers were eight hundred and forty-six in ,great ,britain2 in ,ireland1 a hundred and forty-six2 in foreign stations1 exclusive of catechists1 a hundred and eighty-seven4 ,the preceding account1 so far as it respects the original history1 the doctrines1 and the moral discipline of ,wesleyan ,methodists1 is equally applicable to those in ,america and in ,europe4 ,the ,methodist ,episcopal ,church in the ,united ,states1 however1 which became a distinct and independent church in the year #aghd1 differs considerably in its organization1 and in the details of its ecclesiastical economy1 from the ,british ,wesleyan connection4 ,the circuits1 into which the whole field of labour occupied by the itinerant ministry is divided1 are in general much larger1 nor is any preacher allowed to remain on them more than two years successively4 ,of these circuits1 from five or six to fifteen or more1 according to circumstances1 constitute a district4 ,of the districts1 from four or five to six or eight1 usually1 comprise the tract of country embraced within the boundaries of an annual conference2 and of annual conferences1 the whole of the ,united ,states and ,territories1 agreeably to the minutes of the last year1 7#ahca17 were divided into nineteen4 ,from all these annual conferences1 delegates1 in a certain prescribed ratio1 are sent once in four years to constitute a general conference1 the highest ecclesiastical assemblage among ,american ,wesleyan ,methodists4 ,the minister or preacher first named of those appointed to each circuit or station1 is thereby invested with the pastoral charge thereof1 and is usually denominated the preacher in charge4 ,each district is committed to the care of an elder1 denominated the presiding elder1 who is appointed annually1 and may remain four years successively on a district1 but not longer2 and all the districts comprising the whole extent of the church1 are under the general superintendence of the bishops4 ,these at present1 7,april1 #ahcb17 are four in number1 and like all others of our stated ministry1 are required to be itinerant4 ,if they cease to travel at large1 without the consent of the general conference1 they forfeit the exercise of their episcopal functions4 ,their visitations are annual and alternate1 on a preconcerted plan1 through the bounds of the entire work4 ,they preside in the annual and general conferences1 station the preachers1 with 7by established usage7 the counsel of the presiding elders1 and are jointly and severally responsible to the general conference for their administration and conduct4 7,see also the articles ,,episcopalians10 and ,,imposition ,,of ,,hands407 ,for a more minute detail of the ecclesiastical economy1 spiritual and temporal1 of ,american ,wesleyan ,methodists1 7which would lead us too far for a work of this sort17 reference may be had to the small volume published at the ,conference ,office1 entitled #8,the ,doctrines and ,discipline of the ,methodist ,episcopal ,church4' ,by the minutes of the annual conferences for the last year1 7#ahca17 there were in the communion of the ,methodist ,episcopal ,church in the ,united ,states1 five hundred and thirteen thousand one hundred and twenty-four members2 of whom four hundred and thirty-seven thousand and twenty-four were whites1 seventy-one thousand five hundred and eighty-nine coloured1 and four thousand five hundred and one ,indians4 ,the number of itinerant ministers was two thousand and ten1 of whom one hundred and thirty four were superannuated1 or worn out4 ,in addition to these1 there are also several thousand local ministers and preachers1 many of whom were once itinerant2 and who1 though not statedly devoted to the work of the ministerial office1 as the itinerant ministers are1 yet1 by their valuable services on the ,sabbath1 or at other times occasionally in their respective vicinities1 constitute an important auxiliary branch of the system1 and contribute much to its compactness and efficiency4 ,beside the above1 there are in the ,united ,states several smaller associations of persons bearing the name of ,methodists1 who hold and teach1 in general1 the doctrines of ,wesleyan ,methodists1 but are not in connection with the ,methodist ,episcopal ,church1 and differ from it in various points of ecclesiastical economy and discipline4 ,the ,wesleyan ,methodists in ,upper ,canada1 who were formerly in connection with the church in the ,united ,states1 have recently1 with the consent of the general conference of the latter body1 been constituted a distinct church1 under an episcopal form4 ,its organization1 however1 has not yet been completed by the consecration of a bishop1 though we understand that a reverend individual has been selected1 who will probably shortly be set apart for that holy office4 ,this branch of the ,american ,wesleyan ,methodists1 agreeably to their minutes for the year #ahca1 consisted of sixty-five itinerant ministers1 and twelve thousand five hundred and sixty-three members2 of whom one thousand two hundred and thirty-three were ,indians4 ,,methuselah1 the son of ,enoch1 and father of ,lamech1 ,gen4 v1 #ba4 ,he was born ,a4 ,m4 #fhg1 and died ,a4 ,m4 #afef1 being the very year of the deluge1 at the age of nine hundred and sixty-nine1 the greatest age to which any mortal man ever attained4 ,,micah1 the seventh in order of the twelve lesser prophets1 is supposed to have prophesied about ,b4 ,c4 #gej4 ,he was commissioned to denounce the judgments of ,god against both the kingdoms of ,judah and ,israel1 for their idolatry and wickedness4 ,the principal predictions contained in this book are1 the invasions of ,shalmanezer and ,sennecharib2 the destruction of ,samaria and of ,jerusalem1 mixed with consolatory promises of the deliverance of the ,jews from the ,babylonian captivity1 and of the downfall of the power of their ,assyrian and ,babylonian oppressors2 the cessation of prophecy in consequence of their continued deceitfulness and hypocrisy2 and a desolation in a then distant period1 still greater than that which was declared to be impending4 ,the birth of the ,messiah at ,bethlehem is also expressly foretold2 and the ,jews are directed to look to the establishment and extent of his kingdom1 as an unfailing source of comfort amidst general distress4 ,the style of ,micah is nervous1 concise1 and elegant1 often elevated1 and poetical1 but sometimes obscure from sudden transitions of subject2 and the contrast of the neglected duties of justice1 mercy1 humility1 and piety1 with the punctilious observance of the ceremonial sacrifices1 affords a beautiful example of the harmony which subsists between the ,mosaic and ,christian dispensations1 and shows that the law partook of that spiritual nature which more immediately characterizes the religion of ,jesus4 ,the prophecy of ,micah1 contained in the fifth chapter1 is1 perhaps the most important single prophecy in all the ,old ,testament1 and the most comprehensive respecting the personal character of the ,messiah1 and his successive manifestations to the world4 ,it crowns the whole chain of predictions respecting the several limitations of the promised seed3 to the line of ,shem2 to the family of ,abraham1 of ,isaac1 and of ,jacob2 to the tribe of ,judah2 and to the royal house of ,david1 terminating in his birth at ,bethlehem1 the city of ,david40 ,it carefully distinguishes his human nativity from his divine nature and eternal existence2 foretels the casting off of the ,israelites and ,jews for a season2 their ultimate restoration2 and the universal peace which should prevail in the kingdom and under the government of the ,messiah4 ,this prophecy1 therefore1 forms the basis of the ,new ,testament revelation which commences with the birth of the ,messiah at ,bethlehem1 the miraculous circumstances of which are recorded by ,st4 ,matthew and ,st4 ,luke in the introduction to their respective histories2 the eternal subsistence of ,christ as the ,word10 in the sublime introduction to ,st4 ,john's ,gospel2 his prophetic character and second coming1 illustrated in the four ,gospels and in the apostolic epistles4 ,,michael4 ,see ,,archangel4 ,,midian1 ,,land ,,of1 a country of the ,midianites1 derived its name and its inhabitants from ,midian1 the son of ,abraham by ,keturah4 ,this country extended from the east of the land of ,moab1 on the east of the ,dead ,sea1 southward1 along the ,elanitic gulf of the ,red ,sea1 stretching some way into ,arabia4 ,it farther passed to the south of the land of ,edom1 into the peninsula of ,mount ,sinai1 where ,moses met with the daughter of ,jethro1 the priest of ,midian1 whom he married4 ,the ,midianites1 together with their neighbours1 the ,ishmaelites1 were early engaged in the trade between the east and the west1 as we find the party to whom ,joseph was sold1 carrying spices1 the produce of the east1 into ,egypt2 and1 taking ,gilead in their way1 to add the celebrated and highly prized balm of that country to their merchandise4 ,it appears that1 at the time of the passage of the ,israelites through the country of the ,amorites1 the ,midianites had been subdued by that people1 as the chiefs or kings of their five principal tribes are called dukes of ,sihon1 and dwelt in his country1 ,joshua xiii1 #ba4 ,it was at this time that the ,midianites1 alarmed at the numbers and the progress of the ,israelites1 united with the ,moabites in sending into ,syria for ,balaam1 the soothsayer2 thinking to do that by incantation which they despaired of effecting by force4 ,the result of this measure1 the constraint imposed on ,balaam to bless instead of to curse1 and the subsequent defeat and slaughter of the ,midianites1 forms one of the most interesting narratives in the early history of the ,jews1 ,num4 xxii-xxv1 xxxi4 ,about two hundred years after this1 the ,midianites1 having recovered their numbers and their strength1 were permitted by ,god to distress the ,israelites for the space of seven years1 as a punishment for their relapse into idolatry4 ,but at length their armies1 like grasshoppers for multitude1 with camels out of number as sand by the sea side for multitude10 which had encamped in the valley of ,jezreel1 were miraculously defeated by ,gideon1 ,judges vi-viii4 ,the ,midianites appear not to have survived this second discomfiture as a nation2 but their remains became gradually incorporated with the ,moabites and ,arabians4 ,,migdol4 ,moses writes1 that when the ,israelites came out of ,egypt1 the ,lord commanded them to encamp over against ,pihahiroth1 between ,migdol and the sea1 over against ,baal-,zephon1 ,exod4 xiv1 #b4 ,it is not known whether this ,migdol was a city1 or only a fortress3 probably the latter1 in which a garrison was stationed4 ,,mile1 a measure of length1 containing a thousand paces4 ,eight stadia or furlongs make a mile4 ,the ,romans commonly measured by miles1 and the ,greeks by furlongs4 ,the furlong was a hundred and twenty-five paces2 the pace was five feet4 ,the ancient ,hebrews had neither miles1 furlongs1 nor feet1 but only the cubit1 the reed1 and the line4 ,the rabbins make a mile to consist of two thousand cubits1 and four miles make a parasang4 ,,miletus1 a city on the continent of ,asia ,minor1 and in the province of ,caria1 memorable for being the birthplace of ,thales1 one of the seven wise men of ,greece1 of ,anaximander and ,anaximines1 the philosophers1 and of ,timotheus1 the musician4 ,it was about thirty-six miles south of ,ephesus1 and the capital of both ,caria and ,ionia4 ,the ,milesians were subdued by the ,persians1 and the country passed successively into the power of the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,at present the ,turks call it ,molas1 and it is not far distant from the true ,meander1 which encircles all the plain with many mazes1 and innumerable windings4 ,it was to this place that ,st4 ,paul called the elders of the church of ,ephesus1 to deliver his last charge to them1 ,acts xx1 #ae1 c4 ,there was another ,miletus in ,crete1 mentioned #b ,tim4 iv1 #bj4 ,,mill4 ,in the first ages they parched or roasted their grain2 a practice which the people of ,israel1 as we learn from the ,scriptures1 long continued3 afterward they pounded it in a mortar1 to which ,solomon thus alludes3 ,though thou shouldest bray a fool in a mortar among wheat with a pestle1 yet will not his foolishness depart from him10 ,prov4 xxvii1 #bb4 ,this was succeeded by mills1 similar to the hand mills formerly used in this country1 of which there were two sorts3 the first were large1 and turned by the strength of horses or asses2 the second were smaller1 and wrought by men1 commonly by slaves condemned to this hard labour1 as a punishment for their crimes4 ,chardin remarks1 in his manuscript1 that the persons employed are generally female slaves1 who are least regarded1 or are least fitted for any thing else2 for the work is extremely laborious1 and esteemed the lowest employment about the house4 ,most of their corn is ground by these little mills1 although they sometimes make use of large mills1 wrought by oxen or camels4 ,near ,ispahan1 and some of the other great cities of ,persia1 he saw water mills2 but he did not meet with a single wind mill in the east4 ,almost every family grind their wheat and barley at home1 having two portable mill stones for that purpose2 of which the uppermost is turned round by a small handle of wood or iron that is placed in the rim4 ,when this stone is large1 or expedition is required1 a second person is called in to assist2 and as it is usual for the women only to be concerned in this employment1 who seat themselves over against each other1 with the mill stone between them1 we may see the propriety of the expression in the declaration of ,moses3 ,and all the first-born in the land of ,egypt shall die1 from the first-born of ,pharaoh that sitteth upon his throne even unto the first-born of the maid-servant that is behind the mill10 ,exod4 xi1 #e4 ,the manner in which the hand mills are worked is well described by ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke1 in his ,travels3 8,scarcely had we reached the apartment prepared for our reception1 when1 looking from the window into the court yard belonging to the house1 we beheld two women grinding at the mill1 in a manner most forcibly illustrating the saying of our ,saviour3 #8,two women shall be grinding at the mill1 the one shall be taken and the other left4' ,they were preparing flour to make our bread1 as it is always customary in the country when strangers arrive4 ,the two women1 seated upon the ground opposite to each other1 held between them two round flat stones1 such as are seen in ,lapland1 and such as in ,scotland are called querns4 ,in the centre of the upper stone was a cavity for pouring in the corn1 and by the side of this an upright wooden handle for moving the stone4 ,as this operation began1 one of the women opposite received it from her companion1 who pushed it toward her1 who again sent it to her companion2 thus communicating a rotatory motion to the upper stone1 their left hands being all the while employed in supplying fresh corn1 as fast as the bran and flour escaped from the sides of the machine40 ,when they are not impelled1 as in this instance1 to premature exertions by the arrival of strangers1 they grind their corn in the morning at break of day3 the noise of the mill is then to be heard every where1 and is often so great as to rouse the inhabitants of the cities from their slumbers2 for it is well known they bake their bread every day1 and commonly grind their corn as it is wanted4 ,the noise of the mill stone is therefore1 with great propriety1 selected by the prophet as one of the tokens of a populous and thriving country3 ,moreover1 ,i will take from them the voice of mirth1 and the voice of gladness1 the voice of the bridegroom and the voice of the bride1 the sound of mill stones and the light of a candle1 and their whole land shall be a desolation10 ,jer4 xxv1 #aj4 ,the morning shall no more be cheered with the joyful sound of the mill1 nor the shadows of evening by the light of a candle2 the morning shall be silent1 and the evening dark and melancholy1 where desolation reigns4 ,at the earliest dawn of the morning10 says ,mr4 ,forbes1 in all the ,hindoo towns and villages1 the hand mills are at work1 when the menials and widows grind meal for the daily consumption of the family3 this work is always performed by women1 who resume their task every morning1 especially the forlorn ,hindoo widows1 divested of every ornament1 and with their heads shaved1 degraded to almost a state of servitude40 ,how affecting1 then1 is the call to the daughter of ,babylon6--8,come down1 and sit in the dust1 ,o daughter of ,babylon1 sit on the ground3 there is no throne1 ,o daughter of the ,chaldeans2 for thou shalt no more be called tender and delicate4 ,take the mill stones1 and grind meal2 uncover thy locks1 make bare the leg1 uncover the thigh1 pass over the rivers10 ,isaiah xlvii1 #a1 #b4 ,the custom of daily grinding their corn for the family1 shows the propriety of the law3 8,no man shall take the nether or the upper mill stone to pledge1 for he taketh a man's life to pledge20 because if he take either the upper or the nether mill stone1 he deprives him of his daily provision1 which cannot be prepared without them4 ,that complete and perpetual desolation which1 by the just allotment of ,heaven1 is ere long to overtake the mystical ,babylon1 is clearly signified by the same precept3 ,the sound of the mill stone shall be heard no more at all in thee10 ,rev4 xviii1 #bb4 ,the means of subsistence being entirely destroyed1 no human creature shall ever occupy the ruined habitations more4 ,in the book of ,judges1 the sacred historian alludes1 with characteristic accuracy1 to several circumstances implied in that custom1 where he describes the fall of ,abimelech4 ,a woman of ,thebez1 driven to desperation by his furious attack on the tower1 started up from the mill at which she was grinding1 seized the upper mill stone1 1 and1 rushing to the top of the gate1 cast it on his head1 and fractured his skull4 ,this was the feat of a woman1 for the mill is worked only by females2 it was not a piece of a mill stone1 but the rider1 the distinguishing name of the upper mill stone1 which literally rides upon the other1 and is a piece or division of the mill3 it was a stone of two feet broad1 and therefore fully sufficient1 when thrown from such a height1 to produce the effect mentioned in the narrative4 ,it displays1 also1 the vindictive contempt which suggested the punishment of ,samson1 the captive ruler of ,israel1 that the ,philistines1 with barbarous contumely1 compelled him to perform the meanest service of a female slave2 they sent him to grind in the prison1 ,judges xvi1 #ba1 but not for himself alone2 this1 although extremely mortifying to the hero1 had been more tolerable2 they made him grinder for the prison1 perhaps while the vilest malefactor was permitted to look on1 and join in the mockery4 ,samson1 the ruler and avenger of ,israel1 labours1 as ,isaiah foretold the virgin daughter of ,babylon should labour3 ,come down1 and sit in the dust1 ,o virgin daughter of ,babylon3 there is no throne10 no seat for thee1 ,o daughter of the ,chaldeans4 ,take the mill stones and grind meal10 but not with the wonted song2 ,sit thou silent1 and get thee into darkness10 there to conceal thy vexation and disgrace1 ,isaiah xlvii1 #a1 #b1 #e4 ,the females engaged in this operation1 endeavoured to beguile the lingering hours of toilsome exertion with a song4 ,we learn from an expression of ,aristophanes1 preserved by ,athenus1 that the ,grecian maidens accompanied the sound of the mill stones with their voices4 ,this circumstance imparts force to the description of the prophet1 the light of a candle was no more to be seen in the evening2 the sound of the mill stones1 the indication of plenty1 and the song of the grinders1 the natural expression of joy and happiness1 were no more to be heard at the dawn4 ,the grinding of corn at so early an hour throws light on a passage of considerable obscurity3 ,and the sons of ,rimmon the ,beerothite1 ,rechab and ,baanah1 went1 and came about the heat of the day to the house of ,ishbosheth1 who lay on a bed at noon2 and they came thither into the midst of the house1 as though they would have fetched wheat1 and they smote him under the fifth rib2 and ,rechab and ,baanah his brother escaped10 #b ,sam4 iv1 #e-g4 ,it is still a custom in the east1 according to ,dr4 ,perry1 to allow their soldiers a certain quantity of corn1 with other articles of provisions1 together with some pay2 and as it was the custom1 also1 to carry their corn to the mill at break of day1 these two captains very naturally went to the palace the day before to fetch wheat1 in order to distribute it to the soldiers1 that it might be sent to the mill at the accustomed hour in the morning4 ,the princes of the east in those days1 as the history of ,david shows1 lounged in their divan1 or reposed on their couch1 till the cool of the evening began to advance4 ,rechab and ,baanah1 therefore1 came in the heat of the day1 when they knew that ,ishbosheth1 their master1 would be resting on his bed2 and as it was necessary1 for the reason just given1 to have the corn the day before it was needed1 their coming at that time1 though it might be a little earlier than usual1 created no suspicion1 and attracted no notice4 ,,millenarians are those who believe1 according to an ancient tradition in the church1 grounded on some doubtful texts in the book of ,revelation and other scriptures1 that our ,saviour shall reign a thousand years with the faithful upon earth after the first resurrection1 before the full completion of final happiness2 and their name1 taken from the ,latin word mille1 a thousand10 has a direct allusion to the duration of this spiritual empire1 which is styled the millennium4 ,a millennium1 or a future paradisaical state of the earth1 is viewed by some as a doctrine not of ,christian1 but of ,jewish1 origin4 ,the tradition which fixes the duration of the world1 in its present imperfect state1 to six thousand years1 and announces the approach of a ,sabbath of one thousand years of universal peace and plenty1 to be ushered in by the glorious advent of the ,messiah1 has been traced up to ,elias1 a rabbinical writer1 who flourished about two centuries before the birth of ,christ4 ,it certainly obtained among the ,chaldeans from the earliest times2 and it is countenanced by ,barnabas1 ,irenus1 and other primitive writers1 and also by the ,jews at the present day4 ,but though the theory may not be very improbable1 yet1 as it has not the sanction of ,scripture to support it1 we are not bound to respect it any farther than as a doubtful tradition4 ,the ,jews understood several passages of the prophets1 as ,zechariah xiv1 #af1 c1 of the millennium2 in which1 according to their carnal apprehensions1 the ,messiah is to reign on earth1 and to bring all nations within the pale1 and under subjection to the ordinances1 of the ,jewish church4 ,justin ,martyr1 the most ancient of the fathers1 was a great supporter of the doctrine of the millennium1 or that our ,saviour shall reign with the faithful upon earth1 after the resurrection1 for a thousand years2 which he declares was the belief of all orthodox ,christians4 ,but this opinion is not generally followed2 for1 though there has been1 perhaps1 no age of the church in which this doctrine was not admitted by one or more divines of the first eminence1 it yet appears1 from the writings of ,eusebius1 ,irenus1 and others among the ancients1 as well as from the histories of ,dupin1 ,mosheim1 and other moderns1 that it was never adopted by the whole church1 nor formed an article of the established creed in any nation4 ,origen1 the most learned of the fathers1 and ,dionysius1 bishop of ,alexandria1 usually1 for his immense erudition1 surnamed the ,great1 both opposed the doctrine that prevailed on the subject in their day2 and ,dr4 ,whitby1 in his learned treatise on the subject1 proves1 first1 that the millennium was never generally received in the church of ,christ2 and1 secondly1 that there is no just ground to think it was derived from the ,apostles4 ,on the other hand1 ,dr4 ,t4 ,burnet and others maintain that it was very generally admitted till the ,nicene council1 in #cbe1 or till the fourth century4 ,the doctor supposes ,dionysius of ,alexandria1 who wrote against ,nepos1 an ,egyptian bishop1 before the middle of the third century1 to have been the first that attacked this doctrine2 but ,origen had previously assailed it in many of his fictitious additions4 ,the truth seems to be1 as one well remarks1 that a spiritual reign of ,christ was believed by all who carefully examined the ,scriptures1 though the popular notions of the millennium were often rejected2 and ancient as well as modern writers assailed the extravagant superstructure1 not the ,scriptural foundation of the doctrine40 ,during the interregnum in ,england1 in the time of ,cromwell1 there arose a set of enthusiasts sometimes called ,millenarians1 but more frequently ,fifth ,monarchy ,men1 who expected the sudden appearance of ,christ1 to establish on earth a new monarchy or kingdom4 ,in consequence of this1 some of them aimed at the subversion of all human government4 ,in ancient history we read of four great monarchies2 the ,assyrian1 ,persian1 ,grecian1 and the ,roman2 and these men1 believing that this new spiritual kingdom of ,christ was to be the fifth1 obtained the name by which they were called4 ,they claimed to be the saints of ,god1 and to have the dominion of saints1 ,dan4 vii1 #bg2 expecting that1 when ,christ was come into this kingdom1 to begin his reign on earth1 they1 as his deputies1 were to govern all things under him4 ,they went so far as to give up their own ,christian names1 and assume others from ,scripture1 like the ,manicheans of old4 ,the opinions of the moderns on this subject may be reduced to two3 #a4 ,some believe that ,christ will reign personally on the earth1 and that the prophecies of the millennium point to a resurrection of martyrs and other just men1 to reign with him a thousand years in a visible kingdom4 #b4 ,others are inclined to believe that1 by the reign of ,christ and the saints for a thousand years on earth1 nothing more is meant than that1 before the general judgment1 the ,jews shall be converted1 genuine ,christianity be diffused through all nations1 and mankind enjoy that peace and happiness which the faith and precepts of the ,gospel are calculated to confer on all by whom they are sincerely embraced40 ,the state of the ,christian church1 say they1 will be1 for a thousand years before the general judgment1 so pure and so widely extended1 that1 when compared with the state of the world in the ages preceding1 it may1 in the language of ,scripture1 be called a resurrection from the dead4 ,in support of this interpretation1 they quote two passages from ,st4 ,paul1 in which a conversion from ,paganism to ,christianity1 and a reformation of life is called a resurrection from the dead10 ,rom4 vi1 #ac2 ,ephesians v1 #ad4 ,there is1 indeed1 an order in the resurrection1 #a ,cor4 xv1 #bd2 but we no where observe mention made of a first and second resurrection at the distance of a thousand years from each other3 yet1 were the millenarian hypothesis well founded1 the words should rather have run thus3 ,christ1 the first-fruits1 then the martyrs at his coming1 and a thousand years afterward the residue of mankind1--then cometh the end10 c4 ,mr4 ,joseph ,mede1 ,dr4 ,gill1 ,bishop ,newton1 ,mr4 ,winchester1 ,mr4 ,eyre1 ,mr4 ,kett1 and a host of writers recently1 are advocates for the first of these opinions1 and contend for the personal reign of ,christ on earth4 ,when these great events shall come to pass10 says ,bishop ,newton1 8of which we collect from the prophecies this to be the proper order1--the ,protestant witnesses shall be greatly exalted1 and the twelve hundred and sixty years of their prophesying in sackcloth1 and of the tyranny of the beast1 shall end together2 the conversion and restoration of the ,jews succeed2 then follows the ruin of the ,ottoman empire2 and then the total destruction of ,rome and of antichrist4 ,when these great events1 ,i say1 shall come to pass1 then shall the kingdom of ,christ commence1 or the reign of saints upon earth4 ,so ,daniel expressly informs us that the kingdom of ,christ and the saints will be raised upon the ruins of the kingdom of antichrist1 ,daniel vii1 #bf1 #bg4 ,so likewise ,st4 ,john saith1 that1 upon the final destruction of the beast and of the false prophet1 #8,satan is bound1' c1 ,rev4 xx1 #b-f4 ,it is1 ,i conceive1 to these great events1 the fall of antichrist1 the restablishment of the ,jews1 and the beginning of the glorious millennium1 that the three different dates in ,daniel1 of twelve hundred and sixty years1 twelve hundred and ninety years1 and thirteen hundred and thirty-five years1 are to be referred4 ,and1 as ,daniel saith1 #8,blessed is he that waiteth1 and cometh to the thirteen hundred and thirty-five years1' ,daniel xii1 #ab3 so ,st4 ,john saith1 #8,blessed and holy is he that hath part in the first resurrection1' ,rev4 xx1 #f4 ,blessed and happy1 indeed1 will be this period2 and it is very observable1 that the martyrs and confessors of ,jesus1 in papist as well as ,pagan times1 will be raised to partake of this felicity4 ,then shall all those gracious promises in the ,old ,testament be fulfilled1 of the amplitude and extent of the peace and prosperity1 of the glory and happiness1 of the church in the latter days4 ,then1 in the full sense of the words1 #8shall the kingdoms of this world become the kingdoms of our ,lord1 and of his ,christ1 and he shall reign for ever and ever1' ,rev4 xi1 #ae4 ,according to tradition1 these thousand years of the reign of ,christ and the saints will be the seventh millenary of the world2 for1 as ,god created the world in six days1 and rested on the seventh1 so the world1 it is argued1 will continue six thousand years1 and the seventh thousand will be the great sabbatism1 or holy rest of the people of ,god2 #8one day being with the ,lord as a thousand years1 and a thousand years as one day1' #b ,pet4 iii1 #h4 ,according to tradition1 too1 these thousand years of the reign of ,christ and the saints are the great day of judgment1 in the morning or beginning whereof shall be the coming of ,christ in flaming fire1 and the particular judgment of antichrist1 and the first resurrection2 and in the evening or conclusion whereof shall be the general resurrection of the dead1 small and great2 #8and they shall be judged every man according to his works4'0 ,such is the representation of the millennium1 as given by those who embrace the opinion of ,christ's reigning personally on earth during the period of one thousand years4 ,but ,dr4 ,whitby1 ,mr4 ,lowman1 c1 contend against the literal interpretation of the millennium1 both as to its nature and duration4 ,mr4 ,faber observes that1 8respecting the yet future and mysterious millennium1 the less that is said upon the subject the better4 ,unable myself to form the slightest conception of its specific nature1 ,i shall weary neither my own nor my reader's patience with premature remarks upon it4 ,that it will be a season of great blessedness1 is certain2 farther than this we know nothing definitely40 ,the millenarians do not form a sect distinct from others2 but their distinguishing tenet1 in one view or other1 prevails1 in a greater or less degree1 among most denominations into which the ,christian world is divided4 ,the following observations from ,jones's ,biblical ,cyclopdia are worthy great attention for their sobriety3--,some have supposed that the passage1 ,rev4 xx1 #d1 is to be taken literally1 as importing that at that time ,jesus ,christ will come1 in his human nature1 from heaven to earth1 and set his kingdom up here1 reigning visibly and personally1 with distinguished glory on earth2 that the bodies of the martyrs1 and of other eminent ,christians will then be raised from the dead1 in which they shall live and reign with ,christ here on earth a thousand years4 ,and some suppose1 that all the saints1 the true friends to ,god and ,christ1 who have lived before that time1 will then be raised from the dead1 and live on earth perfectly holy1 during this thousand years4 ,and this they suppose is meant by the first resurrection4 ,those who agree in general in this notion of the millennium differ with respect to many circumstances1 which it is needless to mention here4 ,others have understood this paragraph of ,scripture in a figurative sense3 that by this reign of ,christ on earth1 is not meant his coming from heaven to earth in his human visible nature2 but his taking to himself his power1 and utterly overthrowing the kingdom of ,satan1 and setting up his own kingdom throughout the world which1 before this1 had been confined to very narrow bounds2 subduing all hearts to a willing subjection1 and thus reigning generally over the men who shall then be in the world1 and live in that thousand years4 ,and by the souls of them which were beheaded for the witness of ,jesus1 and for the word of ,god1 and which had not worshipped the beast1 neither his image1 neither had received his mark upon their foreheads1 or in their hands10 living again and reigning with ,christ a thousand years2 they suppose1 is not meant a literal resurrection1 or the resurrection of their bodies1 which is not asserted here1 as there is nothing said of their bodies1 or of their being raised to life2 but that they shall live again1 and reign with ,christ1 in the revival1 prosperity1 reign1 and triumph of that cause and interest in which they lived1 and for the promotion of which they died2 and in whose death the cause seemed to languish and become extinct4 ,thus they shall live again in their successors1 who shall arise and stand up with the same spirit1 and in the same cause1 in which they lived and died1 agreeable to ancient prophecies4 ,the meek shall inherit the earth40 ,and the kingdom and dominion1 and the greatness of the kingdom under the whole heaven1 shall be given to the people of the saints of the ,most ,high2 whose kingdom is an everlasting kingdom1 and all dominions shall serve him40 ,and they suppose that this revival of the cause of ,christ1 by the numerous inhabitants of the earth rising up to a new and holy life1 is that which is here called the first resurrection1 in distinction from the second1 which will consist in the resurrection of the body2 whereas this is a spiritual resurrection2 a resurrection of the cause of ,christ1 which had been1 in a great degree1 dead and lost2 a resurrection of the souls of men1 by the renovation of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,that this important passage of ,scripture is to be understood in the figurative sense1 last mentioned1 is probable1 and the following considerations are thought sufficient to support it3-- #a4 ,most if not all the prophecies in this book are delivered in figurative language1 referring to types and events recorded in the ,old ,testament2 and in imitation of the language of the ancient prophets4 ,and this was proper1 and even necessary1 in the best manner to answer the ends of prophecy1 as might easily be shown were it necessary4 ,the first part of this passage1 all must allow1 is figurative4 ,satan cannot be bound with a literal1 material chain4 ,the key1 the great chain1 and the seal1 cannot be understood literally4 ,the whole is a figure1 and can mean no more than1 that1 when the time of the millennium arrives1 or rather previous to it1 ,jesus ,christ will lay effectual restraints on ,satan1 so that his powerful and prevailing influence1 by which he had before deceived and destroyed a great part of mankind1 shall be wholly taken from him for a thousand years4 ,and it is most natural to understand the other part of the description of this remarkable event to be represented in the same figurative language1 as the whole is a representation of one scene2 especially1 since no reason can be given why it should not be so understood4 #b4 ,to suppose that ,christ shall come in his human nature to this earth1 and live here in his whole person visible a thousand years before the day of judgment1 appears to be contrary to several passages of ,scripture4 ,the coming of ,christ1 and his appearing at the day of judgment in his human nature1 is said to be his second appearance1 answering to his first appearance1 in his human nature on earth1 from his birth to his ascension into heaven1 which was past4 ,and as it is appointed unto men once to die1 but after this the judgment3 so ,christ was once offered to bear the sins of many2 and unto them who look for him shall he appear the second time1 without sin1 unto salvation10 ,heb4 ix1 #bg1 #bh4 ,the appearance here spoken of is the appearance of ,christ at the day of judgment1 to complete the salvation of his church4 ,this could not be his appearing the second time1 were he thus to appear1 and to be bodily present in his human nature on earth1 in the time of the millennium1 which is to take place before the day of judgment4 ,the coming of ,christ does not always intend his coming visibly in his human nature2 but he is said to come1 when he destroyed the temple and nation of the ,jews1 and appeared in favour of his church4 ,so his destruction of ,heathen ,rome1 and delivering his church from that persecuting power1 was an instance of his coming4 ,and he will1 in the same way1 come to destroy antichrist1 and the kingdom of ,satan in the world1 and introduce the millennium2 and in these instances1 and others1 he may be said to appear4 ,but his coming to judgment1 and appearing to complete the final destruction of all his enemies1 and to perfect the salvation of his church1 is his last coming and appearance4 ,but if he were here on earth1 visible in his human nature1 and reigning in his glorified body1 during the millennium1 he would be already here to attend the last judgment1 and he could not be properly said to come from heaven1 and to be revealed from heaven1 because this was done a thousand years before4 ,beside1 that ,christ should come from heaven1 and appear and reign in his human nature and presence before the day of judgment1 seems to be contrary to the following scriptures3 ,for the ,lord himself shall descend from heaven with a shout1 with the voice of the archangel1 and with the trump of ,god3 and the dead in ,christ shall rise first40 ,when the ,lord ,jesus shall be revealed from heaven1 with his mighty angels1 in flaming fire1 taking vengeance on them that know not ,god10 c4 ,when he shall come to be glorified in his saints10 #a ,thess4 iv1 #af2 #b ,thess4 i1 #g1 #h1 #aj4 ,this is evidently his appearing the second time1 for the salvation of all them that look for him2 but were he on earth before this1 in the human nature1 during the time of the millennium1 how could he be said to be revealed1 to descend and come from heaven to judge the world8 #c4 ,there is nothing expressly said of the resurrection of the body in this passage4 ,the ,apostle ,john saw the souls of them which were beheaded for the witness of ,jesus1 c1 and they lived and reigned with ,christ4 ,the resurrection of the body is no where expressed in ,scripture by the soul's living4 ,and as there is nothing said of the body1 and he only saw their souls to live3 this does not appear to be a proper expression to denote the resurrection of the body1 and their living in that4 ,as this1 therefore1 does not seem to be the natural meaning of the words1 and certainly is not the necessary meaning1 we are warranted to look for another meaning1 and to acquiesce in it1 if one can be found which is more easy and natural1 and more agreeable to the whole passage and to the ,scripture in general4 ,therefore1 #d4 ,the most easy and probable meaning is1 that the souls of the martyrs1 and all the faithful followers of ,christ1 who have lived in the world1 and have died before the millennium shall commence1 shall revive and live again in their successors1 who shall rise up in the same spirit1 and in the same character1 in which they lived and died2 and in the revival and flourishing of that cause which they espoused1 and spent their lives in promoting4 ,this is therefore a spiritual resurrection1 denoting that all ,christ's people shall appear in the spirit and power of those martyrs and holy men1 who had before lived in the world1 and who shall live again in these their successors1 and in the revival of their cause1 or in the resurrection of the church1 from the very low state in which it had been before the millennium1 to a state of great prosperity and glory4 ,this is agreeable to the way of representing things in ,scripture in other instances4 ,john the ,baptist was ,elijah1 because he rose in the spirit of ,elijah1 and promoted the same cause in which ,elijah lived and died2 and ,elijah revived and lived in ,john the ,baptist1 because he went before ,christ1 in the spirit and power of ,elijah1 ,luke i1 #ag4 ,therefore ,christ says of ,john1 ,this is ,elijah who was to come10 ,matt4 xi1 #ad4 ,with regard to the nature of the millennial state1 or the blessings which shall be more particularly enjoyed during that period1 the following things seem to be marked out in prophecy3-- #a4 ,it is expressly said of those who shall partake of this first resurrection1 that they shall be blessed and holy20 by which the inspired writer seems to denote that it will be a time of eminent holiness4 ,this will constitute the peculiar glory and the source of the happiness of the millennium state1 ,zech4 xiv1 #bj1 #ba4 ,and that such will be the case1 we may infer1 also1 from the consideration1 that1 #b4 ,there is reason to expect a remarkable effusion of the ,spirit1 about the commencement of this happy period1 even as there was at the first setting up of ,christ's kingdom in the world4 ,beside the promises of the ,spirit which were accomplished in the apostolic age1 there are others which from the connection appear to refer to the time we are now speaking of4 ,thus ,isaiah1 after having described ,christ's kingdom which was set up at his first coming1 and then the succeeding desolate state of the ,jews1 represents this as continuing until the ,spirit be poured upon us from on high1 and the wilderness be a fruitful field1 and the fruitful field be counted for a forest10 ,isa4 xxxii1 #ae-ai4 ,the ,apostle ,paul1 speaking of the conversion of the ,jews at this period1 refers to a passage in ,isaiah where a promise of the ,spirit is made to them3 8,as for me1 this is my covenant with them1 saith the ,lord3 ,my ,spirit which is upon thee1 and my words which ,i have put in thy mouth1 shall not depart out of thy mouth1 nor out of the mouth of thy seed1 nor out of the mouth of thy seed's seed1 saith the ,lord1 from henceforth and for ever10 ,isa4 lix1 #bj1 #ba2 ,rom4 xi1 #bf1 #bg4 ,the ,lord having mentioned the forlorn dispersed state of ,israel throughout the nations1 among whom they had profaned his name1 promises to gather them1 cleanse them1 and give them a new heart and spirit1 and adds1 ,and ,i will put my ,spirit within you1 and cause you to walk in my statutes2 and ye shall keep my judgments and do them10 ,ezek4 xxxvi1 #bg2 xxxix1 #bh1 #bi4 ,the promise of pouring upon them the spirit of grace and supplication has also a view to this period1 ,zech4 xii1 #aj4 ,though we are not to expect the miraculous gifts of the apostolic age1 yet the work of the ,spirit will abundantly appear in qualifying men for propagating the ,gospel throughout the world1 filling them with light1 zeal1 courage1 and activity1 in that work2 in giving success and effect to the ,gospel by converting multitudes to the faith1 quickening the dead in trespasses and sins1 and translating them into the kingdom of ,christ2 and in enlightening1 quickening1 purifying1 and comforting the children of ,god1 stirring them up to greater liveliness1 love1 zeal1 activity1 and fruitfulness in his service4 #c4 ,a universal spread of the ,gospel1 diffusing the knowledge of the ,lord throughout the world in a more extensive and effectual manner than ever it was before4 ,this is repeatedly promised3 ,the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the ,lord1 as the waters cover the sea20 and this shall take place in that day when the ,gentiles shall seek to the branch of the root of ,jesse1 whose rest shall be glorious1 and when the ,lord shall set his hand again the second time to recover the remnant of his people1 and shall set up an ensign for the nations1 and shall assemble the outcasts of ,israel1 and gather together the dispersed of ,judah1 from the four corners of the earth10 ,isaiah xi1 #i-ab4 ,the same promise of the universal knowledge of the glory of the ,lord is repeated in the prophecy of ,habakkuk1 ii1 #ad4 ,this will be attended with corresponding effects3 ,all the ends of the world shall remember and turn unto the ,lord2 and all the kindreds of the nations shall worship before him10 ,psalm xxii1 #bg2 yea1 all kings shall fall down before him1 all nations shall serve him10 ,psalm lxxii1 #aa4 ,and though we may not imagine that all the inhabitants of the globe will have the true and saving knowledge of the ,lord2 yet we may expect such a universal spread of light and religious knowledge as shall root up ,pagan1 ,mohammedan1 and antichristian delusions1 and produce many good effects upon those who are not really regenerated1 by awing their minds1 taming their ferocity1 improving their morals1 and making them peaceable and humane4 #d4 ,the ,jews will then be converted to the faith of the ,messiah1 and partake with the ,gentiles of the blessings of his kingdom4 ,the ,apostle ,paul1 in the eleventh chapter of his ,epistle to the ,romans1 treats of this at large1 and confirms it from the prophecies of the ,old ,testament4 ,he is speaking of ,israel in a literal sense1 the natural posterity of ,abraham2 for he distinguishes them both from the believing ,gentiles and the ,jewish converts of his time1 and describes them as the rest who were blinded1 had stumbled and fallen1 and so had not obtained1 but were broken off and cast away1 ,rom4 xi1 #g1 #aa1 #ab1 #ae1 #ag4 ,yet he denies that they have stumbled that they should fall1 that is1 irrecoverably1 so as in no future period to be restored2 but shows that ,god's design in permitting this was1 that through their fall salvation might come unto the ,gentiles1 and that this again might provoke them to jealousy or emulation1 verse #aa4 ,he argues that if their fall and diminishing was the riches of the ,gentiles1 and the casting away of them was the reconciling of the world1 their fulness will be much more so1 and the receiving of them be life from the dead1 verses #ab1 #ae4 ,he farther argues1 that if the ,gentiles were grafted contrary to nature into a good olive tree1 how much more shall these which be the natural branches be grafted into their own olive tree80 verse #bd4 ,nor did he consider this event as merely probable1 but as absolutely certain2 for he shows that the present blindness and future conversion of that people is the mystery or hidden sense of prophecies concerning them2 and he cites two of these prophecies where the context foretels both their rejection and recovery1 ,isaiah lix1 #bj1 #ba2 xxvii1 #i4 #e4 ,the purity of visible church communion1 worship1 and discipline1 will then be restored according to the primitive apostolic pattern4 ,during the reign of antichrist a corrupted form of ,christianity was drawn over the nations1 and established in the political constitutions of the kingdoms which were subject to that monstrous power4 ,by this means the children of ,god were either mixed in visible religious communion with the profane world1 in direct opposition to the word of ,god1 or persecuted for their nonconformity4 ,in reference to this state of things1 the angel commands ,st4 ,john to leave out the court which is without the temple1 and not to measure it1 for this reason1 because it is given to the ,gentiles2 and the holy city shall they tread under foot forty and two months10 ,rev4 xi1 #b2 that is1 they shall pollute and profane the worship and communion of the church during the one thousand two hundred and sixty years of antichrist's reign1 so that it cannot be measured by the rule of ,god's word4 ,but when the period we are speaking of shall arrive1 the sanctuary shall be cleansed1 ,dan4 viii1 #ad2 the visible communion1 worship1 order1 and discipline of the house of ,god will then be restored to their primitive purity1 and accord with the rule of the ,new ,testament4 ,so it is promised to ,zion1 ,henceforth there shall no more come into thee the uncircumcised and the unclean10 ,isaiah lii1 #a4 ,thy people shall be all righteous2 they shall inherit the land for ever1 the branch of my planting1 the work of my hands1 that ,i may be glorified10 ,isaiah lx1 #ba4 ,and in that day there shall be no more the ,canaanite in the house of the ,lord of ,hosts10 ,zech4 xiv1 #ba4 #f4 ,the ,lord's special presence and residence will then be in the midst of his people4 ,christ hath promised to be with his people in every period of the church1 even unto the end of the world1 ,matt4 xxviii1 #bj1 and that he will be in the midst even of two or three of them when gathered together in his name1 ,matt4 xviii1 #bj4 ,he also calls them to purity of communion and personal holiness1 and promiseth to dwell in them and walk in them1 #b ,cor4 vi1 #af1 #ag2 but this will be fulfilled in an eminent and remarkable manner during the millennial period4 ,the ,lord1 having promised to raise ,israel out of their graves1 to gather them from among the ,heathen1 and bring them into the church and kingdom of ,christ1 as one fold having one shepherd1 adds1 ,and ,i will set my sanctuary in the midst of them for evermore2 my tabernacle also shall be with them2 yea1 ,i will be their ,god1 and they shall be my people10 ,ezek4 xxxvii1 #aa-bg4 ,this alludes to his dwelling among ,israel in the tabernacle and sanctuary of old1 ,lev4 xxvi1 #aa1 #ab2 and imports his manifesting himself unto them1 admitting them into the most intimate correspondence and communion with himself in his ordinances1 communicating light1 life1 and consolation to them by his ,spirit2 and also his protection and care of them as his peculiar people4 ,it is intimated that there will be such visible tokens of the divine presence and residence among them as will fall under the notice of the world1 and produce conviction and awe1 as was in some measure the case in the first churches1 ,acts ii1 #dg2 v1 #aa1 #ac2 #a ,cor4 xiv1 #bd1 #be2 for it is added1 ,and the ,heathen shall know that ,i the ,lord do sanctify ,israel1 when my sanctuary shall be in the midst of them for evermore10 ,ezek4 xxxvii1 #bh4 ,indeed1 this is that very promise which is represented to ,st4 ,john as accomplished3 ,and ,i heard a great voice out of heaven1 saying1 ,behold1 the tabernacle of ,god is with men1 and he will dwell with them1 and they shall be his people1 and ,god himself shall be with them1 and be their ,god10 ,rev4 xxi1 #c4 #g4 ,this will be a time of universal peace1 tranquillity and safety4 ,persons naturally of the most savage1 ferocious1 and cruel disposition1 will then be tame and harmless2 so it is promised1 ,isaiah xi1 #f-aj4 ,whether we consider the persons represented by these hurtful animals to be converted or not1 it is certain they will then be effectually restrained from doing harm1 or persecuting the saints4 ,there shall be no war nor bloodshed among the nations during this happy period2 for we are told1 that1 in the last days1 when the mountain of the ,lord's house shall be established in the top of the mountains1 and shall be exalted above the hills1 and all nations shall flow unto it2 the ,lord shall judge among the nations1 and shall rebuke many people2 and they shall beat their swords into ploughshares1 and their spears into pruning hooks2 nation shall not lift up sword against nation1 neither shall they learn war any more10 ,isaiah ii1 #d4 ,the same promise is repeated word for word in the prophecies of ,micah1 iv1 #c4 ,much to the same purpose is that promise in ,hosea ii1 #ah4 ,though war has hitherto deluged the world with human blood1 and been a source of complicated calamities to mankind1 yet1 when ,satan is bound1 his influence upon wicked men restrained1 and the saints bear rule1 it must necessarily cease4 #h4 ,the civil rulers and judges shall then be all maintainers of peace and righteousness4 ,though ,christ will put down all that rule1 power1 and authority which opposeth the peace and prosperity of his kingdom2 yet as rulers are the ordinance of ,god1 and his ministers for good2 as some form of government seems absolutely necessary to the order and happiness of society in this world2 it is thought that when the kingdoms of this world are become our ,lord's and his ,christ's1 the promise will be accomplished1 ,i will also make thy officers peace1 and thine exactors righteousness20 and in consequence of this1 violence shall no more be heard in thy land1 wasting nor destruction within thy borders2 but thou shalt call thy walls salvation1 and thy gates praise10 ,isaiah lx1 #ag1 #ah4 ,peace and righteousness are the two great ends of government3 ,christ himself is king of righteousness1 and king of peace1 and the civil rulers during that happy period will resemble him in their character and administration2 for then shall that promise be fulfilled3 ,in righteousness shalt thou be established3 thou shalt be far from oppression1 for thou shalt not fear2 and from terror1 for it shall not come near thee10 ,isaiah liv1 #ad4 #i4 ,the saints shall then have the dominion1 and the wicked shall be in subjection4 ,this is clear from the united voice of prophecy3 ,the kingdom and dominion1 and the greatness of the kingdom under the whole heaven1 shall be given to the people of the saints of the ,most ,high10 ,dan4 vii1 #bg4 ,the saints of the ,most ,high shall take the kingdom1 and possess the kingdom for ever10 ,dan4 vii1 #ah4 ,the meek shall inherit the earth10 ,matt4 v1 #e2 shall reign on the earth10 ,rev4 v1 #aj2 shall reign with ,christ a thousand years10 ,rev4 xx1 #d2 they shall be priests of ,god1 and of ,christ1 and shall reign with him a thousand years10 ,rev4 xx1 #f4 ,the saints are at present made kings and priests unto ,god1 a kingly priesthood1 #a ,peter ii1 #i2 but then they shall be more eminently so1 when1 by the holiness of their lives1 the purity of their faith and worship1 and their diligence in promoting pure and undefiled religion1 the earth shall he filled with the knowledge of the ,lord4 ,then shall that promise be fully accomplished1 ,ye shall be named the priests of the ,lord2 men shall call you the ministers of our ,god10 ,isaiah lxi1 #f4 ,with regard to the nature of their reign1 it will undoubtedly correspond in all respects with the spiritual and heavenly nature of ,christ's kingdom1 to the promotion of which all their power will be subservient4 ,those who cannot conceive of any reign upon earth1 but such as consists in lordly and oppressive dominion1 maintained by policy and force1 and made subservient to the purposes of pride1 ambition1 avarice1 and other worldly lusts1 can have no idea at all of this reign of the saints with ,christ1 which is a reign of peace on earth and good will to men2 a reign of truth and righteousness1 of true godliness and universal humanity4 ,in short1 it is the prevalence and triumph of the cause of ,christ in this world over that of ,satan and all his instruments4 ,how delightful then the prospects which open upon the eye of faith in the prophetic vision6 ,christianity prevails universally1 and the consequences are most blissful4 ,our race assumes the appearance of one vast virtuous and peaceful family4 ,our world becomes the seat of one grand triumphant adoring assembly4 ,at length the scene mingles with the heavens1 and1 rising in brightness1 is blended with the glories on high4 ,the mysteries of ,god on earth are finished1 the times of the regeneration are fulfilled4 ,the ,son of ,god descends4 ,the scene closes with divine grandeur3 ,and ,i heard as it were the voice of a great multitude1 and as the voice of many waters1 and as the voice of many thunderings1 saying1 ,alleluia2 for the ,lord ,god omnipotent reigneth4 ,the kingdoms of this world are become the kingdoms of our ,lord and his ,christ4 ,and ,i saw a new heaven and a new earth2 for the first heaven and the first earth were passed away2 and there was no more sea4 ,and ,i saw the holy city1 ,new ,jerusalem1 coming down from ,god out of heaven4 ,and ,i heard a great voice out of heaven1 saying1 ,behold1 the tabernacle of ,god is with men1 and he will dwell with them1 and they shall be his people1 and ,god himself shall be with them1 and be their ,god40 ,,millet1 1 ,ezek4 iv1 #i1 a kind of plant so called from its thrusting forth such a quantity of grains4 ,thus in ,latin it is called millium1 as if one stalk bore a thousand seeds4 ,it has been supposed that the dochan means what is now called in the east durra2 which1 according to ,niebuhr1 is a sort of millet1 and when made into bad bread with camel's milk1 oil1 butter1 or grease1 is almost the only food which is eaten by the common people in ,arabia ,felix4 ,i found it so disagreeable10 says he1 that ,i should willingly have preferred plain barley bread to it40 ,this illustrates the appointment of it to the ,prophet ,ezekiel as a part of his hard fare4 ,durra is also used in ,palestine and ,syria1 and it is generally agreed that it yields much more than any other kind of grain4 ,hiller and ,celsius insist that the dochan is the panic2 but ,forskal has expressly mentioned the dokn1 holcus dochna1 as a kind of maize1 of considerable use in food2 and ,brown1 in his ,travels1 describes the mode of cultivating it4 ,,millo1 a part or suburb of ,jerusalem4 ,david built round about from ,millo and inward10 #b ,sam4 v1 #i2 that is1 he built round about from the place where ,millo was afterward erected by ,solomon1 or where more probably the senate house1 or ,millo of the ,jebusites1 had stood1 which was pulled down to make room for the more sumptuous edifice of ,solomon1 to his own house2 so that ,david built from ,mount ,zion1 quite round to the opposite point4 ,hence1 the residence of ,david1 even in the reign of that renowned monarch1 began to assume the size and splendour of a city4 ,,minister1 one who attends or waits on another2 so we find ,elisha was the minister of ,elijah1 and did him services of various kinds1 #b ,kings iii1 #aa4 ,so ,joshua was the servant of ,moses1 ,exod4 xxiv1 #ac2 xxxiii1 #aa4 ,and these persons did not by any means feel themselves degraded by their stations1 but in due time they succeeded to the offices of their masters4 ,in like manner ,john ,mark was minister to ,paul and ,barnabas1 ,acts xiii1 #e4 ,christ is called a minister of the true1 that is1 the heavenly1 sanctuary4 ,the minister of the synagogue was appointed to keep the book of the law1 to observe that those who read it1 read it correctly1 c1 ,luke iv1 #bj4 ,the rabbins say he was the same as the angel of the church1 or overseer4 ,lightfoot says1 ,baal ,aruch expounds the chazan1 or minister of the congregation1 by sheliach hatzibbor1 or angel of the congregation2 and from this common platform and constitution of the synagogue1 we may observe the ,apostle's expression of some elders ruling and labouring in word and doctrine1 others in the general affairs of the synagogue4 ,ministers were servants1 yet servants not menial1 but honourable2 those who explain the word1 and conduct the service of ,god2 those who dispense the laws and promote the welfare of the community2 the holy angels who in obedience to the divine commands protect1 preserve1 succour1 and benefit the godly1 are all ministers1 beneficial ministers1 to those who are under their charge1 ,heb4 viii1 #b2 ,exod4 xxx1 #aj2 ,lev4 xvi1 #ae2 #a ,cor4 iv1 #a2 ,romans xiii1 #f2 ,psalm civ1 #d4 ,,mint1 ,matt4 xxiii1 #bc2 ,luke xi1 #db2 a garden herb well known4 ,the law did not oblige the ,jews to give the tithe of this sort of herbs2 it only required it of those things which could be comprehended under the name of income or revenue4 ,but the ,pharisees1 desirous of distinguishing themselves by a more scrupulous and literal observance of the law than others1 gave the tithes of mint1 anise1 and cummin10 ,matt4 xxiii1 #bc4 ,christ reproved them because that1 while they were so precise in these lesser matters1 they neglected the more essential commandments of the law1 and substituted observances1 frivolous and insignificant1 in the place of justice1 mercy1 and truth4 ,,miracles4 ,a miracle1 in the popular sense1 is a prodigy1 or an extraordinary event1 which surprises us by its novelty4 ,in a more accurate and philosophic sense1 a miracle is an effect which does not follow from any of the regular laws of nature1 or which is inconsistent with some known law of it1 or contrary to the settled constitution and course of things4 ,accordingly1 all miracles presuppose an established system of nature1 within the limits of which they operate1 and with the order of which they disagree4 ,of a miracle in the theological sense many definitions have been given4 ,that of ,dr4 ,samuel ,clarke is3 ,a miracle is a work effected in a manner unusual1 or different from the common and regular method of providence1 by the interposition of ,god himself1 or of some intelligent agent superior to man1 for the proof or evidence of some particular doctrine1 or in attestation of the authority of some particular person40 ,mr4 ,hume has insidiously or erroneously maintained that a miracle is contrary to experience2 but in reality it is only different from experience4 ,experience informs us that one event has happened often2 testimony informs us that another event has happened once or more4 ,that diseases should be generally cured by the application of external causes1 and sometimes at the mere word of a prophet1 and without the visible application of causes1 are facts not inconsistent with each other in the nature of things themselves1 nor irreconcilable according to our ideas4 ,each fact may arise from its own proper cause2 each may exist independently of the other2 and each is known by its own proper proof1 whether of sense or testimony4 ,as secret causes often produce events contrary to those we do expect from experience1 it is equally conceivable that events should sometimes be produced which we do not expect4 ,to pronounce1 therefore1 a miracle to be false1 because it is different from experience is only to conclude against its general existence from the very circumstance which constitutes its particular nature2 for if it were not different from experience1 where would be its singularity8 or what particular proof could be drawn from it1 if it happened according to the ordinary train of human events1 or was included in the operation of the general laws of nature8 ,we grant that it does differ from experience2 but we do not presume to make our experience the standard of the divine conduct4 ,he that acknowledges a ,god must1 at least1 admit the possibility of a miracle4 ,the atheist1 that makes him inseparable from what is called nature1 and binds him to its laws by an insurmountable necessity2 that deprives him of will1 and wisdom1 and power1 as a distinct and independent ,being2 may deny even the very possibility of a miraculous interposition1 which can in any instance suspend or counteract those general laws by which the world is governed4 ,but he who allows of a ,first ,cause in itself perfect and intelligent1 abstractedly from those effects which his wisdom and power have produced1 must at the same time allow that this cause can be under no such restraints as to be debarred the liberty of controlling its laws as often as it sees fit4 ,surely1 the ,being that made the world can govern it1 or any part of it1 in such a manner as he pleases2 and he that constituted the very laws by which it is in general conducted1 may suspend the operation of those laws in any given instance1 or impress new powers on matter1 in order to produce new and extraordinary effects4 ,in judging of miracles there are certain criteria1 peculiar to the subject1 sufficient to conduct our inquiries1 and warrant our determination4 ,assuredly they do not appeal to our ignorance1 for they presuppose not only the existence of a general order of things1 but our actual knowledge of the appearance which that order exhibits1 and of the secondary material causes from which it1 in most cases1 proceeds4 ,if a miraculous event were effected by the immediate hand of ,god1 and yet bore no mark of distinction from the ordinary effects of his agency1 it would impress no conviction1 and probably awaken no attention4 ,our knowledge of the ordinary course of things1 though limited1 is real2 and therefore it is essential to a miracle1 both that it differ from that course1 and be accompanied with peculiar and unequivocal signs of such difference4 ,we have been told that the course of nature is fixed and unalterable1 and therefore it is not consistent with the immutability of ,god to perform miracles4 ,but1 surely1 they who reason in this manner beg the point in question4 ,we have no right to assume that the ,deity has ordained such general laws as will exclude his interposition2 and we cannot suppose that he would forbear to interfere where any important end could be answered4 ,this interposition1 though it controls1 in particular cases1 the energy1 does not diminish the utility1 of those laws4 ,it leaves them to fulfil their own proper purposes1 and effects only a distinct purpose1 for which they were not calculated4 ,if the course of nature implies the general laws of matter and motion1 into which the most opposite phenomena may be resolved1 it is certain that we do not yet know them in their full extent2 and1 therefore1 that events1 which are related by judicious and disinterested persons1 and at the same time imply no gross contradiction1 are possible in themselves1 and capable of a certain degree of proof4 ,if the course of nature implies the whole order of events which ,god has ordained for the government of the world1 it includes both his ordinary and extraordinary dispensations1 and among them miracles may have their place1 as a part of the universal plan4 ,it is1 indeed1 consistent with sound philosophy1 and not inconsistent with pure religion1 to acknowledge that they might be disposed by the supreme ,being at the same time with the more ordinary effects of his power2 that their causes and occasions might be arranged with the same regularity2 and that1 in reference chiefly to their concomitant circumstances of persons and times1 to the specific ends for which they were employed1 and to our idea of the immediate necessity there is for a divine agent1 miracles would differ from common events1 in which the hand of ,god acts as efficaciously1 though less visibly4 ,on this consideration of the subject1 miracles1 instead of contradicting nature1 might form a part of it4 ,but what our limited reason and scanty experience may comprehend should never be represented as a full and exact view of the possible or actual varieties which exist in the works of ,god4 #b4 ,if we be asked whether miracles are credible1 we reply1 that1 abstractedly considered1 they are not incredible2 that they are capable of indirect proof from analogy1 and of direct1 from testimony2 that in the common and daily course of worldly affairs1 events1 the improbability of which1 antecedently to all testimony1 was very great1 are proved to have happened1 by the authority of competent and honest witnesses2 that the ,christian miracles were objects of real and proper experience to those who saw them2 and that whatsoever the senses of mankind can perceive1 their report may substantiate4 ,should it be asked whether miracles were necessary1 and whether the end proposed to be effected by them could warrant so immediate and extraordinary an interference of the ,almighty1 as such extraordinary operations suppose2 to this we might answer1 that1 if the fact be established1 all reasonings priori concerning their necessity must be frivolous1 and may be false4 ,we are not capable of deciding on a question which1 however simple in appearance1 is yet too complex in its parts1 and too extensive in its object1 to be fully comprehended by the human understanding4 ,whether ,god could or could not have effected all the ends designed to be promoted by the ,gospel1 without deviating from the common course of his providence1 and interfering with its general laws1 is a speculation that a modest inquirer would carefully avoid2 for it carries on the very face of it a degree of presumption totally unbecoming the state of a mortal being4 ,infinitely safer is it for us to acquiesce in what the ,almighty has done1 than to embarrass our minds with speculations about what he might have done4 ,inquiries of this kind are generally inconclusive1 and always useless4 ,they rest on no solid principles1 are conducted by no fixed rules1 and lead to no clear conviction4 ,they begin from curiosity or vanity1 they are prosecuted amidst ignorance and error1 and they frequently terminate in impious presumption or universal skepticism4 ,god is the best and indeed the only judge how far miracles are proper to promote any particular design of his providence1 and how far that design would have been left unaccomplished1 if common and ordinary methods only had been pursued4 ,so1 from the absence of miracles1 we may conclude1 in any supposed case1 that they were not necessary2 from their existence1 supported by fair testimony1 in any given case1 we may infer with confidence that they are proper4 ,a view of the state of the world in general1 and of the ,jewish nation in particular1 and an examination of the nature and tendency of the ,christian religion1 will point out very clearly the great expediency of a miraculous interposition2 and when we reflect on the gracious and important ends that were to be effected by it1 we shall be convinced that it was not an idle and useless display of divine power2 but that while the means effected and confirmed the end1 the end fully justified and illustrated the means4 ,if we reflect on the almost irresistible force of prejudice1 and the strong opposition it universally made to the establishment of a new religion on the demolition of rites and ceremonies1 which authority had made sacred1 and custom had familiarized2 if we reflect on the extent and importance1 as well as the singularity1 of the ,christian plan2 what was its avowed purpose to effect1 and what difficulties it was necessarily called to struggle with before that purpose could be effected2 how much it was opposed by the opinions and the practice of the generality of mankind1 by philosophy1 by superstition1 by corrupt passions and inveterate habits1 by pride and sensuality1 in short1 by every engine of human influence1 whether formed by craft1 or aided by power2--if we seriously reflect on these things1 and give them their due force1 7and experience shows us that we can scarcely give them too much17 we shall be induced to admit even the necessity of a miraculous interposition1 at a time when common means must inevitably1 in our apprehensions1 have failed of success4 ,the revelation of the divine will by inspired persons is1 as such1 miraculous2 and therefore1 before the adversaries of the ,gospel can employ with propriety their objections to the particular miracles on which its credibility is based1 they should show the impossibility of any revelation4 ,in whatever age the revelation is given1 succeeding ages can know it only from testimony2 and1 if they admit1 on the report of their fellow creatures1 that ,god had inspired any being with the preternatural knowledge of his will1 why should they deny that he had enabled the same being to heal the sick1 or to cleanse the leprous8 ,how1 may it be asked1 should the divine ,teacher give a more direct and consistent proof of his preternatural commission1 than by displaying those signs and wonders which mark the finger of ,god8 ,that the ,apostles could not be deceived1 and that they had no temptation to deceive1 has been repeatedly demonstrated4 ,so powerful1 indeed1 is the proof adduced in support of their testimony1 that the infidels of these later days have been obliged to abandon the ground on which their predecessors stood2 to disclaim all moral evidences arising from the character and relation of eye-witnesses2 and to maintain1 upon metaphysical1 rather than historical1 principles1 that miracles are utterly incapable1 in their own nature1 of existing in any circumstances1 or of being supported by any evidence4 ,miracles may be classed under two heads3 those which consist in a train or combination of events1 which distinguish themselves from the ordinary arrangements of ,providence2 and those particular operations which are performed by instruments and agents incompetent to effect them without a preternatural power4 ,in the conduct of ,providence respecting the ,jewish people1 from the earliest periods of their existence1 as a distinct class of society1 to the present time1 we behold a singularity of circumstance and procedure which we cannot account for on common principles4 ,comparing their condition and situation with that of other nations1 we can meet with nothing similar to it in the history of mankind4 ,so remarkable a difference1 conspicuous in every revolution of their history1 could not have subsisted through mere accident4 ,there must have been a cause adequate to so extraordinary an effect4 ,now1 what should this cause be1 but an interposition of ,providence in a manner different from the course of its general government8 ,for the phenomenon cannot be explained by an application of those general causes and effects that operate in other cases4 ,the original propagation of ,christianity was likewise an event which clearly discovered a miraculous interposition4 ,the circumstances which attended it were such as cannot rationally be accounted for on any other postulatum4 7,see the article ,christianity47 ,it may now be observed1 that the institutions of the law and the ,gospel may not only appeal for their confirmation to a train of events which1 taken in a general and combined view1 point out an extraordinary designation1 and vindicate their claim to a divine authority2 but also to a number of particular operations which1 considered distinctly1 or in a separate and detached light1 evidently display a supernatural power1 immediately exerted on the occasion4 ,since ,christ himself constantly appealed to these works as the evidences of his divine mission and character1 we may briefly examine how far they justified and confirmed his pretensions4 ,that our ,lord laid the greatest stress on the evidence they afforded2 nay1 that he considered that evidence as sufficient to authenticate his claims to the office of the ,messiah with all reasonable and well disposed inquirers1 is manifest not only from his own words1 ,john x1 #be1 but also from a great variety of other passages in the evangelists4 ,thus1 when the disciples of ,john were sent to ,christ1 to receive from his own lips the most satisfactory proofs of his divine mission1 he referred them to his miracles4 ,go10 said he1 and show to ,john again those things which ye hear and see3 the blind receive their sight1 the lame walk1 the lepers are cleansed1 the deaf hear1 and the dead are raised up10 ,matt4 xi1 #d1 #e4 ,again3 ,if ,i do not the works of my ,father1 believe me not3 but if ,i do1 though ye believe not me1 believe the works10 ,john x1 #cg4 ,this appeal to miracles was founded on the following just and obvious grounds3-- ,first3 ,that they are visible proofs of divine approbation1 as well as of divine power3 for it would have been quite inconclusive to rest an appeal on the testimony of the latter1 if it had not at the same time included an evidence of the former2 and it was1 indeed a natural inference1 that working of miracles1 in defence of a particular cause1 was the seal of ,heaven to the truth of that cause4 ,to suppose the contrary1 would be to suppose that ,god not only permitted his creatures to be deceived1 but that he deviated from the ordinary course of his providence1 purposely with a view to deceive them4 ,the conclusion which the man whom our ,saviour restored to sight drew from this miracle was exceedingly just1 and founded on the common sentiments and impressions of the human heart4 ,we know10 says he1 that ,god heareth not sinners3 but if any man be a worshipper of ,god1 and doeth his will1 him he heareth4 ,since the world began was it not heard that any man opened the eyes of one that was born blind4 ,if this man were not of ,god1 he could do nothing10 ,john ix1 #ca-cc4 ,if the cause which our ,saviour was engaged in had not been approved of by ,god1 it would not have been honoured with the seal of miracles3 for the divine power can never be supposed to counteract the divine will4 ,this would be to set his nature at variance with itself2 and1 by destroying his simplicity1 would destroy his happiness1 and terminate in confusion and misery4 ,hence we may justly reject1 as incredible1 those miracles which have been ascribed to the interposition of wicked spirits4 ,the possibility of their interference is a mere hypothesis1 depending upon gratuitous assumption1 and leading to very dangerous consequences2 and the particular instances in which credulous superstition1 or perverted philosophy1 has supposed them to interfere1 are1 as facts1 destitute of any clear and solid evidence2 or1 as effects1 often resolvable into natural causes4 ,secondly3 ,when our ,lord appealed to his miracles1 as proofs of his divine mission1 it presupposed that those miracles were of such a nature as would bear the strictest examination2 that they had all those criteria which could possibly distinguish them from the delusions of enthusiasm1 and the artifices of imposture2 else the appeal would have been fallacious and equivocal4 ,he appealed to them with all the confidence of an upright mind1 totally possessed with a consciousness of their truth and reality4 ,this appeal was not drawn out into any laboured argument1 nor adorned by any of the embellishments of language4 ,it was short1 simple1 and decisive4 ,he neither reasoned nor declaimed on their nature or their design3 he barely pointed to them as plain and indubitable facts1 such as spoke their own meaning1 and carried with them their own authority4 ,the miracles which our ,lord performed were too public to be suspected of imposture2 and1 being objects of sense1 they were secured against the charge of enthusiasm4 ,an impostor would not have acted so absurdly as to have risked his credit on the performance of what1 he must have known1 it was not in his power to effect2 and though an enthusiast1 from the warmth of imagination1 might have flattered himself with a full persuasion of his being able to perform some miraculous work2 yet1 when the trial was referred to an object of sense1 the event must soon have exposed the delusion4 ,the impostor would not have dared to say to the blind1 ,receive thy sight2 to the deaf1 ,hear2 to the dumb1 ,speak2 to the dead1 ,arise2 to the raging of the sea1 ,be still2 lest he should injure the credit of his cause1 by undertaking more than he could perform2 and though the enthusiast1 under the delusion of his passions1 might have confidently commanded disease to fly1 and the powers of nature to be subject to his control2 yet their obedience would not have followed his command4 ,the miracles of ,christ then were such as an impostor would not have attempted1 and such as an enthusiast could not have effected4 ,they had no disguise2 and were in a variety of instances of such a nature as to preclude the very possibility of collusion4 ,they were performed in the midst of his bitterest enemies2 and were so palpable and certain1 as to extort the following acknowledgment even from persons who were most eager to oppose his doctrines1 and to discredit his pretensions3 ,this man doeth many miracles4 ,if we let him thus alone1 all men will believe on him10 ,john xi1 #dg1 #dh4 ,the miracles ,christ performed were indeed sufficient to alarm the fears of those whose downfall was involved in his success4 ,and it was impossible for them to deny the facts1 which so many thousands were ready to attest on evidence too certain to admit even the possibility of mistake1 delusion1 or imposture4 ,but his enemies1 who admitted their reality and yet resisted their design1 by not acknowledging the person who wrought them to be the ,messiah1 had recourse to the most impious and most absurd suppositions1 in order to evade their evidence4 ,the ,heathen imputed them to some occult power of magic3 and thus applied what has no existence in nature1 in order to account for a phenomenon that existed out of its common course4 ,the stories of the ,jews1 who confessed the miracles1 but denied what they were intended to establish1 are too ridiculous to be mentioned4 ,we must not1 however1 omit to take notice of the wicked and blasphemous cavil of the ,pharisees1 and the noble reply which our ,lord made to it4 ,they could not deny the fact1 but they imputed it to the agency of an infernal spirit3 ,this fellow10 said they1 doth not cast out devils1 but by ,beelzebub1 the prince of the devils4 ,and ,jesus knew their thoughts1 and said unto them1 ,every kingdom divided against itself is brought to desolation2 and every city or house divided against itself shall not stand3 and if ,satan cast out ,satan1 he is divided against himself2 how shall then his kingdom stand80 ,matt4 xii1 #bd-bf4 ,the purity of the doctrine which was taught by our blessed ,lord was totally adverse to the kingdom of darkness4 ,it tended to overthrow it1 by the introduction of principles far different from those which ,satan would inspire1 and by prosecuting objects totally opposite to those which that wicked and malignant spirit would tempt us to pursue3 so that in proportion to the prevalence of the kingdom of ,christ1 the kingdom of ,satan would of course be diminished4 ,now1 supposing miracles to be in the power of an infernal spirit1 can it be imagined that he would communicate an ability of performing them to persons who were counteracting his designs8 ,would he by them give credit to a cause that tended to bring his own into disgrace8 ,thus1 as our ,saviour appealed to miracles as proofs of his power2 so he appealed to the inherent worth and purity of the doctrines they were intended to bear witness to1 as a proof that the power was of ,god4 ,in this manner do the external and internal evidences give and receive mutual confirmation and mutual lustre4 ,the truth of the ,christian religion does not1 however1 wholly depend on the miracles wrought by its divine ,founder1 though sufficient in themselves to establish his claims3 but1 in order to give the evidence of miracles the strongest force they could possibly acquire1 that evidence was extended still farther2 and the same power that our ,lord possessed was communicated to his disciples1 and their more immediate successors4 ,while yet on earth he imparted to them this extraordinary gift1 as the seal of their commission1 when he sent them to preach the ,gospel3 and after his glorious resurrection and ascension into heaven1 they were endowed with powers yet more stupendous4 ,sensible of the validity of this kind of evidence1 the ,apostles of our ,lord1 with the same artless simplicity1 and the same boldness of conscious integrity1 which distinguished their great ,master1 constantly insisted upon the miracles they wrought1 as strong and undeniable proofs of the truth of their doctrines4 ,thus the miracles of our blessed ,lord may be justly considered as the evidence of his divine mission and character4 ,if we consider their nature1 their greatness1 and their number2 and if to this consideration we add that which respects their end and design1 we must acknowledge that no one could have performed them1 unless ,god was with him4 ,they were too public to be the artifices of imposture2 too substantial and too numerous to afford the slightest suspicion of undesigned and fortuitous coincidence4 ,in a word1 supposing that the ,most ,high should in any instance so far counteract the common laws of nature1 as to produce a miracle2 and should design that miracle as a monument to future times of the truth of any peculiar doctrine1 we cannot conceive any mode of communicating it more effectual than that which he has chosen4 ,stronger proofs could not be afforded1 consistently with the design of the ,gospel1 which is not to overpower our understandings by an irresistible and compulsory light1 but to afford us such rational evidence as is sufficient to satisfy moral inquirers1 who are endowed with faculties to perceive the truth2 but at the same time who also have power totally to resist it1 and finally to forfeit all its blessings4 ,these miracles were of a nature too palpable to be mistaken4 ,they were the objects of sense1 and not the precarious speculations of reason concerning what ,god might do2 or the chimerical suggestions of fancy concerning what he did4 ,the facts were recorded by those who must have known whether they were true or false4 ,the persons who recorded them were under no possible temptations to deceive the world4 ,we can only account for their conduct on the supposition of their most perfect conviction and disinterested zeal4 ,that they should assert what they knew to be false2 that they should publish it with so much ardour2 that they should risk every thing dear to humanity1 in order to maintain it2 and at last submit to death1 in order to attest their persuasion of its truth in those moments when imposture usually drops its mask1 and enthusiasm loses its confidence2 that they should act thus in opposition to every dictate of common sense1 and every principle of common honesty1 every restraint of shame1 and every impulse of selfishness1 is a phenomenon not less irreconcilable to the moral state of things than miracles are to the natural constitution of the world4 ,falsehood naturally entangles men in contradiction1 and confounds them with dismay3 but the love of truth invigorates the mind2 the consciousness of integrity anticipates the approbation of ,god2 and conscience creates a fortitude1 to which mere unsupported nature is often a stranger4 #c4 ,how long miracles were continued in the church1 has been a matter of keen dispute1 and has been investigated with as much anxiety as if the truth of the ,gospel depended upon the manner in which it was decided4 ,assuming1 as we are here warranted to do1 that real miraculous power was conveyed in the way detailed by the inspired writers1 it is plain1 that it may have been exercised in different countries1 and may have remained1 without any new communication of it1 throughout the first1 and a considerable part of the second century4 ,the ,apostles1 wherever they went to execute their commission1 would avail themselves of the stupendous gift which had been imparted to them2 and it is clear1 not only that they were permitted and enabled to convey it to others1 but that spiritual gifts1 including the power of working miracles1 were actually conferred on many of the primitive disciples4 ,allusions to this we find in the epistles of ,st4 ,paul2 such allusions1 too1 as it is utterly inconceivable that any man of a sound judgment could have made1 had he not known that he was referring to an obvious fact1 about which there could be no hesitation4 ,of the time at which several of the ,apostles died1 we have no certain knowledge4 ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul suffered at ,rome about ,a4 ,d4 #ff1 or #fg2 and it is fully established1 that the life of ,john was much longer protracted1 he having died a natural death1 ,a4 ,d4 #ajj1 or #aja4 ,supposing that the two former of these ,apostles imparted spiritual gifts till the time of their suffering martyrdom1 the persons to whom they were imparted might1 in the course of nature1 have lived through the earlier part of the second century2 and if ,john did the same till the end of his life1 such gifts as were derived from him might have remained till more than the half of that century had elapsed4 ,that such was the fact1 is asserted by ancient ecclesiastical writers4 ,whether1 after the generation immediately succeeding the ,apostles had passed away1 the power of working miracles was anew communicated1 is a question1 the solution of which cannot be nearly so satisfactory4 ,the probability is1 that there was no such renewal2 and this opinion rests upon the ground that natural causes were now sufficient to accomplish the end for which miracles were originally designed2 and it does not appear to have been any part of the scheme of the blessed ,author of our religion1 that1 solely for the purpose of hastening that conversion of the nations which might gradually be accomplished1 miracles should be wrought1 when these could be of no use in establishing after ages in the faith4 ,,miraculous ,,conception4 ,by this is meant1 that the human nature of ,jesus ,christ was formed1 not in the ordinary method of generation1 but out of the substance of the ,virgin ,mary1 by the immediate operation of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,the evidence upon which this article of the ,christian faith rests is found in ,matt4 i1 #ah-bc1 and in the more particular narration which ,st4 ,luke has given in the first chapter of his ,gospel4 ,if we admit this evidence of the fact1 we can discern the emphatical meaning of the appellation given to our ,saviour when he is called the seed of the woman10 ,gen4 iii1 #ae2 we can perceive the meaning of a phrase which ,st4 ,luke has introduced into the genealogy of ,jesus1 ,luke iii1 #bc1 and of which1 otherwise1 it is not possible to give a good account1 1 1 2 being1 as was supposed1 the son of ,joseph2 and we can discover a peculiar significancy in an expression of the ,apostle ,paul1 ,gal4 iv1 #d1 ,god sent forth his ,son1 made of a woman40 ,the conception of ,jesus is the point from which we date the union between his divine and human nature2 and1 this conception being miraculous1 the existence of the person in whom they are united1 was not physically derived from ,adam4 ,but1 as ,dr4 ,horsley speaks in his sermon on the incarnation1 the union with the uncreated ,word is the very principle of personality and individual existence in the son of ,mary4 ,according to this view of the matter1 the miraculous conception gives a completeness and consistency to the revelation concerning ,jesus ,christ4 ,not only is he the ,son of ,god1 but1 as the ,son of man1 he is exalted above his brethren1 while he is made like them4 ,he is preserved from the contamination adhering to the race whose nature he assumed2 and when the only begotten ,son1 who is in the bosom of the ,father1 was made flesh1 the intercourse which1 as man1 he had with ,god1 is distinguished1 not in degree only1 but in kind1 from that which any prophet ever enjoyed1 and it is infinitely more intimate1 because it did not consist in communications occasionally made to him1 but arose from the manner in which his human nature had its existence4 ,,miriam1 sister of ,moses and ,aaron1 and daughter of ,amram and ,jochebed1 was born about ,a4 ,m4 #bdbd4 ,she might be ten or twelve years old when her brother ,moses was exposed on the banks of the ,nile1 since ,miriam was watching there1 and offered herself to ,pharaoh's daughter to fetch her a nurse4 ,the princess accepting the offer1 ,miriam fetched her own mother1 to whom the young ,moses was given to nurse1 ,exod4 ii1 #d1 #e1 c4 ,it is thought that ,miriam married ,hur1 of the tribe of ,judah2 but it does not appear that she had any children by him1 ,exod4 xvii1 #aj1 #aa4 ,miriam had the gift of prophecy1 as she intimates1 ,num4 xii1 #b3 ,hath the ,lord indeed spoken only by ,moses8 hath he not spoken also by us80 ,after the passage of the ,red ,sea1 ,miriam led the choirs and dances of the women1 and sung with them the canticle1 ,sing ye to the ,lord1 for he hath triumphed gloriously2 the horse and his rider hath he thrown into the sea30 while ,moses led the choir of men1 ,exod4 xv1 #ba4 ,when ,zipporah1 the wife of ,moses1 arrived in the camp of ,israel1 ,miriam and ,aaron disputed with her1 speaking against ,moses on her account1 ,num4 xii4 ,this conduct the ,lord punished by visiting ,miriam with a leprosy4 ,aaron interceded with ,moses for her recovery1 and besought the ,lord1 who ordered her to be shut out of the camp seven days4 ,we are acquainted with no subsequent particulars of the life of ,miriam4 ,her death happened in the first month of the fortieth year after the exodus1 at the encampment of ,kadesh in the wilderness of ,zin1 ,num4 xx1 #a4 ,the people mourned for her1 and she was there buried4 ,,mirrors1 usually1 but improperly1 rendered looking glasses4 ,the eastern mirrors were made of polished metal1 and for the most part convex4 ,so ,callimachus describes ,venus as taking the shining brass10 that is1 to adjust her hair4 ,if they were thus made in the country of ,elihu1 the image made use of by him will appear very lively3 ,hast thou with him spread out the sky1 which is strong1 and as a molten looking glass80 ,job xxxvii1 #ah4 ,shaw informs us that 8in the ,levant1 looking glasses are a part of female dress4 ,the ,moorish women in ,barbary are so fond of their ornaments1 and particularly of their looking glasses1 which they bang upon their breasts1 that they will not lay them aside1 even when1 after the drudgery of the day1 they are obliged to go two or three miles with a pitcher or a goat's skin1 to fetch water40 ,the ,israelitish women used to carry their mirrors with them1 even to their most solemn place of worship4 ,the word mirror should be used in the passages here referred to4 ,to speak of looking glasses made of steel10 and glasses molten10 is palpably absurd2 whereas the term mirror obviates every difficulty1 and expresses the true meaning of the original4 ,,mishna1 or ,,misna1 1 signifies repetition1 and is properly the code of the ,jewish civil law4 ,the ,mishna contains the text2 and the ,gemara1 which is the second part of the ,talmud1 contains the commentaries3 so that the ,gemara is1 as it were1 a glossary on the ,mishna4 ,the ,mishna consists of various traditions of the ,jews1 and of explanations of several passages of ,scripture4 ,these traditions1 serving as an explication of the written law1 and supplementary to it1 are said to have been delivered to ,moses during the time of his abode upon the mount2 which he afterward communicated to ,aaron1 ,eleazar1 and his servant ,joshua4 ,by these they were transmitted to the seventy elders2 by them to the prophets1 who communicated them to the men of the great sanhedrim1 from whom the wise men of ,jerusalem and ,babylon received them4 ,according to ,dr4 ,prideaux1 they passed from ,jeremiah to ,baruch1 from him to ,ezra1 and from ,ezra to the men of the great synagogue1 the last of whom was ,simon the ,just1 who delivered them to ,antigonus of ,socho4 ,from him they came down in regular succession to ,simeon1 who took our ,saviour in his arms2 to ,gamaliel1 at whose feet ,st4 ,paul was brought up2 and last of all to rabbi ,judah the holy1 who committed them to writing in the ,mishna4 ,dr4 ,prideaux1 rejecting this ,jewish fiction1 observes1 that after the death of ,simon the ,just1 about ,b4 ,c4 #bii1 arose the ,tannaim or ,mishnical doctors1 who by their comments and conclusions1 added to the number of those traditions which had been received and allowed by ,ezra and the men of the great synagogue4 ,hence toward the middle of the second century after ,christ1 under the reign of the ,roman ,emperor ,antoninus ,pius1 it was found necessary to commit these traditions to writing4 ,this was requisite1 because the traditions had been so much increased that they could no longer be preserved by the memory of man2 and also because their country had suffered considerably in the reign of the ,emperor ,adrian1 and many of their schools being dissolved1 and their learned men cut off1 the usual method of preserving their traditions had failed4 ,lest1 therefore1 the traditions should be forgotten and lost1 it was resolved that they should be collected and committed to writing4 ,rabbi ,judah1 who was at that time rector of the school at ,tiberias in ,galilee1 and president of the sanhedrim at that place1 undertook the work4 ,he compiled it in six books1 each consisting of several tracts1 which altogether form the number of sixty-three4 ,dr4 ,prideaux computes1 that the ,mishna was composed about ,a4 ,d4 #aej4 ,dr4 ,lightfoot1 however1 says1 that rabbi ,judah compiled the ,mishna about ,a4 ,d4 #aij1 in the latter end of the reign of ,commodus2 or1 as some compute1 ,a4 ,d4 #bbj4 ,dr4 ,lardner is of opinion1 that this work could not have been finished before ,a4 ,d4 #aij1 or later4 ,thus the book called the ,mishna was formed2 a book which was received by the ,jews with great veneration1 and which has been always held in high esteem among them4 ,their opinion of it is1 that all the particulars which it contains were dictated by ,god himself to ,moses upon ,mount ,sinai1 as well as the written word itself2 and1 consequently1 that it must be of the same divine authority1 and ought to be as religiously observed4 ,see ,,cabbala1 ,,gemara1 ,,jews4 ,,mite4 ,see ,,money4 ,,mitylene1 the capital of the island of ,lesbos1 through which ,st4 ,paul passed as he went from ,corinth to ,jerusalem1 ,acts xx1 #ad4 ,,mizpah1 or ,,mizpeh1 a city of the tribe of ,benjamin1 situated in a plain1 about eighteen miles west of ,jerusalem4 ,here ,samuel dwelt2 and here he called ,israel together1 to observe a solemn fast for their sins1 and to supplicate ,god for his assistance against the ,philistines2 after which they sallied out on their enemies1 already discomfited by the thunders of heaven1 and gave them a total defeat1 #a ,sam4 vii4 ,here1 also1 ,saul was anointed king1 #a ,sam4 x1 #ag-be4 ,it appears that between this and the time of ,asa1 king of ,judah1 ,mizpah had suffered probably in some of the intervening wars1 as we are told that ,asa built it with the stones and timber of ,ramah1 #a ,kings xv1 #bb4 ,there was another ,mizpeh in ,gilead2 on the spot where ,jacob set up the pillar or heap of stones1 to commemorate the covenant there made between him and ,laban1 ,gen4 xxxi1 #di4 7,see ,gilead47 ,there was also a third ,mizpeh1 in the land of ,moab1 where ,david placed his father and mother1 while he remained in his retreat at ,adullam1 #a ,sam4 xxii1 #c4 ,it is to be observed1 that ,mizpeh implies a beacon or watch tower1 a pillar or heap of commemoration2 and at all the places bearing this name1 it is probable that a single pillar1 or a rude pile1 was erected as the witness and the record of some particular event4 ,these1 subsequently1 became altars and places of convocation on public occasions1 religious and civil4 ,,mizraim1 or ,,mesraim1 son of ,ham1 and father of ,ludim1 ,anamim1 ,lehabim1 ,naphtuhim1 ,pathrusim1 and ,casluhim1 ,gen4 x1 #f4 ,meser or ,misor was father of the ,mizraim1 the ,egyptians2 and he himself is commonly called ,mizraim1 although there is very strong probability that ,mizraim1 being of the plural number1 signifies rather the ,egyptians themselves1 than the father of that people4 ,mizraim is also put for the country of ,egypt3 thus it has three significations1 which are perpetually confounded and used promiscuously1 sometimes denoting the land of ,egypt1 sometimes him who first peopled ,egypt1 and sometimes the inhabitants themselves4 ,cairo1 the capital of ,egypt1 and even ,egypt itself1 are to this day called ,mezer by the ,arabians4 ,but the natives call ,egypt ,chemi1 that is1 the land of ,cham1 or ,ham1 as it is also sometimes called in ,scripture1 ,psalm lxxviii1 #ab2 cv1 #bc2 cvi1 #bb4 ,the ,prophet ,micah1 vii1 #ae1 gives to ,egypt the name of ,mezor1 or ,matzor2 and rabbi ,kimchi1 followed in this by several learned commentators1 explains by ,egypt what is said of the rivers of ,mezor1 #b ,kings xix1 #bd2 ,isaiah xix1 #f2 xxxvii1 #be4 ,,moab was the son of ,lot1 and of his eldest daughter1 ,gen4 xix1 #ca1 c4 ,he was born about the same time as ,isaac1 ,a4 ,m4 #bajh1 and was father of the ,moabites1 whose habitation lay beyond ,jordan and the ,dead ,sea1 on both sides of the river ,arnon4 ,their capital city was situated on that river1 and was called ,ar or ,areopolis1 or ,ariol of ,moab1 or ,rabbah ,moab1 that is1 the capital of ,moab1 or ,kir-haresh1 that is1 a city with brick walls4 ,this country was originally possessed by a race of giants called ,emim1 ,deut4 ii1 #aa1 #ab4 ,the ,moabites conquered them1 and afterward the ,amorites took a part from the ,moabites1 ,judges xi1 #ac4 ,moses conquered that part which belonged to the ,amorites1 and gave it to the tribe of ,reuben4 ,the ,moabites were spared by ,moses1 for ,god had restricted him1 ,deut4 ii1 #i4 ,but there always was a great antipathy between the ,moabites and the ,israelites1 which occasioned many wars between them4 ,balaam seduced the ,hebrews to idolatry and uncleanness1 by means of the daughters of ,moab1 ,num4 xxv1 #a1 #b2 and ,balak1 king of this people1 endeavoured to prevail on ,balaam to curse ,israel4 ,god ordained that the ,moabites should not enter into the congregation of his people1 because they had the inhumanity to refuse the ,israelites a passage through their country1 nor would they supply them with bread and water in their necessity4 ,eglon1 king of the ,moabites1 was one of the first that oppressed ,israel after the death of ,joshua4 ,ehud killed ,eglon1 and ,israel expelled the ,moabites1 ,judges iii1 #ab1 c4 ,hanun king of the ,ammonites having insulted ,david's ambassadors1 ,david made war against him1 and subdued ,moab and ,ammon2 under which subjection they continued till the separation of the ten tribes4 ,the ,ammonites and the ,moabites continued in subjection to the kings of ,israel to the death of ,ahab4 ,presently after the death of ,ahab the ,moabites began to revolt1 #b ,kings iii1 #d1 #e4 ,mesha1 king of ,moab1 refused the tribute of a hundred thousand lambs1 and as many rams1 which till then had been customarily paid1 either yearly1 or at the beginning of every reign2 which of these two is not clearly expressed in ,scripture4 ,the reign of ,ahaziah was too short to make war with them2 but ,jehoram1 son of ,ahab1 and brother to ,ahaziah1 having ascended the throne1 thought of reducing them to obedience4 ,he invited ,jehoshaphat1 king of ,judah1 who1 with the king of ,edom1 then his vassal1 entered ,moab1 where they were near perishing with thirst1 but were miraculously relieved1 #b ,kings iii1 #af1 c4 ,it is not easy to ascertain what were the circumstances of the ,moabites from this time2 but ,isaiah1 at the beginning of the reign of ,king ,hezekiah1 threatens them with a calamity1 which was to happen three years after his prediction1 and which probably referred to the war that ,shalmaneser1 king of ,assyria1 made with the ten tribes and the other people beyond ,jordan4 ,amos1 i1 #ac1 c1 also foretold great miseries to them1 which1 probably1 they suffered under ,uzziah and ,jothan1 kings of ,judah1 or under ,shalmaneser1 #b ,chron4 xxvi1 #g1 #h2 xxvii1 #e2 or1 lastly1 in the war of ,nebuchadnezzar1 five years after the destruction of ,jerusalem4 ,this prince carried them captive beyond the ,euphrates1 as the prophets had threatened1 ,jer4 ix1 #bf2 xii1 #ad1 #ae2 xxv1 #aa1 #ab2 xlviii1 #dg1 c2 xlix1 #c1 #f1 #ci2 l1 #af2 and ,cyrus sent them home again1 as he did the rest of the captives4 ,after their return from captivity they multiplied1 and fortified themselves1 as the ,jews did1 and other neighbouring people1 still in subjection to the kings of ,persia4 ,they were afterward conquered by ,alexander the ,great1 and were in obedience to the kings of ,syria and ,egypt successively1 and finally to the ,romans4 ,there is a probability1 also1 that in the later times of the ,jewish republic they obeyed the ,asmonean kings1 and afterward ,herod the ,great4 ,the principal deities of the ,moabites were ,chemosh and ,baal-peor4 ,the prophecies concerning ,moab are numerous and remarkable4 ,there are1 says ,keith1 abundant predictions which refer so clearly to its modern state1 that there is scarcely a single feature peculiar to the land of ,moab1 as it now exists1 which was not marked by the prophets in their delineation of the low condition to which1 from the height of its wickedness and haughtiness1 it was finally to be brought down4 ,the land of ,moab lay to the east and south-east of ,judea1 and bordered on the east1 north-east1 and partly on the south of the ,dead ,sea4 ,its early history is nearly analogous to that of ,ammon2 and the soil1 though perhaps more diversified1 is1 in many places where the desert and plains of salt have not encroached on its borders1 of equal fertility4 ,there are manifest and abundant vestiges of its ancient greatness3 the whole of the plains are covered with the sites of towns1 on every eminence or spot convenient for the construction of one2 and as the land is capable of rich cultivation1 there can be no doubt that the country now so deserted once presented a continued picture of plenty and fertility4 ,the form of fields is still visible2 and there are the remains of ,roman highways1 which in some places are completely paved1 and on which there are mile stones of the times of ,trajan1 ,marcus ,aurelius1 and ,severus1 with the number of the miles legible upon them4 ,wherever any spot is cultivated the corn is luxuriant2 and the riches of the soil cannot perhaps be more clearly illustrated than by the fact1 that one grain of ,heshbon wheat exceeds in dimensions two of the ordinary sort1 and more than double the number of grains grow on the stalk4 ,the frequency1 and almost1 in many instances1 the close vicinity of the sites of the ancient towns1 prove that the population of the country was formerly proportioned to its natural fertility4 ,such evidence may surely suffice to prove that the country was well cultivated and peopled at a period so long posterior to the date of the predictions1 that no cause less than supernatural could have existed at the time when they were delivered1 which could have authorized the assertion with the least probability or apparent possibility of its truth1 that ,moab would ever have been reduced to that state of great and permanent desolation in which it has continued for so many ages1 and which vindicates and ratifies to this hour the truth of the ,scriptural prophecies4 ,the cities of ,moab were to be desolate without any to dwell therein20 no city was to escape3 ,moab was to flee away40 ,and the cities of ,moab have all disappeared4 ,their place1 together with the adjoining part of ,idumea1 is characterized1 in the map of ,volney's ,travels1 by the ruins of towns4 ,his information respecting these ruins was derived from some of the wandering ,arabs2 and its accuracy has been fully corroborated by the testimony of different ,european travellers of high respectability and undoubted veracity1 who have since visited this devastated region4 ,the whole country abounds with ruins2 and ,burckhardt1 who encountered many difficulties in so desolate and dangerous a land1 thus records the brief history of a few of them3 ,the ruins of ,eleale1 ,heshbon1 ,meon1 ,medaba1 ,dibon1 ,aroer1 still subsist to illustrate the history of the ,beni ,israel40 ,and it might with equal truth have been added1 that they still subsist to confirm the inspiration of the ,jewish ,scriptures1 or to prove that the seers of ,israel were the prophets of ,god2 for the desolation of each of these very cities was a theme of a prediction4 ,every thing worthy of observation respecting them has been detailed1 not only in ,burckhardt's ,travels in ,syria10 but also by ,seetzen1 and1 more recently1 by ,captains ,irby and ,mangles1 who1 along with ,mr4 ,bankes and ,mr4 ,leigh1 visited this deserted district4 ,the predicted judgment has fallen with such truth upon these cities1 and upon all the cities of the land of ,moab far and near1 and they are so utterly broken down10 that even the prying curiosity of such indefatigable travellers could discover among a multiplicity of ruins only a few remains so entire as to be worthy of particular notice4 ,the subjoined description is drawn from their united testimony3 ,among the ruins of ,el ,aal 7,eleale7 are a number of large cisterns1 fragments of buildings1 and foundations of houses4 ,at ,heshban1 7,heshbon17 are the ruins of a large ancient town1 together with the remains of a temple1 and some edifices4 ,a few broken shafts of columns are still standing2 and there are a number of deep wells cut in the rock4 ,the ruins of ,medeba are about two miles in circumference4 ,there are many remains of the walls of private houses constructed with blocks of silex1 but not a single edifice is standing4 ,the chief object of interest is an immense tank or cistern of hewn stones1 which1 as there is no stream at ,medeba10 ,burckhardt remarks1 might still be of use to the ,bedouins1 were the surrounding ground cleared of the rubbish to allow the water to flow into it2 but such an undertaking is far beyond the views of the wandering ,arabs40 ,there is also the foundation of a temple built with large stones1 and apparently of great antiquity1 with two columns near it4 ,the ruins of ,diban1 7,dibon17 situated in the midst of a fine plain1 are of considerable extent1 but present nothing of interest4 ,the neighbouring hot wells1 and the similarity of the name1 identify the ruins of ,myoun with ,meon1 or ,beth ,meon of ,scripture4 ,of this ancient city1 as well as of ,araayr1 7,areor17 nothing is now remarkable but what is common to them with all the cities of ,moab1 their entire desolation4 ,the extent of the ruins of ,rabba1 7,rabbath ,moab17 formerly the residence of the kings of ,moab1 sufficiently proves its ancient importance2 though no other object can be particularized among the ruins1 than the remains of a palace or temple1 some of the walls of which are still standing1 a gate belonging to another building1 and an insulated altar4 ,there are many remains of private buildings1 but none of them is entire4 ,there being no springs on the spot1 the town had two birkets1 the largest of which is cut entirely out of the rocky ground1 together with many cisterns4 ,mount ,nebo was completely barren when ,burckhardt passed over it1 and the site of the ancient city had not been ascertained4 ,nebo is spoiled40 ,while the ruins of all these cities still retain their ancient names1 and are the most conspicuous amidst the wide scene of general desolation1 and while each of them was in like manner particularized in the visions of the prophet1 they yet formed but a small number of the cities of ,moab2 and the rest are also1 in similar verification of the prophecies1 desolate1 without any to dwell therein40 ,none of the ancient cities of ,moab now remain as tenanted by men4 ,kerek1 which neither bears any resemblance in name to any of the cities of ,moab which are mentioned as existing in the time of the ,israelites1 nor possesses any monuments which denote a very remote antiquity1 is the only nominal town in the whole country1 and1 in the words of ,seetzen1 who visited it1 in its present ruined state it can only be called a hamlet2 and the houses have only one floor40 ,but the most populous and fertile province in ,europe1 especially any situated in the interior of a country like ,moab1 is not covered so thickly with towns as ,moab is plentiful in ruins1 deserted and desolate though now it be4 ,burckhardt enumerates about fifty ruined sites within its boundaries1 many of them extensive4 ,in general they are a broken down and undistinguishable mass of ruins2 and many of them have not been closely inspected4 ,but1 in some instances1 there are the remains of temples1 sepulchral monuments2 the ruins of edifices constructed of very large stones1 in one of which buildings some of the stones are twenty feet in length1 and so broad that one constitutes the thickness of the wall2 traces of hanging gardens2 entire columns lying on the ground1 three feet in diameter1 and fragments of smaller columns2 and many cisterns out of the rock4 ,when the towns of ,moab existed in their prime1 and were at ease2 when arrogance1 and haughtiness1 and pride prevailed among them2 the desolation1 and total desertion and abandonment of them all1 must have utterly surpassed all human conception4 ,and that such numerous cities which subsisted for many ages1 some of them being built on eminences1 and naturally strong2 others on plains1 and surrounded by the richest soil2 some situated in valleys by the side of a plentiful stream2 and others where art supplied the deficiencies of nature1 and where immense cisterns were excavated out of the rock1 and which exhibit in their ruins many monuments of ancient prosperity1 and many remains easily convertible into present utility2 should have all fled away1 all met the same indiscriminate fate1 and be all desolate1 without any to dwell therein10 notwithstanding all these ancient indications of permanent durability1 and their existing facilities and inducements for becoming the habitations of men1 is a matter of just wonder in the present day4 ,they shall cry of ,moab1 ,how is it broken down60 ,the strong contrast between the ancient and the actual state of ,moab is exemplified in the condition of the inhabitants as well as of the land2 and the coincidence between the prediction and the fact is as striking in the one case as in the other4 ,the days come1 saith the ,lord1 that ,i will send unto him 7,moab7 wanderers that shall cause him to wander1 and shall empty his vessels40 ,the ,bedouin 7wandering7 ,arabs are now the chief and almost the only inhabitants of a country once studded with cities4 ,traversing the country1 and fixing their tents for a short time in one place1 and then decamping to another1 depasturing every part successively1 and despoiling the whole land of its natural produce1 they are wanderers who have come up against it1 and who keep it in a state of perpetual desolation4 ,they lead a wandering life2 and the only regularity they know or practise1 is to act upon a systematic scheme of spoliation4 ,they prevent any from forming a fixed settlement who are inclined to attempt it2 for although the fruitfulness of the soil would abundantly repay the labour of settlers1 and render migration wholly unnecessary1 even if the population were increased more than tenfold2 yet the ,bedouins forcibly deprive them of the means of subsistence1 compel them to search for it elsewhere1 and1 in the words of the prediction1 literally cause them to wander40 ,it may be remarked generally of the ,bedouins10 says ,burckhardt1 in describing their extortions in this very country1 that wherever they are the masters of the cultivators1 the latter are soon reduced to beggary by their unceasing demands40 8,o ye that dwell in ,moab1 leave the cities and dwell in the rock1 and be like the dove that maketh her nest in the sides of the hole's mouth40 ,in a general description of the condition of the inhabitants of that extensive desert which now occupies the place of these ancient flourishing states1 ,volney in plain but unmeant illustration of this prediction1 remarks1 that the wretched peasants live in perpetual dread of losing the fruit of their labours2 and no sooner have they gathered in their harvest1 than they hasten to secrete it in private places1 and retire among the rocks which border on the ,dead ,sea40 ,toward the opposite extremity of the land of ,moab1 and at a little distance from its borders1 ,seetzen relates1 that there are many families living in caverns20 and he actually designates them the inhabitants of the rocks40 ,and at the distance of a few miles from the ruined site of ,heshbon1 according to ,captains ,irby and ,mangles1 there are many artificial caves in a large range of perpendicular cliffs1 in some of which are chambers and small sleeping apartments40 ,while the cities are desolate1 without any to dwell therein1 the rocks are tenanted4 ,but whether flocks lie down in the city without any to make them afraid1 or whether men are to be found dwelling in the rocks1 and are 8like the dove that maketh her nest in the sides of the hole's mouth10 the wonderful transition1 in either case1 and the close accordance1 in both1 of the fact to the prediction1 assuredly mark it in characters that may be visible to the purblind mind1 as the word of that ,god before whom the darkness of futurity is as light1 and without whom a sparrow cannot fall unto the ground4 ,,mole4 ,this word1 in our version of ,lev4 xi1 #cj1 answers to the word 1 which ,bochart has shown to be the cameleon2 but he conjectures1 with great propriety1 that 1 translated weasel10 in the preceding verse1 is the true word for the mole4 ,the present name of the mole in the east is khuld1 which is undeniably the same word as the ,hebrew choled4 ,the import of the ,hebrew word is1 to creep into10 and the same ,syriac word implies1 to creep underneath10 to creep into by burrowing2 which are well known characteristics of the mole4 ,,moloch1 1 signifies king4 ,moloch1 ,molech1 ,milcom1 or ,melchom1 was a god of the ,ammonites4 ,the word ,moloch signifies king10 and ,melchom signifies their king40 ,moses in several places forbids the ,israelites1 under the penalty of death1 to dedicate their children to ,moloch1 by making them pass through the fire in honour of that god1 ,lev4 xviii1 #ba2 xx1 #b-e4 ,god himself threatens to pour out his wrath against such offenders4 ,there is great probability that the ,hebrews were addicted to the worship of this deity1 even before their coming out of ,egypt2 since the ,prophet ,amos1 v1 #bf1 and after him ,st4 ,stephen1 reproach them with having carried in the wilderness the tabernacle of their god ,moloch1 ,acts vii1 #dc4 ,solomon built a temple to ,moloch upon the ,mount of ,olives1 #a ,kings xi1 #g2 and ,manasseh a long time after imitated his impiety1 making his son pass through the fire in honour of ,moloch1 #b ,kings xxi1 #c-f4 ,it was chiefly in the valley of ,tophet and ,hinnom1 east of ,jerusalem1 that this idolatrous worship was paid1 ,jer4 xix1 #e1 #f1 c4 ,some are of opinion that they contented themselves with making their children leap over a fire sacred to ,moloch1 by which they consecrated them to some false deity3 and by this lustration purified them2 this being a usual ceremony among the ,heathens on other occasions4 ,some believe that they made them pass through two fires opposite to each other1 for the same purpose4 ,but the word 1 to cause to pass through10 and the phrase to cause to pass through the fire10 are used in respect to human sacrifices in ,deut4 xii1 #ca2 xviii1 #aj2 #b ,kings xvi1 #c2 xxi1 #f2 #b ,chron4 xxviii1 #c2 xxxiii1 #f4 ,these words are not to be considered as meaning in these instances literally to pass through1 and that alone4 ,they are rather synonymous with 1 to burn1 and 1 to immolate1 with which they are interchanged1 as may be seen by an examination of ,jer4 vii1 #ca2 xix1 #e2 ,ezek4 xvi1 #bj1 #ba2 ,psalm cvi1 #ch4 ,in the later periods of the ,jewish kingdom1 this idol was erected in the valley south of ,jerusalem1 namely1 in the valley of ,hinnom1 and in the part of that valley called ,tophet1 1 so named from the drums1 1 which were beaten to prevent the groans and cries of children sacrificed from being heard1 ,jer4 vii1 #ca1 #cb2 xix1 #f-ad2 ,isaiah xxx1 #cc2 #b ,kings xxiii1 #aj4 ,the place was so abhorrent to the minds of the more recent ,jews1 that they applied the name ge hinnom or gehenna to the place of torments in a future life4 ,the word gehenna is used in this way1 namely1 for the place of punishment beyond the grave1 very frequently in oriental writers1 as far as ,india4 ,there are various sentiments about the relation that ,moloch had to the other ,pagan divinities4 ,some believe that ,moloch was the same as ,saturn1 to whom it is well known that human sacrifices were offered2 others think it was the same with ,mercury2 others1 ,venus2 others1 ,mars1 or ,mithra4 ,calmet has endeavoured to prove that ,moloch signified the sun1 or the king of heaven4 ,,money4 ,scripture often speaks of gold1 silver1 brass1 of certain sums of money1 of purchases made with money1 of current money1 of money of a certain weight2 but we do not observe coined or stamped money till a late period2 which makes it probable that the ancient ,hebrews took gold and silver only by weight2 that they only considered the purity of the metal1 and not the stamp4 ,the most ancient commerce was conducted by barter1 or exchanging one sort of merchandise for another4 ,one man gave what he could spare to another1 who gave him in return part of his superabundance4 ,afterward1 the more precious metals were used in traffic1 as a value more generally known and fixed4 ,lastly1 they gave this metal1 by public authority1 a certain mark1 a certain weight1 and a certain degree of alloy1 to fix its value1 and to save buyers and sellers the trouble of weighing and examining the coins4 ,at the siege of ,troy in ,homer1 no reference is made to gold or silver coined2 but the value of things is estimated by the number of oxen they were worth4 ,for instance3 they bought wine1 by exchanging oxen1 slaves1 skins1 iron1 c1 for it4 ,when the ,greeks first used money1 it was only little pieces of iron or copper1 called oboli or spits1 of which a handful was a drachma1 says ,plutarch4 ,herodotus thinks that the ,lydians were the first that stamped money of gold or silver1 and introduced it into commerce4 ,others say it was ,ishon1 king of ,thessaly1 a son of ,deucalion4 ,others ascribe this honour to ,erichthonius2 who had been educated by the daughters of ,cecrops1 king of ,athens3 others1 again1 to ,phidon1 king of ,argos4 ,among the ,persians it is said ,darius1 son of ,hystaspes1 first coined golden money4 ,lycurgus banished gold and silver from his commonwealth of ,lacedmon1 and only allowed a rude sort of money1 made of iron4 ,janus1 or rather the kings of ,rome1 made a kind of gross money of copper1 having on one side the double face of ,janus1 on the other the prow of a ship4 ,we find nothing concerning the money of the ,egyptians1 ,phenicians1 ,arabians1 or ,syrians1 before ,alexander the ,great4 ,in ,china1 to this day1 they stamp no money of gold or silver1 but only of copper4 ,gold and silver pass as merchandise4 ,if gold or silver be offered1 they take it and pay it by weight1 as other goods3 so that they are obliged to cut it into pieces with shears for that purpose1 and they carry a steel yard at their girdles to weigh it4 ,but to return to the ,hebrews4 ,abraham weighed out four hundred shekels of silver1 to purchase ,sarah's tomb1 ,genesis xxiii1 #ae1 #af2 and ,scripture observes that he paid this in current money with the merchant40 ,joseph was sold by his brethren to the ,midianites for twenty pieces 7in ,hebrew twenty shekels7 of silver1 ,gen4 xxxvii1 #bh4 ,the brethren of ,joseph bring back with them into ,egypt the money they found in their sacks1 in the same weight as before1 ,gen4 xliii1 #ba4 ,the bracelets that ,eliezer gave ,rebekah weighed ten shekels1 and the ear rings two shekels1 ,gen4 xxiv1 #bb4 ,moses ordered that the weight of five hundred shekels of myrrh1 and two hundred and fifty shekels of cinnamon1 of the weight of the sanctuary1 should be taken1 to make the perfume which was to be burnt to the ,lord on the golden altar1 ,exod4 xxx1 #bd4 ,he acquaints us that the ,israelites offered for the works of the tabernacle seventy-two thousand talents of brass1 ,exod4 xxxviii1 #bi4 ,we read1 in the books of ,samuel1 that the weight of ,absalom's hair was two hundred shekels of the ordinary weight1 or of the king's weight1 #b ,sam4 xiv1 #bf4 ,isaiah1 xlvi1 #f1 describes the wicked as weighing silver in a balance1 to make an idol of it2 and ,jeremiah1 xxxii1 #aj1 weighs seventeen pieces of silver in a pair of scales1 to pay for a field he had bought4 ,isaiah says1 ,come1 buy wine and milk without money and without price4 ,wherefore do ye weigh money for that which is not bread80 ,amos1 viii1 #e1 represents the merchants as encouraging one another to make the ephah small1 wherewith to sell1 and the shekel great1 wherewith to buy1 and to falsify the balances by deceit4 ,in all these passages three things only are mentioned3 #a4 ,the metal1 that is1 gold or silver1 and never copper1 that not being used in traffic as money4 #b4 ,the weight1 a talent1 a shekel1 a gerah or obolus1 the weight of the sanctuary1 and the king's weight4 #c4 ,the alloy 7standard7 of pure or fine gold and silver1 and of good quality1 as received by the merchant4 ,the impression of the coinage is not referred to2 but it is said they weighed the silver1 or other commodities1 by the shekel and by the talent4 ,this shekel1 therefore1 and this talent1 were not fixed and determined pieces of money1 but weights applied to things used in commerce4 ,hence those deceitful balances of the merchants1 who would increase the shekel1 that is1 would augment the weight by which they weighed the gold and silver they were to receive1 that they might have a greater quantity than was their due2 hence the weight of the sanctuary1 the standard of which was preserved in the temple to prevent fraud2 hence those prohibitions in the law1 ,thou shalt not have in thy bag divers weights10 in ,hebrew1 stones1 a great and a small10 ,deut4 xxv1 #ac2 hence those scales that the ,hebrews wore at their girdles1 ,hosea xii1 #g1 and the ,canaanites carried in their hands1 to weigh the gold and silver which they received in payment4 ,it is true that in the ,hebrew we find ,jacob bought a field for a hundred kesitahs1 ,gen4 xxxiii1 #ai2 and that the friends of ,job1 after his recovery1 gave to that model of patience each a kesitah1 and a golden pendant for the ears1 ,job xlii1 #aa4 ,we also find there darics1 7in ,hebrew1 darcmonim or adarcmonim17 and min1 stater1 oboli2 but this last kind of money was foreign1 and is put for other terms1 which in the ,hebrew only signifies the weight of the metal4 ,the kesitah is not well known to us3 some take it for a sheep or a lamb2 others1 for a kind of money1 having the impression of a lamb or a sheep3 but it was more probably a purse of money4 ,the darcmonim or darics are money of the kings of ,persia2 and it is agreed that ,darius1 son of ,hystaspes1 first coined golden money4 ,ezekiel1 xlv1 #ab1 tells us that the mina makes fifty shekels3 he reduces this foreign money to the weight of the ,hebrews4 ,the mina might probably be a ,persian money originally1 and adopted by the ,greeks and by the ,hebrews4 ,but under the dominion of the ,persians1 the ,hebrews were hardly at liberty to coin money of their own1 being in subjection to those princes1 and very low in their own country4 ,they were still less able under the ,chaldeans1 during the ,babylonish captivity2 or afterward under the ,grecians1 to whom they were subject till the time of ,simon ,maccabus1 to whom ,antiochus ,sidetes1 king of ,syria1 granted the privilege of coining money in ,judea1 #a ,mac4 xv1 #f4 ,and this is the first ,hebrew money1 properly so called1 that we know of4 ,there were shekels and demi-shekels1 also the third part of a shekel1 and a quarter of a shekel1 of silver4 ,the shekel of silver1 or the silverling1 ,isa4 vii1 #bc1 originally weighed three hundred and twenty barleycorns2 but it was afterward increased to three hundred and eighty-four barleycorns1 its value1 being considered equal to four ,roman denarii1 was two shillings and seven pence1 or1 according to ,bishop ,cumberland1 two shillings and four pence farthing4 ,it is said to have had ,aaron's rod on the one side1 and the pot of manna on the other4 ,the bekah was equal to half a shekel1 ,exod4 xxxviii1 #bf4 ,the denarius was one-fourth of a shekel1 seven pence three farthings of our money4 ,the gerah1 or meah1 ,exod4 xxx1 #ac1 was the sixth part of the denarius1 or diner1 and the twenty-fourth part of the shekel4 ,the assar1 or assarion1 ,matt4 x1 #bi1 was the ninety-sixth part of a shekel3 its value was rather more than a farthing4 ,the farthing1 ,matt4 v1 #bf1 was in value the thirteenth part of a penny sterling4 ,the mite was the half of a farthing1 or the twenty-sixth part of a penny sterling4 ,the mina1 or maneh1 ,ezek4 xlv1 #ab1 was equal to sixty shekels1 which1 taken at two shillings and seven pence1 was seven pounds fifteen shillings4 ,the talent was fifty minas2 and its value1 therefore1 three hundred and eighty-seven pounds ten shillings4 ,the gold coins were as follows3 a shekel of gold was about fourteen and a half times the value of silver1 that is1 one pound seventeen shillings and five pence halfpenny4 ,a talent of gold consisted of three thousand shekels4 ,the drachma was equal to a ,roman denarius1 or seven pence three farthings of our money4 ,the didrachma1 or tribute money1 ,matt4 xvii1 #bd1 was equal to fifteen pence halfpenny4 ,it is said to have been stamped with a harp on one side1 and a vine on the other4 ,the stater1 or piece of money which ,peter found in the fish's mouth1 ,matt4 xvii1 #bg1 was two half shekels4 ,a daric1 dram1 #a ,chron4 xxix1 #g2 ,ezra viii1 #bg1 was a gold coin struck by ,darius the ,mede4 ,according to ,parkhurst its value was one pound five shillings4 ,a gold penny is stated by ,lightfoot to have been equal to twenty-five silver pence4 ,hug derives a satisfactory argument for the veracity of the ,gospels from the different kinds of money mentioned in them3--,the admixture of foreign manners and constitutions proceeded through numberless circumstances of life4 ,take1 for example1 the circulation of coin2 at one time it is ,greek coin2 at another1 ,roman2 at another time ancient ,jewish4 ,but how accurately is even this stated according to history1 and the arrangement of things6 ,the ancient imposts which were introduced before the ,roman dominion were valued according to the ,greek coinage2 for example1 the taxes of the temple1 the 1 ,matt4 xvii1 #bd4 ,the offerings were paid in these1 ,mark xii1 #db2 ,luke xxi1 #b4 ,a payment which proceeded from the temple treasury was made according to the ancient national payment by weight1 ,matt4 xxvi1 #ae2 but in common business1 trade1 wages1 sale1 c1 the assis and denarius and ,roman coin were usual1 ,matt4 x1 #bi2 xx1 #c2 ,luke xii1 #f2 ,mark xiv1 #e2 ,john xii1 #e2 vi1 #g4 ,the more modern state taxes are likewise paid in the coin of the nation which exercises at the time the greatest authority1 ,matthew xxii1 #ai2 ,mark xii1 #ae2 ,luke xx1 #bd4 ,writers1 who1 in each little circumstance1 which otherwise would pass by unnoticed1 so accurately describe the period of time1 must certainly have had a personal knowledge of it4 ,,money-,,changers1 in the ,gospels1 were persons who exchanged native for foreign coin1 to enable those who came to ,jerusalem from distant countries to purchase the necessary sacrifices4 ,in our ,lord's time they had established themselves in the court of the temple2 a profanation which had probably grown up with the influence of ,roman manners1 which allowed the argentarii money-dealers to establish their usurious mensas1 tables1 by the statues of the gods1 even at the feet of ,janus1 in the most holy places1 in porticibus ,basilicarum1 or in the temples1 pone dem ,castoris4 ,the following extract from ,buckingham's ,travels among the ,arabs1 is illustrative3--8,the mosque at the time of our passing through it was full of people1 though these were not worshippers1 nor was it at either of the usual hours of public prayers4 ,some of the parties were assembled to smoke1 others to play at chess1 and some apparently to drive bargains of trade1 but certainly none to pray4 ,it was1 indeed1 a living picture of what we might believe the temple at ,jerusalem to have been1 when those who sold oxen1 and sheep1 and doves1 and the changers of money sitting there1 were driven out by ,jesus1 with a scourge of cords1 and their tables overturned4 ,it was1 in short1 a place of public resort and thoroughfare1 a house of merchandise1 as the temple of the ,jews had become in the days of the ,messiah40 ,,monk anciently denoted a person who retired from the world to give himself up wholly to ,god1 and to live in solitude and abstinence4 ,the word is derived from the ,latin monachus1 and that from the ,greek 1 solitary4 ,the original of monks seems to have been this3 ,the persecutions which attended the first ages of the ,gospel forced some ,christians to retire from the world1 and live in deserts and places more private and unfrequented1 in hopes of finding that peace and comfort among beasts which were denied them among men2 and this being the case of some very extraordinary persons1 their example gave such reputation to retirement1 that the practice was continued when the reason of its commencement ceased4 ,after the empire became ,christian1 instances of this kind were numerous2 and those whose security had obliged them to live separately and apart became afterward united into societies4 ,we may also add1 that the mystic theology1 which gained ground toward the close of the third century1 contributed to produce the same effect1 and to drive men into solitude1 for the purposes of devotion4 ,the monks1 at least the ancient ones1 were distinguished into solitaries1 cnobites1 and sarabaites4 ,the first were those who lived in places remote from all towns and habitations of men1 as do still some of the hermits4 ,the cnobites were those who lived in community with several others in the same house1 and under the same superiors4 ,the sarabaites were strolling monks1 having no fixed rule of residence4 ,those who are now called monks are cnobites1 who live together in a convent or monastery1 who make vows of living according to a certain rule established by the founder1 and wear a habit which distinguishes their order4 ,those that are endowed1 or have a fixed revenue1 are most properly called monks1 monachi2 as the ,chartereux1 ,benedictines1 ,bernardines1 c4 ,the ,mendicants1 or those that beg1 as the ,capuchins and ,franciscans1 are more properly called religious1 and friars1 though the names are frequently confounded4 ,the first monks were those of ,st4 ,anthony1 who1 toward the close of the fourth century1 formed them into a regular body1 engaged them to live in society with each other1 and prescribed to them fixed rules for the direction of their conduct4 ,these regulations1 which ,anthony had made in ,egypt1 were soon introduced into ,palestine and ,syria by his disciple ,hilarion4 ,almost about the same time1 ,aones1 or ,eugenius1 with their companions1 ,gaddanus and ,azyzas1 instituted the monastic order in ,mesopotomia1 and the adjacent countries2 and their example was followed with such rapid success1 that in a short time the whole east was filled with a lazy set of mortals1 who1 abandoning all human connections1 advantages1 pleasures1 and concerns1 wore out a languishing and miserable existence amidst hardships of want1 and various kinds of suffering1 in order to arrive at a more close and rapturous communication with ,god and angels4 ,from the east this gloomy institution passed into the west1 and first into ,italy and its neighbouring islands1 though it is uncertain who transplanted it thither4 ,st4 ,martin1 the celebrated bishop of ,tours1 erected the first monasteries in ,gaul1 and recommended this religious solitude with such power and efficacy1 both by his instruction and example1 that his funeral is said to have been attended by no less than two thousand monks4 ,from hence the monastic discipline extended its progress gradually through the other provinces and countries of ,europe4 ,there were beside1 the monks of ,st4 ,basil1 called in the east calogeri1 from 1 a good old man1 and those of ,st4 ,jerom1 the hermits of ,st4 ,augustine1 and afterward those of ,st4 ,benedict and ,st4 ,bernard3 at length came those of ,st4 ,francis and ,st4 ,dominic1 with a legion of others4 ,toward the close of the fifth century1 the monks who had formerly lived only for themselves in solitary retreats1 and had never thought of assuming any rank among the sacerdotal order1 were gradually distinguished from the populace1 and endowed with such opulence and honourable privileges that they found themselves in a condition to claim an eminent station among the pillars and supporters of the ,christian community4 ,the fame of their piety and sanctity was so great1 that bishops and presbyters were often chosen out of their order2 and the passion of erecting edifices and convents1 in which the monks and holy virgins might serve ,god in the most commodious manner1 was at this time carried beyond all bounds4 ,however1 their licentiousness1 even in this century1 was become a proverb2 and they are said to have excited the most dreadful tumults and seditions in various places4 ,the monastic orders were at first under the immediate jurisdiction of the bishops1 from which they were exempted by the ,roman pontiff about the end of the seventh century2 and the monks in return devoted themselves wholly to advance the interest and to maintain the dignity of the bishop of ,rome4 ,this immunity which they obtained was a fruitful source of licentiousness and disorder1 and occasioned the greatest part of the vices with which they were afterward so justly charged4 ,in the eighth century the monastic discipline was extremely relaxed1 both in the eastern and western provinces1 and all efforts to restore it were ineffectual4 ,nevertheless1 this kind of institution was in the highest esteem2 and nothing could equal the veneration that was paid about the close of the ninth century to such as devoted themselves to the sacred gloom and indolence of a convent4 ,this veneration caused several kings and emperors to call them to their courts1 and to employ them in civil affairs of the greatest moment4 ,their reformation was attempted by ,louis the meek1 but the effect was of short duration4 ,in the eleventh century1 they were exempted by the popes from the authority of their sovereigns1 and new orders of monks were continually established1 insomuch that in the council of ,lateran1 that was held ,a4 ,d4 #abae1 a decree was passed1 by the advice of ,innocent ,,iii41 to prevent any new monastic institutions2 and several were entirely suppressed4 ,in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 it appears1 from the testimony of the best writers1 that the monks were generally lazy1 illiterate1 profligate1 and licentious epicures1 whose views in life were confined to opulence1 idleness1 and pleasure4 ,however1 the reformation had a manifest influence in restraining their excesses1 and rendering them more circumspect and cautious in their external conduct4 ,monks are distinguished by the colour of their habits1 into black1 white1 gray1 c4 ,among the monks1 some are called monks of the choir1 others1 professed monks1 and others1 lay monks2 which last are destined for the service of the convent1 and have neither clericate nor literature4 ,cloistered monks are those who actually reside in the house1 in opposition to extra monks1 who have benefices depending on the monastery4 ,monks are also distinguished into reformed1 whom the civil and ecclesiastical authority have made masters of ancient convents1 and empowered to retrieve the ancient discipline1 which had been relaxed2 and ancient1 who remain in the convent1 to live in it according to its establishment at the time when they made their vows1 without obliging themselves to any new reform4 ,anciently the monks were all laymen1 and were only distinguished from the rest of the people by a peculiar habit and an extraordinary piety or devotion4 ,not only the monks were prohibited the priesthood1 but even priests were expressly prohibited from becoming monks1 as appears from the letters of ,st4 ,gregory4 ,pope ,syricius was the first who called them to the clericate1 on account of some great scarcity of priests that the church was supposed to labour under2 and since that time the priesthood has been usually united to the monastical profession4 ,,monophysites4 ,see ,,hypostatic ,,union4 ,,monothelites1 a denomination in the seventh century4 ,see ,,hypostatic ,,union4 ,,months1 1 sometimes also called 1 new moons1 from the circumstance of their commencing with the new moon1 anciently had no separate names1 with the exception of the first1 which was called ,abib1 that is1 the month of the young ears of corn10 ,exod4 xiii1 #d2 xxiii1 #ae2 xxxiv1 #ah2 ,deut4 xvi1 #a4 ,during the captivity1 the ,hebrews adopted the ,babylonian names for their months2 which were as follows1 and they were reckoned thus3-- #a4 1 ,nisan1 from the new of ,april1 ,neh4 ii1 #a4 moon #b4 1 ,zif or ,ziv1 also of ,may1 #a ,kings vi1 #a4 called 1 #c4 1 ,sivan1 of ,june1 ,esther viii1 #i4 #d4 1 ,tammuz1 of ,july4 #e4 1 ,ab1 of ,august4 #f4 1 ,elul1 of ,september1 ,neh4 vi1 #ae4 #g4 1 ,tishri1 also of ,october1 #a ,kings viii1 #b4 1 #h4 1 ,bul1 also 1 of ,november1 #a ,kings vi1 #ch4 #i4 1 ,kislev1 of ,december1 ,neh4 i1 #a4 #aj4 1 ,tebeth1 of ,january1 ,esther ii1 #af4 #aa4 1 ,shebat1 of ,february1 ,zech4 i1 #g4 #ab4 1 ,adar1 of ,march1 ,esther iii1 #g4 ,the first month here mentioned1 ,nisan1 was originally called ,abib4 ,the intercalary month is denominated in ,hebrew 4 ,,moon4 ,particular sacrifices were enjoined by ,moses at every new moon1 which day was also celebrated as a feast4 ,it is promised in ,psalm cxxi1 #f1 ,the sun shall not smite thee by day1 nor the moon by night40 ,the effect of a coup de soleil1 or stroke of the sun1 is well known2 and in some climates the beams of the moon are reputed hurtful4 ,anderson1 in his ,description of the ,east10 says1 ,one must here 7in ,batavia7 take great care not to sleep in the beams of the moon uncovered4 ,i have seen many people whose neck has become crooked1 so that they look more to the side than forward4 ,i will not decide whether it is to be ascribed to the moon1 as people imagine here40 ,in some of the southern parts of ,europe the same opinions are entertained of the pernicious influence of the moon beams4 ,an ,english gentleman walking in the evening in the garden of a ,portuguese nobleman at ,lisbon1 was most seriously admonished by the owner to put on his hat1 to protect him from the moon beams4 ,the fishermen in ,sicily are said to cover1 during the night1 the fish which they expose to dry on the sea shore1 alleging that the beams of the moon cause them to putrefy4 ,,moral ,,obligation4 ,different opinions have been held as to the ground of moral obligation4 ,grotius1 ,balguy1 and ,dr4 ,samuel ,clarke1 place it in the eternal and necessary fitness of things4 ,to this there are two objections4 ,the first is1 that it leaves the distinction between virtue and vice1 in a great measure1 arbitrary and indefinite1 dependent upon our perception of fitness and unfitness1 which1 in different individuals will greatly differ4 ,the second is1 that when a fitness or unfitness is proved1 it is no more than the discovery of a natural essential difference or congruity1 which alone cannot constitute a moral obligation to choose what is fit1 and to reject what is unfit4 ,when we have proved a fitness in a certain course of action1 we have not proved that it is obligatory4 ,a second step is necessary before we can reach this conclusion4 ,cudworth1 ,butler1 ,price1 and others1 maintain1 that virtue carries its own obligation in itself2 that the understanding at once perceives a certain action to be right1 and therefore it ought to be performed4 ,several objections lie to this notion3 #a4 ,it supposes the understandings of men to determine precisely in the same manner concerning all virtuous and vicious actions2 which is contrary to fact4 #b4 ,it supposes a previous rule1 by which the action is determined to be right2 but if the revealed will of ,god is not to be taken into consideration1 what common rule exists among men8 ,there is evidently no such rule1 and therefore no means of certainly determining what is right4 #c4 ,if a common standard were known among men1 and if the understandings of men determined in the same manner as to the conformity1 or otherwise1 of an action to that standard2 what renders it a matter of obligation that any one should perform it8 ,the rule must be proved to be binding1 or no ground of obligation is established4 ,an action is obligatory1 say others1 because it is agreeable to the moral sense4 ,this is the theory of ,lord ,shaftesbury and ,dr4 ,hutcheson4 ,by moral sense appears to be meant an instinctive approbation of right1 and abhorrence of wrong1 prior to all reflection on their nature1 or their consequences4 ,if any thing else were understood by it1 then the moral sense must be the same with conscience1 which we know to vary with the judgment1 and cannot therefore be the basis of moral obligation4 ,if conscience be not meant1 then the moral sense must be considered as instinctive3 a notion1 certainly1 which is disproved by the whole moral history of man4 ,it may1 indeed1 be conceded1 that such is the constitution of the human soul1 that when those distinctions between actions1 which have been taught by religious tradition or direct revelation1 are known in their nature1 relations1 and consequences1 the calm and sober judgments of men will approve of them2 and that especially when they are considered abstractedly1 that is1 as not affecting and controlling their own interests and passions immediately1 virtue may command complacency1 and vice provoke abhorrence3 but that1 independent of reflection on their nature or their consequences1 there is an instinctive principle in man which abhors evil1 and loves good1 is contradicted by that variety of opinion and feeling on the vices and virtues1 which obtains among all uninstructed nations4 ,we applaud the forgiveness of an injury as magnanimous2 a savage despises it as mean4 ,we think it a duty to support and cherish aged parents2 many nations1 on the contrary1 abandon them as useless1 and throw them to the beasts of the field4 ,innumerable instances of this contrariety might be adduced1 which are all contrary to the notion of instinctive sentiment4 ,instincts operate uniformly1 but this assumed moral sense does not4 ,beside1 if it be mere matter of feeling1 independent of judgment1 to love virtue1 and abhor vice1 the morality of the exercise of this principle is questionable2 for it would be difficult to show1 that there is any more morality1 properly speaking1 in the affections and disgusts of instinct than in those of the palate4 ,if judgment1 the knowledge and comparison of things1 be included1 then this principle supposes a uniform and universal individual revelation as to the nature of things to every man1 or an intuitive faculty of determining their moral quality2 both of which are too absurd to be maintained4 ,the only satisfactory conclusion on this subject1 is that which refers moral obligation to the will of ,god4 ,obligation10 says ,warburton1 necessarily implies an obliger1 and the obliger must be different from1 and not one and the same with1 the obliged4 ,moral obligation1 that is1 the obligation of a free agent1 farther implies a law1 which enjoins and forbids2 but a law is the imposition of an intelligent superior1 who hath power to exact conformity thereto40 ,this lawgiver is ,god2 and whatever may be the reasons which have led him to enjoin this1 and to prohibit that1 it is plain that the obligation to obey lies not merely in the fitness and propriety of a creature obeying an infinitely wise and good ,creator1 7though such a fitness exists17 but in that obedience being enjoined4 ,for1 since the question respects the duty of a created being with reference to his ,creator1 nothing can be more conclusive than that the ,creator has an absolute right to the obedience of his creatures2 and that the creature is in duty obliged to obey him from whom it not only has received being1 but by whom that being is constantly sustained4 ,it has1 indeed1 been said1 that even if it be admitted1 that ,i am obliged to obey the will of ,god1 the question is still open1 ,why am ,i obliged to obey his will80 and that this brings us round to the former answer2 because he can only will what is upon the whole best for his creatures4 ,but this is confounding that which may be1 and doubtless is1 a rule to ,god in the commands which he issues1 with that which really obliges the creature4 ,now1 that which in truth obliges the creature is not the nature of the commands issued by ,god2 but the relation in which the creature itself stands to ,god4 ,if a creature can have no existence1 nor any power or faculty independently of ,god1 it can have no right to employ its faculties independently of him2 and if it have no right to employ its faculties in an independent manner1 the right to rule its conduct must rest with the ,creater alone2 and from this results the obligation of absolute and universal obedience4 ,,moravians1 or ,,united ,,brethren4 ,the name of ,moravians1 or ,moravian ,brethren1 was in ,england given to the members of a foreign ,protestant church1 calling itself the ,unitas ,fratrum1 or ,united ,brethren4 ,this church formerly consisted of three branches1 the ,bohemian1 ,moravian1 and ,polish4 ,after its renovation in the year #agbb1 some of its members came to ,england in #agbh1 who being of the ,moravian branch1 became known by that appellation2 and all those who joined them1 and adopted their doctrines and discipline1 have ever since been called ,moravians4 ,strictly speaking1 however1 that name is not applicable to them1 nor generally admitted1 either by themselves1 or in any public documents1 in which they are called by their proper names1 the ,unitas ,fratrum1 or ,united ,brethren4 ,the few remaining members of the ancient church of the ,united ,brethren in ,bohemia1 ,moravia1 and ,poland1 being much persecuted by the popish clergy1 many of them left all their possessions1 and fled with their families into ,silesia and ,saxony4 ,in ,saxony they found protection from a ,saxon nobleman1 ,nicholas ,lewis1 count of ,zinzendorff1 who gave them some waste land on one of his estates1 on which1 in #agbb1 they built a village at the foot of a hill1 called the ,hut-,berg1 or ,watch-,hill4 ,this occasioned them to call their settlement ,herrnhut1 the watch of the ,lord40 ,hence their enemies designated them in derision by the name of ,herrnhuters1 which is altogether improper1 but by it they are known in some countries abroad4 ,by their own account1 the community derive their origin from the ancient ,bohemian and ,moravian ,brethren1 who existed as a distinct people ever since the year #adeg1 when1 separating from those who took up arms in defence of their protestations against popish errors1 they formed a plan for church fellowship and discipline1 agreeable to their insight into the ,scriptures1 and called themselves at first1 ,fratres ,legis ,christi1 or ,brethren after the ,law of ,christ2 and afterward1 on being joined by others of the same persuasion in other places1 ,unitas ,fratrum1 or ,fratres ,unitatis4 ,by degrees1 they established congregations in various places1 and spread themselves into ,moravia and other neighbouring states4 ,being anxious to preserve among themselves regular episcopal ordination1 and1 at a synod held at ,lhota in #adfg1 taking into consideration the scarcity of ministers regularly ordained among them1 they chose three of their priests ordained by ,calixtine bishops1 and sent them to ,stephen1 bishop of the ,waldenses1 then residing in ,austria1 by whom they were consecrated bishops2 co-bishops and conseniores being appointed from the rest of their presbyters4 ,in #adfh a great persecution arose against them1 and many were put to death4 ,in #adha they were banished from ,moravia1 when many of them fled as far as ,mount ,caucasus1 and established themselves there1 till driven away by subsequent troubles4 ,in the mean time1 disputes respecting points of doctrine1 the enmity of the papists1 and other causes1 raised continual disturbances and great persecutions at various periods1 till the ,reformation by ,luther1 when they opened a correspondence with that eminent reformer and his associates1 and entered into several negotiations1 both with him and ,calvin1 concerning the extension of the ,protestant cause4 ,but their strict adherence to the discipline of their own church1 founded1 in their view1 on that of the primitive churches1 and the acknowledged impossibility of its application among the mixed multitude1 of which the ,lutheran and ,calvinist churches consisted1 occasioned a cessation of coperation1 and1 in the sequel1 the ,brethren were again left to the mercy of their persecutors1 by whom their churches were destroyed1 and their ministers banished1 till the year #aege1 when they obtained an edict from the emperor of ,germany1 for the public exercise of their religion4 ,this toleration was renewed in #afji1 and liberty granted them to erect new churches4 ,but a civil war1 which broke out in ,bohemia in #afab1 and a violent persecution which followed it in #afba1 again occasioned the dispersion of their ministers1 and brought great distress upon the ,brethren in general4 ,some fled into ,england1 others to ,saxony and ,brandenburg2 while many1 overcome by the severity of the persecution1 conformed to the rites of the church of ,rome4 ,about the year #afdj1 by incessant persecution1 and the most oppressive measures1 this ancient church was brought to so low an ebb1 that it appeared nearly extinct4 ,the persecutions which took place at the beginning of the eighteenth century1 were the occasion that many of the scattered descendants of the ,bohemian and ,moravian ,brethren at length resolved to quit their native land1 and seek liberty of conscience in foreign countries4 ,some emigrated into ,silesia1 and others into ,upper ,lusatia1 a province of ,saxony1 adjoining to ,bohemia4 ,the latter1 as before observed1 found a protector in ,nicholas ,count ,zinzendorff1 a pious1 zealous man1 and a ,lutheran by education4 ,he hoped that the religious state of the ,lutherans in his neighbourhood would be greatly improved by the conversation and example of these devout emigrants2 and he therefore sought to prevail upon the latter to join the ,lutheran church altogether4 ,to this the ,brethren objected1 being unwilling to give up their ancient discipline1 and would rather proceed to seek an asylum in another place2 when the count1 struck with their steadfast adherence to the tenets of their forefathers1 began more maturely to examine their pretensions2 and being convinced of the justness of them1 he procured for the ,brethren the renovation of their ancient constitution1 and ever after proved a most zealous promoter of their cause4 ,he is1 therefore1 very justly esteemed by them as the chief instrument1 in the hand of ,god1 in restoring the sinking church1 and1 in general1 gratefully remembered for his disinterested and indefatigable labours in promoting the interests of religion1 both at home and abroad4 ,in #agce1 having been examined and received into the clerical order1 by the theological faculty at ,tuebingen1 in the duchy of ,wurtemburg1 he was consecrated a bishop of the ,brethren's church4 ,after the establishment of a regular congregation of the ,united ,brethren at ,herrnhut1 multitudes of pious persons from various parts flocked to it1 many of whom had private opinions in religious matters1 to which they were strongly attached4 ,this occasioned great disputes1 which even threatened the destruction of the society2 but1 by the indefatigable exertions of ,count ,zinzendorff1 these disputes were allayed1 and the statutes being drawn up1 and agreed to in #agbg1 for better regulation1 brotherly love and union were restablished1 and no schism whatever1 in point of doctrine1 has since that period disturbed the peace of the church4 ,though the ,brethren acknowledge no other standard of truth than the sacred ,scriptures1 they in general profess to adhere to the ,augsburg ,confession of ,faith4 ,their church is episcopal2 but though they consider episcopal ordination as necessary to qualify the servants of the church for their respective functions1 they allow to their bishops no elevation of rank or preminent authority4 ,the ,moravian church1 from its first establishment1 has been governed by synods1 consisting of deputies from all the congregations1 and by other subordinate bodies1 which they call conferences4 ,according to their regulations1 episcopal ordination1 of itself1 does not confer any power to preside over one or more congregations2 and a bishop can discharge no office except by the appointment of a synod1 or of its delegate1 the elders' conference of the unity4 ,presbyters among them can perform every function of the bishop1 except ordination4 ,deacons are assistants to presbyters1 much in the same way as in the church of ,england4 ,deaconesses are retained for the purpose of privately admonishing their own sex1 and visiting them in their sickness2 but they are not permitted to teach in public1 and1 far less1 to administer the sacraments4 ,they have also seniores civiles1 or lay elders1 in contradistinction to spiritual elders or bishops1 who are appointed to watch over the constitution and discipline of the unity of the ,brethren1 c4 ,the synods are generally held once in seven years2 and beside all the bishops1 and the deputies sent by each congregation1 those women who have appointments as above described1 if on the spot1 are also admitted as hearers1 and may be called upon to give their advice in what relates to the ministerial labour among their own sex2 but they have no decisive vote in the synod4 ,the votes of all the other members are equal4 ,in questions of importance1 or of which the consequence cannot be foreseen1 neither the majority of votes1 nor the unanimous consent of all present1 can decide3 but recourse is had to the lot1 which1 however1 is never made use of except after mature deliberation and prayer2 nor is any thing submitted to its decision which does not1 after being thoroughly weighed1 appear to the assembly eligible in itself4 ,,mordecai was the son of ,jair1 of the race of ,saul1 and a chief of the tribe of ,benjamin4 ,he was carried captive to ,babylon by ,nebuchadnezzar1 with ,jehoiachin1 or ,jeconiah1 king of ,judah1 ,a4 ,m4 #cdje1 ,esther ii1 #e1 #f4 ,he settled at ,shushan1 and there lived to the first year of ,cyrus1 when it is thought he returned to ,jerusalem1 with several other captives2 but he afterward returned to ,shushan4 ,there is great probability that ,mordecai was very young when taken into captivity4 ,the book of ,esther gives the whole history of ,mordecai's elevation1 the punishment of ,haman1 and the wonderful deliverance of the ,jews1 in clear and regular narrative4 ,but it may be asked1 ,for what reason did ,mordecai refuse to pay that respect to ,haman1 the neglect of which incensed him against the ,jews8 ,esther iii1 #a-f4 ,some think the reason was1 because ,haman was an ,amalekite2 a people whom the ,israelites had been commissioned from ,god to destroy1 because of the injuries they had formerly done them1 ,deut4 xxv1 #ag-ai4 ,but this scarcely seems to be a sufficient account of ,mordecai's refusing civil respect to ,haman1 who was first minister of state2 especially when by so doing he exposed his whole nation to imminent danger4 ,beside1 if nothing but civil respect had been intended to ,haman1 the king need not have enjoined it on his servants after he had made him his first minister and chief favourite1 ,esther iii1 #a1 #b2 they would have been ready enough to show it on all occasions4 ,probably1 therefore1 the reverence ordered to be done to this great man was a kind of divine honour1 such as was sometimes addressed to the ,persian monarchs themselves2 which1 being a species of idolatry1 ,mordecai refused for the sake of a good conscience4 ,and perhaps it was because ,haman knew that his refusal was the result of his ,jewish principles1 that he determined to attempt the destruction of the ,jews in general1 knowing they were all of the same mind4 ,as to another question1 why ,haman cast lots1 in order to fix the day for the massacre of the ,jews1 ,esther iii1 #g2 from whence the feast of purim1 which is a ,persic word1 and signifies lots1 took its name1 ,esther ix1 #bf2 it was no doubt owing to the superstitious conceit which anciently prevailed1 of some days being more fortunate than others for any undertaking2 in short1 he endeavoured to find out1 by this way of divining1 what month1 and what day of the month1 was most unfortunate to the ,jews1 and most fortunate for the success of his bloody design against them4 ,it is very remarkable1 that while ,haman sought for direction in this affair from the ,persian idols1 the ,god of ,israel so over-ruled the lot as to fix the intended massacre to almost a year's distance1 from ,nisan the first month to ,adar the last of the year1 in order to give time and opportunity to ,mordecai and ,esther to defeat the conspiracy4 ,,moriah1 ,,mount4 ,a hill on the north-east side of ,jerusalem1 once separated from that of ,acra by a broad valley1 which1 according to ,josephus1 was filled up by the ,asmoneans1 and the two hills converted into one4 ,in the time of ,david it stood apart from the city1 and was under cultivation2 for here was the threshing floor of ,araunah1 the ,jebusite1 which ,david bought1 on which to erect an altar to ,god1 #b ,sam4 xxiv1 #ae-be4 ,on the same spot ,solomon afterward built the temple1 #b ,chron4 iii1 #a2 when it was included within the walls of the city4 ,here1 also1 ,abraham is supposed to have been directed to offer his son ,isaac1 ,gen4 xxii1 #a1 #b4 ,moriah implies vision20 and the land of ,moriah10 mentioned in the above passage in the history of ,abraham1 was probably so called from being seen afar off40 ,it included the whole group of hills on which ,jerusalem was afterward built4 ,,moses4 ,this illustrious legislator of the ,israelites was of the tribe of ,levi1 in the line of ,koath and of ,amram1 whose son he was1 and therefore in the fourth generation after the settlement of the ,israelites in ,egypt4 ,the time of his birth is ascertained by the exode of the ,israelites1 when ,moses was eighty years old1 ,exod4 vii1 #g4 ,by a singular providence1 the infant ,moses1 when exposed on the river ,nile1 through fear of the royal decree1 after his mother had hid him three months1 because he was a goodly child1 was taken up and adopted by ,pharaoh's daughter1 and nursed by his own mother1 whom she hired at the suggestion of his sister ,miriam4 ,thus did he find an asylum in the very palace of his intended destroyer2 while his intercourse with his own family and nation was still most naturally1 though unexpectedly1 maintained3 so mysterious are the ways of ,heaven4 ,and while he was instructed in all the wisdom of the ,egyptians10 and bred up in the midst of a luxurious court1 he acquired at home the knowledge of the promised redemption of ,israel2 and1 by faith0 in the ,redeemer ,christ1 8refused to be called the son of ,pharaoh's daughter2 choosing rather to suffer affliction with the people of ,god1 than to enjoy the pleasures of sin for a season2 esteeming the reproach of ,christ10 or persecution for ,christ's sake1 greater riches than the treasures of ,egypt3 for he had respect to the recompense of reward10 ,exodus ii1 #a-aj2 ,acts vii1 #bj-bb2 ,heb4 xi1 #bc-bf2 or looked forward to a future state4 ,when ,moses was grown to manhood1 and was full forty years old1 he was moved by a divine intimation1 as it seems1 to undertake the deliverance of his countrymen2 for he supposed that his brethren would have understood how that ,god1 by his hand1 would give them deliverance2 but they understood not40 ,for when1 in the excess of his zeal to redress their grievances1 he had slain an ,egyptian1 who injured one of them1 in which he probably went beyond his commission1 and afterward endeavoured to reconcile two of them that were at variance1 they rejected his mediation2 and the man who had done wrong said1 ,who made thee a judge and a ruler over us8 ,intendest thou to kill me1 as thou killedst the ,egyptian yesterday80 ,so ,moses1 finding it was known1 and that ,pharaoh sought to slay him1 fled for his life to the land of ,midian1 in ,arabia ,petra1 where he married ,zipporah1 the daughter of ,jethro1 or ,reuel1 prince and priest of ,midian2 and1 as a shepherd1 kept his flocks in the vicinity of ,mount ,horeb1 or ,sinai1 for forty years1 ,exodus ii1 #aa-ba2 iii1 #a2 xviii1 #e2 ,num4 x1 #bi2 ,acts vii1 #bc-cj4 ,during this long exile ,moses was trained in the school of humble circumstances for that arduous mission which he had prematurely anticipated2 and1 instead of the unthinking zeal which at first actuated him1 learned to distrust himself4 ,his backwardness1 afterward1 to undertake that mission for which he was destined from the womb1 was no less remarkable than his forwardness before1 ,exod4 iv1 #aj-ac4 ,at length1 when the oppression of the ,israelites was come to the full1 and they cried to ,god for succour1 and the king was dead1 and all the men in ,egypt that sought his life1 the ,god of glory0 appeared to ,moses in a flame of fire1 from the midst of a bush1 and announced himself as the ,god of ,abraham1 of ,isaac1 and of ,jacob10 under the titles of ,jahoh and hjeh1 expressive of his unity and sameness2 and commissioned him first to make known to the ,israelites the divine will for their deliverance2 and next to go with the elders of ,israel to ,pharaoh1 requiring him1 in the name of 8the ,lord1 the ,god of the ,hebrews1 to suffer the people to go three days' journey into the wilderness1 to sacrifice unto the ,lord their ,god10 after such sacrifices had been long intermitted during their bondage2 for the ,egyptians had sunk into bestial polytheism1 and would have stoned them1 had they attempted to sacrifice to their principal divinities1 the apis1 or bull1 c1 in the land itself3 foretelling1 also1 the opposition they would meet with from the king1 the mighty signs and wonders that would finally compel his assent1 and their spoiling of the ,egyptians1 by asking or demanding of them 7not borrowing7 jewels of silver1 and jewels of gold1 and raiment1 7by way of wages or compensation for their services17 as originally declared to ,abraham1 that they should go out from thence with great substance10 ,gen4 xv1 #ad2 ,exod4 ii1 #bc-be2 iii1 #b-bb2 viii1 #be1 #bf4 ,to vouch his divine commission to the ,israelites1 ,god enabled ,moses to work three signal miracles3 #a4 ,turning his rod into a serpent1 and restoring it again3 #b4 ,making his hand leprous as snow1 when he first drew it out of his bosom1 and restoring it sound as before when he next drew it out3 and1 #c4 ,turning the water of the river into blood4 ,and the people believed the signs1 and the promised deliverance1 and worshipped4 ,to assist him1 also1 in his arduous mission1 when ,moses had represented that he was not eloquent1 but slow of speech10 and of a slow or stammering tongue1 ,god inspired ,aaron1 his elder brother1 to go and meet ,moses in the wilderness1 to be his spokesman to the people1 ,exod4 iv1 #a-ca1 and his prophet to ,pharaoh2 while ,moses was to be a god to both1 as speaking to them in the name1 or by the authority1 of ,god himself1 ,exod4 vii1 #a1 #b4 ,at their first1 interview with ,pharaoh1 they declared1 ,thus saith the ,lord1 the ,god of ,israel1 ,let my people go1 that they may hold a feast unto me in the wilderness4 ,and ,pharaoh said1 ,who is the ,lord1 that ,i should obey his voice to let ,israel go8 ,i know not10 or regard not1 the ,lord1 neither will ,i let ,israel go40 ,in answer to this haughty tyrant1 they styled the ,lord by a more ancient title1 which the ,egyptians ought to have known and respected1 from ,abraham's days1 when he plagued them in the matter of ,sarah3 8,the ,god of the ,hebrews hath met with us3 ,let us go1 we pray thee1 three days' journey into the desert1 and sacrifice unto the ,lord our ,god1 lest he fall upon us with pestilence or with the sword30 plainly intimating to ,pharaoh1 also1 not to incur his indignation1 by refusing to comply with his desire4 ,but the king not only refused1 but increased the burdens of the people1 ,exod4 v1 #a-ai2 and the people murmured1 and hearkened not unto ,moses1 when he repeated from the ,lord his assurances of deliverance and protection1 for anguish of spirit1 and for cruel bondage1 ,exod4 v1 #bj-bc2 vi1 #a-i4 ,at their second interview with ,pharaoh1 in obedience to the divine command1 again requiring him to let the children of ,israel go out of his land2 ,pharaoh1 as foretold1 demanded of them to show a miracle for themselves1 in proof of their commission1 when ,aaron cast down his rod1 and it became a serpent before ,pharaoh and before his servants1 or officers of his court4 ,the king then called upon his wise men and magicians1 to know if they could do as much by the power of their gods1 8and they did so with their enchantments2 for they cast down every man his rod1 and they became serpents2 but ,aaron's rod swallowed up their serpents40 ,here the original phrase1 1 and they did so10 or in like manner10 may only indicate the attempt1 and not the deed2 as afterward1 in the plague of lice1 when they did so with their enchantments1 but could not10 ,exod4 viii1 #ah4 ,and1 indeed1 the original term1 1 rendered their enchantments10 as derived from the root 1 or 1 to hide or cover1 fitly expresses the secret deceptions of legerdemain1 or sleight-of-hand1 to impose on spectators3 and the remark of the magicians1 when unable to imitate the production of lice1 which was beyond their skill and dexterity1 on account of their minuteness1--8,this is the finger of a ,god60--seems to strengthen the supposition2 especially as the ,egyptians were famous for legerdemain and for charming serpents3 and the magicians1 having had notice of the miracle they were expected to imitate1 might make provision accordingly1 and bring live serpents1 which they might have substituted for their rods4 ,and though ,aaron's serpent swallowed up their serpents1 showing the superiority of the true miracle over the false1 #b ,thess4 ii1 #i1 it might only lead the king to conclude1 that ,moses and ,aaron were more expert jugglers than ,jannes and ,jambres1 who opposed them1 #b ,timothy iii1 #h4 ,and the heart of ,pharaoh was hardened1 so that he hearkened not unto them1 as the ,lord had said10 or foretold1 ,exod4 vi1 #aj1 #aa2 vii1 #h-ac4 ,for the conduct of ,moses as the deliverer and lawgiver of the ,israelites1 see ,,plagues ,,of ,,egypt1 ,,red ,,sea1 and ,,law4 ,at ,mount ,sinai the ,lord was pleased to make ,moses1 the redeemer of ,israel1 an eminent type of the ,redeemer of the world4 ,i will raise them up a prophet from among their brethren1 like unto thee1 and will put my words in his mouth2 and he shall speak unto them all that ,i shall command him3 and it shall come to pass1 that whosoever will not hearken unto my words1 which he shall speak in my name1 ,i will require it of him30 which ,moses communicated to the people4 ,the ,lord thy ,god will raise up unto thee a prophet1 from the midst of thee1 of thy brethren1 like unto me3 unto him shall ye hearken10 ,deut4 xviii1 #ae-ai4 ,this prophet like unto ,moses was our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 who was by birth a ,jew1 of the middle class of the people1 and resembled his predecessor1 in personal intercourse with ,god1 miracles1 and legislation1 which no other prophet did1 ,deut4 xxxiv1 #aj-ab2 and to whom ,god1 at his transfiguration1 required the world to hearken1 ,matt4 xvii1 #e4 ,whence our ,lord's frequent admonition to the ,jewish church1 ,he that hath ears to hear1 let him hear10 ,matthew xiii1 #i1 c2 which is addressed1 also1 by the ,spirit to the ,christian churches of ,asia ,minor1 ,rev4 iii1 #bb4 ,in the affair of the ,golden ,calf1 7see ,,calf17 the conduct of ,moses showed the greatest zeal for ,god's honour1 and a holy indignation against the sin of ,aaron and the people4 ,and when ,moses drew nigh1 and saw their proceedings1 his anger waxed hot1 and he cast away the tables of the covenant1 or stone tablets on which were engraven the ten commandments by the finger of ,god himself1 and brake them beneath the mount1 in the presence of the people2 in token that the covenant between ,god and them was now rescinded on his part1 in consequence of their transgression4 ,he then took the golden calf1 and burned it in the fire1 and ground it to powder1 and mixed it with water1 and made the children of ,israel drink of it4 ,after thus destroying their idol1 he inflicted punishment on the idolaters themselves2 for he summoned all that were on the ,lord's side to attend him2 and all the ,levites having obeyed the call1 he sent them1 in the name of the ,lord1 to slay all the idolaters1 from one end of the camp to the other1 without favour or affection either to their neighbour or to their brother2 and they slew about three thousand men4 ,the ,lord also sent a grievous plague among them for their idolatry1 ,exodus xxxii1 #b-ce1 on which occasion ,moses gave a signal proof of his love for his people1 by interceding for them with the ,lord2 and of his own disinterestedness1 in refusing the offer of the ,almighty to adopt his family in their room1 and make of them a great nation40 ,he prayed that ,god would blot him out of his book1 that is1 take away his life1 if he would not forgive the great sin of his people20 and prevailed with ,god to alter his determination of withdrawing his presence from them1 and sending an inferior angel to conduct them to the land of promise4 ,so wonderful was the condescension of ,god to the voice of a man1 and so mighty the power of prayer4 ,when the ,lord had pardoned the people1 and taken them again into favour1 he commanded ,moses to hew two tablets of stone1 like the former which were broken1 and to present them to him on the top of the mount2 and on these the ,lord wrote again the ten commandments1 for a renewal of the covenant between him and his people4 ,to reward and strengthen the faith of ,moses1 ,god was pleased1 at his request1 to grant him a fuller view of the divine glory1 or presence1 than he had hitherto done4 ,and1 to confirm his authority with the people on his return1 after the second conference of forty days1 he imparted to him a portion of that glory or light by which his immediate presence was manifested3 for the face of ,moses shone so that ,aaron and all the people were afraid to come nigh him1 until he had put a veil on his face1 to hide its brightness4 ,this was an honour never vouchsafed to mortal before nor afterward till ,christ1 the ,prophet like ,moses1 in his transfiguration also1 appeared arrayed in a larger measure of the same lustre4 ,then ,moses again beheld the glory of the ,word made flesh1 and ministered thereto in a glorified form himself1 ,exod4 xxxiv1 #a-ce2 ,matt4 xvii1 #a-h4 ,at ,kibroth ,hataavah1 when the people loathed the manna1 and longed for flesh1 ,moses betrayed great impatience1 and wished for death4 ,he was also reproved for unbelief4 ,at ,kadesh-barnea1 ,moses having encouraged the people to proceed1 saying1 ,behold1 the ,lord thy ,god hath set the land before thee1 go up and possess it1 as the ,lord ,god of thy fathers hath said unto you3 fear not10 ,deut4 i1 #ai-ba2 they betrayed great diffidence1 and proposed to ,moses to send spies to search out the land1 and point out to them the way they should enter1 and the course they should take4 ,and the proposal pleased him well10 and with the consent of the ,lord he sent twelve men1 one out of each tribe1 to spy out the land1 ,deut4 i1 #bb1 #bc2 ,num4 xiii1 #a-bj4 ,all these1 except ,caleb and ,joshua1 having brought an evil report10 so discouraged the people1 that they murmured against ,moses and against ,aaron1 and said unto them1 ,would ,god that we had died in the land of ,egypt2 or would ,god that we had died in the wilderness6 ,and wherefore hath the ,lord brought us unto this land to fall by the sword1 that our wives and our children shall be a prey8 ,were it not better for us to return into ,egypt8 ,and they said one to another1 ,let us make a captain1 and return into ,egypt40 ,they even went so far as to propose to stone ,joshua and ,caleb1 because they exhorted the people not to rebel against the ,lord1 nor to fear the people of the land1 ,num4 xiv1 #a-aj2 ,deut4 i1 #bf-bh4 ,here again the noble patriotism of ,moses was signally displayed4 ,he again refused the divine offer to disinherit the ,israelites1 and make of him and his family a greater and mightier nation than they40 ,he urged the most persuasive motives with their offended ,god1 not to destroy them with the threatened pestilence1 lest the ,heathen might say1 that the ,lord was not able to bring them into the land which he sware unto them40 ,he powerfully appealed to the long-tried mercies and forgivenesses they had experienced ever since their departure from ,egypt2 and his energetic supplication prevailed2 for the ,lord graciously said1 ,i have pardoned1 according to thy word3 but verily1 as ,i live1 all the earth shall be filled with the glory of the ,lord20 or shall adore him for his righteous judgments2 for all these men which have seen my glory and my miracles which ,i did in ,egypt1 and in the wilderness1 and have tempted me these ten times1 and have not hearkened to my voice1 surely shall not see the land which ,i sware unto their fathers3 neither shall any of them that provoked me see it4 ,as ye have spoken in my ears1 so will ,i do unto you10 by a righteous retaliation3 your carcasses shall fall in this wilderness4 ,but your little ones1 which ye said should be a prey1 them will ,i bring in2 and they shall wander in the wilderness forty years1 and bear your whoredoms1 after the number of the days in which ye searched the land1 each day for a year1 until your carcasses be wasted in the wilderness40 ,and immediately after this sentence1 as the earnest of its full accomplishment1 all the spies1 except ,caleb and ,joshua1 were cut off1 and died by the plague before the ,lord1 ,num4 xiv1 #aa-cg2 ,deut4 i1 #cd-ci4 ,the people now1 to repair their fault1 contrary to the advice of ,moses1 presumptuously went to invade the ,amalekites and ,canaanites of ,mount ,seir1 or ,hor2 who defeated them1 and chased them as bees to ,hormah1 ,num4 xiv1 #ci-de2 ,deut4 i1 #da-dd4 ,on the morrow they were ordered to turn away from the promised land1 and to take their journey south-westward1 toward the way of the ,red ,sea3 and they abode in the wilderness of ,kadesh many days1 or years1 ,num4 xiv1 #be2 ,deut4 i1 #dj-df4 ,the ill success of the expedition against the ,amalekites1 according to ,josephus1 occasioned the rebellion of ,korah1 which broke out shortly after1 against ,moses and ,aaron1 with greater violence than any of the foregoing1 under ,korah1 the ringleader1 who drew into it ,dathan and ,abiram1 the heads of the senior tribe of ,reuben1 and two hundred and fifty princes of the assembly1 among whom were even several of the ,levites4 7,see ,korah47 ,but although all ,israel round about had fled at the cry of the devoted families of ,dathan and ,abiram1 for fear that the earth should swallow them up also20 yet1 on the morrow1 they returned to their rebellious spirit1 and murmured against ,moses and ,aaron1 saying1 ,ye have killed the people of the ,lord40 ,on this occasion also1 the ,lord threatened to consume them as in a moment2 but1 on the intercession of ,moses1 only smote them with a plague1 which was stayed by an atonement made by ,aaron1 after the destruction of fourteen thousand seven hundred souls1 ,num4 xvi1 #da-ej4 ,on the return of the ,israelites1 after many years' wandering1 to the same disastrous station of ,kadesh-barnea1 even ,moses himself was guilty of an offence1 in which his brother ,aaron was involved1 and for which both were excluded1 as a punishment1 from entering the promised land4 ,at ,meribah ,kadesh the congregation murmured against ,moses1 for bringing them into a barren wilderness without water2 when the ,lord commanded ,moses to take his rod1 which had been laid up before the ,lord1 and with ,aaron to assemble the congregation together1 and to speak to the rock before their eyes2 which should supply water for the congregation and their cattle4 ,but ,moses said unto the congregation1 when they were assembled1 ,hear now1 ye rebels1 must we fetch you water out of this rock8 ,and he smote the rock twice with his rod1 and the water came out abundantly2 and the congregation drank1 and their cattle also4 ,and the ,lord spake unto ,moses and ,aaron1 ,because ye believed me not1 to sanctify me in the eyes of the children of ,israel2 therefore ye shall not bring this congregation into the land which ,i have given them10 ,num4 xx1 #a-ac2 and afterward in stronger terms3 ,because ye rebelled against my commandment10 c1 ,numbers xxvii1 #ad4 ,the offence of ,moses1 as far as may be collected from so concise an account1 seems to have been1 #a4 ,he distrusted or disbelieved that water could be produced from the rock only by speaking to it2 which was a higher miracle than he had performed before at ,rephidim1 ,exod4 xvii1 #f4 #b4 ,he unnecessarily smote the rock twice2 thereby betraying an unwarrantable impatience4 #c4 ,he did not1 at least in the phrase he used1 ascribe the glory of the miracle wholly to ,god1 but rather to himself and his brother3 ,must we fetch you water out of this rock80 ,and he denominated them rebels0 against his and his brother's authority1 which1 although an implied act of rebellion against ,god1 ought to have been stated1 as on a former occasion1 ,ye have been rebels against the ,lord1 from the day that ,i knew you10 ,deut4 ix1 #bd1 which he spake without blame4 ,for want of more caution on this occasion1 he spake unadvisedly with his lips1 because they provoked his spirit10 ,psalm cvi1 #cc4 ,thus was ,god sanctified at the waters of ,meribah10 by his impartial justice1 in punishing his greatest favourites when they did amiss1 ,num4 xx1 #ac4 ,how severely ,moses felt his deprivation1 appears from his humble1 and it should seem repeated1 supplications to the ,lord to reverse the sentence3 ,o ,lord of gods1 thou hast begun to show thy servant thy greatness1 and thy mighty hand2 for what god is there in heaven or in earth that can do according to thy works1 and according to thy might8 ,i pray thee let me go over and see the good land beyond ,jordan1 even that goodly mountain ,lebanon10 or the whole breadth of the land4 ,but the ,lord was wroth with me for your sakes1 and would not hear me3 and he said unto me1 ,let it suffice thee2 speak no more unto me of this matter4 ,get thee up unto the top of ,pisgah1 and lift up thine eyes westward1 and northward1 and southward1 and eastward1 and behold it with thine eyes3 for thou shalt not go over this ,jordan10 ,deut4 iii1 #bc-bg4 ,the faculties of this illustrious legislator1 both of mind and body1 were not impaired at the age of a hundred and twenty years1 when he died4 ,his eye was not dim1 nor his natural strength abated10 ,deut4 xxxiv1 #g3 and the noblest of all his compositions was his ,song1 or the ,divine ,ode1 which ,bishop ,lowth elegantly styles1 ,cycnea ,oratio1 8the ,dying ,swan's ,oration40 ,his death took place after the ,lord had shown him1 from the top of ,pisgah1 a distant view of the promised land1 throughout its whole extent4 ,he then buried his body in a valley opposite ,beth-peor1 in the land of ,moab2 but no man knoweth his sepulchre unto this day10 observes the sacred historian1 who annexed the circumstances of his death to the book of ,deuteronomy1 xxxiv1 #f4 ,from an obscure passage in the ,new ,testament1 in which ,michael the archangel is said to have contended with the devil about the body of ,moses1 ,jude #i1 some have thought that he was buried by the ministry of angels1 near the scene of the idolatry of the ,israelites2 but that the spot was purposely concealed1 lest his tomb might also be converted into an object of idolatrous worship among the ,israelites1 like the brazen serpent4 ,beth-peor lay in the lot of the ,reubenites1 ,joshua xiii1 #bj4 ,but on so obscure a passage nothing can be built4 ,the body of ,moses10 may figuratively mean the ,jewish church2 or the whole may be an allusion to a received tradition which1 without affirming or denying its truth1 might be made the basis of a moral lesson4 ,josephus1 who frequently attempts to embellish the simple narrative of ,holy ,writ1 represents ,moses as attended to the top of ,pisgah by ,joshua1 his successor1 ,eleazar1 the high priest1 and the whole senate2 and that1 after he had dismissed the senate1 while he was conversing with ,joshua and ,eleazar1 and embracing them1 a cloud suddenly came over and enveloped him2 and he vanished from their sight1 and he was taken away to a certain valley4 ,in the sacred books10 says he1 it is written1 that he died2 fearing to say that on account of his transcendent virtue1 he had departed to the ,deity40 ,the ,jewish historian has here1 perhaps1 imitated the account of our ,lord's ascension1 furnished by the evangelist1 ,luke xxiv1 #ej2 ,acts i1 #i2 wishing to raise ,moses to a level with ,christ4 ,the preminence of ,moses's character is briefly described by the sacred historian1 ,samuel or ,ezra3 ,and there arose not a prophet since1 in ,israel1 like unto ,moses1 whom the ,lord knew face to face2 in all the signs and the wonders which the ,lord sent him to do in the land of ,egypt1 to ,pharaoh1 and all his servants1 and all his land2 and in all that mighty hand1 and in all the great terror which ,moses showed in the sight of all ,israel10 ,deut4 xxxiv1 #aj-ab4 ,so marked and hallowed is the character of this1 the most eminent of mere men1 that it has often been successfully made the basis of an irresistible argument for the truth of his divine mission4 ,thus ,cellrier observes1 ,every imposture has an object in view1 and an aim more or less selfish4 ,men practise deceit for money1 for pleasure1 or for glory4 ,if1 by a strange combination1 the love of mankind ever entered into the mind of an impostor1 doubtless1 even then1 he has contrived to reconcile1 at least1 his own selfish interests with those of the human race4 ,if men deceive others1 for the sake of causing their own opinions or their own party to triumph1 they may sometimes1 perhaps1 forget their own interests during the struggle1 but they again remember them when the victory is achieved4 ,it is a general rule1 that no impostor forgets himself long4 ,but ,moses forgot himself1 and forgot himself to the last4 ,yet there is no middle supposition4 ,if ,moses was not a divinely inspired messenger1 he was an impostor in the strongest sense of the term4 ,it is not1 as in the case of ,numa1 a slight and single fraud1 designed to secure some good end1 that we have to charge him with1 but a series of deceits1 many of which were gross2 a profound1 dishonest1 perfidious1 sanguinary dissimulation1 continued for the space of forty years4 ,if ,moses was not a divinely commissioned prophet1 he was not the saviour of the people1 but their tyrant and their murderer4 ,still1 we repeat1 this barbarous impostor always forgot himself2 and his disinterestedness1 as regarded himself personally1 his family1 and his tribe1 is one of the most extraordinary features in his administration4 ,as to himself personally3 ,he is destined to die in the wilderness2 he is never to taste the tranquillity1 the plenty1 and the delight1 the possession of which he promises to his countrymen2 he shares with them only their fatigues and privations2 he has more anxieties than they1 on their account1 in their acts of disobedience1 and in their perpetual murmurings4 ,as to his family3 ,he does not nominate his sons as his successors2 he places them1 without any privileges or distinctions1 among the obscure sons of ,levi2 they are not even admitted into the sacerdotal authority4 ,unlike all other fathers1 ,moses withdraws them from public view1 and deprives them of the means of obtaining glory and favour4 ,samuel and ,eli assign a part of their paternal authority to their sons1 and permit them even to abuse it2 but the sons of ,moses1 in the wilderness1 are only the simple servants of the tabernacle2 like all the other sons of ,kohath1 if they even dare to raise the veil which covers the sacred furniture1 the burden of which they carry1 death is denounced against them4 ,where can we find more complete disinterestedness than in ,moses8 ,is not his the character of an upright man1 who has the general good1 not his own interests1 at heart2 of a man who submissively acquiesces in the commands of ,god1 without resistance and without demur8 ,when we consider these several things2 when we reflect on all the ministry of ,moses1 on his life1 on his death1 on his character1 on his abilities1 and his success2 we are powerfully convinced that he was the messenger of ,god4 ,if we consider him only as an able legislator1 as a ,lycurgus1 as a ,numa1 his actions are inexplicable3 we find not in him the affections1 the interests1 the views which usually belong to the human heart4 ,the simplicity1 the harmony1 the verity of his natural character are gone2 they give place to an incoherent union of ardour and imposture2 of daring and of timidity1 of incapacity and genius1 of cruelty and sensibility4 ,no6 ,moses was inspired by ,god3 he received from ,god the law which he left his countrymen4 ,to ,moses we owe that important portion of ,holy ,scripture1 the ,pentateuch1 which brings us acquainted with the creation of the world1 the entrance of sin and death1 the first promises of redemption1 the flood1 the peopling of the postdiluvian earth1 and the origin of nations1 the call of ,abraham1 and the giving of the law4 ,we have1 indeed1 in it the early history of religion1 and a key to all the subsequent dispensations of ,god to man4 ,the genuineness and authenticity of these most venerable and important books have been established by various writers2 but the following remarks upon the veracity of the writings of ,moses have the merit of compressing much argument into few words3--#a4 ,there is a minuteness in the details of the ,mosaic writings1 which bespeaks their truth2 for it often bespeaks the eye-witness1 as in the adventures of the wilderness2 and often seems intended to supply directions to the artificer1 as in the construction of the tabernacle4 #b4 ,there are touches of nature in the narrative which bespeak its truth1 for it is not easy to regard them otherwise than as strokes from the life2 as where the mixed multitude10 whether half-castes or ,egyptians1 are the first to sigh for the cucumbers and melons of ,egypt1 and to spread discontent through the camp1 ,num4 xi1 #d2 as the miserable exculpation of himself1 which ,aaron attempts1 with all the cowardice of conscious guilt1 ,i cast into the fire1 and there came out this calf30 the fire1 to be sure1 being in the fault1 ,exod4 xxxii1 #bd4 #c4 ,there are certain little inconveniences represented as turning up unexpectedly1 that bespeak truth in the story2 for they are just such accidents as are characteristic of the working of a new system and untried machinery4 ,what is to be done with the man who is found gathering sticks on the ,sabbath day8 ,num4 xv1 #cb4 7,could an impostor have devised such a trifle87 ,how is the inheritance of the daughters of ,zelophehad to be disposed of1 there being no heir male8 ,num4 xxxvi1 #b4 ,either of them inconsiderable matters in themselves1 but both giving occasion to very important laws2 the one touching life1 and the other property4 #d4 ,there is a simplicity in the manner of ,moses1 when telling his tale1 which bespeaks its truth3 no parade of language1 no pomp of circumstance even in his miracles1 a modesty and dignity throughout all4 ,let us but compare him in any trying scene with ,josephus2 his description1 for instance1 of the passage through the ,red ,sea1 ,exod4 xiv1 of the murmuring of the ,israelites and the supply of quails and manna1 with the same as given by the ,jewish historian1 or rhetorician we might rather say1 and the force of the observation will be felt4 #e4 ,there is a candour in the treatment of his subject by ,moses1 which bespeaks his truth2 as when he tells of his own want of eloquence1 which unfitted him for a leader1 ,exod4 iv1 #aj2 his own want of faith1 which prevented him from entering the promised land1 ,num4 xx1 #ab2 the idolatry of ,aaron his brother1 ,exod4 xxxii1 #ba2 the profaneness of ,nadab and ,abihu1 his nephews1 ,lev4 x2 the disaffection and punishment of ,miriam1 his sister1 ,num4 xii1 #a4 #f4 ,there is a disinterestedness in his conduct1 which bespeaks him to be a man of truth2 for though he had sons1 he apparently takes no measures during his life to give them offices of trust or profit2 and at his death he appoints as his successor one who had no claims upon him1 either of alliance1 of clanship1 or of blood4 #g4 ,there are certain prophetical passages in the writings of ,moses1 which bespeak their truth2 as1 several respecting the future ,messiah1 and the very sublime and literal one respecting the final fall of ,jerusalem1 ,deut4 xxviii4 #h4 ,there is a simple key supplied by these writings1 to the meaning of many ancient traditions current among the ,heathens1 though greatly disguised1 which is another circumstance that bespeaks their truth3 as1 the golden age2 the garden of the ,hesperides2 the fruit tree in the midst1 of the garden which the dragon guarded2 the destruction of mankind by a flood1 all except two persons1 and those righteous persons1 ,innocuos ambos1 cultores numinis ambos2 ,both innocent1 both worshippers of ,deity2 the rainbow1 which ,jupiter set in the cloud1 a sign to men20 the seventh day a sacred day2 with many others1 all conspiring to establish the reality of the facts which ,moses relates1 because tending to show that vestiges of the like present themselves in the traditional history of the world at large4 #i4 ,the concurrence which is found between the writings of ,moses and those of the ,new ,testament bespeaks their truth3 the latter constantly appealing to them1 being indeed but the completion of the system which the others are the first to put forth4 ,nor is this an illogical argument2 for1 though the credibility of the ,new ,testament itself may certainly be reasoned out from the truth of the ,pentateuch once established1 it is still very far from depending on that circumstance exclusively1 or even principally4 ,the ,new ,testament demands acceptance on its own merits1 on merits distinct from those on which the books of ,moses rest1 therefore 7so far as it does so7 it may fairly give its suffrage for their veracity1 valeat quantum valet3 it may avail as far as it goes2 and surely it is a very improbable thing1 that two dispensations1 separated by an interval of some fifteen hundred years1 each exhibiting prophecies of its own1 since fulfilled2 each asserting miracles of its own1 on strong evidence of its own2 that two dispensations1 with such individual claims to be believed1 should also be found to stand in the closest relation to one another1 and yet both turn out impostures after all4 #aj4 ,above all1 there is a comparative purity in the theology and morality of the ,pentateuch1 which argues not only its truth1 but its high original2 for how else are we to account for a system like that of ,moses1 in such an age and among such a people2 that the doctrine of the unity1 the self-existence1 the providence1 the perfections of the great ,god of heaven and earth1 should thus have blazed forth 7how far more brightly than even in the vaunted schools of ,athens at its most refined era67 from the midst of a nation1 of themselves ever plunging into gross and grovelling idolatry2 and that principles of social duty1 of benevolence1 and of self-restraint1 extending even to the thoughts of the heart1 should have been the produce of an age which the very provisions of the ,levitical law itself show to have been full of savage and licentious abominations8 ,exod4 iii1 #ad2 xx1 #c-ag2 ,lev4 xix1 #b1 #ah2 ,deut4 vi1 #d2 xxx1 #f4 ,such are some of the internal evidences for the veracity of the books of ,moses4 #aa4 ,then the situation in which the ,jews actually found themselves placed1 as a matter of fact1 is no slight argument for the truth of the ,mosaic accounts2 reminded1 as they were1 by certain memorials observed from year to year1 of the great events of their early history1 just as they are recorded in the writings of ,moses1 memorials universally recognised both in their object and in their authority4 ,the passover1 for instance1 celebrated by all1 no man doubting its meaning1 no man in all ,israel assigning to it any other origin than one1 viz4 that of being a contemporary monument of a miracle displayed in favour of the people of ,israel2 by right of which credentials1 and no other1 it summoned from all quarters of the world1 at great cost1 and inconvenience1 and danger1 the dispersed ,jews1 none disputing the obligation to obey the summons4 #ab4 ,then the heroic devotion with which the ,israelites continued to regard the law1 even long after they had ceased to cultivate the better part of it1 even when that very law only served to condemn its worshippers1 so that they would offer themselves up by thousands1 with their children and wives1 as martyrs to the honour of their temple1 in which no image1 even of an emperor1 who could scourge them with scorpions for their disobedience1 should be suffered to stand1 and they live3 so that rather than violate the sanctity of the ,sabbath day1 the bravest men in arms would lay down their lives as tamely as sheep1 and allow themselves to be burned in the holes where they had taken refuge from their cruel and cowardly pursuers4 ,all this points to their law1 as having been at first promulgated under circumstances too awful to be forgotten even after the lapse of ages4 #ac4 ,then again1 the extraordinary degree of national pride with which the ,jews boasted themselves to be ,god's peculiar people1 as if no nation ever was or ever could be so nigh to him2 a feeling which the early teachers of ,christianity found an insuperable obstacle to the progress of the ,gospel among them1 and which actually did effect its ultimate rejection1 this may well seem to be founded upon a strong traditional sense of uncommon tokens of the ,almighty's regard for them above all other nations of the earth1 which they had heard with their ears1 or their fathers had declared unto them1 even the noble works that he had done in the old time before them4 #ad4 ,then again1 the constant craving after a sign10 which beset them in the latter days of their history1 as a lively certificate of the prophet2 and not after a sign only1 but after such a one as they would themselves prescribe3 ,what sign showest thou1 that we may see1 and believe8 ,our fathers did eat manna in the desert10 ,john vi1 #ca4 ,this desire1 so frequently expressed1 and with which they are so frequently reproached1 looks like the relic of an appetite engendered in other times1 when they had enjoyed the privilege of more intimate communion with ,god2 it seems the wake1 as it were1 of miracles departed4 #ae4 ,lastly1 the very onerous nature of the law2 so studiously meddling with all the occupations of life1 great and small2--this yoke would scarcely have been endured1 without the strongest assurance1 on the part of those who were galled by it1 of the authority by which it was imposed4 ,for it met them with some restraint or other at every turn4 ,would they plough8 then it must not be with an ox and an ass4 ,would they sow8 then must not the seed be mixed4 ,would they reap8 then must they not reap clean4 ,would they make bread8 then must they set apart dough enough for the consecrated loaf4 ,did they find a bird's nest8 then must they let the old bird fly away4 ,did they hunt8 then they must shed the blood of their game1 and cover it with dust4 ,did they plant a fruit tree8 for three years was the fruit to be uncircumcised4 ,did they shave their beards8 they were not to cut the corners4 ,did they weave a garment8 then must it be only with threads prescribed4 ,did they build a house8 they must put rails and battlements on the roof4 ,did they buy an estate8 at the year of jubilee1 back it must go to its owner4 ,all these 7and how many more of the same kind might be named67 are enactments which it must have required extraordinary influence in the lawgiver to enjoin1 and extraordinary reverence for his powers to perpetuate4 ,still1 after all1 says ,mr4 ,blunt1 unbelievers may start difficulties1--this ,i dispute not2 difficulties1 too1 which we may not always be able to answer1 though ,i think we may be always able to neutralize them4 ,it may be a part of our trial1 that such difficulties should exist and be encountered2 for there can be no reason why temptations should not be provided for the natural pride of our understanding1 as well as for the natural lusts of our flesh4 ,to many1 indeed1 they would be the more formidable of the two1 perhaps to the angels who kept not their first estate they proved so4 ,with such facts1 however1 before me1 as these which ,i have submitted to my readers1 ,i can come to no conclusion but one1--that when we read the writings of ,moses1 we read no cunningly devised fables1 but solemn and safe records of great and marvellous events1 which court examination1 and sustain it2 records of such apparent veracity and faithfulness1 that ,i can understand our ,lord to have spoken almost without a figure1 when he said1 that he who believed not ,moses1 neither would he be persuaded though one rose from the dead4 ,,moth1 1 ,job iv1 #ai2 and 1 ,job xiii1 #bh2 xxvii1 #ah2 ,psalm vi1 #g2 xxxi1 #i1 #aj2 xxxix1 #aa2 ,isaiah l1 #i2 ,hosea v1 #ab4 ,the clothes moth is the tinea argentea2 of a white1 shining silver1 or pearl colour4 ,it is clothed with shells1 fourteen in number1 and these are scaly4 ,albin asserts this to be the insect that eats woollen stuffs2 and says that it is produced from a gray speckled moth1 that flies by night1 creeps among woollens1 and there lays her eggs1 which1 after a little time1 are hatched as worms1 and in this state they feed on their habitation1 till they change into a chrysalis1 and thence emerge into moths4 ,the young moth1 or moth worm10 says the ,abb ,pluche1 upon leaving the egg which a papilio had lodged upon a piece of stuff commodious for her purpose1 finds a proper place of residence1 grows and feeds upon the nap1 and likewise builds with it an apartment1 which is fixed to the groundwork of the stuff with several cords and a little glue4 ,from an aperture in this habitation1 the moth worm devours and demolishes all about him2 and1 when he has cleared the place1 he draws out all the fastenings of his tent2 after which he carries it to some little distance1 and then fixes it with the slender cords in a new situation4 ,in this manner he continues to live at our expense1 till he is satisfied with his food1 at which period he is first transformed into the nympha1 and then changed into the papilio40 ,the allusions to this insect in the sacred writings are very striking3 ,fear ye not the reproach of men1 neither be ye afraid of their revilings4 ,for the moth shall eat them up like a garment1 and the worm shall eat them like wool40 ,they shall perish with as little noise as a garment under the tooth of a moth1 ,isaiah li1 #g1 #h4 ,in the prophecies of ,hosea1 ,god himself says1 ,i will be as a moth unto ,ephraim1 and as a lion20 that is1 ,i will send silent and secret judgments upon him1 which shall imperceptibly waste his beauty1 corrode his power1 and diminish his strength1 and will finish his destruction with open and irresistible calamities4 ,or the meaning may be1 ,as the moth crumbles into dust under the slightest pressure1 or the gentlest touch1 so man dissolves with equal ease1 and vanishes into darkness1 under the finger of the ,almighty4 ,deeply sensible of this affecting truth1 the royal ,psalmist earnestly deprecates the judgments of ,god1 humbly confessing his own weakness1 and the inability of every man to endure his frown3 ,remove thy stroke away from me3 ,i am consumed by the blow of thy hand4 ,when thou with rebukes doth correct man for iniquity1 thou makest his beauty to consume away like a moth3 surely every man is vanity4 ,selah10 ,psalm xxxix1 #aj1 #aa4 ,such1 in the estimation of ,job1 is the fading prosperity of a wicked man3 ,he buildeth his house as a moth1 and as a booth that the keeper maketh10 ,job xxvii1 #ah4 ,his unrighteous acquisitions shall be of short continuance2 they shall moulder insensibly away1 returning to the lawful owner1 or pass into the possession of others4 ,it is in this sense that the ,lord threatens3 ,i will be unto ,ephraim as a moth10 ,hosea v1 #ab4 ,by the secret curse of ,god he shall fade away1 and whatever is most precious in his estimation shall be gradually dissolved and consumed1 as a garment eaten by the moth4 ,the same allusion is involved in the direction of our ,lord to his disciples3 ,lay not up for yourselves treasures upon the earth1 where moth and rust doth corrupt1 and where thieves break through and steal4 ,but lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven1 where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt1 and where thieves do not break through nor steal10 ,matthew vi1 #ai1 #bj4 ,the word treasure commonly suggests to our minds the idea of some durable substance1 as precious stones1 gold1 and silver1 upon which the persevering industry of a moth can make no impression2 but1 in the language of inspiration1 it denotes every thing collected together which men reckon valuable4 ,the ,jews had treasures of raiment as well as of corn1 of wine1 of oil1 of honey1 ,jer4 xli1 #h2 and of gold1 silver1 and brass1 ,ezek4 xxxiii1 #d2 ,dan4 xi1 #dc4 ,the robes of princes were a part of their treasure1 upon which they often set a particular value4 ,rich vestments made a conspicuous figure in the treasury of ,ulysses4 ,these were1 from their nature1 exposed to the depredations of the moth2 fabricated of perishing materials1 they were liable to be prematurely consumed1 or taken away by fraud or violence2 but the favour of ,god1 and the graces of his ,spirit1 and the enjoyment of eternal happiness1 are neither liable to internal decay nor external violence1 and by consequence1 are the proper objects of our highest regard1 chief solicitude1 and constant pursuit4 ,it is also likely1 that by moth0 our ,lord meant all the kinds of small insects which devour or spoil the different kinds of property1 such as corn1 honey1 fruits1 c1 which were treasured up for the future4 ,these1 in warm countries1 are very numerous and destructive4 ,,mourning4 ,see ,,burial and ,,dead4 ,,mouse1 1 in ,chaldee acalbar1 probably the same with the aliarbui of the ,arabians or the jerboa1 ,leviticus xi1 #bi2 #a ,samuel vi1 #d1 #e1 #aa1 #ah2 ,isaiah xlvi1 #ag4 ,all interpreters acknowledge that the ,hebrew word achbar signifies a mouse10 and more especially a field mouse40 ,moses declares it to be unclean1 which insinuates that it was sometimes eaten2 and1 indeed1 it is affirmed that the ,jews were so oppressed with famine during the siege of ,jerusalem by the ,romans1 that1 notwithstanding this prohibition1 they were compelled to eat dogs1 mice1 and rats4 ,isaiah1 lxvi1 #ag1 justly reproaches the ,jews with eating the flesh of mice and other things that were impure and abominable4 ,it is known what spoil was made by mice in the fields of the ,philistines1 #a ,sam4 vi1 #e1 #f1 c1 after this people had brought into the country the ark of the ,lord2 so that they were obliged to take the resolution to send it back1 accompanied with mice and emerods of gold1 as an atonement for the irreverence they had committed1 and to avert from their land the vengeance that pursued them4 ,judea has suffered by these animals in other times4 ,william1 archbishop of ,tyre1 records1 that in the beginning of the twelfth century a penitential council was held at ,naplouse1 where five and twenty canons were framed for the correction of the manners of the inhabitants of the ,christian kingdom of ,jerusalem1 who1 they apprehended1 had provoked ,god to bring upon them the calamities of earthquakes1 war1 and famine4 ,this last the archbishop ascribes to locusts and devouring mice1 which had for four years together so destroyed the fruits of the earth1 as seemed to cause almost a total failure in their crops4 ,bochart has collected many curious accounts relative to the terrible devastation made by these animals4 ,,mulberry ,,tree1 1 #b ,sam4 v1 #bc1 #bd2 #a ,chronicles xiv1 #ad1 #ae2 ,psalm lxxxiv1 #g4 ,the ,,lxx1 in ,chronicles1 render the word by 1 pear trees20 so ,aquila and the ,vulgate1 both in ,samuel and ,chronicles1 pyrorum40 ,others translate it the mulberry tree40 ,more probably it is the large shrub which the ,arabs still call baca20 and which gave name to the valley where it abounded4 ,of this valley ,celsius remarks1 that it was rugged and embarrassed with bushes and stones1 which could not be passed through without labour and tears20 referring to ,psalm lxxxiv1 #g2 and the rough valley10 ,deut4 xxi1 #d2 and he quotes from a manuscript of ,abu'l ,fideli a description of the tree which grew there1 and mentions it as bearing a fruit of an acrid taste4 ,,mule1 1 #b ,sam4 xiii1 #bi2 #a ,kings i1 #cc2 x1 #be1 c4 ,a mongrel kind of quadruped1 between the horse and the ass4 ,its form bears a considerable resemblance to the last mentioned animal2 but in its disposition it is rather vicious and intractable2 so that its obstinacy has become a proverb4 ,with this creature the early ages were probably unacquainted4 ,it is very certain the ,jews did not breed mules1 because it was forbidden them to couple together two creatures of different species1 ,lev4 xix1 #ai4 ,but they were not prohibited the making use of them3 thus we find in ,david's time that they had become very common1 and made up a considerable part of the equipage of princes1 #b ,sam4 xiii1 #bi2 xviii1 #i2 #a ,kings i1 #cc1 #ch1 #dd2 x1 #be2 #b ,chron4 ix1 #bd4 ,,murder4 ,among the ,hebrews murder was always punished with death2 but involuntary homicide1 only by banishment4 ,cities of refuge were appointed for involuntary manslaughter1 whither the slayer might retire and continue in safety till the death of the high priest1 ,num4 xxxv1 #bh4 ,then the offender was at liberty to return to his own house1 if he pleased4 ,a murderer was put to death without remission1 and the kinsman of the murdered person might kill him with impunity4 ,money could not redeem his life3 he was dragged away from the altar1 if he had there taken refuge4 ,when a dead body was found in the fields of a person slain by a murderer unknown1 ,moses commanded that the elders and judges of the neighbouring places should resort to the spot1 ,deut4 xxi1 #a-h4 ,the elders of the city nearest to it were to take a heifer which had never yet borne the yoke1 and were to lead it into some rude and uncultivated place1 which had not been ploughed or sowed1 where they were to cut its throat4 ,the priests of the ,lord1 with the elders and magistrates of the city1 were to come near the dead body1 and1 washing their hands over the heifer that had been slain1 were to say1 ,our hands have not shed this blood1 nor have our eyes seen it shed4 ,lord1 be favourable to thy people ,israel1 and impute not to us this blood1 which has been shed in the midst of our country40 ,this ceremony may inform us how much horror they conceived at the crime of murder2 and it shows their fear that ,god might avenge it on the whole country2 which was supposed to contract pollution by the blood spilt in it1 unless it were expiated1 and avenged on him who had occasioned it1 if he could be discovered4 ,,music is probably nearly coeval with our race1 or1 at least1 with the first attempts to preserve the memory of transactions4 ,before the invention of writing1 the history of remarkable events was committed to memory1 and handed down by oral tradition4 ,the knowledge of laws and of useful arts was preserved in the same way4 ,rhythm and song were probably soon found important helps to the memory2 and thus the muses became the early instructers of mankind4 ,nor was it long1 we may conjecture1 before dancing and song united contributed to festivity1 or to the solemnities of religion4 ,the first instruments of music were probably of the pulsatile kind2 and rhythm1 it is likely1 preceded the observation of those intervals of sound which are so pleasing to the ear4 ,the first mention of stringed instruments1 however1 precedes the deluge4 ,tubal1 the sixth descendant from ,cain1 was the father of all such as handle the harp and the organ40 ,about five hundred and fifty years after the deluge1 or ,b4 ,c4 #ahjj1 according to the common chronology1 both vocal and instrumental music are spoken of as things in general use3 ,and ,laban said1 ,what hast thou done1 that thou hast stolen away unawares to me1 and carried away my daughters1 as captives taken with the sword8 ,wherefore didst thou flee away secretly1 and steal away from me2 and didst not tell me1 that ,i might have sent thee away with mirth and with songs1 with tabret and with harp80 ,gen4 xxxi1 #bf1 #bg4 ,egypt has been called the cradle of the arts and sciences1 and there can be no doubt of the very early civilization of that country4 ,to the ,egyptian ,mercury1 or ,thoth1 who is called ,trismegistos1 or thrice illustrious10 is ascribed the invention of the lyre1 which had at first only three strings4 ,it would be idle to mention the various conjectures how these strings were tuned1 or to try to settle the chronology of this invention4 ,the single flute1 which they called photinx1 is also ascribed to the ,egyptians4 ,its shape was that of a horn1 of which1 no doubt1 it was originally made4 ,before the invention of these instruments1 as ,dr4 ,burney justly observes1 music could have been little more than metrical1 as no other instruments except those of percussion were known4 ,when the art was first discovered of refining and sustaining tones1 the power of music over mankind was probably irresistible1 from the agreeable surprise which soft and lengthened sounds must have occasioned40 ,the same learned writer has given a drawing1 made under his own eye1 of an ,egyptian musical instrument1 represented on a very ancient obelisk at ,rome1 brought from ,egypt by ,augustus4 ,this obelisk is supposed to have been erected at ,heliopolis1 by ,sesostris1 near four hundred years before the ,trojan war4 ,the most remarkable thing in this instrument is1 that it is supplied with a neck1 so that its two strings were capable of furnishing a great number of sounds4 ,this is a contrivance which the ,greeks1 with all their ingenuity1 never hit upon4 ,i have never been able10 says the doctor1 to discover in any remains of ,greek sculpture1 an instrument furnished with a neck2 and ,father ,montfaucon says that in examining the representations of near five hundred ancient lyres1 harps1 and citharas1 he never met with one in which there was any contrivance for shortening the strings during the time of performance1 as by a neck and finger board40 ,from the long residence of the ,hebrews in ,egypt1 it is no improbable conjecture that their music was derived from that source4 ,however that may be1 music1 vocal and instrumental1 made one important part of their religious service4 ,if the excellence of the music was conformable to the sublimity of the poetry which it accompanied1 there would be no injustice in supposing it unspeakably superior to that of every other people2 and the pains that were taken to render the tabernacle and temple music worthy of the subjects of their lofty odes1 leaves little doubt that it was so4 ,that the instruments were loud and sonorous1 will appear from what follows2 but as the public singing was performed in alternate responses1 or the chorus of all succeeded to those parts of the psalm which were sung only by the appointed leaders1 instruments of this kind were necessary to command and control the voices of so great a number as was usually assembled on high occasions4 ,the ,hebrews insisted on having music at marriages1 on anniversary birth days1 on the days which reminded them of victories over their enemies1 at the inauguration of their kings1 in their public worship1 and when they were coming from afar to attend the great festivals of their nation1 ,isaiah xxx1 #bi4 ,in the tabernacle and the temple1 the ,levites were the lawful musicians2 but on other occasions any one might use musical instruments who chose4 ,there was this exception1 however3 the holy silver trumpets were to be blown only by the priests1 who1 by the sounding of them1 proclaimed the festival days1 assembled the leaders of the people1 and gave the signal for the battle and for the retreat1 ,num4 x1 #a-aj4 ,david1 in order to give the best effect to the music of the tabernacle1 divided the four thousand ,levites into twenty-four classes1 who sung psalms1 and accompanied them with music4 ,each of these classes was superintended by a leader1 placed over it2 and they performed the duties which devolved upon them1 each class a week at a time in succession1 #a ,chron4 xvi1 #e2 xxiii1 #d1 #e2 xxv1 #a-ca2 #b ,chron4 v1 #ab1 #ac4 ,the classes collectively1 as a united body1 were superintended by three directors4 ,this arrangement was subsequently continued by ,solomon after the erection of the temple1 and was transmitted till the time of the overthrow of ,jerusalem4 ,it was indeed sometimes interrupted1 during the reign of the idolatrous kings1 but was restored by their successors1 #b ,chron4 v1 #ab-ad2 xxix1 #bg2 xxxv1 #ae4 ,it was even continued after the captivity1 ,ezra iii1 #aj2 ,neh4 xii1 #de-dg2 #a ,mac4 iv1 #ed2 xiii1 #ea4 ,it should be remarked1 however1 that neither music nor poetry attained to the same excellence after the captivity as before that period4 ,there were women singers as well as men in the temple choir2 for in the book of ,ezra1 among those who returned from the ,babylonish captivity1 there are said to have been two hundred1 ,ezra ii1 #fe2 and in ,nehemiah vii1 #fg1 we read of two hundred and forty-five singing men and women4 ,the ,jewish doctors will1 indeed1 by no means admit there were any female voices in the temple choir2 and as for those 1 meshoreroth1 as they are called in the ,hebrew1 they suppose them to be the wives of those who sung4 ,nevertheless1 the following passage makes it evident that women1 likewise1 were thus employed3 ,god gave to ,heman fourteen sons and three daughters2 and all these were under the hands of their father for song in the house of the ,lord1 with cymbals1 psalteries1 and harps1 for the service of the house of ,god10 #a ,chron4 xxv1 #e1 #f4 ,instrumental music was first introduced into the ,jewish service by ,moses2 and afterward1 by the express command of ,god1 was very much improved with the addition of several instruments in the reign of ,david4 ,when ,hezekiah restored the temple service1 which had been neglected in his predecessor's reign1 8he set the ,levites in the house of the ,lord1 with cymbals1 with psalteries1 and with harps1 according to the commandment of ,david1 and of ,gad the king's seer1 and ,nathan the prophet2 for so was the commandment of the ,lord by his prophets10 #b ,chron4 xxix1 #be4 ,the harp1 1 kinnor1 was the most ancient of the class of stringed instruments1 ,gen4 iv1 #ba4 ,it was sometimes called 1 or eight stringed10 #a ,chron4 xv1 #ba2 ,psalm vi1 #a2 xii1 #a2 although1 as we may gather from the coins or medals of the ,maccabean age1 there were some harps which were furnished with only three strings4 ,the nablum or psaltery1 1 1 1 is first mentioned in the ,psalms of ,david4 ,in ,psalms xxxiii1 #b1 and cxliv1 #i1 it is called 1 a ten-stringed instrument20 but in ,psalm xcii1 #c1 it is distinguished from it4 ,josephus assigns to it twelve strings1 which1 taken in connection with the fact above stated1 leaves us to conclude that it sometimes had ten and sometimes twelve strings4 ,it was not played with a bow or fret1 but with the fingers3 the act of playing it is expressed in ,hebrew by the word 4 ,it resembled in form a right-angled triangle1 or the ,greek delta1 1 inverted4 ,the body of it was of wood and hollow1 and was enclosed with a piece of leather tensely drawn4 ,the chords were extended on the outside of the leather1 and were fixed at one end into the transverse part of the triangular body of the instrument4 ,such is its form at the present day in the east2 but it has only five strings in its modern shape1 #b ,sam4 vi1 #e2 #a ,kings x1 #ab4 ,there was another instrument of this kind used in ,babylonia3 it was triangular in form4 ,in ,greek it is called 2 in ,hebrew1 and 4 ,it had originally only four1 but subsequently twenty1 strings1 ,dan4 iii1 #e1 #g1 #aj1 #ae4 ,among their wind instruments was the organ1 so called in the ,english version1 in ,hebrew1 1 ,gen4 iv1 #ba4 ,it may be styled the ancient shepherd's pipe1 corresponding most nearly to the 1 or the pipe of ,pan among the ,greeks4 ,it consisted at first of only one or two1 but afterward of about seven1 pipes made of reeds1 and differing from each other in length4 ,the instrument called 1 used in ,babylon1 ,dan4 iii1 #e1 was of a similar construction4 1 1 and 1 chalil1 nechiloth1 and nekeb1 are wind instruments made of various materials1 such as wood1 reeds1 horns1 and bones4 ,as far as we may be permitted to judge from the three kinds of pipes now used in the east1 the ,hebrew instrument called nechiloth is the one that is double in its structure2 chalil is perhaps the one of simpler form1 having a single stem with an orifice through it2 while nekeb answers to the one without an orifice1 ,isaiah v1 #ab2 xxx1 #bi2 ,jer4 xlviii1 #cf2 ,psalm v1 #a2 ,ezek4 xxviii1 #ac4 1 or1 according to the marginal reading1 1 ,dan4 iii1 #e1 #aj1 was a wind instrument made of reeds1 by the ,syrians called sambonja1 by the ,greeks samponja1 and by the ,italians zampogna4 ,according to ,servius1 it was of a crooked shape4 1 the horn or crooked trumpet1 was a very ancient instrument4 ,it was made of the horns of oxen1 which were cut off at the smaller extremity1 and thus presented an orifice which extended through4 ,in progress of time1 rams' horns were hollowed and employed for the same purpose4 ,it is probable that in some instances it was made of brass1 fashioned so as to resemble a horn4 ,it was greatly used in war1 and its sound resembled thunder4 1 chatsoteroth1 the silver trumpet1 was straight1 a cubit in length1 hollow throughout1 and at the larger extremity shaped so as to resemble the mouth of a small bell4 ,in times of peace1 when the people or the rulers were to be assembled together1 this trumpet was blown softly4 ,when the camps were to move forward1 or the people to march to war1 it was sounded with a deeper note4 ,there were several sorts of drums4 ,the 1 toph1 rendered in the ,english version tabret and timbrel1 ,gen4 xxxi1 #bg1 consisted of a circular hoop1 either of wood or brass1 three inches and six-tenths wide1 was covered with a skin tensely drawn1 and hung round with small bells4 ,it was held in the left hand1 and beaten to notes of music with the right4 ,the ladies through all the east1 even to this day1 dance to the sound of this instrument1 ,exod4 xv1 #bj2 ,job xvii1 #f2 xxi1 #ab2 #b ,sam4 vi1 #e4 ,the cymbals1 1 tseltselim1 1 were of two kinds formerly1 as there are to this day1 in the east4 ,the first consisted of two flat pieces of metal or plates3 the musician held one of them in his right hand1 the other in his left1 and smote them together1 as an accompaniment to other instruments4 ,this cymbal and the mode of using it may be often seen in modern armies4 ,the second kind of cymbals1 consisted of four small plates attached1 two to each hand1 which the ladies1 as they danced1 smote together4 ,but 1 ,zech4 xiv1 #bj1 rendered in the ,english version bells1 are not musical instruments1 as some suppose1 nor indeed bells1 but concave pieces or plates of brass1 which were sometimes attached to horses for the sake of ornament4 ,,mustard1 1 ,matt4 xiii1 #cb2 xvii1 #bj2 ,mark iv1 #ca2 ,luke xiii1 #ai2 xvii1 #f2 a well known garden herb4 ,christ compares the kingdom of heaven to a grain of mustard seed1 which a man took and sowed in the earth1 which indeed10 said he1 is the least of all seeds2 but when it is grown is the greatest among herbs1 and becometh a tree1 so that the birds of the air come and lodge in the branches thereof10 ,matt4 xiii1 #ca1 #cb4 ,this expression will not appear strange10 says ,sir ,thomas ,browne1 if we recollect that the mustard seed1 though it be not simply and in itself the smallest of seeds1 yet may be very well believed to be the smallest of such as are apt to grow unto a ligneous substance1 and become a kind of tree40 ,the expression1 also1 that it might grow into such dimensions that birds might lodge on its branches1 may be literally conceived1 if we allow the luxuriancy of plants in ,india above our northern regions4 ,and he quotes upon this occasion what is recorded in the ,jewish story1 of a mustard tree that was to be climbed like a fig tree4 ,the ,talmud also mentions one whose branches were so extensive as to cover a tent4 ,without insisting on the accuracy of this1 we may gather from it that we should not judge of eastern vegetables by those which are familiar to ourselves4 ,scheuchzer describes a species of mustard which grows several feet high1 with a tapering stalk1 and spreads into many branches4 ,of this arborescent or treelike vegetable1 he gives a print2 and ,linnus mentions a species whose branches were real wood1 which he names sinapi erucoides4 ,but whatever kind of tree our ,lord meant1 it is clear1 from the fact that he never takes his illustrations from any objects but such as were familiar1 and often present in the scene around him1 that he spoke of one which the ,jews well knew to have minute seeds1 and yet to be of so large growth as to afford shelter for the birds of the air4 ,,myrrh1 1 ,exod4 xxx1 #bc2 ,esther ii1 #ab2 ,psalm xiv1 #h2 ,prov4 vii1 #ag2 ,cant4 i1 #ac2 iii1 #f2 iv1 #f1 #ad2 v1 #a1 #e1 #ac2 1 ,ecclus4 xxiv1 #ae2 ,matt4 ii1 ,mark xv1 #bc2 ,john xix1 #ci2 a precious kind of gum issuing by incision1 and sometimes spontaneously1 from the trunk and larger branches of a tree growing in ,egypt1 ,arabia1 and ,abyssinia4 ,its taste is extremely bitter1 but its smell1 though strong1 is not disagreeable2 and among the ancients it entered into the composition of the most costly ointments4 ,as a perfume1 it appears to have been used to give a pleasant fragrance to vestments1 and to be carried by females in little caskets in the bosoms4 ,the magi1 who came from the east to worship our ,saviour at ,bethlehem1 made him a present of myrrh among other things1 ,matt4 ii1 #aa4 ,,myrtle1 1 ,neh4 viii1 #ae2 ,isaiah xli1 #ai2 lv1 #ac2 ,zech4 i1 #h-aj2 a shrub1 sometimes growing to a small tree1 very common in ,judea4 ,it has a hard woody root that sends forth a great number of small flexible branches1 furnished with leaves like those of box1 but much less1 and more pointed3 they are soft to the touch1 shining1 smooth1 of a beautiful green1 and have a sweet smell4 ,the flowers grow among the leaves1 and consist of five white petals disposed in the form of a rose3 they have an agreeable perfume1 and ornamental appearance4 ,savary1 describing a scene at the end of the forest of ,platanea1 says1 ,myrtles1 intermixed with laurel roses1 grow in the valleys to the height of ten feet4 ,their snow-white flowers1 bordered with a purple edging1 appear to peculiar advantage under the verdant foliage4 ,each myrtle is loaded with them1 and they emit perfumes more exquisite than those of the rose itself4 ,they enchant every one1 and the soul is filled with the softest sensations40 ,the myrtle is mentioned in ,scripture among lofty trees1 not as comparing with them in size1 but as contributing with them to the beauty and richness of the scenery4 ,thus ,isaiah1 xii1 #ai1 intending to describe a scene of varied excellence3 ,i will plant in the wilderness the cedar1 and the shittah tree1 and the myrtle1 and the oil tree20 that is1 ,i will adorn the dreary and barren waste with trees famed for their stature and the grandeur of their appearance1 the beauty of their form1 and also the fragrance of their odour4 ,the apocryphal ,baruch1 v1 #h1 speaking of the return from ,babylon1 expresses the protection afforded by ,god to the people by the same image3 ,even the woods and every sweet-smelling tree shall overshadow ,israel by the commandment of ,god40 ,,mysia1 a country of ,asia ,minor1 having the ,propontis on the north1 ,bithynia on the north-east and east1 ,phrygia on the south-east1 ,lydia 7from which it was separated by the river ,hermus7 on the south1 the gean ,sea on the west1 and the narrow strait1 called the ,hellespont1 on the north-west4 ,mysia was visited by ,st4 ,paul in his circuit through ,asia ,minor2 but he was not suffered by the ,spirit to remain there1 being directed to pass over into ,macedonia1 ,acts xvi1 #g-aj4 ,in this country stood the ancient city ,troy2 as also that of ,pergamus1 one of the seven churches of ,asia4 ,under the ,romans it was made a province of the empire1 and called ,hellespontus2 and its inhabitants are represented by ,cicero as base and contemptible to a proverb4 ,,mystery4 ,the ,greek word denotes1 #a4 ,something hidden1 or not fully manifest4 ,thus1 #b ,thess4 ii1 #g1 we read of the mystery of iniquity10 which began to work in secret1 but was not then completely disclosed or manifested4 #b4 ,some sacred thing hidden or secret1 which is naturally unknown to human reason1 and is only known by the revelation of ,god4 ,thus1 ,great is the mystery of godliness2 ,god was manifest in the flesh1 justified by the ,spirit10 c1 #a ,tim4 iii1 #af4 ,the mystery of godliness1 or of true religion1 consisted in the several particulars here mentioned by the ,apostle2 particulars1 indeed1 which it would never have entered into the heart of man to conceive10 #a ,cor4 ii1 #i1 had not ,god accomplished them in fact1 and published them by the preaching of his ,gospel2 but which1 being thus manifested1 are intelligible1 as facts1 to the meanest understanding4 ,in like manner1 the term mystery1 ,rom4 xi1 #be2 #a ,cor4 xv1 #ea1 denotes what was hidden or unknown1 till revealed2 and thus the ,apostle speaks of a man's understanding all mysteries10 #a ,cor4 xiii1 #b2 that is1 all the revealed truths of the ,christian religion1 which is elsewhere called the mystery of faith10 #a ,tim4 iii1 #i4 ,and when he who spake in an unknown tongue is said to speak mysteries10 #a ,cor4 xiv1 #b1 it is plain1 that these mysteries1 however unintelligible to others on account of the language in which they were spoken1 were yet understood by the person himself1 because he hereby edified himself10 #a ,cor4 xiv1 #d2 ,acts ii1 #aa2 x1 #df4 ,and though in #a ,cor4 ii1 #g1 #h1 we read of the wisdom of ,god in a mystery1 even the hidden wisdom1 which none of the princes of this world knew20 yet1 says the ,apostle1 we speak or declare this wisdom2 and he observes1 verse #aj1 that ,god had revealed the particulars of which it consisted to them by his ,spirit4 ,so when the ,apostles are called stewards of the mysteries of ,god10 #a ,cor4 iv1 #a1 these mysteries could not mean what were1 as facts1 unknown to them2 7because to them it was given to know the mysteries of the kingdom of ,god10 ,matt4 xiii1 #aa27 yea1 the character here ascribed to them implies not only that they knew these mysteries themselves1 but that as faithful stewards they were to dispense or make them known to others1 ,luke xii1 #db2 #a ,pet4 iv1 #aj4 ,in ,col4 ii1 #b1 ,st4 ,paul mentions his praying for his converts1 that their hearts might be comforted to the knowledge of the mystery of ,god1 even of the ,father1 and of ,christ20 for thus the passage should be translated4 ,but if1 with our translators1 we render 1 acknowledgment1 still the word can by no means exclude knowledge2 for this is life eternal10 saith our ,lord1 ,john xvii1 #c1 that they may know thee1 the only true ,god1 and ,jesus ,christ1 whom thou hast sent40 ,and1 lastly1 whatever be the particular meaning of the mystery of ,god10 mentioned ,rev4 x1 #g1 yet it was something he had declared to 7or rather by7 his servants the prophets40 #c4 ,the word mystery is sometimes in the writings of ,st4 ,paul applied in a peculiar sense to the calling of the ,gentiles1 which he styles the mystery10 ,eph4 iii1 #c-f2 and the mystery of ,christ1 which in other generations was not made known to the sons of men1 as it is now revealed to his holy ,apostles and prophets by the ,spirit1 that the ,gentiles should be fellow heirs1 and of the same body1 and partakers of ,christ by the ,gospel10 ,rom4 xvi1 #be2 ,eph4 i1 #i2 iii1 #i2 vi1 #ai2 ,col4 i1 #bf1 #bg2 iv1 #c4 #d4 ,it denotes a spiritual truth couched under an external representation or similitude1 and concealed or hidden thereby1 unless some explanation of it be otherwise given4 ,thus1 ,rev4 i1 #bj1 ,the mystery10 that is1 the spiritual meaning1 of the seven stars3 ,the seven stars are the angels of the seven churches40 ,so ,rev4 xvii1 #e1 ,and upon her forehead a name written1 ,mystery1 ,babylon the ,great10 that is1 ,babylon in a spiritual sense1 the mother of idolatry and abominations20 and1 verse #g1 ,i will tell thee the mystery0 or spiritual signification of the woman40 ,compare ,matt4 xiii1 #aa2 ,mark iv1 #aa2 ,luke viii1 #aj2 ,eph4 v1 #cb2 and their respective contexts4 ,,mystics1 who have also been sometimes called ,quietists1 are those who profess a pure and sublime devotion1 accompanied with a disinterested love of ,god1 free from all selfish considerations2 and who believe that the ,scriptures have a mystic and hidden sense1 which must be sought after1 in order to understand their true import4 ,under this name some comprehend all those who profess to know that they are inwardly taught of ,god4 ,the system of the ,mystics proceeded upon the known doctrine of the ,platonic school1 which was also adopted by ,origen and his disciples1 that the divine nature was diffused through all human souls2 or that the faculty of reason1 from which proceed the health and vigour of the mind1 was an emanation from ,god into the human soul1 and comprehended in it the principles and elements of all truth1 human and divine4 ,they denied that men could1 by labour or study1 excite this celestial flame in their breasts2 and1 therefore1 they disapproved highly of the attempts of those who1 by definitions1 abstract theorems1 and profound speculations1 endeavoured to form distinct notions of truth1 and discover its hidden nature4 ,on the contrary1 they maintained that silence1 tranquillity1 repose1 and solitude1 accompanied with such acts as might tend to attenuate and exhaust the body1 were the means by which the hidden and internal word was excited to produce its latent virtues1 and to instruct men in the knowledge of divine things4 ,they reasoned as follows3 ,those who behold1 with a noble contempt1 all human affairs1 who turn away their eyes from terrestrial vanities1 and shut all the avenues of the outward senses against the contagious influence of a material world1 must necessarily return to ,god1 when the spirit is thus disengaged from the impediments which prevented that happy union4 ,and1 in this blessed frame1 they not only enjoy inexpressible raptures from that communion with the supreme ,being1 but also are invested with the inestimable privilege of contemplating truth undisguised and uncorrupted in its native purity1 while others behold it in a vitiated and delusive form40 ,the number of the ,mystics increased in the fourth century1 under the influence of the ,grecian fanatic1 who gave himself out for ,dionysius the ,areopagite1 a disciple of ,st4 ,paul1 and who probably lived about this period2 and1 by pretending to higher degrees of perfection than other ,christians1 and practising great austerities1 their cause gained ground1 especially in the eastern provinces1 in the fifth century4 ,a copy of the pretended works of ,dionysius was sent by ,balbus to ,lewis the meek1 ,a4 ,d4 #hbd1 which kindled the holy flame of ,mysticism in the western provinces1 and filled the ,latins with the most enthusiastic admiration of this new system4 ,in the twelfth century1 these ,mystics took the lead in their method of expounding the ,scriptures4 ,in the thirteenth1 they were the most formidable antagonists of the schoolmen2 and1 toward the close of the fourteenth1 many of them resided and propagated their tenets in almost every part of ,europe4 ,they had1 in the fifteenth century1 many persons of distinguished merit in their number4 ,in the sixteenth1 previously to the reformation1 if any sparks of real piety subsisted under the despotic empire of superstition1 they were chiefly to be found among the ,mystics2 and in the seventeenth1 the radical principle of ,mysticism was adopted by the ,behmists1 ,bourignonists1 and ,quietists4 ,the ,mystics propose a disinterestedness of love1 without other motives1 and profess to feel1 in the enjoyment of the temper itself1 an abundant reward2 and passive contemplation in the state of perfection to which they aspire4 ,they lay little or no stress upon the outward ceremonies and ordinances of religion1 but dwell chiefly upon the inward operations of the mind4 ,it is not uncommon for them to allegorize certain passages of ,scripture2 at the same time they do not deny the literal sense1 as having an allusion to the inward experience of believers4 ,thus1 according to them1 the word ,jerusalem1 which is the name of the capital of ,judea1 signifies1 allegorically1 the church militant2 morally1 a believer2 and mysteriously1 heaven4 ,that sublime passage also in ,genesis1 ,let there be light1 and there was light10 which is1 according to the letter1 corporeal light1 signifies1 allegorically1 the ,messiah2 morally1 grace2 and mysteriously1 beatitude1 or the light of glory4 ,all this appears to be harmless2 yet we must be careful not to give way to the sallies of a lively imagination in interpreting ,scripture4 ,woolston is said to have been led to reject the ,old ,testament by spiritualizing and allegorizing the ,new4 ,the ,mystics are not confined to any particular denomination of ,christians1 but may be found in most countries1 and among many descriptions of religionists4 ,among the number of ,mystics may be reckoned many singular characters1 especially ,behmen1 a shoemaker at ,gorlitz1 in ,germany2 ,molinos1 a ,spanish priest1 in the seventeenth century2 ,madam ,guion1 a ,french lady who made a great noise in the religious world2 and the celebrated ,madame ,bourignon1 who wrote a work entitled1 ,the ,light of the ,world10 which is full of ,mystic extravagancies4 ,fenelon1 also1 the learned and amiable archbishop of ,cambray1 favoured the same sentiments1 for which he was reprimanded by the pope4 ,his work1 entitled1 ,an ,explication of the ,maxims of the ,saints10 which abounds with ,mystical sentiments was condemned2 and to the pope's sentence against him1 the good archbishop quietly submitted1 and even read it publicly himself in the cathedral of ,cambray4 ,in this whole affair1 his chief opponent is said to have been the famous ,bossuet1 bishop of ,meaux4 ,mr4 ,william ,law1 author of the ,serious ,call10 c1 degenerated in the latter part of his life1 into all the singularities of ,mysticism4 ,in the best sense1 ,mysticism is to be regarded as an error arising out of partial views of the truth1 or truth made erroneous1 as being put out of its proper relation to1 and connection with1 other truths4 ,as it respects the inward life of religion1 its tendency is to a species of fanaticism1 and to induce a contempt for divinely appointed ordinances4 ,in many1 however1 it has been happily tempered by good principles2 and too frequently has all ,scriptural ,christianity1 in its inward influence1 been branded with the name of ,mysticism4 ,,naaman1 general of the army of ,benhadad1 king of ,syria1 mentioned #b ,kings v4 ,he appears to have been a ,gentile idolater2 but being miraculously cured of his leprosy by the power of the ,god of ,israel1 and the direction of his ,prophet ,elisha1 he renounced his idolatry1 and acknowledged this ,god to be the only true ,god3 ,behold1 now ,i know that there is no ,god in all the earth1 but in ,israel10 #b ,kings v1 #ae1 and promised1 for the time to come1 that he would worship none other but ,jehovah1 verse #ag4 ,he also requested the prophet1 that he might have two mules' load of earth to carry home with him from the land of ,israel1 most probably intending to build an altar with it in his own country2 which seems1 indeed1 to be implied in the reason with which he enforces his request3 8,shall there not1 ,i pray thee1 be given to thy servant two mules' burden of earth2 for thy servant will henceforth offer neither burnt-offering nor sacrifice to other gods but unto ,jehovah40 ,he farther says1 ,in this the ,lord pardon thy servant1 that when my master goes into the house of ,rimmon1 to worship there1 and he leaneth upon my hand1 and ,i bow myself in the house of ,rimmon2 when ,i bow down in the house of ,rimmon1 the ,lord pardon thy servant in this thing10 verse #ah2 which some understand to be a reserve1 denoting that he would renounce idolatry no farther than was consistent with his worldly interest1 with his prince's favour1 and his place at court4 ,but1 if so1 the prophet would hardly have dismissed him with a blessing1 saying1 ,go in peace10 verse #ai4 ,others1 therefore1 suppose1 that in these words he begs pardon for what he had done in times past1 not for what he should continue to do4 ,they observe1 that 1 though rendered in the future tense by the ,targum1 and by all the ancient versions1 is really the preterperfect2 and they1 therefore1 understand it1--8when ,i have bowed myself10 or1 because ,i have bowed myself0 in the house of ,rimmon1 the ,lord pardon thy servant4 ,with this sense ,dr4 ,lightfoot agrees1 and it is defended by the learned ,bochart in a large dissertation on the case of ,naaman4 ,yet it does not seem very probable1 that1 if he meant this for a penitential acknowledgment of his former idolatry1 he should only mention what he had done as the king's servant1 and omit his own voluntary worship of the idol4 ,the more probable opinion1 therefore1 is1 that he consulted the prophet1 whether it was lawful for him1 having renounced idolatry1 and publicly professed the worship of the true ,god1 still1 in virtue of his office1 to attend his master in the temple of ,rimmon1 in order that he might lean upon him1 either out of state1 or perhaps out of bodily weakness2 because1 if he attended him1 as he had formerly done1 he could not avoid bowing down when he did4 ,to this the prophet returns no direct answer2 making no other reply than1 ,go in peace20 putting it1 probably1 upon his conscience to act as that should dictate1 and not being willing to relieve him from this trial of his recent faith4 ,after this we have no farther mention of ,naaman4 ,but in the following account of the wars between ,syria and ,israel1 ,benhadad seems to have commanded his army in person2 from whence ,mr4 ,bedford infers1 that ,naaman was dismissed from the command for refusing to worship ,rimmon4 ,but the premises are not sufficient to support the conclusion2 for it appears that ,benhadad had commanded his army in person twice before2 once in the siege of ,samaria1 #a ,kings xx1 #a1 and once at ,aphek1 verse #bf4 ,yet1 from the total silence concerning ,naaman1 it is probably enough conjectured1 that he either died1 or resigned1 or was dismissed1 soon after his return4 ,,naboth1 an ,israelite of the city of ,jezreel1 who lived under ,ahab1 king of the ten tribes1 and had a fine vineyard near the king's palace4 ,ahab coveted his property2 but ,naboth1 according to the law1 ,lev4 xxv1 #bc1 #bd1 refused to sell it3 and beside1 it was a disgrace for a ,hebrew to alienate the inheritance of his ancestors4 ,ahab1 returning into his house1 threw himself on his bed1 and refused to eat1 when ,jezebel1 his wife1 took upon herself to procure the vineyard4 ,she wrote letters in ,ahab's name1 and sealed them with the king's seal1 and sent them to the elders of ,jezreel1 directing them to publish a fast1 to place ,naboth among the chief of the people1 suborn against him two sons of ,belial1 or two false witnesses1 who might depose1 that ,naboth had blasphemed ,god and the king4 ,accordingly1 ,naboth was condemned and stoned for the supposed crime1 which brought upon ,ahab and ,jezebel the severest maledictions1 #a ,kings xxi4 ,see ,,ahab4 ,,nadab1 son of ,aaron1 and brother to ,abihu4 ,he offered incense to the ,lord with strange fire1 that is1 with common fire1 and not with that which had been miraculously lighted upon the altar of burnt-offerings4 ,therefore1 he was slain by the ,lord1 together with his brother ,abihu1 ,lev4 x1 #a1 c4 ,,nahor1 son of ,terah1 and brother of ,abraham1 ,gen4 xi1 #bf4 ,neither the year of his birth nor of his death is exactly known4 ,nahor married ,milcah1 the daughter of ,haran1 by whom he had several sons1 namely1 ,huz1 ,buz1 ,kemuel1 ,chesed1 ,hazo1 ,pildash1 ,jidlaph1 and ,bethuel4 ,nahor fixed his habitation at ,haran1 which is therefore called the city of ,nahor1 ,gen4 xi1 #bi2 xxii1 #bj-bb2 xxiv1 #aj4 ,,nahum is supposed to have been a native of ,elcosh or ,elcosha1 a village in ,galilee1 and to have been of the tribe of ,simeon4 ,there is great uncertainty about the exact period in which he lived2 but it is generally allowed that he delivered his predictions between the ,assyrian and ,babylonian captivities1 and probably about ,b4 ,c4 #gae4 ,they relate solely to the destruction of ,nineveh by the ,babylonians and ,medes1 and are introduced by an animated display of the attributes of ,god4 ,of all the minor prophets1 says ,bishop ,lowth1 none seems to equal ,nahum in sublimity1 ardour1 and boldness4 ,his prophecy forms an entire and regular poem4 ,the exordium is magnificent and truly august4 ,the preparation for the destruction of ,nineveh1 and the description of that destruction1 are expressed in the most glowing colours2 and at the same time the prophet writes with a perspicuity and elegance which have a just claim to our highest admiration4 ,,nail4 ,the nail of ,jael's tent with which she killed ,sisera1 is called 2 it was formed for penetrating earth1 or other hard substances1 when driven by sufficient force1 as with a hammer1 c2 it includes the idea of strength4 ,the orientals1 in fitting up their houses1 were by no means inattentive to the comfort and satisfaction arising from order and method4 ,their furniture was scanty and plain2 but they were careful to arrange the few household utensils they needed1 so as not to encumber the apartments to which they belonged4 ,their devices for this purpose1 which1 like every part of the structure1 bore the character of remarkable simplicity1 may not correspond with our ideas of neatness and propriety2 but they accorded with their taste1 and sufficiently answered their design4 ,one of these consisted in a set of spikes1 nails1 or large pegs fixed in the walls of the house1 upon which they hung up the movables and utensils in common use that belonged to the room4 ,these nails they do not drive into the walls with a hammer or mallet1 but fix them there when the house is building2 for if the walls are of brick1 they are too hard1 or if they consist of clay1 too soft and mouldering1 to admit the action of the hammer4 ,the spikes1 which are so contrived as to strengthen the walls1 by binding the parts together1 as well as to serve for convenience1 are large1 with square heads like dice1 and bent at the ends so as to make them cramp irons4 ,they commonly place them at the windows and doors1 in order to hang upon them1 when they choose1 veils and curtains1 although they place them in other parts of the room1 to hang up other things of various kinds4 ,the care with which they fixed these nails1 may be inferred1 as well from the important purposes they were meant to serve1 as from the promise of the ,lord to ,eliakim3 ,and ,i will fasten him as a nail in a sure place10 ,isa4 xxii1 #bc4 ,it is evident from the words of the prophet1 that it was common in his time to suspend upon them the utensils belonging to the apartment3 ,will men take a pin of it to hang any vessel thereon80 ,ezek4 xv1 #c4 ,the word used in ,isaiah for a nail of this sort1 is the same which denotes the stake1 or large pin of iron1 which fastened down to the ground the cords of their tents4 ,these nails1 therefore1 were of necessary and common use1 and of no small importance in all their apartments2 and if they seem to us mean and insignificant1 it is because they are unknown to us1 and inconsistent with our notions of propriety1 and because we have no name for them but what conveys to our ear a low and contemptible idea4 ,it is evident from the frequent allusions in ,scripture to these instruments1 that they were not regarded with contempt or indifference by the natives of ,palestine4 ,grace has been shown from the ,lord our ,god10 said ,ezra1 to leave us a remnant to escape1 and to give us a nail in his holy place10 ,ezra ix1 #h2 or1 as explained in the margin1 a constant and sure abode4 ,the dignity and propriety of the metaphor appear from the use which the ,prophet ,zechariah makes of it3 ,out of him cometh forth the corner1 out of him the nail1 out of him the battle bow1 out of him every oppressor together10 ,zech4 x1 #d4 ,the whole frame of government1 both in church and state1 which the chosen people of ,god enjoyed1 was the contrivance of his wisdom and the gift of his bounty2 the foundations upon which it rested1 the bonds which kept the several parts together1 its means of defence1 its officers and executors1 were all the fruits of distinguishing goodness3 even the oppressors of his people were a rod of correction in the hand of ,jehovah1 to convince them of sin1 and restore them to his service4 ,,nain1 a city of ,palestine1 in which ,jesus ,christ restored the widow's son to life1 as they were carrying him out to be buried4 ,eusebius says1 that this was in the neighbourhood of ,endor1 and ,scythopolis1 two miles from ,tabor1 toward the south4 ,,nakedness1 ,,nudity4 ,these terms1 beside their ordinary and literal meaning1 sometimes signify void of succour1 disarmed4 ,so1 after worshipping the golden calf1 the ,israelites found themselves naked in the midst of their enemies4 ,nakedness of the feet0 was a token of respect4 ,moses put off his shoes to approach the burning bush4 ,most commentators are of opinion1 that the priests served in the tabernacle with their feet naked2 and afterward in the temple4 ,in the enumeration that ,moses makes of the habit and ornaments of the priests1 he no where mentions any dress for the feet4 ,also the frequent ablutions appointed them in the temple seem to imply that their feet were naked4 ,to uncover the nakedness of any one1 is commonly put for a shameful and unlawful conjunction1 or an incestuous marriage1 ,lev4 xx1 #ai2 ,ezek4 xvi1 #cg4 ,nakedness is sometimes put for being partly undressed2 en dshabill4 ,saul continued naked among the prophets2 that is1 having only his under garments on4 ,isaiah received orders from the ,lord to go naked2 that is1 clothed as a slave1 half clad4 ,thus it is recommended to clothe the naked2 that is1 such as are ill clothed4 ,st4 ,paul says1 that he was in cold1 in nakedness2 that is1 in poverty and want of raiment4 ,naked is put for discovered1 known1 manifest4 ,so ,job xxvi1 #f3 ,hell is naked before him40 ,the sepulchre1 the unseen state1 is open to the eyes of ,god4 ,st4 ,paul says1 in the same sense1 ,neither is there any creature that is not manifest in his sight2 but all things are naked and open unto the eyes of him with whom we have to do10 ,heb4 iv1 #ac4 ,,name4 ,a name was given to the male child at the time of its circumcision1 but it is probable1 previous to the introduction of that rite1 that the name was given immediately after its birth4 ,among the orientals the appellations given as names are always significant4 ,in the ,old ,testament1 we find that the child was named in many instances from the circumstances of its birth1 or from some peculiarities in the history of the family to which it belonged1 ,gen4 xvi1 #aa2 xix1 #cg2 xxv1 #be1 #bf2 ,exod4 ii1 #aj2 xviii1 #c1 #d4 ,frequently the name was a compound one1 one part being the name of the ,deity1 and among idolatrous nations the name of an idol4 ,the following instances may be mentioned among others1 and may stand as specimens of the whole1 namely1 1 ,samuel1 hear ,god20 1 ,adonijah1 ,god is lord20 1 ,josedech1 ,god is just20 1 ,ethbaal1 a ,canaanitish name1 the latter part of the compound being the name of the idol deity1 ,baal2 1 ,belshazzar1 ,bel10 a ,babylonish deity1 is ruler and king40 ,sometimes the name had a prophetic meaning1 ,gen4 xvii1 #ae2 ,isa4 vii1 #ad2 viii1 #c2 ,hos4 i1 #d1 #f1 #i2 ,matt4 i1 #ba2 ,luke i1 #ac1 #fj1 #fc4 ,in the later times names were selected from those of the progenitors of a family2 hence in the ,new ,testament hardly any other than ancient names occur1 ,matt4 i1 #ab2 ,luke i1 #fa2 iii1 #bc1 c4 ,the inhabitants of the east very frequently change their names1 and sometimes do it for very slight reasons4 ,this accounts for the fact of so many persons having two names in ,scripture1 ,ruth i1 #bj1 #ba2 #a ,sam4 xiv1 #di2 xxxi1 #b2 #a ,chron4 x1 #b2 ,judges vi1 #cb2 vii1 #a2 #b ,sam4 xxiii1 #h4 ,kings and princes very often changed the names of those who held offices under them1 particularly when they first attracted their notice1 and were taken into their employ1 and when subsequently they were elevated to some new station1 and crowned with additional honours1 ,gen4 xli1 #de2 xvii1 #e2 xxxii1 #bh2 xxxv1 #aj2 #b ,kings xxiii1 #cd1 #ce2 xxiv1 #ag2 ,dan4 i1 #f2 ,john i1 #db2 ,mark iii1 #ag4 ,hence a name1 a new name1 occurs tropically1 as a token or proof of distinction and honour in the following among other passages1 ,phil4 ii1 #i2 ,heb4 i1 #d2 ,rev4 ii1 #ag4 ,sometimes the names of the dead were changed2 for instance that of ,abel1 1 a word which signifies breath1 or something transitory as a breath1 given to him after his death1 in allusion to the shortness of his life1 ,gen4 ii1 #h4 ,sometimes proper names are translated into other languages1 losing their original form1 while they preserve their signification4 ,this appears to have been the case with the proper names1 which occur in the first eleven chapters of ,genesis1 and which were translated into the ,hebrew from a language still more ancient4 ,the orientals in some instances1 in order to distinguish themselves from others of the same name1 added to their own name the name of their father1 grandfather1 and even great grandfather4 ,the name of ,god often signifies ,god himself2 sometimes his attributes collectively2 sometimes his power and authority4 ,of the ,messiah it is said1 ,and he hath on his vesture and on his thigh a name written1 ,king of kings1 and ,lord of lords10 ,rev4 xix1 #af4 ,in illustration of this it may be remarked1 that it appears to have been an ancient custom among several nations1 to adorn the images of their deities1 princes1 victors at their public games1 and other eminent persons1 with inscriptions expressive of their names1 character1 titles1 or some circumstance which might contribute to their honour4 ,there are several such images yet extant1 with an inscription written either on the garment1 or one of the thighs4 ,herodotus mentions two figures of ,sesostris1 king of ,egypt1 cut upon rocks in ,ionia1 after his conquest of that country1 with the following inscription across the breast1 extending from one shoulder to the other3 ,i conquered this country by the force of my arms40 ,gruter has published a naked statue made of marble1 and supposed to represent the genius either of some ,roman emperor1 or of ,antinus1 who was deified by ,hadrian1 with an inscription on the inside of the right thigh1 written perpendicularly in ,roman letters1 and containing the names of three persons4 ,near the statue1 on the same side of it1 stands an oval shield with the names of two other persons written round the rim in letters of the same form4 ,in the appendix to ,dempster's ,etruria ,regalis0 is a female image of brass1 clothed in a loose tunic down to the feet1 with a shorter garment over it1 on the right side of which is a perpendicular inscription in ,etrurian characters1 extending partly on the lower garment4 ,this figure1 from the diadem on the head1 and other circumstances which accompany it1 ,philip ,bonarota1 the editor of that work1 supposes to have been designed for some ,etrurian deity4 ,montfaucon has given us a male image of the same metal1 dressed in a tunic1 and over that another vestment something like a ,roman toga1 reaching to the middle of the legs1 on the bottom of which is an ,etrurian inscription written horizontally4 ,there are likewise in both those writers two male figures crowned with laurel1 which ,montfaucon calls combatants1 as the laurel was an emblem of victory4 ,but ,bonarota takes one of them for an image of ,apollo1 which has a chain round the neck1 a garment wrapped over the right arm1 and a bracelet on the left1 with half boots on the legs2 the rest of the body being naked has an ,etrurian inscription written downward in two lines on the inside of the left thigh4 ,the other figure has the lower part of the body clothed in a loose vestment1 with an inscription upon it over the right thigh1 perpendicularly written in ,roman letters1 which ,bonarota has thus expressed in a more distinct manner than they appear in ,montfaucon3 ,,pomponio ,,virio ,i4 ,to these may be added from ,montfaucon1 a marble statue of a naked combatant1 with a fillet about his head in token of victory4 ,it is drawn in two views1 one exhibiting the back and the other the fore part of the body1 the latter of which has in ,greek letters1 for 1 perpendicularly inscribed on the outside of the left thigh2 and the former the name in the like characters and situation on the right thigh2 these together make one inscription signifying ,caphisodorus filius schlamii4 ,caphisodorus the son of schlamius4 ,,naomi4 ,see ,,ruth4 ,,naphtali1 the sixth son of ,jacob by ,bilhah1 ,rachel's handmaid4 ,the word ,naphtali signifies wrestling1 or struggling4 ,when ,rachel gave him this name1 she said1 ,with great wrestlings have ,i wrestled with my sister1 and ,i have prevailed10 ,gen4 xxx1 #h4 ,naphtali had but four sons1 and yet at the coming out of ,egypt his tribe made up fifty-three thousand four hundred men1 able to bear arms4 ,moses1 in the blessing he gave to the same tribe1 says1 ,o ,naphtali1 satisfied with favour1 and full with the blessing of the ,lord1 possess thou the west and the south10 ,deut4 xxxiii1 #bc4 ,the ,vulgate reads it1 the sea and the south10 and the ,hebrew will admit of either interpretation1 that is1 the sea of ,gennesareth1 which was to the south by the inheritance of this tribe4 ,his soil was very fruitful in corn and oil4 ,his limits were extended into upper and lower ,galilee1 having ,jordan to the east1 the tribes of ,asher and ,zebulun to the west1 ,libanus to the north1 and the tribe of ,issachar to the south4 ,under ,barak1 their general1 they and the ,zebulunites fought with distinguished bravery against the army of ,jabin the younger2 and at the desire of ,gideon they pursued the ,midianites1 ,judges iv1 #aj2 v1 #ah2 vii1 #bc4 ,a thousand of their captains1 with thirty-seven thousand of their troops1 assisted at ,david's coronation1 and brought great quantities of provision with them1 #a ,chron4 xii1 #cd1 #dj4 ,we find no person of distinguished note among them1 save ,barak1 and ,hiram the artificer4 ,instigated by ,asa1 ,benhadad the elder1 king of ,syria1 terribly ravaged the land of ,naphtali2 and what it suffered in after invasions by the ,syrians we are partly told1 #a ,kings xv1 #bj4 ,the ,naphtalites were1 many1 if not most of them1 carried captive by ,tiglath-pileser1 king of ,assyria1 #b ,kings xv1 #bi4 ,josiah purged their country from idols4 ,our ,saviour and his disciples1 during his public ministry1 resided much and preached frequently in the land of ,naphtali1 ,isaiah ix1 #a2 ,matt4 iv1 #ac1 #ae4 ,,naphtuhim1 a son1 or rather the descendants of a son1 of ,mizraim1 whose proper name is ,naphtuch4 ,naphtuch is supposed to have given his name to ,naph1 ,noph1 or ,memphis1 and to have been the first king of that division of ,egypt4 ,he is1 however1 placed by ,bochart in ,libya2 and is conjectured to be the ,aphtuchus1 or ,autuchus1 who had a temple somewhere here4 ,he is farther conjectured1 and not without reason1 to be the original of the ,heathen god ,neptune2 who is represented to have been a ,libyan1 and whose temples were generally built near the sea coast4 ,by others1 he is supposed to have peopled that part of ,ethiopia between ,syene and ,meroe1 the capital of which was called ,napata4 ,,nathan1 a prophet of the ,lord1 who appeared in ,israel in the time of ,king ,david1 and had a great share in the confidence of this prince4 ,his country is unknown1 as also the time in which he began to prophesy4 ,the first time we find him mentioned1 is when ,david designed to build the temple1 #b ,sam4 vii1 #c1 c4 ,we find him mentioned again in the affair of ,david and ,bathsheba1 when he faithfully reproved the king for his wicked conduct1 #b ,sam4 xii1 #a-ad4 ,and when ,adonijah began to take upon him the state1 and to assume the dignity1 of a sovereign1 and to form a party in opposition to his brother ,solomon1 ,nathan repaired to ,bathsheba1 and sent her immediately to the king with instructions what to say2 and while she was yet discoursing with the king1 ,nathan came in1 reminded ,david of his promise1 that ,solomon should be his successor1 and procured ,solomon to be immediately anointed king of ,israel4 ,,nathanael1 a disciple of our ,lord4 ,he appears to have been a pious ,jew who waited for the ,messiah3 and upon ,jesus saying to him1 ,before ,philip called thee1 ,i saw thee under the fig tree10 ,nathanael1 convinced1 by some circumstance not explained1 of his omniscience1 exclaimed1 ,master1 thou art the ,son of ,god1 and the ,king of ,israel40 ,many have thought that ,nathanael was the same as ,bartholomew4 ,the evangelists1 who mention ,bartholomew1 say nothing of ,nathanael2 and ,st4 ,john1 who mentions ,nathanael1 takes no notice of ,bartholomew4 ,we read at the end of ,st4 ,john's ,gospel1 that our ,saviour1 after his resurrection1 manifested himself to ,peter1 ,thomas1 ,nathanael1 and the sons of ,zebedee1 as they were fishing in the lake of ,gennesareth4 ,we know no other circumstances of the life of this holy man4 ,,natural1 1 is a term that frequently occurs in the apostolic writings3 ,the natural man receiveth not the things of the ,spirit of ,god1 neither can he know them1 because they are spiritually discerned10 #a ,cor4 ii1 #ad4 ,here it is plain that by the natural man10 is not meant a person devoid of natural judgment1 reason1 or conscience1 in which sense the expression is often used among men4 ,nor does it signify one who is entirely governed by his fleshly appetites1 or what the world calls a voluptuary1 or sensualist4 ,neither does it signify merely a man in the rude state of nature1 whose faculties have not been cultivated by learning and study1 and polished by an intercourse with society4 ,the ,apostle manifestly takes his natural man0 from among such as the world hold in the highest repute for their natural parts1 their learning1 and their religion4 ,he selects him from among the philosophers of ,greece1 who sought after wisdom1 and from among the ,jewish scribes1 who were instructed in the revealed law of ,god1 #a ,cor4 i1 #bb1 #bc4 ,these are the persons whom he terms the wise1 the scribes1 the disputers of this world--men to whom the ,gospel was a stumbling block and foolishness1 #a ,cor4 i1 #bj1 #bc4 ,the natural man is here evidently opposed to1 1 him that is spiritual10 #a ,cor4 ii1 #ae1 even as the natural body which we derive from ,adam is opposed to the spiritual body which believers will receive from ,christ at the resurrection1 according to #a ,cor4 xv1 #dd1 #de4 ,now the spiritual man is one who has the ,spirit of ,christ dwelling in him1 ,rom4 viii1 #i1 not merely in the way of miraculous gifts1 as some have imagined1 7for these were peculiar to the first age of the ,christian church1 and even then not common to all the saints1 nor inseparably connected with salvation1 #a ,cor4 xiii1 #a-d2 ,heb4 vi1 #d-g17 but in his saving influences of light1 holiness1 and consolation1 whereby the subject is made to discern the truth and excellency of spiritual things1 and so to believe1 love1 and delight in them as his true happiness4 ,if therefore a man is called spiritual0 because the ,spirit of ,christ dwells in him1 giving him new views1 dispositions1 and enjoyments1 then the natural man10 being opposed to such1 must be one who is destitute of the ,spirit1 and of all his saving and supernatural effects1 whatever may be his attainments in human learning and science4 ,it is obviously upon this principle that our ,lord insists upon the necessity of the new birth in order to our entering into the kingdom of heaven1 ,john iii1 #c1 #e4 ,,nature4 ,in ,scripture the word nature expresses the orderly and usual course of things established in the world4 ,st4 ,paul says1 to ingraft a good olive tree into a wild olive is contrary to nature1 ,rom4 xi1 #bd2 the customary order of nature is thereby in some measure inverted4 ,nature is also put for natural descent3 ,we who are ,jews by nature10 by birth1 and not ,gentiles10 ,gal4 ii1 #ae4 ,we were by nature the children of wrath10 ,eph4 ii1 #c4 ,nature also denotes common sense1 natural instinct3 ,doth not even nature itself teach you1 that if a man have long hair1 it is a shame to him80 #a ,cor4 xi1 #ad4 ,,nazarenes1 or ,,nazar,,ans1 a name originally given to ,christians in general1 on account of ,jesus ,christ's being of the city of ,nazareth2 but was1 in the second century1 restrained to certain judaizing ,christians1 who blended ,christianity and ,judaism together4 ,they held that ,christ was born of a virgin1 and was also in a certain manner united to the divine nature4 ,they refused to abandon the ceremonies prescribed by the law of ,moses2 but were far from attempting to impose the observance of these ceremonies upon ,gentile ,christians4 ,they rejected those additions that were made to the ,mosaic institutions by the ,pharisees and doctors of the law1 and admitted the ,scriptures both of the ,old and ,new ,testament4 ,the fathers frequently mention the ,gospel of the ,nazarenes1 which differs nothing from that of ,st4 ,matthew1 but was afterward corrupted by the ,ebionites4 ,these ,nazarenes preserved this first ,gospel in its primitive purity4 ,some of them were still in being in the time of ,st4 ,jerome1 who does not reproach them with any errors4 ,,nazareth1 a little city in the tribe of ,zebulun1 in ,lower ,galilee1 to the west of ,tabor1 and to the east of ,ptolemais4 ,this city is much celebrated in the ,scriptures for having been the usual place of the residence of ,jesus ,christ1 during the first thirty years of his life1 ,luke ii1 #ea4 ,it was here he lived in obedience to ,joseph and ,mary1 and hence he took the name of ,nazarene4 ,after he had begun to execute his mission he preached here sometimes in the synagogue1 ,luke iv1 #af4 ,but because his countrymen had no faith in him1 and were offended at the meanness of his original1 he did not many miracles here1 ,matt4 xiii1 #ed1 #eh1 nor would he dwell in the city4 ,so he fixed his habitation at ,capernaum for the latter part of his life1 ,matt4 iv1 #ac4 ,the city of ,nazareth was situated upon an eminence1 and on one side was a precipice1 from whence the ,nazarenes designed1 at one time1 to cast ,christ down headlong1 because he upbraided them for their incredulity1 ,luke iv1 #bi4 ,the present state of this celebrated place is thus described by modern travellers3--,nassara1 or ,naszera1 is one of the principal towns in the pashalic of ,acre4 ,its inhabitants are industrious1 because they are treated with less severity than those of the country towns in general4 ,the population is estimated at three thousand1 of whom five hundred are ,turks2 the remainder are ,christians4 ,there are about ninety ,latin families1 according to ,burckhardt2 but ,mr4 ,connor reports the ,greeks to be the most numerous3 there is1 beside1 a congregation of ,greek ,catholics1 and another of ,maronites4 ,the ,latin convent is a very spacious and commodious building1 which was thoroughly repaired and considerably enlarged in #agcj4 ,the remains of the more ancient edifice1 ascribed to the mother of ,constantine1 may be observed in the form of subverted columns1 with fragments of capitals and bases of pillars1 lying near the modern building4 ,pococke noticed1 over a door1 an old alto-relief of ,judith cutting off the head of ,holofernes4 ,within the convent is the church of the annunciation1 containing the house of ,joseph and ,mary1 the length of which is not quite the breadth of the church2 but it forms the principal part of it4 ,the columns and all the interior of the church are hung round with damask silk1 which gives it a warm and rich appearance4 ,behind the great altar is a subterranean cavern1 divided into small grottoes1 where the virgin is said to have lived4 ,her kitchen1 parlour1 and bed room1 are shown1 and also a narrow hole in the rock1 in which the child ,jesus once hid himself from his persecutors4 ,the pilgrims who visit these holy spots are in the habit of knocking off small pieces of stone from the walls1 which are thus considerably enlarging4 ,in the church a miracle is still exhibited to the faithful4 ,in front of the altar are two granite columns1 each two feet one inch in diameter1 and about three feet apart4 ,they are supposed to occupy the very places where the angel and the virgin stood at the precise moment of the annunciation4 ,the innermost of these1 that of the virgin1 has been broken away1 some say by the ,turks1 in expectation of finding treasure under it2 so that10 as ,maundrell states1 8eighteen inches' length of it is clean gone between the pillar and the pedestal40 ,nevertheless1 it remains erect1 suspended from the roof1 as if attracted by a loadstone4 ,it has evidently no support below2 and1 though it touches the roof1 the hierophant protests that it has none above4 ,all the ,christians of ,nazareth10 says ,burckhardt1 with the friars1 of course1 at their head1 affect to believe in this miracle2 though it is perfectly evident that the upper part of the column is connected with the roof40 ,the fact is10 says ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke1 that the capital and a piece of the shaft of a pillar of gray granite have been fastened on to the roof of the cave2 and so clumsily is the rest of the hocus pocus contrived1 that what is shown for the lower fragment of the same pillar resting upon the earth1 is not of the same substance1 but of ,cipolino marble4 ,about this pillar1 a different story has been related by almost every traveller since the trick was devised4 ,maundrell1 and ,egmont and ,heyman1 were told that it was broken1 in search of hidden treasure1 by a pasha1 who was struck with blindness for his impiety4 ,we were assured that it was separated in this manner when the angel announced to the virgin the tidings of her conception4 ,the monks had placed a rail1 to prevent persons infected with the plague from coming to rub against these pillars3 this had been1 for many years1 their constant practice1 whenever afflicted with any sickness4 ,the reputation of the broken pillar1 for healing every kind of disease1 prevails all over ,galilee40 ,burckhardt says that this church1 next to that of the holy sepulchre1 is the finest in ,syria1 and contains two tolerably good organs4 ,within the walls of the convent are two gardens1 and a small burying ground3 the walls are very thick1 and serve occasionally as a fortress to all the ,christians in the town4 ,there are1 at present1 eleven friars in the convent3 they are chiefly ,spaniards4 ,the yearly expenses of the establishment are stated to amount to upward of nine hundred pounds2 a small part of which is defrayed by the rent of a few houses in the town1 and by the produce of some acres of corn land3 the rest is remitted from ,jerusalem4 ,the whole annual expenses of the ,terra ,santa convents are about fifteen thousand pounds2 of which the pasha of ,damascus receives about twelve thousand pounds4 ,the ,greek convent of ,jerusalem1 according to ,burckhardt's authority1 pays much more1 as well to maintain its own privileges1 as with a view to encroach upon those of the ,latins4 ,to the north-west of the convent is a small church1 built over ,joseph's work shop4 ,both ,maundrell and ,pococke describe it as in ruins2 but ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke says1 ,this is now a small chapel1 perfectly modern1 and neatly whitewashed40 ,to the west of this is a small arched building1 which1 they say1 is the synagogue where ,christ exasperated the ,jews1 by applying the language of ,isaiah to himself4 ,it once belonged to the ,greeks2 but1 ,hasselquist says1 was taken from them by the ,arabs1 who intended to convert it into a mosque1 but afterward sold it to the ,latins4 ,this was then so late a transaction that they had not had time to embellish it4 ,the ,mountain of the ,precipitation0 is at least two miles off2 so that1 according to this authentic tradition1 the ,jews must have led our ,lord a marvellous way4 ,but the said precipice is shown as that which the ,messiah leaped down to escape from the ,jews2 and as the monks could not pitch upon any other place frightful enough for the miracle1 they contend that ,nazareth formerly stood eastward of its present situation1 upon a more elevated spot4 ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke1 however1 remarks that the situation of the modern town answers exactly to the description of ,st4 ,luke4 8,induced1 by the words of the ,gospel1 to examine the place more attentively than we should otherwise have done1 we went1 as it is written1 out of the city1 #8to the brow of the hill whereon the city is built1' and came to a precipice corresponding to the words of the evangelist4 ,it is above the ,maronite church1 and1 probably1 the precise spot alluded to by the text40 ,,nazarites1 those under the ancient law who engaged by a vow to abstain from wine and all intoxicating liquors1 to let their hair grow1 not to enter any house polluted by having a dead corpse in it1 nor to be present at any funeral4 ,if1 by accident1 any one should have died in their presence1 they recommenced the whole of their consecration and ,nazariteship4 ,this vow generally lasted eight days1 sometimes a month1 and sometimes their whole lives4 ,when the time of their ,nazariteship was expired1 the priest brought the person to the door of the temple1 who there offered to the ,lord a he-lamb for a burnt-offering1 a she-lamb for an expiatory sacrifice1 and a ram for a peace-offering4 ,they offered1 likewise1 loaves and cakes1 with wine1 for libations4 ,after all was sacrificed and offered1 the priest1 or some other1 shaved the head of the ,nazarite at the door of the tabernacle1 and burned his hair on the fire of the altar4 ,then the priest put into the hands of the ,nazarite the shoulder of the ram roasted1 with a loaf and a cake1 which the ,nazarite returning into the hands of the priest1 he offered them to the ,lord1 lifting them up in the presence of the ,nazarite4 ,and from this time he might again drink wine1 his ,nazariteship being accomplished4 ,perpetual ,nazarites1 as ,samson and ,john the ,baptist1 were consecrated to their ,nazariteship by their parents1 and continued all their lives in this state1 without drinking wine or cutting their hair4 ,those who made a vow of ,nazariteship out of ,palestine1 and could not come to the temple when their vow was expired1 contented themselves with observing the abstinence required by the law1 and cutting off their hair in the place where they were3 the offerings and sacrifices prescribed by ,moses1 to be offered at the temple1 by themselves or by others for them1 they deferred till a convenient opportunity4 ,hence it was that ,st4 ,paul1 being at ,corinth1 and having made the vow of a ,nazarite1 had his hair cut off at ,cenchrea1 a port of ,corinth1 and deferred the rest of his vow till he came to ,jerusalem1 ,acts xviii1 #ah4 ,when a person found he was not in a condition to make a vow of ,nazariteship1 or had not leisure fully to perform it1 he contented himself by contributing to the expense of sacrifices and offerings of those who had made and were fulfilling this vow2 and by this means he became a partaker in such ,nazariteship4 ,when ,st4 ,paul came to ,jerusalem1 ,a4 ,d4 #eh1 ,st4 ,james1 with other brethren1 said to him1 that to quiet the minds of the converted ,jews he should join himself to four persons who had a vow of ,nazariteship1 and contribute to their charges and ceremonies2 by which the new converts would perceive that he did not totally disregard the law1 as they had been led to suppose1 ,acts xxi1 #bc1 #bd4 ,the institution of ,nazaritism is involved in much mystery2 and no satisfactory reason has ever been given of it4 ,this is certain1 that it had the approbation of ,god1 and may be considered as affording a good example of self-denial in order to be given up to the study of the law1 and the practice of exact righteousness4 ,,nebo1 the name of an idol of the ,babylonians3 ,bel boweth down1 ,nebo stoopeth10 ,isaiah xlvi1 #a4 ,the word ,nebo comes from a root that signifies to prophesy10 and therefore may stand for an oracle4 ,there is some probability in the opinion of ,calmet1 that ,bel and ,nebo are but one and the same deity1 and that ,isaiah made use of these names as synonymous4 ,the god ,bel was the oracle of the ,babylonians4 ,the name ,nebo1 or ,nabo1 is found in the composition of the names of several princes of ,babylon2 as ,nabonassar1 ,nabopolassar1 ,nebuchadnezzar1 ,nebuzar-adan1 ,nebushasban1 c4 ,,nebuchadnezzar ,,the ,,great1 son and successor of ,nabopolassar1 succeeded to the kingdom of ,chaldea1 ,a4 ,m4 #ccii4 ,some time previously to this1 ,nabopolassar had associated him in the kingdom1 and sent him to recover ,carchemish1 which had been conquered from him four years before by ,necho1 king of ,egypt4 ,nebuchadnezzar1 having been successful1 marched against the governor of ,phenicia1 and ,jehoiakim1 king of ,judah1 who was tributary to ,necho1 king of ,egypt4 ,he took ,jehoiakim1 and put him in chains in order to carry him captive to ,babylon2 but afterward left him in ,judea1 on condition of paying a large tribute4 ,he took away several persons from ,jerusalem2 among others ,daniel1 ,hananiah1 ,mishael1 and ,azariah1 all of the royal family1 whom the king of ,babylon caused to be carefully instructed in the language and in the learning of the ,chaldeans1 that they might be employed at court1 ,dan4 i4 ,nabopolassar dying about the end of ,a4 ,m4 #ccii1 ,nebuchadnezzar1 who was then either in ,egypt or in ,judea1 hastened to ,babylon1 leaving to his generals the care of bringing to ,chaldea the captives whom he had taken in ,syria1 ,judea1 ,phenicia1 and ,egypt2 for1 according to ,berosus1 he had subdued all those countries4 ,he distributed these captives into several colonies2 and deposited the sacred vessels of the temple of ,jerusalem1 and other rich spoils in the temple of ,belus4 ,jehoiakim1 king of ,judah1 continued three years in fealty to ,king ,nebuchadnezzar2 but being then weary of paying tribute1 he threw off the yoke4 ,the king of ,chaldea sent troops of ,chaldeans1 ,syrians1 ,moabites1 and ,ammonites1 who harassed ,judea during three or four years1 and at last ,jehoiakim was besieged and taken in ,jerusalem1 put to death1 and his body thrown to the birds of the air1 according to the predictions of ,jeremiah4 ,see ,,jehoiakim4 ,in the mean time1 ,nebuchadnezzar being at ,babylon in the second year of his reign1 had a mysterious dream1 in which he saw a statue composed of several metals1 a head of gold1 a breast of silver1 belly and thighs of brass1 legs of iron1 and feet half of iron and half clay2 and a little stone rolling by its own impulse from the mountain struck the statue and broke it4 ,this dream gave him great uneasiness1 yet it faded away from his memory1 and he could not recover more than the general impression of it4 ,he ordered all his diviners and interpreters of dreams to be sent for2 but none could tell him the dream or the interpretation3 and1 in wrath1 he sentenced them all to death1 which was about to be put in execution1 when ,daniel was informed of it4 ,he went immediately to the king1 and desired him to respite the sentence a little1 and he would endeavour to satisfy his desire4 ,god in the night revealed to him the king's dream1 and also the interpretation3 ,thou10 said ,daniel1 art represented by the golden head of the statue4 ,after thee will arise a kingdom inferior to thine1 represented by the breast of silver2 and after this1 another1 still inferior1 denoted by the belly and thighs of brass4 ,after these three empires10 which are the ,chaldeans1 ,persians1 and ,greeks1 will arise a fourth1 denoted by the legs of iron10 the ,romans4 ,under this last empire ,god will raise a new one1 of greater strength1 power1 and extent1 than all the others4 ,this last is that of the ,messiah1 represented by the little stone coming out from the mountain and overthrowing the statue40 ,then the king raised ,daniel to great honour1 set him over all the wise men of ,babylon1 and give him the government of that province4 ,at his request he granted to ,shadrach1 ,meshach1 and ,abednego1 the oversight of the works of the same province of ,babylon4 ,in the same year1 as ,dr4 ,hales thinks1 in which he had this dream1 he erected a golden statue1 whose height was sixty cubits1 and breadth six cubits1 in the plains of ,dura1 in the province of ,babylon4 ,having appointed a day for the dedication of this statue1 he assembled the principal officers of his kingdom1 and published by a herald1 that all should adore this image1 at the sound of music1 on penalty of being cast into a burning fiery furnace4 ,the result1 as to the three ,jews1 companions of ,daniel1 who would not bend the knee to the image1 is stated in ,dan4 iii4 ,daniel probably was absent4 ,the effect of the miracle was so great that ,nebuchadnezzar gave glory to the ,god of ,shadrach1 ,meshach1 and ,abednego2 and he exalted the three ,hebrews to great dignity in the province of ,babylon1 ,dan4 iv4 ,jehoiachin1 king of ,judah1 having revolted against ,nebuchadnezzar1 this prince besieged him in ,jerusalem1 and forced him to surrender4 ,nebuchadnezzar took him1 with his chief officers1 captive to ,babylon1 with his mother1 his wives1 and the best workmen of ,jerusalem1 to the number of ten thousand men4 ,among the captives were ,mordecai1 the uncle of ,esther1 and ,ezekiel the prophet4 ,he took1 also1 all the vessels of gold which ,solomon made for the temple1 and the king's treasury1 and he set up ,mattaniah1 ,jehoiachin's uncle by his father's side1 whom he named ,zedekiah4 ,this prince continued faithful to ,nebuchadnezzar nine years3 being then weary of subjection1 he revolted1 and confederated with the neighbouring princes4 ,the king of ,babylon came into ,judea1 reduced the chief places of the country1 and besieged ,jerusalem3 but ,pharaoh-,hophra coming out of ,egypt to assist ,zedekiah1 ,nebuchadnezzar overcame him in battle1 and forced him to retire into his own country4 ,after this he returned to the siege of ,jerusalem1 and was three hundred and ninety days before the place before he could take it4 ,but in the eleventh year of ,zedekiah1 ,a4 ,m4 #cdaf1 the city was taken4 ,zedekiah attempted to escape1 but was taken and brought to ,nebuchadnezzar1 who was then at ,riblah in ,syria4 ,the king of ,babylon condemned him to die1 caused his children to be put to death in his presence1 and then bored out his eyes1 loaded him with chains1 and sent him to ,babylon4 ,three years after the ,jewish war ,nebuchadnezzar besieged the city of ,tyre1 which siege held thirteen years4 ,but during this interval1 he made war1 also1 on the ,sidonians1 ,moabites1 ,ammonites1 and ,idumeans2 and these he treated in nearly the same manner as the ,jews4 ,josephus says these wars happened five years after the destruction of ,jerusalem1 consequently in ,a4 ,m4 #cdba4 ,the city of ,tyre was taken in ,a4 ,m4 #cdcb4 ,ithobaal1 who was then king1 was put to death1 and ,baal succeeded him4 ,the ,lord1 as a reward to the army of ,nebuchadnezzar1 which had lain so long before ,tyre1 gave up to them ,egypt and its spoils4 ,nebuchadnezzar made an easy conquest of it1 because the ,egyptians were divided by civil wars among themselves3 he enriched himself with booty1 and returned in triumph to ,babylon1 with a great number of captives4 ,being now at peace1 he applied himself to the adorning1 aggrandizing1 and enriching of ,babylon with magnificent buildings4 ,to him some ascribe those famous gardens1 supported by arches1 reckoned among the wonders of the world2 and also the walls of ,babylon1 though many give the honour of this work to ,semiramis4 ,about this time ,nebuchadnezzar had a dream of a great tree1 loaded with fruit4 ,suddenly1 an angel descending from heaven1 commanded that the tree should be cut down1 but that the root should be preserved in the earth1 ,dan4 iv4 ,the king sent for all the diviners in the country1 but none could explain his dream1 till ,daniel1 by divine revelation1 showed that it represented his present greatness1 his signal approaching humiliation1 and his restoration to reason and dignity4 ,a year after1 as ,nebuchadnezzar was walking on his palace at ,babylon1 he began to say1 ,is not this great ,babylon1 which ,i have built for the house of the kingdom1 by the might of my power1 and for the honour of my majesty80 and scarcely had he pronounced these words1 when he fell into a distemper or distraction1 which so altered his imagination that he fled into the fields and assumed the manners of an ox4 ,after having been seven years in this state1 ,god opened his eyes1 his understanding was restored to him1 and he recovered his royal dignity4 ,nebuchadnezzar died1 ,a4 ,m4 #cddb1 after having reigned forty-three years4 ,megasthenes1 quoted by ,eusebius1 says1 that this prince having ascended to the top of his palace1 was there seized with a fit of divine enthusiasm1 and cried out1 ,o ,babylonians1 ,i declare to you a misfortune1 that neither our father ,belus1 nor ,queen ,baltis has been able to prevent4 ,a ,persian mule shall one day come into this country1 who1 supported by the power of your gods1 shall bring you into slavery4 ,he shall be assisted by the ,mede1 the glory of the ,assyrians40 ,this ,persian mule is ,cyrus1 whose mother was a ,mede1 and whose father was a ,persian4 ,the ,mede who assisted ,cyrus was ,cyaxares1 or ,darius the ,mede4 ,this story at least shows that the ,heathens had traditions of an extraordinary kind respecting this monarch1 and that the fate of ,babylon had been the subject of prophecy4 ,,nebuzar-,,adan1 a general of ,nebuchadnezzar's army1 and the chief officer of his household4 ,he managed the siege of ,jerusalem1 and made himself master of the city1 while his sovereign was at ,riblah in ,syria1 #b ,kings xxv2 ,jer4 xxxix2 xl2 lii4 ,,necessitarians4 ,the doctrine of necessity regards the origin of human actions1 and the specific mode of the divine government2 and it seems to be the immediate result of the materiality of man2 for mechanism is the undoubted consequence of materialism4 ,hence all materialists are of course necessitarians2 but it does not follow that all necessitarians are or must be materialists4 ,whatever is done by a cause or power that is irresistible1 is by necessity2 in which sense this term is opposed to freedom4 ,man is1 therefore1 a necessary agent1 if all his actions be so determined by the causes preceding each action1 that not one past action could possibly not have come to pass1 or have been otherwise than it hath been2 and not one future action can possibly not come to pass1 or be otherwise than it shall be4 ,but man is a free agent1 if he be able at any time1 in the circumstances in which he is placed1 to do different things2 or1 in other words1 if he be not unavoidably determined in every point of time by the circumstances he is in1 and the causes he is under1 to do that one thing he does1 and not possibly to do any other thing4 ,this abstruse subject has occasioned much controversy1 and has been debated by writers of the first eminence1 from ,hobbes and ,clarke1 to ,priestley and ,gregory4 ,the anti-necessitarians allege1 that the doctrine of necessity charges ,god as the author of sin2 that it takes away the freedom of the will2 renders man unaccountable to his ,maker2 makes sin to be no evil1 and morality or virtue to be no good2 and that it precludes the use of means1 and is of the most gloomy tendency4 ,the necessitarians1 on the other hand1 deny these to be legitimate consequences of their doctrine1 which they declare to be the most consistent mode of explaining the divine government2 and they observe1 that the ,deity acts no more immorally in decreeing vicious actions1 than in permitting all those irregularities which he could so easily have prevented4 ,all necessity1 say they1 doth not take away freedom4 ,the actions of a man may be at one and the same time both free and necessary4 ,thus1 it was infallibly certain that ,judas would betray ,christ1 yet he did it voluntarily2 ,jesus ,christ necessarily became man1 and died1 yet he acted freely4 ,a good man doth naturally and necessarily love his children1 yet voluntarily4 ,they insist that necessity doth not render actions less morally good2 for1 if necessary virtue be neither moral nor praiseworthy1 it will follow that ,god himself is not a moral being1 because he is a necessary one2 and the obedience of ,christ cannot be good1 because it was necessary4 ,farther1 say they1 necessity does not preclude the use of means2 for means are no less appointed than the end4 ,it was ordained that ,christ should be delivered up to death2 but he could not have been betrayed without a betrayer1 nor crucified without crucifiers4 ,that it is not a gloomy doctrine they allege1 because nothing can be more consolatory than to believe1 that all things are under the direction of an all-wise ,being1 that his kingdom ruleth over all1 and that he doeth all things well4 ,they also urge1 that to deny necessity1 is to deny the foreknowledge of ,god1 and to wrest the sceptre from the hand of the ,creator1 and to place that capricious and undefinable principle1 the self-determining power of man1 upon the throne of the universe4 ,in these statements there is obviously a confused use of terms in different meanings1 so as to mislead the unwary4 ,for instance3 necessity is confounded with certainty2 but an action may be certain1 though free2 that is to say1 certain to an omniscient ,being1 who knows how a free agent will finally resolve2 but this certainty is1 in fact1 a quality of the prescient ,being1 not that of the action1 to which1 however1 men delusively transfer it4 ,again3 ,god is called a necessary ,being1 which1 if it mean any thing1 signifies1 as to his moral acts1 that he can only act right4 ,but then this is a wrong application of the term necessity1 which properly implies such a constraint upon actions1 exercised ab extra1 as renders choice or will impossible4 ,but such necessity cannot exist as to the supreme ,being4 ,again3 the obedience of ,christ unto death was necessary1 that is to say1 unless he had died guilty man could not have been forgiven2 but this could not make the act of the ,jews who put him to death a necessary act1 that is to say1 a forced and constrained one2 nor did this necessity affect the act of ,christ himself1 who acted voluntarily1 and might have left man without salvation4 ,that the ,jews acted freely1 is evident from their being held liable to punishment1 although unconsciously they accomplished the great designs of ,heaven1 which1 however1 was no excuse for their crime4 ,finally3 as to the allegation1 that the doctrine of free agency puts man's self-determining power upon the throne of the universe1 that view proceeds upon notions unworthy of ,god1 as though he could not accomplish his plans without compelling and controlling all things by a fixed fate2 whereas it is both more glorious to him1 and certainly more in accordance with the ,scriptures1 to say that he has a perfect foresight of the manner in which all creatures will act1 and that he1 by a profound and infinite wisdom1 subordinates every thing without violence to the evolution and accomplishment of his own glorious purposes4 ,the doctrine of necessity is nearly connected with that of predestination1 which1 of late years1 has assumed a form very different from that which it formerly possessed2 for1 instead of being considered as a point to be determined almost entirely by the sacred writings1 it has1 in the hands of a number of able writers1 in a great measure resolved itself into a question of natural religion1 under the head of the philosophical liberty or necessity of the will2 or1 whether all human actions are1 or are not1 necessarily determined by motives arising from the character which ,god has impressed on our minds1 and the train of circumstances amidst which his providence has placed us8 ,the ,calvinistic doctrine of predestination is1 that ,god for his own glory1 hath foreordained whatsoever comes to pass40 ,the scheme of philosophical necessity1 as stated by the most celebrated necessitarian of the age1 is1 that every thing is predetermined by the divine ,being2 that whatever has been1 must have been2 and that whatever will be1 must be2 that all events are preordained by infinite wisdom and unlimited goodness2 that the will1 in all its determinations1 is governed by the state of mind2 that the state of mind is1 in every instance1 determined by the ,deity2 and that there is a continued chain of causes and effects1 of motives and actions1 inseparably connected1 and originating from the condition in which we are brought into existence by the ,author of our being40 ,on the other hand1 it is justly remarked1 that 8those who believe the being and perfections of ,god1 and a state of retribution1 in which he will reward and punish mankind according to the diversity of their actions1 will find it difficult to reconcile the justice of punishment with the necessity of crimes punished4 ,and they that believe all that the ,scripture says on the one hand1 of the eternity of future punishments1 and on the other1 of ,god's compassion to sinners1 and his solemn assurance that he desires not their death1 will find the difficulty greatly increased40 ,it is doubtless an article of the ,christian faith1 that ,god will reward or punish every man hereafter according to his actions in this life4 ,but we cannot maintain his justice in this particular1 if men's actions be necessary either in their own nature1 or by the divine decrees4 ,activity and self-determining powers are the foundation of all morality2 and to prove that such powers belong to man1 it is urged that we ourselves are conscious of possessing them4 ,we blame and condemn ourselves when we do amiss2 but guilt1 and inward sense of shame1 and remorse of conscience1 are feelings which are inconsistent with the scheme of necessity4 ,it is also agreed that some actions deserve praise1 and afford an inward satisfaction2 but for this1 there would be no foundation1 if we were invincibly determined in every volition3 so that approbation and blame are consequent on free actions only4 ,nor is the matter at all relieved by bringing in a chain of circumstances as motives necessarily to determine the will4 ,this comes to the same result in sound argument1 as though there was an immediate coction of omnipotent power compelling one kind of volitions only2 which is utterly irreconcilable to all just notions of the nature and operations of will1 and to all accountability4 ,necessity1 in the sense of irresistible control1 and the doctrine of ,scripture1 cannot coxist4 ,,necromancy1 1 is the art of raising up the ghosts of deceased persons1 to get information from them concerning future events4 ,this practice1 no doubt1 the ,israelites brought with them from ,egypt1 which affected to be the mother of such occult sciences2 and from thence it spread into the neighbouring countries1 and soon infected all the east4 ,the injunction of the law is very express against this vice2 and the punishment to be inflicted on the practisers of it was stoning to death1 ,lev4 xx1 #bg4 ,what forms of enchantment were used in the practice of necromancy we are at a loss to know1 because we read of none that the pythoness of ,endor employed2 however1 that there were several rites1 spells1 and invocations used upon these occasions1 we may learn from almost every ancient author1 but from none more particularly than from ,lucan in his ,pharsalia4 ,whether the art of conversing with the dead was mere imposture1 or grounded upon diabolical agency1 is a question which has been disputed in all ages4 ,,nehemiah professes himself the author of the book which bears his name1 in the very beginning of it1 and he uniformly writes in the first person4 ,he was of the tribe of ,judah1 and was probably born at ,babylon during the captivity4 ,he was so distinguished for his family and attainments1 as to be selected for the office of cup bearer to the king of ,persia1 a situation of great honour and emolument4 ,he was made governor of ,judea1 upon his own application1 by ,artaxerxes ,longimanus2 and his book1 which in the ,hebrew canon was joined to that of ,ezra1 gives an account of his appointment and administration through a space of about thirty-six years to ,a4 ,m4 #ceie1 at which time the ,scripture history closes2 and1 consequently1 the historical books1 from ,joshua to ,nehemiah inclusive1 contain the history of the ,jewish people from the death of ,moses1 ,a4 ,m4 #beec1 to the reformation established by ,nehemiah1 after the return from captivity1 being a period of one thousand and forty-two years4 ,,neology4 ,this term1 which signifies new doctrine1 has been used to designate a species of theology and ,biblical criticism which has of late years much prevailed among the ,protestant divines of ,germany1 and the professors of their universities4 ,it is now1 however1 more frequently termed rationalism1 and is supposed to occupy a sort of middle place between the orthodox system and pure deism4 ,the ,german divines themselves speak of naturalism1 rationalism1 and supernaturalism4 ,the term naturalism arose first in the sixteenth century1 and was spread in the seventeenth4 ,it was understood to be the system of those who allowed no other knowledge of religion than the natural1 which man could shape out by his own strength1 and1 consequently1 excluded all supernatural revelation4 ,as to the different forms of naturalism1 theologians say there are three3 the first1 which they call ,pelagianism1 and which considers human dispositions and notions as perfectly pure1 and the religious knowledge derived from them as sufficiently explicit4 ,a grosser kind denies all particular revelation2 and the grossest of all considers the world as ,god4 ,rationalism has been thus explained3 ,those who are generally termed rationalists10 says ,dr4 ,bretschneider1 admit universally in ,christianity1 a divine1 benevolent1 and positive appointment for the good of mankind1 and ,jesus as a messenger of ,divine ,providence1 believing that the true and everlasting word of ,god is contained in the ,holy ,scripture1 and that by the same the welfare of mankind will be obtained and extended4 ,but they deny therein a supernatural and miraculous working of ,god1 and consider the object of ,christianity to be that of introducing into the world such a religion as reason can comprehend2 and they distinguish the essential from the unessential1 and what is local and temporary from that which is universal and permanent in ,christianity40 ,there is1 however1 a third class of divines who in fact differ very little from this1 though very widely in profession4 ,they affect to allow a revealing operation of ,god1 but establish on internal proofs rather than on miracles the divine nature of ,christianity4 ,they allow that revelation may contain much out of the power of reason to explain1 but say that it should assert nothing contrary to reason1 but rather what may be proved by it4 ,supernaturalism consists in general in the conviction that ,god has revealed himself supernaturally and immediately4 ,the notion of a miracle cannot well be separated from such a revelation1 whether it happens out of1 on1 or in men4 ,what is revealed may belong to the order of nature1 but an order higher and unknown to us1 which we could never have known without miracles1 and cannot bring under the laws of nature4 ,the difference between the naturalists and the rationalists1 as ,mr4 ,rose justly remarks1 is not quite so wide either as it would appear to be at first sight1 or as one of them assuredly wishes it to appear4 ,for if ,i receive a system1 be it of religion1 of morals1 or of politics1 only so far as it approves itself to my reason1 whatever be the authority that presents it to me1 it is idle to say that ,i receive the system out of any respect to that authority4 ,i receive it only because my reason approves it2 and ,i should1 of course1 do so if an authority of far inferior value were to present the system to me4 ,this is what that division of rationalists1 which professes to receive ,christianity1 and at the same time to make reason the supreme arbiter in matters of faith1 has done4 ,their system1 in a word1 is this3 ,they assume certain general principles1 which they maintain to be the necessary deductions of reason from an extended and unprejudiced contemplation of the natural and moral order of things1 and to be in themselves immutable and universal4 ,consequently1 any thing which1 on however good authority1 may be advanced in apparent opposition to them must either be rejected as unworthy of rational belief1 or1 at least1 explained away till it is made to accord with the assumed principles2 and the truth or falsehood of all doctrines proposed is to be decided according to their agreement or disagreement with those principles4 ,it is easy1 then1 to anticipate how1 with such principles1 the ,biblical critics of ,germany1 distinguished as many of them have been for learning1 would proceed to interpret the ,scriptures4 ,many of the sacred books and parts of others have1 of course1 been rejected by them as spurious1 the strongest external evidence being thought by them insufficient to prove the truth of what was determined to be contradictory to their reason2 and the inspiration of the rest was understood in no higher a sense1 to use the language of one of their professors1 than the expressions of ,cicero as to the inspiration of the poets1 or those of ,quintilian respecting ,plato4 ,it would be disgusting1 says ,rose1 to go through all the strange fancies which were set afloat1 and which tended only to set ,scripture on the same footing as an ingenious but improbable romance4 ,they all proceeded from the determination that whatever was not intelligible was incredible1 that only what was of familiar and easy explanation deserved belief1 and that all which was miraculous and mysterious in ,scripture must be rejected2 and they rested perpetually on notions and reasonings which were in themselves miracles of incredibility4 ,but there were many of the ,german divines of this rationalist period who went much farther1 and who imputed a deception to our ,lord and his disciples1 not for evil but for good purposes4 ,in reading or in hearing of these wretched productions1 the mind is divided between disgust at folly1 and indignation at wickedness4 ,what can be said for the heart which could suppose that the founders of ,christianity could have taught the sublime and holy doctrines of the ,gospel with a lie in their hearts and on their lips8 or for the intellect which could believe that ambitious and designing men would encounter years of poverty1 and shame1 and danger1 with no prospect but that of an ignominious death8 ,but where the supernatural and miraculous accounts were not rejected1 they were1 by many of the most eminent of these writers1 explained away by a monstrous ingenuity1 which1 on any other subject1 and applied to any ancient classic or other writer1 would provoke the most contemptuous ridicule4 ,when ,korah1 ,dathan1 and ,abiram were swallowed up1 ,moses had previously secretly undermined the earth40 ,jacob wrestled with the angel in a dream20 and a rheumatic pain in his thigh during sleep suggested the incident in his dream of the angel touching the sinew of his thigh4 ,professor ,paulus gravely explains the miracle of the tribute money thus3 ,that ,christ only meant to give a moral lesson1 that is1 that we are not1 if we can avoid it by trifling sacrifices1 to give offence to our brethren2 that he probably reasoned thus with ,st4 ,peter3 ,though there is no real occasion for us to pay the tribute1 yet1 as we may be reckoned as enemies of the temple1 and not attended to when we wish to teach what is good1 why should not you who are a fisherman10 a remark which might very properly be made at a place where ,st4 ,peter had been engaged in a fishery for two years1 8and can easily do it1 go and get enough to pay the demand8 ,go1 then1 to the sea1 cast your hook1 and take up 1 the first and best fish40 ,st4 ,peter was not to stay longer at his work this time than to gain the required money3 often refers not to number but to time2 and may undoubtedly be taken as a collective4 ,st4 ,peter must either have caught so many fish as would be reckoned worth a stater at ,capernaum1 7so near to a sea rich in fish17 or one so large and fine as would have been valued at that sum4 ,as it was uncertain whether one or more would be necessary1 the expression is indefinite1 2 the fish first coming up2 but it would not be ambiguous to ,st4 ,peter1 as the necessity and the event would give it a fixed meaning4 4 ,opening the mouth4 ,this opening of the mouth might have different objects1 which must be fixed by the context4 ,if the fisherman opens the mouth of a fish caught with a hook1 he does it first to release him from the hook2 for if he hangs long he is less saleable3 he soon decays4 ,the circumstantiality in the account is picturesque4 ,take the hook out his mouth60 is used in ,greek in a more extended sense than the ,german finden1 as in ,xenophon1 where it is to get by selling40 ,when such a word is used of saleable articles1 like fish1 and in a connection which requires the getting a piece of money1 it is clear that getting by sale and not by finding is referred to4 8,and this from a professor's chair60 ,in like manner the miracle of feeding the five thousand in the desert is resolved into the opportune passing by of a caravan with provisions1 of which the hungry multitude were allowed to partake1 according to eastern hospitality2 and the ,apostles were merely employed in conveying it out in baskets4 ,christ's walking upon the sea is explained by his walking upon the sea shore1 and ,st4 ,peter's walking on the sea is resolved into swimming4 ,the miracles of healing were the effect of fancy operating favourably upon the disorders2 and ,ananias and ,sapphira died of a fright2 with many other absurdities1 half dreams and half blasphemies2 and of which the above are given but as a specimen4 ,the first step in this sorrowful gradation down to a depth of falsehood and blasphemy1 into which certainly no body of ,christian ministers1 so large1 so learned1 and influential1 in any age or period of the church ever before fell1 was1 contempt for the authority of the divines of the ,reformation1 and of the subsequent age4 ,they were about to set out on a voyage of discovery2 and it was necessary to assume that truth still inhabited some terra incognita1 unknown region1 to which neither ,luther1 ,melancthon1 nor their early disciples1 had ever found access4 ,one of this school is pleased1 indeed1 to denominate the whole even of the seventeenth and the first half of the eighteenth century1 the age of theological barbarism2 an age1 notwithstanding1 which produced in the ,lutheran church alone ,calovius1 ,schmidt1 ,hackspan1 ,walther1 ,glass1 and the ,carpzoffs1 and others1 as many and as great writers as any church can boast in an equal space of time2 writers whose works are1 or ought to be1 in the hands of the theological student4 ,the general statements of the innovators amount to this1 that the divines of the age of which we speak had neither the inclination nor the power to do any thing but fortify their own systems1 which were dogmatical1 and not to search out truth for themselves from ,scripture2 that theology1 as a science1 was left from the epoch of the ,reformation as it had been received from the schoolmen2 that the interpretation of the ,bible was made the slave1 not the mistress1 of dogmatical theology1 as it ought to be4 ,the vain conceit that the doctrines of religion were capable of philosophic demonstration1 which obtained among the followers of ,wolf1 is considered by ,mr4 ,rose as having hastened onward the progress of error4 ,we find some of them not content with applying demonstration to the truth of the system1 but endeavouring to establish each separate dogma1 the ,trinity1 the nature of the ,redeemer1 the incarnation1 the eternity of punishment1 on philosophical and1 strange as it may appear1 some of these truths on mathematical1 grounds4 ,we have had instances of this in our own country2 and the reason why they have done little injury is1 that none of those who thus presumed1 whether learned or half learned1 had success enough to form a school4 ,so far as such a theory does obtain influence1 it must necessarily be mischievous4 ,the first authors may hold the mysteries of ,christianity sacred2 they may fancy that they can render faith in them more easy by affecting demonstrative evidence1 which1 indeed1 were the subjects capable of it1 would render faith unnecessary2 but they are equally guilty of a vain presumption in their own powers1 and of a want of real reverence to ,god1 and to his revelation4 ,with them1 this boast of demonstration generally ends in the rejection of some truth1 or the adoption of some positive error2 while their followers fail not to bound over the limits at which they have stopped4 ,the fallacy of the whole lies in assuming that divine things are on the same level with those which the human mind can grasp1 and may therefore be compared with them4 ,one of these consequences must therefore follow3 either that the mind is exalted above its own sphere1 or that divine things are brought down below theirs4 ,in the former case1 a dogmatical pride is the result2 in the latter1 the scheme of revelation is stripped of its divinity1 and sinks gradually into a system of human philosophy1 with the empty name of a revelation still appended to it to save appearances4 ,what can bear the test of the philosophical standard is retained1 and what cannot be thus proved is1 by degrees1 rejected2 so that the ,scripture is no longer the ground of religious truth2 but a sort of witness to be compelled to assent to any conclusions at which this philosophy may arrive4 ,the effect in ,germany was speedily developed1 though ,wolf1 the founder of this school1 and most of his followers1 were pious and faithful ,christians4 ,by carrying demonstrative evidence beyond its own province1 they had nurtured in their followers a vain confidence in human reason2 and the next and still more fatal step was1 that it was the province of human reason in an enlightened and intellectual age to perfect ,christianity1 which1 it was contended1 had hitherto existed in a low and degraded state1 and to perfect that system of which the elements only were contained in the ,scripture4 ,all restraint was broken by this principle4 ,philosophy1 good and bad1 was left to build up these elements0 according to its own views2 and as1 after all1 many of these elements were found to be too untractable and too rudely shaped to accord with the plans of these manifold constructions1 formed according to every pattern10 except that in the mount20 when the stone could not be squared and framed by any art which these builders possessed1 it was rejected10 even to the head stone of the corner40 ,semler appears to have been the author of that famous theory of accommodation1 which1 in the hands of his followers1 says ,mr4 ,rose1 became the most formidable weapon ever devised for the destruction of ,christianity40 ,as far as ,germany is concerned1 this language is not too strong2 and we may add1 that it was the most impudent theory ever advocated by men professing still to be ,christians1 and one1 the avowal of which can scarcely be accounted for1 except on the ground1 that as1 because of their interests1 it was not convenient for these teachers of theology and ministers of the ,german churches to disavow ,christianity altogether2 it was devised and maintained1 in order to connect the profits of the ,christian profession with substantial and almost undisguised deism4 ,this theory was1 that we are not to take all the declarations of ,scripture as addressed to us2 but to consider them as1 in many points1 purposely adapted to the feelings and dispositions of the age when they originated2 but by no means to be received by another and more enlightened period2 that1 in fact1 ,jesus himself and his ,apostles had accommodated themselves in their doctrines to the barbarism1 ignorance1 and prejudices of the ,jews2 and that it was therefore our duty to reject the whole of this temporary part of ,christianity1 and retain only what is substantial and eternal4 ,in plain words they assumed1 as the very basis of their ,scriptural interpretations1 the blasphemous principle1 that our ,lord and his ,apostles taught1 or1 at least1 connived at doctrines absolutely false1 rather than they would consent to shock the prejudices of their hearers6 ,this principle is shown at length by ,mr4 ,rose1 to run through the whole maze of error into which this body of ,protestant divines themselves wandered1 and led their flocks4 ,thus the chairs of theology and the very pulpits were turned into the seats of the scornful20 and where doctrines were at all preached1 they were too frequently of this daring and infidel character4 ,it became even1 at least1 a negative good1 that the sermons delivered were often discourses on the best modes of cultivating corn and wine1 and the preachers employed the ,sabbath and the church in instructing their flocks how to choose the best kinds of potatoes1 or to enforce upon them the benefits of vaccination4 ,undisguised infidelity has in no country treated the grand evidences of the truth of ,christianity with greater contumely1 or been more offensive in its attacks upon the prophets1 or more ridiculous in its attempts to account1 on natural principles1 for the miracles4 ,extremes of every kind were produced1 philosophic mysticism1 pantheism1 and atheism4 ,we have hitherto referred chiefly to ,mr4 ,rose's work on this awful declension in the ,lutheran and other continental churches4 ,in a work on the same subject by ,mr4 ,pusey1 the stages of the apostasy are more carefully marked1 and more copiously and deeply investigated4 ,our limits will1 however1 but allow us to advert to two or three points4 ,in ,mr4 ,pusey's account of the state of ,german theology in the seventeenth century1 he opens to us the sources of the evil4 ,francke1 he observes1 assigns as a reason for attaching the more value to the opportunities provided at ,halle for the study of ,scripture1 that 8in former times1 and in those which are scarcely past1 one generally found at universities opportunities for every thing rather than a solid study of ,god's word40 ,in all my university years10 says ,knapp1 ,i was not happy enough to hear a lecture upon the whole of ,scripture2 we should have regarded it as a great blessing which came down from heaven40 ,it is said to be one only of many instances1 that at ,leipzig1 ,carpzoff1 having in his lectures for one half year completed the first chapter of ,isaiah1 did not again lecture on the ,bible for twenty years1 while ,olearius suspended his for ten4 ,yet ,olearius1 as well as ,alberti1 ,spener says1 were diligent theologians1 but that most pains were employed on doctrinal theology and controversy40 ,it is1 moreover1 a painful speaking fact1 which is mentioned by ,francke1 7#agji17 that in ,leipzig1 the great mart of literature as well as of trade1 8twenty years ago1 in no bookseller's shop was either ,bible or ,testament to be found40 ,of the passages in ,francke1 which prove the same state of things1 ,i will select one or two only3 ,youth are sent to the universities with a moderate knowledge of ,latin2 but of ,greek1 and especially of ,hebrew next to none4 ,and it would even then have been well1 if what had been neglected before had been made up in the universities4 ,there1 however1 most are borne1 as by a torrent1 with the multitude2 they flock to logical1 metaphysical1 ethical1 polemical1 physical1 pneumatical lectures1 and what not2 treating least of all those things whose benefit is most permanent in their future office1 especially deferring1 and at last neglecting1 the study of the sacred languages40 8,to this is added1 that1 they comfort themselves1 that in examinations for orders these things are not generally much attended to4 ,hence most who are anxious about a maintenance1 hurry to those things which may hasten their promotion1 attend above all things a lecture on the art of preaching1 and if they can remain so long at the university1 one on doctrinal theology1 7would that all were anxious about a salutary knowledge of the sacred doctrines17 and having committed these things to paper and memory1 return home1 as if excellently armed against ,satan1 are examined1 preach1 are promoted1 provide for their families40 ,and having spoken farther on the superficial knowledge1 pedantry1 and other faults of those few who acquired knowledge of these subjects1 he sums up3 ,as the vernacular ,scriptures are ordinarily neglected or ill employed by the illiterate1 so are the original by the lettered3 whence there cannot but arise either ignorance in matters of faith1 or an unfruitful and vain knowledge2 a pleasurable fancy is substituted for the substance of the faith2 impiety daily increases4 ,in a word1 from the neglect of ,scripture all impiety is derived2 and so again from the impiety or unbelief of men1 there is derived a contempt of ,scripture1 or at all events an abuse1 and an absurd and perverted employment of it3 and hence follows either a neglect of the original languages1 or a senseless method1 or an unfitting employment of them2 which evils1 since they are continued from the teachers to the disciples1 the corrupted state of the schools and universities continually increases3 and these we cannot remedy1 unless we can prevail upon ourselves to make the word of ,god our first object1 to look for ,christ in it1 and to embrace him1 when found1 with genuine faith1 and perseveringly to follow him40 ,pfaff thus describes the previous state of doctrinal theology3 ,all the compendia of holy doctrines1 which have hitherto appeared1 are of such a character1 that1 though their excellence has been hitherto extolled by the common praise of our countrymen1 and they still enjoy considerable reputation1 7su utique luce niteat17 they can even on this ground not be satisfactory to our age1--that since one system was extracted and worked out of the other1 with a very few variations1 they dwell uniformly on the same string2 and that metaphysical clang of causes1 which sounds somewhat harshly and unpleasantly to well cultivated ears1 constantly reverberates in them1 the same terms uniformly recurring in all4 ,to this is added1 that a certain coldness appears to prevail in the common mode of treating these subjects1 especially in the practical topics of theology2 these being set forth as theoretical propositions1 so that scarcely any life or any religious influence finds its way into the minds of readers2 and the edification of mind1 7though it should be the principal object in sacred theology17 derived from them is very slight4 ,nor does it appear less a subject of blame1 that various theological 1 and those the very chief1 are here altogether omitted2 that every thing is choked with the thorns of scholasticism2 and that divine truths are often made secondary to the zeal for authority3 nor is there sufficient reference to the language of the symbolical books1 to the promotion of the peace of the church1 to the exhibition of what is of real importance in controverted points1 and of the unreality of the mere logomachies1 with which all theology abounds2 nor again1 to destroy theological pedantry and a sectarian spirit1 or to treat the subjects themselves in a style becoming to them3 but most of all1 sufficient pains are not bestowed upon that which is of chief importance1 the building up the kingdom of ,god in the hearts of men1 and the influencing their hearts more thoroughly with vivid conceptions of true ,christianity40 ,yet these were but effects of a still higher cause1--the rapid decay of piety in this century1 of which the statements of ,mr4 ,pusey1 and the authorities he quotes1 present a melancholy picture4 ,speaking of ,j4 ,v4 ,andrea1 he says1 the want of practical religious instruction in the early schools1 the perverted state of all education1 the extravagance and dissoluteness of the universities1 the total unfitness of the teachers whom they sent forth and authorized1 the degraded state of general as well as of theological science1 the interested motives for entering into holy orders1 the canvassing for benefices1 the simony in obtaining them1 the especial neglect of the poorer1 the bad lives1 the carelessness and bitter controversies of the preachers1 and the general corruption of manners in all ranks1 are again and again the subjects of his deep regrets or of his censure4 8,after the evangelic church10 he says1 in an energetic comparison of the evils which reigned in the beginning of this period with those which had occasioned the yoke of ,rome to be broken1 8after the evangelic church had thrown off the yoke of human inventions1 they should have bowed their neck under the easy yoke of the ,lord4 ,but now one set of human inventions are but exchanged for another1 equally1 or indeed very little1 human2 and these are called the word of ,god1 though in reality things are nothing milder than before4 ,idols were cast out1 but the idols of sins are worshipped4 ,the primacy of the pope is denied1 but we constitute lesser popes4 ,the bishops are abrogated1 but ministers are still introduced or cast out at will2 simony came into ill repute1 but who now rejects a hand laden with gold8 the monks were reproached for indolence1--as if there were too much study at our universities2 the monasteries were dissolved1--to stand empty1 or to be stalls for cattle2 the regularly recurring prayers are abolished1 yet so that now most pray not at all2 the public fasts were laid aside1 now the command of ,christ is held to be but useless words2 not to say any thing of blasphemers1 adulterers1 extortioners10 c4 ,after many testimonies of a similar and even stronger kind from other pious divines1 who lifted up their voice strongly but almost ineffectually against the growing corruption of the universities1 the clergy1 and the people1 ,mr4 ,pusey adds the following passages from ,francke3 8,the works of the flesh are done openly and unrestrainedly1 with so little shame1 that one who does not approve of many things not consistent with the truth which is in ,jesus1 would almost be enrolled among heretics4 ,ambition1 pride1 love of pleasure1 luxury1 impurity1 wantonness1 and all the crop of foulest wickednesses which spring from these2 injustice also1 avarice1 and a species of rivalry among all vices every where sensibly increases1 atheism joining itself with epicurism and libertinism4 ,thus while ,christ is held to1 while orthodoxy is presented as a shield1 all imitation of ,christ1 all anxiety for true and spiritual holiness1 8without which no one shall see the ,lord10 nay1 all the decorum befitting a ,christian1 is banished1 is exterminated1 that it may not disturb the societies of perverse men40 ,into the state of the clergy he enters more fully in another work4 ,i remember10 he says1 8that a theologian of no common learning1 piety1 and practical knowledge1 1 told me1 that a certain monarch1 at his suggestion1 applied to a university1 where there was a large concourse of students of theology1 for two candidates for holy orders1 who1 by the excellence and purity of their doctrine1 and by holiness of life1 might serve as an example to the congregation committed to their charge2 the professors candidly answered that there was no such student of theology among them4 ,nor is this surprising4 ,i remember that ,kortholt used to say with pain1 that in the disgraceful strifes1 disturbances1 and tumults in the universities1 which were1 alas1 but too frequent1 it scarcely ever happened that theological students were not found to be accomplices1 nay1 the chiefs4 ,i remember that another theologian often lamented1 that there was such a dearth in the church of such persons as the ,apostle would alone think worthy of the ministerial functions1 that it was to be regarded as a happiness if1 of many applicants1 some one of outwardly decent life could at length be found40 ,with several happy exceptions1 and the raising up of a few pious people in some places1 and a partial revival of evangelical doctrines1 which1 however1 often ran at length into mysticism and antinomianism1 the evil1 both doctrinally and morally1 continued to increase to our own day2 for if any ask what has been the moral effect of the appalling apostasy of the teachers of religion1 above described1 upon the people of ,germany1 the answer may be given from one of these rationalizing divines themselves1 whose statement is not therefore likely to be too highly coloured4 ,it is from a pamphlet of ,bretschneider1 published in #ahbb1 and the substance is1 ,indifference to religion among all classes2 that formerly the ,bible used to be in every house1 but now the people either do not possess it1 or1 as formerly1 read it2 that few attend the churches1 which are now too large1 though fifty years ago they were too small2 that few honour the ,sabbath2 that there are now few students of theology1 compared with those in law and medicine2 that if things go on so1 there will shortly not be persons to supply the various ecclesiastical offices2 that preaching had fallen into contempt2 and that distrust and suspicion of the doctrines of ,christianity prevailed among all classes40 ,melancholy as this picture is1 nothing in it can surprise any one1 except that the very persons who have created the evil should themselves be astonished at its existence1 or even affect to be so4 ,but the mercy of ,god has begun to answer the prayers of the few faithful who are left as the gleanings of grapes after the vintage2 and to revive1 in some active1 learned1 and influential men1 the spirit of primitive faith and zeal4 ,the effect of the exertions of these excellent men1 both from the professor's chair1 the pulpit1 and the press1 has been considerable2 and it is remarked by ,mr4 ,rose1 that no small degree of disgust at the past follies of the rationalists prevails2 that the cold and comfortless nature of their system has been perceived2 that a party of truly ,christian views has arisen2 and that there is a disposition alike in the people1 the better part of the divines1 and the philosophers1 to return to that revealed religion which alone can give them comfort and peace4 ,it is equally clear that some at least of the governments perceive the dangerous tendency of the rationalist opinions1 and that they are sincerely desirous of promoting a better state of religious feeling4 ,we close this article with the excellent remarks of ,dr4 ,tittman of ,dresden1 on the neological interpreters3 ,what is the interpretation of the ,scriptures1 if it relies not on words1 but things1 not on the assistance of languages1 but on the decrees of reason that is1 of modern philosophy8 ,what is all religion1 what the knowledge of divine things1 what are faith and hope placed in ,christ1 what is all ,christianity1 if human reason and philosophy is the only fountain of divine wisdom1 and the supreme judge in the matter of religion8 ,what is the doctrine of ,christ and the ,apostles more than some philosophical system8 ,but what1 then1 ,i pray you1 is1 to deny1 to blaspheme ,jesus the ,lord1 to render his divine mission doubtful1 nay vain and useless1 to impugn his doctrine1 to disfigure it shamefully1 to attack it1 to expose it to ridicule1 and1 if possible1 to suppress it1 to remove all ,christianity out of religion1 and to bound religion within the narrow limits of reason alone1 to deride miracles1 and hold them up to derision1 to accuse them as vain1 to bring them into disrepute1 to torture sacred ,scripture into seeming agreement with the fancies of human wisdom1 to alloy it with human conjectures1 to bring it into contempt1 and to break down its divine authority1 to undermine1 to shake1 to overthrow utterly the foundations of ,christian faith8 ,what else can be the event than this1 as all history1 a most weighty witness in this matter1 informs us1 namely1 that when sacred ,scripture1 its grammatical interpretation and a sound knowledge of languages are1 as it were1 despised and banished1 all religion should be contemned1 shaken1 corrupted1 troubled1 undermined1 utterly overturned1 and should be entirely removed and reduced to natural religion2 or that it should end in a mystical theology1 than which nothing was ever more pernicious to the ,christian doctrine1 and be converted into an empty 1 or even into a poetical system1 hiding every thing in figures and fictions1 to which latter system not a few of the sacred orators and theologians of our time seem chiefly inclined40 ,,neomenia1 1 new moon1 ,col4 ii1 #af1 a ,greek word1 signifying the first day of the moon or month4 ,the ,hebrews had a particular veneration for the first day of every month2 and ,moses appointed peculiar sacrifices for the day1 ,num4 xxviii1 #aa1 #ab2 but he gave no orders that it should be kept as a holy day1 nor can it be proved that the ancients observed it so3 it was a festival of merely voluntary devotion4 ,it appears that even from the time of ,saul they made1 on this day1 a sort of family entertainment1 since ,david ought then to have been at the king's table2 and ,saul took his absence amiss1 #a ,sam4 xx1 #e1 #ah4 ,moses insinuates that1 beside the national sacrifices then regularly offered1 every private person had his particular sacrifices of devotion1 ,num4 x1 #aj4 ,the beginning of the month was proclaimed by sound of trumpet1 at the offering of the solemn sacrifices4 ,but the most celebrated neomenia was that at the beginning of the civil year1 or first day of the month ,tizri1 ,lev4 xxiii1 #bd4 ,this was a sacred day1 on which no servile labour was performed2 on this they offered public or national burnt-sacrifices1 and sounded the trumpets in the temple4 ,in the kingdom of the ten tribes1 the serious among the people used to assemble at the houses of the prophets1 to hear their instructions4 ,the ,shunamite1 who entertained ,elisha1 proposing to visit that prophet1 her husband said to her1 ,why do you go to-day1 since it is neither ,sabbath nor new moon80 #b ,kings iv1 #bc4 ,isaiah declares that the ,lord abhors the new moons1 the ,sabbaths1 and other days of festival and assembly of those ,jews who in other things neglected his laws1 ,isaiah i1 #ac1 #ad4 ,ezekiel says that the burnt-offerings offered on the day of the new moon were provided at the king's expense1 and that on this day was to be opened the eastern gate of the court of the priests1 ,ezek4 xiv1 #ag2 xlvi1 #a1 #b2 #a ,chron4 xxiii1 #ca2 #b ,chron4 viii1 #ac4 ,judith kept no fast on festival days1 or on the new moon1 ,judith viii1 #f4 ,the modern ,jews keep the neomenia only as a feast of devotion1 to be observed or not at pleasure4 ,they think it rather belongs to the women than to the men4 ,the women forbear work1 and indulge a little more on this day than on others4 ,in the prayers of the synagogue1 they read from ,psalm cxiii1 to cxviii4 ,they bring forth the roll of the law1 and read therein to four persons4 ,they call to remembrance the sacrifice that on this day used to be offered in the temple4 ,on the evening of the ,sabbath which follows the new moon1 or some other evening following1 when the new moon first appears1 they assemble and pray to ,god1 as the ,creator of the planets1 and the restorer of the new moon2 raising themselves toward heaven1 they entreat of ,god to be preserved from misfortune2 then1 after mentioning ,david1 they salute each other1 and separate4 ,see ,,moon4 ,,neonomianism1 so called from the ,greek 1 new1 and 1 law4 ,this is not the appellation of a separate sect1 but of those both among ,arminians and ,calvinists who regard ,christianity as a new law1 mitigated in its requisitions for the sake of ,christ4 ,this opinion has many modifications1 and has been held by persons very greatly differing from each other in the consequences to which they carry it1 and in the principles from which they deduce it4 ,one opinion is1 that the new covenant of grace which1 through the medium of ,christ's death1 the ,father made with men1 consists1 according to this system1 not in our being justified by faith1 as it apprehends the righteousness of ,christ2 but in this1 that ,god1 abrogating the exaction of perfect legal obedience1 reputes or accepts of faith itself1 and the imperfect obedience of faith1 instead of the perfect obedience of the law1 and graciously accounts them worthy of the reward of eternal life4 ,toward the close of the seventeenth century1 a controversy was agitated among the ,english ,dissenters1 in which the one side1 who were partial to the writings of ,dr4 ,crisp1 were charged with antinomianism1 and the other1 who favoured those of ,mr4 ,baxter1 were accused of neonomianism4 ,dr4 ,daniel ,williams was a principal writer on what was called the neonomian side4 ,the following objection1 among others1 was made by several ministers in #afib1 against ,dr4 ,williams's ,gospel ,truth ,stated10 c3 8,to supply the room of the moral law1 vacated by him1 he turns the ,gospel into a new law1 in keeping of which we shall be justified for the sake of ,christ's righteousness1 making qualifications and acts of ours a disposing subordinate righteousness1 whereby we become capable of being justified by ,christ's righteousness40 ,to this1 among other things1 he answers3 8,the difference is not1 #a4 ,whether the ,gospel be a new law in the ,socinian1 popish1 or ,arminian sense4 ,this ,i deny4 ,nor1 #b4 ,is faith1 or any other grace or acts of ours1 any atonement for sin1 satisfaction to justice1 meriting qualification1 or any part of that righteousness for which we are justified at ,god our ,creator's bar4 ,this ,i deny in places innumerable4 ,nor1 #c4 ,whether the ,gospel be a law more new than is implied in the first promise to fallen ,adam1 proposed to ,cain1 and obeyed by ,abel1 to the differencing him from his unbelieving brother4 ,this ,i deny4 #d4 ,nor whether the ,gospel be a law that allows sin1 when it accepts such graces as true1 though short of perfection1 to be the conditions of our personal interest in the benefits purchased by ,christ4 ,this ,i deny4 #e4 ,nor whether the ,gospel be a law1 the promises whereof entitle the performers of its conditions to the benefits as of debt4 ,this ,i deny4 ,the difference is1 #a4 ,is the ,gospel a law in this sense2 namely1 ,god in ,christ thereby commandeth sinners to repent of sin1 and receive ,christ by a true operative faith1 promising that thereupon they shall be united to him1 justified by his righteousness1 pardoned1 and adopted2 and that1 persevering in faith and true holiness1 they shall be finally saved2 also threatening that if any shall die impenitent1 unbelieving1 ungodly1 rejecters of his grace1 they shall perish without relief1 and endure sorer punishments than if these offers had not been made to them8 #b4 ,hath the ,gospel a sanction1 that is1 doth ,christ therein enforce his commands of faith1 repentance1 and perseverance1 by the foresaid promises and threatenings1 as motives to our obedience8 ,both these ,i affirm1 and they deny2 saying1 the ,gospel in the largest sense is an absolute promise without precepts and conditions1 and a ,gospel threat is a bull4 #c4 ,do the ,gospel promises of benefits to certain graces1 and its threats that those benefits shall be withheld1 and the contrary evils inflicted for the neglect of such graces1 render these graces the condition of our personal title to those benefits8 ,this they deny1 and ,i affirm10 c4 ,it does not appear to have been a question in this controversy1 whether ,god in his word commands sinners to repent1 and believe in ,christ1 nor whether he promises life to believers1 and threatens death to unbelievers2 but whether it be the ,gospel under the form of a new law that thus commands or threatens1 or the moral law on its behalf1 and whether its promises to believing render such believing a condition of the things promised4 ,in another controversy1 however1 which arose about forty years afterward among the same people1 it became a question whether ,god did by his word1 call it law or ,gospel1 command unregenerate sinners to repent and believe in ,christ1 or do any thing also1 which is spiritually good4 ,of those who took the affirmative side of this question1 one party maintained it on the ground of the ,gospel being a new law1 consisting of commands1 promises1 and threatenings1 the terms or conditions of which were repentance1 faith1 and sincere obedience4 ,but those who first engaged in the controversy1 though they allowed the encouragement to repent and believe to arise merely from the grace of the ,gospel1 yet considered the formal obligation to do so as arising merely from the moral law1 which1 requiring supreme love to ,god1 requires acquiescence in any revelation which he shall at any time make known4 ,,nero4 ,the ,emperor ,nero is not named in ,scripture2 but he is indicated by his title of emperor1 and by his surname ,csar4 ,to him ,st4 ,paul appealed after his imprisonment by ,felix1 and his examination by ,festus1 who was swayed by the ,jews4 ,st4 ,paul was therefore carried to ,rome1 where he arrived ,a4 ,d4 #fa4 ,here he continued two years1 preaching the ,gospel with freedom1 till he became famous even in the emperor's court1 in which were many ,christians2 for he salutes the ,philippians in the name of the brethren who were of the household of ,csar1 that is1 of ,nero's court1 ,phil4 i1 #ab1 #ac2 iv1 #bb4 ,we have no particular information how he cleared himself from the accusations of the ,jews1 whether by answering before ,nero1 or whether his enemies dropped their prosecutions1 which seems probable1 ,acts xxviii1 #ba4 ,however1 it appears that he was liberated in the year #fc4 ,nero is reckoned the first persecutor of the ,christian church3 his persecution was ,a4 ,d4 #fd4 ,nero1 the most cruel and savage of all men1 and also the most wicked and depraved1 began his persecution against the ,christian church1 ,a4 ,d4 #fd1 on pretence of the burning of ,rome1 of which some have thought himself to be the author4 ,he endeavoured to throw all the odium on the ,christians3 those were seized first that were known publicly as such1 and by their means many others were discovered4 ,they were condemned to death1 and were even insulted in their sufferings4 ,some were sewed up in skins of beasts1 and then exposed to dogs to be torn in pieces2 some were nailed to crosses2 others perished by fire4 ,the latter were sewed up in pitched coverings1 which1 being set on fire1 served as torches to the people1 and were lighted up in the night4 ,nero gave leave to use his own gardens1 as the scene of all these cruelties4 ,from this time edicts were published against the ,christians1 and many martyrs suffered1 especially in ,italy4 ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul are thought to have suffered martyrdom1 consequent on this persecution1 ,a4 ,d4 #fe4 ,the revolt of the ,jews from the ,romans happened about ,a4 ,d4 #fe and #ff1 in the twelfth and thirteenth of ,nero4 ,the city of ,jerusalem making an insurrection1 ,a4 ,d4 #ff1 ,florus there slew three thousand six hundred persons1 and thus began the war4 ,a little while afterward1 those of ,jerusalem killed the ,roman garrison4 ,cestius on this came to ,jerusalem to suppress the sedition2 but he was forced to retire1 after having besieged it about six weeks1 and was routed in his retreat1 ,a4 ,d4 #ff4 ,about the end of the same year1 ,nero gave ,vespasian the command of his troops against the ,jews4 ,this general carried on the war in ,galilee and ,judea during ,a4 ,d4 #fg and #fh1 the thirteenth and fourteenth of ,nero4 ,but ,nero killing himself in the fourteenth year of his reign1 ,jerusalem was not besieged till after his death1 ,a4 ,d4 #gj1 the first and second of ,vespasian4 ,,nestorians1 a denomination which arose in the fifth century1 from ,nestorius1 bishop of ,constantinople2 a man of considerable learning and eloquence1 and of an independent spirit4 ,the ,catholic clergy were fond of calling the ,virgin ,mary ,mother of ,god10 to which ,nestorius objected1 as implying that she was mother of the divine nature1 which he very properly denied2 and this raised against him1 from ,cyril and others1 the cry of heresy1 and perhaps led him into some improper forms of expression and explication4 ,it is generally agreed1 however1 by the moderns1 that ,nestorius showed a much better spirit in controversy than his antagonist1 ,st4 ,cyril4 ,as to the doctrine of the trinity1 it does not appear that ,nestorius differed from his antagonists1 admitting the coquality of the divine ,persons2 but he was charged with maintaining two distinct persons1 as well as natures1 in the mysterious character of ,christ4 ,this1 however1 he solemnly and constantly denied2 and from this1 as a foul reproach1 he has been cleared by the moderns1 and particularly by ,martin ,luther1 who lays the whole blame of this controversy on the turbulent and angry ,cyril4 7,see ,,hypostatic ,,union47 ,the discordancy not only between the ,nestorians and other ,christians1 but also among themselves1 arose1 no doubt1 in a great measure1 from the ambiguity of the ,greek terms hypostasis and prosopon4 ,the councils assembled at ,seleucia on this occasion decreed that in ,christ there were two hypostases4 ,but this word1 unhappily1 was used both for person and subsistence1 or existence2 hence the difficulty and ambiguity3 and of these hypostases it is said the one was divine1 and the other human2--the divine ,word1 and the man ,jesus4 ,now of these two hypostases it is added1 they had only one barsopa1 the original term used by ,nestorius1 and usually translated by the ,greeks1 person20 but to avoid the appearance of an express contradiction1 ,dr4 ,mosheim translates this barbarous word aspect10 as meaning a union of will and affection1 rather than of nature or of person4 ,and thus the ,nestorians are charged with rejecting the union of two natures in one person1 from their peculiar manner of expressing themselves1 though they absolutely denied the charge4 ,in the earliest ages of ,nestorianism1 the various branches of that numerous and powerful sect were under the spiritual jurisdiction of the ,catholic patriarch of ,babylon1--a vague appellation which has been successively applied to the sees of ,seleucia1 ,ctesiphon1 and ,bagdad1--but who now resides at ,mousul4 ,in the sixteenth century the ,nestorians were divided into two sects2 for in #aeea a warm dispute arose among them about the creation of a new patriarch1 ,simeon ,barmamas1 or ,barmana1 being proposed by one party1 and ,sulaka1 otherwise named ,siud1 earnestly desired by the other2 when the latter1 to support his pretensions the more effectually1 repaired to ,rome1 and was consecrated patriarch in #aeec1 by ,pope ,julius ,,iii41 whose jurisdiction he had acknowledged1 and to whose commands he had promised unlimited submission and obedience4 ,upon this new ,chaldean patriarch's return to his own country1 ,julius sent with him several persons skilled in the ,syriac language1 to assist him in establishing and extending the papal empire among the ,nestorians2 and from that time1 that unhappy people have been divided into two factions1 and have often been involved in the greatest dangers and difficulties1 by the jarring sentiments and perpetual quarrels of their patriarchs4 ,in #aeee1 ,simeon ,denha1 archbishop of ,gelu1 adopted the party of the fugitive patriarch1 who had embraced the communion of the ,latin church2 and1 being afterward chosen patriarch himself1 he fixed his residence in the city of ,van1 or ,ormia1 in the mountainous parts of ,persia1 where his successors still continue1 and are all distinguished by the name of ,simeon2 but they seem of late to have withdrawn themselves from their communion with the church of ,rome4 ,the great ,nestorian pontiffs who form the opposite party1 and who have1 since #aeei1 been distinguished by the general denomination of ,elias1 and reside constantly at ,mousul1 look with a hostile eye on this little patriarch2 but since #afag the bishops of ,ormus have been in so low and declining a state1 both in opulence and credit1 that they are no longer in a condition to excite the envy of their brethren at ,mousul1 whose spiritual dominion is very extensive1 taking in great part of ,asia1 and comprehending within its circuit the ,arabian ,nestorians1 as also the ,christians of ,st4 ,thomas1 who dwell along the coast of ,malabar4 ,,nethinims4 ,the ,nethinims were servants who had been given up to the service of the tabernacle and temple1 to perform the meanest and most laborious services therein1 in supplying wood and water4 ,at first the ,gibeonites were appointed to this service1 ,joshua ix1 #bg4 ,afterward the ,canaanites who surrendered themselves1 and whose lives were spared1 were consigned to the performance of the same duties4 ,we read1 ,ezra viii1 #bj1 that the ,nethinims were slaves devoted by ,david and the other princes to the ministry of the temple2 and elsewhere1 that they were slaves given by ,solomon2 the children of ,solomon's servants1 ,ezra ii1 #eh2 and we see1 in #a ,kings ix1 #bj1 #ba1 that this prince had subdued the remains of the ,canaanites1 and had constrained them to several servitudes2 and1 it is very probable1 he gave a good number of them to the priests and ,levites for the service of the temple4 ,the ,nethinims were carried into captivity with the tribe of ,judah1 and there were great numbers of them near the coast of the ,caspian ,sea1 from whence ,ezra brought some of them back1 ,ezra viii1 #ag4 ,after the return from the captivity1 they dwelt in the cities appointed them1 ,ezra ii1 #ag4 ,there were some of them also at ,jerusalem1 who inhabited that part of the city called ,ophel1 ,neh4 iii1 #bf4 ,those who returned with ,ezra were to the number of two hundred and twenty1 ,ezra viii1 #bj2 and those who followed ,zerubbabel made up three hundred and ninety-two1 ,ezra ii1 #eh4 ,this number was but small in regard to the offices that were imposed on them2 so that we find them afterward instituting a solemnity called ,xylophoria1 in which the people carried wood to the temple with great ceremony1 to keep up the fire on the altar of burnt sacrifices4 ,,nettles4 ,we find this name given to two different words in the original4 ,the first is 1 ,job xxx1 #g2 ,proverbs xxiv1 #ca2 ,zeph4 ii1 #i4 ,it is not easy to determine what species of plant is here meant4 ,from the passage in ,job1 the nettle could not be intended2 for a plant is referred to large enough for people to take shelter under4 ,the following extract from ,denon's ,travels may help to illustrate the text1 and show to what an uncomfortable retreat those vagabonds must have resorted4 ,one of the inconveniences of the vegetable thickets of ,egypt is1 that it is difficult to remain in them2 as nine-tenths of the trees and the plants are armed with inexorable thorns1 which suffer only an unquiet enjoyment of the shadow which is so constantly desirable1 from the precaution necessary to guard against them40 ,the 1 ,prov4 xxiv1 #ca2 ,isaiah xxxiv1 #ac2 ,hosea ix1 #f2 is by the ,vulgate rendered urtica10 which is well defended by ,celsius1 and very probably means the nettle40 ,,nice or ,,nicene ,,creed is so denominated1 because the greater part of it1 namely1 as far as the words1 ,holy ,ghost10 was drawn up and agreed to at the council of ,nice1 or ,nica1 in ,bithynia1 ,a4 ,d4 #cbe4 ,this council was assembled against ,arius1 who1 though he brought down the ,son to the condition of a creature1 inferior1 for that reason1 in nature to the ,father1 yet acknowledged his personal subsistence before the world1 and his superiority in nature to all the things that were created by him4 ,so that there was need of some higher expression in this case than the other1 to import his equal dignity of nature with the ,father and ,creator of all2 and nothing was found to answer the purpose so well as the term 4 ,the rest of this creed was added at the council of ,constantinople1 ,a4 ,d4 #eha1 except the words1 and the ,son10 which follow the words1 who proceedeth from the ,father10 and they were inserted ,a4 ,d4 #ddg4 ,the addition made at ,constantinople was caused by the denial of the divinity of the ,holy ,ghost by ,macedonius and his followers2 and the creed1 thus enlarged1 was immediately received by all orthodox ,christians4 ,the insertion of the words1 and the ,son10 was made by the ,spanish bishops2 and they were soon after adopted by the ,christians in ,france4 ,the bishops of ,rome for some time refused to admit these words into the creed2 but at last1 ,a4 ,d4 #hhc1 when ,nicholas the ,first was pope1 they were allowed1 and from that time they have stood in the ,nicene creed1 in all the western churches2 but the ,greek church has never received them4 ,see ,,arius4 ,,nicodemus1 a disciple of ,jesus ,christ1 a ,jew by nation1 and a ,pharisee1 ,john iii1 #a1 c4 ,at the time when the priests and ,pharisees had sent officers to seize ,jesus1 ,nicodemus declared himself openly in his favour1 ,john vii1 #de1 c2 and still more so when he went with ,joseph of ,arimathea to pay the last duties to his body1 which they took down from the cross1 embalmed1 and laid in a sepulchre4 ,,nicolaitans4 ,st4 ,john says in his ,revelation1 to the angel of the church of ,ephesus1 ,but this thou hast1 that thou hatest the deeds of the ,nicolaitans1 which ,i also hate10 ,rev4 ii1 #f2 and again1 to the angel of the church of ,pergamos3 ,so hast thou also them that hold the doctrine of the ,nicolaitans1 which thing ,i hate10 ,rev4 ii1 #ae4 ,these are the only two places where the ,nicolaitans are mentioned in the ,new ,testament3 and it might appear at first1 that little could be inferred from these concerning either their doctrine or their practice4 ,it is asserted1 however1 by all the fathers1 that the ,nicolaitans were a branch of the ,gnostics3 and the epistles1 which were addressed by ,st4 ,john to the seven ,asiatic churches1 may perhaps lead us to the same conclusion4 ,thus to the church at ,ephesus he writes3 ,thou hast tried them which say they are ,apostles and are not1 and hast found them liars10 ,rev4 ii1 #b4 ,this may be understood of the ,gnostic teachers1 who falsely called themselves ,christians1 and who would be not unlikely to assume also the title of ,apostles4 ,it appears from this and other passages1 that they had distinguished themselves at ,ephesus2 and it is when writing to that church1 that ,st4 ,john mentions the ,nicolaitans4 ,again1 when writing to the church at ,smyrna1 he says3 ,i know the blasphemy of them which say they are ,jews1 and are not1 but are the synagogue of ,satan10 ,rev4 ii1 #i4 ,the ,gnostics borrowed many doctrines from the ,jews1 and thought by this means to attract both the ,jews and ,christians4 ,we might therefore infer1 even without the testimony of the fathers1 that the ,gnostic doctrines were prevalent in these churches1 where ,st4 ,john speaks of the ,nicolaitans3 and if so1 we have a still more specific indication of their doctrine and practice1 when we find ,st4 ,john saying to the church in ,pergamos1 ,i have a few things against thee1 because thou hast there them that hold the doctrine of ,balaam1 who taught ,balak to cast a stumbling block before the children of ,israel1 to eat things sacrificed unto idols1 and to commit fornication10 ,rev4 ii1 #ad4 ,then follow the words already quoted1 ,so hast thou also them that hold the doctrine of the ,nicolaitans1 which thing ,i hate40 ,there seems here to be some comparison between the doctrine of ,balaam and that of the ,nicolaitans3 and ,i would also point out1 that to the church in ,thyatira the ,apostle writes1 ,i have a few things against thee1 because thou sufferest that woman ,jezebel1 which calleth herself a prophetess1 to teach and to seduce my servants to commit fornication1 and to eat things sacrificed unto idols10 ,rev4 ii1 #bj4 ,the two passages are very similar1 and may enable us to throw some light upon the history of the ,nicolaitans4 ,tertullian has preserved a tradition1 that the person here spoken of as ,jezebel was a female heretic1 who taught what she had learned from the ,nicolaitans3 and whether the tradition be true or not1 it seems certain1 that to eat things sacrificed unto idols1 and to commit fornication1 was part of the practice of the ,nicolaitans4 ,these two sins are compared to the doctrine of ,balaam3 and though the ,bible tells us little of ,balaam's history1 beyond his prophecies and his death1 yet we can collect enough to enable us to explain this allusion of ,st4 ,john4 ,we read1 that when ,israel abode in ,shittim1 the people began to commit whoredom with the daughters of ,moab3 and they10 that is1 the women1 called the people unto the sacrifices of their gods3 and the people did eat1 and bowed down to their gods10 ,num4 xxv1 #a1 #b4 ,but we read farther1 that when the ,midianites were spoiled and ,balaam slain1 ,moses said of the women who were taken1 ,behold1 these caused the children of ,israel1 through the counsel of ,balaam1 to commit trespass against the ,lord in the matter of ,peor10 ,num4 xxxi1 #af4 ,this1 then1 was the insidious policy and advice of ,balaam4 ,when he found that he was prohibited by ,god from cursing ,israel1 he advised ,balak to seduce the ,israelites by the women of ,moab1 and thus to entice them to the sacrifices of their gods4 ,this is what ,st4 ,john calls the doctrine of ,balaam10 or the wicked artifice which he taught the king of ,moab3 and so he says1 that in the church of ,pergamos there were some who held the doctrine of the ,nicolaitans4 ,we have therefore the testimony of ,st4 ,john1 as well as of the fathers1 that the lives of the ,nicolaitans were profligate and vicious2 to which we may add1 that they ate things sacrificed to idols4 ,this is expressly said of ,basilides and ,valentinus1 two celebrated leaders of ,gnostic sects3 and we perhaps are not going too far1 if we infer from ,st4 ,john1 that the ,nicolaitans were the first who enticed the ,christians to this impious practice1 and obtained from thence the distinction of their peculiar celebrity4 ,their motive for such conduct is very evident4 ,they wished to gain proselytes to their doctrines2 and they therefore taught that it was lawful to indulge the passions1 and that there was no harm in partaking of an idol sacrifice4 ,this had now become the test to which ,christians must submit1 if they wished to escape persecution3 and the ,nicolaitans sought to gain converts by telling them that they might still believe in ,jesus though they ate of things sacrificed unto idols40 ,the fear of death would shake the faith of some2 others would be gained over by sensual arguments3 and thus many unhappy ,christians of the ,asiatic churches were found by ,st4 ,john in the ranks of the ,nicolaitans4 ,we might wish perhaps to know at what time the sect of the ,nicolaitans began2 but we cannot define it accurately4 ,if ,irenus is correct in saying that it preceded by a considerable time the heresy of ,cerinthus1 and that the ,cerinthian heresy was a principal cause of ,st4 ,john writing his ,gospel1 it follows1 that the ,nicolaitans were in existence at least some years before the time of their being mentioned in the ,revelation2 and the persecution under ,domitian1 which was the cause of ,st4 ,john being sent to ,patmos1 may have been the time which enabled the ,nicolaitans to exhibit their principles4 ,irenus indeed adds1 that ,st4 ,john directed his ,gospel against the ,nicolaitans as well as against ,cerinthus3 and the comparison which is made between their doctrine and that of ,balaam1 may perhaps authorize us to refer to this sect what is said in the second ,epistle of ,st4 ,peter4 ,the whole passage contains marked allusions to ,gnostic teachers4 ,there is another question concerning the ,nicolaitans1 which has excited much discussion4 ,it is a question entirely of evidence and detail2 and the two points to be considered are1 #a4 ,whether the ,nicolaitans derived their name from ,nicolas of ,antioch1 who was one of the seven deacons3 #b4 ,supposing this to be the fact1 whether ,nicolas had disgraced himself by sensual indulgence4 ,those writers who have endeavoured to clear the character of ,nicolas have generally tried also to prove that he was not the man whom the ,nicolaitans claimed as their head4 ,but the one point may be true without the other3 and the evidence is so overwhelming1 which states that ,nicolas the deacon was at least the person intended by the ,nicolaitans1 that it is difficult to come to any other conclusion upon the subject4 ,we must not deny that some of the fathers have also charged him with falling into vicious habits1 and thus affording too true a support to the heretics who claimed him as their leader4 ,these writers1 however1 are of a late date2 and some1 who are much more ancient1 have entirely acquitted him1 and furnished an explanation of the calumnies which attach to his name4 ,we know that the ,gnostics were not ashamed to claim as their founders the ,apostles1 or friends of the ,apostles4 ,the same may have been the case with ,nicolas the deacon2 and though we allow1 that if the ,nicolaitans were distinguished as a sect some time before the end of the century1 the probability is lessened that his name was thus abused2 yet if his career was a short one1 his history1 like that of the other deacons1 would soon be forgotten3 and the same fertile invention1 which gave rise in the two first centuries to so many apocryphal ,gospels1 may also have led the ,nicolaitans to give a false character to him whose name they had assumed4 ,,nicopolis1 a city of ,epirus1 on the gulf of ,ambracia1 whither1 as some think1 ,st4 ,paul wrote to ,titus1 then in ,crete1 to come to him1 ,titus iii1 #ab2 but others1 with greater probability1 are of opinion1 that the city of ,nicopolis1 where ,st4 ,paul was1 was not that of ,epirus1 but that of ,thrace1 on the borders of ,macedonia1 near the river ,nessus4 ,emmaus in ,palestine was also called ,nicopolis by the ,romans4 ,,night4 ,the ancient ,hebrews began their artificial day in the evening1 and ended it the next evening2 so that the night preceded the day1 whence it is said1 evening and morning one day10 ,gen4 i1 #e4 ,they allowed twelve hours to the night1 and twelve to the day4 ,night is put for a time of affliction and adversity3 ,thou hast proved mine heart1 thou hast visited me in the night1 thou hast tried me10 ,psalm xvii1 #c2 that is1 by adversity and tribulation4 ,and the morning cometh1 and also the night10 ,isaiah xxi1 #ab4 ,night is also put for the time of death3 ,the night cometh1 wherein no man can work10 ,john ix1 #d4 ,children of the day1 and children of the night1 in a moral and figurative sense1 denote good men and wicked men1 ,christians and ,gentiles4 ,the disciples of the ,son of ,god are children of light3 they belong to the light1 they walk in the light of truth2 while the children of the night walk in the darkness of ignorance and infidelity1 and perform only works of darkness4 ,ye are all the children of the light1 and the children of the day2 we are not of the night1 nor of darkness10 #a ,thess4 v1 #e4 ,,night-,,hawk1 1 ,lev4 xi1 #af2 ,deut4 xiv1 #ae4 ,that this is a voracious bird seems clear from the import of its name2 and interpreters are generally agreed to describe it as flying by night4 ,on the whole1 it should seem to be the strix orientalis1 which ,hasselquist thus describes3 ,it is of the size of the common owl1 and lodges in the large buildings or ruins of ,egypt and ,syria1 and sometimes even in the dwelling houses4 ,the ,arabs settled in ,egypt call it massasa10 and the ,syrians banu40 ,it is extremely voracious in ,syria2 to such a degree1 that if care is not taken to shut the windows at the coming on of night1 he enters the houses and kills the children3 the women1 therefore1 are very much afraid of him4 ,,nile1 the river of ,egypt1 whose fountain is in the ,upper ,ethiopia4 ,after having watered several kingdoms1 the ,nile continues its course far into the kingdom of ,goiam4 ,then it winds about again1 from the east to the north4 ,having crossed several kingdoms and provinces1 it falls into ,egypt at the cataracts1 which are waterfalls over steep rocks of the length of two hundred feet4 ,at the bottom of these rocks the ,nile returns to its usual pace1 and thus flows through the valley of ,egypt4 ,its channel1 according to ,villamont1 is about a league broad4 ,at eight miles below ,grand ,cairo1 it is divided into two arms1 which make a triangle1 whose base is at the ,mediterranean ,sea1 and which the ,greeks call the ,delta1 because of its figure 4 ,these two arms are divided into others1 which discharge themselves into the ,mediterranean1 the distance of which from the top of the ,delta is about twenty leagues4 ,these branches of the ,nile the ancients commonly reckoned to be seven4 ,ptolemy makes them nine1 some only four1 some eleven1 some fourteen4 ,homer1 ,xenophon1 and ,diodorus ,siculus testify1 that the ancient name of this river was ,egyptus2 and the latter of these writers says1 that it took the name ,nilus only since the time of a king of ,egypt called by that name4 ,the ,greeks gave it the name of ,melas2 and ,diodorus ,siculus observes1 that the most ancient name by which the ,grecians have known the ,nile was ,oceanus4 ,the ,egyptians paid divine honours to this river1 and called it ,jupiter ,nilus4 ,very little rain ever falls in ,egypt1 never sufficient to fertilize the land2 and but for the provision of this bountiful river1 the country would be condemned to perpetual sterility4 ,as it is1 from the joint operation of the regularity of the flood1 the deposit of mud from the water of the river and the warmth of the climate1 it is the most fertile country in the world2 the produce exceeding all calculation4 ,it has in consequence been1 in all ages1 the granary of the east2 and has on more than one occasion1 an instance of which is recorded in the history of ,joseph1 saved the neighbouring countries from starvation4 ,it is probable1 that1 while in these countries1 on the occasion referred to1 the seven years' famine was the result of the absence of rain1 in ,egypt it was brought about by the inundation being withheld3 and the consternation of the ,egyptians1 at witnessing this phenomenon for seven successive years1 may easily be conceived4 ,the origin and course of the ,nile being unknown to the ancients1 its stream was held1 and is still held by the natives1 in the greatest veneration2 and its periodical overflow was viewed with mysterious wonder4 ,but both of these are now1 from the discoveries of the moderns1 better understood4 ,it is now known1 that the sources1 or permanent springs1 of the ,nile are situated in the mountains of ,abyssinia1 and the unexplored regions to the west and south-west of that country2 and that the occasional supplies1 or causes of the inundation1 are the periodical rains which fall in those districts4 ,for a correct knowledge of these facts1 and of the true position of the source of that branch of the river1 which has generally been considered to be the continuation of the true ,nile1 we are indebted to our countryman1 the intrepid and indefatigable ,bruce4 ,although the ,nile1 by way of eminence1 has been called the river of ,egypt10 it must not be confounded with another stream so denominated in ,scripture1 an insignificant rivulet in comparison1 which falls into the ,mediterranean below ,gaza4 ,,nimrod4 ,he is generally supposed to have been the immediate son of ,cush1 and the youngest1 or sixth1 from the ,scriptural phrase1 ,cush begat ,nimrod10 after the mention of his five sons1 ,gen4 x1 #h4 ,but the phrase is used with considerable latitude1 like father0 and son10 in ,scripture4 ,and the beginning of his kingdom was ,babel1 and ,erech1 and ,accad1 and ,calneh1 in the land of ,shinar3 out of that land he went forth to invade ,assyria2 and built ,nineveh1 and the city ,rehoboth1 and ,calah1 and ,resin1 between ,nineveh and ,calah3 the same is a great city10 ,gen4 x1 #h-ab4 ,though the main body of the ,cushites was miraculously dispersed1 and sent by ,providence to their destinations along the sea coasts of ,asia and ,africa1 yet ,nimrod remained behind1 and founded an empire in ,babylonia1 according to ,berosus1 by usurping the property of the ,arphaxadites in the land of ,shinar2 where the beginning of his kingdom was ,babel10 or ,babylon1 and other towns3 and1 not satisfied with this1 he next invaded ,assur1 or ,assyria1 east of the ,tigris1 where he built ,nineveh1 and several other towns4 ,the marginal reading of our ,english ,bible1 ,he went out into ,assyria10 or to invade ,assyria1 is here adopted in preference to that in the text3 ,and out of that land went forth ,ashur1 and builded ,nineveh10 c4 ,the meaning of the word ,nineveh may lead us to his original name1 ,nin1 signifying a son10 the most celebrated of the sons of ,cush4 ,that of ,nimrod1 or ,rebel10 was probably a parody1 or nickname1 given him by the oppressed ,shemites1 of which we have several instances in ,scripture4 ,thus nahash1 the brazen serpent0 in the wilderness1 was called by ,hezekiah1 in contempt1 nehushtan1 a piece of brass10 when he broke it in pieces1 because it was perverted into an object of idolatrous worship by the ,jews1 #b ,kings xviii1 #d4 ,nimrod1 that arch rebel1 who first subverted the patriarchal government1 introduced also the ,zabian idolatry1 or worship of the heavenly host2 and1 after his death1 was deified by his subjects1 and supposed to be translated into the constellations of ,orion1 attended by his hounds1 ,sirius and ,canicula1 and still pursuing his favourite game1 the great bear2 supposed also to be translated into ursa major1 near the north pole2 as admirably described by ,homer1-- '1 1 ' 1 ' 4 ,iliad xviii1 #dhe4 ,and the bear1 surnamed also the wain1 by the ,egyptians1 who is turning herself about there1 and watching ,orion40 ,homer also introduces the shade of ,orion1 as hunting in the ,elysian fields1-- '1 1 ' 1 4 ,odyss4 xi1 #ega4 ,next1 ,i observed the mighty ,orion ,chasing wild beasts through an asphodel mead1 ,which himself had slain on the solitary mountains3 ,holding in his hands a solid brazen mace1 ever unbroken40 ,the ,grecian name of this mighty hunter0 may furnish a satisfactory clue to the name given him by the impious adulation of the ,babylonians and ,assyrians4 nearly resembles1 1 the oblique case of 1 which is the ,septuagint rendering of ,uriah1 a proper name in ,scripture1 #b ,sam4 xi1 #f-ba4 ,but ,uriah1 signifying the light of the ,lord10 was an appropriate appellation of that most brilliant constellation4 ,he was also called ,baal1 ,beel1 ,bel1 or ,belus1 signifying lord10 or master10 by the ,phenicians1 ,assyrians1 and ,greeks2 and ,bala ,rama1 by the ,hindus4 ,at a village called ,bala-deva1 or ,baldeo in the vulgar dialect1 thirteen miles east by south from ,muttra1 in ,hindustan1 there is a very ancient statue of ,bala ,rama1 in which he is represented with a ploughshare in his left hand1 and a thick cudgel in his right1 and his shoulders covered with the skin of a tiger4 ,captain ,wilford supposes that the ploughshare was designed to hook his enemies2 but may it not more naturally denote the constellation of the great bear1 which strikingly represents the figure of a plough in its seven bright stars2 and was probably so denominated by the earliest astronomers1 before the introduction of the ,zabian idolatry1 as a celestial symbol of agriculture8 ,the thick cudgel corresponds to the brazen mace of ,homer4 ,and it is highly probable that the ,assyrian ,nimrod1 or ,hindu ,bala1 was also the prototype of the ,grecian ,hercules1 with his club and lion's skin4 ,nimrod is said to have been a mighty hunter before the ,lord20 which the ,jerusalem paraphrast interprets of a sinful hunting after the sons of men to turn them off from the true religion4 ,but it may as well be taken in a more literal sense1 for hunting of wild beasts2 inasmuch as the circumstance of his being a mighty hunter is mentioned with great propriety to introduce the account of his setting up his kingdom2 the exercise of hunting being looked upon in ancient times as a means of acquiring the rudiments of war2 for which reason1 the principal heroes of ,heathen antiquity1 as ,theseus1 ,nestor1 c1 were1 as ,xenophon tells us1 bred up to hunting4 ,beside1 it may be supposed1 that by this practice ,nimrod drew together a great company of robust young men to attend him in his sport1 and by that means increased his power4 ,and by destroying the wild beasts1 which1 in the comparatively defenceless state of society in those early ages1 were no doubt very dangerous enemies1 he might1 perhaps1 render himself farther popular2 thereby engaging numbers to join with him1 and to promote his chief design of subduing men1 and making himself master of many nations4 ,,nineveh4 ,this capital of the ,assyrian empire could boast of the remotest antiquity4 ,tacitus styles it1 ,vetustissima sedes ,assyri20 the most ancient seat of ,assyria2 and ,scripture informs us that ,nimrod1 after he had built ,babel1 in the land of ,shinar1 invaded ,assyria1 where he built ,nineveh1 and several other cities1 ,genesis x1 #aa4 ,its name denotes the habitation of ,nin10 which seems to have been the proper name of that rebel10 as ,nimrod signifies4 ,and it is uniformly styled by ,herodotus1 ,xenophon1 ,diodorus1 ,lucian1 c1 1 the city of ,ninus40 ,and the village of ,nunia1 opposite ,mosul1 in its name1 and the tradition of the natives1 ascertains the site of the ancient city1 which was near the castle of ,arbela1 according to ,tacitus1 so celebrated for the decisive victory of ,alexander the ,great over the ,persians there2 the site of which is ascertained by the village of ,arbil1 about ten ,german miles to the east of ,nunia1 according to ,niebuhr's map4 ,nineveh at first seems only to have been a small city1 and less than ,resen1 in its neighbourhood2 which is conjectured by ,bochart1 and not without reason1 to have been the same as ,larissa1 which ,xenophon describes as the ruins of a great city1 formerly inhabited by the ,medes10 and which the natives might have described as belonging la ,resen1 to ,resen40 ,nineveh did not rise to greatness for many ages after1 until its second founder1 ,ninus ,,ii41 about ,b4 ,c4 #abcj1 enlarged and made it the greatest city in the world4 ,according to ,diodorus1 it was of an oblong form1 a hundred and fifty stadia long1 and ninety broad1 and1 consequently1 four hundred and eighty in circuit1 or forty-eight miles1 reckoning ten stadia to an ,english mile1 with ,major ,rennel4 ,and its walls were a hundred feet high1 and so broad that three chariots could drive on them abreast2 and on the walls were fifteen hundred towers1 each two hundred feet high4 ,we are not1 however1 to imagine that all this vast enclosure was built upon3 it contained great parks and extensive fields1 and detached houses and buildings1 like ,babylon1 and other great cities of the east even at the present day1 as ,bussorah1 c4 ,and this entirely corresponds with the representations of ,scripture4 ,in the days of the ,prophet ,jonah1 about ,b4 ,c4 #hjj1 it seems to have been a 8great city1 an exceeding great city1 of three days' journey10 ,jonah i1 #b2 iii1 #c2 perhaps in circuit4 ,the population of ,nineveh1 also1 at that time was very great4 ,it contained more than sixscore thousand persons that could not discern between their right hand and their left1 beside much cattle10 ,jonah iv1 #aa4 ,reckoning the persons to have been infants of two years old and under1 and that these were a fifth part of the whole1 according to ,bochart1 the whole population would amount to six hundred thousand souls4 ,the same number ,pliny assigns for the population of ,seleucia1 on the decline of ,babylon4 ,this population shows that a great part of the city must have been left open and unbuilt4 ,the threatened overthrow of ,nineveh within three days1 was1 by the general repentance and humiliation of the inhabitants1 from the highest to the lowest1 suspended for near two hundred years1 until their iniquity came to the full20 and then the prophecy was literally accomplished1 in the third year of the siege of the city1 by the combined ,medes and ,babylonians2 the king1 ,sardanapalus1 being encouraged to hold out in consequence of an ancient prophecy1 that ,nineveh should never be taken by assault1 till the river became its enemy2 when a mighty inundation of the river1 swollen by continual rains1 came up against a part of the city1 and threw down twenty stadia of the wall in length2 upon which1 the king1 conceiving that the oracle was accomplished1 burned himself1 his concubines1 eunuchs1 and treasures2 and the enemy1 entering by the breach1 sacked and rased the city1 about ,b4 ,c4 #fjf4 ,diodorus1 also1 relates that ,belesis1 the governor of ,babylon1 obtained from ,arbaces1 the king of ,media1 the ashes of the palace1 to erect a mount with them near the temple of ,belus at ,babylon2 and that he forthwith prepared shipping1 and1 together with the ashes1 carried away most of the gold and silver1 of which he had private information given him by one of the eunuchs who escaped the fire4 ,dr4 ,gillies thinks it incredible that these could be transported from ,nineveh to ,babylon1 three hundred miles distant2 but likely enough1 if ,nineveh was only fifty miles from ,babylon1 with a large canal of communication between them1 the ,nahar ,malka1 or ,royal ,river4 ,but we learn from ,niebuhr1 that the conveyance of goods from ,nosul to ,bagdat by the ,tigris is very commodious1 in the very large boats called helleks2 in which1 in spring1 when the river is rapid1 the voyage may be made in three or four days1 which would take fifteen by land4 ,the complete demolition of such immense piles as the walls and towers of ,nineveh may seem matter of surprise to those who do not consider the nature of the materials of which they were constructed1 that is1 of bricks1 dried or baked in the sun1 and cemented with bitumen1 which were apt to be dissolved0 by water1 or to moulder away by the injuries of the weather4 ,beside1 in the east1 the materials of ancient cities have been often employed in the building of new ones in the neighbourhood4 ,thus ,mosul was built with the spoils of ,nineveh4 ,tauk ,kesra1 or the ,palace of ,chosroes1 appears to have been built of bricks brought from the ruins of ,babylon2 and so was ,hellah1 as the dimensions are nearly the same1 and the proportions so singular4 ,and when such materials could conveniently be transported by inland navigations1 they are to be found at very great distances from their ancient place1 much farther1 indeed1 than are ,bagdat and ,seleucia1 or ,ctesiphon1 from ,babylon4 ,the book of ,nahum was avowedly prophetic of the destruction of ,nineveh2 and it is there foretold that the gates of the river shall be opened1 and the palace shall be dissolved4 ,nineveh of old1 like a pool of water1 with an overflowing flood he will make an utter end of the place thereof10 ,nahum ii1 #f2 i1 #h1 #i4 ,the historian describes the facts by which the other predictions of the prophet were as literally fulfilled4 ,he relates that the king of ,assyria1 elated with his former victories1 and ignorant of the revolt of the ,bactrians1 had abandoned himself to scandalous inaction2 had appointed a time of festivity1 and supplied his soldiers with abundance of wine2 and that the general of the enemy1 apprised by deserters1 of their negligence and drunkenness1 attacked the ,assyrian army while the whole of them were fearlessly giving way to indulgence1 destroyed great part of them1 and drove the rest into the city4 ,the words of the prophet were hereby verified3 ,while they be folden together as thorns1 and while they are drunken as drunkards1 they shall be devoured as stubble fully dry10 ,nahum i1 #aj4 ,the prophet promised much spoil to the enemy3 ,take the spoil of silver1 take the spoil of gold2 for there is no end of the store and glory out of all the pleasant furniture10 ,nahum ii1 #i4 ,and the historian affirms that many talents of gold and silver1 preserved from the fire1 were carried to ,ecbatana4 ,according to ,nahum1 iii1 #ae1 the city was not only to be destroyed by an overflowing flood1 but the fire1 also1 was to devour it2 and1 as ,diodorus relates1 partly by water1 partly by fire1 it was destroyed4 ,the utter and perpetual destruction and desolation of ,nineveh were foretold3 ,the ,lord will make an utter end of the place thereof4 ,affliction shall not rise up the second time4 ,she is empty1 void1 and waste10 ,nahum i1 #h1 #i2 ii1 #aj2 iii1 #ag-ai4 ,the ,lord will stretch out his hand against the north1 and destroy ,assyria1 and will make ,nineveh a desolation1 and dry like a wilderness4 ,how is she become a desolation1 a place for beasts to lie down in10 ,zeph4 ii1 #ac-ae4 ,in the second century1 ,lucian1 a native of a city on the banks of the ,euphrates1 testified that ,nineveh was utterly perished1 that there was no vestige of it remaining1 and that none could tell where once it was situated4 ,this testimony of ,lucian1 and the lapse of many ages during which the place was not known where it stood1 render it at least somewhat doubtful whether the remains of an ancient city1 opposite to ,mosul1 which have been described as such by travellers1 be indeed those of ancient ,nineveh4 ,it is1 perhaps1 probable that they are the remains of the city which succeeded ,nineveh1 or of a ,persian city of the same name1 which was built on the banks of the ,tigris by the ,persians subsequently to ,a4 ,d4 #bcj1 and demolished by the ,saracens1 ,a4 ,d4 #fcb4 ,in contrasting the then existing great and increasing population1 and the accumulating wealth of the proud inhabitants of the mighty ,nineveh1 with the utter ruin that awaited it1 the word of ,god by the ,prophet ,nahum1 was1 ,make thyself many as the canker worm1 make thyself many as the locusts4 ,thou hast multiplied thy merchants above the stars of heaven3 the canker worm spoileth and flieth away4 ,thy crowned are as the locusts1 and thy captains as the great grasshoppers which camp in the hedges in the cold day3 but when the sun riseth1 they flee away2 and their place is not known where they are10 or were4 ,whether these words imply that even the site of ,nineveh would in future ages be uncertain or unknown2 or1 as they rather seem to intimate1 that every vestige of the palaces of its monarchs1 of the greatness of its nobles1 and of the wealth of its numerous merchants1 would wholly disappear2 the truth of the prediction cannot be invalidated under either interpretation4 ,the avowed ignorance respecting ,nineveh1 and the oblivion which passed over it1 for many an age1 conjoined with the meagreness of evidence to identify it1 still prove that the place where it stood was long unknown1 and that1 even now1 it can scarcely with certainty be determined4 ,and if the only spot that bears its name1 or that can be said to be the place where it was1 be indeed the site of one of the most extensive of cities on which the sun ever shone1 and which continued for many centuries to be the capital of ,assyria1--the principal mounds1 few in number1 which show neither bricks1 stones1 nor other materials of building1--but are in many places overgrown with grass1 and resemble the mounds left by intrenchments and fortifications of ancient ,roman camps1 and the appearances of other mounds and ruins less marked than even these1 extending for ten miles1 and widely spread1 and seeming to be the wreck of former buildings1--show that ,nineveh is left without one monument of royalty1 without any token whatever of its splendour or wealth2 that their place is not known where they were2 and that it is indeed a desolation1 empty1 void1 and waste10 its very ruins perished1 and less than the wreck of what it was4 ,such an utter ruin1 in every view1 has been made of it2 and such is the truth of the divine predictions6 ,,nisan1 a month of the ,hebrews1 answering to our ,march1 and which sometimes takes from ,february or ,april1 according to the course of the moon4 ,it was made the first month of the sacred year1 at the coming out of ,egypt1 ,exod4 xii1 #b2 and it was the seventh month of the civil year4 ,by ,moses it is called ,abib4 ,the name ,nisan was introduced only since the time of ,ezra1 and the return from the captivity of ,babylon4 ,,nisroch1 a god of the ,assyrians4 ,sennacherib was killed by two of his sons1 while he was paying his adorations in the temple of this deity1 #b ,kings xix1 #cg2 ,isaiah xxxvii1 #ch4 ,it is uncertain who this god was4 ,,nitre1 1 ,prov4 xxv1 #bj2 ,jer4 ii1 #bb4 ,this is not the same that we call nitre1 or saltpetre1 but a native salt of a different kind1 distinguished among naturalists by the name of natrum4 ,the natrum of the ancients was an earthy alkaline salt4 ,it was found in abundance separated from the water of the lake ,natron in ,egypt4 ,it rises from the bottom of the lake to the top of the water1 and is there condensed by the heat of the sun into the hard and dry form in which it is sold4 ,this salt thus scummed off is the same in all respects with the ,smyrna soap earth4 ,pliny1 ,matthiolus1 and ,agricola1 have described it to us3 ,hippocrates1 ,galen1 ,dioscorides1 and others1 mention its uses4 ,it is also found in great plenty in ,sindy1 a province in the inner part of ,asia1 and in many other parts of the east2 and might be had in any quantities4 ,the learned ,michalis plainly demonstrates1 from the nature of the thing and the context1 that this fossil and natural alkali must be that which the ,hebrews called nether4 ,solomon must mean the same when he compares the effect which unseasonable mirth has upon a man in affliction to the action of vinegar upon nitre1 ,prov4 xxv1 #bj2 for vinegar has no effect upon what we call nitre1 but upon the alkali in question has a great effect1 making it rise up in bubbles with much effervescence4 ,it is of a soapy nature1 and was used to take spots from clothes1 and even from the face4 ,jeremiah alludes to this use of it1 ii1 #bb4 ,,no1 or ,,no-,,ammon1 a city of ,egypt1 supposed to be ,thebes4 ,,noah1 the son of ,lamech4 ,amidst the general corruption of the human race1 ,noah only was found righteous1 ,gen4 vi1 #i4 ,he therefore found grace in the sight of the ,lord10 and was directed for his preservation to make an ark1 the shape and dimensions of which were prescribed by the ,lord4 ,in ,a4 ,m4 #afef1 and in the six hundredth year of his age1 ,noah1 by divine appointment1 entered the ark with his family1 and all the animals collected for the renewal of the world4 7,see ,deluge47 ,after the ark had stranded1 and the earth was in a measure dried1 ,noah offered a burnt-sacrifice to the ,lord1 of the pure animals that were in the ark2 and the ,lord was pleased to accept of his offering1 and to give him assurance that he would no more destroy the world by water1 ,genesis ix4 ,he gave ,noah power over all the brute creation1 and permitted him to kill and eat of them1 as of the herbs and fruits of the earth1 except the blood1 the use of which was prohibited4 ,after the deluge ,noah lived three hundred and fifty years2 and the whole time of his life having been nine hundred and fifty years1 he died1 ,a4 ,m4 #bjjf4 ,according to common opinion1 he divided the earth among his three sons1 ,shem1 ,ham1 and ,japheth4 ,to ,shem he gave ,asia1 to ,ham ,africa1 and to ,japheth ,europe4 ,some will have it1 that beside these three sons he had several others4 ,st4 ,peter calls ,noah a preacher of righteousness1 because before the deluge he was incessantly preaching and declaring to men1 not only by his discourses1 but by the building of the ark1 in which he was employed a hundred and twenty years1 that the cloud of divine vengeance was about to burst upon them4 ,but his faithful ministry produced no effect1 since1 when the deluge came1 it found mankind practising their usual enormities1 ,matt4 xxiv1 #cg4 ,several learned men have observed that the ,heathens confounded ,saturn1 ,deucalion1 ,ogyges1 the god ,clus or ,ouranus1 ,janus1 ,protheus1 ,prometheus1 c1 with ,noah4 ,the fable of ,deucalion and his wife ,pyrrha is manifestly drawn from the history of ,noah4 ,the rabbins pretend that ,god gave ,noah and his sons certain general precepts1 which contain1 according to them1 the natural duties which are common to all men indifferently1 and the observation of which alone will be sufficient to save them4 ,after the law of ,moses was given1 the ,hebrews would not suffer any stranger to dwell in their country1 unless he would conform to the precepts of ,noah4 ,in war1 they put to death without quarter all who were ignorant of them4 ,these precepts are seven in number3 the first was against the worship of idols2 the second1 against blasphemy1 and required to bless the name of ,god2 the third1 against murder2 the fourth1 against incest and all uncleanness2 the fifth1 against theft and rapine2 the sixth required the administration of justice2 the seventh was against eating flesh with life4 ,but the antiquity of these precepts is doubted1 since no mention of them is made in the ,scripture1 or in the writings of ,josephus1 or in ,philo2 and none of the ancient fathers knew any thing of them4 ,,nod1 ,,land ,,of1 the country to which ,cain withdrew after the murder of ,abel4 ,as the precise situation of this country cannot possibly be known1 so it has given rise to much ingenious speculation4 ,all that we are told of it is1 that it was on the east of ,eden10 or1 as it may be rendered1 before ,eden20 which very country of ,eden is no sure guide for us1 as the situation of that also is disputed4 ,but1 be it on the higher or lower ,euphrates1 7see ,eden17 the land of ,nod which stood before it with respect to the place where ,moses wrote1 may still preserve the curse of barrenness passed on it for ,cain's sake1 namely1 in the deserts of ,syria or ,arabia4 ,the ,chaldee interpreters render the word ,nod1 not as the proper name of a country1 but as an appellative applied to ,cain himself1 signifying a vagabond or fugitive1 and read1 ,he dwelt a fugitive in the land40 ,but the ,hebrew reads expressly1 ,he dwelt in the land of ,nod40 ,,nonconformists1 dissenters from the church of ,england2 but the term applies more particularly to those ministers who were ejected from their livings by the ,act of ,uniformity in #affb2 the number of whom1 according to ,dr4 ,calamy1 was nearly two thousand2 and to the laity who adhered to them4 ,the celebrated ,mr4 ,locke says1 ,bartholomew-day 7the day fixed by the ,act of ,uniformity7 was fatal to our church and religion1 by throwing out a very great number of worthy1 learned1 pious1 and orthodox divines1 who could not come up to this and other things in that act4 ,and it is worth your knowledge1 that so great was the zeal in carrying on this church affair1 and so blind was the obedience required1 that if you compare the time of passing the act with the time allowed for the clergy to subscribe the book of ,common ,prayer thereby established1 you shall plainly find1 it could not be printed and distributed1 so as one man in forty could have seen and read the book before they did so perfectly assent and consent thereto40 ,by this act1 the clergy were required to subscribe1 ex animo1 sincerely1 their assent and consent to all and every thing contained in the book of ,common ,prayer10 which had never before been insisted on1 so rigidly as to deprive them of their livings and livelihood4 ,several other acts were passed about this time1 very oppressive both to the clergy and laity4 ,in the preceding year #affa1 the ,corporation ,act incapacitated all persons from offices of trust and honour in a corporation1 who did not receive the sacrament in the established church4 ,the ,conventicle ,act1 in #affc and #afgj1 forbade the attendance at conventicles2 that is1 at places of worship other than the establishment1 where more than five adults were present beside the resident family2 and that under penalties of fine and imprisonment by the sentence of magistrates without a jury4 ,the ,oxford ,act of #affe banished nonconforming ministers five miles from any corporate town sending members to parliament1 and prohibited them from keeping or teaching schools4 ,the ,test ,act of the same year required all persons1 accepting any office under government1 to receive the sacrament in the established church4 ,such were the dreadful consequences of this intolerant spirit1 that it is supposed that near eight thousand died in prison in the reign of ,charles ,,ii4 ,it is said that ,mr4 ,jeremiah ,white had carefully collected a list of those who had suffered between ,charles ,,ii4 and the revolution1 which amounted to sixty thousand4 ,the same persecutions were carried on in ,scotland2 and there1 as well as in ,england1 numbers1 to avoid the persecution1 left their country4 ,but1 notwithstanding all these dreadful and furious attacks upon the dissenters1 they were not extirpated4 ,their very persecution was in their favour4 ,the infamous character of their informers and persecutors2 their piety1 zeal1 and fortitude1 no doubt1 had influence on considerate minds2 and1 indeed1 they had additions from the established church1 which several clergymen in this reign deserted as a persecuting church1 and took their lot among them4 ,king ,william coming to the throne1 the famous ,toleration ,act passed1 by which they were exempted from suffering the penalties above mentioned1 and permission was given them to worship ,god according to the dictates of their own consciences4 ,in the reign of ,george ,,iii41 the ,act for the ,protection of ,religious ,worship superseded the ,act of ,toleration1 by still more liberal provisions in favour of religious liberty2 and in the last reign the ,test and ,corporation ,acts were repealed4 ,,noph1 ,memphis1 a celebrated city of ,egypt1 and1 till the time of the ,ptolemies1 who removed to ,alexandria1 the residence of the ancient kings of ,egypt4 ,it stood above the dividing of the river ,nile1 where the ,delta begins4 ,toward the south of this city stood the famous pyramids1 two of which were esteemed the wonders of the world2 and in this city was fed the ox ,apis1 which ,cambyses slew1 in contempt of the ,egyptians who worshipped it as a deity4 ,the kings of ,egypt took much pleasure in adorning this city2 and it continued in all its beauty till the ,arabians made a conquest of ,egypt under the ,caliph ,omar4 ,the general who took it built another city near it1 named ,fustal1 merely because his tent had been a long time set up in that place2 and the ,fatimite caliphs1 when they became masters of ,egypt1 added another to it1 which is known to us at this day by the name of ,grand ,cairo4 ,this occasioned the utter decay of ,memphis1 and led to the fulfilment of the prophecy1 that it should be waste and without inhabitant40 ,the prophets often speak of this city1 and foretel the miseries it was to suffer from the kings of ,chaldea and ,persia1 ,isaiah xix1 #ac2 ,jer4 xliv1 #a2 xlvi1 #ad1 #ai2 ,hosea ix1 #f2 ,ezek4 xxx1 #ac1 #af4 ,,novatians1 the followers of ,novatian1 a priest of ,rome1 and of ,novatus1 a priest of ,carthage1 in the third century4 ,they were distinguished merely by their discipline2 for their religious and doctrinal tenets do not appear to be at all different from those of the church4 ,they condemned second marriages1 and for ever excluded from their communion all those who after baptism had fallen into sin4 ,they affected very superior purity2 and1 though they conceived that the worst might possibly hope for eternal life1 they absolutely refused to redmit into their communion any who had lapsed into sin4 ,they separated from the church of ,rome1 because the members of it admitted into their communion many who had1 during a season of persecution1 rejected the ,christian faith4 ,,numbers1 a canonical book of the ,old ,testament1 being the fourth of the ,pentateuch1 or five books of ,moses2 and receives its denomination from the numbering of the families of ,israel by ,moses and ,aaron1 who mustered the tribes1 and marshalled the army1 of the ,hebrews in their passage through the wilderness4 ,a great part of this book is historical1 relating several remarkable events which happened in that journey1 and also mentioning various of their journeyings in the wilderness4 ,this book comprehends the history of about thirty-eight years1 though the greater part of the things recorded fell out in the first and last of those years2 and it does not appear when those things were done which are recorded in the middle of the book4 ,see ,,pentateuch4 ,,nurse4 ,the nurse in an eastern family is always an important personage4 ,modern travellers inform us1 that in ,syria she is considered as a sort of second parent1 whether she has been foster-mother or otherwise4 ,she always accompanies the bride to her husband's house1 and ever remains there an honoured character4 ,thus it was in ancient ,greece4 ,this will serve to explain ,genesis xxiv1 #ei3 ,and they sent away ,rebekah their sister1 and her nurse40 ,in ,hindostan the nurse is not looked upon as a stranger1 but becomes one of the family1 and passes the remainder of her life in the midst of the children she has suckled1 by whom she is honoured and cherished as a second mother4 ,in many parts of ,hindostan are mosques and mausoleums1 built by the ,mohammedan princes1 near the sepulchres of their nurses4 ,they are excited by a grateful affection to erect these structures in memory of those who with maternal anxiety watched over their helpless infancy3 thus it has been from time immemorial4 ,,oak4 ,the religious veneration paid to this tree1 by the original natives of our island in the time of the ,druids1 is well known to every reader of ,british history4 ,we have reason to think that this veneration was brought from the east2 and that the ,druids did no more than transfer the sentiments their progenitors had received in oriental countries4 ,it should appear that the ,patriarch ,abraham resided under an oak1 or a grove of oaks1 which our translators render the plain of ,mamre2 and that he planted a grove of this tree1 ,gen4 xiii1 #ah4 ,in fact1 since in hot countries nothing is more desirable than shade1 nothing more refreshing than the shade of a tree1 we may easily suppose the inhabitants would resort for such enjoyment to ,where'er the oak's thick branches spread ,a deeper1 darker shade4 ,oaks1 and groves of oaks1 were esteemed proper places for religious services2 altars were set up under them1 ,joshua xxiv1 #bf2 and1 probably1 in the east as well as in the west1 appointments to meet at conspicuous oaks were made1 and many affairs were transacted or treated of under their shade1 as we read in ,homer1 ,theocritus and other poets4 ,it was common among the ,hebrews to sit under oaks1 ,judges vi1 #aa2 #a ,kings xiii1 #ad4 ,jacob buried idolatrous images under an oak1 ,gen4 xxxv1 #d2 and ,deborah1 ,rebekah's nurse1 was buried under one of these trees1 ,genesis xxxv1 #h4 ,see #a ,chron4 x1 #ab4 ,abimelech was made king under an oak1 ,judges ix1 #f4 ,idolatry was practised under oaks1 ,isaiah i1 #bi2 lvii1 #e2 ,hosea iv1 #ac4 ,idols were made of oaks1 ,isa4 xliv1 #ad4 ,,oath1 a solemn invocation of a superior power1 admitted to be acquainted with all the secrets of our hearts1 with our inward thoughts as well as our outward actions1 to witness the truth of what we assert1 and to inflict his vengeance upon us if we assert what is not true1 or promise what we do not mean to perform4 ,almost all nations1 whether savage or civilized1 whether enjoying the light of revelation or led only by the light of reason1 knowing the importance of truth1 and willing to obtain a barrier against falsehood1 have had recourse to oaths1 by which they have endeavoured to make men fearful of uttering lies1 under the dread of an avenging ,deity4 ,among ,christians1 an oath is a solemn appeal for the truth of our assertions1 the sincerity of our promises1 and the fidelity of our engagements1 to the one only ,god1 the ,judge of the whole earth1 who is every where present1 and sees1 and hears1 and knows1 whatever is said1 or done1 or thought in any part of the world4 ,such is that ,being whom ,christians1 when they take an oath1 invoke to bear testimony to the truth of their words1 and the integrity of their hearts4 ,surely1 then1 if oaths be a matter of so much moment1 it well behoves us not to treat them with levity1 nor ever to take them without due consideration4 ,hence we ought1 with the utmost vigilance1 to abstain from mingling oaths in our ordinary discourse1 and from associating the name of ,god with low or disgusting images1 or using it on trivial occasions1 as not only a profane levity in itself1 but tending to destroy that reverence for the supreme ,majesty which ought to prevail in society1 and to dwell in our own hearts4 ,the forms of oaths10 says ,dr4 ,paley1 like other religious ceremonies1 have in all ages been various2 consisting1 however1 for the most part of some bodily action1 and of a prescribed form of words40 ,among the ,jews1 the juror held up his right hand toward heaven1 ,psalm cxliv1 #h2 ,rev4 x1 #e4 ,the same form is retained in ,scotland still4 ,among the ,jews1 also1 an oath of fidelity was taken by the servant's putting his hand under the thigh of his lord1 ,genesis xxiv1 #b4 ,among the ,greeks and ,romans1 the form varied with the subject and occasion of the oath3 in private contracts1 the parties took hold of each other's hands1 while they swore to the performance2 or they touched the altar of the god by whose divinity they swore3 upon more solemn occasions1 it was the custom to slay a victim2 and the beast being struck down with certain ceremonies and invocations1 gave birth to the expression1 ferire pactum2 and to our ,english phrase1 translated from this1 of striking a bargain40 ,the form of oaths in ,christian countries is also very different2 but in no country in the world worse contrived1 either to convey the meaning or impress the obligation of an oath1 than in our own4 ,the juror with us1 after repeating the promise or affirmation which the oath is intended to confirm1 adds1 ,so help me ,god20 or1 more frequently1 the substance of the oath is repeated to the juror by the magistrate1 who adds in the conclusion1 ,so help you ,god40 ,the energy of this sentence resides in the particle so3 ,so1 that is1 hc lege1 upon condition of my speaking the truth1 or performing this promise1 and not otherwise1 may ,god help me6 ,the juror1 while he hears or repeats the words of the oath1 holds his right hand upon a ,bible1 or other book containing the ,gospels1 and at the conclusion kisses the book4 ,this obscure and elliptical form1 together with the levity and frequency of them1 has brought about a general inadvertency to the obligation of oaths1 which1 both in a religious and political view1 is much to be lamented2 and it merits public consideration1 whether the requiring of oaths upon so many frivolous occasions1 especially in the customs1 and in the qualification for petty offices1 has any other effect than to make such sanctions cheap in the minds of the people4 ,a pound of tea cannot travel regularly from the ship to the consumer1 without costing half a dozen oaths at least2 and the same security for the due discharge of their office1 namely1 that of an oath1 is required from a churchwarden and an archbishop2 from a petty constable and the chief justice of ,england4 ,oaths1 however1 are lawful2 and1 whatever be the form1 the signification is the same4 ,historians have justly remarked1 that when the reverence for an oath began to diminish among the ,romans1 and the loose epicurean system1 which discarded the belief of providence1 was introduced1 the ,roman honour and prosperity from that period began to decline4 ,the ,quakers refuse to swear upon any occasion1 founding their scruples concerning the lawfulness of oaths upon our ,saviour's prohibition1 ,swear not at all10 ,matt4 v1 #cd4 ,but it seems our ,lord there referred to the vicious1 wanton1 and unauthorized swearing in common discourse1 and not to judicial oaths2 for he himself answered1 when interrogated1 upon oath1 ,matt4 xxvi1 #fc1 #fd2 ,mark xiv1 #fa4 ,the ,apostle ,paul also makes use of expressions which contain the nature of oaths1 ,romans i1 #i2 #a ,cor4 xv1 #ca2 #b ,cor4 i1 #ah2 ,gal4 i1 #bj2 ,heb4 vi1 #ac-ag4 ,the administration of oaths supposes that ,god will punish false swearing with more severity than a simple lie1 or breach of promise2 for which belief there are the following reasons3 #a4 ,perjury is a sin of greater deliberation4 #b4 ,it violates a superior confidence4 #c4 ,god directed the ,israelites to swear by his name1 ,deut4 vi1 #ac2 x1 #bj2 and was pleased to confirm his covenant with that people by an oath2 neither of which1 it is probable1 he would have done1 had he not intended to represent oaths as having some meaning and effect beyond the obligation of a bare promise4 ,,obadiah the prophet is thought to have been the same as the governor of ,ahab's house1 #a ,kings xviii1 #c1 c2 and some are of opinion1 he was that ,obadiah whom ,josiah made overseer of the works of the temple1 #b ,chron4 xxxiv1 #ab4 ,indeed1 the age in which this prophet lived is very uncertain4 ,some think that he was contemporary with ,hosea1 ,amos1 and ,joel2 while others are of opinion that he lived in the time of ,jeremiah and ,ezekiel1 and that he delivered his prophecy about ,b4 ,c4 #ehe1 soon after the destruction of ,jerusalem by ,nebuchadnezzar4 ,his book1 which consists of a single chapter1 is written with great beauty and elegance1 and contains predictions of the utter destruction of the ,edomites1 and of the future restoration and prosperity of the ,jews4 ,,obed-,,edom1 son of ,jeduthun1 a ,levite1 #a ,chron4 xvi1 #ch1 and the father of ,shemaiah and others1 #a ,chron4 xvi1 #e4 ,we learn that the ,lord blessed this man exceedingly1 on account of the ark resting under his roof1 #b ,sam4 vi1 #aj1 #aa4 ,david having removed the ark to the place he had previously prepared for its reception1 ,obed-,edom and his sons were appointed to be keepers of the doors of the temple1 #a ,chron4 xv1 #ah1 #ba4 ,obed-,edom is called the ,gittite1 probably because he was of ,gathrimmon1 a city of the ,levites beyond ,jordan1 ,joshua xxi1 #bd1 #be4 ,,oded1 a prophet of the ,lord1 who1 being at ,samaria when the ,israelites of the ten tribes returned from the war with their ,king ,pekah1 together with two hundred thousand of the people of ,judah1 whom they had taken captive1 went out to meet them2 and through his remonstrances the captives were liberated1 #b ,chron4 xxviii4 ,this circumstance is all that is recorded concerning ,oded4 ,,offerings4 ,among the ,jews1 under the ,mosaic law1 a variety of offerings of different kinds were appointed1 which are accurately and fully described in the beginning of the book of ,leviticus4 ,burnt-offerings1 or holocausts1 sacrifices in which the victims were wholly consumed1 were expiatory1 and more ancient than any others1 and were1 for that reason1 held in special honour4 ,it was in consideration of these circumstances that ,moses gave precepts in regard to this kind of sacrifices first1 ,lev4 i1 #c4 ,holocausts might be offered by means of the ,hebrew priests1 when brought by the ,heathen1 or those who had originated from another nation2 such persons being unable to offer sin or trespass-offerings1 since this sort of sacrifices had particular reference to some neglect or violation of the ,mosaic law1 by whose authority they did not acknowledge themselves bound4 ,holocausts were expiatory1 and we accordingly find that they were offered sometimes for the whole people2 for instance1 the morning and the evening sacrifices2 and sometimes by an individual for himself alone1 either from the free impulse of his feelings1 or in fulfilment of a vow1 ,psalm li1 #ai2 lxvi1 #ac1 #ad4 ,they were required to be offered under certain combinations of circumstances pointed out in the ,mosaic laws2 namely1 by a ,nazarite1 who had been unexpectedly rendered unclean1 or who had completed the days of his separation1 ,num4 vi1 #aa-af2 by those who had been healed of leprosy2 and by women after child-birth1 ,lev4 xii1 #f1 #h4 ,the victims immolated at a holocaust were bullocks of three years old1 goats and lambs of a year old1 turtle doves1 and young pigeons4 ,not only the parts which were expressly destined for the altar1 but also the other parts of the victims1 were burned4 ,a libation of wine was poured out upon the altar4 ,it was the practice among the ,gentile nations1 7an allusion to which occurs in ,phil4 ii1 #ag1 and #b ,tim4 iv1 #f17 to pour the wine out between the horns of the victims which they immolated to their idols4 ,the priest partially wrung or cut off the heads of the turtle doves and young pigeons1 sprinkled the blood on the side of the altar1 plucked out the feathers and the crop1 and cast them to the east of the altar into the place for the reception of ashes1 and placed the remainder1 after having cleft or broken the wings1 upon the fire1 ,lev4 i1 #c-ag4 ,drink-offerings4 ,with a bullock1 half a hin of wine1 with three-tenth deals of flour1 and half a hin of oil4 ,with a ram1 one-third of a hin of wine1 with two-tenth deals of flour1 and one-third of a hin of oil4 ,with a lamb or a kid of the goats1 one quarter of a hin of wine1 one-tenth deal of flour1 and one quarter of a hin of oil4 ,with a sheaf of the first-fruits1 one quarter of a hin of wine1 one-tenth deal of flour1 with oil4 ,meat-offerings4 ,these1 like the drink-offerings1 were appendages to the sacrifices4 ,they were of thin cakes or wafers4 ,in some instances they were offered alone4 ,heave-offerings4 ,so called from the sacrifice being lifted up toward heaven1 in token of its being devoted to ,jehovah4 ,peace-offerings4 ,bullocks1 heifers1 goats1 rams1 and sheep1 were the only animals sacrificed on these occasions1 ,lev4 iii1 #a-ag2 vii1 #bc-bg4 ,these sacrifices1 which were offered as an indication of gratitude1 were accompanied with unleavened cakes1 covered with oil1 by pouring it upon them2 with thin cakes or wafers1 likewise unleavened1 and besmeared with oil2 also with another kind of cakes1 made of fine meal1 and kneaded with oil4 ,the priest1 who sprinkled the blood1 presented one of each of these kinds of cakes as an offering1 ,lev4 vii1 #aa-ad1 #bh-ce4 ,the remainder of the animal substance and of the cakes was converted by the person who made the offering into an entertainment1 to which widows1 orphans1 the poor1 slaves1 and ,levites were invited4 ,what was not eaten on the day of the offering might be reserved till the succeeding2 but that which remained till the third was to be burned3 a regulation which was made in order to prevent the omission or putting off of the season of this benevolence and joy1 ,lev4 vii1 #ae-ba2 ,deut4 xii1 #ah4 ,this feast could be celebrated beyond the limits of the tabernacle1 or temple1 but not beyond the city4 ,sin-offerings were for expiation of particular sins1 or legal imperfections1 called therefore sin-offerings3 the first sort were for sins of ignorance or surprise1 either from the high priest1 or body of the community1 from the rulers1 or any one of the common people4 ,the other sort of sin-offerings were for voluntary sins2 but as to the more capital violations of the moral law1 as murder1 adultery1 or the worship of idols1 no expiatory sacrifice was admitted4 ,trespass-offerings were not required of the people as a body4 ,they were to be offered by individuals1 who1 through ignorance1 mistake1 or want of reflection1 had neglected some of the ceremonial precepts of ,moses1 or some of those natural laws1 which had been introduced into his code1 and sanctioned with the penalty of death2 and who were subsequently conscious of their error4 ,the person who1 being sworn as a witness1 concealed the truth by keeping silent2 the man who1 having become contaminated without knowing it1 had omitted purification1 but had afterward become acquainted with the fact2 the person who had rashly sworn to do a thing1 and had not done it2 all these delinquents offered a lamb or kid1 or1 in case of poverty1 two doves or young pigeons1 the one for a trespass1 the other for a sin-offering4 ,in case the person was unusually poor1 he was required to offer merely the tenth part of an ephah of fine meal1 without oil or frankincense1 ,lev4 iii1 #a-af4 ,whoever appropriated to himself any thing consecrated1 or any thing that was promised1 or found1 or stolen1 or deposited in his possession for keeping2 whoever swore falsely1 or omitted to restore the goods that belonged to another1 or injured him in any other way1 presented for his trespass a ram1 which had been submitted to the estimation of the priest1 and not only made restitution1 but allowed an additional amount of a fifth part by way of indemnification4 ,he who had committed fornication with a betrothed bondmaid1 previously to her being redeemed from servitude1 offered a ram for the trespass1 ,lev4 xix1 #bj-bb4 ,nazarites1 who had been unexpectedly rendered unclean1 presented a lamb of a year old1 ,num4 vi1 #aa4 ,finally1 lepers1 when restored to health1 and purified1 sacrificed a ram1 ,lev4 xiv1 #aj-ad4 ,the ceremonies were the same as in the sin-offerings4 ,wave-offering4 ,it was so called1 because it was waved up and down1 and toward the east1 west1 north1 and south1 to signify1 that he to whom it was offered was ,lord of the universe1 the ,god who fills all space1 and to whom all things of right belong4 ,see ,,sacrifices4 ,,og1 a king of ,bashan2 being a giant of the race of the ,rephaim4 ,moses records the conquest of ,og1 and his destruction4 ,after which his country was given to the tribe of ,reuben1 ,gad1 and the half tribe of ,manasseh1 ,num4 xxi1 #cc4 ,see ,,giants4 ,,oil1 4 ,the invention and use of oil is of the highest antiquity4 ,it is said that ,jacob poured oil upon the pillar which he erected at ,bethel1 ,gen4 xxviii1 #ah4 ,the earliest kind was that which is extracted from olives4 ,before the invention of mills1 this was obtained by pounding them in a mortar1 ,exod4 xxvii1 #bj2 and sometimes by treading them with the feet in the same manner as were grapes1 ,deut4 xxxiii1 #bd2 ,micah vi1 #ae4 ,the ,hebrews used common oil with their food1 in their meat-offerings1 for burning in their lamps1 c4 ,as vast quantities of oil were made by the ancient ,jews1 it became an article of exportation4 ,the great demand for it in ,egypt led the ,jews to send it thither4 ,the ,prophet ,hosea thus upbraids his degenerate nation with the servility and folly of their conduct3 ,ephraim feedeth on wind1 and followeth after the east wind2 he daily increaseth falsehood and vanity3 and a league is made with ,assyria1 and oil carried into ,egypt10 ,hosea xii1 #a4 ,the ,israelites1 in the decline of their national glory1 carried the produce of their olive plantations into ,egypt as a tribute to their ancient oppressors1 or as a present to conciliate their favour1 and obtain their assistance in the sanguinary wars which they were often compelled to wage with the neighbouring states4 ,there was an unguent1 very precious and sacred1 used in anointing the priests1 the tabernacle1 and furniture4 ,this was compounded of spicy drugs2 namely1 myrrh1 sweet cinnamon1 sweet calamus1 and cassia1 mixed with oil olive4 ,,olive ,,tree1 1 1 ,matt4 xxi1 #a2 ,rom4 xi1 #ag1 #bd2 ,james iii1 #ab2 1 oleaster1 the wild olive1 ,rom4 xi1 #ag1 #bd4 ,tournefort mentions eighteen kinds of olives2 but in the ,scripture we only read of the cultivated and wild olive4 ,the cultivated olive is of a moderate height1 and thrives best in a sunny and warm soil4 ,its trunk is knotty2 its bark is smooth1 and of an ash colour2 its wood is solid1 and yellowish2 its leaves are oblong1 and almost like those of the willow1 of a dark green colour on the upper side1 and a whitish below4 ,in the month of ,june it puts forth white flowers1 growing in bunches1 each of one piece1 and widening toward the top1 and dividing into four parts4 ,after this flower succeeds the fruit1 which is oblong and plump4 ,it is first green1 then pale1 and1 when quite ripe1 becomes black4 ,within it is enclosed a hard stone1 filled with oblong seeds4 ,the wild olives were of a less kind4 ,canaan much abounded with olives4 ,it seems almost every proprietor1 whether kings or subjects1 had their olive yards4 ,the olive branch was1 from most ancient times1 used as the symbol of reconciliation and peace4 ,,olives4 ,the ,mount of ,olives was situated to the east of ,jerusalem1 and divided from the city only by the brook ,kidron1 and by the valley of ,jehoshaphat1 which stretches out from the north to the south4 ,it was upon this mount that ,solomon built temples to the gods of the ,ammonites1 #a ,kings xi1 #g1 and the ,moabites1 out of complaisance to his wives of those nations4 ,hence it is that the ,mount of ,olives is called the mountain of corruption1 #b ,kings xxiii1 #ac4 ,the ,mount of ,olives forms part of a ridge of limestone hills1 extending to the north and the south west4 ,pococke describes it as having four summits4 ,on the lowest and most northerly of these1 which1 he tells us1 is called ,sulman ,tashy1 the stone of ,solomon1 there is a large domed sepulchre1 and several other ,mohammedan tombs4 ,the ascent to this point1 which is to the north-east of the city1 he describes as very gradual1 through pleasant corn fields1 planted with olive trees4 ,the second summit is that which overlooks the city3 the path to it rises from the ruined gardens of ,gethsemane1 which occupy part of the valley4 ,about half way up the ascent is a ruined monastery1 built1 as the monks tell us1 on the spot where our ,saviour wept over ,jerusalem4 ,from this point1 the spectator enjoys1 perhaps1 the best view of the holy city4 ,on reaching the summit1 an extensive view is obtained toward the east1 embracing the fertile plain of ,jericho1 watered by the ,jordan1 and the ,dead ,sea1 enclosed by mountains of considerable grandeur4 ,here there is a small village1 surrounded by some tolerable corn land4 ,this summit is not relatively high1 and would more properly be termed a hill than a mountain3 it is not above two miles distant from ,jerusalem4 ,at a short distance from the summit is shown the supposed print of our ,saviour's left foot2 ,chateaubriand says the mark of the right was once visible1 and ,bernard de ,breidenbach saw it in #adhc6 ,this is the spot fixed upon by the mother of ,constantine1 as that from which our ,lord ascended1 and over which she accordingly erected a church and monastery1 the ruins of which still remain4 ,pococke describes the building which was standing in his time1 as a small ,gothic chapel1 round within1 and octagonal without1 and tells us that it was converted into a mosque4 ,the ,turks1 for a stipulated sum1 permit the ,christian pilgrims to take an impression of the foot print in wax or plaster1 to carry home4 ,twice10 says ,dr4 ,richardson1 ,i visited this memorable spot2 and each time it was crowded with devout pilgrims1 taking casts of the holy vestige4 ,they had to purchase permission of the ,turks2 but1 had it not been in the possession of the ,turks1 they would have had to purchase it from the more mercenary and not less merciless ,romans or ,greeks40 ,on ascension eve1 the ,christians come and encamp in the court1 and that night they perform the offices of the ascension4 ,here1 however1 as with regard to ,calvary and almost all the supposed sacred places1 superstition has blindly followed the blind4 ,that this is not the place of the ascension1 is certain from the words of ,st4 ,luke1 who says that our ,lord led out his disciples as far as ,bethany1 and lifted up his hands1 and blessed them4 ,and it came to pass1 while he blessed them1 he was parted from them1 and carried up to heaven10 ,acts i4 ,bethany is a small village to the east of the ,mount of ,olives1 on the road to ,jericho1 not farther from ,jerusalem than the pinnacle of the hill4 ,there are two roads to it2 one passes over the ,mount of ,olives2 the other1 which is the shorter and easier1 winds round the eastern end1 having the greater part of the hill on the north or left hand1 and on the right the elevation called by some writers the ,mount of ,offence1 which is1 however1 very little above the valley of ,jehoshaphat4 ,the village of ,bethany is small and poor1 and the cultivation of the soil is much neglected2 but it is a pleasant and somewhat romantic spot1 sheltered by ,mount ,olivet on the north1 and abounding with trees and long grass4 ,the inhabitants are ,arabs4 ,the olive is still found growing in patches at the foot of the mount to which it gives its name2 and as a spontaneous produce1 uninterruptedly resulting from the original growth of this part of the mountain1 it is impossible10 says ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke1 to view even these trees with indifference40 ,titus cut down all the wood in the neighbourhood of ,jerusalem2 but there would seem to have been constantly springing up a succession of these hardy trees4 ,it is truly a curious and interesting fact10 adds the learned traveller1 that1 during a period of little more than two thousand years1 ,hebrews1 ,assyrians1 ,romans1 ,moslems1 and ,christians1 have been successively in possession of the rocky mountains of ,palestine2 yet1 the olive still vindicates its paternal soil1 and is found1 at this day1 upon the same spot which was called by the ,hebrew writers ,mount ,olivet and the ,mount of ,olives1 eleven centuries before the ,christian era10 #b ,sam4 xv1 #cj2 ,zech4 xiv1 #d4 ,,omega1 the last letter in the ,greek alphabet1 ,rev4 i1 #h2 a title of ,christ4 ,,omnipotence4 ,see ,,almighty4 ,,omnipresence1 that attribute of ,god by which he is present in all places4 ,the statement of this doctrine in the inspired records1 like that of all the other attributes of ,god1 is made in their own peculiar tone and emphasis of majesty and sublimity4 ,whither shall ,i go from thy ,spirit1 or whither shall ,i flee from thy presence8 ,if ,i ascend up to heaven1 thou art there2 if ,i make my bed in hell1 behold thou art there2 if ,i take the wings of the morning1 and dwell in the uttermost parts of the sea1 even there shall thy hand lead me1 and thy right hand shall hold me4 ,can any hide himself in secret places that ,i shall not see him8 ,do not ,i fill heaven and earth1 saith the ,lord8 ,am ,i a ,god at hand1 saith the ,lord1 and not a ,god afar off80 8,thus saith the ,lord1 ,behold1 heaven is my throne1 and the earth is my footstool40 ,behold1 heaven1 and the heaven of heavens cannot contain thee40 8,though he dig into hell1 thence shall my hand take him2 though he climb up into heaven1 thence will ,i bring him down2 and though he hide himself in the top of ,carmel1 ,i will search and take him out from thence40 ,in him we live1 and move1 and have our being40 8,he filleth all things40 ,some striking passages on the ubiquity of the divine presence may be found in the writings of some of the ,greek philosophers1 arising out of this notion1 that ,god was the soul of the world2 but their very connection with this speculation1 notwithstanding the imposing phrase occasionally adopted1 strikingly marks the difference between their most exalted views1 and those of the ,hebrew prophets on this subject4 ,to a large proportion of those who hold a distinguished rank among the ancient theistical philosophers1 the idea of the personality of the ,deity was in a great measure unknown4 ,the ,deity by them was considered not so much an intelligent ,being1 as an animating power1 diffused throughout the world1 and was introduced into their speculative system to account for the motion of that passive mass of matter1 which was supposed coval1 and indeed coxistent1 with himself4 ,these defective notions are confessed by ,gibbon1 a writer not disposed to undervalue their attainments3 ,the philosophers of ,greece deduced their morals from the nature of man1 rather than from that of ,god4 ,they meditated1 however1 on the divine nature1 as a very curious and important speculation2 and1 in the profound inquiry1 they displayed the strength and weakness of the human understanding4 ,of the four most considerable sects1 the ,stoics and the ,platonicians endeavoured to reconcile the jarring interests of reason and piety4 ,they have left us the most sublime proofs of the existence and perfections of the ,first ,cause2 but as it was impossible for them to conceive the creation of matter1 the workman1 in the ,stoic philosophy1 was not sufficiently distinguished from the work2 while1 on the contrary1 the spiritual god of ,plato and his disciples resembled more an idea than a substance40 ,similar errors have been revived in the infidel philosophy of modern times1 from ,spinoza down to the later offspring of the ,german and ,french schools4 ,the same remark applies also to the oriental philosophy1 which presents at this day a perfect view of the boasted wisdom of ancient ,greece1 which was brought to nought0 by the foolishness0 of apostolic preaching4 ,but in the ,scriptures there is nothing confused in the doctrine of the divine ubiquity4 ,god is every where1 but he is not every thing4 ,all things have their being in him1 but he is distinct from all things2 he fills the universe1 but is not mingled with it4 ,he is the intelligence which guides1 and the power which sustains2 but his personality is preserved1 and he is independent of the works of his hands1 however vast and noble4 ,so far is his presence from being bounded by the universe itself1 that1 as we are taught in the passage above quoted from the ,psalms1 were it possible for us to wing our way into the immeasurable depths and breadths of space1 ,god would there surround us1 in as absolute a sense as that in which he is said to be about our bed and our path in that part of the world where his will has placed us4 ,on this1 as on all similar subjects1 the ,scriptures use terms which are taken in their common-sense acceptation among mankind2 and though the vanity of the human mind disposes many to seek a philosophy in the doctrine thus announced deeper than that which its popular terms convey1 we are bound to conclude1 if we would pay but a common respect to an admitted revelation1 that1 where no manifest figure of speech occurs1 the truth of the doctrine lies in the tenor of the terms by which it is expressed4 ,otherwise there would be no revelation1 we do not say of the modus1 manner1 7for that is confessedly incomprehensible17 but of the fact4 ,in the case before us1 the terms presence and place are used according to common notions2 and must be so taken1 if the ,scriptures are intelligible4 ,metaphysical refinements are not ,scriptural doctrines1 when they give to the terms chosen by the ,holy ,spirit an acceptation out of their general and proper use1 and make them the signs of a perfectly distinct class of ideas2 if1 indeed1 all distinctness of idea is not lost in the attempt4 ,it is therefore in the popular and just1 because ,scriptural1 manner1 that we are to conceive of the omnipresence of ,god4 ,if we reflect upon ourselves1 we may observe that we fill but a small space1 and that our knowledge or power reaches but a little way4 ,we can act at one time in one place only1 and the sphere of our influence is narrow at largest4 ,would we be witnesses to what is done at any distance from us1 or exert there our active powers1 we must remove ourselves thither4 ,for this reason we are necessarily ignorant of a thousand things which pass around us1 incapable of attending and managing any great variety of affairs1 or performing at the same time any number of actions1 for our own good1 or for the benefit of others4 ,although we feel this to be the present condition of our being1 and the limited state of our intelligent and active powers1 yet we can easily conceive there may exist beings more perfect1 and whose presence may extend far and wide3 any one of whom1 present in what are to us various places1 at the same time1 may know at once what is done in all these1 and act in all of them2 and thus be able to regard and direct a variety of affairs at the same instant3 and who farther being qualified1 by the purity and activity of their nature1 to pass from one place to another1 with great ease and swiftness1 may thus fill a large sphere of action1 direct a great variety of affairs1 confer a great number of benefits1 and observe a multitude of actions at the same time1 or in so swift a succession as to us would appear but one instant4 ,thus perfect we may readily believe the angels of ,god4 ,we can farther conceive this extent of presence1 and of ability for knowledge and action1 to admit of degrees of ascending perfection approaching to infinite4 ,and when we have thus raised our thoughts to the idea of a being1 who is not only present throughout a large empire1 but throughout our world2 and not only in every part of our world1 but in every part of all the numberless suns and worlds which roll in the starry heavens1--who is not only able to enliven and actuate the plants1 animals1 and men who live upon this globe1 but countless varieties of creatures every where in an immense universe1--yea1 whose presence is not confined to the universe1 immeasurable as that is by any finite mind1 but who is present every where in infinite space2 and who is therefore able to create still new worlds1 and fill them with proper inhabitants1 attend1 supply1 and govern them all1--when we have thus gradually raised and enlarged our conceptions1 we have the best idea we can form of the universal presence of the great ,jehovah1 who filleth heaven and earth4 ,there is no part of the universe1 no portion of space1 uninhabited by ,god2 none wherein this ,being of perfect power1 wisdom1 and benevolence is not essentially present4 ,could we with the swiftness of a sun beam dart ourselves beyond the limits of the creation1 and for ages continue our progress in infinite space1 we should still be surrounded with the divine presence2 nor ever be able to reach that space where ,god is not4 ,his presence also penetrates every part of our world2 the most solid parts of the earth cannot exclude it2 for it pierces as easily the centre of the globe as the empty air4 ,all creatures live and move and have their being in him4 ,and the inmost recesses of the human heart can no more exclude his presence1 or conceal a thought from his knowledge1 than the deepest caverns of the earth4 ,the illustrations and confirmatory proofs of this doctrine which the material world furnishes1 are numerous and striking4 ,it is a most evident and acknowledged truth that a being cannot act where it is not3 if1 therefore1 actions and effects1 which manifest the highest wisdom1 power1 and goodness in the author of them1 are continually produced every where1 the author of these actions1 or ,god1 must be continually present with us1 and wherever he thus acts4 ,the matter which composes the world is evidently lifeless and thoughtless3 it must therefore be incapable of moving itself1 or designing or producing any effects which require wisdom or power4 ,the matter of our world1 or the small parts which constitute the air1 the earth1 and the waters1 is yet continually moved1 so as to produce effects of this kind2 such are the innumerable herbs1 and trees1 and fruits which adorn the earth1 and support the countless millions of creatures who inhabit it4 ,there must therefore be constantly present1 all over the earth1 a most wise1 mighty1 and good ,being1 the author and director of these motions4 ,we cannot1 it is true1 see him with our bodily eyes1 because he is a pure ,spirit2 yet this is not any proof that he is not present4 ,a judicious discourse1 a series of kind actions1 convince us of the presence of a friend1 a person of prudence and benevolence4 ,we cannot see the present mind1 the seat and principle of these qualities2 yet the constant regular motion of the tongue1 the hand1 and the whole body1 7which are the instruments of our souls1 as the material universe and all the various bodies in it are the instruments of the ,deity17 will not suffer us to doubt that there is an intelligent and benevolent principle within the body which produces all these skilful motions and kind actions4 ,the sun1 the air1 the earth1 and the waters1 are no more able to move themselves1 and produce all that beautiful and useful variety of plants1 and fruits1 and trees1 with which our earth is covered1 than the body of a man1 when the soul hath left it1 is able to move itself1 form an instrument1 plough a field1 or build a house4 ,if the laying out judiciously and well cultivating a small estate1 sowing it with proper grain at the best time of the year1 watering it in due season and quantities1 and gathering in the fruits when ripe1 and laying them up in the best manner1--if all these effects prove the estate to have a manager1 and the manager possessed of skill and strength1--certainly the enlightening and warming the whole earth by the sun1 and so directing its motion and the motion of the earth as to produce in a constant useful succession day and night1 summer and winter1 seed time and harvest2 the watering the earth continually by the clouds1 and thus bringing forth immense quantities of herbage1 grain1 and fruits1--certainly all these effects continually produced1 must prove that a ,being of the greatest power1 wisdom1 and benevolence is continually present throughout our world1 which he thus supports1 moves1 actuates1 and makes fruitful4 ,the fire which warms us knows nothing of its serviceableness to this purpose1 nor of the wise laws according to which its particles are moved to produce this effect4 ,and that it is placed in such a part of the house1 where it may be greatly beneficial and no way hurtful1 is ascribed without hesitation to the contrivance and labour of a person who knew its proper place and uses4 ,and if we came daily into a house wherein we saw this was regularly done1 though we never saw an inhabitant in it1 we could not doubt that the house was occupied by a rational inhabitant4 ,that huge globe of fire in the heavens1 which we call the sun1 and on the light and influences of which the fertility of our world1 and the life and pleasure of all animals1 depend1 knows nothing of its serviceableness to these purposes1 nor of the wise laws according to which its beams are dispensed1 nor what place or motions were requisite for these beneficial purposes4 ,yet its beams are darted constantly in infinite numbers1 every one according to those well chosen laws1 and its proper place and motion are maintained4 ,must not1 then1 its place be appointed1 its motion regulated1 and beams darted1 by almighty wisdom and goodness1 which prevent the sun's ever wandering in the boundless spaces of the heavens1 so as to leave us in disconsolate cold and darkness1 or coming so near1 or emitting his rays in such a manner1 as to burn us up8 ,must not the great ,being who enlightens and warms us by the sun1 his instrument1 who raises and sends down the vapours1 brings forth and ripens the grain and fruits1 and who is thus ever acting around us for our benefit1 be always present in the sun1 throughout the air1 and all over the earth1 which he thus moves and actuates8 ,this earth is in itself a dead1 motionless mass1 and void of all counsel2 yet proper parts of it are continually raised through the small pipes which compose the bodies of plants and trees1 and are made to contribute to their growth1 to open and shine in blossoms and leaves1 and to swell and harden into fruit4 ,could blind1 thoughtless particles thus continually keep on their way1 through numberless windings1 without once blundering1 if they were not guided by an unerring hand8 ,can the most perfect human skill from earth and water form one grain1 much more a variety of beautiful and relishing fruits8 ,must not the directing mind1 who does all this constantly1 be most wise1 mighty1 and benevolent8 ,must not the ,being who thus continually exerts his skill and energy around us1 for our benefit1 be confessed to be always present and concerned for our welfare8 ,can these effects be ascribed to any thing below an all-wise and almighty cause8 ,and must not this cause be present wherever he acts8 ,were ,god to speak to us every month from heaven1 and with a voice loud as thunder declare that he observes1 provides for1 and governs us2 this would not be a proof1 in the judgment of sound reason1 by many degrees so valid3 since much less wisdom and power are required to form such sounds in the air1 than to produce these effects2 and to give1 not merely verbal declarations1 but substantial evidences of his presence and care over us4 ,in every part and place of the universe1 with which we are acquainted1 we perceive the exertion of a power1 which we believe1 mediately or immediately1 to proceed from the ,deity4 ,for instance3 in what part or point of space1 that has ever been explored1 do we not discover attraction8 ,in what regions do we not find light8 ,in what accessible portion of our globe do we not meet with gravity1 magnetism1 electricity2 together with the properties also and powers of organized substances1 of vegetable or of animated nature8 ,nay1 farther1 what kingdom is there of nature1 what corner of space1 in which there is any thing that can be examined by us1 where we do not fall upon contrivance and design8 ,the only reflection1 perhaps1 which arises in our minds from this view of the world around us1 is1 that the laws of nature every where prevail2 that they are uniform and universal4 ,but what do we mean by the laws of nature1 or by any law8 ,effects are produced by power1 not by laws4 ,a law cannot execute itself4 ,a law refers us to an agent4 ,the usual argument a priori1 on this attribute of the divine nature1 has been stated as follows2 but1 amidst such a mass of demonstration of a much higher kind1 it cannot be of any great value3--,the ,first ,cause1 the supreme all-perfect ,mind1 as he could not derive his being from any other cause1 must be independent of all other1 and therefore unlimited4 ,he exists by an absolute necessity of nature2 and as all the parts of infinite space are exactly uniform and alike1 for the same reason that he exists in any one part he must exist in all4 ,no reason can be assigned for excluding him from one part1 which would not exclude him from all4 ,but that he is present in some parts of space1 the evident effects of his wisdom1 power1 and benevolence continually produced1 demonstrate beyond all rational doubt4 ,he must therefore be alike present every where1 and fill infinite space with his infinite ,being4 ,among metaphysicians1 it has been matter of dispute1 whether ,god is present every where by an infinite extension of his essence4 ,this is the opinion of ,newton1 ,dr4 ,s4 ,clarke1 and their followers2 others have objected to this notion1 that it might then be said1 ,god is neither in heaven nor in earth1 but only a part of ,god in each4 ,the former opinion1 however1 appears most in harmony with the ,scriptures2 though the term extension1 through the inadequacy of language1 conveys too material an idea4 ,the objection just stated is wholly grounded on notions taken from material objects1 and is therefore of little weight1 because it is not applicable to an immaterial substance4 ,it is best to confess with one who had thought deeply on the subject1 ,there is an incomprehensibleness in the manner of every thing about which no controversy can or ought to be concerned40 ,that we cannot comprehend how ,god is fully1 and completely1 and undividedly present every where1 need not surprise us1 when we reflect that the manner in which our own minds are present with our bodies is as incomprehensible as the manner in which the supreme ,mind is present with every thing in the universe4 ,,omniscience4 ,this attribute of ,god is constantly connected in ,scripture with his omnipresence1 and forms a part of almost every description of that attribute2 for1 as ,god is a ,spirit1 and therefore intelligent1 if he is every where1 if nothing can exclude him1 not even the most solid bodies1 nor the minds of intelligent beings1 then are all things naked and opened to the eyes of him with whom we have to do4 ,where he acts1 he is2 and where he is1 he perceives4 ,he understands and considers things absolutely1 and as they are in their own natures1 powers1 properties1 differences1 together with all the circumstances belonging to them4 ,known unto him are all his works from the beginning of the world10 rather1 1 from1 all eternity2 known1 before they were made1 in their possible1 and known1 now they are made1 in their actual1 existence4 ,lord1 thou hast searched me and known me2 thou knowest my down-sitting and mine uprising1 thou understandest my thought afar off4 ,thou compassest my path and my lying down1 and art acquainted with all my ways4 ,for there is not a word in my tongue1 but lo1 ,o ,lord1 thou knowest it altogether4 ,the darkness hideth not from thee2 but the night shineth as the day4 ,the ways of man are before the eyes of the ,lord1 and he pondereth all his goings2 he searcheth their hearts1 and understandeth every imagination of their thoughts40 ,nor is this perfect knowledge to be confined to men or angels2 it reaches into the state of the dead1 and penetrates the regions of the damned4 ,hell10 hades1 is naked before him2 and destruction10 the seats of destruction1 hath no covering40 ,no limits at all are to be set to this perfection3 ,great is the ,lord1 his understanding is infinite40 ,in ,psalm xciv1 the knowledge of ,god is argued from the communication of it to men3 ,understand1 ye brutish among the people2 and1 ye fools1 when will ye be wise8 ,he that planted the ear1 shall he not hear8 ,he that formed the eye1 shall he not see8 ,he that chastiseth the ,heathen1 shall not he correct8 ,he that teacheth man knowledge1 shall not he know80 ,this argument is as easy as it is conclusive1 obliging all who acknowledge a ,first ,cause1 to admit his perfect intelligence1 or to take refuge in atheism itself4 ,it fetches not the proof from a distance1 but refers us to our bosoms for the constant demonstration that the ,lord is a ,god of knowledge1 and that by him actions are weighed4 ,we find in ourselves such qualities as thought and intelligence1 power and freedom1 c1 for which we have the evidence of consciousness as much as for our own existence4 ,indeed1 it is only by our consciousness of these1 that our existence is known to ourselves4 ,we know1 likewise1 that these are perfections1 and that to have them is better than to be without them4 ,we find also that they have not been in us from eternity4 ,they must1 therefore1 have had a beginning1 and consequently some cause1 for the very same reason that a being beginning to exist in time requires a cause4 ,now this cause1 as it must be superior to its effect1 must have those perfections in a superior degree2 and if it be the ,first ,cause it must have them in an infinite or unlimited degree1 since bounds or limitations1 without a limiter1 would be an effect without a cause4 ,if ,god gives wisdom to the wise1 and knowledge to men of understanding2 if he communicates this perfection to his creatures1 the inference must be that he himself is possessed of it in a much more eminent degree than they2 that his knowledge is deep and intimate1 reaching to the very essence of things1 theirs but slight and superficial2 his clear and distinct1 theirs confused and dark2 his certain and infallible1 theirs doubtful and liable to mistake2 his easy and permanent1 theirs obtained with much pains1 and soon lost again by the defects of memory or age2 his universal and extending to all objects1 theirs short and narrow1 reaching only to some few things1 while that which is wanting cannot be numbered2 and therefore1 as the heavens are higher than the earth1 so1 as the prophet has told us1 are his ways above our ways1 and his thoughts above our thoughts4 ,but his understanding is infinite2 a doctrine which the sacred writers not only authoritatively announce1 but confirm by referring to the wisdom displayed in his works4 ,the only difference between wisdom and knowledge is1 that the former always supposes action1 and action directed to an end4 ,but wherever there is wisdom there must be knowledge2 and as the wisdom of ,god in the creation consists in the formation of things which1 by themselves1 or in combination with others1 shall produce certain effects1 and that in a variety of operation which is to us boundless1 the previous knowledge of the possible qualities and effects inevitably supposes a knowledge which can have no limit4 ,for as creation out of nothing argues a power which is omnipotent2 so the knowledge of the possibilities of things which are not1 7a knowledge which1 from the effect1 we are sure must exist in ,god17 argues that such a ,being must be omniscient4 ,for all things being not only present to him1 but also entirely depending upon him1 and having received both their being itself1 and all their powers and faculties from him2 it is manifest that1 as he knows all things that are1 so he must likewise know all possibilities of things1 that is1 all effects that can be4 ,for1 being himself alone self-existent1 and having alone given to all things all the powers and faculties they are endued with2 it is evident he must of necessity know perfectly what all and each of those powers and faculties1 which are derived wholly from himself1 can possibly produce3 and seeing1 at one boundless view1 all the possible compositions and divisions1 variations and changes1 circumstances and dependencies of things2 all their possible relations one to another1 and their dispositions or fitnesses to certain and respective ends1 he must1 without possibility of error1 know exactly what is best and properest in every one of the infinite possible cases or methods of disposing things2 and understand perfectly how to order and direct the respective means1 to bring about what he so knows to be1 in its kind1 or in the whole1 the best and fittest in the end4 ,this is what we mean by infinite wisdom4 ,on the subject of the divine omniscience1 many fine sentiments are to be found in the writings of ,pagans2 for an intelligent ,first ,cause being in any sense admitted1 it was most natural and obvious to ascribe to him a perfect knowledge of all things4 ,they acknowledge that nothing is hid from ,god1 who is intimate to our minds1 and mingles himself with our very thoughts2 nor were they all unaware of the practical tendency of such a doctrine1 and of the motive it affords to a cautious and virtuous conduct4 ,but among them it was not held1 as by the sacred writers1 in connection with other right views of the divine nature1 which are essential to give to this its full moral effect4 ,not only on this subject does the manner in which the ,scriptures state the doctrine far transcend that of the wisest ,pagan theists2 but the moral of the sentiment is infinitely more comprehensive and impressive4 ,with them it is connected with man's state of trial2 with a holy law1 all the violations of which1 in thought1 word1 and deed1 are both infallibly known1 and strictly marked2 with promises of grace1 and of a mild and protecting government as to all who have sought and found the mercy of ,god in forgiving their sins and admitting them into his family4 ,the wicked are thus reminded1 that their hearts are searched1 and their sins noted2 that the eyes of the ,lord are upon their ways2 and that their most secret works will be brought to light in the day when ,god the witness shall become ,god the judge4 ,but as to the righteous1 the eyes of the ,lord are said to be over them2 that they are kept by him who never slumbers or sleeps2 that he is never far from them2 that his eyes run to and fro throughout the whole earth1 to show himself strong in their behalf2 that foes1 to them invisible1 are seen by his eye1 and controlled by his arm2 and that this great attribute1 so appalling to wicked men1 affords to them1 not only the most influential reason for a perfectly holy temper and conduct1 but the strongest motive to trust1 and joy1 and hope1 amidst the changes and afflictions of the present life4 ,socrates1 as well as other philosophers1 could express themselves well1 so long as they expressed themselves generally1 on this subject4 ,the former could say1 ,let your own frame instruct you4 ,does the mind inhabiting your body dispose and govern it with ease8 ,ought you not then to conclude1 that the universal ,mind with equal ease actuates and governs universal nature2 and that1 when you can at once consider the interest of the ,athenians at home1 in ,egypt1 and in ,sicily1 it is not too much for the divine wisdom to take care of the universe8 ,these reflections will soon convince you1 that the greatness of the divine mind is such1 as at once to see all things1 hear all things1 be present every where1 and direct all the affairs of the world40 ,these views are just1 but they wanted that connection with others relative both to the divine nature and government1 which we see only in the ,bible1 to render them influential2 they neither gave correct moral distinctions nor led to a virtuous practice1 no1 not in ,socrates1 who1 on some subjects1 and especially on the personality of the ,deity1 and his independence on matter1 raised himself far above the rest of his philosophic brethren1 but in moral feeling and practice was perhaps as censurable as they4 ,see ,,prescience4 ,,on1 or ,,aven1 a city of ,egypt1 situated in the land of ,goshen1 on the east of the ,nile1 and about five miles from the modern ,cairo4 ,it was called ,heliopolis by the ,greeks1 and ,bethshemeth by the ,hebrews1 ,jer4 xliii1 #ac2 both of which names1 as well as its ,egyptian one of ,on1 imply the city or house of the sun4 ,the inhabitants of this city are represented by ,herodotus as the wisest of the ,egyptians2 and here ,moses resided1 and received that education which made him learned in all the wisdom of the ,egyptians40 ,but notwithstanding its being the seat of the sciences1 such were its egregious idolatries1 that it was nicknamed ,aven1 or ,beth-,aven1 the house of vanity10 or idolatry1 by the ,jews4 ,a village standing on part of its site1 at the present day1 is called ,matarea2 while the spring of excellent water1 or fountain of the sun1 which is supposed to have given rise to the city1 is still called ,ain ,shems1 or fountain of the sun1 by the ,arabs4 ,this is one of the most ancient cities of the world of which any distinct vestige can now be traced4 ,it was visited eighteen hundred and fifty years ago by ,strabo1 whose description proves it to have been nearly as desolate then as now4 ,most of the ruins of this once famous city1 described by that geographer1 are buried in the accumulation of the soil3 but that which marks its site1 and is1 perhaps1 the most ancient work at this time existing in the world1 in a perfect state1 is a column of red granite1 seventy feet high1 and covered with hieroglyphics4 ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke has given a very good representation of this column2 to whom1 also1 the curious reader is referred for a learned dissertation on the characters engraved upon it4 ,the city ,on1 according to ,josephus1 was given to the ,israelites to dwell in1 when they first went into ,egypt2 and it was a daughter of a priest of the temple of the sun at this place1 who was given in marriage to ,joseph by ,pharaoh4 ,here1 also1 in the time of ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 leave was obtained of that king by ,onias1 high priest of the ,jews1 to build a temple1 when dispossessed of his office by ,antiochus2 which was long used by the ,hellenist ,jews4 ,it was predicted by ,jeremiah1 xliii1 #ac1 and by ,ezekiel1 xxx1 #ag1 that this place1 with its temples and inhabitants1 should be destroyed2 which was probably fulfilled by ,nebuchadnezzar4 ,see ,,noph4 ,,onesimus was a ,phrygian by nation1 a slave to ,philemon1 and a disciple of the ,apostle ,paul4 ,onesimus having run away from his master1 and also having robbed him1 ,philemon v1 #ah1 went to ,rome while ,st4 ,paul was there in prison the first time4 ,as ,onesimus knew him by repute1 7his master ,philemon being a ,christian17 he sought him out4 ,st4 ,paul brought him to a sense of the greatness of his crime1 instructed him1 baptized him1 and sent him back to his master ,philemon with a letter1 inserted among ,st4 ,paul's epistles1 which is universally acknowledged as canonical4 ,this letter had all the good success he could desire4 ,philemon not only received ,onesimus as a faithful servant1 but rather as a brother and a friend4 ,a little time after1 he sent him back to ,rome to ,st4 ,paul1 that he might continue to be serviceable to him in his prison4 ,and we see that after this ,onesimus was employed to carry such epistles as the ,apostle wrote at that time4 ,he carried1 for example1 that which was written to the ,colossians1 while ,st4 ,paul was yet in his bonds4 ,,onesiphorus is mentioned1 #b ,tim4 i1 #af1 #ag1 and highly commended by ,st4 ,paul4 ,,onion1 1 ,num4 xi1 #e2 a well known garden plant with a bulbous root4 ,onions and garlics were highly esteemed in ,egypt2 and not without reason1 this country being admirably adapted to their culture4 ,the allium cepa1 called by the ,arabs basal1 ,hasselquist thinks one of the species of onions for which the ,israelites longed4 ,he would infer this from the quantities still used in ,egypt1 and their goodness4 ,whoever has tasted onions in ,egypt10 says he1 8must allow that none can be had better in any part of the universe4 ,here they are sweet2 in other countries they are nauseous and strong4 ,here they are soft2 whereas in the northern and other parts they are hard1 and their coats so compact that they are difficult of digestion4 ,hence they cannot in any place be eaten with less prejudice1 and more satisfaction1 than in ,egypt40 ,the ,egyptians are reproached with swearing by the leeks and onions of their gardens4 ,juvenal ridicules some of these superstitious people who did not dare to eat leeks1 garlic1 or onions1 for fear of injuring their gods3-- ,quis nescit1 ,volusi ,bythynice1 qualia demens gyptus portenta colit8 ,porrum et cepe nefas violare aut frangere morsu2 ,o sanctas gentes quibus hc nascuntur in hortis ,numina6 ,sat4 xv4 8,how ,egypt1 mad with superstition grown1 ,makes gods of monsters1 but too well is known4 ',tis mortal sin an onion to devour2 ,each clove of garlic has a sacred power4 ,religious nation1 sure6 and blest abodes1 ,where ev'ry garden is o'errun with gods60 ,so ,lucian in his ,jupiter1 where he is giving an account of the different deities worshipped by the several inhabitants of ,egypt1 says1 1 those of ,pelusium worship the onion40 ,hence arises a question1 how the ,israelites durst venture to violate the national worship1 by eating those sacred plants4 ,we may answer1 in the first place1 that whatever might be the case of the ,egyptians in later ages1 it is not probable that they were arrived at such a pitch of superstition in the time of ,moses2 for we find no indications of this in ,herodotus1 the most ancient of the ,greek historians3 secondly1 the writers here quoted appear to be mistaken in imagining these plants to have been generally the objects of religious worship4 ,the priests1 indeed1 abstained from the use of them1 and several other vegetables2 and this might give rise to the opinion of their being reverenced as divinities3 but the use of them was not prohibited to the people1 as is plain from the testimonies of ancient authors1 particularly of ,diodorus ,siculus4 ,,onyx1 1 ,gen4 ii1 #ab2 ,exod4 xxv1 #g2 xxviii1 #i1 #bj2 xxxv1 #bg2 xxxix1 #f2 #a ,chron4 xxix1 #b2 ,job xxviii1 #af2 ,ezekiel xxviii1 #ac4 ,a precious stone1 so called from the ,greek 1 the nail1 to the colour of which it nearly approaches4 ,it is first mentioned with the gold and bdellium of the river ,pison in ,eden2 but the meaning of the ,hebrew word is not easily determined4 ,the ,septuagint render it1 in different places1 the sardius1 beryl1 sapphire1 emerald1 c4 ,such names are often ambiguous1 even in ,greek and ,latin1 and no wonder if they are more so in ,hebrew4 ,in ,exodus xxviii1 #i1 #aj1 a direction is given that two onyx stones should be fastened on the ephod of the high priest1 on which were to be graven the names of the children of ,israel1 like the engravings on a signet2 six of the names on one stone1 and six on the other4 ,in #a ,chron4 xxix1 #b1 onyx stones are among the things prepared by ,david for the temple4 ,the author of ,scripture ,illustrated0 observes1 upon this passage1 that 8the word onyx is equivocal2 signifying1 first1 a precious stone or gem2 and1 secondly1 a marble called in ,greek onychites1 which ,pliny mentions as a stone of ,caramania4 ,antiquity gave both these stones this name1 because of their resemblance to the nail of the fingers4 ,the onyx of the high priest's pectoral was1 no doubt1 the gem onyx2 the stone prepared by ,david was the marble onyx1 or rather onychus2 for one would hardly think that gems of any kind were used externally in such a building1 but variegated marble may readily be admitted40 ,,ophir1 a place or country remote from ,judea1 to which the ships of ,solomon traded4 ,there has been much discussion respecting the situation of this place2 some supposing it to have been the island of ,socotora1 without the straits of ,babelmandel2 others1 that anciently called ,tabrobana1 which is supposed by some to have been ,ceylon1 and by others ,sumatra2 while others fix its situation on the continent of ,india4 ,m4 ,huet and1 after him1 ,bruce1 place ,ophir at ,sofala1 in ,south ,africa1 where mines of gold and silver have been found1 which show marks of having been very anciently and extensively worked4 ,the latter says1 also1 that the situation of this place explains the period of three years which the ,ophir ships were absent1 from the different courses of the monsoons and trade winds1 which they would have to encounter going and returning4 ,ruins of ancient buildings have also been found in the neighbourhood of these mines4 ,in confirmation of this opinion1 ,bruce says there was a place called ,tarshish near ,melinda4 ,in the same direction with ,ophir lay ,tarshish2 the voyage to both places being accomplished under one1 and always1 as it would seem1 in the same space of time1 three years2 by which it may be inferred that1 notwithstanding the imperfect navigation of the times1 they must be at a considerable distance from the ports of ,judea4 ,but the true situation of these places must ever remain matter of conjecture2 and all that can be considered as certain respecting them is1 that from the articles imported from them1 namely1 gold1 silver1 ivory1 apes1 peacocks1 and precious stones1 they must have been situated in the tropical parts of either ,africa or ,asia4 ,,oracle denotes something delivered by supernatural wisdom2 and the term is also used in the ,old ,testament to signify the most holy place from whence the ,lord revealed his will to ancient ,israel1 #a ,kings vi1 #e1 #ai-ba1 #bc4 ,but when the word occurs in the plural number1 as it mostly does1 it denotes the revelations contained in the sacred writings of which the nation of ,israel were the depositaries4 ,so ,moses is said by ,stephen to have received the lively oracles0 to give unto the ,israelites4 ,these oracles contained the law1 both moral and ceremonial1 with all the types and promises relating to the ,messiah which are to be found in the writings of ,moses4 ,they also contained all the intimations of the divine mind which he was pleased to communicate by means of the succeeding prophets who prophesied beforehand of the coming and of the sufferings of the ,messiah with the glory that should follow4 ,the ,jews were a highly privileged people in many and various respects1 ,rom4 ix1 #d1 #e2 but the ,apostle ,paul mentions it as their chief advantage that unto them were committed the oracles of ,god10 ,romans iii1 #b4 ,what nation10 says ,moses1 is there that hath statutes and judgments so righteous as all this law which ,i set before you this day80 ,deut4 iv1 #h4 ,the psalmist ,david enumerates their excellent properties under various epithets2 such as the law of the ,lord1 his testimony1 his statutes1 his commandments1 his judgments1 c4 ,their properties are extolled as perfect1 sure1 right1 pure1 clean1 true1 and righteous altogether2 more to be desired than much fine gold2 sweeter than honey and the honey comb4 ,their salutary effects are all mentioned2 such as their converting the soul1 making wise the simple1 rejoicing the heart1 enlightening the eyes2 and the keeping of them is connected with a great reward1 ,psalm xix4 ,the hundred and nineteenth ,psalm abounds with praises of the lively oracles1 the word of the living ,god2 it abounds with the warmest expressions of love to it1 of delight in it1 and the most fervent petitions for divine illumination in the knowledge of it4 ,such was the esteem and veneration which the faithful entertained for the lively oracles under the former dispensation1 when they had only ,moses and the prophets2 how1 then1 ought they to be prized by ,christians1 who have also ,christ and his ,apostles6 ,among the ,heathen the term oracle is usually taken to signify an answer1 generally couched in very dark and ambiguous terms1 supposed to be given by demons of old1 either by the mouths of their idols1 or by those of their priests1 to the people1 who consulted them on things to come4 ,oracle is also used for the demon who gave the answer1 and the place where it was given4 ,seneca defines oracles to be enunciations by the mouths of men of the will of the gods2 and ,cicero simply calls them1 deorum oratio1 the language of the gods4 ,among the ,pagans they were held in high estimation2 and they were consulted on a variety of occasions pertaining to national enterprises and private life4 ,when they made peace or war1 enacted laws1 reformed states1 or changed the constitution1 they had in all these cases recourse to the oracle by public authority4 ,also1 in private life1 if a man wished to marry1 if he proposed to take a journey1 or to engage in any business of importance1 he repaired to the oracle for counsel4 ,mankind have had always a propensity to explore futurity2 and conceiving that future events were known to their gods1 who possessed the gift of prophecy1 they sought information and advice from the oracles1 which1 in their opinion1 were supernatural and divine communications4 ,the institution of oracles seemed to gratify the prevalent curiosity of mankind1 and proved a source of immense wealth1 as well as authority and influence1 to those who had the command of them4 ,accordingly1 every nation1 in which idolatry has subsisted1 had its oracles1 by means of which imposture practised on superstition and credulity4 ,the principal oracles of antiquity are1 that of ,ab1 mentioned by ,herodotus2 that of ,amphiaraus1 at ,oropus in ,macedonia2 that of the ,branchid at ,didymeum2 that of the camps at ,lacedmon2 that of ,dodona2 that of ,jupiter ,ammon2 that of ,nabarca in the country of the ,anariaci1 near the ,caspian ,sea2 that of ,trophonius1 mentioned by ,herodotus2 that of ,chrysopolis2 that of ,claros1 in ,ionia2 that of ,amphilochus at ,mallos2 that of ,petarea2 that of ,pella in ,macedonia2 that of ,phaselides in ,cilicia2 that of ,sinope in ,paphlagonia2 that of ,orpheus's head at ,lesbos1 mentioned by ,philostratus4 ,but of all oracles1 the oracle of ,apollo ,pythius at ,delphi was the most celebrated2 this was consulted in the dernier resort by most of the princes of those ages4 ,most of the ,pagan deities had their appropriate oracles4 ,apollo had the greatest number3 such as those of ,claros1 of the ,branchid1 of the suburbs of ,daphne at ,antioch1 of ,delos1 of ,argos1 of ,troas1 olis1 c1 of ,bai in ,italy1 and others in ,cilicia1 in ,egypt1 in the ,alps1 in ,thrace1 at ,corinth1 in ,arcadia1 in ,laconia1 and in many other places enumerated by ,van ,dale4 ,jupiter1 beside that of ,dodona and some others1 the honour of which he shared with ,apollo1 had one in ,botia under the name of ,jupiter the ,thunderer1 and another in ,elis1 one at ,thebes and at ,meroe1 one near ,antioch1 and several others4 sculapius was consulted in ,cilicia1 at ,apollonia1 in the isle of ,cos1 at ,epidaurus1 ,pergamos1 ,rome1 and elsewhere4 ,mercury had oracles at ,patras1 upon ,hmon1 and in other places2 ,mars1 in ,thrace1 ,egypt1 and elsewhere2 ,hercules1 at ,cadiz1 ,athens1 in ,egypt1 at ,tivoli1 in ,mesopotamia1 where he issued his oracles by dreams1 whence he was called ,somnialis4 ,isis1 ,osiris1 and ,serapis delivered in like manner their oracles by dreams1 as we learn from ,pausanias1 ,tacitus1 ,arrian1 and other writers2 that of ,amphilochus was also delivered by dreams2 the ox ,apis had also his oracle in ,egypt4 ,the gods1 called ,cabiri1 had their oracle in ,botia4 ,diana1 the sister of ,apollo1 had several oracles in ,egypt1 ,cilicia1 ,ephesus1 c4 ,those of fortune at ,prneste1 and of the lots at ,antium are well known4 ,the fountains also delivered oracles1 for to each of them a divinity was ascribed3 such was the fountain of ,castalia at ,delphi1 another of the same name in the suburbs of ,antioch1 and the prophetic fountain near the temple of ,ceres in ,achaia4 ,juno had several oracles3 one near ,corinth1 one at ,nysa1 and others at different places4 ,latona had one at ,butis in ,egypt2 ,leucothea had one in ,colchis2 ,memnon in ,egypt2 ,machaon at ,gerania in ,laconia2 ,minerva had one in ,egypt1 in ,spain1 upon mount tna1 at ,mycen and ,colchis1 and in other places4 ,those of ,neptune were at ,delphos1 at ,calauria1 near ,neocesarea1 and elsewhere4 ,the nymphs had theirs in the cave of ,corycia4 ,pan had several1 the most famous of which was that in ,arcadia4 ,that of the ,palici was in ,sicily4 ,pluto had one at ,nysa4 ,saturn had oracles in several places1 but the most famous were those of ,cum in ,italy1 and of ,alexandria in ,egypt4 ,those of ,venus were dispersed in several places1 at ,gaza1 upon ,mount ,libanus1 at ,paphos1 in ,cyprus1 c4 ,serapis had one at ,alexandria1 consulted by ,vespasian4 ,venus ,aphacite had one at ,aphaca between ,heliopolis and ,byblus4 ,geryon1 the three-headed monster slain by ,hercules1 had an oracle in ,italy near ,padua1 consulted by ,tiberius2 that of ,hercules was at ,tivoli1 and was given by lots1 like those of ,prneste and ,antium4 ,the demi-gods and heroes had likewise their oracles1 such were those of ,castor and ,pollux at ,lacedmon1 of ,amphiaraus1 of ,mopsus in ,cilicia1 of ,ulysses1 ,amphilochus1 ,sarpedon in ,troas1 ,hermione in ,macedonia1 ,pasiphe in ,laconia1 ,chalcas in ,italy1 ,aristus in ,botia1 ,autolycus at ,sinope1 ,phryxus among the ,colchi1 ,zamolxis among the ,get1 ,hephstion the minion of ,alexander1 and ,antinous1 c4 ,the responses of oracles were delivered in a variety of ways3 at ,delphi1 they interpreted and put into verse what the priestess pronounced in the time of her furor4 ,mr4 ,bayle observes that at first this oracle gave its answers in verse2 and that it fell at length to prose1 upon the people's beginning to laugh at the poorness of its versification4 ,the ,epicureans made this the subject of their jests1 and said1 in raillery1 it was surprising enough1 that ,apollo1 the god of poetry1 should be a much worse poet than ,homer1 whom he himself had inspired4 ,by the railleries of these philosophers1 and particularly by those of the ,cynics and ,peripatetics1 the priests were at length obliged to desist from the practice of versifying the responses of the ,pythia1 which1 according to ,plutarch1 was one of the principal causes of the declension of the oracle of ,delphos4 ,at the oracle of ,ammon1 the priests pronounced the response of their god2 at ,dodona1 the response was issued from the hollow of an oak2 at the cave of ,trophonius1 the oracle was inferred from what the suppliant said before he recovered his senses2 at ,memphis1 they drew a good or bad omen1 according as the ox ,apis received or rejected what was presented to him1 which was also the case with the fishes of the fountain of ,limyra4 ,the suppliants1 who consulted the oracles1 were not allowed to enter the sanctuaries where they were given2 and1 accordingly1 care was taken that neither the ,epicureans nor ,christians should come near them4 ,in several places1 the oracles were given by letters sealed up1 as in that of ,mopsus1 and at ,mallus in ,cilicia4 ,oracles were frequently given by lot1 the mode of doing which was as follows3 the lots were a kind of dice1 on which were engraven certain characters or words1 whose explanations they were to seek on tables made for the purpose4 ,the way of using these dice for knowing futurity1 was different1 according to the places where they were used4 ,in some temples1 the person threw them himself2 in others1 they were dropped from a box2 whence came the proverbial expression1 ,the lot is fallen40 ,this playing with dice was always preceded by sacrifices and other customary ceremonies4 ,the ambiguity of the oracles in their responses1 and their double meaning1 contributed to their support4 ,ablancourt observes1 that the study or research of the meaning of oracles was but a fruitless thing2 and that they were never understood till after their accomplishment4 ,historians relate1 that ,crsus was tricked by the ambiguity and equivocation of the oracle3 4 ,thus rendered in ,latin3 ,crsus ,halym superans magnam pervertet opum vim40 ,if ,crsus cross the ,halys he will overthrow a great empire4 ,thus1 if the ,lydian monarch had conquered ,cyrus1 he overthrew the ,assyrian empire2 if he himself was routed1 he overturned his own4 ,that delivered to ,pyrrhus1 which is comprised in this ,latin verse1 ,credo equidem acidas ,romanos vincere posse10 ,i believe indeed that the sons of acus the ,romans will conquer1 had the same advantage2 for1 according to the rules of syntax1 either of the two accusatives may be governed by the verb1 and the verse be explained1 either by saying the ,romans shall conquer the acid1 of whom ,pyrrhus was descended1 or those shall conquer the ,romans4 ,when ,alexander fell sick at ,babylon1 some of his courtiers who happened to be in ,egypt1 or who went thither on purpose1 passed the night in the temple of ,serapis1 to inquire if it would not be proper to bring ,alexander to be cured by him4 ,the god answered1 it was better that ,alexander should remain where he was4 ,this in all events was a very prudent and safe answer4 ,if the king recovered his health1 what glory must ,serapis have gained by saving him the fatigue of the journey6 ,if he died1 it was but saying he died in a favourable juncture after so many conquests2 which1 had he lived1 he could neither have enlarged nor preserved4 ,this is actually the construction they put upon the response2 whereas had ,alexander undertaken the journey1 and died in the temple1 or by the way1 nothing could have been said in favour of ,serapis4 ,when ,trajan had formed the design of his expedition against the ,parthians1 he was advised to consult the oracle of ,heliopolis1 to which he had no more to do but send a note under a seal4 ,that prince1 who had no great faith in oracles1 sent thither a blank note2 and they returned him another of the same kind4 ,by this ,trajan was convinced of the divinity of the oracle4 ,he sent back a second note to the god1 in which he inquired whether he should return to ,rome after finishing the war he had in view4 ,the god1 as ,macrobius tells the story1 ordered a vine1 which was among the offerings of his temple1 to be divided into pieces1 and brought to ,trajan4 ,the event justified the oracle2 for the emperor dying in that war1 his bones were carried to ,rome1 which had been represented by that broken vine4 ,as the priests of that oracle knew ,trajan's design1 which was no secret1 they happily devised that response1 which1 in all events1 was capable of a favourable interpretation1 whether he routed and cut the ,parthians in pieces1 or if his army met with the same fate4 ,sometimes the responses of the oracles were mere banter1 as in the case of the man who wished to know by what means he might become rich1 and who received for answer from the god1 that he had only to make himself master of all that lay between ,sicyon and ,corinth4 ,another1 wanting a cure for the gout1 was answered by the oracle1 that he was to drink nothing but cold water4 ,there are two points in dispute on the subject of oracles2 namely1 whether they were human1 or diabolical machines2 and whether or not they ceased upon the publication or preaching of the ,gospel4 ,most of the fathers of the church supposed that the devil issued oracles2 and looked on it as a pleasure he took to give dubious and equivocal answers1 in order to have a handle to laugh at them4 ,vossius allows that it was the devil who spoke in oracles2 but thinks that the obscurity of his answers was owing to his ignorance as to the precise circumstances of events4 ,that artful and studied obscurity in which the answers were couched1 says he1 showed the embarrassment the devil was under2 as those double meanings they usually bore provided for their accomplishment4 ,where the thing foretold did not happen accordingly1 the oracle1 forsooth1 was misunderstood4 ,eusebius has preserved some fragments of a philosopher1 called nomaus2 who1 out of resentment for his having been so often fooled by the oracles1 wrote an ample confutation of all their impertinencies3 ,when we come to consult thee10 says he to ,apollo1 8if thou seest what is in futurity1 why dost thou use expressions that will not be understood8 ,dost thou not know1 that they will not be understood8 ,if thou dost1 thou takest pleasure in abusing us2 if thou dost not1 be informed of us1 and learn to speak more clearly4 ,i tell thee1 that if thou intendest an equivoque1 the ,greek word whereby thou affirmedst that ,crsus should overthrow a great empire was ill chosen2 and that it could signify nothing but ,crsus's conquering ,cyrus4 ,if things must necessarily come to pass1 why dost thou amuse us with thy ambiguities8 ,what doest thou1 wretch as thou art1 at ,delphi8 employed in muttering idle prophecies60 ,but nomaus is still more out of humour with the oracle1 for the answer which ,apollo gave the ,athenians1 when ,xerxes was about to attack ,greece with all the strength of ,asia4 ,the ,pythian declared1 that ,minerva1 the protectress of ,athens1 had endeavoured in vain to appease the wrath of ,jupiter2 yet that ,jupiter1 in complaisance to his daughter1 was willing the ,athenians should save themselves within wooden walls2 and that ,salamis should behold the loss of a great many children1 dear to their mothers1 either when ,ceres was spread abroad1 or gathered together4 ,here nomaus loses all patience with the god of ,delphi4 ,this contest10 says he1 8between father and daughter is very becoming the deities6 ,it is excellent1 that there should be contrary inclinations and interests in heaven4 ,poor wizard1 thou art ignorant whose the children are that ,salamis shall see perish2 whether ,greeks or ,persians4 ,it is certain they must be either one or the other2 but thou needest not to have told so openly1 that thou knewest not which4 ,thou concealest the time of the battle under those fine poetical expressions1 #8either when ,ceres is spread abroad1 or gathered together2' and wouldest thou cajole us with such pompous language8 ,who knows not1 that if there be a sea fight1 it must either be in seed time or harvest8 ,it is certain it cannot be in winter4 ,let things go how they will1 thou wilt secure thyself by this ,jupiter1 whom ,minerva is endeavouring to appease4 ,if the ,greeks lose the battle1 ,jupiter proved inexorable to the last2 if they gain it1 why then ,minerva at length prevailed40 ,it is a very general opinion among the more learned1 that oracles were all mere cheats and impostures2 either calculated to serve the avaricious ends of the ,heathen priests1 or the political views of the princes4 ,bayle says positively1 they were mere human artificers1 in which the devil had no hand4 ,he was strongly supported by ,van ,dale and ,fontenelle1 who have written expressly on the subject4 ,father ,balthus1 a ,jesuit1 wrote a treatise in defence of the fathers with regard to the origin of oracles2 but without denying the imposture of the priests1 often blended with the oracles4 ,he maintains the intervention of the devil in some predictions1 which could not be ascribed to the cheats of the priests alone4 ,the ,abb ,banier espouses the same side of the question1 and objects that oracles would not have lasted so long1 and supported themselves with so much splendour and reputation1 if they had been merely owing to the forgeries of the priests4 ,bishop ,sherlock1 in his ,discourses concerning the ,use and ,intent of ,prophecy10 expresses his opinion1 that it is impious to disbelieve the ,heathen oracles1 and to deny them to have been given out by the devil2 to which assertion1 ,dr4 ,middleton1 in his ,examination10 c1 replies1 that he is guilty of this impiety1 and that he thinks himself warranted to pronounce from the authority of the best and wisest of the ,heathens themselves1 and the evidence of plain facts1 which are recorded of those oracles1 as well as from the nature of the thing itself1 that they were all mere imposture1 wholly invented and supported by human craft1 without any supernatural aid or interposition whatsoever4 ,he alleges1 that ,cicero1 speaking of the ,delphic oracle1 the most revered of any in the ,heathen world1 declares1 that nothing was become more contemptible1 not only in his days1 but long before him2 that ,demosthenes1 who lived about three hundred years earlier1 affirmed of the same oracle1 in a public speech to the people of ,athens1 that it was gained to the interests of ,king ,philip1 an enemy to that city2 that the ,greek historians tell us1 how1 on several other occasions1 it had been corrupted by money1 to serve the views of particular persons and parties1 and the prophetess sometimes had been deposed for bribery and lewdness2 that there were some great sects of philosophers1 who1 on principle1 disavowed the authority of all oracles2 agreeably to all which ,strabo tells us1 that divination in general and oracles had been in high credit among the ancients1 but in his days were treated with much contempt2 lastly1 that ,eusebius also1 the great historian of the primitive church1 declares1 that there were six hundred writers among the ,heathens themselves who had publicly written against the reality of them4 ,plutarch has a treatise on the ceasing of some oracles2 and ,van ,dale1 a ,dutch physician1 has a volume to prove they did not cease at the coming of ,christ2 but that many of them ceased long before1 and that others held till the fall of ,paganism1 under the empire of ,theodosius the ,great1 when ,paganism being dissipated1 these institutions could no longer subsist4 ,van ,dale was answered by a ,german1 one ,mbius1 professor of theology at ,leipsic1 in #afhe4 ,fontenelle espoused ,van ,dale's system1 and improved upon it in his ,history of ,oracles20 and showed the weakness of the argument used by many writers in behalf of ,christianity1 drawn from the ceasing of oracles4 ,cicero says1 the oracles became dumb in proportion as people1 growing less credulous1 began to suspect them for cheats4 ,plutarch alleges two reasons for the ceasing of oracles3 the one was ,apollo's chagrin2 who1 it seems1 took it in dudgeon to be interrogated about so many trifles4 ,the other was1 that in proportion as the genii1 or demons1 who had the management of the oracles1 died1 and became extinct1 the oracles must necessarily cease4 ,he adds a third and more natural cause for the ceasing of oracles2 namely1 the forlorn state of ,greece1 ruined and desolated by wars2 for1 hence1 the smallness of the gains let the priests sink into a poverty and contempt too bare to cover the fraud4 ,that the oracles were silenced about or soon after the time of our ,saviour's advent1 may be proved1 says ,dr4 ,leland1 in the first volume of his learned work on ,the ,necessity and ,advantage of ,revelation10 c1 from express testimonies1 not only of ,christian but of ,heathen authors4 ,lucan1 who wrote his ,pharsalia0 in the reign of ,nero1 scarcely thirty years after our ,lord's crucifixion1 laments it as one of the greatest misfortunes of that age1 that the ,delphian oracle1 which he represents as one of the choicest gifts of the gods1 was become silent4 ,non ullo scula dono ,nostra carent majore ,deum1 quam ,delphica sedes ,quod sileat4 ,pharsal4 lib4 v1 #aaa4 ,of all the wants with which the age is curst1 ,the ,delphic silence surely is the worst40 ,,rowe4 ,in like manner1 ,juvenal says1 ,delphis oracula cessant1 ,et genus humanum damnat caligo futuri4 ,sat4 vi1 #eed4 ,since ,delphi now1 if we may credit fame1 ,gives no responses1 and a long dark night ,conceals the future hour from mortal sight40 ,,gifford4 ,lucian says1 that when he was at ,delphi1 the oracle gave no answer1 nor was the priestess inspired4 ,this likewise appears from ,plutarch's treatise1 why the oracles cease to give answers1 already cited2 whence it is also manifest1 that the most learned ,heathens were very much at a loss how to give a tolerable account of it4 ,porphyry1 in a passage cited from him by ,eusebius1 says1 ,the city of ,rome was overrun with sickness1 sculapius and the rest of the gods having withdrawn their converse with men2 because since ,jesus began to be worshipped1 no man had received any public help or benefit from the gods40 ,with respect to the origin of oracles1 they were probably imitations1 first1 of the answers given to the holy patriarchs from the divine presence or ,shechinah1 and secondly1 of the responses to the ,jewish high priest from the mercy seat3 for all ,paganism is a parody of the true religion4 ,,ordination1 the act of conferring holy orders1 or of initiating a person into the ministry of the ,gospel1 by prayer and with or without the laying on of hands4 ,in the church of ,england1 ordination has always been esteemed the principal prerogative of bishops2 and bishops still retain the function as a mark of their spiritual sovereignty in their diocess4 ,without ordination no person can receive any benefice1 parsonage1 vicarage1 c4 ,a person must be twenty-three years of age1 or near it1 before he can be ordained deacon1 or have any share in the ministry2 and full twenty-four before he can be ordained priest1 and by that means be permitted to administer the holy communion4 ,a bishop1 on the ordination of clergymen1 is to examine them in the presence of the ministers1 who in the ordination of priests1 but not of deacons1 assist him at the imposition of hands2 but this is only done as a mark of assent1 not because it is thought necessary4 ,in case any crime1 as drunkenness1 perjury1 forgery1 c1 is alleged against any one that is to be ordained1 either priest or deacon1 the bishop ought to desist from ordaining him4 ,the person to be ordained is to bring a testimonial of his life and doctrine to the bishop1 and to give an account of his faith in ,latin2 and both priests and deacons are obliged to subscribe to the thirty-nine articles4 ,in the ancient discipline there was no such thing as a vague and absolute ordination2 but every one was to have a church1 whereof he was to be ordained clerk or priest4 ,in the twelfth century the bishops grew more remiss1 and ordained without any title or benefice4 ,the council of ,trent1 however1 restored the ancient discipline1 and appointed that none should be ordained but those who were provided with a benefice2 which practice still obtains in the church of ,england4 ,the reformed held the call of the people the only thing essential to the validity of the ministry2 and teach1 that ordination is only a ceremony1 which renders the call more august and authentic4 ,accordingly the ,protestant churches of ,scotland1 ,france1 ,holland1 ,switzerland1 ,germany1 ,poland1 ,hungary1 ,denmark1 c1 have no episcopal ordination4 ,for ,luther1 ,calvin1 ,bucer1 ,melancthon1 c1 and all the first reformers and founders of these churches1 who ordained ministers among them1 were themselves presbyters1 and no other4 ,and though in some of these churches there are ministers called superintendents1 or bishops1 yet these are only primi inter pares1 the first among equals2 not pretending to any superiority of orders4 ,having themselves no other orders than what either presbyters gave them1 or what was given them as presbyters1 they can convey no other to those they ordain4 ,on this ground the ,protestant ,dissenters plead that their ordination1 though not episcopal1 is the same with that of all the illustrious ,protestant churches abroad2 and object1 that a priest ordained by a popish bishop should be received into the church of ,england as a valid minister1 rightfully ordained2 while the orders of another1 ordained by the most learned religious presbyter1 which any foreign country can boast1 are pronounced not valid1 and he is required to submit to be ordained afresh4 ,in opposition to episcopal ordination1 they urge that ,timothy was ordained by the laying on of the hands of the presbytery1 #a ,tim4 iv1 #ad2 that ,paul and ,barnabas were ordained by certain prophets and teachers in the church of ,antioch1 and not by any bishop presiding in that city1 ,acts xiii1 #a-c2 and that it is a well known fact1 that presbyters in the church of ,alexandria ordained even their own bishops for more than two hundred years in the earliest ages of ,christianity4 ,they farther argue1 that bishops and presbyters are in ,scripture the same1 and not denominations of distinct orders or offices in the church1 referring to ,phil4 i1 #a2 ,titus i1 #e1 #g2 ,acts xx1 #bg1 #bh2 #a ,peter v1 #a1 #b4 ,to the same purpose they maintain1 that the superiority of bishops to presbyters is not pretended to be of divine1 but of human1 institution2 not grounded on ,scripture1 but only upon the custom or ordinances of this realm1 by the first reformers and founders of the church of ,england2 nor by many of its most learned and eminent doctors since4 ,see ,stillingfleet's ,irenicum1 in which the learned author affirms and shows this to be the sentiment of ,cranmer1 and other chief reformers both in ,edward ,,vi4 and ,queen ,elizabeth's reign1 of ,archbishop ,whitgift1 ,bishop ,bridges1 ,lee1 ,hooker1 ,sutcliff1 ,hales1 ,chillingworth1 c4 ,moreover1 the book entitled1 the ,institution of a ,christian ,man10 subscribed by the clergy in convocation1 and confirmed by parliament1 owns bishops and presbyters by ,scripture to be the same4 ,beside1 the ,protestant ,dissenters allege1 that if episcopal ordination be really necessary to constitute a valid minister1 it does not seem to be enjoined by the constitution of the church of ,england2 because the power of ordination which the bishops exercise in this kingdom1 is derived entirely and only from the civil magistrate2 and he authoritatively prescribes how1 and to whom ordination is to be given3 that if an ordination should be conducted in other manner and form than that prescribed by him1 such ordination would be illegal1 and of no authority in the church4 ,accordingly the bishop at the ordination of the candidate asks1 ,are you called according to the will of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 and the due order of this realm80 ,the constitution and law of ,england seem to know nothing of uninterrupted lineal descent1 but considers the king vested1 by act of parliament1 or the suffrage of the people1 with a fulness of all power ecclesiastical in these realms1 as empowering and authorizing bishops to ordain3 and this power of ordination was once delegated to ,cromwell1 a layman1 as vicegerent to the king4 ,they farther think it strange1 that the validity of orders and ministrations should be derived1 as some have contended1 from a succession of popish bishops2 bishops of a church1 which1 by the definition of the nineteenth article of the church1 can be no part of the true visible church of ,christ1 and bishops1 likewise1 who consider the ,protestant clergy1 although ordained by ,protestant bishops1 as mere common unconsecrated laymen4 ,on reviewing the whole of this controversy1 says ,dr4 ,watts1 that since there are some texts in the ,new ,testament1 wherein single persons1 either ,apostles1 as ,paul and ,barnabas1 ordained ministers in the churches1 or evangelists1 as ,timothy and ,titus2 and since other missions or ordinations are intimated to be performed by several persons1 namely1 prophets1 teachers1 elders1 or a presbytery1 ,acts xiii1 #a2 #a ,timothy iv1 #ad2 since there is sometimes mention made of the imposition of hands in the mission of a minister1 and sometimes no mention is made of it2 and since it is evident that in some cases popular ordinations are and must be valid without any bishop or elder1--,i think none of these differences should be made a matter of violent contest among ,christians2 nor ought any words to be pronounced against each other by those of the episcopal1 presbyterian1 or independent way4 ,surely all may agree thus far1 that various forms or modes1 seeming to be used in the mission or ordination of ministers in primitive times1 may give a reasonable occasion or colour for sincere and honest searchers after truth to follow different opinions on this head1 and do therefore demand our candid and charitable sentiments concerning those who differ from us4 ,among the ,wesleyan ,methodists1 the ordination of their ministers is in the annual conference1 with a president at its head1 and is by prayer without imposition of hands4 ,the latter they hold to be a circumstance of ordination1 not an essential4 ,they sometimes therefore use it1 and at others omit it4 ,the missionaries sent out by that body1 if not previously ordained by the conference1 are set apart by a few senior ministers2 and ordinarily in this case1 the service of the church of ,england1 with some alterations1 is used1 with imposition of the hands of the ministers present4 ,,ossifrage1 1 ,lev4 xi1 #ac2 ,deut4 xiv1 #ab4 ,interpreters are not agreed on this bird2 some read vulture10 others the black eagle10 others the falcon40 ,the name peres1 by which it is called in ,hebrew1 denotes to crush1 to break20 and this name agrees with our version1 which implies the bone-breaker10 which name is given to a kind of eagle1 from the circumstance of its habit of breaking the bones of its prey1 after it has eaten the flesh3 some say also1 that he even swallows the bones thus broken4 ,onkelos uses a word which signifies naked10 and leads us to the vulture3 indeed1 if we were to take the classes of birds in any thing like a natural order in the passages here referred to1 the vulture should follow the eagle as an unclean bird4 ,the ,septuagint interpreter also renders vulture2 and so do ,munster1 ,schindler1 and the ,zurick versions4 ,,ostrich1 2 in ,arabic neamah2 in ,greek 1 the camel bird2 and still in the east1 says ,niebuhr1 it is called thar edsjammel1 the camel bird10 ,lev4 xi1 #af2 ,deut4 xiv1 #ae2 ,job xxx1 #bi2 ,isaiah xiii1 #ba2 xxxiv1 #ac2 xliii1 #bj2 ,jer4 #a1 #ci2 ,lam4 iv1 #c2 ,micah i1 #h2 1 ,job xxxix1 #ac4 ,the first name in the places above quoted is1 by our own translators1 generally rendered owls40 8,now it should be recollected10 says the author of ,scripture ,illustrated10 8that the owl is not a desert bird1 but rather resides in places not far from habitations1 and that it is not the companion of serpents2 whereas1 in several of these passages1 the joneh is associated with deserts1 dry1 extensive1 thirsty deserts1 and with serpents1 which are their natural inhabitants4 ,our ignorance of the natural history of the countries which the ostrich inhabits has undoubtedly perverted the import of the above passages2 but let any one peruse them afresh1 and exchange the owl for the ostrich1 and he will immediately discover a vigour of description1 and an imagery much beyond what he had formerly perceived40 ,the ,hebrew phrase 1 means the daughter of vociferation10 and is understood to be the female ostrich1 probably so called from the noise which this bird makes4 ,it is affirmed by travellers of good credit1 that ostriches make a fearful1 screeching1 lamentable noise4 ,ostriches are inhabitants of the deserts of ,arabia1 where they live chiefly upon vegetables2 lead a social and inoffensive life1 the male assorting with the female with connubial fidelity4 ,their eggs are very large1 some of them measuring above five inches in diameter1 and weighing twelve or fifteen pounds4 ,these birds are very prolific1 laying forty or fifty eggs at a clutch4 ,they will devour leather1 grass1 hair1 stones1 metals1 or any thing that is given to them2 but those substances which the coats of the stomach cannot act upon pass whole4 ,it is so unclean an animal as to eat its own ordure as soon as it voids it4 ,this is a sufficient reason1 were others wanting1 why such a fowl should be reputed unclean1 and its use as an article of diet prohibited4 ,the ostrich10 says ,m4 ,buffon1 was known in the remotest ages1 and mentioned in the most ancient books4 ,how indeed could an animal so remarkably large1 and so wonderfully prolific1 and peculiarly suited to the climate as is the ostrich1 remain unknown in ,africa1 and part of ,asia1 countries peopled from the earliest ages1 full of deserts indeed1 but where there is not a spot which has not been traversed by the foot of man8 ,the family of the ostrich1 therefore1 is of great antiquity4 ,nor in the course of ages has it varied or degenerated from its native purity4 ,it has always remained on its paternal estate2 and its lustre has been transmitted unsullied by foreign intercourse4 ,in short1 it is among the birds what the elephant is among the quadrupeds1 a distinct race1 widely separated from all the others by characters as striking as they are invariable40 8,on the least noise10 says ,dr4 ,shaw1 8or trivial occasion1 she forsakes her eggs1 or her young ones2 to which perhaps she never returns2 or if she does1 it may be too late either to restore life to the one1 or to preserve the lives of the others4 ,agreeably to this account the ,arabs meet sometimes with whole nests of these eggs undisturbed3 some of them are sweet and good1 others are addle and corrupted2 others again have their young ones of different growth1 according to the time1 it may be presumed1 they have been forsaken of the dam4 ,the ,arabs often meet with a few of the little ones no bigger than well grown pullets1 half starved1 straggling and moaning about like so many distressed orphans for their mother4 ,in this manner the ostrich may be said to be hardened against her young ones as though they were not hers2 her labour1 in hatching and attending them so far1 being vain1 without fear1 or the least concern of what becomes of them afterward4 ,this want of affection is also recorded1 ,lam4 iv1 #c1 #8the daughter of my people is become cruel1 like ostriches in the wilderness2' that is1 by apparently deserting their own1 and receiving others in return40 ,natural affection and sagacious instinct are the grand instruments by which providence continues the race of other animals3 but no limits can be set to the wisdom and power of ,god4 ,he preserveth the breed of the ostrich without those means1 and even in a penury of all the necessaries of life4 ,notwithstanding the stupidity of this animal1 its ,creator hath amply provided for its safety1 by endowing it with extraordinary swiftness1 and a surprising apparatus for escaping from its enemy4 ,they1 when they raise themselves up for flight1 laugh at the horse and his rider40 ,they afford him an opportunity only of admiring at a distance the extraordinary agility and the stateliness likewise of their motions1 the richness of their plumage1 and the great propriety there was in ascribing to them an expanded quivering wing4 ,nothing certainly can be more entertaining than such a sight1 the wings1 by their rapid but unwearied vibrations1 equally serving them for sails and oars2 while their feet1 no less assisting in conveying them out of sight1 seem to be insensible of fatigue4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,palestine4 ,illustrating the ,,new ,,testament4 ,,owl4 ,there are several varieties of this species1 all too well known to need a particular description4 ,they are nocturnal birds of prey1 and have their eyes better adapted for discerning objects in the evening or twilight than in the glare of day4 #a4 1 ,lev4 xi1 #ag2 ,deut4 xiv1 #af2 ,psalm cii1 #f1 is in our version rendered the little owl40 ,aquila1 ,theodotion1 ,jerom1 ,kimchi1 and most of the older interpreters1 are quoted to justify this rendering4 ,michalis1 at some length1 supports the opinion that it is the horned owl4 ,bochart1 though with some hesitation1 suspected it to be the onocrotalus1 a kind of pelican1 because the ,hebrew name signifies cup1 and the pelican is remarkable for a pouch or bag under the lower jaw2 but there are good reasons for supposing that bird to be the of the next verse4 ,dr4 ,geddes thinks this bird the cormorant2 and as it begins the list of water fowl1 and is mentioned always in the same contexts with 1 confessedly a water bird1 his opinion may be adopted4 #b4 1 ,lev4 xi1 #ag2 ,deut4 xiv1 #af2 ,isaiah xxxiv1 #aa4 ,in the two first places our translators render this the great owl10 which is strangely placed after the little owl1 and among water birds4 ,our translators10 says the author of ,scripture ,illustrated10 8seem to have thought the owl a convenient bird1 as we have three owls in two verses40 ,some critics think it means a species of night bird1 because the word may be derived from 1 which signifies the twilight1 the time when owls fly about4 ,but this interpretation1 says ,parkhurst1 seems very forced2 and since it is mentioned among water fowls1 and the ,,lxx4 have1 in the first and last of those texts1 rendered it by 1 the ibis1 we are disposed to adopt it here1 and think the evidence strengthened by this1 that in a ,coptic version of ,lev4 xi1 #ag1 it is called ip or hip1 which1 with a ,greek termination1 would very easily make 4 #c4 1 which occurs only in ,isaiah xxxiv1 #ae1 is in our version rendered the great owl40 #d4 1 ,isa4 xxxiv1 #ad1 in our version the screech owl40 ,the root signifies night2 and as undoubtedly a bird frequenting dark places and ruins is referred to1 we must admit some kind of owl4 ,a place of lonely desolation1 where ,the screeching tribe and pelicans abide1 ,and the dun ravens croak mid ruins drear1 ,and moaning owls from man the farthest hide4 ,,ox1 1 in ,arabic bkerre and bykar1 the male of horned cattle of the beeve kind1 at full age1 when fit for the plough4 ,younger ones are called bullocks4 ,michalis1 in his elaborate work on the laws of ,moses1 has proved that castration was never practised4 ,the rural economy of the ,israelites led them to value the ox as by far the most important of domestic animals1 from the consideration of his great use in all the operations of farming4 ,in the patriarchal ages1 the ox constituted no inconsiderable portion of their wealth4 ,thus ,abraham is said to be very rich in cattle1 ,gen4 xxiv1 #ce4 ,men of every age and country have been much indebted to the labours of this animal4 ,so early as in the days of ,job1 who was probably contemporary with ,isaac1 the oxen were ploughing1 and the asses were feeding beside them10 when the ,sabeans fell upon them1 and took them away4 ,in times long posterior1 when ,elijah was commissioned to anoint ,elisha1 the son of ,shaphat1 prophet in his stead1 he found him ploughing with twelve yoke of oxen1 #a ,kings xix1 #ai4 ,for many ages the hopes of oriental husbandmen depended entirely on their labours4 ,this was so much the case in the time of ,solomon1 that he observes1 in one of his proverbs1 ,where no oxen are1 the crib is clean10 or rather empty2 but much increase is by the strength of the ox10 ,prov4 xiv1 #d4 ,the ass1 in the course of ages was compelled to bend his stubborn neck to the yoke1 and share the labours of the ox2 but still the preparation of the ground in the time of spring depended chiefly on the more powerful exertions of the latter4 ,when this animal was employed in bringing home the produce of the harvest1 he was regaled with a mixture of chaff1 chopped straw1 and various kinds of grain1 moistened with acidulated water4 ,but among the ,jews1 the ox was best fed when employed in treading out the corn2 for the divine law1 in many of whose precepts the benevolence of the ,deity conspicuously shines1 forbad to muzzle him1 and1 by consequence1 to prevent him from eating what he would of the grain he was employed to separate from the husks4 ,the ox was also compelled to the labour of dragging the cart or wagon4 ,the number of oxen commonly yoked to one cart appears to have been two1 ,num4 vii1 #c1 #g1 #h2 #a ,sam4 vi1 #g2 #b ,sam4 vi1 #c1 #f4 ,the wild ox1 1 ,deut4 xiv1 #e1 is supposed to be the oryx of the ,greeks1 which is a species of large stag4 ,,padan-,,aram1 called also ,sedan-,aram in ,hosea2 both names denoting ,aram or ,syria the fruitful1 or cultivated1 and apply to the northern part of ,mesopotamia1 in which ,haran or ,charran was situated4 ,see ,,mesopotamia4 ,,pagans1 ,heathens1 and particularly those who worship idols4 ,the term came into use after the establishment of ,christianity1 the cities and great towns affording the first converts4 ,the ,heathens were called ,pagans1 from pagus1 a village10 because they were then found chiefly in remote country places2 but we use the term commonly for all who do not receive the ,jewish1 ,christian1 or ,mohammedan religions4 ,,painting ,,the ,,face1 #b ,kings ix1 #cj4 ,see ,,eyes4 ,,palestine1 taken in a limited sense1 denotes the country of the ,philistines or ,palestines1 including that part of the land of promise which extended along the ,mediterranean ,sea1 from ,gaza south to ,lydda north4 ,the ,,lxx4 were of opinion that the word ,philistiim1 which they generally translate ,allophyli1 signified strangers10 or men of another tribe4 ,palestine1 taken in a more general sense1 signifies the whole country of ,canaan1 the whole land of promise1 as well beyond as on this side ,jordan1 though pretty frequently it is restrained to the country on this side that river2 so that in later times the words ,judea and ,palestine were synonymous4 ,we find1 also1 the name of ,syria ,palestina given to the land of promise1 and even sometimes this province is comprehended in ,clo-,syria1 or the ,lower ,syria4 ,herodotus is the most ancient writer we know that speaks of ,syria ,palestina4 ,he places it between ,phenicia and ,egypt4 ,see ,,canaan4 ,,palm ,,tree1 1 ,exodus xv1 #bg1 c4 ,this tree1 sometimes called the date tree1 grows plentifully in the east4 ,it rises to a great height4 ,the stalks are generally full of rugged knots1 which are the vestiges of the decayed leaves2 for the trunk of this tree is not solid1 like other trees1 but its centre is filled with pith1 round which is a tough bark full of strong fibres when young1 which1 as the tree grows old1 hardens and becomes ligneous4 ,to this bark the leaves are closely joined1 which in the centre rise erect2 but1 after they are advanced above the vagina which surrounds them1 they expand very wide on every side the stem2 and1 as the older leaves decay1 the stalk advances in height4 ,the leaves1 when the tree has grown to a size for bearing fruit1 are six or eight feet long1 are very broad when spread out1 and are used for covering the tops of houses1 c4 ,the fruit1 which is called date1 grows below the leaves in clusters and is of a sweet and agreeable taste4 ,the learned ,kmpfer1 as a botanist1 an antiquary1 and a traveller1 has exhausted the whole subject of palm trees4 ,the diligent natives10 says ,mr4 ,gibbon1 celebrated1 either in verse or prose1 the three hundred and sixty uses to which the trunk1 the branches1 the leaves1 the juice1 and the fruit1 were skilfully applied40 8,the extensive importance of the date tree10 says ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke1 is one of the most curious subjects to which a traveller can direct his attention4 ,a considerable part of the inhabitants of ,egypt1 of ,arabia1 and ,persia1 subsist almost entirely upon its fruit4 ,they boast also of its medicinal virtues4 ,their camels feed upon the date stone4 ,from the leaves they make couches1 baskets1 bags1 mats1 and brushes2 from the branches1 cages for their poultry1 and fences for their gardens2 from the fibres of the boughs1 thread1 ropes1 and rigging2 from the sap is prepared a spirituous liquor2 and the body of the tree furnishes fuel4 ,it is even said that from one variety of the palm tree1 the phnix farinifera1 meal has been extracted1 which is found among the fibres of the trunk1 and has been used for food40 ,in the temple of ,solomon were pilasters made in the form of palm trees1 #a ,kings vi1 #bi4 ,it was under a tree of this kind that ,deborah dwelt between ,ramah and ,bethel1 ,judges iv1 #e4 ,to the fair1 flourishing1 and fruitful condition of this tree1 the psalmist very aptly compares the votary of virtue1 ,psalm xcii1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad3-- ,the righteous shall flourish like a palm tree4 ,those that are planted in the house of ,jehovah1 ,in the courts of our ,god1 shall flourish2 ,in old age they shall still put forth buds1 ,they shall be full of sap and vigorous4 ,the palm tree is crowned at its top with a large tuft of spiring leaves about four feet long1 which never fall off1 but always continue in the same flourishing verdure4 ,the tree1 as ,dr4 ,shaw was informed1 is in its greatest vigour about thirty years after it is planted1 and continues in full vigour seventy years longer2 bearing all this while1 every year1 about three or four hundred pounds' weight of dates4 ,the trunk of the tree is remarkably straight and lofty4 ,jeremiah1 speaking of the idols that were carried in procession1 says they were upright as the palm tree1 ,jer4 x1 #e4 ,and for erect stature and slenderness of form1 the spouse1 in ,canticles vii1 #g1 is compared to this tree3-- ,how framed1 ,o my love1 for delights6 ,lo1 thy stature is like a palm tree1 ,and thy bosom like clusters of dates4 ,on this passage ,mr4 ,good observes1 that 8the very word tamar1 here used for the palm tree1 and whose radical meaning is #8straight1' or #8upright1' 7whence it was afterward applied to pillars or columns1 as well as to the palm17 was also a general name among the ladies of ,palestine1 and unquestionably adopted in honour of the stature they had already acquired1 or gave a fair promise of attaining40 ,a branch of palm was a signal of victory1 and was carried before conquerors in the triumphs4 ,to this1 allusion is made1 ,rev4 vii1 #i3 and for this purpose were they borne before ,christ in his way to ,jerusalem1 ,john xii1 #ac4 ,from the inspissated sap of the tree1 a kind of honey1 or dispse1 as it is called1 is produced1 little inferior to that of bees4 ,the same juice1 after fermentation1 makes a sort of wine much used in the east4 ,it is once mentioned as wine1 ,num4 xxviii1 #g2 ,exodus xxix1 #dj2 and by it is intended the strong drink1 ,isaiah v1 #aa2 xxiv1 #i4 ,theodoret and ,chrysostom1 on these places1 both ,syrians1 and unexceptionable witnesses in what belongs to their own country1 confirm this declaration4 ,this liquor10 says ,dr4 ,shaw1 which has a more luscious sweetness than honey1 is of the consistence of a thin syrup1 but quickly grows tart and ropy1 acquiring an intoxicating quality1 and giving by distillation an agreeable spirit1 or arky1 according to the general name of these people for all hot liquors1 extracted by the alembic40 ,its ,hebrew name is 1 the of the ,greeks2 and from its sweetness1 probably1 the saccharum of the ,romans4 ,jerom informs us that in ,hebrew any inebriating liquor is called sicera1 whether made of grain1 the juice of apples1 honey1 dates1 or any other fruit40 ,this tree was formerly of great value and esteem among the ,israelites1 and so very much cultivated in ,judea1 that1 in after times1 it became the emblem of that country1 as may be seen in a medal of the ,emperor ,vespasian upon the conquest of ,judea4 ,it represents a captive woman sitting under a palm tree1 with this inscription1 ,judea capta20 ,judea captivated2 and upon a ,greek coin1 likewise1 of his son ,titus1 struck upon the like occasion1 we see a shield suspended upon a palm tree1 with a ,victory writing upon it4 ,pliny also calls ,judea palmis inclyta1 renowned for palms40 ,jericho1 in particular1 was called the city of palms10 ,deut4 xxxiv1 #c2 #b ,chron4 xxviii1 #ae2 because1 as ,josephus1 ,strabo1 and ,pliny1 have remarked1 it anciently abounded in palm trees4 ,and so ,dr4 ,shaw remarks1 that1 though these trees are not now either plentiful or fruitful in other parts of the holy land1 yet there are several of them at ,jericho1 where there is the conveniency they require of being often watered2 where1 likewise1 the climate is warm1 and the soil sandy1 such as they thrive and delight in4 ,tamar1 a city built in the desert by ,solomon1 #a ,kings ix1 #ah2 ,ezekiel xlvii1 #ai2 xlviii1 #bh1 was probably so named from the palm trees growing about it2 as it was afterward by the ,romans called ,palmyra1 or rather ,palmira1 on the same account1 from palma1 a palm tree40 ,,palmer ,,worm1 1 ,joel i1 #d2 ,amos iv1 #i4 ,bochart says that it is a kind of locust1 furnished with very sharp teeth1 with which it gnaws off grass1 corn1 leaves of trees1 and even their bark4 ,the ,jews support this idea by deriving the word from or 1 to cut1 to shear1 or mince4 ,notwithstanding the unanimous sentiments of the ,jews that this is a locust1 yet the ,,lxx4 read 1 and the ,vulgate eruca1 a caterpillar20 which rendering is supported by ,fuller4 ,michalis agrees with this opinion1 and thinks that the sharp cutting teeth of the caterpillar1 which1 like a sickle1 clear away all before them1 might give name to this insect4 ,caterpillars also begin their ravages before the locust1 which seems to coincide with the nature of the creature here intended4 ,,palsy4 ,see ,,diseases4 ,,pamphylia1 a province of ,asia ,minor which gives name to that part of the ,mediterranean ,sea which washes its coast1 ,acts xxvii1 #e4 ,to the south it is bounded by the ,mediterranean1 and to the north by ,pisidia2 having ,lycia to the west1 and ,cilicia to the east4 ,paul and ,barnabas preached at ,perga1 in ,pamphylia1 ,acts xiii1 #ac2 xiv1 #bd4 ,,pantheism1 a doctrine into which some of the sages of antiquity fell by revolting at the monstrous absurdities of ,polytheism4 ,not knowing the true ,god as an infinite and personal subsistence1 a cause above and distinct from all effects1 they believed that ,god was every thing1 and every thing ,god4 ,this monstrous1 and in its effects immoral1 notion1 is still held by the ,brahmins of ,india4 ,,paper ,,reed1 1 ,exod4 ii1 #c2 ,job viii1 #aa2 ,isaiah xviii1 #b2 xxxv1 #g4 ,when the outer skin1 or bark1 is taken off1 there are several films1 or inner pellicles1 one within another4 ,these1 when separated from the stalk1 were laid on a table artfully matched and flatted together1 and moistened with the water of the ,nile1 which1 dissolving the glutinous juices of the plant1 caused them to adhere closely together4 ,they were afterward pressed1 and then dried in the sun1 and thus were prepared sheets or leaves for writing upon in characters marked by a coloured liquid passing through a hollow reed4 ,the best papyrus was called 1 or paper of the priests4 ,on this the sacred documents of ,egypt were written4 ,ancient books were written on papyrus1 and those of the ,new ,testament among the rest4 ,in the fourth century however these sacred writings are found on skins4 ,this was preferred for durability2 and many decayed copies of the ,new ,testament1 belonging to libraries1 were early transferred to parchment4 ,finally came paper1 the name of which was taken from the ,egyptian reed2 but the materials of which it was fabricated were cotton and linen4 ,see ,,bulrush and ,,book4 ,,paphos1 a celebrated city of ,cyprus1 lying on the western coast of the island1 where ,venus 7who from hence took the name of ,paphia7 had her most ancient and most famous temple2 and here the ,roman proconsul1 ,sergius ,paulus1 resided1 whom ,st4 ,paul converted to ,christianity1 ,acts xiii1 #f4 ,,parable1 1 formed from 1 to oppose or compare1 an allegorical instruction1 founded on something real or apparent in nature or history1 from which a moral is drawn1 by comparing it with some other thing in which the people are more immediately concerned4 7,see ,allegory47 ,aristotle defines parable1 a similitude drawn from form to form4 ,cicero calls it a collation2 others1 a simile4 ,f4 de ,colonia calls it a rational fable2 but it may be founded on real occurrences1 as many parables of our ,saviour were4 ,the ,hebrews call it 1 from a word which signifies either to predominate or to assimilate2 the ,proverbs of ,solomon are by them also called 1 parables1 or proverbs4 ,parable1 according to the eminently learned ,bishop ,lowth1 is that kind of allegory which consists of a continued narration of a fictitious or accommodated event1 applied to the illustration of some important truth4 ,the ,greeks call these 1 allegories1 or apologues2 the ,latins1 fabul1 or fables20 and the writings of the ,phrygian sage1 or those composed in imitation of him1 have acquired the greatest celebrity4 ,nor has our ,saviour himself disdained to adopt the same method of instruction2 of whose parables it is doubtful whether they excel most in wisdom and utility1 or in sweetness1 elegance1 and perspicuity4 ,as the appellation of parable has been applied to his discourses of this kind1 the term is now restricted from its former extensive signification to a more confined sense4 ,but this species of composition occurs very frequently in the prophetic poetry1 and particularly in that of ,ezekiel4 ,if to us they should sometimes appear obscure1 we must remember1 that1 in those early times when the prophetical writings were indited1 it was universally the mode throughout all the eastern nations to convey sacred truths under mysterious figures and representations4 ,in order to our forming a more certain judgment upon this subject1 ,dr4 ,lowth has briefly explained some of the primary qualities of the poetic parables2 so that1 by considering the general nature of them1 we may decide more accurately on the merits of particular examples4 ,it is the first excellence of a parable to turn upon an image well known and applicable to the subject1 the meaning of which is clear and definite2 for this circumstance will give it perspicuity1 which is essential to every species of allegory4 ,if the parables of the sacred prophets are examined by this rule1 they will not be found deficient4 ,they are in general founded upon such imagery as is frequently used1 and similarly applied by way of metaphor and comparison in the ,hebrew poetry4 ,examples of this kind occur in the parable of the deceitful vineyard1 ,isaiah v1 #a-g1 and of the useless vine1 ,ezek4 xv2 xix1 #aj-ad2 for under this imagery the ungrateful people of ,god are more than once described2 ,ezek4 xix1 #a-i2 xxxi2 xvi2 xxiii4 ,moreover1 the image must not only be apt and familiar1 but it must be also elegant and beautiful in itself2 since it is the purpose of a poetic parable1 not only to explain more perfectly some proposition1 but frequently to give it some animation and splendour4 ,as the imagery from natural objects is in this respect superior to all others1 the parables of the sacred poets consist chiefly of this kind of imagery4 ,it is also essential to the elegance of a parable1 that the imagery should not only be apt and beautiful1 but that all its parts and appendages should be perspicuous and pertinent4 ,of all these excellencies1 there cannot be more perfect examples than the parables that have been just specified2 to which we may add the well known parable of ,nathan1 #b ,sam4 xii1 #a-d1 although written in prose1 as well as that of ,jotham1 ,judges ix1 #g-ae1 which appears to be the most ancient extant1 and approaches somewhat nearer to the poetical form4 ,it is also the criterion of a parable1 that it be consistent throughout1 and that the literal be never confounded with the figurative sense2 and in this respect it materially differs from that species of allegory1 called the continued metaphor1 ,isaiah v1 #a-g4 ,it should be considered1 that the continued metaphor and the parable have a very different view4 ,the sole intention of the former is to embellish a subject1 to represent it more magnificently1 or at the most to illustrate it1 that1 by describing it in more elevated language1 it may strike the mind more forcibly2 but the intent of the latter is to withdraw the truth for a moment from our sight1 in order to conceal whatever it may contain ungrateful or reproving1 and to enable it secretly to insinuate itself1 and obtain an ascendency as it were by stealth4 ,there is1 however1 a species of parable1 the intent of which is only to illustrate the subject2 such is that remarkable one of the cedar of ,lebanon1 ,ezek4 xxxi2 than which1 if we consider the imagery itself1 none was ever more apt or more beautiful2 or the description and colouring1 none was ever more elegant or splendid2 in which1 however1 the poet has occasionally allowed himself to blend the figurative with the literal description1 verses #aa1 #ad-ag2 whether he has done this because the peculiar nature of this kind of parable required it1 or whether his own fervid imagination alone1 which disdained the stricter rules of composition1 was his guide1 our learned author can scarcely presume to determine4 ,in the ,new ,testament1 the word parable is used variously3 in ,luke iv1 #bc1 for a proverb1 or adage2 in ,matt4 xv1 #ae1 for a thing darkly and figuratively expressed2 in ,heb4 ix1 #i1 c1 for a type2 in ,luke xiv1 #g1 c1 for a special instruction2 in ,matt4 xxiv1 #cb1 for a similitude or comparison4 ,,paradise1 according to the original meaning of the term1 whether it be of ,hebrew1 ,chaldee1 or ,persian derivation1 signifies1 a place enclosed for pleasure and delight40 ,the ,,lxx41 or ,greek translators of the ,old ,testament1 make use of the word paradise1 when they speak of the garden of ,eden1 which ,jehovah planted at the creation1 and in which he placed our first parents4 ,there are three places in the ,hebrew text of the ,old ,testament where this word is found1 namely1 ,neh4 ii1 #h2 ,cant4 iv1 #ac2 ,eccles4 ii1 #e4 ,the term paradise is obviously used in the ,new ,testament1 as another word for heaven2 by our ,lord1 ,luke xxiii1 #dc2 by the ,apostle ,paul1 #b ,cor4 xii1 #d2 and in the ,apocalypse1 ii1 #g4 ,see ,,eden4 ,,paran1 ,,desert ,,of1 a great and terrible wilderness0 which the children of ,israel entered after leaving ,mount ,sinai1 ,num4 x1 #ab2 ,deut4 i1 #ai2 and in which thirty-eight of their forty years of wandering were spent4 ,it extended from ,mount ,sinai on the south1 to the southern border of the land of ,canaan on the north2 having the desert of ,shur1 with its subdivisions1 the deserts of ,etham and ,sin1 on the west1 and the eastern branch of the ,red ,sea1 the desert of ,zin and ,mount ,seir1 on the east4 ,burckhardt represents this desert1 which he entered from that of ,zin1 or valley of ,el ,araba1 about the parallel of ,suez1 as a dreary expanse of calcareous soil1 covered with black flints4 ,,partridge1 1 #a ,samuel xxvi1 #bj2 ,jer4 xvii1 #aa2 1 ,ecclus4 xi1 #cj4 ,in the first of these places ,david says1 ,the king of ,israel is come out to hunt a partridge on the mountains20 and in the second1 ,the partridge sitteth10 on eggs1 and produceth10 or hatcheth1 not2 so he that getteth riches1 and not by right1 shall leave them in the midst of his days1 and at his end shall be contemptible40 ,this passage does not necessarily imply that the partridge hatches the eggs of a stranger1 but only that she often fails in her attempts to bring forth her young4 ,to such disappointments she is greatly exposed from the position of her nest on the ground1 where her eggs are often spoiled by the wet1 or crushed by the foot4 ,so he that broods over his ill-gotten gains will often find them unproductive2 or1 if he leaves them1 as a bird occasionally driven from her nest1 may be despoiled of their possession4 ,as to the hunting of the partridge1 which1 ,dr4 ,shaw observes1 is the greater1 or red-legged kind1 the traveller says3 ,the ,arabs have another1 though a more laborious1 method of catching these birds2 for1 observing that they become languid and fatigued after they have been hastily put up twice or thrice1 they immediately run in upon them1 and knock them down with their zerwattys1 or bludgeons as we should call them40 ,precisely in this manner ,saul hunted ,david1 coming hastily upon him1 putting him up incessantly1 in hopes that at length his strength and resources would fail1 and he would become an easy prey to his pursuer4 ,forskal mentions a partridge whose name in ,arabic is kurr2 and ,latham says1 that1 in the province of ,andalusia in ,spain1 the name of the partridge is churr2 both taken1 no doubt1 like the ,hebrew1 from its note4 ,illustration3 ,map of the ,,countries ,travelled by the ,,apostles with the ,,routes ,,of ,,st4 ,,paul through ,asia ,europe ,,passover1 1 signifies leap1 passage4 ,the passover was a solemn festival of the ,jews1 instituted in commemoration of their coming out of ,egypt2 because the night before their departure the destroying angel that slew the first-born of the ,egyptians passed over the houses of the ,hebrews without entering them1 because they were marked with the blood of the lamb1 which1 for this reason1 was called the paschal lamb4 ,the following is what ,god ordained concerning the passover3 the month of the coming out of ,egypt was after this to be the first month of the sacred or ecclesiastical year2 and the fourteenth day of this month1 between the two evenings1 that is1 between the sun's decline and its setting1 or rather1 according to our reckoning1 between three o'clock in the afternoon and six in the evening1 at the equinox1 they were to kill the paschal lamb1 and to abstain from leavened bread4 ,the day following1 being the fifteenth1 reckoned from six o'clock of the preceding evening1 was the grand feast of the passover1 which continued seven days2 but only the first and seventh days were peculiarly solemn4 ,the slain lamb was to be without defect1 a male1 and of that year4 ,if no lamb could be found1 they might take a kid4 ,they killed a lamb or a kid in each family2 and if the number of the family was not sufficient to eat the lamb1 they might associate two families together4 ,with the blood of the lamb they sprinkled the door posts and lintel of every house1 that the destroying angel at the sight of the blood might pass over them4 ,they were to eat the lamb the same night1 roasted1 with unleavened bread1 and a sallad of wild lettuces1 or bitter herbs4 ,it was forbid to eat any part of it raw1 or boiled2 nor were they to break a bone2 but it was to be eaten entire1 even with the head1 the feet1 and the bowels4 ,if any thing remained to the day following it was thrown into the fire1 ,exod4 xii1 #df2 ,num4 ix1 #ab2 ,john xix1 #cf4 ,they who ate it were to be in the posture of travellers1 having their reins girt1 shoes on their feet1 staves in their hands1 and eating in a hurry4 ,this last part of the ceremony was but little observed2 at least1 it was of no obligation after that night when they came out of ,egypt4 ,during the whole eight days of the passover no leavened bread was to be used4 ,they kept the first and last day of the feast2 yet it was allowed to dress victuals1 which was forbidden on the ,sabbath day4 ,the obligation of keeping the passover was so strict1 that whoever should neglect it was condemned to death1 ,num4 ix1 #ac4 ,but those who had any lawful impediment1 as a journey1 sickness1 or uncleanness1 voluntary or involuntary1 for example1 those who had been present at a funeral1 c1 were to defer the celebration of the passover till the second month of the ecclesiastical year1 the fourteenth day of the month ,jair1 which answers to ,april and ,may4 ,we see an example of this postponed passover under ,hezekiah1 #b ,chron4 xxx1 #b1 #c1 c4 ,the modern ,jews observe in general the ceremonies practised by their ancestors in the celebration of the passover4 ,while the temple was in existence1 the ,jews brought their lambs thither1 and there sacrificed them2 and they offered their blood to the priest1 who poured it out at the foot of the altar4 ,the paschal lamb was an illustrious type of ,christ1 who became a sacrifice for the redemption of a lost world from sin and misery2 but resemblances between the type and antitype have been strained by many writers into a great number of fanciful particulars4 ,it is enough for us to be assured1 that as ,christ is called our passover20 and the ,lamb of ,god10 without spot10 by the sprinkling of whose blood0 we are delivered from guilt and punishment2 and as faith in him is represented to us as eating the flesh of ,christ10 with evident allusion to the eating of the paschal sacrifice2 so1 in these leading particulars1 the mystery of our redemption was set forth4 ,the paschal lamb therefore prefigured the offering of the spotless ,son of ,god1 the appointed propitiation for the sins of the whole world2 by virtue of which1 when received by faith1 we are delivered from the bondage of guilt and misery2 and nourished with strength for our heavenly journey to that land of rest1 of which ,canaan1 as early as the days of ,abraham1 became the divinely instituted figure4 ,,patmos1 a small rocky island in the gean ,sea1 about eighteen miles in circumference2 which1 on account of its dreary and desolate character1 was used by the ,roman emperors as a place of confinement for criminals4 ,to this island ,st4 ,john was banished by the ,emperor ,domitian2 and here he had his revelation1 recorded in the ,apocalypse4 ,,patriarchs4 ,this name is given to the ancient fathers1 chiefly those who lived before ,moses1 as ,adam1 ,lamech1 ,noah1 ,shem1 c1 ,abraham1 ,isaac1 ,jacob1 the sons of ,jacob1 and heads of the tribes4 ,the ,hebrews call them princes of the tribes1 or heads of the fathers4 ,the name patriarch is derived from the ,greek patriarcha1 head of a family40 ,,paul was born at ,tarsus1 the principal city of ,cilicia1 and was by birth both a ,jew and a citizen of ,rome1 ,acts xxi1 #ci2 xxii1 #be4 ,he was of the tribe of ,benjamin1 and of the sect of the ,pharisees1 ,phil4 iii1 #e4 ,in his youth he appears to have been taught the art of tent making1 ,acts xviii1 #c2 but we must remember that among the ,jews of those days a liberal education was often accompanied by instruction in some mechanical trade4 ,it is probable that ,st4 ,paul laid the foundation of those literary attainments1 for which he was so eminent in the future part of his life1 at his native city of ,tarsus2 and he afterward studied the law of ,moses1 and the traditions of the elders1 at ,jerusalem1 under ,gamaliel1 a celebrated rabbi1 ,acts xxii1 #d4 ,st4 ,paul is not mentioned in the ,gospels2 nor is it known whether he ever heard our ,saviour preach1 or saw him perform any miracle4 ,his name first occurs in the account given in the ,acts of the martyrdom of ,st4 ,stephen1 ,a4 ,d4 #cd1 to which he is said to have consented1 ,acts viii1 #a3 he is upon that occasion called a young man2 but we are no where informed what was then his precise age4 ,the death of ,st4 ,stephen was followed by a severe persecution of the church at ,jerusalem1 and ,st4 ,paul became distinguished among its enemies by his activity and violence1 ,acts viii1 #c4 ,not contented with displaying his hatred to the ,gospel in ,judea1 he obtained authority from the high priest to go to ,damascus1 and to bring back with him bound any ,christians whom he might find in that city4 ,as he was upon his journey thither1 ,a4 ,d4 #ce1 his miraculous conversion took place1 the circumstances of which are recorded in ,acts ix1 and are frequently alluded to in his epistles1 #a ,cor4 xv1 #i2 ,gal4 i1 #ac2 #a ,tim4 i1 #ab1 #ac4 ,soon after ,st4 ,paul was baptized at ,damascus1 he went into ,arabia2 but we are not informed how long he remained there4 ,he returned to ,damascus2 and being supernaturally qualified to be a preacher of the ,gospel1 he immediately entered upon his ministry in that city4 ,the boldness and success with which he enforced the truths of ,christianity so irritated the unbelieving ,jews1 that they resolved to put him to death1 ,acts ix1 #bc2 but1 this design being known1 the disciples conveyed him privately out of ,damascus1 and he went to ,jerusalem1 ,a4 ,d4 #ch4 ,the ,christians of ,jerusalem1 remembering ,st4 ,paul's former hostility to the ,gospel1 and having no authentic account of any change in his sentiments or conduct1 at first refused to receive him2 but being assured by ,barnabas of ,st4 ,paul's real conversion1 and of his exertions at ,damascus1 they acknowledged him as a disciple1 ,acts ix1 #bg4 ,he remained only fifteen days among them1 ,gal4 i1 #ah2 and he saw none of the ,apostles except ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,james4 ,it is probable that the other ,apostles were at this time absent from ,jerusalem1 exercising their ministry at different places4 ,the zeal with which ,st4 ,paul preached at ,jerusalem had the same effect as at ,damascus3 he became so obnoxious to the ,hellenistic ,jews1 that they began to consider how they might kill him1 ,acts ix1 #bi2 which when the brethren knew1 they thought it right that he should leave the city4 ,they accompanied him to ,csarea1 and thence he went into the regions of ,syria and ,cilicia1 where he preached the faith which once he destroyed1 ,gal4 i1 #ba1 #bc4 ,hitherto the preaching of ,st4 ,paul1 as well as of the other ,apostles and teachers1 had been confined to the ,jews2 but the conversion of ,cornelius1 the first ,gentile convert1 ,a4 ,d4 #dj1 having convinced all the ,apostles that to the ,gentiles1 also1 ,god had granted repentance unto life10 ,st4 ,paul was soon after conducted by ,barnabas from ,tarsus1 which had probably been the principal place of his residence since he left ,jerusalem1 and they both began to preach the ,gospel to the ,gentiles at ,antioch1 ,a4 ,d4 #db1 ,acts xi1 #be4 ,their preaching was attended with great success4 ,the first ,gentile church was now established at ,antioch2 and in that city1 and at this time1 the disciples were first called ,christians1 ,acts xi1 #bf4 ,when these two ,apostles had been thus employed about a year1 a prophet called ,agabus predicted an approaching famine1 which would affect the whole land of ,judea4 ,upon the prospect of this calamity1 the ,christians of ,antioch made a contribution for their brethren in ,judea1 and sent the money to the elders at ,jerusalem by ,st4 ,paul and ,barnabas1 ,a4 ,d4 #dd1 ,acts xi1 #bh1 c4 ,this famine happened soon after1 in the fourth or fifth year of the ,emperor ,claudius4 ,it is supposed that ,st4 ,paul had the vision1 mentioned in ,acts xxii1 #ag1 while he was now at ,jerusalem this second time after his conversion4 ,st4 ,paul and ,barnabas1 having executed their commission1 returned to ,antioch2 and soon after their arrival in that city they were separated1 by the express direction of the ,holy ,ghost1 from the other ,christian teachers and prophets1 for the purpose of carrying the glad tidings of the ,gospel to the ,gentiles of various countries1 ,acts xiii1 #a4 ,thus divinely appointed to this important office1 they set out from ,antioch1 ,a4 ,d4 #de1 and preached the ,gospel successively at ,salamis and ,paphos1 two cities of the isle of ,cyprus1 at ,perga in ,pamphylia1 ,antioch in ,pisidia1 and at ,iconium1 ,lystra1 and ,derbe1 three cities of ,lycaonia4 ,they returned to ,antioch in ,syria1 ,a4 ,d4 #dg1 nearly by the same route4 ,this first apostolical journey of ,st4 ,paul1 in which he was accompanied and assisted by ,barnabas1 is supposed to have occupied about two years2 and in the course of it many1 both ,jews and ,gentiles1 were converted to the ,gospel4 ,paul and ,barnabas continued at ,antioch a considerable time2 and while they were there1 a dispute arose between them and some ,jewish ,christians of ,judea4 ,these men asserted1 that the ,gentile converts could not obtain salvation through the ,gospel1 unless they were circumcised2 ,paul and ,barnabas maintained the contrary opinion1 ,acts xv1 #a1 #b4 ,this dispute was carried on for some time with great earnestness2 and it being a question in which not only the present but all future ,gentile converts were concerned1 it was thought right that ,st4 ,paul and ,barnabas1 with some others1 should go up to ,jerusalem to consult the ,apostles and elders concerning it4 ,they passed through ,phenicia and ,samaria1 and upon their arrival at ,jerusalem1 ,a4 ,d4 #di1 a council was assembled for the purpose of discussing this important point1 ,gal4 ii1 #a4 ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,james the less were present1 and delivered their sentiments1 which coincided with those of ,st4 ,paul and ,barnabas2 and after much deliberation it was agreed1 that neither circumcision1 nor conformity to any part of the ritual law of ,moses1 was necessary in ,gentile converts2 but that it should be recommended to them to abstain from certain specified things prohibited by that law1 lest their indulgence in them should give offence to their brethren of the circumcision1 who were still very zealous for the observance of the ceremonial part of their ancient religion4 ,this decision which was declared to have the sanction of the ,holy ,ghost1 was communicated to the ,gentile ,christians of ,syria and ,cilicia by a letter written in the name of the ,apostles1 elders1 and whole church at ,jerusalem1 and conveyed by ,judas and ,silas1 who accompanied ,st4 ,paul and ,barnabas to ,antioch for that purpose4 ,st4 ,paul1 having preached a short time at ,antioch1 proposed to ,barnabas that they should visit the churches which they had founded in different cities1 ,acts xv1 #cf4 ,barnabas readily consented2 but while they were preparing for the journey1 there arose a disagreement between them1 which ended in their separation4 ,in consequence of this dispute with ,barnabas1 ,st4 ,paul chose ,silas for his companion1 and they set out together from ,antioch1 ,a4 ,d4 #ej4 ,they travelled through ,syria and ,cilicia1 confirming the churches1 and then came to ,derbe and ,lystra1 ,acts xvi4 ,thence they went through ,phrygia and ,galatia2 and1 being desirous of going into ,asia ,propria1 or the ,proconsular ,asia1 they were forbidden by the ,holy ,ghost4 ,they therefore went into ,mysia2 and1 not being permitted by the ,holy ,ghost to go into ,bithynia as they had intended1 they went to ,troas4 ,while ,st4 ,paul was there1 a vision appeared to him in the night3 ,there stood a man of ,macedonia1 and prayed him1 saying1 ,come over into ,macedonia1 and help us40 ,st4 ,paul knew this vision to be a command from ,heaven1 and in obedience to it immediately sailed from ,troas to ,samothracia1 and the next day to ,neapolis1 a city of ,thrace2 and thence he went to ,philippi1 the principal city of that part of ,macedonia4 ,st4 ,paul remained some time at ,philippi1 preaching the ,gospel2 and several occurrences which took place in that city1 are recorded in ,acts xvii4 ,thence he went through ,amphipolis and ,apollonia to ,thessalonica1 ,acts xvii1 where he preached in the synagogues of the ,jews on three successive ,sabbath days4 ,some of the ,jews1 and many of the ,gentiles of both sexes1 embraced the ,gospel2 but the unbelieving ,jews1 moved with envy and indignation at the success of ,st4 ,paul's preaching1 excited a great disturbance in the city1 and irritated the populace so much against him1 that the brethren1 anxious for his safety1 thought it prudent to send him to ,berea1 where he met with a better reception than he had experienced at ,thessalonica4 ,the ,bereans heard his instructions with attention and candour1 and having compared his doctrines with the ancient ,scriptures1 and being satisfied that ,jesus1 whom he preached1 was the promised ,messiah1 they embraced the ,gospel2 but his enemies at ,thessalonica1 being informed of his success at ,berea1 came thither1 and1 by their endeavours to stir up the people against him1 compelled him to leave that city also4 ,he went thence to ,athens1 where he delivered that discourse recorded in ,acts xvii4 ,from ,athens1 ,paul went to ,corinth1 ,acts xviii1 ,a4 ,d4 #ea1 and lived in the house of ,aquila and ,priscilla1 two ,jews1 who1 being compelled to leave ,rome in consequence of ,claudius's edict against the ,jews1 had lately settled at ,corinth4 ,st4 ,paul was induced to take up his residence with them1 because1 like himself1 they were tent makers4 ,at first he preached to the ,jews in their synagogue2 but upon their violently opposing his doctrine1 he declared that from that time he would preach to the ,gentiles only2 and1 accordingly1 he afterward delivered his instructions in the house of one ,justus1 who lived near the synagogue4 ,among the few ,jews who embraced the ,gospel1 were ,crispus1 the ruler of the synagogue1 and his family2 and many of the ,gentile ,corinthians hearing believed1 and were baptized40 ,st4 ,paul was encouraged in a vision to persevere in his exertions to convert the inhabitants of ,corinth2 and although he met with great opposition and disturbance from the unbelieving ,jews1 and was accused by them before ,gallio1 the ,roman governor of ,achaia1 he continued there a year and six months1 teaching the word of ,god40 ,during this time he supported himself by working at his trade of tent making1 that he might not be burdensome to the disciples4 ,from ,corinth ,st4 ,paul sailed into ,syria1 and thence he went to ,ephesus3 thence to ,csarea2 and is supposed to have arrived at ,jerusalem just before the feast of pentecost4 ,after the feast he went to ,antioch1 ,a4 ,d4 #ec2 and this was the conclusion of his second apostolical journey1 in which he was accompanied by ,silas2 and in part of it1 ,luke and ,timothy were also with him4 ,having made a short stay at ,antioch1 ,st4 ,paul set out upon his third apostolical journey4 ,he passed through ,galatia1 and ,phrygia1 ,a4 ,d4 #ed1 confirming the ,christians of those countries2 and thence1 according to his promise1 he went to ,ephesus1 ,acts xix4 ,he found there some disciples1 who had only been baptized with ,john's baptism3 he directed that they should be baptized in the name of ,jesus1 and then he communicated to them the ,holy ,ghost4 ,he preached for the space of three months in the synagogue2 but the ,jews being hardened beyond conviction1 and speaking reproachfully of the ,christian religion before the multitude1 he left them2 and from that time he delivered his instructions in the school of a person called ,tyrannus1 who was probably a ,gentile4 ,st4 ,paul continued to preach in this place about two years1 so that all the inhabitants of that part of ,asia ,minor heard the word of the ,lord ,jesus1 both ,jews and ,greeks40 ,he also performed many miracles at ,ephesus2 and not only great numbers of people were converted to ,christianity1 but many also of those who in this superstitious city used incantations and magical arts1 professed their belief in the ,gospel1 and renounced their former practices by publicly burning their books4 ,previous to the disturbance raised by ,demetrius1 ,paul had intended to continue at ,ephesus till ,titus should return1 whom he had sent to inquire into the state of the church at ,corinth1 #b ,cor4 xii1 #ah4 ,he now thought it prudent to go from ,ephesus immediately1 ,acts xx1 ,a4 ,d4 #ef2 and having taken an affectionate leave of the disciples1 he set out for ,troas1 #b ,cor4 ii1 #ab1 #ac1 where he expected to meet ,titus4 ,titus1 however1 from some cause which is not known1 did not come to ,troas2 and ,paul was encouraged to pass over into ,macedonia1 with the hope of making converts4 ,st4 ,paul1 after preaching in ,macedonia1 receiving from the ,christians of that country liberal contributions for their poor brethren in ,judea1 #b ,cor4 viii1 #a1 went to ,corinth1 ,a4 ,d4 #eg1 and remained there about three months4 ,the ,christians also of ,corinth1 and of the rest of ,achaia1 contributed to the relief of their brethren in ,judea4 ,st4 ,paul's intention was to have sailed from ,corinth into ,syria2 but being informed that some unbelieving ,jews1 who had discovered his intention1 lay in wait for him1 he changed his plan1 passed through ,macedonia1 and sailed from ,philippi to ,troas in five days1 ,a4 ,d4 #eh4 ,he stayed at ,troas seven days1 and preached to the ,christians on the first day of the week1 the day on which they were accustomed to meet for the purpose of religious worship4 ,from ,troas he went by land to ,assos2 and thence he sailed to ,mitylene2 and from ,mitylene to ,miletus4 ,being desirous of reaching ,jerusalem before the feast of pentecost1 he would not allow time to go to ,ephesus1 and therefore he sent for the elders of the ,ephesian church to ,miletus1 and gave them instructions1 and prayed with them4 ,he told them that he should see them no more1 which impressed them with the deepest sorrow4 ,from ,miletus he sailed by ,cos1 ,rhodes1 and ,patara in ,lycia1 to ,tyre1 ,acts xxi4 ,finding some disciples at ,tyre1 he stayed with them several days1 and then went to ,ptolemais1 and thence to ,csarea4 ,while ,st4 ,paul was at ,csarea1 the ,prophet ,agabus foretold by the ,holy ,ghost1 that ,st4 ,paul1 if he went to ,jerusalem1 would suffer much from the ,jews4 ,this prediction caused great uneasiness to ,st4 ,paul's friends1 and they endeavoured to dissuade him from his intention of going thither4 ,st4 ,paul1 however1 would not listen to their entreaties1 but declared that he was ready to die at ,jerusalem1 if it were necessary1 for the name of the ,lord ,jesus4 ,seeing him thus resolute1 they desisted from their importunities1 and accompanied him to ,jerusalem1 where he is supposed to have arrived just before the feast of pentecost1 ,a4 ,d4 #eh4 ,this may be considered as the end of ,st4 ,paul's third apostolical journey4 ,st4 ,paul was received by the ,apostles and other ,christians at ,jerusalem with great joy and affection2 and his account of the success of his ministry1 and of the collections which he had made among the ,christians of ,macedonia and ,achaia1 for the relief of their brethren in ,judea1 afforded them much satisfaction2 but not long after his arrival at ,jerusalem1 some ,jews of ,asia1 who had probably in their own country witnessed ,st4 ,paul's zeal in spreading ,christianity among the ,gentiles1 seeing him one day in the temple1 endeavoured to excite a tumult1 by crying out that he was the man who was aiming to destroy all distinction between ,jew and ,gentile2 who taught things contrary to the law of ,moses2 and who had polluted the holy temple1 by bringing into it uncircumcised ,heathens4 ,this representation did not fail to enrage the multitude against ,st4 ,paul2 they seized him1 dragged him out of the temple1 beat him1 and were upon the point of putting him to death1 when he was rescued out of their hands by ,lysias1 a ,roman tribune1 and the principal military officer then at ,jerusalem4 ,what followed1--his defence before ,felix and ,agrippa1--his long detention at ,csarea1 and his appeal to the emperor1 which occasioned his voyage to ,rome1 are all circumstantially stated in the latter chapters of the ,acts4 ,upon his arrival at ,rome1 ,st4 ,paul was committed to the care of the captain of the guard1 ,a4 ,d4 #fa4 ,the ,scriptures do not inform us whether he was ever tried before ,nero1 who was at this time emperor of ,rome2 and the learned are much divided in their opinion upon that point4 ,st4 ,luke only says1 ,paul was suffered to dwell by himself with a soldier that kept him4 ,and ,paul dwelt two whole years in his own hired house1 and received all that came in unto him1 preaching the kingdom of ,god1 and teaching those things which concern the ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 with all confidence1 no man forbidding him40 ,during his confinement he converted some ,jews resident at ,rome1 and many ,gentiles1 and1 among the rest1 several persons belonging to the emperor's household1 ,phil4 iv1 #bb4 ,the ,scripture history ends with the release of ,st4 ,paul from his two years' imprisonment at ,rome1 ,a4 ,d4 #fc2 and no ancient author has left us any particulars of the remaining part of this ,apostle's life4 ,it seems probable1 that1 immediately after he recovered his liberty1 he went to ,jerusalem2 and that afterward he travelled through ,asia ,minor1 ,crete1 ,macedonia1 and ,greece1 confirming his converts1 and regulating the affairs of the different churches which he had planted in those countries4 ,whether at this time he also preached the ,gospel in ,spain1 as some have imagined1 is very uncertain4 ,it was the unanimous tradition of the church1 that ,st4 ,paul returned to ,rome1 that he underwent a second imprisonment there1 and at last was put to death by the ,emperor ,nero4 ,tacitus and ,suetonius have mentioned a dreadful fire which happened at ,rome in the time of ,nero4 ,it was believed1 though probably without any reason1 that the emperor himself was the author of that fire2 but to remove the odium from himself1 he chose to attribute it to the ,christians2 and1 to give some colour to that unjust imputation1 he persecuted them with the utmost cruelty4 ,in this persecution ,st4 ,peter and ,paul suffered martyrdom1 probably1 ,a4 ,d4 #fe2 and if we may credit ,sulpitius ,severus1 a writer of the fifth century1 the former was crucified1 and the latter beheaded4 ,st4 ,paul was a person of great natural abilities1 of quick apprehension1 strong feelings1 firm resolution1 and irreproachable life4 ,he was conversant with ,grecian and ,jewish literature2 and gave early proofs of an active and zealous disposition4 ,if we may be allowed to consider his character independent of his supernatural endowments1 we may pronounce that he was well qualified to have risen to distinction and eminence1 and that he was by nature peculiarly adapted to the high office to which it pleased ,god to call him4 ,as a minister of the ,gospel1 he displayed the most unwearied perseverance and undaunted courage4 ,he was deterred by no difficulty or danger1 and endured a great variety of persecutions with patience and cheerfulness4 ,he gloried in being thought worthy of suffering for the name of ,jesus1 and continued with unabated zeal to maintain the truth of ,christianity against its bitterest and most powerful enemies4 ,he was the principal instrument under ,providence of spreading the ,gospel among the ,gentiles2 and we have seen that his labours lasted through many years1 and reached over a considerable extent of country4 ,though emphatically styled the great ,apostle of the ,gentiles1 he began his ministry1 in almost every city1 by preaching in the synagogue of the ,jews2 and though he owed by far the greater part of his persecutions to the opposition and malice of that proud and obstinate people1 whose resentment he particularly incurred by maintaining that the ,gentiles were to be admitted to an indiscriminate participation of the benefits of the new dispensation1 yet it rarely happened in any place1 that some of the ,jews did not yield to his arguments1 and embrace the ,gospel4 ,he watched with paternal care over the churches which he had founded2 and was always ready to strengthen the faith1 and regulate the conduct of his converts1 by such directions and advice as their circumstances might require4 ,the exertions of ,st4 ,paul in the cause of ,christianity were not confined to personal instruction3 he also wrote fourteen epistles to individuals or churches which are now extant1 and form a part of our canon4 ,these letters furnish evidence of the soundness and sobriety of his judgment4 ,his caution in distinguishing between the occasional suggestions of inspiration1 and the ordinary exertions of his natural understanding1 is without example in the history of enthusiasm4 ,his morality is every where calm1 pure1 and rational2 adapted to the condition1 the activity1 and the business of social life1 and of its various relations2 free from the overscrupulousness and austerities of superstition1 and from1 what was more perhaps to be apprehended1 the abstractions of quietism1 and the soarings or extravagancies of fanaticism4 ,his judgment concerning a hesitating conscience1 his opinion of the moral indifferency of many actions1 yet of the prudence and even the duty of compliance1 where non-compliance would produce evil effects upon the minds of the persons who observed it1 are all in proof of the calm and discriminating character of his mind2 and the universal applicability of his precepts affords strong presumption of his inspiration4 ,what ,lord ,lyttleton has remarked of the preference ascribed by ,st4 ,paul to rectitude of principle above every other religious accomplishment1 is weighty3 ,though ,i speak with the tongues of men and of angels1 and have not charity1 ,i am become as sounding brass1 or a tinkling cymbal10 c1 #a ,cor4 xiii1 #a-c4 ,did ever enthusiast prefer that universal benevolence1 meant by charity here1 7which1 we may add1 is attainable by every man17 to faith1 and to miracles1 to those religious opinions which he had embraced1 and to those supernatural graces and gifts which he imagined he had acquired1 nay1 even to the merit of martyrdom8 ,is it not the genius of enthusiasm to set moral virtues infinitely below the merit of faith2 and of all moral virtues to value that least which is most particularly enforced by ,st4 ,paul1 a spirit of candour1 moderation1 and peace8 ,certainly1 neither the temper nor the opinions of a man subject to fanatic delusions are to be found in this passage4 ,his letters1 indeed1 every where discover great zeal and earnestness in the cause in which he was engaged2 that is to say1 he was convinced of the truth of what he taught2 he was deeply impressed1 but not more so than the occasion merited1 with a sense of its importance4 ,this produces a corresponding animation and solicitude in the exercise of his ministry4 ,but would not these considerations1 supposing them to have been well founded1 have holden the same place1 and produced the same effect1 in a mind the strongest and the most sedate8 ,here1 then1 we have a man of liberal attainments1 and in other respects of sound judgment1 who had addicted his life to the service of the ,gospel4 ,we see him in the prosecution of his purpose1 travelling from country to country1 enduring every species of hardship1 encountering every extremity of danger1 assaulted by the populace1 punished by the magistrates1 scourged1 beaten1 stoned1 left for dead2 expecting1 wherever he came1 a renewal of the same treatment1 and the same dangers2 yet1 when driven from one city1 preaching in the next2 spending his whole time in the employment2 sacrificing to it his pleasures1 his ease1 his safety2 persisting in this course to old age1 unaltered by the experience of perverseness1 ingratitude1 prejudice1 desertion2 unsubdued by anxiety1 want1 labour1 persecutions2 unwearied by long confinement2 undismayed by the prospect of death4 ,such was ,st4 ,paul2 and such were the proofs of ,apostleship found in him40 ,the following remarks of ,hug on the character of this ,apostle are equally just and eloquent3 ,this most violent man1 having such terrible propensities1 whose turbulent impulses rendered him of a most enterprising character1 would have become nothing better than a ,john of ,gishala1 a blood-intoxicated zealot1 1 breathing out threatenings and slaughter1 ,acts ix1 #a1 had not his whole soul been changed4 ,the harsh tone of his mind inclined him to the principles of ,pharisaism1 which had all the appearance of severity1 and was the predominant party among the ,jews4 ,nature had not withholden from him the external endowments of eloquence1 although he afterward spoke very modestly of them4 ,at ,lystra he was deemed the tutelar god of eloquence4 ,this character1 qualified for great things1 but1 not master of himself from excess of internal power1 was an extreme of human dispositions1 and1 according to the natural course1 was prone to absolute extremities4 ,his religion was a destructive zeal1 his anger was fierceness1 his fury required victims4 ,a ferocity so boisterous did not psychologically qualify him for a ,christian nor a philanthropist2 but1 least of all1 for a quietly enduring man4 ,he1 nevertheless1 became all this on his conversion to ,christianity1 and each bursting emotion of his mind subsided directly into a well regulated and noble character4 ,formerly hasty and irritable1 now only spirited and resolved2 formerly violent1 now full of energy and enterprising3 once ungovernably refractory against every thing which obstructed him1 now only persevering2 once fanatical and morose1 now only serious2 once cruel1 now only firm2 once a harsh zealot1 now fearing ,god2 formerly unrelenting1 deaf to sympathy and commiseration1 now himself acquainted with tears1 which he had seen without effect in others4 ,formerly the friend of none1 now the brother of mankind1 benevolent1 compassionate1 sympathizing2 yet never weak1 always great2 in the midst of sadness and sorrow manly and noble2 so he showed himself at his deeply moving departure from ,miletus1 ,acts xx3 it is like the departure of ,moses1 like the resignation of ,samuel1 sincere and heart-felt1 full of self-recollection1 and in the midst of pain full of dignity4 ,his writings are a true expression of this character1 with regard to the tone predominant in them4 ,severity1 manly seriousness1 and sentiments which ennoble the heart1 are interchanged with mildness1 affability1 and sympathy3 and their transitions are such as nature begets in the heart of a man penetrated by his subject1 noble and discerning4 ,he exhorts1 reproaches1 and consoles again2 he attacks with energy1 urges with impetuosity1 then again he speaks kindly to the soul2 he displays his finer feelings for the welfare of others1 his forbearance and his fear of afflicting any body3 all as the subject1 time1 opposite dispositions1 and circumstances require4 ,there prevails throughout in them an importuning language1 an earnest and lively communication4 ,rom4 i1 #bf-cb1 is a comprehensive and vigorous description of morals4 ,his antithesis1 ,rom4 ii1 #ba-bd2 #b ,cor4 iv1 #h-ab2 vi1 #i-aa2 ix1 #bb-cj2 his enumerations1 #a ,cor4 xiii1 #d-aj2 #b ,cor4 vi1 #d-g2 #b ,tim4 iii1 #a-e2 ,eph4 iv1 #d-g2 v1 #c-f2 his gradations1 ,romans viii1 #bi1 #cj2 ,titus iii1 #c1 #d2 the interrogations1 exclamations1 and comparisons1 sometimes animate his language even so as to give a visible existence to it4 ,that1 however1 which we principally perceive in ,paul1 and from which his whole actions and operations become intelligible1 is the peculiar impression which the idea of a universal religion has wrought upon his mind4 ,this idea of establishing a religion for the world had not so profoundly engrossed any soul1 no where kindled so much vigour1 and projected it into such a constant energy4 ,in this he was no man's scholar2 this he had immediately received from the ,spirit of his ,master2 it was a spark of the divine light which enkindled him4 ,it was this which never allowed him to remain in ,palestine and in ,syria1 which so powerfully impelled him to foreign parts4 ,the portion of some others was ,judea and its environs3 but his mission was directed to the nations1 and his allotment was the whole of the ,heathen world4 ,thus he began his career among the different nations of ,asia ,minor1 and when this limit also became too confined for him1 he went with equal confidence to ,europe1 among other nations1 ordinances1 sciences1 and customs2 and here likewise he finally with the same indefatigable spirit circulated his plans1 even to the pillars of ,hercules4 ,in this manner ,paul prepared the overthrow of two religions1 that of his ancestors1 and that of the ,heathens4 ,,peacock1 1 #a ,kings x1 #bb2 #b ,chron4 ix1 #ba2 a bird distinguished by the length of its tail1 and the brilliant spots with which it is adorned2 which displays all that dazzles in the sparkling lustre of gems1 and all that astonishes in the rainbow4 ,the peacock is a bird originally of ,india2 thence brought into ,persia and ,media4 ,aristophanes mentions ,persian peacocks2 and ,suidas calls the peacock the ,median bird4 ,from ,persia it was gradually dispersed into ,judea1 ,egypt1 ,greece1 and ,europe4 ,if the fleet of ,solomon visited ,india1 they might easily procure this bird1 whether from ,india itself1 or from ,persia2 and certainly the bird by its beauty was likely to attract attention1 and to be brought among other rarities of natural history by ,solomon's servants1 who would be instructed to collect every curiosity in the countries they visited4 ,,pearl1 a hard1 white1 shining body1 usually roundish1 found in a shell fish resembling an oyster4 ,the oriental pearls have a fine polished gloss1 and are tinged with an elegant blush of red4 ,they are esteemed in the east beyond all other jewels4 ,,pelagians1 a sect that arose in the fifth century4 ,pelagius was a ,british monk1 of some rank1 and very exalted reputation4 ,he1 with his friend ,celestius1 travelled to ,rome1 where they resided very early in the fifth century1 and opposed with warmth certain received notions respecting original sin1 and the necessity of divine grace4 ,what reception their doctrines met with at ,rome does not appear2 but their virtue excited general approbation4 ,on the approach of the ,goths1 they retired to ,africa1 where ,celestius remained1 with a view of gaining admittance as a presbyter into the church of ,carthage4 ,pelagius proceeded to ,palestine1 where he enjoyed the favour and protection of ,john1 bishop of ,jerusalem4 ,but his friend and his opinions met with a very different reception from ,st4 ,augustine1 the celebrated bishop of ,hippo4 ,whatever parts were visited by these unorthodox friends1 they still asserted their peculiar opinions2 and they were gradually engaged in a warm contest1 in the course of which they were probably led to advance more than had originally occurred to them4 ,in contending for the truth of their doctrines1 they are said to have asserted1 that mankind derived no injury from the sin of ,adam2 that we are now as capable of obedience to the will of ,god as he was2 that1 otherwise1 it would have been cruel and absurd to propose to mankind the performance of certain duties1 with the sanction of rewards1 and the denunciation of punishments2 and that1 consequently1 men are born without vice1 as well as without virtue40 ,pelagius is charged also with having maintained1 that it is possible for men1 provided they fully employ the powers and faculties with which they are endued1 to live without sin20 and though he did not deny that external grace1 or the doctrines and motives of the ,gospel1 are necessary1 yet he is said to have rejected the necessity of internal grace1 or the aids of the divine ,spirit4 ,he acknowledged1 that the power we possess of obeying the will of ,god1 is a divine gift20 but asserted1 that the direction of this power depends upon ourselves2 that natural death is not a consequence of the sin of ,adam1 but of the frame of man2 and that ,adam would have died1 though he had not sinned40 ,isidore1 ,chrysostom1 and ,augustine strenuously opposed these opinions2 and the latter procured their condemnation in a synod held at ,carthage in #dab4 ,they were1 however1 favourably received at ,rome1 and ,pope ,zozimus was at the head of the ,pelagian party3 but his decision against the ,african bishops1 who had opposed ,pelagianism1 was disregarded by them1 and the pontiff yielded at length to their reasonings and remonstrances1 and condemned the men whom he had before honoured with his approbation4 ,the council of ,ephesus likewise condemned the opinions of ,pelagius and ,celestius2 and the ,emperor ,honorius1 in #dah1 published an edict1 which ordained that the leaders of the sect should be expelled from ,rome1 and their followers exiled4 ,some of the ,pelagians taught that ,christ was a mere man1 and that men might lead sinless lives1 because ,christ did so2 that ,jesus became ,christ after his baptism1 and ,god after his resurrection2 the one arising from his unction1 the other from the merit of his passion4 ,the ,pelagian controversy1 which began with the doctrines of grace and original sin1 was extended to predestination1 and excited continual discord and division in the church4 ,it must however be recollected1 that we are acquainted with the sentiments of ,pelagius only through the medium of his opponents2 and that it is probable that they were much misrepresented4 ,see ,,augustine4 ,the followers of the truly evangelical ,arminius1 or those who hold the tenet of general redemption with its concomitants1 have often been greatly traduced1 by the ignorant among their doctrinal opponents1 as ,pelagians1 or at least as ,semi-,pelagians4 ,it may therefore serve the cause of truth to exhibit the appropriate reply which the ,dutch ,arminians gave to this charge when urged against them at the synod of ,dort1 and which they verified and maintained by arguments and authorities that were unanswerable4 ,in their concluding observations they say1 8,from all these remarks a judgment may easily be formed at what an immense distance our sentiments stand from the dogmatical assertions of the ,pelagians and ,semi-,pelagians on the grace of ,god in the conversion of man4 ,pelagius1 in the first instance1 attributed all things to nature3 but we acknowledge nothing but grace4 ,when ,pelagius was blamed for not acknowledging grace1 he began indeed to speak of it1 but it is evident that by grace he understood the power of nature as created by ,god1 that is1 the rational will3 but by grace we understand a supernatural gift4 ,pelagius1 when afterward pressed with passages of ,scripture1 also admitted this supernatural grace2 but he placed it solely in the external teaching of the law3 though we affirm that ,god offers his word to men1 yet we likewise affirm that he inwardly causes the understanding to believe4 ,subsequently ,pelagius joined to this external grace that by which sins are pardoned3 we acknowledge not only the grace by which sins are forgiven1 but also that by which men are assisted to refrain from the commission of sin4 ,in addition to his previous concessions ,pelagius granted1 that the grace of ,christ was requisite beside the two kinds which he had enumerated2 but he attributed it entirely to the doctrine and example of ,christ that we are aided in our endeavours not to commit sin3 we likewise admit that the doctrine and example of ,christ afford us some aid in refraining from sin1 but in addition to their influence we also place the gift of the ,holy ,spirit with which ,god endues us1 and which enlightens our understandings1 and confers strength and power upon our will to abstain from sinning4 ,when ,pelagius afterward owned the assistance of divine power inwardly working in man by the ,holy ,spirit1 he placed it solely in the enlightening of the understanding3 but we believe1 that it is not only necessary for us to know or understand what we ought to do1 but that it is also requisite for us to implore the aid of the ,holy ,spirit that we may be rendered capable of performing1 and may delight in the performance of1 that which it is our duty to do4 ,pelagius admitted grace1--but it has been a question with some whether he meant only illumination1 or1 beside this1 a power communicated to the will2--he admitted grace1 but he did this only to show that by means of it man can with greater ease act aright3 we1 on the contrary1 affirm that grace is bestowed1 not that we may be able with greater ease to act aright1 7which is as though we can do this even without grace17 but that grace is absolutely necessary to enable us to act at all aright4 ,pelagius asserted1 that man1 so far from requiring the aid of grace for the performance of good actions1 is1 through the powers implanted in him at the time of his creation1 capable of fulfilling the whole law1 of loving ,god1 and of overcoming all temptations3 we1 on the contrary1 assert that the grace of ,god is required for the performance of every act of piety4 ,pelagius declared1 that by the works of nature man renders himself worthy of grace3 but we1 in common with the church universal1 condemn this dogma4 ,when ,pelagius afterward himself condemned this tenet1 he understood by grace1 partly natural grace1 which is antecedent to all merit1 and partly remission of sins1 which he acknowledged to be gratuitous2 but he added1 that through works performed by the powers of nature alone1 at least through the desire of good and the imperfect longing after it1 men merit that spiritual grace by which they are assisted in good works3 but we declare1 that men will that which is good on account of ,god's prevenience or going before them by his grace1 and exciting within them a longing after good2 otherwise grace would no longer be grace1 because it would not be gratuitously bestowed1 but only on account of the merit of man40 ,that many who have held some tenets in common with the true ,arminians have been1 in different degrees1 followers of ,pelagius is well known2 but the original ,arminians were in truth as far from ,pelagian or ,semi-,pelagian errors1 granting the opinions of ,pelagius to be fairly reported by his adversaries1 as the ,calvinists themselves4 ,this is also the case with the whole body of ,wesleyan ,methodists1 and of the cognate societies to which they have given rise1 both in ,great ,britain and ,america4 ,,pelican1 1 ,lev4 xi1 #ah2 ,deut4 xiv1 #ag2 ,psa4 cii1 #g2 ,isa4 xxxiv1 #aa2 ,zeph4 ii1 #ad2 a very remarkable aquatic bird1 of the size of a large goose4 ,its colour is a grayish white1 except that the neck looks a little yellowish1 and the middle of the back feathers are blackish4 ,the bill is long1 and hooked at the end1 and has under it a lax membrane1 extended to the throat1 which makes a bag or sack1 capable of holding a very large quantity4 ,feeding her young from this bag has so much the appearance of feeding them with her own blood1 that it caused this fabulous opinion to be propagated1 and made the pelican an emblem of paternal1 as the stork had been before chosen1 more justly1 of filial affection4 ,the voice of this bird is harsh and dissonant1 which some say resembles that of a man grievously complaining4 ,david compares his groaning to it1 ,psalm cii1 #g4 ,,pentateuch4 ,this word1 which is derived from the ,greek 1 from 1 five1 and 1 a volume1 signifies the collection of the five books of ,moses1 which are ,genesis1 ,exodus1 ,leviticus1 ,numbers1 and ,deuteronomy4 ,that the ,jews have acknowledged the authenticity of the ,pentateuch1 from the present time back to the era of their return from the ,babylonish captivity1 a period of more than two thousand three hundred years1 admits not a possibility of doubt4 ,the five books of ,moses have been during that period constantly placed at the head of the ,jewish sacred volume1 and divided into fixed portions1 one of which was read and explained in their synagogues1 not only every ,sabbath with the other ,scriptures1 but in many places twice a week1 and not unfrequently every evening1 when they alone were read4 ,they have been received as divinely inspired by every ,jewish sect1 even by the ,sadducees1 who questioned the divinity of the remaining works of the ,old ,testament4 ,in truth1 the veneration of the ,jews for their ,scriptures1 and above all for the ,pentateuch1 seems to have risen almost to a superstitious reverence4 ,extracts from the ,mosaic law were written on pieces of parchment1 and placed on the borders of their garments1 or round their wrists and foreheads3 nay1 they at a later period counted1 with the minutest exactness1 not only the chapters and paragraphs1 but the words and letters1 which each book of their ,scriptures contains4 ,thus also the translation1 first of the ,pentateuch1 and afterward of the remaining works of the ,old ,testament1 into ,greek1 for the use of the ,alexandrian ,jews1 disseminated this sacred volume over a great part of the civilized world1 in the language most universally understood1 and rendered it accessible to the learned and inquisitive in every country2 so as to preclude all suspicion that it could be materially altered by either ,jews or ,christians1 to support their respective opinions as to the person and character of the ,messiah2 the substance of the text being1 by this translation1 fixed and authenticated at least two hundred and seventy years before the appearance of our ,lord4 ,but1 long previous to the captivity1 two particular examples1 deserving peculiar attention1 occur in the ,jewish history1 of the public and solemn homage paid to the sacredness of the ,mosaic law as promulgated in the ,pentateuch2 and which1 by consequence1 afford the fullest testimony to the authenticity of the ,pentateuch itself3 the one in the reign of ,hezekiah1 while the separate kingdoms of ,judah and ,israel still subsisted2 and the other in the reign of his great grandson ,josiah1 subsequent to the captivity of ,israel4 ,in the former we see the pious monarch of ,judah assembling the priests and ,levites and the rulers of the people2 to deplore with him the trespasses of their fathers against the divine law1 to acknowledge the justice of those chastisements which1 according to the prophetic warnings of that law1 had been inflicted upon them2 to open the house of ,god which his father had impiously shut1 and restore the true worship therein according to the ,mosaic ritual1 #b ,kings xviii2 #b ,chron4 xxix2 xxx2 with the minutest particulars of which he complied1 in the sin-offerings and the peace-offerings which1 in conjunction with his people1 he offered for the kingdom and the sanctuary and the people1 to make atonement to ,god for them and for all ,israel2 restoring the service of ,god as it had been performed in the purest times4 ,and ,hezekiah10 says the sacred narrative1 rejoiced1 and all the people1 that ,god had prepared the people2 for the thing was done suddenly10 #b ,chron4 xxix1 #cf2 immediately on the king's accession to the throne1 on the first declaration of his pious resolution4 ,how clear a proof does this exhibit of the previous existence and clearly acknowledged authority of those laws which the ,pentateuch contains6 ,but a yet more remarkable part of this transaction still remains4 ,at this time ,hoshea was king of ,israel1 and so far disposed to countenance the worship of the true ,god1 that he appears to have made no opposition to the pious zeal of ,hezekiah2 who1 with the concurrence of the whole congregation which he had assembled1 sent out letters and made a proclamation1 not only to his own people of ,judah1 #b ,chron4 xxx1 #a1 but to ,ephraim and ,manasseh and all ,israel1 from ,beersheba even unto ,dan1 that they should come to the house of the ,lord at ,jerusalem1 to keep the passover unto the ,lord ,god of ,israel2 saying1 ,ye children of ,israel1 turn again to the ,lord ,god of ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 and he will return to the remnant of you who are escaped out of the hands of the kings of ,assyria2 and be not ye like your fathers and your brethren1 which trespassed against the ,lord ,god of their fathers1 who therefore gave them up to desolation as ye see4 ,now be ye not stiff-necked1 as your fathers were2 but yield yourselves unto the ,lord1 and enter into his sanctuary which he hath sanctified for ever1 and serve the ,lord your ,god1 that the fierceness of his wrath may turn away from you4 ,so the posts passed from city to city through the country of ,ephraim and ,manasseh even unto ,zebulun10 #b ,chron4 xxx1 #f1 c4 ,now1 can we conceive that such an attempt as this could have been made1 if the ,pentateuch containing the ,mosaic code had not been as certainly recognized through the ten tribes of ,israel as in the kingdom of ,judah8 ,the success was exactly such as we might reasonably expect if it were so acknowledged2 for1 though many of the ten tribes laughed to scorn and mocked the messengers of ,hezekiah1 who invited them to the solemnity of the passover1 from the impious contempt which through long disuse they had conceived for it2 ,nevertheless10 says the sacred narrative1 divers of ,asher and ,manasseh and of ,zebulun humbled themselves and came to ,jerusalem2 and there assembled at ,jerusalem much people1 to keep the feast of unleavened bread in the second month1 a very great congregation2 and they killed the passover1 and the priests and ,levites stood in their places after their manner1 according to the law of ,moses1 the man of ,god4 ,so there was great joy in ,jerusalem2 for since the time of ,solomon1 the son of ,david1 king of ,israel1 there was not the like at ,jerusalem3 and when all this was finished1 all ,israel that were present went out to the cities of ,judah1 and brake the images in pieces1 and cut down the groves1 and threw down the high places and the altars out of all ,judah and ,benjamin1 in ,ephraim also and ,manasseh1 until they had utterly destroyed them all10 #b ,chronicles xxx1 #aa2 xxxi4 ,can any clearer proof than this be desired of the constant and universal acknowledgment of the divine authority of the ,pentateuch throughout the entire nation of the ,jews1 notwithstanding the idolatries and corruptions which so often prevented its receiving such obedience as that acknowledgment ought to have produced8 ,the argument from this certain antiquity of the ,pentateuch1 a copy of which existed in the old ,samaritan character as well as in the modern ,hebrew1 is most conclusive as to the numerous prophecies of ,christ1 and the future and present condition of the ,jews which it contains4 ,these are proved to have been delivered many ages before they were accomplished2 they could be only the result of divine prescience1 and the uttering of them by ,moses proves therefore the inspiration and the authority of his writings4 ,see ,,law and ,,moses4 ,,pentecost1 1 a solemn festival of the ,jews2 so called1 because it was celebrated on the fiftieth day after the sixteenth of ,nisan1 which was the second day of the passover4 ,the ,hebrews call it the feast of weeks1 because it was kept seven weeks after the passover4 ,they then offered the first fruits of the wheat harvest1 which was then completed2 beside which1 they presented at the temple seven lambs of that year1 one calf1 and two rams for a burnt-offering2 two lambs for a peace-offering2 and a goat for a sin-offering1 ,lev4 xxiii1 #ae1 #af2 ,exod4 xxxiv1 #bb2 ,deut4 xvi1 #i1 #aj4 ,the feast of pentecost was instituted among the ,israelites1 first1 to oblige them to repair to the temple of the ,lord1 there to acknowledge his absolute dominion over the whole country1 by offering him the first fruits of the harvest2 and1 secondly1 to commemorate and give thanks to ,god for the law which he had given them from ,sinai1 on the fiftieth day after their coming out of ,egypt4 ,the modern ,jews celebrate the pentecost for two days4 ,they deck the synagogues1 where the law is read1 and their own houses1 with garlands of flowers4 ,they hear an oration in praise of the law1 and read from the ,pentateuch and prophets lessons which have a relation to this festival1 and accommodate their prayers to the same occasion4 ,it was on the feast of pentecost that the ,holy ,ghost descended in the miraculous manner related1 ,acts ii4 ,,pergamus1 a city of ,troas1 very considerable in the time of ,john the evangelist1 ,rev4 ii1 #ab1 #ac4 ,this city was1 for the space of one hundred and fifty years1 the capital of a kingdom of the same name founded by ,philetrus1 ,b4 ,c4 #bhc2 who treacherously made use of the treasures committed to his care by ,lysimachus after the battle of ,ipsus1 and1 seizing on ,pergamus1 established an independent kingdom4 ,after ,philetrus were five kings of the same race2 the last of whom1 ,attalus ,philopater1 left his kingdom1 which comprehended ,mysia1 olis1 ,ionia1 ,lydia1 and ,caria1 to the ,roman empire2 to which it belonged when the first ,christian church was established there4 ,this church early became corrupted by the ,nicolaitans1 for which it was reproved by ,st4 ,john1 and charged quickly to repent1 ,rev4 ii1 #ad-af4 ,pergamus1 now called ,bergamo1 like most other places which have been cursed by the presence of the ,turks1 is reduced to comparative decay1 containing a poor population1 who are too indolent or too oppressed to profit by the richness of their soil and the beauty of the climate4 ,the number of inhabitants1 however1 is still said to amount to thirty thousand1 of whom three thousand are ,greek ,christians4 ,many remains of former magnificence are still to be found2 among which are those of several ,christian churches4 ,it is about sixty miles north of ,smyrna4 ,the celebrated physician ,galen was a native of this place4 ,,perizzites4 ,the ancient inhabitants of ,palestine1 mingled with the ,canaanites4 ,there is also a great probability that they themselves were ,canaanites1 but1 having no fixed habitations1 were wandering about here and there1 and scattered over all the country4 ,thus1 in the time of ,abraham and ,lot1 the ,canaanite and ,perizzite were in the land1 ,gen4 xiii1 #g2 ,josh4 xvii1 #ae4 ,solomon subdued the remains of the ,canaanites and ,perizzites1 which the children of ,israel had not rooted out1 and made them tributary to him1 #a ,kings ix1 #bj1 #ba2 #b ,chron4 viii1 #g4 ,there still remained some of this people as late as the time of ,ezra1 ix1 #a4 ,,persecution is any pain or affliction which a person designedly inflicts upon another2 and1 in a more restrained sense1 the sufferings of ,christians on account of their religion4 ,the establishment of ,christianity was opposed by the powers of the world1 and occasioned several severe persecutions against ,christians1 during the reigns of several ,roman emperors4 ,though the absurdities of polytheism were openly derided and exposed by the ,apostles and their successors1 yet it does not appear that any public laws were enacted against ,christianity till the reign of ,nero1 ,a4 ,d4 #fd1 by which time it had acquired considerable stability and extent4 ,as far the greater number of the first converts to ,christianity were of the ,jewish nation1 one secondary cause for their being so long preserved from persecution may probably be deduced from their appearing to the ,roman governors only as a sect of ,jews1 who had seceded from the rest of their brethren on account of some opinion1 trifling in its importance1 and perhaps difficult to be understood4 ,nor1 when their brethren were fully discovered to have cast off the religion of the synagogue1 did the ,jews find it easy to infuse into the breasts of the ,roman magistrates that rancour and malice which they themselves experienced4 ,but the steady and uniform opposition made by the ,christians to ,heathen superstition could not long pass unnoticed4 ,their open attacks upon ,paganism made them extremely obnoxious to the populace1 by whom they were represented as a society of atheists1 who1 by attacking the religious constitution of the empire1 merited the severest animadversion of the civil magistrate4 ,horrid tales of their abominations were circulated throughout the empire2 and the minds of the ,pagans were1 from all these circumstances1 prepared to regard with pleasure or indifference every cruelty which could be inflicted upon this despised sect4 ,historians usually reckon ten general persecutions4 ,first general persecution4--,nero selected the ,christians as a grateful sacrifice to the ,roman people1 and endeavoured to transfer to this hated sect the guilt of which he was strongly suspected2 that of having caused and enjoyed the fire which had nearly desolated the city4 7,see ,nero47 ,this persecution was not confined to ,rome3 the emperor issued edicts against the ,christians throughout most of the provinces of the empire4 ,he was far1 however1 from obtaining the object of his hopes and expectations2 and the virtues of the ,christians1 their zeal for the truth1 and their constancy in suffering1 must have considerably contributed to make their tenets more generally known4 ,second general persecution4--,from the death of ,nero to the reign of ,domitian1 the ,christians remained unmolested and daily increasing2 but toward the close of the first century1 they were again involved in all the horrors of persecution4 ,in this persecution many eminent ,christians suffered2 but the death of ,domitian soon delivered them from this calamity4 ,third general persecution4--,this persecution began in the third year of the ,emperor ,trajan1 ,a4 ,d4 #ajj4 ,many things contributed toward it2 as the laws of the empire1 the emperor's zeal for his religion1 and aversion to ,christianity1 and the prejudices of the ,pagans1 supported by falsehoods and calumnies against the ,christians4 ,under the plausible pretence of their holding illegal meetings and societies1 they were severely persecuted by the governors and other officers2 in which persecution great numbers fell by the rage of popular tumult1 as well as by laws and processes4 ,this persecution continued several years1 with different degrees of severity in many parts of the empire2 and was so much the more afflicting1 because the ,christians generally suffered under the notion of malefactors and traitors1 and under an emperor famed for his singular justice and moderation4 ,the most noted martyr in this persecution was ,clement1 bishop of ,rome4 ,after some time the fury of this persecution was abated1 but did not cease during the whole reign of ,trajan4 ,in the eighth year of his successor ,adrian1 it broke out with new rage4 ,this is by some called the fourth general persecution2 but is more commonly considered as a revival or continuance of the third4 ,fourth general persecution4--,this took place under ,antoninus the philosopher2 and at different places1 with several intermissions1 and different degrees of severity1 it continued the greater part of his reign4 ,antoninus himself has been much excused as to this persecution4 ,as the character of the virtuous ,trajan1 however1 is sullied by the martyrdom of ,ignatius1 so the reign of the philosophic ,marcus is for ever disgraced by the sacrifice of the venerable ,polycarp1 bishop of ,smyrna1 the friend and companion of ,st4 ,john4 ,a few days previous to his death1 he is said to have dreamed that his pillow was on fire4 ,when urged by the proconsul to renounce ,christ1 he replied1 ,fourscore and six years have ,i served him1 and he has never done me an injury3 can ,i blaspheme my ,king and my ,saviour80 ,several miracles are reported to have happened at his death4 ,the flames1 as if unwilling to injure his sacred person1 are said to have arched over his head2 and it is added1 that at length1 being despatched with a sword1 a dove flew out of the wound2 and that from the pile proceeded a most fragrant smell4 ,it is obvious that the arching of the flames might be an accidental effect1 which the enthusiastic veneration of his disciples might convert into a miracle2 and as to the story of the dove1 c1 ,eusebius himself apparently did not credit it2 since he has omitted it in his narrative of the transaction4 ,among many other victims of persecution in this philosophic reign1 we must also record that of the excellent and learned ,justin4 ,but it was at ,lyons and ,vienne in ,gaul1 that the most shocking scenes were acted4 ,among many nameless sufferers1 history has preserved from oblivion ,pothinus1 the respectable bishop of ,lyons1 who was then more than ninety years of age2 ,sanctus1 a deacon of ,vienne2 ,attalus1 a native of ,pergamus2 ,maturus1 and ,alexander2 some of whom were devoured by wild beasts1 and some of them tortured in an iron chair made red hot4 ,some females1 also1 and particularly ,biblias and ,blandina1 reflected honour both upon their sex and religion by their constancy and courage4 ,fifth general persecution4--,a considerable part of the reign of ,severus proved so far favourable to the ,christians1 that no additions were made to the severe edicts already in force against them4 ,for this lenity they were probably indebted to ,proculus1 a ,christian1 who1 in a very extraordinary manner1 cured the emperor of a dangerous distemper by the application of oil4 ,but this degree of peace1 precarious as it was1 and frequently interrupted by the partial execution of severe laws1 was terminated by an edict1 ,a4 ,d4 #aig1 which prohibited every subject of the empire1 under severe penalties1 from embracing the ,jewish or ,christian faith4 ,this law appears1 upon a first view1 designed merely to impede the farther progress of ,christianity2 but it incited the magistracy to enforce the laws of former emperors1 which were still existing1 against the ,christians2 and during seven years they were exposed to a rigorous persecution in ,palestine1 ,egypt1 the rest of ,africa1 ,italy1 ,gaul1 and other parts4 ,in this persecution ,leonidas1 the father of ,origen1 and ,irenus1 bishop of ,lyons1 suffered martyrdom4 ,on this occasion ,tertullian composed his ,apology40 ,the violence of ,pagan intolerance was most severely felt in ,egypt1 and particularly at ,alexandria4 ,sixth general persecution4--,this persecution began with the reign of the ,emperor ,maximinus1 ,a4 ,d4 #bce1 and seems to have arisen from that prince's hatred to his predecessor1 ,alexander1 in whose family many ,christians had found shelter and patronage4 ,though this persecution was very severe in some places1 yet we have the names of only a few martyrs4 ,origen at this time was very industrious in supporting the ,christians under these fiery trials4 ,seventh general persecution4--,this was the most dreadful persecution that ever had been known in the church4 ,during the short reign of ,decius1 the ,christians were exposed to greater calamities than any they had hitherto suffered4 ,it has been said1 and with some probability1 that the ,christians were involved in this persecution by their attachment to the family of the ,emperor ,philip4 ,considerable numbers were publicly destroyed2 several purchased safety by bribes1 or secured it by flight2 and many deserted from the faith1 and willingly consented to burn incense on the altars of the gods4 ,the city of ,alexandria1 the great theatre of persecution1 had even anticipated the edicts of the emperor1 and had put to death a number of innocent persons1 among whom were some women4 ,the imperial edict for persecuting the ,christians was published ,a4 ,d4 #bdi2 and shortly after1 ,fabianus1 bishop of ,rome1 with a number of his followers1 was put to death4 ,the venerable bishops of ,jerusalem and ,antioch died in prison1 the most cruel tortures were employed1 and the numbers that perished are by all parties confessed to have been very considerable4 ,eighth general persecution4--,the ,emperor ,valerian1 in the fourth year of his reign1 ,a4 ,d4 #beg1 listening to the suggestions of ,macrinus1 a magician of ,egypt1 was prevailed upon to persecute the ,christians1 on pretence that by their wicked and execrable charms they hindered the prosperity of the emperor4 ,macrinus advised him to perform many impious rites1 sacrifices1 and incantations2 to cut the throats of infants1 c2 and edicts were published in all places against the ,christians1 who were exposed without protection to the common rage4 ,we have the names of several martyrs1 among whom were the famous ,st4 ,laurence1 archdeacon of ,rome1 and the great ,st4 ,cyprian1 bishop of ,carthage4 ,ninth general persecution4--,this persecution took place under the ,emperor ,aurelian1 ,a4 ,d4 #bgd2 but it was so small and inconsiderable1 that it gave little interruption to the peace of the church4 ,tenth general persecution4--,the tenth and last general persecution of the ,christians began in the nineteenth year of the ,emperor ,diocletian1 ,a4 ,d4 #cjc4 ,the most violent promoters of it were ,hierocles the philosopher1 who wrote against the ,christian religion1 and ,galerius1 whom ,diocletian had declared ,csar4 ,this latter was excited not only by his own cruelty and superstition1 but likewise by his mother1 who was a zealous ,pagan4 ,diocletian1 contrary to his inclination1 was prevailed upon to authorize the persecution by his edicts4 ,accordingly1 it began in the city of ,nicomedia1 whence it spread into other cities and provinces1 and became at last universal4 ,great numbers of ,christians suffered the severest tortures in this persecution1 though the accounts given of it by succeeding historians are probably exaggerated4 ,there is1 however1 sufficient of well authenticated facts to assure us amply of the cruel and intolerant disposition of the professors of ,pagan philosophy4 ,the human imagination was1 indeed1 almost exhausted in inventing a variety of tortures4 ,some were impaled alive2 some had their limbs broken1 and in that condition were left to expire4 ,some were roasted by slow fires2 and some suspended by their feet with their heads downward1 and1 a fire being placed under them1 were suffocated by the smoke4 ,some had melted lead poured down their throats1 and the flesh of some was torn off with shells1 and others had splinters of reeds thrust under the nails of their fingers and toes4 ,the few who were not capitally punished had their limbs and their features mutilated4 ,it would be endless to enumerate the victims of superstition4 ,the bishops of ,nicomedia1 of ,tyre1 of ,sidon1 of ,emesa1 several matrons and virgins of the purest character1 and a nameless number of plebians1 arrived at immortality through the flames of martyrdom4 ,at last it pleased ,god that the ,emperor ,constantine1 who himself afterward became a ,christian1 openly declared for the ,christians1 and published the first law in favour of them4 ,the death of ,maximin1 emperor of the east1 soon after put a period to all their troubles2 and this was the great epoch when ,christianity triumphantly got possession of the thrones of princes4 ,the guilt of persecution has1 however1 been attached to professing ,christians4 ,had men been guided solely by the spirit and the precepts of the ,gospel1 the conduct of its blessed ,author1 and the writings and example of his immediate disciples1 we might have boldly affirmed that among ,christians there could be no tendency to encroach upon freedom of discussion1 and no approach to persecution4 ,the ,gospel1 in every page of it1 inculcates tenderness and mercy2 it exhibits the most unwearied indulgence to the frailties and errors of men2 and it represents charity as the badge of those who in sincerity profess it4 ,in ,st4 ,paul's inimitable description of this grace he has drawn a picture of mutual forbearance and kindness and toleration1 upon which it is scarcely possible to dwell1 without being raised superior to every contracted sentiment1 and glowing with the most diffusive benevolence4 ,in the churches which he planted he had often to counteract the efforts of teachers who had laboured to subvert the foundation which he had laid1 to misrepresent his motives1 and to inculcate doctrines which1 through the inspiration that was imparted to him1 he discerned to proceed from the most perverted views1 and to be inconsistent with the great designs of the ,gospel4 ,these teachers he strenuously and conscientiously opposed2 he endeavoured to show the great importance of those to whom he wrote being on their guard against them2 and he evinced the most ardent zeal in resisting their insidious purposes3 but he never1 in the most distant manner1 insinuated that they should be persecuted1 adhering always to the maxim which he had laid down1 that the weapons of a ,christian's warfare are not carnal but spiritual4 ,he does1 indeed1 sometimes speak of heretics2 and he even exhorts that1 after expostulation with him1 a heretic should be rejected1 and not acknowledged to be a member of the church to which he had once belonged4 ,but that precept of the ,apostle has no reference to the persecution which it has sometimes been conceived to sanction1 and which has been generally directed against men quite sincere in their belief1 however erroneous that belief may be esteemed4 ,upon a subject thus enforced by precept and example1 it is not to be supposed that the first converts1 deriving their notions of ,christianity immediately from our ,lord or his ,apostles1 could have any opinion different in theory1 at least1 from that which has been now established4 ,accordingly1 we find that the primitive fathers1 although1 in many respects1 they erred1 unequivocally express themselves in favour of the most ample liberty as to religious sentiment1 and highly disapprove of every attempt to control it4 ,passages from many of these writers might be quoted to establish that this was almost the universal sentiment till the age of ,constantine4 ,lactantius in particular has1 with great force and beauty1 delivered his opinion against persecution3 ,there is no need of compulsion and violence1 because religion cannot be forced2 and men must be made willing1 not by stripes1 but by arguments4 ,slaughter and piety are quite opposite to each other2 nor can truth consist with violence1 or justice with cruelty4 ,they are convinced that nothing is more excellent than religion1 and therefore think that it ought to be defended with force2 but they are mistaken1 both in the nature of religion1 and in proper methods to support it2 for religion is to be defended1 not by murder1 but by persuasion2 not by cruelty1 but by patience2 not by wickedness1 but by faith4 ,if you attempt to defend religion by blood1 and torments1 and evil1 this is not to defend1 but to violate and pollute it2 for there is nothing that should be more free than the choice of religion1 in which1 if consent be wanting1 it becomes entirely void and ineffectual40 ,the general conduct of ,christians during the first three centuries was in conformity with the admirable maxims now quoted4 ,eusebius has recorded that ,polycarp1 after in vain endeavouring to persuade ,anicetus1 who was bishop of ,rome1 to embrace his opinion as to some point with respect to which they differed1 gave him1 notwithstanding1 the kiss of peace1 while ,anicetus communicated with the martyr2 and ,irenus mentions that although ,polycarp was much offended with the ,gnostic heretics1 who abounded in his days1 he converted numbers of them1 not by the application of constraint or violence1 but by the facts and arguments which he calmly submitted for their consideration4 ,it must be admitted1 however1 that even during the second century some traces of persecution are to be found4 ,victor1 one of the early pontiffs1 because the ,asiatic bishops differed from him about the rule for the observation of ,easter1 excommunicated them as guilty of heresy2 and he acted in the same manner toward a person who held what he considered as erroneous notions respecting the trinity4 ,this stretch of authority was1 indeed1 reprobated by the generality of ,christians1 and remonstrances against it were accordingly presented4 ,there was1 however1 in this proceeding of ,victor1 too clear a proof that the church was beginning to deviate from the perfect charity by which it had been adorned1 and too sure an indication that the example of one who held so high an office1 when it was in harmony with the corruption or with the worst passions of our nature1 would be extensively followed4 ,but still there was1 in the excommunication rashly pronounced by the pope1 merely an exertion of ecclesiastical power1 not interfering with the personal security1 with the property1 or with the lives of those against whom it was directed2 and we may1 notwithstanding this slight exception1 consider the first three centuries as marked by the candour and the benevolence implied in the charity which judgeth not1 and thinketh no evil4 ,it was after ,christianity had been established as the religion of the empire1 and after wealth and honour had been conferred on its ministers1 that the monstrous evil of persecution acquired gigantic strength1 and threw its blasting influence over the religion of the ,gospel4 ,the causes of this are apparent4 ,men exalted in the scale of society were eager to extend the power which had been intrusted to them2 and they sought to do so by exacting from the people acquiescence in the peculiar interpretations of tenets and doctrines which they chose to publish as articles of faith4 ,the moment that this was attempted1 the foundation was laid for the most inflexible intolerance2 because reluctance to submit was no longer regarded solely as a matter of conscience1 but as interfering with the interest and the dominion of the ruling party4 ,it was therefore proceeded against with all the eagerness which men so unequivocally display when the temporal blessings that gratify their ambition or add to their comfort are attempted to be wrested from them4 ,to other dictates than those of the word of ,god the members of the church now listened2 and opinions were viewed1 not in reference to that word1 but to the effect which they might produce upon the worldly advancement or prosperity of those by whom they were avowed4 ,from the era1 then1 of the conversion of ,constantine we may date1 if not altogether the introduction1 at least the decisive influence of persecution4 ,,persia1 an ancient kingdom of ,asia1 bounded on the north by ,media1 on the west by ,susiana1 on the east by ,carmania1 and on the south by the ,persian ,gulf4 ,the ,persians became very famous from the time of ,cyrus1 the founder of the ,persian monarchy4 ,their ancient name was ,elamites1 and in the time of the ,roman emperors they went by the name of ,parthians2 but now ,persians4 ,see ,,cyrus2 and for the religion of the ancient ,persians1 ,,magi4 ,,pestilence1 or plague1 generally is used by the ,hebrews for all epidemic or contagious diseases4 ,the prophets usually connect together sword1 pestilence1 and famine1 being three of the most grievous inflictions of the ,almighty upon a guilty people4 ,see ,,diseases4 ,,peter1 the great ,apostle of the circumcision1 was the son of ,jona1 and born at ,bethsaida1 a town situated on the western shore of the lake of ,gennesareth1 but in what particular year we are not informed1 ,john i1 #db1 #dc4 ,his original name was ,simon or ,simeon1 which his divine ,master1 when he called him to the ,apostleship1 changed for that of ,cephas1 a ,syriac word signifying a stone or rock2 in ,latin1 petra1 from whence is derived the term ,peter4 ,he was a married man1 and had his house1 his mother-in-law1 and his wife1 at ,capernaum1 on the lake of ,gennesareth1 ,matt4 viii1 #ad2 ,mark i1 #bi2 ,luke iv1 #ch4 ,he had also a brother of the name of ,andrew1 who had been a disciple of ,john the ,baptist1 and was called to the knowledge of the ,saviour prior to himself4 ,andrew was present when the venerable ,baptist pointed his disciples to ,jesus1 and added1 ,behold the ,lamb of ,god that taketh away the sin of the world20 and1 meeting ,simon shortly afterward1 said1 ,we have found the ,messiah10 and then brought him to ,jesus1 ,john i1 #da4 ,when the two brothers had passed one day with the ,lord ,jesus1 they took their leave of him1 and returned to their ordinary occupation of fishing4 ,this appears to have taken place in the thirtieth year of the ,christian era4 ,toward the end of the same year1 as ,jesus was one morning standing on the shore of the lake of ,gennesareth1 he saw ,andrew and ,peter engaged about their employment4 ,they had been fishing during the whole night1 but without the smallest success2 and1 after this fruitless expedition1 were in the act of washing their nets1 ,luke v1 #a-c4 ,jesus entered into their boat1 and bade ,peter throw out his net into the sea1 which he did2 and now1 to his astonishment1 the multitude of fishes was so immense that their own vessel1 and that of the sons of ,zebedee1 were filled with them4 ,peter evidently saw there was something supernatural in this1 and1 throwing himself at the feet of ,jesus1 he exclaimed1 ,depart from me1 ,o ,lord1 for ,i am a sinful man40 ,the miracle was no doubt intended for a sign to the four disciples of what success should afterward follow their ministry in preaching the doctrine of his kingdom2 and therefore ,jesus said unto them1 ,follow me1 and ,i will make you fishers of men20 on which they quitted their boats and nets1 and thenceforth became the constant associates of the ,saviour1 during the whole of his public ministry1 ,luke xviii1 #bh4 ,from the instant of his entering upon the apostolic office1 we find ,st4 ,peter on almost every occasion evincing the strength of his faith in ,jesus as the ,messiah1 and the most extraordinary zeal in his service1 of which many examples are extant in the ,gospels4 ,when ,jesus in private asked his disciples1 first1 what opinion the people entertained of him2 next1 what was their own opinion3 ,simon ,peter answered and said1 ,thou art the ,christ1 the ,son of the living ,god10 ,matt4 xvi1 #af4 ,having received this answer1 ,jesus declared ,peter blessed on account of his faith2 and in allusion to the signification of his name1 added1 ,thou art ,peter1 and upon this rock ,i will build my church2 and ,i will give thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven1 and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth10 c4 ,many think these things were spoken to ,st4 ,peter alone1 for the purpose of conferring on him privileges and powers not granted to the rest of the ,apostles4 ,but others1 with more reason1 suppose that1 though ,jesus directed his discourse to ,st4 ,peter1 it was intended for them all2 and that the honours and powers granted to ,st4 ,peter by name were conferred on them all equally4 ,for no one will say that ,christ's church was built upon ,st4 ,peter singly3 it was built on the foundation of all the ,apostles and prophets1 ,jesus ,christ himself being the chief corner stone4 ,as little can any one say that the power of binding and loosing was confined to ,st4 ,peter1 seeing it was declared afterward to belong to all the ,apostles1 ,matt4 xviii1 #ah2 ,john xx1 #bc4 ,to these things add this1 that as ,st4 ,peter made his confession in answer to a question which ,jesus put to all the ,apostles1 that confession was certainly made in the name of the whole2 and1 therefore1 what ,jesus said to him in reply was designed for the whole without distinction2 excepting this1 which was peculiar to him1 that he was to be the first who1 after the descent of the ,holy ,ghost1 should preach the ,gospel to the ,jews1 and then to the ,gentiles3 an honour which was conferred on ,st4 ,peter in the expression1 ,i will give thee the keys10 c4 ,st4 ,peter was one of the three ,apostles whom ,jesus admitted to witness the resurrection of ,jairus's daughter1 and before whom he was transfigured1 and with whom he retired to pray in the garden the night before he suffered4 ,he was the person who in the fervour of his zeal for his ,master cut off the ear of the high priest's slave1 when the armed band came to apprehend him4 ,yet this same ,peter1 a few hours after that1 denied his ,master three different times in the high priest's palace1 and that with oaths4 ,in the awful defection of the ,apostle on this occasion we have melancholy proof of the power of human depravity even in regenerate men1 and of the weakness of human resolutions when left to ourselves4 ,st4 ,peter was fully warned by his divine ,master of his approaching danger2 but confident in his own strength1 he declared himself ready to accompany his ,lord to prison and even to judgment4 ,after the third denial ,jesus turned and looked upon ,peter20 that look pierced him to the heart2 and1 stung with deep remorse1 he went out1 and wept bitterly40 ,st4 ,peter1 however1 obtained forgiveness2 and1 when ,jesus had risen from the dead1 he ordered the glad tidings of his resurrection to be conveyed to ,st4 ,peter by name3 ,go tell my disciples and ,peter10 ,mark xvi1 #h4 ,he afterward received repeated assurances of his ,saviour's love1 and from that time uniformly showed the greatest zeal and fortitude in his ,master's service4 ,soon after our ,lord's ascension1 in a numerous assembly of the ,apostles and brethren1 ,st4 ,peter gave it as his opinion1 that one should be chosen to be an ,apostle in the room of ,judas4 ,to this they all agreed2 and1 by lot1 chose ,matthias1 whom on that occasion they numbered with the eleven ,apostles4 ,on the day of pentecost following1 when the ,holy ,spirit fell on the ,apostles and disciples1 ,st4 ,peter1 standing up with the eleven1 lifted up his voice2 that is1 ,st4 ,peter1 rising up1 spake with a loud voice1 in the name of the ,apostles1 as he had done on various occasions in his ,master's lifetime1 and gave the multitude an account of that great miracle1 ,acts ii1 #ad4 ,st4 ,peter now began to experience the fulfilment of ,christ's promise to make him a fisher of men1 and also that he would give him the keys of the kingdom of heaven4 ,his sermon on this occasion produced an abundant harvest of converts to ,christ4 ,three thousand of his audience were pricked to the heart1 and cried out1 ,men and brethren1 what shall we do80 ,st4 ,peter proclaimed to them the riches of pardoning mercy through the divine blood of the ,son of ,god2 and they that gladly received his doctrine were baptized and added to the church1 ,acts ii1 #cg-dc4 ,the effects produced on the mind of this great ,apostle of the circumcision by the resurrection of his divine ,master1 and the consequent effusion of the ,holy ,spirit1 were evidently of the most extraordinary kind1 and such as it is impossible to account for upon natural principles4 ,he was raised superior to all considerations of personal danger and the fear of man4 ,and though all the ,apostles could now say1 ,god hath not given us the spirit of fear1 but of power1 and of love1 and of a sound mind20 yet an attentive reader of the ,acts of the ,apostles cannot fail to perceive that upon almost every occasion of difficulty ,st4 ,peter is exhibited to our view as standing foremost in the rank of ,apostles4 ,when ,st4 ,peter and ,john were brought before the council to be examined concerning the miracle wrought on the impotent man1 ,st4 ,peter spake4 ,it was ,st4 ,peter who questioned ,ananias and ,sapphira about the price of their lands2 and1 for their lying in that matter1 punished them miraculously with death4 ,it is remarkable1 also1 that although by the hands of the ,apostles many signs and wonders were wrought1 it was by ,st4 ,peter's shadow alone that the sick1 who were laid in the streets of ,jerusalem1 were healed as he passed by4 ,lastly3 ,it was ,st4 ,peter who replied to the council in the name of the ,apostles1 not obeying their command to preach no more in the name of ,jesus4 ,st4 ,peter's fame was now become so great1 that the brethren of ,joppa1 hearing of his being in ,lydda1 and of his having cured ,eneas miraculously of a palsy1 sent1 desiring him to come and restore a disciple to life1 named ,tabitha1 which he did4 ,during his abode in ,joppa1 the ,roman centurion1 ,cornelius1 directed by an angel1 sent for him to come and preach to him4 ,on that occasion the ,holy ,ghost fell on ,cornelius and his company1 while ,st4 ,peter spake4 ,st4 ,peter1 by his zeal and success in preaching the ,gospel1 having attracted the notice of the inhabitants of ,jerusalem1 ,herod ,agrippa1 who1 to please the ,jews1 had killed ,st4 ,james1 the brother of ,st4 ,john1 still farther to gratify them1 cast ,st4 ,peter into prison4 ,but an angel brought him out2 after which he concealed himself in the city1 or in some neighbouring town1 till ,herod's death1 which happened about the end of the year4 ,some learned men think ,st4 ,peter at that time went to ,antioch or to ,rome4 ,but if he had gone to any celebrated city1 ,st4 ,luke1 as ,l',enfant observes1 would probably have mentioned it4 ,beside1 we find him in the council of ,jerusalem1 which met not long after this to determine the famous question concerning the circumcision of the ,gentiles4 ,the council being ended1 ,st4 ,peter went to ,antioch1 where he gave great offence1 by refusing to eat with the converted ,gentiles4 ,but ,st4 ,paul withstood him to the face1 rebuking him before the whole church for his pusillanimity and hypocrisy1 ,gal4 ii1 #aa-ba4 ,in the ,acts of the ,apostles1 no mention is made of ,st4 ,peter after the council of ,jerusalem4 ,but from ,gal4 ii1 #aa1 it appears that after that council he was with ,st4 ,paul at ,antioch4 ,he is likewise mentioned by ,st4 ,paul1 #a ,cor4 i1 #ab2 iii1 #bb4 ,it is generally supposed that after ,st4 ,peter was at ,antioch with ,st4 ,paul1 he returned to ,jerusalem4 ,what happened to him after that is not told in the ,scriptures4 ,but ,eusebius informs us that ,origen wrote to this purpose3 ,st4 ,peter is supposed to have preached to the ,jews of the dispersion in ,pontus1 ,galatia1 ,bithynia1 ,cappadocia1 and ,asia2 and at length1 coming to ,rome1 was crucified with his head downward4 ,we are indebted to this ,apostle for two epistles1 which constitute a valuable part of the inspired writings4 ,the first epistle of ,st4 ,peter has always been considered as canonical2 and in proof of its genuineness we may observe that it is referred to by ,clement of ,rome1 ,hermas1 and ,polycarp2 that1 we are assured by ,eusebius1 that it was quoted by ,papias2 and that it is expressly mentioned by ,irenus1 ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,tertullian1 ,origen1 and most of the later fathers4 ,the authority of the second epistle of ,st4 ,peter was for some time disputed1 as we learn from ,origen1 ,eusebius1 and ,jerom2 but since the fourth century it has been universally received1 except by the ,syriac ,christians4 ,it is addressed to the same persons as the former epistle1 and the design of it was to encourage them to adhere to the genuine faith and practice of the ,gospel4 ,,pethor1 a city of ,mesopotamia1 of which the ,prophet ,balaam was a native4 ,the ,hebrews call this city ,pethura4 ,ptolemy calls it ,pachora2 and ,eusebius1 ,pathara4 ,he places it in the ,upper ,mesopotamia4 ,,pharaoh1 a common name of the kings of ,egypt4 ,we meet with it as early as ,gen4 xii1 #ae4 ,josephus says1 that all the kings of ,egypt1 from ,minus1 the founder of ,memphis1 who lived several ages before ,abraham1 always had the name of ,pharaoh1 down to the time of ,solomon1 for more than three thousand three hundred years4 ,he adds1 that1 in the ,egyptian language1 the word ,pharaoh means king1 and that these princes did not assume the name until they ascended the throne1 at which time they quitted their former name4 ,,pharisees1 a sect of the ,jews4 ,the earliest mention of them is by ,josephus1 who tells us that they were a sect of considerable weight when ,john ,hyrcanus was high priest1 ,b4 ,c4 #ajh4 ,they were the most numerous1 distinguished1 and popular sect among the ,jews4 ,the time when they first appeared is not known1 but it is supposed to have been not long after the institution of the ,sadducees1 if1 indeed the two sects did not gradually spring up together4 ,they derived their name from the ,hebrew word pharash1 which signifies separated10 or set apart20 because they separated themselves from the rest of the ,jews to superior strictness in religious observances4 ,they boasted that1 from their accurate knowledge of religion1 they were the favourites of ,heaven2 and thus1 trusting in themselves that they were righteous1 despised others1 ,luke xi1 #eb2 xviii1 #i1 #aa4 ,among the tenets inculcated by this sect1 we may enumerate the following3 namely1 they ascribed all things to fate or providence2 yet not so absolutely as to take away the free will of man2 for fate does not coperate in every action1 ,acts v1 #ch1 #ci4 ,they also believed in the existence of angels and spirits1 and in the resurrection of the dead2 ,acts xxiii1 #h4 ,lastly3 the ,pharisees contended that ,god stood engaged to bless the ,jews1 to make them all partakers of the terrestrial kingdom of the ,messiah1 to justify them1 and make them eternally happy4 ,the cause of their justification they derived from the merits of ,abraham1 from their knowledge of ,god1 from their practising the rite of circumcision1 and from the sacrifices they offered4 ,and as they conceived works to be meritorious1 they had invented a great number of supererogatory ones1 to which they attached greater merit than to the observance of the law itself4 ,to this notion ,st4 ,paul has some allusions in those parts of his ,epistle to the ,romans1 in which be combats the erroneous suppositions of the ,jews1 ,rom4 i-xi4 ,the ,pharisees were the strictest of the three principal sects that divided the ,jewish nation1 ,acts xxvi1 #e1 and affected a singular probity of manners according to their system2 which1 however1 was1 for the most part1 both lax and corrupt4 ,thus many things which ,moses had tolerated in civil life1 in order to avoid a greater evil1 the ,pharisees determined to be morally right3 for instance1 the law of divorce from a wife for any cause1 ,matt4 v1 #ca1 c2 xix1 #c-ab4 7,see ,divorce47 ,farther3 they interpreted certain of the ,mosaic laws most literally1 and distorted their meaning so as to favour their own selfish system4 ,thus1 the law of loving their neighbour1 they expounded solely of the love of their friends1 that is1 of the whole ,jewish race2 all other persons being considered by them as natural enemies1 whom they were in no respect bound to assist1 ,matt4 v1 #dc2 ,luke x1 #ca-cc4 ,they also trifled with oaths4 ,dr4 ,lightfoot has cited a striking illustration of this from ,maimonides4 ,an oath1 in which the name of ,god was not distinctly specified1 they taught was not binding1 ,matt4 v1 #cc2 maintaining that a man might even swear with his lips1 and at the same time annul it in his heart6 ,and yet so rigorously did they understand the command of observing the ,sabbath day1 that they accounted it unlawful to pluck ears of corn1 and heal the sick1 c1 ,matt4 xii2 ,luke vi1 #f1 c2 xiv4 ,many moral rules they accounted inferior to the ceremonial laws1 to the total neglect of mercy and fidelity1 ,matt4 v1 #ai2 xv1 #d2 xxiii1 #bc4 ,hence they accounted causeless anger and impure desires as trifles of no moment1 ,matt4 v1 #ba1 #bb1 #bg-cj2 they compassed sea and land to make proselytes to the ,jewish religion from among the ,gentiles1 that they might rule over their consciences and wealth2 and these proselytes1 through the influence of their own scandalous examples and characters1 they soon rendered more profligate and abandoned than ever they were before their conversion1 ,matt4 xxiii1 #ae4 ,esteeming temporal happiness and riches as the highest good1 they scrupled not to accumulate wealth by every means1 legal or illegal1 ,matt4 v1 #a-ab2 xxiii1 #e2 ,luke xvi1 #ad2 ,james ii1 #a-h2 vain and ambitious of popular applause1 they offered up long prayers in public places1 but not without self-complacency in their own holiness1 ,matt4 vi1 #b-e2 ,luke xviii1 #aa2 under a sanctimonious appearance of respect for the memories of the prophets whom their ancestors had slain1 they repaired and beautified their sepulchres1 ,matt4 xxiii1 #bi2 and such was their idea of their own sanctity1 that they thought themselves defiled if they but touched or conversed with sinners1 that is1 with publicans or tax-gatherers1 and persons of loose and irregular lives1 ,luke vii1 #ci2 xv1 #a4 ,but1 above all their other tenets1 the ,pharisees were conspicuous for their reverential observance of the traditions or decrees of the elders3 these traditions1 they pretended1 had been handed down from ,moses through every generation1 but were not committed to writing2 and they were not merely considered as of equal authority with the divine law1 but even preferable to it4 ,the words of the scribes10 said they1 are lovely above the words of the law2 for the words of the law are weighty and light1 but the words of the scribes are all weighty40 ,among the traditions thus sanctimoniously observed by the ,pharisees1 we may briefly notice the following3 the washing of hands up to the wrist before and after meat1 ,matthew xv1 #b2 ,mark vii1 #c2 which they accounted not merely a religious duty1 but considered its omission as a crime equal to fornication1 and punishable by excommunication3 the purification of the cups1 vessels1 and couches used at their meals by ablutions or washings1 ,mark vii1 #d2 for which purpose the six large water pots mentioned by ,st4 ,john1 ii1 #f1 were destined3 their fasting twice a week with great appearance of austerity1 ,luke xviii1 #ab2 ,matt4 vi1 #af2 thus converting that exercise into religion which is only a help toward the performance of its hallowed duties3 their punctilious payment of tithes1 7temple-offerings17 even of the most trifling things1 ,luke xviii1 #ab2 ,matt4 xxiii1 #bc4 ,and their wearing broader phylacteries and larger fringes to their garments than the rest of the ,jews1 ,matt4 xxiii1 #e4 ,see ,,phylacteries4 ,with all their pretensions to piety1 the ,pharisees entertained the most sovereign contempt for the people2 whom1 being ignorant of the law1 they pronounced to be accursed1 ,john vii1 #di4 ,yet such was the esteem and veneration in which they were held by the populace1 that they may almost be said to have given what direction they pleased to public affairs2 and hence the great men dreaded their power and authority4 ,it is unquestionable1 as ,mosheim has well remarked1 that the religion of the ,pharisees was1 for the most part1 founded in consummate hypocrisy2 and that1 at the bottom1 they were generally the slaves of every vicious appetite1 proud1 arrogant1 and avaricious1 consulting only the gratification of their lusts1 even at the very moment when they professed themselves to be engaged in the service of their ,maker4 ,these odious features in the character of the ,pharisees caused them to be reprehended by our ,saviour with the utmost severity1 even more so than the ,sadducees2 who1 although they had departed widely from the genuine principles of religion1 yet did not impose on mankind by a pretended sanctity1 or devote themselves with insatiate greediness to the acquisition of honours and riches4 ,a few1 and a few only of the sect of the ,pharisees in those times1 might be of better character1--men who1 though self-righteous and deluded and bigoted1 were not like the rest1 hypocritical4 ,of this number was ,saul of ,tarsus2 but as a body their attachment to traditions2 their passionate expectation of deliverance from the ,roman yoke by the ,messiah1 and the splendour of his civil reign1 their pride1 and above all their vices1 sufficiently account for that unconquerable unbelief which had possessed their minds as to the claims of ,christ1 and their resistance to the evidence of his miracles4 ,the sect of the ,pharisees was not extinguished by the ruin of the ,jewish commonwealth4 ,the greater part of the ,jews are still ,pharisees1 being as much devoted to traditions1 or the oral law1 as their ancestors were4 ,,pharpar4 ,see ,,abana4 ,,phebe1 a deaconess of the port of ,corinth1 called ,cenchrea4 ,st4 ,paul had a particular esteem for this holy woman2 and ,theodoret thinks the ,apostle lodged at her house for some time1 while he continued in or near ,corinth4 ,it is thought she carried the epistle to ,rome1 which he wrote to the church of that city1 in which she is so highly commended1 ,rom4 xvi1 #a1 #b4 ,it is thought that1 in quality of deaconess1 she was employed by the church in some ministrations suitable to her sex and condition2 as to visit and instruct the ,christian women1 and attend them in their sickness1 and distribute alms to them in their necessities4 ,,phenicia1 a province of ,syria1 the limits of which have been differently represented4 ,sometimes it has been defined as extending from north to south1 from ,orthosia as far as ,pelusium4 ,at other times its southern limit is said to have been ,mount ,carmel and ,ptolemais4 ,it is certain that1 from the conquest of ,palestine by the ,hebrews1 its limits were narrow1 containing no part of the country of the ,philistines1 which occupied all the coast from ,mount ,carmel along the ,mediterranean1 as far as the borders of ,egypt4 ,it had also very little extent on the land side1 because the ,israelites1 who possessed all ,galilee1 confined it to the coast of the ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,the chief cities of ,phenicia were ,sidon1 ,tyre1 ,ptolemais1 ,ecdippe1 ,sarepta1 ,berythe1 ,biblos1 ,tripoli1 ,orthosia1 ,simira1 ,aradus4 ,they formerly had possession of some cities in ,libanus3 and sometimes the ,greek authors comprehend all ,judea under the name of ,phenicia4 ,phenicia may be considered as the birthplace of commerce1 if not also of letters and the arts4 ,it was a ,phenician who introduced into ,greece the knowledge and the use of letters4 ,phenician workmen built the temple of ,solomon2 ,phenician sailors navigated his ships2 ,phenician pilots directed them2 and before other nations had ventured to lose sight of their own shores1 colonies of ,phenicians were established in the most distant parts of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,africa4 ,these early advantages were owing1 doubtless1 in part to their own enterprising character1 and in part also to their central situation1 which enabled them to draw into their own narrow territory all the commerce between the east and the west4 ,bochart has laboured to show that they sent colonies to almost all the isles and coasts of the ,mediterranean ,sea2 but the most famous of all their colonies was that of ,carthage4 ,,philadelphia1 a city of ,lydia1 in ,asia ,minor1 and one of the seven churches of ,asia4 ,it derived its name from ,attalus ,philadelphus1 its founder2 and was seated on a branch of ,mount ,tmolus1 about twenty-five miles south-east of ,sardis1 and seventy1 in nearly the same direction1 from ,smyrna4 ,it suffered greatly1 in common with all this part of ,asia1 in the terrible earthquake during the reign of ,tiberius1 and in the seventeenth year of the ,christian era4 ,it has1 however1 retained a better fate than most of its neighbours2 for under the name of ,alahsher1 or the city of ,god1 it is still a place of some repute1 chiefly supported by trade1 it being in the route of the caravans to ,smyrna4 ,among the ,greek colonies and churches of ,asia10 says ,gibbon1 ,philadelphia is still erect1 a column in a scene of ruins40 ,although this city is now in the possession of the ,turks1 it has about a thousand ,christian inhabitants1 chiefly ,greeks2 who have five churches with a resident bishop1 and inferior clergy4 ,,philemon was an inhabitant of ,colosse2 and from the manner in which he is addressed by ,st4 ,paul in his epistle to him1 it is probable that he was a person of some consideration in that city4 ,st4 ,paul seems to have been the means of converting him to the belief of the ,gospel1 ,philemon #ai4 ,he calls him his fellow-labourer2 and from that expression some have thought that he was bishop or deacon of the church at ,colosse2 but others have been of opinion1 that he was only a private ,christian1 who had shown a zealous and active disposition in the cause of ,christianity1 without holding any ecclesiastical office4 ,we learn from this epistle itself1 that it was written when ,st4 ,paul was a prisoner1 and when he had hope of soon recovering his liberty1 ,philemon #a1 #bb2 and thence we conclude that it was written toward the end of his first confinement at ,rome4 ,this epistle has always been deservedly admired for the delicacy and address with which it is written2 and it places ,st4 ,paul's character in a very amiable point of view4 ,he had converted a fugitive slave to the ,christian faith2 and he here intercedes with his master in the most earnest and affectionate manner for his pardon2 he speaks of ,onesimus in terms calculated to soften ,philemon's resentment1 engages to make full compensation for any injury which he might have sustained from him1 and conjures him to reconciliation and forgiveness by the now endearing connection of ,christian brotherhood4 ,see ,,onesimus4 ,,philip1 the ,apostle1 was a native of ,bethsaida in ,galilee4 ,jesus ,christ having seen him1 said to him1 ,follow me10 ,john i1 #dc1 #dd4 ,philip followed him2 he was present at the marriage of ,cana in ,galilee4 ,philip was called at the beginning of our ,saviour's mission4 ,he is mentioned1 ,luke vi1 #ac2 ,matt4 x1 #c2 ,john vi1 #e-g4 ,some ,gentiles having a curiosity to see ,jesus1 a little before his passion1 addressed themselves to ,philip1 ,john xii1 #ba1 #bb1 who mentioned it to ,andrew1 and these two to ,christ4 ,at the last supper ,philip desired the ,saviour to show them the ,father1 ,john xiv1 #h-aj4 ,this is all that we find concerning ,philip in the ,gospel4 #b4 ,,philip1 the second of the seven deacons1 ,acts vi1 #e1 was1 some say1 of ,csarea in ,palestine4 ,it is certain his daughters lived in that city1 ,acts xxi1 #h1 #i4 ,after the death of ,stephen all the ,christians1 except the ,apostles1 having left ,jerusalem1 and being dispersed in several places1 ,philip went to preach at ,sebaste or ,samaria1 where he performed several miracles1 and converted many persons1 ,acts viii1 #a-c1 c4 ,he baptized them2 but informed the ,apostles at ,jerusalem that ,samaria had received the word of ,god1 that they might come and communicate the ,holy ,ghost to them4 ,peter and ,john came thither for that purpose4 ,philip was1 probably1 at ,samaria1 when an angel commanded him to go on the road that leads from ,jerusalem to old ,gaza4 ,philip obeyed1 and there met with an ,ethiopian eunuch1 belonging to ,candace1 queen of ,ethiopia1 whom he converted and baptized1 ,acts viii1 #bf4 ,being come out of the water1 the ,spirit of the ,lord took away ,philip1 and the eunuch saw him no more4 ,,philippi1 one of the chief cities of ,macedonia1 lying on the north-west of ,neapolis1 and formerly called ,datum or ,datos1 but afterward taking its name from ,philip1 the celebrated king of ,macedon1 by whom it was repaired and beautified4 ,in process of time1 it became a ,roman colony4 ,it was the first place at which ,st4 ,paul preached the ,gospel upon the continent of ,europe1 ,a4 ,d4 #ea4 ,he made many converts there1 who soon afterward gave strong proofs of their attachment to him1 ,phil4 iv1 #ae4 ,he was at ,philippi a second time1 but nothing which then occurred is recorded4 ,the ,philippian ,christians having heard of ,st4 ,paul's imprisonment at ,rome1 with their accustomed zeal1 sent ,epaphroditus to assure him of the continuance of their regard1 and to offer him a supply of money4 ,his epistle was written in consequence of that act of kindness2 and it is remarkable for its strong expressions of affection4 ,as the ,apostle tells the ,philippians that he hoped to see them shortly1 ,phil4 ii1 #bd1 and there are plain intimations in this epistle of his having been some time at ,rome1 ,phil4 i1 #ab2 ii1 #bf1 it is probable that it was written ,a4 ,d4 #fb1 toward the end of his confinement4 ,it is a strong proof10 says ,chrysostom1 of the virtuous conduct of the ,philippians1 that they did not afford the ,apostle a single subject of complaint2 for1 in the whole epistle which he wrote to them1 there is nothing but exhortation and encouragement1 without the mixture of any censure whatever40 ,,philistim1 or ,,philistines1 a people who are commonly said to have descended from ,casluhim1 the son of ,mizraim or ,mizr1 who peopled ,egypt4 ,the ,philistines1 it is probable1 continued with their progenitors in ,egypt until they were sufficiently numerous and powerful to stretch themselves along the coast of ,canaan2 doubtless by driving out that portion of the family of ,ham4 ,it is certain that1 in the time of ,abraham1 the ,canaanites were in possession of the rest of the land1 to which they gave their name3 but the extreme south of ,philistia1 or ,palestine1 was even then possessed by the ,philistines1 whose king1 ,abimelech1 reigned at ,gerar4 ,after this1 in the time of ,joshua1 we find their country divided into five lordships or principalities2 namely1 ,gaza1 ,askelon1 ,ashdod1 ,gath1 and ,ekron2 giving sometimes also1 as it appears1 the title of king to their respective rulers2 ,achish being termed king of ,gath1 ,i ,sam4 xxi1 #aj4 ,the time of their coming to ,palestine is unknown2 but they had been long in ,canaan when ,abraham came thither1 in the year of the world #bjhc4 ,the name ,philistine is not ,hebrew4 ,the ,septuagint generally translate it 1 strangers4 ,the ,pelethites and ,cherethites were also ,philistines2 and the ,septuagint sometimes translate ,cherethim1 1 ,cretes4 ,they were not of the cursed seed of ,canaan4 ,however1 ,joshua did not forbear to give their land to the ,hebrews1 and to attack them by command from the ,lord1 because they possessed a country promised to ,israel4 ,but these conquests of ,joshua must have been ill maintained1 since1 under the ,judges1 under ,saul1 and at the beginning of the reign of ,king ,david1 the ,philistines had their kings1 and their lords1 whom they called ,sazenim2 since their state was divided into five little kingdoms1 or satrapies2 and since they oppressed the ,israelites during the government of the high priest ,eli1 and of ,samuel1 and during the reign of ,saul1 for about a hundred and twenty years1 from ,a4 ,m4 #bhdh to ,a4 ,m4 #bifj4 ,true it is1 that ,shamgar1 ,samson1 ,samuel1 and ,saul1 opposed them1 and killed some of their people1 but did not reduce their power4 ,they continued independent till the time of ,david1 who subdued them1 #b ,sam4 v1 #ag2 viii1 #a1 #b1 c4 ,they continued in subjection to the kings of ,judah down to the reign of ,jehoram1 son of ,jehoshaphat1 about two hundred and forty-six years1 when they revolted from ,jehoram1 #b ,chron4 xxi1 #af4 ,jehoram made war against them1 and probably reduced them to his obedience again2 because it is observed in ,scripture1 that they revolted again from ,uzziah1 who kept them to their duty during his whole reign1 #b ,chron4 xxvi1 #f1 #g4 ,uzziah began to reign ,a4 ,m4 #caid4 ,during the unfortunate reign of ,ahaz1 the ,philistines made great havoc in the territory of ,judah2 but his son and successor ,hezekiah subdued them again1 #b ,chron4 xxviii1 #ah2 #b ,kings xviii1 #h4 ,lastly1 they regained their full liberty under the later kings of ,judah2 and we may see1 by the menaces made against them by the ,prophets ,isaiah1 ,amos1 ,zephaniah1 ,jeremiah1 and ,ezekiel1 that they brought a thousand hardships and calamities on the children of ,israel1 for which ,god threatened to punish them with great misfortunes4 ,esar-haddon1 successor to ,sennacherib1 besieged ,ashdod1 or ,azoth1 and took it by the arms of his general1 ,thasthan1 or ,tartan4 ,psammetichus1 king of ,egypt1 took the same city after a siege of twenty-nine years1 according to ,herodotus4 ,during the siege of ,tyre1 which held out thirteen years1 ,nebuchadnezzar used part of his army to subdue the ,ammonites1 the ,moabites1 the ,egyptians1 and other nations bordering on the ,jews4 ,there is great probability that the ,philistines could not withstand him1 but were reduced to his obedience1 as well as the other people of ,syria1 ,phenicia1 and ,palestine4 ,afterward they fell under the dominion of the ,persians2 then under that of ,alexander the ,great1 who destroyed the city of ,gaza1 the only city of the ,phenicians that dared to oppose him4 ,after the persecution of ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 the ,asmoneans took by degrees several cities from the country of the ,philistines1 which they subjected4 ,tryphon1 regent of the kingdom of ,syria1 gave to ,jonathan1 the ,asmonean1 the government of the whole coast of the ,mediterranean1 from ,tyre to ,egypt2 consequently1 all the country of the ,philistines4 ,the land of the ,philistines bordered on the west and south-west of ,judea1 and lies on the south-east point of the ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,the country to the north of ,gaza is very fertile2 and1 long after the ,christian era1 it possessed a very numerous population1 and strongly fortified cities4 ,no human probability1 says ,keith1 could have existed1 in the time of the prophets1 or at a much more recent date1 of its eventual desolation4 ,but it has belied1 for many ages1 every promise which the fertility of its soil1 and the excellence both of its climate and situation1 gave for many preceding centuries of its permanency as a rich and well cultivated region4 ,and the voice of prophecy1 which was not silent respecting it1 proclaimed the fate that awaited it1 in terms as contradictory1 at the time1 to every natural suggestion1 as they are descriptive of what ,philistia now actually is4 ,i will stretch out my hand upon the ,philistines1 and destroy the remnant of the sea coasts10 ,ezek4 xxv1 #af4 ,baldness is come upon ,gaza2 ,ashkelon is cut off with the remnant of their valley10 ,jer4 xlvii1 #e4 ,thus saith the ,lord1 ,for three transgressions of ,gaza1 and for four1 ,i will not turn away the punishment thereof4 ,i will send a fire upon the wall of ,gaza1 which shall devour the palaces thereof4 ,and ,i will cut off the inhabitant from ,ashdod1 and him that holdeth the sceptre from ,ashkelon2 and ,i will turn my hand against ,ekron2 and the remnant of the ,philistines shall perish1 saith the ,lord ,god10 ,amos i1 #f1 #g1 #h4 ,for ,ashkelon shall be a desolation20 it shall be cut off with the remnant of the valley2 and ,ekron shall be rooted up4--,o ,canaan1 the land of the ,philistines1 ,i will even destroy thee1 that there shall be no inhabitant2 and the sea coast shall be dwellings and cottages for shepherds1 and folds for flocks10 ,zeph4 ii1 #d1 #e1 #f4 ,the king shall perish from ,gaza1 and ,ashkelon shall not be inhabited10 ,zech4 ix1 #e4 ,the land of the ,philistines was to be destroyed4 ,it partakes of the general desolation common to it with ,judea and other neighbouring states4 ,while ruins are to be found in all ,syria1 they are particularly abundant along the sea coast1 which formed1 on the south1 the realm of the ,philistines4 ,but its aspect presents some existing peculiarities1 which travellers fail not to particularize1 and which1 in reference both to the state of the country and the fate of its different cities1 the prophets failed not to discriminate as justly as if their description had been drawn both with all the accuracy which ocular observation1 and all the certainty which authenticated history1 could give4 ,volney1 7though1 like one who in ancient times was instrumental to the fulfilment of a special prediction1 he meant not so1 neither did his heart think so107 from the manner in which he generalizes his observations1 and marks the peculiar features of the different districts of ,syria1 with greater acuteness and perspicuity than any other traveller whatever1 is the ever ready purveyor of evidence in all the cases which came within the range of his topographical description of the wide field of prophecy3 while1 at the same time1 from his known1 open1 and zealous hostility to the ,christian cause1 his testimony is alike decisive and unquestionable3 and the vindication of the truth of the following predictions may safely be committed to this redoubted champion of infidelity4 ,in the plain between ,ramla and ,gaza10 the very plain of the ,philistines along the sea coast1 we met with a number of villages badly built1 of dried mud1 and which1 like the inhabitants1 exhibit every mark of poverty and wretchedness4 ,the houses1 on a nearer view1 are only so many huts1 7cottages17 sometimes detached1 at others ranged in the form of cells1 around a court yard1 enclosed by a mud wall4 ,in winter1 they and their cattle may be said to live together2 the part of the dwelling allotted to themselves being only raised two feet above that in which they lodge their beasts30--8dwellings and cottages for shepherds1 and folds for flocks40--8,except the environs of these villages1 all the rest of the country is a desert1 and abandoned to the ,bedouin ,arabs1 who feed their flocks on it40--,thus accomplishing the words of prophecy1 ,the remnant shall perish2 the land of the ,philistines shall be destroyed1 that there shall be no inhabitant2 and the sea coast shall be dwellings and cottages for shepherds1 and folds for flocks40 8,the ruins of white marble1 sometimes found at ,gaza1 prove that it was formerly the abode of luxury and opulence4 ,it has shared in the general destruction2 and1 notwithstanding its proud title of the capital of ,palestine1 it is now no more than a defenceless village10 7baldness has come upon it17 peopled by1 at most1 only two thousand inhabitants40--8,it is forsaken10 says the prophet1 and bereaved of its king40 8,the sea coast1 by which it was formerly washed1 is every day removing farther from the deserted ruins of ,ashkelon40 ,amidst the various successive ruins1 those of ,edzoud10 ,ashdod1 so powerful under the ,philistines1 are now remarkable for their scorpions40--,here again we are reminded of the words of inspiration3 ,the inhabitants shall be cut off from ,ashdod40 ,thus ,volney becomes an unconscious commentator upon prophecy4 ,but let us hear a ,christian traveller4 ,ashkelon10 says ,richardson1 8was one of the proudest satrapies of the lords of the ,philistines3 now there is not an inhabitant within its walls2 and the prophecy of ,zechariah is fulfilled3 #8,the king shall perish from ,gaza1 and ,ashkelon shall not be inhabited4' ,when the prophecy was uttered1 both cities were in an equally flourishing condition2 and nothing but the prescience of ,heaven could pronounce on which of the two1 and in what manner1 the vial of its wrath should be poured out4 ,gaza is truly without a king4 ,the lofty towers of ,ashkelon lie scattered on the ground1 and the ruins within its walls do not shelter a human being4 ,how is the wrath of man made to praise his ,creator6 ,hath he not said1 and shall he not do it8 ,the oracle was delivered by the mouth of the prophet more than five hundred years before the ,christian era1 and we beheld its accomplishment eighteen hundred years after that event40 ,there is yet another city which was noted by the prophets1 the very want of any information respecting which1 and the absence of its name from several modern maps of ,palestine1 while the sites of other ruined cities are marked1 are really the best confirmation of the truth of the prophecy that could possibly be given4 ,ekron shall be rooted up40 ,it is rooted up4 ,it was one of the chief cities of the ,philistines2 but1 though ,gaza still subsists1 and while ,ashkelon and ,ashdod retain their names in their ruins1 the very name of ,ekron is missing4 ,,philosophy1 in general1 is defined1 the knowledge and study of nature and morality1 founded on reason and experience40 ,philosophy owes its name to the modesty of ,pythagoras1 who refused the high title of 1 wise1 given to his predecessors1 ,thales1 ,pherecydes1 c1 as too assuming2 and contented himself with the simple appellation of 1 quasi 1 a friend or lover of wisdom3 but ,chauvin rather chooses to derive the name from 1 desire to study1 and 1 studium sapienti2 and says that ,pythagoras1 conceiving that the application of the human mind ought rather to be called study than science1 set aside the appellation of wise1 and1 in lieu thereof1 took that of philosopher4 ,a knowledge of the animal1 vegetable1 and mineral kingdoms1 or the science of natural history1 was always an object of interest4 ,we are informed that ,solomon himself had given a description of the animal and vegetable kingdoms1 #a ,kings iv1 #cc4 ,traces of philosophy1 strictly so called1 that is1 the system of prevailing moral opinions1 may be found in the book of ,job1 in the thirty-seventh1 thirty-ninth1 and seventy-third ,psalms2 also in the books of ,proverbs and ,ecclesiastes1 but chiefly in the apocryphal book of ,wisdom1 and the writings of the son of ,sirach4 ,during the captivity1 the ,jews acquired many new notions1 particularly from the ,mahestani1 and appropriated them1 as occasion offered1 to their own purposes4 ,they at length became acquainted with the philosophy of the ,greeks1 which makes its appearance abundantly in the book of ,wisdom4 ,after the captivity1 the language in which the sacred books were written was no longer vernacular4 ,hence arose the need of an interpreter on the sabbatic year1 a time when the whole law was read1 and also on the ,sabbath in the synagogues1 which some think had been recently erected1 in order to make the people understand what was read4 ,these interpreters learned the ,hebrew language at the schools4 ,the teachers of these schools1 who1 for the two generations preceding the time of ,christ1 had maintained some acquaintance with the ,greek philosophy1 were not satisfied with a simple interpretation of the ,hebrew idiom1 as it stood1 but shaped the interpretation so as to render it conformable to their philosophy4 ,thus arose contentions1 which gave occasion for the various sects of ,pharisees1 ,sadducees1 and ,essenes4 ,in the time of our ,saviour1 divisions had arisen among the ,pharisees themselves4 ,no less than eighteen nice questions1 if we may believe the ,jewish rabbins1 were contested at that period between the schools of ,hillel and ,shammai2 one of which questions was an inquiry1 what cause was sufficient for a bill of divorce4 ,if the ,shammai and ,hillel of the ,talmud are the same with the learned men mentioned in ,josephus1 namely1 ,sameas and ,pollio1 who flourished thirty-four years before ,christ1 then ,shammai or ,sameas is undoubtedly the same with the ,simeon who is mentioned1 ,luke ii1 #be-ce2 and his son ,gamaliel1 so celebrated in the ,talmud1 is the same with the ,gamaliel mentioned1 ,acts v1 #cd2 xxii1 #c4 ,anciently1 learned men were denominated among the ,hebrews 1 as among the ,greeks they were called 1 wise men4 ,in the time of ,christ1 the common appellative for men of that description was 1 in the ,hebrew 1 a scribe4 ,they were addressed by the honorary title of rabbi1 1 great10 or master40 ,the ,jews1 in imitation of the ,greeks1 had their seven wise men1 who were called rabboni4 ,gamaliel was one of the number4 ,they called themselves the children of wisdom2 expressions which correspond very nearly to the ,greek 1 ,matthew xi1 #ai2 ,luke vii1 #ce4 ,the heads of sects were called fathers20 the disciples were denominated sons10 or children10 ,matt4 xii1 #bg2 xxiii1 #a-i4 ,the ,jewish teachers1 at least some of them1 had private lecture rooms2 but they also taught and disputed in synagogues1 in temples1 and1 in fact1 wherever they could find an audience4 ,the method of these teachers was the same with that which prevailed among the ,greeks4 ,any disciple who chose might propose questions1 upon which it was the duty of the teachers to remark and give their opinions1 ,luke ii1 #df4 ,the teachers were not invested with their functions by any formal act of the church1 or of the civil authority3 they were self-constituted4 ,they received no other salary than some voluntary present from the disciples1 which was called an honorary10 1 honorarium1 #a ,tim4 v1 #ag4 ,they acquired a subsistence1 in the main1 by the exercise of some art or handicraft4 ,that they took a higher seat than their auditors1 although it was probably the case1 does not follow1 as is sometimes supposed1 from ,luke ii1 #df4 ,according to the ,talmudists1 they were bound to hold no conversation with women1 and to refuse to sit at table with the lower class of people1 ,matt4 ix1 #aa2 ,john iv1 #bg4 ,the subjects on which they taught were numerous1 commonly intricate1 and of no great consequence2 of which there are abundant examples in the ,talmud4 ,st4 ,paul bids the ,colossians beware lest any man should spoil them through philosophy and vain deceit20 that is1 a vain and deceitful philosophy1 such as was popular in that day1 and had been compounded out of all preceding systems1 ,grecian and oriental4 ,an explanation of this philosophy is given under ,,gnostics1 and ,,cabbala4 ,on these ancient systems of pretended wisdom1 ,dr4 ,burton justly remarks3 8,philosophy is indeed the noblest stretch of intellect which ,god has vouchsafed to man2 and it is only when man forgets that he received his reasoning powers from ,god1 that he is in danger of losing himself in darkness when he sought for light4 ,to measure that which is infinite1 is as impossible in metaphysics as in physics4 ,if it had not been for revelation1 we should have known no more of the ,deity than the ,heathen philosophers knew before3 and to what did their knowledge amount8 ,they felt the necessity of a ,first ,cause1 and they saw that that ,cause must be intrinsically good2 but when they came to systems1 they never went farther than the point from which they first set out1 that evil is not good1 and good is not evil4 ,the ,gnostics thought to secure the triumph of their scheme by veiling its weaker points in mystery1 and by borrowing a part from almost every system4 ,but popular1 and even successful1 as this attempt may have been1 we may say with truth1 that the scheme which flattered the vanity of human wisdom1 and which strove to conciliate all opinions1 has died away1 and is forgotten2 while the ,gospel1 the unpresuming1 the uncompromising doctrine of the ,gospel1 aided by no human wisdom1 and addressing itself not merely to the head1 but to the heart1 has triumphed over all systems and all philosophers2 and still leads its followers to that true knowledge which some have endeavoured to teach #8after the tradition of men1 after the rudiments of the world1 and not after ,christ4'0 ,,phinehas1 son of ,eleazar1 and grandson of ,aaron1 third high priest of the ,jews1 ,a4 ,m4 #bega to about ,a4 ,m4 #beij1 ,b4 ,c4 #adad4 ,he is particularly commended in ,scripture for zeal in vindicating the glory of ,god1 when the ,midianites had sent their daughters into the camp of ,israel1 to tempt the ,hebrews to fornication and idolatry1 ,num4 xxv1 #g4 ,on this account the ,lord promised the priesthood to ,phinehas by perpetual covenant2 evidently including this tacit condition1 that his children should continue faithful and obedient3 for we know the priesthood passed out of the family of ,eleazar and ,phinehas to that of ,ithamar1 and that it returned not to the posterity of ,eleazar until after about a hundred and fifty years4 ,,phut or ,,put1 the posterity of ,phut1 the son of ,ham1 ,gen4 x1 #f4 ,calmet is of opinion that ,phut1 the third son of ,ham1 peopled either the canton of ,phtemphu1 ,phtemphti1 ,phtembuti1 of ,pliny and ,ptolemy1 whose capital was ,thara1 in ,lower ,egypt1 inclining toward ,libya2 or the canton called ,phtenotes1 of which ,buthas was the capital4 ,the prophets often speak of ,phut4 ,in the time of ,jeremiah1 xlvi1 #i1 ,phut was under the obedience of ,necho1 king of ,egypt4 ,nahum1 iii1 #i1 reckons this people in the number of those who ought to come to the assistance of ,no-,ammon1 or ,diospolis4 ,,phylacteries1 called by the ,jews 1 are little scrolls of parchment1 in which are written certain sentences of the law1 enclosed in leather cases1 and bound with thongs on the forehead and on the left arm4 ,they are called in ,greek 1 from 1 custodio1 either because they were supposed to preserve the law in memory1 or rather because they were looked upon as a kind of amulets or charms to keep them from danger4 ,the making and wearing these phylacteries1 as the ,jews still do in their private devotions1 is owing to a misinterpretation of those texts1 on which they ground the practice1 namely1 ,god's commanding them to bind the law for a sign on their hands1 and to let it be as frontlets between their eyes10 c1 ,deut4 vi1 #h4 ,the command ought doubtless to be understood metaphorically1 as a charge to remember it1 to meditate upon it1 to have it as it were continually before their eyes1 and to conduct their lives by it2 as when ,solomon says1 concerning the commandments of ,god in general1 ,bind them about thy neck1 write them upon the table of thy heart10 ,prov4 iii1 #a1 #c2 vi1 #ba4 ,however1 the ,jews understanding the precept literally1 wrote out the several passages wherever it occurs1 and to which it seems to refer1 and bound them upon their foreheads and upon their arms4 ,it seems the ,pharisees used to make broad their phylacteries40 ,this some understand of the knots of the thongs by which they were fastened1 which were tied very artificially in the form of ,hebrew letters2 and that the pride of the ,pharisees induced them to have these knots larger than ordinary1 as a peculiar ornament4 ,the ,pharisees are farther said to enlarge the borders of their garments10 1 ,matt4 xxiii1 #e4 ,these were the 1 the fringes which the ,jews are commanded to wear upon the borders of their garments1 ,num4 xv1 #ch1 #ci4 ,the ,targum of ,onkelos calls them 1 which has so near an affinity with the ,greek word 1 that there is no doubt but it signifies the same thing2 which is1 therefore1 an evidence that the were the 4 ,these were worn by our ,saviour1 as appears from the following passage3 ,behold1 a woman1 which was diseased with an issue of blood twelve years1 came behind him1 and touched the hem of his garment10 1 ,matt4 ix1 #bj4 ,again3 the inhabitants of ,gennesaret are said to have brought unto him their diseased1 and to have besought him1 that they might only touch the hem of his garment10 1 ,matt4 xiv1 #cf4 is1 in both these passages1 very improperly translated the hem of his garment40 ,it should have been rendered the fringe40 ,the ,pharisees are censured by our ,saviour for enlarging these fringes of their garments1 which we may suppose they did partly from pride1 and partly from hypocrisy1 as pretending thereby an extraordinary regard for the precepts of the law4 ,it is reported by ,jerom1 as quoted by ,godwin1 that they used to have fringes extravagantly long2 sticking thorns in them1 that1 by pricking their legs as they walked1 they might put them in mind of the law4 ,see ,,frontlets4 ,,pietists1 ,,protestant1 a denomination in the seventeenth century1 which owed its origin to the pious and learned ,spener10 as ,dr4 ,mosheim calls him1 who formed private devotional societies at ,frankfort1 in order to cultivate vital and practical religion2 and published a book entitled ,pious ,desires10 which greatly promoted this object4 ,his followers laid it down as an essential maxim1 that none should be admitted into the ministry but those who not only had received a proper education1 but were also distinguished by their wisdom and sanctity of manners1 and had hearts filled with divine love4 ,hence they proposed an alteration in the schools of divinity1 which embraced the following points3 #a4 ,that the scholastic theology1 which reigned in the academies1 and was composed of intricate and disputable doctrines1 and obscure and unusual forms of expression1 should be totally abolished4 #b4 ,that polemical divinity1 which comprehended the controversies subsisting between ,christians of different communions1 should be less eagerly studied1 and less frequently treated1 though not entirely neglected4 #c4 ,that all mixture of philosophy and human science with divine wisdom1 was to be most carefully avoided2 that is1 that ,pagan philosophy and classical learning should be kept distinct from1 and by no means supersede1 ,biblical theology4 ,but1 #d4 ,that1 on the contrary1 all those students1 who were designed for the ministry1 should be accustomed from their early youth to the perusal and study of the ,holy ,scriptures1 and be taught a plain system of theology1 drawn from these unerring sources of truth4 #e4 ,that the whole course of their education was to be so directed as to render them useful in life1 by the practical power of their doctrine1 and the commanding influence of their example4 ,such1 in substance1 is ,mosheim's account of the meditated reforms in the public schools4 ,but it was not intended to confine these reforms to students and the clergy4 ,religious persons of every class and rank were encouraged to meet in what were called ,biblical colleges1 or colleges of piety1 7we might call them prayer meetings17 where some exercised in reading the ,scriptures1 singing1 and prayer1 and others engaged in the exposition of the ,scriptures2 not in a dry and critical way1 but in a strain of practical and experimental piety1 by which they mutually edified each other4 ,this practice1 which always more or less obtains where religion flourishes1 as1 for instance1 at the ,reformation1 raised the same sort of outcry as at the rise of ,methodism2 and those who entered not into the spirit of the design1 were eager to catch at every instance of weakness or imprudence1 to bring disgrace on that which1 in fact1 brought disgrace upon themselves1 as lukewarm and formal ,christians4 ,in so saying1 ,master1 thou reproachest us also40 ,this work began about #afgj4 ,in #afia ,dr4 ,spener removed from ,dresden to ,berlin1 where he propagated the same principles1 which widely spread1 and were well supported in many parts of ,germany by the excellent ,professor ,francke and others1 until the general decline of religion which has unhappily prevailed in ,germany for the last half century4 ,see ,,neology4 ,,pi-,,hahiroth4 ,the ,hebrew pi answers to the modern ,arabic word fum1 signifying mouth20 and is generally applied to the passes in the mountains4 ,in the ,english and ,septuagint versions1 ,hahiroth is taken as a proper name2 and the whole word would imply the mouth or pass of ,hahiroth or ,hiroth1 whatever particular origin or signification may belong to that word4 ,the name1 however1 sufficiently explains the situation of the children of ,israel2 who were hemmed in at this place1 between the sea in front1 and a narrow mountain pass behind2 which no doubt encouraged ,pharaoh to make his attack upon them in so disadvantageous a position2 thinking that they must inevitably fall an easy prey into his hands1 or be cut to pieces3 when their deliverance1 and his own destruction1 were unexpectedly wrought by the parting of the waters of the sea4 ,the place where this miracle is supposed to have happened1 is still called ,bahral-,kolsum1 or the ,sea of ,destruction2 and just opposite to the situation which answers to the opening called ,pi-hahiroth1 is a bay1 where the north cape is called ,ras ,musa1 or the ,cape of ,moses4 ,that part of the western or ,heroopolitan branch of the ,red ,sea where1 from these coincidences1 the passage most probably took place1 is described by ,bruce as about three leagues over1 with fourteen fathoms of water in the channel1 nine at the sides1 and good anchorage every where4 ,the farther side is also represented as a low sandy coast1 and an easy landing place4 ,see ,,red ,,sea4 ,,pilate4 ,it is not known of what country or family ,pontius ,pilate was1 but it is believed that he was of ,rome1 or1 at least1 of ,italy4 ,he was sent to govern ,judea in the room of ,gratus1 ,a4 ,d4 #bf1 or #bg4 ,he presided over this province for ten years1 from the twelfth or thirteenth year of ,tiberius1 to the twenty-second of the same emperor4 ,he is represented1 both by ,philo and ,josephus1 as a man of an impetuous and obstinate temper1 and1 as a judge1 one who used to sell justice1 and1 for money1 to pronounce any sentence that was desired4 ,the same authors make mention of his rapines1 his injuries1 his murders1 the torments that he inflicted upon the innocent1 and the persons he put to death without any form of process4 ,philo1 in particular1 describes him as a man that exercised an excessive cruelty during the whole time of his government2 who disturbed the repose of ,judea2 and was the occasion of the troubles and revolt that followed4 ,st4 ,luke acquaints us1 that ,pilate had mingled the blood of the ,galileans with their sacrifices2 and that the matter1 having been related to ,jesus ,christ1 he introduced the subject into his discourse1 ,luke xiii4 ,the reason why ,pilate treated them in this manner1 while sacrificing in the temple1 is not known4 ,at the time of our ,saviour's passion1 ,pilate made some attempts to deliver him out of the hands of the ,jews4 ,he knew the reasons of their enmity against him1 ,matthew xxvii1 #ah4 ,his wife1 also1 having had a dream that alarmed her1 requested he would not stain his hands with the blood of that just person1 verse #ai4 ,he therefore attempted to appease the wrath of the ,jews by scourging ,jesus1 ,john xix1 #a2 ,matt4 xxvii1 #bf2 and also tried to take him out of their hands by proposing to deliver him or ,barabbas on the day of the passover4 ,lastly1 be thought to discharge himself from pronouncing judgment against him1 by sending him to ,herod1 king of ,galilee1 ,luke xxiii1 #g1 #h4 ,when he saw all this would not satisfy the ,jews1 and that they even threatened him in some manner1 saying1 he could be no friend to the emperor if he suffered ,jesus to be set at liberty1 ,john xix1 #ab-ae1 he caused water to be brought1 and washed his hands before all the people1 and publicly declared himself innocent of the blood of that just person1 ,matthew xxvii1 #bc1 #bd4 ,yet at the same time he delivered him to his soldiers that they might crucify him4 ,this was enough to justify ,jesus ,christ1 as ,calmet observes1 and to prove that he held him as innocent2 but it was not enough to vindicate the conscience and integrity of a judge1 whose duty it was as well to assert the cause of oppressed innocence1 as to punish the guilty4 ,he ordered the inscription to be placed over the head of our ,saviour1 ,john xix1 #ai2 and when requested by the ,jews to alter it1 peremptorily refused4 ,he also gave leave for the removal of our ,lord's body1 and to place a guard over the sepulchre1 ,matthew xxvii1 #fe4 ,these are all the particulars that we learn concerning ,pilate from the writers of the ,gospels4 ,the extreme reluctance of ,pilate to condemn ,christ1 considering his merciless character1 is signally remarkable1 and still more his repeated protestations of the innocence of his prisoner2 although1 on occasions of massacre1 he made no scruple of confounding the innocent with the guilty4 ,but he was unquestionably influenced by the overruling providence of ,god1 to make the righteousness of his ,son appear as clear as the noon day1 even when condemned and executed as a malefactor1 by the fullest1 the most authentic1 and the most public evidence3 #a4 ,by the testimony even of his judges1 ,pilate and ,herod1 after examination of evidence4 #b4 ,by the message of ,pilate's wife1 delivered to him on the tribunal4 #c4 ,by the testimony of the traitor ,judas1 who hanged himself in despair1 for betraying the innocent blood4 #d4 ,by the testimony of the ,roman centurion and guard1 at his crucifixion1 to his divinity and righteousness4 ,and1 #e4 ,of his fellow sufferer on the cross4 ,never was innocence so attested as his innocence4 ,justin ,martyr1 ,tertullian1 ,eusebius1 and after them several others1 both ancient and modern1 assure us that it was formerly the custom for ,roman magistrates to prepare copies of all verbal processes and judical acts1 which they passed in their several provinces1 and to send them to the emperor4 ,and ,pilate1 in compliance with the custom1 having sent word to ,tiberius of what had passed relating to ,jesus ,christ1 the emperor wrote an account of it to the senate1 in a manner that gave reason to judge that he thought favourably of the religion of ,jesus ,christ1 and showed that he should be willing for them to confer divine honours upon him2 but the senate was not of the same opinion1 and so the matter dropped4 ,it appears by what ,justin says of these acts1 that the miracles of ,christ were mentioned there1 and even that the soldiers had divided his garments among them4 ,eusebius insinuates that they spoke of his resurrection and ascension4 ,tertullian and ,justin refer to these acts with so much confidence1 as would make one believe they had read and handled them4 ,however1 neither ,eusebius nor ,jerom1 who were both inquisitive and understanding persons1 nor any other author who wrote afterward1 seems to have seen them1 at least not the true and original acts4 ,for as to what we have now in great number1 they are not authentic1 being neither ancient nor uniform4 ,there are also some pretended letters of ,pilate to ,tiberius1 giving a history of our ,saviour2 but they are universally allowed to be spurious4 ,pilate being a man who1 by his excessive cruelties and rapine1 had disturbed the repose of ,judea1 during the whole time of his government1 was at length deposed by ,vitellius1 the proconsul of ,syria1 ,a4 ,d4 #cf1 and sent to ,rome to give an account of his conduct to the emperor4 ,but1 though ,tiberius died before ,pilate arrived at ,rome1 yet his successor ,caligula banished him to ,vienne in ,gaul1 where he was reduced to such extremity that he laid violent hands upon himself4 ,the evangelists call him governor1 though in reality he was nothing more than procurator of ,judea1 not only because governor was a name of general use1 but because ,pilate1 in effect1 acted as one1 by taking upon him to judge in criminal matters1 as his predecessors had done1 and as other procurators in the small provinces of the empire1 where there was no proconsul1 constantly did4 ,,pillar properly means a column raised to support a building2 but in ,scripture the term mostly occurs in a metaphorical or figurative sense4 ,thus we have a pillar of cloud1 a pillar of fire1 a pillar of smoke1 c2 signifying a cloud1 a fire1 a smoke raised up toward heaven in the form or shape of a pillar1 ,exod4 xiii1 #ba2 ,judges xx1 #dj4 ,job speaks of the pillars of heaven and the pillars of the earth1 ,job ix1 #f2 xxvi1 #aa2 which are strong metaphorical expressions1 that suppose the heavens and the earth to be an edifice raised by the hand of the almighty ,creator1 and founded upon its basis4 ,st4 ,paul speaks of the ,christian church under the similitude of a pillar or column on which the truth1 or doctrine of the glorious ,gospel is inscribed1 #a ,tim4 iii1 #ae4 ,,pillows4 ,the prophet speaks of sewing pillows to arm holes40 ,there is here1 probably1 an allusion to the easy indulgence of the great4 ,to this day in the east they cover the floors of their houses with carpets3 and along the sides of the wall or floor1 a range of narrow beds or mattresses is often placed upon these carpets2 and1 for their farther ease and convenience1 several velvet or damask bolsters are placed upon these carpets or mattresses1--indulgences that seem to be alluded to by the stretching of themselves upon couches1 and by the sewing of pillows to arm holes10 ,ezekiel xiii1 #ah2 ,amos vi1 #d4 ,,pine ,,tree4 ,the pine appears in our translation three times1 ,neh4 viii1 #ae2 ,isaiah xli1 #ai2 lx1 #ac4 ,nehemiah1 viii1 #ae1 giving directions for observing the feast of tabernacles1 says1 8,fetch olive branches1 pine branches1 myrtle branches1 and branches of thick trees1 to make booths40 ,the ,hebrew phrase 1 means literally 8branches of oily or gummy plants40 ,the ,,lxx4 say cypress4 ,scheuchzer says the ,turks call the cypress zemin4 ,the author of ,scripture ,illustrated0 says1 ,i should prefer the whole species called jasmin1 on account of its verdure1 its fragrance1 and its flowers1 which are highly esteemed4 ,the word jasmin and jasemin of the ,turks1 resembles strongly the shemen of the ,hebrew original here4 ,the ,persians also name this plant semen and simsyk40 ,the authority1 however1 of the ,septuagint must prevail4 ,in ,isa4 xli1 #ai2 lx1 #ac1 the ,hebrew word is 2 a tree1 says ,parkhurst1 so called from the springiness or elasticity of its wood4 ,luther thought it the elm1 which is a lofty and spreading tree2 and ,dr4 ,stock renders it the ash4 ,after all1 it may be thought advisable to retain the pine4 ,la ,roche1 describing1 a valley near to ,mount ,lebanon1 has this observation3 8,la continuelle verdure des pins et des chnes verds fait toujours sa beaut40 ,the perpetual verdure of the pines and the live oaks makes it ever beautiful4 ,,pisgah1 a part of ,mount ,nebo1 so called1 being1 in all probability1 a distinct1 and most likely the highest1 summit of that mountain4 ,here ,moses climbed to view the land of ,canaan2 and here he died4 ,,pisidia1 a province of ,asia ,minor1 having ,lycaonia to the north1 ,pamphylia to the south1 ,cilicia and ,cappadocia to the east1 and the province of ,asia to the west4 ,st4 ,paul preached at ,antioch in ,pisidia1 ,acts xiii1 #ad2 xiv1 #bd4 ,,pitch1 1 ,exod4 ii1 #c2 ,isaiah xxxiv1 #i2 ,septuagint 2 a fat1 combustible1 oily matter1 sometimes called asphaltos1 from the lake ,asphaltites1 or ,dead ,sea1 in ,judea1 on the surface of which it rises in the nature of liquid pitch1 and floats like other oleaginous bodies2 but is condensed by degrees1 through the heat of the sun1 and grows dry and hard4 ,the word which our translators have rendered pitch in ,gen4 vi1 #ad1 and 1 slime1 ,gen4 xi1 #c2 xiv1 #aj1 is generally supposed to be bitumen4 ,in the first of these places it is mentioned as used for smearing the ark1 and closing its interstices4 ,it was peculiarly adapted to this purpose4 ,being at first soft1 viscous1 and pliable1 it might be thrust into every chasm and crevice with the greatest ease2 but would soon acquire a tenacity and hardness superior to those of our pitch4 ,a coat of it spread over both the inside and outside of the ark would make it perfectly water proof4 ,the longer it was kept in the water1 the harder and stronger it would grow4 ,the ,arabs still use it for careening their vessels4 ,in the second passage it is described as applied for cement in building the tower of ,babel4 ,it was much used in ancient buildings in that region2 and1 in the ruins of ,babylon1 large masses of brick work cemented with it are discovered4 ,it is known that the plain of ,shinar did abound with it1 both in its liquid and solid state2 that there was there a cave and fountain which was continually casting it out2 and that the famous tower and no less famous walls of ,babylon were built by this kind of cement1 is confirmed by the testimony of several ancient authors4 ,the slime pits of ,siddim1 ,gen4 xiv1 #aj1 were holes out of which issued this liquid bitumen1 or naphtha4 ,bitumen was formerly much used by the ,egyptians and ,jews in embalming the bodies of their dead4 ,,pithom1 one of the cities that the ,israelites built for ,pharaoh in ,egypt1 during the time of their servitude1 ,exod4 i1 #aa4 ,,plagues ,,of ,,egypt4 ,the design of these visitations1 growing more awful and tremendous in their progress1 was to make ,pharaoh know1 and confess1 that the ,god of the ,hebrews was the supreme ,lord1 and to exhibit his power and his justice in the strongest light to all the nations of the earth1 ,exod4 ix1 #af2 #a ,sam4 iv1 #h1 c2 to execute judgment upon the ,egyptians and upon all their gods1 inanimate and bestial1 for their cruelty to the ,israelites1 and for their grovelling polytheism and idolatry1 ,exod4 vii1 #ad-ag2 xii1 #ab4 ,the ,nile was the principal divinity of the ,egyptians4 ,according to ,heliodorus1 they paid divine honours to this river1 and revered it as the first of their gods4 ,they declared him to be the rival of heaven1 since he watered the country without the aid of the clouds and rain4 ,his principal festival was at the summer solstice1 when the inundation commenced2 at which season1 in the dog days1 by a cruel idolatrous rite1 they sacrificed red-haired persons1 principally foreigners1 to ,typhon1 or the power that presided over tempests1 at ,busiris1 ,heliopolis1 c1 by burning them alive1 and scattering their ashes in the air1 for the good of the people1 as we learn from ,plutarch4 ,hence ,bryant infers the probability1 that these victims were chosen from among the ,israelites1 during their residence in ,egypt4 ,the judgment then inflicted upon the river1 and all the waters of ,egypt1 in the presence of ,pharaoh and of his servants1 as foretold1--when1 as soon as ,aaron had smitten the waters of the river1 they were turned into blood1 and continued in that state for seven days1 so that all the fish died1 and the ,egyptians could not drink of the waters of the river1 in which they delighted as the most wholesome of all waters1 but were forced to dig wells for pure water to drink--was a significant sign of ,god's displeasure for their senseless idolatry in worshipping the river and its fish1 and also a manifest reproof of that bloody edict whereby the infants were slain10 ,wisdom xi1 #g4 ,in the plague of frogs1 their sacred river itself was made an active instrument of their punishment1 together with another of their gods4 ,the frog was one of their sacred animals1 consecrated to the sun1 and considered as an emblem of divine inspiration in its inflations4 ,the plague of lice1 which was produced without any previous intimation to ,pharaoh1 was peculiarly offensive to a people so superstitiously nice and cleanly as the ,egyptians2 and1 above all1 to their priests1 who used to shave their whole body every third day1 that neither louse1 nor any other vermin1 might be found upon them while they were employed in serving their gods1 as we learn from ,herodotus2 and ,plutarch informs us1 that they never wore woollen garments1 but linen only1 because linen is least apt to produce lice4 ,this plague1 therefore1 was particularly disgraceful to the magicians themselves2 and when they tried to imitate it1 but failed1 on account of the minuteness of the objects1 7not like serpents1 water1 or frogs1 of a sensible bulk that could be handled17 they were forced to confess that this was no human feat of legerdemain1 but rather the finger of ,god40 ,thus were the illusions of their magic put down1 and their vaunting in wisdom reproved with disgrace10 ,wisdom xvii1 #g4 ,their folly was manifest unto all men10 in absurdly and wickedly attempting at first to place the feats of human art on a level with the stupendous operations of divine power1 in the first two plagues2 and being foiled in the third1 by shamefully miscarrying1 they exposed themselves to the contempt of their admirers4 ,philo1 the ,jew1 has a fine observation on the plagues of ,egypt3 ,some1 perhaps1 may inquire1 ,why did ,god punish the country by such minute and contemptible animals as frogs1 lice1 flies1 rather than by bears1 lions1 leopards1 or other kinds of savage beasts which prey on human flesh8 ,or1 if not by these1 why not by the ,egyptian asp1 whose bite is instant death8 ,but let him learn1 if he be ignorant1 first1 that ,god chose rather to correct than to destroy the inhabitants2 for1 if he desired to annihilate them utterly1 he had no need to have made use of animals as his auxiliaries1 but of the divinely inflicted evils of famine and pestilence4 ,next1 let him farther learn that lesson so necessary for every state of life1 namely1 that men1 when they war1 seek the most powerful aid to supply their own weakness2 but ,god1 the highest and the greatest power1 who stands in need of nothing1 if at any time he chooses to employ instruments1 as it were1 to inflict chastisement1 chooses not the strongest and greatest1 disregarding their strength1 but rather the mean and the minute1 whom he endues with invincible and irresistible power to chastise offenders40 ,the first three plagues were common to the ,egyptians and the ,israelites1 to convince both that 8there was none like the ,lord20 and to wean the latter from their ,egyptian idolatries1 and induce them to return to the ,lord their ,god4 ,and when this end was answered1 the ,israelites were exempted from the ensuing plagues2 for the ,lord severed the land of ,goshen from the rest of ,egypt2 whence the ensuing plagues1 confined to the latter1 more plainly appeared to have been inflicted by the ,god of the ,hebrews1 ,exodus viii1 #bj-bc1 to convince both more clearly of 8the goodness and severity of ,god10 ,rom4 xi1 #bb2 that great plagues remain for the ungodly1 but mercy embraceth the righteous on every side10 ,psalm xxxii1 #aj4 ,the visitation of flies1 of the gad fly1 or hornet1 was more intolerable than any of the preceding4 ,by this1 his minute1 but mighty army1 ,god afterward drove out some of the devoted nations of ,canaan before ,joshua1 ,exod4 xxiii1 #bh2 ,deut4 vii1 #bj2 ,josh4 xxiv1 #ab4 ,this insect was worshipped in ,palestine and elsewhere under the title of ,baal-zebub1 lord of the gad fly10 #b ,kings i1 #a1 #b4 ,egypt1 we learn from ,herodotus1 abounded with prodigious swarms of flies1 or gnats2 but this was in the heat of summer1 during the dog days2 whence this fly is called by the ,septuagint 1 the dog fly4 ,but the appointed time of this plague was in the middle of winter2 and1 accordingly1 this plague extorted ,pharaoh's partial consent1 ,go ye1 sacrifice to your ,god1 but in the land20 and when ,moses and ,aaron objected the offence they would give to the ,egyptians1 who would stone them for sacrificing the abomination of the ,egyptians10 namely1 animal sacrifices1 he reluctantly consented1 only ye shall not go very far away20 for he was apprehensive of their flight1 like his predecessor1 who first enslaved the ,israelites1 ,exod4 i1 #aj2 and he again desired them to entreat for him40 ,but he again dealt deceitfully2 and after the flies were removed so effectually that not one was left1 when ,moses entreated the ,lord1 ,pharaoh hardened his heart this fifth time also1 neither would he let the people go40 ,this second breach of promise on the part of ,pharaoh drew down a plague of a more deadly description than the preceding4 ,the fifth plague of murrain destroyed all the cattle of ,egypt1 but of the cattle of the ,israelites died not one40 ,it was immediately inflicted by ,god himself1 after previous notification1 and without the agency of ,moses and ,aaron1 to manifest the divine indignation at ,pharaoh's falsehood4 ,and though the king sent and found that not one of the ,israelites was dead1 yet his heart was hardened this sixth time also1 and he would not let the people go1 ,exod4 ix1 #a-g4 ,at length1 after ,pharaoh had repeatedly abused the gracious respites and warnings vouchsafed to him and his servants1 a sorer set of plagues1 affecting themselves1 began to be inflicted2 and ,moses now1 for the first time1 appears as the executioner of divine vengeance2 for in the presence of ,pharaoh1 by the divine command1 he sprinkled ashes of the furnace toward heaven1 and it became a boil1 breaking forth with blains upon man and upon beast4 ,and the magicians could not stand before ,moses because of the boil1 which affected them and all the ,egyptians1 ,exod4 ix1 #h-aa4 ,this was a very significant plague3 the furnace from which the ashes were taken aptly represented the iron furnace0 of ,egyptian bondage1 ,deut4 iv1 #bj1 and the scattering of the ashes in the air might have referred to the usage of the ,egyptians in their ,typhonian sacrifices of human victims2 while it converted another of the elements1 and of their gods1 the air1 or ether1 into an instrument of their chastisement4 ,and now the ,lord10 for the first time1 hardened the heart of ,pharaoh10 after he had so repeatedly hardened it himself1 and he hearkened not unto them1 as the ,lord had foretold unto ,moses10 ,exod4 ix1 #ab4 ,though ,pharaoh probably felt1 the scourge of the boil1 as well as his people1 it did not soften nor humble his heart2 and when he wilfully and obstinately turned away from the light1 and shut his eyes against the luminous evidences vouchsafed to him of the supremacy of the ,god of the ,hebrews1 and had twice broken his promise when he was indulged with a respite1 and dealt deceitfully1 he became a just object of punishment2 and ,god now began to increase the hardness or obduracy of his heart4 ,and such is the usual and the righteous course of his providence2 when nations or individuals despise the warnings of ,heaven1 abuse their best gifts1 and resist the means of grace1 ,god then delivers them over to a reprobate0 or undiscerning mind1 to work all uncleanness with greediness10 ,rom4 i1 #bh4 ,in the tremendous plague of hail1 the united elements of air1 water1 and fire1 were employed to terrify and punish the ,egyptians by their principal divinities4 ,this plague was formally announced to ,pharaoh and his people3 ,i will at this season send all my plagues upon thine heart1 and upon thy servants1 and upon thy people1 that thou mayest know that there is none like me in all the earth4 ,for now ,i could stretch out my hand1 and smite thee and thy people with pestilence10 or destroy thee at once1 like thy cattle with the murrain1 and thou shouldest be cut off from the earth2 but1 in truth1 for this cause have ,i sustained thee1 that ,i might manifest in thee my power1 and that my name might be declared throughout the whole earth10 ,exod4 ix1 #ac-af4 ,this rendering of the passage is more conformable to the context1 the ,chaldee paraphrase1 and to ,philo1 than the received translation1 ,for now ,i will stretch out my hand1 that ,i may smite thee and thy people with pestilence20 for surely ,pharaoh and his people were not smitten with pestilence2 and they were preserved0 or kept from immediate destruction1 according to the ,septuagint1 1 to manifest the divine power10 by the number and variety of their plagues4 ,still1 however1 in the midst of judgment1 ,god remembered mercy2 he gave a gracious warning to the ,egyptians1 to avoid1 if they chose1 the threatened calamity3 ,send1 therefore1 now1 and gather thy cattle1 and all that thou hast in the field2 every man and beast that shall be found in the field1 and shall not be brought home1 the hail shall come down upon them1 and they shall die40 ,and this warning had some effect3 ,he that feared the word of the ,lord among the servants of ,pharaoh1 made his servants and his cattle flee into the houses2 and he that regarded not the word of the ,lord1 left his servants and his cattle in the field10 ,exod4 ix1 #ag-ba4 ,but it may be asked1 ,if all the cattle of the ,egyptians were destroyed by the foregoing plague of murrain1 as asserted ,exod4 ix1 #f1 how came there to be any cattle left8 ,surely the ,egyptians might have recruited their stock from the land of ,goshen1 where not one of the cattle of the ,israelites died40 ,and this justifies the supposition1 that there was some respite1 or interval1 between the several plagues1 and confirms the conjecture of the duration of the whole1 about a quarter of a year4 ,and that the warning1 in this case1 was respected by many of the ,egyptians1 we may infer from the number of chariots and horsemen that went in pursuit of the ,israelites afterward4 ,this was foretold to be a very grievous hail1 such as had not been in ,egypt since the foundation thereof3 and the ,lord sent thunder and hail1 and the fire ran along the ground2 and the hail smote throughout all the land of ,egypt all that was in the field1 both man and beast2 and the hail smote every herb of the field1 and brake every tree of the field4 ,only in the land of ,goshen1 where the children of ,israel were1 there was no hail40 ,pharaoh sent and called for ,moses and ,aaron1 and said unto them1 ,i have sinned this time2 the ,lord is righteous1 and ,i and my people are wicked3 entreat the ,lord10 for it is enough1 that there might be no more mighty thunderings and hail2 and ,i will let you go1 and ye shall stay no longer40 ,but when there was respite1 ,pharaoh sinned yet more1 and hardened his heart1 he and his servants2 neither would he let the people go10 ,exod4 ix1 #bg-ce4 ,in this instance1 there is a remarkable suspension of the judicial infatuation4 ,pharaoh had humbled himself1 and acknowledged his own and his people's guilt1 and the justice of the divine plague3 the ,lord1 therefore1 forbore this time to harden his heart4 ,but he abused the long sufferance of ,god1 and this additional respite2 he sinned yet more1 because he now sinned wilfully1 after he had received information of the truth2 he relapsed1 and hardened his own heart a seventh time4 ,he became1 therefore1 a vessel of wrath1 fitted to destruction10 ,heb4 x1 #bf2 ,rom4 ix1 #bb4 ,the design of the eighth and the ensuing plagues1 was to confirm the faith of the ,israelites3 8,that thou mayest tell in the ears of thy son1 and of thy son's son1 what ,i have wrought in ,egypt1 and my signs which ,i have done among them2 that ye may know how that ,i am the ,lord40 ,this plague of locusts1 inflicted on the now devoted ,egyptians and their king1 completed the havoc begun by the hail2 by this the wheat and rye were destroyed1 and every herb of the land1 and all the fruit of the trees which the hail had left3 and there remained not any verdure in the trees1 nor in the herbs of the field1 throughout the land of ,egypt4 ,very grievous were they2 before them were no such locusts as they1 neither after them shall there be such10 ,exod4 x1 #c-ae4 ,the awful plague of darkness over all the land of ,egypt1 for three days1 a thick darkness which might be felt10 in the emphatic language of ,scripture1 was inflicted on the ,egyptians1 and their chief god1 the sun2 and was1 indeed1 a most significant sign of the divine displeasure1 and of that mental darkness under which they now laboured4 ,their consternation thereat is strongly represented by their total inaction2 neither rose any from his place for three days1 petrified1 as they were1 with horror4 ,they were also scared with strange apparitions and visions1 while a heavy night was spread over them1 an image of that darkness which should afterward receive them4 ,but yet1 they were unto themselves more grievous than that darkness10 ,wisdom xvii1 #c-ba2 ,psalm lxxviii1 #di4 ,this terrific and horrible plague compelled ,pharaoh to relax2 he offered to let the men and their families go2 but he wished to keep the flocks and herds as security for their return2 but ,moses peremptorily declared1 that not a hoof should be left behind4 ,again 8the ,lord hardened ,pharaoh's heart1 so that he would not let them go10 ,exod4 x1 #ba-bg4 ,and the ,lord said unto ,moses1 ,pharaoh shall not hearken unto you1 that my wonders may be multiplied in the land of ,egypt4 ,and ,moses and ,aaron did all these wonders before ,pharaoh2 and the ,lord0 ultimately 8hardened ,pharaoh's heart1 so that he would not let the children of ,israel go out of his land10 ,exod4 xi1 #i1 #aj4 ,this passage forms the conclusion to the nine plagues1 and should properly follow the preceding2 for the result of the tenth and last plague was foretold1 that ,pharaoh should not only let them go1 but surely thrust them out altogether1 ,exod4 xi1 #a4 ,the tenth plague was announced to ,pharaoh with much solemnity3 ,thus saith the ,lord1 ,about midnight will ,i go out into the midst of ,egypt1 and all the first-born in the land of ,egypt shall die1 from the first-born of ,pharaoh that sitteth upon his throne1 even to the first-born of the maid-servant that is behind the mill2 and all the first-born of cattle4 ,and there shall be a great cry throughout the land of ,egypt1 such as there was none like it1 nor shall be any more4 ,but against any of the children of ,israel shall not a dog move his tongue1 against man or beast2 that ye may know1 how that the ,lord doth make a difference between the ,egyptians and ,israel4 ,and all these thy servants shall come down unto me1 and bow themselves unto me1 saying1 ,get thee out1 and all the people that follow thee4 ,and after that ,i will go out10 ,exod4 xi1 #d-h4 ,such a threat1 delivered in so high a tone1 both in the name of the ,god of ,israel and of ,moses1 did not fail to exasperate the infatuated ,pharaoh1 and he said1 ,get thee from me2 take heed to thyself2 see my face no more3 for in the day thou seest my face thou shalt die4 ,and ,moses said1 ,be it so as thou hast spoken2 ,i will see thy face again no more4 ,and he went out from ,pharaoh in great anger10 ,exod4 x1 #bh1 #bi2 xi1 #h4 ,and at midnight the ,lord smote all the first-born in the land of ,egypt2 and there was a great cry in ,egypt1 for there was not a house in which there was not one dead10 ,exod4 xii1 #a-cj4 ,this last tremendous judgment is described with much sublimity in the book of ,wisdom1 xviii1 #ad-ah4 ,for when all things were wrapt in still silence1 ,and night1 in her proper speed1 holding her mid course1 ,thy all powerful oracle leapt down from heaven1 ,out of the royal throne1 a fierce warrior1 ,into the midst of the land of destruction1 ,wielding a sharp sword1 thine unfeigned command1 ,and standing up1 he filled the whole with death1 ,he touched the heavens1 indeed1 but trod upon the earth60 ,and ,pharaoh rose up in the night1 he and all his servants1 and all the ,egyptians2 and he called for10 or sent to1 ,moses and ,aaron by night1 and said1 ,get you forth from among my people1 both ye and the children of ,israel2 and go1 serve the ,lord1 as ye said2 take also your flocks and your herds1 and be gone2 and bless me also4 ,and the ,egyptians also were urgent upon the people1 to send them out of the land in haste2 for they said1 ,we shall all be dead40 ,it is evident from the extreme urgency of the occasion1 when all the ,egyptians apprehended total destruction1 if the departure of the ,israelites was delayed any longer1 that ,pharaoh had no personal interview with ,moses and ,aaron1 which would have wasted time1 and was quite unnecessary2 he only sent them a peremptory mandate to be gone on their own terms4 ,and the children of ,israel did according to the word of ,moses2 and they asked of the ,egyptians jewels of silver1 and jewels of gold1 and raiment4 ,and the ,lord gave the people favour in the sight of the ,egyptians1 so that they freely gave what they required1 and they spoiled the ,egyptians10 ,exod4 xii1 #ca-cf1 as originally foretold to ,abraham1 ,gen4 xv1 #ad2 and to ,moses before the plagues began4 ,this was an act of perfect retributive justice1 to make the ,egyptians pay for the long and laborious services of the ,israelites1 whom they had unjustly enslaved1 in violation of their charter4 ,the ,israelites were thrust out of ,egypt on the fifteenth day of the first month1 about six hundred thousand men on foot1 beside women and children4 ,and a mixed multitude went up also with them2 and flocks and herds1 even very much cattle10 ,exod4 xii1 #cg-ch2 ,num4 xi1 #d2 xxxiii1 #c4 ,and they went out with a high hand2 for the ,lord went before them by day1 in a pillar of a cloud1 to lead them the way2 and by night in a pillar of fire1 to give them light1 to go by day and night4 ,he took not away the pillar of the cloud by day1 nor the pillar of fire by night1 from before the people10 ,exod4 xiii1 #bb2 ,num4 ix1 #ae-bc4 ,and the motion or rest of this divine guide regulated their marches1 and their stations or encampments during the whole of their route1 ,num4 x1 #cc-cf4 ,see ,,red ,,sea4 ,,platonists4 ,the ,platonic philosophy is denominated from ,plato1 who was born about ,b4 ,c4 #dbf4 ,he founded the old academy on the opinions of ,heraclitus1 ,pythagoras1 and ,socrates2 and by adding the information he had acquired to their discoveries1 he established a sect of philosophers1 who were esteemed more perfect than any who had before appeared in the world4 ,the outlines of ,plato's philosophical system were as follows3--that there is one ,god1 eternal1 immutable1 and immaterial2 perfect in wisdom and goodness1 omniscient1 and omnipresent3 that this all-perfect ,being formed the universe out of a mass of eternally prexisting matter1 to which he gave form and arrangement3 that there is in matter a necessary1 but blind and refractory force1 which resists the will of the supreme ,artificer1 so that he cannot perfectly execute his designs2 and this is the cause of the mixture of good and evil which is found in the material world3 that the soul of man was derived by emanation from ,god2 but that this emanation was not immediate1 but through the intervention of the soul of the world1 which was itself debased by some material admixture3 that the relation which the human soul1 in its original constitution1 bears to matter1 is the source of moral evil2 that when ,god formed the universe1 he separated from the soul of the world inferior souls1 equal in number to the stars1 and assigned to each its proper celestial abode3 that these souls were sent down to earth to be imprisoned in mortal bodies2 hence arose the depravity and misery to which human nature is liable3 that the soul is immortal2 and by disengaging itself from all animal passions1 and rising above sensible objects to the contemplation of the world of intelligence1 it may be prepared to return to its original habitation3 that matter never suffers annihilation1 but that the world will remain for ever2 and that by the action of its animating principle it accomplishes certain periods1 within which every thing returns to its ancient place and state4 ,this periodical revolution of nature is called the ,platonic1 or great year4 ,the ,platonic system makes the perfection of morality to consist in living in conformity to the will of ,god1 the only standard of truth1 and teaches that our highest good consists in the contemplation and knowledge of the supreme ,being4 ,in this divine ,being ,plato admitted a sort of trinity of three hypostases4 ,the first he considered as self-existent1 calling him1 by way of eminence1 h1 the ,being1 or h1 the ,one4 ,the only attribute which he acknowledged in this person was goodness2 and therefore he frequently styles him1 1 the good4 ,the second he considered as1 1 the mind1 or1 1 the wisdom or reason of the former1 and the 1 maker of the world4 ,the third he always speaks of as1 1 the soul of the world4 ,he taught that the second is a necessary emanation from the first1 and the third from the second1 or perhaps from both2 comparing these emanations to those of light and heat from the sun4 ,from the above use of ,logos for the second person of the ,platonic trinity1 it has been thought that ,st4 ,john borrowed the term from ,plato2 but it is not likely that this ,apostle was conversant with his writings1 and therefore both ,le ,clerc and ,dr4 ,campbell think it more probable that he took it from the ,old ,testament4 ,the end of all knowledge1 or philosophy1 according to ,plato1 was to make us resemble the ,deity as much as is compatible with human nature4 ,this likeness consists in the possession and practice of all the moral virtues4 ,after the death of ,plato1 many of his disciples deviated from his doctrines4 ,his school was then divided into the old1 the middle1 and the new academy4 ,the old academy strictly adhered to his tenets4 ,the middle academy partially receded from his system1 without entirely deserting it4 ,the new academy almost entirely relinquished the original doctrines of ,plato1 and verged toward the skeptical philosophy4 ,an infusion of ,platonism1 though in a perverted form1 is seen in the philosophy most prevalent in the times of the ,apostles4 ,it was ,judaized by the contemplative ,hellenists1 and1 through them1 their native ,judaism was ,platonized4 ,the eclectic philosophy added other ingredients to the compound1 from the oriental systems4 ,all however issued in pride1 and the domination of bewildering and monstrous imaginations4 ,,plough4 ,the ,syrian plough1 which was probably used in all the regions around1 is a very simple frame1 and commonly so light1 that a man of moderate strength might carry it in one hand4 ,volney states that in ,syria it is often nothing else than the branch of a tree cut below a bifurcation1 and used without wheels4 ,it is drawn by asses and cows1 seldom by oxen4 ,and ,dr4 ,russel informs us1 the ploughing of ,syria is performed often by a little cow1 at most with two1 and sometimes only by an ass4 ,in ,persia it is for the most part drawn by one ox only1 and not unfrequently even by an ass1 although it is more ponderous than in ,palestine4 ,with such an imperfect instrument1 the ,syrian husbandman can do little more than scratch the surface of his field1 or clear away the stones or weeds that encumber it1 and prevent the seed from reaching the soil4 ,the ploughshare is a piece of iron1 broad1 but not large1 which tips the end of the shaft40 ,so much does it resemble the short sword used by the ancient warriors1 that it may with very little trouble1 be converted into that deadly weapon2 and when the work of destruction is over1 reduced again into its former shape1 and applied to the purposes of agriculture4 ,in allusion to the first operation1 the ,prophet ,joel summons the nations to leave their peaceful employments in the cultivated field1 and buckle on their armour3 ,beat your ploughshares into swords1 and your pruning hooks into spears10 ,joel iii1 #aj4 ,this beautiful image the ,prophet ,isaiah has reversed1 and applied to the establishment of that profound and lasting peace which is to bless the church of ,christ in the latter days3 ,and they shall beat their swords into ploughshares1 and their spears into pruning hooks2 nation shall not lift up sword against nation1 neither shall they learn war any more10 ,isaiah ii1 #d4 ,the plough used in ,syria is so light and simple in its construction1 that the husbandman is under the necessity of guiding it with great care1 bending over it1 and loading it with his own weight1 else the share would glide along the surface without making any incision4 ,his mind should be wholly intent on his work1 at once to press the plough into the ground1 and direct it in a straight line4 ,let the ploughman10 said ,hesiod1 attend to his charge1 and look before him2 not turn aside to look on his associates1 but make straight furrows1 and have his mind attentive to his work40 ,and ,pliny3 ,unless the ploughman stoop forward10 to press his plough into the soil1 and conduct it properly1 he will turn it aside40 ,to such careful and incessant exertion1 our ,lord alludes in that declaration1 ,no man having put his hand to the plough1 and looking back1 is fit for the kingdom of heaven10 ,luke ix1 #fb4 ,,poetry ,,of ,,the ,,hebrews4 ,among the books of the ,old ,testament1 says ,bishop ,lowth1 there is such an apparent diversity in style1 as sufficiently discovers which of them are to be considered as poetical1 and which as prose4 ,while the historical books and legislative writings of ,moses are evidently prosaic compositions1 the book of ,job1 the ,psalms of ,david1 the ,song of ,solomon1 the ,lamentations of ,jeremiah1 a great part of the prophetical writings1 and several passages scattered occasionally through the historical books1 carry the most plain and distinguishing marks of poetical writing4 ,there is not the least reason for doubting that originally these were written in verse1 or some kind of measured numbers2 though1 as the ancient pronunciation of the ,hebrew language is now lost1 we are not able to ascertain the nature of the ,hebrew verse1 or at most can ascertain it but imperfectly4 ,let any person read the historical introduction to the book of ,job1 contained in the first and second chapters1 and then go on to ,job's speech in the beginning of the third chapter1 and he cannot avoid being sensible that he passes all at once from the region of prose to that of poetry4 ,from the earliest times music and poetry were cultivated among the ,hebrews4 ,in the days of the judges mention is made of the schools or colleges of the prophets1 where one part of the employment of the persons trained in such schools was to sing the praises of ,god1 accompanied with various instruments4 ,but in the days of ,king ,david music and poetry were carried to the greatest height4 ,in #a ,chron4 xxv1 an account is given of ,david's institutions relating to the sacred music and poetry1 which were certainly more costly1 more splendid and magnificent1 than ever obtained in the public service of any other nation4 ,see ,,psalms4 ,the general construction of the ,hebrew poetry is of a singular nature1 and peculiar to itself4 ,it consists in dividing every period into correspondent1 for the most part into equal1 members1 which answer to one another both in sense and sound4 ,in the first member of the period a sentiment is expressed2 and in the second member the same sentiment is amplified1 or is repeated in different terms1 or sometimes contrasted with its opposite2 but in such a manner1 that the same structure1 and nearly the same number of words1 is preserved4 ,this is the general strain of all the ,hebrew poetry4 ,instances of it occur every where on opening the ,old ,testament4 ,thus1 in ,psalm xcvi3-- ,sing unto the ,lord a new song4 ,sing unto the ,lord1 all the earth4 ,sing unto the ,lord1 and bless his name4 ,show forth his salvation from day to day4 ,declare his glory among the ,heathen1 ,his wonders among all the people4 ,for the ,lord is great1 and greatly to be praised4 ,he is to be feared above all the gods4 ,honour and majesty are before him2 ,strength and beauty are in his sanctuary40 ,it is owing in a great measure to this form of composition1 that our version1 though in prose1 retains so much of a poetical cast3 for1 the version being strictly word for word after the original1 the form and order of the original sentence are preserved2 which1 by this artificial structure1 this regular alternation and correspondence of parts1 makes the ear sensible of a departure from the common style and tone of prose4 ,the origin of this form of poetical composition among the ,hebrews is clearly to be deduced from the manner in which their sacred hymns were wont to be sung4 ,they were accompanied with music1 and they were performed by choirs or bands of singers and musicians1 who answered alternately to each other4 ,when1 for instance1 one band began the hymn thus3 ,the ,lord reigneth1 let the earth rejoice20 the chorus1 or semi-chorus1 took up the corresponding versicle1 ,let the multitude of the isles be glad thereof40 8,clouds and darkness are round about him10 sung the one2 the other replied1 ,judgment and righteousness are the habitation of his throne40 ,and in this manner their poetry1 when set to music1 naturally divided itself into a succession of strophes and antistrophes correspondent to each other2 whence it is probable the antiphon1 or responsory1 in the public religious service of so many ,christian churches1 derived its origin4 ,the twenty-fourth ,psalm1 in particular1 which is thought to have been composed on the great and solemn occasion of the ark of the covenant being brought back to ,mount ,zion1 must have had a noble effect when performed after this manner1 as ,dr4 ,lowth has illustrated it4 ,the whole people are supposed to be attending the procession4 ,the ,levites and singers1 divided into their several courses1 and accompanied with all their musical instruments1 led the way4 ,after the introduction to the ,psalm1 in the two first verses1 when the procession begins to ascend the sacred mount1 the question is put1 as by a semi-chorus1 ,who shall ascend into the hill of the ,lord1 and who shall stand in his holy place80 ,the response is made by the full chorus with the greatest dignity3 ,he that hath clean hands and a pure heart2 who hath not lifted up his soul to vanity1 nor sworn deceitfully40 ,as the procession approaches to the doors of the tabernacle1 the chorus1 with all their instruments1 join in this exclamation3 ,lift up your heads1 ye gates1 and be ye lifted up1 ye everlasting doors1 and the ,king of glory shall come in40 ,here the semi-chorus plainly breaks in1 as with a lower voice1 ,who is this ,king of glory80 ,and at the moment when the ark is introduced into the tabernacle1 the response is made by the burst of the whole chorus3 ,the ,lord1 strong and mighty2 the ,lord1 mighty in battle40 ,the method of composition which has been explained1 by correspondent versicles being universally introduced into the hymns or musical poetry of the ,jews1 easily spread itself through their other poetical writings1 which were not designed to be sung in alternate portions1 and which1 therefore1 did not so much require this mode of composition4 ,but the mode became familiar to their ears1 and carried with it a certain solemn majesty of style1 particularly suited to sacred subjects4 ,hence1 throughout the prophetical writings1 we find it prevailing as much as in the ,psalms of ,david4 ,this form of writing is one of the great characteristics of the ancient ,hebrew poetry2 very different from1 and even opposite to1 the style of the ,greek and ,roman poets4 ,independently of this peculiar mode of construction1 the sacred poetry is distinguished by the highest beauties of strong1 concise1 bold1 and figurative expression4 ,conciseness and strength are two of its most remarkable characters4 ,one might1 indeed1 imagine that the practice of the ,hebrew poets1 of always amplifying the same thought1 by repetition or contrast1 might tend to enfeeble their style4 ,but they conduct themselves so as not to produce this effect4 ,their sentences are always short4 ,few superfluous words are used4 ,the same thought is never dwelt upon long4 ,to their conciseness and sobriety of expression their poetry is indebted for much of its sublimity2 and all writers who attempt the sublime might profit much by imitating1 in this respect1 the style of the ,old ,testament4 ,no writings whatever abound so much with the most bold and animated figures as the sacred books4 ,in order to do justice to these1 it is necessary that we transport ourselves as much as we can into the land of ,judea1 and place before our eyes that scenery and those objects with which the ,hebrew writers were conversant4 ,natural objects are in some measure common to them with poets of all ages and countries4 ,light and darkness1 trees and flowers1 the forest and the cultivated field1 suggest to them many beautiful figures4 ,but1 in order to relish their figures of this kind1 we must take notice that several of them arise from the particular circumstances of the land of ,judea4 ,during the summer months little or no rain falls throughout all that region4 ,while the heats continued1 the country was intolerably parched2 want of water was a great distress2 and a plentiful shower falling1 or a rivulet breaking forth1 altered the whole face of nature1 and introduced much higher ideas of refreshment and pleasure than the like causes can suggest to us4 ,hence1 to represent distress1 such frequent allusions among them1 to a dry and thirsty land where no water is20 and hence1 to describe a change from distress to prosperity1 their metaphors are founded on the falling of showers1 and the bursting out of springs in the desert4 ,thus3 ,the wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad1 and the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose4 ,for in the wilderness shall waters break out1 and streams in the desert2 and the parched ground shall become a pool1 and the thirsty land1 springs of water2 in the habitation of dragons there shall be grass1 with rushes and reeds10 ,isaiah xxxv1 #a1 #f1 #g4 ,images of this nature are very familiar to ,isaiah1 and occur in many parts of his book4 ,again3 as ,judea was a hilly country1 it was1 during the rainy months1 exposed to frequent inundations by the rushing of torrents1 which came down suddenly from the mountains1 and carried every thing before them2 and ,jordan1 their only great river1 annually overflowed its banks4 ,hence the frequent allusions to the noise1 and to the rushings of many waters20 and hence great calamities so often compared to the overflowing torrent1 which1 in such a country1 must have been images particularly striking3 ,deep calleth unto deep at the noise of thy water spouts2 all thy waves and thy billows are gone over me10 ,psalm xlii1 #g4 ,the two most remarkable mountains of the country were ,lebanon and ,carmel2 the former noted for its height1 and the woods of lofty cedars that covered it2 the latter1 for its beauty and fertility1 the richness of its vines and olives4 ,hence1 with the greatest propriety1 ,lebanon is employed as an image of whatever is great1 strong1 or magnificent2 ,carmel1 of what is smiling and beautiful4 ,the glory of ,lebanon shall be given to it1 and the excellency of ,carmel10 ,isaiah xxxv1 #b4 ,lebanon is often put metaphorically for the whole state or people of ,israel1 for the temple1 for the king of ,assyria2 ,carmel1 for the blessings of peace and prosperity4 ,his countenance is as ,lebanon10 says ,solomon1 speaking of the dignity of a man's appearance2 but when he describes female beauty1 ,thine head is like ,mount ,carmel10 ,cant4 v1 #ae2 vii1 #e4 ,it is farther to be remarked under this head1 that1 in the images of the awful and terrible kind1 with which the sacred poets abound1 they plainly draw their descriptions from that violence of the elements1 and those great concussions of nature1 with which their climate rendered them acquainted4 ,earthquakes were not unfrequent2 and the tempests of hail1 thunder1 and lightning1 in ,judea and ,arabia1 accompanied with whirlwinds and darkness1 far exceed any thing of that sort which happens in more temperate regions4 ,isaiah1 xxiv1 #bj1 describes1 with great majesty1 the earth1 reeling to and fro like a drunkard1 and removed like a cottage40 ,and in those circumstances of terror1 with which an appearance of the ,almighty is described1 in ,psalm xviii1 when his pavilion round about him was darkness2 when hail stones and coals of fire were his voice2 and when1 at his rebuke1 the channels of the waters are said to be seen1 and the foundations of the hills discovered2 though there may be some reference1 as ,dr4 ,lowth thinks1 to the history of ,god's descent upon ,mount ,sinai2 yet it seems more probable that the figures were taken directly from those commotions of nature with which the author was acquainted1 and which suggested stronger and nobler images than those which now occur to us4 ,beside the natural objects of their own country1 we find the rites of their religion1 and the arts and employments of their common life1 frequently employed as grounds of imagery among the ,hebrews4 ,hence flowed1 of course1 the many allusions to pastoral life1 to the green pastures and the still waters10 and to the care and watchfulness of a shepherd over his flock1 which carry to this day so much beauty and tenderness in them1 in ,psalm xxiii1 and in many other passages of the poetical writings of ,scripture4 ,hence all the images founded upon rural employments1 upon the wine press1 the threshing floor1 the stubble and the chaff4 ,to disrelish all such images is the effect of false delicacy4 ,homer is at least as frequent1 and much more minute and particular1 in his similes1 founded on what we now call low life2 but1 in his management of them1 far inferior to the sacred writers1 who generally mix with their comparisons of this kind somewhat of dignity and grandeur to ennoble them4 ,what inexpressible grandeur does the following rural image in ,isaiah1 for instance1 receive from the intervention of the ,deity6--8,the nations shall rush like the rushings of many waters2 but ,god shall rebuke them1 and they shall fly far off2 and they shall be chased as the chaff of the mountain before the wind1 and like the down of the thistle before the whirlwind40 ,figurative allusions1 too1 we frequently find to the rites and ceremonies of their religion1 to the legal distinctions of things clean and unclean1 to the mode of their temple service1 to the dress of their priests1 and to the most noted incidents recorded in their sacred history2 as1 to the destruction of ,sodom1 the descent of ,god upon ,mount ,sinai1 and the miraculous passage of the ,israelites through the ,red ,sea4 ,the religion of the ,hebrews included the whole of their laws and civil constitution4 ,it was full of splendid external rites1 that occupied their senses2 it was connected with every part of their national history and establishment2 and hence1 all ideas founded on religion possessed in this nation a dignity and importance peculiar to themselves1 and were uncommonly suited to impress the imagination4 ,from all this it results that the imagery of the sacred poets is1 in a high degree1 expressive and natural2 it is copied directly from real objects that were before their eyes2 it has this advantage1 of being more complete within itself1 more entirely founded on national ideas and manners1 than that of the most of other poets4 ,in reading their works we find ourselves continually in the land of ,judea4 ,the palm trees1 and the cedars of ,lebanon1 are ever rising in our view4 ,the face of their territory1 the circumstances of their climate1 the manners of the people1 and the august ceremonies of their religion1 constantly pass under different forms before us4 ,the comparisons employed by the sacred poets are generally short1 touching on one point only of resemblance1 rather than branching out into little episodes4 ,in this respect they have an advantage over the ,greek and ,roman authors2 whose comparisons1 by the length to which they are extended1 sometimes interrupt the narration too much1 and carry too visible marks of study and labour2 whereas1 in the ,hebrew poets1 they appear more like the glowings of a lively fancy1 just glancing aside to some resembling object1 and presently returning to its track4 ,such is the following fine comparison1 introduced to describe the happy influence of good government upon a people1 in what are called the last words of ,david3 ,he that ruleth over men must be just1 ruling in the fear of ,god2 and he shall be as the light of the morning when the sun riseth1 even a morning without clouds2 as the tender grass springing out of the earth1 by clear shining after rain10 #b ,sam4 xxiii1 #c4 ,this is one of the most regular and formal comparisons in the sacred books4 ,allegory1 likewise1 is a figure frequently found in them4 ,but the poetical figure which1 beyond all others1 elevates the style of ,scripture1 and gives it a peculiar boldness and sublimity1 is prosopopia1 or personification4 ,no personifications employed by any poets are so magnificent and striking as those of the inspired writers4 ,on great occasions they animate every part of nature1 especially when any appearance or operation of the ,almighty is concerned4 ,before him went the pestilence40 8,the waters saw thee1 ,o ,god1 and were afraid40 ,the mountains saw thee1 and they trembled40 8,the overflowing of the water passed by40 ,the deep uttered his voice1 and lifted up his hands on high40 ,when inquiry is made about the place of wisdom1 ,job introduces the deep1 saying1 ,it is not in me2 and the sea saith1 ,it is not in me4 ,destruction and death say1 ,we have heard the fame thereof with our ears40 ,that noted sublime passage in the book of ,isaiah1 which describes the fall of the king of ,assyria1 is full of personified objects2 the fir trees and cedars of ,lebanon breaking forth into exultation on the fall of the tyrant2 hell from beneath stirring up all the dead to meet him at his coming2 and the dead kings introduced as speaking and joining in the triumph4 ,in the same strain are those many lively and passionate apostrophes to cities and countries1 to persons and things1 with which the prophetical writings every where abound4 ,o thou sword of the ,lord1 how long will it be ere thou be quiet8 ,put thyself up into the scabbard1 rest1 and be still4 ,how can it be quiet10 as the reply is instantly made1 seeing the ,lord hath given it a charge against ,askelon1 and the sea shore8 there hath he appointed it10 ,jer4 xlvii1 #f4 ,in general1 for it would carry us too far to enlarge upon all the instances1 the style of the poetical books of the ,old ,testament is1 beyond the style of all other poetical works1 fervid1 bold1 and animated4 ,it is extremely different from that regular correct expression to which our ears are accustomed in modern poetry4 ,it is the burst of inspiration4 ,the scenes are not coolly described1 but represented as passing before our eyes4 ,every object and every person is addressed and spoken to1 as if present4 ,the transition is often abrupt2 the connection often obscure2 the persons are often changed2 figures crowded1 and heaped upon one another4 ,bold sublimity1 not correct elegance1 is its character4 ,we see the spirit of the writer raised beyond himself1 and labouring to find vent for ideas too mighty for his utterance4 ,the several kinds of poetical composition which we find in ,scripture are chiefly the didactic1 elegiac1 pastoral1 and lyric4 ,of the didactic species of poetry1 the book of ,proverbs is the principal instance4 ,the first nine chapters of that book are highly poetical1 adorned with many distinguished graces1 and figures of expression4 ,the book of ,ecclesiastes comes1 likewise1 under this head2 and some of the ,psalms1 as the hundred and nineteenth in particular4 ,of elegiac poetry1 many very beautiful specimens occur in ,scripture2 such as the lamentation of ,david over his friend ,jonathan2 several passages in the prophetical books2 and several of ,david's ,psalms1 composed on occasions of distress and mourning4 ,the forty-second ,psalm1 in particular1 is1 in the highest degree1 tender and plaintive4 ,but the most regular and perfect elegiac composition in the ,scripture1 perhaps in the whole world1 is the ,lamentations of ,jeremiah4 ,as the prophet mourns1 in that book1 over the destruction of the temple and the holy city1 and the overthrow of the whole state1 he assembles all the affecting images which a subject so melancholy could suggest4 ,the ,song of ,solomon affords us a high exemplification of pastoral poetry4 ,considered with respect to its spiritual meaning1 it is undoubtedly a mystical allegory2 in its form it is a dramatic pastoral1 or a perpetual dialogue between personages in the character of shepherds2 and1 suitably to that form1 it is full of rural and pastoral images from beginning to end4 ,of lyric poetry1 or that which is intended to be accompanied with music1 the ,old ,testament is full4 ,beside a great number of hymns and songs1 which we find scattered in the historical and prophetical books1 such as the song of ,moses1 the song of ,deborah1 and many others of like nature1 the whole book of ,psalms is to be considered as a collection of sacred odes4 ,in these we find the ode exhibited in all the varieties of its form1 and supported with the highest spirit of lyric poetry2 sometimes sprightly1 cheerful1 and triumphant2 sometimes solemn and magnificent2 sometimes tender and soft4 ,from these instances it clearly appears1 that there are contained in the ,holy ,scriptures full exemplifications of several of the chief kinds of poetical writing4 ,,pollux1 a tutelar deity of mariners in ancient times1 ,acts xxviii1 #aa1 whose image was placed either at the prow or stern of the ship4 ,,pomegranate1 1 ,numbers xiii1 #bc2 xx1 #e2 #a ,sam4 xiv1 #b1 c1 a low tree growing very common in ,palestine1 and in other parts of the east4 ,its branches are very thick and bushy2 some of them are armed with sharp thorns4 ,they are garnished with narrow spear-shaped leaves4 ,its flowers are of an elegant red colour1 resembling a rose4 ,it is chiefly valued for the fruit1 which is as big as a large apple1 is quite round1 and has the general qualities of other summer fruits1 allaying heat and quenching thirst4 ,the high estimation in which it was held by the people of ,israel1 may be inferred from its being one of the three kinds of fruit brought by the spies from ,eshcol to ,moses and the congregation in the wilderness1 ,num4 xiii1 #bc2 xx1 #e2 and from its being specified by that rebellious people as one of the greatest luxuries which they enjoyed in ,egypt1 the want of which they felt so severely in the sandy desert4 ,the pomegranate1 classed by ,moses with wheat and barley1 vines and figs1 oil olive and honey1 was1 in his account1 one principal recommendation of the promised land1 ,deut4 viii1 #h4 ,the form of this fruit was so beautiful1 as to be honoured with a place at the bottom of the high priest's robe1 ,exodus xxviii1 #cc2 ,ecclus4 xlv1 #i2 and was the principal ornament of the stately columns of ,solomon's temple4 ,the inside is full of small kernels1 replenished with a generous liquor4 ,in short there is scarcely any part of the pomegranate which does not delight and recreate the senses4 ,,porters ,,of ,,the ,,temple4 ,the ,levites discharged the office of porters of the temple both day and night1 and had the care both of the treasure and offerings4 ,the office of porter was in some sort military2 properly speaking1 they were the soldiers of the ,lord1 and the guards of his house1 to whose charge the several gates of the courts of the sanctuary were appointed by lot1 #a ,chronicles xxvi1 #a1 #ac1 #ai4 ,they waited at every gate2 and were not permitted to depart from their service10 #b ,chron4 xxxv1 #ae2 and they attended by turns in their courses1 as the other ,levites did1 #b ,chron4 viii1 #ad4 ,their proper business was to open and shut the gates1 and to attend at them by day1 as a sort of peace officers1 in order to prevent any tumult among the people2 to keep strangers and the excommunicated and unclean persons1 from entering into the holy court2 and1 in short1 to prevent whatever might be prejudicial to the safety1 peace1 and purity of the holy place and service4 ,they also kept guard by night about the temple and its courts2 and they are said to have been twenty-four1 including three priests1 who stood sentry at so many different places4 ,there was a superior officer over the whole guard1 called by ,maimonides1 the man of the mountain of the house20 he walked the round as often as he pleased2 when he passed a sentinel that was standing1 he said1 ,peace be unto you20 but if he found one asleep1 he struck him1 and he had liberty to set fire to his garment4 ,this custom may1 perhaps1 be alluded to in the following passage3 ,behold1 ,i come as a thief10 that is1 unawares2 blessed is he that watcheth and keepeth his garments10 ,rev4 xvi1 #ae4 ,psalm cxxxiv1 seems to be addressed to these watchmen of the temple1 who by night stand in the house of the ,lord20 in which they are exhorted to employ their waking hours in acts of praise and devotion4 ,,post1 a messenger or regulated courier1 appointed to carry with expedition the despatches of princes1 or the letters of private persons in general1 ,job ix1 #be2 ,jer4 li1 #ca2 #b ,chron4 xxx1 #f2 ,esther iii1 #ac1 c4 ,it is thought that the use of posts is derived from the ,persians4 ,diodorus ,siculus observes1 that the kings of ,persia1 in order to have intelligence of what was passed through all the provinces of their vast dominions1 placed centinels at eminences1 at convenient distances1 where towers were built4 ,these centinels gave notice of public occurrences from one to another1 with a very loud and shrill voice1 by which news was transmitted from one extremity of the kingdom to another with great expedition4 ,but as this could not be practised1 except in the case of general news1 which it was expedient that the whole nation should be acquainted with1 ,cyrus1 as ,xenophon relates1 appointed couriers and places for post horses1 building on purpose on all the high roads houses for the reception of the couriers1 where they were to deliver their packets to the next1 and so on4 ,this they did night and day1 so that no inclemency of weather was to stop them2 and they are represented as moving with astonishing speed4 ,in the judgment of many they went faster than cranes could fly4 ,herodotus owns1 that nothing swifter was known for a journey by land4 ,xerxes1 in his famous expedition against ,greece1 planted posts from the gean ,sea to ,shushan1 or ,susa1 to send notice thither of what might happen to his army2 he placed these messengers from station to station1 to convey his packets1 at such distances from each other as a horse might easily travel4 ,,potter4 ,frequent mention is made of the potter in ,scripture1 ,jer4 xviii1 #c2 ,ecclus4 xxxviii1 #bi1 #cj4 ,homer says1 that the potter turns his wheel with his hands4 ,but at the present day1 the wheel on which the work is formed is turned by another4 ,,potter's ,,field1 the land that was bought with the money for which ,judas sold our ,saviour1 ,matt4 xxvii1 #g1 #aj1 and which he returned4 ,see ,,aceldama4 ,,prayer has been well defined1 the offering up of our desires unto ,god1 for things agreeable to his will1 in the name or through the mediation of ,jesus ,christ1 by the help of the ,holy ,spirit1 with a confession of our sins1 and a thankful acknowledgment of his mercies4 #a4 ,prayer is in itself a becoming acknowledgment of the all-sufficiency of ,god1 and of our dependence upon him4 ,it is his appointed means for the obtaining of both temporal and spiritual blessings4 ,he could bless his creatures in another way3 but he will be inquired of1 to do for them those things of which they stand in need1 ,ezek4 xxxvi1 #cg4 ,it is the act of an indigent creature1 seeking relief from the fountain of mercy4 ,a sense of want excites desire1 and desire is the very essence of prayer4 ,one thing have ,i desired of the ,lord10 says ,david3 that will ,i seek after40 ,prayer without desire is like an altar without a sacrifice1 or without the fire from heaven to consume it4 ,when all our wants are supplied1 prayer will be converted into praise2 till then ,christians must live by prayer1 and dwell at the mercy seat4 ,god alone is able to hear and to supply their every want4 ,the revelation which he has given of his goodness lays a foundation for our asking with confidence the blessings we need1 and his ability encourages us to hope for their bestowment4 ,o thou that hearest prayer2 unto thee shall all flesh come10 ,psalm lxv1 #b4 #b4 ,prayer is a spiritual exercise1 and can only be performed acceptably by the assistance of the ,holy ,spirit1 ,rom4 viii1 #bf4 ,the sacrifice of the wicked is an abomination to the ,lord1 but the prayer of the upright is his delight40 ,the ,holy ,spirit is the great agent in the world of grace1 and without his special influence there is no acceptable prayer4 ,hence he is called the ,spirit of grace and of supplication3 for he it is that enables us to draw nigh unto ,god1 filling our mouth with arguments1 and teaching us to order our cause before him1 ,zech4 xii1 #aj4 #c4 ,all acceptable prayer must be offered in faith1 or a believing frame of mind4 ,if any man lack wisdom1 let him ask of ,god1 who giveth to all men liberally1 and upbraideth not1 and it shall be given him4 ,but let him ask in faith1 nothing wavering--for let not the wavering man think that he shall receive any thing of the ,lord10 ,james i1 #e-g4 ,he that cometh unto ,god must believe that he is1 and that he is a rewarder of them that diligently seek him10 ,heb4 xi1 #f4 ,it must be offered in the name of ,christ1 believing in him as revealed in the word of ,god1 placing in him all our hope of acceptance1 and exercising unfeigned confidence in his atoning sacrifice and prevalent intercession4 #d4 ,prayer is to be offered for things agreeable to the will of ,god40 ,so the ,apostle says3 ,this is the confidence that we have in him1 that1 if we ask any thing according to his will1 he heareth us2 and if we know that he hear us1 whatsoever we ask1 we know that we have the petitions that we desired of him10 #a ,john v1 #ad1 #ae4 ,our prayers must therefore be regulated by the revealed will of ,god1 and come within the compass of the promises4 ,these are to be the matter and the ground of our supplications4 ,what ,god has not particularly promised he may nevertheless possibly bestow2 but what he has promised he will assuredly perform4 ,of the good things promised to ,israel of old not one failed1 but all came to pass2 and in due time the same shall be said of all the rest4 #e4 ,all this must be accompanied with confession of our sins1 and thankful acknowledgment of ,god's mercies4 ,these are two necessary ingredients in acceptable prayer4 ,i prayed10 says the ,prophet ,daniel1 and made confession40 ,sin is a burden1 of which confession unloads the soul4 ,father10 said the returning prodigal1 ,i have sinned against ,heaven and in thy sight40 ,thanksgiving is also as necessary as confession2 by the one we take shame to ourselves2 by the other1 we give glory to ,god4 ,by the one1 we abase the creature2 by the other we exalt the ,creator4 ,in petitioning favours from ,god1 we act like dependent creatures2 in confession1 like sinners2 but in thanksgiving1 like angels4 ,the reason on which this great and efficacious duty rests1 has been a subject of some debate4 ,on this point1 however1 we have nothing stated in the ,scriptures4 ,from them we learn only1 that ,god has appointed it2 that he enjoins it to be offered in faith1 that is1 faith in ,christ1 whose atonement is the meritorious and procuring cause of all the blessings to which our desires can be directed2 and that prayer so offered is an indispensable condition of our obtaining the blessings for which we ask4 ,as a matter of inference1 however1 we may discover some glimpses of the reason in the divine ,mind on which its appointment rests4 ,that reason has sometimes been said to be the moral preparation and state of fitness produced in the soul for the reception of the divine mercies which the act and1 more especially the habit of prayer must induce4 ,against this stands the strong1 and1 in a ,scriptural view1 fatal objection1 that an efficiency is thus ascribed to the mere act of a creature to produce those great1 and1 in many respects1 radical changes in the character of man1 which we are taught1 by inspired authority1 to refer to the direct influences of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,what is it that fits man for forgiveness1 but simply repentance8 ,yet that is expressly said to be the gift0 of ,christ1 and supposes strong operations of the illuminating and convincing ,spirit of truth1 the ,lord and ,giver of spiritual life2 and if the mere acts and habit of prayer had efficiency enough to produce a ,scriptural repentance1 then every formalist attending with ordinary seriousness to his devotions must1 in consequence1 become a penitent4 ,again3 if we pray for spiritual blessings aright1 that is1 with an earnestness of desire which arises from a due apprehension of their importance1 and a preference of them to all earthly good1 who does not see that this implies such a deliverance from the earthly and carnal disposition which characterizes our degenerate nature1 that an agency far above our own1 however we may employ it1 must be supposed8 or else1 if our own prayers could be efficient up to this point1 we might1 by the continual application of this instrument1 complete our regeneration1 independent of that grace of ,god1 which1 after all1 this theory brings in4 ,it may indeed be said1 that the grace of ,god operates by our prayers to produce in us a state of moral fitness to receive the blessings we ask4 ,but this gives up the point contended for1 the moral efficiency of prayer2 and refers the efficiency to another agent working by our prayers as an instrument4 ,still1 however1 it may be affirmed1 that the ,scriptures no where represent prayer as an instrument for improving our moral state1 in any other way than as the means of bringing into the soul new supplies of spiritual life and strength4 ,it is therefore more properly to be considered as a condition of our obtaining that grace by which such effects are wrought1 than as the instrument by which it effects them4 ,in fact1 all genuine acts of prayer depend upon a grace previously bestowed1 and from which alone the disposition and the power to pray proceed4 ,so it was said of ,saul of ,tarsus1 ,behold1 he prayeth60 ,he prayed in fact then for the first time2 but that was in consequence of the illumination of his mind as to his spiritual danger1 effected by the miracle on the way to ,damascus1 and the grace of ,god which accompanied the miracle4 ,nor does the miraculous character of the means by which conviction was produced in his mind1 affect the relevancy of this to ordinary cases4 ,by whatever means ,god may be pleased to fasten the conviction of our spiritual danger upon our minds1 and to awaken us out of the long sleep of sin1 that conviction must precede real prayer1 and comes from the influence of his grace1 rendering the means of conviction effectual4 ,thus it is not the prayer which produces the conviction1 but the conviction which gives birth to the prayer2 and if we pursue the matter into its subsequent stages1 we shall come to the same result4 ,we pray for what we feel we want2 that is1 for something not in our possession2 we obtain this either by impartation from ,god1 to whom we look up as the only ,being able to bestow the good for which we ask him2 or else we obtain it1 according to this theory1 by some moral efficiency being given to the exercise of prayer to work it in us4 ,now1 the latter hypothesis is in many cases manifestly absurd4 ,we ask for pardon of sin1 for instance2 but this is an act of ,god done for us1 quite distinct from any moral change which prayer may be said to produce in us1 whatever efficiency we may ascribe to it2 for no such change in us can be pardon1 since that must proceed from the party offended4 ,we ask for increase of spiritual strength2 and prayer is the expression of that want4 ,but if it supply this want by its own moral efficiency1 it must supply it in proportion to its intensity and earnestness2 which intensity and earnestness can only be called forth by the degree in which the want is felt1 so that the case supposed is contradictory and absurd1 as it makes the sense of want to be in proportion to the supply which ought to abate or remove it4 ,and if it be urged1 that prayer at least produces in us a fitness for the supply of spiritual strength1 because it is excited by a sense of our wants1 the answer is1 that the fitness contended for consists in that sense of want itself which must be produced in us by the previous agency of grace1 or we should never pray for supplies4 ,there is1 in fact1 nothing in prayer simply which appears to have any adaptation1 as an instrument1 to effect a moral change in man1 although it should be supposed to be made use of by the influence of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,the word of ,god is properly an instrument1 because it contains the doctrine which that ,spirit explains and applies1 and the motives to faith and obedience which he enforces upon the conscience and affections2 and although prayer brings these truths and motives before us1 prayer cannot properly be said to be an instrument of our regeneration1 because that which is thus brought by prayer to bear upon our case is the word of ,god itself introduced into our prayers1 which derive their sole influence in that respect from that circumstance4 ,prayer simply is the application of an insufficient to a sufficient ,being for the good which the former cannot otherwise obtain1 and which the latter only can supply2 and as that supply is dependent upon prayer1 and in the nature of the thing consequent1 prayer can in no good sense be said to be the instrument of supplying our wants1 or fitting us for their supply1 except relatively1 as a mere condition appointed by the ,donor4 ,if we must inquire into the reason of the appointment of prayer1 and it can scarcely be considered as a purely arbitrary institution1 that reason seems to be1 the preservation in the minds of men of a solemn and impressive sense of ,god's agency in the world1 and the dependence of all creatures upon him4 ,perfectly pure and glorified beings1 no longer in a state of probation1 and therefore exposed to no temptations1 may not need this institution2 but men in their fallen state are constantly prone to forget ,god2 to rest in the agency of second causes2 and to build upon a sufficiency in themselves4 ,this is at once a denial to ,god of the glory which he rightly claims1 and a destructive delusion to creatures1 who1 in forsaking ,god as the object of their constant affiance1 trust but in broken reeds1 and attempt to drink from broken cisterns which can hold no water40 ,it is then equally in mercy to us1 as in respect to his own honour and acknowledgment1 that the divine ,being has suspended so many of his blessings1 and those of the highest necessity to us1 upon the exercise of prayer2 an act which acknowledges his uncontrollable agency1 and the dependence of all creatures upon him2 our insufficiency1 and his fulness2 and lays the foundation of that habit of gratitude and thanksgiving which is at once so meliorating to our own feelings1 and so conducive to a cheerful obedience to the will of ,god4 ,and if this reason for the injunction of prayer is no where in ,scripture stated in so many words1 it is a principle uniformly supposed as the foundation of the whole scheme of religion which they have revealed4 ,to this duty objections have been sometimes offered1 at which it may be well at least to glance4 ,one has been grounded upon a supposed predestination of all things which come to pass2 and the argument is1 that as this established predetermination of all things cannot be altered1 prayer1 which supposes that ,god will depart from it1 is vain and useless4 ,the answer which a pious predestinarian would give to this objection is1 that the argument drawn from the predestination of ,god lies with the same force against every other human effort1 as against prayer2 and that as ,god's predetermination to give food to man does not render the cultivation of the earth useless and impertinent1 so neither does the predestination of things shut out the necessity and efficacy of prayer4 ,it would also be urged1 that ,god has ordained the means as well as the end2 and although he is an unchangeable ,being1 it is a part of the unchangeable system which he has established1 that prayer shall be heard and accepted4 ,those who have not these views of predestination will answer the objection differently2 for if the premises of such a predestination as is assumed by the objection1 and conceded in the answer1 be allowed1 the answer is unsatisfactory4 ,the ,scriptures represent ,god1 for instance1 as purposing to inflict a judgment upon an individual or a nation1 which purpose is often changed by prayer4 ,in this case either ,god's purpose must be denied1 and then his threatenings are reduced to words without meaning2 or the purpose must be allowed2 in which case either prayer breaks in upon predestination1 if understood absolutely1 or it is vain and useless4 ,to the objection so drawn out it is clear that no answer is given by saying that the means as well as the end are predestinated1 since prayer in such cases is not a means to the end1 but an instrument of thwarting it2 or is a means to one end in opposition to another end1 which1 if equally predestinated with the same absoluteness1 is a contradiction4 ,the true answer is1 that although ,god has absolutely predetermined some things1 there are others which respect his government of free and accountable agents1 which he has but conditionally predetermined4 ,the true immutability of ,god consists1 not in his adherence to his purposes1 but in his never changing the principles of his administration2 and he may therefore1 in perfect accordance with his prerdination of things1 and the immutability of his nature1 purpose to do1 under certain conditions dependent upon the free agency of man1 what he will not do under others2 and for this reason1 that an immutable adherence to the principles of a wise1 just1 and gracious government requires it4 ,prayer is in ,scripture made one of these conditions2 and if ,god has established it as one of the principles of his moral government to accept prayer1 in every case in which he has given us authority to ask1 he has not1 we may be assured1 entangled his actual government of the world with the bonds of such an eternal predestination of particular events1 as either to reduce prayer to a mere form of words1 or not to be able himself1 consistently with his decrees1 to answer it1 whenever it is encouraged by his express engagements4 ,a second objection is1 that as ,god is infinitely wise and good1 his wisdom and justice will lead him to bestow whatever is fit for us without praying2 and if any thing be not fit for us1 we cannot obtain it by praying40 ,to this ,dr4 ,paley very well replies1 that it may be agreeable to perfect wisdom to grant that to our prayers which it would not have been agreeable to the same wisdom to have given us without praying for40 ,this1 independent of the question of the authority of the ,scriptures which explicitly enjoin prayer1 is the best answer which can be given to the objection2 and it is no small confirmation of it1 that it is obvious to every reflecting man1 that for ,god to withhold favours till asked for1 tends10 as the same writer observes1 to encourage devotion among his rational creatures1 and to keep up and circulate a knowledge and sense of their dependency upon him40 ,but it is urged1 ,god will always do what is best from the moral perfection of his nature1 whether we pray or not40 ,this objection1 however1 supposes that there is but one mode of acting for the best1 and that the divine will is necessarily determined to that mode only2 both which positions10 says ,paley1 presume a knowledge of universal nature1 much beyond what we are capable of attaining40 ,it is1 indeed1 a very unsatisfactory mode of speaking1 to say1 ,god will always do what is best2 since we can conceive him capable in all cases of doing what is still better for the creature1 and also that the creature is capable of receiving more and more from his infinite fulness for ever4 ,all that can be rationally meant by such a phrase is1 that1 in the circumstances of the case1 ,god will always do what is most consistent with his own wisdom1 holiness1 and goodness2 but then the disposition to pray1 and the act of praying1 add a new circumstance to every case1 and often bring many other new circumstances along with them4 ,it supposes humility1 contrition1 and trust1 on the part of the creature2 and an acknowledgment of the power and compassion of ,god1 and of the merit of the atonement of ,christ3 all which are manifestly new positions1 so to speak1 of the circumstances of the creature1 which1 upon the very principle of the objection1 rationally understood1 must be taken into consideration4 ,but if the efficacy of prayer as to ourselves be granted1 its influence upon the case of others is said to be more difficult to conceive4 ,this may be allowed without at all affecting the duty4 ,those who bow to the authority of the ,scriptures will see1 that the duty of praying for ourselves and for others rests upon the same divine appointment2 and to those who ask for the reason of such intercession in behalf of others1 it is sufficient to reply1 that the efficacy of prayer being established in one case1 there is the same reason to conclude that our prayers may benefit others1 as any other effort we may use4 ,it can only be by divine appointment that one creature is made dependent upon another for any advantage1 since it was doubtless in the power of the ,creator to have rendered each independent of all but himself4 ,whatever reason1 therefore1 might lead him to connect and interweave the interests of one man with the benevolence of another1 will be the leading reason for that kind of mutual dependence which is implied in the benefit of mutual prayer4 ,were it only that a previous sympathy1 charity1 and good will1 are implied in the duty1 and must1 indeed1 be cultivated in order to it1 and be strengthened by it1 the wisdom and benevolence of the institution would1 it is presumed1 be apparent to every well constituted mind4 ,that all prayer for others must proceed upon a less perfect knowledge of them than we have of ourselves1 is certain2 that all our petitions must be1 even in our own mind1 more conditional than those which respect ourselves1 though many of these must be subjected to the principles of a general administration1 which we but partially apprehend2 and that all spiritual influences upon others1 when they are subject to our prayers1 will be understood by us as liable to the control of their free agency1 must also be conceded2 and1 therefore1 when others are concerned1 our prayers may often be partially or wholly fruitless4 ,he who believes the ,scriptures will1 however1 be encouraged by the declaration that the effectual fervent prayer of a righteous man10 for his fellow creatures1 availeth much20 and he who demands something beyond mere authoritative declaration1 as he cannot deny that prayer is one of those instruments by which another may be benefited1 must acknowledge that1 like the giving of counsel1 it may be of great utility in some cases1 although it should fail in others2 and that as no man can tell how much good counsel may influence another1 or in many cases say whether it has ultimately failed or not1 so it is with prayer4 ,it is a part of the divine plan1 as revealed in his word1 to give many blessings to man independent of his own prayers1 leaving the subsequent improvement of them to himself4 ,they are given in honour of the intercession of ,christ1 man's great ,advocate20 and they are given1 subordinately1 in acceptance of the prayers of ,christ's church1 and of righteous individuals4 ,and when many or few devout individuals become thus the instruments of good to communities1 or to whole nations1 there is no greater mystery in this than in the obvious fact1 that the happiness or misery of large masses of mankind is often greatly affected by the wisdom or the errors1 the skill or the incompetence1 the good or the bad conduct1 of a few persons1 and often of one4 ,,preaching is the discoursing publicly on any religious subject4 ,from the sacred records1 says ,robert ,robinson1 we learn that when men began to associate for the purpose of worshipping the ,deity1 ,enoch prophesied1 ,jude #ad1 #ae4 ,we have a very short account of this prophet and his doctrine2 enough1 however1 to convince us that he taught the principal truths of natural and revealed religion4 ,conviction of sin was in his doctrine1 and communion with ,god was exemplified in his conduct1 ,gen4 v1 #bd2 ,heb4 xi1 #e1 #f4 ,from the days of ,enoch to the time of ,moses1 each patriarch worshipped ,god with his family3 probably several assembled at new moons1 and alternately instructed the whole company4 ,noah10 it is said1 was a preacher of righteousness10 #a ,peter iii1 #ai1 #bj2 #b ,peter ii1 #e4 ,abraham commanded his household after him to keep the way of the ,lord1 and to do justice and judgment1 ,gen4 xviii1 #ai2 and ,jacob1 when his house lapsed to idolatry1 remonstrated against it1 and exhorted all them that were with him to put away the strange gods1 and go up with him to ,bethel1 ,gen4 xxxv1 #b1 #c4 ,melchisedec1 also1 we may consider as the father1 the priest1 and the prince1 of his people2 publishing the glad tidings of peace and salvation1 ,gen4 xiv2 ,heb4 vii4 ,moses was a most eminent prophet and preacher1 raised up by the authority of ,god1 and by whom1 it was said1 came the law1 ,john i1 #ag4 ,this great man had much at heart the promulgation of his doctrine3 he directed it to be inscribed on pillars1 to be transcribed in books1 and to be taught both in public and private by word of mouth1 ,deut4 iv1 #i2 vi1 #i2 xvii1 #ah2 xxvii1 #h2 xxxi1 #ai2 ,num4 v1 #bc4 ,he himself set the example of each2 and how he and ,aaron preached1 we may see by several parts of his writings4 ,the first discourse was heard with profound reverence and attention2 the last was both uttered and received with raptures1 ,exod4 iv1 #ca2 ,deut4 xxxiii1 #g1 #h1 c4 ,public preaching does not appear under this economy to have been attached to the priesthood3 priests were not officially preachers2 and we have innumerable instances of discourses delivered in assemblies by men of other tribes beside that of ,levi1 ,psalm lxviii1 #aa4 ,joshua was an ,ephraimite2 but1 being full of the spirit of wisdom1 he gathered the tribes to ,shechem1 and harangued the people of ,god1 ,deut4 xxxiv1 #i2 ,joshua xxiv4 ,solomon was a prince of the house of ,judah2 ,amos1 a herdsman of ,tekoa2 yet both were preachers1 and one at least was a prophet1 #a ,kings ii2 ,amos vii1 #ad1 #ae4 ,when the ignorant notions of ,pagans1 the vices of their practice1 and the idolatry of their pretended worship1 were in some sad periods incorporated into the ,jewish religion by the princes of that nation1 the prophets and all the seers protested against this apostasy2 and they were persecuted for so doing4 ,shemaiah preached to ,rehoboam1 the princes1 and all the people at ,jerusalem1 #b ,chron4 xii1 #e2 ,azariah and ,hanani preached to ,asa and his army1 #b ,chron4 xv1 #a2 xvi1 #g2 ,micaiah1 to ,ahab4 ,some of them opened schools1 or houses of instruction2 and there to their disciples they taught the pure religion of ,moses4 ,at ,naioth1 in the suburbs of ,ramah1 there was one where ,samuel dwelt2 and there was one at ,jericho1 and a third at ,bethel1 to which ,elijah and ,elisha often resorted4 ,thither the people went on ,sabbath days and at new moons1 and received public lessons of piety and morality1 #a ,sam4 xix1 #ah2 #b ,kings ii1 #b1 #e2 iv1 #b1 #c4 ,through all this period1 however1 there was a dismal confusion of the useful ordinance of public preaching4 ,sometimes they had no open vision1 and the word of the ,lord was precious1 or scarce2 the people heard it only now and then4 ,at other times they were left without a teaching priest1 and without law4 ,and at other seasons again1 itinerants1 both princes1 priests1 and ,levites1 were sent through all the country1 to carry the book of the law1 and to teach in the cities4 ,in a word1 preaching flourished when pure religion grew2 and when the last decayed1 the first was suppressed4 ,moses had not appropriated preaching to any order of men3 persons1 places1 times1 and manners1 were all left open and discretional4 ,many of the discourses were preached in camps and courts1 in streets1 schools1 cities1 villages2 sometimes1 with great composure and coolness2 at other times1 with vehement action and rapturous energy2 sometimes1 in a plain1 blunt style2 at other times1 in all the magnificent pomp of eastern allegory4 ,on some occasions1 the preachers appeared in public with visible signs1 with implements of war1 with yokes of slavery1 or something adapted to their subject4 ,they gave lectures on these1 held them up to view1 girded them on1 broke them in pieces1 rent their garments1 rolled in the dust1 and endeavoured1 by all the methods they could devise1 agreeably to the customs of their country1 to impress the minds of their auditors with the nature and importance of their doctrines4 ,these men were highly esteemed by the pious part of the nation2 and princes thought proper to keep seers and others who were scribes1 who read and expounded the law1 #b ,chron4 xxxiv1 #bi1 #cj2 xxxv1 #ae4 ,hence1 false prophets1 bad men1 who found their account in pretending to be good1 crowded the courts of princes4 ,jezebel1 an idolatress1 had four hundred prophets of ,baal2 and ,ahab1 a pretended worshipper of ,jehovah1 had as many pretended prophets of his own profession1 #b ,chron4 xviii1 #e4 ,when the ,jews were carried captive into ,babylon1 the prophets who were with them inculcated the principles of religion1 and endeavoured to possess their minds with an aversion to idolatry2 and1 to the success of preaching1 we may attribute the re-conversion of the ,jews to the belief and worship of one ,god2 a conversion that remains to this day4 ,the ,jews have since fallen into horrid crimes2 but they have never since this period lapsed into gross idolatry1 ,hosea ii1 iii2 ,ezekiel ii1 iii1 xxxiv4 ,there were not wanting1 however1 multitudes of false prophets among them1 whose characters are strikingly delineated by the true prophets1 and which the reader may see in ,ezek4 xiii2 ,isa4 lvi2 ,jer4 xxiii4 ,when the seventy years of the captivity were expired1 the good prophets and preachers1 ,zerubbabel1 ,joshua1 ,haggai1 and others1 having confidence in the word of ,god1 and being concerned to possess their natural1 civil1 and religious rights1 endeavoured1 by all means1 to extricate themselves and their countrymen from that mortifying state into which the crimes of their ancestors had brought them4 ,they wept1 fasted1 prayed1 preached1 prophesied1 and at length prevailed4 ,the chief instruments were ,nehemiah and ,ezra2 the former was governor1 and reformed the civil state2 the latter was a scribe of the law of the ,god of heaven1 and applied himself to ecclesiastical matters1 in which he rendered the noblest service to his country1 and to all posterity4 ,he collected and collated ,,mss4 of the sacred writings1 and arranged and published the books of the holy canon in their present form4 ,to this he added a second work1 as necessary as the former3 he revised and new modelled public teaching1 and exemplified his plan in his own person4 ,the ,jews had almost lost1 in the seventy years' captivity1 their original language2 that was now become dead2 and they spoke a jargon made up of their own language and that of the ,chaldeans1 and other nations1 with whom they had been mingled4 ,formerly1 preachers had only explained subjects3 now they were obliged to explain words2 words which1 in the sacred code1 were become obsolete1 equivocal1 or dead4 ,houses were now opened1 not for ceremonial worship1 as sacrificing1 for this was confined to the temple2 but for moral and religious instruction1 as praying1 preaching1 reading the law1 divine worship1 and social duties4 ,these houses were called synagogues3 the people repaired thither for morning and evening prayer2 and on ,sabbaths and festivals1 the law was read and expounded to them4 ,we have a short but beautiful description of the manner of ,ezra's first preaching1 ,neh4 viii4 ,upward of fifty thousand people assembled in a street1 or large square1 near the water gate4 ,it was early in the morning of a ,sabbath day4 ,a pulpit of wood1 in the fashion of a small tower1 was placed there on purpose for the preacher2 and this turret was supported by a scaffold1 or temporary gallery1 where1 in a wing on the right hand of the pulpit1 sat six of the principal preachers2 and in another on the left1 seven4 ,thirteen other principal teachers1 and many ,levites1 were present also1 on scaffolds erected for the purpose1 alternately to officiate4 ,when ,ezra ascended the pulpit1 he produced and opened the book of the law1 and the whole congregation instantly rose up from their seats1 and stood4 ,then he offered up prayer and praise to ,god4 ,the people bowing their heads and worshipping the ,lord with their faces to the ground2 and at the close of the prayer1 with uplifted hands1 they solemnly pronounced1 ,amen6 ,amen60 ,then all standing1 ,ezra1 assisted at times by the ,levites1 read the law distinctly1 gave the sense1 and caused them to understand the reading4 ,the sermons delivered so affected the hearers1 that they wept excessively2 and about noon the sorrow became so exuberant and immeasurable1 that it was thought necessary by the governor1 the preacher1 and the ,levites1 to restrain it4 ,go your way10 said they1 eat the fat1 and drink the sweet1 send portions to them for whom nothing is prepared40 ,the wise and benevolent sentiments of these noble souls were imbibed by the whole congregation1 and fifty thousand troubled hearts were calmed in a moment4 ,home they returned1 to eat1 to drink1 to send portions1 and rejoice1 because they had understood the words that were declared unto them4 ,plato was living at this time1 teaching dull philosophy to cold academics2 but what was he1 and what was ,xenophon1 or ,demosthenes1 or any of the ,pagan orators1 in comparison with these men8 ,from this period to that of the appearance of ,jesus ,christ1 public preaching was universal2 synagogues were multiplied1 vast numbers attended1 and elders and rulers were appointed for the purpose of order and instruction4 ,the most celebrated preacher that arose before the appearance of ,jesus ,christ was ,john the ,baptist4 ,he was commissioned from heaven to be the harbinger of the ,messiah4 ,his subjects were few1 plain1 and important4 ,his style was vehement1 his images bold1 his deportment solemn1 his action eager1 and his morals strict4 ,but this bright morning star gave way to the illustrious ,sun of ,righteousness1 who now arose on a benighted world4 ,jesus ,christ certainly was the ,prince of teachers4 ,who but can admire the simplicity and majesty of his style1 the beauty of his images1 the alternate softness and severity of his address1 the choice of his subjects1 the gracefulness of his deportment1 and the indefatigableness of his zeal8 ,let the reader charm and solace himself in the study and contemplation of the character1 excellency1 and dignity of this divine teacher1 as he will find them delineated in the evangelists4 ,the ,apostles copied their divine ,master4 ,they formed multitudes of religious societies1 and were abundantly successful in their labours4 ,they confined their attention to religion1 and left the schools to dispute1 and politicians to intrigue4 ,the doctrines they preached they supported entirely by evidence2 and neither had nor required such assistance as human laws or worldly policy1 the eloquence of schools or the terror of arms1 could afford them4 ,the ,apostles being dead1 every thing came to pass as they had foretold2 the whole ,christian system1 in time1 underwent a miserable change2 preaching shared the fate of other institutions1 and the glory of the primitive church gradually degenerated4 ,those writers whom we call the fathers1 however1 held up to view by some as models for imitation1 do not deserve that indiscriminate praise ascribed to them4 ,christianity1 it is true1 is found in their writings2 but how sadly incorporated with ,pagan philosophy and ,jewish allegory6 ,it must1 indeed1 be allowed1 that1 in general1 the simplicity of ,christianity was maintained1 though under gradual decay1 during the first three centuries4 ,the next five centuries produced many pious and excellent preachers1 both in the ,latin and ,greek church1 though the doctrine continued to degenerate4 ,the ,greek pulpit was adorned with some eloquent orators4 ,basil1 bishop of ,csarea1 ,john ,chrysostom1 preacher at ,antioch1 and afterward patriarch1 as he was called1 of ,constantinople1 and ,gregory ,nazianzen1 who all flourished in the fourth century1 seem to have led the fashion of preaching in the ,greek church2 ,jerom and ,augustine did the same in the ,latin church4 ,the first preachers differed much in pulpit action2 the greater part used very moderate and sober gestures4 ,they delivered their sermons all extempore1 while there were notaries who took down what they said4 ,sermons in those days were all in the vulgar tongue3 the ,greeks preached in ,greek1 the ,latins in ,latin4 ,they did not preach by the clock1 so to speak1 but were short or long as they saw occasion2 though an hour was about the usual time4 ,sermons were generally both preached and heard standing2 but sometimes both speaker and auditors sat1 especially the aged and the infirm4 ,the fathers were fond of allegory2 for ,origen1 that everlasting allegorizer1 had set them the example4 ,before preaching1 the preacher usually went into a vestry to pray1 and afterward to speak to such as came to salute him4 ,he prayed with his eyes shut in the pulpit4 ,the first word the preacher uttered to the people when he ascended the pulpit was1 ,peace be with you20 or1 ,the grace of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 the love of ,god1 and the fellowship of the ,holy ,ghost1 be with you all20 to whom the assembly first added1 ,amen10 and in after times they answered1 ,and with thy spirit40 ,degenerate1 however1 as these days were1 in comparison of those of the ,apostles1 yet they were golden ages in comparison with the times that followed1 when metaphysical reasoning1 mystical divinity1 yea1 ,aristotelian categories1 and reading the lives of saints1 were substituted in the place of sermons4 ,the pulpit became a stage where ludicrous priests obtained the vulgar laugh by the lowest kind of wit1 especially at the festivals of ,christmas and ,easter4 ,but the glorious ,reformation was the offspring of preaching1 by which mankind were reformed2 there was a standard1 and the religion of the times was put to the trial by it4 ,the avidity of the common people to read the ,scriptures1 and to hear them expounded1 was wonderful2 and the papists were so fully convinced of the benefits of frequent public instruction1 that they1 who were justly called unpreaching prelates1 and whose pulpits to use an expression of ,latimer1 had been bells without clappers0 for many a long year1 were obliged for shame to set up regular preaching again4 ,the church of ,rome has produced some great preachers since the ,reformation1 but none equal to the reformed preachers4 ,and a question naturally arises here1 which it would be unpardonable to pass over in silence1 concerning the singular effect of the preaching of the reformed1 which was general1 national1 universal reformation4 ,in the dark times of popery there had arisen now and then some famous popular preachers1 who had zealously inveighed against the vices of the times1 and whose sermons had produced sudden and amazing effects on their auditors2 but all these effects had died away with the preachers who had produced them1 and all things had gone back into their old state4 ,law1 learning1 commerce1 society at large had not been improved4 ,here a new scene opens2 preachers arise less popular1 perhaps less indefatigable and exemplary2 their sermons produce less striking immediate effects2 and yet their auditors go away and agree by whole nations to reform4 ,jerom ,savonarola1 ,jerom ,narni1 ,capistran1 ,connecte1 and many others1 had produced1 by their sermons1 great immediate effects4 ,when ,connecte preached1 the ladies lowered their head dresses1 and committed quilled caps by hundreds to the flames4 ,when ,narni taught the people in lent1 from the pulpits of ,rome1 half the city went from his sermons crying along the streets1 ,lord1 have mercy upon us20 so that in only one passion week1 two thousand crowns' worth of ropes were sold to make scourges with2 and when he preached before the pope to the cardinals and bishops1 and painted the sin of non-residence in its own colours1 he frightened thirty or forty bishops1 who heard him1 home to their diocesses4 ,in the pulpit of the university of ,salamanca1 he induced eight hundred students to quit all worldly prospects of honour1 riches1 and pleasure1 and to become penitents in divers monasteries4 ,we know the fate of ,savonarola1 and others might be added2 but all lamented the momentary duration of the effects produced by their labours4 ,narni himself was so disgusted with his office1 that he renounced preaching1 and shut himself up in his cell to mourn over his irreclaimable contemporaries2 for bishops went back to the court1 and rope makers lay idle again4 ,our reformers taught all the good doctrines which had been taught by these men1 and they added two or three more1 by which they laid the axe to the root of the apostasy1 and produced general reformation4 ,instead of appealing to popes and canons1 and founders and fathers1 they only quoted them1 and referred their auditors to the ,holy ,scriptures for law4 ,pope ,leo ,x4 did not know this when he told ,prierio1 who complained of ,luther's heresy1 ,friar ,martin has a fine genius40 ,they also taught the people what little they knew of ,christian liberty2 and so led them into a belief that they might follow their own ideas in religion1 without the consent of a confessor1 a diocesan1 a pope1 or a council4 ,they went farther1 and laid the stress of all religion on justifying faith4 ,since the reformers we have had multitudes who have entered into their views with disinterestedness and success2 and in the present times1 both in the church and among other religious societies1 names might be mentioned which would do honour to any nation2 for though there are too many who do not fill up that important station with proportionate piety and talents1 yet we have men who are conspicuous for their extent of knowledge1 depth of experience1 originality of thought1 fervency of zeal1 consistency of deportment1 and great usefulness in the ,christian church4 ,the preceding sketch will show how mighty an agent preaching has been in all ages1 in raising1 and maintaining1 and reviving the spirit of religion4 ,wherever it has had this power1 let it however be remarked1 it has consisted in the declaration1 the proclamation1 of the truth of ,god1 as contained in his early revelations to man1 and afterward embodied in the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,the effect too has been produced by preachers living themselves under the influence of this truth1 and filled with faith and the ,holy ,ghost10 depending wholly upon ,god's blessing for success1 and going forth in his name1 with ardent longing to win souls10 and to build up the church in knowledge and holiness4 ,for preaching is not a profession2 but a work of divine appointment1 to be rightly discharged only by him who receives a commission from ,god1 and fulfils it as under his eye1 and in dependence upon his promise1 ,lo1 ,i am with you alway40 ,,predestination1 according to some1 is a judgment1 or decree of ,god1 by which he has resolved1 from all eternity1 to save a certain number of persons1 hence named elect4 ,others define it1 a decree to give faith in ,jesus ,christ to a certain number of men1 and to leave the rest to their own malice and hardness of heart4 ,a third1 more ,scripturally1 ,god's eternal purpose to save all that truly repent and unfeignedly believe his holy ,gospel10--according to the ,apostle ,paul1 ,whom he did foreknow0 as believers them he also did predestinate to be conformed to the image of his ,son20 to his moral image here1 and to the image of his glorified humanity in heaven4 ,according to the ,calvinistical scheme1 the reason of ,god's predestinating some to everlasting life is not founded in a foresight of their faith and obedience2 nevertheless1 it is also maintained on this scheme1 that the means are decreed as well as the end1 and that ,god purposes to save none but such as by his grace he shall prepare for salvation by sanctification4 ,the ,remonstrants define predestination to be ,god's decree to save believers1 and condemn unbelievers4 ,some represent the election and predestination spoken of in ,scripture1 as belonging only to nations1 or1 at least1 bodies of men1 and not to particular persons4 ,the greatest difficulties with which the modern theology is clogged turn on predestination2 both the ,romish and ,reformed churches are divided about it2 the ,lutherans speak of it with horror2 the ,calvinists contend for it with the greatest zeal2 the ,molinists and ,jesuits preach it down as a most dangerous doctrine2 the ,jansenists assert it as an article of faith2 the ,arminians1 ,remonstrants1 and many others1 are all avowed enemies of absolute predestination4 ,those strenuous patrons of ,jansenism1 the ,port-royalists1 taught1 that ,god predestinates those whom he foresees will coperate with his grace to the end4 ,dupin adds1 that men do not fall into sin because not predestinated to life1 but they are not predestinated because ,god foresaw their sins4 ,see ,,calvinism4 ,this doctrine has been already treated of4 ,we shall here therefore merely subjoin a sketch of its history previous to the ,reformation4 ,the apostolic fathers1 men little accustomed to the intricacy of metaphysical disquisition1 deeply impressed with the truth of the ,gospel1 powerfully influenced by its spirit1 and from their particular situation naturally dwelling much upon it as a system of direction and consolation1 do not1 in their writings1 at all advert to the origin of evil1 or to predestination1 so closely allied to it4 ,they press1 with much earnestness1 upon those in whom they were interested the vast importance of practical holiness1 exhibit the motives which appeared to them calculated to secure it1 and represent the blessedness which awaits good men1 and the condemnation reserved for the wicked2 but they do not once attempt to determine whether the sin which they were solicitous to remove could be accounted for1 in consistency with the essential holiness and the unbounded mercy of the ,deity4 ,in short1 they just took that view of this subject which every man takes when he is not seeking to enter into philosophical disquisition2 never for one moment doubting that whatever is wrong was ultimately to be referred to man1 and that the economy of grace proceeding from ,god was the most convincing proof of the tenderness of his compassion for mankind4 ,when1 however1 the church received within its communion those who had been educated in the schools of philosophy1 and to whom the question as to the origin of evil must1 while they frequented these schools1 have become familiar1 it was not to be supposed that1 even although they were convinced that we should be chiefly solicitous about the formation of the ,christian character1 there would be no allusion to what had formerly interested them1 or that they would refrain from delivering their sentiments upon it4 ,agreeably to this1 we find1 in the works of ,justin ,martyr1 ,tatian1 ,irenus1 ,tertullian1 and ,origen1 sufficient intimations that they had directed their attention to the difficulty now under review2 and that1 whether upon adequate grounds or not1 they had come to a decision as to the way in which it should be explained consistently with the divine perfections4 ,it is evident that they did not investigate the subject to the depth to which it is requisite for the full discussion of it to go2 and that various questions which must be put before it can be brought completely before us1 they either did not put1 or hastily regarded as of very little moment3 but it is enough to dwell upon the fact1 that they did employ their thoughts upon it1 and have so expressed themselves as to leave no doubt of the light in which it was contemplated by them4 ,justin1 in his dialogue with ,trypho1 remarks that 8they who were foreknown as to become wicked1 whether angels or men1 did so not from any fault of ,god1 1 but from their own blame20 by which observation he shows it to have been his opinion that ,god foresaw in what manner his intelligent creatures would act2 but that this did not affect their liberty1 and did not diminish their guilt4 ,a little after he says more fully1 that ,god created angels and men free to the practice of righteousness1 having planted in them reason1 through which they knew by whom they were created and through whom they existed1 when before they were not1 and who prescribed to them a law by which they were to be judged1 if they acted contrary to right reason4 ,wherefore1 we1 angels and men1 are through ourselves convicted as being wicked1 if we do not lay hold of repentance4 ,but if the ,logos of ,god foretels that some angels and men would go to be punished1 he does so because he foreknew that they would certainly become wicked by no means1 however1 because ,god made them such40 ,justin thus admits that man is wholly dependent upon ,god1 deriving existence and every thing which he has from the ,almighty2 but he is persuaded that we were perfectly able to retain our integrity1 and that1 although it was foreseen that we should not do so1 this did not abridge our moral power1 or fix any imputation on the ,deity in consequence of our transgression4 ,tatian1 in his oration against the ,greeks1 an excellent work which1 although composed after the death of ,justin1 was written1 in all probability1 before its author had adopted the wild opinions which he defended toward the conclusion of his life1 expresses very much the same sentiments avowed by ,justin4 ,he says1 ,both men and angels were created free1 so that man becoming wicked through his own fault may be deservedly punished1 while a good man1 who1 from the right exercise of his free will1 does not transgress the law of ,god1 is entitled to praise2 that the power of the divine ,logos having in himself the knowledge of what was to happen1 not through fate or unavoidable necessity1 but from free choice1 predicted future things1 condemning the wicked and praising the righteous40 ,irenus1 in the third book of his work against heresies1 has taken an opportunity to state his notions about the origin of evil4 ,the seventy-first chapter of that book is entitled1 ,a proof that man is free1 and has power to this extent1 that of himself he can choose what is good or the contrary40 ,in illustration of this he remarks1 ,god gave to man the power of election as he did to the angels4 ,they1 therefore1 who do not obey are justly not found with the good1 and receive deserved punishment1 because ,god having given them what was good1 they did not keep it1 but despised the riches of the divine mercy40 ,the next chapter is entitled1 ,a proof that some men are not good by nature1 and others wicked1 and that what is good is within the choice of man40 ,in treating on this subject1 ,irenus observes1 that if the reverse were the case1 the good would not merit praise nor the wicked blame1 because being merely what1 without any will of theirs1 they had been made1 they could not be considered as voluntary agents4 ,but10 he adds1 since all have the same nature1 and are able to retain and to do what is good1 and may1 on the other hand1 lose it and not do it1 some are1 even in the sight of men1 and much more in that of ,god1 deservedly praised and others blamed40 ,in support of this he introduces a great variety of passages from ,scripture4 ,it appears1 however1 that the real difficulty attending the subject had suggested itself to his mind2 for he inquires in the seventy-third chapter1 why ,god had not from the beginning made man perfect1 all things being possible to him4 ,he gives to this question a metaphysical and unsatisfactory answer1 but which so far satisfied himself as to convince him that there could not1 on this ground1 be any imputation justly cast on the perfections of the ,almighty1 and that1 consequently1 a sufficient explanation of the origin of evil and of the justice of punishing it1 was to be found in the nature of man as a free agent1 or in the abuse of that liberty with which man had been endowed4 ,tertullian had also speculated upon the moral condition of man1 and has recorded his sentiments with respect to it4 ,he explicitly asserts the freedom of the will2 lays down the position1 that1 if this be denied1 there can be neither reward nor punishment2 and1 in answer to an objection1 that since free will has been productive of such melancholy consequences1 it would have been better that it had not been bestowed1 he enters into a formal vindication of this part of our constitution4 ,in reply to another suggestion1 that ,god might have interposed to prevent the choice which was to be productive of sin and misery1 he maintains that this could not have been done without destroying that admirable constitution by which alone the interests of virtue can be really promoted4 ,he thus thought that sin was to be imputed wholly to man1 and that it was perfectly consistent with the attributes of ,god1 or rather illustrated these attributes1 that there should be a system under which sin was possible1 because without this possibility there could have been no accountable agents4 ,from what has been stated on this subject1 it seems unquestionable that the apostolic fathers did not at all enter upon the subject of the origin of evil2 that the writers by whom they were succeeded were satisfied that1 in the sense in which the term is now most commonly used1 there was no such thing as predestination2 that they uniformly represented the destiny of man as regulated by the use or abuse of his free will2 that1 with the exception of ,irenus1 they did not attempt to explain why such a creature as man1 who was to fall into sin1 was created by a ,being of infinite goodness2 that the sole objection to their doctrine seemed to them to be1 that prescience was incompatible with liberty1 and that1 when they answered this1 they considered that nothing more was requisite for receiving1 without hesitation1 the view of man upon which they often and fondly dwelt1 as a free and accountable agent1 who might have held fast his integrity1 and whose fall from that integrity was to be ascribed solely to himself1 as it did not at all result from any appointment of the supreme ,being4 ,although opinions respecting original sin1 directly tending to a very different view of the subject than had been previously taken1 had been stated by ,cyprian1 yet a thorough investigation of it1 and the sentiments which afterward were widely received in the ,christian church1 took their rise from the discussions to which the ,pelagian controversy gave occasion4 ,previous to the part which ,augustine took in that controversy1 he seems to have been very much of the same sentiments with ,origen and the other early fathers4 ,but1 either from what he considered as a more deliberate and complete examination of ,scripture1 or from perceiving the necessity imposed on him1 in consequence of some of the positions which he had laid down in his writings against ,pelagius1 he soon changed his opinion1 and advanced a notion more in harmony with these positions4 ,having to show the absolute necessity of divine grace1 he inculcated that1 in consequence of original sin1 man was infallibly determined to evil1 and was therefore in a state of condemnation1 and he thus took away the foundation upon which the prevailing tenets rested2 because it was impossible that men could be predestined to life1 or the reverse1 from prescience of their actions1 when1 without the special grace of ,god1 they were absolutely incapacitated for obedience to the divine law4 ,to get rid of this difficulty1 ,augustine1 in some degree1 transferred the search for the origin of sin from the state of man to the purposes of ,god1 asserting that from all eternity the ,almighty had determined to choose from the mass of mankind1 lost in guilt and corruption1 a certain number to be transformed to holiness1 and to be admitted after this life to eternal happiness2 that he did this to promote his own glory2 and that1 by the operation of his ,spirit1 granted of his own free and undeserved mercy1 he produced in the elect or chosen the fruits of righteousness1 and qualified them for the enjoyment of heaven4 ,the whole of the remainder of the human race were1 according to this system1 left in their condition by nature1 or in other words1 were given up to endless misery4 ,there immediately arose out of this view of the subject1 the formidable and heart-rending objection1 that ,god was really the author of sin2 that1 having so created mankind that of themselves they could not be holy1 there was on the part of those delivered no virtue1 as there was on the other part no blame2 the case being quite different from what it would have been had ,god interposed with respect to creatures who had not received from himself their physical and moral constitution4 ,accordingly1 it has been asserted that a sect did arise1 which1 carrying out1 as the members of it affirmed1 the principles of ,augustine1 maintained that ,god not only predestinated the wicked to eternal punishment1 but also to the guilt and transgression for which they were punished2 that the human race was thus wholly passive1 the good and bad actions of men1 or what were commonly termed such1 being determined from all eternity by a divine decree1 or fixed by hopeless1 irresistible necessity4 ,these opinions it is said that the venerable and enlightened bishop of ,hippo zealously opposed1 labouring to show that they were not fairly deduced from what he had taught1 making a distinction probably between his account of free will and the necessity here confounded with it1 and perhaps reluctant to push his tenets so far as apparently they might be carried4 ,the fact is1 that although the doctrine of absolute predestination is occasionally clearly taught by ,augustine1 and obviously follows from his other principles1 yet he does not always write consistently with regard to it2 or1 at least1 there is sometimes so much vagueness in his assertions and illustrations1 that his authority has been claimed in support of their peculiar tenets both by the ,jansenists and the ,jesuits1 opposite to each other as the sentiments of these two orders are upon the subject of which we are treating4 ,still it is beyond a question that this celebrated theologian did fix the attention of the church upon that subject much more closely than before his age had been the case1 and gave rise to those discussions in relation to it which have so often agitated ,christians1 and tended much more to destroy the mild and tolerant spirit of the ,gospel1 than to throw light upon its momentous truths4 ,the subject of predestination1 however1 was long regarded as one which it was not esteemed requisite absolutely to define1 and which might be very much left open to speculation2 for although in different countries decrees were passed1 guarding against what were viewed as errors resulting from it1 it is plain1 from what took place upon the revival of the controversy in an after age1 that there had not been formed any standard to which ecclesiastical authority required that all who were esteemed orthodox should strictly conform4 ,see ,,augustine4 ,in the ninth century1 ,godeschalchus1 a man of illustrious birth1 who had1 contrary to his inclinations1 been devoted by his parents to a monastic life1 and who had1 with unwearied diligence1 studied the science of theology1 inflamed by an unhappy desire to unravel all the difficulties with which that science abounds1 occupied his mind with the consideration of the question of predestination1 and finally adopted1 with regard to it1 the doctrine of ,augustine4 ,not satisfied with having convinced himself1 he conceived it to be his duty to labour for the conviction of others2 and he accordingly openly and zealously inculcated that the elect were predestinated to life1 and the rest of mankind to everlasting misery4 ,rabanus1 archbishop of ,mentz1 who had for some reason before this been inspired with enmity to ,godeschalchus1 having been informed of the tenets which he was publishing1 and1 as has too often been the case1 veiling private antipathy under the cloak of anxiety for the purity of divine truth1 opposed him with the utmost vehemence2 and1 having assembled a council in his own metropolitan city1 procured the condemnation of the views which he reprobated4 ,the matter was afterward taken up by ,hincmar1 archbishop of ,rheims1 who was the zealous friend of ,rabanus2 and he also having procured the meeting of a council1 confirmed the sentence that had been already passed4 ,not satisfied with this1 he degraded ,godeschalchus from the priesthood2 and1 with an inhumanity infinitely more detestable than heresy1 he put the unfortunate monk to the torture4 ,the fortitude of ,godeschalchus was for a moment overpowered1 and he consented to commit to the flames a justification of his opinions which he had presented to his execrable tormentors4 ,it was not to be supposed that by atrocious violence like this sincere conviction could be produced in the person against whom it was directed1 or that others would be disposed universally to submit to it4 ,the controversy1 accordingly1 soon was renewed2 writers on both sides of the question contended with the utmost warmth1 and eagerly displayed the extent of their erudition4 ,new councils were summoned1 by which the decrees of former councils were reversed1 and the tenets of ,godeschalchus were confirmed2 and the whole agitation terminated by leaving the subject in the same undefined state on the part of the church in which it had been before it was thus intemperately and cruelly discussed4 ,to the schoolmen1 who delighted much more in losing themselves amidst inextricable difficulties and endless distinctions1 than in opening the sources of knowledge and removing the difficulties with which these were surrounded1 this subject1 from its intricate or inexplicable nature1 was admirably adapted2 and they did not fail to exercise upon it their diligence and their ingenuity4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 who flourished during the thirteenth century1 was a man who in more enlightened times would have really merited the high reputation which he enjoyed1 and which procured for him from his contemporaries the appellation of the ,angelic ,doctor4 ,he was capable of vast mental exertion1 and1 amidst all his avocations1 produced works so voluminous that in modern days even students would shrink from the perusal of them as an overwhelming task4 ,he wrote largely upon the nature of grace1 and predestination1 so intimately connected with it4 ,his opinions upon these subjects were nearly the same with those of ,augustine2 and so much1 indeed1 was he conceived to resemble in genius and understanding that distinguished prelate1 that it was asserted the soul of ,augustine had been sent into the body of ,aquinas4 ,he taught that ,god had1 from all eternity1 and without any regard to their works1 predestinated a certain number to life and happiness2 but he found great delight in endeavouring to reconcile this position with the freedom of the human will4 ,his celebrated antagonist1 ,john ,duns ,scotus1 an inhabitant of ,britain1 surnamed1 from the acuteness and bent of his mind1 the ,subtile ,doctor1 also directed his attention1 in the subsequent century1 to the same thorny speculations1 taking a different view of them from ,aquinas2 and we find in the works of these two brilliant lights of the schoolmen all that the most learned in the dark ages thought upon them4 ,it is unnecessary to trace the various shades of opinion which existed in the church as to predestination from this era till the ,reformation3 it is enough to remark1 that1 after all which had been written upon it1 it does not appear that any peculiar sentiments with respect to it were1 by the reformers1 judged essential to orthodoxy4 ,it was more wisely considered that1 upon a point involved in impenetrable difficulties1 and raised far above human comprehension1 men might be allowed to differ1 while their attachment to the best interests of pure religion could not be called in question4 ,see ,,calvinism and ,,lutherans4 ,the seventeenth article of the church of ,england is often adduced by ,calvinists as favourable to their peculiar views of absolute predestination2 but such a representation of it is rendered plausible only by adding to its various clauses qualifying expressions to suit that purpose4 ,under the articles ,church of ,england1 ,confessions1 and ,calvinism1 have been exhibited the just and liberal views of ,cranmer and the principal ,english reformers on this subject1--the sources from which they drew the articles of religion and the public formularies of devotion1--and some of the futile attempts of the high predestinarians in the church to inoculate the public creed with their dogmas4 ,cartwright and his followers1 in their second ,admonition to the ,parliament0 in #aegb1 complained that the articles speak dangerously of falling from grace20 and in #aehg they preferred a similar complaint4 ,the labours of the ,westminster ,assembly at a subsequent period1 and their abortive result1 in relation to this subject1 are well known4 ,long before ,arminius had turned his thoughts to the consideration of general redemption1 a great number of the ,english clergy had publicly taught and defended the same doctrine4 ,it was about #aega when ,dr4 ,peter ,baroe1 a zealous ,anti-,calvinian10 as one of our church historians observes1 was made ,margaret ,professor of ,divinity in the university of ,cambridge2 and 8he went on teaching in his lectures1 preaching in his sermons1 determining in the schools1 and printing in several books1 divers points contrary to ,calvinism4 ,and this he did for several years1 without any manner of disturbance or interruption4 ,the heads of the university1 in a letter to the ,lord ,burleigh1 dated ,march #h1 #aeie1 say1 he had done it for fourteen or fifteen years preceding and they might have said twenty2 for he printed some of his lectures in #aegd1 and the prosecution he was at last under1 which will be considered hereafter1 was not till #aeie4 ,in #aehd1 ,mr4 ,harsnet1 afterward archbishop of ,york1 preached against absolute reprobation at ,st4 ,paul's ,cross1 the greatest audience then in the kingdom2 as did the judicious ,mr4 ,hooker at the ,temple in the year following4 ,in the year #aeid1 ,mr4 ,barret preached at ,st4 ,mary's in ,cambridge against ,calvinism1 with very smart reflections upon ,calvin himself1 ,beza1 ,zanchy1 and several others of the most noted writers in that scheme4 ,in the same year1 ,dr4 ,baroe preached at the same place to the same purpose4 ,by this time ,calvinism had gained considerable ground1 being much promoted by the learned ,whitaker and ,mr4 ,perkins2 and several of the heads of the university being in that scheme1 they complained of the two sermons above mentioned to the ,lord ,burleigh their chancellor4 ,their heads endeavoured to bring ,barret to a retraction1 to which whether he ever submitted according to the form they drew up1 may reasonably be doubted4 ,at length the matter was laid before ,archbishop ,whitgift1 who was offended at their proceedings1 and writes to the ,lord ,burleigh1 that some of the points which the heads had enjoined ,barret to retract were such as the most learned ,protestants1 then living1 varied in judgment upon2 and that the most ancient and best divines in the land were in the chiefest points in opinion against the heads and their resolutions4 ,another letter he sent to the heads themselves1 telling them that they had enjoined ,barret to affirm that which was contrary to the doctrine holden and expressed by many sound and learned divines in the church of ,england1 and in other churches likewise men of best account2 and that which for his own part he thought to be false and contrary to the ,scriptures2 for the ,scriptures are plain1 that ,god by his absolute will did not hate and reject any man4 ,there might be impiety in believing the one1 there could be none in believing the other2 neither was it contrary to any article of religion established by authority in this church of ,england1 but rather agreeable thereto4 ,this testimony of the archbishop is very remarkable2 and though he afterward countenanced the ,lambeth articles1 that is of little or no weight in the case4 ,the question is not about any man's private opinion1 but about the doctrine of the church2 and supposing the archbishop to be a ,calvinist1 as he seems to have been at least in some points1 this only adds the greater weight to his testimony1 that our church has no where declared in favour of that scheme4 ,the archbishop descended to the particulars charged against ,barret1 asking the heads what article of the church was contradicted by this or that notion of his2 and ,whitaker in his reply does not appeal to one of the articles1 as against ,barret1 but forms his plea upon the doctrines which then generally obtained in pulpits4 ,his words are1 #8,we are fully persuaded that ,mr4 ,barret hath taught untruth1 if not against the articles1 yet against the religion1 of our church1 publicly received1 and always held in her majesty's reign1 and maintained in all sermons1 disputations1 and lectures4' ,and even this pretence of his1 weak as it would have been though true1 is utterly false1 directly contrary1 not only to what has been already shown to be the facts of the case1 but also to what the archbishop affirmed1 and that too1 as must be supposed1 upon his own knowledge4 ,as to ,dr4 ,baroe1 he met with many friends1 who espoused his cause4 ,mr4 ,strype particularly mentions four1 ,mr4 ,overal1 ,dr4 ,clayton1 ,mr4 ,harsnet1 ,dr4 ,andrews2 all of them great and learned men1 men of renown1 and famous in their generation4 ,how many more there were1 nobody can tell4 ,the heads in their letter to the ,lord ,burleigh do not pretend that the preaching against ,calvinism gave a general offence1 but that it offended many2 which implies that there were many others on the opposite side2 and they expressly say there were divers in the ,anti-,calvinian scheme1 whom they represent as maintaining it with great boldness4 ,but what put a stop to this prosecution against ,baroe was1 a reprimand from their chancellor1 the ,lord ,burleigh1 who wrote to the heads1 that as good and as ancient were of another judgment1 and that they might punish him1 but it would be for well doing40 ,but ,dr4 ,whitaker1 ,regius ,professor of ,divinity in ,cambridge1 could not endure the farther prevalence of the doctrines of general redemption in that university2 he therefore1 in #aeie1 drew up nine affirmations1 elucidatory of his views of predestination1 and obtained for them the sanction of several ,calvinian heads of houses1 with whom he repaired to ,archbishop ,whitgift4 ,having heard their ex parte statement1 his grace summoned ,bishops ,flecher and ,vaughan1 and ,dr4 ,tyndal1 dean of ,ely1 to meet ,dr4 ,whitaker and the ,cambridge deputation at his palace in ,lambeth1 on the tenth of ,november1 #aeie2 where1 after much polishing and altering1 they produced ,whitaker's affirmation in the following form1 called the ,lambeth ,articles10 from the place in which their secret sittings had been held3--8#a4 ,god from eternity hath predestinated certain men unto life2 certain men he hath reprobated4 #b4 ,the moving or efficient cause of predestination unto life is not the foresight of faith or of perseverance1 or of good works1 or of any thing that is in the person predestinated2 but it is only the good will and pleasure of ,god4 #c4 ,a certain number of the predestinate is predetermined1 which can neither be augmented nor diminished4 #d4 ,those who are not predestinated to salvation shall be necessarily damned for their sins4 #e4 ,a true1 living1 and justifying faith1 and the ,spirit of ,god justifying1 is not extinguished1 doth not fall off1 or vanish away1 in the elect1 either totally or finally4 #f4 ,a man who is a true believer1 that is1 one who is endued with a justifying faith1 is assured with a plerophory1 or firm persuasion1 of faith concerning the remission of his sins1 and his eternal salvation through ,christ4 #g4 ,saving grace is neither given1 communicated1 nor granted to all men1 by which they can be saved if they will4 #h4 ,no one is able to come unto ,christ unless it shall be given unto him1 and unless the ,father shall draw him2 and all men are not drawn by the ,father1 that they may come unto the ,son4 #i4 ,it is not placed in the choice1 will1 or capacity of every one to be saved40 ,dr4 ,whitaker died a few days after his return from ,lambeth1 with the nine articles to which he had procured the patronage of the primate4 ,after his demise1 two competitors appeared for the vacant ,king's ,professorship1 ,dr4 ,wotton1 of ,king's ,college1 a professed ,calvinian1 and ,dr4 ,overal of ,trinity ,college1 almost as far10 says ,heylin1 from the ,calvinian doctrine in the main platform of predestination as ,baroe1 ,harsnet1 or ,barret are conceived to be4 ,but when it came to the vote of the university1 the place was carried for ,overal by the major part2 which plainly shows1 that though the doctrines of ,calvin were so hotly stickled here by most of the heads1 yet the greater part of the learned body entertained them not40 8,the ,lambeth articles10 it is well observed1 are no part of the doctrine of the church of ,england1 having never had any the least sanction either from the parliament or the convocation4 ,they were drawn up by ,professor ,whitaker2 and though they were afterward approved by ,archbishop ,whitgift1 and six or eight of the inferior clergy1 in a meeting they had at ,lambeth1 yet this meeting was only in a private manner1 and without any authority from the queen2 who was so far from approving of their proceedings1 that she not only ordered the articles to be suppressed1 but was resolutely bent for some time to bring the archbishop and his associates under a premunire1 for presuming to make them without any warrant or legal authority40 ,such1 in brief1 was the origin and such the fate of the ,lambeth articles1 without the countenance of which the defenders of ,calvinism in the church of ,england could find no semblance of support for their manifold affirmations on predestination and its kindred topics4 ,these articles afford another instructive instance of the extreme ignorance of the real sentiments of their opponents1 which often betrays itself in the conduct of many eminent men1 when they rashly begin to fence off the reputed heterodoxy of their brethren from the sacred precincts of their own orthodoxy4 ,two of the ablest and most consistent ,arminians of the old ,english school1 ,baroe and ,plaifere1 have lucidly shown how every one of these nine assertions may1 without difficulty1 be interpreted in accordance with their individual belief4 ,baroe's clever dissertation on this subject will be found in ,strype's ,life of ,whitgift20 and that of ,plaifere1 in his own unanswerable ,apello ,evangelium40 ,,pre-,,existence ,,of ,,jesus ,,christ is his existence before he was born of the ,virgin ,mary4 ,that he really did exist1 is plain from ,john iii1 #ac2 vi1 #ej1 c2 viii1 #eh2 xvii1 #e1 #bd2 #a ,john i1 #b2 but there are various opinions respecting this existence4 ,some acknowledging1 with the orthodox1 that in ,jesus ,christ there is a divine nature1 a rational soul1 and a human body1 go into an opinion peculiar to themselves4 ,his body was formed in the virgin's womb2 but his human soul1 they suppose1 was the first and most excellent of all the works of ,god2 was brought into existence before the creation of the world1 and subsisted in happy union in heaven with the second person of the ,godhead1 till his incarnation4 ,these divines differ from those called ,arians1 for the latter ascribe to ,christ only a created deity1 whereas the former hold his true and proper divinity4 ,they differ from the ,socinians1 who believe no existence of ,jesus ,christ before his incarnation3 they differ from the ,sabellians1 who only own a trinity of names3 they differ also from the generally received opinion1 which is1 that ,christ's human soul began to exist in the womb of his mother1 in exact conformity to that likeness unto his brethren of which ,st4 ,paul speaks1 ,heb4 ii1 #ag4 ,the writers in favour of the prexistence of ,christ's human soul recommend their opinion by these arguments3 #a4 ,christ is represented as his ,father's messenger1 or angel1 being distinct from his ,father1 sent by his ,father1 long before his incarnation1 to perform actions which seem to be too low for the dignity of pure ,godhead4 ,the appearances of ,christ to the patriarchs are described like the appearance of an angel1 or man really distinct from ,god2 yet one1 in whom ,god1 or ,jehovah1 had a peculiar indwelling1 or with whom the divine nature had a personal union4 #b4 ,christ1 when he came into the world1 is said1 in several passages of ,scripture1 to have divested himself of some glory which he had before his incarnation4 ,now if there had existed before this time nothing but his divine nature1 this divine nature1 it is argued1 could not properly have divested itself of any glory1 ,john xvii1 #d1 #e2 #b ,cor4 viii1 #i4 ,it cannot be said of ,god that he became poor3 he is infinitely self-sufficient2 he is necessarily and eternally rich in perfections and glories4 ,nor can it be said of ,christ1 as man1 that he was rich1 if he were never in a richer state before than while he was on earth4 #c4 ,it seems needful1 say those who embrace this opinion1 that the soul of ,jesus ,christ should prexist1 that it might have an opportunity to give its previous actual consent to the great and painful undertaking of making atonement for our sins4 ,on the other side1 it is affirmed that the doctrine of the prexistence of the human soul of ,christ weakens and subverts that of his divine personality4 #a4 ,a pure intelligent spirit1 the first1 the most ancient1 and the most excellent of creatures1 created before the foundation of the world1 so exactly resembles the second person of the ,arian trinity1 that it is impossible to show the least difference except in name4 #b4 ,this prexistent intelligence1 supposed in this doctrine1 is so confounded with those other intelligences called angels1 that there is great danger of mistaking this human soul for an angel1 and so of making the person of ,christ to consist of three natures4 #c4 ,if ,jesus ,christ had nothing in common like the rest of mankind except a body1 how could this semi-conformity make him a real man8 #d4 ,the passages quoted in proof of the prexistence of the human soul of ,jesus ,christ1 are of the same sort with those which others allege in proof of the prexistence of all human souls4 #e4 ,this opinion1 by ascribing the dignity of the work of redemption to this sublime human soul1 detracts from the deity of ,christ1 and renders the last as passive as the first is active4 #f4 ,this notion is contrary to the ,scripture4 ,st4 ,paul says1 ,in all things it behoved him to be made like unto his brethren10 ,heb4 ii1 #ag3 he partook of all our infirmities1 except sin4 ,st4 ,luke says1 ,he increased in stature and wisdom10 ,luke ii1 #eb4 ,upon the whole1 this scheme1 adopted to relieve the difficulties which must always surround mysteries so great1 only creates new ones4 ,this is the usual fate of similar speculations1 and shows the wisdom of resting in the plain interpretation of the word of ,god4 ,,presbyterians are those that affirm there is no order in the church1 as established by ,christ and his ,apostles1 superior to that of presbyters2 that all ministers1 being ambassadors1 are equal by their commission2 and that elder1 or presbyter1 and bishop1 are the same in name and office1 and the terms synonymous4 ,their arguments against the ,episcopalians are as follows3--,with respect to the successors of the ,apostles1 they seem to have been placed on a footing of perfect equality1 the 1 or deacons1 not being included among the teachers4 ,they were inferior officers1 whose province it originally was to care for the poor1 and to discharge those secular duties arising out of the formation of ,christian communities1 which could not be discharged by the ministers without interfering with the much higher duties which they had to perform4 ,these ministers are sometimes in the ,new ,testament styled 1 or presbyters1 at other times 1 or bishops2 but the two appellations were indiscriminately applied to all the pastors who were the instructers of the different churches4 ,of this various examples may be given from the sacred writings4 ,the ,apostle ,paul1 upon a very affecting occasion1 when he was convinced that he could never again have an opportunity of addressing them1 sent for the elders or presbyters of ,ephesus1 the persons to whom the ministry in that church had been committed2 and after mentioning all that he had done1 and intimating to them the sufferings which awaited him1 he addressed to them what may be considered as his dying advice1 and as comprehending in it all that he judged it most essential for them to do4 ,take heed1 therefore1 unto yourselves1 and to all the flock over which the ,holy ,ghost hath made you bishops or overseers1 to feed the church of ,god10 ,acts xx1 #ag1 #bh4 ,here they whose duty it was to feed the church of ,god1 as having been set apart through the ,holy ,spirit for that interesting work1 are termed by the ,apostle presbyters and bishops1 and there is not the slightest allusion to the existence of any other 1 or bishop1 superior to those 1 or bishops1 to whom he gives the moving charge now recorded4 ,in his epistle to ,titus1 ,st4 ,paul thus writes3 ,for this purpose ,i left thee in ,crete10 where1 as yet1 it is probable that no teachers had been appointed1 that thou shouldest ordain elders1 or presbyters1 in every city40 ,he then points out the class of men from which the presbyters were to be selected1 adding1 as the reason of this1 for a bishop must be blameless as the steward of ,god10 ,titus i1 #e1 #g4 ,it is quite plain that the epithet bishop is here applicable to the same persons who were a little before styled elders1 and both are declared to be the stewards of ,god1 the guardians and instructers of his church4 ,the ,apostle ,peter1 in his first epistle addressed to the ,jewish converts1 has these words3 8,the elders which are among you ,i exhort1 who am also an elder1 1 and a witness of the sufferings of ,christ1 feed the flock of ,god which is among you1 taking the oversight of it1 1 being bishops of it1 not by constraint but willingly10 #a ,peter v1 #a1 #b4 ,this passage is a very strong one4 ,the ,apostle speaks of himself in his extraordinary capacity1 a witness of the sufferings of ,christ1 and in his ordinary capacity as a teacher2 showing1 by the use of a very significant term1 that as to it he was on a footing of equality with the other pastors or presbyters4 ,he gives it in charge to them to feed the flock of ,god2 the charge which1 under most particular and affecting circumstances1 he had received from the ,lord after the resurrection1 and which includes in it the performance of every thing requisite for the comfort and the edification of ,christians2 and he accordingly expresses this by the word 1 being bishops over them4 ,it cannot1 with any shadow of reason1 be supposed that the ,apostle would exhort the elders or presbyters to take to themselves the office1 and to perform the duties1 of a bishop1 if that term really marked out a distinct and higher order2 or that he would have considered the presbyters as fitted for the discharge of the whole ministerial office1 if there were parts of that office which he knew that it was not lawful for them to exercise4 ,it seems1 by the passages that have been quoted1 to be placed beyond a doubt1 that1 in what the ,apostles said respecting the ministers of ,christ's religion1 they taught that the and the were the same class of instructers2 and that there were1 in fact1 only two orders pointed out by them1 bishops or presbyters1 and deacons4 ,this being the case1 even although it should appear that there were bishops1 in the common sense of that term1 recognized in the apostolic age1 all that could be deduced from the fact would be1 that the equality at first instituted among the teachers1 had1 for prudential reasons1 or under peculiar circumstances1 been interrupted2 but it would not follow either that the positive and general declarations on the subject by the inspired writers were not true1 or that it was incumbent at all times1 and upon all ,christians1 to disregard them4 ,it has been strenuously contended that there were such bishops in the infancy of the church1 and that allusion is made to them in ,scripture2 but without directly opposing the assertion1 this much must be admitted1 that the proof of it is less clear than that bishops and presbyters were represented as the same in rank and in authority4 ,indeed1 there does not appear to have been any occasion for this higher order4 ,to presbyters was actually committed the most important charge of feeding the church of ,god1 that is1 of promoting the spiritual improvement of mankind2 and it is remarkable that their privilege of separating from the people by ordination the ministers of religion1 is explicitly acknowledged in the case of ,timothy1 whom the ,apostle admonishes not to neglect the gift that was in him1 and which had been given by prophecy1 and by the laying on of the hands of the presbytery2 by which can be meant only the laying on of the hands of those who were denominated presbyters or bishops4 ,but although all the parts of the ministerial duty had been intrusted to presbyters1 it is still contended that the ,new ,testament indicates the existence of bishops as a higher order4 ,there has1 however1 been much diversity of opinion in relation to this point by those who contend for the divine institution of episcopacy4 ,some of them maintain that the ,apostles1 while they lived1 were the bishops of the ,christian church2 but this1 and upon irrefragable grounds1 is denied by others4 ,some urge that ,timothy and ,titus were1 in what they call the true sense of the term1 bishops2 but many deny that1 founding their denial upon these evangelists not having resided within the bounds1 or been limited to the administration of any one church1 being sent wherever it was resolved to bring men to the knowledge of divine truth4 ,many conceive that the question is settled by the epistles in the book of ,revelation being addressed to the angels of the respective churches named by the ,apostle4 ,but it is far from being obvious what is implied under the appellation angel2 there has been much dispute about this point1 and it is certainly a deviation from all the usual rules by which we are guided in interpreting ,scripture1 to bring an obscure and doubtful passage in illustration of one1 about the import of which1 if we attend to the language used1 there can be no doubt4 ,it may1 therefore1 be safely affirmed that there is nothing clear and specific in the writings of the ,new ,testament which qualifies the positive declarations that bishops and presbyters were the same officers2 that the ground upon which the distinction between them is placed1 is1 at least1 far from obviously supporting it2 and that there is not the slightest intimation that the observance of such a distinction is at all important1 much less absolutely essential to a true ,christian church1 insomuch that1 where it is disregarded1 the ordinances of divine appointment cannot be properly dispensed4 ,if therefore it be established1--and some of the most learned and zealous advocates for the hierarchy which afterward arose have been compelled to admit it1--that ,scripture has not recognized any difference of rank or order between the ordinary teachers of the ,gospel1 all other means of maintaining this difference should be with ,protestants of no force4 ,it may be shown that the admission of the distinction is not incompatible with the great ends for which a ministry was appointed1 and even in particular cases may tend to promote them2 but still it is merely a matter of human regulation1 not binding upon ,christians1 and not in any way connected with the vital influence of the ,gospel dispensation4 ,the whole of the writers of antiquity may be urged in support of it1 if that could be done2 and1 after all1 every private ,christian would be entitled to judge for himself1 and to be directed by his own judgment1 unless it be maintained that where ,scripture has affirmed the existence of equality1 this is to be counteracted and set at nought by the testimonies and assertions of a set of writers1 who1 although honoured with the name of fathers1 are very far1 indeed1 from being infallible1 and who have1 in fact1 often delivered sentiments which even they who1 upon a particular emergency1 cling to them1 must confess to be directly at variance with all that is sound in reason1 or venerable and sublime in religion4 ,it also follows1 from the ,scriptural identity of bishops and presbyters1 that no church in which this identity is preserved1 can on that account be considered as having departed from the apostolic model1 or its ministers be viewed1 at least with any good reason1 as having less ground to hope for the blessing of ,god upon their spiritual labours2 because if we admit the contrary1 we must also admit that the inspired writers1 instead of properly regulating the church1 betrayed it into error1 by omitting to make a distinction closely allied with the essence of religion4 ,what is this but to say that it is safer to follow the erring direction of frail mortals1 than to follow the admonitions of those who1 it is universally allowed1 were inspired by the ,holy ,spirit1 or commissioned by him to be the instructers of the world8 ,it is to be observed1 however1 that although bishops and presbyters were the same when the epistles of the ,new ,testament were written1 it would be going too far to contend that no departure from this should ever take place2 because1 to justify such a position1 it would be requisite that a positive injunction should have been given that equality must at all times be carefully preserved4 ,there is1 however1 no such injunction4 ,unlike the ,old ,testament1 which specified every thing1 even the most minute1 in relation to the priesthood1 the ,new only alludes in general terms1 and very seldom1 to the ministry2 and the reason probably is1 that1 being intended for all nations1 it left ,christians at liberty to make such modifications in the ecclesiastical constitution as in their peculiar situation appeared best adapted for religious edification4 ,the simple test to be applied to the varying or varied forms of church government is that indicated by our ,lord himself3 ,by their fruits ye shall know them40 ,wherever the regulations respecting the ministry are such as to divert it from the purposes for which it was destined1 to separate those who form it from the flock of ,christ1 to relax their diligence in teaching1 and to destroy the connection between them and their people1 so as to render their exertions of little or of no use1 there we find a church not apostolical4 ,but wherever the blessed fruits of ,gospel teaching are in abundance produced1 where the people and the ministers are cordially united1 and where every regulation is calculated to give efficacy to the labours of those who have entered into the vineyard1 we have an apostolical church1 or1 to speak more properly1 a church of ,christ1 built upon a rock1 because devoted to the beneficent objects for which our ,saviour came into the world4 ,the form of church government among the ,scotch ,presbyterians is as follows3--,the kirk session1 consisting of the minister and lay elders of the congregation1 is the lowest ecclesiastical judicature4 ,the next is the presbytery1 which consists of all the pastors within a certain district1 and one ruling elder from each parish4 ,the provincial synods1 of which there are fifteen1 meet twice in the year1 and are composed of the members of the several presbyteries within the respective provinces4 ,from the kirk sessions appeal lies to the presbyteries1 from these to the synods1 and from them to the general assembly1 which meets annually1 and is the highest ecclesiastical authority in the kingdom4 ,this is composed of delegates from each presbytery1 from every royal borough1 and from each of the ,scotch universities2 and the king presides by a commission of his own appointment4 ,the ,scotch ordain by the laying on of the hands of the presbytery10 before which persons may be licensed to preach as probationers1 but cannot administer the sacraments4 ,the clergy are maintained by the state1 and nominated to livings by patrons1 as in other establishments4 ,those properly called the ,english ,presbyterians1 have no connection with the ,scotch kirk4 ,they are now indeed broken into separate churches1 and follow the same form of church government as the ,congregationalists or ,independents4 ,the name ,presbyterian1 therefore1 is now inapplicable to them although retained4 ,so ,dr4 ,doddridge3 ,those who hold every pastor to be so a bishop or overseer of his own congregation1 as that no other person or body of men have1 by divine institution1 a power to exercise any superior or pastoral office in it1 may1 properly speaking1 be called1 so far at least1 congregational2 and it is by a vulgar mistake that any such are called ,presbyterians40 ,see ,,episcopalians4 ,,prescience1 or foreknowledge1 an attribute of ,god4 7,see ,omniscience47 ,on this subject three leading theories have been resorted to1 in order to evade the difficulties which are supposed to be involved in the opinion commonly received4 ,the ,chevalier ,ramsay1 among his other speculations1 holds it a matter of choice in ,god1 to think of finite ideas2 and similar opinions1 though variously worded1 have been occasionally adopted4 ,in substance these opinions are1 that though the knowledge of ,god be infinite as his power is infinite1 there is no more reason to conclude1 that his knowledge should be always exerted to the full extent of its capacity1 than that his power should be employed to the extent of his omnipotence2 and that if we suppose him to choose not to know some contingencies1 the infiniteness of his knowledge is not thereby impugned4 ,to this it may be answered1 that the infinite power of ,god is in ,scripture represented1 as in the nature of things it must be1 as an infinite capacity1 and not as infinite in act2 but that the knowledge of ,god is on the contrary never represented there to us as a capacity to acquire knowledge1 but as actually comprehending all things that are1 and all things that can be4 #b4 ,that the notion of ,god's choosing to know some things1 and not to know others1 supposes a reason why he refuses to know any class of things or events2 which reason1 it would seem1 can only arise out of their nature and circumstances1 and therefore supposes at least a partial knowledge of them1 from which the reason for his not choosing to know them arises4 ,the doctrine is therefore somewhat contradictory4 ,but1 #c4 ,it is fatal to this opinion that it does not at all meet the difficulty arising out of the question of the consistency of divine prescience1 and the free actions of men2 since some contingent actions1 for which men have been made accountable1 we are sure1 have been foreknown by ,god1 because by his ,spirit in the prophets they were foretold2 and if the freedom of man can in these cases be reconciled to the prescience of ,god1 there is no greater difficulty in any other case which can possibly occur4 ,a second theory is1 that the foreknowledge of contingent events1 being in its own nature impossible1 because it implies a contradiction1 it does no dishonour to the divine ,being to affirm1 that of such events he has1 and can have1 no prescience whatever2 and thus the prescience of ,god1 as to moral actions1 being wholly denied1 the difficulty in question is got rid of4 ,to this the same answer must be given as to the former4 ,it does not meet the case1 so long as the ,scriptures are allowed to contain prophecies of rewardable and punishable actions4 ,the great fallacy in the argument1 that the certain prescience of a moral action destroys its contingent nature1 lies in supposing that contingency and certainty are the opposites of each other4 ,it is1 perhaps1 unfortunate1 that a word which is of figurative etymology1 and which consequently can only have an ideal application to such subjects1 should have grown into common use in this discussion1 because it is more liable1 on that account1 to present itself to different minds under different shades of meaning4 ,if1 however1 the term contingent in this controversy has any definite meaning at all1 as applied to the moral actions of men1 it must mean their freedom1 and stands opposed1 not to certainty1 but to necessity4 ,a free action is a voluntary one2 and an action which results from the choice of the agent1 is distinguished from a necessary one in this1 that it might not have been1 or have been otherwise1 according to the self-determining power of the agent4 ,it is with reference to this specific quality of a free action1 that the term contingency is used2 it might have been otherwise1 in other words1 it was not necessitated4 ,contingency in moral actions is1 therefore1 their freedom1 and is opposed1 not to certainty1 but to constraint4 ,the very nature of this controversy fixes this as the precise meaning of the term4 ,the question is not1 in point of fact1 about the certainty of moral actions1 that is1 whether they will happen or not2 but about the nature of them1 whether free or constrained1 whether they must happen or not4 ,those who advocate this theory care not about the certainty of actions1 simply considered1 that is1 whether they will take place or not2 the reason why they object to a certain prescience of moral actions1 is this1--they conclude1 that such a prescience renders them necessary4 ,it is the quality of the action for which they contend1 not whether it will happen or not4 ,if contingency meant uncertainty1 the sense in which such theorists take it1 the dispute would be at an end4 ,but though an uncertain action cannot be foreseen as certain1 a free1 unnecessitated action may2 for there is nothing in the knowledge of the action1 in the least1 to affect its nature4 ,simple knowledge is1 in no sense1 a cause of action1 nor can it be conceived to be causal1 unconnected with exerted power3 for mere knowledge1 therefore1 an action remains free or necessitated as the case may be4 ,a necessitated action is not made a voluntary one by its being foreknown2 a free action is not made a necessary one4 ,free actions foreknown will not1 therefore1 cease to be contingent4 ,but how stands the case as to their certainty8 ,precisely on the same ground4 ,the certainty of a necessary action foreknown1 does not result from the knowledge of the action1 but from the operation of the necessitating cause2 and1 in like manner1 the certainty of a free action does not result from the knowledge of it1 which is no cause at all1 but from the voluntary cause1 that is1 the determination of the will4 ,it alters not the case in the least1 to say that the voluntary action might have been otherwise4 ,had it been otherwise1 the knowledge of it would have been otherwise2 but as the will which gives birth to the action1 is not dependent upon the previous knowledge of ,god1 but the knowledge of the action upon foresight of the choice of the will1 neither the will nor the act is controlled by the knowledge2 and the action1 though foreseen1 is still free or contingent4 ,the foreknowledge of ,god has then no influence upon either the freedom or the certainty of actions1 for this plain reason1 that it is knowledge1 and not influence2 and actions may be certainly foreknown1 without their being rendered necessary by that foreknowledge4 ,but here it is said1 ,if the result of an absolute contingency be certainly foreknown1 it can have no other result1 it cannot happen otherwise40 ,this is not the true inference4 ,it will not happen otherwise2 but it may be asked1 ,why can it not happen otherwise8 ,can is an expression of potentiality1 it denotes power or possibility4 ,the objection is1 that it is not possible that the action should otherwise happen4 ,but why not8 ,what deprives it of that power8 ,if a necessary action were in question1 it could not otherwise happen than as the necessitating cause shall compel2 but then that would arise from the necessitating cause solely1 and not from the prescience of the action which is not causal4 ,but if the action be free1 and it enter into the very nature of a voluntary action to be unconstrained1 then it might have happened in a thousand other ways1 or not have happened at all2 the foreknowledge of it no more affects its nature in this case than in the other4 ,all its potentiality1 so to speak1 still remains1 independent of foreknowledge1 which neither adds to its power of happening otherwise1 nor diminishes it4 ,but then we are told1 that the prescience of it1 in that case1 must be uncertain40 ,not unless any person can prove1 that the divine prescience is unable to dart through all the workings of the human mind1 all its comparison of things in the judgment1 all the influences of motives on the affections1 all the hesitances and haltings of the will1 to its final choice4 ,such knowledge is too wonderful for us10 but it is the knowledge of ,him who understandeth the thoughts of man afar off40 8,but if a contingency will have a given result1 to that result it must be determined40 ,not in the least4 ,we have seen that it cannot be determined to a given result by mere precognition2 for we have evidence in our own minds that mere knowledge is not causal to the actions of another4 ,it is determined to its result by the will of the agent2 but even in that case1 it cannot be said1 that it must be determined to that result1 because it is of the nature of freedom to be unconstrained3 so that here we have an instance in the case of a free agent that he will act in some particular manner2 but it by no means follows from what will be1 whether foreseen or not1 that it must be4 ,the third theory amounts1 in brief1 to this1 that the foreknowledge of ,god must be supposed to differ so much from any thing of the kind which we perceive in ourselves1 and from any ideas which we can possibly form of that property of the divine nature1 that no argument respecting it can be grounded upon our imperfect notions2 and that all controversy on subjects connected with it1 is idle and fruitless4 ,but though foreknowledge in ,god should be admitted to be something of a very different nature0 to the same quality in man1 yet as it is represented as something equivalent to foreknowledge1 whatever that something may be1 since in consequence of it1 prophecies have actually been uttered and fulfilled1 and of such a kind1 too1 as relate to actions for which men have in fact been held accountable2 all the original difficulty of reconciling contingent events to this something1 of which human foreknowledge is a kind of shadow10 as a map of ,china is to ,china itself10 remains in full force4 ,the difficulty is shifted1 but not removed4 ,it may1 therefore1 be certainly concluded1 if at least the ,holy ,scriptures are to be our guide1 that the omniscience of ,god comprehends his certain prescience of all events however contingent2 and if any thing more were necessary to strengthen the argument above given1 it might be drawn from the irrational1 and1 above all1 the unscriptural consequences1 which would follow from the denial of this doctrine4 ,these are forcibly stated by ,president ,edwards3--8,it would follow from this notion1 7namely1 that the ,almighty doth not foreknow what will be the result of future contingencies17 that as ,god is liable to be continually repenting what he has done2 so he must be exposed to be constantly changing his mind and intentions as to his future conduct2 altering his measures1 relinquishing his old designs1 and forming new schemes and projections4 ,for his purposes1 even as to the main parts of his scheme1 namely1 such as belong to the state of his moral kingdom1 must be always liable to be broken1 through want of foresight2 and he must be continually putting his system to rights1 as it gets out of order1 through the contingence of the actions of moral agents3 he must be a ,being who1 instead of being absolutely immutable1 must necessarily be the subject of infinitely the most numerous acts of repentance1 and changes of intention1 of any being whatsoever2 for this plain reason1 that his vastly extensive charge comprehends an infinitely greater number of those things which are to him contingent and uncertain4 ,in such a situation he must have little else to do1 but to mend broken links as well as he can1 and be rectifying his disjointed frame and disordered movements1 in the best manner the case will allow4 ,the supreme ,lord of all things must needs be under great and miserable disadvantages1 in governing the world which he has made1 and has the care of1 through his being utterly unable to find out things of chief importance1 which hereafter shall befall his system2 which1 if he did but know1 he might make seasonable provision for4 ,in many cases1 there may be very great necessity that he should make provision1 in the manner of his ordering and disposing things1 for some great events which are to happen1 of vast and extensive influence1 and endless consequence to the universe2 which he may see afterward1 when it is too late1 and may wish in vain that he had known beforehand1 that he might have ordered his affairs accordingly4 ,and it is in the power of man1 on these principles1 by his devices1 purposes1 and actions1 thus to disappoint ,god1 break his measures1 make him continually to change his mind1 subject him to vexation1 and bring him into confusion40 ,socinus and his early followers would not allow that ,god possesses any knowledge of future contingencies4 ,the schoolmen1 in reference to this species of knowledge in ,god1 invented that called scientia media1 and which they define as that by which ,god knows sub conditione1 what men or angels will do according to the liberty which they have1 when they are placed in these or those circumstances1 or in this or in that order of things40 ,when ,gomarus1 the opponent of ,arminius1 found that his opinion concerning the object of reprobation was clogged with this absurdity--that it made ,god to be the author of ,adam's sin1 he very astutely took refuge in this conditionate foreknowledge1 and1 in his corrected theses on predestination1 published after the death of ,arminius1 he describes it as that by which ,god1 through the infinite light of his own knowledge1 foreknows some future things1 not absolutely1 but as placed under a certain condition40 ,walus1 the celebrated antagonist of ,episcopius1 had recourse to the same expedient4 ,this distinction has been adopted by very few of those who espouse the doctrines of general redemption2 and who believe that every event1 how contingent soever to the creature1 is1 with respect to ,god1 certainly foreknown4 ,an old ,english divine thinks1 that1 8in the sacred ,scriptures certain not obscure vestiges are apparent of this kind of knowledge1 of things that will happen thus or otherwise1 on the supposition of the occurrence of this or that circumstance4 ,omitting the well known example of ,david in ,keilah1 #a ,sam4 xxii1 #ab1 and of ,chorazin and ,bethsaida1 ,matt4 xi1 #ba2 ,luke x1 #ac1 consult1 among other sayings of the same description1 the answer of our ,saviour to the chief priests and scribes1 who had asked1 #8,art thou the ,christ8 ,tell us4' ,and he said unto them1 #8,if ,i tell you1 ye will not believe4' ,in the subsequent verse he adds1 #8,if ,i also ask you1 ye will not answer me1 nor let me go1' ,luke xxii1 #fg1 #fh4 ,you have here three events specified1 which yet will not occur even on the supposition of ,christ our ,lord himself40 ,this kind of knowledge might very well be included in that of scientia visionis1 because the latter ought to include1 not what ,god will do and what his creatures will do under his appointment1 but what they will do by his permission as free agents1 and what he will do1 as a consequence of this1 in his character of ,governor and ,lord4 ,but since the predestinarians had confounded scientia visionis with a predestinating decree1 the scientia media well expressed what they had left quite unaccounted for1 and which they had assumed did not really exist1--the actions of creatures endowed with free will1 and the acts of ,deity which from eternity were consequent upon them4 ,if such actions do not take place1 then men are not free2 and if the rectoral acts of ,god are not consequent upon the actions of the creature in the order of the divine intention1 and the conduct of the creature is consequent upon the foreordained rectoral acts of ,god1 then we reach a necessitating eternal decree1 which in fact1 the predestinarian contends for2 but it unfortunately brings after it consequences which no subtleties have ever been able to shake off1--that the only actor in the universe is ,god himself2 and that the only distinction among events is1 that one class is brought to pass by ,god directly1 and the other indirectly1 not by the agency1 but by the mere instrumentality1 of his creatures4 ,,priest1 a general name for the minister of religion4 ,the priest under the law was1 among the ,hebrews1 a person consecrated and ordained of ,god to offer up sacrifices for his own sins and those of the people1 ,lev4 iv1 #e1 #f4 ,the priesthood was not annexed to a certain family till after the promulgation of the law of ,moses4 ,before that time the first-born of every family1 the fathers1 the princes1 the kings were priests4 ,cain and ,abel1 ,noah1 ,abraham1 ,job1 ,abimelech and ,laban1 ,isaac and ,jacob1 offered themselves their own sacrifices4 ,in the solemnity of the covenant that the ,lord made with his people at the foot of ,mount ,sinai1 ,moses performed the office of mediator1 ,exod4 xxiv1 #e1 #f2 and young men were chosen from among the children of ,israel to perform the office of priests4 ,but after the ,lord had chosen the tribe of ,levi to serve him in his tabernacle1 and the priesthood was annexed to the family of ,aaron1 then the right of offering sacrifices to ,god was reserved to the priests alone of this family4 ,the ,lord ordained1 ,num4 xvi1 #dj1 that no stranger1 which was not of the seed of ,aaron1 should come near to offer incense unto the ,lord1 that he might not be as ,korah and his company4 ,the punishment of ,uzziah is well known1 #b ,chron4 xxvi1 #ai1 who1 having presumed to offer incense to the ,lord1 was suddenly smitten with a leprosy1 put out of his palace1 and excluded from the administration of affairs to the day of his death4 ,however1 it seems that1 on certain occasions1 the judges and the kings of the ,hebrews offered sacrifices unto the ,lord1 especially before a constant place of worship was fixed at ,jerusalem2 for in #a ,sam4 vii1 #h1 we are told that ,samuel1 who was no priest1 offered a lamb for a burnt-sacrifice to the ,lord2 and in #a ,sam4 ix1 #ac1 it is said that this prophet was to bless the offering of the people1 which should seem to be a function appropriated to the priests2 lastly1 #a ,sam4 xvi1 #e1 he goes to ,bethlehem1 where he offers a sacrifice at the inauguration or anointing of ,david4 ,saul himself offered a burnt-offering to the ,lord1 perhaps as being king of ,israel1 #a ,sam4 xiii1 #i1 #aj4 ,elijah also offered a burnt-offering upon ,mount ,carmel1 #a ,kings xviii1 #cc4 ,david himself sacrificed1 7at least the text expresses it so17 at the ceremony of bringing the ark to ,jerusalem1 and at the floor of ,araunah1 #b ,sam4 vi1 #ac4 ,solomon went up to the brazen altar that was at ,gibeon1 and there offered sacrifices1 #b ,chron4 i1 #e4 ,it is true the above passages are commonly explained by supposing that these princes offered their sacrifices by the hands of the priests2 but the sacred text will by no means favour such explanations2 and it is very natural to imagine1 that in the quality of kings and heads of the people1 they had the privilege of performing some sacerdotal functions1 upon some extraordinary occasions2 thus we see ,david clothed with the priestly ephod1 and consulting the ,lord2 and upon another occasion we find ,david and ,solomon pronounce solemn benedictions on the people1 #b ,sam4 vi1 #ah2 #a ,kings viii1 #ee4 ,god having reserved to himself the first-born of all ,israel1 because he had preserved them from the hand of the destroying angel in ,egypt1 by way of exchange or compensation accepted of the tribe of ,levi for the service of the tabernacle1 ,numbers iii1 #da4 ,of the three sons of ,levi1 ,gershon1 ,kohath1 and ,merari1 the ,lord chose the family of ,kohath1 and out of this the house of ,aaron1 to exercise the functions of the priesthood4 ,all the rest of the family of ,kohath1 even the children of ,moses and their descendants1 remained of the order of mere ,levites4 ,see ,,levites4 ,the posterity of the sons of ,aaron1 namely1 ,eleazar and ,ithamar1 ,lev4 x1 #a-e2 #a ,chron4 xxiv1 #a1 #b1 had so increased in number in the time of ,david1 that they were divided into twenty-four classes1 which officiated a week at a time alternately4 ,sixteen classes were of the family of ,eleazar1 and eight of the family of ,ithamar4 ,each class obeyed its own prefect or ruler4 ,the class ,jojarib was the first in order1 and the class ,abia was the eighth1 #a ,mac4 ii1 #a2 ,luke i1 #e2 #a ,chron4 xxiv1 #c-ai4 ,this division of the priesthood was continued as a permanent arrangement after the time of ,david1 #b ,chron4 viii1 #ad2 xxxi1 #b2 xxxv1 #d1 #e4 ,indeed1 although only four classes returned from the captivity1 the distinction between them1 and also the ancient names1 were still retained1 ,ezra ii1 #cf-ci2 ,neh4 vii1 #ci-db2 xii1 #a4 ,aaron1 the high priest was set apart to his office by the same ceremonies with which his sons the priests were1 with this exception1 that the former was clothed in his robes1 and the sacred oil was poured upon his head1 ,exod4 xxix1 #e-i2 ,lev4 viii1 #b4 ,the other ceremonies were as follows4 ,the priests1 all of them with their bodies washed1 and clad in their appropriate dress1 assembled before the altar1 where a bullock1 two rams1 unleavened bread1 and wafers of two kinds in baskets1 were in readiness4 ,when they had placed their hands upon the head of the bullock1 he was slain by ,moses as a sin-offering4 ,he touched the horns of the altar with the blood1 poured the remainder of it round its base1 and placed the parts which were to compose the sacrifice on its top4 ,the remaining parts of the animal were all burned without the camp1 ,exod4 xxix1 #aj-ad2 ,lev4 viii1 #b1 #c1 #ad-ag4 ,they in like manner placed their hands on the head of one of the rams1 which was also slain by ,moses for a whole burnt-offering1 the blood was sprinkled around the altar1 and the parts of the ram were separated and burned upon it1 ,exod4 xxix1 #ae-ah2 ,lev4 viii1 #ah-ba4 ,the other ram1 when the priests had laid their hands upon him1 was likewise slain by ,moses for the sacrifice of consecration4 ,he touched with the blood the tip of the right ear of the priests1 the thumb of the right hand1 and the great toe of the right foot4 ,the rest of the blood he sprinkled in part upon the bottom of the altar1 and a part he mingled with the consecrated oil1 and sprinkled on the priests and their garments4 ,he anointed the high priest by pouring a profusion of oil upon his head2 whence he is called the anointed1 ,lev4 v1 #c1 #e1 #af2 vi1 #ae2 ,psalm cxxxiii1 #b4 ,certain parts of the sacrifice1 namely1 the fat1 the kidneys1 the haunches1 the caul above the liver1 and the right shoulder1 also one cake of unleavened bread1 a cake of oiled bread1 and a wafer1 were placed by ,moses upon the hands of the priests1 that they might offer them to ,god4 ,this ceremony was called 8filling the hands10 expressions which accordingly in a number of passages mean the same as consecrating1 ,exod4 xxxii1 #bi2 ,leviticus xvi1 #cb2 #a ,chronicles xxix1 #e4 ,all the parts which have been mentioned as being placed in the hands of the priests1 were at last burned upon the altar4 ,this ceremony1 which continued for eight days1 for ever separated the priests from all the other ,israelites1 not excepting the ,levites2 so that there was subsequently no need of any farther consecration1 neither for themselves nor their posterity1 ,exodus xxix1 #ce-cg2 ,lev4 x1 #g2 ,rom4 i1 #a2 ,eph4 iii1 #c2 ,acts xiii1 #b1 #c4 ,that the ceremonies of inauguration or consecration1 however1 were practised at every new accession of a high priest to his office1 seems to be hinted in the following passages1 ,exod4 xxix1 #bi2 ,lev4 xvi1 #cb2 xxi1 #aj2 ,num4 xx1 #bf-bh2 xxxv1 #be4 ,it was not customary for the priests to wear the sacerdotal dress except when performing their official duties1 ,exod4 xxviii1 #d1 #dc2 ,ezek4 xlii1 #ad2 xliv1 #ai4 ,the description of the dress of the priests which is given in ,exodus xxviii1 is by some thought defective1 as many things are passed in silence1 apparently for the reason that they were at that time sufficiently well known1 without being expressly stated4 ,some additional information is communicated to us by ,josephus2 but the dress of the priests1 as he describes it1 may have been in some respects of recent origin4 ,it was as follows3 #a4 ,a sort of hose1 made of cotton or linen1 which was fastened round the loins1 and extended down so as to cover the thighs1 ,lev4 vi1 #aj2 ,ezek4 xliv1 #ah4 #b4 ,a tunic of cotton which extended1 in the days of ,josephus1 down to the ankles4 ,it was furnished with sleeves1 and was fabricated all of one piece without being sewn1 ,exod4 xxviii1 #ci1 #da2 xxix1 #e2 ,john xix1 #bc4 #c4 ,the girdle4 ,according to ,josephus it was a hand's breadth in width1 woven in such a manner as to exhibit the appearance of scales1 and ornamented with embroidered flowers in purple1 dark blue1 scarlet1 and white4 ,it was worn a little below the breast1 encircled the body twice1 and was tied in a knot before4 ,the extremities of the girdle hung down nearly to the ankle4 ,the priest1 when engaged in his sacred functions1 in order to prevent his being impeded by them1 threw them over his left shoulder1 ,exod4 xxxix1 #bg-bi4 #d4 ,the mitre or turban was originally acuminated in its shape1 was lofty1 and was bound upon the head1 ,exod4 xxviii1 #h1 #dj2 xxix1 #i2 ,lev4 viii1 #ac4 ,in the time of ,josephus the shape of the mitre had become somewhat altered2 it was circular1 was covered with a piece of fine linen1 and sat so closely on the upper part of the head1 7for it did not cover the whole of the head17 that it would not fall off when the body was bent down4 ,the ,hebrew priests1 like those of ,egypt and other nations1 performed their sacred duties with naked feet2 a symbol of reverence and veneration1 ,exod4 iii1 #e2 ,josh4 v1 #ae4 ,the ordinary priests served immediately at the altar1 offered sacrifices1 killed and flayed them1 and poured the blood at the foot of the altar1 #b ,chron4 xxix1 #cd2 xxxv1 #aa4 ,they kept a perpetual fire burning upon the altar of burnt-sacrifices1 and in the lamps of the golden candlestick that was in the sanctuary2 they prepared the loaves of shew bread1 baked them1 and changed them every ,sabbath day4 ,every day1 night1 and morning1 a priest appointed by casting lots at the beginning of the week1 brought into the sanctuary a smoking censer1 and set it upon the golden table1 otherwise called the altar of perfumes1 ,luke i1 #i4 ,the priests were not suffered to offer incense to the ,lord with strange fire1 ,lev4 x1 #a1 #b2 that is1 with any other fire than what should be taken from the altar of burnt-sacrifices4 ,it is well known with what severity ,god chastised ,nadab and ,abihu for having failed in this4 ,those that would dedicate themselves to perpetual service in the temple were well received1 and were maintained by the constant and daily offerings1 ,deut4 xviii1 #f-h4 ,the ,lord had given no lands of inheritance to the tribe of ,levi in the distribution of the land of promise4 ,he designed that they should be supported by the tithes1 the first fruits1 the offerings that were made in the temple1 by their share of the sin-offerings1 and thanksgiving-offerings that were sacrificed in the temple1 of which certain parts were appropriated to the priests4 ,they had also a share in the wool when the sheep were shorn4 ,all the first-born1 both of man and beast1 belonged to the ,lord1 that is1 to his priests4 ,the men were redeemed for the sum of five shekels1 ,num4 xviii1 #ae1 #af4 ,the first-born of impure animals were redeemed or exchanged1 but the clean animals were not redeemed2 they were sacrificed to the ,lord1 their blood was sprinkled about the altar1 and all the rest belonged to the priest1 ,num4 xviii1 #ag-ai4 ,the first fruits of trees1 ,lev4 xix1 #bc1 #bd1 that is1 those that came on the fourth year1 belonged also to the priest4 ,they gave also to the priests and ,levites an allowance out of the dough that they kneaded4 ,they had the tithe of all the fruits of the land1 and of all animals which were fed under the shepherd's crook1 ,lev4 xxvii1 #ca1 #cb4 ,god also provided them with houses and accommodations1 by appointing them forty-eight cities for their habitations1 ,num4 xxxv1 #a-c4 ,in the precincts of these cities they possessed as far as a thousand cubits beyond the walls4 ,of these forty-eight cities six were appointed to be cities of refuge1 for the sake of those who should commit any casual or involuntary manslaughter2 the priests had thirteen of these for their share1 and all the others belonged to the ,levites1 ,josh4 xxi1 #ai4 ,one of the chief employments of the priests1 next to attending upon the sacrifices and the service of the tabernacle or temple1 was the instruction of the people and the deciding controversies1 distinguishing the several sorts of leprosy1 the causes of divorce1 the waters of jealousy1 vows1 all causes relating to the law1 the uncleannesses that were contracted several ways2 all these things were brought before the priests1 ,hosea iv1 #f2 ,mal4 ii1 #g1 c2 ,lev4 xiii1 #ad2 ,num4 v1 #ad1 #ae4 ,they publicly blessed the people in the name of the ,lord4 ,in time of war their business was to carry the ark of the covenant1 to consult the ,lord1 to sound the holy trumpets1 and encourage and harangue the army4 ,the term priest is most properly given to ,christ1 of whom the high priests under the law were types and figures1 he being the high priest especially ordained of ,god1 who1 by the sacrifice of himself1 and by his intercession1 opens the way to reconciliation with ,god1 ,heb4 viii1 #ag2 ix1 #aa-be4 ,the word is also applied to every true believer who is enabled to offer up himself 8a spiritual sacrifice acceptable to ,god through ,christ10 #a ,pet4 ii1 #e2 ,rev4 i1 #f4 ,but it is likewise improperly applied to ,christian ministers1 who have no sacrifices to offer2 unless1 indeed1 when it is considered as contracted from presbyter1 which signifies an elder1 and is the name given in the ,new ,testament to those who were appointed to the office of teaching and ruling in the church of ,god4 ,see ,,aaron4 ,,priscilla1 a ,christian woman1 well known in the ,acts1 and in ,st4 ,paul's epistles2 sometimes placed before her husband ,aquila4 ,from ,ephesus this pious pair went to ,rome1 where they were when ,st4 ,paul wrote his epistle to the ,romans1 ,a4 ,d4 #eh4 ,he salutes them the first of all1 with great commendations1 ,rom4 xvi1 #c4 ,they returned into ,asia some time afterward2 and ,st4 ,paul1 writing to ,timothy1 desires him to salute them on his behalf1 #b ,tim4 iv1 #ai1 ,a4 ,d4 #fe4 ,,profane1 an epithet applied to those who abuse and contemn holy things4 ,the ,scripture calls ,esau profane1 because he sold his birthright1 which was considered a holy thing1 not only because the priesthood was annexed to it1 but also because it was a privilege relating to ,christ1 and a type of the title of believers to the heavenly inheritance1 ,heb4 xii1 #af4 ,the priests of the race of ,aaron were enjoined to distinguish between sacred and profane1 between pure and polluted1 ,lev4 x1 #aj2 xix1 #g1 #h4 ,hence they were prohibited the use of wine during their attendance on the temple service1 that their spirits might not be discomposed by excitement4 ,to profane the temple1 to profane the ,sabbath1 to profane the altar1 are common expressions to denote the violation of the rest of the ,sabbath1 the entering of foreigners into the temple1 or the want of reverence in those that entered it1 and the impious sacrifices that were offered on the altar of the ,lord4 ,,promise1 an assurance given by ,god1 in his word1 of bestowing blessings upon his people1 #b ,pet4 i1 #d4 ,the word in the ,new ,testament is usually taken for the promises that ,god heretofore made to ,abraham1 and the other patriarchs1 of sending the ,messiah1 and conferring his ,holy ,spirit and eternal life on those that should believe on him4 ,it is in this sense that the ,apostle ,paul commonly uses the word promise1 ,rom4 iv1 #ac1 #ad2 ,gal4 iii1 #ad1 #ag1 #ah1 #ba1 #bb1 #bi4 ,the promises of the new covenant are called better than those of the old1 ,heb4 viii1 #f1 because they are more spiritual1 clear1 comprehensive1 and universal than those of the ,mosaic covenant4 ,the time of the promise1 ,acts vii1 #ag1 is the time of fulfilling the promise4 ,the 8children of the promise0 are1 #a4 ,the ,israelites descended from ,isaac1 in opposition to the ,ishmaelites descended from ,ishmael and ,hagar4 #b4 ,the ,jews converted to ,christianity1 in opposition to the obstinate ,jews1 who would not believe in ,christ4 #c4 ,all true believers who are born again by the supernatural power of ,god1 and who by faith lay hold on the promise of salvation in ,jesus ,christ4 ,,prophecy1 the prediction of future events2 it is especially understood of those predictions which are contained in the ,holy ,scriptures2 all of which claim divine inspiration1 and by their wonderful fulfilment are proved to have proceeded from ,god1 who only with certainty can know the future4 ,prophecy is one great branch of the external evidence of the truth of the ,scriptures2 and the nature and force of this kind of evidence may here be properly pointed out4 ,no argument priori against the possibility of prophecy can be attempted by any one who believes in the existence and infinitely perfect nature of ,god4 ,the infidel author of 8,the ,moral ,philosopher10 indeed1 rather insinuates than attempts fully to establish a dilemma with which to perplex those who regard prophecy as one of the proofs of a divine revelation4 ,he thinks that either prophecy must respect events necessary1 as depending upon necessary causes1 which might be certainly foreknown and predicted2 or that1 if human actions are free1 and effects contingent1 the possibility of prophecy must be given up1 as it implies foreknowledge1 which1 if granted1 would render them necessary4 ,the first part of this objection might be allowed1 were there no predictions to be adduced in favour of a professed revelation1 except such as related to events which human experience has taught to be dependent upon some cause1 the existence and necessary operation of which are within the compass of human knowledge4 ,but to foretel such events would not be to prophesy1 any more than to say that it will be light to-morrow at noon1 or that on a certain day and hour next year there will occur an eclipse of the sun or moon1 when that event has been previously ascertained by astronomical calculation4 ,if1 however1 it were allowed that all events depended upon a chain of necessary causes1 yet1 in a variety of instances1 the argument from prophecy would not be at all affected2 for the foretelling of necessary results in certain circumstances is beyond human intelligence1 because they can only be known to him by whose power those necessary causes on which they depend have been arranged1 and who has prescribed the times of their operation4 ,to borrow a case1 for the sake of illustration1 from the ,scriptures1 though the claims of their predictions are not now in question2 let us allow that such a prophecy as that of ,isaiah respecting the taking of ,babylon by ,cyrus was uttered1 as it purports to be1 more than a century before ,cyrus was born1 and that all the actions of ,cyrus and his army1 and those of the ,babylonian2 monarch and his people1 were necessitated is it to be maintained that the chain of necessitating causes running through more than a century could be traced by a human mind1 so as to describe the precise manner in which that fatality would unfold itself1 even to the turning of the river1 the drunken carousal of the inhabitants1 and the neglect of shutting the gates of the city8 ,this being by uniform and universal experience known to be above all human apprehension1 would therefore prove that the prediction was made in consequence of a communication from a superior and divine ,intelligence4 ,were events1 therefore1 subjected to invincible fate and necessity1 there might nevertheless be prophecy4 ,the other branch of the dilemma is founded on the notion that if we allow the moral freedom of human actions1 prophecy is impossible1 because certain foreknowledge is contrary to that freedom1 and fixes and renders the event necessary4 ,to this the reply is1 that the objection is founded on a false assumption1 the divine foreknowledge having no more influence in effectuating or making certain any event than human foreknowledge in the degree in which it may exist1 there being no moral causality at all in knowledge4 ,this lies in the will1 which is the determining acting principle in every agent2 or1 as ,dr4 ,samuel ,clarke has expressed it1 in answer to another kind of objector1 8,god's infallible judgment concerning contingent truths does no more alter the nature of the things1 and cause them to be necessary1 than our judging right at any time concerning a contingent truth makes it cease to be contingent2 or than our science of a present truth is any cause of its being either true or present4 ,here1 therefore1 lies the fallacy of our author's argument4 ,because1 from ,god's foreknowing the existence of things depending upon a chain of necessary causes1 it follows that the existence of the things must needs be necessary2 therefore1 from ,god's judging infallibly concerning things which depend not on necessary but free causes1 he concludes that these things also depend not upon free but necessary causes4 ,contrary1 ,i say1 to the supposition in the argument2 for it must not be first supposed that things are in their own nature necessary2 but from the power of judging infallibly concerning free events1 it must be proved that things1 otherwise supposed free1 will thereby unavoidably become necessary40 ,the whole question lies in this1 ,is the simple knowledge of an action a necessitating cause of the action8 ,and the answer must be in the negative1 as every man's consciousness will assure him4 ,if the causality of influence1 either immediate1 or by the arrangement of compelling events1 be mixed up with this1 the ground is shifted2 and it is no longer a question which respects simple prescience4 7,see ,prescience47 ,this metaphysical objection having no foundation in truth1 the force of the evidence arising from predictions of events1 distant1 and beyond the power of human sagacity to anticipate1 and uttered as authentications of a divine commission1 is apparent4 8,such predictions1 whether in the form of declaration1 description1 or representation of things future10 as ,mr4 ,boyle justly observes1 8are supernatural things1 and may properly be ranked among miracles40 ,for when1 for instance1 the events are distant many years or ages from the uttering of the prediction itself1 depending on causes not so much as existing when the prophecy was spoken and recorded1 and likewise upon various circumstances and a long arbitrary series of things1 and the fluctuating uncertainties of human volitions1 and especially when they depend not at all upon any external circumstances nor upon any created being1 but arise merely from the counsels and appointment of ,god himself1--such events can be foreknown only by that ,being1 one of whose attributes is omniscience1 and can be foretold by him only to whom the 8,father of lights0 shall reveal them2 so that whoever is manifestly endued with that predictive power must1 in that instance1 speak and act by divine inspiration1 and what he pronounces of that kind must be received as the word of ,god2 nothing more being necessary to assure us of this than credible testimony that such predictions were uttered before the event1 or conclusive evidence that the records which contain them are of the antiquity to which they pretend4 ,the distinction between the prophecies of ,scripture and the oracles of ,heathenism is marked and essential4 ,in the ,heathen oracles we cannot discern any clear and unequivocal tokens of genuine prophecy4 ,they were destitute of dignity and importance1 had no connection with each other1 tended to no object of general concern1 and never looked into times remote from their own4 ,we read only of some few predictions and prognostications1 scattered among the writings of poets and philosophers1 most of which1 beside being very weakly authenticated1 appear to have been answers to questions of merely local1 personal1 and temporary concern1 relating to the issue of affairs then actually in hand1 and to events speedily to be determined4 ,far from attempting to form any chain of prophecies1 respecting things far distant as to time or place1 or matters contrary to human probability1 and requiring supernatural agency to effect them1 the ,heathen priests and soothsayers did not even pretend to a systematic and connected plan4 ,they hardly dared1 indeed1 to assume the prophetic character in its full force1 but stood trembling1 as it were1 on the brink of futurity1 conscious of their inability to venture beyond the depths of human conjecture4 ,hence their predictions became so fleeting1 so futile1 so uninteresting1 that1 though they were collected together as worthy of preservation1 they soon fell into disrepute and almost total oblivion4 7,see ,oracles47 ,the ,scripture prophecies1 on the other hand1 constitute a series of divine predictions1 relating principally to one grand object1 of universal importance1 the work of man's redemption1 and carried on in regular progression through the patriarchal1 ,jewish1 and ,christian dispensations1 with a harmony and uniformity of design1 clearly indicating one and the same divine ,author4 ,they speak of the agents to be employed in it1 and especially of the great agent1 the ,redeemer himself2 and of those mighty and awful proceedings of ,providence as to the nations of the earth1 by which judgment and mercy are exercised with reference both to the ordinary principles of moral government1 and especially to this restoring economy1 to its struggles1 its oppositions1 and its triumphs4 ,they all meet in ,christ1 as in their proper centre1 and in him only2 however many of the single lines1 when considered apart1 may be imagined to have another direction1 and though they may pass through intermediate events4 ,if we look1 says ,bishop ,hurd1 into the prophetic writings1 we find that prophecy is of a prodigious extent2 that it commenced from the fall of man1 and reaches to the consummation of all things2 that for many ages it was delivered darkly to a few persons1 and with large intervals from the date of one prophecy to that of another2 but1 at length1 became more clear1 more frequent1 and was uniformly carried on in the line of one people1 separated from the rest of the world1--among other reasons assigned1 for this principally1 to be the repository of the divine oracles2 that1 with some intermission1 the spirit of prophecy subsisted among that people to the coming of ,christ2 that he himself and his ,apostles exercised this power in the most conspicuous manner1 and left behind them many predictions1 recorded in the books of the ,new ,testament1 which profess to respect very distant events1 and even run out to the end of time1 or1 in ,st4 ,john's expression1 to that period 8when the mystery of ,god shall be perfected40 ,farther1 beside the extent of this prophetic scheme1 the dignity of the ,person whom it concerns deserves our consideration4 ,he is described in terms which excite the most august and magnificent ideas4 ,he is spoken of1 indeed1 sometimes as being 8the seed of the woman10 and as 8the ,son of man20 yet so as being at the same time of more than mortal extraction4 ,he is even represented to us as being superior to men and angels2 as far above all principality and power2 above all that is accounted great1 whether in heaven or in earth2 as the word and wisdom of ,god2 as the eternal ,son of the ,father2 as the ,heir of all things1 by whom he made the worlds2 as the brightness of his glory1 and the express image of his person4 ,we have no words to denote greater ideas than these2 the mind of man cannot elevate itself to nobler conceptions4 ,of such transcendent worth and excellence is that ,jesus said to be1 to whom all the prophets bear witness6 ,lastly1 the declared purpose for which the ,messiah1 prefigured by so long a train of prophecy1 came into the world1 corresponds to all the rest of the representation4 ,it was not to deliver an oppressed nation from civil tyranny1 or to erect a great civil empire1 that is1 to achieve one of those acts which history accounts most heroic4 ,no3 it was not a mighty state1 a victor people1 ,non res ,roman perituraque regna1 ,not the empire of ,rome and kingdoms about to perish1 that was worthy to enter into the contemplation of this divine ,person4 ,it was another and far sublimer purpose1 which he came to accomplish2 a purpose1 in comparison of which all our policies are poor and little1 and all the performances of man as nothing4 ,it was to deliver a world from ruin2 to abolish sin and death2 to purify and immortalize human nature2 and thus1 in the most exalted sense of the words1 to be the ,saviour of men and the blessing of all nations4 ,there is no exaggeration in this account3 a spirit of prophecy pervading all time1 characterizing one ,person of the highest dignity1 and proclaiming the accomplishment of one purpose1 the most beneficent1 the most divine1 the imagination itself can project4 ,such is the ,scriptural delineation of that economy which we call prophetic4 ,the advantage of this species of evidence belongs then exclusively to our revelation4 ,heathenism never made any clear and well founded pretensions to it4 ,mohammedanism1 though it stands itself as a proof of the truth of ,scripture prophecy1 is unsupported by a single prediction of its own4 ,the objection which has been raised to ,scripture prophecy1 from its supposed obscurity1 has no solid foundation4 ,there is1 it is true1 a prophetic language of symbol and emblem2 but it is a language which is definite and not equivocal in its meaning1 and as easily mastered as the language of poetry1 by attentive persons4 ,this1 however1 is not always used4 ,the style of the prophecies of ,scripture very often differs in nothing from the ordinary style of the ,hebrew poets2 and1 in not a few cases1 and those too on which the ,christian builds most in the argument1 it sinks into the plainness of historical narrative4 ,some degree of obscurity is essential to prophecy3 for the end of it was not to gratify human curiosity1 by a detail of future events and circumstances2 and too great clearness and speciality might have led to many artful attempts to fulfil the predictions1 and so far the evidence of their accomplishment would have been weakened4 ,the two great ends of prophecy are1 to excite expectation before the event1 and then to confirm the truth by a striking and unequivocal fulfilment2 and it is a sufficient answer to the allegation of the obscurity of the prophecies of ,scripture1 that they have abundantly accomplished those objects1 among the most intelligent and investigating1 as well as among the simple and unlearned1 in all ages4 ,it cannot be denied1 for instance1 leaving out particular cases which might be given1 that by means of these predictions the expectation of the incarnation and appearance of a divine ,restorer was kept up among the people to whom they were given1 and spread even to the neighbouring nations2 that as these prophecies multiplied1 the hope became more intense2 and that at the time of our ,lord's coming1 the expectation of the birth of a very extraordinary person prevailed1 not only among the ,jews1 but among other nations4 ,this purpose was then sufficiently answered1 and an answer is given to the objection4 ,in like manner prophecy serves as the basis of our hope in things yet to come2 in the final triumph of truth and righteousness on earth1 the universal establishment of the kingdom of our ,lord1 and the rewards of eternal life to be bestowed at his second appearing4 ,in these all true ,christians agree2 and their hope could not have been so uniformly supported in all ages and under all circumstances1 had not the prophecies and predictive promises conveyed with sufficient clearness the general knowledge of the good for which they looked1 though many of its particulars be unrevealed4 ,the second end of prophecy is1 to confirm the truth by the subsequent event4 ,here the question of the actual fulfilment of ,scripture prophecy is involved2 and it is no argument against the unequivocal fulfilment of several prophecies1 that many have doubted or denied what the believers in revelation have on this subject so strenuously contended for4 ,how few of mankind have read the ,scriptures with serious attention1 or been at the pains to compare their prophecies with the statements in history4 ,how few1 especially of the objectors to the ,bible1 have read it in this manner6 ,how many of them have confessed unblushingly their unacquaintance with its contents1 or have proved what they have not confessed by the mistakes and misrepresentations into which they have fallen6 ,as for the ,jews1 the evident dominion of their prejudices1 their general averseness to discussion1 and the extravagant principles of interpretation they have adopted for many ages1 which set all sober criticism at defiance1 render nugatory any authority which might be ascribed to their denial of the fulfilment of certain prophecies in the sense adopted by ,christians4 ,we may add to this1 that among ,christian critics themselves there may be much disagreement4 ,eccentricities and absurdities are found among the learned in every department of knowledge1 and much of this waywardness and affectation of singularity has infected interpreters of ,scripture4 ,but1 after all1 there is a truth and reason in every subject1 which the understandings of the generality of men will apprehend and acknowledge whenever it is fully understood and impartially considered2 to this in all such cases the appeal can only be made1 and here it may be made with confidence4 ,instances of the signal fulfilment of numerous prophecies are scattered through various articles in this volume2 so that it is not necessary to repeat them here4 ,a few words on the double sense of prophecy may1 however1 be added4 ,for want of a right apprehension of the true meaning of this somewhat unfortunate term which has obtained in theology1 an objection of another kind has been raised1 as though no definite meaning could be assigned to the prophecies of ,scripture4 ,nothing can be more unfounded4 ,the double sense of many prophecies in the ,old ,testament1 says an able writer1 has been made a pretext by ill disposed men1 for representing them as of uncertain meaning1 and resembling the ambiguity of the ,pagan oracles4 ,but whoever considers the subject with due attention1 will perceive how little ground there is for such an accusation4 ,the equivocations of the ,heathen oracles manifestly arose from their ignorance of future events1 and from their endeavours to conceal that ignorance by such indefinite expressions1 as might be equally applicable to two or more events of a contrary description4 ,but the double sense of the ,scripture prophecies1 far from originating in any doubt or uncertainty1 as to the fulfilment of them in either sense1 springs from a foreknowledge of their accomplishment in both2 whence the prediction is purposely so framed as to include both events1 which1 so far from being contrary to each other1 are typical the one of the other1 and are thus connected together by a mutual dependency or relation4 ,this has often been satisfactorily proved1 with respect to those prophecies which referred1 in their primary sense1 to the events of the ,old ,testament1 and1 in their farther and more complex signification1 to those of the ,new3 and on this double accomplishment of some prophecies is grounded our firm expectation of the completion of others1 which remain yet unfulfilled in their secondary sense1 but which we justly consider as equally uncertain in their issue as those which are already past4 ,so far1 then1 from any valid objection lying against the credibility of the ,scripture prophecies1 from these seeming ambiguities of meaning1 we may urge them as additional proofs of their coming from ,god4 ,for1 who but the ,being that is infinite in knowledge and in counsel could so construct predictions as to give them a twofold application1 to events distant from1 and1 to human foresight1 unconnected with1 each other8 ,what power less than divine could so frame them as to make the accomplishment of them in one instance a solemn pledge and assurance of their completion in another instance1 of still higher and more universal importance8 ,where will the scoffer find any thing like this in the artifices of ,heathen oracles1 to conceal their ignorance1 and to impose on the credulity of mankind8 ,see ,,oracles4 ,on this subject it may be observed1 by way of general illustration1 that the remarkable personages under the old dispensation were sometimes in the description of their characters1 and in the events of their lives1 the representatives of the future dispensers of evangelical blessings1 as ,moses and ,david were unquestionably types of ,christ1 ,ezek4 xxxiv1 #bc2 ,matt4 xi1 #ad2 ,heb4 vi1 #bj2 vii1 #a-c4 ,persons likewise were sometimes descriptive of things1 as ,sarah and ,hagar were allegorical figures of the two covenants1 ,gal4 iv1 #bb-ca2 ,rom4 ix1 #h-ac4 ,and1 on the other hand1 things were used to symbolize persons1 as the brazen serpent and the paschal lamb were signs of our healing and spotless ,redeemer1 ,exodus xii1 #df2 ,john iii1 #ad2 xix1 #cf4 ,and so1 lastly1 ceremonial appointments and legal circumstances were prerdained as significant of ,gospel institutions1 #a ,cor4 x1 #a-aa2 ,heb4 viii1 #e2 ix1 x2 #a ,pet4 iii1 #bj1 #bb4 ,hence it was that many of the descriptions of the prophets had a twofold character2 bearing often an immediate reference to present circumstances1 and yet being in their nature predictive of future occurrences4 ,what they reported of the type was often in a more signal manner applicable to the thing typified1 ,psalm xxi1 #d-f2 xl1 #a1 #g-aj2 xii1 #d2 ,lam4 xiii1 #a-cj2 ,john xiii1 #ah2 ,dan4 xi1 #cf1 #cg2 what they spoke literally of present1 was figuratively descriptive of future particulars2 and what was applied in a figurative sense to existing persons1 was often actually characteristic of their distant archetypes1 ,psalm xxii1 #af-ah1 c4 ,many passages then in the ,old ,testament1 which in their first aspect appear to be historical1 are in fact prophetic1 and they are so cited in the ,new ,testament1 not by way of ordinary accommodation1 or casual coincidence1 but as intentionally predictive1 as having a double sense1 a literal and a mystical interpretation1 ,hosea xi1 #a2 ,matt4 ii1 #ae4 ,beside these historical passages1 of which the covert allusions were explained by the interpretation of the ,gospel writers1 who were enlightened by the ,spirit to unfold the mysteries of ,scripture1 the prophets often uttered positive predictions which1 in consequence of the correspondence established between the two dispensations1 were descriptive of a double event1 however they might be themselves ignorant of the full extent of those prophecies which they delivered4 ,for instance1 their promises of present success and deliverances were often significant of distant benefits1 and secular consolations conveyed assurances of evangelical blessings1 #b ,sam4 vii1 #ac1 #ad2 ,heb4 i1 #e4 ,thus their prophecies received completion in a first and secondary view4 ,as being in part signs to excite confidence1 they had an immediate accomplishment1 but were afterward fulfilled in a more illustrious sense1 #a ,kings xiii1 #b1 #c2 ,isaiah vii1 #ad2 ,matt4 i1 #bb2 ,dan4 ix1 #bg2 xii1 #g2 #a ,macc4 i1 #ed2 ,matt4 xxiv1 #ae2 the prophets being inspired1 by the suggestions of the ,spirit1 to use expressions magnificent enough to include the substance in the description of the figure4 ,that many of the prophecies in the ,old ,testament were direct1 and singly and exclusively applicable to1 and accomplished in1 our ,saviour1 is certain1 ,gen4 xlix1 #aj2 ,psalm xlii1 xlv2 ,isaiah lii1 liii2 ,daniel vii1 #ac1 #ad2 ,micah v1 #b2 ,zech4 ix1 #i2 ,mal4 iii1 #a4 ,it requires much attention to comprehend the full import and extent of this typical dispensation1 and the chief obscurities which prevail in the sacred writings are to be attributed to the double character of prophecy4 ,to unravel this is1 however1 an interesting and instructive study2 though an admiration of the spiritual meaning should never lead us to disregard or undervalue the first and evident signification2 for many great men have been so dazzled by their discoveries in this mode of explication1 as to be hurried into wild and extravagant excess2 as is evident from the writings of ,origen and ,jerom2 as also from the ,commentaries of ,austin1 who acknowledges that he had too far indulged in the fancies of an exuberant imagination1 declaring that the other parts of ,scripture are the best commentaries4 ,the ,apostles and the evangelists are1 indeed1 the best expositors2 and where those infallible guides have led the way1 we need not hesitate to follow their steps by the light of clear reason and just analogy4 ,it is this double character of prophecy which occasions those unexpected transitions and sudden interchanges of circumstance so observable in the prophetic books4 ,hence different predictions are sometimes blended and mixed together2 temporal and spiritual deliverances are foretold in one prophecy2 and greater and smaller events are combined in one point of view4 ,hence1 likewise1 one chain of connected design runs through the whole scheme of prophecy1 and a continuation of events successively fulfilling1 and successively branching out into new predictions1 continued to confirm the faith1 and to keep alive the expectations1 of the ,jews4 ,hence was it the character of the prophetic spirit to be rapid in its description1 and regardless of the order of history2 to pass with quick and unexpected celerity from subject to subject1 and from period to period4 8,and we must allow10 says ,lord ,bacon1 8for that latitude that is agreeable and familiar to prophecy1 which is of the nature of its ,author1 with whom a thousand years are but as one day40 ,the whole of the great scheme must have been at once present to the divine ,mind2 but ,god described its parts in detail to mankind1 in such measures and in such proportions1 that the connection of every link was obvious1 and its relations apparent in every point of view1 till the harmony and entire consistency of the plan were displayed to those who witnessed its perfection in the advent of ,christ4 ,,prophets4 ,a prophet1 in the strict and proper sense1 was one to whom the knowledge of secret things was revealed1 that he might declare them to others1 whether they were things past1 or present1 or to come4 ,the woman of ,samaria perceived our ,saviour was a prophet1 by his telling her the secrets of her past life1 ,john iv1 #ai4 ,the ,prophet ,elisha had the present conduct of his servant ,gehazi revealed to him1 #b ,kings v1 #bf4 ,and most of the prophets had revelations concerning future events2 above all1 concerning the coming and kingdom of the ,messiah3 8,he has raised up a horn of salvation for us in the house of his servant ,david1 as he spake by the mouth of his holy prophets1 which have been since the world began10 ,luke i1 #fi1 #gj4 ,nevertheless1 in a more lax or analogical sense1 the title prophet is sometimes given to persons who had no such revelation1 nor were properly inspired4 ,thus ,aaron is said to be ,moses's prophet3 8,the ,lord said unto ,moses1 ,see1 ,i have made thee a god to ,pharaoh1 and ,aaron thy brother shall be thy prophet10 ,exod4 vii1 #a3 because ,aaron received the divine messages1 which he carried immediately from ,moses2 whereas other prophets receive their messages immediately from ,god himself4 ,in this respect1 as ,moses stood in the place of ,god to ,pharaoh1 so ,aaron acted in the character of his prophet4 ,the title of prophets is given also to the sacred musicians1 who sung the praises of ,god1 or who accompanied the song with musical instruments4 ,thus 8the sons of ,asaph1 and of ,heman1 and of ,jeduthun10 are said to 8prophesy with harps1 with psalteries1 and with cymbals10 #a ,chron4 xxv1 #a2 and they prophesied1 it is said1 8according to the order of the king40 ,perhaps ,miriam1 the sister of ,aaron1 may be called a prophetess only on this account1 that she led the concert of the women1 who sung the song of ,moses with timbrels and with dances1 ,exodus xv1 #bj1 #ba4 ,thus the ,heathen poets1 who sung or composed verses in praise of their gods1 were called by the ,romans vates1 or prophets2 which is of the same import with the ,greek 1 a title which ,st4 ,paul gives to ,epimenides1 a ,cretan poet1 ,titus i1 #ab4 ,godwin observes1 that1 for the propagation of learning1 colleges and schools were in divers places erected for the prophets4 ,the first intimation we have in ,scripture of these schools is in #a ,sam4 x1 #e1 where we read of 8a company of prophets coming down from the high place with a psaltery1 a tabret1 a pipe1 and a harp before them1 and they did prophesy40 ,they are supposed to be the students in a college of prophets at 1 or 8the hill10 as we render it1 8of ,god40 ,our translators elsewhere retain the same ,hebrew word1 as supposing it to be the proper name of a place1 8,jonathan smote the garrison of the ,philistines that was in ,geba10 #a ,sam4 xiii1 #c4 ,some persons have imagined that the ark1 or at least a synagogue1 or some place of public worship1 was at this time at ,geba1 and that this is the reason of its being styled in the former passage 1 the hill of ,god4 ,we read afterward of such another company of prophets at ,naioth in ,ramah1 8prophesying1 and ,samuel standing as appointed over them10 #a ,sam4 xix1 #ai1 #bj4 ,the students in these colleges were called sons of the prophets1 who are frequently mentioned in after ages1 even in the most degenerate times4 ,thus we read of the sons of the prophets that were at ,bethel2 and of another school at ,jericho2 and of the sons of the prophets at ,gilgal1 #b ,kings ii1 #c1 #e2 iv1 #ch4 ,it should seem1 that these sons of the prophets were very numerous2 for of this sort were probably the prophets of the ,lord1 whom ,jezebel cut off2 8but ,obadiah took a hundred of them1 and hid them by fifty in a cave10 #a ,kings xviii1 #d4 ,in these schools young men were educated under a proper master1 who was commonly1 if not always1 an inspired prophet1 in the knowledge of religion1 and in sacred music1 #a ,sam4 x1 #e2 xix1 #bj1 and were thereby qualified to be public preachers1 which seems to have been part of the business of the prophets on the ,sabbath days and festivals1 #b ,kings iv1 #bc4 ,it should seem1 that ,god generally chose the prophets1 whom he inspired1 out of these schools4 ,amos1 therefore1 speaks of it as an extraordinary case1 that though he was not one of the sons of the prophets1 but a herdsman1 8yet the ,lord took him as he followed the flock1 and said unto him1 ,go1 prophesy unto my people ,israel10 ,amos vii1 #ad1 #ae4 ,that it was usual for some of these schools1 or at least for their tutors1 to be endued with a prophetic spirit1 appears from the relation of the prophecies concerning the ascent of ,elijah1 delivered to ,elisha by the sons of the prophets1 both at ,jericho and at ,bethel1 #b ,kings ii1 #c1 #e4 ,the ,hebrew prophets present a succession of men at once the most singular and the most venerable that ever appeared1 in so long a line of time1 in the world4 ,they had special communion with ,god2 they laid open the scenes of the future2 they were ministers of the promised ,christ4 ,they upheld religion and piety in the worst times1 and at the greatest risks2 and their disinterestedness was only equalled by their patriotism4 ,the houses in which they lived were generally mean1 and of their own building1 #b ,kings vi1 #b-d4 ,their food was chiefly pottage of herbs1 unless when the people sent them some better provision1 as bread1 parched corn1 honey1 dried fruits1 and the like1 #a ,kings xiv1 #c2 #b ,kings iv1 #ch1 #ci1 #db4 ,their dress was plain and coarse1 tied about with a leathern girdle1 ,zech4 xiii1 #d2 #b ,kings i1 #h4 ,riches were no temptation to them2 therefore ,elisha not only refused ,naaman's presents1 but punished his servant ,gehazi very severely for clandestinely obtaining a small share of them1 #b ,kings v1 #ae1 c4 ,to succeeding ages they have left a character consecrated by holiness1 and 8visions of the ,holy ,one10 which still unveil to the church his most glorious attributes1 and his deepest designs4 8,prophecy10 says the ,apostle ,peter1 8came not of old time by the will of man3 but holy men of ,god spake as they were moved by the ,holy ,ghost10 #b ,pet4 i1 #ba4 ,they flourished in a continued succession during a period of more than a thousand years1 reckoning from ,moses to ,malachi1 all coperating in the same designs1 uniting in one spirit to deliver the same doctrines1 and to predict the same blessings to mankind4 ,their claims to a divine commission were demonstrated by the intrinsic excellency of their doctrine2 by the disinterested zeal and undaunted courage with which they prosecuted their ministry1 and persevered in their great design1 and by the unimpeachable integrity of their conduct4 ,but even those credentials of a divine mission were still farther confirmed by the exercise of miraculous powers1 and by the completion of many less important predictions which they uttered1 ,deut4 xiii1 #a-c2 xviii1 #bb2 ,joshua x1 #ac2 #a ,sam4 xii1 #h2 #b ,kings i1 #aj2 ,isa4 xxxviii1 #h2 xlii1 #i2 #a ,sam4 ix1 #f2 #a ,kings xiii1 #c2 ,jer4 xxviii1 #i2 ,ezek4 xxxiii1 #cc4 ,when not immediately employed in the discharge of their sacred office1 they lived sequestered from the world1 in religious communities1 or wandered 8in deserts1 in mountains1 and in caves of the earth20 distinguished by their apparel1 and by the general simplicity of their style of life1 #b ,kings i1 #h2 iv1 #aj1 #ch2 vi1 #a2 ,isa4 xx1 #b2 ,matt4 iii1 #d2 ,heb4 xi1 #ch2 ,rev4 xi1 #c4 ,they were the established oracles of their country1 and consulted upon all occasions when it was necessary to collect the divine will on any civil or religious question4 ,these illustrious personages were likewise as well the types as the harbingers of that greater ,prophet whom they foretold2 and in the general outline of their character1 as well as in particular events of their lives1 they prefigured to the ,jews the future ,teacher of mankind4 ,like him1 also1 they laboured by every exertion to instruct and reclaim2 reproving and threatening the sinful1 however exalted in rank1 or encircled by power1 with such fearless confidence and sincerity as often excited respect4 ,the most intemperate princes were sometimes compelled unwillingly to hear and to obey their directions1 #a ,kings xii1 #ba-bd2 xiii1 #b-f2 xx1 #db1 #dc2 xxi1 #bg2 #b ,chron4 xxviii1 #i-ad2 though often so incensed by their rebuke1 as to resent it by the severest persecutions4 ,then it was that the prophets exhibited the integrity of their characters1 by zealously encountering oppression1 hatred1 and death1 in the cause of religion4 ,then it was that they firmly supported 8trial of cruel mockings and scourgings1 yea1 moreover1 of bonds and imprisonment4 ,they were stoned1 they were sawn asunder1 were tempted1 were slain with the sword2 they wandered about1 destitute1 afflicted1 tormented10 evil intreated for those virtues of which the memorial should flourish to posterity1 and martyred for righteousness1 which1 whenever resentment should subside1 it would be deemed honourable to reverence1 ,matthew xxiii1 #bg-bi4 ,the manner in which the prophets published their predictions was1 either by uttering them aloud in some public place1 or by affixing them on the gates of the temple1 ,jer4 vii1 #b2 ,ezek4 iii1 #aj1 where they might be generally seen and read4 ,upon some important occasions1 when it was necessary to rouse the fears of a disobedient people1 and to recall them to repentance1 the prophets1 as objects of universal attention1 appear to have walked about publicly in sackcloth1 and with every external mark of humiliation and sorrow4 ,they then adopted extraordinary modes of expressing their convictions of impending wrath1 and endeavoured to awaken the apprehensions of their country1 by the most striking illustration of threatened punishment4 ,thus ,jeremiah made bonds and yokes1 and put them upon his neck1 ,jer4 xxvii1 strongly to intimate the subjection that ,god would bring on the nations whom ,nebuchadnezzar should subdue4 ,isaiah likewise walked naked1 that is1 without the rough garment of the prophet1 and barefoot1 as a sign of the distress that awaited the ,egyptians1 ,isa4 xx4 ,so ,jeremiah broke the potter's vessel1 ,jer4 xix2 and ,ezekiel publicly removed his household goods from the city1 #b ,kings xxv1 #d1 #e2 ,ezek4 xii1 #g2 more forcibly to represent by these actions some correspondent calamities ready to fall on nations obnoxious to ,god's wrath2 this mode of expressing important circumstances by action1 being customary and familiar among all eastern nations4 ,the great object of prophecy was1 as has been before observed1 a description of the ,messiah1 and of his kingdom1 ,matt4 xxvi1 #ef2 ,luke i1 #gj2 xviii1 #ca2 xxiv1 #dd2 ,john i1 #de2 ,acts iii1 #ah1 #bd2 x1 #dc2 xiii1 #bi2 xv1 #ae2 xxviii1 #bc2 #a ,pet4 i1 #aj-ab4 ,these were gradually unfolded by successive prophets in predictions more and more distinct4 ,they were at first held forth in general promises2 they were afterward described by figures1 and shadowed out under types and allusive institutions1 and finally foretold in the full lustre of descriptive prophecy4 ,the ,hebrew prophets were chosen of ,god to testify beforehand of the sufferings of ,christ1 and the glory that should follow4 ,see ,,prophecy4 ,,propitiation4 ,to propitiate is to appease1 to atone1 to turn away the wrath of an offended person4 ,in the case before us1 the wrath turned away is the wrath of ,god2 the person making the propitiation is ,christ2 the propitiating offering or sacrifice is his blood4 ,all this is expressed in most explicit terms in the following passages3 8,and he is the propitiation for our sins10 #a ,john ii1 #b4 8,herein is love1 not that we loved ,god1 but that he loved us1 and sent his ,son to be the propitiation for our sins10 #a ,john iv1 #aj4 8,whom ,god hath set forth to be a propitiation through faith in his blood10 ,rom4 iii1 #be4 ,the word used in the two former passages is 2 in the last 4 ,both are from the verb 1 so often used by ,greek writers to express the action of a person who1 in some appointed way1 turned away the wrath of a deity2 and therefore cannot bear the sense which ,socinus would put upon it1--the destruction of sin4 ,this is not supported by a single example4 ,with all ,greek authorities1 whether poets1 historians1 or others1 the word means to propitiate1 and is1 for the most part1 construed with an accusative case1 designating the person whose displeasure is averted4 ,as this could not be denied1 ,crellius comes to the aid of ,socinus1 and contends that the sense of this word was not to be taken from its common use in the ,greek tongue1 but from the ,hellenistic use of it in the ,greek of the ,new ,testament1 the ,,lxx4 and the ,apocrypha4 ,but this will not serve him2 for both by the ,,lxx4 and in the ,apocrypha1 it is used in the same sense as in the ,greek classic writers4 8,he shall offer his 1 sin-offering1 saith the ,lord ,god10 ,ezek4 xliv1 #bg4 8,and the priest shall take the blood of the 1 sin-offering10 ,ezek4 xlv1 #ai4 1 8,the ram of the atonement10 ,num4 v1 #h4 ,to which may be added1 out of the ,apocrypha1 8,now as the high priest was making 1 an atonement10 #b ,macc4 iii1 #cc4 ,the propitiatory sense of the word being thus fixed1 the modern ,socinians have conceded1 in their note on #a ,john ii1 #b1 in their ,improved ,version1 that it means the 8pacifying of an offended party20 but they subjoin1 that ,christ is a propitiation1 because by his ,gospel he brings sinners to repentance1 and thus averts the divine displeasure4 ,the concession is important2 and the comment cannot weaken it1 because of its absurdity2 for1 in that interpretation of propitiation1 ,moses1 or any of the ,apostles1 or any minister of the ,gospel now1 who succeeds in bringing sinners to repentance1 is as truly a propitiation for sin as ,christ himself4 ,on ,rom4 iii1 #be1 however1 the authors of the ,improved ,version continue to follow their master ,socinus1 and translate the passage1 8whom ,god hath set forth a propitiation1 through faith in his blood10 8whom ,god hath set forth as a mercy seat in his own blood10 and lay great stress upon this rendering1 as removing that countenance to the doctrine of atonement by vicarious sufferings which the common translation affords4 ,the word is used in the ,septuagint version1 and in the ,epistle to the ,hebrews1 to express the mercy seat or covering of the ark4 ,but so little is to be gained by taking it in this sense in this passage1 that this rendering is adopted by several orthodox commentators as expressing1 by a figure1 or rather by emphatically supplying a type to the antitype1--the doctrine of our ,lord's atonement4 ,the mercy seat was so called1 because1 under the ,old ,testament1 it was the place where the high priest1 on the feast of expiation1 sprinkled the blood of the sin-offerings1 in order to make an atonement for himself and the whole congregation2 and1 since ,god accepted the offering which was then made1 it was1 for this reason1 accounted the medium through which ,god showed himself propitious to the people4 ,with reference to this1 ,jesus ,christ may be called a mercy seat1 as being the person in or through whom ,god shows himself propitious to mankind4 ,and as1 under the law1 ,god was propitious to those who came to him by appearing before his mercy seat with the blood of their sin-offerings2 so1 under the ,gospel dispensation1 he is propitious to those who come unto him by ,jesus ,christ1 through faith in that blood which is elsewhere called 8the blood of sprinkling10 and which he shed for the remission of sins4 ,some able critics have1 however1 argued1 from the force of the context1 that the word ought to be taken actively1 and not merely declaratively2 not as 8a propitiatory10 but as 8a propitiation10 which1 says ,grotius1 is shown by the mention which is afterward made of blood1 to which the power of propitiation is ascribed4 ,others supply or 1 and render it expiatory sacrifice4 ,but1 whichever of these renderings be adopted1 the same doctrine is held forth to us4 ,the covering of the ark was rendered a propitiatory only by the blood of the victims sprinkled before and upon it2 and when the ,apostle says1 that ,god hath set forth ,jesus ,christ to be a propitiatory1 he immediately adds1 having the ceremonies of the temple in his view1 8through faith in his blood40 ,the text1 therefore1 contains no exhibition of any means of obtaining mercy but through the blood of sacrifice1 according to the rule laid down in the ,epistle to the ,hebrews1 8,without shedding of blood there is no remission20 and is in strict accordance with ,ephesians i1 #g1 8,we have redemption through his blood1 the remission of sins40 ,it is only by his blood that ,christ reconciles us to ,god4 ,unable as they who deny the vicarious nature of the sufferings of ,christ are to evade the testimony of the above passages which speak of our ,lord as 8a propitiation10 their next resource often is to deny the existence of wrath in ,god1 in the hope of proving that propitiation1 in a proper sense1 cannot be the doctrine of ,scripture1 whatever may be the force of the mere terms which the sacred writers employ4 ,in order to give plausibility to their statement1 they pervert the opinion of the orthodox1 and argue as though it formed a part of the doctrine of ,christ's propitiation and oblation for sin1 to represent ,god as naturally an implacable and vengeful being1 and only made placable and disposed to show mercy by satisfaction being made to his displeasure through our ,lord's sufferings and death4 ,this is as contrary to ,scripture as it is to the opinions of all sober persons who hold the doctrine of ,christ's atonement4 ,god is love2 but it is not necessary1 in order to support this truth1 to assume that he is nothing else4 ,he has other attributes1 which harmonize with this and with each other2 though1 assuredly1 that harmony cannot be established by any who deny the propitiation for sin made by the death of ,christ4 ,it sufficiently proves that there is not only no implacability in ,god1 but a most tender and placable affection toward the sinning human race itself1 and that the ,son of ,god1 by whom the propitiation was made1 was the free gift of the ,father to us4 ,this is the most eminent proof of his love1 that1 for our sakes1 and that mercy might be extended to us1 8,he spared not his own ,son2 but delivered him up freely for us all40 ,thus he is the fountain and first moving cause of that scheme of recovery and salvation which the incarnation and death of our ,lord brought into full and efficient operation4 ,the true questions are1 indeed1 not whether ,god is love1 or whether he is of a placable nature2 but whether ,god is holy and just2 whether we1 his creatures1 are under law or not2 whether this law has any penalty1 and whether ,god1 in his rectoral character1 is bound to execute and uphold that law4 ,as the justice of ,god is punitive1 7and if it is not punitive1 his laws are a dead letter17 then is there wrath in ,god2 then is ,god angry with the wicked2 then is man1 as a sinner1 obnoxious to this anger2 and so a propitiation becomes necessary to turn it away from him4 ,nor are these terms unscriptural2 they are used in the ,new ,testament as emphatically as in the ,old2 though1 the former is1 in a special sense1 a revelation of the mercy of ,god to man4 ,john declares that1 if any man believeth not on the ,son of ,god1 8the wrath of ,god abideth upon him20 and ,st4 ,paul affirms1 that 8the wrath of ,god is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men40 ,the day of judgment is1 with reference to the ungodly1 said to be 8the day of wrath20 ,god is called 8a consuming fire20 and1 as such1 is the object of 8reverence and godly fear40 ,nor is this his displeasure light1 and the consequences of it a trifling and temporary inconvenience4 ,when we only regard the consequences which have followed sin in society1 from the earliest ages1 and in every part of the world1 and add to these the many direct and fearful inflictions of punishment which have proceeded from the 8,judge of the whole earth10 then1 to use the language of ,scripture1 8our flesh may well tremble because of his judgments40 ,but when we look at the future state of the wicked as represented in ,scripture1 though it is expressed generally1 and surrounded with the mystery of a place1 and a condition of being1 unknown to us in the present state1 all evils which history has crowded into the lot of man appear insignificant in comparison of banishment from ,god1 separation from good men1 public condemnation1 torment of spirit1 8weeping1 wailing1 and gnashing of teeth10 8everlasting destruction10 8everlasting fire40 ,let men talk ever so much or eloquently of the pure benevolence of ,god1 they cannot abolish the facts recorded in the history of human suffering in this world as the effects of transgression2 nor can they discharge these fearful comminations from the pages of the book of ,god4 ,these cannot be criticised away2 and if it is 8,jesus who saves us from this wrath to come10 that is1 from those effects of the wrath of ,god which are to come1 then1 but for him1 we should have been liable to them4 ,that principle in ,god1 from which such effects follow1 the ,scriptures call wrath2 and they who deny the existence of wrath in ,god1 deny1 therefore1 the ,scriptures4 ,it by no means follows1 however1 that this wrath is a passion in ,god2 or that1 though we contend that the awful attribute of his justice requires satisfaction1 in order to the forgiveness of the guilty1 we afford reason to any to charge us with attributing vengeful affections to the divine ,being4 8,our adversaries10 says ,bishop ,stillingfleet1 8first make opinions for us1 and then show that they are unreasonable4 ,they first suppose that anger in ,god is to be considered as a passion1 and that passion a desire of revenge2 and then tell us1 that if we do not prove that this desire of revenge can be satisfied by the sufferings of ,christ1 then we can never prove the doctrine of satisfaction to be true2 whereas1 we do not mean by ,god's anger1 any such passion1 but the just declaration of ,god's will to punish1 upon our provocation of him by our sins2 we do not make the design of the satisfaction to be that ,god may please himself in revenging the sins of the guilty upon the most innocent person1 because we make the design of punishment not to be the satisfaction of anger as a desire of revenge1 but to be the vindication of the honour and rights of the offended person by such a way as he himself shall judge satisfactory to the ends of his government40 ,see ,,atonement and ,,expiation4 ,,propitiatory1 among the ,jews1 was the cover or lid of the ark of the covenant1 which was lined both within and without with plates of gold1 insomuch that there was no wood to be seen4 ,some even take it to have been one piece of massive gold4 ,the cherubims spread their wings over the propitiatory4 ,this propitiatory was a type or figure of ,christ4 ,see ,,propitiation4 ,,proselyte1 1 signifies a stranger1 a foreigner2 the ,hebrew word 1 or 1 also denotes a stranger1 one who comes from abroad1 or from another place4 ,in the language of the ,jews1 those were called by this name who came to dwell in their country1 or who embraced their religion1 being not ,jews by birth4 ,in the ,new ,testament they are called sometimes proselytes1 and sometimes ,gentiles1 fearing ,god1 ,acts ii1 #e2 x1 ii1 #bb2 xiii1 #af1 #ej4 ,the ,jews distinguish two kinds of proselytes4 ,the first1 proselytes of the gate2 the others1 proselytes of justice or righteousness4 ,the first dwelt in the land of ,israel1 or even out of that country1 and1 without obliging themselves to circumcision1 or to any other ceremony of the law1 feared and worshipped the true ,god1 observing the rules imposed on ,noah4 ,these were1 according to the rabbins1 #a4 ,to abstain from idolatry2 #b4 ,from blasphemy2 #c4 ,from murder2 #d4 ,from adultery2 #e4 ,from theft2 #f4 ,to appoint just and upright judges2 #g4 ,not to eat the flesh of any animal cut off while it was alive4 ,maimonides says1 that the first six of these precepts were given to ,adam1 and the seventh to ,noah4 ,the privileges of proselytes of the gate were1 first1 that through holiness they might have hope of eternal life4 ,secondly1 they could dwell in the land of ,israel1 and share in the outward prosperities of it4 ,it is said they did not dwell in the cities1 but only in the suburbs and the villages2 but it is certain that the ,jews often admitted into their cities1 not only proselytes of habitation1 but also ,gentiles and idolaters1 as appears by the reproaches on this account1 throughout the ,scriptures4 ,proselytes of justice or of righteousness were those converted to ,judaism1 who had engaged themselves to receive circumcision1 and to observe the whole law of ,moses4 ,thus were they admitted to all the prerogatives of the people of the ,lord4 ,the rabbins inform us that1 before circumcision was administered to them1 and before they were admitted into the religion of the ,hebrews1 they were examined about the motives of their conversion2 whether the change was voluntary1 or whether it proceeded from interest1 fear1 ambition1 c4 ,when the proselyte was well proved and instructed1 they gave him circumcision2 and when the wound of his circumcision healed1 they gave him baptism1 by plunging his whole body into a cistern of water1 by only one immersion4 ,boys under twelve years of age1 and girls under thirteen1 could not become proselytes till they had obtained the consent of their parents1 or1 in case of refusal1 the concurrence of the officers of justice4 ,baptism in respect of girls had the same effect as circumcision in respect of boys4 ,each of them1 by means of this1 received1 as it were1 a new birth1 so that those who were their parents before were no longer regarded as such after this ceremony1 and those who before were slaves now became free4 ,many1 however1 are of opinion that there appears to be no ground whatever in ,scripture for this distinction of proselytes of the gate1 and proselytes of righteousness4 8,according to my idea10 says ,dr4 ,tomline1 8proselytes were those1 and those only1 who took upon themselves the obligation of the whole ,mosaic law1 but retained that name till they were admitted into the congregation of the ,lord as adopted children4 ,gentiles were allowed to worship and offer sacrifices to the ,god of ,israel in the outer court of the temple2 and some of them1 persuaded of the sole and universal sovereignty of the ,lord ,jehovah1 might renounce idolatry without embracing the ,mosaic law2 but such persons appear to me never to be called proselytes in ,scripture1 or in any ancient ,christian writer40 ,he also observes that 8the term proselytes of the gate is derived from an expression frequent in the ,old ,testament2 namely1 #8the stranger that is within thy gates2' but ,i think it evident that the strangers were those ,gentiles who were permitted to live among the ,jews under certain restrictions1 and whom the ,jews were forbidden #8to vex or oppress1' so long as they live in a peaceable manner40 ,dr4 ,lardner says1 8,i do not believe that the notion of two sorts of ,jewish proselytes can be found in any ,christian writer before the fourteenth century or later40 ,dr4 ,jennings also observes that 8there does not appear to be sufficient evidence in the ,scripture history of the existence of such proselytes of the gate1 as the rabbins mention2 nor1 indeed1 of any who with propriety can be styled proselytes1 except such as fully embraced the ,jewish religion40 ,,proseuch4 ,that the ,jews had houses1 or places for prayer1 called 1 appears from a variety of passages in ,philo2 and1 particularly in his oration against ,flaccus1 he complains that their were pulled down1 and there was no place left in which they might worship ,god and pray for ,csar4 ,among those who make the synagogues and proseuch to be different places1 are the learned ,mr4 ,joseph ,mede and ,dr4 ,prideaux2 and they think the difference consists partly in the form of the edifice2 a synagogue1 they say1 being roofed like our houses or churches2 and a proseucha being only encompassed with a wall1 or some other mound or enclosure1 and open at the top1 like our courts4 ,they make them to differ in situation2 synagogues being in towns and cities1 proseuch in the fields1 and frequently by the river side4 ,dr4 ,prideaux mentions another distinction in respect to the service performed in them4 ,in synagogues1 he says1 the prayers were offered up in public forms in common for the whole congregation2 but in the proseuch they prayed1 as in the temple1 every one apart for himself4 ,and thus our ,saviour prayed in the proseucha into which he entered4 ,yet1 after all1 the proof in favour of this notion is not so strong1 but that it still remains a question with some1 whether the synagogues and the proseuch were any thing more than two different names for the same place2 the one taken from the people's assembling in them1 the other from the service to which they were more immediately appropriated1 namely1 prayer4 ,nevertheless1 the name proseuch will not prove that they were appropriated only to prayer1 and therefore were different from synagogues1 in which the ,scriptures were also read and expounded2 since the temple1 in which sacrifices were offered1 and all the parts of divine service were performed1 is called 1 a house of prayer1 ,matt4 xxi1 #ac4 ,,protestant4 ,the ,emperor ,charles ,v4 called a diet at ,spire1 in #aebi1 to request aid from the ,german princes against the ,turks1 and to devise the most effectual means for allaying the religious disputes which then raged in consequence of ,luther's opposition to the established religion4 ,in this diet it was decreed by ,ferdinand1 archduke of ,austria1 and other popish princes1 that in the countries which had embraced the new religion it should be lawful to continue in it till the meeting of a council2 but that no ,roman ,catholic should be allowed to turn ,lutheran1 and that the reformers should deliver nothing in their sermons contrary to the received doctrine of the church4 ,against this decree1 six ,lutheran princes1 namely1 ,john and ,george1 the electors of ,saxony and ,brandenburg1 ,ernest and ,francis1 the two dukes of ,lunenburg1 the landgrave of ,hesse1 and the prince of ,anhalt1 with the deputies of thirteen imperial towns1 namely1 ,strasburg1 ,ulm1 ,nuremberg1 ,constance1 ,rottingen1 ,windsheim1 ,memmingen1 ,nortlingen1 ,lindaw1 ,kempten1 ,hailbron1 ,wissemburg1 and ,st4 ,gall1 formally and solemnly protested and declared that they appealed to a general council2 and hence the name of ,protestants1 by which the followers of ,luther have ever since been known4 ,nor was it confined to them2 for it soon after included the ,calvinists1 and has now of a long time been applied generally to the ,christian sects1 of whatever denomination1 and in whatever country they may be found1 which have separated from the see of ,rome4 ,mr4 ,chillingworth1 addressing himself to a writer in favour of the church of ,rome1 speaks of the religion of the ,protestants in the following excellent terms3 8,know then1 sir1 that when ,i say the religion of ,protestants is in prudence to be preferred before yours1 on the one side1 ,i do not understand by your religion the doctrine of ,bellarmine1 or ,baronius1 or any other private man among you1 nor the doctrine of the ,sorbonne1 of the ,jesuits1 or of the ,dominicans1 or of any other particular company among you1 but that wherein you all agree1 or profess to agree1 the doctrine of the council of ,trent2 so1 accordingly1 on the other side1 by the religion of ,protestants1 ,i do not understand the doctrine of ,luther1 or ,calvin1 or ,melancthon1 nor the confession of ,augsburg1 or ,geneva1 nor the catechism of ,heidelberg1 nor the articles of the church of ,england2 no1 nor the harmony of ,protestant confessions2 but that in which they all agree1 and which they all subscribe with a greater harmony1 as a perfect rule of faith and action2 that is1 the ,bible4 ,the ,bible1 ,i say1 the ,bible only1 is the religion of ,protestants4 ,whatsoever else they believe beside it1 and the plain1 irrefragable1 indubitable consequences of it1 well may they hold it as a matter of opinion2 but as a matter of faith and religion1 neither can they with coherence to their own grounds believe it themselves1 nor require belief of it of others1 without most high and most schismatical presumption4 ,i1 for my part1 after a long1 and1 as ,i verily believe and hope1 impartial1 search of the true way to eternal happiness1 do profess plainly that ,i cannot find any rest for the sole of my foot but upon this rock only4 ,i see plainly1 and with my own eyes1 that there are popes against popes1 and councils against councils2 some fathers against other fathers1 the same fathers against themselves2 a consent of fathers of one age against a consent of fathers of another age2 traditive interpretations of ,scripture are pretended1 but there are few or none to be found2 no tradition but that of ,scripture can derive itself from the fountain1 but may be plainly proved either to have been brought in in such an age after ,christ1 or that in such an age it was not in4 ,in a word1 there is no sufficient certainty but of ,scripture only for any considering man to build upon4 ,this1 therefore1 and this only1 ,i have reason to believe4 ,this ,i will profess2 according to this ,i will live2 and for this1 if there be occasion1 ,i will not only willingly1 but even gladly1 lose my life1 though ,i should be sorry that ,christians should take it from me4 ,propose me any thing out of this book1 and require whether ,i believe or no1 and1 seem it never so incomprehensible to human reason1 ,i will subscribe it with hand and heart1 as knowing no demonstration can be stronger than this1 ,god hath said so1 therefore it is true4 ,in other things1 ,i will take no man's liberty of judging from him2 neither shall any man take mine from me40 ,under such views the ,bible is held as the only sure foundation upon which all true ,protestants build every article of the faith which they profess1 and every point of doctrine which they teach2 and all other foundations1 whether they be the decisions of councils1 the confessions of churches1 the prescripts of popes1 or the expositions of private men1 are considered by them as sandy and unsafe1 or as in nowise to be ultimately relied on4 ,yet1 on the other hand1 they by no means fastidiously reject them as of no use2 for while they admit the ,bible1 or the ,scriptures of the ,old and ,new ,testament1 to be the only infallible rule by which we must measure the truth or falsehood of every religious opinion1 they are sensible that all men are not equally fitted to understand or to apply this rule2 and that the wisest men want1 on many occasions1 all the helps afforded by the learning and research of others to enable them to understand its precise nature1 and to define its certain extent4 ,these helps are great and numerous1 having been supplied1 in every age of the church1 by the united labours of learned men in every country1 and by none in greater abundance than by those in ,protestant communions4 ,,proverbs1 short aphorisms1 and sententious moral and prudential maxims1 usually expressed in numbers1 or rhythm1 or antithesis1 as being more easily remembered1 and of more use1 than abstruse and methodical discourses4 ,this method of instruction appears to be peculiarly suited to the disposition and genius of the ,asiatics1 among whom it has prevailed from the earliest ages4 ,the ,gymnosophists of ,india delivered their philosophy in brief enigmatical sentences2 a practice adopted and carried to a great extent by the ancient ,egyptians4 ,the mode of conveying instruction by compendious maxims obtained among the ,jews1 from the first dawn of their literature1 to its final extinction in the east through the power of the ,mohammedan arms2 and it was familiar to the inhabitants of ,syria and ,palestine1 as we learn from the testimony of ,st4 ,jerom4 ,the eloquence of ,arabia was mostly exhibited in detached and unconnected sentences1 which1 like so many loose gems1 attracted attention by the fulness of the periods1 the elegance of the phraseology1 and the acuteness of proverbial sayings4 ,nor do the ,asiatics at present differ1 in this respect1 from their ancestors1 as numerous amthl1 or moral sentences1 are in circulation throughout the regions of the east1 some of which have been published by ,hottinger1 ,erpenius1 the younger ,schultens1 and others who have distinguished themselves by the pursuit of oriental learning4 8,the moralists of the east10 says ,sir ,william ,jones1 8have1 in general1 chosen to deliver their precepts in short sententious maxims1 to illustrate them by sprightly comparisons1 or to inculcate them in the very ancient forms of agreeable apologues3 there are1 indeed1 both in ,arabic and ,persian1 philosophical tracts on ethics1 written with sound ratiocination and elegant perspicuity2 but in every part of the eastern world1 from ,pekin to ,damascus1 the popular teachers of moral wisdom have immemorially been poets2 and there would be no end of enumerating their works1 which are still extant in the five principal languages of ,asia40 ,the ingenious but ever disputing and loquacious ,greeks were indebted to the same means for their earliest instruction in wisdom4 ,the sayings of the seven wise men1 the golden verses of ,pythagoras1 the remains of ,theognis and ,phocylides1 if genuine1 and the gnomai of the older poets1 testify the prevalence of aphorisms in ancient ,greece4 ,had no specimens remained of ,hellenic proverbs1 we might have concluded this to have been the case2 for the ,greeks borrowed the rudiments1 if not the principal part1 of their knowledge from those whom they arrogantly termed barbarians2 and it is only through the medium of compendious maxims and brief sentences that traditionary knowledge can be preserved4 ,this mode of communicating moral and practical wisdom accorded with the sedate and deliberative character of the ,romans2 and1 in truth1 from its influence over the mind1 and its fitness for popular instruction1 proverbial expressions exist in all ages and in all languages4 ,proverbs1 in the ,hebrew language1 are called meshalim1 which is derived from a verb signifying both 8to rule10 8to have dominion10 and 8to compare10 8to liken10 8to assimilate30 hence the term denotes the highly figurative and poetical style in general1 and likewise those compendious and authoritative sentences in particular which are commonly denominated proverbs4 ,this term1 which our translators have adopted after the ,vulgate1 denotes1 according to our great lexicographer1 8a short sentence frequently repeated by the people1 a saw1 an adage20 and no other word can1 perhaps1 be substituted more accurately expressing the force of the ,hebrew2 or1 if there could1 it has been so long familiarized by constant use1 that a change is totally inadmissible4 ,the ,meshalim1 or ,proverbs of ,solomon1 on account of their intrinsic merit1 as well as of the rank and renown of their author1 would be received with submissive deference2 in consequence of which1 they would rapidly spread through every part of the ,jewish territories4 ,the pious instructions of the king would be listened to with the attention and respect they deserve1 and1 no doubt1 would be carefully recorded by a people attached to his person1 and holding his wisdom in the highest admiration4 ,these1 either preserved in writing1 or handed down by oral communication1 were subsequently collected into one volume1 and constitute the book in the sacred canon1 entitled1 8,the ,proverbs of ,solomon1 the son of ,david1 king of ,israel40 ,the genuineness and authenticity of this title1 and those in chap4 x1 #a1 and xxv1 #a1 cannot be disputed2 not the smallest reason appears for calling them in question4 ,one portion of the book1 from the twenty-fifth chapter to the end of the twenty-ninth1 was compiled by the men of ,hezekiah1 as appears from the title prefixed to it4 ,eliakim1 ,shebna1 ,joah1 ,isaiah1 ,hosea1 and ,micah1 personages of eminence and worth1 were contemporary with ,hezekiah2 but whether these or others executed the compilation1 it is now impossible to determine4 ,they were persons1 however1 as we may reasonably suppose1 well qualified for the undertaking1 who collected what were known to be the genuine proverbs of ,solomon from the various writings in which they were dispersed1 and arranged them in their present order4 ,whether the preceding twenty-four chapters1 which1 doubtless1 existed in a combined form previous to the additional collection1 were compiled by the author1 or some other person1 is quite uncertain4 ,both collections1 however1 being made at so early a period1 is a satisfactory evidence that the ,proverbs are the genuine production of ,solomon1 to whom they are ascribed2 for1 from the death of ,solomon to the reign of ,hezekiah1 according to the ,bible chronology1 was a period of two hundred and forty-nine years1 or1 according to ,dr4 ,hales1 two hundred and sixty-five years2 too short a space to admit of any forgery or material error1 as either must have been immediately detected by the worthies who flourished during the virtuous reign of ,hezekiah4 ,,providence1 the conduct and direction of the several parts of the universe1 by a superior intelligent ,being4 ,the notion of a providence is founded upon this truth1 that the ,creator has not so fixed and ascertained the laws of nature1 nor so connected the chain of second causes1 as to leave the world to itself1 but that he still preserves the reins in his own hands1 and occasionally intervenes1 alters1 restrains1 enforces1 suspends1 c1 those laws by a particular providence4 ,some use the word providence in a more general sense1 signifying by it that power or action by which the several parts of the creation are ordinarily directed4 ,thus ,damascenus defines providence to be that divine will by which all things are ordered and directed to the proper end3 which notion of providence supposes no laws at all fixed by the author of nature at the creation1 but that he reserved it at large1 to be governed by himself immediately4 ,the ,epicureans denied any divine providence1 as thinking it inconsistent with the ease and repose of the divine nature to meddle at all with human affairs4 ,simplicius argues thus for a providence3 ,if ,god does not look to the affairs of the world1 it is either because he cannot or will not2 but the first is absurd1 since1 to govern cannot be difficult where to create was easy2 and the latter is both absurd and blasphemous4 ,in ,plato's ,tenth ,dialogue of ,laws1 he teaches excellently1 that 7since what is self-moving is1 by its nature1 before that which moves only in consequence of being moved7 mind must be prior to matter1 and the cause of all its modifications and changes2 and that1 therefore1 there is a universal ,mind possessed of all perfection1 which produced and which actuates all things4 ,after this he shows that the ,deity exercises a particular providence over the world1 taking care of small no less than great things4 ,in proving this he observes 8that a superior nature of such excellence as the divine1 which hears1 sees1 and knows all things1 cannot1 in any instance1 be subject to negligence or sloth2 that the meanest and the greatest part of the world are all equally his work or possession2 that great things cannot be rightly taken care of without taking care of small2 and that1 in all cases1 the more able and perfect any artist is1 7as a physician1 an architect1 or the ruler of the state17 the more his skill and care appear in little as well as great things4 ,let us not1 then10 says he1 8conceive of ,god as worse than even mortal artists40 ,the term providence1 in its primary signification1 simply denotes foresight2 and if we allow the existence of a supreme ,being who formed the universe at first1 we must necessarily allow that he has a perfect foresight of every event which at any time takes place in the natural or moral world4 ,matter can have no motion1 nor spirit any energy1 but what is derived from him2 nor can he be ignorant of the effects which they will1 either separately or conjointly1 produce4 ,a common mechanic has knowledge of the work of his own hands3 when he puts the machine which he has made in motion1 he foresees how long it will go1 and what will be the state and position of its several parts at any particular point of time2 or1 if he is not perfectly able to do this1 it is because he is not perfectly acquainted with all the powers of the materials which he has used in its construction3 they are not of his making1 and they may therefore have qualities which he does not understand1 and consequently cannot regulate4 ,but in the immense machine of the universe there is nothing except that which ,god has made2 all the powers and properties1 relations and dependencies1 which created things have1 they have1 both in kind and degree1 from him4 ,nothing1 therefore1 it should seem1 can come to pass at any time1 or in any part of the universe1 which its incomprehensible ,architect did not1 from the moment his almighty fiat called it into existence1 clearly foresee4 ,the providence of ,god is implied in his very existence as an intelligent ,creator2 and it imports not only an abstract foresight of all possible events1 but such a predisposition of causes and effects1 such an adjustment of means and ends1 as seems to us to exclude that contingency of human actions with which1 as expectants of positive rewards and punishments in another world1 we firmly believe it to be altogether consistent4 ,by providence we may understand1 not merely foresight1 but a uniform and constant operation of ,god subsequent to the act of creation4 ,thus1 in every machine formed by human ingenuity1 there is a necessity for the action of some extraneous power to put the machine in motion3 a proper construction and disposition of parts not being sufficient to effect the end3 there must be a spring1 or a weight1 or an impulse of air or water1 or some substance or other1 on which the motion of the several parts of the machine must depend4 ,in like manner1 the machine of the universe depends upon its ,creator for the commencement and the conservation of the motion of its several parts4 ,the power by which the insensible particles of matter coalesce into sensible lumps1 as well as that by which the great orbs of the universe are reluctantly1 as it were1 retained in their courses1 admits not an explanation from mechanical causes3 the effects of both of them are different from such as mere matter and motion can produce2 they must ultimately be referred to ,god4 ,vegetable and animal life and increase cannot be accounted for1 without recurring to him as the primary cause of both4 ,in all these respects the providence of ,god is something more than foresight2 it is a continual influence1 a universal agency2 8by him all things consist10 and 8in him we live1 and move1 and have our being40 ,much labour has been employed to account for all the phenomena of nature by the powers of mechanism1 or the necessary laws of matter and motion4 ,but this1 as we imagine1 cannot be done4 ,the primary causes of things must certainly be some powers and principles not mechanical1 otherwise we shall be reduced to the necessity of maintaining an endless progression of motions communicated from matter to matter1 without any first mover2 or of saying that the first impelling matter moved itself4 ,the former is an absurdity too great to be embraced by any one2 and there is reason to hope that the essential inactivity of matter is at present so well understood1 and so generally allowed1 notwithstanding some modern oppugners of this hypothesis1 that there can be but few who will care to assert the latter4 ,all our reasonings about bodies1 and the whole of natural philosophy1 are founded on the three laws of motion laid down by ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 at the beginning of the 8,principia40 ,these laws express the plainest truths2 but they would have neither evidence nor meaning1 were not inactivity contained in our idea of matter4 ,should it be said that matter1 though naturally inert1 may be made to be otherwise by divine power1 this would be the same with saying that matter may be made not to be matter4 ,if inactivity belong to it at all1 it must belong to it as matter1 or solid extension1 and therefore must be inseparable from it4 ,matter is figured1 movable1 discerptable1 inactive1 and capable of communicating motion by impulse to other matter3 these are not accidental but primary qualities of matter4 ,beside1 matter void of inactivity1 if we were to suppose it possible1 could produce no effects4 ,the communication of motion1 its direction1 the resistance it suffers1 and its cessation1 in a word1 the whole doctrine of motion cannot be consistently explained or clearly understood without supposing the inertia of matter4 ,self-moving matter must have thought and design1 because1 whenever matter moves1 it must move in some particular direction1 and with some precise degree of velocity2 and as there is an infinity of these equally possible1 it cannot move itself without selecting one of these preferably to and exclusively of all others1 and therefore not without design4 ,moreover1 it may be plainly proved that matter cannot be the ultimate cause of the phenomena of nature1 or the agent which1 by any powers inherent in itself1 produces the general laws of nature1 without possessing the highest degree of knowledge and wisdom2 which might be easily evinced or exemplified by adverting to the particular law of gravitation4 8,the philosopher10 says an excellent writer1 8who overlooks the laws of an all-governing ,deity in nature1 contenting himself with the appearance of the material universe only1 and the mechanical laws of motion1 neglects what is most excellent1 and prefers what is imperfect to what is supremely perfect1 finitude to infinity1 what is narrow and weak to what is unlimited and almighty1 and what is perishing to what endures for ever4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton thought it most unaccountable to exclude the ,deity only out of the universe4 ,it appeared to him much more just and reasonable to suppose that the whole chain of causes1 or the several series of them1 should centre in him as their source2 and the whole system appear depending on him the only independent cause40 ,if1 then1 the ,deity pervades and actuates the material world1 and his unremitting energy is the cause to which every effect in it must be traced2 the spiritual world1 which is of greater consequence1 cannot be disregarded by him4 ,is there not one atom of matter on which he does not act2 and is there one living being about which he has no concern8 ,does not a stone fall without him2 and does1 then1 a man suffer without him8 ,the inanimate world is of no consequence1 abstracted from its subserviency to the animate and reasonable world3 the former1 therefore1 must be preserved and governed entirely with a view to the latter4 ,but it is not mere energy or the constant exertion of power that is discernible in the frame or laws of the universe1 in maintaining the succession of men1 and in producing men and other beings2 but wisdom and skill are also conspicuous in the structure of every object in the inanimate creation4 ,after a survey of the beauty and elegance of the works of nature1 aided by the perusal of ,matt4 vi1 #bh1 c1 we may ask ourselves1 ,has ,god1 in the lowest of his works1 been lavish of wisdom1 beauty1 and skill2 and is he sparing of these in the concerns of reasonable beings8 ,or does he less regard order1 propriety1 and fitness in the determination of their states8 ,the answer is obvious4 ,providence also implies a particular interposition of ,god in administering the affairs of individuals and nations1 and wholly distinct from that general and incessant exertion of his power1 by which he sustains the universe in existence4 ,the doctrine of providence may be evinced from the consideration of the divine perfections4 ,the first cause of all things must be regarded as a being absolutely perfect2 and the idea of absolute perfection comprehends infinite power1 wisdom1 and goodness2 hence we deduce the doctrine of providence4 ,the ,deity cannot be an indifferent spectator of the series of events in that world to which he has given being4 ,his goodness will as certainly engage him to direct them agreeably to the ends of goodness1 as his wisdom and power enable him to do it in the most effectual manner4 ,this conclusion is conformable to all our ideas of those attributes4 ,could we call that being good who would refuse to do any good which he is able to do without the least labour or difficulty8 ,god is present every where4 ,he sees all that happens1 and it is in his power1 with perfect ease1 to order all for the best4 ,can he then possess goodness1 and at the same time not do this8 ,a ,god without a providence is undoubtedly a contradiction4 ,nothing is plainer than that a being of perfect reason will1 in every instance1 take such care of the universe as perfect reason requires4 ,that supreme intelligence and love1 which are present to all things1 and from whence all things sprung1 must govern all occurrences4 ,these considerations prove what has been called a particular1 in opposition to a general1 providence4 ,we cannot conceive of any reasons that can influence the ,deity to exercise any providence over the world1 which are not likewise reasons for extending it to all that happens in the world4 ,as far as it is confined to generals1 or overlooks any individual1 or any event1 it is incomplete1 and therefore unsuitable to the idea of a perfect being4 ,one common prejudice against this doctrine arises from the apprehension that it is below the dignity of the ,deity to watch over1 in the manner implied in it1 the meanest beings1 and the minutest affairs4 ,to which it may be replied1 that a great number of minute affairs1 if they are each of them of some consequence1 make up a sum which is of great consequence2 and that there is no way of taking care of this sum1 without taking care of each particular4 ,this objection1 therefore1 under the appearance of honouring ,god1 plainly dishonours him4 ,nothing is absolutely trifling in which the happiness of any individual1 even the most insignificant1 is at all concerned2 nor is it beneath a wise and good being to interpose in any thing of this kind4 ,to suppose the ,deity above this1 is to suppose him above acting up to the full extent of goodness and rectitude4 ,the same eternal benevolence that first engaged him to produce beings1 must also engage him to exercise a particular providence over them2 and the very lowest beings1 as well as the highest1 seem to have a kind of right to his superintendence1 from the act itself of bringing them into existence4 ,every apprehension that this is too great a condescension in him is founded on the poorest ideas2 for1 surely1 whatever it was not too great condescension in him to create1 it cannot be too great a condescension in him to take care of4 ,beside1 with regard to ,god1 all distinctions in the creation vanish4 ,all beings are infinitely1 that is1 equally1 inferior to him4 ,accident1 and chance1 and fortune1 are words which we often hear mentioned1 and much is ascribed to them in the life of man4 ,but they are words without meaning2 or1 as far as they have any signification1 they are no other than names for the unknown operations of providence2 for it is certain that in ,god's universe nothing comes to pass causelessly1 or in vain4 ,every event has its own determined direction4 ,that chaos of human affairs and intrigues where we can see no light1 that mass of disorder and confusion which they often present to our view1 is all clearness and order in the sight of ,him who is governing and directing the whole1 and bringing forward every event in its due time and place4 8,the ,lord sitteth on the flood4 ,the ,lord maketh the wrath of man to praise him10 as he maketh the 8hail and rain to obey his word4 ,he hath prepared his throne in the heavens2 and his kingdom ruleth over all4 ,a man's heart deviseth his way1 but the ,lord directeth his steps40 ,no other principle than this1 embraced with a steady faith1 and attended with a suitable practice1 can ever be able to give repose and tranquillity to the mind2 to animate our hopes1 or extinguish our fears2 to give us any true satisfaction in the enjoyments of life1 or to minister consolation under its adversities4 ,if we are persuaded that ,god governs the world1 that he has the superintendence and direction of all events1 and that we are the objects of his providential care2 whatever may be our distress or our danger1 we can never want consolation2 we may always have a fund of hope1 always a prospect of relief4 ,but take away this hope and this prospect1 take away the belief of ,god and of a superintending providence1 and man would be of all creatures the most miserable2 destitute of every comfort1 every support1 under present sufferings1 and of every security against future dangers4 ,,psalms4 ,the book of ,psalms is a collection of hymns1 or sacred songs1 in praise of ,god1 and consists of poems of various kinds4 ,they are the productions of different persons1 but are generally called the ,psalms of ,david1 because a great part of them was composed by him1 and ,david himself is distinguished by the name of the ,psalmist4 ,we cannot now ascertain all the ,psalms written by ,david1 but their number probably exceeds seventy2 and much less are we able to discover the authors of the other ,psalms1 or the occasions upon which they were composed4 ,a few of them were written after the return from the ,babylonian captivity4 ,the titles prefixed to them are of very questionable authority2 and in many cases they are not intended to denote the writer but refer only to the person who was appointed to set them to music4 ,david first introduced the practice of singing sacred hymns in the public service of ,god2 and it was restored by ,ezra4 ,the authority of the ,psalms is established not only by their rank among the sacred writings1 and by the unvaried testimony of ages1 but likewise by many intrinsic proofs of inspiration4 ,not only do they breathe through every part a divine spirit of eloquence1 but they contain numberless illustrious prophecies that were remarkably accomplished1 and are frequently appealed to by the evangelical writers4 ,the sacred character of the whole book is established by the testimony of our ,saviour and his ,apostles1 who1 in various parts of the ,new ,testament1 appropriate the predictions of the ,psalms as obviously apposite to the circumstances of their lives1 and as intentionally composed to describe them4 ,the veneration for the ,psalms has in all ages of the church been considerable4 ,the fathers assure us1 that in the earlier times the whole book of ,psalms was generally learned by heart2 and that the ministers of every gradation were expected to be able to repeat them from memory4 ,these invaluable ,scriptures are daily repeated without weariness1 though their beauties are often overlooked in familiar and habitual perusal4 ,as hymns immediately addressed to the ,deity1 they reduce righteousness to practice2 and while we acquire the sentiments1 we perform the offices of piety2 while we supplicate for blessings1 we celebrate the memorial of former mercies2 and while in the exercise of devotion1 faith is enlivened by the display of prophecy4 ,josephus asserts1 and most of the ancient writers maintain1 that the ,psalms were composed in metre4 ,they have undoubtedly a peculiar conformation of sentences1 and a measured distribution of parts4 ,many of them are elegiac1 and most of ,david's are of the lyric kind4 ,there is no sufficient reason however to believe1 as some writers have imagined1 that they were written in rhyme1 or in any of the ,grecian measures4 ,some of them are acrostic2 and though the regulations of the ,hebrew measure are now lost1 there can be no doubt1 from their harmonious modulation1 that they were written with some kind of metrical order2 and they must have been composed in accommodation to the measure to which they were set4 7,see ,poetry of the ,hebrews47 ,the ,hebrew copies and the ,septuagint version of this book contain the same number of ,psalms2 only the ,septuagint translators have1 for some reason which does not appear1 thrown the ninth and tenth into one1 as also the one hundred and fourteenth and one hundred and fifteenth1 and have divided the one hundred and sixteenth and one hundred and forty-seventh each into two4 ,it is very justly observed by ,dr4 ,allix1 that1 8although the sense of near fifty ,psalms be fixed and settled by divine authors1 yet ,christ and his ,apostles did not undertake to quote all the ,psalms they could1 but only to give a key to their hearers1 by which they might apply to the same subjects the ,psalms of the same composure and expression40 ,with regard to the ,jews1 ,bishop ,chandler very pertinently remarks1 that 8they must have understood ,david1 their prince1 to have been a figure of ,messiah4 ,they would not otherwise have made his ,psalms part of their daily worship2 nor would ,david have delivered them to the church to be so employed1 were it not to instruct and support them in the knowledge and belief of this fundamental article4 ,were the ,messiah not concerned in the ,psalms1 it would have been absurd to celebrate twice a day1 in their public devotions1 the events of one man's life1 who was deceased so long ago1 as to have no relation now to the ,jews and the circumstances of their affairs2 or to transcribe whole passages from them into their prayers for the coming of the ,messiah40 ,upon the same principle it is easily seen that the objections1 which may seem to lie against the use of ,jewish services in ,christian congregations1 may cease at once4 ,thus it may be said1 ,are we concerned with the affairs of ,david and of ,israel8 ,have we any thing to do with the ark and the temple8 ,they are no more4 ,are we to go up to ,jerusalem1 and to worship on ,sion8 ,they are desolated1 and trodden under foot by the ,turks4 ,are we to sacrifice young bullocks according to the law8 ,the law is abolished1 never to be observed again4 ,do we pray for victory over ,moab1 ,edom1 and ,philistia2 or for deliverance from ,babylon8 ,there are no such nations1 no such places in the world4 ,what then do we mean1 when1 taking such expressions into our mouths1 we utter them in our own persons1 as parts of our devotions1 before ,god8 ,assuredly we must mean a spiritual ,jerusalem and ,sion2 a spiritual ark and temple2 a spiritual law2 spiritual sacrifices2 and spiritual victories over spiritual enemies2 all described under the old names1 which are still retained1 though 8old things are passed away1 and all things are become new10 #b ,cor4 v1 #ag4 ,by substituting ,messiah for ,david1 the ,gospel for the law1 the church ,christian for that of ,israel1 and the enemies of the one for those of the other1 the ,psalms are made our own4 ,nay1 they are with more fulness and propriety applied now to the substance1 than they were of old to the 8shadow of good things then to come10 ,heb4 x1 #a4 ,for let it not pass unobserved1 that when1 upon the first publication of the ,gospel1 the ,apostles had occasion to utter their transports of joy1 on their being counted worthy to suffer for the name of their ,lord and ,master1 which was then opposed by ,jew and ,gentile1 they brake forth into an application of the second ,psalm to the transactions then before their eyes1 ,acts iv1 #be4 ,the ,psalms1 thus applied1 have advantages which no fresh compositions1 however finely executed1 can possibly have2 since1 beside their incomparable fitness to express our sentiments1 they are at the same time memorials of1 and appeals to1 former mercies and deliverances2 they are acknowledgments of prophecies accomplished2 they point out the connection between the old and new dispensations1 thereby teaching us to admire and adore the wisdom of ,god displayed in both1 and furnishing while we read or sing them1 an inexhaustible variety of the noblest matter that can engage the contemplations of man4 ,very few of the ,psalms1 comparatively1 appear to be simply prophetical1 and to belong only to ,messiah1 without the intervention of any other person4 ,most of them1 it is apprehended1 have a double sense1 which stands upon this ground and foundation1 that the ancient patriarchs1 prophets1 priests1 and kings1 were typical characters1 in their several offices1 and in the more remarkable passages of their lives1 their extraordinary depressions and miraculous exaltations foreshowing him who was to arise as the head of the holy family1 the great prophet1 the true priest1 the everlasting king4 ,the ,israelitish polity1 and the law of ,moses1 were purposely framed after the example and shadow of things spiritual and heavenly2 and the events which happened to the ancient people of ,god were designed to shadow out parallel occurrences1 which should afterward take place in the accomplishment of man's redemption1 and the rise and progress of the ,christian church4 7,see ,prophecy47 ,for this reason1 the ,psalms composed for the use of ,israel1 and by them accordingly used at the time1 do admit of an application to us1 who are now 8the ,israel of ,god10 ,gal4 vi1 #af1 and to our ,redeemer1 who is the ,king of this ,israel4 ,it would be an arduous and adventurous undertaking to attempt to lay down the rules observed in the conduct of the mystic allegory1 so diverse are the modes in which the ,holy ,spirit has thought proper to communicate his counsels to different persons on different occasions2 inspiring and directing the minds of the prophets according to his good pleasure2 at one time vouchsafing more full and free discoveries of future events2 while1 at another1 he is more obscure and sparing in his intimations4 ,from hence1 of course1 arises a great variety in the ,scripture usage of this kind of allegory as to the manner in which the spiritual sense is couched under the other4 ,sometimes it can hardly break forth and show itself at intervals through the literal1 which meets the eye as the ruling sense1 and seems to have taken entire possession of the words and phrases4 ,on the contrary1 it is much oftener the capital figure in the piece1 and stands confessed at once by such splendour of language1 that the letter1 in its turn1 is thrown into shade1 and almost totally disappears4 ,sometimes it shines with a constant equable light1 and sometimes it darts upon us on a sudden1 like a flash of lightning from the clouds4 ,but a composition is never more truly elegant and beautiful1 than when the two senses1 alike conspicuous1 run parallel together through the whole poem1 mutually corresponding with and illustrating each other4 ,thus the establishment of ,david upon his throne1 notwithstanding the opposition made to it by his enemies1 is the subject of the second ,psalm4 ,david sustains in it a twofold character1 literal and allegorical4 ,if we read over the ,psalm first with an eye to the literal ,david1 the meaning is obvious1 and put out of all dispute by the sacred history4 ,there is indeed an uncommon glow in the expression1 and sublimity in the figures2 and the diction is now and then exaggerated1 as it were1 on purpose to intimate and lead us to the contemplation of higher and more important matters concealed within4 ,in compliance with this admonition1 if we take another survey of the ,psalm1 as relative to the person and concerns of the spiritual ,david1 a nobler series of events instantly rises to view1 and the meaning becomes more evident1 as well as exalted4 ,the colouring1 which may perhaps seem too bold and glaring for the king of ,israel1 will no longer appear so1 when laid upon his great antitype4 ,after we have thus attentively considered the subject apart1 let us look at them together1 and we shall behold the full beauty and majesty of this most charming poem4 ,we shall perceive the two senses very distinct from each other1 yet conspiring in perfect harmony1 and bearing a wonderful resemblance in every feature and lineament1 while the analogy between them is so exactly preserved1 that either may pass for the original1 from whence the other was copied4 ,new light is continually cast upon the phraseology1 fresh weight and dignity are added to the sentiment1 till gradually ascending from things below to things above1 from human affairs to those which are divine1 they bear the great important theme upward with them1 and at length place it in the height and brightness of heaven4 ,what has been observed with regard to this ,psalm1 may also be applied to the seventy-second2 the subject of which is of the same kind1 and treated in the same manner4 ,its title might be1 8,the ,inauguration of ,solomon40 ,the scheme of the allegory is alike in both2 but a diversity of matter occasions an alteration in the diction4 ,for whereas one is employed in celebrating the magnificent triumphs of victory1 it is the design of the other to draw a pleasing picture of peace1 and of that felicity which is her inseparable attendant4 ,the style is therefore of a more even and temperate sort1 and more richly ornamented4 ,it abounds not with those sudden changes of the person speaking which dazzle and astonish2 but the imagery is borrowed from the delightful scenes with which creation cheers the sight1 and the pencil of the divine artist is dipped in the softer colours of nature4 ,and here we may take notice how peculiarly adapted to the genius of this kind of allegory the parabolical style is1 on account of that great variety of natural images to be found in it4 ,for as these images are capable of being employed in the illustration of things divine and human1 between which there is a certain analogy maintained1 so they easily afford that ambiguity which is necessary in this species of composition1 where the language is applicable to each sense1 and obscure in neither2 it comprehends both parts of the allegory1 and may be clearly and distinctly referred to one or the other4 ,on this book ,bishop ,horsley remarks3--,these ,psalms go1 in general1 under the name of the ,psalms of ,david4 ,king ,david gave a regular and noble form to the musical part of the ,jewish service4 ,he was himself a great composer1 both in poetry and music1 and a munificent patron1 no doubt1 of arts in which he himself so much delighted and excelled4 ,the ,psalms1 however1 appear to be compositions of various authors1 in various ages2 some much more ancient than the times of ,king ,david1 some of a much later age4 ,of many1 ,david himself was undoubtedly the author2 and that those of his composition were prophetic1 we have ,david's own authority1 which may be allowed to overpower a host of modern expositors4 ,for thus ,king ,david1 at the close of his life1 describes himself and his sacred songs3 8,david1 the son of ,jesse1 said1 and the man who was raised up on high1 the anointed of the ,god of ,jacob1 and the sweet psalmist of ,israel1 said1 ,the ,spirit of ,jehovah spake by me1 and his word was in my tongue4' ,it was the word1 therefore1 of ,jehovah's ,spirit which was uttered by ,david's tongue4 ,but it should seem1 the ,spirit of ,jehovah would not be wanting to enable a mere man to make complaint of his own enemies1 to describe his own sufferings just as he felt them1 and his own escapes just as they happened4 ,but the ,spirit of ,jehovah described by ,david's utterance what was known to that ,spirit only1 and that ,spirit only could describe4 ,so that1 if ,david be allowed to have had any knowledge of the true subject of his own compositions1 it was nothing in his own life1 but something put into his mind by the ,holy ,spirit of ,god2 and the misapplication of the ,psalms to the literal ,david has done more mischief than the misapplication of any other parts of the ,scriptures among those who profess the belief of the ,christian religion4 ,the ,psalms are all poems of the lyric kind1 that is1 adapted to music1 but with great variety in the style of composition4 ,some are simply odes4 ,an ode is a dignified sort of song1 narrative of the facts1 either of public history or private life1 in a highly adorned and figured style4 ,but the figure in the ,psalms is that which is peculiar to the ,hebrew language1 in which the figure gives its meaning with as much perspicuity as the plainest speech4 ,some are of the sort called elegiac1 which are pathetic compositions upon mournful subjects4 ,some are ethic1 delivering grave maxims of life1 or the precepts of religion1 in solemn1 but for the most part simple1 strains4 ,some are enigmatic1 delivering the doctrines of religion in enigmata1 contrived to strike the imagination forcibly1 and yet easy to be understood4 ,in all these the author delivers the whole matter in his own person4 ,but a very great1 ,i believe the far greater1 part are a sort of dramatic ode1 consisting of dialogues between persons sustaining certain characters4 ,in these dialogue ,psalms the persons are frequently the psalmist himself1 or the chorus of priests and ,levites1 or the leader of the ,levitical band1 opening the ode with a proem declarative of the subject1 and very often closing the whole with a solemn admonition drawn from what the other persons say4 ,the other persons are ,jehovah1 sometimes as one1 sometimes as another1 of the three ,persons2 ,christ in his incarnate state1 sometimes before1 sometimes after1 his resurrection2 the human soul of ,christ as distinguished from the divine essence4 ,christ1 in his incarnate state1 is personated sometimes as a priest1 sometimes as a king1 sometimes as a conqueror2 and in those ,psalms in which he is introduced as a conqueror1 the resemblance is very remarkable between this conqueror in the book of ,psalms and the warrior on the white horse in the book of ,revelation1 who goes forth with a crown on his head1 and a bow in his hand1 conquering and to conquer4 ,and the conquest in the ,psalms is followed1 like the conquest in the ,revelation1 by the marriage of the conqueror4 ,these are circumstances of similitude which1 to any one versed in the prophetic style1 prove beyond a doubt that the mystical conqueror is the same personage in both4 ,,psalmody4 ,the service of the ancient ,christian church usually began with reading or with the singing of psalms4 ,we are not to understand this as if their psalmody was performed in one course of many psalms together1 without intermission1 but rather1 with some respite1 and a mixture of other parts of divine service1 to make the whole more agreeable and delightful4 ,as to the persons concerned in singing the ,psalms publicly in the church1 they may be considered in four different respects1 according to the different ways of psalmody2 for sometimes the ,psalms were sung by one person alone2 and sometimes the whole assembly joined together1 men1 women1 and children3 this was the most ancient and general practice4 ,at other times the ,psalms were sung alternately2 the congregation dividing themselves into two parts1 and singing verse for verse4 ,beside all these1 there was yet a fourth way of singing1 pretty common in the fourth century1 which was1 when a single person began the verse1 and the people joined with him in the close4 ,psalmody was always esteemed a considerable part of devotion1 and upon that account was usually performed in the standing posture4 ,as to the voice or pronunciation1 used in singing1 it was of two sorts1 the plain song1 and the more artificial2 the plain song was only a gentle inflexion1 or turn of the voice1 not very different from the chanting in our cathedrals2 the artificial song seems to have been a regular musical composition1 like our anthems4 ,it was no objection against the psalmody of the church1 that she sometimes made use of psalms and hymns of human composition1 beside those of the inspired writers4 ,st4 ,augustine himself made a psalm of many parts1 in imitation of the hundred and nineteenth1 to preserve his people from the errors of the ,donatists4 ,st4 ,hilary and ,st4 ,ambrose likewise made many hymns1 which were sung in their respective churches4 ,but two corruptions crept into the psalmody1 which the fathers declaim against with great zeal4 ,the first was1 the introducing secular music1 or an imitation of the light airs of the theatre1 in the devotions of the church4 ,the other was1 the regarding more the sweetness of the composition than the sense and meaning2 thereby pleasing the ear1 without raising the affections of the soul4 ,the use of musical instruments in singing of psalms1 seems to be as ancient as psalmody itself4 ,the first psalm we read of was sung to a timbrel1 namely1 that which ,moses and ,miriam sung after the deliverance of the children of ,israel from ,egypt2 and afterward1 at ,jerusalem1 when the temple was built1 musical instruments were constantly used at their public services4 ,and this has been the common practice in all ages of the church4 ,when the use of organs was first introduced1 is not certainly known2 but we find1 that about ,a4 ,d4 #ffj1 ,constantine ,copronymus1 emperor of ,constantinople1 sent a present of an organ to ,king ,pepin of ,france4 ,clement ,marot1 groom of the bed chamber to ,francis ,i41 king of ,france1 was the first who engaged in translating the ,psalms into metre4 ,he versified the first fifty at the instigation of ,vatablus1 ,hebrew professor at ,paris2 and afterward1 upon his return to ,geneva1 he made an acquaintance with ,beza1 who versified the rest1 and had tunes set to them2 and thus they began to be sung in private houses1 and afterward were brought into the churches of the ,french and other countries4 ,in imitation of this version1 ,sternhold1 one of the grooms of the privy chamber to our ,king ,edward ,,vi41 undertook a translation of the ,psalms into metre4 ,he went through but thirty-seven of them1 the rest being soon after finished by ,hopkins and others4 ,this translation was at first discountenanced by many of the clergy1 who looked upon it as done in opposition to the practice of chanting the ,psalms in the cathedrals4 ,early in the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth1 metrical psalmody was introduced into this country4 ,the new morning prayer began at ,st4 ,antholin's1 ,london1 when a psalm was sung in the ,geneva fashion1 all the congregation1 men1 women1 and boys singing together4 ,bishop ,jewel says1 that 8the singing of psalms1 begun in one church in ,london1 did quickly spread itself1 not only through the city1 but in the neighbouring places2 sometimes at ,paul's ,cross six thousand people singing together40 ,a curious controversy on this subject arose among the ,dissenters in the end of the seventeenth century4 ,whether singing in public worship had been partially discontinued during the times of persecution to avoid informers1 or whether the miserable manner in which it was performed gave persons a distaste to it1 so it appears1 that in #afia1 ,mr4 ,benjamin ,keach published a tract entitled1 8,the ,breach ,repaired in ,god's ,worship3 or1 ,psalms1 ,hymns1 c1 proved to be a ,holy ,ordinance of ,jesus ,christ40 ,to us it may appear strange that such a point should be disputed2 but ,mr4 ,keach was obliged to labour earnestly1 and with a great deal of prudence and caution1 to obtain the consent of his people to sing a hymn at the conclusion of the ,lord's ,supper4 ,after six years more1 they agreed to sing on the thanksgiving days2 but it required still fourteen years more before he could persuade them to sing every ,lord's day2 and then it was only after the last prayer1 that those who chose it might withdraw without joining in it6 ,nor did even this satisfy these scrupulous consciences2 for1 after all1 a separation took place1 and the inharmonious seceders formed a new church in ,may's ,pond1 where it was above twenty years longer before singing the praises of ,god could be endured4 ,it is difficult at this period to believe it2 but ,mr4 ,ivimey quotes ,mr4 ,crosby1 as saying1 that ,mr4 ,keach's was the first church in which psalm singing was introduced4 ,this remark1 however1 must probably be confined to the ,baptist churches4 ,the ,presbyterians1 it seems1 were not quite so unmusical2 for the ,directory of the ,westminster divines distinctly stated1 that 8it is the duty of ,christians to praise ,god publicly by singing of ,psalms together in the congregation40 ,and beside the old ,scotch ,psalms1 ,dr4 ,john ,patrick1 of the ,charter house1 made a version which was in very general use among ,dissenters1 ,presbyterians1 and ,independents1 before it was superseded by the far superior compositions of ,dr4 ,watts4 ,these ,psalms1 however1 like those of the ,english and ,scotch establishment1 were drawled out in notes of equal length1 without accent or variety4 ,even the introduction of the triple-time tunes1 probably about the time of ,dr4 ,watts's psalms1 gave also great offence to some people1 because it marked the accent of the measure4 ,old ,mr4 ,thomas ,bradbury used to call this time 8a long leg and a short one40 ,the beautiful compositions of ,dr4 ,watts1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,wesley1 and others1 have produced a considerable revolution in modern psalmody4 ,better versions of the ,psalms1 and many excellent collections of hymns1 are now in use1 and may be considered as highly important gifts bestowed upon the modern church of ,god4 ,,psaltery4 ,see ,,music4 ,,ptolemais4 ,see ,,accho4 ,,publican1 a collector or receiver of the ,roman revenues4 ,judea being added to the provinces of the ,roman empire1 and the taxes paid by the ,jews directly to the emperor1 the publicans were the officers appointed to collect them4 ,the ordinary taxes which the ,romans levied in the provinces were of three sorts3 #a4 ,customs upon goods imported and exported2 which tribute was therefore called portorium1 from portus1 8a haven40 #b4 ,a tax upon cattle fed in certain pastures belonging to the ,roman state1 the number of which being kept in writing1 this tribute was called scriptura4 #c4 ,a tax upon corn1 of which the government demanded a tenth part4 ,this tribute was called decuma4 ,these publicans are distinguished by ,sigonius into three sorts or degrees1--the farmers of the revenue1 their partners1 and their securities2 in which he follows ,polybius4 ,these are called the mancipes1 socii1 and prdes1 who were all under the qustore srarii1 that presided over the finances at ,rome4 ,the mancipes farmed the revenue of large districts or provinces1 had the oversight of the inferior publicans1 received their accounts and collections1 and transmitted them to the qustores rarii4 ,they often let out their provinces in smaller parcels to the socii2 so called1 because they were admitted to a share in the contract1 perhaps for the sake of more easily raising the purchase money2 at least to assist in collecting the tribute4 ,both the mancipes and socii are therefore properly styled 1 from 1 tributum1 and 1 emo4 ,they were obliged to procure prdes1 or sureties1 who gave security to the government for the fulfilment of the contract4 ,the distribution of ,sigonius1 therefore1 or rather of ,polybius1 is not quite exact1 since there were properly but two sorts of publicans1 the mancipes and the socii4 ,the former are1 probably1 those whom the ,greeks call 1 chiefs of the publicans2 of which sort was ,zaccheus4 ,as they were superior to the common publicans in dignity1 being mostly of the equestrian order1 so they were generally in their moral character4 ,but as for the common publicans1 the collectors or receivers1 as many of the socii were1 they are spoken of with great contempt1 by ,heathens as well as ,jews2 and particularly by ,theocritus1 who said1 that 8among the beasts of the wilderness1 bears and lions are the most cruel2 among the beasts of the city1 the publican and parasite40 ,the reason of the general hatred to them was1 doubtless1 their rapine and extortion4 ,for1 having a share in the farm of the tribute1 at a certain rate1 they were apt to oppress the people with illegal exactions1 to raise as large a fortune as they could for themselves4 ,beside1 publicans were particularly odious to the ,jews1 who looked upon them to be the instruments of their subjection to the ,roman emperors1 to which they generally held it sinful for them to submit4 ,they considered it as incompatible with their liberty to pay tribute to any foreign power1 ,luke xx1 #bb1 c2 and those of their own nation that engaged in this employment they regarded as ,heathens1 ,matthew xviii1 #ag4 ,it is even said1 that they would not allow them to enter into their temple or synagogues1 nor to join in prayers1 nor even allow their evidence in a court of justice on any trial2 nor would they accept of their offerings in the temple4 ,it appears by the ,gospel that there were many publicans in ,judea at the time of our ,saviour4 ,zaccheus1 probably1 was one of the principal receivers1 since he is called the chief of the publicans1 ,luke xix1 #b2 but ,st4 ,matthew was only an inferior publican4 ,the ,jews reproached our ,saviour for showing kindness to these persons1 ,luke vii1 #cd2 and he himself ranks them with harlots1 ,matt4 xxi1 #ca4 ,some of them1 it should seem1 had humbling views of themselves1 ,luke xviii1 #aj4 ,zaccheus assures our ,lord1 who had honoured him with a visit1 that he was ready to give the half of his goods to the poor1 ,luke xix1 #h1 and to return fourfold of whatever he had unjustly acquired4 ,,publius1 the governor of ,melita1 ,acts xxviii1 #g-i4 ,when ,st4 ,paul was shipwrecked on this island1 ,publius received him and his company into his house very kindly1 and treated them for three days with great humanity4 ,,pul1 king of ,assyria4 ,he came into the land of ,israel in the time of ,manahem1 king of the ten tribes1 #b ,kings xv1 #ai1 c1 and invaded the kingdom on the other side of ,jordan4 ,but ,manahem1 by a present of one thousand talents of silver1 prevailed on the king of ,assyria1 not only to withdraw his forces1 but to recognize his title to the crown of ,israel before he left the kingdom4 ,this is the first time that we find any mention made of the kingdom of ,assyria since the days of ,nimrod2 and ,pul is the first monarch of that nation who invaded ,israel1 and began their transportation out of their own country4 ,,pulse1 1 ,lev4 xxiii1 #ad2 #a ,sam4 xvii1 #ag2 #b ,sam4 xvii1 #bh2 a term applied to those grains or seeds which grow in pods1 as beans1 peas1 vetches1 c1 from 1 a bean4 ,the ,vulgate renders this kali in #b ,sam4 xvii1 #bh1 frixum cicer1 8parched peas40 ,in ,daniel i1 #ab1 #af1 the word 1 rendered pulse1 may signify seeds in general4 ,,punishments ,,of ,,the ,,hebrews4 ,there were several sorts of punishments in use among the ,jews which are mentioned in the ,scripture4 #a4 ,the punishment of the cross4 7,see ,cross47 #b4 ,suspension1 ,esther vii1 #aj2 ,joshua viii1 #bi2 #b ,samuel xxi1 #ab4 #c4 ,stoning4 #d4 ,fire4 ,this punishment was common1 ,gen4 xxxviii1 #bd2 ,leviticus xxi1 #i4 #e4 ,the rack or tympanum1 mentioned ,heb4 xi1 #ce4 ,commentators are much divided about the meaning of this punishment2 but most of them are of opinion that the bastinado1 or the punishment of the stick1 is intended1 and that the ,apostle alludes to the cruelties exercised upon old ,eleazar2 for1 in #b ,mac4 vi1 #ai1 where his martyrdom is spoken of1 it is said that he came to the tympanum4 #f4 ,the precipice1 or throwing persons headlong from a rock1 with a stone tied about the neck1 #b ,chron4 xxv1 #ab4 #g4 ,decapitation1 ,gen4 xl1 #ai2 ,judges ix1 #e2 #b ,kings x1 #g2 ,matt4 xiv1 #h4 #h4 ,the punishment of the saw1 or to be cut asunder in the middle1 ,heb4 xi1 #cg4 ,this punishment was not unknown to the ,hebrews4 ,some think it was originally from the ,persians or ,chaldeans4 #i4 ,plucking out the eyes1 ,exod4 xxi1 #bd4 ,some think this punishment was seldom executed1 but the offender was made to suffer in his property rather than in his person3 yet there are some instances on record1 ,judges xvi1 #ba2 #a ,sam4 xi1 #b2 #b ,kings xxv1 #g4 #aj4 ,the cutting off the extremities of the feet and hands1 ,judges i1 #e-g2 #b ,sam4 iv1 #ab4 ,,pur1 1 1 signifies lot4 ,pur1 ,phur1 or ,purim1 was a solemn feast of the ,jews1 instituted in memory of the lots cast by ,haman1 the enemy of the ,jews1 ,esther iii1 #g4 ,these lots were cast in the first month of the year1 and gave the twelfth month of the same year for the execution of ,haman's design1 to destroy all the ,jews in ,persia4 ,thus the superstition of ,haman1 in crediting these lots1 caused his own ruin1 and the preservation of the ,jews1 who1 by means of ,esther1 had time to avert this blow4 ,the ,jews have exactly kept this feast down to our times4 ,see ,,haman1 ,,esther1 and ,,mordecai4 ,,purgatory1 a place in which1 according to the church of ,rome1 the just1 who depart out of this life1 are supposed to expiate certain offences which do not merit eternal damnation4 ,broughton has endeavoured to prove that this notion has been held by ,pagans1 ,jews1 and ,mohammedans1 as well as by ,christians2 and that in the days of the ,maccabees1 the ,jews believed that sin might be expiated by sacrifice after the death of the sinner4 ,the arguments advanced for purgatory by the papists are these3 ,every sin1 how slight soever1 though no more than an idle word1 as it is an offence to ,god1 deserves punishment from him1 and will be punished by him hereafter1 if not cancelled by repentance here4 #b4 ,such small sins do not deserve eternal punishment4 #c4 ,few depart this life so pure as to be totally exempt from spots of this nature1 and from every kind of debt due to ,god's justice4 #d4 ,therefore1 few will escape without suffering something from his justice for such debts as they have carried with them out of this world1 according to the rule of divine justice1 by which he treats every soul hereafter according to his works1 and according to the state in which he finds it in death4 ,from these positions1 which the papist considers as so many self-evident truths1 he infers that there must be some third place of punishment2 for since the infinite holiness of ,god can admit nothing into heaven that is not clean and pure from all sin1 both great and small1 and his infinite justice can permit none to receive the reward of bliss1 who as yet are not out of debt1 but have something in justice to suffer1 there must1 of necessity1 be some place or state1 where souls departing this life1 pardoned as to the eternal guilt of sin1 yet obnoxious to some temporal penalty1 or with the guilt of some venial faults1 are purged and purified before their admittance into heaven4 ,and this is what he is taught concerning purgatory2 though he know not where it is1 of what nature the pains are1 or how long each soul is detained there1 yet he believes that those who are in this place are relieved by the prayers of their fellow members here on earth1 as also by alms and masses offered up to ,god for their souls4 ,and as for such as have no relations or friends to pray for them1 or give alms to procure masses for their relief1 they are not neglected by the church1 which makes a general commemoration of all the faithful departed1 in every mass1 and in every one of the canonical hours of the divine office4 ,beside the above arguments1 the following passages are alleged as proofs3 #b ,macc4 xii1 #dc-de2 ,matt4 xii1 #ca1 #cb2 #a ,cor4 iii1 #ae2 #a ,peter iii1 #ai4 ,but it may be observed1 #a4 ,that the books of ,maccabees have no evidence of inspiration1 therefore quotations from them are not to be regarded4 #b4 ,if they were1 the texts referred to would rather prove that there is no such place as purgatory1 since ,judas did not expect the souls departed to reap any benefit from the sin-offering till the resurrection4 ,the texts quoted from the ,scriptures have no reference to the doctrine1 as may be seen by consulting the context1 and any just commentator upon it4 #c4 ,the ,scriptures1 in general1 speak of departed souls going immediately1 at death1 to a fixed state of happiness or misery1 and give us no idea of purgatory1 ,isaiah lvii1 #b2 ,rev4 xiv1 #ac2 ,luke xvi1 #bb2 #b ,cor4 v1 #h4 #d4 ,it is derogatory from the doctrine of the satisfaction of ,christ4 ,if ,christ died for us1 and redeemed us from sin and hell1 as the ,scripture speaks1 then the idea of farther meritorious suffering detracts from the perfection of his sacrifice1 and places merit still in the creature2 a doctrine exactly opposite to the ,scriptures4 ,,puritans4 ,in ,england1 the term ,puritans was applied to those who wished for a farther degree of reformation in the church than was adopted by ,queen ,elizabeth2 and a purer form1 not of faith1 but of discipline and worship4 ,it was a common name given to all who1 from conscientious motives1 though on different grounds1 disapproved of the established religion1 from the reformation under ,elizabeth1 to the ,act of ,uniformity in #affb4 ,from that time to the revolution in #afhh1 as many as refused to comply with the established worship1 7among whom were about two thousand clergymen1 and perhaps five hundred thousand people17 were denominated ,nonconformists4 ,from the passing of the ,act of ,toleration on the accession of ,william and ,mary1 the name of ,nonconformists was changed to that of ,protestant ,dissenters4 ,prior to the grand rebellion in #afdj1 the ,puritans were1 almost without exception1 ,episcopalians2 but after the famous 8,league and ,covenant0 of those turbulent times the greater part of them became ,presbyterians4 ,some1 however1 were ,independents1 and some ,baptists4 ,the objections of the latter were more fundamental2 they disapproved of all national churches1 as such1 and disavowed the authority of human legislation in matters of faith and worship4 ,the persecutions carried on against the ,puritans during the reigns of ,elizabeth and the ,stuarts served to lay the foundation of a new empire1 and eventually a vast republic1 in the western world4 ,thither1 as into a wilderness1 they fled from the face of their persecutors2 and1 being protected in the free exercise of their religion1 continued to increase1 until at length they became an independent nation4 ,the different principles1 however1 on which they had originally divided from the church establishment at home1 operated in a way that might have been expected1 when they came to the possession of the civil power abroad4 ,those who formed the colony of ,massachusetts having never relinquished the principle of a national church1 and of the power of the civil magistrate in matters of faith and worship1 were less tolerant than those who settled at ,new ,plymouth1 at ,rhode ,island1 and ,providence ,plantations4 ,the very men who had just escaped the persecutions of the ,english prelates1 now1 in their turn1 persecuted others who dissented from them2 until1 at length1 the liberal system of toleration established in the parent country at the revolution1 extended to the colonies1 and in a good measure put an end to these censurable proceedings4 ,,purple1 1 ,exodus xxv1 #d1 c2 1 ,mark xv1 #ag1 #bj2 ,luke xvi1 #ai2 ,john xix1 #b1 #e2 ,rev4 xvii1 #d2 xviii1 #ab1 #af4 ,this is supposed to be the very precious colour extracted from the purpura or murex1 a species of shell fish2 and the same with the famous ,tyrian dye1 so costly1 and so much celebrated in antiquity4 ,the purple dye is called in #a ,macc4 iv1 #bc1 8purple of the sea10 or sea purple2 it being the blood or juice of a turbinated shell fish1 which the ,jews call 4 7,see ,scarlet47 ,among the blessings pronounced by ,moses upon the tribes of ,israel1 those of ,zebulun and ,issachar are1 8,they shall suck of the abundance of the seas1 and of the treasures hid in the sand10 ,deut4 xxxiii1 #ai4 ,jonathan ,ben ,uzziel explains the latter clause thus3 8,from the sand are produced looking glasses1 and glass in general2 the treasures1 the method of finding and working which1 was revealed to these tribes40 ,several ancient writers inform us1 that there were havens in the coasts of the ,zebulunites1 in which the sand proper for making glass was found4 ,the words of ,tacitus are remarkable3 8,et ,belus amnis ,judaico mari illabitur1 circa ejus os lect aren admixto nitro in vitrum excoquuntur40 8,the river ,belus falls into the ,jewish sea1 about whose mouth those sands mixed with nitre are collected1 out of which glass is formed40 ,but it seems much more natural to explain 8the treasures hid in the sand10 of those highly valuable murices and purpur which were found on the sea coast1 near the country of ,zebulun and ,issachar1 and of which those tribes partook in common with their ,heathen neighbours of ,tyre1 who rendered the curious dyes made from those shell fish so famous among the ,romans by the names of ,sarranum ostrum1 ,tyrii colores4 ,in reference to the purple vestment1 ,luke xvi1 #ai1 it may be observed that this was not appropriately a royal robe4 ,in the earlier times it was the dress of any of high rank4 ,thus all the courtiers were styled by the historians purpurati4 ,this colour is more properly crimson than purple2 for the ,,lxx41 ,josephus1 and ,philo1 constantly use to express the ,hebrew 1 by which the ,talmudists understood crimson2 and that this ,hebrew word expressed1 not the ,tyrian purple1 but that brought to the city from another country1 appears from ,ezek4 xxvii1 #g4 ,the purple robe put on our ,saviour1 ,john xix1 #b1 #e1 is explained by a ,roman custom1 the dressing of a person in the robes of state1 as the investiture of office4 ,hence the robe brought by ,herod's or the ,roman soldiers1 scoffingly1 was as though it had been the pict vestes usually sent by the ,roman senate4 ,in ,acts xvi1 #ad1 ,lydia is said to be 8a seller of purple40 ,mr4 ,harmer styles purple the most sublime of all earthly colours1 having the gaudiness of red1 of which it retains a shade1 softened with the gravity of blue4 ,,puteoli1 so called from its baths of hot water1 a city of ,campania1 in ,italy2 now called ,pozzuoli1 in a province of the kingdom of ,naples1 called ,terra di ,lavoro1 and about eight miles from ,naples4 ,st4 ,paul stayed a week with the ,christians of this place1 in his journey as a prisoner to ,rome1 ,acts xxviii1 #ac4 ,the ,alexandrian merchant vessels preferred ,puteoli to all the harbours in ,italy1 and here they deposited their rich freights4 ,they conducted the ships adorned with wreaths and festive garments1 in the form of a fleet1 one after another1 into the harbour1 where they were received with the greatest demonstrations of friendship4 ,such was the case with the sale of ,alexandrian commodities throughout ,italy4 ,according to the course then pursued1 the vessel in which ,st4 ,paul sailed went direct into this harbour4 ,,quail1 1 ,exod4 xvi1 #ac2 ,num4 xi1 #ca1 #cb2 ,psalm cv1 #aj2 a bird of the gallinaceous kind4 ,hasselquist1 mentioning the quail of the larger kind1 says1 8,it is of the size of the turtle dove4 ,i have met with it in the wilderness of ,palestine1 near the shores of the ,dead ,sea and the ,jordan1 between ,jordan and ,jericho1 and in the deserts of ,arabia ,petrea4 ,if the food of the ,israelites was a bird1 this is certainly it2 being so common in the places through which they passed40 ,it is said that ,god gave quails to his people in the wilderness upon two occasions3 first1 within a few days after they had passed the ,red ,sea1 ,exod4 xvi1 #c-ac4 ,the second time was at the encampment at the place called in ,hebrew1 ,kibroth-hataavah1 the graves of lust1 ,num4 xi1 #cb2 ,psalm cv1 #dj4 ,both of these happened in the spring1 when the quails passed from ,asia into ,europe4 ,they are then to be found in great quantities upon the coast of the ,red ,sea and ,mediterranean4 ,god caused a wind to arise that drove them within and about the camp of the ,israelites2 and it is in this that the miracle consists1 that they were brought so seasonably to this place1 and in so great number as to furnish food for above a million of persons for more than a month4 ,the ,hebrew word shalav signifies 8a quail10 by the agreement of the ancient interpreters4 ,and the ,chaldee1 ,syriac1 and ,arabic languages call them nearly by the same name4 ,the ,septuagint1 ,symmachus1 and most of commentators1 both ancient and modern1 understand it in the same manner2 and with them agree ,philo1 ,josephus1 ,apollinaris1 and the rabbins2 but ,ludolphus has endeavoured to prove that a species of locust is spoken of by ,moses4 ,dr4 ,shaw answers1 that the holy psalmist1 in describing this particular food of the ,israelites1 by calling the animals feathered fowls1 entirely confutes this supposition4 ,and it should be recollected1 that this miracle was performed in compliance with the wish of the people that they might have flesh to eat4 ,,quakers4 ,see ,,friends4 ,,questions4 ,among the ancients no pastime was more common than that of proposing and answering difficult questions4 ,the person who solved the question was honoured with a reward2 he who failed in the attempt suffered a certain punishment2 both the rewards and penalties were varied according to the disposition of the company4 ,that the custom of proposing riddles was very ancient1 and derived from the eastern nations1 appears from the story of ,samson1 in the book of ,judges1 who proposed one to the ,philistines at his nuptial feast4 ,nor were these questions confined to entertainments1 but1 in the primitive times1 were proposed on other occasions1 by those who desired to make proof of another's wisdom and learning4 ,agreeably to this custom1 the queen of ,sheba came to prove ,solomon with hard questions1 #a ,kings x1 #a4 ,,quietists1 the disciples of ,michael de ,molinos1 a ,spanish priest1 who flourished in the seventeenth century1 and wrote a book called 8,the ,spiritual ,guide40 ,he had many disciples in ,spain1 ,italy1 ,france1 and the ,netherlands4 ,some pretend that he borrowed his principles from the ,spanish ,illuminati2 and ,m4 ,gregoire will have it that they came originally from the ,persian ,soofees2 while others no less confidently derive them from the ,greek ,hesycasts4 ,the ,quietists1 however1 deduce their principles from the ,scriptures4 ,they argue thus3 8,the ,apostle tells us1 that #8the ,spirit makes intercession for' or in #8us4' ,now if the ,spirit pray in us1 we must resign ourselves to his impulses1 by remaining in a state of absolute rest1 or quietude1 till we attain the perfection of the unitive life10 a life of union with1 and1 as it should seem1 of absorption in1 the ,deity4 ,they contend1 that true religion consists in the present calm and tranquillity of a mind removed from all external and finite things1 and centered in ,god2 and in such a pure love of the supreme ,being1 as is independent of all prospect of interest or reward4 ,to prove that our love to the ,deity must be disinterested1 they allege1 that the ,lord hath made all things for himself1 as saith the ,scripture2 and it is for his glory that he wills our happiness4 ,to conform1 therefore1 to the great end of our creation1 we must prefer ,god to ourselves1 and not desire our own happiness but for his glory2 otherwise we shall go contrary to his order4 ,as the perfections of the ,deity are intrinsically amiable1 it is our glory and perfection to go out of ourselves1 to be lost and absorbed in the pure love of infinite beauty4 ,madam ,guion1 a woman of fashion in ,france1 born #afdh1 becoming pious1 was a warm advocate of these principles4 ,she asserted1 that the means of arriving at this perfect love1 are prayer and the self-denial enjoined in the ,gospel4 ,prayer she defines to be the entire bent of the soul toward its divine origin4 ,some of her pious canticles were translated by the poet ,cowper1 and represent her sentiments to the best advantage4 ,fenelon1 the amiable archbishop of ,cambray1 also favoured these sentiments in his celebrated publication1 entitled1 8,the ,maxims of the ,saints40 ,the distinguishing tenet in his theology was the doctrine of the disinterested love of ,god for his own excellencies1 independent of his relative benevolence3 an important feature also in the system of ,madam ,guion1 who1 with the good archbishop1 was persecuted by the pope and by ,bossuet4 ,see ,,mystics4 ,,rab4 ,the title rabbi1 with several others from the same root1 1 magnus est1 vel multiplicatus est1 began first to be assumed1 according to ,godwin1 as a distinguishing title of honour by men of learning1 about the time of the birth of ,christ4 ,we find it anciently given1 indeed1 to several magistrates and officers of state4 ,in ,esther i1 #h1 it is said1 the king appointed - 1 which we render 8all the officers of his house40 ,in ,jeremiah xli1 #a1 we read of the 1 8the princes of the king40 ,in ,job xxxii1 #i1 it is said1 that the 1 which we render 8great men1 are not always wise20 a rendering which well expresses the original meaning of the word4 ,it was not therefore in those days properly a title of honour1 belonging to any particular office or dignity1 in church or state2 but all who were of superior rank1 and condition in life were called 4 ,we do not find the prophets1 or other men of learning in the ,old ,testament1 affecting any title beside that which denoted their office2 and they were contented to be addressed by their bare names4 ,the first ,jewish rabbi1 said to have been distinguished with any title of honour1 was ,simeon1 the son of ,hillel1 who succeeded his father as president of the sanhedrim2 and his title was that of rabban4 ,the later rabbies tell us1 this title was conferred with a good deal of ceremony4 ,when a person had gone through the schools and was thought worthy of the degree of rabbi1 he was first placed in a chair somewhat raised above the company2 then were delivered to him a key and a table book3 the key1 as a symbol of the power or authority now conferred upon him1 to teach that knowledge to others which he had learned himself2 and this key he afterward wore as a badge of his honour1 and when he died it was buried with him3 the table book was a symbol of his diligence in his studies1 and of his endeavouring to make farther improvements in learning4 ,the next ceremony in the creation of a rabbi was the imposition of hands on him by the delegates of the sanhedrim1 practised in imitation of ,moses's ordaining ,joshua by this rite1 to succeed him in his office1 ,num4 xxvii1 #ah2 ,deut4 xxxiv1 #i4 ,and then they proclaimed his title4 ,according to ,maimonides1 the imposition of hands was not looked upon to be essential2 but was sometimes omitted4 ,they did not always1 saith he1 lay their hands on the head of the elder to be ordained2 but called him rabbi1 and said1 8,behold thou art ordained1 and hast power10 c4 ,we find this title given to ,john the ,baptist1 ,john iii1 #bf2 and frequently to our blessed ,saviour2 as by ,john's disciples1 by ,nicodemus1 and by the people that followed1 ,john i1 #ch2 iii1 #b2 vi1 #bj4 ,the reason of our ,saviour's prohibiting his disciples to be called rabbi is expressed in these words3 8,be not ye called rabbi1 for one is your master1 even ,christ10 1 your guide and conductor1 on whose word and instructions alone you are to depend in matters of religion and salvation4 ,accordingly the inspired ,apostles pretend to nothing more than1 as the ambassadors of ,christ1 to deliver his instructions2 and1 for their own part1 they expressly disclaim all dominion over the faith and consciences of men1 #b ,cor4 i1 #bd2 v1 #bj4 ,the ,jewish writers distinguish between the titles rab1 rabbi1 rabban4 ,as for rab and rabbi1 the only difference between them is1 that rab was the title of such as had had their education1 and taken their degree1 in some foreign ,jewish school2 suppose at ,babylon1 where there was a school or academy of considerable note2 rabbi was the title of such as were educated in the land of ,judea1 who were accounted more honourable than the others4 ,but as for rabban1 it was the highest title2 which1 they say1 was never conferred on more than seven persons1 namely1 on ,r4 ,simeon1 five of his descendants1 and on ,r4 ,jochanan1 who was of a different family4 ,it was on this account1 it should seem1 that the blind man gave this title to ,christ1 ,mark x1 #ea2 being convinced that he was possessed of divine power1 and worthy of the most honourable distinctions4 ,and ,mary ,magdalene1 when she saw ,christ after his resurrection1 8said unto him1 ,rabboni10 ,john xx1 #af1 that is1 my rabban1 like my lord in ,english2 for rabbon is the same with rabban1 only pronounced according to the ,syriac dialect4 ,there were several gradations among the ,jews before the dignity of rabbin1 as among us1 before the degree of doctor4 ,the head of a school was called chacham1 or wise4 ,he had the head seat in the assemblies and in the synagogues4 ,he reprimanded the disobedient1 and could excommunicate them2 and this procured him great respect4 ,in their schools they sat upon raised chairs1 and their scholars were seated at their feet4 ,hence ,st4 ,paul is said to have studied at the feet of ,rabbi ,gamaliel1 ,acts xxii1 #c4 ,the studies of the rabbins are employed either on the text of the law1 or the traditions1 or the cabbala2 these three objects form so many different schools and different sorts of rabbins4 ,those who chiefly apply to the letter of ,scripture are called ,caraites1 ,literalists4 ,those who chiefly study the traditions and oral laws of the ,talmud are called ,rabbanists4 ,those who give themselves to their secret and mysterious divinity1 letters and numbers1 are called ,cabbalists1 ,traditionaries4 ,the rabbins are generally very ignorant in history1 chronology1 philology1 antiquity1 and geography4 ,they understand the holy language but imperfectly4 ,they know not the true signification of a multitude of words in the sacred text4 ,they are prodigiously conceited about their traditions1 so that there is very little profit in reading them2 and experience shows that most who have applied themselves to peruse their books1 have been but little benefited by them1 and have entertained a perfect contempt of their understanding and their works4 ,the chief function of the rabbins is to preach in the synagogue1 to make public prayers there1 and to interpret the law2 they have the power of binding and loosing1 that is1 of declaring what is forbidden1 and what allowed4 ,when the synagogue is poor and small1 there is but one rabbin1 who at the same time discharges the office of a judge and a teacher4 ,but when the ,jews are numerous and powerful1 they appoint three pastors1 and a house of judgment1 where all their civil affairs are determined4 ,then the rabbin applies himself to instruction only1 unless it be thought proper to call him into the council to give his advice1 in which case he takes the chief place4 ,,rabbath1 or ,,rabbat-,,ammon1 the capital city of the ,ammonites1 situated beyond ,jordan4 ,see ,,ammon4 ,,rabbath-,,moab1 the capital city of the ,moabites1 called otherwise ,ar1 or ,areopolis4 ,see ,,moab4 ,,rabbi4 ,see ,,rab4 ,,rabshakeh1 a chief butler1 or cupbearer4 ,this is a term of dignity1 and not a proper name4 ,rabshakeh was sent by ,sennacherib1 king of ,assyria1 to summon ,hezekiah to surrender ,jerusalem1 #b ,kings xviii1 #ag1 #ah2 xix1 #d2 ,isaiah xxxvi4 ,,raca1 a ,syriac word which properly signifies empty1 vain1 beggarly1 foolish1 and which includes in it a strong idea of contempt4 ,our ,saviour pronounces a censure on every person using this term to his neighbour1 ,matt4 v1 #bb4 ,lightfoot assures us that1 in the writings of the ,jews1 the word raca is a term of the utmost contempt1 and that it was usual to pronounce it with marked signs of indignation4 ,,rachel1 the daughter of ,laban1 and sister of ,leah4 ,the ,prophet ,jeremiah1 xxxi1 #ae1 and ,st4 ,matthew1 ii1 #ah1 have put ,rachel for the tribes of ,ephraim and ,manasseh1 the children of ,joseph1 the son of ,rachel4 ,this prophecy was completed when these two tribes were carried into captivity beyond the ,euphrates2 and ,st4 ,matthew made application of it to what happened at ,bethlehem1 when ,herod put to death the children of two years old and under4 ,then ,rachel1 who was buried there1 might be said to make her lamentations for the death of so many innocent children sacrificed to the jealousy of a wicked monarch4 ,,rahab was a hostess of the city of ,jericho1 who received and concealed the spies sent by ,joshua4 ,the ,hebrew calls her ,zona1 ,joshua ii1 #a1 which ,jerom and many others understand of a prostitute4 ,others think she was only a hostess or innkeeper1 and that this is the true signification of the original word4 ,had she been a woman of ill fame1 would ,salmon1 a prince of the tribe of ,judah1 have taken her to wife8 ,or could he have done it by the law8 ,beside1 the spies of ,joshua would hardly have gone to lodge with a common harlot1 they who were charged with so nice and dangerous a commission4 ,those who maintain that she was a harlot1 pretend that she was perhaps one of those women who prostituted themselves in honour of the ,pagan deities2 as if this could extenuate her crime1 or the scandal of her profession if she was a public woman4 ,it is also observable that such women are called kadeshah1 not zona1 in the ,hebrew4 ,rahab married ,salmon1 a prince of ,judah1 by whom she had ,boaz1 from whom descended ,obed1 ,jesse1 and ,david4 ,thus ,jesus ,christ condescended to reckon this ,canaanitish woman among his ancestors4 ,st4 ,paul magnifies the faith of ,rahab1 ,heb4 xi1 #ca4 ,rahab is also a name of ,egypt1 ,isa4 xxx1 #g2 li1 #i4 ,,raiment4 ,in addition to what occurs under the article ,habits1 it may be observed that to make presents of changes of raiment1 ,gen4 xlv1 #bb1 has always been common among all ranks of orientals4 ,the perfuming of raiment with sweet-scented spices or extracts is also still a custom1 which explains the smell of ,jacob's raiment4 ,a coat or robe of many colours1 such as ,jacob gave to ,joseph1 is also a mark of distinction4 ,the ,turks at ,aleppo thus array their sons2 and1 in the time of ,sisera1 a coat of divers colours is mentioned among the rich spoils which fell to the conquerors4 ,a frequent change of garments is also very common both to show respect and to display opulence4 ,is there an allusion to this in ,psalm cii1 #bf3 8,as a vesture shalt thou change them1 and they shall be changed80 ,if so1 it conveys the magnificent idea of the almighty ,creator investing himself with the whole creation as with a robe1 and having laid that aside1 by new creations1 or the successive production of beings1 clothing himself with others1 at his pleasure4 ,,rain1 the vapours exhaled by the sun1 which descend from the clouds to water the earth1 ,eccles4 xi1 #c4 ,the sacred writers often speak of the rain of the former and latter season1 ,deut4 xi1 #ad2 ,hosea vi1 #c4 ,twice in the year there generally fell plenty of rain in ,judea2 in the beginning of the civil year1 about ,september or ,october2 and half a year after1 in the month of ,abib1 or ,march1 which was the first month in the ecclesiastical or sacred year1 whence it is called the latter rain in the first month1 ,joel ii1 #bc4 7,see ,canaan47 ,the ancient ,hebrews compared elocution1 and even learning or doctrine1 to rain3 8,my doctrine shall drop as the rain10 ,deut4 xxxii1 #b4 ,,rameses1 or ,,raamses1 a city supposed to have been situated in the eastern part of ,egypt1 called the land of ,goshen1 which was also hence termed the land of ,rameses4 ,it was one of the cities built by the ,israelites as a treasure city1 as it is translated in our ,bibles2 probably a store city1 or1 as others interpret it1 a fortress4 ,its position may be fixed about six or eight miles above the modern ,cairo1 a little to the south of the ,babylon of the ,persians1 the ancient ,letopolis2 as ,josephus says that the children of ,israel1 after quitting this place1 in their first march to ,succoth1 passed by the latter city4 ,,ramoth1 a famous city in the mountains of ,gilead1 #a ,kings iv1 #ac4 ,it is often called ,ramoth-,gilead4 ,josephus calls it ,ramathan1 or ,aramatha4 ,the city belonged to the tribe of ,gad1 ,deut4 iv1 #dc4 ,it was assigned for a dwelling of the ,levites1 and was one of the cities of refuge beyond ,jordan1 ,joshua xx1 #h2 xxi1 #ch4 ,it became famous during the reigns of the latter kings of ,israel1 and was the occasion of several wars between them and the kings of ,damascus1 who had made a conquest of it1 which the sovereigns of ,israel endeavoured to regain1 #a ,kings xxii1 #c-e4 ,eusebius says1 that ,ramoth was fifteen miles from ,philadelphia toward the east4 ,st4 ,jerom places it in the neighbourhood of ,jabbok1 and consequently to the north of ,philadelphia4 ,,raven1 1 in ,chaldee1 orba1 in ,syriac1 croac1 in ,latin1 corvus1 ,gen4 viii1 #g2 ,lev4 xi1 #ae2 ,deut4 xiv1 #ad2 #a ,kings xvii1 #d1 #f2 ,job xxxviii1 #da2 ,psalm cxlvii1 #i2 ,prov4 xxx1 #ag2 ,cant4 v1 #aa2 ,isa4 xxxiv1 #aa2 1 ,luke xii1 #bd2 a well known bird of prey4 ,all the interpreters agree that oreb signifies the raven1 from oreb1 8evening10 on account of its colour4 ,michalis1 in proposing a question respecting certain birds1 says of the oreb1 8,il est decid1 que c'est le corbeau2 il seroit donc superflu de le demander4 ,mais je desirerois plus de certitude sur le nom ,syriaque des corbeaux40 ,it is settled that this is the raven2 it would therefore be superfluous to investigate it4 ,but ,i could wish more certainty respecting the ,syriac name of ravens4 ,one can hardly doubt that it is taken from the note of this bird4 ,on the decrease of the waters of the flood1 so that the tops of the mountains became visible1 ,noah sent forth out of one of the windows of the ark a raven1 a bold and adventurous bird1 by way of experiment1 to see whether the waters were sunk or abated4 ,forty days the violent rain had continued2 and he might think this1 therefore1 a likely time for the waters to run off again4 ,in the original text1 in the ,samaritan1 in the ,chaldee and ,arabic1 it is said that the raven 8returned0 to the ark2 but the ,greek interpreters1 the ,syriac1 the ,latin1 and most of the eminent fathers and commentators1 say that it did not return any more4 ,here are great authorities on both sides1 but the latter reading1 though so contrary in sense to the other1 yet in the ,hebrew is not very different in the form of the letters1 and appears to be the better reading of the two4 ,for if the raven had returned1 what occasion had ,noah to send forth a dove8 ,or why did he not take the raven in unto him into the ark1 as he did afterward the dove8 ,or why did he not send forth the same raven again1 as he did afterward the same dove again8 ,it is not improperly expressed in our translation1 that 8the raven went forth to and fro10 flying hither and thither1 8until the waters were dried up from off the face of the earth40 ,he found1 perhaps1 in the higher grounds1 some of the carcasses of those who had perished in the deluge4 ,the ,prophet ,elijah was in his retirement fed by this bird4 ,a writer1 indeed1 in the ,memoirs of ,literature1 for ,april1 #agaj1 endeavours to show1 from many authors1 that there was in the country of ,bethschan1 in ,decapolis1 by the brook ,cherith or ,carith1 a little town called ,aorabi or ,orbo1 ,judges vii1 #be2 ,isa4 x1 #f2 and he therefore explains the word orebim1 which1 in #a ,kings xvii1 #d1 we translate 8ravens10 of the inhabitants of that village1 some of whom1 he contends1 daily carried bread and flesh to ,elijah1 who had retired to and lay in a cave in the neighbourhood4 ,on the other hand1 ,scheuchzer ably vindicates the commonly received opinion4 ,the editor of ,calmet1 also1 in the appendix1 under the article ,elijah1 has some pertinent observations on this subject4 8,we ought to consider10 says he1 8#a4 ,that ,ahab sought ,elijah with avidity1 and took an oath of every people1 no doubt1 also1 in his dominions1 that he was not concealed among its inhabitants2 his situation1 therefore1 required the utmost privacy1 even to solitude4 #b4 ,that when the brook ,cherith was dried up1 the prophet was obliged to quit his asylum1 which he needed not to have done1 had a people been his suppliers1 for they could have brought him water as well as food40 ,in ,psalm cxlvii1 #i1 it is said1 8,the ,lord giveth to the beast his food1 and to the young ravens which cry40 ,and in ,job xxxviii1 #da1 8,who provideth for the raven his food1 when his young ones cry unto ,god1 wandering for want of meat80 ,job and the psalmist may allude to what is said by some naturalists1 that the ravens drive out their young ones early from their nests1 and oblige them to seek food for their own sustenance4 ,the same kind ,providence which furnishes support to his intelligent offspring is not unmindful of the wants1 or inattentive to the desires1 of the meanest of his creatures4 ,lo1 the young ravens1 from their nest exiled1 ,on hunger's wing attempt the aerial wild6 ,who leads their wanderings1 and their feast supplies8 ,to ,god ascend their importuning cries4 ,christ instructs his disciples1 from the same circumstance1 to trust in the care and kindness of ,heaven3 8,consider the ravens2 for they neither sow nor reap1 neither have storehouse1 nor barn2 and ,god feedeth them4 ,how much better are ye than the fowls60 ,luke xii1 #bd4 ,solomon1 speaking of the peculiar regard and veneration due to the worthy persons and salutary instructions of parents1 observes1 that an untimely fate1 and the want of decent interment1 may be expected from contrary conduct2 and that the leering eye1 which throws wicked contempt on a good father1 and insolent disdain on a tender mother1 shall be dug out of the unburied exposed corpse by the ravens of the valley1 and eaten up by the young eagles1 ,prov4 xxx1 #ag4 ,it was a common punishment in the east1 and one which the orientals dreaded above all others1 to expose in the open fields the bodies of evil doers that had suffered by the laws of their offended country1 to be devoured by the beasts of the field1 and the fowls of heaven4 ,the wise man insinuates that the raven makes his first and keenest attack on the eye1 which perfectly corresponds with his habits1 for he always begins his banquet with that part4 ,isiodore says of him1 ,primo in cadaveribus occulum petit2 he attacks first the eye of the dead2 and ,epictetus1 1 8the ravens devour the eyes of the dead40 ,many other testimonies might be adduced1 but these are sufficient to justify the allusion in the proverb4 ,the raven1 it is well known1 delights in solitude4 ,he frequents the ruined tower or the deserted habitation4 ,in ,isaiah1 xxxiv1 #aa1 it is accordingly foretold that the raven1 with other birds of similar dispositions1 should fix his abode in the desolate houses of ,edom4 ,in the ,septuagint and other versions the ,hebrew word for desolation is rendered raven4 ,the meaning is1 that in those splendid palaces1 where the voice of joy and gladness was heard1 and every sound which could ravish the ear and subdue the heart1 silence was1 for the wickedness of their inhabitants1 to hold her reign for ever1 interrupted only by the scream of the cormorant and the croaking of the raven4 ,,reading4 ,in the countries of the ,levant the people never read silently1 but go on in a kind of singing voice1 aloud4 ,the eunuch was probably thus reading when ,philip overheard him1 and finding that he was reading the ,scriptures1 said1 8,understandest thou what thou readest80 ,,reason1 ,,use ,,of1 ,,in ,,religion4 ,the sublime1 incomprehensible nature of some of the ,christian doctrines has so completely subdued the understanding of many pious men1 as to make them think it presumptuous to apply reason in any way to the revelations of ,god2 and the many instances in which the simplicity of truth has been corrupted by an alliance with philosophy confirm them in the belief that it is safer1 as well as more respectable1 to resign their minds to devout impressions1 than to exercise their understandings in any speculations upon sacred subjects4 ,enthusiasts and fanatics of all different names and sects agree in decrying the use of reason1 because it is the very essence of fanaticism to substitute1 in place of the sober deductions of reason1 the extravagant fancies of a disordered imagination1 and to consider these fancies as the immediate illumination of the ,spirit of ,god4 ,insidious writers in the deistical controversy have pretended to adopt those sentiments of humility and reverence1 which are inseparable from true ,christians1 and even that total subjection of reason to faith which characterizes enthusiasts4 ,a pamphlet was published about the middle of the last century that made a noise in its day1 although it is now forgotten1 entitled1 8,christianity not founded on ,argument10 which1 while to a careless reader it may seem to magnify the ,gospel1 does in reality tend to undermine our faith1 by separating it from a rational assent2 and ,mr4 ,hume1 in the spirit of this pamphlet1 concludes his ,essay on ,miracles with calling those dangerous friends or disguised enemies to the ,christian religion who have undertaken to defend it by the principles of human reason3 8,our most holy religion10 he says1 with a disingenuity very unbecoming his respectable talents1 8is founded on faith1 not on reason20 and1 8mere reason is insufficient to convince us of its veracity40 ,the church of ,rome1 in order to subject the minds of her votaries to her authority1 has reprobated the use of reason in matters of religion4 ,she has revived an ancient position1 that things may be true in theology which are false in philosophy2 and she has1 in some instances1 made the merit of faith to consist in the absurdity of that which was believed4 ,the extravagance of these positions has produced1 since the ,reformation1 an opposite extreme4 ,while those who deny the truth of revelation consider reason as in all respects a sufficient guide1 the ,socinians1 who admit that a revelation has been made1 employ reason as the supreme judge of its doctrines1 and boldly strike out of their creed every article that is not altogether conformable to those notions which may be derived from the exercise of reason4 ,these controversies concerning the use of reason in matters of religion are disputes1 not about words1 but about the essence of ,christianity4 ,but a few plain observations are sufficient to ascertain where the truth lies in this subject4 ,the first use of reason in matters of religion is to examine the evidences of revelation4 ,for1 the more entire the submission which we consider as due to every thing that is revealed1 we have the more need to be satisfied that any system which professes to be a divine revelation does really come from ,god4 ,after the exercise of reason has established in our minds a firm belief that ,christianity is of divine original1 the second use of reason is to learn what are the truths revealed4 ,as these truths are not in our days communicated to any by immediate inspiration1 the knowledge of them is to be acquired only from books transmitted to us with satisfying evidence that they were written above seventeen hundred years ago1 in a remote country and foreign language1 under the direction of the ,spirit of ,god4 ,in order to attain the meaning of these books we must study the language in which they were written2 and we must study also the manners of the times1 and the state of the countries1 in which the writers lived2 because these are circumstances to which an original author is often alluding1 and by which his phraseology is generally affected2 we must lay together different passages in which the same word or phrase occurs1 because without this labour we cannot ascertain its precise signification2 and we must mark the difference of style and manner which characterizes different writers1 because a right apprehension of their meaning often depends upon attention to this difference4 ,all this supposes the application of grammar1 history1 geography1 chronology1 and criticism in matters of religion2 that is1 it supposes that the reason of man had been previously exercised in pursuing these different branches of knowledge1 and that our success in attaining the true sense of ,scripture depends upon the diligence with which we avail ourselves of the progress that has been made in them4 ,it is obvious that every ,christian is not capable of making this application4 ,but this is no argument against the use of reason1 of which we are now speaking4 ,for they who use translations and commentaries rely only upon the reason of others1 instead of exercising their own4 ,the several branches of knowledge have been applied in every age by some persons for the benefit of others2 and the progress in sacred criticism1 which distinguishes the present times1 is nothing else but the continued application1 in elucidating the ,scripture1 of reason enlightened by every kind of subsidiary knowledge1 and very much improved in this kind of exercise by the employment which the ancient classics have given it since the revival of letters4 ,after the two uses of reason that have been illustrated1 a third comes to be mentioned1 which may be considered as compounded of both4 ,reason is of eminent use in repelling the attacks of the adversaries of ,christianity4 ,when men of erudition1 of philosophical acuteness1 and of accomplished taste1 direct their talents against our religion1 the cause is very much hurt by an unskilful defender4 ,he cannot unravel their sophistry2 he does not see the amount and the effect of the concessions which he makes to them2 he is bewildered by their quotations1 and he is often led by their artifice upon dangerous ground4 ,in all ages of the church there have been weak defenders of ,christianity2 and the only triumphs of the enemies of our religion have arisen from their being able to expose the defects of those methods of defending the truth which some of its advocates had unwarily chosen4 ,a mind trained to accurate and philosophical views of the nature and the amount of evidence1 enriched with historical knowledge1 accustomed to throw out of a subject all that is minute and irrelative1 to collect what is of importance within a short compass1 and to form the comprehension of a whole1 is the mind qualified to contend with the learning1 the wit1 and the sophistry of infidelity4 ,many such minds have appeared in this honourable controversy during the course of this and the last century2 and the success has corresponded to the completeness of the furniture with which they engaged in the combat4 ,the ,christian doctrine has been vindicated by their masterly exposition from various misrepresentations2 the arguments for its divine original have been placed in their true light2 and the attempts to confound the miracles and prophecies upon which ,christianity rests its claim1 with the delusions of imposture1 have been effectually repelled4 ,christianity has1 in this way1 received the most important advantages from the attacks of its enemies2 and it is not improbable that its doctrines would never have been so thoroughly cleared from all the corruptions and subtleties which had attached to them in the progress of ages1 nor the evidences of its truths have been so accurately understood1 nor its peculiar character been so perfectly discriminated1 had not the zeal and abilities which have been employed against it called forth in its defence some of the most distinguished masters of reason4 ,they brought into the service of ,christianity the same weapons which had been drawn for her destruction1 and1 wielding them with confidence and skill in a good cause1 became the successful champions of the truth4 ,the fourth use of reason consists in judging of the truths of religion4 ,every thing which is revealed by ,god comes to his creatures from so high an authority1 that it may be rested in with perfect assurance as true4 ,nothing can be received by us as true which is contrary to the dictates of reason1 because it is impossible for us to receive at the same time the truth and the falsehood of a proposition4 ,but many things are true which we do not fully comprehend2 and many propositions1 which appear incredible when they are first enunciated1 are found1 upon examination1 such as our understandings can readily admit4 ,these principles embrace the whole of the subject1 and they mark out the steps by which reason is to proceed in judging of the truths of religion4 ,we first examine the evidences of revelation4 ,if these satisfy our understandings1 we are certain that there can be no contradiction between the doctrines of this true religion1 and the dictates of right reason4 ,if any such contradiction appear1 there must be some mistake2 by not making a proper use of our reason in the interpretation of the ,gospel1 we suppose that it contains doctrines which it does not teach2 or we give the name of right reason to some narrow prejudices which deeper reflection1 and more enlarged knowledge1 will dissipate2 or we consider a proposition as implying a contradiction1 when1 in truth1 it is only imperfectly understood4 ,here1 as in every other case1 mistakes are to be corrected by measuring back our steps4 ,we must examine closely and impartially the meaning of those passages which appear to contain the doctrine2 we must compare them with one another2 we must endeavour to derive light from the general phraseology of ,scripture and the analogy of faith2 and we shall generally be able1 in this way1 to separate the doctrine from all those adventitious circumstances which give it the appearance of absurdity4 ,if a doctrine which1 upon the closest examination1 appears unquestionably to be taught in ,scripture1 still does not approve itself to our understanding1 we must consider carefully what it is that prevents us from receiving it4 ,there may be preconceived notions hastily taken up which that doctrine opposes2 there may be pride of understanding that does not readily submit to the views which it communicates2 or reason may need to be reminded1 that we must expect to find in religion many things which we are not able to comprehend4 ,one of the most important offices of reason is to recognize her own limits4 ,she never can be moved1 by any authority1 to receive as true what she perceives to be absurd4 ,but1 if she has formed a just estimate of human knowledge1 she will not shelter her presumption in rejecting the truths of revelation under the pretence of contradictions that do not really exist2 she will readily admit that there may be in a subject some points which she knows1 and others of which she is ignorant2 she will not allow her ignorance of the latter to shake the evidence of the former1 but will yield a firm assent to that which she does understand1 without presuming to deny what is beyond her comprehension4 ,and thus1 availing herself of all the light which she now has1 she will wait in humble hope for the time when a larger measure shall be imparted4 ,,rebekah1 the wife of ,isaac4 ,see ,,isaac4 ,,receipt ,,of ,,custom4 ,matthew1 when called1 was sitting at the receipt of custom1 or dues on merchandise4 ,he was a publican or tax-gatherer1 or1 as we should say1 a custom house officer4 ,the publicans had houses or booths built for them at the foot of bridges1 at the mouth of rivers1 by the sea shore1 and the parts of the lake of ,gennesareth1 or sea of ,tiberias1 to collect the taxes on passengers and merchandise4 ,see ,,publican4 ,,rechabites4 ,the ,rechabites1 though they dwelt among the ,israelites1 did not belong to any of their tribes2 for they were ,kenites1 as appears from #a ,chron4 ii1 #ee1 where the ,kenites are said to have come of 8,hemath1 the father of the house of ,rechab40 ,these ,kenites1 afterward styled ,rechabites1 were of the family of ,jethro1 otherwise called ,hobab1 whose daughter ,moses married2 for 8the children of the ,kenite1 ,moses's father-in-law10 it is said1 8went up out of the city of palm trees with the children of ,judah1 and dwelt among the people10 ,judges i1 #af2 and we read of 8,heber the ,kenite1 who was of the children of ,hobab1 the father-in-law of ,moses1 who had severed himself from the ,kenites10 or from the bulk of them who settled in the tribe of ,judah1 8and pitched his tent in the plain of ,zaanaim10 ,judges iv1 #aa4 ,they appear to have sprung from ,midian1 the son of ,abraham by ,keturah1 ,gen4 xxv1 #b2 for ,jethro1 from whom they are descended1 is called a ,midianite1 ,num4 x1 #bc4 ,of this family was ,jehonadab1 the son of ,rechab1 a man of eminent zeal for the pure worship of ,god against idolatry1 who assisted ,king ,jehu in destroying the house of ,ahab1 and the worshippers of ,baal1 #b ,kings x1 #ae1 #af1 #bc1 c4 ,it was he who gave that rule of life to his children and posterity which we read of in ,jer4 xxxv1 #f1 #g4 ,it consisted of these three articles3 that they should drink no wine2 that they should neither possess nor occupy any houses1 fields1 or vineyards2 that they should dwell in tents4 ,this was the institution of the children of ,rechab2 and this they continued to observe for upward of three hundred years1 from the time of ,jehu to that of ,jehoiakim1 king of ,judah1 when ,nebuchadnezzar coming to besiege ,jerusalem1 the ,rechabites were obliged to leave the country and take refuge in the city4 ,in ,jer4 xxxv1 there is a promise made to this people1 that ,jonadab1 the son of ,rechab1 should not want a man to stand before the ,lord2 that is1 that his posterity should not fail3 and to this day this tribe is found among the ,arabians of the desert1 distinct1 free1 and practising exactly the institutions of ,jonadab1 whose name they bear1 and of whose institutions they boast4 ,this is a remarkable instance of the exact fulfilment of a minute and isolated prophecy4 ,see ,,beni ,,khaibir4 ,,reconciliation4 ,the expressions 8reconciliation0 and 8making peace0 necessarily suppose a previous state of hostility between ,god and man1 which is reciprocal4 ,this is sometimes called enmity1 a term1 as it respects ,god1 rather unfortunate1 since enmity is almost fixed in our language to signify a malignant and revengeful feeling4 ,of this1 the oppugners of the doctrine of the atonement have availed themselves to argue1 that as there can be no such affection in the divine nature1 therefore1 reconciliation in ,scripture does not mean the reconciliation of ,god to man1 but of man to ,god1 whose enmity the example and teaching of ,christ1 they tell us1 is very effectual to subdue4 ,it is1 indeed1 a sad and humbling truth1 and one which the ,socinians in their discussions on the natural innocence of man are not willing to admit1 that by the infection of sin 8the carnal mind is enmity to ,god10 that human nature is malignantly hostile to ,god and to the control of his law2 but this is far from expressing the whole of that relation of man in which1 in ,scripture1 he is said to be at enmity with ,god1 and so to need a reconciliation1 the making of peace between ,god and him4 ,that relation is a legal one1 as that of a sovereign in his judicial capacity1 and a criminal who has violated his laws and risen up against his authority1 and who is1 therefore1 treated as an enemy4 ,the word is used in this passive sense1 both in the ,greek writers and in the ,new ,testament4 ,so1 in ,romans xi1 #bh1 the ,jews1 rejected and punished for refusing the ,gospel1 are said by the ,apostle1 8as concerning the ,gospel10 to be 8enemies for your sakes20 treated and accounted such2 8but1 as touching the election1 they are beloved for the fathers' sakes40 ,in the same epistle1 v1 #aj1 the term is used precisely in the same sense1 and that with reference to the reconciliation by ,christ3 8,for if when we were enemies we were reconciled to ,god by the death of his ,son20 that is1 when we were objects of the divine judicial displeasure1 accounted as enemies1 and liable to be capitally treated as such4 ,enmity1 in the sense of malignity and the sentiment of hatred1 is added to this relation in the case of man2 but it is no part of the relation itself2 it is rather a cause of it1 as it is one of the actings of a corrupt nature which render man obnoxious to the displeasure of ,god1 and the penalty of his law1 and place him in the condition of an enemy4 ,it is this judicial variance and opposition between ,god and man which is referred to in the term reconciliation1 and in the phrase 8making peace10 in the ,new ,testament2 and the hostility is1 therefore1 in its own nature1 mutual4 ,but that there is no truth in the notion1 that reconciliation means no more than our laying aside our enmity to ,god1 may also be shown from several express passages4 ,the first is the passage we have above cited3 8,for if when we were enemies we were reconciled to ,god10 ,rom4 v1 #aj4 ,here the act of reconciling is ascribed to ,god1 and not to us2 but if this reconciliation consisted in the laying aside of our own enmity1 the act would be ours alone3 and1 farther1 that it could not be the laying aside of our enmity1 is clear from the text1 which speaks of reconciliation while we were yet enemies4 ,the reconciliation spoken of here is not1 as ,socinus and his followers have said1 our conversion4 ,for that the ,apostle is speaking of a benefit obtained for us previous to our conversion1 appears evident from the opposite members of the two sentences1 8much more1 being justified1 we shall be saved from wrath through him10 8much more1 being reconciled1 we shall be saved by his life40 ,the ,apostle argues from the greater to the less4 ,if ,god were so benign to us before our conversion1 what may we not expect from him now we are converted8 ,to reconcile here cannot mean to convert2 for the ,apostle evidently speaks of something greatly remarkable in the act of ,christ2 but to convert sinners is nothing remarkable1 since none but sinners can be ever converted2 whereas it was a rare and singular thing for ,christ to die for sinners1 and to reconcile sinners to ,god by his death1 when there have been but very few good men who have died for their friends4 ,in the next place1 conversion is referred more properly to his glorious life1 than to his shameful death2 but this reconciliation is attributed to his death1 as contradistinguished from his glorious life1 as is evident from the antithesis contained in the two verses4 ,beside1 it is from the latter benefit that we learn the nature of the former4 ,the latter1 which belongs only to the converted1 consists of the peace of ,god1 and salvation from wrath1 ,rom4 v1 #i1 #aj4 ,this the ,apostle afterward calls receiving the reconciliation4 ,and what is it to receive the reconciliation1 but to receive the remission of sins8 ,acts x1 #dc4 ,to receive conversion is a mode of speaking entirely unknown4 ,if1 then1 to receive the reconciliation is to receive the remission of sins1 and in effect to be delivered from wrath or punishment1 to be reconciled must have a corresponding signification4 8,god was in ,christ reconciling the world to himself1 not imputing their trespasses unto them10 #b ,cor4 v1 #ai4 ,here the manner of this reconciliation is expressly said to be1 not our laying aside our enmity1 but the non-imputation of our trespasses to us by ,god2 in other words1 the pardoning of our offences and restoring us to favour4 ,the promise1 on ,god's part1 to do this1 is expressive of his previous reconciliation to the world by the death of ,christ2 for our actual reconciliation is distinguished from this by what follows1 8and hath committed to us the ministry of reconciliation10 by virtue of which all men were1 by the ,apostles1 entreated and besought to be reconciled to ,god4 ,the reason1 too1 of this reconciliation of ,god to the world1 by virtue of which he promises not to impute sin1 is grounded by the ,apostle1 in the last verse of the chapter1 not upon the laying aside of enmity by men1 but upon the sacrifice of ,christ3 8,for he hath made him to be sin10 a sin-offering1 8for us1 who knew no sin1 that we might be made the righteousness of ,god in him40 8,and that he might reconcile both unto ,god in one body by the cross1 having slain the enmity thereby10 ,eph4 ii1 #af4 ,here the act of reconciling is attributed to ,christ4 ,man is not spoken of as reconciling himself to ,god2 but ,christ is said to reconcile ,jews and ,gentiles together1 and both to ,god1 8by his cross40 ,thus1 says the ,apostle1 8he is our peace20 but in what manner is the peace effected8 ,not1 in the first instance1 by subduing the enmity of man's heart1 but by removing the enmity of 8the law40 8,having abolished in0 or by 8his flesh the enmity1 even the law of commandments40 ,the ceremonial law only is here1 probably meant2 for by its abolition1 through its fulfilment in ,christ1 the enmity between ,jews and ,gentiles was taken away2 but still it was not only necessary to reconcile ,jew and ,gentile together1 but to 8reconcile both unto ,god40 ,this he did by the same act2 abolishing the ceremonial law by becoming the antitype of all its sacrifices1 and thus1 by the sacrifice of himself1 effecting the reconciliation of all to ,god1 8slaying the enmity by his cross10 taking away whatever hindered the reconciliation of the guilty to ,god1 which1 as we have seen1 was not enmity and hatred to ,god in the human mind only1 but that judicial hostility and variance which separated ,god and man as ,judge and criminal4 ,the feeble criticism of ,socinus1 on this passage1 in which he has been followed by his adherents to this day1 is thus answered by ,grotius3 8,in this passage the dative 1 to ,god1 can only be governed by the verb 1 that he might reconcile2 for the interpretation of ,socinus1 which makes to ,god stand by itself1 or that to reconcile to ,god is to reconcile them among themselves1 that they might serve ,god1 is distorted and without example4 ,nor is the argument valid which is drawn from thence1 that in this place ,st4 ,paul properly treats of the peace made between ,jews and ,gentiles2 for neither does it follow from this argument1 that it was beside his purpose to mention the peace made for each with ,god4 ,for the two opposites which are joined1 are so joined among themselves1 that they should be primarily and chiefly joined by that bond2 for they are not united among themselves1 except by and for that bond4 ,gentiles and ,jews1 therefore1 are made friends among themselves by friendship with ,god40 ,here also a critical remark will be appropriate4 ,the above passages will show how falsely it has been asserted that ,god is no where in ,scripture said to be reconciled to us1 and that they only declare that we are reconciled to ,god2 but the fact is1 that the very phrase of our being reconciled to ,god imports the turning away of his wrath from us4 ,whitby observes1 on the words and 1 8that they naturally import the reconciliation of one that is angry or displeased with us1 both in profane and ,jewish writers40 ,when the ,philistines suspected that ,david would appease the anger of ,saul1 by becoming their adversary1 they said1 8,wherewith should he reconcile himself to his master8 ,should it not be with the heads of these men80 not1 surely1 ,how shall he remove his own anger against his master8 but1 how shall he remove his master's anger against him8 ,how shall he restore himself to his master's favour8 8,if thou bring thy gift to the altar1 and there rememberest that thy brother hath aught against thee10 not1 that thou hast aught against thy brother1 8first be reconciled to thy brother20 that is1 appease and conciliate him2 so that the words1 in fact1 import1 8,see that thy brother be reconciled to thee10 since that which goes before is1 not that he hath done thee an injury1 but thou him4 ,thus1 then1 for us to be reconciled to ,god is to avail ourselves of the means by which the anger of ,god toward us is to be appeased1 which the ,new ,testament expressly declares to be meritoriously 8the sin-offering0 of ,him 8who knew no sin10 and instrumentally1 as to each individual personally1 8faith in his blood40 ,see ,,propitiation4 ,,redeemer4 ,the ,hebrew goel is thus rendered1 and the title is applied to ,christ1 as he is the ,avenger of man upon his spiritual enemy1 and delivers man from death and the power of the grave1 which the human avenger could not do4 ,the right of the institution of goel was only in a relative1 one of the same blood2 and hence our ,saviour's assumption of our nature is alluded to and implied under this term4 ,there was also the right of buying back the family inheritance when alienated2 and this also applies to ,christ1 our ,goel1 who has purchased back the heavenly inheritance into the human family4 ,under these views ,job joyfully exclaims1 8,i know that my ,redeemer10 my ,goel1 8liveth10 c4 ,see ,,goel1 ,,mediator1 and ,,jesus ,,christ4 ,,redemption denotes our recovery from sin and death by the obedience and sacrifice of ,christ1 who1 on this account1 is called the ,redeemer4 8,being justified freely by his grace1 through the redemption that is in ,christ ,jesus10 ,rom4 iii1 #bd4 8,christ hath redeemed us from the curse of the law1 being made a curse for us10 ,gal4 iii1 #ac4 8,in whom we have redemption through his blood1 the forgiveness of sins1 according to the riches of his grace10 ,eph4 i1 #g4 8,forasmuch as ye know that ye were not redeemed with corruptible things1 as silver and gold1 from your vain conversation received by tradition from your fathers2 but with the precious blood of ,christ1 as of a lamb without blemish1 and without spot10 #a ,pet4 i1 #ah1 #ai4 8,and ye are not your own1 for ye are bought with a price10 #a ,cor4 vi1 #ai1 #bj4 ,by redemption1 those who deny the atonement made by ,christ wish to understand deliverance merely1 regarding only the effect1 and studiously putting out of sight the cause from which it flows4 ,but the very terms used in the above cited passages1 8to redeem10 and 8to be bought with a price10 will each be found to refute this notion of a gratuitous deliverance1 whether from sin or punishment1 or both4 ,our ,english word1 to redeem1 literally means 8to buy back20 and 1 to redeem1 and 1 redemption1 are1 both in ,greek writers and in the ,new ,testament1 used for the act of setting free a captive1 by paying 1 a ransom or redemption price4 ,but1 as ,grotius has fully shown1 by reference to the use of the words both in sacred and profane writers1 redemption signifies not merely 8the liberation of captives10 but deliverance from exile1 death1 and every other evil from which we may be freed2 and signifies every thing which satisfies another1 so as to effect this deliverance4 ,the nature of this redemption or purchased deliverance1 7for it is not gratuitous liberation1 as will presently appear17 is1 therefore1 to be ascertained by the circumstances of those who are the subjects of it4 ,the subjects in the case before us are sinful men4 ,they are under guilt1 under 8the curse of the law10 the servants of sin1 under the power and dominion of the devil1 and 8taken captive by him at his will10 liable to the death of the body and to eternal punishment4 ,to the whole of this case1 the redemption1 the purchased deliverance of man1 as proclaimed in the ,gospel1 applies itself4 ,hence1 in the above cited and other passages1 it is said1 8,we have redemption through his blood1 the forgiveness of sins10 in opposition to guilt2 redemption from 8the curse of the law20 deliverance from sin1 that 8we should be set free from sin20 deliverance from the power of ,satan2 from death1 by a resurrection2 and from future 8wrath10 by the gift of eternal life4 ,throughout the whole of this glorious doctrine of our redemption from these tremendous evils there is1 however1 in the ,new ,testament1 a constant reference to the 1 the redemption price1 which is as constantly declared to be the death of ,christ1 which he endured in our stead4 8,the ,son of man came to give his life a ransom for many10 ,matt4 xx1 #bh4 8,who gave himself a ransom for all10 #a ,tim4 ii1 #f4 8,in whom we have redemption through his blood10 ,eph4 i1 #g4 8,ye were not redeemed with corruptible things1 as silver and gold1 but with the precious blood of ,christ10 #a ,pet4 i1 #ah1 #ai4 ,that deliverance of man from sin1 misery1 and all other penal evils of his transgression1 which constitutes our redemption by ,christ1 is not1 therefore1 a gratuitous deliverance1 granted without a consideration1 as an act of mere prerogative2 the ransom1 the redemption price1 was exacted and paid2 one thing was given for another1 the precious blood of ,christ for captive and condemned men4 ,of the same import are those passages which represent us as having been 8bought10 or 8purchased0 by ,christ4 ,st4 ,peter speaks of those 8who denied the ,lord 1 that bought them20 and ,st4 ,paul1 in the passage above cited1 says1 8,ye are bought with a price1 20 which price is expressly said by ,st4 ,john to be the blood of ,christ3 8,thou wast slain1 and hast redeemed us to ,god 71 hast purchased us7 by thy blood10 ,rev4 v1 #i4 ,,red ,,sea1 celebrated chiefly for the miraculous passage of the ,israelites through its waters4 ,they were thrust out of ,egypt1 says ,dr4 ,hales1 on the fifteenth day of the first month2 8about six hundred thousand men on foot1 beside women and children4 ,and a mixed multitude went up also with them2 and flocks and herds1 even very much cattle10 ,exod4 xii1 #cg-ci2 ,num4 xi1 #d2 xxxiii1 #c4 ,after they set out from ,rameses1 in the land of ,goshen1 in the neighbourhood of ,cairo1 their first encampment was at ,succoth1 signifying 8booths10 or an 8enclosure for cattle10 after a stage of about thirty miles2 their second1 at ,etham1 or ,adsjerud1 on the edge of the wilderness1 about sixty miles farther2 8for the ,lord led them not by the way of the land of the ,philistines1 although that was near2 for ,god said1 ,lest peradventure the people repent when they see war1 and they return to ,egypt3 but ,god led the people about by the way of the wilderness of the ,red ,sea10 or by a circuitous rout to the land of promise1 in order to train them and instruct them1 in the solitudes of ,arabia ,petra1 ,exodus xiii1 #ag-bj2 ,deut4 xxxii1 #aj4 ,instead of proceeding from ,etham1 round the head of the ,red ,sea1 and coasting along its eastern shore1 the ,lord made them turn southward along its western shore1 and1 after a stage of about twenty or thirty miles1 to encamp in the valley of ,bedea1 where there was an opening in the great chain of mountains that line the western coast1 called ,pi-hahiroth1 the mouth of the ridge between ,migdol westward1 and the sea eastward1 8over against ,baal-zephon10 on the eastern coast2 to tempt ,pharaoh1 whose heart he finally hardened1 to pursue them when they were 8entangled in the land10 and shut in by the wilderness on their rear and flanks1 and by the sea in their front4 ,the leading motive with ,pharaoh and his servants was to bring back the ,israelites to bondage1 and of the ,egyptians in general1 to recover the treasures of which they had been spoiled1 ,exod4 xiv1 #a-e4 ,so ,pharaoh pursued the ,israelites by the direct way of ,migdol1 with six hundred chariots1 his horsemen1 and his army1 and overtook them encamping by the sea1 beside ,pi-hahiroth1 over against ,baal-zephon4 ,when their destruction1 or their return to bondage1 seemed to be inevitable1 the ,lord interposed and fought for ,israel4 ,he opened for them a passage across the ,red ,sea1 where it was about twelve miles wide1 and brought them through in safety2 while he drowned the ,egyptians1 who blindly followed them to their own destruction1 ,psalm lxxvii1 #ah1 c4 ,on this memorable deliverance ,moses composed a thanksgiving1 which he and the ,israelites sung unto the ,lord4 ,it is also a sublime prophecy1 foretelling the powerful effect of this tremendous judgment on the neighbouring nations of ,edom1 ,moab1 ,palestine1 and ,canaan1 the future settlement of the ,israelites in the promised land2 and the erection of the temple and sanctuary on ,mount ,zion1 and the perpetuity of the dominion and worship of ,god4 ,the precise place of this passage has been much contested4 ,some place it near ,suez1 at the head of the gulf2 others1 with more probability1 about ten hours' journey lower down1 at ,clysma1 or the vale of ,bedea4 ,the day before the passage1 by the divine command1 the ,israelites encamped beside ,pi-hahiroth1 8between ,migdol and the sea1 over against ,baal-zephon10 ,exodus xiv1 #b2 ,num4 xxxiii1 #g4 ,pi-hahiroth signifies 8the mouth of the ridge10 or chain of mountains1 which line the western coast of the ,red ,sea1 called ,attaka1 8deliverance10 in which was a gap1 which formed the extremity of the valley of ,bedea1 ending at the sea eastward1 and running westward to some distance1 toward ,cairo2 ,migdol1 signifying 8a tower10 probably lay in that direction2 and ,baal-zephon1 signifying 8the northern ,baal10 was probably a temple on the opposite promontory1 built on the eastern coast of the ,red ,sea4 ,and the modern names of places in the vicinity tend to confirm these expositions of the ancient4 ,beside ,attaka1 on the eastern coast opposite1 is a head land1 called ,ras ,musa1 or 8the ,cape of ,moses20 somewhat lower1 ,hamam ,faraun1 8,pharaoh's ,springs20 below ,girondel1 a reach of the gulf1 called ,birket ,faraun2 and the general name of the gulf is ,bahr al ,kolsum1 8the ,bay of ,submersion40 ,these names indicate that the passage was considerably below ,suez1 according to the tradition of the natives4 ,the depth and breadth of the gulf1 from ,suez downward1 is thus described by ,niebuhr3 8,i have not found in this sea1 from ,suez southward1 any bank or isthmus under water4 ,when we departed from ,suez1 we sailed as far as ,girondel1 without fear of encountering any such4 ,we had in the first place1 the road of ,suez1 four fathom and half2 at three ,german leagues from ,suez1 in the middle of the gulf1 four fathoms2 and about ,girondel1 near the shore1 even to ten fathoms40 ,bruce1 also1 describing the place of passage opposite ,ras ,musa1 or a little below it1 says1 8,there is here about fourteen fathom of water in the channel1 and about nine in the sides1 and good anchorage every where4 ,the farthest side1 the eastern1 is a low sandy coast1 and a very easy landing place40 ,shaw reckons the breadth of the gulf at this place about ten miles2 ,neibuhr1 three leagues and more2 ,bruce1 something less than four leagues3 we may therefore estimate it about twelve miles1 from their joint reports4 ,but this space the host of the ,israelites could easily have passed in the course of a night1 from the evening to the ensuing morning watch1 or dawn of day1 according to the ,mosaical account4 ,and surely the depth of the sea was no impediment1 when the ,lord divided it by 8a strong east wind10 which blew across the sea all that night1 and made the bottom of the sea dry land2 8and the children of ,israel went into the midst of the sea upon the dry ground1 and the waters were a wall unto them1 on their right hand and on their left10 ,exodus xiv1 #ba1 #bb4 ,in the queries of ,michalis1 sent to ,niebuhr1 when in ,egypt1 it was proposed to him to inquire upon the spot1 whether there were not some ridges of rocks where the water was shallow1 so that an army at particular times may pass over2 secondly1 whether the ,etesian winds1 which blow strongly all summer from the north-west1 could not blow so violently against the sea as to keep it back on a heap1 so that the ,israelites might have passed without a miracle4 ,and a copy of these queries was left1 also1 for ,bruce1 to join his inquiries likewise2 his observations on which are excellent3 8,i must confess1 however learned the gentlemen were who proposed these doubts1 ,i did not think they merited any attention to solve them4 ,this passage is told us by ,scripture to be a miraculous one2 and if so1 we have nothing to do with natural causes4 ,if we do not believe ,moses1 we need not believe the transaction at all1 seeing that it is from his authority alone we derive it4 ,if we believe in ,god1 that he made the sea1 we must believe he could divide it when he sees proper reason2 and of that he must be the only judge4 ,it is no greater miracle to divide the ,red ,sea than to divide the river ,jordan4 ,if the ,etesian wind1 blowing from the north-west in summer1 could keep up the sea as a wall on the right1 or to the south1 of fifty feet high1 still the difficulty would remain of building the wall on the left hand1 or to the north4 ,beside1 water standing in that position for a day must have lost the nature of fluid4 ,whence came that cohesion of particles which hindered that wall to escape at the sides8 ,this is as great a miracle as that of ,moses4 ,if the ,etesian winds had done this once1 they must have repeated it many a time before and since1 from the same causes4 ,yet ,diodorus ,siculus says the ,troglodytes1 the indigenous inhabitants of that very spot1 had a tradition from father to son1 from their very earliest ages1 that #8once this division of the sea did happen there2 and that1 after leaving its bottom some time dry1 the sea again came back1 and covered it with great fury4' ,the words of this author are of the most remarkable kind3 we cannot think this ,heathen is writing in favour of revelation3 he knew not ,moses1 nor says a word about ,pharaoh and his host2 but records the miracle of the division of the sea in words nearly as strong as those of ,moses1 from the mouths of unbiassed1 undesigning ,pagans40 ,still skeptical queries have their use2 they lead to a stricter investigation of facts1 and thereby tend strongly to confirm the veracity of the history they mean to impeach4 ,thus it appears from the accurate observations of ,niebuhr and ,bruce1 that there is no ledge of rocks running across the gulf any where1 to afford a shallow passage4 ,and the second query1 about the ,etesian or northerly wind1 is refuted by the express mention of a strong easterly wind blowing across1 and scooping out a dry passage2 not that it was necessary for ,omnipotence to employ it there as an instrument1 any more than at ,jordan2 but it seems to be introduced in the sacred history by way of anticipation1 to exclude the natural agency that might in after times be employed for solving the miracle2 and it is remarkable that the monsoon in the ,red ,sea blows the summer half of the year from the north1 the winter half from the south1 neither of which therefore1 even if wind could be supposed to operate so violently upon the waters1 could produce the miracle in question4 ,wishing to diminish1 though not to deny1 the miracle1 ,niebuhr adopts the opinion of those who contend for a higher passage near ,suez4 8,for10 says he1 8the miracle would be less if they crossed the sea there than near ,bedea4 ,but whosoever should suppose that the multitude of the ,israelites could be able to cross it here without a prodigy would deceive himself2 for1 even in our days1 no caravan passes that way to go from ,cairo to ,mount ,sinai1 although it would considerably shorten the journey4 ,the passage would have been naturally more difficult for the ,israelites some thousands of years back1 when the gulf was probably larger1 deeper1 and more extended toward the north2 for1 in all appearance1 the water has retired1 and the ground near this end has been raised by the sands of the neighbouring desert40 ,but it sufficiently appears1 even from ,niebuhr's own statement1 that the passage of the ,israelites could not have been taken near ,suez2 for1 #a4 ,he evidently confounded the town of ,kolsum1 the ruins of which he places near ,suez1 and where he supposed the passage to be made1 with the bay of ,kolsum1 which began about forty-five miles lower down2 as ,bryant has satisfactorily proved1 from the astronomical observations of ,ptolemy and of ,ulug ,beigh1 made at ,heroum1 the ancient head of the gulf4 #b4 ,instead of crossing the sea at or near ,ethan1 their second station1 the ,israelites turned southward1 along the western shore2 and their third station at ,pi-hahiroth1 or ,bedea1 was at least a full day's journey below ,ethan1 as ,bryant has satisfactorily proved from ,scripture1 ,exodus xiv1 #b4 ,and it was this unexpected change in the direction of their march1 and the apparently disadvantageous situation in which they were then placed1 entangled in the land1 and shut in by the wilderness1 with a deep sea in front1 the mountains of ,attaka on the sides1 and the enemy in their rear1 that tempted the ,egyptians to pursue them through the valley of ,bedea1 by the direct route from ,cairo1 who overtook them encamping by the sea1 beside ,pi-hahiroth1 opposite to ,ball-zephon1 ,exod4 xiv1 #b-i4 ,niebuhr wonders how the ,israelites could suffer themselves to be brought into such a disadvantageous situation1 or be led blindfold by ,moses to their apparent destruction4 8,one need only travel with a caravan10 says he1 8which meets with the least obstacle1 namely1 a small torrent1 to be convinced that the orientals do not let themselves be led1 like fools1 by their caravan baschi10 or leader of the caravan4 ,but the ,israelites went out of ,egypt with 8a high hand10 though led by ,moses1 yet under the visible guidance and protection of 8the ,lord ,god of the ,hebrews10 who 8went before them by day in a pillar of a cloud1 and by night in a pillar of fire20 and who1 for their encouragement1 to enter the passage of the sea miraculously prepared for them1 removed the cloud which went before the camp of ,israel hitherto1 and placed it behind them4 8,and it came between the camp of the ,egyptians and the camp of ,israel2 and it was a cloud and darkness to the one1 but gave light by night to the other3 so that the one came not near the other all the night10 ,exod4 xiv1 #h-bj4 ,niebuhr wonders1 also1 how ,pharaoh and the ,egyptians could be led to follow the ,israelites4 8,pharaoh must have wanted prudence1 if1 after having seen so many prodigies in ,egypt1 he had entered into a sea of more than three leagues wide3 all the ,egyptians1 too1 must have been bereft of understanding1 in wishing to pursue the ,israelites into such a sea4 ,doubtless they knew their own country well enough to distinguish the bottom of a large sea1 which bounds ,egypt on that side1 from a desert40 ,but ,pharaoh and the ,egyptians probably did not know their situation4 ,the cloud which separated them from the ,israelites increased the darkness of the night2 and they probably did not enter into the sea till about midnight1 by which time the van of the ,israelites might have reached the eastern shore4 ,meanwhile1 the bed of the sea1 now beaten by the feet of the immense multitude of men and cattle that had gone before1 might not have been easily distinguishable from the desert4 ,if we ask1 ,why did the ,egyptians venture to pursue the ,israelites by night8 ,why did they not wait till day light1 when they could see whither they were going8 ,niebuhr himself has unwittingly answered the question3 ,pharaoh wanted 8prudence10 indeed1 and the ,egyptians were 8bereft of understanding40 ,and this is the ,scriptural solution2 for ,god hardened the heart of ,pharaoh to follow after them1 that he might be honoured upon ,pharaoh and all his host2 and that1 by their miraculous destruction1 the ,egyptians might know that he was the ,lord supreme1 ,exod4 xiv1 #d-ah4 ,the ,egyptians did not find out their mistake till the 8morning appeared10 or till day-break1 when the rear of the ,israelites had gained the shore1 and the ,egyptians had reached the middle of the sea1 and their whole host had entered into it3 then1 indeed1 they attempted to fly back1 but in vain2 for 8their chariot wheels were broken off1 so that they drave them heavily1 and their host was troubled0 by the ,lord1 who looked or frowned upon them through the cloudy pillar of fire1 and overwhelmed all their host in the midst of the sea2 when the sea suddenly returned to his strength at the signal of ,moses stretching forth his hand over it1 ,exod4 xiv1 #bd-bh4 ,the particulars of this transaction demonstrate1 that neither the host of the ,israelites1 nor the host of ,pharaoh1 could possibly have passed at the head of the gulf near ,suez2 where the sea was only half a league broad1 according to ,niebuhr's own supposition1 and consequently too narrow to contain the whole host of ,pharaoh at once2 whose six hundred chariots alone1 exclusive of his cavalry and infantry1 must have occupied more ground4 ,manetho1 and the ,egyptian writers1 have passed over in silence this tremendous visitation of their nation4 ,an ancient writer1 however1 ,artapanus1 who wrote a history of the ,jews1 about ,b4 ,c4 #acj1 has preserved the following curious ,egyptian traditions3--8,the ,memphites relate1 that ,moses1 being well acquainted with the country1 watched the influx of the tide1 and made the multitude pass through the dry bed of the sea4 ,but the ,heliopolitans relate1 that the king1 with a great army1 accompanied by the sacred animals1 pursued after the ,jews1 who had carried off with them the substance of the ,egyptians2 and that ,moses1 having been directed by a divine voice to strike the sea with his rod1 when he heard it1 touched the water with his rod2 and so the fluid divided1 and the host passed over through a dry way4 ,but when the ,egyptians entered along with them1 and pursued them1 it is said1 that fire flashed against them in front1 and the sea1 returning back1 overwhelmed the passage4 ,thus the ,egyptians perished1 both by the fire1 and by the reflux of the tide48 ,the latter account is extremely curious3 it not only confirms ,scripture1 but it notices three additional circumstances3 #a4 ,that for their protection against the ,god of ,israel1 the ,egyptians brought with them the sacred animals2 and by this means ,god executed judgment upon all the bestial gods of ,egypt1 as foretold1 ,exod4 xii1 #ab1 that perished with their infatuated votaries2 completing the destruction of both1 which began with smiting the first-born both of man and beast4 #b4 ,that the recovery of the jewels of silver and jewels of gold1 and raiment1 which they asked and obtained of the ,egyptians1 according to the divine command1 ,exod4 xii1 #ce1 #cf1 was a leading motive with the ,egyptians to pursue them2 as the bringing back the ,israelites to slavery had been with ,pharaoh and his servants1 or officers4 #c4 ,that the destruction of the ,egyptians was partly occasioned by lightning and thunderbolts from the presence of the ,lord2 exactly corresponding to the psalmist's sublime description3 8,the waters saw thee1 ,o ,god1 the waters saw thee2 they were afraid3 the depths also were troubled4 ,the clouds poured out water1 the air thundered1 thine arrows also went abroad4 ,yea1 he sent out his arrows1 and scattered them2 he shot forth lightnings1 hail stones1 and coals of fire1 and discomfited them4 ,then the channels of waters were seen1 and the foundations of the world were discovered1 at thy rebuke1 ,o ,lord1 at the blast of the breath of thy nostrils10 ,psalm lxxvii1 #af1 #ag2 xviii1 #ac-ae4 ,the ,red ,sea derived its name from ,edom1 signifying 8red10 a title of ,esau1 to whom the bordering country of ,edom1 or ,iduma1 belonged1 ,gen4 xxv1 #cj2 xxxvi1 #ca-dj4 ,it was also called ,yam ,suph1 8the weedy sea10 in several passages1 ,num4 xxxiii1 #aj2 ,psalm cvi1 #i1 c1 which are improperly rendered 8the ,red ,sea40 ,some learned authors have supposed that it was so named from the quantity of weeds in it4 8,but in contradiction to this10 says ,bruce1 8,i must confess1 that ,i never in my life1 and ,i have seen the whole extent of it1 saw a weed of any sort in it4 ,and indeed1 upon the slightest consideration1 it will appear to any one1 that a narrow gulf1 under the immediate influence of monsoons1 blowing from contrary points six months each year1 would have too much agitation to produce such vegetables1 seldom found but in stagnant water1 and seldomer1 if ever1 found in salt ones4 ,my opinion then is1 that it is from the large trees1 or plants1 of white coral1 perfectly in imitation of plants on land1 that the sea has taken the name #8weedy4' ,i saw one of these1 which1 from a root nearly central1 threw out ramifications in a nearly central form1 measuring twenty-six feet diameter every way40 ,this seems to be the most probable solution that has been hitherto proposed of the name4 ,the tides in this sea are but moderate4 ,at ,suez the difference between high and low water did not exceed from three to four feet1 according to ,niebuhr's observations on the tides in that gulf1 during the years #agfb and #agfc4 ,,reed1 1 ,job xl1 #ba2 xli1 #b1 #bj2 ,isaiah ix1 #ad2 xix1 #ae2 lviii1 #e2 1 ,matt4 xi1 #g2 a plant growing in fenny and watery places2 very weak and slender1 and bending with the least breath of wind1 ,matt4 xi1 #g2 ,luke vii1 #bd4 ,thus it is threatened1 8,the ,lord shall smite ,israel as a reed is shaken in the water1 and he shall root up ,israel out of the good land which he gave to their fathers1 and shall scatter them beyond the river1 because they have made their idol groves1 provoking him to anger10 #a ,kings xiv1 #ae4 ,the slenderness and fragility of the reed is mentioned in #b ,kings xviii1 #ba2 ,isaiah xxxvi1 #f2 and is referred to in ,matt4 xii1 #bj1 where the remark1 illustrating the gentleness of our ,saviour1 is quoted from the prophecy of ,isaiah1 xlii1 #c4 ,the ,hebrew word in these places is 1 as also in ,job xl1 #ba2 ,isaiah xix1 #f2 xxxv1 #g2 ,ezek4 xxix1 #f4 ,see ,,cane4 ,,reformation1 usually spoken of the great ,reformation in the church1 begun by ,luther in #aeag4 ,the sad departure from the standard of holiness which the ,romish hierarchy should have placed before them1 combined with the indecency and arrogance with which they trampled upon the rights of sovereigns1 and upon the property and the comfort of all classes of men1 had1 for a considerable period1 produced a general conviction1 that a reformation of the church in its head and members1 to use the expression which was then prevalent1 was absolutely requisite3 and some steps to accomplish this had been actually taken4 ,the celebrated council of ,constance1 while1 in its efforts to heal the schism which had so long grieved and scandalized the ,catholic world1 it set aside the rival pontiffs who claimed to be the successors of ,st4 ,peter1 laid down the important maxim1 that a general council was superior to a pope1 and that its decisions can restrain his power2 and this doctrine1 which might otherwise have appeared to arise out of the extraordinary circumstances under which it was declared1 was fully confirmed by the council of ,basil1 which met several years after1 and which decided the point upon grounds that might at all times be urged4 ,the popes1 indeed1 remonstrated against this1 but still they were compelled to lower their tone2 and they were often reminded1 even within the precincts of their own court1 that the period was fast approaching when the fallacy of many of their pretensions would be ascertained and exposed4 ,it had become common1 before the election of a new pontiff1 to frame certain articles of reformation1 which the successful candidate was required to swear that he would carry into effect2 and although the oath was uniformly disregarded or violated1 the views which led to the imposition of it indicated the existence of a spirit which could not be eradicated1 and which might1 from events that could not be foreseen1 and could not be controlled1 acquire a vigour which no exertion of power could resist4 ,such1 under the beneficent arrangement of ,providence1 was soon actually the case4 ,in the progress of the opposition made to some of the worst abuses of ,rome1 they who conducted that opposition were guided to the word of life2 they studied it with avidity and with delight2 and they found themselves furnished by it with sufficient armour for the mighty contest in which they were to engage4 ,they discovered in the ,new ,testament what ,christianity really was2 their representations of it were received with wonder1 and read with avidity2 the secession from the church of ,rome became much more rapid and much more extensive than it had previously been1 and all possibility of reconciliation with that church was done away4 ,of this the popes were fully aware2 and as the only way of counteracting that which was to them so formidable1 they attempted1 by various devices1 to fetter the press1 to prevent the circulation of the ,bible1 and thus again to plunge the world into that intellectual darkness from which it had been happily delivered4 ,the scheme was impracticable4 ,the 8,indices ,expurgatorii10 in which they pointed out the works that they condemned1 and which they declared it to be heresy and pollution to peruse1 increased the desire to become acquainted with them2 and although some who indulged that curiosity suffered the punishment denounced by the inquisition against the enemies of papal superstition1 there was an immense proportion which even spiritual tyranny could not reach2 so that the light which had been kindled daily brightened1 till it shone with unclouded lustre through many of the most powerful and the most refined nations of ,europe4 ,it is worthy of careful observation1 that the resistance which ultimately proved so successful1 was first occasioned by practices that had been devised for establishing the monstrous despotism of the popes2 that when it commenced1 it was directed against what was conceived to be an abuse of power1 without the slightest suspicion being entertained that the power itself was unchristian2 that the reformers gradually advanced2 every additional inquiry to which they were conducted enlarging their views1 and bringing them acquainted with fresh proofs of that daring usurpation to which men had long submitted1 till at length the foundation upon which the whole system1 venerated through ages1 rested1 was disclosed to them1 and perceived to be a foundation of sand4 ,the consequence was1 that the supremacy of the pope was by multitudes abjured2 that he was branded as antichrist2 that communion with the popish church was avoided as sinful1 and that the form of ecclesiastical polity1 the essential principle of which was the infallibility of the bishop of ,rome1 was for ever renounced4 ,the wonderful manner in which this signal revolution1 so fraught with blessings to mankind1 was accomplished1 the various events which mark its history1 and the characters and exertions of the men by whose agency it was effected1 cannot be too often surveyed1 or too deeply fixed in the memory4 ,the whole1 even with reference to the illumination of the human mind and the improvement of the social state of the world1 is in a high degree interesting2 and that interest is unspeakably increased by our discerning the most striking evidence of the gracious interposition of ,providence dissipating the cloud which obscured divine truth1 and restoring to mankind that sacred treasure which is sufficient to make all who seriously examine it wise unto salvation4 ,it does not1 however1 come within the province of this work to give a minute history of the origin and progress of the ,reformation1 to trace the steps of ,zuinglius and of ,luther1 and to detail the circumstances which advanced or retarded them in the glorious career upon which they had entered4 ,much discussion has taken place with respect to the motives by which ,luther was actuated4 ,this point1 in reference to what he accomplished1 is really of little moment2 but there cannot be a doubt that although he might1 throughout his arduous struggle1 be guided occasionally by inferior considerations1 he was eventually1 at least1 chiefly animated by the noble and disinterested wish to emancipate his fellow creatures from what he was convinced was the direct and most infatuated spiritual oppression2 that he looked to ,heaven for support1 and that such support he largely received4 ,,refuge1 ,,cities ,,of4 ,in order to provide for the security of those who1 without design1 might happen to kill a person in whatever manner it should be1 the ,lord commanded ,moses to appoint six cities of refuge1 ,exod4 xxi1 #ah2 ,num4 xxxv1 #aa1 c1 that whoever should undesignedly spill the blood of a fellow creature1 might retire thither1 and have time to prepare for his defence before the judges2 so that the relatives of the deceased might not pursue and kill him4 ,of these cities there were three on each side ,jordan4 ,those on this side ,jordan were ,kedesh of ,naphtali1 ,hebron1 and ,shechem2 those beyond ,jordan were ,bezer1 ,golan1 and ,ramoth-,gilead1 ,joshua xx1 #g1 #h4 ,they served not only for the ,hebrews1 but for strangers also that should dwell in their country4 ,these cities were to be of easy access1 and to have good roads to them1 and bridges wherever there should be occasion4 ,the width of these roads was1 at least1 to be two-and-thirty cubits1 or eight-and-forty feet4 ,when there were any cross roads1 they were careful to erect posts with an inscription pointing to the city of refuge4 ,every year1 on the fifteenth of the month ,adar1 which answers to our ,february moon1 the magistrates of the city visited the roads1 to see if they were in good condition4 ,the city was to be well supplied with water and provisions4 ,it was not allowed to make any weapons there1 lest the relatives of the deceased should be furnished with arms for the gratifying of their revenge4 ,lastly1 it was necessary that whoever took refuge there1 should understand a trade or calling1 that he might not be chargeable to the inhabitants4 ,they were wont to send some prudent persons to meet those who were pursuing their revenge for the relations1 that they might dispose them to clemency1 and persuade them to wait the decision of justice4 ,though the man-slayer had fled to the city of refuge1 yet he was not on this account exempted from the pursuit of justice4 ,an information was preferred against him1 ,num4 xxxv1 #ab2 he was summoned before the judges1 and before the people1 to clear himself1 and to prove that the murder was merely casual and involuntary4 ,if he was found innocent1 he dwelt safely in the city to which he had retired2 if otherwise1 he was put to death according to the severity of the law4 ,the following texts of ,scripture are not very explicit whether the affair was under the cognizance of the judges of the place where the murder was committed1 or of the judges of the city of refuge to which the murderer had fled1 ,deut4 xix1 #aa1 #ab2 ,joshua xx1 #d-f2 ,num4 xxxv1 #be2 and the commentators are at variance in this matter4 ,but it appears1 from a passage of ,joshua1 that the man-slayer was to undergo two trials2 first1 in the city of refuge1 where the judges summarily examined the affair1 and heard his allegations at his first arrival2 secondly1 when he was taken back to his own city1 to be judged by the magistrates of the place1 who took the cause under a more strict and scrupulous examination4 ,if the latter judges declared him innocent1 they had him reconducted1 under a strong guard1 to the city of refuge to which he had before fled4 ,he was not1 however1 immediately liberated2 but1 to inspire the greater horror even of involuntary murder1 it seems as if the law would punish it by a kind of banishment2 for he was obliged to dwell in the city1 without going out of it1 till the death of the high priest2 and if before that time he was imprudent enough to leave the city1 the avenger of blood might safely kill him2 but after the death of the high priest1 he was at liberty to go whither he pleased without molestation4 ,it is a curious fact1 that the ,north ,american ,indian nations have most of them either a house or town of refuge1 which is a sure asylum to protect a man-slayer1 or the unfortunate captive1 if they can once enter it4 8,in almost every ,indian nation10 says ,adair1 8there are several peaceable towns which are called old1 beloved1 ancient1 holy1 or white towns3 7white being their fixed emblem of peace1 friendship1 prosperity1 happiness1 purity1 c37 they seem to have been formerly towns of refuge2 for it is not in the memory of their oldest people that ever human blood was shed in them1 although they often force persons from thence1 and put them to death elsewhere40 ,sanctuaries affording security for criminals are still known in the east1 and anciently were established in ,europe4 ,,regeneration1 a new birth2 that work of the ,holy ,spirit by which we experience a change of heart4 ,it is expressed in ,scripture by being born again1 ,john iii1 #g2 born from above2 being quickened1 ,eph4 ii1 #a2 by ,christ being formed in the heart1 ,gal4 iv1 #ai2 by our partaking of the divine nature1 #b ,peter i1 #d4 ,the efficient cause of regeneration is the divine ,spirit4 ,that man is not the author of it1 is evident from ,john i1 #ab1 #ac2 iii1 #d2 ,eph4 ii1 #h1 #aj4 ,the instrumental cause is the word of ,god1 ,james i1 #ah2 #a ,peter i1 #bc2 #a ,cor4 iv1 #ae4 ,the change in regeneration consists in the recovery of the moral image of ,god upon the heart2 that is to say1 so as to love him supremely and serve him ultimately as our highest end1 and to delight in him superlatively as our chief good4 ,the sum of the moral law is to love the ,lord our ,god with all our heart1 and soul1 and strength1 and mind4 ,this is the duty of every rational creature2 and in order to obey it perfectly1 no part of our inward affection or actual service ought to be1 at any time1 or in the least degree1 misapplied4 ,regeneration consists in the principle being implanted1 obtaining the ascendancy1 and habitually prevailing over its opposite4 ,it may be remarked1 that though the inspired writers use various terms and modes of speech in order to describe this change of mind1 sometimes terming it conversion1 regeneration1 a new creation1 or the new creature1 putting off the old man with his deeds1 and putting on the new man1 walking not after the flesh1 but after the ,spirit1 c2 yet it is all effected by the word of truth1 or the ,gospel of salvation1 gaining an entrance into the mind1 through divine teaching1 so as to possess the understanding1 subdue the will1 and reign in the affections4 ,in a word1 it is faith working by love that constitutes the new creature1 the regenerate man1 ,gal4 v1 #f2 #a ,john v1 #a-e4 ,regeneration is to be distinguished from our justification1 although it is connected with it4 ,every one who is justified1 is also regenerated2 but the one places us in a new relation1 and the other in a new moral state4 ,our ,lord1 in one instance1 uses the term regeneration for the resurrection state3 8,ye which have followed me1 in the regeneration1 when the ,son of man shall sit on the throne of his glory1 ye also shall sit upon twelve thrones1 judging10 ,matt4 xix1 #bh4 ,and1 accordingly1 ,dr4 ,campbell translates the passage thus3 8,at the renovation1 when the ,son of man shall be seated on the glorious throne1 ye1 my followers1 sitting also upon twelve thrones1 shall judge40 ,we are accustomed1 says he1 to apply the term solely to the conversion of individuals2 whereas its relation here is to the general state of things4 ,the principal completion will be at the general resurrection1 when there will be1 in the most important sense1 a renovation or regeneration of heaven and earth1 when all things shall become new4 ,,rehoboam1 the son and successor of ,solomon2 his mother was ,naamah1 an ,ammonitish woman1 whom ,solomon had married1 #a ,kings xiv1 #bj1 #ba4 ,he was forty-one years of age when he began to reign1 and1 consequently1 was born in the first year of his father's reign1 ,a4 ,m4 #biij1 or the year before4 ,this prince reigned seventeen years at ,jerusalem1 and died ,a4 ,m4 #cjdf4 ,after the death of ,solomon1 ,rehoboam came to ,shechem1 because all ,israel was there assembled to make him king1 #a ,kings xii4 ,jeroboam1 the son of ,nebat1 who had headed a sedition against ,solomon1 and had been compelled1 toward the close of his reign1 to take refuge in ,egypt1 as soon as he heard that this prince was dead1 returned into ,judea1 and came to the assembly of the people of ,shechem4 ,the ,israelites would have made terms with ,rehoboam2 but1 being a poor politician1 and following the advice of some junior counsellors1 he managed his business so imprudently that he lost the whole house of ,israel1 save the tribes of ,judah and ,benjamin4 ,,religion4 ,see ,,christianity4 ,,remonstrants have obtained this name1 particularly on the continent1 because1 in #afaj1 they presented to the states of ,holland a petition1 entitled their ,remonstrance1 in which they stated their grievances1 and prayed for relief4 ,they are also called ,arminians1 because they maintained the doctrines respecting predestination and grace1 which were embraced and defended by ,james ,harmenson or ,arminius1 an eminent ,protestant divine1 and a native of ,holland1 who was born in #aefj1 and died in #afji4 ,he first studied at ,leyden1 and then at ,geneva4 ,while at the university of ,geneva1 he studied under ,beza1 by whom he was instructed in the doctrines of ,calvin2 and having been judged by ,martin ,lydius1 professor of divinity at ,franeker1 a proper person to refute a work in which the ,calvinistic doctrine of predestination had been attacked by some ministers of ,delft1 he undertook the task4 ,on a strict examination of the reasons on both sides1 however1 he became a convert to the opinions which he was employed to refute4 ,the result of his inquiries on this1 and other subjects connected with it1 was1 that1 thinking the doctrine of ,calvin with respect to free will1 predestination1 and grace1 too severe1 he expressed his doubts respecting them in the year #aeia1 and at length adopted the religious system of those who extend the love of ,god1 and the merits of his ,son1 to all mankind4 ,after his appointment to the theological chair of ,leyden1 in #afjc1 he avowed and vindicated the principles which he had embraced2 but the prudence and caution with which he published and defended them could not screen him from the resentment of those who adhered to the theological system of ,calvin1 and in particular from the opposition of ,gomar his colleague4 ,after the death of ,arminius1 the controversy1 thus begun1 became more general1 and threatened to involve the ,united ,provinces in civil discord4 ,however1 the ,arminian tenets gained ground1 and were adopted by several persons of merit and distinction4 ,the ,calvinists or ,gomarists as they were now called1 appealed to a national synod4 ,accordingly1 a synod was at length convened at ,dordrecht or ,dort1 and was composed of ecclesiastical and lay deputies from the ,united ,provinces1 and also of ecclesiastical deputies from the reformed churches of ,england1 ,switzerland1 ,bremen1 ,hesse1 and the ,palatinate4 ,this synod sat from the first of ,november1 #afah1 to the twenty-sixth of ,april1 #afai4 ,the principal advocate in favour of the ,arminians was ,episcopius1 who was at that time professor of divinity at ,leyden4 ,the religious principles of the ,arminians have insinuated themselves more or less into the established church in ,holland1 and imbued the theological system of many of those pastors who are appointed to maintain the doctrine and authority of the synod of ,dort4 ,the principles of ,arminius were early introduced into various other countries1 as ,great ,britain1 ,france1 ,geneva1 and many parts of ,switzerland2 but their progress is said to have been rather retarded of late1 especially in ,germany and several parts of ,switzerland1 by the prevalence of the ,leibnitzian and ,wolfian philosophy1 which is more favourable to ,calvinism4 ,the distinguishing tenets of the ,remonstrants may be said to consist chiefly in the different light in which they view the subjects of the five points1 or in the different explanation which they give to them1 and comprised in the five following articles3 predestination1 universal redemption1 the operation of grace1 the freedom of the will1 and perseverance4 ,they believe that ,god1 having an equal regard for all his creatures1 sent his ,son to die for the sins not of the elect only1 but of the whole world2 that no mortal is rendered finally unhappy by an eternal and invincible decree1 but that the misery of those who perish arises from themselves2 and that1 in this present imperfect state1 believers1 if not vigilant1 may1 through the force of temptation1 and the influence of ,satan1 fall from grace1 and sink into final perdition4 ,see ,,arminianism4 ,,remphan1 1 signifies an idol1 according to the ,septuagint4 ,amos1 v1 #bf1 upbraids the ,hebrews with having carried1 during their wanderings in the wilderness1 the tabernacle of their ,moloch and ,chiun1 their images1 the star of their god1 which they made to themselves1 according to our version of the ,bible4 ,st4 ,stephen1 quoting this passage of ,amos1 says1 8,ye took up the tabernacle of ,moloch1 and the star of your god ,remphan10 ,acts vii1 #dc1 which has given occasion to a variety of conjectures4 ,grotius thinks it to have been some deity1 as ,rimmon2 and ,capellus and ,hammond take this ,remphan to be a king of ,egypt1 deified by his subjects2 a late writer is of opinion1 that ,god here refers to the idolatries to which in succeeding ages the ,jews were gradually given up1 after having begun to revolt in the wilderness by the sin of the golden calf4 ,,repentance is sometimes used generally for a change of mind1 and an earnest wishing that something were undone that has been done4 ,esau found no place for repentance1 though he sought it carefully with tears2 he could not move his father ,isaac to repent of what he had done1 or to recall the blessing from ,jacob and confer it on himself1 ,heb4 xii1 #ag2 ,matt4 iii1 #b2 iv1 #ag4 ,taken in a religious sense it signifies conviction of sin and sorrow for it4 ,but there is1 #a4 ,a partial or worldly repentance1 wherein one is grieved for and turns from his sin1 merely on account of the hurt it has done1 or is likely to do1 him3 so a malefactor1 who still loves his sin1 repents of doing it1 because it brings him to punishment4 #b4 ,an evangelical repentance1 which is a godly sorrow wrought in the heart of a sinful person by the word and ,spirit of ,god1 whereby1 from a sense of his sin1 as offensive to ,god1 and defiling and endangering to his own soul1 and from an apprehension of the mercy of ,god in ,christ1 he1 with grief and hatred of all his known sins1 turns from them to ,god1 as his ,saviour and ,lord4 ,this is called 8repentance toward ,god10 as therein we turn from sin to him2 and 8repentance unto life10 as it leads to spiritual life1 and is the first step to eternal life1 ,matt4 iii1 #b2 ,acts iii1 #ai2 xi1 #ah2 xx1 #ab4 ,god himself is said to repent1 but this can only be understood of his altering his conduct toward his creatures1 either in the bestowing of good or the infliction of evil3 which change in the divine conduct is founded on a change in his creatures2 and thus1 speaking after the manner of men1 ,god is said to repent4 ,,repetitions ,,in ,,prayer4 ,these are forbidden by our ,lord1 and were well styled 8vain10 if they consisted1 as among the ,mohammedans1 in the repetition of words and phrases4 ,richardson mentions an old man who travelled with him1 who was thought to be of peculiar sanctity1 and most devout in prayer3 8,certainly he did not pray in secret1 communing with his heart1 but called aloud with all his might1 and repeated the words as fast as his tongue could give them utterance4 ,the form and words of his prayer were the same with those of the others2 but this good man had made a vow to repeat certain words of the prayer a given number of times1 both night and morning4 ,the word rabboni1 for example1 answering to our word ,lord1 he would bind himself to repeat a hundred or two hundred times1 twice a day2 and1 accordingly1 went on in the hearing of all the party2 and1 on his knees sometimes with his face directed steadily to heaven1 and at other times bowing down to the ground1 and calling out rabboni1 rabboni1 rabboni1 rabboni1 rabboni1 c1 as fast as he could articulate the words after each other1 like a school boy going through his task1 not like a man who1 praying with the heart and the understanding also1 continues longer on his knees1 in the rapture of devotion1 whose soul is a flame of fire1 enkindled by his ,maker1 and fixing upon his ,god1 like ,jacob1 will not let him go until he bless him4 ,having settled his accounts with the word rabboni1 which the telling of his beads enabled him to know when he had done1 he proceeded to dispose of his other vows in a similar manner4 ,allah houakbar1 perhaps1 came next1 #8,god most great2' and he would go on1 as with the other1 ,allah houakbar1 ,allah houakbar1 ,allah houakbar1 ,allah houakbar1 c1 repeating them as fast as he could frame his organs to pronounce them40 ,,rephaim4 ,the ,rephaim were the ancient giants of the land of ,canaan4 ,there were anciently several families of them in this country4 ,it is commonly thought that they were descended from one called ,rephah or ,rapha2 but others imagine that the word ,rephaim properly signifies giants1 in the ancient language of this people4 ,there were some of the ,rephaim beyond ,jordan1 at ,ashteroth ,karnaim1 in the time of ,abraham1 when ,chedorlaomer made war against them1 ,gen4 xiv1 #e4 ,there were also some of them in the country in the days of ,moses4 ,og1 king of ,bashan1 was one of the posterity of the ,rephaim1 ,joshua xii1 #d4 ,also in the time of ,joshua there were some of their descendants in the land of ,canaan1 ,joshua xvii1 #ae4 ,lastly1 we hear of them still in ,david's time1 in the city of ,gath1 #a ,chron4 xx1 #d-f4 ,the giants ,goliah1 ,sippai1 ,lahmi1 and others1 were some remains of the ,rephaim2 their magnitude and strength are known from ,scripture4 ,see ,,giants4 ,,rephidim1 a station or encampment of the ,israelites1 ,exod4 xvii1 #a4 ,at this station1 adjoining to ,mount ,horeb1 the people again murmured for want of water2 and they chid ,moses1 saying1 8,give us water that we may drink40 ,and 8they tempted the ,lord1 saying1 ,is the ,lord among us or not80 ,moses1 therefore1 to convince them that he was1 by a more obvious miracle than at ,marah1 smote the rock with his rod1 by the divine command1 and brought water out of it for the people to drink3 wherefore1 he called the place ,meribah1 8chiding10 and the rock ,massah1 8temptation40 ,on their way to ,rephidim1 the ,amalekites1 the original inhabitants of the country1 who are noticed in ,abraham's days1 ,gen4 xiv1 #g1 not having the fear of ,god before their eyes1 nor regarding the judgments recently inflicted on the ,egyptians1 attacked the rear of the ,israelites when they were faint and weary2 but were defeated by a chosen party1 under the command of ,joshua1 the faithful lieutenant of ,moses1 who is first noticed on this occasion1 and even then pointed out by the ,lord as his successor4 ,this victory was miraculous2 for while ,moses held up his hand ,israel prevailed1 but when he let it down ,amalek prevailed4 ,so ,aaron and ,hur 7the husband of ,miriam1 according to ,josephus7 held up both his hands steadily till sunset1 and thereby gave a decided victory to ,israel4 ,this unprovoked aggression of the ,amalekites drew down upon them from the ,lord the sentence of 8war from generation to generation10 between them and the ,israelites1 and of final extermination1 which was commanded to be written or registered in a book1 for a memorial to ,joshua and his successors1 the judges and kings of ,israel1 and was carried into execution by ,saul1 #a ,sam4 xv1 #h1 by ,david1 #a ,sam4 xxx1 #ag1 and finally accomplished by the ,simeonites in ,hezekiah's reign1 ,exod4 xvii1 #h-ac2 ,deut4 xxv1 #ag2 #a ,chron4 iv1 #dc4 ,while the ,israelites were encamped at ,rephidim1 on the western side of ,horeb1 the mount of ,god1 ,jethro1 the father-in-law of ,moses1 who lived in that neighbourhood1 and was priest and prince of ,midian1 came to visit him1 with his wife ,zipporah1 and his two sons1 ,eleazar and ,gershom1 who had accompanied him part of the way to ,egypt1 but returned home again2 and they rejoiced with him 8for all the goodness which the ,lord had done for ,israel1 whom he had delivered out of the hand of the ,egyptians20 and upon this occasion1 ,jethro1 as 8a priest of the most high ,god10 of the order of ,melchizedek1 8offered a burnt-offering and sacrifices of thanksgiving to ,god1 at which ,aaron and all the elders of ,israel ate bread with ,jethro before ,god10 by a repetition of the eucharistic feast upon a sacrifice which ,melchizedek formerly administered to ,abraham1 ,gen4 xiv1 #ah2 ,exod4 xviii1 #a-ab4 ,thus was fulfilled the prophetic sign which the ,lord had given to ,moses when he first appeared to him in the burning bush3 8,this shall be a token unto thee that ,i have sent thee3 when thou hast brought forth the people out of ,egypt1 ye shall serve ,god upon this mountain10 ,exod1 iii1 #ab4 ,the speedy accomplishment1 therefore1 of this sign1 at the beginning of their journey1 was well calculated to strengthen their faith or reliance on the divine protection throughout4 ,jethro appears to have been distinguished not only for his piety1 but also for his political wisdom4 ,by his advice1 which also was approved by the ,lord1 ,moses1 to relieve himself from the fatigue of administering justice to the people1 the whole day1 from morning until evening1 instituted inferior judges or magistrates over thousands1 hundreds1 fifties1 and tens1 as his deputies1 who were to relieve him from the burden of judging the smaller causes1 but to refer the greater or more difficult to ,moses1 for his decision4 ,,reprobation is equivalent to rejection4 ,rejection always implies a cause3 8,reprobate silver shall men call them1 insomuch that the ,lord hath rejected them10 ,jer4 vi1 #cj2 that is1 they are base metal1 which will not bear the proof4 ,conditional reprobation1 or rejecting men from the divine mercy1 because of their impenitence or refusal of salvation1 is a ,scriptural doctrine2 but to the unconditional1 absolute reprobation of the rigid ,calvinists1 the following objections may be urged3-- #a4 ,it cannot be reconciled to the love of ,god4 8,god is love40 8,he is loving to every man1 and his tender mercies are over all his works40 #b4 ,nor to the wisdom of ,god2 for the bringing into being a vast number of intelligent creatures under a necessity of sinning1 and of being eternally lost1 teaches no moral lesson to the world2 and contradicts all those notions of wisdom in the ends and processes of government1 which we are taught to look for1 not only from natural reason1 but from the ,scriptures4 #c4 ,nor to the grace of ,god1 which is so often magnified in the ,scriptures2 for doth it argue any sovereign or high strain1 any superabounding richness of grace or mercy in any man1 when ten thousand have equally offended him1 only to pardon one or two of them8 ,or in what sense has 8the grace of ,god appeared unto all men10 or even to one-millionth part of them8 #d4 ,nor can this merciless reprobation be reconciled to any of those numerous passages in which almighty ,god is represented as tenderly compassionate and pitiful to the worst and most unworthy of his creatures1 even them who finally perish4 8,i have no pleasure in the death of him that dieth40 8,being grieved at the hardness of their hearts40 8,how often would ,i have gathered thy children together1 as a hen gathereth her chickens under her wings1 and ye would not60 8,the ,lord is long-suffering to us-ward1 not willing that any should perish40 8,or despisest thou the riches of his goodness1 and forbearance1 and long-suffering2 not knowing that the goodness of ,god leadeth thee to repentance80 #e4 ,it is as manifestly contrary to his justice4 ,here1 indeed1 we would not assume to measure this attribute of ,god by unauthorized human conceptions2 but when ,god himself has appealed to those established notions of justice and equity which have been received among all enlightened persons1 in all ages1 as the measure and rule of his own1 we cannot be charged with this presumption4 8,shall not the ,judge of all the earth do right80 8,are not my ways equal8 saith the ,lord40 ,we may then be bold to affirm that justice and equity in ,god are what they are taken to be among reasonable men2 and if all men every where would condemn it1 as most contrary to justice and right1 that a sovereign should condemn to death one or more of his subjects for not obeying laws which it is absolutely impossible for them1 under any circumstances which they can possibly avail themselves of1 to obey1 and much more the greater part of his subjects2 and to require them1 on pain of aggravated punishment1 to do something in order to the pardon and remission of their offences1 which he knows they cannot do1 say to stop the tide or to remove a mountain2 it implies a charge as obviously unjust against ,god1 who is 8just in the judgments which he executeth10 to suppose him to act precisely in the same manner in regard to those whom he has passed by and rejected1 without any avoidable fault of their own2 to destroy them by the simple rule of his own sovereignty1 or1 in other words1 to show that he has power to do it4 ,in whatever light the subject be viewed1 no fault1 in any right construction1 can be chargeable upon the persons so punished1 or1 as we may rather say1 destroyed1 since punishment supposes a judicial proceeding1 which this act shuts out4 ,for either the reprobates are destroyed for a pure reason of sovereignty without any reference to their sinfulness1 and thus all criminality is left out of the consideration2 or they are destroyed for the sin of ,adam1 to which they were not consenting2 or for personal faults resulting from a corruption of nature which they brought into the world with them1 and which ,god wills not to correct1 and which they have no power to correct themselves4 ,every received notion of justice is thus violated4 ,we grant1 indeed1 that some proceedings of the ,almighty may appear at first irreconcilable with justice1 which are not so2 as that we should suffer pain and death1 and be infected with a morally corrupt nature1 in consequence of the transgression of our first progenitors2 that children should suffer for their parents' faults in the ordinary course of providence2 and that in general calamities the comparatively innocent should suffer the same evils as the guilty4 ,but none of these are parallel cases4 ,for the 8free gift0 has come upon all men1 8to justification of life10 through 8the righteousness0 of the second ,adam1 so that the terms of our probation are but changed4 ,none are doomed to inevitable ruin1 or the above words of the ,apostle would have no meaning2 and pain and death1 as to all who avail themselves of the remedy1 are made the instruments of a higher life1 and of a superabounding of grace through ,christ4 ,the same observation may be made as to children who suffer evils for their parents' faults4 ,this circumstance alters the terms of their probation2 but if every condition of probation leaves to men the possibility and the hope of eternal life1 and the circumstances of all are balanced and weighed by ,him who administers the affairs of individuals on principles1 the end of which is to turn all the evils of life into spiritual and higher blessings1 there is1 obviously1 no impeachment of justice in the circumstances of the probation assigned to any person whatever4 ,as to the innocent suffering equally with the guilty in general calamities1 the persons so suffering are but comparatively innocent1 and their personal transgressions against ,god deserve a higher punishment than any which this life witnesses2 this may also as to them be overruled for merciful purposes1 and a future life presents its manifold compensations4 ,but as to the non-elect1 the whole case1 in this scheme of sovereign reprobation1 or sovereign preterition1 is supposed to be before us4 ,their state is fixed1 their afflictions in this life will not in any instance be overruled for ends of edification and salvation2 they are left under a necessity of sinning in every condition2 and a future life presents no compensation1 but a fearful looking for of fiery and quenchless indignation4 ,it is surely not possible for the ingenuity of man to reconcile this to any notion of just government which has ever obtained2 and by the established notions of justice and equity in human affairs1 we are taught by the ,scriptures themselves to judge of the divine proceedings in all completely stated and comprehensible cases4 #f4 ,equally impossible is it to reconcile this notion to the sincerity of ,god in offering salvation by ,christ to all who hear the ,gospel1 of whom this scheme supposes the majority1 or at least great numbers to be among1 the reprobate4 ,the ,gospel1 as we have seen1 is commanded to be preached to every creature2 which publication of good news to every creature is an offer of salvation to every creature1 accompanied with earnest invitations to embrace it1 and admonitory comminations lest any should neglect and despise it4 ,but does it not involve a serious reflection upon the truth and sincerity of ,god which men ought to shudder at1 to assume1 that at the very time the ,gospel is thus preached1 no part of this good news was ever designed to benefit the majority1 or any great part1 of those to whom it is addressed8 that they to whom this love of ,god in ,christ is proclaimed were never loved by ,god8 that he has decreed that many to whom he offers salvation1 and whom he invites to receive it1 shall never be saved8 and that he will consider their sins aggravated by rejecting that which they never could receive1 and which he never designed them to receive8 ,it is no answer to this to say that we also admit that the offers of mercy are made by ,god to many whom he1 by virtue of his prescience1 knows will never receive them4 ,we grant this2 but it is enough to reply1 that in this case there is no insincerity4 ,on the ,calvinian scheme the offer of salvation is made to those for whose sins ,christ made no atonement2 on the other1 he made atonement for the sins of all4 ,on the former1 the offer is made to those whom ,god never designed to embrace it2 on the latter to none but those whom ,god seriously and in truth wills that they should avail themselves of it2 on one theory1 the bar to the salvation of the nonelect lies in the want of a provided sacrifice for sin2 on the other1 it rests solely in men themselves2 one consists1 therefore1 with a perfect sincerity of offer1 the other cannot be maintained without bringing the sincerity of ,god into question1 and fixing a stigma upon his moral truth4 #g4 ,unconditional reprobation cannot be reconciled with that frequent declaration of ,scripture1 that 8,god is no respecter of persons40 ,this phrase1 we grant1 is not to be interpreted as though the bounties of the ,almighty were dispensed in equal measures to his creatures4 ,in the administration of favour1 there is place for the exercise of that prerogative which1 in a just sense1 is called the sovereignty of ,god2 but justice knows but of one rule2 it is1 in its nature1 settled and fixed1 and looks not at the person1 but the case4 ,to have respect of persons is a phrase1 therefore1 in ,scripture1 which sometimes refers to judicial proceedings1 and signifies to judge from partiality and affection1 and not upon the merits of the question4 ,it is also used by ,st4 ,peter with reference to the acceptance of ,cornelius3 8,of a truth ,i perceive that ,god is no respecter of persons2 but in every nation he that feareth him1 and worketh righteousness1 is accepted with him40 ,here it is clear1 that to respect persons1 would be to reject or accept them without regard to their moral qualities1 and on some national and other prejudice or partiality which forms no moral rule of any kind4 ,but1 if the doctrine of absolute election and reprobation be true2 if we are to understand that men like ,jacob and ,esau1 in the ,calvinistic construction of the passage1 while in the womb of their mother1 nay1 from eternity1 are loved and hated1 elected or reprobated1 before they have done 8good or evil10 then it necessarily follows1 that there is precisely this kind of respect of persons with ,god2 for his acceptance or rejection of men stands on some ground of aversion or dislike1 which cannot be resolved into any moral rule1 and has no respect to the merits of the case itself2 and if the ,scripture affirms that there is no such respect of persons with ,god1 then the doctrine which implies it is contradicted by inspired authority4 #h4 ,the doctrine of which we are showing the difficulties1 brings with it the repulsive and shocking opinion of the eternal punishment of infants4 ,some ,calvinists have1 indeed1 to get rid of the difficulty1 or rather to put it out of sight1 consigned them to annihilation2 but of the annihilation of any human being there is no intimation in the word of ,god4 ,in order1 therefore1 to avoid the fearful consequence of admitting the punishment of beings innocent as to all actual sin1 there is no other way than to suppose all children1 dying in infancy1 to be an elected portion of mankind1 which1 however1 would be a mere hypothesis brought in to serve a theory without any evidence4 ,that some of those who1 as they suppose1 are under this sentence of reprobation1 die in their infancy1 is1 probably1 what most ,calvinists allow2 and1 if their doctrine be received1 cannot be denied2 and it follows1 therefore1 that all such infants are eternally lost4 ,now1 we know that infants are not lost1 because our ,lord gave it as a reason why little children ought not to be hindered from coming unto him1 that 8of such is the kingdom of heaven40 ,on which ,calvin himself remarks1 8,in this word1 #8for of such is the kingdom of heaven1' ,christ comprehends as well little children themselves1 as those who in disposition resemble them4 ,hac voce1 tam parvulos1 quam eorum similes1 comprehendit40 ,we are assured of the salvation of infants1 also1 because 8the free gift has come upon all men to10 in order to1 8justification of life10 and because children are not capable of rejecting that blessing1 and must1 therefore1 derive benefit from it4 ,the point1 also1 on which we have just now touched1 that 8there is no respect of persons with ,god10 demonstrates it4 ,for1 as it will be acknowledged1 that some children1 dying in infancy1 are saved1 it must follow1 from this principle and axiom in the divine government1 that all infants are saved2 for the case of all infants1 as to innocence or guilt1 sin or righteousness1 being the same1 and ,god as a judge1 being 8no respecter of persons10 but regarding only the merits of the case1 he cannot make this awful distinction as to them1 that one part shall be eternally saved and the other eternally lost4 ,that doctrine1 therefore1 which implies the perdition of infants1 cannot be congruous to the ,scriptures of truth1 but is utterly abhorrent to them4 ,finally1 not to multiply these instances of the difficulties which accompany the doctrine of absolute reprobation1 or of preterition1 7to use the milder term1 though the argument is not in the least changed by it17 it destroys the end of punitive justice4 ,that end can only be1 to deter men from offence1 and to add strength to the law of ,god4 ,but if the whole body of the reprobate are left to the influence of their fallen nature without remedy1 they cannot be deterred from sin by threats of inevitable punishment2 nor can they ever submit to the dominion of the law of ,god3 their doom is fixed1 and threats and examples can avail nothing4 ,,restitution1 that act of justice by which we restore to our neighbour whatever we have unjustly deprived him of1 ,exod4 xxii1 #a2 ,luke xix1 #h4 ,moralists observe1 respecting restitution1 #a4 ,that where it can be made in kind1 or the injury can be certainly valued1 we are to restore the thing or the value4 #b4 ,we are bound to restore the thing with the natural increase of it1 that is1 to satisfy for the loss sustained in the mean time1 and the gain hindered4 #c4 ,when the thing cannot be restored1 and the value of it is not certain1 we are to give reasonable satisfaction1 according to a liberal estimation4 #d4 ,we are at least to give1 by way of restitution1 what the law would give2 for that is generally equal1 and in most cases rather favourable than rigorous4 #e4 ,a man is not only bound to make restitution for the injury he did1 but for all that directly follows upon the injurious act3 for the first injury being wilful1 we are supposed to will all that which follows upon it4 ,,resurrection4 ,the belief of a general resurrection of the dead1 which will come to pass at the end of the world1 and will be followed with an immortality either of happiness or misery1 is an article of religion in common to ,jews and ,christians4 ,it is very expressly taught both in the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 ,psalm xvi1 #aj2 ,job xix1 #be1 c2 ,ezek4 xxxvii1 #a1 c2 ,isaiah xxvi1 #ai2 ,john v1 #bh1 #bi2 and to these may be added1 ,wisdom iii1 #a1 c2 iv1 #ae2 #b ,macc4 vii1 #ad1 #bc1 #bi1 c4 ,at the time when our ,saviour appeared in ,judea1 the resurrection from the dead was received as one of the principal articles of the ,jewish religion by the whole body of the nation1 the ,sadducees excepted1 ,matt4 xxii1 #bc2 ,luke xx1 #bh2 ,mark xii1 #ah2 ,john xi1 #bc1 #bd2 ,acts xxiii1 #f1 #h4 ,our ,saviour arose himself from the dead1 to give us1 in his own person1 a proof1 a pledge1 and a pattern of our future resurrection4 ,st4 ,paul1 in almost all his epistles1 speaks of a general resurrection1 refutes those who denied or opposed it1 and proves and explains it by several circumstances1 ,rom4 vi1 #e2 #a ,cor4 xv1 #ab-ae2 ,phil4 iii1 #aj1 #aa2 ,heb4 xi1 #ce2 #a ,thess4 iv1 #ac-ag1 c4 ,on this subject no point of discussion1 of any importance1 arises among those who admit the truth of ,scripture1 except as to the way in which the doctrine of the resurrection of the body is to be understood2--whether a resurrection of the substance of the body be meant1 or some minute and indestructible part of it4 ,the latter theory has been adopted for the sake of avoiding certain supposed difficulties4 ,it cannot however fail to strike every impartial reader of the ,new ,testament1 that the doctrine of the resurrection is there taught without any nice distinctions4 ,it is always exhibited as a miraculous work2 and represents the same body which is laid in the grave as the subject of this change from death to life1 by the power of ,christ4 ,thus our ,lord was raised in the same body in which he died1 and his resurrection is constantly held forth as the model of ours2 and the ,apostle ,paul expressly says1 8,who shall change our vile body1 that it may be fashioned like unto his glorious body40 ,the only passage of ,scripture which appears to favour the notion of the rising of the immortal body from some indestructible germ1 is #a ,cor4 xv1 #ce1 c3 8,but some men will say1 ,how are the dead raised up1 and with what body do they come8 ,thou fool1 that which thou sowest is not quickened except it die2 and that which thou sowest1 thou sowest not that body that shall be1 but bare grain1 it may chance of wheat1 or of some other grain10 c4 ,if1 however1 it had been the intention of the ,apostle1 holding this view of the case1 to meet objections to the doctrine of the resurrection1 grounded upon the difficulties of conceiving how the same body1 in the popular sense1 could be raised up in substance1 we might have expected him to correct this misapprehension by declaring1 that this was not the ,christian doctrine2 but that some small parts of the body only1 bearing as little proportion to the whole as the germ of a seed to the plant1 would be preserved1 and be unfolded into the perfected body at the resurrection4 ,instead of this1 he goes on immediately to remind the objector of the differences which exist between material bodies as they now exist2 between the plant and the bare or naked grain2 between one plant and another2 between the flesh of men1 of beasts1 of fishes1 and of birds2 between celestial and terrestrial bodies2 and between the lesser and greater celestial luminaries themselves4 ,still farther he proceeds to state the difference1 not between the germ of the body to be raised1 and the body given at the resurrection2 but between the body itself1 understood popularly1 which dies1 and the body which shall be raised4 8,it is sown in corruption1 it is raised in incorruption10 which would not be true of the supposed incorruptible and imperishable germ of this hypothesis2 and can only be affirmed of the body itself1 considered in substance1 and1 in its present state1 corruptible4 ,farther3 the question put by the objector1--8,how are the dead raised up80 does not refer to the modus agendi of the resurrection1 or the process or manner in which the thing is to be effected1 as the advocates of the germ hypothesis appear to assume4 ,this is manifest from the answer of the ,apostle1 who goes on immediately to state1 not in what manner the resurrection is to be effected1 but what shall be the state or condition of the resurrection body2 which is no answer at all to the question1 if it be taken in that sense4 ,thus1 in the argument1 the ,apostle confines himself wholly to the possibility of the resurrection of the body in a refined and glorified state2 but omits all reference to the mode in which the thing will be effected1 as being out of the line of the objector's questions1 and in itself above human thought1 and wholly miraculous4 ,it is1 however1 clear1 that when he speaks of the body1 as the subject of this wondrous 8change10 he speaks of it popularly1 as the same body in substance1 whatever changes in its qualities or figure may be impressed upon it4 ,great general changes it will experience1 as from corruption to incorruption1 from mortality to immortality2 great changes of a particular kind will also take place1 as its being freed from deformities and defects1 and the accidental varieties produced by climate1 aliments1 labour1 and hereditary diseases4 ,it is also laid down by our ,lord1 that 8in the resurrection they shall neither marry nor be given in marriage1 but be like to the angels of ,god20 and this also implies a certain change of structure2 and we may gather from the declaration of the ,apostle1 that though 8the stomach0 is now adapted 8to meats1 and meats to the stomach10 yet ,god will 8destroy both it and them20 that the animal appetite for food will be removed1 and the organ now adapted to that appetite will have no place in the renewed frame4 ,but great as these changes are1 the human form will be retained in its perfection1 after the model of our ,lord's 8glorious body10 and the substance of the matter of which it is composed will not thereby be affected4 ,that the same body which was laid in the grave shall arise out of it1 is the manifest doctrine of the ,scriptures4 ,the notion of an incorruptible germ1 or that of an original and unchangeable stamen1 out of which a new and glorious body1 at the resurrection1 is to spring1 appears to have been borrowed from the speculations of some of the ,jewish rabbins4 ,but if by this hypothesis it was designed to remove the difficulty of conceiving how the scattered parts of one body could be preserved from becoming integral parts of other bodies1 it supposes that the constant care of ,providence is exerted to maintain the incorruptibility of those individual germs1 or stamina1 so as to prevent their assimilation with each other4 ,now1 if they have this by original quality1 then the same quality may just as easily be supposed to appertain to every particle which composes a human body2 so that1 though it be used for food1 it shall not be capable of assimilation1 in any circumstances1 with another human body4 ,but if these germs1 or stamina1 have not this quality by their original nature1 they can only be prevented from assimilating with each other by that operation of ,god which is present to all his works1 and which must always be directed to secure the execution of his own ultimate designs4 ,if this view be adopted1 then1 if the resort must at last be to the superintendence of a ,being of infinite power and wisdom1 there is no greater difficulty in supposing that his care to secure this object may extend to a million as easily as to a hundred particles of matter4 ,this is1 in fact1 the true and rational answer to the objection that the same piece of matter may happen to be a part of two or more bodies1 as in the instances of men feeding upon animals which have fed upon men1 and of men feeding upon one another4 ,the question here is one which simply respects the frustrating a final purpose of the ,almighty by an operation of nature4 ,to suppose that he cannot prevent this1 is to deny his power2 to suppose him inattentive to it1 is to suppose him indifferent to his own designs2 and to assume that he employs care to prevent it1 is to assume nothing greater1 nothing in fact so great1 as many instances of control1 which are always occurring2 as1 for instance1 the regulation of the proportion of the sexes in human births1 which cannot be attributed to chance1 but must either be referred to superintendence1 or to some original law4 ,another objection to the resurrection of the body has been drawn from the changes of its substance during life2 the answer to which is1 that1 allowing a frequent and total change of the substance of the body 7which1 however1 is but an hypothesis7 to take place1 it affects not the doctrine of ,scripture1 which is1 that the body which is laid in the grave shall be raised up4 ,but then1 we are told1 that if our bodies have in fact undergone successive changes during life1 the bodies in which we have sinned or performed rewardable actions may not be1 in many instances1 the same bodies as those which will be actually rewarded or punished4 ,we answer1 that rewards and punishments have their relation to the body1 not so much as it is the subject but as it is the instrument of reward and punishment4 ,it is the soul only which perceives pain or pleasure1 which suffers or enjoys1 and is1 therefore1 the only rewardable subject4 ,were we1 therefore1 to admit such corporeal mutations as are assumed in this objection1 they affect not the case of our accountability4 ,the personal identity or sameness of a rational being1 as ,mr4 ,locke has observed1 consists in self-consciousness3 8,by this every one is to himself what he calls self1 without considering whether that self be continued in the same or divers substances4 ,it was by the same self which reflects on an action done many years ago1 that the action was performed40 ,if there were indeed any weight in this objection1 it would affect the proceedings of human criminal courts in all cases of offences committed at some distance of time2 but it contradicts the common sense1 because it contradicts the common consciousness and experience1 of mankind4 ,our ,lord has assured us1 that 8the hour is coming in which all that are in their graves shall hear his voice1 and come forth2 they that have done good1 unto the resurrection of life1 and they that have done evil1 unto the resurrection of damnation40 ,then we shall 8all be changed1 in a moment1 in the twinkling of an eye1 at the last trump10 and 8the dead shall be raised incorruptible40 ,it is probable that the bodies of the righteous and the wicked1 though each shall in some respects be the same as before1 will each be in other respects not the same1 but undergo some change conformable to the character of the individual1 and suited to his future state of existence2 yet both1 as the passage just quoted clearly teaches1 are then rendered indestructible4 ,respecting the good it is said1 8,when ,christ1 who is our life1 shall appear1 we shall appear with him in glory10 8we shall be like him2 our body shall be fashioned like his glorious body20 yet1 notwithstanding this1 8it doth not yet fully appear what we shall be10 ,col4 iii1 #d2 #a ,john iii1 #b2 ,phil4 iii1 #ba4 ,this has a very obvious reason4 ,our present manner of knowing depends upon our present constitution1 and we know not the exact relation which subsists between this constitution and the manner of being in a future world2 we derive our ideas through the medium of the senses2 the senses are necessarily conversant with terrestrial objects only2 our language is suited to the communication of present ideas2 and thus it follows that the objects of the future world may in some respects 7whether few or many we cannot say7 differ so extremely from terrestrial objects1 that language cannot communicate to us any such ideas as would render those matters comprehensible4 ,but language may suggest striking and pleasing analogies2 and with such we are presented by the holy ,apostle3 8,all flesh10 says he1 8is not the same flesh3 but there is one flesh of men1 another of beasts1 another of fishes1 and another of birds20 and yet all these are fashioned out of the same kind of substance1 mere inert matter1 till ,god gives it life and activity4 ,it is sown an animal body2 a body which previously existed with all the organs1 faculties1 and propensities1 requisite to procure1 receive1 and appropriate nutriment1 as well as to perpetuate the species2 but it shall be raised a spiritual body1 refined from the dregs of matter1 freed from the organs and senses required only in its former state1 and probably possessing the remaining senses in greater perfection1 together with new and more exquisite faculties1 fitted for the exalted state of existence and enjoyment to which it is now rising4 ,in the present state the organs and senses appointed to transmit the impressions of objects to the mind1 have a manifest relation to the respective objects3 the eye and seeing1 for example1 to light2 the ear and hearing1 to sound4 ,in the refined and glorious state of existence to which good men are tending1 where the objects which solicit attention will be infinitely more numerous1 interesting1 and delightful1 may not the new organs1 faculties1 and senses1 be proportionally refined1 acute1 susceptible1 or penetrating8 ,human industry and invention have placed us1 in a manner1 in new worlds2 what1 then1 may not a spiritual body1 with sharpened faculties1 and the grandest possible objects of contemplation1 effect in the celestial regions to which ,christians are invited8 ,there the senses will no longer degrade the affections1 the imagination no longer corrupt the heart2 the magnificent scenery thrown open to view will animate the attention1 give a glow and vigour to the sentiments2 that roused attention will never tire2 those glowing sentiments will never cloy2 but the man1 now constituted of an indestructible body1 as well as of an immortal soul1 may visit in eternal succession the streets of the celestial city1 may 8drink of the pure river of the water of life1 clear as crystal1 proceeding out of the throne of ,god1 and of the ,lamb20 and dwell for ever in those abodes of harmony and peace1 which1 though 8eye hath not seen1 nor ear heard1 nor has it entered into the imagination of man to conceive10 we are assured 8,god hath prepared for them that love him10 #a ,cor4 ii1 #i4 ,,reuben1 ,,tribe ,,of4 ,this tribe1 having much cattle1 solicited and obtained from ,moses possessions east of the ,jordan2 by which river it was separated from the main body of ,israel3 it was1 in consequence1 exposed to various inroads and oppressions from which the western tribes were free2 and it was among the first carried into captivity by ,tiglath pileser1 #a ,chron4 v1 #bf4 ,,revelation1 or ,,apocalypsis1 is the name given to a canonical book of the ,new ,testament4 ,see ,,apocalypse4 ,,rhodes1 an island lying south of the province of ,caria1 in ,lesser ,asia1 and1 among the ,asiatic islands1 is accounted for dignity next to ,cyprus and ,lesbos4 ,it is pleasant and healthful1 and was anciently celebrated for the skill of its inhabitants in navigation1 but most1 for its prodigious statue of brass consecrated to the sun1 and called the ,colossus4 ,this statue was seventy cubits high1 and bestrode the mouth of the harbour1 so that ships could sail between its legs1 and it was accounted one of the seven wonders of the world4 ,st4 ,paul1 on his way to ,jerusalem1 ,a4 ,d4 #eh1 went from ,miletus to ,coos1 from ,coos to ,rhodes1 and from thence to ,patara1 in ,lycia1 ,acts xxi1 #a4 ,,righteousness1 justice1 holiness4 ,the righteousness of ,god is the essential perfection of his nature2 sometimes it is put for his justice4 ,the righteousness of ,christ denotes1 not only his absolute perfection1 but1 is taken for his perfect obedience unto death1 and his suffering the penalty of the law in our stead4 ,the righteousness of the law is that obedience which the law requires4 ,the righteousness of faith is the justification which is received by faith4 ,,rimmon4 ,see ,,naaman4 ,,rings4 ,the antiquity of rings appears from ,scripture and from profane authors4 ,judah left his ring with ,tamar1 ,gen4 xxxviii1 #ah4 ,when ,pharaoh committed the government of ,egypt to ,joseph1 he took his ring from his finger and gave it to ,joseph1 ,gen4 xli1 #db4 ,after the victory of the ,israelites over the ,midianites1 they offered to the ,lord the rings1 the bracelets1 and the golden necklaces1 taken from the enemy1 ,num4 xxxi1 #ej4 ,the ,israelitish women wore rings1 not only on their fingers1 but also in their nostrils and their ears4 ,st4 ,james distinguishes a man of wealth and dignity by the ring of gold on his finger1 ,james ii1 #b4 ,at the return of the prodigal son1 his father orders him to be dressed in a new suit of clothes1 and to have a ring put on his finger1 ,luke xv1 #bb4 ,when ,god threatened ,jeconiah with the utmost effects of his anger1 he tells him1 that though he were the signet or ring on his finger1 yet he should be torn off1 ,jer4 xxii1 #bd4 ,the ring was used chiefly to seal with1 and ,scripture generally assigns it to princes and great persons2 as the king of ,egypt1 ,joseph1 ,ahaz1 ,jezebel1 ,king ,ahasuerus1 his favourite ,haman1 ,mordecai1 ,king ,darius1 #a ,kings xxi1 #h2 ,esther iii1 #aj1 c2 ,dan4 vi1 #ag4 ,the patents and orders of these princes were sealed with their rings or signets1 an impression from which was their confirmation4 ,the ring was one mark of sovereign authority4 ,pharaoh gave his ring to ,joseph1 as a token of authority4 ,when ,alexander the ,great gave his ring to ,perdiccas1 this was understood as nominating him his successor4 ,,river4 ,the ,hebrews give the name of 8the river10 without any addition1 sometimes to the ,nile1 sometimes to the ,euphrates1 and sometimes to ,jordan4 ,it is the tenor of the discourse that must determine the sense of this vague and uncertain way of speaking4 ,they give also the name of river to brooks and rivulets that are not considerable4 ,the name of river is sometimes given to the sea1 ,hab4 iii1 #h2 ,psalm lxxviii1 #af4 ,it is also used as a symbol for plenty1 ,job xxix1 #f2 ,psalm xxxvi1 #h4 ,,rock4 ,palestine1 being a mountainous country1 had also many rocks1 which formed a part of the country's defence2 for in time of danger the people retired to them1 and found a refuge against any sudden irruption of the enemy4 ,the ,benjamites took shelter in the rock ,rimmon1 ,judges xx1 #dg4 ,samson kept garrison in the rock of ,etham1 ,judges xv1 #h4 ,david found shelter in the rocks of ,maon1 ,engedi1 c1 #a ,sam4 xxii1 #a2 xxiii1 #be1 #bh2 xxiv1 #b-e4 ,jerom says that the southern parts of ,judea were full of caves under ground1 and of caverns in the mountains1 to which the people retired in time of danger4 ,the ,kenites dwelt in the hollow places of the rocks1 ,num4 xxiv1 #ba4 ,even at this day the villages of this country are subterraneous1 or in the rocks4 ,josephus in several places speaks of hollow rocks1 where thieves and robbers had their haunts2 and travellers still find a great number of them in ,palestine1 and in the adjoining provinces4 ,toward ,lebanon1 the mountains are high1 but covered in many places with as much earth as fits them for cultivation4 ,among the crags of the rocks1 the beautiful and far-famed cedar waves its lofty top1 and extends its powerful arms1 surrounded by the fir and the oak1 the fig and the vine4 ,on the road to ,jerusalem1 the mountains are not so lofty nor so rugged1 but become fitter for tillage4 ,they rise again to the south-east of ,mount ,carmel2 are covered with woods1 and afford very picturesque views2 but advancing toward ,judea1 they lose their verdure1 the valleys become narrow1 dry1 and stony1 and terminate at the ,dead ,sea in a pile of desolate rocks1 precipices1 and caverns4 ,these vast excavations1 some of which will contain fifteen hundred men1 are the grottoes of ,engedi1 which have been a refuge to the oppressed or the discontented in all ages4 ,westward of ,jordan and the lake ,asphaltites1 another chain of rocks1 still loftier and more rugged1 presents a yet more gloomy aspect1 and announces the distant entrance of the desert1 and the termination of the habitable regions4 ,the name of rock is also given to ,god1 by way of metaphor1 because ,god is the strength1 the refuge1 and defence of ,israel1 as those places were to the people who resided among them1 ,psalm xviii1 #b1 #ca2 xxxi1 #b1 #c2 ,deut4 xxxii1 #ae1 #ah1 #cj1 #ca2 ,psalm lxi1 #b1 c4 ,,rod4 ,this word is used sometimes for the branches of a tree3 8,and ,jacob took him rods of green poplar1 and of the hazel and chesnut tree10 ,gen4 xxx1 #cg2 sometimes for a staff or wand3 8,and thou shalt take this rod in thine hand1 wherewith thou shalt do signs4 ,and ,moses took the rod of ,god in his hand10 ,exod4 iv1 #ag1 #bj2 or for a shepherd's crook3 8,and concerning the tithe of the herd1 or of the flock1 even of whatsoever passeth under the rod2 the tenth shall be holy unto the ,lord10 ,lev4 xxvii1 #cb2 or for a rod1 properly so called1 which ,god makes use of to correct men3 8,if he commit iniquity1 ,i will chasten him with the rod of men1 and with the stripes of the children of men10 #b ,sam4 vii1 #ad4 8,let him take his rod away from me10 ,job ix1 #cd4 ,the empire of the ,messiah is sometimes represented by a rod of iron1 to show its power and its might1 ,psalm ii1 #i2 ,rev4 ii1 #bg2 xii1 #e2 xix1 #ae4 ,rod is sometimes put to signify a tribe or a people3 8,remember thy congregation which thou hast purchased of old1 the rod of thine inheritance which thou hast redeemed10 ,psalm lxxiv1 #b4 8,israel is the rod of his inheritance10 ,jer4 x1 #af4 ,the rod of ,aaron is the staff commonly used by the high priest4 ,this is the rod that budded and blossomed like an almond tree1 ,num4 xvii4 ,see ,,aaron4 ,,roman ,,catholics1 or members of the church of ,rome1 otherwise called papists1 from the pope being considered by them as the supreme head of the universal church1 the successor of ,st4 ,peter1 and the fountain of theological truth and ecclesiastical honours4 ,he keeps his court in great state at the palace of the ,vatican1 and is attended by seventy cardinals as his privy counsellors1 in imitation of the seventy disciples of our ,lord4 ,the pope's authority in other kingdoms is merely spiritual1 but in ,italy he is a temporal sovereign1 ,louis ,,xviii4 and the allies having1 in #ahad1 restored him to his throne1 and to those temporalities of which he was deprived by ,buonaparte and the ,french revolution4 ,on resuming his government1 ,pope ,pius ,,vii4 soon restored the order of ,jesuits and the inquisition2 so that the ,roman ,catholic religion is now reinstated in its ancient splendour and authority4 ,the principal dogmas of this religion are as follows3 #a4 ,that ,st4 ,peter was deputed by ,christ to be his vicar1 and the head of the catholic church2 and that the bishops of ,rome1 being his successors1 have the same apostolical authority2 for our ,saviour declares1 in ,matt4 xvi1 #ah1 8,thou art ,peter1 and upon this rock will ,i build my church20 by which rock they understand ,st4 ,peter himself1 as the name signifies1 and not his confession1 as the ,protestants explain it4 ,and a succession in the church being now supposed necessary under the ,new ,testament1 as ,aaron had his succession under the old dispensation1 which was a figure of the new1 this succession can now1 they contend1 be shown only in the chair of ,st4 ,peter at ,rome1 where it is asserted he presided twenty-five years previous to his death2 therefore1 the bishops of ,rome are his true successors4 #b4 ,that the ,roman ,catholic church is the mother and mistress of all churches1 and cannot possibly err in matters of faith2 for the church has the promise of the ,spirit of ,god to lead it into all truth1 ,john xvi1 #ac2 8and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it10 ,matt4 xvi1 #ah4 ,christ also1 who is himself the truth1 has promised to the pastors and teachers of the church to be with them 8always1 even to the end of the world10 ,matt4 xxviii1 #bj4 8,it is from the testimony and authority of the church1 therefore10 say they1 8that we receive the ,scriptures as the word of ,god40 #c4 ,that the ,scriptures thus received on the authority of the church are not sufficient to our faith without apostolical traditions1 which are of equal authority with the ,scriptures2 for ,st4 ,peter assures us1 that in ,st4 ,paul's epistles there 8are some things hard to be understood1 which they who are unlearned and unstable wrest1 as they do also the other scriptures1 to their own destruction10 #b ,peter iii1 #af4 ,we are directed by ,st4 ,paul to 8stand fast1 and hold the traditions which we have been taught1 whether by word or by epistle10 #b ,thess4 ii1 #ae4 #d4 ,that seven sacraments were instituted by ,jesus ,christ1 namely1 baptism1 confirmation1 eucharist1 penance1 extreme unction1 orders1 and matrimony2 and that they confer grace4 ,to prove that confirmation1 or imposition of hands1 is a sacrament1 they quote ,acts viii1 #ag3 8,they10 the ,apostles1 8laid their hands on them10 believers1 8and they received the ,holy ,ghost40 ,penance is a sacrament in which the sins we commit after baptism1 duly repented of1 and confessed to a priest1 are forgiven2 and which they think was instituted by ,christ himself when he breathed upon his ,apostles after his resurrection1 and said1 8,receive ye the ,holy ,ghost3 whose sins ye remit1 are remitted2 and whose sins ye retain1 are retained10 ,john xx1 #bc4 ,in favour of extreme unction1 or anointing the sick with oil1 they argue from ,james i1 #ad1 #ae1 which is thus rendered in the ,vulgate3 8,is any sick among you8 ,let him call for the priests of the church1 and let them pray over him1 anointing him with oil10 c4 ,the sacrament of holy orders is inferred from #a ,tim4 iv1 #ad3 8,neglect not the gift that is in thee1 which was given thee by prophecy1 with the laying on the hands of the presbytery10 or priesthood1 as they render it4 ,that marriage is a sacrament1 they think evident from ,ephes4 v1 #cb3 8,this is a great mystery10 representing the mystical union of ,christ and his church4 8,matrimony10 say they1 8is here the sign of a holy thing1 and therefore it is a sacrament40 ,notwithstanding this1 they enjoin celibacy upon the clergy1 because they do not think it proper that those who1 by their office and function1 ought to be wholly devoted to ,god1 should be diverted from those duties by the distractions of a married life1 #a ,cor4 vii1 #cb1 #cc4 #e4 ,that in the mass1 or public service1 there is offered unto ,god a true and propitiatory sacrifice for the quick and dead2 and that in the sacrament of the eucharist1 under the forms of bread and wine1 are really and substantially present the body and blood1 together with the soul and divinity1 of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ2 and that there is a conversion made of the whole substance of the bread into his body1 and of the wine into his blood1 which is called transubstantiation2 according to our ,lord's words to his disciples1 8,this is my body10 c1 ,matt4 xxvi1 #bf2 wherefore it becomes with them an object of adoration4 ,farther3 it is a matter of discipline1 not of doctrine1 in the ,roman church1 that the laity receive the eucharist in one kind1 that is1 in bread only4 ,this sacrifice of the mass was1 they think1 predicted by the ,prophet ,malachi1 i1 #aa1 who says1 8,in every place incense shall be offered unto my name1 and a pure offering40 #f4 ,that there is a purgatory2 and that souls kept prisoners there do receive help by the suffrages of the faithful4 ,for it is said1 in #a ,cor4 iii1 #ae1 8,if any man's work shall be burned1 he shall suffer loss2 but he himself shall be saved1 yet so as by fire20 which they understand of the flames of purgatory4 ,they also believe that souls are released from purgatory by the prayers and alms which are offered for them1 principally by the holy sacrifice of the mass4 ,they call purgatory a middle state of souls1 into which those enter who depart this life in ,god's grace2 yet not without some less stains of guilt1 which retard them from entering heaven1 where nothing unclean can enter4 #g4 ,that the saints reigning with ,christ 7and especially the blessed virgin7 are to be honoured and invoked2 that they offer prayers unto ,god for us2 and that their relics are to be had in veneration4 ,these honours1 however1 are not divine1 but relative1 and redound to the divine glory1 ,rev4 v1 #h2 viii1 #d1 c4 #h4 ,that the image of ,christ1 of the blessed virgin1 the mother of ,god1 and of other saints1 ought to be retained in churches1 and honour and veneration ought to be given unto them4 ,and as the images of cherubims were allowed in the temples1 so images should be placed in churches1 and had in veneration4 #i4 ,that the power of indulgences was left by ,christ to the church1 and that the use of them is very beneficial to ,christian people2 according to ,matt4 xvi1 #ai3 8,i will give thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven40 ,by indulgences they do not mean leave to commit sin1 nor pardon for sins to come2 but only releasing1 by the power of the keys committed to the church1 the debt of temporal punishment which may remain due upon account of our sins1 after the sins themselves1 as to their guilt and eternal punishment1 have been already remitted through repentance and confession1 and by virtue of the merit of ,christ1 and of all the saints4 ,by their indulgences they assert that they apply to their souls the merits of ,christ1 and of the saints and martyrs through him4 ,the ceremonies of this church are numerous and splendid1 as1 #a4 ,they make use of the sign of the cross in all their sacraments1 to give us to understand1 that they have their whole force and efficacy from the cross4 #b4 ,sprinkling of the holy water by the priest on solemn days is used likewise by every one going in or coming out of church4 #c4 ,the ceremony of blessing bells is1 by the ,catholics1 called christening them2 because the name of some saint is ascribed to them1 by virtue of whose invocation they are presented1 in order that they may obtain his favour and protection4 #d4 ,they always bow at the name of ,jesus1 7which is also done as regularly in the church of ,england17 and they found the practice on ,phil4 ii1 #aj3 8,that at the name of ,jesus every knee should bow40 #e4 ,they keep a number of lamps and wax candles continually burning before the shrines and images of the saints4 #f4 ,they make use of incense1 and have lighted candles upon the altar at the celebration of the mass4 #g4 ,the practice of washing the poor's feet1 in imitation of our ,lord's washing the feet of his disciples1 is solemnized on ,holy ,thursday by all the princes of the ,romish religion in ,europe4 ,the church of ,rome also professes to keep the fast of ,lent with great strictness1 and observes a much greater number both of feasts and festivals than the church of ,england4 ,the church of ,rome assumes the title of ,catholic1 or universal1 as answering to that article in the ,apostles' ,creed1 8,i believe in the holy ,catholic church40 ,the above is perhaps a sufficient account of the ,roman ,catholic faith2 but as the creed of ,pope ,pius ,,iv4 is universally admitted to be the true standard of that faith1 it would be decidedly wrong to conclude without inserting it4 ,mr4 ,butler says it contains a succinct and explicit summary of the canons of the council of ,trent1 and was published in the form of a papal bull1 in #aefd4 ,he adds1 8,it is received throughout the whole ,roman ,catholic church2 every one who is admitted into that church1 publicly reads and professes his assent to it40 ,this document commences with reciting the ,nicene ,creed1 which1 as it is admitted by the ,protestant church of ,england1 and inserted in the ,common ,prayer ,book1 need not be here repeated4 ,it then proceeds with the twelve following articles1 in addition to those of the ,apostles' ,creed1 which they also reckon twelve3 8#ac4 ,i most firmly admit and embrace apostolical and ecclesiastical traditions1 and all other constitutions and observances of the same church4 ,i also admit the sacred ,scriptures according to the sense which the holy mother church has held1 and does hold1 to whom it belongs to judge of the true sense and interpretation of the ,holy ,scriptures2 nor will ,i ever take and interpret them otherwise than according to the unanimous consent of the fathers4 #ad4 ,i profess also that there are truly and properly seven sacraments of the new law1 instituted by ,jesus ,christ our ,lord1 and for the salvation of mankind1 7though all are not necessary for every one17 namely1 baptism1 confirmation1 eucharist1 penance1 extreme unction1 order1 and matrimony2 and that they confer grace2 and of these1 baptism1 confirmation1 and order cannot be reiterated without sacrilege4 #ae4 ,i also receive and admit the ceremonies of the ,catholic church1 received and approved in the solemn administration of all the above said sacraments4 #af4 ,i receive and embrace all and every one of the things which have been defined and declared in the holy council of ,trent1 concerning original sin and justification4 #ag4 ,i profess1 likewise1 that in the mass1 is offered to ,god a true1 proper1 and propitiatory sacrifice for the living and the dead2 and that in the most holy sacrament of the eucharist there is truly1 really1 and substantially the body and blood1 together with the soul and divinity1 of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ2 and that there is made a conversion of the whole substance of the bread into the body1 and of the whole substance of the wine into the blood1 which conversion the ,catholic church calls transubstantiation4 #ah4 ,i confess1 also1 that under either kind alone1 ,christ whole and entire1 and a true sacrament1 is received4 #ai4 ,i constantly hold that there is a purgatory1 and that the souls detained therein are helped by the suffrages of the faithful4 #bj4 ,likewise1 that the saints reigning together with ,christ are to be honoured and invocated2 that they offer prayers to ,god for us1 and that their relics are to be venerated4 #ba4 ,i most firmly assert1 that the images of ,christ1 and of the mother of ,christ1 ever a virgin1 and also of the other saints1 are to be had and retained1 and that due honour and veneration are to be given to them4 #bb4 ,i also affirm1 that the power of indulgences was left by ,christ in the church1 and that the use of them is most wholesome to ,christian people4 #bc4 ,i acknowledge the holy ,catholic and apostolic ,roman church1 the mother and mistress of all churches2 and ,i promise and swear true obedience to the bishop of ,rome1 the successor of ,st4 ,peter1 prince of the ,apostles1 and vicar of ,jesus ,christ4 #bd4 ,i also profess1 and undoubtedly receive1 all other things1 delivered1 defined1 and declared by the sacred canons and general councils1 and particularly by the holy council of ,trent2 and likewise1 ,i also condemn1 reject1 and anathematize all things contrary thereto2 and all heresies whatsoever1 condemned and anathematized by the church4 ,this true catholic faith1 out of which none can be saved1 which ,i now freely profess1 and truly hold1 ,i1 ,n41 promise1 vow1 and swear most constantly to hold and profess the same1 whole and entire1 with ,god's assistance1 to the end of my life4 ,amen40 ,such is the avowed and accredited faith of the church of ,rome2 but it seems a most extraordinary circumstance1 that1 while this church has so enlarged the creed1 it has reduced the number of the commandments1 omitting altogether the second1 8,thou shalt not make unto thee a graven image10 c1 ,exod4 xx1 #c-f2 as if the ,catholics were conscious it could by no means be reconciled with the twenty-first article of the above recited creed4 ,and then1 to prevent alarm1 as every body must know there should be ten commandments1 the last is divided into two1 to make up the number4 ,this is said to have been done1 even before the ,reformation4 ,it was done in the ,french ,national ,catechism1 published in #ahjf1 and sanctioned by ,pope ,pius ,,vii41 by the archbishop of ,paris1 and by the ,emperor ,napoleon4 ,it is remarkable1 also1 that in ,dr4 ,chalenor's 8,garden of the ,soul10 printed in ,london by ,coglan1 in #aghg1 in a form of self-examination for the penitent upon each commandment1 there is no reference to the one omitted2 nor is there any reference to it in ,bossuet's famous 8,exposition of the ,doctrines of the ,catholic ,church10 when treating upon images1 and the manner in which they are directed to be honoured4 ,lastly1 in ,butler's ,catechism1 the eighth edition1 printed at ,dublin in #ahaa1 and sanctioned by four ,roman ,catholic archbishops1 the commandments stand literally as follows3 8#a4 ,i am the ,lord thy ,god2 thou shalt have no strange gods before me4 #b4 ,thou shalt not take the name of the ,lord thy ,god in vain4 #c4 ,remember that thou keep holy the ,sabbath day4 #d4 ,honour thy father and thy mother4 #e4 ,thou shalt not kill4 #f4 ,thou shalt not commit adultery4 #g4 ,thou shalt not steal4 #h4 ,thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour4 #i4 ,thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's wife4 #aj4 ,thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's goods40 ,here it may be added1 that by omitting the second command1 the others are numbered differently from what they are by us4 ,thus1 the third is brought in for the second1 the fourth is made the third1 c1 till they come to the last which is divided in two1 for the purpose above mentioned4 ,the gross and antiscriptural errors1 leading to superstition1 idolatry1 and many other evils1 which are contained in the peculiarities of the papistical faith1 are abundantly pointed out and refuted by the leading ,protestant writers4 ,,romans1 ,,epistle ,,to ,,the4 ,this epistle was written from ,corinth1 ,a4 ,d4 #eh1 being the fourth year of the ,emperor ,nero1 just before ,st4 ,paul set out for ,jerusalem with the contributions which the ,christians of ,macedonia and ,achaia had made for the relief of their poor brethren in ,judea1 ,acts xx1 #a2 ,rom4 xv1 #be1 #bf4 ,it was transcribed or written as ,st4 ,paul dictated it1 by ,tertius2 and the person who conveyed it to ,rome was ,phbe1 a deaconess of the church of ,cenchrea1 which was the eastern port of the city of ,corinth1 ,rom4 xvi1 #a1 #bb4 ,it is addressed to the church at ,rome1 which consisted partly of ,jewish and partly of ,heathen converts2 and throughout the epistle it is evident that the ,apostle has regard to both these descriptions of ,christians4 ,st4 ,paul1 when he wrote this epistle had not been at ,rome1 ,rom4 i1 #ac2 xv1 #bc2 but he had heard an account of the state of the church in that city from ,aquila and ,priscilla1 two ,christians who were banished from thence by the edict of ,claudius1 and with whom he lived during his first visit to ,corinth4 ,whether any other ,apostle had at this time preached the ,gospel at ,rome1 cannot now be ascertained4 ,among those who witnessed the effect of the first effusion of the ,holy ,ghost are mentioned 8strangers of ,rome1 ,jews and proselytes10 ,acts ii1 #aj2 that is1 persons of the ,jewish religion1 who usually resided at ,rome1 but who had come to ,jerusalem to be present at the feast of pentecost4 ,it is highly probable that these men1 upon their return home1 proclaimed the ,gospel of ,christ2 and we may farther suppose that many ,christians who had been converted at other places afterward settled at ,rome1 and were the cause of others embracing the ,gospel4 ,but1 by whatever means ,christianity had been introduced into ,rome1 it seems to have flourished there in great purity2 for we learn from the beginning of this epistle that the faith of the ,roman ,christians was at this time much celebrated1 ,rom4 i1 #h4 ,to confirm them in that faith1 and to guard them against the errors of ,judaizing ,christians1 was the object of this letter1 in which ,st4 ,paul takes occasion to enlarge upon the nature of the ,mosaic institution2 to explain the fundamental principles and doctrines of ,christianity2 and to show that the whole human race1 formerly divided into ,jews and ,gentiles1 were now to be admitted into the religion of ,jesus1 indiscriminately1 and free from every other obligation4 ,the ,apostle1 after expressing his affection to the ,roman ,christians1 and asserting that the ,gospel is the power of ,god unto salvation to all who believe1 takes a comprehensive view of the conduct and condition of men under the different dispensations of ,providence2 he shows that all mankind1 both ,jews and ,gentiles1 were equally 8under sin10 and liable to the wrath and punishment of ,god2 that therefore there was a necessity for a universal propitiation and redemption1 which were now offered to the whole race of men1 without any preference or exception1 by the mercy of him who is the ,god of the ,gentiles as well as of the ,jews2 that faith in ,jesus ,christ1 the universal ,redeemer1 was the only means of obtaining this salvation1 which the deeds of the law were wholly incompetent to procure2 that as the sins of the whole world originated from the disobedience of ,adam1 so the justification from those sins was to be derived from the obedience of ,christ2 that all distinction between ,jew and ,gentile was now abolished1 and the ceremonial law entirely abrogated2 that the unbelieving ,jews would be excluded from the benefits of the ,gospel1 while the believing ,gentiles would be partakers of them2 and that this rejection of the ,jews1 and call of the ,gentiles1 were predicted by the ,jewish ,prophets ,hosea and ,isaiah4 ,he then points out the superiority of the ,christian over the ,jewish religion1 and earnestly exhorts the ,romans to abandon every species of wickedness1 and to practise the duties of righteousness and holiness1 which were now enjoined upon higher sanctions1 and enforced by more powerful motives4 ,in the latter part of the epistle1 ,st4 ,paul gives some practical instructions1 and recommends some particular virtues2 and he concludes with a salutation and a doxology4 ,this epistle is most valuable1 on account of the arguments and truths which it contains1 relative to the necessity1 nature1 and universality of the ,gospel dispensation4 ,,roofs4 ,the letting down of the paralytic through the roof of the house where ,jesus was1 is satisfactorily explained by the following extract from ,shaw's ,travels3 8,the houses throughout the east are low1 having generally a ground floor only1 or one upper story1 and flat-roofed1 the roof being covered with a strong coat of plaster of terrace4 ,they are built round a paved court1 into which the entrance from the street is through a gateway or passage room furnished with benches1 and sufficiently large to be used for receiving visits or transacting business4 ,the stairs which lead to the roof are never placed on the outside of the house in the street1 but usually in the gateway1 or passage room to the court1 sometimes at the entrance within the court4 ,this court is now called1 in ,arabic1 el woost1 or #8the middle of the house1' literally answering to of ,st4 ,luke1 v1 #ai4 ,it is customary to fix cords from the parapet walls1 ,deut4 xxii1 #h1 of the flat roofs across this court1 and upon them to expand a veil or covering1 as a shelter from the heat4 ,in this area1 probably1 our ,saviour taught4 ,the paralytic was brought on to the roof by making a way through the crowd to the stairs in the gateway1 or by the terraces of the adjoining houses4 ,they rolled back the veil1 and let the sick man down over the parapet of the roof into the area or court of the house1 before ,jesus40 ,the windows of the eastern houses being chiefly within1 facing the court1 in order to see what was going on without in the streets of the city1 the only way was to run up to the flat roof4 ,hence the frequent expression in ,scripture1 when allusion is made to sudden tumults and calamities1 to get up to 8the house top40 ,see ,,houses4 ,,rose1 1 ,cant41 ii1 #a2 ,isaiah xxxv1 #a4 ,the rose1 so much and so often sung by the poets of ,persia1 ,arabia1 ,greece1 and ,rome1 is1 indeed1 the pride of the garden for elegance of form1 for glow of colour1 and fragrance of smell4 ,tournefort mentions fifty-three kinds1 of which the ,damascus rose1 and the rose of ,sharon1 are the finest4 ,the beauty of these flowers is too well known to be insisted on2 and they are at this day much admired in the east1 where they are extremely fragrant4 ,in what esteem the rose was among the ,greeks1 may be learned from the fifth and fifty-third odes of ,anacreon4 ,among the ancients it occupied a conspicuous place in every chaplet2 it was a principal ornament in every festive meeting1 and at every solemn sacrifice2 and the comparisons in ,ecclesiasticus xxiv1 #ad1 and l1 #h1 show that the ,jews were likewise much delighted with it4 ,the rose bud1 or opening rose1 seems in particular a favourite ornament4 ,the ,jewish sensualists1 in ,wisdom ii1 #h1 are introduced saying1 8,let us fill ourselves with costly wine and ointments2 and let no flower of the spring pass by us4 ,let us crown ourselves with rose buds before they are withered40 ,,rosh4 ,the ,hebrew speaks of a people called ,rosh1 ,ezek4 xxxviii1 #b1 #c4 8,the orientals hold10 says ,d',herbelot1 8that ,japheth had a son called ,rous1 not mentioned by ,moses1 who peopled ,russia1 that is1 ,muscovy40 ,we question not but ,rosh1 or ,ros1 signifies ,russia1 or the people that dwell on the ,araxes1 called ,rosch by the inhabitants2 which was the habitation of the ,scythians4 ,it deserves notice1 that the ,,lxx4 render the passage in ,ezekiel1 1 1 1 1 ,gog1 the chief of ,ros1 ,mesoch1 and ,thobel2 and ,jerom1 not absolutely to reject this name1 inserts both renderings3 ,gog1 terram ,magog1 principem capitis 7sive ,ros7 ,mosoch1 et ,thubal4 ,symmachus and ,theodotion also perceived ,ros to be in this place the name of a people2 and this is now the prevailing judgment of interpreters4 ,bochart1 about ,a4 ,d4 #afdj1 contended that ,russia was the nation meant by the term ,ros2 and this opinion is supported by the testimony of various ,greek writers1 who describe 8the ,ros as a ,scythian nation1 bordering on the northern ,taurus40 ,mosok1 or ,mesech1 appears to be the same as the ,moskwa1 or ,moscow1 of the moderns2 and we know1 that not only is this the name of the city1 but also of the river on which it stands4 ,see ,gog4 ,,ruby1 a beautiful gem1 whose colour is red1 with an admixture of purple1 and is1 in its most perfect state1 a gem of extreme value4 ,in hardness it is equal to the sapphire1 and second only to the diamond4 ,it is mentioned in ,job xxviii1 #ah1 and ,prov4 viii1 #aa1 c4 ,,rue1 1 ,luke xi1 #db1 a small shrubby plant1 common in gardens4 ,it has a strong1 unpleasant smell1 and a bitterish1 penetrating taste4 ,,rush1 1 ,exodus ii1 #c2 ,job viii1 #aa2 ,isaiah xviii1 #b2 xxxv1 #g2 a plant growing in the water at the sides of rivers1 and in marshy grounds4 ,,russian ,,church4 ,the ,russians1 like other nations1 were originally ,pagans1 and worshipped fire1 which they considered as the cause of thunder1 under the name of ,perun1 and the earth under the name ,volata2 at the same time having some notions of a future state of rewards and punishments4 ,christianity was first professed by the ,princess ,olga1 who was baptized at ,constantinople4 ,she recommended it to her grandson ,vladimir1 on whose baptism1 in #ihh1 it was adopted by the nation generally2 and from that time the ,greek church has been the established religion throughout ,russia1 and ,greek literature greatly encouraged4 ,during the middle ages1 however1 the doctrine of transubstantiation1 and some other popish peculiarities1 were covertly introduced2 and1 by the irruption of the ,mongol ,tartars1 in the fifteenth century1 a stop was put to learning and civilization for full two centuries2 but1 on the accession of the present dynasty in #afac1 civilization and ,christianity were restored1 and schools established for the education of the clergy4 ,the ,russian clergy are divided into regular and secular2 the former are all monks1 and the latter are the parochial clergy4 ,the superior clergy are called archires2 but the title of metropolitan1 or bishop1 is personal1 and not properly attached to the see1 as in the western church4 ,next after the archires rank the black clergy1 including the chiefs of monasteries and convents1 and after them the monks4 ,the secular priests are called the white clergy1 including the protoires1 or proto-popes1 priests1 and deacons1 together with the readers and sacristans4 ,these amounted1 in #ahje1 throughout the empire1 to ninety-eight thousand seven hundred and twenty-six4 ,the white clergy must be married before they can be ordained1 but must not marry a second time2 they are at liberty then to enter among the black clergy1 and a way is thus opened for their accession to the higher orders4 ,the whole empire is divided into thirty-six diocesses1 or eparchies1 in which are four hundred and eighty-three cathedrals1 and twenty-six thousand1 five hundred and ninety-eight churches4 ,the churches are divided into three parts4 #a4 ,the altar1 where stands the holy table1 crucifix1 c1 which is separated from the body of the church by a large screen1 on which are painted our ,saviour1 the virgin1 the ,apostles1 and other saints4 ,upon a platform before this are placed the readers and singers1 and here the preacher generally stands behind a movable desk4 #b4 ,the nave1 or body of the church1 which may be called the inner court4 #c4 ,the trapeza1 or outer court4 ,the two last are designed for the congregation1 but neither have any seats4 ,the walls of the church are highly embellished with ,scripture paintings1 ornamented with gold1 silver1 and precious stones1 but no images4 ,the church service is contained in twenty-four volumes1 folio1 in the ,slavonian language1 which is not well understood by the common people4 ,parts of the ,scriptures are read in the service2 but few1 even of the ecclesiastics1 possess a complete ,bible4 ,the patriarch of ,russia was formerly almost equal in authority with the czar himself2 but ,peter the ,great1 on the death of the patriarch in #agjj1 abolished his office1 and appointed an exarch4 ,in #agba he abolished this office also1 and appointed a 8holy legislative synod0 for the government of the church1 at the head of which is always placed a layman of rank and eminence4 ,the monastic life was once so prevalent in this country1 that there were four hundred and seventy-nine convents for men1 and seventy-four for women1 in which there were about seventy thousand monks and nuns1 c2 but this kind of life was so much discouraged by ,peter the ,great and the ,empress ,catherine1 that the religious are now reduced to about five thousand monks and seventeen hundred nuns4 ,great part of their revenues has also been alienated1 and appropriated to the support of hospitals and houses for the poor4 ,,ruth4 ,the book of ,ruth is so called from the name of the person1 a native of ,moab1 whose history it contains4 ,it may be considered as a supplement to the book of ,judges1 to which it was joined in the ,hebrew canon1 and the latter part of which it greatly resembles1 being a detached story belonging to the same period4 ,ruth had a son called ,obed1 who was the grandfather of ,david1 which circumstance probably occasioned her history to be written1 as the genealogy of ,david1 from ,pharez1 the son of ,judah1 from whom the ,messiah was to spring1 is here given2 and some commentators have thought1 that the descent of our ,saviour from ,ruth1 a ,gentile woman1 was an intimation of the comprehensive nature of the ,christian dispensation4 ,we are no where informed when ,ruth lived2 but as ,king ,david was her great-grandson1 we may place her history about ,b4 ,c4 #abej4 ,this book was certainly written after the birth of ,david1 and probably by the ,prophet ,samuel1 though some have attributed it to ,hezekiah1 and others to ,ezra4 ,the story related in this book is extremely interesting2 the widowed distress of ,naomi1 her affectionate concern for her daughters1 the reluctant departure of ,orpah1 the dutiful attachment of ,ruth1 and the sorrowful return to ,bethlehem1 are very beautifully told4 ,the simplicity of manners1 likewise1 which is shown in ,ruth's industry and attention to ,naomi2 the elegant charity of ,boaz2 and his acknowledgment of his kindred with ,ruth1 afford a pleasing contrast to the turbulent scenes described in the book of the ,judges4 ,the respect1 likewise1 which the ,israelites paid to the law of ,moses1 and their observance of ancient customs1 are represented in a very lively and animated manner1 ,ruth iv4 ,it is a pleasing digression from the general thread of the sacred history4 ,,sabaoth1 or rather ,zabaoth1 a ,hebrew word1 signifying hosts or armies1 1 ,jehovah ,sabaoth1 ,the ,lord of ,hosts4 ,by this phrase we may understand the host of heaven1 or the angels and ministers of the ,lord2 or the stars and planets1 which1 as an army ranged in battle array1 perform the will of ,god2 or1 lastly1 the people of the ,lord1 both of the old and new covenant1 which is truly a great army1 of which ,god is the ,lord and commander4 ,,sabbath4 ,the obligation of a sabbatical institution upon ,christians1 as well as the extent of it1 have been the subjects of much controversy4 ,christian churches themselves have differed2 and the theologians of the same church4 ,much has been written upon the subject on each side1 and much research and learning employed1 sometimes to darken a very plain subject4 ,the question respects the will of ,god as to this particular point1--,whether one day in seven is to be wholly devoted to religion1 exclusive of worldly business and worldly pleasures4 ,now1 there are but two ways in which the will of ,god can be collected from his word2 either by some explicit injunction upon all1 or by incidental circumstances4 ,let us then allow1 for a moment1 that we have no such explicit injunction2 yet we have certainly none to the contrary3 let us allow that we have only for our guidance1 in inferring the will of ,god in this particular1 certain circumstances declarative of his will2 yet this important conclusion is inevitable1 that all such indicative circumstances are in favour of a sabbatical institution1 and that there is not one which exhibits any thing contrary to it4 ,the seventh day was hallowed at the close of the creation2 its sanctity was afterward marked by the withholding of the manna on that day1 and the provision of a double supply on the sixth1 and that previous to the giving of the law from ,sinai3 it was then made a part of that great epitome of religious and moral duty1 which ,god wrote with his own finger on tables of stone2 it was a part of the public political law of the only people to whom almighty ,god ever made himself a political ,head and ,ruler2 its observance is connected throughout the prophetic age with the highest promises1 its violations with the severest maledictions2 it was among the ,jews in our ,lord's time a day of solemn religious assembling1 and was so observed by him2 when changed to the first day of the week1 it was the day on which the first ,christians assembled2 it was called1 by way of eminence1 8the ,lord's day20 and we have inspired authority to say1 that both under the ,old and ,new ,testament dispensations1 it is used as an expressive type of the heavenly and eternal rest4 ,now1 against all these circumstances so strongly declarative of the will of ,god1 as to the observance of a sabbatical institution1 what circumstance or passage of ,scripture can be opposed1 as bearing upon it a contrary indication8 ,certainly1 not one2 for those passages in ,st4 ,paul1 in which he speaks of ,jewish ,sabbaths1 with their ,levitical rites1 and of a distinction of days1 the observance of which marked a weak or a criminal adherence to the abolished ceremonial dispensation2 touch not the ,sabbath as a branch of the moral law1 or as it was changed1 by the authority of the ,apostles1 to the first day of the week4 ,if1 then1 we were left to determine the point by inference1 the conclusion must be irresistibly in favour of the institution4 ,it may also be observed1 that those who will so strenuously insist upon the absence of an express command as to the ,sabbath in the writings of the evangelists and ,apostles1 as explicit as that of the decalogue1 assume1 that the will of ,god is only obligatory when manifested in some one mode1 which they judge to be most fit4 ,but this is a dangerous hypothesis2 for1 however the will of ,god may be manifested1 if it is with such clearness as to exclude all reasonable doubt1 it is equally obligatory as when it assumes the formality of legal promulgation4 ,thus the ,bible is not all in the form of express and authoritative command2 it teaches by examples1 by proverbs1 by songs1 by incidental allusions and occurrences2 and yet is1 throughout1 a manifestation of the will of ,god as to morals and religion in their various branches1 and1 if disregarded1 it will be so at every man's peril4 ,but strong as this ground is1 we quit it for a still stronger4 ,it is wholly a mistake1 that the ,sabbath1 because not renacted with the formality of the decalogue1 is not explicitly enjoined upon ,christians1 and that the testimony of ,scripture to such an injunction is not unequivocal and irrefragible4 ,the ,sabbath was appointed at the creation of the world1 and sanctified1 or set apart for holy purposes1 8for man10 for all men1 and therefore for ,christians2 since there was never any repeal of the original institution4 ,to this we add1 that if the moral law be the law of ,christians1 then is the ,sabbath as explicitly enjoined upon them as upon the ,jews4 ,but that the moral law is our law1 as well as the law of the ,jews1 all but ,antinomians must acknowledge2 and few1 we suppose1 will be inclined to run into the fearful mazes of that error1 in order to support lax notions as to the obligation of the ,sabbath2 into which1 however1 they must be plunged1 if they deny the law of the decalogue to be binding4 ,that it is so bound upon us1 a few passages of ,scripture will prove as well as many4 ,our ,lord declares1 that he 8came not to destroy the law and the prophets1 but to fulfil40 ,take it1 that by 8the law10 he meant both the moral and the ceremonial2 ceremonial law could only be fulfilled in him1 by realizing its types2 and moral law1 by upholding its authority4 ,for 8the prophets10 they admit of a similar distinction2 they either enjoin morality1 or utter prophecies of ,christ2 the latter of which were fulfilled in the sense of accomplishment1 the former by being sanctioned and enforced4 ,that the observance of the ,sabbath is a part of the moral law1 is clear from its being found in the decalogue1 the doctrine of which our ,lord sums up in the moral duties of loving ,god and our neighbour2 and for this reason the injunctions of the prophets1 on the subject of the ,sabbath1 are to be regarded as a part of their moral teaching4 ,some divines have1 it is true1 called the observance of the ,sabbath a positive1 and not a moral precept4 ,if it were so1 its obligation is precisely the same1 in all cases where ,god himself has not relaxed it2 and if a positive precept only1 it has surely a special eminence given to it1 by being placed in the list of the ten commandments1 and being capable1 with them1 of an epitome which resolves them into the love of ,god and our neighbour4 ,the truth seems to be1 that it is a mixed precept1 and not wholly positive1 but intimately1 perhaps essentially connected with several moral principles of homage to ,god1 and mercy to men2 with the obligation of religious worship1 of public religious worship1 and of undistracted public worship3 and this will account for its collocation in the decalogue with the highest duties of religion1 and the leading rules of personal and social morality4 ,the passage from our ,lord's sermon on the mount1 with its context1 is a sufficiently explicit enforcement of the moral law1 generally1 upon his followers2 but when he says1 8,the ,sabbath was made for man10 he clearly refers to its original institution1 as a universal law1 and not to its obligation upon the ,jews only1 in consequence of the enactments of the law of ,moses4 ,it 8was made for man10 not as he may be a ,jew1 or a ,christian2 but as man1 a creature bound to love1 worship1 and obey his ,god and ,maker1 and on his trial for eternity4 ,another explicit proof that the law of the ten commandments1 and1 consequently1 the law of the ,sabbath1 is obligatory upon ,christians1 is found in the answer of the ,apostle to an objection to the doctrine of justification by faith3 8,do we then make void the law through faith80 ,rom4 iii1 #ca2 which is equivalent to asking1 ,does ,christianity teach that the law is no longer obligatory on ,christians1 because it teaches that no man can be justified by it8 ,to this he answers1 in the most solemn form of expression1 8,god forbid2 yea1 we establish the law40 ,now1 the sense in which the ,apostle uses the term1 8the law10 in this argument1 is indubitably marked in ,rom4 vii1 #g3 8,i had not known sin but by the law2 for ,i had not known lust1 except the law had said1 ,thou shalt not covet30 which1 being a plain reference to the tenth command of the decalogue1 as plainly shows that the decalogue is 8the law0 of which he speaks4 ,this1 then1 is the law which is established by the ,gospel2 and this can mean nothing else but the establishment and confirmation of its authority1 as the rule of all inward and outward holiness4 ,whoever1 therefore1 denies the obligation of the ,sabbath on ,christians1 denies the obligation of the whole decalogue2 and there is no real medium between the acknowledgment of the divine authority of this sacred institution1 as a universal law1 and that gross corruption of ,christianity1 generally designated ,antinomianism4 ,nor is there any force in the dilemma into which the anti-sabbatarians would push us1 when they argue1 that1 if the case be so1 then are we bound to the same circumstantial exactitude of obedience with regard to this command1 as to the other precepts of the decalogue2 and1 therefore1 that we are bound to observe the seventh day1 reckoning from ,saturday1 as the ,sabbath day4 ,but1 as the command is partly positive1 and partly moral1 it may have circumstances which are capable of being altered in perfect accordance with the moral principles on which it rests1 and the moral ends which it proposes4 ,such circumstances are not indeed to be judged of on our own authority4 ,we must either have such general principles for our guidance as have been revealed by ,god1 and cannot therefore be questioned1 or some special authority from which there can be no just appeal4 ,now1 though there is not on record any divine command issued to the ,apostles1 to change the ,sabbath from the day on which it was held by the ,jews1 to the first day of the week2 yet1 when we see that this was done in the apostolic age1 and that ,st4 ,paul speaks of the ,jewish ,sabbaths as not being obligatory upon ,christians1 while he yet contends that the whole moral law is obligatory upon them2 the fair inference is1 that this change of the day was made by divine direction4 ,it is indeed more than inference that the change was made under the sanction of inspired men2 and those men1 the appointed rulers in the church of ,christ2 whose business it was to 8set all things in order10 which pertained to its worship and moral government4 ,we may therefore rest well enough satisfied with this1--that as a ,sabbath is obligatory upon us1 we act under apostolic authority for observing it on the first day of the week1 and thus commemorate at once the creation and the redemption of the world4 ,thus1 even if it were conceded1 that the change of the day was made by the agreement of the ,apostles1 without express directions from ,christ1 which is not probable1 it is certain that it was not done without that general authority which was confided to them by ,christ2 but it would not follow even from this change1 that they did in reality make any alteration in the law of the ,sabbath1 either as it stood at the time of its original institution at the close of the creation1 or in the decalogue of ,moses4 ,the same portion of time which constituted the seventh day from the creation could not be observed in all parts of the earth2 and it is not probable1 therefore1 that the original law expresses more1 than that a seventh day1 or one day in seven1 the seventh day after six days of labour1 should be thus appropriated1 from whatever point the enumeration might set out1 or the hebdomadal cycle begin4 ,for if more had been intended1 then it would have been necessary to establish a rule for the reckoning of days themselves1 which has been different in different nations2 some reckoning from evening to evening1 as the ,jews now do1 others from midnight to midnight1 c4 ,so that those persons in this country and in ,america1 who hold their ,sabbath on ,saturday1 under the notion of exactly conforming to the ,old ,testament1 and yet calculate the days from midnight to midnight1 have no assurance at all that they do not desecrate a part of the original ,sabbath1 which might begin1 as the ,jewish ,sabbath now1 on ,friday evening1 and1 on the contrary1 hallow a portion of a common day1 by extending the ,sabbath beyond ,saturday evening4 ,even if this were ascertained1 the differences of latitude and longitude would throw the whole into disorder2 and it is not probable that a universal law should have been fettered with that circumstantial exactness1 which would have rendered difficult1 and sometimes doubtful1 astronomical calculations necessary in order to its being obeyed according to the intention of the lawgiver4 ,accordingly we find1 says ,mr4 ,holden1 that in the original institution it is stated in general terms1 that ,god blessed and sanctified the seventh day1 which must undoubtedly imply the sanctity of every seventh day2 but not that it is to be subsequently reckoned from the first demiurgic day4 ,had this been included in the command of the ,almighty1 something1 it is probable1 would have been added declaratory of the intention2 whereas expressions the most undefined are employed2 not a syllable is uttered concerning the order and number of the days2 and it cannot reasonably be disputed that the command is truly obeyed by the separation of every seventh day1 from common to sacred purposes1 at whatever given time the cycle may commence4 ,the difference in the mode of expression here1 from that which the sacred historian has used in the first chapter1 is very remarkable4 ,at the conclusion of each division of the work of creation1 he says1 8,the evening and the morning were the first day10 and so on2 but at the termination of the whole1 he merely calls it the seventh day2 a diversity of phrase1 which1 as it would be inconsistent with every idea of inspiration to suppose it undesigned1 must have been intended to denote a day1 leaving it to each people as to what manner it is to be reckoned4 ,the term obviously imports the period of the earth's rotation round its axis1 while it is left undetermined1 whether it shall be counted from evening or morning1 from noon or midnight4 ,the terms of the law are1 8,remember the ,sabbath day1 to keep it holy4 ,six days shalt thou labour1 and do all thy work2 but the seventh day is the ,sabbath of the ,lord thy ,god4 ,for in six days the ,lord made heaven and earth1 the sea1 and all that in them is1 and rested the seventh day2 wherefore the ,lord blessed the ,sabbath day1 and hallowed it40 ,with respect to time1 it is here mentioned in the same indefinite manner as at its primeval institution1 nothing more being expressly required than to observe a day of sacred rest after every six days of labour4 ,the seventh day is to be kept holy2 but not a word is said as to what epoch the commencement of the series is to be referred2 nor could the ,hebrews have determined from the decalogue what day of the week was to be kept as their ,sabbath4 ,the precept is not1 ,remember the seventh day of the week1 to keep it holy1 but1 8,remember the ,sabbath day1 to keep it holy20 and in the following explication of these expressions1 it is not said that the seventh day of the week is the ,sabbath1 but without restriction1 8,the seventh day is the ,sabbath of the ,lord thy ,god20 not the seventh according to any particular method of computing the septenary cycle1 but1 in reference to the six before mentioned1 every seventh day in rotation after six of labour4 ,thus that part of the ,jewish law1 the decalogue1 which1 on the authority of the ,new ,testament1 we have shown to be obligatory upon ,christians1 leaves the computation of the hebdomadal cycle undetermined2 and1 after six days of labour1 enjoins the seventh as the ,sabbath1 to which the ,christian practice as exactly conforms as the ,jewish4 ,it is not1 however1 left to every individual to determine which day should be his ,sabbath1 though he should fulfil the law so far as to abstract the seventh part of his time from labour4 ,it was ordained for worship1 for public worship2 and it is therefore necessary that the ,sabbath should be uniformly observed by a whole community at the same time4 ,the divine ,legislator of the ,jews interposed for this end1 by special direction1 as to his people4 ,the first ,sabbath kept in the wilderness was calculated from the first day in which the manna fell2 and with no apparent reference to the creation of the world4 ,by apostolic authority1 it is now fixed to be held on the first day of the week2 and thus one of the great ends for which it was established1 that it should be a day of 8holy convocation10 is secured4 ,traces of the original appointment of the ,sabbath1 and of its observance prior to the giving forth of the law of ,moses1 have been found by the learned in the tradition which universally prevailed of the sacredness of the number seven1 and the fixing of the first period of time to the revolution of seven days4 ,the measuring of time by a day and night is pointed out to the common sense of mankind by the diurnal course of the sun4 ,lunar months and solar years are equally obvious to all rational creatures2 so that the reason why time has been computed by days1 months1 and years1 is readily given2 but how the division of time into weeks of seven days1 and this from the beginning1 came to obtain universally among mankind1 no man can account for1 without having respect to some impressions on the minds of men from the constitution and law of nature1 with the tradition of a sabbatical rest from the foundation of the world4 ,yet plain intimations of this weekly revolution of time are to be found in the earliest ,greek poets3 ,hesiod1 ,homer1 ,linus1 as well as among the nations of the ,chaldeans1 ,egyptians1 ,greeks1 and ,romans4 ,it deserves consideration1 too1 on this subject1 that ,noah1 in sending forth the dove out of the ark1 observed the septenary revolution of days1 ,gen4 viii1 #aj1 #ab2 and at a subsequent period1 in the days of the ,patriarch ,jacob1 a week is spoken of as a well known period of time1 ,gen4 xxix1 #bg2 ,judges xiv1 #ab1 #ae1 #ag4 ,these considerations are surely sufficient to evince the futility of the arguments which are sometimes plausibly urged for the first institution of the ,sabbath under the law2 and the design of which1 in most cases is1 to set aside the moral obligation of appropriating one day in seven to the purposes of the public worship of ,god1 and the observation of divine ordinances4 ,but the truth is1 that the seventh day was set apart from the beginning as a day of rest2 and it was also strictly enjoined upon the ,israelites in their law1 both on the ground of its original institution1 ,exod4 xx1 #h-aa1 and also to commemorate their deliverance from the bondage of ,egypt1 ,deut4 v1 #ae4 8,a ,sabbath day's journey0 was reckoned to be two thousand cubits1 or one mile1 ,acts i1 #ab4 ,the sabbatical year was celebrated among the ,jews every seventh year when the land was left without culture1 ,exod4 xxii1 #aj4 ,god appointed the observation of the sabbatical year1 to preserve the remembrance of the creation of the world1 to enforce the acknowledgment of his sovereign authority over all things1 and in particular over the land of ,canaan1 which he had given to the ,israelites1 by delivering up the fruits to the poor and the stranger4 ,it was a sort of tribute1 or small rent1 by which they held the possession4 ,beside1 he intended to inculcate humanity upon his people1 by commanding that they should resign to the slaves1 the poor1 and the strangers1 and to the brutes1 the produce of their fields1 of their vineyards1 and of their gardens4 ,in the sabbatical year all debts were remitted1 and the slaves were liberated1 ,exodus xxi1 #b2 ,deut4 xv1 #b4 ,,sabeans1 or 8men of stature10 ,isa4 xlv1 #ad4 ,these men were probably the ,sabeans of ,arabia ,felix1 or of ,asia4 ,they submitted to ,cyrus4 ,the ,sabeans of ,arabia were descended from ,saba2 but as there are several of this name1 who were all heads of peoples1 or of tribes1 we must distinguish several kinds of ,sabeans4 #a4 ,those ,sabeans who seized the flocks of ,job1 i1 #ae1 were1 probably1 a people of ,arabia ,deserta1 about ,bozra2 or1 perhaps1 a flying troop of ,sabeans which infested that country4 #b4 ,sabeans1 descendants from ,sheba1 son of ,cush1 ,gen4 x1 #g1 are probably of ,arabia ,felix3 they were famous for spices2 the poets gave them the epithet of soft and effeminate1 and say they were governed by women3 ,medis1 levibusque ,sabis ,imperat hic sexus4 ,this sex governs the ,medes1 and the gentle ,sabeans4 ,several are of opinion1 that from them came the queen of ,sheba1 #a ,kings x1 #a1 #b2 and that of these ,sabeans the psalmist speaks1 ,psalm lxxii1 #aj1 8,the kings of ,arabia and ,sheba shall give gifts20 and ,jeremiah1 vi1 #bj3 8,what are the perfumes of ,sheba to me80 and ,isaiah1 lx1 #f3 8,all who come from ,sheba shall offer gold and perfumes40 #c4 ,sabeans1 sons of ,shebah1 son of ,reumah1 ,gen4 x1 #g1 probably dwelt in ,arabia ,felix4 ,probably it is of these ,ezekiel speaks1 xxvii1 #bb1 who came with their merchandise to the fairs of ,tyre3 and ,joel1 iii1 #h3 8,i will deliver up your children to the tribe of ,judah1 who shall sell them to the ,sabeans1 a very distant nation40 #d4 ,sabeans1 descendants from ,joktan1 may very well be those mentioned by ,ezekiel1 xxvii1 #bc3 8,saba1 ,assur1 and ,chelmad1 thy dealers40 ,they are thought to have inhabited beyond the ,euphrates2 whence they are connected with ,asshur and ,chilmad1 ,gen4 x1 #bh2 #a ,chron4 i1 #bb4 #e4 ,sabeans are also placed in ,africa1 in the isle of ,mero4 ,josephus brings the queen of ,sheba from thence1 and pretends that it had the name of ,shebah1 or ,saba1 before that of ,mero4 ,,sabellians were so called from ,sabellius1 a presbyter1 or1 according to others1 a bishop1 of ,upper ,egypt1 who was the founder of the sect4 ,as1 from their doctrine1 it follows that ,god the ,father suffered1 they were hence called by their adversaries1 ,patripassians2 and1 as their idea of the trinity was by some called a modal trinity1 they have likewise been called ,modalists4 ,sabellius having been a disciple of ,notus1 ,notians is another name by which his followers have sometimes been known2 and as1 from their fears of infringing on the fundamental doctrine of all true religion1 the unity of ,god1 they neglected all distinctions of persons1 and taught the notion of one ,god with three names1 they may hence be also considered as a species of ,unitarians4 ,sabellius flourished about the middle of the third century1 and his doctrine seems to have had many followers for a short time4 ,its growth1 however1 was soon checked by the opposition made to it by ,dionysius1 bishop of ,alexandria1 and the sentence of condemnation pronounced upon its author by ,pope ,dionysius1 in a council held at ,rome1 ,a4 ,d4 #bfc4 ,sabellius taught that there is but one person in the ,godhead2 and1 in confirmation of this doctrine1 he made use of this comparison3 ,as man1 though composed of body and soul1 is but one person1 so ,god1 though he is ,father1 ,son1 and ,holy ,ghost1 is but one person4 ,hence the ,sabellians reduced the three persons in the trinity to three characters or relations1 and maintained that the ,word and ,holy ,spirit are only virtues1 emanations1 or functions1 of the ,deity2 that he who is in heaven is the ,father of all things2 that he descended into the virgin1 became a child1 and was born of her as a son2 and that1 having accomplished the mystery of our redemption1 he effused himself upon the ,apostles in tongues of fire1 and was then denominated the ,holy ,ghost4 ,this they explain by resembling ,god to the sun1 the illuminative virtue or quality of which was the word1 and its quickening virtue the ,holy ,spirit4 ,the word1 according to their doctrine1 was darted1 like a divine ray1 to accomplish the work of redemption2 and having rescended to heaven1 the influences of the ,father were communicated1 after a like manner1 to the ,apostles4 ,they also attempted to illustrate this mystery1 by one light kindled by another2 by the fountain and stream1 and by the stock and branch4 ,with respect to the sentiments of ,sabellius himself1 the accounts are various4 ,according to some1 he taught that the ,father1 ,son1 and ,holy ,ghost1 were one subsistence1 and one person1 with three names2 and that1 in the ,old ,testament1 the ,deity delivered the law as the ,father2 in the ,new ,testament dwelt among men as the ,son2 and descended on the ,apostles as the ,holy ,spirit4 ,according to ,mosheim1 his sentiments differed from those of ,notus1 in this1 that the latter was of opinion1 that the person of the ,father had assumed the human nature of ,christ2 whereas ,sabellius maintained1 that a certain energy only proceeded from the supreme ,parent1 or a certain portion of the divine nature was united to the ,son of ,god1 the man ,jesus2 and he considered1 in the same manner1 the ,holy ,ghost as a portion of the everlasting ,father4 ,between the system of ,sabellianism and what is termed the indwelling scheme1 there appears to be a considerable resemblance1 if it be not precisely the same1 differently explained4 ,the indwelling scheme is chiefly founded on that passage in the ,new ,testament1 where the ,apostle speaking of ,christ says1 8,in him dwelleth all the fulness of the ,godhead bodily40 ,dr4 ,watts1 toward the close of his life1 adopted this opinion1 and wrote several pieces in its defence4 ,his sentiments on the trinity appear to have been1 that the ,godhead1 the ,deity itself1 personally distinguished as the ,father1 was united to the man ,christ ,jesus2 in consequence of which union or indwelling of the ,godhead1 he became properly ,god4 ,mr4 ,palmer observes1 that ,dr4 ,watts conceived this union to have subsisted before the ,saviour's appearance in the flesh1 and that the human soul of ,christ existed with the ,father from before the foundation of the world3 on which ground he maintains the real descent of ,christ from heaven to earth1 and the whole scene of his humiliation1 which he thought incompatible with the common opinion concerning him4 ,,sackcloth1 a sort of mourning worn at the death of a friend or relation4 ,in great calamities1 in penitence1 in trouble also1 they wore sackcloth about their bodies3 8,gird yourselves with sackcloth1 and mourn for ,abner10 #b ,sam4 iii1 #ca4 8,let us gird ourselves with sackcloth2 and let us go and implore the clemency of the king of ,israel10 #a ,kings xx1 #ca4 ,ahab rent his clothes1 put on a shirt of haircloth next to his skin1 fasted1 and lay upon sackcloth1 #a ,kings xxi1 #bg4 ,when ,mordecai was informed of the destruction threatened to his nation1 he put on sackcloth1 and covered his head with ashes1 ,esther iv4 ,on the contrary1 in time of joy1 or on hearing good news1 those who were clad in sackcloth tore it from their bodies1 and cast it from them1 ,psalm xxx1 #aa4 ,the prophets were often clothed in sackcloth1 and generally in coarse clothing4 ,the ,lord bids ,isaiah to put off the sackcloth from about his body1 and to go naked1 that is1 without his upper garment1 ,isaiah xx1 #b4 ,zechariah says that false prophets shall no longer prophesy in sackcloth1 to deceive the simple1 ,zech4 xiii1 #d4 ,,sacrament4 ,there is no word in the ,bible which corresponds to the word sacrament4 ,it is a ,latin word2 and1 agreeably to its derivation1 it was applied by the early writers of the western church to any ceremony of our holy religion1 especially if it were figurative or mystical4 ,but a more confined signification of this word by degrees prevailed1 and in that stricter sense it has been always used by the divines of modern times4 ,sacraments1 says ,dr4 ,hill1 are conceived in the church of ,rome to consist of matter1 deriving1 from the action of the priest in pronouncing certain words1 a divine virtue1 by which grace is conveyed to the soul of every person who receives them4 ,it is supposed to be necessary that the priest1 in pronouncing the words1 has the intention of giving to the matter that divine virtue2 otherwise it remains in its original state4 ,on the part of those who receive the sacrament1 it is required that they be free from any of those sins1 called in the church of ,rome mortal2 but it is not required of them to exercise any good disposition1 to possess faith1 or to resolve that they shall amend their lives2 for such is conceived to be the physical virtue of a sacrament administered by a priest with a good intention1 that1 unless when it is opposed by the obstacle of a mortal sin1 the very act of receiving it is sufficient4 ,this act was called1 in the language of the schools1 opus operatum1 the work done independently of any disposition of mind attending the deed2 and the superiority of the sacraments of the ,new ,testament over the sacraments of the ,old was thus expressed1 that the sacraments of the ,old ,testament were effectual ex opere operantis1 from the piety and faith of the persons to whom they were administered2 while the sacraments of the ,new ,testament convey grace1 ex opere operato1 from their own intrinsic virtue1 and an immediate physical influence upon the mind of him who receives them4 ,this notion represents the sacraments as a mere charm1 the use of which1 being totally disjoined from every mental exercise1 cannot be regarded as a reasonable service4 ,it gives men the hope of receiving1 by the use of a charm1 the full participation of the grace of ,god1 although they continue to indulge that very large class of sins1 to which the accommodating morality of the church of ,rome extends the name of venial2 and yet it makes this high privilege entirely dependent upon the intention of another1 who1 although he performs all the outward acts which belong to the sacrament1 may1 if he chooses1 withhold the communication of that physical virtue1 without which the sacrament is of none avail4 ,the ,socinian doctrine concerning the nature of the sacraments is founded upon a sense of the absurdity and danger of the popish doctrine1 and a solicitude to avoid any approach to it1 and runs into the opposite extreme4 ,it is conceived that the sacraments are not essentially distinct from any other rites or ceremonies2 that1 as they consist of a symbolical action1 in which something external and material is employed to represent what is spiritual and invisible1 they may by this address to the senses be of use in reviving the remembrance of past events1 and in cherishing pious sentiments2 but that their effect is purely moral1 and that they contribute1 by that moral effect1 to the improvement of the individual in the same manner with reading the ,scriptures1 and many other exercises of religion4 ,it is admitted1 indeed1 by the ,socinians1 that the sacraments are of farther advantage to the whole society of ,christians1 as being the solemn badges by which the disciples of ,jesus are discriminated from other men1 and the appointed method of declaring that faith in ,christ1 by the public profession of which ,christians minister to the improvement of one another4 ,but in these two points1 the moral effect upon the individual1 and the advantage to society1 is contained all that a ,socinian holds concerning the general nature of the sacraments4 ,this doctrine1 like all other parts of the ,socinian system1 represents religion in the simple view of being a lesson of righteousness1 and loses sight of that character of the ,gospel1 which is meant to be implied in calling it a covenant of grace4 ,the greater part of ,protestants1 therefore1 following an expression of the ,apostle1 ,rom4 iv1 #aa1 when he is speaking of circumcision1 consider the sacraments as not only signs1 but also seals1 of the covenant of grace4 ,those who apply this phrase to the sacraments of the ,new ,testament1 admit every part of the ,socinian doctrine concerning the nature of sacraments1 and are accustomed to employ that doctrine to correct those popish errors upon this subject which are not yet eradicated from the minds of many of the people4 ,but although they admit that the ,socinian doctrine is true as far as it goes1 they consider it as incomplete4 ,for1 while they hold that the sacraments yield no benefit to those upon whom the signs employed in them do not produce the proper moral effect1 they regard these signs as intended to represent an inward invisible grace1 which proceeds from him by whom they are appointed1 and as pledges that that grace will be conveyed to all in whom the moral effect is produced4 ,the sacraments1 therefore1 in their opinion1 constitute federal acts1 in which the persons who receive them with proper dispositions1 solemnly engage to fulfil their part of the covenant1 and ,god confirms his promise to them in a sensible manner2 not as if the promise of ,god were of itself insufficient to render any event certain1 but because this manner of exhibiting the blessings promised gives a stronger impression of the truth of the promise1 and conveys to the mind an assurance that it will be fulfilled4 ,according to this account of the sacraments1 the express institution of ,god is essentially requisite to constitute their nature2 and in this respect sacraments are distinguished from what may be called the ceremonies of religion4 ,ceremonies are in their nature arbitrary2 and different means may be employed by different persons with success1 according to their constitution1 their education1 and their circumstances1 to cherish the sentiments of devotion1 and to confirm good purposes4 ,but no rite which is not ordained by ,god can be conceived to be a seal of his promise1 or the pledge of any event that depends upon his good pleasure4 ,hence1 that any rite may come up to our idea of a sacrament1 we require in it1 not merely a vague and general resemblance between the external matter which is the visible substance of the rite1 and the thing thereby signified1 but also words of institution1 and a promise by which the two are connected together2 and hence we reject five of the seven sacraments that are numbered in the church of ,rome1 because in some of the five we do not find any matter without which there is not that sign which enters into our definition of a sacrament2 and in others we do not find any promise connecting the matter used with the grace said to be thereby signified1 although upon this connection the essence of a sacrament depends4 ,,sacrifice1 properly so called1 is the solemn infliction of death on a living creature1 generally by the effusion of its blood1 in a way of religious worship2 and the presenting of this act to ,god1 as a supplication for the pardon of sin1 and a supposed means of compensation for the insult and injury thereby offered to his majesty and government4 ,sacrifices have1 in all ages1 and by almost every nation1 been regarded as necessary to placate the divine anger1 and render the ,deity propitious4 ,though the ,gentiles had lost the knowledge of the true ,god1 they still retained such a dread of him1 that they sometimes sacrificed their own offspring for the purpose of averting his anger4 ,unhappy and bewildered mortals1 seeking relief from their guilty fears1 hoped to atone for past crimes by committing others still more awful2 they gave their first-born for their transgression1 the fruit of their body for the sin of their soul4 ,the ,scriptures sufficiently indicate that sacrifices were instituted by divine appointment1 immediately after the entrance of sin1 to prefigure the sacrifice of ,christ4 ,accordingly1 we find ,abel1 ,noah1 ,abraham1 ,job1 and others1 offering sacrifices in the faith of the ,messiah2 and the divine acceptance of their sacrifices is particularly recorded4 ,but1 in religious institutions1 the ,most ,high has ever been jealous of his prerogative4 ,he alone prescribes his own worship2 and he regards as vain and presumptuous every pretence of honouring him which he has not commanded4 ,the sacrifice of blood and death could not have been offered to him without impiety1 nor would he have accepted it1 had not his high authority pointed the way by an explicit prescription4 ,under the law1 sacrifices of various kinds were appointed for the children of ,israel2 the paschal lamb1 ,exod4 xii1 #c2 the holocaust1 or whole burnt-offering1 ,lev4 vii1 #h2 the sin-offering1 or sacrifice of expiation1 ,lev4 iv1 #c1 #d2 and the peace-offering1 or sacrifice of thanksgiving1 ,lev4 vii1 #aa1 #ab2 all of which emblematically set forth the sacrifice of ,christ1 being the instituted types and shadows of it1 ,heb4 ix1 #i-ae2 x1 #a4 ,accordingly1 ,christ abolished the whole of them when he offered his own sacrifice4 8,above1 when he said1 ,sacrifice1 and offering1 and burnt-offerings1 and offering for sin1 thou wouldest not1 neither hadst pleasure therein1 which are offered by the law2 then said he1 ,lo1 ,i come to do thy will1 ,o ,god4 ,he taketh away the first1 that he may establish the second4 ,by the which will we are sanctified through the offering of the body of ,christ once for all10 ,heb4 x1 #h-aj2 #a ,cor4 v1 #g4 ,in illustrating this fundamental doctrine of ,christianity1 the ,apostle ,paul1 in his ,epistle to the ,hebrews1 sets forth the excellency of the sacrifice of our great ,high ,priest above those of the law in various particulars4 ,the legal sacrifices were only brute animals1 such as bullocks1 heifers1 goats1 lambs1 c2 but the sacrifice of ,christ was himself1 a person of infinite dignity and worth1 ,heb4 ix1 #ab1 #ac2 i1 #c2 ix1 #ad1 #bf2 x1 #aj4 ,the former1 though they cleansed from ceremonial uncleanness1 could not possibly expiate sin1 or purify the conscience from the guilt of it2 and so it is said that ,god was not well pleased in them1 ,heb4 x1 #d1 #e1 #h1 #aa4 ,but ,christ1 by the sacrifice of himself1 hath effectually1 and for ever1 put away sin1 having made an adequate atonement unto ,god for it1 and by means of faith in it he also purges the conscience from dead works to serve the living ,god1 ,heb4 ix1 #aj-bf2 ,ephes4 v1 #b4 ,the legal sacrifices were statedly offered1 year after year1 by which their insufficiency was indicated1 and an intimation given that ,god was still calling sins to his remembrance1 ,heb4 x1 #c2 but the last required no repetition1 because it fully and at once answered all the ends of sacrifice1 on which account ,god hath declared that he will remember the sins and iniquities of his people no more4 ,the term sacrifice is often used in a secondary or metaphorical sense1 and applied to the good works of believers1 and to the duties of prayer and praise1 as in the following passages3 8,but to do good1 and to communicate1 forget not2 for with such sacrifices ,god is well pleased10 ,heb4 xiii1 #af4 8,having received of ,epaphroditus the things which ye sent1 an odour of a sweet smell1 a sacrifice acceptable1 well pleasing to ,god10 ,phil4 iv1 #ah4 8,ye are built up a spiritual house1 a holy priesthood1 to offer up spiritual sacrifices1 acceptable to ,god by ,jesus ,christ10 #a ,peter ii1 #e4 8,by him1 therefore1 let us offer the sacrifice of praise to ,god continually2 that is1 the fruit of our lips1 giving thanks to his name10 ,heb4 xiii1 #ae4 8,i beseech you1 by the mercies of ,god1 that ye present your bodies a living sacrifice1 holy acceptable unto ,god1 which is your reasonable service10 ,rom4 xii1 #a4 8,there is a peculiar reason10 says ,dr4 ,owen1 8for assigning this appellation to moral duties2 for in every sacrifice there was a presentation of something unto ,god4 ,the worshipper was not to offer that which cost him nothing2 part of his substance was to be transferred from himself unto ,god4 ,so it is in these duties2 they cannot be properly observed without the alienation of something that was our own1--our time1 ease1 property1 c1 and a dedication of it to the ,lord4 ,hence they have the general nature of sacrifices40 ,the ceremonies used in offering the ,jewish sacrifices require to be noticed as illustrative of many texts of ,scripture1 and some points of important doctrine4 ,see ,,atonement1 ,,offerings1 ,,expiation1 ,,propitiation1 ,,reconciliation1 and ,,redemption4 ,,sadducees1 a sect among the ,jews4 ,it is said that the principles of the ,sadducees were derived from ,antigonus ,sochus1 president of the sanhedrim1 about ,b4 ,c4 #bej1 who1 rejecting the traditionary doctrines of the scribes1 taught that man ought to serve ,god out of pure love1 and not from hope of reward1 or fear of punishment2 and that they derived their name from ,sadoc1 one of his followers1 who1 mistaking or perverting this doctrine1 maintained that there was no future state of rewards and punishments4 ,whatever foundation there may be for this account of the origin of the sect1 it is certain1 that in the time of our ,saviour the ,sadducees denied the resurrection of the dead1 ,acts xxiii1 #h1 and the existence of angels and spirits1 or souls of departed men2 though1 as ,mr4 ,hume observes1 it is not easy to comprehend how they could at the same time admit the authority of the law of ,moses4 ,they carried their ideas of human freedom so far as to assert that men were absolutely masters of their own actions1 and at full liberty to do either good or evil4 ,josephus even says that they denied the essential difference between good and evil2 and1 though they believed that ,god created and preserved the world1 they seem to have denied his particular providence4 ,these tenets1 which resemble the ,epicurean philosophy1 led1 as might be expected1 to great profligacy of life2 and we find the licentious wickedness of the ,sadducees frequently condemned in the ,new ,testament2 yet they professed themselves obliged to observe the ,mosaic law1 because of the temporal rewards and punishments annexed to such observance2 and hence they were always severe in their punishment of any crimes which tended to disturb the public tranquillity4 ,the ,sadducees rejected all tradition1 and some authors have contended that they admitted only the books of ,moses2 but there seems no ground for that opinion1 either in the ,scriptures or in any ancient writer4 ,even ,josephus1 who was himself a ,pharisee1 and took every opportunity of reproaching the ,sadducees1 does not mention that they rejected any part of the ,scriptures2 he only says that 8the ,pharisees have delivered to the people many institutions as received from the fathers1 which are not written in the law of ,moses4 ,for this reason the ,sadducees reject these things1 asserting that those things are binding which are written1 but that the things received by tradition from the fathers are not to be observed40 ,beside1 it is generally believed that the ,sadducees expected the ,messiah with great impatience1 which seems to imply their belief in the prophecies1 though they misinterpreted their meaning4 ,confining all their hopes to this present world1 enjoying its riches1 and devoting themselves to its pleasures1 they might well be particularly anxious that their lot of life should be cast in the splendid reign of this expected temporal king1 with the hope of sharing in his conquests and glory2 but this expectation was so contrary to the lowly appearance of our ,saviour1 that they joined their inveterate enemies1 the ,pharisees1 in persecuting him and his religion4 ,josephus says1 that the ,sadducees were able to draw over to them the rich only1 the people not following them2 and he elsewhere mentions that this sect spread chiefly among the young4 ,the ,sadducees were far less numerous than the ,pharisees1 but they were in general persons of greater opulence and dignity4 ,the council before whom our ,saviour and ,st4 ,paul were carried consisted partly of ,pharisees and partly of ,sadducees4 ,,salamis1 once a famous city in the isle of ,cyprus1 opposite to ,seleucia1 on the ,syrian coast2 and as it was the first place where the ,gospel was preached1 it was in the primitive times made the see of the primate of the whole island4 ,it was destroyed by the ,saracens1 and from the ruins was built ,famagusta1 which was taken by the ,turks in #aegj4 ,here ,st4 ,paul preached1 ,a4 ,d4 #dd1 ,acts xiii1 #e4 ,,salmon1 son of ,nahshon3 he married ,rahab1 by whom he had ,boaz1 #a ,chron4 ii1 #aa1 #ea1 #ed2 ,ruth iv1 #bj1 #ba2 ,matt4 i1 #d4 ,he is named the father of ,bethlehem1 because his descendants peopled ,bethlehem4 ,,salome1 the wife of ,zebedee1 and mother of ,st4 ,james the greater1 and ,st4 ,john the evangelist1 ,matthew xxvii1 #ef2 and one of those holy women who used to attend upon our ,saviour in his journeyings1 and to minister to him4 ,she was the person who requested of ,jesus ,christ1 that her two sons1 ,james and ,john1 might sit on his right and left hand when he should enter upon his kingdom1 having then but the same obscure views as the rest of the disciples2 but she gave proof of her faith when she followed ,christ to ,calvary1 and did not forsake him even at the cross1 ,mark xv1 #dj2 ,matt4 xxvii1 #ee1 #ef4 ,she was also one of the women that brought perfumes to embalm him1 and who came1 for this purpose1 to the sepulchre 8early in the morning10 ,mark xvi1 #a1 #b4 ,at the tomb they saw two angels1 who informed them that ,jesus was risen4 ,returning to ,jerusalem1 ,jesus appeared to them on the way1 and said to them1 8,be not afraid3 go1 tell my brethren that they go into ,galilee1 and there shall they see me40 ,,salt4 ,god appointed that salt should be used in all the sacrifices that were offered to him1 ,leviticus ii1 #ac4 ,salt is esteemed the symbol of wisdom and grace1 ,colossians iv1 #f2 ,mark ix1 #ej2 also of perpetuity and incorruption1 ,numbers xviii1 #ai2 #b ,chronicles xiii1 #e4 ,the orientals were accustomed also to ratify their federal engagements by salt4 ,this substance was1 among the ancients1 the emblem of friendship and fidelity1 and therefore used in all their sacrifices and covenants4 ,it was a sacred pledge of hospitality which they never ventured to violate4 ,numerous instances occur of travellers in ,arabia1 after being plundered and stripped by the wandering tribes of the desert1 claiming the protection of some civilized ,arab1 who1 after receiving them into his tent1 and giving them salt1 instantly relieves their distress1 and never forsakes them till he has placed them in safety4 ,an agreement1 thus ratified1 is called1 in ,scripture1 8a covenant of salt40 ,the obligation which this symbol imposes on the mind of an oriental1 is well illustrated by the ,baron du ,tott in the following anecdote3 ,one who was desirous of his acquaintance promised in a short time to return4 ,the baron had already attended him half way down the staircase1 when stopping1 and turning briskly to one of his domestics1 8,bring me directly10 said he1 8some bread and salt40 ,what he requested was brought2 when1 taking a little salt between his fingers1 and putting it with a mysterious air on a bit of bread1 he ate it with a devout gravity1 assuring du ,tott he might now rely on him4 ,although salt1 in small quantities1 may contribute to the communicating and fertilizing of some kinds of stubborn soil1 yet1 according to the observations of ,pliny1 8all places in which salt is found are barren and produce nothing40 ,the effect of salt1 where it abounds1 on vegetation1 is described by burning1 in ,deut4 xxix1 #bc1 8,the whole land thereof is brimstone1 and salt of burning40 ,thus ,volney1 speaking of the borders of the ,asphaltic lake1 or ,dead ,sea1 says1 8,the true cause of the absence of vegetables and animals is the acrid saltness of its waters1 which is infinitely greater than that of the sea4 ,the land surrounding the lake1 being equally impregnated with that saltness1 refuses to produce plants2 the air itself1 which is by evaporation loaded with it1 and which moreover receives vapours of sulphur and bitumen1 cannot suit vegetation2 whence that dead appearance which reigns around the lake40 ,so a salt land1 ,jer4 xvii1 #f1 is the same as the 8parched places of the wilderness10 and is descriptive of barrenness1 as saltness also is1 ,job xxxix1 #f2 ,psalm cvii1 #cd2 ,ezek4 xlvii1 #aa2 ,zech4 ii1 #i4 ,hence the ancient custom of sowing an enemy's city1 when taken1with salt1 in token of perpetual desolation1 ,judges iv1 #de2 and thus in after times the city of ,milan was burned1 razed1 sown with salt1 and ploughed by the exasperated emperor1 ,frederic ,barbarossa4 ,the salt used by the ancients was what we call rock or fossil salt2 and also that left by the evaporation of salt lakes4 ,both these kinds were impure1 being mixed with earth1 sand1 c1 and lost their strength by deliquescence4 ,maundrell1 describing the valley of salt1 says1 8,on the side toward ,gibul there is a small precipice1 occasioned by the continual taking away of the salt2 and in this you may see how the veins of it lie4 ,i broke a piece of it1 of which that part that was exposed to the sun1 rain1 and air1 though it had the sparks and particles of salt1 yet it had perfectly lost its savour2 the inner part1 which was connected with the rock1 retained its savour1 as ,i found by proof40 ,christ reminds his disciples1 ,matt4 v1 #ac1 8,ye are the salt of the earth2 but if the salt have lost its savour1 wherewith shall it be salted8 ,it is thenceforth good for nothing but to be cast out1 and to be trodden under foot of men40 ,this is spoken of the mineral salt as mentioned by ,maundrell1 a great deal of which was made use of in offerings at the temple2 such of it as had become insipid was thrown out to repair the road4 ,the existence of such a salt1 and its application to such a use1 ,schoetgenius has largely proved in his 8,hor ,hebraic40 ,the salt unfit for the land1 ,luke xvi1 #cd1 ,le ,clerc conjectures to be that made of wood ashes1 which easily loses its savour1 and becomes no longer serviceable4 ,efftos cinerem immundum jactare per agros4 ,,virgil4 ,georg4 i1 #ha4 8,but blush not fattening dung to cast around1 ,or sordid ashes o'er th' exhausted ground40 ,,warton4 ,,salutations at meeting are not less common in the east than in the countries of ,europe1 but are generally confined to those of their own nation or religious party4 ,when the ,arabs salute each other1 it is generally in these terms3 ,salum aleikum1 8,peace be with you20 laying1 as they utter the words1 the right hand on the heart4 ,the answer is1 ,aleikum essalum1 8,with you be peace20 to which aged people are inclined to add1 8and the mercy and blessing of ,god40 ,the ,mohammedans of ,egypt and ,syria never salute a ,christian in these terms3 they content themselves with saying to them1 8,good day to you20 or1 8,friend1 how do you do80 ,niebuhr's statement is confirmed by ,mr4 ,bruce1 who says that some ,arabs1 to whom he gave the salam1 or salutation of peace1 either made no reply1 or expressed their astonishment at his impudence in using such freedom4 ,thus it appears that the orientals have two kinds of salutations2 one for strangers1 and the other for their own countrymen1 or persons of their own religious profession4 ,the ,jews in the days of our ,lord seem to have generally observed the same custom2 they would not address the usual compliment of1 8,peace be with you10 to either ,heathens or publicans2 the publicans of the ,jewish nation would use it to their countrymen who were publicans1 but not to ,heathens1 though the more rigid ,jews refused to do it either to publicans or ,heathens4 ,our ,lord required his disciples to lay aside the moroseness of ,jews1 and cherish a benevolent disposition toward all around them3 8,if ye salute your brethren only1 what do ye more than others8 ,do not even the publicans so80 ,they were bound by the same authority to embrace their brethren in ,christ with a special affection1 yet they were to look upon every man as a brother1 to feel a sincere and cordial interest in his welfare1 and at meeting to express their benevolence1 in language corresponding with the feelings of their hearts4 ,this precept is not inconsistent with the charge which the ,prophet ,elisha gave to his servant ,gehazi1 not to salute any man he met1 nor return his salutation2 for he wished him to make all the haste in his power to restore the child of the ,shunamite1 who had laid him under so many obligations4 ,the manners of the country rendered ,elisha's precautions particularly proper and necessary1 as the salutations of the east often take up a long time4 ,for a similar reason our ,lord himself commanded his disciples on one occasion to salute no man by the way3 it is not to be supposed that he would require his followers to violate or neglect an innocent custom1 still less one of his own precepts2 he only directed them to make the best use of their time in executing his work4 ,this precaution was rendered necessary by the length of time which their tedious forms of salutation required4 ,they begin their salutations at a considerable distance1 by bringing the hand down to the knees1 and then carrying it to the stomach4 ,they express their devotedness to a person by holding down the hand1 as they do their affection by raising it afterward to the heart4 ,when they come close together1 they take each other by the hand in token of friendship4 ,the country people at meeting clap each other's hands very smartly twenty or thirty times together1 without saying any thing more than1 8,how do ye do8 ,i wish you good health40 ,after this first compliment1 many other friendly questions about the health of the family1 mentioning each of the children distinctly1 whose names they know4 ,to avoid this useless waste of time1 our ,lord commanded them to avoid the customary salutations of those whom they might happen to meet by the way4 ,all the forms of salutation now observed appear to have been in general use in the days of our ,lord2 for he represents a servant as falling down at the feet of his master1 when he had a favour to ask2 and an inferior servant1 as paying the same compliment to the first1 who belonged1 it would seem1 to a higher class2 8,the servant1 therefore1 fell down and worshipped him1 saying1 ,lord1 have patience with me1 and ,i will pay thee all4 ,and his fellow servant fell down at his feet1 and besought him1 saying1 ,have patience with me1 and ,i will pay thee all10 ,matt4 xviii1 #bf1 #bi4 ,when ,jairus solicited the ,saviour to go and heal his daughter1 he fell down at his feet3 the ,apostle ,peter1 on another occasion1 seems to have fallen down at his knees1 in the same manner as the modern ,arabs fall down at the knees of a superior4 ,the woman who was afflicted with an issue of blood touched the hem of his garment1 and the ,syro-,phenician woman fell down at his feet4 ,in ,persia1 the salutation among intimate friends is made by inclining the neck over each other's neck1 and then inclining cheek to cheek2 which ,mr4 ,morier thinks is most likely the falling upon the neck and kissing1 so frequently mentioned in ,scripture1 ,gen4 xxxiii1 #d2 xlv1 #ad2 ,luke xv1 #bj4 ,,salvation imports1 in general1 some great deliverance from any evil or danger4 ,thus1 the conducting the ,israelites through the ,red ,sea1 and delivering them out of the hands of the ,egyptians1 is called a great salvation4 ,but salvation by way of eminence1 is applied to that wonderful deliverance which our blessed ,saviour procured for mankind1 by saving them from the punishment of their sins2 and in the ,new ,testament is the same as our redemption by ,christ4 ,this is that salvation referred to by ,st4 ,paul3 8,how shall we escape if we neglect so great salvation80 ,the salvation which ,christ purchased1 and the ,gospel tenders to every creature1 comprehends the greatest blessings which ,god can bestow2 a deliverance from the most dreadful evils that mankind can suffer4 ,it contains all that can make the nature of man perfect or his life happy1 and secures him from whatever can render his condition miserable4 ,the blessings of it are inexpressible1 and beyond imagination4 8,eye hath not seen1 nor ear heard1 neither have entered into the heart of man1 the things which ,god hath prepared for them that love him40 ,for1 to be saved as ,christ saves1 is to have all our innumerable sins and transgressions forgiven and blotted out2 all those heavy loads of guilt which oppressed our souls perfectly removed from our minds4 ,it is to be reconciled to ,god1 and restored to his favour1 so that he will be no longer angry1 terrible1 and retributive1 but a most kind1 compassionate1 and tender ,father4 ,it is to be at peace with him and with our consciences2 to have a title to his peculiar love1 care1 and protection1 all our days2 to be rescued from the bondage and dominion of sin1 and the tyranny of the devil4 ,it is to be translated from the power of darkness1 into the kingdom of ,christ2 so that sin shall reign no longer in our mortal bodies1 but we shall be enabled to serve ,god in newness of life4 ,it is to be placed in a state of true freedom and liberty1 to be no longer under the control of blind passions1 and hurried on by our impetuous lusts to do what our reason condemns4 ,it is to have a new principle of life infused into our souls2 to have the ,holy ,spirit resident in our hearts1 whose comfortable influence must ever cheer and refresh us1 and by whose counsels we may be always advised1 directed1 and governed4 ,it is to be transformed into the image of ,god2 and to be made like him in wisdom1 righteousness1 and all other perfections of which man's nature is capable4 ,finally1 to be saved as ,christ came to save mankind1 is to be translated1 after this life is ended1 into a state of eternal felicity1 never more to die or suffer1 never more to know pain and sickness1 grief and sorrow1 labour and weariness1 disquiet1 or vexation1 but to live in perfect peace1 freedom1 and liberty1 and to enjoy the greatest good after the most perfect manner for ever4 ,it is to have our bodies raised again1 and renited to our souls2 so that they shall be no longer gross1 earthly1 corruptible bodies1 but spiritual1 heavenly1 immortal ones1 fashioned like unto ,christ's glorious body1 in which he now sits at the right hand of ,god4 ,it is to live in the city of the great ,king1 the heavenly ,jerusalem1 where the glory of the ,lord fills the place with perpetual light and bliss4 ,it is to spend eternity in the most noble and hallowed employments1 in viewing and contemplating the wonderful works of ,god1 admiring the wisdom of his providence1 adoring his infinite love to the sons of men1 reflecting on our own inexpressible happiness1 and singing everlasting hymns of praise1 joy1 and triumph to ,god and our ,lord ,jesus ,christ for vouchsafing all these blessings4 ,it is to dwell for ever in a place1 where no objects of pity or compassion1 of anger or envy1 of hatred or distrust1 are to be found2 but where all will increase the happiness of each other1 by mutual love and kindness4 ,it is to converse with the most perfect society1 to be restored to the fellowship of our friends and relations who have died in the faith of ,christ1 and to be with ,jesus ,christ1 to behold his glory1 to live for ever in seeing and enjoying the great ,god1 in 8whose presence is fulness of joy1 and at whose right hand are pleasures for evermore40 ,this is the salvation that ,christ has purchased for us2 and which his ,gospel offers to all mankind4 ,,samaria1 one of the three divisions of the ,holy ,land1 having ,galilee on the north1 ,judea on the south1 the river ,jordan on the east1 and the ,mediterranean ,sea on the west4 ,it took its name from its capital city1 ,samaria2 and formed1 together with ,galilee and some cantons on the east of ,jordan1 during the reigns of the kings of ,israel and ,judah1 the kingdom of the former4 ,the general aspect and produce of the country are nearly the same as those of ,judea4 ,but ,mr4 ,buckingham observes1 that 8while in ,judea the hills are mostly as bare as the imagination can paint them1 and a few of the narrow valleys only are fertile1 in ,samaria1 the very summits of the eminences are as well clothed as the sides of them4 ,these1 with the luxuriant valleys which they enclose1 present scenes of unbroken verdure in almost every point of view1 which are delightfully variegated by the picturesque forms of the hills and vales themselves1 enriched by the occasional sight of wood and water1 in clusters of olive and other trees1 and rills and torrents running among them40 #b4 ,,samaria1 the capital city of the kingdom of the ten tribes that revolted from the house of ,david4 ,it was built by ,omri1 king of ,israel1 who began to reign ,a4 ,m4 #cjgi1 and who died #cjhf4 ,he bought the hill ,samaria of ,shemer for two talents of silver1 or for the sum of #fhdl4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,it took the name of ,samaria from ,shemer1 the owner of the hill1 #a ,kings xvi1 #bd4 ,some think1 however1 that there were before this some beginnings of a city in that place1 because1 antecedent to the reign of ,omri1 there is mention made of ,samaria1 #a ,kings xiii1 #cb1 ,a4 ,m4 #cjcj4 ,but others take this for a prolepsis1 or an anticipation1 in the discourse of the man of ,god4 ,however this may be1 it is certain that ,samaria was no considerable place1 and did not become the capital of the kingdom1 till after the reign of ,omri4 ,before him1 the kings of ,israel dwelt at ,shechem or at ,tirzah4 ,samaria was advantageously situated upon an agreeable and fruitful hill1 twelve miles from ,dothaim1 twelve from ,merrom1 and four from ,atharath4 ,josephus says it was a day's journey from ,jerusalem4 ,the kings of ,samaria omitted nothing to make this city the strongest1 the finest1 and the richest that was possible4 ,ahab built there a palace of ivory1 #a ,kings xxii1 #ci2 that is1 in which there were many ivory ornaments2 and1 according to ,amos1 iii1 #ae2 iv1 #a1 #b1 it became the seat of luxury and effeminacy4 ,benhadad1 king of ,syria1 built public places1 called 8streets10 in ,samaria1 #a ,kings xx1 #cd2 probably bazaars for trade1 and quarters where his people dwelt to pursue commerce4 ,his son ,benhadad besieged this place under the reign of ,ahab1 #a ,kings xx1 ,a4 ,m4 #cajc4 ,it was besieged by ,shalmaneser1 king of ,assyria1 in the ninth year of the reign of ,hoshea1 king of ,israel1 #b ,kings xvii1 #f1 c1 which was the fourth of ,hezekiah1 king of ,judah4 ,it was taken three years after1 ,a4 ,m4 #cbhc4 ,the ,prophet ,hosea1 x1 #d1 #h1 #i1 speaks of the cruelties exercised by ,shalmaneser against the besieged2 and ,micah1 i1 #f1 says that the city was reduced to a heap of stones4 ,the ,cuthites that were sent by ,esar-haddon to inhabit the country of ,samaria did not think it worth their while to repair the ruined city3 they dwelt at ,shechem1 which they made the capital city of their state4 ,they were in this condition when ,alexander the ,great came into ,phenicia and ,judea4 ,however1 the ,cuthites had rebuilt some of the houses of ,samaria1 even from the time of the return of the ,jews from the captivity1 since the inhabitants of ,samaria are spoken of1 ,ezra iv1 #ag2 ,neh4 iv1 #b4 ,and the ,samaritans1 being jealous of the ,jews1 on account of the favours that ,alexander the ,great had conferred on them1 revolted from him1 while he was in ,egypt1 and burned ,andromachus alive1 whom he had left governor of ,syria4 ,alexander soon marched against them1 took ,samaria1 and appointed ,macedonians to inhabit it1 giving the country round it to the ,jews2 and to encourage them in the cultivation1 he exempted them from tribute4 ,the kings of ,egypt and ,syria1 who succeeded ,alexander1 deprived them of the property of this country4 ,but ,alexander ,balas1 king of ,syria1 restored to ,jonathan ,maccabus the cities of ,lydda1 ,ephrem1 and ,ramatha1 which he cut off from the country of ,samaria1 #a ,macc4 x1 #cj1 #ch2 xi1 #bh1 #cd4 ,lastly1 the ,jews rentered into the full possession of this whole country under ,john ,hircanus1 the ,asmonean1 who took ,samaria1 and1 according to ,josephus1 made the river run through its ruins4 ,it continued in this state till ,a4 ,m4 #cidg1 when ,aulus ,gabinius1 the proconsul of ,syria1 rebuilt it1 and gave it the name of ,gabiniana4 ,yet it remained very inconsiderable till ,herod the ,great restored it to its ancient splendour4 ,the sacred authors of the ,new ,testament speak but little of ,samaria2 and when they do mention it1 the country is rather to be understood than the city1 ,luke xvii1 #aa2 ,john iv1 #d1 #e4 ,after the death of ,stephen1 ,acts viii1 #a1 #b1 #c1 when the disciples were dispersed through the cities of ,judea and ,samaria1 ,philip made several converts in this city4 ,there it was that ,simon ,magus resided1 and thither ,peter and ,john went to communicate the gifts of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,travellers give the following account of its present state3--,sebaste is the name which ,herod gave to the name of the ancient ,samaria1 the imperial city of the ten tribes1 in honour of ,augustus 7,sebastos7 ,csar1 when he rebuilt and fortified it1 converting the greater part of it into a citadel1 and erecting here a noble temple4 8,the situation10 says ,dr4 ,richardson1 8is extremely beautiful1 and strong by nature2 more so1 ,i think1 than ,jerusalem4 ,it stands on a fine1 large1 insulated hill1 compassed all around by a broad deep valley2 and when fortified1 as it is stated to have been by ,herod1 one would have imagined that1 in the ancient system of warfare1 nothing but famine could have reduced such a place4 ,the valley is surrounded by four hills1 one on each side1 which are cultivated in terraces up to the top1 sown with grain1 and planted with fig and olive trees1 as is also the valley4 ,the hill of ,samaria likewise rises in terraces to a height equal to any of the adjoining mountains4 ,the present village is small and poor1 and1 after passing the valley1 the ascent to it is very steep4 ,viewed from the station of our tents1 it is extremely interesting1 both from its natural situation1 and from the picturesque remains of a ruined convent1 of good ,gothic architecture4 ,having passed the village1 toward the middle of the first terrace1 there is a number of columns still standing4 ,i counted twelve in one row1 beside several that stood apart1 the brotherless remains of other rows4 ,the situation is extremely delightful1 and my guide informed me1 that they belonged to the serai1 or palace4 ,on the next terrace there are no remains of solid building1 but heaps of stone and lime and rubbish mixed with the soil in great profusion4 ,ascending to the third or highest terrace1 the traces of former building were not so numerous1 but we enjoyed a delightful view of the surrounding country4 ,the eye passed over the deep valley that encompasses the hill of ,sebaste1 and rested on the mountains beyond1 that retreated as they rose with a gentle slope1 and met the view in every direction1 like a book laid out for perusal on a reading desk4 ,this was the seat of the capital of the short-lived and wicked kingdom of ,israel2 and on the face of these mountains the eye surveys the scene of many bloody conflicts and many memorable events4 ,here those holy men of ,god1 ,elijah and ,elisha1 spoke their tremendous warnings in the ears of their incorrigible rulers1 and wrought their miracles in the sight of all the people4 ,from this lofty eminence we descended to the south side of the hill1 where we saw the remains of a stately colonnade that stretches along this beautiful exposure from east to west4 ,sixty columns are still standing in one row4 ,the shafts are plain2 and fragments of ,ionic volutes1 that lie scattered about1 testify the order to which they belonged4 ,these are probably the relics of some of the magnificent structures with which ,herod the ,great adorned ,samaria4 ,none of the walls remain40 ,mr4 ,buckingham mentions a current tradition1 that the avenue of columns formed a part of ,herod's palace4 ,according to his account1 there were eighty-three of these columns erect in #ahaf1 beside others prostrate2 all without capitals4 ,josephus states1 that1 about the middle of the city1 ,herod built 8a sacred place1 of a furlong and a half in circuit1 and adorned it with all sorts of decorations2 and therein erected a temple1 illustrious for both its largeness and beauty40 ,it is probable that these columns belonged to it4 ,on the eastern side of the same summit are the remains1 ,mr4 ,buckingham states1 of another building1 8of which eight large and eight small columns are still standing1 with many others fallen near them4 ,these also are without capitals1 and are of a smaller size and of an inferior stone to the others40 8,in the walls of the humble dwellings forming the modern village1 portions of sculptured blocks of stone are perceived1 and even fragments of granite pillars have been worked into the masonry40 ,,samaritans1 an ancient sect among the ,jews1 still subsisting in some parts of the ,levant1 under the same name4 ,its origin was in the time of ,rehoboam1 under whose reign a division was made of the people of ,israel into two distinct kingdoms4 ,one of these kingdoms1 called ,judah1 consisted of such as adhered to ,rehoboam and the house of ,david2 the other retained the ancient name of ,israelites1 under the command of ,jeroboam4 ,the capital of the state of these latter was ,samaria2 and hence it was that they were denominated ,samaritans4 ,some affirm that ,salmanazar1 king of ,assyria1 having conquered ,samaria1 led the whole people captive into the remotest parts of his empire1 and filled their places with colonies of ,babylonians1 ,cutheans1 and other idolaters4 ,these finding themselves daily destroyed by wild beasts1 it is said1 desired an ,israelitish priest to instruct them in the ancient laws and customs of the land they inhabited4 ,this was granted them2 and they thenceforth ceased to be incommoded with any beasts4 ,however1 with the law of ,moses1 they still retained somewhat of their ancient idolatry4 ,the rabbins say1 they adored the figure of a dove on ,mount ,gerizim4 ,as the revolted tribes had no more of the ,scriptures than the five books of ,moses1 so the priest could bring no others with him beside those books written in the old ,phenician letters4 ,upon the return of the ,jews from the ,babylonish captivity1 and the rebuilding of ,jerusalem and the temple1 the religion of the ,samaritans received another alteration on the following occasion3 one of the sons of ,jehoiada1 the high priest1 whom ,josephus calls ,manasseh1 married the daughter of ,sanballat the ,horonite2 but the law of ,god having forbidden the intermarriages of the ,israelites with any other nation1 ,nehemiah set himself to reform this corruption1 which had spread into many ,jewish families1 and obliged all that had taken strange wives immediately to part with them1 ,neh4 xiii1 #bc-cj4 ,manasseh1 unwilling to surrender his wife1 fled to ,samaria2 and many others in the same circumstances1 and with similar disposition1 went and settled under the protection of ,sanballat1 governor of ,samaria4 ,manasseh brought with him some other apostate priests1 with many other ,jews1 who disliked the regulations made by ,nehemiah at ,jerusalem2 and now the ,samaritans1 having obtained a high priest1 and other priests of the descendants from ,aaron1 were soon brought off from the worship of the false gods1 and became as much enemies to idolatry as the best of the ,jews4 ,however1 ,manasseh gave them no other ,scriptures beside the ,pentateuch1 lest1 if they had the other ,scriptures1 they should then find that ,jerusalem was the only place where they should offer their sacrifices4 ,from that time the worship of the ,samaritans came much nearer to that of the ,jews1 and they afterward obtained leave of ,alexander the ,great to build a temple on ,mount ,gerizim1 near the city of ,samaria1 in imitation of the temple at ,jerusalem1 where they practised the same forms of worship4 ,to this mountain and temple the ,samaritan woman of ,sychar refers in her discourse with our ,saviour1 ,john iv1 #bj4 ,the ,samaritans soon after revolted from ,alexander1 who drove them out of ,samaria1 introduced ,macedonians in their room1 and gave the province of ,samaria to the ,jews4 ,this circumstance contributed in no small degree to increase the hatred and animosity between those two people4 ,when any ,israelite deserved punishment on account of the violation of some important point of the law1 he presently took refuge in ,samaria or ,shechem1 and embraced the worship at the temple of ,gerizim4 ,when the affairs of the ,jews were prosperous1 the ,samaritans did not fail to call themselves ,hebrews1 and of the race of ,abraham4 ,but when the ,jews suffered persecution1 the ,samaritans disowned them1 and alleged that they were ,phenicians originally1 or descended from ,joseph1 or ,manasseh his son4 ,this was their practice in the time of ,antiochus ,epiphanes4 ,it is certain1 the modern ,samaritans are far from idolatry2 some of the most learned among the ,jewish doctors own1 that they observe the law of ,moses more rigidly than the ,jews themselves4 ,they have a ,hebrew copy of the ,pentateuch1 differing in some respects from that of the ,jews2 and written in different characters1 commonly called ,samaritan characters2 which ,origen1 ,jerom1 and other fathers and critics1 ancient and modern1 take to be the primitive character of the ancient ,hebrews1 though others maintain the contrary4 ,the point of preference1 as to purity1 antiquity1 c1 of the two ,pentateuchs1 is also much disputed by modern critics4 ,the ,samaritans are now few in number2 though it is not very long since they pretended to have priests descended directly from the family of ,aaron4 ,they were chiefly found at ,gaza1 ,neapolis or ,shechem1 7the ancient ,sichem or ,naplouse17 ,damascus1 ,cairo1 c4 ,they had a temple1 or chapel1 on ,mount ,gerizim1 where they performed their sacrifices4 ,they have also synagogues in other parts of ,palestine1 and also in ,egypt4 ,joseph ,scaliger1 being curious to know their usages1 wrote to the ,samaritans of ,egypt1 and to the high priest of the whole sect1 who resided at ,neapolis4 ,they returned two answers1 dated in the year #iih of the ,hegira of ,mohammed4 ,these answers never came to the hands of ,scaliger4 ,they are now in the library at ,paris1 and have been translated into ,latin by ,father ,morin1 priest of the oratory2 and printed in the collection of letters of that father in ,england1 #affb1 under the title of 8,antiquitates ,ecclesi ,orientalis40 ,m4 ,simon has inserted a ,french translation in the first edition of 8,ceremonies et ,coutumes des ,juifs10 in the manner of a supplement to ,leo de ,modena4 ,in the first of these answers1 written in the name of the assembly of ,israel1 in ,egypt1 they declare that they celebrate the passover every year1 on the fourteenth day of the first month1 on ,mount ,gerizim1 and that he who then did the office of high priest was called ,eleazar1 a descendant of ,phinehas1 son of ,aaron4 ,in the second answer1 which is in the name of the high priest ,eleazar1 and the synagogue of ,shechem1 they declare1 that they keep the ,sabbath in all the rigour with which it is enjoined in the book of ,exodus2 none among them stirring out of doors1 but to the synagogue4 ,they add1 that they begin the feast of the passover with the sacrifice appointed for that purpose in ,exodus2 that they sacrifice no where else but on ,mount ,gerizim2 that they observe the feasts of harvest1 the expiation1 the tabernacles1 c4 ,they add farther1 that they never defer circumcision beyond the eighth day2 never marry their nieces1 as the ,jews do2 have but one wife2 and1 in fine1 do nothing but what is commanded in the law3 whereas the ,jews frequently abandon the law to follow the inventions of their rabbins4 ,at the time when they wrote to ,scaliger1 they reckoned one hundred and twenty-two high priests2 affirmed that the ,jews had no high priests of the race of ,phinehas2 and that the ,jews belied them in calling them ,cutheans2 for that they are descended from the tribe of ,joseph by ,ephraim4 ,,samson1 son of ,manoah1 of the tribe of ,dan1 ,judges xiii1 #b1 c4 ,we are no where acquainted with the name of his mother4 ,he was born1 ,a4 ,m4 #bhdi1 and was a ,nazarite from his infancy1 by the divine command4 ,he was brought up in a place called the camp of ,dan1 between ,zorah and ,estaol1 ,judges xiii1 #be4 ,his extraordinary achievements are particularly recorded in ,judges xiv-xvi4 8,faith0 is attributed to him by ,st4 ,paul1 though whether he retained it to the end of his life may be doubted4 ,he is not inaptly called by an old writer1 8a rough believer40 ,,samuel1 the son of ,elkanah and of ,hannah1 of the tribe of ,levi1 and family of ,kohath1 was born1 ,a4 ,m4 #bhdh4 ,he was an eminent inspired prophet1 historian1 and the seventeenth and last ,judge of ,israel2 and died in the ninety-eighth year of his age1 two years before ,saul1 ,a4 ,m4 #bidg1 #a ,sam4 xxv4 ,to ,samuel are ascribed the book of ,judges1 that of ,ruth1 and the first book of ,samuel4 ,there is1 indeed1 great probability that he composed the first twenty-four chapters of the first book of ,samuel2 since they contain nothing but what he might have written1 and such transactions as he was chiefly concerned in4 ,however1 in these chapters there are some small additions1 which seem to have been inserted after his death4 ,samuel began the order of the prophets1 which was never discontinued till the death of ,zechariah and ,malachi1 ,acts iii1 #bd4 ,from early youth to hoary years1 the character of ,samuel is one on which the mind rests with veneration and delight4 ,,sanballat1 the governor of the ,cuthites or ,samaritans1 and an enemy to the ,jews4 ,he was a native of ,horon1 a city beyond ,jordan1 in the country of the ,moabites1 ,neh4 ii1 #aj1 #ai2 iv1 vi4 ,,sanctification1 that work of ,god's grace by which we are renewed after the image of ,god1 set apart for his service1 and enabled to die unto sin and live unto righteousness4 ,sanctification is either of nature1 whereby we are renewed after the image of ,god1 in knowledge1 righteousness1 and true holiness1 ,eph4 iv1 #bd2 ,col4 iii1 #ai1 or of practice1 whereby we die unto sin1 have its power destroyed in us1 cease from the love and practice of it1 hate it as abominable1 and live unto righteousness1 loving and studying good works1 ,tit4 ii1 #aa1 #ab4 ,sanctification comprehends all the graces of knowledge1 faith1 repentance1 love1 humility1 zeal1 patience1 c1 and the exercise of them in our conduct toward ,god or man1 ,gal4 v1 #bb-bd2 #a ,peter i1 #ae1 #af2 ,matt4 v1 vi1 vii4 ,sanctification in this world must be complete2 the whole nature must be sanctified1 all sin must be utterly abolished1 or the soul can never be admitted into the glorious presence of ,god1 ,heb4 xii1 #ad2 #a ,peter i1 #ae2 ,rev4 xxi1 #bg2 yet the saints1 while here1 are in a state of spiritual warfare with ,satan and his temptations1 with the world and its influence1 #b ,cor4 ii1 #aa2 ,gal4 v1 #ag1 #bd2 ,rom4 vii1 #bc2 #a ,john ii1 #ae1 #af4 ,,sanctify4 ,in the ,old ,testament1 to sanctify often denotes to separate from a common to a holy purpose2 to set apart or consecrate to ,god as his special property1 and for his service4 ,our ,lord also uses this term1 when he says1 8,for their sakes ,i sanctify myself10 ,john xvii1 #ai2 that is1 ,i separate and dedicate myself to be a sacrifice to ,god for them1 8that they also may be sanctified through the truth20 that is1 that they may be cleansed from the guilt of sin4 ,under the law of ,moses1 there was a church purity1 or ceremonial sanctification1 which might be obtained by the observance of external rites and ordinances1 while persons were destitute of internal purity or holiness4 ,every defiled person was made 8common10 and excluded from the privilege of a right to draw nigh to ,god in his solemn worship2 but in his purification he was again separated to him1 and restored to his sacred right4 ,hence ,st4 ,paul speaks of 8the blood of bulls and goats1 and the ashes of an heifer sprinkling the unclean1 as sanctifying unto the purifying of the flesh10 ,heb4 ix1 #ac4 ,these things were in reality of no moral worth or value2 they were merely typical institutions1 intended to represent the blessings of the new and better covenant1 those 8good things that were to come20 and therefore ,god is frequently spoken of in the prophets as despising them1 namely1 in any other view than that for which his wisdom had ordained them1 ,isaiah i1 #aa-ae2 ,psalm #a1 #h1 #i2 li1 #af4 ,but that dispensation is now at an end2 under the ,new ,testament1 the state of things is changed1 for now 8neither circumcision availeth any thing1 nor uncircumcision1 but a new creature40 ,the thing signified1 namely1 internal purity and holiness1 is no less necessary to a right to the privileges of the ,gospel1 than the observance of those external rites was unto the privileges of the law4 ,,sanctuary4 ,see ,,temple4 ,,sandals1 at first1 were only soles tied to the feet with strings or thongs2 afterward they were covered2 and at last they called even shoes sandals4 ,when ,judith went to the camp of ,holofernes1 she put sandals on her feet2 and her sandals ravished his eyes1 ,judith x1 #d2 xvi1 #i4 ,they were a magnificent kind of buskins proper only to ladies of condition1 and such as dressed themselves for admiration4 ,but there were sandals also belonging to men1 and of mean value4 ,we read1 8,if the man like not to take his brother's wife1 then let his brother's wife go up to the gate unto the elders1 and say1 ,my husband's brother will not perform the duty of a husband's brother2 then shall his brother's wife come unto him1 in the presence of the elders1 and loose his shoe from off his foot1 and spit in his face2 and shall say1 ,so shall it be done unto that man that will not build up his brother's house4 ,and his name shall be called in ,israel1 ,the house of him who hath had his shoe loosed10 ,deuteronomy xxv1 #g4 ,a late writer observes that the word rendered 8shoe10 usually means 8sandal10 that is1 a mere sole fastened on the foot in a very simple manner2 and that the primary and radical meaning of the word rendered face1 is surface1 the superficies of any thing4 ,hence he would submit1 that the passage may be to the following purpose3 ,the brother's wife shall loose the sandal from off the foot of her husband's brother2 and shall spit upon its face or surface1 7that is1 of the shoe17 and shall say1 c4 ,this ceremony is coincident with certain customs among the ,turks4 ,we are told that in a complaint against her own husband1 for withholding himself from her intimacy1 the wife when before the judge takes off her own shoe1 and spits upon it2 but in case of complaint against her husband's brother1 she takes off his shoe and spits upon it4 ,the business of untying and carrying the sandals being that of a servant1 the expressions of the ,baptist1 8whose shoes ,i am not worthy to bear10 8whose shoe latchet ,i am not worthy to unloose10 was an acknowledgment of his great inferiority to ,christ1 and that ,christ was his ,lord4 ,to pull off the sandals on entering a sacred place1 or the house of a person of distinction1 was the usual mark of respect4 ,they were taken care of by the attendant servant4 ,at the doors of an ,indian pagoda1 there are as many sandals and slippers hung up1 as there are hats in our places of worship4 ,,sanhedrim1 ,,sanhedrin1 or ,,synedrium1 among the ancient ,jews1 the supreme council1 or court of judicature1 of that republic2 in which were despatched all the great affairs both of religion and policy4 ,the word is derived from the ,greek 1 a council1 assembly1 or company of people sitting together2 from 1 together1 and h1 a seat4 ,many of the learned agree1 that it was instituted by ,moses1 ,numbers xi2 and consisted at first of seventy elders1 who judged finally of all causes and affairs2 and that they subsisted1 without intermission1 from ,moses to ,ezra1 ,deut4 xxvii1 #a2 xxxi1 #i2 ,josh4 xxiv1 #a1 #ca2 ,judg4 ii1 #g2 #b ,chron4 xix1 #h2 ,ezek4 viii1 #aa4 ,others will have it1 that the council of seventy elders1 established by ,moses1 was temporary1 and did not hold after his death2 adding1 that we find no sign of any such perpetual and infallible tribunal throughout the whole ,old ,testament2 and that the sanhedrim was first set up in the time when the ,maccabees1 or ,asmoneans1 took upon themselves the administration of the government under the title of high priests1 and afterward of kings1 that is1 after the persecution of ,antiochus4 ,this is by far the most probable opinion4 ,the ,jews1 however1 contend strenuously for the antiquity of their great sanhedrim3 ,m4 ,simon strengthens and defends their proofs1 and ,m4 ,le ,clerc attacks them4 ,whatever may be the origin and establishment of the sanhedrim1 it is certain that it was subsisting in the time of our ,saviour1 since it is spoken of in the ,gospels1 ,matt4 v1 #ba2 ,mark xiii1 #i2 xiv1 #ee2 xv1 #a2 and since ,jesus ,christ himself was arraigned and condemned by it2 that it was held at ,jerusalem2 and that the decision of all the most important affairs among the ,jews belonged to it4 ,the president of this assembly was called nasi1 or prince2 his deputy was called abbeth-din1 father of the house of judgment2 and the sub-deputy was called chacan1 the wise3 the rest were denominated tzekanim1 elders or senators4 ,the room in which they sat was a rotunda1 half of which was built without the temple1 and half within2 that is1 one semicircle of the room was within the compass of the temple2 and as it was never allowed to sit down in the temple1 they tell us this part was for those who stood up2 the other half1 or semicircle1 extended without the holy place1 and here the judges sat4 ,the nasi1 or prince1 sat on a throne at the end of the hall1 having his deputy at his right hand1 and his sub-deputy at his left2 the other senators were ranged in order on each side4 ,the sanhedrim subsisted until the destruction of ,jerusalem1 but its authority was almost reduced to nothing1 from the time in which the ,jewish nation became subject to the ,roman empire4 ,the rabbins pretend1 that the sanhedrim has always subsisted in their nation from the time of ,moses to the destruction of the temple by the ,romans2 and they maintain that it consisted of seventy counsellors1 six out of each tribe1 and ,moses as president2 and thus the number was seventy-one3 but six senators out of each tribe make the number seventy-two1 which1 with the president1 constitute a council of seventy-three persons1 and therefore it has been the opinion of some authors that this was the number of the members of the sanhedrim4 ,as to the personal qualifications of the judges of this court1 it was required that they should be of untainted birth2 and they were often of the race of the priests or ,levites1 or of the number of inferior judges1 or of the lesser sanhedrim1 which consisted of twenty-three judges4 ,they were to be skilful in the written and traditional law2 and they were obliged to study magic1 divination1 fortune telling1 physic1 astrology1 arithmetic1 and languages4 ,it was also required1 that none of them should be eunuchs1 usurers1 decrepid or deformed1 or gamesters2 and that they should be of mature age1 rich1 and of good countenance and body4 ,thus say the rabbins4 ,the authority of the sanhedrim was very extensive4 ,this council decided causes brought before it by appeal from inferior courts4 ,the king1 high priest1 and prophets were subject to its jurisdiction4 ,the general officers of the nation were brought before the sanhedrim4 ,how far their right of judging in capital cases extended1 and how long it continued1 have been subjects of controversy4 ,among the rabbins it has been a generally received opinion1 that about forty years before the destruction of ,jerusalem1 their nation had been deprived of the power of life and death4 ,and most authors assert1 that this privilege was taken from them ever since ,judea was made a province of the ,roman empire1 that is1 after the banishment of ,archelaus4 ,others1 however1 maintain that the ,jews had still the power of life and death2 but that this privilege was restricted to crimes committed against their law1 and depended upon the governor's will and pleasure4 ,in the time of ,moses1 this council was held at the door of the tabernacle of the testimony4 ,as soon as the people were in possession of the land of promise1 the sanhedrim followed the tabernacle1 and it continued at ,jerusalem1 whither it was removed1 till the captivity4 ,during the captivity it was kept at ,babylon4 ,after the return from ,babylon1 it remained at ,jerusalem1 as it is said1 to the time of the sicarii or assassins2 afterward it was removed to ,jamnia1 thence to ,jericho1 to ,uzzah1 to ,sepharvaim1 to ,bethsamia1 to ,sephoris1 and last of all to ,tiberias1 where it continued till its utter extinction4 ,such is the account which the ,jews give of their sanhedrim4 ,but1 as stated above1 much of this is disputed4 ,petau fixes the beginning of the sanhedrim to the period when ,gabinius was governor of ,judea1 by whom were erected tribunals in the five cities of ,judea1 namely1 ,jerusalem1 ,gadara1 ,amathus1 ,jericho1 and ,sephoris4 ,grotius agrees in the date of its commencement with the rabbins1 but he fixes its termination at the beginning of ,herod's reign4 ,basnage places it under ,judas ,maccabus and his brother ,jonathan4 ,upon the whole1 it may be observed1 that the origin of the sanhedrim has not been satisfactorily ascertained2 and that the council of the seventy elders1 established by ,moses1 was not what the ,hebrews understood by the name of sanhedrim4 ,before the death of our ,saviour1 two very famous rabbins had been presidents of the sanhedrim1 namely ,hillel and ,schammai1 who entertained very different opinions on several subjects1 and particularly that of divorce4 ,this gave occasion to the question which the ,pharisees put to ,jesus ,christ upon that head1 ,matt4 xix1 #c4 7,see ,divorce47 ,hillel had ,menahem for his associate in the presidency of the sanhedrim4 ,but the latter afterward deserted that honourable post1 and joined himself with a great number of his disciples1 to the party of ,herod ,antipas1 who promoted the levying of taxes for the use of the ,roman emperors with all his might4 ,these were probably the ,herodians mentioned in the ,gospel1 ,matt4 xxii1 #af4 ,to ,hillel succeeded ,simeon his son1 who by some is supposed to have been the person who took ,jesus ,christ in his arms1 ,luke ii1 #bh1 and publicly acknowledged him to be the ,messiah4 ,if this be the case1 the ,jewish sanhedrim had for president a person that was entirely disposed to embrace ,christianity4 ,gamaliel1 the son and successor of ,simeon1 seems to have been also of a candid disposition and character4 ,there were several inferior sanhedrims in ,palestine1 all depending on the great sanhedrim at ,jerusalem4 ,the inferior sanhedrim consisted each of twenty-three persons2 and there was one in each city and town4 ,some say1 that to have a right to hold a sanhedrim1 it was requisite there should be one hundred and twenty inhabitants in the place4 ,where the inhabitants came short of the number of one hundred and twenty1 they only established three judges4 ,in the great as well as the inferior sanhedrim were two scribes2 the one to write down the suffrages of those who were for condemnation1 the other to take down the suffrages of those who were for absolution4 ,,sapphire1 1 ,exod4 xxiv1 #aj2 xxviii1 #ah2 ,job xxviii1 #f1 #af2 ,cantic4 v1 #ad2 ,isa4 liv1 #aa2 ,ezek4 i1 #bf2 x1 #a2 xxviii1 #ac1 1 ,rev4 xxi1 #ai1 only4 ,that this is the sapphire1 there can be no doubt4 ,the ,septuagint1 the ,vulgate1 and the general run of commentators1 ancient and modern1 agree in this4 ,the sapphire is a pellucid gem4 ,in its finest state it is extremely beautiful and valuable1 and second only to the diamond in lustre1 hardness1 and value4 ,its proper colour is pure blue2 in the choicest specimens it is of the deepest azure2 and in others varies into paleness1 in shades of all degrees between that and a pure crystal brightness1 without the least tinge of colour1 but with a lustre much superior to the crystal4 ,the oriental sapphire is the most beautiful and valuable4 ,it is transparent1 of a fine sky colour1 sometimes variegated with veins of a white sparry substance1 and distinct separate spots of a gold colour4 ,whence it is that the prophets describe the throne of ,god like unto sapphire1 ,ezek4 i1 #bf2 x1 #a4 ,isaiah1 liv1 #aa1 #ab1 prophesying the future grandeur of ,jerusalem1 says1 8,behold1 ,i lay thy stones in cement of vermilion1 ,and thy foundations with sapphires3 ,and ,i will make thy battlements of rubies1 ,and thy gates of carbuncles2 ,and the whole circuit of thy walls shall be of precious stones40 8,these seem10 says ,bishop ,lowth1 8to be general images to express beauty1 magnificence1 purity1 strength1 and solidity1 agreeably to the ideas of the eastern nations2 and to have never been intended to be strictly scrutinized1 or minutely and particularly explained1 as if they had each of them some precise moral or spiritual meaning40 ,tobit1 xiii1 #af1 #ag1 in his prophecy of the final restoration of ,israel1 describes the ,new ,jerusalem in the same oriental manner3 8,for ,jerusalem shall be built up with sapphires1 and emeralds1 and precious stones2 thy walls1 and towers1 and battlements1 with pure gold4 ,and the streets of ,jerusalem shall be paved with the beryl and carbuncle1 and with stones of ,ophir10 ,rev4 xxi1 #ah-ba4 ,,sarah1 the wife of ,abraham1 and his sister1 as he himself informs us1 by the same father1 but not the same mother1 ,gen4 xx1 #ab4 ,see ,,abraham4 ,,sardis1 a city of ,asia ,minor1 and formerly the capital of ,crsus1 king of the ,lydians4 ,the church of ,sardis was one of the seven churches of ,asia1 to which the writer of the ,apocalypse was directed to send an epistle1 ,rev4 iii1 #a-c4 ,,sardius1 1 so called from its redness1 ,exod4 xxviii1 #ag2 xxxix1 #aj2 ,ezek4 xxviii1 #ac2 1 ,rev4 xxi1 #bj2 a precious stone of a blood-red colour4 ,it took its ,greek name from ,sardis1 where the best of them were found4 ,,sardonyx1 1 ,rev4 xxi1 #bj4 ,a precious stone which seems to have its name from its resemblance partly to the sardius and partly to the onyx4 ,it is generally tinged with black and blood colour1 which are distinguished from each other by circles or rows1 so distinct that they appear to be the effect of art4 ,,satan signifies an adversary or enemy1 and is commonly applied in the ,scriptures to the devil1 or the chief of the fallen angels4 ,by collecting the passages where ,satan1 or the devil1 is mentioned1 it may be concluded1 that he fell from heaven with his company2 that ,god cast him down from thence for the punishment of his pride2 that by his envy and malice1 sin1 death1 and all other evils came into the world2 that1 by the permission of ,god he exercises a sort of government in the world over subordinate apostate angels like himself2 that ,god makes use of him to prove good men1 and chastise bad ones2 that he is a lying spirit in the mouth of false prophets and seducers2 that it is he1 or his agents1 that torment or possess men1 and inspire them with evil designs1 as when he suggested to ,david1 the numbering of the people1 to ,judas to betray his ,lord and ,master1 and to ,ananias and ,sapphira to conceal the price of their field2 that he is full of rage like a roaring lion1 and of subtlety like a serpent1 to tempt1 to betray1 to destroy1 and to involve us in guilt and wickedness2 that his power and malice are restrained within certain limits1 and controlled by the will of ,god2 in a word1 that he is an enemy to ,god and man1 and uses his utmost endeavours to rob ,god of his glory1 and men of their souls4 ,see ,,devil and ,,demoniacs4 ,,saul1 the son of ,kish1 of the tribe of ,benjamin1 the first king of the ,israelites1 #a ,sam4 ix1 #a1 #b1 c4 ,saul's fruitless journey when seeking his father's asses2 7,see ,ass27 his meeting the ,prophet ,samuel2 the particulars foretold to him1 with his being anointed as king1 about ,a4 ,m4 #biji2 his prophesying along with the young prophets2 his appointment by the lot2 his modesty in hiding himself2 his first victory over the ,ammonites2 his rash sacrifice in the absence of ,samuel2 his equally rash curse2 his victories over the ,philistines and ,amalekites2 his sparing of ,king ,agag with the judgment denounced against him for it2 his jealousy and persecution of ,david2 his barbarous massacre of the priests and people of ,nob2 his repeated confessions of his injustice to ,david1 c1 are recorded in #a ,sam4 ix-xxxi4 ,he reigned forty years1 but exhibited to posterity a melancholy example of a monarch1 elevated to the summit of worldly grandeur1 who1 having cast off the fear of ,god1 gradually became the slave of jealousy1 duplicity1 treachery1 and the most malignant and diabolical tempers4 ,his behaviour toward ,david shows him to have been destitute of every generous and noble sentiment that can dignify human nature2 and it is not an easy task to speak with any moderation of the atrocity and baseness which uniformly mark it4 ,his character is that of a wicked man1 8waxing worse and worse20 but while we are shocked at its deformity1 it should be our study to profit by it1 which we can only do by using it as a beacon to warn us1 8lest we also be hardened through the deceitfulness of sin40 ,,scarlet1 1 ,gen4 xxxviii1 #bh2 ,exod4 xxv1 #d4 ,this tincture or colour expressed by a word which signifies worm colour1 was produced from a worm or insect which grew in a coccus1 or excrescence of a shrub of the ilex kind1 which ,pliny calls 8coccus scolecius10 the wormy berry1 and ,dioscorides terms 8a small dry twig1 to which the grains adhere like lentiles30 but these grains1 as a great author observes on ,solinus1 8are within full of little worms or maggots1 whose juice is remarkable for dying scarlet1 and making that famous colour which we admire1 and with which the ancients were enraptured40 ,we retain the name in the cochineal1 from the opuntia of ,america2 but we improperly call a mineral colour 8vermilion10 which is derived from vermiculus1 a little worm4 ,the shrub on which the cochineal insect is found is sometimes called the 8kermez oak10 from kermez1 the ,arabic word both for the worm and the colour2 whence 8carmasinus10 the ,french 8cramoisi10 and the ,english 8crimson40 ,,sceptre1 a word derived from the ,greek1 properly signifies1 a rod of command1 a staff of authority1 which is supposed to be in the hands of kings1 governors of a province1 or of the chief of a people1 ,gen4 xlix1 #aj2 ,numb4 xxiv1 #ag2 ,isa4 xiv1 #e4 ,the sceptre is put for the rod of correction1 and for the sovereign authority that punishes and humbles1 ,psalm ii1 #i2 ,prov4 xxii1 #ae4 ,the term sceptre is frequently used for a tribe1 probably because the prince of each tribe carried a sceptre1 or a wand of command1 to show his dignity4 ,,sceva1 a ,jew1 and chief of the priests1 ,acts xix1 #ad1 #ae1 #af4 ,he was probably a person of authority in the synagogue at ,ephesus1 and had seven sons4 ,,schism1 from 1 a rent or fissure4 ,in its general meaning1 it signifies division or separation2 and in particular1 on account of religion4 ,schism1 is properly a division among those who stand in one connection or fellowship2 but when the difference is carried so far that the parties concerned entirely break off all communion and intercourse one with another1 and form distinct connections for obtaining the general ends of that religious fellowship which they once cultivated2 it is undeniable there is something different from the schism spoken of in the ,new ,testament4 ,this is a separation from the body4 ,dr4 ,campbell shows that the word schism in ,scripture does not usually signify an open separation1 but that men may be guilty of schism by such an alienation of affection from their brethren as violates the internal union in the hearts of ,christians1 though there be no error in doctrine1 nor separation from communion4 ,,scorpion1 1 ,deut4 viii1 #ae2 #a ,kings xii1 #aa1 #ad2 #b ,chron4 x1 #aa1 #ad2 ,ezek4 ii1 #f1 1 ,luke x1 #ai2 xi1 #ab2 ,rev4 ix1 #c2 ,ecclus4 xxvi1 #g2 xxxix1 #cj4 ,parkhurst derives the name from 1 to press1 squeeze1 and 1 much1 greatly1 or 1 near1 close4 ,calmet remarks1 that 8it fixes so violently on such persons as it seizes upon1 that it cannot be plucked off without difficulty20 and ,martinius declares3 ,habent scorpii forfices seu furcas tanquam brachia1 quibus retinent quod apprehendunt1 postquam caud aculeo punxerunt3 8,scorpions have pincers or nippers1 with which they keep hold of what they seize after they have wounded it with their sting40 ,the scorpion1 el-akerb1 is generally two inches in length1 and resembles so much the lobster in form1 that the latter is called by the ,arabs akerb d'elbahar1 the 8sea scorpion40 ,it has several joints or divisions in its tail1 which are supposed to be indicative of its age2 thus1 if it have five1 it is considered to be five years old4 ,the poison of this animal is in its tail1 at the end of which is a small1 curved1 sharp-pointed sting1 similar to the prickle of a buckthorn tree2 the curve being downward1 it turns its tail upward when it strikes a blow4 ,the scorpion delights in stony places and in old ruins4 ,some are of a yellow colour1 others brown1 and some black4 ,the yellow possess the strongest poison1 but the venom of each affects the part wounded1 with frigidity1 which takes place soon after the sting has been inflicted4 ,dioscorides thus describes the effect produced3 8,where the scorpion has stung1 the place becomes inflamed and hardened2 it reddens by tension1 and is painful by intervals1 being now chilly1 now burning4 ,the pain soon rises high1 and rages1 sometimes more1 sometimes less4 ,a sweating succeeds1 attended by a shivering and trembling2 the extremities of the body become cold2 the groin swells2 the hair stands on end2 the visage becomes pale2 and the skin feels1 throughout it1 the sensation of perpetual prickling1 as if by needles40 ,this description strikingly illustrates ,revelation ix1 #c-e1 #aj1 in its mention of 8the torment of a scorpion1 when he striketh a man40 ,some writers consider the scorpion as a species of serpent1 because the poison of it is equally powerful3 so the sacred writers commonly join the scorpion and serpent together in their descriptions4 ,thus ,moses1 in his farewell address to ,israel1 ,deut4 viii1 #ae1 reminds them1 that ,god 8led them through the great and terrible wilderness1 wherein were fiery serpents and scorpions40 ,we find them again united in the commission of our ,lord to his disciples1 ,luke x1 #ai1 8,i give you power to tread upon serpents and scorpions1 and over all the power of the enemy20 and in his directions concerning the duty of prayer1 ,luke xi1 #aa1 #ab1 8,if a son shall ask bread of any of you that is a father1 will he give him a stone8 or if he shall ask an egg1 will he offer him a scorpion80 ,the scorpion is contrasted with an egg1 on account of the oval shape of its body4 ,the body of the scorpion1 says ,lamy1 is very like an egg1 as its head can scarcely be distinguished2 especially if it be a scorpion of the white kind1 which is the first species mentioned by lian1 ,avicenna1 and others4 ,bochart has produced testimonies to prove that the scorpions in ,judea were about the bigness of an egg4 ,so the similitude is preserved between the thing asked and given4 ,the ,greeks have a proverb1 1 instead of a perch1 or fish1 a scorpion4 ,,scourge or ,,whip4 ,this punishment was very common among the ,jews1 ,deut4 xxv1 #a-c4 ,there were two ways of giving the lash2 one with thongs1 or whips1 made of ropes' ends1 or straps of leather2 the other with rods1 or twigs4 ,st4 ,paul informs us1 that at five different times he received thirty-nine stripes from the ,jews1 #b ,cor4 xi1 #bd1 namely1 in their synagogues1 and before their courts of judgment4 ,for1 according to the law1 punishment by stripes was restricted to forty at one beating1 ,deut4 xxv1 #c4 ,but the whip1 with which these stripes were given1 consisting of three separate cords1 and each stroke being accounted as three stripes1 thirteen strokes made thirty-nine stripes1 beyond which they never went4 ,he adds1 that he had been thrice beaten with rods1 namely1 by the ,roman lictors1 or beadles1 at the command of the superior magistrates4 ,,scribes4 ,the scribes are mentioned very early in the sacred history1 and many authors suppose that they were of two descriptions1 the one ecclesiastical1 the other civil4 ,it is said1 8,out of ,zebulon come they that handle the pen of the writer10 ,judges v1 #ad2 and the rabbins state1 that the scribes were chiefly of the tribe of ,simeon2 but it is thought that only those of the tribe of ,levi were allowed to transcribe the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,these scribes are very frequently called wise men1 and counsellors2 and those of them who were remarkable for writing well were held in great esteem4 ,in the reign of ,david1 ,seraiah1 #b ,sam4 viii1 #ag1 in the reign of ,hezekiah1 ,shebna1 #b ,kings xviii1 #ah1 and in the reign of ,josiah1 ,shaphan1 #b ,kings xxii1 #c1 are called scribes1 and are ranked with the chief officers of the kingdom2 and ,elishama the scribe1 ,jer4 xxxvi1 #ab1 in the reign of ,jehoiakim1 is mentioned among the princes4 ,we read also of the 8principal scribe of the host10 or army1 ,jer4 lii1 #be2 and it is probable that there were scribes in other departments of the state4 ,previous to the ,babylonian captivity1 the word scribe seems to have been applied to any person who was concerned in writing1 in the same manner as the word secretary is with us4 ,the civil scribes are not mentioned in the ,new ,testament4 ,it appears that the office of the ecclesiastical scribes1 if this distinction be allowed1 was originally confined to writing copies of the law1 as their name imports2 but the knowledge1 thus necessarily acquired1 soon led them to become instructers of the people in the written law1 which1 it is believed1 they publicly read4 ,baruch was an amanuensis or scribe to ,jeremiah2 and ,ezra is called 8a ready scribe in the law of ,moses1 having prepared his heart to seek the law of the ,lord1 and to do it1 and to teach in ,israel statutes and judgments10 ,ezra vii1 #f1 #aj2 but there is no mention of the scribes being formed into a distinct body of men till after the cessation of prophecy4 ,when1 however1 there were no inspired teachers in ,israel1 no divine oracle in the temple1 the scribes presumed to interpret1 expound1 and comment upon the law and the prophets in the schools and in the synagogues4 ,hence arose those numberless glosses1 and interpretations1 and opinions1 which so much perplexed and perverted the text instead of explaining it2 and hence arose that unauthorized maxim1 which was the principal source of all the ,jewish sects1 that the oral or traditionary law was of ,divine origin1 as well as the written law of ,moses4 ,ezra had examined the various traditions concerning the ancient and approved usages of the ,jewish church1 which had been in practice before the captivity1 and were remembered by the chief and most aged of the elders of the people2 and he had given to some of these traditionary customs and opinions the sanction of his authority4 ,the scribes1 therefore1 who lived after the time of ,simon the ,just1 in order to give weight to their various interpretations of the law1 at first pretended that they also were founded upon tradition1 and added them to the opinions which ,ezra had established as authentic2 and in process of time it came to be asserted1 that when ,moses was forty days on ,mount ,sinai1 he received from ,god two laws1 the one in writing1 the other oral2 that this oral law was communicated by ,moses to ,aaron and ,joshua1 and that it passed unimpaired and uncorrupted from generation to generation1 by the tradition of the elders1 or great national council1 established in the time of ,moses2 and that this oral law was to be considered as supplemental and explanatory of the written law1 which was represented as being in many places obscure1 scanty1 and defective4 ,in some cases they were led to expound the law by the traditions1 in direct opposition to its true intent and meaning2 and it may be supposed that the intercourse of the ,jews with the ,greeks1 after the death of ,alexander1 contributed much to increase those vain subtleties with which they had perplexed and burdened the doctrines of religion4 ,during our ,saviour's ministry1 the scribes were those who made the law of ,moses their particular study1 and who were employed in instructing the people4 ,their reputed skill in the ,scriptures induced ,herod1 ,matt4 ii1 #d1 to consult them concerning the time at which the ,messiah was to be born4 ,and our ,saviour speaks of them as sitting in ,moses's seat1 ,matt4 xxiii1 #b1 which implies that they taught the law2 and he foretold that he should be betrayed unto the chief priests and unto the scribes1 ,matt4 xvi1 #ba1 and that they should put him to death1 which shows that they were men of great power and authority among the ,jews4 ,scribes1 doctors of law1 and lawyers1 were only different names for the same class of persons4 ,those who in ,luke v1 are called ,pharisees and doctors of the law1 are soon afterward called ,pharisees and scribes2 and he who1 in ,matt4 xxii1 #ce1 is called a lawyer1 is1 in ,mark xii1 #bh1 called one of the scribes4 ,they had scholars under their care1 whom they taught the knowledge of the law1 and who1 in their schools1 sat on low stools just beneath their seats2 which explains ,st4 ,paul's expression that he was 8brought up at the feet of ,gamaliel10 ,acts xxii1 #c4 ,we find that our ,saviour's manner of teaching was contrasted with that of those vain disputers2 for it is said1 when he had ended his sermon upon the mount1 8the people were astonished at his doctrine2 for he taught them as one having authority1 and not as the scribes10 ,matt4 vii1 #bi4 ,by the time of our ,saviour1 the scribes had1 indeed1 in a manner1 laid aside the written law1 having no farther regard to that than as it agreed with their traditionary expositions of it2 and thus1 by their additions1 corruptions1 and misinterpretations1 they had made 8the word of ,god of none effect through their traditions10 ,matt4 xv1 #f4 ,it may be observed1 that this in a great measure accounts for the extreme blindness of the ,jews with respect to their ,messiah1 whom they had been taught by these commentators upon the prophecies to expect as a temporal prince4 ,thus1 when our ,saviour asserts his divine nature1 and appeals to 8,moses and the prophets who spake of him1 the people sought to slay him10 ,john v2 and he expresses no surprise at their intention4 ,but when he converses with ,nicodemus1 ,john iii1 who appears to have been convinced by his miracles that he was 8a teacher sent from ,god10 when he 8came to ,jesus by night10 anxious to obtain farther information concerning his nature and his doctrine1 our ,lord1 after intimating the necessity of laying aside all prejudices against the spiritual nature of his kingdom1 asks1 8,art thou a master in ,israel1 and knowest not these things80 that is1 knowest not that ,moses and the prophets describe the ,messiah as the ,son of ,god8 and he then proceeds to explain in very clear language the dignity of his person and office1 and the purpose for which he came into the world1 referring to the predictions of the ancient ,scriptures4 ,and ,stephen1 ,acts vii1 just before his death1 addresses the multitude by an appeal to the law and the prophets1 and reprobates in the most severe terms the teachers who misled the people4 ,our ,lord1 when speaking of 8them of old time10 classed the 8prophets1 and wise men1 and scribes10 together1 ,matt4 xxiii1 #cd2 but of the later scribes he uniformly speaks with censure and indignation1 and usually joins them with the ,pharisees1 to which sect they in general belonged4 ,st4 ,paul asks1 #a ,cor4 i1 #bj1 8,where is the wise8 ,where is the scribe8 ,where is the disputer of this world80 with evident contempt for such as1 8professing themselves wise above what was written1 became fools40 ,,scripture1 a term most commonly used to denote the writings of the ,old and ,new ,testament1 which are sometimes called ,the ,scriptures1 sometimes the sacred or holy writings1 and sometimes canonical scripture4 ,see ,,bible4 ,,sea4 ,the ,hebrews gave the name of sea to all great collections of water1 to great lakes or pools4 ,thus the sea of ,galilee1 or of ,tiberias1 or of ,cinnereth1 is no other than the lake of ,tiberias1 or ,gennesareth1 in ,galilee4 ,the ,dead ,sea1 the sea of the ,wilderness1 the sea of the ,east1 the sea of ,sodom1 the sea of ,salt1 or the ,salt ,sea1 the sea of ,asphaltites1 or of bitumen1 is no other than the lake of ,sodom4 ,the ,arabians and orientals in general frequently gave the name of sea to great rivers1 as the ,nile1 the ,euphrates1 the ,tigris1 and others1 which1 by their magnitude1 and by the extent of their overflowings1 seemed as little seas1 or great lakes4 ,in ,isa4 xi1 #ae1 these words particularly apply to the ,nile at the ,delta4 ,,seal4 ,the ancient ,hebrews wore their seals or signets1 in rings on their fingers1 or in bracelets on their arms1 as is now the custom in the east4 ,haman sealed the decree of ,king ,ahasuerus against the ,jews with the king's seal1 ,esther iii1 #ab4 ,the priests of ,bel desired the king to seal the door of their temple with his own seal4 ,the spouse in the ,canticles1 viii1 #f1 wishes that his spouse would wear him as a signet on her arm4 ,pliny observes1 that the use of seals or signets was rare at the time of the ,trojan war1 and that they were under the necessity of closing their letters with several knots4 ,but among the ,hebrews they are much more ancient4 ,judah left his seal as a pledge with ,tamar1 ,gen4 xxxviii1 #be4 ,moses says1 ,deut4 xxxii1 #cd1 that ,god keeps sealed up in his treasuries1 under his own seal1 the instruments of his vengeance4 ,job says1 ix1 #g1 that he keeps the stars as under his seal1 and allows them to appear when he thinks proper4 ,he says also1 8,my transgression is sealed up in a bag10 ,job xiv1 #g4 ,when they intended to seal up a letter1 or a book1 they wrapped it round with flax1 or thread1 then applied the wax to it1 and afterward the seal4 ,the ,lord commanded ,isaiah to tie up or wrap up the book in which his prophecies were written1 and to seal them till the time he should bid him publish them1 ,isaiah viii1 #af1 #ag4 ,he gives the same command to ,daniel1 xii1 #d4 ,the book that was shown to ,st4 ,john the evangelist1 ,rev4 v1 #a2 vi1 #a1 #b1 c1 was sealed with seven seals4 ,it was a rare thing to affix such a number of seals2 but this insinuated the great importance and secrecy of the matter4 ,in civil contracts they generally made two originals3 one continued open1 and was kept by him for whose interest the contract was made2 the other was sealed and deposited in some public office4 ,,seceders1 a numerous body of ,presbyterians in ,scotland1 who1 in the last century1 seceded from the ,scotch establishment4 ,they did not1 as they have uniformly declared1 secede from the principles of the church of ,scotland1 as they are represented in her confession of faith1 catechisms1 longer and shorter1 directory for worship1 and form of ,presbyterian government2 but only from her present judicatories1 that1 they suppose1 have departed from her true principles4 ,a sermon preached by ,mr4 ,ebenezer ,erskine1 of ,stirling1 at the opening of the synod of ,perth and ,sterling1 in #agcb1 gave rise to this party4 ,in this discourse1 founded on ,psalm cxviii1 #bb1 8,the stone which the builders refused10 c1 he boldly testified against what he supposed corruptions in the national church2 for which freedom the synod voted him censurable1 and ordered him to be rebuked at their bar4 ,he1 and three other ministers1 protested against this sentence1 and appealed to the next assembly4 ,the assembly1 which met in ,may1 #agcc1 approved of the proceedings of the synod1 and ordered ,mr4 ,erskine to be rebuked at their bar4 ,he refused to submit to the rebuke2 whence he and his brethren were1 by the sentence of the assembly1 suspended from the ministry4 ,against this1 he and his friends protested2 and1 being joined by many others1 both ministers and elders1 declaring their secession from the national church1 they did1 in #agcf1 constitute themselves into an ecclesiastical court1 which they called the ,associate ,presbytery1 and published a defence of their proceedings4 ,they admit that the people have a right to choose their own pastors2 that the ,scriptures are the supreme judge by which all controversies must be determined2 and that ,jesus ,christ is the only ,head of his church1 and the only ,king in ,zion4 ,in #agde1 the seceding ministers were become so numerous1 that they were erected into three different presbyteries1 under one synod4 ,in #agdg1 through a difference in civil matters1 they were divided into ,burghers and ,anti-,burghers4 ,of these two classes1 the latter were the most rigid in their sentiments1 and associated1 therefore1 the least with any other body of ,christians4 ,but this difference has been lately healed1 and no longer subsists1 either in ,scotland or ,america4 ,,sechem1 ,,sichem1 ,,sychem1 or ,,shechem1 called also ,sychar in the ,new ,testament1 afterward ,neapolis1 and in the present day ,nablous1 ,naplous1 ,napolose1 and ,naplosa1 7for it is thus variously written17 a city of ,samaria1 near the parcel of ground which ,jacob bought of ,hamor1 the father of ,shechem1 and gave to his son ,joseph4 ,here ,joseph's bones were brought out of ,egypt to be interred2 and on the same piece of ground was the well called ,jacob's well1 at which our ,saviour sat down when he had the memorable conversation with the woman of ,samaria1 ,john iv1 which caused her1 and many other inhabitants of ,sechem1 or ,sychar1 as it is there called1 to receive him as the ,messiah4 ,on contemplating this place and its vicinity1 ,dr4 ,e4 ,d4 ,clarke says1 8,the traveller directing his footsteps toward its ancient sepulchres1 as everlasting as the rocks in which they are hewn1 is permitted1 upon the authority of sacred and indisputable record1 to contemplate the spot where the remains of ,joseph1 of ,eleazer1 and of ,joshua1 were severally deposited4 ,if any thing connected with the memory of past ages be calculated to awaken local enthusiasm1 the land around this city is preminently entitled to consideration4 ,the sacred story of events transacted in the field of ,sichem1 from our earliest years1 is remembered with delight2 but with the territory before our eyes where those events took place1 and in the view of objects existing as they were described above three thousand years ago1 the grateful impression kindles into ecstacy4 ,along the valley1 we beheld #8a company of ,ishmaelites coming from ,gilead1' as in the days of ,reuben and ,judah1 #8with their camels bearing spicery1 and balm1 and myrrh1' who would gladly have purchased another ,joseph of his brethren1 and conveyed him as a slave to some ,potiphar in ,egypt4 ,upon the hills around flocks and herds were feeding1 as of old2 nor in the simple garb of the shepherds of ,samaria was there any thing repugnant to the notions we may entertain of the appearance presented by the sons of ,jacob40 ,the celebrated well called ,jacob's well1 but which1 with the inhabitants of ,sechem1 is known by the name of ,bir ,samaria1 or the 8,well of ,samaria10 is situated about half an hour's walk east of the town4 ,,seeing4 ,to see1 in ,scripture1 is often used to express the sense of vision1 knowledge of spiritual things1 and even the supernatural knowledge of hidden things1 of prophecy1 of visions1 of ecstacies4 ,whence it is that formerly those were called seers who afterward were termed1 nabi1 or prophets2 and that prophecies were called visions4 ,moreover1 to see1 is used for expressing all kinds of sensations4 ,it is said in ,exodus1 xx1 #ah1 that the ,israelites saw voices1 thunder1 lightning1 the sounding of the trumpet1 and the whole mountain of ,sinai covered with clouds1 or smoke4 ,and ,st4 ,austin observes1 that the verb1 to see1 is applied to all the five natural senses2 to see1 to hear1 to smell1 to taste1 to touch4 8,to see goodness10 is to enjoy it4 8,to see the goodness of the ,lord10 ,psalm xxvii1 #ac2 that is1 to enjoy the mercy or blessing which ,god hath promised4 8,blessed are the pure in heart1 for they shall see ,god20 that is1 they shall have the perfect and immediate fruition of the glorious presence of ,god in heaven2 or they shall understand the mysteries of salvation2 they shall perceive the loving kindness of ,god toward them in this life1 and shall at length perfectly enjoy him in heaven4 ,,seir1 the ,horite1 whose dwelling was to the east and south of the ,dead ,sea1 in the mountains of ,seir1 ,genesis xiv1 #f2 xxxvi1 #bj2 ,deuteronomy ii1 #ab2 where at first reigned the descendants of ,seir the ,horite1 of whom ,moses gives us a list in ,genesis xxxvi1 #bj1 #ba-cj2 #a ,chron4 #ch1 #ci1 c4 ,the posterity of ,esau afterward were in possession of the mountains of ,seir1 and ,esau himself dwelt there when ,jacob returned from ,mesopotamia1 ,gen4 xxxiii1 #c2 xxxiii1 #ad2 xxxvi1 #h1 #i4 ,,seir1 ,,mount1 a mountainous tract1 extending from the southern extremity of the ,dead ,sea1 to the gulf of ,acaba1 or ,ezion-,geber4 ,the whole of this tract was probably before called ,mount ,hor1 and was inhabited by the ,horites1 the descendants1 as it is thought1 of ,hor1 who is no otherwise known1 and whose name is now only retained in that part of the plain where ,aaron died4 ,these people were driven out from their country by the ,edomites1 or the children of ,esau1 who dwelt there in their stead1 and were in possession of this region when the ,israelites passed by in their passage from ,egypt to the land of ,canaan4 ,the country had1 however1 been previously overrun1 and no doubt very much depopulated1 by the invasion of ,chedorlaomer1 king of ,elam4 ,at what time the name of ,hor was changed to that of ,seir cannot be ascertained4 ,mount ,seir rises abruptly on its western side from the valleys of ,el ,ghor and ,el ,araba2 presenting an impregnable front to the strong country of the ,edomite mountaineers1 which compelled the ,israelites1 who were unable 7if permitted by their leader7 to force a passage through this mountain barrier1 to skirt its western base1 along the great valley of the ,ghor and ,araba1 and so to 8compass the land of ,edom by the way of the ,red ,sea10 that is1 to descend to its southern extremity at ,ezion-,geber1 as they could not penetrate it higher up4 ,to the southward of this place ,burckhardt observed an opening in the mountains1 where he supposed the ,israelites to have passed4 ,this passage brought them into the high plains on the east of ,mount ,seir1 which are so much higher than the valley on the west1 that the mountainous territory of the ,edomites was every where more accessible3 a circumstance which perhaps contributed to make them more afraid of the ,israelites on this border1 whom they had set at defiance on the opposite one4 ,the mean elevation of this chain cannot be estimated at less than four thousand feet4 ,in the summer it produces most of the ,european fruits1 namely1 apricots1 figs1 pomegranates1 olives1 apples1 and peaches2 while in winter deep snows occasionally fall1 with frosts1 to the middle of ,march4 ,the inhabitants1 like those of most mountainous regions1 are very healthy4 ,burckhardt says1 that there was no part of ,syria in which he saw so few invalids3 a circumstance which did not escape the observation of the ancients1 who denominated it1 ,palstina tertia sive salutaris4 ,palestine the third or the healthy4 ,,selah4 ,this expression is found in the ,psalms seventy-four times1 and thrice in the ,prophet ,habakkuk4 ,the interpreters ,symmachus and ,theodotion generally translate selah by diapsalma1 which signifies 8a rest0 or 8pause0 in singing4 ,jerom and ,aquila translate it 8for ever40 ,some moderns pretend that selah has no signification1 and that it is only a note of the ancient music1 whose use is no longer known2 and1 indeed1 selah may be taken away from all the places where it is found without interrupting the sense of the psalm4 ,calmet says it intimates the end1 or a pause1 and that is its proper signification2 but as it is not always found at the conclusion of the sense1 or of the psalm or song1 so it is highly probable the ancient musicians put selah in the margin of their psalters1 to show where a musical pause was to be made1 or where the tune ended4 ,,seleucia1 a city of ,syria1 situated upon the ,mediterranean1 near the place where the ,orontes discharges itself into the sea4 ,st4 ,paul and ,barnabas were at this place when they embarked for ,cyprus1 ,acts xiii1 #d4 ,the same city is mentioned in #a ,mac4 xi1 #h4 ,,sennacherib1 king of ,assyria1 son and successor of ,shalmaneser4 ,he began his reign ,a4 ,m4 #cbij1 and reigned only four years4 ,hezekiah1 king of ,judah1 having refused to pay him tribute1 though he afterward submitted1 he invaded ,judea with a great army1 took several forts1 and after repeated1 insolent1 and blasphemous messages1 besieged ,jerusalem2 but his army being suddenly smitten with a pestilence1 which cut off a hundred and eighty-five thousand in a single night1 he returned to ,nineveh1 where he was murdered in the temple of ,nisroch by his sons ,adrammelech and ,sharezer1 and was succeeded by his other son1 ,esar-haddon1 #b ,kings xix1 #g1 #ac1 #cg4 ,,sepharvaim1 a country of ,assyria1 #b ,kings xvii1 #bd1 #ca4 ,this province cannot now be exactly delineated in respect to its situation4 ,the ,scripture speaks of the king of the city of ,sepharvaim1 which probably was the capital of the people of this name1 #b ,kings xix1 #ac2 ,isaiah xxxvii1 #ac4 ,,septuagint4 ,among the ,greek versions of the ,old ,testament1 says ,mr4 ,horne1 the ,alexandrian or ,septuagint is the most ancient and valuable1 and was held in so much esteem both by the ,jews as well as by the first ,christians1 as to be constantly read in the synagogues and churches4 ,hence it is uniformly cited by the early fathers1 whether ,greek or ,latin2 and from this version all the translations into other languages which were anciently approved by the ,christian church were executed1 with the exception of the ,syriac2 as the ,arabic1 ,armenian1 ,ethiopic1 ,gothic1 and old ,italic or the ,latin version in use before the time of ,jerom2 and to this day the ,septuagint is exclusively read in the ,greek and most other oriental churches4 ,this version has derived its name either from the ,jewish account of seventy-two persons having been employed to make it1 or from its having received the approbation of the sanhedrim or great council of the ,jews1 which consisted of seventy1 or1 more correctly1 of seventy-two persons4 ,much uncertainty1 however1 has prevailed concerning the real history of this ancient version2 and while some have strenuously advocated its miraculous and ,divine origin1 other eminent philologists have laboured to prove that it must have been executed by several persons and at different times4 ,according to one account1 ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 king of ,egypt1 caused this translation to be made for the use of the library which he had founded at ,alexandria1 at the request and with the advice of the celebrated ,demetrius ,phalereus1 his principal librarian4 ,for this purpose1 it is reported1 that he sent ,aristeas and ,andreas1 two distinguished officers of his court1 to ,jerusalem1 on an embassy to ,eleazar1 then high priest of the ,jews1 to request of the latter a copy of the ,hebrew ,scriptures1 and that there might also be sent to him seventy-two persons1 six chosen out of each of the twelve tribes1 who were equally well skilled in the ,hebrew and ,greek languages4 ,these learned men were accordingly shut up in the island of ,pharos2 where1 having agreed in a translation of each period after a mutual conference1 ,demetrius wrote down their version as they dictated it to him2 and thus1 in the space of seventy-two days1 the whole was accomplished4 ,this relation is derived from a letter ascribed to ,aristeas himself1 the authenticity of which has been greatly disputed4 ,if1 as there is every reason to believe is the case1 this piece is a forgery1 it was made at a very early period2 for it was in existence in the time of ,josephus1 who has made use of it in his ,jewish ,antiquities4 ,the veracity of ,aristeas's narrative was not questioned until the seventeenth or eighteenth century1 at which time1 indeed1 ,biblical criticism was1 comparatively1 in its infancy1 ,vives1 ,scaliger1 ,van ,dale1 ,dr4 ,prideaux1 and1 above all1 ,dr4 ,hody1 were the principal writers in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries who attacked the genuineness of the pretended narrative of ,aristeas2 and though it was ably vindicated by ,bishop ,walton1 ,isaac ,vossius1 ,whiston1 ,brett1 and other modern writers1 the majority of the learned of our own time are fully agreed in considering it as fictitious4 ,philo1 the ,jew1 who also notices the ,septuagint version1 was ignorant of most of the circumstances narrated by ,aristeas2 but he relates others which appear not less extraordinary4 ,according to him1 ,ptolemy ,philadelphus sent to ,palestine for some learned ,jews1 whose number he does not specify2 and these1 going over to the island of ,pharos1 there executed so many distinct versions1 all of which so exactly and uniformly agreed in sense1 phrases1 and words1 as proved them to have been not common interpreters1 but men prophetically inspired and divinely directed1 who had every word dictated to them by the ,spirit of ,god throughout the entire translation4 ,he adds1 that an annual festival was celebrated by the ,alexandrian ,jews in the isle of ,pharos1 where the version was made1 until his time1 to preserve the memory of it1 and to thank ,god for so great a benefit4 ,it is not a little remarkable that the ,samaritans have traditions in favour of their version of the ,pentateuch1 equally extravagant with these preserved by the ,jews4 ,in the ,samaritan chronicle of ,abul ,phatach1 which was compiled in the fourteenth century from ancient and modern authors1 both ,hebrew and ,arabic1 there is a story to the following effect3 that ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 in the tenth year of his reign1 directed his attention to the difference subsisting between the ,samaritans and ,jews concerning the law1 the former receiving only the ,pentateuch1 and rejecting every other work ascribed to the prophets by the ,jews4 ,in order to determine this difference1 he commanded the two nations to send deputies to ,alexandria4 ,the ,jews entrusted this mission to ,osar1 the ,samaritans to ,aaron1 to whom several other associates were added4 ,separate apartments in a particular quarter of ,alexandria were assigned to each of these strangers1 who were prohibited from having any personal intercourse1 and each of them had a ,greek scribe to write his version4 ,thus were the law and other ,scriptures translated by the ,samaritans2 whose version being most carefully examined1 the king was convinced that their text was more complete than that of the ,jews4 ,such is the narrative of ,abul ,phatach1 divested1 however1 of numerous marvellous circumstances with which it has been decorated by the ,samaritans1 who are not surpassed1 even by the ,jews1 in their partiality for idle legends4 ,a fact1 buried under such a mass of fables as the translation of the ,septuagint has been by the historians who have pretended to record it1 necessarily loses all its historical character1 which1 indeed1 we are fully justified in disregarding altogether4 ,although there is no doubt but that some truth is concealed under this load of fables1 yet it is by no means an easy task to discern the truth from what is false3 the following1 however1 is the result of our researches concerning this celebrated version3-- ,it is probable that the seventy interpreters1 as they are called1 executed their version of the ,pentateuch during the joint reigns of ,ptolemy ,lagus and his son ,philadelphus4 ,the pseudo ,aristeas1 ,josephus1 ,philo1 and many other writers whom it were tedious to enumerate1 relate that this version was made during the reign of ,ptolemy ,,ii41 or ,philadelphus2 ,joseph ,ben ,gorion1 however1 among the rabbins1 ,theodoret1 and many other ,christian writers1 refer its date to the time of ,ptolemy ,lagus4 ,now1 these two traditions can be reconciled only by supposing the version to have been performed during the two years when ,ptolemy ,philadelphus shared the throne with his father2 which date coincides with the third and fourth years of the hundred and twenty-third ,olympiad1 that is1 about ,b4 ,c4 #bhf and #bhe4 ,farther1 this version was neither made by the command of ,ptolemy1 nor at the request nor under the superintendence of ,demetrius ,phalereus2 but was voluntarily undertaken by the ,jews for the use of their countrymen4 ,it is well known1 that1 at the period above noticed1 there was a great number of ,jews settled in ,egypt1 particularly at ,alexandria3 these1 being most strictly observant of the religious institutions and usages of their forefathers1 had their sanhedrim or grand council composed of seventy or seventy-two members1 and very numerous synagogues1 in which the law was read to them on every ,sabbath2 and as the bulk of the common people were no longer acquainted with ,biblical ,hebrew1 the ,greek language alone being used in their ordinary intercourse1 it became necessary to translate the ,pentateuch into ,greek for their use4 ,this is a far more probable account of the origin of the ,alexandrian version than the traditions above stated4 ,if this translation had been made by public authority1 it would unquestionably have been performed under the direction of the sanhedrim1 who would have examined and perhaps corrected it1 if it had been the work of a single individual1 previously to giving it the stamp of their approbation1 and introducing it into their synagogues4 ,in either case the translation would probably be denominated the ,septuagint1 because the sanhedrim was composed of seventy or seventy-two members4 ,it is even possible that the sanhedrim1 in order to ascertain the fidelity of the work1 might have sent to ,palestine for some learned men1 of whose assistance and advice they would have availed themselves in examining the version4 ,this fact1 if it could be proved1 for it is offered as a mere conjecture1 would account for the story of the king of ,egypt's sending an embassy to ,jerusalem3 there is1 however1 one circumstance which proves that1 in executing this translation1 the synagogues were originally in contemplation1 namely1 that all the ancient writers unanimously concur in saying that the ,pentateuch was first translated4 ,the five books of ,moses1 indeed1 were the only books read in the synagogues until the time of ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 king of ,syria2 who having forbidden that practice in ,palestine1 the ,jews evaded his commands by substituting for the ,pentateuch the reading of the prophetic books4 ,when1 afterward1 the ,jews were delivered from the tyranny of the kings of ,syria1 they read the law and the prophets alternately in the synagogues2 and the same custom was adopted by the ,hellenistic or ,grcising ,jews4 ,but1 whatever was the real number of the authors of the version1 their introduction of ,coptic words1 such as 1 c1 as well as their rendering of ideas purely ,hebrew altogether in the ,egyptian manner1 clearly prove that they were natives of ,egypt4 ,thus1 they express the creation of the world1 not by the proper ,greek word 1 but by 1 a term employed by the philosophers of ,alexandria to express the origin of the universe4 ,the ,hebrew word thummim1 ,exodus xxviii1 #cj1 which signifies 8perfections10 they render 1 truth4 ,the difference of style also indicates the version to have been the work not of one but of several translators1 and to have been executed at different times4 ,the best qualified and most able among them was the translator of the ,pentateuch1 who was evidently master of both ,greek and ,hebrew3 he has religiously followed the ,hebrew text1 and has in various instances introduced the most suitable and best chosen expressions4 ,from the very close resemblance subsisting between the text of the ,greek version and the text of the ,samaritan ,pentateuch1 ,louis ,de ,dieu1 ,selden1 ,whiston1 ,hassencamp1 and ,bauer1 are of opinion that the author of the ,alexandrian version made it from the ,samaritan ,pentateuch4 ,and in proportion as these two correspond1 the ,greek differs from the ,hebrew4 ,this opinion is farther supported by the declarations of ,origen and ,jerom1 that the translator found the venerable name of ,jehovah1 not in the letters in common use1 but in very ancient characters2 and also by the fact that those consonants in the ,septuagint are frequently confounded together1 the shapes of which are similar in the ,samaritan1 but not in the ,hebrew1 alphabet4 ,this hypothesis1 however ingenious and plausible1 is by no means determinate2 and what militates most against it is1 the inveterate enmity subsisting between the ,jews and ,samaritans1 added to the constant and unvarying testimony of antiquity1 that the ,greek version of the ,pentateuch was executed by ,jews4 ,there is no other way by which to reconcile these conflicting opinions than by supposing either that the manuscript used by the ,egyptian ,jews approximated toward the letters and text of the ,samaritan ,pentateuch1 or that the translators of the ,septuagint made use of manuscripts written in ancient characters4 ,next to the ,pentateuch1 for ability and fidelity of execution1 ranks the translation of the book of ,proverbs1 the author of which was well skilled in the two languages3 ,michalis is of opinion that1 of all the books of the ,septuagint1 the style of the ,proverbs is the best1 the translator having clothed the most ingenious thoughts in as neat and elegant language as was ever used by a ,pythagorean sage1 to express his philosophical maxims4 ,the ,septuagint version1 though originally made for the use of the ,egyptian ,jews1 gradually acquired the highest authority among the ,jews of ,palestine1 who were acquainted with the ,greek language1 and subsequently also among ,christians3 it appears1 indeed1 that the legend above confuted1 of the translators having been divinely inspired1 was invented in order that the ,,lxx4 might be held in the greater estimation4 ,philo1 the ,jew1 a native of ,egypt1 has evidently followed it in his allegorical expositions of the ,mosaic law2 and though ,dr4 ,hody was of opinion that ,josephus1 who was a native of ,palestine1 corroborated his work on ,jewish antiquities from the ,hebrew text1 yet ,salmasius1 ,bochart1 ,bauer1 and others1 have shown that he has adhered to the ,septuagint throughout that work4 ,how extensively this version was in use among the ,jews1 appears from the solemn sanction given to it by the inspired writers of the ,new ,testament1 who have in very many passages quoted the ,greek version of the ,old ,testament4 ,their example was followed by the earlier fathers and doctors of the church1 who1 with the exception of ,origen and ,jerom1 were unacquainted with ,hebrew3 notwithstanding their zeal for the word of ,god1 they did not exert themselves to learn the original language of the sacred writings1 but acquiesced in the ,greek representation of them1 judging it1 no doubt1 to be fully sufficient for all the purposes of their pious labours4 ,the ,greek ,scriptures were the only ,scriptures known to or valued by the ,greeks4 ,this was the text commented on by ,chrysostom and ,theodoret3 it was this which furnished topics to ,athanasius1 ,nazianzen1 and ,basil4 ,from this fountain the stream was derived to the ,latin church1 first by the ,italic or ,vulgate translation of the ,scriptures1 which was made from the ,septuagint1 and not from the ,hebrew2 and1 secondly1 by the study of the ,greek fathers4 ,it was by this borrowed light that the ,latin fathers illumined the western hemisphere2 and1 when the age of ,cyprian1 ,ambrose1 ,augustine1 and ,gregory1 successively passed away1 this was the light put into the hands of the next dynasty of theologists1 the schoolmen1 who carried on the work of theological disquisition by the aid of this luminary1 and none other4 ,so that1 either in ,greek or in ,latin1 it was still the ,septuagint ,scriptures that were read1 explained1 and quoted as authority1 for a period of fifteen hundred years4 ,,septuagint ,,chronology is that which is formed from the dates and periods of time mentioned in the ,septuagint translation of the ,old ,testament4 ,it reckons one thousand five hundred years more from the creation to ,abraham than the ,hebrew ,bible4 ,dr4 ,kennicott1 in the dissertation prefixed to his ,hebrew ,bible1 has shown it to be very probable1 that the chronology of the ,hebrew ,scriptures1 since the period just mentioned1 was corrupted by the ,jews between ,a4 ,d4 #age and #bjj2 and that the chronology of the ,septuagint is more agreeable to truth4 ,it is a fact1 that1 during the second and third centuries1 the ,hebrew ,scriptures were almost entirely in the hands of the ,jews1 while the ,septuagint was confined to the ,christians4 ,the ,jews had1 therefore1 a very favourable opportunity for this corruption4 ,the following is the reason which is given by the oriental writers3 ,it being a very ancient tradition that ,messiah was to come in the sixth chiliad1 because he was to come in the last days1 founded on a mystical application of the six days of the creation1 the contrivance was to shorten the age of the world from about #eejj to #cgfj2 and thence to prove that ,jesus could not be the ,messiah4 ,dr4 ,kennicott adds1 that some ,hebrew copies1 having the larger chronology1 were extant till the time of ,eusebius1 and some till the year #gjj4 ,,sepulchres4 ,the descriptions of the eastern sepulchres1 by travellers1 serve to explain several passages of ,scripture4 ,shaw says1 8,if we except a few persons who are buried within the precincts of some sanctuary1 the rest are carried out at a small distance from their cities and villages1 where a great extent of ground is allotted for that purpose4 ,each family has a particular portion of it1 walled in like a garden1 where the bones of their ancestors have remained undisturbed for many generations3 for in these inclosures the graves are all distinct and separate1 having each of them a stone placed upright1 both at the head and feet1 inscribed with the name of the person who lieth there interred1 while the intermediate space is either planted with flowers1 bordered round with stone1 or paved all over with tiles4 ,the graves of the principal citizens are farther distinguished by some square chambers or cupolas that are built over them1 ,mark v1 #c4 ,now1 as all these different sorts of tombs and sepulchres1 with the very walls likewise of the inclosures1 are constantly kept clean1 white-washed1 and beautified1 they continue to this day to be an excellent comment upon that expression of our ,saviour1 where he mentions the garnishing of the sepulchres1 ,matt4 xxiii1 #bi2 and again1 verse #bg1 where he compares the scribes1 ,pharisees1 and hypocrites1 to whited sepulchres40 ,with respect to the demoniacs who are said by ,st4 ,matthew to come out of the tombs1 ,light observes1 8,i trod the ground celebrated for the miracle of the unclean spirit1 driven by our ,saviour among the swine4 ,the tombs still exist in the form of caverns1 on the sides of the hills that rise from the shore of the lake2 and from their wild appearance may well be considered the habitation of men exceeding fierce1 possessed by a devil2 they extend at a distance for more than a mile from the present town40 ,in the account we have of the resurrection of ,lazarus1 when ,mary went suddenly out to meet ,jesus1 the ,jews supposed that she was gone to the grave1 8to weep there40 ,the following extract from ,buckingham illustrates this3 8,not far from the spot at which we halted to enjoy this enchanting view1 was an extensive cemetry1 at which we noticed the custom so prevalent among eastern nations of visiting the tombs of their deceased friends4 ,these were formed with great care1 and finished with extraordinary neatness3 and at the foot of each grave was enclosed a small earthen vessel1 in which was planted a sprig of myrtle1 regularly watered every day by the mourning friend who visited it4 ,throughout the whole of this extensive place of burial we did not observe a single grave to which this token of respect and sorrow was not attached2 and1 scattered among the tombs1 in different quarters of the cemetry1 we saw from twenty to thirty parties of females1 sitting near the honoured remains of some recently lost and deeply regretted relative or friend1 and either watering their myrtle plants1 or strewing flowers over the green turf that closed upon their heads40 ,see ,,burial4 ,,serpent4 ,in ,egypt and other oriental countries1 a serpent was the common symbol of a powerful monarch2 it was embroidered on the robes of princes1 and blazoned on their diadem1 to signify their absolute power and invincible might1 and that1 as the wound inflicted by the basilisk is incurable1 so the fatal effects of their displeasure were neither to be avoided nor endured4 ,these are the allusions involved in the address of the prophet1 to the irreconcilable enemies of his nation3 8,rejoice not thou1 whole ,palestina1 because the rod of him that smote thee is broken2 for out of the serpent's roots shall come forth a cockatrice1 and his fruit shall be a fiery flying serpent10 ,isaiah xiv1 #bi4 ,uzziah1 the king of ,judah1 had subdued the ,philistines2 but taking advantage of the weak reign of ,ahaz1 they again invaded the kingdom of ,judea1 and reduced some cities in the southern part of the country under their dominion4 ,on the death of ,ahaz1 ,isaiah delivers this prophecy1 threatening them with a more severe chastisement from the hand of ,hezekiah1 the grandson of ,uzziah1 by whose victorious arms they had been reduced to sue for peace2 which he accomplished1 when 8he smote the ,philistines1 even unto ,gaza and the borders thereof10 #b ,kings xviii1 #h4 ,uzziah1 therefore1 must be meant by the rod that smote them1 and by the serpent from whom should spring the fiery flying serpent1 that is1 ,hezekiah1 a much more terrible enemy than even ,uzziah had been4 ,but the symbol of regal power which the oriental kings preferred to all others1 was the basilisk4 ,this fact is attested by its ,arabian name melecha1 from the ,hebrew verb malach1 8to reign20 from its ,greek name 1 and its ,latin name regulus3 all of which1 it is asserted1 referred to the conspicuous place it occupied among the regal ornaments of the east4 ,the basilisk is of a reddish colour1 and its head is decorated with a crest in the form of a crown2 it is not entirely prostrate1 like other serpents1 but moves along with its head and half the body erect2 the other parts sweep the ground behind1 ,and wind its spacious back in rolling spires4 ,all the other species of serpents are said to acknowledge the superiority of the real or the fabled basilisk1 by flying from its presence1 and hiding themselves in the dust4 ,it is also supposed to live longer than any other serpent2 the ancient ,heathens therefore pronounced it immortal1 and placed it in the number of their deities2 and because it had the dangerous power1 in general belief1 of killing with its pestiferous breath the strongest animals1 it seemed to then invested with the power of life and death4 ,it became1 therefore1 the favourite symbol of kings2 and was employed by the prophet1 to symbolize the great and good ,hezekiah1 with strict propriety4 #b4 ,the cerastes1 or horned snake4 ,the only allusion to this species of serpent in the sacred volume occurs in the valedictory predictions of ,jacob1 where he describes the character and actions of ,dan and his posterity3 8,dan shall be a serpent by the way1 an adder1 1 in the path1 that biteth the horse's heels1 so that his rider shall fall backward10 ,gen4 xlix1 #ag4 ,it is indisputably clear1 that the patriarch intended some kind of serpent2 for the circumstances will not apply to a freebooter watching for his prey4 ,it only remains to investigate the species to which it belongs4 ,the principal care of the ,jewish writers is to ascertain the etymology of the name1 about which their sentiments are much divided4 ,the ,arabian authors quoted by ,bochart inform us1 that the sephiphon is a most pernicious reptile1 and very dangerous to man4 ,it is of a sandy colour1 variegated with black and white spots4 ,the particulars in the character of ,dan1 however1 agree better with the cerastes1 or horned snake1 than with any other species of serpent4 ,it lies in wait for passengers in the sand1 or in the rut of the wheels on the highway4 ,from its lurking place it treacherously bites the horse's heels1 so that the rider falls backward1 in consequence of the animal's hinder legs becoming almost immediately torpid by the dreadful activity of the poison4 ,the cerastes is equally formidable to man and the lower animals2 and the more dangerous1 because it is not easy to distinguish him from the sand in which he lies2 and he never spares the helpless traveller who unwarily comes within his reach4 ,like the cerastes1 ,dan was to excel in cunning and artifice1 to prevail against his enemies rather by his policy in the cabinet than by his valour in the field4 #c4 ,the seraph1 or fiery flying serpent1 to a ,biblical student1 is one of the most interesting creatures that has yet been mentioned4 ,it bears the name of an order among the hosts of heaven1 whom ,isaiah beheld in vision1 placed above the throne of ,jehovah in the temple2 the brazen figure of this serpent is supposed to be a type of our blessed ,redeemer1 who was for our salvation lifted up upon the cross1 as the serpent was elevated in the camp of ,israel1 for the preservation of that people4 ,it is the only species of serpent which the almighty ,creator has provided with wings1 by means of which1 instead of creeping or leaping1 it rises from the ground1 and leaning upon the extremity of its tail1 moves with great velocity4 ,it is a native of ,egypt1 and the deserts of ,arabia2 and receives its name from the ,hebrew verb seraph1 which signifies to burn1 in allusion to the violent inflammation which its poison produces1 or rather to its fiery colour1 which the brazen serpent was intended to represent4 ,bochart is of opinion1 that the seraph is the same as the hydrus1 or1 as ,cicero calls it1 the serpent of the waters4 ,for1 in the book of ,isaiah1 the land of ,egypt is called the region from whence come the viper and flying seraph1 or burning serpent4 lian says1 they come from the deserts of ,libya and ,arabia1 to inhabit the streams of the ,nile2 and that they have the form of the hydrus4 ,the existence of winged serpents is attested by many writers of modern times4 ,a kind of snakes were discovered among the ,pyrenees1 from whose sides proceeded cartilages in the form of wings2 and ,scaliger mentions a peasant who killed a serpent of the same species which attacked him1 and presented it to the king of ,france4 ,le ,blanc1 as quoted by ,bochart1 says1 at the head of lake ,chiamay are extensive woods and vast marshes1 which it is very dangerous to approach1 because they are infested with very large serpents1 which1 raised from the ground on wings resembling those of bats1 and leaning on the extremity of their tails1 move with great rapidity4 ,they exist1 it is reported1 about these places in so great numbers1 that they have almost laid waste the neighbouring province4 ,and1 in the same work1 ,le ,blanc affirms that he had seen some of them of immense size1 which1 when hungry1 rushed impetuously on sheep and other tame animals4 ,but the original term does not always signify flying with wings2 it often expresses vibration1 swinging backward and forward1 a tremulous motion1 a fluttering2 and this is precisely the motion of a serpent1 when he springs from one tree to another4 ,niebuhr mentions a sort of serpent at ,bassorah1 which they call heie thiare4 8,they commonly keep upon the date trees2 and as it would be laborious for them to come down from a very high tree1 in order to ascend another1 they twist themselves by the tail to a branch of the former1 which1 making a spring by the motion they give it1 throws them to the branches of the second4 ,hence it is that the modern ,arabs call them flying serpents1 heie thiare4 ,admiral ,anson also speaks of the flying serpents that he met with at the island of ,quibo1 but which were without wings40 ,from this account it may be inferred1 that the flying serpent mentioned in the prophet was of that species of serpents which1 from their swift darting motion1 the ,greeks call aconitias1 and the ,romans1 jaculus4 ,the original phrase will bear another interpretation1 which1 perhaps1 approaches still nearer the truth4 ,the verb sometimes means to sparkle1 to emit coruscations of light4 ,in this sense1 the noun frequently occurs in the sacred volume2 thus ,zophar says3 8,the coruscation1 1 shall be as the morning40 ,the word in the verse under consideration may therefore refer to the ruddy colour of that serpent1 and express the sparkling of the blazing sunbeams upon its scales1 which are extremely brilliant4 #d4 ,the dragon4 ,in ,hebrew1 the word signifies either a dragon or a whale4 ,as the name of a serpent1 it frequently denotes one of any species2 as when the rod of ,moses is said to have been turned into a serpent1 4 ,but1 in its more strict and appropriate application1 it is the proper name of the dragon1 which differs from the serpent chiefly in its size4 8,three kinds of dragons were formerly distinguished in ,india4 #a4 ,those of the hills and mountains4 #b4 ,those of the valleys and caves4 #c4 ,those of the fens and marshes4 ,the first is the largest1 and covered with scales resplendent as burnished gold4 ,they have a kind of beard hanging from their lower jaw1 their aspect is frightful1 their cry loud and shrill1 their crest bright yellow1 and they have a protuberance on their heads1 as the colour of a burning coal4 ,those of the flat country are of a silver colour1 and frequent rivers1 to which the former never come4 ,those of the marshes are black1 slow1 and have no crest4 ,their bite is not venomous1 though the creatures be dreadful40 ,this description agrees in every particular with the boa1 which is justly considered as the proper dragon4 ,but so great is the inconsistency of the human mind1 that the creature which is now an object of universal dislike was1 in early times1 honoured with religious worship by every nation of the earth4 ,rites were devised and temples built to its honour2 and priests were appointed to conduct the ceremonies4 ,these miserable idolaters appeared before the altars of their contemptible deity in gorgeous vestments1 their heads adorned with serpents1 or with the figures of serpents embroidered on their tiaras1 when the creatures themselves were not to be had2 and in their frantic exclamations cried out1 in evident allusion to the triumph which the old serpent obtained over our first mother1 ,eva1 ,eva4 ,so completely was ,satan permitted to insult our fallen race1 that the serpent1 his chosen agent in accomplishing our ruin1 was actually raised to the first place among the deities of the ,heathen world1 and reverenced by the most solemn acts of worship4 ,the figure of the serpent adorned the portals of the proudest temples in the east4 ,the serpent was a very common symbol of the sun2 and he is represented biting his tail1 and with his body formed into a circle1 in order to indicate the ordinary course of this luminary2 and under this form it was an emblem of time and eternity4 ,the serpent was also the symbol of medicine1 and of the gods which presided over it1 as of ,apollo and sculapius4 ,in most of the ancient rites we find some allusion to the serpent1 under the several titles of ,ob1 ,ops1 ,python1 c4 ,this idolatry is alluded to by ,moses1 ,lev4 xx1 #bg4 ,the woman of ,endor1 who had a familiar spirit1 is called ,oub1 or ,ob1 and it is interpreted ,pythonissa3 the place where she resided1 says the learned ,mr4 ,bryant1 seems to have been named from the worship then instituted2 for ,endor is compounded of ,en-ador1 and signifies fons pithonis1 the 8fountain of light10 the oracle of the god ,ador2 which oracle was probably founded by the ,canaanites1 and had never been totally suppressed4 ,his pillar was also called ,abbadir1 or ,abadir1 compounded of ab and adir1 and meaning the serpent deity ,addir1 the same as ,adorus4 ,in the orgies of ,bacchus1 the persons who partook of the ceremony1 used to carry serpents in their hands1 and with horrid screams call upon ,eva6 ,eva6 ,eva being1 according to the writer just mentioned1 the same as epha1 or opha1 which the ,greeks rendered ophis1 and by it denoted a serpent1 and containing no allusion to ,eve1 as above conjectured4 ,these ceremonies1 and this symbolic worship1 began among the magi1 who were the sons of ,chus2 and by them they were propagated in various parts4 ,wherever the ,ammonians founded any places of worship1 and introduced their rites1 there was generally some story of a serpent4 ,there was a legend about a serpent at ,colchis1 at ,thebes1 and at ,delphi2 and likewise in other places4 ,the ,greeks called ,apollo himself ,python1 which is the same as ,oupis1 ,opis1 or ,oub4 ,in ,egypt there was a serpent named ,thermuthis1 which was looked upon as very sacred2 and the natives are said to have made use of it as a royal tiara1 with which they ornamented the statues of ,isis4 ,the kings of ,egypt wore high bonnets1 terminating in a round ball1 and surrounded with figures of asps2 and the priests likewise had the representation of serpents upon their bonnets4 ,abadon1 or ,abaddon1 mentioned in the ,revelation1 ix1 #aa1 is supposed by ,mr4 ,bryant to have been the name of the ,ophite god1 with whose worship the world had been so long infected4 ,this worship began among the people of ,chaldea1 who built the city of ,ophis upon the ,tigris1 and were greatly addicted to divination1 and to the worship of the serpent4 ,from ,chaldea the worship passed into ,egypt1 where the serpent deity was called ,canoph1 ,can-eph1 and ,c'neph2 it also had the name of ,ob1 or ,oub1 and was the same as the ,basiliscus1 or royal serpent1 the same as the ,thermuthis1 and made use of by way of ornament to the statues of their gods4 ,the chief deity of ,egypt is said to have been ,vulcan1 who was styled ,opas2 he was the same as ,osiris1 the sun1 and hence was often called ,ob-el1 or ,pytho1 sol2 and there were pillars sacred to him1 with curious hieroglyphical inscriptions bearing the same name1 whence among the ,greeks1 who copied from the ,egyptians1 every thing gradually tapering to a point was styled obelos1 or obeliscus4 ,as the worship of the serpent began among the sons of ,chus1 ,mr4 ,bryant conjectures that from thence they were denominated ,ethiopians and ,aithiopians1 from ,ath-ope1 or ,ath-opes1 the god whom they worshipped1 and not from their complexion3 the ,ethiopes brought these rites into ,greece1 and called the island where they first established them1 ,ellopia1 ,solis ,serpentis insula1 the same with ,euba1 or ,oubaia1 that is1 the ,serpent ,island4 ,the same learned writer discovers traces of the serpent worship among the ,hyperboreans1 at ,rhodes1 named ,ophiusa1 in ,phrygia1 and upon the ,hellespont1 in the island ,cyprus1 in ,crete1 among the ,athenians1 in the name of ,cecrops1 among the natives of ,thebes in ,botia1 among the ,lacedmonians1 in ,italy1 in ,syria1 c1 and in the names of many places1 as well as the people where the ,ophites settled4 ,one of the most early heresies introduced into the ,christian church was that of the ,ophit1 who introduced serpents emblematically among their rites4 ,this is seen in many of the medals1 the relics of ,gnosticism which are still preserved4 ,the form assumed by the tempter when he seduced our first parents1 has been handed down in the traditions of most ancient nations2 and1 though animals of the serpent tribe were very generally worshipped by the ,pagans1 as symbols of the ,agathodemon2 they were likewise viewed as types or figures of the evil principle4 #a4 ,one of the most remarkable accounts of the primeval tempter under the shape of a serpent occurs in the ,zend-,avesta of the ancient ,persians4 #b4 ,to the dracontian ,ahriman of the ,persians1 the malignant serpent caliya of ,hindoo theology appears to be very closely allied4 ,he is represented1 at least1 as the decided enemy of the mediatorial god2 whom he persecutes with the utmost virulence1 though he is finally vanquished by his celestial adversary4 #c4 ,the serpent typhon of the ,egyptians1 who is sometimes identified with the ocean1 because the deluge was esteemed the work of the evil principle2 and the serpent python of the ,greeks1 who is evidently the same as the monster typhon2 appear to have similarly originated1 in the first instance1 from some remembrance of the form which ,satan assumed when in paradise4 ,perhaps also the notion1 that python was oracular1--a notion which caused the so frequent use of serpents in the rites of divination1 may have sprung from a recollection of the vocal responses which the tempter gave to ,eve under the borrowed figure of that reptile4 #d4 ,we may still ascribe to the same source that rebellious serpent whose treason seems to have been so well remembered among the inhabitants of ,syria4 ,pherecydes1 a native of that country1 bestows upon him the ,greek name of ophioneus1 or the 8serpent god20 which1 in fact1 is a mere translation of the ,syriac or ,chaldaic nachash4 ,he represents him as being the prince of those evil spirits who contended with the supreme god ,cronus1 and who in consequence were ejected from heaven4 ,their happiness being thus justly forfeited1 they were henceforth plunged in the depths of ,tartarus1 hateful and mutually hating each other4 ,from ,syria and the east the legend passed into ,greece1 mingled1 however1 with allusions to the deluge4 #e4 ,the same evil being1 in the same form1 appears again in the mythology of the ,goths or ,scythians4 ,we are told by the ancient ,scalds1 that the bad principle1 whom they denominate loke1 unites great personal beauty with a malignant and inconstant nature3 and he is described as surpassing all creatures in the depth of his cunning and the artfulness of his perfidy4 ,here the pristine glory and majesty of ,satan1 before the lineaments of celestial beauty were defaced by his rebellious apostasy1 seem not obscurely to be alluded to2 while the craft and malevolence1 which mark his character as a fallen angel1 are depicted with sufficient accuracy4 ,the most remarkable corroboration1 however1 of the ,mosaic history is to be found in those fables which involve the mythological serpent1 and in the worship which was so generally offered to him throughout the world4 ,the worship of the serpent may be traced in almost every religion through ancient ,asia1 ,europe1 ,africa1 ,america4 ,but how an object of abhorrence could have been exalted into an object of veneration1 must be referred to the subtlety of the arch enemy himself1 whose constant endeavour has been rather to corrupt than obliterate the true faith1 that1 in the perpetual conflict between truth and error1 the mind of man might be more surely confounded and debased4 ,among other devices1 that of elevating himself into an object of adoration1 has ever been the most cherished4 ,it was that which he proposed to our ,lord3 8,all these things will ,i give thee1 if thou wilt fall down and worship me40 ,we cannot1 therefore1 wonder that the same being who had the presumption to make this proposal to the ,son of ,god1 should have had the address to insinuate himself into the worship of the children of men4 ,in this he was unhappily but too well seconded by the natural tendency of human corruption4 ,the unenlightened ,heathen1 in obedience to the voice of nature1 acknowledged his dependence upon a superior being4 ,his reason assured him that there must be a ,god2 his conscience assured him that ,god was good2 but he felt and acknowledged the prevalence of evil1 and attributed it1 naturally to an evil agent4 ,but as the evil spirit1 to his unillumined mind1 seemed as omnipotent as the good agent1 he worshipped both2 the one1 that he might propitiate his kindness2 the other that he might avert his displeasure4 ,the great point of devil worship being gained1 namely1 the acknowledgment of the evil spirit as ,god1 the transition to idolatry became easy4 ,the mind1 once darkened by the admission of an allegiance divided between ,god and ,satan1 became gradually more feeble and superstitious1 until at length sensible objects were called in to aid the weakness of degraded intellect2 and from their first form as symbols1 passed rapidly through the successive stages of apotheosis1 until they were elevated into gods4 ,of these the most remarkable was the serpent2 upon the basis of tradition1 regarded1 first as the symbol of the malignant being2 subsequently considered talismanic and oracular2 and lastly1 venerated and worshipped as divine4 ,,serpent1 ,,brazen4 ,this was a figure of a serpent1 called above the seraph1 which ,moses caused to be put on the top of a pole1 ,num4 xxi1 #i1 that all those bitten by the serpent1 who should look upon this image1 might be healed4 ,our ,saviour1 in the ,gospel of ,st4 ,john1 iii1 #ad1 declares1 that 8as ,moses lifted up the serpent in the wilderness1 even so must the ,son of man be lifted up10 alluding to his own death which1 through faith1 was to give life to the world4 ,the brazen serpent was preserved among the ,israelites down to the time of ,hezekiah2 who1 being informed that the people paid a superstitious worship to it1 had it broken in pieces1 and by way of contempt gave it the name of ,nehushtan1 that is to say1 a brazen bauble or trifle1 #b ,kings xviii1 #d4 ,see ,,type4 ,,servant4 ,this word generally signifies a slave4 ,for formerly among the ,hebrews1 and the neighbouring nations1 the greater part of servants were slaves1 that is to say1 they belonged absolutely to their masters1 who had a right to dispose of their persons1 their bodies1 goods1 and even of their lives1 in some cases4 ,the ,hebrews had two sorts of servants or slaves1 ,leviticus xxv1 #dd1 #de1 c4 ,some were strangers1 either bought1 or taken in the wars4 ,the others were ,hebrew slaves1 who1 being poor1 sold themselves1 or were sold to pay their debts2 or were delivered up for slaves by their parents1 in cases of necessity4 ,this sort of ,hebrew slaves continued in slavery but to the year of jubilee2 then they might return to liberty again1 and their masters could not retain them against their wills4 ,if they would continue voluntarily with their masters1 they were brought before the judges2 there they made a declaration1 that for this time they disclaimed the privilege of the law1 had their ears bored with an awl1 by applying them to the door-posts of their master1 ,exod4 xxi1 #b1 #e-g1 c2 and after that they had no longer any power of recovering their liberty1 except at the next year of jubilee4 ,servant is also taken for a man that dedicates himself to the service of another1 by the choice of his own will and inclination4 ,thus ,joshua was the servant of ,moses1 ,elisha of ,elijah1 ,gehazi of ,elisha2 ,st4 ,peter1 ,st4 ,andrew1 ,st4 ,philip1 and the rest1 were servants of ,jesus ,christ4 ,,seth1 son of ,adam and of ,eve1 was born ,a4 ,m4 #acj1 ,gen4 v1 #c1 #f1 #aj1 #aa4 ,seth1 at the age of one hundred and five years1 begat ,enos1 ,a4 ,m4 #bce4 ,he lived after this eight hundred and seven years1 in all nine hundred and twelve years1 and died ,a4 ,m4 #ajdb4 ,seth was the chief of 8the children of ,god10 as the ,scripture calls them1 ,gen4 vi1 #b2 that is1 those who before the flood preserved true religion and piety in the world1 while the descendants of ,cain gave themselves up to wickedness4 ,the invention of letters and writing is by the rabbins ascribed to this patriarch4 ,,seven4 ,the number seven is consecrated1 in the holy books and in the religion of the ,jews1 by a great number of events and mysterious circumstances4 ,god created the world in the space of seven days1 and consecrated the seventh day to repose4 ,this rest of the seventh day1 according to ,st4 ,paul1 ,heb4 iv1 #d1 intimates eternal rest4 ,and not only the seventh day is honoured among the ,jews1 by the repose of the ,sabbath1 but every seventh year is also consecrated to the rest of the earth1 by the name of a sabbatical year2 as also the seven times seventh year1 or forty-ninth year1 is the year of jubilee4 ,in the prophetic style1 a week often stands for seven years1 ,dan4 ix1 #bd-bf4 ,jacob served his father-in-law ,laban seven years for each of his daughters4 ,pharaoh's mysterious dream represented to his imagination seven fat oxen1 and seven lean ones2 seven full ears of corn1 and as many that were empty and shrivelled4 ,these stood for seven years of plenty1 and seven of scarcity4 ,the number of seven days is observed in the octaves of the great solemnities of the passover1 of tabernacles1 and of the dedication of the tabernacle and the temple2 the seven branches of the golden candlestick1 the number of seven sacrifices appointed on several occasions1 ,numbers xxvii1 #aa2 xxix1 #ag-ba1 c4 ,seven trumpets1 seven priests that sounded them1 seven days to surround the walls of ,jericho1 ,joshua vi1 #d1 #f1 #h4 ,in the ,revelation1 are the seven churches1 seven candlesticks1 seven spirits1 seven stars1 seven lamps1 seven seals1 seven angels1 seven phials1 seven plagues1 c4 ,in certain passages1 the number seven is put for a great number4 ,isaiah1 iv1 #a1 says that seven women should lay hold on one man1 to ask him to marry them4 ,hannah1 the mother of ,samuel1 says1 #a ,sam4 ii1 #e1 that she who was barren should have seven children4 ,jeremiah1 xv1 #i1 makes use of the same expression4 ,god threatens his people to smite them seven times for their transgressions1 ,lev4 xxvi1 #bd1 that is to say several times4 ,the ,psalmist1 speaking of very pure silver1 says it is 8purified seven times10 ,psalm xii1 #f4 ,and elsewhere1 8,render unto our neighbours sevenfold into their bosom10 ,psalm lxxix1 #ab2 punish them severely1 and as often as they deserve it4 ,the slayer of ,cain was to be punished seven times2 but of ,lamech seventy times seven times1 ,gen4 iv1 #ae1 #bd4 ,the slothful man thinks himself wiser than seven men1 that set forth proverbs1 ,prov4 xxvi1 #af2 he thinks himself of more worth than many wise men4 ,st4 ,peter asks our ,saviour1 ,matthew xviii1 #ba1 #bb1 ,how many times should he forgive his brother8 till seven times8 ,and ,christ answers him1 ,i say not only seven times1 but seventy times seven2 meaning1 as often as he may offend1 however frequent it may be4 ,,sharon1 ,,plain ,,of1 a beautiful and spacious plain1 extending from ,csarea to ,joppa on the sea coast1 and eastward to the mountains of ,judea2 and is celebrated for its wines1 its flowers1 and its pastures4 ,it still preserves some portions of its natural beauty1 and is adorned in the spring with the white and red rose1 the narcissus1 the white and orange lily1 the carnation and other flowers2 but for the rest of the year it appears little better than a desert1 with here and there a ruined village1 and some clumps of olive trees and sycamores4 ,this name was almost become a proverb1 to express a place of extraordinary beauty and fruitfulness1 ,isaiah xxxiii1 #i2 xxxv1 #b4 ,but there are three cantons of ,palestine known by the name of ,sharon4 ,the first1 according to ,eusebius and ,st4 ,jerom1 is a canton between ,mount ,tabor and the sea of ,tiberias4 ,the second1 a canton between the city of ,csarea of ,palestine and ,joppa4 ,and the third a canton beyond ,jordan1 in the country of ,basan1 and in the division of the tribe of ,gad4 ,modern travellers give this name also to the plain that lies between ,ecdippe and ,ptolemais4 ,,shaving4 ,in time of mourning the ,jews shaved their heads1 and neglected to trim their beards4 ,the king of the ,ammonites shaved off half the beards of ,david's ambassadors1 which was the greatest insult he could offer4 ,this will appear from the regard which the easterns have ever paid to the beard4 ,d',arvieux gives a remarkable instance of an ,arab who1 having received a wound in his jaw1 chose to hazard his life rather than to suffer his surgeon to take off his beard4 ,it was one of the most infamous punishments of cowardice in ,sparta1 that they who turned their backs in the day of battle were obliged to appear abroad with one half of their beard shaved1 and the other half unshaved4 ,the easterns considered the beard as venerable1 because it distinguished men from women1 and was the mark of freemen in opposition to slaves4 ,it was still1 in times comparatively modern1 the greatest indignity that could be offered in ,persia4 ,shah ,abbas1 king of that country1 enraged that the emperor of ,hindostan had inadvertently addressed him by a title far inferior to that of the great shah-in-shah1 or king of kings1 ordered the beards of the ambassadors to be shaved off1 and sent them home to their master4 8,one of the buffoons of the bashaw10 says ,belzoni1 8took it into his head one day1 for a frolic1 to shave his beard1 which is no trifle among the ,turks2 for some of them1 ,i really believe1 would sooner have their head cut off than their beard4 ,in this state he went home to his women1 who actually thrust him out of the door2 and such was the disgrace of cutting off his beard1 that even his fellow buffoons would not eat with him till it was grown again40 ,,sheaf4 ,after the feast of the passover the ,jews brought a sheaf into the temple1 as the first fruits of the barley harvest1 ,lev4 xxiii1 #aj1 #ab2 and these were the ceremonies that were then performed4 ,on the #afth of the month ,nisan1 in the evening1 when the feast day of the passover was ended1 and the second day was begun1 which was a working day1 the house of judgment deputed three men to go in solemnity1 and gather the sheaf of barley4 ,the inhabitants of the neighbouring cities came together1 to be present at the ceremony4 ,the barley was gathered in the territory of ,jerusalem4 ,the deputies demanded three times successively if the sun was set2 and were as often answered that it was4 ,then they demanded three times if they might be permitted to cut the sheaf1 and permission was as often granted4 ,they reaped it out of three different fields1 with three different sickels1 and put the ears into three boxes to carry to the temple4 ,this sheaf was threshed in the court2 and of the grain they took a full omer1 and after it had been winnowed1 parched1 and bruised1 they sprinkled oil over it1 and added a handful of incense2 then the priest who received the offering1 waved it before the ,lord to the four quarters of the world1 crosswise2 he cast part of it upon the altar1 and the rest was his own4 ,after this every one might begin to reap the harvest4 ,,sheba4 ,of 8the queen of ,sheba10 mention is made #a ,kings x1 #a1 #b1 c2 #b ,chron4 ix1 #a1 #b1 c2 ,matt4 xii1 #db2 ,luke xi1 #ca4 ,she is called 8queen of the south10 and was1 according to some1 a queen of ,arabia2 and1 according to others1 a queen of ,ethiopia4 ,josephus says1 that ,sheba was the ancient name of the city of ,meroe1 before ,cambyses gave it that of his sister2 and that it was from thence the queen came of whom we are speaking4 ,this opinion has much prevailed4 ,the ,abyssinians at this day1 maintain1 that this princess was of their country1 and that her posterity reigned there a long time4 ,they preserve a catalogue of them1 their names and successions4 ,,sheep1 1 occurs frequently1 and 1 a general name for both sheep and goats1 considered collectively in a flock1 ,arabic zain4 ,the sheep is a well known animal4 ,the benefits which mankind owe to it are numerous4 ,its fleece1 its skin1 its flesh1 its tallow1 and even its horns and bowels are articles of great utility to human life and happiness4 ,its mildness and inoffensiveness of temper1 strongly recommend it to human affection and regard2 and have designated it the pattern and emblem of meekness1 innocence1 patience1 and submission4 ,it is a social animal4 ,the flock follow the ram as their leader2 who frequently displays the most impetuous courage in their defence3 dogs1 and even men1 when attempting to molest them1 have often suffered from his sagacious and generous valour4 ,there are two varieties of sheep found in ,syria4 ,the first1 called the 8,bidoween sheep10 differs little from the large breed among us1 except that the tail is somewhat longer and thicker4 ,the second is much more common1 and is more valued on account of the extraordinary bulk of its tail1 which has been remarked by all the eastern travellers4 ,the carcass of one of these sheep1 without including the head1 feet1 entrails1 and skin1 weighs from fifty to sixty pounds1 of which the tail makes up fifteen pounds4 ,some of a larger size1 fattened with care1 will sometimes weigh one hundred and fifty pounds1 the tail alone composing one third of the whole weight4 ,it is of a substance between fat and marrow1 and is not eaten separately1 but mixed with the lean meat in many of their dishes1 and often also used instead of butter4 ,a reference to this part is made in ,exod4 xxix1 #bb2 ,lev4 iii1 #i2 where the fat and the tail were to be burnt on the altar of sacrifice4 ,mr4 ,street considers this precept to have had respect to the health of the ,israelites2 observing that 8bilious disorders are very frequent in hot countries2 the eating of fat meat is a great encouragement and excitement to them2 and though the fat of the tail is now considered as a delicacy1 it is really unwholesome40 ,the conclusion of the seventeenth verse1 which is1 8,ye shall eat neither fat nor blood10 justifies this opinion4 ,the prohibition of eating fat1 that is of fat unmixed with the flesh1 the omentum or caul1 is given also1 ,lev4 vii1 #bc4 ,,shekel1 1 signifies weight1 money1 shekel1 siclus1 a ,hebrew weight and money1 ,exod4 xxx1 #bc1 #bd2 #b ,sam4 xiv1 #bf4 ,shekel is used to denote the weight of any thing2 as iron1 hair1 spices1 c4 ,dr4 ,arbuthnot makes the weight of the shekel equal to #i dwt4 #bsup#d_/supsub#g_/sub gr4 ,english troy weight2 and the value equal to #bs4 #c;d4 sterling money3 but the golden shekel was worth #al4 #afs4 #f;d4 ,english money4 ,some are of opinion that the ,jews had two kinds of shekels1 namely1 the common one already noticed1 and the shekel of the sanctuary1 which last they make double the former4 ,but most authors make them the same1 and think that the word sanctuary is added to express a just and exact weight1 according to the standards kept in the temple or tabernacle4 ,moses1 ,num4 xviii1 #af1 and ,ezekiel1 xlv1 #ab1 say1 that the shekel was worth twenty gerahs4 ,,shem1 the son of ,noah1 ,gen4 vi1 #aj4 ,he was born ,a4 ,m4 #aeeh4 ,it is the opinion of the generality of commentators1 that ,shem was younger than ,japheth1 and the second son of ,noah1 for reasons given under the article ,,japheth4 ,see also ,gen4 ix1 #bc-be4 ,he lived six hundred years1 and died ,a4 ,m4 #baeh4 ,the posterity of ,shem obtained their portion in the best parts of ,asia4 ,the ,jews ascribe to ,shem the theological tradition of the things that ,noah had learned from the first men4 ,shem communicated them to his children1 and by this means the true religion was preserved in the world4 ,some have thought ,shem the same as ,melchisedec1 and that he himself had been at the school of ,methuselah before the deluge3 that he gave to ,abraham the whole tradition1 the ceremonies of the sacrifices of religion1 according to which this patriarch afterward offered his sacrifices4 ,but this opinion has no adequate support4 ,lastly1 the ,jews say1 that he taught men the law of justice1 and the manner of reckoning months and years1 and the intercalations of the months4 ,all that can be said as to these speculations is1 that ,noah and all his sons were the depositaries of the knowledge which existed among men before the flood1 and were perhaps both specially qualified by ,god first to attain it1 and then to transmit it to their descendants4 ,shem had five sons1 ,elam1 ,asher1 ,arphaxad1 ,lud1 and ,aran1 who peopled the richest provinces of ,asia4 ,,shepherds4 ,the patriarchal shepherds1 rich in flocks and herds1 in silver and gold1 and attended by a numerous train of servants purchased with their money1 or hired from the neighbouring towns and villages1 acknowledge no civil superior2 they held the rank1 and exercised the rights1 of sovereign princes2 they concluded alliances with the kings in whose territories they tended their flocks2 they made peace or war with the surrounding states2 and1 in fine1 they wanted nothing of sovereign authority but the name4 ,unfettered by the cumbrous ceremonies of regal power1 they led a plain and laborious life1 in perfect freedom and overflowing abundance4 ,refusing to confine themselves to any particular spot1 7for the pastures were not yet appropriated17 they lived in tents1 and removed from one place to another in search of pasture for their cattle4 ,strangers in the countries where they sojourned1 they refused to mingle with the permanent settlers1 to occupy their towns1 and to form with them one people4 ,they were conscious of their strength1 and jealous of their independence2 and although patient and forbearing1 their conduct proved1 on several occasions1 that they wanted neither skill nor courage to vindicate their rights and avenge their wrongs4 ,in the wealth1 the power1 and the splendour of patriarchal shepherds1 we discover the rudiments of regal grandeur and authority2 and in their numerous and hardy retainers1 the germ of potent empires4 ,hence the custom so prevalent among the ancients1 of distinguishing the office and duties of their kings and princes1 by terms borrowed from the pastoral life3 ,agamemnon1 shepherd of the people1 1 is a phrase frequently used in the strains of ,homer4 ,the sacred writers very often speak of kings under the name of shepherds1 and compare the royal sceptre to the shepherd's crook3 8,he chose ,david also his servant1 and took him from the sheep folds2 from following the ewes great with young1 he brought him to feed ,jacob his people1 and ,israel his inheritance4 ,so he fed them according to the integrity of his heart1 and guided them by the skilfulness of his hands40 ,and ,jehovah said to ,david himself3 8,thou shalt feed my people ,israel1 and thou shalt be a captain over ,israel40 ,the royal ,psalmist1 on the other hand1 celebrates under the same allusions1 the special care and goodness of ,god toward himself1 and also toward his ancient people4 8,the ,lord is my shepherd1 ,i shall not want40 8,give ear1 ,o shepherd of ,israel1 thou that leadest ,joseph like a flock2 thou that dwellest between the cherubim1 shine forth40 ,in many other places of ,scripture1 the church is compared to a sheep fold1 the saints to sheep1 and the ministers of religion to shepherds1 who must render1 at last1 an account of their administration to the ,shepherd and ,overseer to whom they owe their authority4 ,the patriarchs did not commit their flocks and herds solely to the care of menial servants and strangers2 they tended them in person1 or placed them under the superintendence of their sons and their daughters1 who were bred to the same laborious employment1 and taught to perform1 without reluctance1 the meanest services4 ,rebecca1 the only daughter of a shepherd prince1 went to a considerable distance to draw water2 and it is evident1 from the readiness and address with which she let down her pitcher from her shoulder1 and gave drink to the servant of ,abraham1 and afterward drew for all his camels1 that she had been long accustomed to that humble employment4 ,from the same authority we know that ,rachel1 the daughter of ,laban1 kept her father's flocks1 and submitted to the various privations and hardships of the pastoral life1 in the deserts of ,syria4 ,the patriarch ,jacob1 though he was the son of a shepherd prince1 kept the flocks of ,laban1 his maternal uncle2 and his own sons followed the same business1 both in ,mesopotamia1 and after his return to the land of ,canaan4 ,this primeval simplicity was long retained among the ,greeks4 ,homer often sends the daughters of princes and nobles to tend the flocks1 to wash the clothes of the family at the fountain1 or in the flowing stream1 and to perform many other menial services4 ,adonis1 the son of ,cinyras1 a king of ,cyprus1 fed his flocks by the streaming rivers3 ,et formosus oves ad flumina pavit ,adonis4 ,,vir4 ,ecl4 x1 l4 #ah4 8,along the streams his flock ,adonis fed40 ,,dryden4 ,andromache1 the wife of ,hector1 complains that ,achilles had slain her seven brothers when they were tending their flocks and herds4 neas pastured his oxen on ,mount ,ida1 when ,achilles seized them1 and forced the ,trojan hero to flee4 ,phbus himself was a keeper of oxen in the groves and valleys of ,mount ,ida4 ,this custom has descended to modern times2 for in ,syria the daughters of the ,turcoman and ,arabian shepherds1 and in ,india the ,brahmin women of distinction1 are seen drawing water at the village wells1 and tending their cattle to the lakes and rivers4 ,the flocks and herds of these shepherds were immensely numerous4 ,the sheep of the ,bedoween ,arabs in ,egypt1 and probably throughout the east1 are very fine1 black-faced and white-faced1 and many of them clothed in a brown coloured fleece3 and of this superior breed the ample flocks of the ,syrian shepherds consisted4 ,so great was the stock of ,abraham and ,lot1 that they were obliged to separate1 because 8the land was not able to bear them40 ,from the present which ,jacob made to his brother ,esau1 consisting of five hundred and eighty head of different sorts1 we may form some idea of the countless numbers of great and small cattle which he had acquired in the service of ,laban4 ,in modern times1 the numbers of cattle in the ,turcoman flocks1 which feed on the fertile plains of ,syria1 are almost incredible4 ,they sometimes occupy three or four days in passing from one part of the country to another4 ,chardin had an opportunity of seeing a clan of ,turcoman shepherds on their march1 about two days' distance from ,aleppo4 ,the whole country was covered with them4 ,many of their principal people with whom he conversed on the road1 assured him1 that there were four hundred thousand beasts of carriage1 camels1 horses1 oxen1 cows1 and asses1 and three millions of sheep and goats4 ,this astonishing account of ,chardin is confirmed by ,dr4 ,shaw1 who states1 that several ,arabian tribes1 who can bring no more than three or four hundred horses into the field1 are possessed of more than as many thousand camels1 and triple the number of sheep and black cattle4 ,russel1 in his 8,history of ,aleppo10 speaks of vast flocks which pass that city every year1 of which many sheep are sold to supply the inhabitants4 ,the flocks and herds which belonged to the ,jewish patriarchs were not more numerous4 ,the care of such overgrown flocks1 says ,paxton1 required many shepherds4 ,these were of different kinds2 the master of the family and his children1 with a number of herdsmen who were hired to assist them1 and felt but little interest in the preservation and increase of their charge4 ,in ,hebrew1 these persons1 so different in station and feeling1 were not distinguished by appropriate names2 the master1 the slave1 and the hired servant1 were all known by the common appellation of shepherds4 ,the distinction1 not sufficiently important to require the invention of a particular term1 is expressed among every people by a periphrasis4 ,the only instance in the ,old ,testament1 in which the hired servant is distinguished from the master1 or one of his family1 occurs in the history of ,david1 where he is said to have left the sheep1 1 8in the hand of a keeper10 while he went down to visit his brethren1 and the armies who were fighting against the ,philistines under the banners of ,saul1 #a ,samuel xvii1 #bj4 ,this word exactly corresponds with the ,latin term custos1 8a keeper10 which ,virgil uses to denote a hireling shepherd1 in his tenth ,eclogue3 ,atque utinam ex vobis unus vestrique fuissem1 ,aut custos gregis1 aut matur vinitor uv4 8,o that your birth and business had been mine1 ,to feed the flock and prune the spreading vine60 ,,wharton4 ,in such extensive pastoral concerns1 the vigilance and activity of the master were often insufficient for directing the operations of so many shepherds1 who were not unfrequently scattered over a considerable extent of country4 ,an upper servant was therefore appointed to superintend their labours1 and take care that his master suffered no injury4 ,in the house of ,abraham1 this honourable station was held by ,eliezer1 a native of ,damascus1 a servant in every respect worthy of so great and good a master4 ,the numerous flocks of ,pharaoh seem to have required the superintending care of many overseers1 ,gen4 xlvii1 #f4 ,doeg1 an ,edomite1 was entrusted with the whole pastoral establishment of ,saul1 #a ,sam4 xxi1 #g4 ,but in the reign of ,david1 the important office of chief herdsman was abolished1 and the vast flocks and herds of that monarch were entrusted to a number of superintendents2 animals of the same species forming a separate flock1 under its proper overseer1 #a ,chronicles xxvii1 #bi4 ,these overseers1 in the language of the ,hebrews1 were called the princes of the flock2 they were treated with great distinction1 and seem to have been selected in the reign of ,david from among the nobles of his court4 ,eumus1 a person of noble birth1 agreeably to this custom1 was charged with the care of the herds of swine belonging to ,ulysses4 ,the office of chief shepherd is frequently mentioned by the classic authors of antiquity4 ,diodorus relates from ,ctesias1 that ,simma was overseer of the royal flocks under ,ninus1 king of ,assyria4 ,according to ,plutarch1 one ,samo managed the flocks and herds of ,neoptolemus1 the king of the ,molossians4 ,the office of chief shepherd was also known among the ,latins2 for1 in the seventh neid1 ,tyrrheus is named as governor of the royal flocks3 ,tyrrheusque pater1 cui regia parent ,armenta1 et late custodia credita camp4 8,their father1 ,tyrrheus1 did his fodder bring2 ,tyrrheus1 chief ranger to the ,latian king40 ,,dryden4 ,and ,livy informs us1 that ,faustulus held the same office under ,numitor1 king of the ,latins4 ,but it is needless to multiply quotations2 every scholar knows that the ,greek and ,roman classics abound with allusions to this office1 which in those days was one of great importance and dignity1 on the faithful discharge of which the power and splendour of an eastern potentate greatly depended4 ,the office of chief shepherd1 therefore1 being in pastoral countries one of great trust1 of high responsibility1 and of distinguished honour1 is with great propriety applied to our ,lord by the ,apostle ,peter3 8,and when the chief shepherd shall appear1 ye shall receive a crown of glory which fadeth not away10 #a ,peter v1 #d4 ,the same allusion occurs in these words of ,paul3 8,now the ,god of peace1 that brought again from the dead our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 that great shepherd of the sheep1 through the blood of the everlasting covenant1 make you perfect in every good work to do his will10 ,hebrews xiii1 #bj4 ,,shibboleth1 8an ear of corn10 was a word which the ,gileadites used as the test of an ,ephraimite4 ,for the ,ephraimites could not1 from disuse1 pronounce the ,hebrew letter shin2 therefore1 they said ,sibboleth instead of ,shibboleth1 ,judges xii1 #f4 ,the ,greeks1 says ,hartley1 have not the sound sh in their language3 hence they are liable to be detected1 like the ,ephraimites4 ,i was struck with this circumstance1 in learning ,turkish from a ,greek tutor2 pasha1 he pronounced pasa2 shimdi1 he called simdi2 ,dervish1 ,dervis1 c4 ,shibboleth he would1 of course1 pronounce ,sibboleth4 ,,shield4 ,see ,,arms4 ,,shiloh1 ,gen4 xlix1 #aj4 ,the ,hebrew text is1 8until ,shiloh come40 ,all ,christian commentators agree1 that this word ought to be understood of the ,messiah1 that is1 of ,jesus ,christ4 ,the ,,lxx4 read it1 8,until the coming of him to whom it is reserved40 ,it must be owned that the signification of the ,hebrew word ,shiloh is not well known4 ,some translate the clause1 8,the sceptre shall not depart from ,judah1 till he comes to whom it belongs20 others1 8till the coming of the peacemaker1 or the pacific1 or prosperity20 and some1 8,the sceptre shall not depart from ,judah till its end1 its ruin10 till the downfall of the kingdom of the ,jews4 ,however1 this much is clear1 that the ancient ,jews are in this matter agreed with the ,christians1 in acknowledging that the word stands for ,messiah1 the ,king4 ,it is thus that the paraphrasts1 ,onkelos and ,jonathan1 and the ancient ,hebrew commentaries upon ,genesis1 and the ,talmudists explain it4 ,if ,jesus ,christ and his ,apostles did not make use of this passage to prove the coming of the ,messiah1 it was because then the completion of this prophecy was not sufficiently manifest4 ,the sceptre still continued among the ,jews2 they had still kings of their own nation1 in the persons of the ,herods2 but soon after the sceptre was entirely taken away from them1 and a people began to be gathered to ,christ1 out of the ,gentile nations4 #b4 ,,shiloh1 a celebrated city of the tribe of ,ephraim1 twelve miles from ,shechem1 ,joshua xviii1 xix1 xxi4 ,it was in this place that the tabernacle of the ,lord was set up1 when the people were settled in the country4 ,the ark and the tabernacle of the ,lord continued at ,shiloh from ,a4 ,m4 #befj till #bhhh1 when it was taken by the ,philistines1 under the administration of the high priest ,eli1 #a ,sam4 iv4 ,here the ,prophet ,ahijah dwelt1 #a ,kings xiv1 #b4 ,,shinar1 a province of ,babylonia1 where men undertook to build the tower of ,babel1 ,genesis xi1 #b2 x1 #aj4 ,calneh was built in this country4 ,amraphel was king of ,shinar in the days of ,abraham1 ,genesis xiv1 #a4 ,see ,,babylon4 ,,shishak1 king of ,egypt1 declared war against ,rehoboam in the fifth year of the reign of that prince1 #b ,chron4 xii1 #b1 #c1 c4 ,this ,shishak1 according to ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 was the greatest conqueror1 and the most celebrated hero1 of all antiquity1 being the son of ,ammon1 or the ,egyptian ,jupiter1 and known to the ,greeks by the name of ,bacchus1 ,osiris1 and ,hercules2 was the ,belus of the ,chaldeans1 and the ,mars or ,mavors of the ,thracians1 c4 ,he made great conquests in ,india1 ,assyria1 ,media1 ,scythia1 ,phenicia1 ,syria1 ,judea1 c4 ,his army was at last routed in ,greece by ,perseus2 which1 with other circumstances1 compelled him to return home4 ,,shittim1 ,,sittim1 ,,sittah1 1 ,exod4 xxv1 #e1 #aj1 #ac1 #bc1 #bh2 xxvi1 #bf1 #cb1 #cg2 xxvii1 #a1 #f2 xxx1 #e2 xxxv1 #g1 #bd2 xxxvi1 #bj1 #ca1 #cf2 xxxvii1 #a1 #d1 #aj1 #ae1 #be1 #bh2 xxxviii1 #a1 #f2 ,deut4 x1 #c2 ,isaiah xli1 #ai4 ,what particular species of wood this is1 interpreters are not agreed4 ,the ,,lxx4 render 1 incorruptible wood4 ,st4 ,jerom says1 the shittim wood grows in the deserts of ,arabia1 and is like white thorn1 as to its colour and leaves3 but the tree is so large as to furnish very long planks4 ,the wood is hard1 tough1 smooth1 and extremely beautiful4 ,it is thought that this wood is the black acacia1 because that1 it is said1 is the most common tree growing in the deserts of ,arabia2 and agrees with what the ,scriptures say of the shittim wood4 ,the acacia vera grows abundantly in ,egypt1 in places far from the sea2 in the mountains of ,sinai1 near the ,red ,sea1 and in the deserts4 ,it is of the size of a large mulberry tree4 ,the spreading branches and larger limbs are armed with thorns which grow three together2 the bark is rough2 the leaves are oblong1 and stand opposite each other2 the flowers1 though sometimes white1 are generally of a bright yellow2 and the fruit which resembles a bean1 is contained in pods like those of the lupin4 8,the acacia tree10 says ,dr4 ,shaw1 8being by much the largest and most common tree in these deserts1 ,arabia ,petra1 we have some reason to conjecture1 that the shittim wood was the wood of the acacia2 especially as its flowers are of an excellent smell1 for the shittah tree is1 in ,isaiah xli1 #ai1 joined with the myrtle and other fragrant shrubs40 ,,shoes4 ,to put off the shoes from one's feet1 was an act of reverence to the ,divine majesty of ,god1 ,exod4 iii1 #e4 ,it was likewise a sign of mourning and humiliation4 ,david went up the ascent of ,mount ,olivet barefoot1 #b ,sam4 xv1 #cj2 ,isa4 xx1 #b1 #d2 ,ezek4 xxiv1 #ag4 ,see ,,sandal4 ,,shoulder4 ,to give or lend the shoulder for the bearing of a burden1 signifies to submit to servitude4 8,issachar bowed his shoulder to bear1 and became a servant unto tribute10 ,gen4 xlix1 #ae4 ,and ,isaiah1 x1 #bg1 comforting ,israel with the promise of deliverance from ,assyria1 says1 8,his burden shall be taken away from off thy shoulder40 ,the ,scripture calls that a rebellious shoulder1 a withdrawing shoulder1 which will not submit to the yoke2 and to bear it together with joint consent1 is termed 8serving with one shoulder40 ,to bear any thing upon the shoulder1 is to sustain it1 and this is applied to government and authority4 ,thus ,messiah was to bear the government upon his shoulder3 8,for unto us a child is born1 unto us a son is given3 and the government shall be upon his shoulder3 and his name shall be called ,wonderful1 ,counsellor10 c1 ,isa4 ix1 #f2 and ,god promises ,eliakim the son of ,hilkiah1 to give him the key of the house of ,david1 and to lay it upon his shoulder2 8so he shall open1 and none shall shut1 and he shall shut1 and none shall open20 that is1 the sole authority shall rest upon him4 ,,shushan1 or ,,susa1 the ancient capital of ,persia1 seated on the river ,ulai1 the modern ,abzal4 ,after the union of the kingdoms of ,media and ,persia by ,cyrus1 ,susa was made the winter residence of the kings of ,persia1 from its southern position1 and the shelter afforded by a range of mountains on the north and east1 which rendered the heat insupportable in the summer season2 while ,ecbatana1 in ,media1 from its greater elevation1 and more northern situation1 was preferred at this season1 as being more cool and agreeable4 ,here the transactions occurred related in the book of ,esther4 ,here also ,daniel had the vision of the ram with two horns1 and the goat with one horn1 c1 in the third year of ,belshazzar's reign4 ,susa was situated in the ancient province of ,elam1 or ,elymais1 called also ,susiana1 and now forming a part of ,kuzestan4 ,it has for several hundred years1 like ,babylon1 been reduced to a heap of undistinguished ruins4 ,mr4 ,kinneir says1 8,about seven or eight miles to the west of ,dezphoul1 commence the ruins of ,shus1 stretching not less1 perhaps1 than twelve miles1 from one extremity to the other4 ,they extend as far as the eastern bank of the ,kerah2 occupying an immense space between that river and the ,abzal2 and1 like the ruins of ,ctesiphon1 ,babylon1 and ,kufa1 consist of hillocks of earth and rubbish1 covered with broken pieces of brick and coloured tile4 ,the largest and most remarkable of these mounds stand at the distance of about two miles from the ,kerah4 ,the first is1 at the lowest computation1 a mile in circumference1 and nearly a hundred feet in height2 and the other1 although not quite so high1 is double the circuit of the former4 ,these mounds bear some resemblance to the pyramids of ,babylon2 with this difference1 that instead of being entirely made of brick1 they are formed of clay and pieces of tile1 with irregular layers of brick and mortar1 five or six feet in thickness1 to serve1 it should seem1 as a kind of prop to the mass4 ,large blocks of marble1 covered with hieroglyphics1 are not unfrequently here discovered by the ,arabs when digging in search of hidden treasure2 and at the foot of the most elevated of the pyramids stands the tomb of ,daniel1 a small and apparently a modern building1 erected on the spot where the relics of that prophet are believed to rest4 ,the site of the city of ,shus is now a gloomy wilderness1 infested by lions1 hynas1 and other beasts of prey4 ,the dread of these furious animals compelled ,mr4 ,monteith and myself to take shelter for the night within the walls that encompass ,daniel's tomb40 ,of this tomb ,sir ,john ,malcom observes1 that 8it is a small building1 but sufficient to shelter some dervishes who watch the remains of the prophet1 and are supported by the alms of pious pilgrims who visit the holy sepulchre4 ,these dervishes are now the only inhabitants of ,susa2 and every species of wild beast roams at large over that spot on which some of the proudest palaces ever raised by human art once stood40 ,he also observes1 respecting the authenticity of this tomb1 that 8although the building at the tomb of ,daniel be comparatively modern1 nothing could have led to its being built where it is1 but a belief that this was the real site of the prophet's sepulchre40 ,,sidon1 or ,,zidon1 a celebrated city and port of ,phenicia1 and one of the most ancient cities in the world2 as it is supposed to have been founded by ,sidon1 the eldest son of ,canaan1 which will carry it up to above two thousand years before ,christ4 ,but if it was founded by ,sidon1 his descendants were driven out by a body of ,phenician colonists1 or ,cushim from the east2 who are supposed either to have given it its name1 or to have retained the old one in compliment to their god ,siton1 or ,dagon4 ,its inhabitants appear to have early acquired a preminence in arts1 manufactures1 and commerce2 and from their superior skill in hewing timber1 by which must be understood their cutting it out and preparing it for building1 as well as the mere act of felling it1 ,sidonian workmen were hired by ,solomon to prepare the wood for the building of his temple4 ,the ,sidonians are said to have been the first manufacturers of glass2 and ,homer often speaks of them as excelling in many useful and ingenious arts1 giving them the title of 4 ,add to this1 they were1 if not the first shipwrights and navigators1 the first who ventured beyond their own coasts1 and in those early ages engrossed the greatest part of the then commerce of the world4 ,the natural result of these exclusive advantages to the inhabitants of ,sidon was1 a high degree of wealth and prosperity2 and content with the riches which their trade and manufactures brought them1 they lived in ease and luxury1 trusting the defence of their city and property1 like the ,tyrians after them1 to hired troops2 so that to live in ease and security1 is said in ,scripture to be after the manner of the ,sidonians4 ,in all these respects1 however1 ,sidon was totally eclipsed by her neighbour and rival ,tyre2 whose more enterprising inhabitants pushed their commercial dealings to the extremities of the known world1 raised their city to a rank in power and opulence unknown before1 and converted it into a luxurious metropolis1 and the emporium of the produce of all nations4 ,after the subversion of the ,grecian empire by the ,romans1 ,sidon fell into the hands of the latter2 who1 to put an end to the frequent revolt of the inhabitants1 deprived it of its freedom4 ,it then fell successively under the power of the ,saracens1 the ,seljukian ,turks1 and the sultans of ,egypt2 who1 in #abhi1 that they might never more afford shelter to the ,christians1 destroyed both it and ,tyre4 ,but it again somewhat revived1 and has ever since been in the possession of the ,ottoman ,turks4 ,,sign4 ,this word is used in the sense of token and pledge2 as1 when the ,lord gave to ,noah the rainbow1 as a sign of his covenant1 ,gen4 ix1 #ab1 #ac2 and when he appointed to ,abraham the use of circumcision1 as the seal of the covenant he had made with him and his posterity1 ,gen4 xvii1 #aa4 ,sign is also put for a miracle3 8,thou shalt do these signs and wonders in the midst of ,egypt10 ,exodus iv1 #g-i1 c4 ,a sign or token is often put for the proof or evidence of a thing3 ,for example1 8,this shall be a token or sign unto thee1 that ,i have sent thee10 ,exod4 iii1 #ab4 8,shew me a sign1 that thou talkest with me10 ,judges vi1 #ag1 that is a proof4 8,what shall be the sign10 or evidence1 8that the ,lord will heal me80 #b ,kings xx1 #h4 ,this acceptation agrees with the first above mentioned2 as also what is said in ,gen4 iv1 #ae1 8,and the ,lord set a mark or sign upon ,cain20 he gave him a pledge that his life should not be taken away4 ,the signs of heaven1 and the signs of the magicians1 are the phenomena of the heavens1 and the impostures of magicians1 which they made use of for the purposes of deception3 8,the ,lord frustrateth the tokens or signs of the liars1 and maketh diviners mad10 ,isaiah xliv1 #be4 8,be not dismayed at the signs of heaven1 for the ,heathen are dismayed at them10 ,jer4 x1 #b4 ,to be a sign was farther to be a type1 or prediction1 of what should happen4 ,thus the ,prophet ,isaiah1 viii1 #ah1 8,behold1 ,i and the children whom the ,lord hath given me1 are for signs and for wonders in ,israel40 ,see also ,ezek4 iv1 #c4 ,,silas1 or ,,sylvanus1 was1 according to ,st4 ,luke1 ,acts xv1 #bb1 one of the 8chief men among the brethren10 which makes it probable1 that he was of the number of the seventy disciples4 ,when a dispute was raised at ,antioch about the observation of the legal ceremonies1 they chose ,paul1 ,barnabas1 ,judas1 and ,silas1 to go to ,jerusalem1 to advise with the ,apostles concerning this question4 ,he is thought to be the same ,silas who is mentioned by the name of ,sylvanus1 in the title of the two epistles of ,st4 ,paul to the ,thessalonians4 ,st4 ,peter sent his first epistle by him from ,rome1 wherein he styles him 8a faithful brother40 ,silas joined himself to ,st4 ,paul2 and after ,saul and ,barnabas had parted1 on account of ,john ,mark1 ,acts xv1 #cg-da1 ,silas followed ,st4 ,paul1 and went with him to visit the churches of ,syria and ,cilicia4 ,,silence4 ,this word not only signifies to refrain from speaking2 but also in the style of the ,hebrews1 it is taken for1 8to be quiet1 to remain immovable40 ,as for example3 8,sun1 stand thou still upon ,gibeon10 in ,hebrew1 be silent4 8,and the sun stood still1 and the moon stayed10 ,joshua x1 #ab1 #ac1 or were silent1 at the commandment of ,joshua4 ,,siloah1 the same as ,siloam1 ,neh4 iii1 #ae2 ,luke xiii1 #d2 a fountain under the walls of ,jerusalem1 toward the east1 between the city and the brook ,kidron1 perhaps the same with ,enrogel4 ,near this was a tower1 ,luke xiii1 #d4 ,,silk1 4 ,as the word which is rendered 8silk0 in our version more probably meant cotton1 or rather muslin1 it is doubtful whether silk is mentioned expressly in the ,scripture1 unless1 perhaps1 in ,isaiah xix1 #i1 where we find the ,hebrew word 1 from 1 yellowish1 tawny2 which is generally the natural colour of raw silk2 hence the ,latin sericum3 or it may be from the ,seres1 a nation whence the ,greeks and ,romans first obtained the article silk4 ,calmet remarks that the ancient ,greeks and ,romans had but little knowledge of the nature of silk4 ,the ,seres communicated their silk to the ,persians1 from whom it passed to the ,greeks1 and from them to the ,romans4 ,but the ,persians and orientals for a long time kept the secret of manufacturing it among themselves4 ,silk was first brought into ,greece after ,alexander's conquest of ,persia1 and came into ,italy during the flourishing times of the ,roman empire2 but was long so dear in all these parts as to be worth its weight in gold4 ,at length the emperor ,justinian1 who died in the year #cfe1 by means of two monks1 whom he sent into ,india for that purpose1 procured great quantities of silk worms' eggs to be brought to ,constantinople1 and from these have sprung all the silk worms and all the silk trade that have been since in ,europe1 ,see ,,flax4 ,,silver1 1 ,gen4 xx1 #af2 1 #a ,pet4 i1 #ah2 ,acts iii1 #d2 xx1 #cc2 a well known metal1 of a white shining colour2 next in value to gold4 ,it does not appear to have been in use before the deluge2 at least ,moses says nothing of it3 he speaks only of the metals brass and iron1 ,gen4 iv1 #bb4 ,but in ,abraham's time it was become common1 and traffic was carried on with it1 ,gen4 xxiii1 #b1 #ae4 ,yet it was not then coined1 but was only in bars or ingots2 and in commerce was always weighed4 ,,simeon1 son of ,jacob and ,leah1 was born ,a4 ,m4 #bbdg1 ,genesis xxix1 #cc2 xxxiv1 #be4 ,jacob1 on his death bed1 showed his indignation against ,simeon and ,levi for their cruelty to the ,shechemites1 ,gen4 xlix1 #e3 8,i will divide them in ,jacob1 and scatter them in ,israel40 ,and in effect these two tribes were scattered in ,israel4 ,as to ,levi1 he never had any fixed lot or portion2 and ,simeon received only a canton that was dismembered from the tribe of ,judah1 ,joshua xix1 #a1 c1 and some other lands they went to conquer in the mountains of ,seir1 and the desert of ,gedor1 #a ,chronicles iv1 #bg1 #ci1 #db4 #b4 ,,simeon1 a holy man1 who was at ,jerusalem1 full of the ,holy ,ghost1 and expecting the redemption of ,israel1 ,luke ii1 #be1 #bf1 c4 ,the ,holy ,ghost had assured him1 that he should not die before he had seen the ,christ of the ,lord2 he therefore came into the temple1 prompted by inspiration1 just at the time when ,joseph and ,mary presented ,jesus ,christ there1 in obedience to the law4 ,simeon took the child into his arms1 gave thanks to ,god1 and then blessed ,joseph and ,mary4 ,it is believed1 with good reason1 that he died soon after he had given his testimony to ,jesus ,christ4 ,some have conjectured1 that ,simeon1 who received ,jesus ,christ into his arms1 was the same as ,simeon the ,just1 the son of ,hillel1 and master of ,gamaliel1 whose disciple ,st4 ,paul was4 ,see ,,sanhedrim4 ,,simon ,,maccab,,us1 surnamed ,thossi1 son of ,mattathias1 and brother of ,judas and ,jonathan4 ,he was chief prince and pontiff of the ,jews from ,a4 ,m4 #chfj to #chfi1 and was succeeded by ,john ,hyrcanus4 ,for the particulars of his life and transactions1 see #a ,mac4 ii1 #fe2 v1 #ag2 x1 #gd-hb2 xii1 #cc1 c2 xiii1 #a1 c2 xiv1 #d1 c2 xv1 #a1 c4 #b4 ,,simon1 the ,canaanite1 an ,apostle of ,jesus ,christ4 ,it is doubtful whether the name of ,canaanite was derived to him from the city ,cana in ,galilee1 or whether it should not be taken according to its signification in the ,hebrew1 by deriving it from the root kana1 8to be zealous10 and this is the opinion of some learned men4 ,see ,luke vi1 #ae2 ,acts i1 #ac1 where he is surnamed ,zelotes2 see also ,matt4 x1 #d2 ,mark iii1 #ah4 #c4 ,,simon1 brother of our ,lord1 ,matt4 xiii1 #ee2 ,mark vi1 #c2 that is to say1 his cousin-german1 being son of ,mary1 sister to the holy virgin4 ,he is thought to be the same with ,simeon1 bishop of ,jerusalem1 and son of ,cleopas4 #d4 ,,simon ,,magus4 ,of this heretic1 or rather father of heresy1 ,dr4 ,burton gives the following account3--,justin ,martyr1 about ,a4 ,d4 #adj1 presented a defence of ,christianity to the emperor ,antoninus ,pius1 in which he mentions1 as a well known fact1 that ,simon1 a native of ,gittum1 a village in ,samaria1 came to ,rome in the reign of ,claudius1 was looked upon there as a god1 and had a statue erected to him1 with a ,latin inscription1 in the river ,tiber1 between the two bridges4 ,justin adds1 that nearly all the ,samaritans1 and a few also in other nations1 acknowledged and worshipped him as the supreme ,god4 ,there is in this passage such a minute detail1 such a confident appeal to the emperor's own knowledge of what the apologist was saying1 that we can hardly suppose the story to be false1 when not only the emperor1 but every person in ,rome would have been able to detect it4 ,i would observe1 also1 that ,justin ,martyr was himself a native of ,samaria2 hence he was able to name the very place where ,simon was born2 and when he says1 in his second defence1 which was presented a few years later1 8,i have despised the impious and false doctrine of ,simon which is in my country20 when we see the shame which he felt at the name of ,christian being assumed by the followers of that impostor2 we can never believe that he would have countenanced the story1 if the truth of it had not been notorious1 much less would he have given to his own country the disgrace of originating the evil4 ,simon ,magus was a native of ,gittum1 a town in ,samaria2 and it is stated in a suspicious document of ancient though doubtful date1 that he studied for some time at ,alexandria4 ,concerning the time of his birth1 and of his first rising into notice1 little can now be known4 ,the only contemporary document which mentions him is the ,acts of the ,apostles2 and we there read1 that1 when ,philip the deacon preached the ,gospel in ,samaria after the death of ,stephen1 8there was a certain man1 called ,simon1 which beforetime in the same city used sorcery1 and bewitched the people of ,samaria1 giving out that himself was some great one2 to whom they all gave heed1 from the least to the greatest1 saying1 ,this man is the great power of ,god4 ,and to him they had regard1 because that of long time he had bewitched them with sorceries10 ,acts viii1 #i-aa4 ,according to my calculation1 the death of ,stephen happened in the same year with the crucifixion of our ,lord2 and it appears from the passage now quoted1 that ,simon's celebrity had begun some time before4 ,we are then told that 8,simon himself believed also2 and when he was baptized1 he continued with ,philip1 and wondered1 beholding the miracles and signs which were done10 ,acts viii1 #ac4 ,i need not mention how he shortly fell away from the faith which he had embraced1 and how ,st4 ,peter rebuked him for thinking that the gift of ,god might be purchased for money1 ,acts viii1 #bj2 but ,i would observe1 that some of those persons who insist upon the fact that ,simon was not a ,christian appear to have forgotten that he was actually baptized4 ,for a time1 at least1 he believed in ,jesus ,christ2 and part of this belief he appears always to have retained2 that is1 he always believed that ,jesus ,christ was a being more than human1 who came from ,god4 ,if these events happened1 as ,i have supposed1 within a short time of our ,lord's ascension1 the fathers had good reason to call ,simon ,magus the parent of all heresies2 for he must then have been among the first persons1 beyond the limits of ,jerusalem1 who embraced the ,gospel2 and we might hope that there was no one before him who perverted the faith which he had professed4 ,from the detailed account which we have of ,simon in the ,acts of the ,apostles1 ,i should be inclined to infer these two things3 #a4 ,that ,st4 ,luke knew no earlier instance of apostasy from the ,gospel2 and he mentions this because it was the first3 and #b4 ,that when ,st4 ,luke wrote the ,acts of the ,apostles the heresy of ,simon was widely spread2 and therefore he tells his readers how it had begun4 ,concerning the remainder of ,simon's life we know little1 and in that little it is difficult to separate truth from fiction4 ,i should be inclined1 for the reasons given above1 to believe the account of ,justin ,martyr1 who says that ,simon ,magus went to ,rome in the reign of ,claudius1 and attracted numerous followers4 ,eusebius quotes this passage of ,justin ,martyr2 but he adds1 upon some other authority1 which he does not name1 that ,st4 ,peter came to ,rome at the same time2 and that1 in consequence of his preaching1 the popularity of the impostor was entirely destroyed4 ,this would be a most interesting and important fact1 if we were certain of its being true2 but ,eusebius contradicts himself in his account of ,simon ,magus going to ,rome2 and later writers have so embellished the story of this meeting1 and made the death of ,simon so astonishingly miraculous1 that criticism is at a loss to know what to believe4 ,the account which we have of ,simon's death is1 in a few words1 as follows3 ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul being both at ,rome1 ,simon ,magus gave out that he was ,christ2 and1 in proof of his assertion1 he undertook to raise himself aloft into the air4 ,the attempt at first appeared as if it would succeed2 but the two ,apostles addressing themselves in prayer to ,god1 the impostor fell to the ground1 and his death ensued shortly after4 ,it is difficult to give this marvellous narration1 without forgetting that we are treating of a grave and sacred subject2 and the question for us to consider is1 whether we are to look upon the whole as a fiction1 or whether1 as is most probable1 it contains a basis and groundwork of truth4 ,i must observe1 in the first place1 that ,arnobius1 who did not write till the fourth century1 is the first person who says anything of ,simon's death at all approaching to this story2 nor does he by any means give it all the particulars which later writers have supplied4 ,it will be observed1 also1 that ,eusebius1 who wrote after ,arnobius1 does not say any thing of ,simon's extraordinary end2 but merely states that his credit and influence were extinguished1 as soon as ,st4 ,peter began to preach in ,rome4 ,it is probable1 therefore1 that no ,greek writer before the time of ,eusebius had mentioned this story2 but1 on the other hand1 there is such a host of evidence1 that the death of ,simon ,magus was in some way or other connected with the presence of ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul at ,rome1 that we might be carrying our skepticism too far if we rejected it4 ,with respect to the doctrines of ,simon ,magus1 we know for certain that ,christ held a conspicuous place in the philosophy which he taught2 but to define with accuracy the various points of this philosophy1 is a difficult1 if not impossible1 task4 ,the fathers perhaps may be suspected of laying too many impieties to the charge of this heretic2 and some of their accounts cannot be reconciled with each other4 ,still1 however1 we may extract from their writings an outline of the truth2 and in this instance1 as before1 ,i would attach particular weight to the authority of ,justin ,martyr4 ,that writer says that nearly all the inhabitants of ,samaria1 and a few persons in other countries1 acknowledged and worshipped ,simon ,magus as the first or supreme ,god3 and in another place he says that they styled him ,god1 above all dominion and authority and power4 ,later writers have increased the blasphemy of this doctrine1 and said that ,simon declared himself to the ,samaritans as the ,father1 to the ,jews as the ,son1 and to the rest of the world as the ,holy ,ghost4 ,but ,i cannot bring myself to believe that he ever advanced so far in wickedness or absurdity4 ,the true state of the case may perhaps be collected from the words of ,st4 ,luke1 who tells us that ,simon gave himself out to be 8some great one10 and that the people said of him1 8,this man is the great power of ,god10 ,acts viii1 #aj4 ,such is the title which he bore before he had heard of ,christ2 and there is no reason to think that he afterward raised his pretensions1 and identified himself with ,god4 ,he gave himself out as 8the great power of ,god10 that is1 a person in whom divine power resided3 and1 after he had heard the ,apostles1 he seems to have so far enlarged his doctrine1 as to have said1 that the ,god whose minister he was1 and who had always been worshipped in ,samaria1 had revealed himself to the ,jews by his ,son1 and to the rest of the world by the ,holy ,ghost4 ,there is reason to believe that he declared himself to be the ,christ who appeared to the ,jews2 or rather1 he said that the same spirit which descended upon ,jesus had descended afterward upon himself2 for he did not believe that ,jesus had a real body1 but he taught that he was only a phantom4 ,to this he added1 that the ,holy ,ghost1 by which ,god was revealed to the ,gentiles1 resided in himself3 and this ,i take to be the real origin of the story1 that he was the ,god who revealed himself as the ,father to the ,samaritans1 as the ,son to the ,jews1 and as the ,holy ,ghost to the rest of the world4 ,another charge1 which is equally difficult to believe1 relates to a female companion1 whom he is said to have declared to be the first idea1 or conception1 which he1 as ,god1 put forth from his mind4 ,by another mental process1 in which this first idea was a partner1 he produced the angels1 and they created the world4 ,all this was highly mystical1 and writers have had recourse to different allegories1 by which the absurdity may be explained4 ,that ,simon never identified a real living person with an idea emanating from the mind of ,god1 may1 ,i think1 be assumed as certain4 ,but we see1 in this story1 evident traces of the ,gnostic doctrines4 ,valentinus1 in the second century1 made the first cause1 or ,bythus1 act upon 1 or 1 that is1 upon his own mind1 and produce the first pair of ons4 ,this then was the doctrine of ,simon3 the supreme ,god1 by a mental process1 produced different orders of angels1 and they created the world4 ,it was this same ,god1 whose first or principal power resided in ,simon ,magus4 ,but when later writers had said that he actually proclaimed himself as ,god1 it followed that it was he1 who1 by an operation of his own mind1 produced the angels4 ,if ,i have argued rightly1 ,i have freed the doctrine of ,simon ,magus from some of its impieties2 but there is still much which is absurd1 and much which is impious2 for he believed that the world was created1 not by the supreme ,god1 but by inferior beings3 he taught also1 that ,christ was one of those successive generations of ons which were derived from ,god2 not the on which created the world2 but he was sent from ,god to rescue mankind from the tyranny of the demiurgus1 or creative on4 ,simon was also inventor of the strange notion1 that the ,jesus who was said to be born and crucified had not a material body1 but was only a phantom4 ,his other doctrines were1 that the writers of the ,old ,testament were not inspired by the supreme ,god1 the ,fountain of good1 but by those inferior beings who created the world1 and who were the authors of evil4 ,he denied a general resurrection2 and the lives of himself and his followers are said to have been a continued course of impure and vicious conduct4 ,such was the doctrine and the practice of ,simon ,magus1 from whom all the pseudo-,christian or ,gnostic heresies were said to be derived4 ,simon himself seems to have been one of those ,jews who1 as we learn from the ,acts of the ,apostles1 travelled about the country1 exorcising evil spirits4 ,but he was also a man of speculative mind2 and1 having studied the doctrines of ,plato1 he entered into the questions which were then so commonly agitated1 concerning the eternity of matter1 and the origin of evil4 ,hence we find him embracing the opinion1 that the world was created by angels1 who were themselves produced from ,god4 ,this was a corrupted ,platonism4 ,plato imagined that the ideas which were in the mind of the ,deity created intellectual beings3 ,simon taught that the supreme ,god by an operation of his own mind produced the angels4 ,the first intelligences of ,plato were employed by ,god to create the world3 ,simon also taught that the angels1 or ons1 created the world2 but in one respect the ,gnostics had totally changed the philosophy of ,plato2 for they taught that the angel1 or angels1 who created the world1 acted contrary to the wishes of the supreme ,god4 ,,sin1 the transgression of the law1 or want of conformity to the will of ,god1 #a ,john iii1 #d4 ,original sin is that whereby our whole nature is corrupted1 and rendered contrary to the nature and law of ,god2 or1 according to the ninth article of the church of ,england1 8,it is that whereby man is very far gone from original righteousness1 and is1 of his own nature1 inclined to evil40 ,this is sometimes called1 8indwelling sin10 ,rom4 vii4 ,the imputation of the sin of ,adam to his posterity1 is also what divines call1 with some latitude of expression1 original sin4 ,actual sin is a direct violation of ,god's law1 and generally applied to those who are capable of committing moral evil2 as opposed to idiots or children1 who have not the right use of their powers4 ,sins of omission consist in leaving those things undone which ought to be done4 ,sins of commission are those which are committed against affirmative precepts1 or doing what should not be done4 ,sins of infirmity are those which arise from ignorance1 surprise1 c4 ,secret sins are those committed in secret1 or those of which1 through blindness or prejudice1 we do not see the evil1 ,psalm xix1 #g-ab4 ,presumptuous sins are those which are done boldly against light and conviction4 ,the unpardonable sin is1 according to some1 the ascribing to the devil the miracles which ,christ wrought by the power of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,this sin1 or blasphemy1 as it should rather be called1 many scribes and ,pharisees were guilty of1 who1 beholding our ,lord do his miracles1 affirmed that he wrought them by ,beelzebub1 the prince of devils1 which was1 in effect1 calling the ,holy ,ghost ,satan1 a most horrible blasphemy2 and1 as on this ground they rejected ,christ1 and salvation by him1 their sin could certainly have no forgiveness1 ,mark iii1 #bb-cj4 ,no one therefore could be guilty of this blasphemy1 except those who were spectators of ,christ's miracles4 ,there is1 however1 another view of this unpardonable offence1 which deserves consideration3 ,the sin or blasphemy against the ,holy ,ghost1 says ,bishop ,tomline1 is mentioned in the first three ,gospels4 ,it appears that all the three evangelists agree in representing the sin or blasphemy against the ,holy ,ghost as a crime which would not be forgiven2 but no one of them affirms that those who had ascribed ,christ's power of casting out devils to ,beelzebub1 had been guilty of that sin1 and in ,st4 ,luke it is not mentioned that any such charge had been made4 ,our ,saviour1 according to the account in ,st4 ,matthew and ,st4 ,mark1 endeavoured to convince the ,jews of their error2 but so far from accusing them of having committed an unpardonable sin in what they had said concerning him1 he declares that 8whosoever speaketh a word against the ,son of man1 it shall be forgiven him20 that is1 whatever reproaches men may utter against the ,son of man during his ministry1 however they may calumniate the authority upon which he acts1 it is still possible that hereafter they may repent and believe1 and all their sins may be forgiven them2 but the reviling of the ,holy ,ghost is described as an offence of a far more heinous nature3 8,the blasphemy against the ,holy ,ghost shall not be forgiven unto men40 8,he that shall blaspheme against the ,holy ,ghost hath never forgiveness40 8,unto him that blasphemeth against the ,holy ,ghost it shall not be forgiven40 ,it is plain that this sin against the ,holy ,ghost could not be committed while our ,saviour was upon earth1 since he always speaks of the ,holy ,ghost as not being to come till after his ascension into heaven4 ,a few days after that great event1 the descent of the ,holy ,ghost enabled the ,apostles to work miracles1 and communicated to them a variety of other supernatural gifts4 ,if men should ascribe these powers to ,beelzebub1 or in any respect reject their authority1 they would blaspheme the ,holy ,ghost1 from whom they were derived2 and that sin would be unpardonable1 because this was the completion of the evidence of the divine authority of ,christ and his religion2 and they who rejected these last means of conviction1 could have no other opportunity of being brought to faith in ,christ1 the only appointed condition of pardon and forgiveness4 ,the greater heinousness of the sin of these men would consist in their rejecting a greater body of testimony2 for they are supposed to be acquainted with the resurrection of our ,saviour from the dead1 with his ascension into heaven1 with the miraculous descent of the ,holy ,ghost1 and with the supernatural powers which it communicated2 circumstances1 all of which were enforced by the ,apostles when they preached the ,gospel2 but none of which could be known to those who refused to acknowledge ,jesus as the ,messiah during his actual ministry4 ,though this was a great sin1 it was not an unpardonable one1 it might be remedied by subsequent belief1 by yielding to subsequent testimony4 ,but1 on the other hand1 they who finally rejected the accumulated and complete evidence of ,jesus being the ,messiah1 as exhibited by the inspired ,apostles1 precluded themselves from the possibility of conviction1 because no farther testimony would be afforded them1 and consequently1 there being no means of repentance1 they would be incapable of forgiveness and redemption4 ,hence it appears that the sin against the ,holy ,ghost consisted in finally rejecting the ,gospel as preached by the ,apostles1 who confirmed the truth of the doctrine which they taught 8by signs and wonders1 and divers miracles1 and gifts of the ,holy ,ghost10 ,heb4 ii1 #d4 ,it was unpardonable1 because this was the consummation of the proofs afforded to the men of that generation of the divine mission of ,christ4 ,this sin was manifestly distinct from all other sins2 it indicated an invincible obstinacy of mind1 an impious and unalterable determination to refuse the offered mercy of ,god4 ,it would appear from this1 that those only committed or could commit this irremissible offence1 who were witnesses of the mighty works wrought by the ,holy ,spirit in the ,apostles after ,christ's ascension and the day of pentecost4 ,our ,lord's declaration appears chiefly to respect the ,jews4 ,this view will serve to explain those passages in the ,epistle to the ,hebrews1 in which the hopeless case of ,jewish apostates is described4 ,but see ,,blasphemy4 ,,sin1 ,,desert ,,of4 ,to this the tenth station the ,israelites came exactly a month after they left ,egypt4 ,and here again they murmured for 8the bread and the flesh-pots of ,egypt40 ,so the ,lord gave them quails for a day1 and manna for forty years1 till they came to the borders of ,canaan4 ,on this occasion the institution of the ,sabbath was revived1 as a day of rest1 which had been intermitted during their ,egyptian bondage4 ,on this day there fell no manna1 but on the preceding they were directed to gather two days' provision4 ,to perpetuate the memorial of 8this bread from heaven0 to future generations1 a pot of manna1 which was preserved fresh1 by a standing miracle1 was ordered to be laid up beside the ark of the covenant1 in the sanctuary1 ,exod4 xvi4 ,,sinai1 a famous mountain of ,arabia ,petra1 on which ,god gave the law to ,moses1 ,exod4 xix1 #a2 xxiv1 #af2 xxxi1 #ah2 xxxiv1 #b1 #d1 c2 ,lev4 xxv1 #a2 xxvi1 #df4 ,it stands in a kind of peninsula1 formed by the two arms of the ,red ,sea2 one extending north1 called the ,gulf of ,kolsom2 the other extending east1 called the ,gulf of ,elan4 ,the ,arabs call ,mount ,sinai by the name of ,tor1 that is1 the mountain1 by way of excellence2 or ,gibel ,mousa1 8the mountain of ,moses40 ,it is two hundred and sixty miles from ,cairo1 which is a journey of ten days4 ,the wilderness of ,sinai1 where the ,israelites continued encamped almost a year1 and where ,moses erected the tabernacle of the covenant1 is considerably elevated above the rest of the country2 the ascent to it is very craggy1 the greater part cut out of the rock2 then one comes to a large space of ground1 which is a plain surrounded on all sides by rocks and eminences1 whose length is nearly twelve miles4 ,toward the extremity of this plain1 on the north1 two high mountains appear2 the highest is called ,sinai1 the other ,horeb4 ,they are of very steep ascent1 and do not stand on much ground in comparison to their extraordinary height4 ,sinai is at least one third part higher than the other1 and its ascent more upright and difficult4 ,the top of the mountain terminates in an uneven and rugged space1 which might contain about sixty persons4 ,on this eminence is built a little chapel1 called ,st4 ,catherine's1 where it is thought the body of this saint rested for three hundred and sixty years2 but afterward it was removed into a church at the foot of the mountain4 ,near this chapel issues a fountain of very good fresh water2 it is looked upon as miraculous1 it not being conceivable how water can flow from the brow of so high and so barren a mountain4 ,mount ,horeb stands west of ,sinai2 so that at sun-rising the shadow of ,sinai covers ,horeb4 ,beside the little fountain at the top of ,sinai1 there is another at the foot of ,horeb1 which supplies the monastery of ,st4 ,catherine4 ,five or six paces from thence they show a stone1 whose height is four or five feet1 and breadth about three1 which they say is the very stone from whence ,moses caused the water to gush out4 ,its colour is of a spotted grey2 and it is1 as it were1 set in a kind of earth1 where no other rock appears4 ,this stone has twelve holes or channels1 which are about a foot wide1 from whence they say the water issued which the ,israelites drank4 8,sinai10 says ,sandys1 8has three tops of a marvellous height2 that on the west side1 where ,god appeared to ,moses in a bush1 fruitful in pasturage1 far lower than the middlemost1 and shadowed when the sun riseth thereon2 which is that whereon ,god gave the law to ,moses1 and which is now called the ,mount of ,moses1 at the foot of which stands the monastery called ,st4 ,catherine's1 from which there were steps formerly up to the very top of the mountain1 and were computed fourteen thousand in number4 ,at present some of them are broken1 but those that remain are well made1 and easy to go up and down4 ,there are1 in several places of the ascent1 good cisterns2 and especially near the top1 a fair and good one4 ,the third or most easterly summit is called by the religious in those parts1 ,mount ,catherine2 on the top of which there is a dome1 under which they say was interred the body of this saint1 brought thither by angels after she was beheaded at ,alexandria40 ,one may judge of the height of ,st4 ,catherine's ,mount1 which certainly is not so high as that of ,moses by a third part1 from this circumstance1 that ,thevenot found much snow on both when he was there1 which was in ,february4 ,the monastery of ,st4 ,catherine is from ,cairo some eight days' journey over the deserts4 ,,sion1 or ,,zion1 ,,mount1 a mount or hill on the south of ,old ,jerusalem or ,salem1 and higher than that on which the ancient city stood4 ,this hill was1 perhaps1 on this account1 made choice of by the ,jebusites for building a fort or citadel upon2 which fort was taken by ,david1 who transferred his court thither from ,hebron1 and brought the ark of the ,lord and set it in a tabernacle or tent pitched for it4 ,on this account it is1 that this hill is so frequently styled in the ,psalms the 8holy hill20 and1 by way of excellence1 is used in the poetical language of ,scripture to denote the whole city of ,jerusalem4 ,here ,david built a palace1 and a city1 called after him the city of ,david2 and which subsequently formed a part of ,jerusalem1 enclosed within the same walls1 although a great part of the hill is now left without them2 while1 on the contrary1 ,calvary1 which is supposed to have stood formerly without the walls1 is now enclosed within them1 the city having drawn itself round about this sacred mount4 8,this hill10 says ,m4 ,chateaubriand1 8is of a yellowish colour1 and barren appearance2 open in form of a crescent1 toward ,jerusalem2 and is about as high as ,montmartre at ,paris1 but rounder at the top4 ,this sacred summit is distinguished by three monuments1 or1 more properly1 by three ruins1 the house of ,caiaphas1 the place where ,christ celebrated his last supper1 and the tomb or palace of ,david4 ,from the top of the hill you see1 to the south1 the valley of ,ben ,hinnom2 beyond this1 the field of blood1 purchased with the thirty pieces of silver given to ,judas2 the hill of ,evil ,counsel1 the tombs of the judges1 and the whole desert toward ,hebron and ,bethlehem4 ,to the north1 the wall of ,jerusalem1 which passes over the top of ,sion1 intercepts the view of the city1 the site of which gradually slopes toward the ,valley of ,jehoshaphat40 ,dr4 ,richardson observes of ,sion1 8,at the time when ,i visited this sacred ground1 one part of it supported a crop of barley1 another was undergoing the labour of the plough1 and the soil turned up consisted of stones and lime mixed with earth1 such as is usually met with in the foundations of ruined cities4 ,it is nearly a mile in circumference1 is highest on the west side1 and toward the east falls down in broad terraces on the upper part of the mountain1 and narrow ones on the side as it slopes down toward the brook ,kedron4 ,each terrace is divided from the one above it by a low wall of dry stone1 built of the ruins of this celebrated spot4 ,the terraces near the bottom of the hill are used as gardens1 and are watered from the pool of ,siloam4 ,we have here another remarkable instance of the special fulfilment of prophecy4 #8,therefore shall ,zion for your sakes be ploughed as a field1 and ,jerusalem shall become heaps1' ,micah iii1 #ab40 ,mr4 ,jolliffe represents the hill of ,sion as not more raised above the city than the ,aventine hill above the ,roman forum2 but conjectures that its height1 from its base in the ,valley of ,gehinnon1 from which it rises abruptly1 may be equivalent to some of the lowest hills which encompass ,bath2 that is1 if the estimate be correct1 about three hundred and sixty feet1 which is the height of the lowest of the hills above that city4 ,,sister1 in the style of the ,hebrews1 has equal latitude as brother4 ,it is used not only for a sister by natural relation from the same father and mother1 but also for a sister only by the same father or by the same mother1 or a near relation only4 ,sarah is called sister to ,abraham1 ,gen4 xii1 #ac2 xx1 #ab1 though only his niece according to some1 or sister by the father's side according to others4 ,in the law1 ,lev4 xviii1 #ah1 it is forbidden to take to wife the sister of a wife2 to marry two sisters2 or1 according to some interpreters1 to marry a second wife1 having one already4 ,literally1 8,thou shalt not take a wife over her sister to afflict her20 as if meaning to forbid polygamy4 ,in the ,gospels1 the brothers and sisters of ,jesus ,christ are his cousins1 children of the sisters of the holy virgin1 ,matt4 xiii1 #ef2 ,mark vi1 #c4 ,,slave4 ,see ,,servant4 ,,sleep1 ,,sleeping1 ,,slumbering1 is taken either for the sleep or repose of the body2 or for the sleep of the soul1 which is supineness1 indolence1 stupidity2 or for the sleep of death4 8,you shall sleep with your fathers20 you shall die1 as they are dead4 ,jeremiah1 li1 #ci1 threatens ,babylon1 in the name of the ,lord1 with a perpetual sleep1 out of which they shall not awake4 ,daniel1 xii1 #b1 speaks of those that sleep in the dust of the grave4 8,lazarus our friend sleepeth2 let us go and awake him10 ,john xi1 #aa2 he is dead1 let us go and raise him up4 8,awake1 thou that sleepest1 and arise from the dead1 and ,christ shall give thee light10 ,eph4 v1 #ad4 ,here ,st4 ,paul speaks to those that were dead in sin and infidelity4 ,st4 ,peter says of the wicked1 8,their damnation slumbereth not10 #b ,peter ii1 #c4 ,god is not asleep1 he will not forget to punish them in his own due time4 ,isaiah1 lxv1 #d1 speaks of a superstitious practice among the ,pagans1 who went to sleep in the temples of their idols1 to obtain prophetic dreams3 8,they remain among the graves1 and lodge in the monuments40 ,the word1 which we translate 8monuments10 signifies places 8kept0 or 8observed40 ,some interpret it of idol temples1 some of caves and dens1 in which the ,heathens used to worship their idols2 and some of tombs or monuments for dead persons4 ,thus also the superstitious and idolatrous ,jews1 in contempt of the prophets1 and of the temple of the ,lord1 went into the tombs and temples of idols to sleep there1 and to have dreams that might discover future events to them4 ,the ,pagans for this purpose used to lie upon the skins of the sacrificed victims4 ,,slings4 ,see ,,arms4 ,,smyrna1 a city of ,asia ,minor1 and one of the finest in all the ,levant4 ,it contended for the honour of giving birth to ,homer1 and its title is by many thought to be the best founded4 ,the ,christian church in ,smyrna was one of the seven churches of ,asia to which the ,apostle ,john was commanded to address an epistle1 ,rev4 ii1 #h-aj4 ,the present ,smyrna1 which the ,turks call ,esmir1 is about four miles in circumference1 and contains a population of about a hundred thousand souls4 ,it is less remarkable for the elegance of its buildings than for the beauty of its situation1 the extent of its commerce1 and the riches of its inhabitants4 ,,socinians1 a sect so called from ,faustus ,socinus1 who died in ,poland in #afjd4 ,this celebrated man was born in ,tuscany1 and was descended from an ancient and noble family4 ,in the earlier period of his life he devoted little time to literary acquisitions1 but he was possessed of a vigorous understanding1 and of that steady fortitude which qualified him for the memorable part which he afterward acted4 ,his connection with his uncle ,llius probably gave a bias to his mind with respect to religion4 ,he warmly embraced his tenets1 and he spent a great part of his days in studying and disseminating them4 ,having left his native country1 he visited ,poland2 and finally he settled in it for the express purpose of propagating his own peculiar views of religious truth4 ,the fundamental principles which he assumed were1 the rejection of all mystery from revelation1 and the necessity of trying its doctrines by the light of reason2 and he rigorously applied this latter maxim in conducting his theological investigations4 ,he inculcated in the strictest sense1 the unity of ,god2 considered the ,word and the ,holy ,ghost as attributes of the supreme ,being2 taught that ,christ was a man peculiarly honoured by the ,almighty1 having been born through the operation of the ,spirit2 and that he was so highly exalted1 in consequence of his office as the ,saviour of the world1 that he might be styled the ,son of ,god1 and ought to be worshipped4 ,struck with several declarations of our ,lord which seemed to imply that he had descended from heaven1 and which militated against his leading tenet respecting ,jesus1 he endeavoured to evade the application of them1 by supposing or affirming that1 previous to the commencement of our ,saviour's ministry1 he had1 through the power of ,god1 been taken up to the celestial regions1 and had in them received from the ,almighty the truths which he was commissioned to reveal4 ,the first reception of ,socinus in ,poland1 even by those who might have been expected to welcome him1 was most discouraging4 ,the ,unitarian churches which had been previously established in that kingdom1 differing from him in several points1 would not admit him into their communion2 and he had to encounter the enmity of the great majority of ,christians1 who abhorred his tenets1 and branded them as impious4 ,but1 notwithstanding all this1 and although he was visited with much suffering and affliction1 his perseverance1 his talents1 and his zeal soon excited admiration2 his views were adopted by many even in the highest stations of life2 his principles were embodied in a catechism1 which1 though not imposed upon his followers1 they read with very extensive acquiescence2 and he had the satisfaction of beholding the sentiments which he had long cherished1 embraced by various churches enjoying the protection of government1 and permitted to establish seminaries of education by which the impression made on the public mind might be preserved and deepened4 ,there was not1 however1 perfect unanimity of faith among all his associates who united in denying the divinity of our ,lord4 ,vast numbers of these1 previous to their having perused the papers of ,llius ,socinus1 had so far received the system of ,arianism1 that they believed ,christ to have existed before he entered into the world2 and although many1 in consequence of the reasonings and representations of ,socinus1 abandoned this doctrine1 it was retained by some1 who1 from their leader1 were called ,farnovians4 ,socinus conducted himself toward these men with admirable address4 ,fully aware that the tendency of their having departed so far from the orthodox tenets was to lead them to still farther recession1 and sensible that his own system naturally and consequentially resulted from what they readily admitted1 he used every method to conciliate them1 and he permitted them to remain with his followers1 upon condition of their not openly insisting on the prexistence of ,christ4 ,they did1 however1 at length separate from the great body of his adherents2 but they gradually approached nearer and nearer to them1 and1 upon the death of ,farnovius1 most of them incorporated themselves with the ,socinians1 and all trace of them as a distinct party was obliterated4 ,socinus was much more agitated by the promulgation of an opinion very opposite to those now mentioned4 ,as might have been anticipated1 there were some who1 having adopted the sentiments of ,llius ,socinus as to the simple humanity of ,christ1 deduced from this tenet consequences which appeared to them obviously to flow from it1 although these had not been perceived or admitted by ,llius himself4 ,a striking example of this took place in the time of ,faustus ,socinus4 ,francis ,david1 a man of considerable influence among the ,unitarians1 being the superintendent of their churches in ,transylvania1 maintained that1 as ,christ was born just like other men1 so he continued1 notwithstanding his exaltation1 to be merely a human being2 and that therefore all invocation of him1 and worship paid to him1 were to be shunned as impiety or idolatry4 ,socinus inveighed with the utmost warmth against this opinion2 he used every method to induce ,david to renounce it2 and1 at the desire of one of his friends1 he resided for a considerable time at the house of his opponent1 that the subject at issue might be fully and calmly discussed4 ,he failed1 however1 in accomplishing his object4 ,david persisted1 as he had1 upon the ground which he had taken1 good reason to do1 in asserting the doctrine which he had announced2 and he was soon after this thrown by the prince of ,transylvania into prison1 where he lingered for several years1 and then died at an advanced age4 ,it has been insinuated that ,socinus was accessary to this cruel deed of detestable persecution2 and1 although attempts have been made to wipe off the imputation1 there is too much cause to think that it is not wholly unfounded4 ,most certain it is1 that he had it much at heart to root out what he viewed as the heresy of ,david1 and that the support of it after the death of the unhappy sufferer by some distinguished ,unitarians gave him much uneasiness4 ,it is not unlikely that the zeal which he thus displayed arose from his apprehension that the tenets which he opposed would supplant his own1 and from the difficulty that he must have experienced in turning aside the inferences which were affirmed to follow from what he admitted4 ,if such was the case1 and it seems in many respects more probable than the conjecture of ,mosheim1 that it is to be attributed to the dread of rendering the sect more odious than it actually was1 we have a striking proof of his discernment1 though at the expense of his candour2 for the present creed of ,unitarianism approaches much nearer to that of ,david than to the doctrines of the founder of ,socinianism himself4 ,but1 while he was thus disquieted by opposition which1 after the liberty with which he had himself departed from the faith of the most ancient and numerous ,christian churches1 should have created no surprise1 he was highly gratified by the zeal and the establishment of his followers4 ,under the protection of the ample toleration which they enjoyed in ,poland they were sedulous in their attempts to imprint their tenets upon those among whom they lived1 and to send these tenets abroad to foreign nations4 ,the ,anti-trinitarians in ,poland had early translated the ,scriptures1 and their successors under ,socinus composed many works with the design of defending the principles of their faith4 ,they also sent missionaries to propagate their views and to disseminate the books which supported them1 anticipating success similar to that which had accompanied their efforts in ,transylvania4 ,but in ,hungary and in ,austria they were successfully opposed by the united and cordial efforts of ,catholics and ,protestants4 ,in ,holland they were more fortunate2 and in ,england they established only one congregation1 which differed in some points from the parent sect1 and which soon dwindled away4 ,these failures1 which the ardour1 the ability1 and the high rank of many who engaged in the diffusion of ,socinianism were unable to prevent1 were soon followed by their expulsion from the country in which they had so long remained in security and peace4 ,toward the middle of the seventeenth century some of the students attending the academy at ,racow1 wantonly insulted the feelings and the principles of the ,catholics1 by a contemptible act of outrage against a crucifix1 which1 with stones1 they threw down from the place in which it had been erected4 ,by men warmly attached to their own religion1 and who had at all times regarded the ,socinians as undermining its foundation1 this youthful excess was represented as confirming all the charges that had been made against the community to which the perpetrators belonged1 and they determined to exert themselves to procure their punishment or extirpation4 ,the supporters of the established religion accordingly applied to the diet at ,warsaw2 and1 notwithstanding the powerful influence used in favour of the ,socinians1 a cruel edict was passed1 abolishing their academy at ,racow1 banishing the learned men who had taught in it1 breaking the printing presses1 and shutting up the churches4 ,this edict was carried into effect with much severity2 but it did not exhaust the enmity now cherished against the sect2 for within a few years after1 by a solemn act of the ,polish diet1 they were banished from the territories of the republic1 and1 with sad departure from the tolerant and beneficent spirit of the ,gospel1 death was denounced against all who held their opinions1 or who even sheltered and protected those who entertained them4 ,a short time was allowed to the unfortunate victims to arrange their affairs before they bade an eternal adieu to scenes which all the ties of human life must have endeared to them2 but this period was abridged4 ,some1 however1 had escaped the operation of the law1 and had remained in ,poland2 but three years after the edict was renewed1 and the ,socinians who still lingered in their beloved country were driven from it with a rigour and an inhumanity reflecting infamy upon those who were guilty of them1 and leading to the most melancholy reflections upon that dismal perversion of all that is amiable in our nature1 which has so often been effected by a mistaken zeal for a religion breathing the tenderest concern for the happiness of mankind4 ,the principles of ,socinus were1 notwithstanding1 secretly fostered1 and various causes tended to perpetuate them even where in profession they were abjured4 ,the propensity1 so natural to man1 of dissipating every shade of mystery1 and casting the light of his own understanding around the subjects of his contemplation1 did not cease to operate2 and the application of this principle1 so gratifying to the pride of human reason1 carried many farther than even ,socinus had probably anticipated4 ,the ,socinians hold1 that ,jesus ,christ was a mere man1 who had no existence before he was born of the virgin ,mary2 that the ,holy ,ghost is no distinct person2 but that the ,father only is truly and properly ,god4 ,they own that the name of ,god is given in ,scripture to ,jesus ,christ1 but contend that it is only a deputed title2 which1 however1 invests him with a great authority over all creatures4 ,they deny the doctrine of satisfaction and imputed righteousness1 and say1 that ,christ only preached the truth to mankind1 set before them in himself an example of heroic virtue1 and sealed his doctrines with his blood4 ,original sin they esteem a mere scholastic chimera4 ,some of them1 likewise1 maintain the sleep of the soul1 which1 they say1 becomes insensible at death1 and is raised again with the body at the resurrection1 when the good shall be established in the possession of eternal felicity1 while the wicked shall be consigned to a fire that will torment them1 not eternally1 but for a certain duration1 proportioned to their demerits4 ,,sodom1 the capital of ,pentapolis1 which for some time was the residence of ,lot1 the nephew of ,abraham4 ,the history of its destruction is given in the book of ,genesis4 ,see ,,abraham1 ,,lot1 and ,,dead ,,sea4 ,,solomon1 or ,,salomon1 son of ,david and ,bathsheba1 was born ,a4 ,m4 #biga4 ,the ,lord loved him1 and sent ,nathan to ,david to give ,solomon the name of ,jedidiah1 or1 8beloved of the ,lord10 #b ,sam4 xii1 #bd1 #be4 ,this was probably when ,nathan assured ,david that his son should succeed him1 and that he should inherit those promises which had been made to him some years before1 when he had conceived the design of building a temple to the ,lord2 for then ,god declared1 by the prophet ,nathan1 that the honour of building a temple should be reserved for his son1 #b ,sam4 vii1 #e1 c4 ,solomon1 being confirmed in his kingdom1 contracted an alliance with ,pharaoh1 king of ,egypt1 and married his daughter1 ,a4,m4 #bbia4 ,he brought her to ,jerusalem1 and had apartments for her in the city of ,david1 till he should build her a palace1 which he did some years afterward1 when he had finished the temple4 ,it is thought that on occasion of this marriage1 ,solomon composed the ,canticles1 which are a kind of epithalamium4 ,the ,scripture speaks of the daughter of ,pharaoh1 as contributing to pervert ,solomon1 #a ,kings xi1 #a1 #b2 ,neh4 xiii1 #bf2 and it is very likely1 that if at first this princess might seem converted to the ,lord1 she afterward might retain her private disposition to idolatry1 and might engage her husband in it4 ,solomon1 accompanied by his troops and all ,israel1 went up to ,gibeon1 where was then the brazen altar1 upon which he offered a thousand burnt-offerings4 ,the night following1 ,god appeared to him in a dream1 and said1 8,ask of me what thou wilt40 ,solomon begged of ,god a wise and understanding heart1 and such qualities as were necessary for the government of the people committed to him4 ,this request pleased the ,lord1 and was fully granted by him4 ,solomon returned to ,jerusalem1 where he offered a great number of sacrifices on the altar before the ark of the ,lord1 and made a great feast for his servants4 ,he enjoyed a profound peace throughout his dominions2 ,judah and ,israel lived in security2 and his neighbours either paid him tribute1 or were his allies2 he ruled over all the countries and kingdoms from the ,euphrates to the ,nile1 and his dominions extended even beyond the former2 he had abundance of horses and chariots of war2 he exceeded the orientals1 and all the ,egyptians1 in wisdom and prudence2 he was the wisest of mankind1 and his reputation was spread through all nations4 ,he composed or collected1 three thousand proverbs1 and one thousand and five canticles4 ,he knew the nature of plants and trees1 from the cedar on ,libanus to the hyssop on the wall2 also of beasts1 of birds1 of reptiles1 of fishes4 ,there was a concourse of strangers from all countries to hear his wisdom1 and ambassadors from the most remote princes4 ,when ,hiram1 king of ,tyre1 knew that ,solomon was made king of ,israel1 he sent ambassadors to congratulate him on his accession to the crown4 ,some time afterward1 ,solomon desired him to supply wood and workmen1 to assist in building a temple to the ,lord4 ,hiram gladly undertook this service1 and ,solomon1 on his part1 obliged himself to give twenty thousand measures of wheat1 and twenty thousand measures of oil4 ,the ,hebrew and the ,vulgate have only twenty measures of oil2 but the reading ought no doubt to be twenty thousand4 ,solomon began to build the temple in the fourth year of his reign1 and the second after the death of ,david2 four hundred and eighty years after the exodus from ,egypt4 ,he employed in this great work seventy thousand proselytes1 descendants of the ancient ,canaanites1 in carrying burdens1 fourscore thousand in cutting stones out of the quarries1 and three thousand six hundred overseers of the works2 beside thirty thousand ,israelites in the quarries of ,libanus4 ,the temple was completed in the eleventh year of ,solomon1 so that he was but seven years in performing this vast work4 ,the dedication was made the year following1 ,a4 ,m4 #cjja4 ,to make this ceremony the more august1 ,solomon chose for it the eighth day of the seventh month of the holy year1 which was the first of the civil year1 and answered to our ,october4 ,the ceremony of the dedication lasted seven days1 at the end of which began the feast of tabernacles1 which continued seven days longer2 so that the people continued at ,jerusalem fourteen or fifteen days1 from the eighth to the twenty-second of the seventh month4 ,when the ark was placed in the sanctuary1 while the priests and ,levites were celebrating the praises of the ,lord1 the temple was filled with a miraculous cloud1 so that the priests could no longer stand to perform the functions of their ministry4 ,then ,solomon1 being on his throne1 prostrated himself with his face to the ground2 and rising up1 and turning toward the sanctuary1 he addressed his prayer to ,god1 and besought him that the house which he had built might be acceptable to him1 that he would bless and sanctify it1 and hear the prayers of those who should address him from this holy place4 ,he besought him also to fulfil the promises he had made to ,david his servant in favour of his family1 and of the kings his successors4 ,then turning himself to the people1 he solemnly blessed them4 ,fire coming down from heaven consumed the victims and burnt sacrifices on the altar1 and the glory of the ,lord filled the whole temple4 ,on this day the king caused to be sacrificed twenty-two thousand oxen1 and one hundred and twenty thousand sheep for peace-offerings4 ,and because the altar of burnt-offerings was not sufficient for all these victims1 the king consecrated the court of the people4 ,solomon afterward built a palace for himself1 and another for his queen1 the king of ,egypt's daughter4 ,he was thirteen years in finishing these buildings1 and employed in them whatever the most exquisite art1 or the most profuse riches1 could furnish4 ,the palace in which he generally resided was called the house of the forest of ,lebanon2 probably because of the great quantity of cedar used in it4 ,solomon also built the walls of ,jerusalem1 and the place called ,millo in this city2 he repaired and fortified ,hazor1 ,megiddo1 ,gezer1 the two ,bethhorons1 ,upper and ,lower1 ,baalath1 and ,palmyra in the desert of ,syria4 ,he also fortified the cities where he had magazines of corn1 wine1 and oil2 and those where his horses and chariots were kept4 ,he brought under his government the ,hittites1 the ,hivites1 the ,amorites1 and the ,perizzites1 which remained in the land of ,israel4 ,he made them tributaries1 and compelled them to work at the public works4 ,he fitted out a fleet at ,ezion-,geber1 and at ,elath1 on the ,red ,sea1 to go to ,ophir4 ,hiram1 king of ,tyre1 furnished him with mariners1 who instructed the subjects of ,solomon4 ,they performed this voyage in three years1 and brought back gold1 ivory1 ebony1 precious wood1 peacocks1 apes1 and other curiosities4 ,in one voyage they brought ,solomon four hundred and fifty talents of gold1 #b ,chron4 ix1 #ba4 ,about the same time1 the queen of ,sheba came to ,jerusalem1 attracted by the great fame of the king4 ,she brought rich presents of gold1 spices1 and precious stones2 and proposed several enigmas and hard questions1 to which ,solomon gave her such satisfactory answers1 that she owned what had been told her of his wisdom and magnificence was far short of what she had found4 ,the king1 on his part1 made her rich presents in return4 ,solomon was one of the richest1 if not the very richest1 of all princes that have ever lived2 and the ,scripture expressly tells us he exceeded in riches and wisdom all the kings of the earth4 ,his annual revenues were six hundred and sixty-six talents of gold1 without reckoning tributes from kings and nations1 or paid by ,israelites1 or sums received for customs4 ,the bucklers of his guards1 and the throne he sat on1 were overlaid with gold4 ,all the vessels of his table1 and the utensils of his palaces1 were of gold4 ,from all parts he received presents1 vessels of gold and silver1 precious stuffs1 spices1 arms1 horses1 and mules2 and the whole earth desired to see his face1 and to hear the wisdom which ,god had put into his heart4 ,but the latter actions of his life disgraced his character4 ,beside ,pharaoh's daughter1 he married wives from among the ,moabites1 ,ammonites1 ,idumeans1 ,sidonians1 and ,hittites4 ,he had seven hundred wives1 who were so many queens1 beside three hundred concubines4 ,these women perverted his heart in his declining age1 so that he worshipped ,ashtoreth1 goddess of the ,sidonians1 ,moloch1 idol of the ,ammonites1 and ,chemosh1 god of the ,moabites4 ,to these he built temples on the ,mount of ,olives1 over against and east of ,jerusalem1 and thus insulted openly the ,majesty he had adored4 ,solomon died after he had reigned forty years1 ,a4 ,m4 #cjbi4 ,he might be about fifty-eight years of age2 for he was about eighteen when he began to reign4 ,josephus makes him to have reigned eighty years and to have lived ninety-four years2 but this is a manifest error4 ,the history of this prince was written by the prophets ,nathan1 ,ahijah1 and ,iddo4 ,he was buried in the city of ,david2 and ,rehoboam his son reigned in his stead4 ,of all the ingenious works composed by ,solomon1 we have nothing remaining but his ,proverbs1 ,ecclesiastes1 and the ,canticles2 that is1 every literary monument respecting him has perished1 except those written under inspiration--the inspired history which registers his apostasy1 and his own inspired works1 which1 in all the principles they contain1 condemn his vices4 ,some have ascribed to him the book of ,wisdom1 and ,ecclesiasticus2 but these were written by ,hellenistic ,jews4 ,,soul1 that immortal1 immaterial1 active substance or principle in man1 whereby he perceives1 remembers1 reasons1 and wills4 ,see ,,materialism4 ,,sowing4 ,our ,lord1 in his parable of the sower1 says1 8,some seeds fell by the wayside1 and the fowls came and devoured them40 ,buckingham1 in his ,travels in ,palestine1 remarks1 8,we ascended to an elevated plain where husbandmen were sowing1 and some thousands of starlings covered the ground1 as the wild pigeons do in ,egypt1 laying a heavy contribution on the grain thrown into the furrows1 which are not covered by harrowing1 as in ,europe40 ,the sowing 8beside all waters10 mentioned by ,isaiah1 seems to refer to the sowing of rice1 which is done on low grounds flooded1 and prepared for sowing by being trodden by oxen and asses1 mid-leg deep2 thus1 they send 8forth thither the feet of the ox and the ass40 ,,sparrow1 1 ,gen4 vii1 #ad1 and afterward frequently2 1 ,matt4 x1 #bi2 ,luke xii1 #f1 #g2 a little bird every where known4 ,the ,hebrew word is used not only for a sparrow1 but for all sorts of clean birds1 or for those the use of which was not forbidden by the law4 ,that the sparrow is not intended in ,psalm cii1 #g1 is evident from several circumstances2 for that is intimated to be a bird of night1 one that is both solitary and mournful2 none of which characteristics is applicable to the sparrow1 which rests by night1 is gregarious and cheerful4 ,it seems rather to mean a bird melancholy and drooping1 much like one confined in a cage4 ,see ,,swallow4 ,,speech4 ,see ,,language4 ,,spider1 1 ,job viii1 #ad2 ,isa4 lix1 #e4 ,an insect well known1 remarkable for the thread which it spins1 with which it forms a web of curious texture1 but so frail that it is exposed to be broken and destroyed by the slightest accident4 ,to the slenderness of this filmy workmanship1 ,job compares the hope of the wicked4 ,this1 says ,dr4 ,good1 was 8doubtless a proverbial allusion2 and so exquisite1 that it is impossible to conceive any figure that can more fully describe the utter vanity of the hopes and prosperity of the wicked40 8,deceiving bliss6 in bitter shame it ends1 ,his prop a cobweb1 which an insect rends40 ,so ,isaiah says1 8,they weave the web of the spider2 of their webs no garment shall be made2 neither shall they cover themselves with their works40 ,,spikenard1 4 ,by this was meant a highly aromatic plant growing in the ,indies1 called 8nardostachys10 by ,dioscorides and ,galen2 from whence was made the very valuable extract or unguent1 or favourite perfume1 used at the ancient baths and feasts1 unguentum nardinum1 unguentum nardi spicat1 the perfume or unction of spikenard1 which it appears from a passage in ,horace1 was so valuable1 that as much of it as could be contained in a small box of precious stone1 was considered as a sort of equivalent for a large vessel of wine1 and a handsome quota for a guest to contribute at an entertainment1 according to the custom of antiquity3 ,nardo vina merebere3 ,nardi parvus onyx eliciet cadum4 8,bring you the odours1 and a cask is thine4 ,thy little box of ointment shall produce ,a mighty cask40 ,,francis4 ,st4 ,mark1 xiv1 #c1 mentions 8ointment of spikenard very precious10 which is said to be worth more than three hundred denarii2 and ,john1 xii1 #c1 mentions a pound of ointment of spikenard1 very costly2 the house was filled with the odour of the ointment2 it was worth three hundred denarii4 ,it is not to be supposed that this was a ,syrian production1 but the true 8atar0 of ,indian spikenard2 an unguent1 containing the very essence of the plant1 and brought at a great expense from a remote country4 ,,spirit1 in ,hebrew1 1 in ,greek1 1 and in ,latin1 spiritus1 is in the ,scriptures sometimes taken for the ,holy ,ghost1 the third person of the ,holy ,trinity4 ,the word signifies also the reasonable soul which animates us1 and continues in existence even after the death of the body3 that spiritual1 thinking and reasoning substance1 which is capable of eternal happiness1 ,num4 xvi1 #bb2 ,acts vii1 #ei4 ,the term spirit is also often used for an angel1 a demon1 and a ghost1 or soul separate from the body4 ,it is said1 in ,acts xxiii1 #h1 that the ,sadducees denied the existence of angels and spirits4 ,jesus ,christ appearing to his disciples1 said to them1 ,luke xxiv1 #ci1 8,handle me and see1 for a spirit hath not flesh and bones1 as ye see me have40 ,and ,st4 ,paul calls the good angels 8ministering spirits10 ,heb4 i1 #ad4 ,in #a ,sam4 xvi1 #ad2 xviii1 #aj2 xix #i1 it is said that an evil spirit from the ,lord troubled ,saul3 and we have also the expression unclean spirits4 ,add to this1 spirit is sometimes put for the disposition of the heart or mind3 see ,num4 v1 #ad2 ,zech4 xii1 #aj2 ,luke xiii1 #aa2 ,isa4 xi1 #b4 ,discerning of spirits1 or the secret character and thoughts of men1 was a gift of ,god1 and placed among the miraculous gifts of the ,holy ,ghost1 #a ,cor4 xii1 #aj2 #a ,john iv1 #a4 ,,star1 in ,hebrew1 4 ,under the name of stars1 the ancient ,hebrews comprehended all the heavenly bodies1 constellations1 and planets2 in a word1 all the luminaries1 the sun and moon excepted4 ,the number of the stars was looked upon as infinite4 ,and the ,psalmist1 to exalt the power and magnificence of ,god1 says1 that he numbers the stars and calls them by their names2 and so are they put to express a vast multitude1 ,gen4 xv1 #e2 xxii1 #ag2 ,exod4 xxxiii1 #ac4 ,,stephen1 the first martyr4 ,he is always put at the head of the seven deacons2 and it is believed he had studied at the feet of ,gamaliel4 ,as he was full of the ,holy ,ghost1 and of zeal1 ,acts vi1 #e1 #f1 c1 he performed many wonderful miracles3 and those of the synagogue of the ,libertines1 of the ,cyrenians1 of the ,alexandrians1 and others1 disputing with him1 could not withstand the wisdom and the power with which he spoke4 ,then having suborned false witnesses1 to testify that they had heard him blaspheme against ,moses1 and against ,god1 they drew him before the sanhedrim4 ,stephen appeared in the midst of this assembly1 with a countenance like that of an angel2 and the high priest asking him what he had to answer1 in his defence he rapidly traced the history of the ,jews1 showing that they had always opposed themselves to ,god and his prophets2 faithfully upbraided them with the hardness of their hearts1 with their putting the prophets to death1 and1 lastly1 with slaying ,christ himself4 ,at these words they were filled with rage1 and gnashed their teeth against him4 ,but ,stephen1 lifting up his eyes to heaven1 calmly exclaimed1 8,i see the heavens opened1 and the ,son of man standing at the right hand of ,god40 ,then the ,jews cried out1 and stopped their ears as though they had heard blasphemy1 and falling on him1 they drew him out of the city1 and stoned him4 ,the witnesses laid down their clothes at the feet of a young man called ,saul1 afterward ,st4 ,paul1 who then appears to have commenced his career of persecution4 8,and they stoned ,stephen1 calling upon ,god1 and saying1 ,lord ,jesus1 receive my spirit2 and he kneeled down and cried with a loud voice1 ,lord1 lay not this sin to their charge4 ,and when he had said this1 he fell asleep10 an example of the majesty and meekness of true ,christian heroism1 and as the first1 so also the pattern1 of all subsequent martyrs4 ,his ,christian brethren forsook not the remains of this holy man2 but took care to bury him1 and accompanied his funeral with great mourning1 ,acts viii1 #b4 ,,stoics1 a sect of ,heathen philosophers1 ,acts xvii1 #ah4 ,their distinguishing tenets were1 that ,god is underived1 incorruptible1 and eternal2 possessed of infinite wisdom and goodness2 the efficient cause of all the qualities and forms of things2 and the constant preserver and governor of the world3 ,that matter1 in its original elements1 is also underived and eternal2 and is by the powerful energy of the ,deity impressed with motion and form3 ,that though ,god and matter subsisted from eternity1 the present regular frame of nature had a beginning originating in the gross and dark chaos1 and will terminate in a universal conflagration1 that will reduce the world to its pristine state3 ,that at this period all material forms will be lost in one chaotic mass2 and all animated nature be reunited to the ,deity3 ,that from this chaotic state1 however1 the world will again emerge by the energy of the efficient principle2 and gods1 and men1 and all forms of regulated nature be renewed and dissolved1 in endless succession3 ,and that after the revolution of the great year all things will be restored1 and the race of men will return to life4 ,some imagined1 that each individual would return to its former body2 while others supposed1 that similar souls would be placed in similar bodies4 ,those among the stoics who maintained the existence of the soul after death1 supposed it to be removed into the celestial regions of the gods1 where it remains until1 at the general conflagration1 all souls1 both human and divine1 shall be absorbed in the ,deity4 ,but many imagined that1 before they were admitted among the divinities1 they must purge away their inherent vices and imperfections1 by a temporary residence in some arial regions between the earth and the planets4 ,according to the general doctrine of the stoics1 all things are subject to a stern irresistible fatality1 even the gods themselves4 ,some of them explained this fate as an eternal chain of causes and effects2 while others1 more approaching the ,christian system1 describe it as resulting from the divine decrees--the fiat of an eternal providence4 ,considering the system practically1 it was the object of this philosophy to divest men of their passions and affections4 ,they taught1 therefore1 that a wise man might be happy in the midst of torture2 and that all external things were to him indifferent4 ,their virtues all arose from1 and centred in1 themselves2 and self approbation was their great reward4 ,,stone4 ,this word is sometimes taken in the sense of rock1 and is applied figuratively to ,god1 as the refuge of his people4 ,see ,rock1 ,the ,hebrews gave the name of 8stones0 to the weights used in commerce2 no doubt because they were originally formed of stone4 8,just weights10 is therefore in ,hebrew1 8just stones40 8,the corner stone10 or 8the head stone of the corner10 is a figurative representation of ,christ4 ,it is the stone at the angle of a building1 whether at the foundation or the top of the wall4 ,christ was that corner stone1 which1 though rejected by the ,jews1 became the corner stone of the church1 and the stone that binds and unites the synagogue and the ,gentiles in the unity of the same faith4 ,some have thought the showers of stones cast down by the ,lord out of heaven1 mentioned several times in the ,old ,testament1 to be showers of hail of extraordinary size2 which was probably the case1 as they even now sometimes occur in those countries in a most terrific and destructive form1 and show how irresistible an agent this meteor is in the hands of an offended ,god4 ,the knives of stone that were made use of by the ,jews in circumcision1 were not enjoined by the law2 but the use of them was founded1 either upon custom1 or upon the experience that this kind of instrument is found to be less dangerous than those made of metal4 ,zipporah made use of a stone to circumcise her sons1 ,exod4 iv1 #be4 ,joshua1 v1 #b1 did the same1 when he caused such of the ,israelites to be circumcised at ,gilgal1 as had not received circumcision during their journey in the wilderness4 ,the ,egyptians1 according to ,herodotus1 made use of knives of stone to open dead bodies that were to be embalmed2 and ,pliny assures us1 that the priests of the mother of the gods had sharp stones1 with which they cut and slashed themselves1 which they thought they could not do with any thing else without danger4 ,great heaps of stones1 raised up for a witness of any memorable event1 and to preserve the remembrance of some matter of great importance1 are among the most ancient monuments4 ,in those elder ages1 before the use of writing1 these monuments were instead of inscriptions1 pyramids1 medals1 or histories4 ,jacob and ,laban raised such a monument upon ,mount ,gilead in memory of their covenant1 ,gen4 xxxi1 #df4 ,joshua erected one at ,gilgal1 made of stones taken out of the ,jordan1 to preserve the memorial of his miraculous passage over this river1 ,josh4 iv1 #e-g4 ,the ,israelites that dwelt beyond ,jordan also raised one upon the banks of the river1 as a testimony that they constituted but one nation with their brethren on the other side1 ,joshua xxii1 #aj4 ,sometimes they heaped up such a collection of stones upon the burying place of some odious persons1 as was done in the case of ,achan and ,absalom1 ,joshua vii1 #bf2 #b ,kings xviii1 #ag4 ,a 8heart of stone0 may be understood several ways4 ,job1 xli1 #bd1 speaking of the leviathan1 says1 that 8his heart is as firm as a stone1 yea as hard as a piece of the nether millstone30 that is1 he is of a very extraordinary strength1 boldness1 and courage4 ,it is said1 #a ,sam4 xxv1 #cg1 that ,nabal's heart died within him1 and he became as a stone1 when he was told of the danger he had incurred by his imprudence2 his heart became contracted or convulsed1 and this was the occasion of his death4 ,ezekiel1 xxxvi1 #bf1 says1 that the ,lord will take away from his people their heart of stone1 and give them a heart of flesh2 that is1 he will render them contrite1 and sensible to spiritual things4 8,i will give him a white stone10 ,rev4 ii1 #ag2 that is1 ,i will give him full and public pardon and absolution4 ,it is spoken in allusion to an ancient custom of delivering a white stone to such as they acquitted in judgment4 ,they used likewise to give a white stone to such as conquered in the ,grecian games4 ,,stork1 1 ,lev4 xi1 #ai2 ,deut4 xiv1 #ah2 ,job xxxix1 #ac2 ,psalm civ1 #ag2 ,jer4 viii1 #g2 ,zech4 v1 #i2 a bird similar to the crane in size1 has the same formation as to the bill1 neck1 legs1 and body1 but is rather more corpulent4 ,the colour of the crane is ash and black2 that of the stork is white and brown4 ,the nails of its toes are also very peculiar2 not being clawed like those of other birds1 but flat like the nails of a man4 ,it has a very long beak1 and long red legs4 ,it feeds upon serpents1 frogs1 and insects1 and on this account might be reckoned by ,moses among unclean birds4 ,as it seeks for these in watery places1 nature has provided it with long legs2 and as it flies away1 as well as the crane and heron1 to its nest with its plunder1 therefore its bill is strong and jagged1 the sharp hooks of which enable it to retain its slippery prey4 ,it has long been remarkable for its love to its parents1 whom it never forsakes1 but tenderly feeds and cherishes when they have become old1 and unable to provide for themselves4 ,the very learned and judicious ,bochart has collected a variety of passages from the ancients1 in which they testify this curious particular4 ,its very name in the ,hebrew language1 chasida1 signifies mercy or piety3 and its ,english name is taken1 if not directly1 yet secondarily1 through the ,saxon1 from the ,greek word 1 which is often used for natural affection4 ,the stork's an emblem of true piety2 ,because1 when age has seized and made his dam ,unfit for flight1 the grateful young one takes ,his mother on his back1 provides her food1 ,repaying thus her tender care of him ,ere he was fit to fly4 ,,beaumont4 ,it is a bird of passage1 and is spoken of as such in ,scripture3 8,the stork knoweth her appointed time10 ,jer4 viii1 #g4 ,who bid the stork1 ,columbus-like1 explore ,heavens not its own1 and worlds unknown before8 ,who calls the council1 states the certain day1 ,who forms the phalanx1 and who points the way8 ,,pope4 ,bochart has collected several testimonies of the migration of storks4 lian says1 that in summer time they remain stationary1 but at the close of autumn they repair to ,egypt1 ,libya1 and ,ethiopia4 8,for about the space of a fortnight before they pass from one country to another10 says ,dr4 ,shaw1 8they constantly resort together1 from all the adjacent parts1 in a certain plain2 and there forming themselves1 once every day1 into a #8douwanne1' or council1 7according to the phrase of these eastern nations17 are said to determine the exact time of their departure1 and the place of their future abodes40 ,see ,,swallow4 ,,stranger4 ,moses inculcated and enforced by numerous and by powerful considerations1 as well as by various examples of benevolent hospitality1 mentioned in the book of ,genesis1 the exhibition of kindness and humanity to strangers4 ,there were two classes of persons who1 in reference to this subject1 were denominated strangers1 4 ,one class were those who1 whether ,hebrews or foreigners1 were destitute of a home1 in ,hebrew 4 ,the others were persons who1 though not natives1 had a home in ,palestine2 the latter were 1 strangers or foreigners1 in the strict sense of the word4 ,both of these classes1 according to the civil code of ,moses1 were to be treated with kindness1 and were to enjoy the same rights with other citizens1 ,lev4 xix1 #cc1 #cd2 xxiv1 #af1 #bb2 ,num4 ix1 #ad2 xv1 #ad2 ,deut4 x1 #ah2 xxiii1 #g2 xxiv1 #ag2 xxvii1 #ai4 ,in the earlier periods of the ,hebrew state1 persons who were natives of another country1 but who had come1 either from choice or from necessity1 to take up their residence among the ,hebrews1 appear to have been placed in favourable circumstances4 ,at a later period1 namely1 in the reigns of ,david and ,solomon1 they were compelled to labour on the religious edifices which were erected by those princes2 as we may learn from such passages as these3 8,and ,solomon numbered all the strangers that were in the land of ,israel1 after the numbering wherewith ,david his father had numbered them2 and they were found a hundred and fifty thousand and three thousand and six hundred2 and he set three score and ten thousand of them to be bearers of burdens10 c1 #a ,chron4 xxii1 #b2 #b ,chron4 ii1 #a1 #af1 #ag4 ,the exaction of such laborious services from foreigners was probably limited to those who had been taken prisoners in war2 and who1 according to the rights of war1 as they were understood at that period1 could be justly employed in any offices1 however low and however laborious1 which the conqueror thought proper to impose4 ,in the time of ,christ1 the degenerate ,jews did not find it convenient to render to the strangers from a foreign country those deeds of kindness and humanity which were not only their due1 but which were demanded in their behalf by the laws of ,moses4 ,they were in the habit of understanding by the word 1 neighbour1 their friends merely1 and accordingly restricted the exercise of their benevolence by the same narrow limits that bounded in this case their interpretation2 contrary as both were to the spirit of those passages which have been adduced above1 ,lev4 xix1 #ah4 ,,streets1 ,,corners ,,of4 ,our ,lord reproves the ,pharisees for praying in the corners of the streets1 that is1 choosing public places for what ought to have been private devotion4 ,the ,hindoos1 ,mohammedans1 and others still have this practice4 8,both ,hindoos and ,mussulmans offer their devotions in the most public places2 as1 at the landing places of rivers1 in the public streets1 and on the roofs of boats1 without the least modesty or attempt at concealment40 8,an aged ,turk10 observes ,richardson1 8is particularly proud of a long flowing white beard1 a well shaved cheek and head1 and a clean turban4 ,it is a common thing to see such characters1 far past the bloom of life1 mounted on stone seats1 with a bit of ,persian carpet1 at the corner of the streets1 or in front of their bazaars1 combing their beards1 smoking their pipes1 or drinking their coffee1 with a pitcher of water standing beside them1 or saying their prayers1 or reading the ,koran40 ,,stumbling1 ,,stone ,,of4 8,we set out from ,argos very early in the morning10 says ,hartley1 8and were almost eleven hours in reaching ,tripolitza4 ,the road is1 for the most part1 dreary2 leading over lofty and barren hills1 the principal of which is ,mount ,parthenius4 ,in ,england1 where the roads are so excellent1 we do not readily perceive the force and just application of the ,scriptural figures1 derived from a #8stone of stumbling1 and a rock of offence1' ,isaiah viii1 #ad1 and similar passages2 but in the east1 where the roads are1 for the most part1 nothing more than an accustomed track1 the constant danger and impediment arising to travellers from stones and rocks fully explain the allusion40 ,in the grand description which ,isaiah gives1 lxiii1 #ac1 of ,god 8with his glorious arm0 leading his people through the ,red ,sea1 it is said1 8,that led them through the deep1 as a horse in the wilderness1 that they should not stumble20 that is1 who preserved them from falling amidst the numerous inequalities in the bed of the sea1 caused in some instances by deep cavities1 and in others by abrupt intervening rocks4 ,the figure is a very natural one1 especially in the east1 where the ,arabs and ,tartars are famed for their dexterity in the management of even bad horses4 ,a curious instance of this occurs in ,colonel ,campbell's 8,overland ,journey to the ,east ,indies40 ,speaking of the ,tartar1 an accredited courier of the ,turkish government1 under whose guidance he travelled in disguise across the desert from ,aleppo to ,mosul1 he says1 8,one day1 after riding about four miles from a caravansera1 at which we had changed our cattle1 ,i found that a most execrably bad horse had fallen to my lot4 ,he was stiff1 feeble1 and foundered2 in consequence of which he stumbled very much1 and ,i every minute expected that he would fall and roll over me4 ,i therefore proposed to the guide to exchange with me2 a favour which he had hitherto never refused1 and for which ,i was the more anxious as the beast that he rode was of the very best kind4 ,to my utter astonishment1 he peremptorily refused2 and as this had been a day of unusual taciturnity on his part1 ,i attributed his refusal to peevishness and ill temper1 and was resolved not to let the matter rest there4 ,i therefore desired the interpreter to inform him1 that as he had at ,aleppo agreed to change horses with me as often as ,i pleased1 ,i should consider our agreement infringed if he did not comply1 and would write to the consul at ,aleppo to that effect4 ,as soon as this was conveyed to him1 he seemed strongly agitated by anger1 yet endeavoured to conceal his emotions under affected contempt and derision1 which produced from him one of the most singular grins that ever yet marred the human physiognomy4 ,at length he broke forth3--#8,you will write to ,aleppo1 will you8 ,foolish ,frank6 they will not believe you1' c4--#8,why do you not1 then1' said ,i1 interrupting him2 #8why do you not perform your promise by changing horses1 when you are convinced in your conscience 7if you have any7 that it was part of our agreement8'--#8,once for all1 ,i tell you1' interrupted he1 #8,i will not give up this horse4 ,there is not1' said he gasconadingly1 #8there is not a ,mussulman that ever wore a beard1 not to talk of a wretched ,frank1 who should get this horse from under me4 ,i would not yield him to the ,commander of the ,faithful this minute1 were he in your place2 and ,i have my own reasons for it4'--#8,i dare say you have1' returned ,i1 #8love of your ease1 and fear of your bones4' ,at hearing this he grew quite outrageous2 called ,mohammed and ,allah to witness1 that he did not know what it was to fear any thing2 declared that he was convinced some infernal spirit had that day got possession of me1 c4 ,at length observing that ,i looked at him with sneering contemptuous defiance1 he rode up alongside of me4 ,i thought it was to strike1 and prepared to defend myself4 ,i was however mistaken3 he snatched the reins out of my hand1 and caught hold of them collected close at the horse's jaw1 then began to flog my horse and to spur his own1 till he got them both into full speed3 nor did he stop there1 but continued to belabour mine with his whip and to spur his own1 driving headlong over every impediment that came in our way1 till ,i really thought he had run mad1 or designed to kill me4 ,several times ,i was on the point of striking him with my whip1 in order to knock him off his horse2 but as often patience providentially came in to my assistance1 and whispered to me to forbear1 and see it out4 ,meantime ,i considered myself as being in some danger2 and yet such was the power which he had over the cattle1 that ,i found it impossible to stop him4 ,so1 resigning the event to the direction of ,providence1 ,i suffered him1 without a farther effort1 to proceed4 ,he continued this for some miles1 over an uncultivated tract1 here and there intersected with channels formed by rills of water in the periodical rains1 thickly set with low furze1 ferns1 and other dwarf bushes1 and broken up and down into little hills4 ,his horse carried him clear over all2 and though mine was every minute stumbling and nearly down1 yet1 with a dexterity inexpressible and a vigour altogether amazing1 he kept him up by the bridle1 and1 ,i may say1 carried him gallantly over every thing4 ,at all this ,i was very much astonished2 and1 toward the end1 as much pleased as astonished2 which he perceiving1 cried out frequently and triumphantly1 #8,behold1 ,frank1 behold6' and at last1 drawing in the horses1 stopping short1 and looking me full in the face1 he exclaimed1 #8,frank1 what say you now8' ,for some time ,i was incapable of making him any answer1 but continued surveying him from head to foot as the most extraordinary savage ,i had ever beheld2 while he stroked his whiskers with great self-complacency and composure1 and nodded his head every now and then1 as much as to say1 #8,look at me6 ,am ,i not a very capital fellow8' ,we alighted on the brow of a small hill1 whence was to be seen a full and uninterrupted prospect of the country all round4 ,the interpreter coming up1 the ,tartar called to him1 and desired him to explain to me carefully the meaning of what he was about to say4 #8,you see those mountains1' said he1 pointing to the east2 #8they are in the province of ,kurdestan1 and inhabited by a vile race of robbers1 who pay homage to a god of their own1 and worship the devil from fear4 ,they live by plunder2 and often descend from those mountains1 cross the ,tigris which runs between them and us1 and plunder and ravage this country in bands of great number and formidable strength1 carrying away into slavery all they can catch1 and killing all who resist them4 ,this country therefore1 for some distance round us1 is very dangerous to travellers1 whose only safety lies in flight4 ,now it was our misfortune this morning to get a very bad horse4 ,should we meet with a band of those ,curds1 what could we do but fly8 ,and if you1 ,frank1 rode this horse1 and ,i that1 we could never escape2 for ,i doubt you could not keep him up from falling under ,,me1 as ,i did under ,,you4 ,i should therefore come down and be taken2 you would lose your guide and miss your way2 and all of us would be undone4' ,as soon as the interpreter had explained this to me1 #8,well1' continued the ,tartar1 #8what does he say to it now8'--#8,why1 ,i say1' returned ,i1 #8that you have spoken good sense and sound reason2 and ,i am obliged to you4' ,this1 when fully interpreted1 operated most pleasingly upon him1 and his features relaxed into a broad look of satisfaction40 ,,superstition may be described to be either the careful and anxious observation of numerous and unauthorized ceremonies in religion1 under the idea that they possess some virtue to propitiate ,god and obtain his favour1 or1 as among ,pagans and others1 the worship of imaginary deities1 and the various means of averting evil by religious ceremonies1 which a heart oppressed with fears1 and a perverted fancy1 may dictate to those ignorant of the true ,god1 and the doctrines of salvation4 ,dr4 ,neander observes1 ,the consideration of human nature and history shows us that the transition from unbelief to superstition is always easy4 ,both these conditions of the human heart proceed from the self-same ground1 the want of that which may be properly called faith1 the want of a life in ,god1 of a lively communion with divine things by means of the inward life2 that is1 by means of the feelings4 ,man1 whose inward feelings are estranged from the divine nature1 is inclined1 sometimes to deny the reality of that of which he has nothing within him1 and for the conception and application of which to himself he has no organ4 ,or else1 the irresistible force of his inward nature impels man to recognize that higher power from which he would fain free himself entirely1 and to seek that connection with it which he cannot but feel needful to his comfort2 but1 inasmuch as he is without any real inward sympathy of disposition with the ,divinity1 and wants a true sense of holiness1 the ,divinity appears to his darkened religious conscience only under the form of power and arbitrary rule4 ,his conscience paints to him this power as an angry and avenging power4 ,but as he has no idea of that which the ,divinity really is1 he cannot duly understand this feeling of estrangement from ,god1 this consciousness of divine wrath2 and1 instead of seeking in moral things the source of this unquiet feeling1 which leaves him no rest by day or night1 and from which there is no escape1 he fancies that by this or that action1 which of itself is perfectly indifferent1 he may have offended this higher power1 and he seeks by outward observances again to reconcile the offended power4 ,religion here becomes a source1 not of life1 but of death2 the source1 not of consolation and blessing1 but of the most unspeakable anxiety which torments man day and night with the spectres of his own imagination4 ,religion here is no source of sanctification1 but may unite in man's heart with every kind of untruth1 and serve to promote it4 ,there is one kind of superstition in which1 while man torments himself to the utmost1 he still remains estranged from the true nature of inward holiness2 and while he is restrained from many good works of charity by his constant attendance on mischievous1 arbitrary1 and outward observances1 he is still actuated by a horror of any great sin1 a superstition in which man avoids pleasure so completely that he falls into the opposite extreme2 and even the most innocent enjoyments1 which a childlike simplicity would receive with thankfulness from the hand of a heavenly ,father1 he dares not indulge in4 ,but there is also another kind of superstition1 which makes it easy for man1 by certain outward observances1 to silence his conscience under all kinds of sin1 and which therefore serves as a welcome support to it4 ,,supper1 ,,lord',s1 derives its name from having been instituted by ,jesus1 after he had supped with his ,apostles1 immediately before he went out to be delivered into the hands of his enemies4 ,in ,egypt1 for every house of the children of ,israel1 a lamb was slain upon that night1 when the ,almighty punished the cruelty and obstinacy of the ,egyptians by killing their first-born1 but charged the destroying angel to pass over the houses upon which the blood of the lamb was sprinkled4 ,this was the original sacrifice of the passover4 ,in commemoration of it1 the ,jews observed the annual festival of the passover1 when all the males of ,judea assembled before the ,lord in ,jerusalem4 ,a lamb was slain for every house1 the representative of that whose blood had been sprinkled in the night of the escape from ,egypt4 ,after the blood was poured under the altar by the priests1 the lambs were carried home to be eaten by the people in their tents or houses at a domestic feast1 where every master of a family took the cup of thanksgiving1 and gave thanks with his family to the ,god of ,israel4 ,jesus having fulfilled the law of ,moses1 to which in all things he submitted1 by eating the paschal supper with his disciples1 proceeded after supper to institute a rite1 which1 to any person that reads the words of the institution without having formed a previous opinion upon the subject1 will probably appear to have been intended by him as a memorial of that event which was to happen not many hours after4 8,he took bread1 and gave thanks1 and brake it1 and gave it unto them1 saying1 ,this is my body which is given for you3 this do in remembrance of me4 ,likewise also the cup after supper1 saying1 ,this cup is the new testament in my blood1 which is shed for you10 ,luke xxii1 #ai1 #bj4 ,he took the bread which was then on the table1 and the wine1 of which some had been used in sending round the cup of thanksgiving2 and by saying1 8,this is my body1 this is my blood1 do this in remembrance of me10 he declared to his ,apostles that this was the representation of his death by which he wished them to commemorate that event4 ,the ,apostle ,paul1 not having been present at the institution1 received it by immediate revelation from the ,lord ,jesus2 and the manner in which he delivers it to the ,corinthians1 #a ,cor4 xi1 #bc-bf1 implies that it was not a rite confined to the ,apostles who were present when it was instituted1 but that it was meant to be observed by all ,christians till the end of the world4 8,as often as ye eat this bread1 and drink this cup1 ye do show the ,lord's death till he come40 ,whether we consider these words as part of the revelation made to ,st4 ,paul1 or as his own commentary upon the nature of the ordinance which was revealed to him1 they mark1 with equal significancy and propriety1 the extent and the perpetuity of the obligation to observe that rite which was first instituted in presence of the ,apostles4 ,there is a striking correspondence between this view of the ,lord's ,supper1 as a rite by which it was intended that all ,christians should commemorate the death of ,christ1 and the circumstances attending the institution of the feast of the passover4 ,like the ,jews1 we have the original sacrifice3 8,christ our passover is sacrificed for us10 and by his substitution our souls are delivered from death4 ,like the ,jews1 we have a feast in which that sacrifice1 and the deliverance purchased by it1 are remembered4 ,hence the ,lord's ,supper was early called the eucharist1 from its being said by ,st4 ,luke1 8,jesus1 when he took the bread1 gave thanks20 and his disciples in all ages1 when they receive the bread1 keep a feast of thanksgiving4 ,to ,christians1 as to ,jews1 there is 8a night to be much observed unto the ,lord10 in all generations4 ,to ,christians1 as to ,jews1 the manner of observing the night is appointed4 ,to both it is accompanied with thanksgiving4 ,the ,lord's ,supper exhibits1 by a significant action1 the characteristical doctrine of the ,christian faith1 that the death of its author1 which seemed to be the completion of the rage of his enemies1 was a voluntary sacrifice1 so efficacious as to supersede the necessity of every other2 and that his blood was shed for the remission of sins4 ,by partaking of this rite1 his disciples publish an event most interesting to all the kindreds of the earth2 they declare that1 far from being ashamed of the suffering of their ,master1 they glory in his cross2 and1 while they thus perform the office implied in that expression of the ,apostle1 8,ye do show forth the ,lord's death10 they at the same time cherish the sentiments by which their religion ministers to their own consolation and improvement4 ,they cannot remember the death of ,christ1 the circumstances which rendered that event necessary1 the disinterested love and the exalted virtues of their deliverer1 without feeling their obligations to him4 ,unless the vilest hypocrisy accompany an action1 which1 by its very nature1 professes to flow from warm affection1 the love of ,christ will constrain them to fulfil the purposes of his death1 by 8living unto him who died for them20 and we have reason to hope1 that1 in the places where he causes his name to be remembered1 he will come and bless his people4 ,as the object of faith is thus explicitly set before them in every commemoration1 so the renewed exercise of that faith1 which the ordinance is designed to excite1 must bring renewed life1 and a deeper experience of the 8great salvation40 ,see ,,sacrament4 ,,surety1 in common speech1 is one who gives security for another2 and hence it has become prevalent among theological writers to confound it with the terms substitute and representative1 when applied to ,christ4 ,in fact1 the word 8surety0 occurs only once in our translation of the ,scriptures1 namely1 ,heb4 vii1 #bb3 8,by so much was ,jesus made the surety of a better covenant40 ,it is certainly true that the ,son of ,god1 in all that he has done or is still doing as ,mediator1 may be justly viewed as the surety of the new and everlasting covenant1 and as affording the utmost security to believers that1 as the ,father hath given all things into his hands1 they will be conducted with effect1 and all the exceeding great and precious promises of that covenant assuredly be accomplished4 ,but this does not appear to be the precise idea which the ,apostle has in view in the above passage4 ,this has been sufficiently evinced by many critics and commentators1 particularly by ,pierce1 ,macknight1 and ,m',lean1 in their notes on the place4 ,the substance of their remarks is1 that the original term employed by the ,apostle1 and which occurs no where else in ,scripture1 is 1 which is derived from 1 near1 and signifies one who draws near1 or who brings others near2 which sense of the word will not very well accord with that of a substitute or representative4 ,the ,greek commentators very properly explain the word by 1 a mediator4 ,now1 as in this passage a comparison is stated between ,jesus1 as a high priest1 and the ,levitical high priests2 and as the latter were considered by the ,apostle to be the mediators of the ,sinai covenant1 because through their mediation the ,israelites worshipped ,god with sacrifices2 it is evident that the ,apostle in this passage terms ,jesus the ,high ,priest or ,mediator of the better covenant1 because1 through his mediation1 or in virtue of the sacrifice which he offered of himself to ,god1 believers receive all the blessings of the new covenant4 ,and as in verse #af the ,apostle had said that 8by the introduction of a better hope we draw near to ,god10 he1 in verse #bb1 very properly calls ,jesus 1 8he by whom we draw nigh10 thereby denoting the effect of his mediation4 ,from the whole1 therefore1 it is plain that the word 8surety0 in this place is equivalent with that of mediator or high priest4 ,,swallows1 1 a bird too well known to need description4 ,our translators of the ,bible have given this name to two different ,hebrew words4 ,the first1 1 in ,psalm lxxxiv1 #c1 and ,prov4 xxvi1 #b1 is probably the bird which ,forskal mentions among the migratory birds of ,alexandria1 by the name of dururi2 and the second1 1 ,isa4 xxxviii1 #ad1 and ,jer4 viii1 #g1 is the crane2 but the word 1 in the two last places rendered in our version 8crane10 is really the swallow4 ,so the ,septuagint1 ,vulgate1 and two ancient manuscripts1 ,theodotion1 and ,jerom1 render it1 and ,bochart and ,lowth follow them4 ,bochart assigns the note of this bird for the reason of its name1 and ingeniously remarks that the ,italians about ,venice call a swallow zizilla1 and its twittering zizillare4 ,the swallow being a plaintive bird1 and a bird of passage1 perfectly agrees with the meaning of ,isaiah and ,jeremiah4 ,the annual migration of the swallow has been familiarly known in every age1 and perhaps in every region of the earth4 ,in ,psalm lxxxiv1 #c1 it is said1 8,the sparrow hath found a house1 and the swallow a nest for herself1 where she may lay her young1 even thine altars1 ,o ,lord of hosts40 ,by the altars of ,jehovah we are to understand the temple4 ,the words probably refer to the custom of several nations of antiquity1--that birds which built their nests on the temples1 or within the limits of them1 were not suffered to be driven away1 much less killed2 but found a secure and uninterrupted dwelling4 ,hence1 when ,aristodicus disturbed the birds' nests of the temple of ,kum1 and took the young from them1 a voice1 according to a tradition preserved by ,herodotus1 is said to have spoken these words from the interior of the temple3 8,most villainous of men1 how darest thou to drive away such as seek refuge in my temple80 ,the ,athenians were so enraged at ,atarbes1 who had killed a sparrow which built on the temple of sculapius1 that they killed him4 ,among the ,arabs1 who are more closely related to the ,hebrews1 birds which build their nests on the temple of ,mecca have been inviolable from the earliest times4 ,in the very ancient poem of a ,dschorhamidish prince1 published by a ,schulten1 in which he laments that his tribe had been deprived of the protection of the sanctuary of ,mecca1 it is said1 8,we lament the house1 whose dove ,was never suffer'd to be hurt3 ,she remain'd there secure2 in it1 also1 ,the sparrow built its nest40 ,in another ancient ,arabian poet1 ,nabega1 the ,dhobianit swears 8by the sanctuary which affords shelter to the birds which seek it there40 ,niebuhr says1 8,i will observe1 that among the ,mohammedans1 not only is the kaba a refuge for the pigeons1 but also on the mosques over the graves of ,ali and ,hassein1 on the ,dsjamea1 or chief mosque1 at ,helle1 and in other cities1 they are equally undisturbed40 ,and ,thevenot remarks3 8,within a mosque at ,oudjicum lies interred the son of a king1 called ,schah-,zadeh-,imam ,dgiafer1 whom they reckon a saint4 ,the dome is rough cast over2 before the mosque there is a court1 well planted with many high plane trees1 on which we saw a great many storks1 that haunt thereabout all the year round40 ,see ,,sparrow4 ,,swan1 1 ,lev4 xi1 #ah2 ,deut4 xiv1 #af4 ,the ,hebrew word is very ambiguous1 for in the first of these places1 it is ranked among water-fowls2 and by the ,vulgate1 which our version follows1 rendered 8swan10 and in the thirtieth verse1 the same word is rendered 8mole10 and ranked among reptiles4 ,some translate it in the former place1 8the bat10 which they justify by the affinity which there is between the bat and the mole4 ,the ,,lxx4 in the former verse render it 1 the porphyrion1 or 8purple bird10 probably the 8flamingo20 and in the latter1 8ibis40 ,parkhurst shows that the name is given from the creature's breathing in a strong and audible manner2 and ,michalis learnedly conjectures1 that in verse eighteen1 and ,deut4 xiv1 #af1 it may mean the 8goose10 which every one knows is remarkable for its manner of 8breathing out0 or 8hissing10 when approached4 ,,swedenborgians denote that particular denomination of ,christians who admit the testimony of ,baron ,swedenborg1 and receive the doctrines taught in the theological writings of that author4 ,emanuel ,swedenborg was the son of a bishop of ,west ,gothnia1 in the kingdom of ,sweden1 whose name was ,swedberg1 a man of considerable learning and celebrity in his time4 ,the son was born at ,stockholm1 ,january #bi1 #afhh4 ,he enjoyed early the advantages of a liberal education1 and being naturally endowed with uncommon talents for the acquirement of learning1 his progress in the sciences was rapid and extensive2 and he soon distinguished himself by several publications in the ,latin language1 which gave proof of equal genius and erudition4 ,it may reasonably be supposed that under the care of his pious and reverend father our author's religious instruction was not neglected4 ,this1 indeed1 appears plain from the general tenor of his life and writings1 which are marked with strong and lively characters of a mind deeply impressed with a sense of the divine ,being1 and of all the relative duties thence resulting4 ,he was ennobled in the year #agai1 by ,queen ,ulrica ,eleonora1 and named ,swedenborg1 from which time he took his seat with the nobles of the equestrian order1 in the triennial assembly of the states4 ,the philosophical works1 published in ,latin1 by ,baron ,swedenborg1 are numerous2 but his theological works are said to be still more so4 #a4 ,the first and principal distinguishing doctrine contained in the writings of ,baron ,swedenborg1 and maintained by his followers1 relates to the person and character of ,jesus ,christ1 and to the redemption wrought by him4 ,on this subject it is insisted that ,jesus ,christ is ,jehovah1 manifested in the flesh2 and that he came into the world to glorify his human nature1 by making it one with the divine4 ,it is therefore insisted farther that the humanity of ,jesus ,christ is itself divine1 by virtue of its indissoluble union with the indwelling ,father1 agreeably to the testimony of ,st4 ,paul1 that1 8in ,jesus ,christ dwelleth all the fulness of the ,godhead bodily10 ,col4 ii1 #i2 and that thus1 as to his humanity1 he is the ,mediator between ,god and man1 since there is now no other medium of ,god's access to man1 or of man's access to ,god1 but this divine humanity1 which was assumed for this purpose4 ,thus it is taught1 that in the person of ,jesus ,christ dwells the whole ,trinity of ,father1 ,son1 and ,holy ,spirit2 the ,father constituting the soul of the above humanity1 while the humanity itself is the ,son1 and the divine virtue or operation proceeding from it is the ,holy ,spirit2 forming altogether one ,god1 just as the soul1 the body1 and operation of man1 form one man4 ,on the subject of the redemption wrought by this incarnate ,god1 it is lastly taught that it consisted not in the vicarious sacrifice of ,christ1 but in the real subjugation of the powers of darkness and their removal from man1 by continual combats and victories over them1 during his abode in the world2 and in the consequent descent to man of divine power and life1 which was brought near to him in the thus glorified humanity of this victorious ,god4 ,they who receive this testimony concerning ,jesus ,christ therefore acknowledge no other ,god but him2 and believe that in approaching his divine humanity1 they approach1 at the same time1 and have communication with1 all the fulness of the ,godhead1 seeing and worshipping the invisible in the visible1 agreeably to the tenor of those words of ,jesus ,christ3 8,he that believeth on me believeth not on me1 but on him that sent me2 and he that seeth me1 seeth him that sent me10 ,john xii1 #dd1 #de4 #b4 ,a second doctrine taught by the same author relates to the sacred ,scripture1 or word of ,god1 which is maintained to be divinely inspired throughout1 and1 consequently1 to be the repository of the whole will and wisdom of the most high ,god4 ,it is1 however1 insisted1 that this will and wisdom are not in all places discoverable from the letter or history of the sacred pages1 but lie deeply concealed under the letter4 ,for it is taught by ,baron ,swedenborg1 that the sense of the letter of the holy word is the basis1 the continent1 and the firmament1 of its spiritual and celestial senses1 being written according to the doctrine of correspondencies between things spiritual and things natural1 and thus designed by the ,most ,high as the vehicle of communication of the eternal spiritual truths of his kingdom to the minds of men4 ,it is farther endeavoured to be shown that ,jesus ,christ spake continually according to this same doctrine1 veiling divine and spiritual truths under natural images1 especially in his parables1 and thus communicating to man the most important mysteries relative to himself and his kingdom1 under the most beautiful and edifying figures taken from the natural things of this world4 ,thus1 according to ,baron ,swedenborg1 even the historical parts both of the ,old and ,new ,testament contain vast stores of important and spiritual wisdom under the outward letter2 and this consideration1 as he farther asserts1 justifies the pages of divine revelation1 even in those parts which to a common observer appear trifling1 nugatory1 and contradictory4 ,it is lastly maintained1 on this subject1 that the sacred ,scripture1 or word of ,god1 is the only medium of communication and conjunction between ,god and man1 and is likewise the only source of all genuine truth and knowledge respecting ,god1 his kingdom1 and operation1 and the only sure guide for man's understanding1 in whatever relates to his spiritual or eternal concerns4 #c4 ,the next branch of the system is practical1 and relates to the life1 or to that rule of conduct on the part of man which is truly acceptable to the ,deity1 and at the same time conducive to man's eternal happiness and salvation1 by conjoining him with his ,god4 ,this rule is taught to be simply this3 to shun all known evils as sins against ,god1 and at the same time to love1 to cherish1 and to practise whatsoever is wise1 virtuous1 and holy1 as being most agreeable to the will of ,god1 and to the spirit of his precepts4 ,on this subject it is strongly and repeatedly insisted that evil must of necessity remain with man1 and prove his eternal destruction1 unless it be removed by sincere repentance1 leading him to note what is disorderly in his own mind and life2 and1 when he has discovered it1 to fight resolutely against its influence1 in dependence on the aid and grace of ,jesus ,christ4 ,it is insisted farther1 that this opposition to evil ought to be grounded on the consideration that all evil is against ,god1 since1 if evil be combated from any inferior motive1 it is not radically removed1 but only concealed1 and on that account is even more dangerous and destructive than before4 ,it is added1 that when man has done the work of repentance1 by shunning his hereditary evils as sins against ,god1 he ought to set himself to the practice of what is wise and good by a faithful1 diligent1 and conscientious discharge of all the duties of his station2 by which means his mind is preserved from a return of the power of disorder1 and kept in the order of heaven1 and the fulfilment of the great law of charity4 #d4 ,a fourth doctrine inculcated in the same writings1 is the coperation on the part of man with the divine grace or agency of ,jesus ,christ4 ,on this subject it is insisted that man ought not indolently to hang down his hands1 under the idle expectation that ,god will do every thing for him in the way of purification and regeneration1 without any exertion of his own2 but that he is bound by the above law of coperation to exert himself1 as if the whole progress of his purification and regeneration depended entirely on his own exertions2 yet1 in exerting himself1 he is continually to recollect1 and humbly to acknowledge1 that all his power to do so is from above1 agreeably to the declaration of ,jesus ,christ1 8,without me ye can do nothing10 ,john xv1 #e4 #e4 ,a fifth and last distinguishing doctrine taught in the theological writings of our author1 relates to man's connection with the other world1 and its various inhabitants4 ,on this subject1 it is insisted1 not only from his view of the sacred ,scriptures1 but also from the experience of the author himself1 that every man is in continual association with angels and spirits1 and that without such association he could not possibly think or exert any living faculty4 ,it is insisted farther1 that man1 according to his life in the world1 takes up his eternal abode1 either with angels of light1 or with the spirits of darkness2 with the former1 if he is wise to live according to the precepts of ,god's holy word2 or with the latter1 if1 through folly and transgression1 he rejects the counsel and guidance of the ,most ,high4 ,some other peculiar doctrines of minor importance might be enlarged on in this place if it was deemed necessary2 such as the doctrine concerning the human soul1 as being in a human form2 concerning the marriage of the good and the true1 as existing in the holy word1 and in all things in nature4 ,but it may be observed generally1 that the fundamental error of the system is a denial of the divinity of ,christ1 while it appears to be acknowledged1 and of the doctrine of the atonement4 ,many true things are said also of the figurative and typical character of the word of ,god2 but the interpretation of it in this view runs into the wildest extravagance for want of principles2 while the whole is clothed with mysticism on the one hand and gross and carnal conceptions of spiritual things on the other4 ,there is1 indeed1 much in which this sect agrees with other ,christians1 and much1 therefore1 that is true in their strange system2 but it is unconnected with other great and vital truths of the ,gospel2 and is joined also with great errors4 ,it is a dreamy delusion1 which defies all rational defence3 it rests upon the assumed experience of a man of genius1 it is true1 but one who was not always in his wits4 ,in ,london1 and some of the other cities and great towns in ,england1 places of public worship have been opened1 for the express purpose of preaching the preceding doctrines4 ,in all such places particular forms of prayer have been adopted1 in agreement with the ideas of the worshippers1 as grounded in the religious sentiments above stated1 especially respecting the supreme object of adoration1 who is acknowledged to be the ,lord and ,saviour ,jesus ,christ1 in his divine humanity4 ,but in no place have any peculiar rites and ceremonies been introduced1 the worshippers being content with retaining the celebration of the two sacraments of baptism and the holy supper1 since no other rites are insisted on by the author whose testimony they receive4 ,it is believed1 by a large majority of them1 that it was never his intention that any particular sect should be formed upon his doctrines1 but that all who receive them1 whether in the establishment1 or in any other communion of ,christians1 should be at perfect liberty either to continue in their former communion1 or to quit it1 as their conscience dictates4 ,england appears to be the country where the system has been most generally received4 ,baron ,swedenborg had many eccentricities2 but perhaps the most remarkable circumstance respecting him1 was his asserting1 that1 during the uninterrupted period of twenty-seven years1 he enjoyed open intercourse with the world of departed spirits1 and during that time was instructed in the internal sense of the sacred ,scriptures1 hitherto undiscovered6 ,this is a correspondence with the invisible world1 to which few or no writers1 before or since his time1 ever pretended1 if we except the ,arabian prophet4 ,,swine1 1 ,lev4 xi1 #g2 ,deut4 xiv1 #h2 ,psalm lxxx1 #ac2 ,prov4 xi1 #bb2 ,isaiah lxv1 #d2 lxvi1 #c1 #ag2 1 ,matt4 vii1 #f2 viii1 #cj2 ,mark v1 #ad2 ,luke viii1 #cc2 xv1 #ae2 the plural of hog1 an animal well known4 ,in impurity and grossness of manners1 this creature stands almost unrivalled among the order of quadrupeds2 and the meanness of his appearance corresponds to the grossness of his manners4 ,he has a most indiscriminate1 voracious1 and insatiable appetite4 ,the ,prophet ,isaiah1 lxv1 #d1 charges his degenerate people with eating swine's flesh1 and having broth of abominable things in their vessels1 ,isaiah lxvi1 #c4 ,conduct so contrary to their solemn engagements1 so hateful in the sight of the ,holy ,one1 though long endured1 was not always to pass with impunity4 8,they that sanctify themselves1 and purify themselves in the gardens1 behind one tree in the midst1 eating swine's flesh1 and the abomination1 and the mouse1 shall be consumed together1 saith the ,lord10 ,isaiah lxvi1 #ag4 ,such a sacrifice was an abomination to the ,lord1 because the eating of the blood was prohibited1 and because the sacrifice consisted of swine's flesh4 ,to these precepts and threatenings1 which were often enforced by severe judgments may be traced the habitual and unconquerable aversion of the latter ,jews to the use of swine's flesh2 an aversion which the most alluring promises and the most cruel sufferings have been found alike insufficient to subdue4 ,in such detestation was the hog held by the ,jews that they would not so much as pronounce its name1 but called it 8the strange thing20 and we read in the history of the ,maccabees1 that ,eleazer1 a principal scribe1 being compelled by ,antiochus ,epiphanes to open his mouth and receive swine's flesh1 spit it forth1 and went of his own accord to the torment1 choosing rather to suffer death than to break the law of ,god1 and give offence to his nation1 #b ,mac4 vi1 #ah2 vii1 #a4 ,it is observed that when ,adrian rebuilt ,jerusalem1 he set up the image of a hog1 in bas-relief1 upon the gates of the city1 to drive the ,jews away from it1 and to express the greater contempt for that miserable people4 ,it was avarice1 a contempt of the law of ,moses1 and a design to supply the neighbouring idolaters with victims1 that caused whole herds of swine to be fed on the borders of ,galilee4 ,whence the reason is plain of ,christ's permitting the devils to throw the swine headlong into the lake of ,genesareth1 ,matthew viii1 #cb4 ,we read1 in ,matthew vii1 #f1 8,give not that which is holy unto the dogs1 neither cast ye your pearls before swine1 lest they trample them under their feet1 and turn again and rend you40 ,there is a similar maxim in the ,talmudical writings3 8,do not cast pearls before swine20 to which is added1 by way of explanation1 8,do not offer wisdom to one who knows not the value of it1 but profanes its glory40 ,,sycamine1 1 in ,arabic sokam1 ,luke xvii1 #f4 ,this is a different tree from the sycamore1 mentioned ,luke xix1 #d4 ,dioscorides says that this tree is the mulberry1 though he allows that some apprehend that it is the same with the sycamore4 ,galen has a separate article on the sycamorus1 which he speaks of as rare1 and mentions as having seen it at ,alexandria in ,egypt4 ,the ,greeks name the morus the sycamine4 ,grotius says the word has no connection with 1 the fig-tree1 but is entirely ,syrian1 1 in ,hebrew1 4 ,it should seem1 indeed1 to be very similar to the mulberry1 as not only the ,latin1 but the ,syriac and the ,arabic1 render it by morus2 and thus ,coverdale's1 the ,rheim's1 and ,purver's ,english translations render it by the mulberry2 and so it is in ,bishop ,wilson's ,bible4 ,,sycamore1 1 1 #a ,kings x1 #bg2 #a ,chron4 xxvii1 #bh2 #b ,chron4 i1 #ae2 ,psalm lxxviii1 #dg2 ,isa4 ix1 #i2 ,amos viii1 #ad2 1 ,luke xix1 #d2 a large tree1 according to the description of ,theophrastus1 ,dioscorides1 and ,galen1 resembling the mulberry-tree in the leaf1 and the fig in its fruit2 hence its name1 compounded of fig1 and 1 mulberry2 and some have fancied that it was originally produced by ingrafting the one tree upon the other4 ,its fruit is palatable4 ,when ripe it is soft1 watery1 somewhat sweet1 with a little of an aromatic taste4 ,the trees are very common in ,palestine1 ,arabia1 and ,egypt2 grow large1 and to a great height2 and though their grain is coarse are much used in building4 ,to change sycamores into cedars1 ,isa4 ix1 #aj1 means1 to render the buildings of cities1 and the state of the nation1 much more magnificent than before4 ,dr4 ,shaw remarks1 that as the grain and texture of the sycamore is remarkably coarse and spongy1 it could therefore stand in no competition at all with the cedar for beauty and ornament4 ,we meet with the same opposition of cedars to sycamores in #a ,kings x1 #bg1 where ,solomon is said to have made silver as the stones1 and cedars as the sycamores of the vale for abundance4 8,by this mashal1 or figurative and sententious speech10 says ,bishop ,lowth1 8they boast1 in this place of ,isaiah1 that they shall be easily able to repair their present losses1 suffered1 perhaps1 by the first ,assyrian invasion under ,tiglath-,pileser1 and to bring their affairs to a more flourishing condition than ever40 ,the wood of this tree is very durable4 8,the mummy chests10 says ,dr4 ,shaw1 8and whatever figures and instruments of wood are found in the catacombs1 are all of them of sycamore1 which1 though spongy and porous to appearance1 has1 notwithstanding1 continued entire and uncorrupted for at least three thousand years4 ,from its value in furnishing wood for various uses1 from the grateful shade which its wide-spreading branches afforded1 and on account of the fruit which ,mallet says the ,egyptians hold in the highest estimation1 we perceive the loss which the ancient inhabitants of ,egypt must have felt when their vines were destroyed with hail1 and their sycamore trees with frost10 ,psalm lxxviii1 #dg4 8,the sycamore10 says ,mr4 ,norden1 8is of the height of a beech1 and bears its fruit in a manner quite different from other trees2 it has them on the trunk itself1 which shoots out little sprigs1 in form of grape stalks1 at the end of which grow the fruit close to one another1 almost like clusters of grapes4 ,the tree is always green1 and bears fruit several times in the year1 without observing any certain seasons2 for ,i have seen some sycamores that have given fruit two months after others4 ,the fruit has the figure and smell of real figs1 but is inferior to them in the taste1 having a disgustful sweetness4 ,its colour is a yellow1 inclining to an ochre1 shadowed by a flesh colour4 ,in the inside it resembles the common figs1 excepting that it has a blackish colouring with yellow spots4 ,this sort of tree is pretty common in ,egypt2 the people1 for the greater part1 live upon its fruit1 and think themselves well regaled when they have a piece of bread1 a couple of sycamore figs1 and a pitcher of water40 ,there might be many of these trees in ,judea4 ,david appointed a particular officer1 whose sole duty it was to watch over the plantations of sycamore and olive-trees1 #a ,chron4 xxviii1 #bh2 and being joined with the olive1 the high estimation in which it was held is intimated2 for the olive is considered as one of the most precious gifts which the ,god of nature has bestowed on the oriental nations4 ,there seem to have been great numbers of them in ,solomon's time1 #a ,kings x1 #bg2 and in the ,talmud they are mentioned as growing in the plains of ,jericho4 ,one curious particular in the cultivation of the fruit must not be passed over4 ,pliny1 ,dioscorides1 and ,theophrastus observe that the fruit must be cut or scratched1 either with the nail or with iron1 or it will not ripen2 but four days after this process it will become ripe4 ,to this same purpose ,jerom1 on ,amos vii1 #ad1 says1 that without this management the figs are excessively bitter4 ,these testimonies1 together with the ,septuagint and ,vulgate version1 are adduced to settle the meaning of the word 1 in ,amos vii1 #ad1 which must signify scraping1 or making incisions in the sycamore fruit2 an employment of ,amos before he was called to the prophetic office3 8,i was no prophet1 neither was ,i a prophet's son2 but ,i was a herdman1 and a gatherer of sycamore fruit40 ,hasselquist1 describing the ficus sycamorus1 or ,scripture sycamore1 says1 8,it buds the latter end of ,march1 and the fruit ripens in the beginning of ,june4 ,at the time when the fruit has arrived to the size of an inch diameter1 the inhabitants pare off a part at the centre point4 ,they say that without this paring it would not come to maturity40 ,the figs thus prematurely ripened are called djumeis bdri1 that is1 8precocious sycamore figs40 ,as the sycamore is a large spreading tree1 sometimes shooting up to a considerable height1 we see the reason why ,zaccheus climbed up into a sycamore tree to get a sight of our ,saviour4 ,this incident also furnishes a proof that the sycamore was still common in ,palestine2 for this tree stood to protect the traveller by the side of the highway4 ,,syene1 a city of ,egypt1 now called ,assouan1 situated at its southern extremity4 ,ezekiel1 xxix1 #aj1 describing the desolation to be brought upon ,egypt says1 8,therefore thus saith the ,lord1 ,behold1 ,i will make the land of ,egypt utterly desolate1 from the tower of ,syene even to the border of ,cush10 or ,arabia1 or1 as some read it1 8from ,migdol to ,syene10 implying1 according to either version of the passage1 the whole length of the country from north to south4 ,the latitude of ,syene1 according to ,bruce1 is #bd #j #de2 that of ,alexandria1 #ca #aa #cc2 difference #g #aj #dh1 equal to four hundred and thirty geographical miles on the meridian1 or about five hundred ,british miles2 but the real length of the valley of ,egypt1 as it follows the windings of the ,nile1 is full six hundred miles4 ,,synagogue1 1 8an assembly10 ,rev4 ii1 #i2 iii1 #i4 ,the word often occurs in the ,gospels and in the ,acts1 because ,jesus ,christ and his ,apostles generally went to preach in those places4 ,although the sacrifices could not be offered1 except in the tabernacle or the temple1 the other exercises of religion were restricted to no particular place4 ,accordingly we find that the praises of ,god were sung1 at a very ancient period1 in the schools of the prophets2 and those who felt any particular interest in religion1 were assembled by the seers on the ,sabbath1 and the new moons1 for prayers and religious instruction1 #a ,sam4 x1 #e-aa2 xix1 #ah-bd2 #b ,kings iv1 #bc4 ,during the ,babylonish captivity1 the ,jews1 who were then deprived of their customary religious privileges1 were wont to collect around some prophet or other pious man1 who taught them and their children in religion1 exhorted to good conduct1 and read out of the sacred books1 ,ezek4 xiv1 #a2 xx1 #a2 ,dan4 vi1 #aa2 ,neh4 viii1 #ah4 ,these assemblies1 or meetings1 became1 in progress of time1 fixed to certain places1 and a regular order was observed in them4 ,such appears to have been the origin of synagogues4 ,in speaking of synagogues1 it is worthy to be noticed1 that there is nothing said in respect to the existence of such buildings in ,palestine1 during the reign of ,antiochus ,epiphanes4 ,they are1 therefore1 by some supposed to have been first erected under the ,maccabean princes1 but that1 in foreign countries1 they were much more ancient4 ,whether this statement be correct or not1 it is nevertheless certain1 that in the time of the ,apostles1 there were synagogues wherever there were ,jews4 ,they were built1 in imitation of the temple of ,jerusalem1 with a court and porches1 as is the case with the synagogues in the east at the present day4 ,in the centre of the court is a chapel1 supported by four columns1 in which1 on an elevation prepared for it1 is placed the book of the law1 rolled up4 ,this1 on the appointed days1 is publicly read4 ,in addition to the chapel1 there is erected within the court a large covered hall or vestry1 into which the people retire1 when the weather happens to be cold and stormy1 and each family has its particular seat4 ,the uppermost seats in the synagogue1 that is1 those which were nearest the chapel where the sacred books were kept1 were esteemed peculiarly honourable1 ,matt4 xxiii1 #f2 ,james ii1 #c4 ,the 8proseuch10 1 are understood by some to be smaller synagogues1 but by others are supposed to be particular places under the open sky1 where the ,jews assembled for religious exercise4 ,but ,josephus calls the proseucha of ,tiberias a large house1 which held very many persons4 ,see ,proseuch4 ,the ,apostles preached the ,gospel in synagogues and proseuch1 and with their adherents performed in them all the religious services4 ,when excluded1 they imitated the ,jews in those places1 where they were too poor to erect these buildings1 and held their religious meetings in the houses of individuals4 ,hence we not only hear of synagogues in houses in the ,talmud1 but of churches in houses in the ,new ,testament1 ,rom4 xvi1 #e2 #a ,cor4 xvi1 #ai2 ,col4 iv1 #ae2 ,phil4 ii2 ,acts iii1 #df2 v1 #db4 ,the ,apostles sometimes hired a house1 in which they performed religious services1 and taught daily1 ,acts xix1 #i2 xx1 #h4 means literally a convention or assembly1 but by metonymy1 was eventually used for the place of assembling2 in the same way1 that 1 which means literally a calling together1 or convocation1 signifies also at the present time the place of convocation4 ,synagogues were sometimes called by the ,jews schools2 but they were careful to make an accurate distinction between such1 and the schools1 properly so called1 the 1 or 8sublimer schools10 in which the ,talmud was read1 while the law merely was read in the synagogues1 which they placed far behind the ,talmud4 ,the mode of conducting religious instruction and worship in the primitive ,christian churches was derived for the most part from the practice which anciently prevailed in synagogues4 ,but there were no regular teachers in the synagogues who were officially qualified to pronounce discourses before the people2 although there were interpreters who rendered into the vernacular tongue1 namely1 the ,hebro-aramean1 the sections1 which had been publicly read in the ,hebrew4 ,the 8synagogue preacher10 1 whose business it is1 in consequence of his office1 to address the people1 is an official personage that has been introduced in later times2 at least we find no mention of such a one in the ,new ,testament4 ,on the contrary1 in the time of ,christ1 the person who read the section for the ,sabbath1 or any other person who was respectable for learning and had a readiness of speech1 addressed the people1 ,luke iv1 #af-ba2 ,acts xiii1 #e1 #ae2 xv1 #ba2 ,matt4 iv1 #bc4 ,the other persons who were employed in the services and government of the synagogue1 in addition to the one who read the ,scriptures1 and the person who rendered them into the vernacular tongue1 were as follows3 #a4 8,the ruler of the synagogue10 1 1 who presided over the assembly1 and invited readers and speakers1 unless some persons who were acceptable voluntarily offered themselves1 ,mark v1 #bb1 #ce-ch2 ,luke viii1 #da2 xiii1 #ad1 #ae2 ,acts xiii1 #ae4 #b4 8,the elders of the synagogue10 1 4 ,they appear to have been the counsellors of the head or ruler of the synagogue1 and were chosen from among the most powerful and learned of the people1 and are hence called 1 ,acts xiii1 #ae4 ,the council of elders not only took a part in the management of the internal concerns of the synagogue1 but also punished transgressors of the public laws1 either by turning them out of the synagogue1 or decreeing the punishment of thirty-nine stripes1 ,john xii1 #db2 xvi1 #b2 #b ,cor4 xi1 #bd4 #c4 8,the collectors of alms10 1 1 8deacons40 ,although every thing which is said of them by the ,jews was not true concerning them in the time of the ,apostles1 there can be no doubt that there were such officers in the synagogues at that time1 ,acts vi4 #d4 8,the servants of the synagogue10 1 1 ,luke iv1 #bj2 whose business it was to reach the book of the law to the person who was to read it1 and to receive it back again1 and to perform other services4 ,the ceremonies which prevail in the synagogues at the present day in presenting the law were not observed in the time of our ,saviour4 #e4 8,the messenger or legate of the synagogue10 4 ,this was a person who was sent from synagogues abroad1 to carry alms to ,jerusalem4 ,the name1 messenger of the synagogue1 was applied likewise to any person1 who was commissioned by a synagogue1 and sent forth to propagate religious knowledge4 ,a person likewise was denominated the messenger1 or angel1 1 1 c1 who was selected by the assembly to recite for them the prayers2 the same that is called by the ,jews of modern times the synagogue singer1 or cantilator1 ,rev4 ii1 #a1 #h1 #ab1 #ah2 iii1 #a1 #g1 #ad4 ,the ,jews anciently called those persons who1 from their superior erudition1 were capable of teaching in the synagogue1 1 8shepherds10 or 8pastors40 ,they applied the same term1 at least in more recent times1 to the elders of the synagogue1 and also to the collectors of alms1 or deacons4 ,the ground of the application of this term in such a way1 is as follows3 the word is1 without doubt1 derived from the ,greek word 1 8bread10 or 8a fragment of bread20 and1 as it is used in the ,targums1 it corresponds to the ,hebrew verb 1 8to feed40 ,it is easy to see1 therefore1 how the word might be applied to persons who sustained offices in the synagogue1 in the same way as is applied to kings1 c4 ,we do not find mention made of public worship in the synagogues1 except on the ,sabbath1 ,matthew xii1 #i2 ,mark i1 #ba2 iii1 #a2 vi1 #b2 ,luke iv1 #af1 #cb1 #cc2 vi1 #f2 xiii1 #aj2 ,acts xiii1 #ad2 xv1 #ba2 xvi1 #ac-be2 xvii1 #b2 xviii1 #d4 ,what is said of ,st4 ,paul's hiring the school of one ,tyrannus at ,ephesus1 and teaching in it daily1 is a peculiar instance1 ,acts xix1 #i1 #aj4 ,yet there can be no doubt that those ,jews who were unable to go to ,jerusalem attended worship on their festival days1 as well as on the ,sabbath1 in their own synagogues4 ,individuals sometimes offered their private prayers in the synagogue4 ,when an assembly was collected together for worship1 the services began1 after the customary greeting1 with a doxology4 ,a section was then read from the ,mosaic law4 ,then followed1 after the singing of a second doxology1 the reading of a portion from the prophets1 ,acts xv1 #ca2 ,luke iv1 #af4 ,the person whose duty it was to perform the reading1 placed upon his head1 as is done at the present day1 a covering called tallith1 to which ,st4 ,paul alludes1 #b ,cor4 iii1 #ae4 ,the sections which had been read in the ,hebrew were rendered by an interpreter into the vernacular tongue1 and the reader or some other man then addressed the people1 ,luke iv1 #af2 ,acts xiii1 #ae4 ,it was on such occasions as these1 that ,jesus1 and afterward the ,apostles1 taught the ,gospel4 ,the meeting1 as far as the religious exercises1 were concerned1 was ended with a prayer1 to which the people responded ,amen1 when a collection was taken for the poor4 ,the customs which prevail at the present day1 and which ,vitringa has treated of1 were not all of them practised in ancient times4 ,the readers1 for instance1 were not then1 as they are at the present day1 called upon to perform1 but presented themselves voluntarily1 ,luke iv1 #af2 the persons also who addressed the people were not rabbins expressly appointed for that purpose1 but were either invited from those present1 or offered themselves1 ,acts xiii1 #ae2 ,luke iv1 #ag4 ,the parts to be publicly read1 likewise1 do not appear to have been previously pointed out1 although the book was selected by the ruler of the synagogue1 ,luke iv1 #af4 ,furthermore1 the forms of prayer that are used by the ,jews at the present time do not appear to have been in existence in the time of ,christ2 unless this may perhaps have been the case in respect to the substance of some of them1 especially the one called 1 concerning which the ,talmudists1 at a very early period1 gave many precepts4 ,it was by ministering in synagogues that the ,apostles gathered the churches4 ,they retained also essentially the same mode of worship with that of the synagogues1 excepting that the ,lord's ,supper was made an additional institution1 agreeably to the example of ,christ1 ,acts ii1 #db2 xx1 #g-aa2 #a ,cor4 xi1 #af-cd4 ,they were at length excluded from the synagogue and assembled at evening in the house of some ,christian1 which was lighted for the purpose with lamps1 ,acts xx1 #g-aa4 ,the ,apostle1 with the elders1 when engaged in public worship1 took a position where they would be most likely to be heard by all4 ,the first service was merely a salutation or blessing1 namely1 8,the ,lord be with you10 or1 8,peace be with you40 ,then followed the doxologies and prelexions1 the same as in the synagogues4 ,the ,apostle then addressed the people on the subject of religion1 and urged upon them that purity of life which it required4 ,prayer succeeded1 which was followed by the commemoration of the ,saviour's death in the breaking and distribution of bread4 ,the meeting was ended by taking a collection for the poor1 especially those at ,jerusalem1 #b ,cor4 ix1 #a-ae4 ,those who held some office in the church were the regularly qualified instructers in these religious meetings2 and yet laymen had liberty to address their brethren on these occasions the same as in the synagogues2 also to sing hymns1 and to pray2 which1 in truth1 many of them did1 especially those who were supernaturally gifted1 not excepting the women4 ,those females who were not under a supernatural influence were forbidden by the ,apostle ,paul to make an address on such occasions1 or to propose questions2 and it was enjoined on those who did speak1 not to lay aside their veils1 #a ,cor4 xi1 #e2 xiv1 #cd-dj4 ,the reader and the speaker stood2 the others sat2 all arose in the time of prayer4 ,whatever was stated in a foreign tongue was immediately rendered by an interpreter into the speech in common use4 ,this was so necessary1 that ,paul enjoined silence on a person who was even endowed with supernatural gifts1 provided an interpreter was not at hand1 #a ,cor4 xiv1 #a-cc4 ,it was the practice among the ,greek ,christians to uncover their heads when attending divine service1 #a ,cor4 xi1 #aa-af2 but in the east1 the ancient custom of worshipping with the head covered was retained4 ,indeed1 it is the practice among the oriental ,christians to the present day1 not to uncover their heads in their religious meetings1 except when they receive the eucharist4 ,it is affirmed that in the city of ,jerusalem alone there were no less than four hundred and sixty or four hundred and eighty synagogues4 ,every trading company had one of its own1 and even strangers built some for those of their own nation4 ,hence we find synagogues of the ,cyrenians1 ,alexandrians1 ,cilicians1 and ,asiatics1 appointed for such as came up to ,jerusalem from those countries1 ,acts vi1 #i4 ,,synods1 though actually synonymous with ,,councils1 are in common historical parlance employed to designate minor ecclesiastical conventions4 ,in virtue of this distinction councils have usually claimed for themselves the ample epithet of cumenical or general1 while synods have long been known only by the humbler term of local or provincial4 ,in the apostolic age four local assemblies were held1 which some have called councils and others synods4 ,the first was convened for the election of a successor to ,judas in the apostleship1 ,acts i1 #bf4 ,at the second1 seven deacons were chosen1 ,acts vi1 #e4 ,the third1 like the two which preceded it1 was held at ,jerusalem1 according to some authors1 ,a4 ,d4 #dg1 but1 according to others1 ,a4 ,d4 #ea2 that is1 at the latest1 eighteen years after ,christ's ascension4 ,it originated in the attempt made to oblige the ,gentile converts at ,antioch to submit to the rite of circumcision4 ,st4 ,paul and ,barnabas opposed this attempt2 and1 after 8no small dissension and disputation10 it was determined1 that the question should be referred to the judgment of the ,apostles and elders at ,jerusalem4 ,accordingly1 some of the ,apostles and several of the 8elders came together0 to deliberate on the propriety of dispensing with the ceremonial law4 ,the result of their deliberations was1 that the ,mosaic ordinances1 being too rigorous1 should be abrogated2 and that their decision should be communicated to 8the brethren which were of the ,gentiles10 ,acts xv1 #a-cj4 ,the fourth apostolic synod was convened in reference to the toleration of legal rites1 ,acts xxi1 #ah4 ,with respect to all these1 the fact is1 that1 instead of being councils or synods in any proper sense1 they were mere meetings of the church at ,jerusalem1 and all of them ordinary meetings except the third1 when they assembled upon the request of the deputies from ,antioch who came to ask advice4 ,dr4 ,neander1 speaking of the origin1 use1 and abuse of synods1 says1--,as a closer bond of union was early formed between the churches of the same province1 so also the ,christian catholic spirit introduced the custom that1 in all pressing matters1 controversies on doctrinal points1 things relating to the ecclesiastical life1 and very commonly in those relating to church discipline1 general deliberations should be held by deputies from these churches4 ,such assemblies become familiar to us in the controversies about the time of celebrating ,easter1 and in the transactions about the ,montanistic prophecies1 in the last half of the second century4 ,but these provincial synods appear1 for the first time1 as a constant and regular institution1 fixed to definite times1 about the end of the second or the beginning of the third century2 and it was in this case a peculiarity of one country1 where particular local causes may have introduced such an arrangement earlier than in other regions4 ,this country was1 in fact1 exactly ,greece1 where1 from the time of the ,achaic league1 the system of confederation had maintained itself2 and as ,christianity is able to connect itself with all the peculiarities of a people1 provided they contain nothing immoral1 and1 entering into them1 to take itself a peculiar form resembling them1 so1 also1 it might easily happen that here the civil federal spirit which already existed worked upon the ecclesiastical catholic spirit1 and gave it earlier than in other regions a tolerably good form1 so that out of the representative assemblies of the civil communities1 the ,amphictyonic councils1 were formed the representative assemblies of the ecclesiastical communities1 that is1 the provincial synods4 ,as the ,christians1 in the consciousness that they are nothing1 and can do nothing1 without the ,spirit from above1 were accustomed to begin all important business with prayer1 they prepared themselves here1 also1 for their general deliberations by common prayer1 at the opening of these assemblies1 to ,him who has promised that he will enlighten and guide1 by his ,spirit1 those who believe in him1 if they will give themselves up to him wholly1 and that he will be among them1 where they are gathered together in his name4 ,it appears that this regular institution met at first with opposition as an innovation1 so that ,tertullian felt himself called upon to stand up in its defence4 ,nevertheless1 the ruling spirit of the church decided for this institution2 and1 down to the middle of the third century1 the annual provincial synods appear to have been general in the church1 as we may conclude1 because we find them prevalent1 at the same time1 in parts of the church as far distant from each other as ,north ,africa and ,cappadocia4 ,these provincial synods might certainly become very useful for the churches2 and1 in many respects1 they did become so4 ,by means of a general deliberation1 the views of individuals might mutually be enlarged and corrected2 wants1 abuses1 and necessary reforms1 might thus more easily be mutually communicated1 and be deliberated on in many different points of view2 and the experience of every individual1 by being communicated1 might be made useful to all4 ,certainly1 men had every right to trust that ,christ would be among them1 according to his promise1 and would lead those who were assembled in his name by his ,spirit4 ,certainly it was neither enthusiasm nor hierarchical presumption1 if the deputies1 collected together to consult upon the affairs of their churches1 and the pastors of these churches1 hoped that a higher ,spirit than that of man1 by his illumination1 would show them what they could never find by their own reason1 whose insufficiency they felt deeply1 if it were left to itself4 ,it would far rather have been a proud self-confidence1 had they been so little acquainted with the shallowness of their own heart1 the poverty of human reason1 and the self-deceits of human wisdom1 as to expect that without the influence of that higher ,spirit of holiness and truth they could provide sufficiently for the advantage of their churches4 ,but this confidence1 in itself just and salutary1 took a false and destructive turn1 when it was not constantly accompanied by the spirit of humility and self-watchfulness1 with fear and trembling2 when men were not constantly mindful of the important condition under which alone man could hope to share in the fulfilment of that promise1 in that divine illumination and guidance1--the condition1 that they were really assembled in the name of ,christ1 in lively faith in him1 and honest devotion to him1 and prepared to sacrifice their own wills2 and when the people gave themselves up to the fancy1 that such an assembly1 whatever might be the hearts of those who were assembled1 had unalienable claims to the illumination of the ,holy ,spirit2 for then1 in the confusion and the intermixture of human and divine1 men were abandoned to every kind of self-delusion2 and the formula1 8,spiritu ,sancto suggerente10 8,by the suggestion of the ,holy ,spirit10 might become a pretence and sanction for all the suggestions of man's own will4 ,and farther1 the provincial synods would necessarily become prejudicial to the progress of the churches1 if1 instead of providing for the advantage of the churches according to the changing wants of each period1 they wished to lay down unchanging laws in changeable things4 ,evil was it at last1 that the participation of the churches was entirely excluded from these synods1 that at length the bishops alone decided every thing in them1 and that their power1 by means of their connection with each other in these synods1 was constantly on the increase4 ,as the provincial synods were also accustomed to communicate their resolutions to distant bishops in weighty matters of general concernment1 they were serviceable1 at the same time1 toward setting distant parts of the church in connection with each other1 and maintaining that connection4 ,in the second century after the birth of ,christ1 eight local synods were held on church affairs1 about which little information is now extant1 except that they related to the heresy of ,montanus1 the rebaptizing of heretics1 and the time for celebrating the festival of ,easter4 ,in the third century eighteen synods were held2 the principal of which were1 that of ,alexandria1 against ,origen2 that of ,africa1 against the schismatic ,novatus2 that of ,antioch1 against the heresy of ,sabellius1 and another in the same city against ,paul of ,samosata2 that of ,carthage1 against such persons as fell away in time of persecution2 and that of ,rome1 against ,novatian and other schismatics4 ,prior to the assembling of the first general council at ,nice1 ,a4 ,d4 #cbe1 three synods were held at ,sinuessa1 ,cirtha1 and ,alexandria1 the subjects discussed in which are unworthy of notice4 ,others were held1 the discussions in which are so far interesting as they show how desirous the ,ante-,nicene fathers were to regulate the doctrine and practice of the church according to the apostolic model4 ,the fourth was that of ,elvira1 which rejected by its thirty-sixth canon any use whatever even of pictures4 8,we would not10 say they1 8have pictures placed in churches1 that the object of our worship and adoration should not be painted on their walls40 ,the synod at ,carthage not having brought the rival pretensions of ,ccilian and ,majorinus to the episcopate of that city to a favourable issue1 the ,emperors ,constantine appointed a commission 7there being so few bishops present1 it could not deserve any other title7 to sit1 first at ,rome1 and afterward at ,arles1 for the purpose of rehearing the matter4 ,at ,arles1 it was decreed1 that ,easter should be celebrated on the same ,sunday throughout the world2 and that heretics1 who had been baptized in the name of the ,trinity1 should not be rebaptized4 ,the synods of ,ancyra and ,neo-,csarea followed4 ,the tenth canon1 decreed by the latter1 shows the sense of the fathers on the subject of celibacy3 namely1 8,if deacons declare at the time of their ordination that they would marry1 they should not be deprived of their function if they did marry40 ,rigid decrees were passed generally against such of the clergy as ate meats which had been sacrificed to idols4 ,after the forementioned synods1 two were convened at ,alexandria1 ,a4 ,d4 #cbb1 against ,arius4 ,but their acts merge in the subsequent proceedings of the church4 ,from the termination of the council of ,nice to the next cumenical council1 ,a4 ,d4 #cha1 no fewer than forty-three synods1 eastern and western were convened4 ,the professed object of these meetings was the tranquillity of the church2 yet1 from the unhappy divisions which prevailed in these assemblies1 their deliberations were conducted with much of the violence of party feeling2 and1 according as the one party or the other prevailed1 they severally hurled spiritual thunder-bolts against their doctrinal rivals1 as if against the enemies of ,god himself4 ,of the synod of ,sardica a separate and more particular account will be subsequently given1 because on the authority of that unimportant assembly the church of ,rome grounds the right of appeal to itself before any other church4 ,in the whole1 no fewer than eighty-one synods were assembled throughout the universal church in this century4 ,the principal subjects which engaged their attention related to ,arianism1 which was generally rejected by the western church2 but experienced various vicissitudes in the east1 according to the view taken of it by the reigning power4 ,unfortunately for the peace of the church1 this heresy gave birth to numerous others4 ,marcellus1 ,photinus1 ,macedonius1 and ,priscilian1 were severally betrayed by their violence into systems no less revolting to reason and common sense than the ,arian impieties4 ,of sixty synods which were convened to regulate the affairs of the church between the second and third general councils1 ,a4 ,d4 #cha-dca1 more than half of that number were assembled in ,africa3--no inconsiderable proof of the vigilance exercised by the local bishops over the interests of that portion of the church universal committed to their care4 ,in the latter part of the fifth century many synods were held1 some eastern and others western1 but none of them possessed peculiar interest4 ,in the commencement of this century1 ,zosimus1 bishop of ,rome1 absolved the heresiarchs1 ,pelagius and ,clestius1 and by this act confirmed their errors4 ,on the latter appealing to him for support1 ,zosimus sent the ,sardican canon to a council held at the time in ,carthage1 as if that canon had been decreed by the council of ,nice2 because it allowed the right of appeal to the see of ,rome4 ,the ,african council rejected it with disdain1 having found1 on reference to the eastern patriarchs1 that no such canons belonged to the ,nicene council1 or were ever before heard of4 ,thus was the reputed infallible head of an equally infallible church detected in a gross act of imposition2 so gross as to compel our good ,bishop ,jewel to call ,zosimus 8a forger and falsifier of councils10 ,the same pope pronounced his unerring judgment in the dispute between the bishops of ,arles and ,vincennes2 while ,boniface1 his successor1 under the influence of the same inerrant principle and in the plenitude of the same apostolic power1 reversed that judgment4 ,in the year #dih1 ,symmachus and ,laurentius were elected to the pontificate on the same day by different parties2 and while they maintained the validity of their respective elections1 they reciprocally denounced each other4 ,where1 then1 did infallibility reside before ,theodoric1 king of the ,goths1 gave it a supposed habitation in the person of ,symmachus8 ,theodoric1 an ,arian1 and consequently a heretic in the eyes of the ,romish church1 awarded the keys of ,st4 ,peter to ,symmachus2 a circumstance which must have vitiated the boasted apostolic succession in the bishops of ,rome1 and therefore have destroyed their title to infallibility6 ,cabals and intrigues for being elected to the popedom disgraced the commencement of the sixth century4 ,their prevention in future1 however1 was decreed2 and certain rules1 having in view the peace and order of the western church1 were laid down by two synods convened at ,rome about the same time4 ,from this period to the middle of the century1 upward of twenty local meetings of the clergy were held in different parts of ,europe1 fifteen in ,asia1 and only four in ,africa4 ,the directions for the married clergy1 which occasionally present themselves to view in the proceedings of these synods1 prove that celibacy was not at this period a general regulation2 while communion in both kinds appears to have been an established usage4 ,the synods which were held during the remainder of the sixth century were confined to ,france and ,spain4 ,they amount in number to twenty-six2 and1 like the rest of the minor class which preceded them1 canons are interspersed among their acts which have in view the security of church property1 and the rights1 privileges1 and powers of the different ranks of the clergy4 ,the remaining canons relate to discipline1 with the exception of the few which were at different times ordained for the suppression of heretical opinions1 for the regulation of both the married and celibate clergy1 and of the fees to which they should be entitled on the performance of certain duties4 ,in none of them is to be found the least authority for the distinguishing tenets of the modern church of ,rome2 so that1 to the very close of the sixth century1 she may be considered as being orthodox1 pure1 and uncorrupt4 ,whatever deference she might claim as an elder branch of the church of ,christ1 she raised no pretensions to a lordly preminence over the rights and privileges of other churches4 ,her jurisdiction was circumscribed within her own diocesan boundaries2 and1 beyond them1 none was demanded4 ,after the commencement of the seventh century1 however1 a complete change took place in this respect1 so that if a comparison be instituted between the tenets which the church of ,rome held in the first ages1 and those which she subsequently professed1 the precise period at which the novelties commenced which now distinguish her from her former self might easily be ascertained4 ,the order of ,st4 ,benedict1 which served as a model for the other monastic fraternities that were subsequently instituted1 was founded in the early part of this century ,as the history of synods after the sixth century dwindles down into a meagre narrative of the unjust incroachments and corrupt innovations of the church of ,rome1 and of the ineffectual struggles of ,christian churches in various parts of ,europe to resist his usurpation1 we shall close this article with an account of the popish synod of ,sardica and of the ,protestant synod of ,dort4 ,after a long night of darkness1 the glimmerings of a bright day were perceived at a distance1 when1 in the fourteenth century1 our celebrated countryman1 the immortal ,wickliffe1 appeared as the precursor of the reformation from popery4 ,the light increased during the succeeding century1 when those brave witnesses for the truth1 ,john ,huss and ,jerome of ,prague1 suffered martyrdom2 and the sixteenth century was favoured with the full blaze of day when ,luther and ,melancthon were encouraged and supported in their benevolent and arduous undertaking1 and succeeded in putting down the shadowy forms of superstition and idolatry4 ,soon was the greatest part of irradiated ,europe called upon to rejoice in this light2 and to some of the best patriots in those countries that slighted such an opportunity1 their own culpable supineness or neglect has been a source of deep national regret from one generation to another4 ,,the ,,synod ,,of ,,sardica was held ,a4 ,d4 #cdg4 ,the ,emperors ,constans and ,constantius1 being anxious to restore that peace to the church of which it was deprived by the continuance of ,arius's heresy1 agreed to convene an ecclesiastical assembly in ,sardica1 a city of ,msia on the verge of their respective empires4 ,about a hundred western and seventy eastern bishops attended2 but altercation1 and not debate1 ensued4 ,the smaller party1 apprehensive for their personal safety1 withdrew to a town in ,thrace2 a circumstance that disclosed the first symptoms of discord and schism between the ,greek and ,latin churches4 ,before this period the right of appeal from all other churches to the see of ,rome had not been claimed2 but from it we date the first aspirations of ,roman pontiffs to lordly preminence1 and they bent their restless energies to establish a spiritual tyranny over all the nations of the earth4 ,ecclesiastics1 excommunicated by the oriental or ,african churches1 fled to ,rome for refuge1 one after another2 and as the bishop of that city afforded them his protection1 gratified as he was at every occasion which made it necessary1 they1 in order to testify their gratitude1 unwittingly compromised the rights of the clergy1 when1 to the extent of their individual sanction1 they invested him with the appellant jurisdiction4 ,among the refugees at ,rome was the celebrated bishop of ,alexandria4 ,athanasius1 persecuted by the ,arian party in the east1 knelt as a suppliant on the threshold of the ,vatican4 ,julius gladly espoused his cause1 and declared him to have been illegally condemned2 a declaration that seemed to come with authority1 but which the eastern bishops opposed as an usurpation of undue power4 ,they went so far as even to excommunicate ,hosius1 ,gaudentius1 ,julius the bishop of ,rome1 and others1 on the alleged assumption of authority4 ,they maintained the principle laid down in the canons1 that the judgment passed on any individual1 either by an eastern or western synod1 ought to be confirmed by the other4 ,and while they complained that the bishops of the west should disturb the whole church1 on account of one or two troublesome fellows1 they accused them of arrogantly attempting to establish a new law for the purpose of empowering themselves to rexamine what had been already determined4 ,chrysostom1 too1 in his distress1 implored1 at a subsequent period1 the interference of ,innocent1 the then occupant of the papal chair1 with the emperor of the east1 for the purpose of procuring a reversal of the sentence of deposition pronounced against him by an obscure synod in the suburbs of ,chalcedon4 ,but that father never once supposed that the ,roman pontiff had any right to hear his cause4 ,his appeal lay to the supreme tribunal of a free and general council1 from a packed assembly which the empress ,eudoxia had been instrumental in calling together1 in order to effect his ruin4 ,as these two cases of ,athanasius and ,chrysostom are pleaded by ,romish writers in support of the appellant authority with which they invest the bishop of ,rome1 it is a matter of importance to examine the stability of this ground-work1 on which is laid the immense structure of papal supremacy4 ,hosius1 who presided in the ,sardican synod1 as he did at every council where he happened to be present1 is reported to have proposed that an appeal should be made to ,rome out of respect to the chair of ,st4 ,peter1 and not1 as was ruled at the council of ,nice1 to the bishops of the neighbouring province1 when any decision had been come to in a provincial synod4 ,but what is the language of the proposition made by ,hosius8 8,if it be a favourite object with you1 let us honour the memory of ,peter1 so that a letter may be addressed to ,julius1 bishop of ,rome1 by those who decided on the matter2 that1 if necessary1 the judgment may be reviewed by the bishops in his neighbourhood1 and that he may appoint some to hear the cause40 ,here neither canon nor ,scripture is referred to2 while it is left optional with the assembly whether deference was or was not to be paid to ,julius1 who is simply styled 1 8a fellow bishop40 ,the fourth canon of this synod ordains1 8that an archbishop1 c1 deposed by a provincial synod1 must not be expelled1 until the bishop of ,rome shall determine whether the cause shall be rexamined20 and the fifth canon decrees1 8that the bishop of ,rome1 if he deem it proper1 shall order a rehearing of the matter2 that1 if convenient1 he shall send deputies for the purpose2 if not1 that he should leave the decision of the case to the synod itself40 ,from the third and fourth canons it appears that a novelty in discipline is established1 and made obligatory on the churches of both empires1 but only by a handful of bishops belonging to one of them2 and from the fifth1 that the bishop of ,rome1 if he deemed a judgment erroneous1 might convene a new council and send deputies to it1 for the purpose of reconsidering the matter4 ,these canons1 no doubt1 were very flattering to the ambition of the ,roman pontiff1 and1 accordingly1 they are pleaded in behalf of his supremacy2 but how preposterous is it to ascribe that to a human law1 which1 it is asserted1 belongs to him by the law of ,god6 ,there are other canons regulating the intercourse between bishops and the imperial court2 after such a manner1 however1 as to make the bishop of ,rome the judge of the propriety of the petitions which they intended to prefer4 ,notwithstanding all this1 they can never be rescued from the imputation of being forgeries4 ,for1 #a4 ,they were never received by either the eastern or ,african church as general laws4 ,at the sixth council of ,carthage1 ,austin strenuously denied the right of appeal to the ,roman see1 although a letter has been forged in his name1 strenuously contending for it1 which is now deposited among the pious frauds of the ,vatican4 ,it happened1 also1 in the early part of the fifth century1 that ,appiarius1 who had been excommunicated by the ,african bishops1 applied to ,zosimus1 bishop of ,rome4 ,this pontiff forthwith sent them the ,sardican canon1 which conferred on him the right of appeal4 ,this they indignantly rejected1 inasmuch as their predecessors1 who attended the council of ,sardica1 left no record of it2 and because the eastern patriarchs1 whom they consulted on the occasion1 not only disclaimed all knowledge of any such canon being in existence1 but furnished their brethren with an exact copy of the ,nicene canons1 among which the ,sardican one was not to be found4 #b4 ,the ,sardican canons were not inserted in the code of canons approved of by the council of ,chalcedon4 #c4 ,the council which passed them is not reckoned1 even by the church of ,rome1 as one of the eighteen general councils1 whose authority it acknowledges2 nor does ,bellarmine himself say that it is one of those councils which his church receives in part and rejects in part4 #d4 ,when the western bishops entreated the ,emperor ,theodosius to summon a council1 ,a4,d4 #djg1 so far were they from making any allusion to the doctrine of an appeal to the ,roman see1 that they distinctly disclaimed the thought of such a prerogative1 and only sought the fellowship of a common arbitration4 #e4 ,lastly1 if1 as the historian ,sozomen says1 the ,sardican synod wrote to ,julius1 bishop of ,rome1 to apprize him of what they had done1 and of their decrees being drawn up in the spirit of the council of ,nice1 the purport of the letter was not so strong as that which they addressed to the church of ,alexandria1 in which they pray it to give its suffrage to the determination of the council1 additional suspicions are created4 ,from all these circumstances taken together1 it is evident that no value is to be attached to the decrees of this obscure council2 and that1 although due respect was paid to ,st4 ,peter's chair1 it was no acknowledgment of the superiority of its possessor as to ecclesiastical authority or jurisdiction4 ,,the ,,synod ,,of ,,dort4 ,the ,dutch churches forsook the communion of the corrupt church of ,rome soon after the church of ,england had cast off the papal yoke2 and they were generously aided in their endeavours to recover their civil and religious liberties by our good ,queen ,elizabeth and her wise counsellors4 ,the first ,christian teachers among them were ,lutherans2 but in process of time1 the celebrity of ,geneva as a place of public instruction for ministers of religion induced the majority of the candidates for the ministry to repair to that university2 and1 as might naturally be expected1 they imported into the ,low ,countries the peculiar views of ,calvin and ,beza on the subject of predestination4 ,it is justly observed by ,le ,vassor1 8,some learned ,hollanders had boldly defended this doctrine1 before ,arminius became a minister at ,amsterdam and a professor at ,leyden1 and likewise before ,gomarus had risen up against him4 ,their writings are still extant2 although it is true that certain ministers1 who were too hasty1 exerted themselves to bring those authors and their productions into disrepute2 but the states of ,holland uniformly checked this impetuous zeal4 ,the professors of ,leyden were allowed a perfect liberty of teaching conformably to the sentiments of ,melancthon2 and when ,arminius was called to that university1 his opinions were generally known2 for he had declared them in the church of ,amsterdam1 from the consistory of which he received very honourable testimonials4 ,gomarus1 and many others of the same opinion1 having entered into conversation with ,arminius1 made no scruple of acknowledging immediately that the difference of sentiments which existed between them did not at all concern the foundations of the ,reformation4 ,true it is1 that ,gomarus did not remain long on good terms with ,arminius4 ,whether he had taken umbrage at the reputation of his new colleague1 or the enemies of ,arminius had found means to provoke the anger of ,gomarus by some artful insinuation or other2 he violently set his face against a man whom1 some time before1 he looked upon as orthodox40 ,the struggles of the party of ,arminius in ,holland1 after the death of that great man1 to obtain a toleration for their opinions1 are matters of history4 ,the political circumstances of that country and of ,europe in general were at that period very peculiar1 and exercised great influence in the convening and conducting of that famous ecclesiastical assembly1 the synod of ,dort2 but in a sketch like this1 they can only be briefly mentioned4 ,frederic1 the elector ,palatine1 married ,elizabeth1 the only daughter of our ,king ,james the ,first2 he was nephew to ,maurice the prince of ,orange3 and he sent his ,heidelberg divines to the synod to assist his uncle in the condemnation of the ,remonstrant party1 as the ,arminians were generally called1 and to gratify his polemical father-in-law in the overthrow of the heretical ,vorstius4 ,in return1 he naturally expected both of his relations to aid him in his grand enterprise of seizing on the crown of ,bohemia2 in which1 soon after the banishment of the ,remonstrants1 he completely succeeded1--though he subsequently lost that crown and all his hereditary possessions1 and embroiled nearly the whole of ,protestant ,europe in the famous thirty years' war4 ,the ,remonstrants1 according to ,nichols1 in the ample notes to his translation of the 8,works of ,arminius10 had long wished to have their 8,five ,points0 of doctrine brought for adjudication either before a provincial synod1 to prepare matters for a national one2 or to have them brought at once before a general council of ,protestant divines4 ,but the ,calvinists would listen to neither of these equitable proposals4 ,if a provincial synod were convened1 especially in that province 7,holland7 which most needed such a remedy1 these men well knew1 from trial1 how difficult it would be to combat and refute the strong and popular arguments of the ,remonstrants1 when both parties were placed nearly on an equality in the same assembly2 and if a general council of ,protestants was summoned together1 they were certain that the principles of ,arminius would1 without demur1 be recognized as integral parts of ,scripture verity1 and consequently entitled not only to toleration1 7which was all that the ,remonstrants had desired17 but to the especial patronage of the civil authorities4 ,the latter result was anticipated1 from the immense preponderance which the ,lutheran divines1 from all the small states of ,germany1 and from other parts of the north of ,europe1 would have had in such a council4 ,numerous state papers on this subject were written by the public functionaries of the different provinces in the year #afag2 among which those of the composition of the learned ,grotius1 who conducted the arguments in favour of a general council1 are very conspicuous for the superior ability which they display4 ,a national synod was therefore the sole remedy which the wisdom1 or rather the worldly prudence1 of the ,calvinists could discover for removing the maladies under which the churches of ,holland were at that time labouring4 ,in showing cause for their preference1 they were placed in an awkward dilemma2 for they perceived1 that the strongest reasons to be adduced for the adoption of this measure would extend too far1 and might1 in the hands of their able antagonists1 be made to apply with greater cogency to the convening of a general council4 ,the designs which ,prince ,maurice had long cherished against the ancient liberties and internal jurisdiction of the states1 7each of which possessed by the act of union the complete management of its own affairs17 were then in a course of execution4 ,by the forcible and illegal removal of the old burgomasters and governors1 and the appointment of new ones2 by the preponderance which these newly elected individuals gave to their own party in their election of persons to fill the higher offices of state in the various towns which had been ill-affected toward ,calvinism and arbitrary power2 and by the untrue and scandalous reports which were invented and industriously propagated respecting the alleged secret intentions of ,barnevelt and the ,arminians to deliver up their country to the ,spaniards2 the prince was enabled to succeed in his ambitious enterprises4 ,to the party1 therefore1 that had forwarded his views he willingly gave all the weight of his influence1 and that of the ,states ,general1 the majority of whom1 in virtue of the late unlawful changes effected in the provinces1 were favourable1 not only to ,calvinism1 but to any measure which the prince might think fit to propose4 ,it was in allusion to the revolution1 thus craftily completed1 that ,bogerman1 as president of the synod of ,dort1 told ,episcopius1 in a sarcastic style1 as ,hales tells us1 8,you may remember what you told the foreign divines in your letter to them1 that there had of late been a great metamorphosis in the state2 you are no longer judges and men in power1 but persons under citation40 ,in such a state of affairs1 an ordinance of government was easily obtained for convening a national synod1 which was to consist of native divines appointed by the different classes and presbyteries1 of civil deputies chosen out of each province by the states1 and of foreign divines deputed by such churches as had adopted both the platform and the doctrine of ,geneva4 ,the temper and intolerant conduct of the various ecclesiastical meetings with whom rested the inland appointments1 had been but too apparent2 and time had not mollified their intolerant principles2 for1 under the new order of things1 and with the sanction of the fresh race of magistrates1 they were emboldened to effect a schism in many of the chief towns1 and forcibly to exclude the ,arminian ministers from the churches which they occupied4 ,in other towns1 in which these bold practices could not be attempted with any probability of success1 they employed the ecclesiastical arms of the classes1 provincial synods1 and other packed vestry-meetings1 the members of which 7consisting generally of ,calvinists7 summoned before them all the chief ,arminian pastors in the various districts1 accused them of holding heterodox opinions on the subject of predestination1 and suspended or expelled them from the ministry4 ,this work of expulsion and suspension was carried on by the dominant party1 even during the time in which the fate of ,arminianism was in a course of determination by the synod of ,dort3 so that1 had that far-famed and reverend assembly decided in favour of a toleration of the ,arminian doctrines1 the minor church meetings had left few ministers of that persecuted denomination to profit from such a decision4 ,the ,calvinistic account of this summary and iniquitous process is thus given1 in the preface to the acts of the ,national ,synod3 8,and since there were several pastors in that province1 ,guelderland1 some of whom had been suspected of many other errors beside the ,five ,points of the ,remonstrants1 others of them had illegally intruded into the office of the ministry1 while others were men of profligate habits2 certain persons of this description being cited before the provincial synod of ,guelderland and ,zutphen1 held at ,arnheim1 in ,july1 #afah1 were suspended from the ministry for some of the before-mentioned reasons1 and by no means on account of the opinion contained in the ,five ,points of the ,remonstrants1 which was reserved for the cognizance of the national synod4 ,the trial of the rest of these men being dismissed in the name of the synod1 was committed to a deputation from their body1 to whom the states added certain of their own delegates4 ,when they had fully investigated the cases of these men in their classes1 they suspended some of them from the ministry1 and entirely removed others40 ,in the very able memorial which the ,remonstrants1 on their arrival at the synod1 presented to the foreign members1 it is justly observed1 respecting those who were accused of having taught1 beside the ,five ,points1 those doctrines which were contrary to the fundamentals of faith3 8,such particular cases do not in any manner affect the common cause of the ,remonstrants1 but concern those alone who may be found guilty of them4 ,nor are we adverse to the issuing of ecclesiastical censures against such persons1 provided they be lawfully put upon their trials1 and fairly heard in defence of themselves against such charges40 ,because the members of these ,calvinistic provincial synods could not be long absent from their respective congregations1 such galloping commissions as these1 endowed with ample powers1 were appointed to traverse every province in which ,arminianism had been planted2 and they soon showed to the world the most compendious method of rooting out reputed heresies4 ,their track through the land resembled that of the angel of destruction2 it was marked by anguish1 mourning1 and desolation4 ,after this detail1 established by the synodical documents themselves1 few words will suffice to point out the purely ,calvinistic constitution of the synod of ,dort4 ,when very few ,remonstrant ministers remained in the land1 except such as were ejected from the church or under suspension1 it was no difficult matter to procure an assemblage of men that were of one heart respecting the main object that was then sought to be accomplished4 ,in the original order for holding the synod1 and in the list appended to it1 as they were both passed by the ,states ,general1 no mention was made of inviting any other churches1 except those of ,england1 ,france1 the ,palatinate1 ,hesse1 and ,switzerland1 and it was a matter postponed for farther deliberation1 whether any invitation should be transmitted to the churches of ,bremen1 ,brandenburgh1 ,geneva1 and ,nassau4 ,the clergy of the principality of ,anhalt were not invited to the synod1 because their opinions were understood to be similar to those of the ,remonstrants1 the ancient confession adopted by their churches being decided on the subject of conditional predestination4 ,the divines of ,bremen were viewed as men inclined too much to moderate counsels1 and on that account improper representatives in an assembly that intended to carry every proposition with the unanimity of force4 ,the divines of ,brandenburgh were the last of those invited4 ,indeed no invitation was transmitted to them1 till the state and temper of their churches had been ascertained with tolerable accuracy2 and when it was generally thought that the deputies from that electorate were tractable and would follow in the train of the ,contra-,remonstrants1 it was determined to summon them to the synod4 ,it was for some time a matter of doubt with the leading men of ,holland1 whether they ought to invite the divines of ,geneva and ,nassau1 two of the greatest nurseries of ,calvinism1 to be present at the synod4 ,the cause of this demur was1 to avoid the appearance of partiality1 which they justly thought all the world would have imputed to them had they convened an assembly consisting only of ,calvinistic doctors4 ,to keep up this semblance of moderation1 the synodical summons was not transmitted to those divines when they were sent to the churches of other states and countries4 ,but when ,prince ,maurice's schemes of secular aggrandizement and political power had succeeded beyond his utmost wishes1 they no longer studied to 8avoid the appearance of evil10 but boldly summoned all those divines about whose presence at the synod they had formerly hesitated4 ,this was a most notable and certain method of procuring a strict ,calvinian uniformity in the members4 ,on this topic1 ,hales1 in his letters from ,dort1 to the ,english ambassador at the ,hague1 says1 8,for a general confession of faith1 at least so far as those churches stretch who have delegates here in the synod1 ,i think his project very possible1 there being no point of faith in which they differ40 ,great interest was made at the court of ,france1 to procure the attendance of deputies from the reformed churches of that country2 but the king of ,france prohibited the ,protestant clergy within his dominions from becoming members of the synod1 or assisting at its deliberations4 ,the letters of the ,states ,general1 inviting the foreign divines to the national synod1 were issued on the #beth of ,june1 #afah2 and the members were summoned to meet together in the city of ,dort1 on the first day of ,november in the same year4 ,the letters of invitation to the divines of the united provinces were dated ,sept4 #bjth1 and the synod of ,dort was formally opened ,nov4 #acth4 ,whosoever casts his eye over the list of the foreign divines that composed this last of ,protestant councils1 will find scarcely one man who had not distinguished himself by his decided opposition to the doctrine of conditional predestination1 and who was not consequently disqualified from acting the part of an impartial judge of the existing religious differences1 or that of a peace-maker4 ,this caused the famous ,daniel ,tilenus to observe1 that 8no persons were summoned to ,dort who were not well known to be zealous promoters of ,calvin's predestination4 ,in former ages1 men were accustomed1 first to go to the councils1 and then to declare their sentiments3 just the reverse of this is the practice in our days2 for no one could be admitted into the synod of ,dort unless he had previously manifested the bearing of his opinions40 ,it will be perceived from the preceding statement1 by what kind of ecclesiastical management the ,remonstrants had been excluded from having any deputies in the synod of ,dort4 ,so completely had the ,calvinistic plan of exclusion succeeded1 that three of the members from ,utrecht were the only ,remonstrants in that synod4 ,the reason of their being there at all1 was1 because that province was almost equally divided between ,remonstrant and ,calvinist churches1 and it had been agreed that three of each denomination should be summoned4 ,but so obnoxious were the persons as well as the doctrines of the ,remonstrants to their adversaries1 that they would not allow even those three individuals to have a place in the seat of judgment4 ,in the twenty-fourth session1 it was unanimously declared1 that they could only be reputed as cited persons2 however1 as the ,acts express it1 8that this synod might not be exposed to calumnies1 as if they wished to exclude them1 it was allowed them to sit among the judges0 on five conditions1 the chief of which were1 8that while the affairs of the ,remonstrants were under discussion1 they should not disturb the proceedings of the synod by unseasonable interruptions1 and not acquaint their party with any thing done or said in the synod1 which concerned their cause40 ,two of them1 after a day's deliberation1 united themselves with their suffering brethren2 and the third1 who was a layman1 had seen enough of the partial conduct of that venerable assembly to induce him to absent himself from their farther deliberations4 ,as the ,remonstrants formed no part of the members convened1 it was debated1 in the fourth session1 how they ought to be summoned4 ,it was proposed and resolved1 that a letter should be composed and sent to the whole body1 that they might depute three out of each province as deputies to the synod4 ,the president ,bogerman then inquired1 if all the ,remonstrants were to be admitted2 the president of the lay commissioners answered1 that the ecclesiastical president and the secretaries should receive a private explanation from him respecting their numbers4 ,in the interview which the two presidents and the secretaries had together1 they concerted matters so well1 that next day the preceding resolution for writing to the whole body was withdrawn for amendment2 and it was finally agreed1 that it should be left to the determination of the lay commissioners1 what persons1 and how many1 should be convened4 ,these gentlemen selected thirteen of the ,remonstrants1 to each of whom they addressed a letter of citation1 commanding them to appear before the synod1 8within fourteen days after the receipt of it without any tergiversation1 excuse1 or exception1 that in it they might freely propose1 explain1 and defend the before-mentioned five points as far as they were able and should deem to be necessary40 ,in the mean time the ,remonstrants1 without knowing the resolution of the synod1 had deputed three of their body from ,leyden1 to obtain leave for their appearance at the synod1 in a competent number and under safe conduct to defend their cause4 ,on making their request known to the lay commissioners1 they were informed of the resolution which had passed the synod only the preceding day4 ,to which they replied1 that it was unreasonable to cite those to justify themselves who were both ready and willing to come of their own accord2 and that if they persisted in proceeding with their plan of citation1 they would by that act furnish just cause1 not only to them1 but to all good men1 to entertain strange notions and suspicions of the synodical proceedings4 ,not being permitted to choose those men from their own body whom they deemed the best qualified to state and defend their cause1 they accounted it an additional hardship1 that their enemies should assume that unlawful authority to themselves4 ,but neither at that time nor afterward1 when they wished to add two of the most accomplished of the brethren to their number1 were their representations of the least avail4 ,on the sixth of ,december these valiant defenders of the truth arrived1 and requested1 by a deputation1 to be allowed a few days to unpack their books1 arrange their papers1 c4 ,but they were commanded immediately to appear in a body before the synod1 and to prefer their own request4 ,they were introduced by their brethren of ,utrecht1 and ordered to sit down at a long table placed in the middle of the hall4 ,episcopius then1 with the permission of the president1 addressed an apostolic greeting to the synod2 and1 having repeated the request previously made1 he said1 that 8the cited ,remonstrants appeared there to defend their good and righteous cause before that venerable assembly1 by reasons and arguments drawn from the word of ,god1--or else to be confuted and better informed from the same word4 ,in reference to the favour which they had asked1 they left it to the discretion of the commissioners of the ,states ,general1 being ready on their parts1 immediately and without delay1 to engage in a conference1 if that should be required40 ,then were they desired to withdraw into a chamber prepared for them adjoining the hall of the synod4 ,after some time spent in deliberation1 they were recalled1 and informed by the president1 that they would be expected at the synod next morning at nine o'clock4 ,he added1 according to ,hales1 8that they came not to conference1 neither did the synod profess themselves an adverse party against them4 ,conferences had been heretofore held to no purpose4 ,they ought to have heeded the words of the letters by which they were cited4 ,they were called not to conference1 but to propose their opinions with their reasons1 and leave it with the synod to judge of them40 ,episcopius replied1 that it was not necessary so nicely to criticise the word conference1 and that they had come there with no other view than to treat about the doctrines which were controverted1 according to the summons which they had received4 ,the next day1 ,december #gth1 the ,remonstrants were called in1 when after ,episcopius had desired and obtained leave to speak1 he uttered an oration1 the delivery of which occupied nearly two hours1 and which1 on account of the noble sentiments contained in it1 deserves to be recorded in letters of gold4 ,the gracefulness1 force1 and energy with which it was spoken1 made such an impression on the auditory as drew tears from several of them1 and even from some of the states' deputies4 ,this effect gave mighty umbrage to the choleric ,bogerman1 who1 as president1 according to ,mr4 ,hales's account1 8signified unto ,episcopius1 that1 because there were in his speech many things considerable1 he was therefore to deliver the copy of it4 ,episcopius replied1 that he had none handsomely written3 if the synod would have patience1 he would cause a fair transcript to be drawn for them4 ,but this excuse would not serve2 fair or foul1 deliver it up he must1 and so he did40 ,in the session1 ,december #aj1 after the president had ceased to speak1 he desired the ,remonstrants to proceed with their explanation and defence of the five points4 ,they requested leave to have a paper read by ,episcopius4 ,bogerman would not consent to this2 but the lay president ordered another of the ,remonstrants1 ,bernard ,dwinglo1 to read it4 ,this very convincing document was addressed to the synod1 and consisted of two parts4 ,it may be seen at full length in the acts1 and is in every respect worthy of the great men whose holy cause it defended4 ,the first part declared1 that the ,remonstrants did not own the members of the synod for lawful judges1 because the great majority of them1 with the exception of the foreign divines1 were their professed enemies2 and that most of the inland divines then assembled1 as well as those whose representatives they were1 had been guilty of the unhappy schism which was made in the churches of ,holland4 ,the second part contained the twelve qualifications1 of which the ,remonstrants thought a well constituted synod should consist4 ,the observance of the stipulations proposed in it1 they would gladly have obtained from the synod1 averring that they were exceedingly equitable1 and that the ,protestants had offered similar conditions for the guidance of the ,papists1 and the ,calvinists for the direction of the ,lutherans4 ,the production of such a mass of evidence from writers of the ,calvinistic persuasion1 in favour of a toleration and moderate measures1 and against the principle of interested parties usurping the place of judges1--gave dreadful offence to that powerful body in the synod1 and especially when they were charged with being at once plaintiff1 judge1 and jury4 ,no one can form an adequate conception of the scene which followed the reading of this document4 ,bogerman1 the ,remonstrants1 the lay president1 and the commissioners1 were warm interlocutors during that session and the succeeding one which was held in the afternoon of the same day4 ,bogerman laboured hard to show1 that1 by denying the competency and impartial constitution of the tribunal before which they were summoned1 they in reality were guilty of disaffection to the higher powers1 who had appointed and convened the synod2 and that1 by charging the majority of the members with being the authors of the schism1 they had in effect accused the prince of ,orange and the ,states ,general1 because those great personages had frequented the separate meetings4 ,in reference to the latter circumstance1 which exceedingly galled him and the inland divines1 he said1 8,the proper time has not yet arrived for discussing it4 ,but when it shall have been proved to the synod1 what kind of doctrine is sanctioned by the church1 those who have departed from it1 and who are consequently guilty of the schism1 will appear in their true colours40 ,charles ,niellius1 one of the ,walloon ministers1 answered in behalf of the ,remonstrants1 that though they acknowledged the authority of the states1 and held the synod in due estimation1 yet it was as lawful for them to challenge this synod1 as for several of the ,christian fathers who challenged some of the ancient councils1 and their ancestors that of ,trent4 ,the laws themselves allowed men for certain reasons to challenge even sworn judges4 ,but it was never known1 that any law allowed parties to be judges4 ,nor was it equitable1 that those who had previously separated from the ,remonstrants should sit in the synod to try them1 after they had by such separation pre-judged their doctrine and entered into mutual engagements to procure its condemnation4 ,episcopius then said1 8,mr4 ,president1 if you were in our places and we in yours1 would you submit to our judgment80 ,bogerman replied1 8,if it had so happened1 we must have endured it2 and since government has ordered matters in a different way1 it becomes you to bear it with patience40 ,episcopius rejoined1 8,it is one thing to acknowledge a person for a judge1 and it is another to bear with patience the sentence which he may impose4 ,we also will endure it2 but our consciences cannot be persuaded to acknowledge you for the judges of our doctrines1 since you are our sworn adversaries1 and have churches totally separated from ours40 ,on the morning of the next day1 the ,remonstrants1 being called in1 were urged by the synod to present their objections in writing against the ,confession and ,catechism4 ,before they proceeded to do that1 they craved permission to read another document3 after some demur1 leave was granted1 when ,dwinglo read a paper which commenced thus3 8,the celebrated ,parus1 in his ,irenicum1 prudently observes1 that he would advise no man to approach any council in which the same persons had to appear in the character of both adversaries and judges40 ,the rest of the paper was occupied in wiping off the aspersions which had been cast upon them in the four preceding sessions1 and particularly the foul charge of their want of respect for the constituted authorities of their country4 ,they declared1 that in case men of peaceable dispositions had been deputed to the synod1 as the ,states ,general had intended1 and such men as had never been concerned in making or promoting these unhappy divisions1 they would have had little reason to offer exceptions against such a synod4 ,this document concluded with a protest4 ,after the delivery of this protest1 the synod invented various methods to vex the cited ,remonstrants and to impede the prosecution of their cause4 ,among those methods one of the most artful was1 to ask them questions singly1 and not in a body1 with an evident design to entrap them in their answers4 ,they had with the greatest injustice chosen those ,remonstrants whom they thought proper1 to be cited as guilty persons at the bar of the synod1 without the least regard to the useful or splendid qualifications of the individuals thus selected4 ,of the six prudent and accomplished men who had represented the ,remonstrant party at the celebrated ,hague ,conference in #afaa1 only three were summoned to the present synod2 and though those who appeared on this occasion were generally men of good natural talents and sound understandings1 and well versed in the matters under discussion1 yet they were not all endowed with the gift of rendering a ready and extempore reply in ,latin to every question that might be suddenly asked2 and if they had possessed such a gift in an eminent degree1 it would still have been necessary that they should have had time for reflection1 and for each to compare his own views and reasons with those of his brethren4 ,this request1 however1 which cannot be viewed as a favour but as an act of justice1 was almost without exception refused4 ,having presented to the synod their opinions relative to the ,five ,points and their remarks on the ,catechism and ,confession1 the ,remonstrants wished to enter on the 8proposing1 explanation1 and defence of them1 as far as they were able or should think necessary10 according to the very terms of the letters by which they had been cited2 but the synod in opposition to the plain and obvious meaning which those expressions conveyed1 decided that it was a privilege belonging to themselves alone to judge how far the ,remonstrants might be permitted to enter into the explanation and defence of their doctrines4 ,this was accounted an act of great injustice by the ,remonstrants1 who also alleged1 that 8they did not feel many scruples about the doctrine of election1 but that it was reprobation in which the chief difficulty lay40 ,they were very desirous1 therefore1 of having reprobation discussed in the first instance3 but the ,calvinists of those days wished to keep unconditional reprobation enshrined in the dark penetralia of their temples1 only to be produced1 as opportunity might serve1 for their own private purposes1 either to terrify the careless among their hearers1 or to quicken the occasionally sluggish current of congregational benevolence4 ,it was not to be expected1 therefore1 that the ,calvinists of the synod would allow the ,remonstrants to give reprobation that prominence in their discussions to which it was justly entitled4 ,in one of the debates which these two questions produced1 ,bogerman again took advantage of the disingenuous trickery which we have just exposed1 and asked ,pynakker1 one of the cited ministers1 8,do you imagine the synod will suffer the ,remonstrants to examine the doctrine of reprobation80 ,pynakker replied1 8,yes1 ,i do3 because1 as this is the chief source of the troubles of the church1 it ought to be first discussed40 ,perceiving either that his meaning was not correctly understood1 or that he had expressed it in an imperfect manner1 ,pynakker immediately explained himself by adding1 that by first he meant chiefly1 7both of which significations the ,latin word conveys17 and by acknowledging that election ought to have the precedence of discussion4 ,when relating this occurrence1 ,poppius remarks1 8,this1 being received in a wrong sense1 was imputed to all of us1 as though we were unanimously of opinion1 that the discussion of the doctrine of reprobation ought to precede that of election4 ,upon this question the foreign divines and others were desired by the president to deliver their sentiments4 ,however1 the expression imputed to us was employed by none of us1 much less by all4 ,but this was their manner3 if one of us1 in the name of all1 said any thing that proved advantageous to the rest1 the president seemed much displeased at our unanimity3 then we were told that we were cited singly and personally1 and that we did not compose a society or corporation4 ,but when any of us happened to employ a word that was capable of being wrested to our common injury and misconstrued1 then what was said by one was certain to be imputed to all60 ,after gaining a favourable opportunity like this1 ,bogerman always hastily dismissed the cited persons2 and on this occasion he dwelt largely1 in their absence1 on ,pynakker's expression1 and persuaded the foreign divines that the proposal of the ,remonstrants1 to treat of reprobation before election1 was a sine qu non1 and that without it was granted to them they would not proceed4 ,this alarmed all the ,calvinistic brotherhood1 who rose vi et armis1 delivered seriatim their objections to such a bold proceeding1 and thought1 with the professor of ,heidelberg1 8that it was unreasonable for the ,remonstrants to disturb the consciences of the elect on account of ,god's judgments against the reprobated1 and to plead the cause of the latter1 as though they had been hired to undertake the defence of those who had by the just judgment of ,god been rejected2 and that for these reasons the synod neither could nor ought to grant the ,remonstrant brethren any farther liberty1 unless the members designed to expose the orthodox doctrine of predestination to be openly ridiculed40 ,finding this great aversion in the synod to the precedence of reprobation1 the ,remonstrants proposed1 since they were forbidden to explain or defend their sentiments viv voce1 8to explain their doctrines in writing1 beginning with the article of election1 and proceeding to that of reprobation2 to defend their doctrines1 and to refute the contrary opinions of the ,contra-,remonstrants and of those whom they consider orthodox3 but that1 in case this explanation or defence seems to be defective1 they would answer in writing the questions which the president might think proper to propose to them1 or in oral communications by those of their body whom they might judge best qualified for that purpose4 ,and that the liberty which they desired might not appear unlimited1 they bound themselves to proceed in such a manner as should not savour in the least of an insolent licentiousness3 and that their discussions might not be extended too far1 the lay commissioners were empowered to curtail them at pleasure40 ,but these very equitable terms1 which were much worse than those which the unsophisticated and grammatical sense of the citatory letters held out to them1 were rejected by the synod1 at the instigation and by the management of the president1 who1 after having had recourse to his old trick of propounding questions to each of the cited persons1 and after procuring against them three or four synodical censures1 had them at length1 7,jan4 #adth17 dismissed from the synod1 with every mark of contumely and scorn which he could invent4 ,bogerman had previously busied himself in extracting the opinions of the ,remonstrants from such writings of theirs as had been published long before1 and in forming them into articles1 to be separately discussed by the synod4 ,this passing of judgment on the ,remonstrants from the testimony of their own writings1 was an employment which ,deodatus and his colleague from ,geneva had at one of the earliest sessions mentioned as very desirable1 and in which they appeared eager to engage4 ,any one who attentively reads the ,acts of the synod1 and compares them with the private accounts both of ,remonstrants and ,contra-,remonstrants will find1 that this had also been the intention of the president from the very commencement1 and that all his shifting schemes and boisterous conduct was intended to irritate the ,remonstrants1 who possessed more patience than he had contemplated1 and who were therefore to be removed from the synod by a greater exercise of art and with greater difficulty4 ,but one of the greatest injuries of which the ,remonstrants had to complain1 was1 that the book from which their supposed opinions were chiefly collected1 was the production of a declared enemy1 who wrote a highly coloured account of a conference respecting the ,five ,points1 in which he pretended that the ,calvinists had obtained a complete victory4 ,a ,remonstrant author had also written an able statement of the same conference1 and had claimed a triumph for his party4 ,the latter would therefore have certainly been the most proper authority from which to extract the real opinions of his body4 ,but though dismissed from their farther attendance on the synod1 the ,remonstrants were not permitted to depart from ,dort2 the states' commissioners having charged them not to quit the town1 without their special permission4 ,the president1 in his speech dimissory1 had said1 that they would receive an intimation when the synod had any farther occasion for them4 ,when a ,remonstrant deputy1 by leave of the acting burgomaster of ,dort1 who was one of the commissioners1 had hastily gone to ,utrecht1 to visit one of his children that was expected soon to die1 he was on his return called to an account for his conduct1 and the former order repeated4 ,in the course of their detention at ,dort during eight months1 they were as strictly watched as if they had been condemned malefactors4 ,one of them whose sister lay on her death-bed and earnestly desired to see him1 could not obtain permission to visit her while she lived2 and after her decease he was not allowed to attend her funeral4 ,another1 whose wife was near the time of her accouchment1 wished1 like a good family man1 to be at home for a few days at that critical period2 but his request was refused4 ,when the uncle of another of them was at the point of death1 he longed for the presence of his nephew1 to receive his dying commands1 and to benefit him by his counsels and prayers2 but the wishes of the good old man could not be gratified4 ,after his death1 the nephew was not allowed to look after the pressing concerns of his orphan cousins1 although his uncle had appointed him their legal guardian4 ,none of these favours1 though reasonable and asked with much humility1 could be obtained from the high bigots1 in whose hands1 at that time1 was vested the personal liberty of the persecuted and cited ,remonstrants4 ,toward the close of ,february1 the magistrates of different towns deposed from the ministry three of the cited ,remonstrant ministers who were present at the synod1 and sent regular notices to their families1 speedily to quit the parsonage houses which they severally occupied4 ,these three good men1 being heartily tired of the strict durance in which they had been held since their arrival at ,dort1 represented to the states' commissioners1 that1 as they were not now in the ministry1 they could no longer be considered amenable to the jurisdiction of the synod3 this was the very argument of the commissioners1 when1 at the commencement of the synod1 the ,remonstrants had wished to have associated with them the two recently deposed ministers1 ,grevinchovius and ,goulart4 ,though1 for very obvious reasons1 at that early stage of the business1 they would permit no ,remonstrants to appear among the cited1 8except such as were actually in the exercise of the ministry20 yet they would not listen to the same argument when it militated against their favourite purposes3 and the three ministers were commanded to remain at ,dort with their brethren4 ,one of the three1 however1 whose wife then far advanced in pregnancy1 had been ordered to leave her house within eight days1 ventured to return to ,horn1 and to assist her to remove from their former dwelling4 ,but1 on his arrival1 he found her already removed to another house2 and his return to ,dort was speedily required by the higher powers4 ,to expedite his departure1 two or three of the ,calvinist magistrates employed their official authority in a manner the most reprehensible3 they placed him1 like a criminal1 in the town wagon openly before his own door1 though he had provided a carriage for himself on the outside of the town1 to which he wished to have retired privately and without noise4 ,a tumult ensued between the populace who were attached to their good pastor1 and the soldiers whom the magistrates had placed before his house two hours before his departure4 ,on his return to ,dort1 he was severely examined before the commissioners respecting the unhappy commotion2 but being convinced that he had not been at all to blame in that affair1 they passed it over in silence4 ,at different times the ,remonstrants wished to depute a few of their small body to the ,hague1 to make a proper representation of the manner in which they were treated by the synod2 but this indulgence was invariably refused4 ,their only resource then was1 to write to their high mightinesses an account of their proceedings1 and to implore their interference and protection4 ,but such an attempt1 in that posture of their affairs1 was unavailing2 for their doom was already sealed4 ,soon after their appearance at ,dort1 the magistrates of that city issued a proclamation1 commanding the inhabitants1 all of whom were celebrated for their attachment to ,calvin1 to refrain from insulting any of the foreign or native professors1 divines1 or other persons that were called to appear at the synod1 on pain of summary punishment to the offenders4 ,this document was not required for the protection of the ,calvinists2 but the persecuted ,remonstrants were such objects of hatred to the populace1 as scarcely to be allowed to pass along the streets without being maltreated4 ,this bad spirit was excited and encouraged by the violent sermons which were fulminated against them1 from the different pulpits in the city4 ,whenever these good men were required to be in attendance1 7and they were liable to be summoned from their lodgings at a few minutes' notice17 they were not permitted to enter the large hall in which the synodical sessions were held1 but were ordered to wait the pleasure of that venerable body in an ante-chamber1 the door of which was generally locked1 and the passage leading to it guarded by two or three of the police1 who hindered them from holding any communication with their friends1 and kept them in as strict durance as if they had been convicted of some capital offence4 ,at the formal conclusion of the principal business of the synod1 ,may the #fth1 when the farther attendance of the foreign divines was declared to be no longer necessary1 the ,remonstrants were summoned from their lodgings1 and waited upon the lay commissioners1 at six o'clock in the evening1 when the resolution and censure of the synod were read to them in ,latin by ,heinsius1 the secretary2 in which they were accused of 8having corrupted the true religion1 dissolved the unity of the church1 given grievous cause of scandal1 and shown themselves contumacious and disobedient3 for these several reasons1 the synod prohibited them from the farther exercise of their ministry1 deprived them of their offices in the church and university1 and declared them incapable of performing any ecclesiastical function1 till1 by sincere repentance1 they should have given the church full satisfaction1 and1 being thus reconciled to her1 should be re-admitted into her communion40 ,they were then required to wait at ,dort till farther orders from their high mightinesses2 and when they requested to have a copy of the synodical censure and sentence against them1 they were as usual refused4 ,on the #bdth of ,may1 the cited ,remonstrants were summoned to appear before three new commissioners whom the ,states ,general had deputed from their body1 when each of them was called into the room and separately interrogated2 after which1 he who had been last called in was ordered into another room1 and prevented from holding any communication with those who had not been ushered into the presence of the commissioners4 ,the proposal and questions addressed to each of them were in substance the following3 8,since you have been deprived by the synod1 the ,states ,general have directed us to ask you the following questions3 ,whether you are1 notwithstanding this decision1 resolved to act as ministers8 ,or whether you will be content in future to lead quiet and peaceable lives in obedience to the government1 as private burghers1 without any place or office1 abstaining from all ecclesiastical ministrations in any meeting of the people of your sect1 from all manner of teaching and preaching1 exhorting1 reading1 administering the sacraments1 visiting the sick1 writing letters1 or transmitting papers8--,it is the intention of their high mightinesses to allow to those who shall conform to these requisitions such a competency as may enable them to live comfortably either in or out of these united provinces1 as their own choice may determine40 ,in addition to these things1 ,episcopius was required to promise1 8not to write either letters or books to confirm the people in the sentiments of the ,remonstrants1 or to seduce them from the doctrine of the synod40 ,all of them professed their willingness to obey their governors in all such matters as might be performed with a safe conscience1 to live peaceably themselves1 and to exhort all others to the same practice4 ,they also expressed their readiness to refrain from the exercise of their ecclesiastical functions in the public churches2 but none of them1 except ,leo1 could reconcile it to their consciences to abstain from feeding in smaller assemblies the flock of ,christ over which the ,holy ,ghost had made them overseers4 ,the majority of them added1 8,not only those who abuse or squander away their talent will be punished1 but those also who bury it in the earth1 either through fear of trouble or hope of advantage4 ,it is therefore our duty to place our lights on candlesticks1 and not to hide or smother them under a bushel or an easy bed2 and we hope your lordships will neither hinder us1 nor be displeased with us for so doing40 ,in a subsequent interview with the commissioners1 the ,remonstrants proved1 that their reasons for continuing the exercise of their ministry had formerly received the sanction of the ,states ,general themselves3 for at the treaty of ,cologne1 in #aegi1 their high mightinesses had insisted1 8that subjects who professed any religion different from that which was established1 could not satisfy their consciences by foregoing its exercise40 ,but1 after several unavailing conferences together1 the commissioners left them in a state of suspense and confinement1 about twenty days longer4 ,during that time1 several reports were brought to them from various quarters1 8that some great calamity was impending20 and they were seriously advised to avoid it by a timely flight4 ,they were likewise informed of ,barneveldt's execution1 and of the perpetual imprisonment to which ,grotius and ,hogerbeets had been sentenced2 and that several of their brethren in the ministry1 who had lately attended a meeting at ,rotterdam about their affairs in general1 had been taken into custody1 and brought to the ,hague1 for that offence4 ,they thought1 however1 that all these reports were only intended to create an artificial alarm1 and to induce them to attempt an escape1--thus delivering their enemies from the hatred to which they would be exposed by their farther rigorous proceedings4 ,but their firmness on that occasion corresponded with all their previous conduct1 and they refused to dishonour their good cause by flight1 or any other act of cowardice4 ,on the #c;d of ,july1 after having been summoned from ,dort to the ,hague1 they appeared before the ,states ,general1 and when they had been called in singly before their lordships1 some time was spent to induce each of them to sign the act of cessation from the ministry4 ,but to these renewed solicitations they separately returned the same modest answer as that which they had delivered at ,dort4 ,after allowing them two days for farther deliberation1 their lordships on the fifth of the same month1 having heard a repetition of their refusal1 passed a resolution to banish them 8out of the united provinces and the jurisdiction thereof1 without ever being allowed to return till the said states be fully satisfied that they are ready to subscribe the said act of cessation1 and till they have obtained special leave from their high mightinesses for that purpose1 on pain1 in case of non-compliance1 of being treated as disturbers of the public peace1 for an example to others40 ,episcopius delivered a short speech1 in which1 among other matters1 he reminded their high mightinesses1 8that they had been invited to a free synod1 and had received frequent verbal promises of a safe conduct40 ,to this speech they did not deign a reply1 but ordered the ,remonstrants to be conducted into another room1 and to have the door locked and bolted1 while the provost and his officers attended on the outside for purposes of intimidation4 ,after being kept some time in this kind of imprisonment they were at length permitted to depute to their high mightinesses two of their body1 who requested that they might have leave to adjust their domestic affairs1 to collect what was owing to them1 and to pay their debts1 that their wives and children might not be rendered miserable and turned naked into the streets4 ,they offered to give unexceptionable security for their return at such a period and to such places as their lordships might require4 ,while they were preferring this request1 the ,heer ,muis often interrupted them1 and at last sarcastically told them 8not to be so greatly concerned about their families2 for if they had received an extraordinary call from ,god to serve his church1 he would undoubtedly support them after an extraordinary manner40 ,but the only favour which the ,remonstrants could obtain1 was1 the deferring of their departure till four o'clock the next morning1 provided each of them would promise to retire to his lodgings without speaking to any body1 and to be ready at the appointed early hour next day4 ,each of them had fifty guilders allowed for his travelling expenses1 and a copy of the sentence of the ,states ,general4 ,but it was between nine and ten o'clock the next day1 before the magistrates removed them in nine wagons toward ,walwick in ,brabant1 the place of banishment which they had desired1 where they arrived after a journey of three days4 ,the canons of ,dort1 as the grand test of ,calvinism1 were then carried triumphantly by the synodists throughout the land2 and every clergyman1 professor1 and schoolmaster1 that refused to sign them1 was deprived of his benefice and compelled to lay aside his functions4 ,several of them1 in addition to their deprivation1 were also banished out of the country1 to various parts on the continent4 ,so ended these proceedings of the ,synod of ,dort as to these suffering men2 proceedings which would have disgraced the worst age of popery6 ,while in a state of banishment1 these excellent ministers of ,christ ,jesus provided for the spiritual wants of their destitute flocks2 and1 at the imminent hazard of life and liberty1 discharged in person1 as often as they found opportunity1 the duties of the pastoral office4 ,after the death of ,prince ,maurice1 in #afca1 they were permitted to return to their native country1 and to resume the peaceable exercise of their ministry4 ,but the immense literary labours in which they were compelled to engage during this troublous period have1 by the admirably over-ruling acts of ,divine ,providence1 been rendered most valuable blessings to the whole of ,christendom4 ,such doctrines and principles were then brought under discussion1 as served to enlighten every country in ,europe on the grand subject of civil and religious liberty1 the true nature of which has from that time been better understood1 and its beneficial effects more generally appreciated and enjoyed4 ,we subjoin their opinions on the 8,five ,points0 in dispute between them and the ,contra-,remonstrants1 translated from the ,latin papers which they presented to the synod4 ,it is1 however1 necessary for the reader to be apprized1 that1 in framing these doctrinal articles1 which served them as texts or theses for some most valuable dissertations on various cognate subjects1 they intended rather to expose the unguarded assertions and extravagant dogmas of their theological adversaries1 than to exhibit a simple statement of their own sentiments4 ,i4 ,on predestination4 #a4 ,god has not decreed to elect any one to eternal life or to reprobate any man from it1 in an order prior to that by which he has decreed to create that man1 without any insight into any antecedent obedience or disobedience1 but according to his own good pleasure1 to demonstrate the glory of his mercy and justice1 or of his power or absolute dominion4 #b4 ,as the decree of ,god concerning both the salvation and the destruction of every man is not the decree of an end absolutely intenti fixed1 it follows that neither are such means subordinated to that decree as through them both the elect and the reprobate may efficaciously and inevitably be brought to the destined end4 #c4 ,wherefore1 neither did ,god with this design in one man ,adam create all men in an upright condition1 nor did he ordain the fall or even its permission1 nor did he withdraw from ,adam necessary and sufficient grace1 nor does he now cause the ,gospel to be preached and men to be outwardly called1 nor does he confer on them the gifts of the ,holy ,spirit1--he has done none of these things with the design that they should be means by which he might bring some of mankind to life everlasting1 and leave others of them destitute of eternal life4 ,christ the ,mediator is not only the executor of election1 but also the foundation of the very decree of election itself4 ,the reason causa why some men are efficaciously called1 justified1 persevere in faith1 and are glorified1 is not because they are absolutely elected to life eternal3 nor is the reason why others are deserted and left in the fall1 have not ,christ bestowed upon them1 or1 farther1 why they are inefficaciously called1 are hardened and damned1 because these men are absolutely reprobated from eternal life4 #d4 ,god has not decreed1 without the intervening of actual sins1 to leave by far the greater part of mankind in the fall1 and excluded from all hope of salvation4 #e4 ,god has ordained that ,christ shall be the propitiation for the sins of the whole world2 and1 in virtue of this decree1 he has determined to justify and save those who believe in him1 and to administer to men the means which are necessary and sufficient for faith1 in such a manner as he knows to be befitting his wisdom and justice4 ,but he has not in any wise determined1 in virtue of an absolute decree1 to give ,christ as a ,mediator for the elect only1 and to endow them alone with faith through an effectual call1 to justify them1 to preserve them in the faith1 and to glorify them4 #f4 ,neither is any man by some absolute antecedent decree rejected from life eternal1 nor from means sufficient to attain it3 so that the merits of ,christ1 calling1 and all the gifts of the ,spirit1 are capable of profiting all men for their salvation1 and are in reality profitable to all men1 unless by an abuse of these blessings they pervert them to their own destruction4 ,but no man whatever is destined to unbelief1 impiety1 or the commission of sin1 as the means and causes of his damnation4 #g4 ,the election of particular persons is peremptoria absolute1 from consideration of their faith in ,jesus ,christ and their perseverance1 but not without consideration of their faith and of their perseverance in true faith as a prerequisite condition in electing them4 #h4 ,reprobation from eternal life is made according to the consideration of preceding unbelief and perseverance in unbelief1 but not without consideration of preceding unbelief or perseverance in unbelief4 #i4 ,all the children of believers are sanctified in ,christ2 so that not one of them perishes who departs out of this life prior to the use of reason4 ,but some children of believers who depart out of this life in their infancy1 and before they have in their own persons committed any sin1 are on no account to be reckoned in the number of the reprobate3 so that neither is the sacred laver of baptism1 nor are the prayers of the church1 by any means capable of profiting them to salvation4 #aj4 ,no children of believers who have been baptized in the name of the ,father1 of the ,son1 and of the ,holy ,ghost1 and who live in the state of their infancy1 are by an absolute decree numbered among the reprobate4 ,,ii4 ,on the universality of the merit of ,christ4 #a4 ,the price of redemption which ,christ offered to his ,father is in and of itself not only sufficient for the redemption of the whole human race1 but it has also1 through the decree1 the will1 and the grace of ,god the ,father1 been paid for all men and every man2 and therefore no one is by an absolute and antecedent decree of ,god positively excluded from all participation in the fruits of the death of ,christ4 #b4 ,christ1 by the merit of his death1 has hactenus thus far reconciled ,god the ,father to the whole of mankind1--that he can and will1 without injury to his justice and truth1 enter into and establish a new covenant of grace with sinners and men obnoxious to damnation4 #c4 ,though ,christ has merited for all men and for every man reconciliation with ,god and forgiveness of sins1 yet1 according to pactum the tenor or terms of the new and gracious covenant1 no man is in reality made a partaker of the benefits procured by the death of ,christ in any other way than through faith2 neither are the trespasses and offences of sinful men forgiven prior to their actually and truly believing in ,christ4 #d4 ,those only for whom ,christ has died are obliged to believe that ,christ has died for them4 ,but those whom they call reprobates1 and for whom ,christ has not died1 can neither be obliged so to believe1 nor can they be justly condemned for the contrary unbelief2 but if such persons were reprobates1 they would be obliged to believe that ,christ has not died for them4 ,,iii4 ,,iv4 ,on the operation of grace in the conversion of man4 #a4 ,man has not saving faith from and of himself1 nor has he it from the powers of his own free will2 because in a state of sin he is able from and of himself to think1 will1 or do nothing that is good1 nothing that is indeed saving good2 of which description1 in the first place1 is saving faith4 ,but it is necessary that1 by ,god in ,christ through his ,holy ,spirit1 he should be regenerated and renewed in his understanding1 affections1 will1 and in all his powers1 that he may be capable of rightly understanding1 meditating1 willing1 and performing such things as are savingly good4 #b4 ,we propound the grace of ,god to be the beginning1 the progress1 and the completion of every good thing2 so that even the man who is born again is not able without this preceding and prevenient1 this exciting and following1 this accompanying and coperating grace1 to think1 to will1 or to perform any good1 or to resist any temptations to evil3 so that good works1 and the good actions which any one is able to find out by thinking1 are to be ascribed to the grace of ,god in ,christ4 #c4 ,yet we do not believe that all the zeal1 care1 study1 and pains1 which are employed to obtain salvation1 before faith and the ,spirit of renovation1 are vain and useless2 much less do we believe that they are more hurtful to man than useful and profitable4 ,but1 on the contrary1 we consider that to hear the word of ,god1 to mourn on account of the commission of sin1 and earnestly to seek and desire saving grace and the ,spirit of renovation1 7none of which is any man capable of doing without divine grace17 are not only not hurtful and useless1 but that they are rather most useful and exceedingly necessary for obtaining faith and the ,spirit of renovation4 #d4 ,the will of man in a lapsed or fallen state1 and before the call of ,god1 has not the capability and liberty of willing any good that is of a saving nature2 and therefore we deny that the liberty of willing as well what is a saving good as what is an evil is present to the human will in every state or condition4 #e4 ,efficacious grace1 by which any man is converted1 is not irresistible3 and though ,god so affects the will of man by his word and the inward operation of his ,spirit1 as to confer upon him a capability of believing1 or supernatural power1 and actually faciat causes man to believe2 yet man is of himself capable to spurn and reject this grace and not believe1 and therefore1 also1 to perish through his own culpability4 #f4 ,although1 according to the most free and unrestrained will of ,god1 there is very great disparity or inequality of divine grace1 yet the ,holy ,spirit either bestows1 or is ready to bestow1 upon all and upon every one to whom the word of faith is preached1 as much grace as is sufficient to promote suis gradibus in its gradations the conversion of men2 and therefore grace sufficient for faith and conversion is conceded not only to those whom ,god is said to be willing to save according to his decree of absolute election1 but likewise to those who are in reality not converted4 #g4 ,man is able1 by the grace of the ,holy ,spirit1 to do more good than he actually does1 and to omit more evil than he actually omits4 ,neither do we believe that ,god simpliciter absolutely wills that man should do no more good than that which he does1 and to omit no more evil than that which he omits2 nor do we believe it to have been determinately decreed from all eternity that each of such acts should be so done or omitted4 #h4 ,whomsoever ,god calls he calls them seriously1 that is1 with a sincere and not with a dissembled intention and will of saving them4 ,neither do we subscribe to the opinion of those persons who assert that ,god outwardly calls certain men whom he does not will to call inwardly1 that is1 whom he is unwilling to be truly converted1 even prior to their rejection of the grace of calling4 #i4 ,there is not in ,god a secret will of that kind which is so opposed to his will revealed in his word1 that according to this same secret will he does not will the conversion and salvation of the greatest part of those whom1 by the word of his ,gospel1 and by his revealed will1 he seriously calls and invites to faith and salvation4 #aj4 ,neither hc on this point do we admit of a holy dissimulation1 as it is the manner of some men to speak1 or of a twofold person in the ,deity4 #aa4 ,it is not true1 that1 through the force and efficacy of the secret will of ,god or of the divine decree1 not only are all good things necessarily done1 but likewise all evil things2 so that whosoever commit sin1 they are not able1 in respect to the divine decree1 to do otherwise than commit sin2 and that ,god wills1 decrees1 and procurat is the manager of men's sins1 and of their insane1 foolish1 and cruel actions1 also of the sacrilegious blasphemy of his own name2 that he moves the tongues of men to blaspheme1 c4 #ab4 ,we also consider it to be a false and horrible dogma1 that ,god by secret means impels men to the commission of those sins which he openly prohibits2 that those who sin do not act in opposition to the true will of ,god and that which is properly so called2 that what is unjust1 that is1 what is contrary to ,god's command1 is agreeable to his will2 nay1 farther1 that it is a real and capital fault to do the will of ,god4 ,v4 ,on the perseverance of true believers in faith4 #a4 ,the perseverance of believers in faith is not the effect of that absolute decree of ,god by which he is said to have elected or chosen particular persons circumscribed with no condition of their obedience4 #b4 ,god furnishes true believers with supernatural powers or strength of grace1 as much as according to his infinite wisdom he judges to suffice for their perseverance1 and for their overcoming the temptations of the devil1 the flesh1 and the world2 and on the part of ,god stands nothing to hinder them from persevering4 #c4 ,it is possible for true believers to fall away from true faith1 and to fall into sins of such a description as cannot consist with a true and justifying faith2 nor is it only possible for them thus to fall1 but such lapses not unfrequently occur4 #d4 ,true believers are capable by their own fault of falling into flagrant crimes and atrocious wickedness1 to persevere and die in them1 and therefore finally to fall away and to perish4 #e4 ,yet though true believers sometimes fall into grievous sins1 and such as destroy the conscience1 we do not believe that they immediately fall away from all hope of repentance2 but we acknowledge this to be an event not impossible to occur1--that ,god1 according to the multitude of his mercies may again call them by his grace to repentance2 nay1 we are of opinion that such a recalling has often occurred1 although such fallen believers cannot be 8most fully persuaded0 about this matter that it will certainly and undoubtedly take place4 #f4 ,therefore do we with our whole heart and soul reject the following dogmas1 which are daily affirmed in various publications extensively circulated among the people3 namely1 7#a47 8,true believers cannot possibly sin with deliberate counsel and design1 but only through ignorance and infirmity40 7#b47 8,it is impossible for true believers1 through any sins of theirs1 to fall away from the grace of ,god40 7#c47 8,a thousand sins1 nay1 all the sins of the whole world1 are not capable of rendering election vain and void40 ,if to this be added1 8,men of every description are bound to believe that they are elected to salvation1 and therefore are incapable of falling from that election10 we leave men to think what a wide window such a dogma opens to carnal security4 7#d47 8,no sins1 however great and grievous they may be1 are imputed to believers2 nay1 farther1 all sins1 both present and future1 are remitted to them40 7#e47 8,though true believers fall into destructive heresies1 into dreadful and most atrocious sins1 such as adultery and murder1 on account of which the church1 according to the institution of ,christ1 is compelled to testify that it cannot tolerate them in its outward communion1 and that unless such persons be converted1 they will have no part in the kingdom of ,christ2 yet it is impossible for them totally and finally to fall away from faith40 #g4 ,as a true believer is capable at the present time of being assured concerning the integrity of his faith and conscience1 so he is able and ought to be at this time assured of his own salvation and of the saving good will of ,god toward him4 ,on this point we highly disapprove of the opinion of the papists4 #h4 ,a true believer1 respecting the time to come1 can and ought1 indeed1 to be assured that he is able1 by means of watching1 prayer1 and other holy exercises1 to persevere in the true faith2 and that divine grace will never fail to assist him in persevering4 ,but we cannot see how it is possible for him to be assured that he will never afterward be deficient in his duty1 but that he will persevere1 in this school of ,christian warfare1 in the performance of acts of faith1 piety1 and charity1 as becomes believers2 neither do we consider it to be a matter of necessity that a believer should be assured of such perseverance4 ,under the article ,,pelagians has been shown the line of distinction which the ,remonstrants drew between their doctrines and those of ,pelagius2 and the following are the just distinctions1 which they presented to the synod of ,dort1 between ,semi-,pelagianism and ,arminianism3 8,but we must declare1 likewise1 what our judgment is respecting ,semi-,pelagianism4 ,the ,massilians1 after the time of ,pelagius1 partly corrected his error and partly retained it2 on which account they received from ,prosper the appellation of the relics or remains of ,pelagius1 and are commonly styled ,semi-,pelagians4 ,they allowed the existence of prevenient grace1 but only that which precedes or goes before good works2 not that also which precedes the commencement of faith and of a good will1 by which they believed that man preceded ,god1--yet this not always1 but only sometimes3 ,on the contrary we say1 that ,god precedes or goes before the beginning of faith and of a good will2 and that it is of grace both that our will be excited to begin well1 and likewise1 that1 being thus prepared1 it be led through to the grace of regeneration4 ,the ,semi-,pelagians asserted1 that man1 through the previous dispositions which had been implanted in his nature1 obtained grace as a reward2 and1 however they might sometimes decline the use of the term merit1 they by no means excluded merit itself3 ,but we deny1 that1 through the endeavours of nature1 man merits grace4 ,the opinion of the ,semi-,pelagians was1 that1 for the preservation of the grace of the ,holy ,spirit1 we want nothing more than that which either by nature we may have1 or that which we may once obtain in conjunction with grace3 ,but we acknowledge1 that1 in order to our perseverance in good1 special grace is likewise required4 8,wherefore we are unjustly accused of ,semi-,pelagianism by the ,contra-,remonstrants1 since we condemn in the ,semi-,pelagians those things which the church universal formerly condemned in them4 ,yet these are great signs of inconstancy and consequently of a false judgment1--that while some among them fasten ,pelagianism upon us and others ,semi-,pelagianism1 there are others who declare that we are nearly and almost ,semi-,pelagians1 all of them having chosen and employed these epithets only for purposes of odium4 ,our conclusion therefore is1 that we derogate nothing from divine grace1 but acknowledge its supernatural and unmerited acts1 and their absolute necessity for the work of conversion4 ,but1 on the other hand1 we frankly confess1 that the indifferency or liberty of the will is not taken away by grace1 but that it is perfected for the better2 and that the will is not necessitated1 or so determined toward good as not to be able to do the opposite4 8,this was also the judgment of all antiquity and of the church universal2 and the orthodox accounted this way to be the safest1 which lay between two precipices1 the one that of the ,manichees1 the other that of the ,pelagians4 ,st4 ,jerom says1 #8,we thus preserve free will1 that we do not deny to it the help which it requires in every thing which it performs1' ,dialog4 adversus ,pelagium4 ,and ,st4 ,augustine1 who was at other times a most fierce defender of absolute election1 judiciously observes1 in his forty-sixth letter to ,valentinus1 #8,if there be no grace of ,god1 how does he save the world8 ,and if there be no free will1 how does he judge the world8' ,and1 as ,st4 ,bernard says1 in the commencement of his book ,on ,grace and ,free ,will1 #8,take away free will1 and there will be nothing to be saved2 take away grace1 and there will then be nothing from which salvation can come4' ,we have had regard to both of them2 lest1 if we denied the existence of freedom in the will1 we should encourage the sloth and listlessness of men2 or if the existence of grace1 we should give up the reins to pride and haughtiness4--,from these quotations and others which they give it is evident that the opinion of the fathers was1 that free will and grace so completely conspire together1 that free will is perfected by grace1 and not destroyed2 the destruction of the will in this case being a calumny invented by the ,pelagians1 which was generally refuted by the patrons of grace40 ,for other particulars relating to general redemption consult the articles ,,arminianism1 ,,baxterianism1 ,,calvinism3,,calvinism1 ,,church ,,of ,,england1 and ,,lutherans4 ,,syracuse1 a famous city of ,sicily1 seated on the east side of the island1 ,acts xxviii1 #ab4 ,,syria1 that part of ,asia which1 bathed by the ,mediterranean on the west1 had to the north ,mount ,taurus1 to the east the ,euphrates and a small portion of ,arabia1 and to the south ,judea1 or ,palestine4 ,the orientals called it ,aram4 ,the name1 which has been transmitted to us by the ,greeks1 is a corruption or abridgment of ,assyria1 which was first adopted by the ,ionians1 who frequented these coasts after the ,assyrians of ,nineveh had reduced that country to be a province of their empire1 about ,b4 ,c4 #gej4 ,by the appellation of ,syria is ordinarily meant the kingdom of ,syria1 of which1 since the reign of the ,seleucid1 ,antioch has been the capital4 ,the government of ,syria was for a long time monarchical2 but some of its towns1 which formed several states1 were republics4 ,with regard to religion1 the ,syrians were idolaters4 ,the central place of their worship was ,hieropolis1 in which was a magnificent temple1 and near the temple a lake that was reputed sacred4 ,in this temple was an oracle1 the credit of which the priests used every method to support4 ,the priests were distributed into various classes1 and among them were those who were denominated ,galli1 and who voluntarily renounced the power of transmitting the succession in their own families4 ,the ,syrians had bloody sacrifices4 ,among the religious ceremonies of the ,syrians1 one was that any one who undertook a journey to ,hieropolis began with shaving his head and eye-brows4 ,he was not allowed to bathe1 except in cold water1 to drink any liquor1 nor to lie on any but a hard bed1 before the term of his pilgrimage was finished4 ,when the pilgrims arrived1 they were maintained at the public expense1 and lodged with those who engaged to instruct them in the sacred rites and ceremonies4 ,all the pilgrims were marked on the neck and wrists4 ,the youth consecrated to the goddess the first-fruits of their beard and hair1 which was preserved in the temple1 in a vessel of gold or silver1 on which was inscribed the name of the person who made the offering4 ,the sight of a dead person rendered it unfit for any one to enter into the temple during the whole day4 ,the dynasties of ,syria may be distributed into two classes2 those that are made known to us in the sacred writings1 or in the works of ,josephus1 acknowledged by the orientals2 and the ,seleucidan kings1 successors of ,alexander1 with whom we are acquainted by ,greek authors4 ,the monarchy of ,syria continued two hundred and fifty-seven years4 ,,syro-,,phenicia1 or ,,phenicia ,,proper1 called ,syro or ,syrian ,phenicia from being included in the kingdom of ,syria4 ,it implies that part of the coast of ,canaan on the ,mediterranean in which the cities of ,tyre and ,sidon were situated2 and this same country1 called ,syro-,phenicia in the ,acts1 is in the ,gospels called the coasts of ,tyre and ,sidon4 ,the woman also called a ,syro-,phenician in ,mark vii1 #bf1 is in ,matt4 xv1 #bb1 called a ,canaanitish woman1 because that country was still inhabited by the descendants of ,canaan1 of whom ,sidon was the eldest son4 ,,tabernacle1 in ,hebrew1 1 in ,greek1 1 a word which properly signifies a tent1 but is particularly applied by the ,hebrews to a kind of building in the form of a tent1 set up by the express command of ,god1 for the performance of religious worship1 sacrifices1 c1 during the journeyings of the ,israelites in the wilderness2 and after their settlement in the land of ,canaan made use of for the same purpose1 till the temple was built in ,jerusalem4 ,the tabernacle was covered with curtains and skins4 ,it was divided into two parts1 the one covered1 and properly called the tabernacle1 and the other open1 called the court4 ,the covered part was again divided into two parts1 the one called holy1 and the other called the holy of holies4 ,the curtains which covered it were made of linen of several colours embroidered4 ,there were ten curtains1 twenty-eight cubits long1 and four in breadth4 ,five curtains together made two coverings1 which1 being made fast together1 enveloped all the tabernacle4 ,over the rest there were two other coverings1 the one of goat's hair1 and the other of sheep skins4 ,these vails or coverings were laid on a square frame of planks1 resting on bases4 ,there were forty-eight large planks1 each a cubit and a half wide1 and ten cubits high2 twenty of them on each side1 and six at one end to the westward2 each plank was supported by two silver bases2 they were let into one another1 and held by bars running the length of the planks4 ,the holy of holies was parted from the rest of the tabernacle by a curtain1 made fast to four pillars standing ten cubits from the end4 ,the whole length of the tabernacle was thirty-two cubits1 that is1 about fifty feet2 and the breadth twelve cubits1 or nineteen feet4 ,the end was thirty cubits high2 the upper curtain hung on the north and south sides eight cubits1 and on the east and west four cubits4 ,the court was a place a hundred cubits long1 and fifty in breadth1 inclosed by twenty columns1 each of them twenty cubits high1 and ten in breadth1 covered with silver1 and standing on copper bases1 five cubits distant from each other1 between which there were curtains drawn1 and fastened with hooks4 ,at the east end was an entrance twenty cubits wide1 covered with a curtain hanging loose4 ,in the tabernacle was the ark of the covenant1 the table of shew bread1 the golden candlestick1 and the altar of incense2 and in the court opposite to the entrance of the tabernacle1 or holy place1 stood the altar of burnt-offerings1 and the laver or bason for the use of the priests4 ,the tabernacle was finished on the first day of the first month of the second year after the departure out of ,egypt1 ,a4 ,m4 #bead4 ,when it was set up1 a dark cloud covered it by day1 and a fiery cloud by night4 ,moses went into the tabernacle to consult the ,lord4 ,it was placed in the midst of the camp1 and the ,hebrews were ranged in order about it1 according to their several tribes4 ,when the cloud arose from off the tabernacle1 they decamped2 the priests carried those things which were most sacred1 and the ,levites all the several parts of the tabernacle4 ,part of the tribes went before1 and the rest followed after1 and the baggage of the tabernacle marched in the centre4 ,the tabernacle was brought into the land of ,canaan by ,joshua1 and set up at ,gilgal4 ,here it rested till the land was conquered4 ,then it was removed to ,shiloh1 and afterward to ,nob4 ,its next station was ,gibeah1 and here it continued till the ark was removed to the temple4 ,the word also means a frail dwelling1 ,job xi1 #ad2 and is put for our bodies1 #b ,cor4 v1 #a4 ,,tabernacles1 ,,feast ,,of1 a solemn festival of the ,hebrews1 observed after harvest1 on the fifteenth day of the month ,tisri1 ,lev4 xxiii1 #cd-dd4 ,it was one of the three great solemnities1 wherein all the males of the ,israelites were obliged to present themselves before the ,lord2 and it was instituted to commemorate the goodness of ,god1 who protected them in the wilderness1 and made them dwell in tents or booths after they came out of ,egypt4 7,see ,feasts47 ,this feast continued eight days1 of which the first and last days were the most solemn1 ,lev4 xxiii1 #cd1 c4 ,it was not allowed to do any labour on this feast1 and particular sacrifices were offered1 which1 together with the other ceremonies used in celebrating this festival1 were as follows3 ,the first day of the feast1 they cut down branches of the handsomest trees1 with their fruit1 branches of palm trees1 and such as were fullest of leaves1 and boughs of the willow trees that grew upon the sides of brooks1 ,neh4 viii1 #af4 ,these they brought together1 and waved them toward the four quarters of the world1 singing certain songs4 ,these branches were also called hosanna1 because when they carried them and waved them1 they cried ,hosanna2 not unlike what the ,jews did at our ,saviour's entry into ,jerusalem1 ,matthew xxi1 #h1 #i4 ,on the eighth day they performed this ceremony oftener1 and with greater solemnity1 than upon the other days of the feast4 ,they called this day hosanna rabba1 or 8the great hosanna40 ,,tables ,,of ,,the ,,law4 ,those that were given to ,moses upon ,mount ,sinai were written by the finger of ,god1 and contained the decalogue or ten commandments of the law1 as they are rehearsed in ,exodus xx4 ,many questions have been started about these tables2 about their matter1 their form1 their number1 he that wrote them1 and what they contained4 ,some oriental authors make them amount to ten in number1 others to seven2 but the ,hebrews reckon but two4 ,some suppose them to have been of wood1 and others of precious stones4 ,moses observes1 ,exod4 xxxii1 #ae1 that these tables were written on both sides4 ,many think they were transparent1 so that they might be read through2 on one side toward the right1 and on the other side toward the left4 ,others will have it1 that the lawgiver only makes this observation1 that the tables were written on both sides1 because generally in writing tables they only wrote on one side4 ,others thus translate the ,hebrew text3 8,they were written on the two parts that were contiguous to each other20 because1 being shut upon one another1 the two faces that were written upon touched one another1 so that no writing was seen on the outside4 ,some think that the same ten commandments were written on each of the two tables1 others that the ten were divided1 and only five on one table1 and five on the other4 ,the words which intimate that the tables were written by the finger of ,god1 some understand simply and literally2 others1 of the ministry of an angel2 and others explain them merely to signify an order of ,god to ,moses to write them4 ,the expression1 however1 in ,scripture always signifies immediate divine agency4 ,see ,,decalogue4 ,,tabor1 a mountain not far from ,kadesh1 in the tribe of ,zebulun1 and in the confines of ,issachar and ,naphtali4 ,it has its name from its eminence1 because it rises up in the midst of a wide champaign country1 called the ,valley of ,jezreel1 or the great plain4 ,maundrell tells us that the area at the top of this mountain is enclosed with trees1 except to the south1 from whence there is the most agreeable prospect in the world4 ,many have believed that our ,lord's transfiguration took place on this mountain4 ,this place is mentioned1 #a ,sam4 x1 #c4 ,it is minutely described by both ,pococke and ,maundrell4 ,the road from ,nazareth lies for two hours between low hills2 it then opens into the plain of ,esdraelon4 ,at about two or three furlongs within the plain1 and six miles from ,nazareth1 rises this singular mount1 which is almost entirely insulated1 its figure representing a half sphere4 8,it is10 says ,pococke1 8one of the finest hills ,i ever beheld1 being a rich soil that produces excellent herbage1 and is most beautifully adorned with groves and clumps of trees4 ,the ascent is so easy1 that we rode up the north side by a winding road4 ,some authors mention it as near four miles high1 others as about two3 the former may be true1 as to the winding ascent up the hill4 ,the top of it1 about half a mile long1 and near a quarter of a mile broad1 is encompassed with a wall1 which ,josephus says was built in forty days3 there was also a wall along the middle of it1 which divided the south part1 on which the city stood1 from the north part1 which is lower1 and is called the meidan1 or place1 being probably used for exercises when there was a city here1 which ,josephus mentions by the name of ,ataburion4 ,within the outer wall on the north side are several deep fosses1 out of which1 it is probable1 the stones were dug to build the walls2 and these fosses seem to have answered the end of cisterns1 to preserve the rain water1 and were also some defence to the city4 ,there are likewise a great number of cisterns under ground for preserving the rain water4 ,to the south1 where the ascent was most easy1 there are fosses cut on the outside1 to render the access to the walls more difficult4 ,some of the gates1 also1 of the old city remain1 as ,bab-el-houah1 #8the gate of the winds1' to the west2 and ,bab-el-kubbe1 #8the arched gate1' a small one to the south4 ,antiochus1 king of ,syria1 took the fortress on the top of this hill4 ,vespasian1 also1 got possession of it2 and1 after that1 ,josephus fortified it with strong walls4 ,but what has made it more famous than any thing else is the common opinion1 from the time of ,st4 ,jerom1 that the transfiguration of our ,saviour was on this mountain40 ,van ,egmont and ,heyman give the following account3 8,this mountain1 though somewhat rugged and difficult1 we ascended on horseback1 making several circuits round it1 which took us up about three quarters of an hour4 ,it is one of the highest in the whole country1 being thirty stadia1 or about four ,english miles1 a circumstance that rendered it more famous4 ,and it is the most beautiful ,i ever saw1 with regard to verdure1 being every where decorated with small oak trees1 and the ground universally enamelled with a variety of plants and flowers1 except on the south side1 where it is not so fully covered with verdure4 ,on this mountain are great numbers of red partridges1 and some wild boars2 and we were so fortunate as to see the ,arabs hunting them4 ,we left1 but not without reluctancy1 this delightful place1 and found at the bottom of it a mean village1 called ,deboura1 or ,tabour1 a name said to be derived from the celebrated ,deborah mentioned in ,judges40 ,pococke notices this village1 which stands on a rising ground at the foot of ,mount ,tabor westward2 and the learned traveller thinks1 that it may be the same as the ,daberath1 or ,daberah mentioned in the book of ,joshua1 as on the borders of ,zabulon and ,issachar4 8,any one10 he adds1 8who examines the fourth chapter of ,judges1 may see that this is probably the spot where ,barak and ,deborah met at ,mount ,tabor with their forces1 and went to pursue ,sisera2 and on this account1 it might have its name from that great prophetess1 who then judged and governed ,israel2 for ,josephus relates1 that ,deborah and ,barak gathered the army together at this mountain40 8,from the top of ,tabor10 says ,maundrell1 8you have a prospect which1 if nothing else1 will reward the labour of ascending it4 ,it is impossible for man's eyes to behold a higher gratification of this nature4 ,on the northwest you discern at a distance the ,mediterranean1 and all round you have the spacious and beautiful plains of ,esdraelon and ,galilee4 ,turning a little southward1 you have in view the high mountains of ,gilboa1 fatal to ,saul and his sons4 ,due east you discover the sea of ,tiberias1 distant about one day's journey4 ,a few points to the north appears that which they call the mount of ,beatitudes4 ,not far from this little hill is the city ,saphet3 it stands upon a very eminent and conspicuous mountain1 and is seen far and near40 ,beyond this is seen a much higher mountain1 capped with snow1 a part of the chain of ,antilibanus4 ,to the south-west is ,carmel1 and on the south the hills of ,samaria4 ,,tadmor1 a city built by ,solomon1 #a ,kings ix1 #ah1 afterward called ,palmyra2 situated in a wilderness of ,syria1 upon the borders of ,arabia ,deserta1 inclining toward the ,euphrates4 ,josephus places it two days' journey from the ,euphrates1 and six days' journey from ,babylon4 ,he says there is no water any where else in the wilderness1 but in this place4 ,at the present day there are to be seen vast ruins of this city4 ,there was nothing more magnificent in the whole east4 ,there are still found a great number of inscriptions1 the most of which are ,greek1 and the other in the ,palmyrenian character4 ,nothing relating to the ,jews is seen in the ,greek inscriptions2 and the ,palmyrenian inscriptions are entirely unknown1 as well as the language and the character of that country4 ,the city of ,tadmor preserved this name to the time of the conquest by ,alexander the ,great3 then it had the name of ,palmyra given to it1 which it preserved for several ages4 ,about the middle of the third century1 it became famous1 because ,odenatus and ,zenobia1 his queen1 made it the seat of their empire4 ,when the ,saracens became masters of the east1 they restored its ancient name of ,tadmor to it again1 which it has always preserved since4 ,it is surrounded by sandy deserts on all sides4 ,it is not known when1 nor by whom1 it was reduced to the ruinous condition in which it is now found4 ,it may be said to consist at present of a forest of ,corinthian pillars1 erect and fallen4 ,so numerous are these1 consisting of many thousands1 that the spectator is at a loss to connect or arrange them in any order or symmetry1 or to conceive what purpose or design they could have answered4 8,in the space covered by these ruins10 says ,volney1 8we sometimes find a palace of which nothing remains but the court and walls2 sometimes a temple1 whose peristyle is half thrown down2 and now a portico1 a gallery1 or triumphal arch4 ,here stand groups of columns1 whose symmetry is destroyed by the fall of many of them2 there we see them ranged in rows of such length1 that1 similar to rows of trees1 they deceive the sight1 and assume the appearance of continued walls4 ,if from this striking scene we cast our eyes upon the ground1 another almost as varied presents itself ,on all sides we behold nothing but subverted shafts1 some whole1 others shattered to pieces or dislocated in their joints2 and on which side soever we look1 the earth is strewed with vast stones half buried1 with broken entablatures1 mutilated friezes1 disfigured reliefs1 effaced sculptures1 violated tombs1 and altars defiled by dust40 ,it is probable1 says ,mansford1 that1 although ,tadmor is said to have been built by ,solomon1 or1 in other words1 to have been erected by him into a city1 it was a watering station between ,syria and ,mesopotamia before2 with perhaps accommodations suited to the mode of travelling in those times1 as we read of palm-trees being found there1 which are not trees that come by chance in these desert regions4 ,the mere circumstance of wholesome water being afforded by any spot in such a country was sufficient to give it importance1 and to draw toward it the stream of communication1 for whatever purpose4 ,this was probably the condition of ,tadmor long before it received its name and its honours from ,solomon4 ,but1 after all1 what motive could there be to induce a peaceable king1 like ,solomon1 to undertake a work so distant1 difficult1 and dangerous8 ,there is but one which at all accords with his character1 or the history of the times1--commercial enterprise4 ,solomon was at great pains to secure himself in the possession of the ports of ,elath and ,ezion-,geber on the ,red ,sea1 and to establish a navy for his ,indian commerce1 or trade to ,ophir1--in all ages the great source of wealth4 ,the riches of ,india1 thus brought into ,judea1 were from thence disseminated over those countries of the north and west at that time inhabited or known2 while the same country1 ,judea1 became1 for a season1 like ,tyre1 the point of return and exchange of the money and the commodities of those countries1 the centre of communication between the east and the west4 ,,talent1 a measure of weight among the ancients1 equivalent to sixty maneh1 or one hundred and thirteen pounds ten ounces one pennyweight and ten grains4 ,the value of a talent of silver was three hundred and forty-two pounds three shillings and nine-pence1 and a talent of gold was equal to five thousand four hundred and seventy-five pounds sterling4 ,in the writings of the evangelists1 the term is employed to denote the various gifts or opportunities for usefulness which the ,lord of heaven confers upon his servants1 and for which he will call them to give in their account at the last day1 ,matt4 xxv1 #ae2 ,luke xix1 #ab4 ,,talitha-,,cumi1 the words that ,jesus ,christ made use of when he raised up the daughter of ,jairus1 chief of the synagogue of ,capernaum4 ,they are not pure ,hebrew1 but ,syriac1 and signify1 8,my daughter1 arise10 ,mark v1 #da4 ,,talmud4 ,see ,,jews4 ,,tare1 ,matt4 xiii1 #be-bg1 #bi1 #cj1 #cf1 #ch1 #dj4 ,it is not easy to determine what plant or weed is here intended1 as the word zizania is neither mentioned in any other part of ,scripture1 nor in any ancient ,greek writer4 ,some ,greek and ,latin fathers have made use of it1 as have also ,suidas and ,phavorinus3 but it is probable that they have all derived it from this text4 ,as this ,gospel was first written in ,syriac1 it is probably a word belonging to that language4 ,buxtorf gives several interpretations1 but at last concludes with submitting it to the decision of others4 ,in a treatise in the ,mishna1 called 8,kilayim10 which treats expressly of different kinds of seeds1 a bastard or degenerate wheat is mentioned by the name of 1 which the very sound1 in pronouncing1 proves to be the same as the zizanion2 and which may lead to the true derivation of the word1 that is1 from the ,chaldee 1 8a kind10 or 8species0 of grain1 namely1 whence the corrupt ,hebrew or ,syriac 1 which in the ancient ,syriac version answers to the ,greek 1 ,matt4 xiii1 #be1 c4 ,in ,psalm cxliv1 #ac1 the words 1 are translated1 8all manner of store20 but they properly signify 8from species to species40 ,might not the ,chaldee word 1 and the ,greek word 1 come from the psalmist's 1 which might have signified a 8mixture0 of grain of any kind1 and be here used to point out the mixing bastard or degenerate wheat among the good seed-wheat8 ,mintert says1 that 8it is a kind of plant1 not unlike corn or wheat1 having at first the same sort of stalk1 and the same viridity1 but bringing forth no fruit1 at least none good30 and he adds1 from ,john ,melchior1 8 does not signify every weed in general which grows among corn1 but a particular seed1 known in ,canaan1 which was not unlike wheat1 but1 being put into the ground1 degenerated1 and assumed another nature and form40 ,parkhurst1 and ,dr4 ,campbell1 render it 8the darnel10 8lolium temulentum40 ,the same plant is called 8zizana0 by the ,spaniards2 as it appears to be zuvan1 by the ,turks and ,arabs4 8,it is well known to the people at ,aleppo10 says ,m4 ,forskal2 8it grows among corn4 ,if the seeds remain mixed with the meal1 they occasion dizziness to those who eat of the bread4 ,the reapers do not separate the plant2 but after the threshing1 they reject the seeds by means of a van or sieve40 ,other travellers mention1 that in some parts of ,syria1 the plant is drawn up by the hand in the time of harvest1 along with the wheat1 and is then gathered out1 and bound up in separate bundles4 ,in the parable of the tares1 our ,lord states the very same circumstances4 ,they grew among the grain2 they were not separated by the tillers1 but suffered to grow up together till the harvest2 they were then gathered from among the wheat with the hand1 and bound up in bundles4 ,,targum4 ,see ,,jews4 ,,tarshish1 a country of this name1 whither ,solomon sent his fleets1 #a ,kings x1 #bb2 #b ,chron4 ix1 #aa4 ,there is a multitude of different opinions concerning this country4 ,josephus1 and the ,chaldee and ,arabic paraphrasts1 explain it of ,tarsus1 a city of ,cilicia2 the ,septuagint1 ,st4 ,jerom1 and ,theodoret1 understand it of ,carthage4 ,the ,arabian geographer will have it to be ,tunis in ,africa4 ,bochart makes it to be ,tartessus1 an island in the ,straits of ,gades4 ,by ,tarshish1 ,m4 ,le ,clerc understands ,thassus1 an island and city in the gean sea4 ,grotius thinks that the whole ocean was called ,tarshish1 because of the famous city of ,tartessus1 now mentioned4 ,sanctius believes the sea in general to be called ,tarshish1 and that the ships of ,tarshish were those that are employed in voyages at sea1 in opposition to the small vessels that are used only in most navigable rivers4 ,the ,,lxx4 translate ,tarshish sometimes by 8the sea20 and the ,scripture gives the names of ships of ,tarshish to those that were fitted out at ,ezion-,geber1 on the ,red ,sea1 and which sailed upon the ocean1 as well as to those that were fitted out at ,joppa1 and in the ports of the ,mediterranean4 ,therefore1 when we see ships fitted out upon the ,red ,sea1 or at ,ezion-,geber1 in order to go to ,tarshish1 we must conclude one of these two things1 either that there were two countries called ,tarshish1 one upon the ocean1 and another upon the ,mediterranean1 or that ships of ,tarshish in general signifies nothing else but ships able to bear a long voyage2 large merchant ships1 in opposition to the small craft intended for a home trade in navigable rivers4 ,,tarsus1 the capital of ,cilicia1 and the native city of ,st4 ,paul1 ,acts ix1 #aa2 xxi1 #ci4 ,some think it obtained the privileges of a ,roman colony because of its firm adherence to ,julius ,csar2 and this procured the inhabitants the favour of being acknowledged citizens of ,rome1 which ,st4 ,paul enjoyed by being born in it4 ,others maintain that ,tarsus was only a free city1 but not a ,roman colony1 in the time of ,st4 ,paul1 and that his privilege as a ,roman citizen was founded upon some other right1 perhaps gained by his ancestors4 ,,tears4 ,the prayer of ,david1 8,put my tears into thy bottle10 is unintelligible without an acquaintance with ancient customs4 8,this passage10 says ,burder1 8seems to intimate that the custom of putting tears into the ampull1 or urnal lachrymales1 so well known among the ,romans1 was more anciently in use among the eastern nations1 and particularly the ,hebrews4 ,these urns were of different materials1 some of glass1 some of earth2 as may be seen in the work of ,montfaucon1 where also may be seen the various forms or shapes of them4 ,these urns were placed on the sepulchres of the deceased1 as a memorial of the distress and affection of their surviving relations and friends4 ,it will be difficult to account for this expression of the psalmist1 but upon this supposition4 ,if this be allowed1 the meaning will be1 #8,let my distress1 and the tears ,i shed in consequence of it1 be ever before thee1 excite thy kind remembrance of me1 and plead with thee to grant the relief ,i stand in need of4'0 ,,temple1 the house of ,god2 properly the temple of ,solomon4 ,david first conceived the design of building a house somewhat worthy of the divine majesty1 and opened his mind to the ,prophet ,nathan1 #b ,sam4 vii2 #a ,chron4 xvii2 xxii1 #h1 c4 ,god accepted of his good intentions1 but refused him the honour4 ,solomon laid the foundation of the temple1 ,a4 ,m4 #biib1 completed it in #cjjj1 and dedicated it in #cjja1 #a ,kings viii1 #b2 #b ,chron4 v1 vi1 vii4 ,according to the opinion of some writers1 there were three temples1 namely1 the first1 erected by ,solomon2 the second1 by ,zerubbabel1 and ,joshua the high priest2 and the third1 by ,herod1 a few years before the birth of ,christ4 ,but this opinion is1 very properly1 rejected by the ,jews2 who do not allow the third to be a new temple1 but only the second temple repaired and beautified3 and this opinion corresponds with the prophecy of ,haggai1 ii1 #i1 8that the glory of this latter house10 the temple built by ,zerubbabel1 8should be greater than that of the former20 which prediction was uttered with reference to the ,messiah's honouring it with his presence and ministry4 ,the first temple is that which usually bears the name of ,solomon2 the materials for which were provided by ,david before his death1 though the edifice was raised by his son4 ,it stood on ,mount ,moriah1 an eminence of the mountainous ridge in the ,scriptures termed ,mount ,zion1 ,psalm cxxxii1 #ac1 #ad1 which had been purchased by ,araunah1 or ,ornan1 the ,jebusite1 #b ,sam4 xxiv1 #bc1 #bd2 #a ,chron4 xxi1 #be4 ,the plan1 and the whole model of this superb structure1 were formed after that of the tabernacle1 but of much larger dimensions4 ,it was surrounded1 except at the front or east end1 by three stories of chambers1 each five cubits square1 which reached to half the height of the temple2 and the front was ornamented with a magnificent portico1 which rose to the height of one hundred and twenty cubits3 so that the form of the whole edifice was not unlike that of some ancient churches1 which have a lofty tower in the front1 and a low aisle running along each side of the building4 ,the utensils for the sacred service were the same2 excepting that several of them1 as the altar1 candlestick1 c1 were larger1 in proportion to the more spacious edifice to which they belonged4 ,seven years and six months were occupied in the erection of the superb and magnificent temple of ,solomon1 by whom it was dedicated1 ,a4 ,m4 #cjja1 ,b4 ,c4 #iii1 with peculiar solemnity1 to the worship of the ,most ,high2 who on this occasion vouchsafed to honour it with the ,shechinah1 or visible manifestation of his presence4 ,various attempts have been made to describe the proportions and several parts of this structure2 but as scarcely any two writers agree on this subject1 a minute description of it is designedly omitted4 ,it retained its pristine splendour only thirty-three or thirty-four years1 when ,shishak1 king of ,egypt1 took ,jerusalem1 and carried away the treasures of the temple2 and after undergoing subsequent profanations and pillages1 this stupendous building was finally plundered and burnt by the ,chaldeans under ,nebuchadnezzar1 ,a4 ,m4 #cdaf1 or ,b4 ,c4 #ehd1 #b ,kings xxv1 #ac-ae2 #b ,chron4 xxxvi1 #ag-bj4 ,after the captivity1 the temple emerged from its ruins being rebuilt by ,zerubbabel1 but with vastly inferior and diminished glory2 as appears from the tears of the aged men who had beheld the former structure in all its grandeur1 ,ezra iii1 #ab4 ,the second temple was profaned by order of ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 ,a4 ,m4 #chcg1 ,b4 ,c4 #afc1 who caused the daily sacrifices to be discontinued1 and erected the image of ,jupiter ,olympus on the altar of burnt-offering4 ,in this condition it continued three years1 #a ,mac4 iv1 #db1 when ,judas ,maccabus purified and repaired it1 and restored the sacrifices and true worship of ,jehovah4 ,some years before the birth of our ,saviour1 the repairing and beautifying of this second temple1 which had become decayed in the lapse of five centuries1 was undertaken by ,herod the ,great1 who for nine years employed eighty thousand workmen upon it1 and spared no expense to render it equal1 if not superior1 in magnitude1 splendour1 and beauty1 to any thing among mankind4 ,josephus calls it a work the most admirable of any that had ever been seen or heard of1 both for its curious structure and its magnitude1 and also for the vast wealth expended upon it1 as well as for the universal reputation of its sanctity4 ,but though ,herod accomplished his original design in the time above specified1 yet the ,jews continued to ornament and enlarge it1 expending the sacred treasure in annexing additional buildings to it2 so that they might with great propriety assert1 that their temple had been forty and six years in building1 ,john ii1 #bj4 ,before we proceed to describe this venerable edifice1 it may be proper to remark1 that by the temple is to be understood not only the fabric or house itself1 which by way of eminence is called the temple1 namely1 the holy of holies1 the sanctuary1 and the several courts both of the priests and ,israelites1 but also all the numerous chambers and rooms which this prodigious edifice comprehended2 and each of which had its respective degree of holiness1 increasing in proportion to its contiguity to the holy of holies4 ,this remark it will be necessary to bear in mind1 lest the reader of ,scripture should be led to suppose1 that whatever is there said to be transacted in the temple was actually done in the interior of that sacred edifice4 ,to this infinite number of apartments1 into which the temple was disposed1 our ,lord refers1 ,john xiv1 #b2 and by a very striking and magnificent simile1 borrowed from them1 he represents those numerous seats and mansions of heavenly bliss which his ,father's house contained1 and which were prepared for the everlasting abode of the righteous4 ,the imagery is singularly beautiful and happy1 when considered as an allusion to the temple1 which our ,lord not unfrequently called his ,father's house4 ,the second temple1 originally built by ,zerubbabel after the captivity1 and repaired by ,herod1 differed in several respects from that erected by ,solomon1 although they agreed in others4 ,the temple erected by ,solomon was more splendid and magnificent than the second temple1 which was deficient in five remarkable things that constituted the chief glory of the first3 these were1 the ark and the mercy seat2 the shechinah1 or manifestation of the divine presence1 in the holy of holies2 the sacred fire on the altar1 which had been first kindled from heaven2 the urim and thummim2 and the spirit of prophecy4 ,but the second temple surpassed the first in glory2 being honoured by the frequent presence of our divine ,saviour1 agreeably to the prediction of ,haggai1 ii1 #i4 ,both1 however1 were erected upon the same site1 a very hard rock1 encompassed by a very frightful precipice2 and the foundation was laid with incredible expense and labour4 ,the superstructure was not inferior to this great work3 the height of the temple wall1 especially on the south side1 was stupendous4 ,in the lowest places it was three hundred cubits1 or four hundred and fifty feet1 and in some places even greater4 ,this most magnificent pile was constructed with hard white stones of prodigious magnitude4 ,the temple itself1 strictly so called1 which comprised the portico1 the sanctuary1 and the holy of holies formed only a small part of the sacred edifice on ,mount ,moriah1 being surrounded by spacious courts1 making a square of half a mile in circumference4 ,it was entered through nine gates1 which were on every side thickly coated with gold and silver2 but there was one gate without the holy house1 which was of ,corinthian brass1 the most precious metal in ancient times1 and which far surpassed the others in beauty4 ,for while these were of equal magnitude1 the gate composed of ,corinthian brass was much larger2 its height being fifty cubits1 and its doors forty cubits1 and its ornaments both of gold and silver being far more costly and massive4 ,this is supposed to have been the 8gate called ,beautiful0 in ,acts iii1 #b1 where ,peter and ,john1 in the name of ,christ1 healed a man who had been lame from his birth4 ,the first or outer court1 which encompassed the holy house and the other courts1 was named the court of the ,gentiles2 because the latter were allowed to enter into it1 but were prohibited from advancing farther4 ,it was surrounded by a range of porticoes1 or cloisters1 above which were galleries1 or apartments1 supported by pillars of white marble1 each consisting of a single piece1 and twenty-five cubits in height4 ,one of these was called ,solomon's porch1 or piazza1 because it stood on a vast terrace1 which he had originally raised from a valley beneath1 four hundred cubits high1 in order to enlarge the area on the top of the mountain1 and make it equal to the plan of his intended building2 and as this terrace was the only work of ,solomon that remained in the second temple1 the piazza which stood upon it retained the name of that prince4 ,here it was that our ,lord was walking at the feast of dedication1 ,john x1 #bc2 and that the lame man1 when healed by ,peter and ,john1 glorified ,god before all the people1 ,acts iii1 #aa4 ,this superb portico is termed the royal portico by ,josephus1 who represents it as the noblest work beneath the sun1 being elevated to such a prodigious height1 that no one could look down from its flat roof to the valley below1 without being seized with dizziness2 the sight not reaching to such an immeasurable depth4 ,the south-east corner of the roof of this portico1 where the height was the greatest1 is supposed to have been the 1 pinnacle1 or extreme angle1 whence ,satan tempted our ,saviour to precipitate himself1 ,matt1 iv1 #e2 ,luke iv1 #i4 ,this also was the spot where it was predicted that the abomination of desolation1 or the ,roman ensigns1 should stand1 ,daniel ix1 #bg2 ,matt1 xxiv1 #ae4 ,solomon's portico was situated in the eastern front of the temple1 opposite to the mount of ,olives1 where our ,saviour is said to have sat when his disciples came to show him the grandeur of its various buildings1 of which1 grand as they were1 he said1 the time was approaching when one stone should not be left upon another1 ,matt1 xxiv1 #a-c4 ,this outer court being assigned to the ,gentile proselytes1 the ,jews1 who did not worship in it themselves1 conceived that it might lawfully be put to profane uses3 for here we find that the buyers and sellers of animals for sacrifices1 and also the moneychangers1 had stationed themselves2 until ,jesus ,christ1 awing them into submission by the grandeur and dignity of his person and behaviour1 expelled them2 telling them that it was the house of prayer for all nations1 and was not to be profaned1 ,matt4 xxi1 #ab1 #ac2 ,mark xi1 #ae-ag4 ,within the court of the ,gentiles stood the court of the ,israelites1 divided into two parts1 or courts2 the outer one being appropriated to the women1 and the inner one to the men4 ,the court of the women was separated from that of the ,gentiles by a low stone wall1 or partition1 of elegant construction1 on which stood pillars at equal distances1 with inscriptions in ,greek and ,latin1 importing that no alien should enter into the holy place4 ,to this wall ,st4 ,paul most evidently alludes in ,eph4 ii1 #ac1 #ad3 8,but now in ,christ ,jesus1 ye1 who sometimes were far off1 are made nigh by the blood of ,christ3 for he is our peace1 who hath made both one1 7united both ,jews and ,gentiles into one church17 and hath broken down the middle wall of partition between us20 having abolished the law of ordinances1 by which1 as by the wall of separation1 both ,jews and ,gentiles were not only kept asunder1 but also at variance4 ,in this court was the treasury1 over against which ,christ sat1 and beheld how the people threw their voluntary offerings into it1 for furnishing the victims and other things necessary for the sacrifices1 ,mark xii1 #da2 ,john viii1 #bj4 ,from the court of the women1 which was on higher ground than that of the ,gentiles1 there was an ascent of fifteen steps into the inner or men's court3 and so called because it was appropriated to the worship of the male ,israelites4 ,in these two courts1 collectively termed the court of the ,israelites1 were the people praying1 each apart by himself1 for the pardon of his sins1 while ,zacharias was offering incense within the sanctuary1 ,luke i1 #aj4 ,within the court of the ,israelites was that of the priests1 which was separated from it by a low wall1 one cubit in height4 ,this enclosure surrounded the altar of burnt-offerings1 and to it the people brought their oblations and sacrifices2 but the priests alone were permitted to enter it4 ,from this court twelve steps ascended to the temple1 strictly so called2 which was divided into three parts1 the portico1 the outer sanctuary1 and the holy place4 ,in the portico was suspended the splendid votive offerings made by the piety of various individuals4 ,among other treasures1 there was a golden table given by ,pompey1 and several golden vines of exquisite workmanship1 as well as of immense size2 for ,josephus relates1 that there were clusters as tall as a man4 ,and he adds1 that all around were fixed up and displayed the spoils and trophies taken by ,herod from the barbarians and ,arabians4 ,these votive offerings1 it should seem1 were visible at a distance2 for when ,jesus ,christ was sitting on the mount of ,olives1 and his disciples called his attention to the temple1 they pointed out to him the gifts with which it was adorned1 ,luke xxi1 #e4 ,this porch had a very large portal or gate1 which1 instead of folding doors1 was furnished with a costly ,babylonian veil1 of many colours1 that mystically denoted the universe4 ,from this the sanctuary1 or holy place1 was separated from the holy of holies by a double veil1 which is supposed to have been the veil that was rent in twain at our ,saviour's crucifixion2 thus emblematically pointing out that the separation between ,jews and ,gentiles was abolished2 and that the privilege of the high priest was communicated to all mankind1 who might henceforth have access to the throne of grace through the one great ,mediator1 ,jesus ,christ1 ,heb4 x1 #ai-bb4 ,the holy of holies was twenty cubits square3 into it no person was admitted but the high priest1 who entered it once a year on the great day of atonement1 ,exod4 xxx1 #aj2 ,lev4 xvi1 #b1 #ae1 #cd2 ,heb4 ix1 #b-g4 ,magnificent as the rest of the sacred edifice was1 it was infinitely surpassed in splendour by the inner temple1 or sanctuary4 ,its appearance1 according to ,josephus1 had every thing that could strike the mind1 or astonish the sight3 for it was covered on every side with plates of gold2 so that when the sun rose upon it1 it reflected so strong and dazzling an effulgence1 that the eye of the spectator was obliged to turn away1 being no more able to sustain its radiance than the splendour of the sun4 ,to strangers who were approaching1 it appeared at a distance like a mountain covered with snow2 for where it was not decorated with plates of gold1 it was extremely white and glistering4 ,on the top it had sharp-pointed spikes of gold1 to prevent any bird from resting upon it1 and polluting it4 ,there were1 continues the ,jewish historian1 in that building1 several stones which were forty-five cubits in length1 five in height1 and six in breadth4 8,when all these things are considered10 says ,harwood1 8how natural is the exclamation of the disciples1 when viewing this immense building at a distance3 #8,master1 see what manner of stones' 7 1 #8what very large ones'7 #8and what buildings are here6' ,mark xiii1 #a3 and how wonderful is the declaration of our ,lord upon this1 how unlikely to be accomplished before the race of men who were then living should cease to exist6 #8,seest thou these great buildings8 ,there shall not be left one stone upon another that shall not be thrown down4' ,improbable as this prediction must have appeared to the disciples at that time1 in the short space of about thirty years after it was exactly accomplished2 and this most magnificent temple1 which the ,jews had literally turned into a den of thieves1 through the righteous judgment of ,god upon that wicked and abandoned nation1 was utterly destroyed by the ,romans ,a4 ,d4 #gj1 or #gc of the vulgar era1 on the same month1 and on the same day of the month1 when ,solomon's temple had been razed to the ground by the ,babylonians60 ,both the first and second temples were contemplated by the ,jews with the highest reverence4 ,of their affectionate regard for the first temple1 and for ,jerusalem1 within whose walls it was built1 we have several instances in those ,psalms which were composed during the ,babylonish captivity2 and of their profound veneration for the second temple we have repeated examples in the ,new ,testament4 ,they could not bear any disrespectful or dishonourable thing to be said of it4 ,the least injurious slight of it1 real or apprehended1 instantly awakened all the choler of a ,jew1 and was an affront never to be forgiven4 ,our ,saviour1 in the course of his public instructions1 having said1 8,destroy this temple1 and in three days ,i will raise it up again10 ,john ii1 #ai1 it was construed into a contemptuous disrespect1 designedly thrown out against the temple2 his words instantly descended into the heart of the ,jews1 and kept rankling there for some years2 for1 upon his trial1 this declaration1 which it was impossible for a ,jew ever to forget or to forgive1 was immediately alleged against him1 as big with the most atrocious guilt and impiety3 they told the court they had heard him publicly assert1 8,i am able to destroy this temple10 ,matt4 xxvi1 #fa4 ,the rancour and virulence they had conceived against him for this speech1 was not softened by all the affecting circumstances of that wretched death they saw him die2 even as he hung upon the cross1 with triumph1 scorn1 and exultation1 they upbraided him with it1 contemptuously shaking their heads1 and saying1 8,thou that destroyest the temple1 and buildest it in three days1 save thyself6 ,if thou be the ,son of ,god1 come down from the cross60 ,matt4 xxvii1 #dj4 ,it only remains to add1 that it appears1 from several passages of ,scripture1 that the ,jews had a body of soldiers who guarded the temple1 to prevent any disturbances during the ministration of such an immense number of priests and ,levites4 ,to this guard ,pilate referred1 when he said to the chief priests and ,pharisees who waited upon him to desire he would make the sepulchre secure1 8,ye have a watch1 go your way1 and make it as secure as ye can10 ,matt4 xxvii1 #fe4 ,over these guards one person had the supreme command1 who in several places is called the captain of the temple1 or officer of the temple guard4 8,and as they spake unto the people1 the priests and the captain of the temple and the ,sadducees came upon them10 ,acts iv1 #a2 v1 #be1 #bf2 ,john xviii1 #ab4 ,josephus mentions such an officer4 ,,tent ,,maker4 ,st4 ,paul1 according to the practice of the ,jews1 who1 however opulent1 always taught their children some trade1 appears to have been a tent maker4 ,this1 however1 is understood by some moderns to mean a maker of tent cloth1 ,st4 ,paul being a ,cilician1 a country which produced a species of rough-haired goats1 from which the ,cilicians manufactured a thick and coarse cloth1 much used for tents4 ,the fathers1 however1 say that he made military tents1 the material of which was skins4 ,,teraphim4 ,it is said1 ,gen4 xxxi1 #ai1 that ,rachel had stolen the images 7teraphim7 of her father4 ,what then were these teraphim8 ,the ,septuagint translate this word by 8oracle10 and sometimes by 8vain figures40 ,aquila generally translates it by 8figures40 ,it appears1 indeed1 from all the passages in which this word is used1 that they were idols or superstitious figures4 ,some ,jewish writers tell us the teraphim were human heads placed in niches1 and consulted by way of oracles4 ,others think they were talismans or figures of metal cast and engraven under certain aspects of the planets1 to which they ascribed extraordinary effects4 ,all the eastern people are much addicted to this superstition1 and the ,persians still call them telefin1 a name nearly approaching to teraphim4 ,m4 ,jurieu supposes them to have been a sort of dii penates1 or household gods2 and this appears to be1 perhaps1 the most probable opinion4 ,,testament4 ,the property or estate of the father fell1 after his decease1 into the possession of his sons1 who divided it among themselves equally1 with this exception1 that the eldest son had two portions4 ,the father expressed his last wishes or will in the presence of witnesses1 and probably in the presence of the heirs1 #b ,kings xx1 #a4 ,at a more recent period the will was made out in writing4 ,the portion that was given to the sons of concubines depended altogether upon the feelings of the father4 ,abraham gave presents to what amount is not known1 both to ,ishmael and to the sons whom he had by ,keturah1 and sent them away before his death4 ,it does not appear that they had any other portion in the estate4 ,but ,jacob made the sons whom he had by his concubines heirs as well as the others1 ,gen4 xxi1 #h-ba2 xxv1 #a-f2 xlix1 #a-bg4 ,moses laid no restrictions upon the choice of fathers in this respect2 and we should infer that the sons of concubines1 for the most part1 received an equal share with the other sons1 from the fact1 that ,jephtha1 the son of a concubine1 complained that he was excluded without any portion from his father's house1 ,judg4 xi1 #a-g4 ,the daughters not only had no portion in the estate1 but1 if they were unmarried1 were considered as making a part of it1 and were sold by their brothers into matrimony4 ,if they had no brothers1 or if they had died1 the daughters then took the estate1 ,num4 xxvii1 #a-h4 ,if any one died intestate1 and without offspring1 the property was disposed of according to ,num4 xxvii1 #h-aa4 ,the servants or the slaves in a family could not claim any share in the estate as a right2 but the person who made a will1 might1 if he chose1 make them his heirs1 ,gen4 xv1 #c4 ,indeed1 in some instances1 those who had heirs1 recognized as such by law1 did not deem it unbecoming to bestow the whole or a portion of their estates on faithful and deserving servants1 ,prov4 xvii1 #b4 ,the widow of the deceased1 like his daughters1 had no legal right to a share in the estate4 ,the sons1 however1 or other relations1 were bound to afford her an adequate maintenance1 unless it had been otherwise arranged in the will4 ,she sometimes returned back again to her father's house1 particularly if the support which the heirs gave her was not such as had been promised1 or was not sufficient1 ,gen4 xxxviii1 #aa4 ,see also the story of ,ruth4 ,the prophets very frequently1 and undoubtedly not without cause1 exclaim against the neglect and injustice shown to widows1 ,isa4 i1 #ag2 x1 #b2 ,jer4 vii1 #f2 xxii1 #c2 ,ezek4 xxii1 #g2 ,exod4 xxii1 #bb-bd2 ,deut4 x1 #ah2 xxiv1 #ag4 ,,testimony1 a witnessing1 evidence1 or proof1 ,acts xiv1 #c4 ,the whole ,scripture or word of ,god1 which declares what is to be believed1 practised1 and expected by us1 is called ,god's 8testimony10 and sometimes in the plural 8testimonies10 ,psalm xix1 #g4 ,the two tables of stone on which the law or ten commandments were written1 which were witnesses of that covenant made between ,god and his people1 and testified what it was that ,god had required of them1 have the same title1 ,exod4 xxv1 #af1 #ba2 xxxi1 #ah4 ,,tetrarch1 a sovereign prince that has the fourth part of a state1 province1 or kingdom under his dominion1 without wearing the diadem1 or bearing the title of king1 ,matt1 xiv1 #a2 ,luke iii1 #a1 #ai2 ix1 #g2 ,acts xiii1 #a4 ,,theophilus1 one to whom ,st4 ,luke addresses the books of his ,gospel and ,acts of the ,apostles1 which he composed1 ,acts i1 #a2 ,luke i1 #c4 ,it is doubted whether the name ,theophilus be here the proper name of a man1 or an appellative or common name1 which1 according to its etymology1 may stand for any good man1 or a lover of ,god4 ,some think this name is generic1 and that ,st4 ,luke's design here is to address his work to those that love ,god2 but it is much more probable that this ,theophilus was a ,christian to whom the evangelist has dedicated those two works2 and the epithet of 8most excellent10 which is given to him1 shows him to have been a man of great quality4 cumenius concludes from thence that he was governor or intendant of some province1 because such a personage had generally the title of 8most excellent0 given to him4 ,grotius conjectures he might be a magistrate of ,achaia1 converted by ,st4 ,luke4 ,,therapeut4 ,one particular phenomenon which resulted from the theosophico-ascetic spirit among the ,alexandrian ,jews1 was the sect of the ,therapeut4 ,their head quarters were at no great distance from ,alexandria1 in a quiet pleasant spot on the shores of the ,lake ,mris1 where they lived1 like the anchorites in later periods1 shut up in separate cells1 and employed themselves in nothing but prayer1 and the contemplation of divine things4 ,an allegorical interpretation of ,scripture was the foundation of their speculations2 and they had old theosophical writings which gave them this turn4 ,they lived only on bread and water1 and accustomed themselves to fasting4 ,they only ate in the evening1 and many fasted for several days together4 ,they met together every ,sabbath day1 and every seven weeks they held a still more solemn assembly1 because the number seven was peculiarly holy in their estimation4 ,they then celebrated a simple love-feast1 consisting of bread with salt and hyssop2 theosophical discussions were held1 and the hymns which they had from their old traditions were sung2 and mystical dances1 bearing reference to the wonderful works of ,god with the fathers of their people1 were continued1 amidst choral songs1 to a late hour in the night4 ,many men of distinguished learning have considered this sect as nothing but a scion of the ,essenes1 trained up under the peculiar influence of the ,egyptian spirit4 ,,thessalonians1 ,christians of ,thessalonica1 to whom ,st4 ,paul sent two epistles4 ,it is recorded in the ,acts1 that ,st4 ,paul1 in his first journey upon the continent of ,europe1 preached the ,gospel at ,thessalonica1 at that time the capital of ,macedonia1 with considerable success2 but that after a short stay he was driven thence by the malice and violence of the unbelieving ,jews4 ,from ,thessalonica ,st4 ,paul went to ,berea1 and thence to ,athens1 at both which places he remained but a short time4 ,from ,athens he sent ,timothy to ,thessalonica1 to confirm the new converts in their faith1 and to inquire into their conduct4 ,timothy1 upon his return1 found ,st4 ,paul at ,corinth4 ,thence1 probably in ,a4 ,d4 #eb1 ,st4 ,paul wrote the ,first ,epistle to the ,thessalonians2 and it is to be supposed that the subjects of which it treats1 were suggested by the account which he received from ,timothy4 ,it is now generally believed that this was written the first of all ,st4 ,paul's epistles1 but it is not known by whom it was sent to ,thessalonica4 ,the church there consisted chiefly of ,gentile converts1 #a ,thess4 i1 #i4 ,st4 ,paul1 after saluting the ,thessalonian ,christians in the name of himself1 ,silas1 and ,timothy1 assures them that he constantly returned thanks to ,god on their account1 and mentioned them in his prayers2 he acknowledges the readiness and sincerity with which they embraced the ,gospel1 and the great reputation which they had acquired by turning from idols to serve the living ,god1 #a ,thess4 i2 he reminds them of the bold and disinterested manner in which he had preached among them2 comforts them under the persecutions which they1 like other ,christians1 had experienced from their unbelieving countrymen1 and informs them of two ineffectual attempts which he had made to visit them again1 #a ,thess4 ii2 and that1 being thus disappointed1 he had sent ,timothy to confirm their faith1 and inquire into their conduct2 he tells them that ,timothy's account of them had given him the greatest consolation and joy in the midst of his affliction and distress1 and that he continually prayed to ,god for an opportunity of seeing them again1 and for their perfect establishment in the ,gospel1 #a ,thess4 iii2 he exhorts to purity1 justice1 love1 and quietness1 and dissuades them against excessive grief for their deceased friends1 #a ,thess4 iv2 hence he takes occasion to recommend preparation for the last judgment1 the time of which is always uncertain2 and adds a variety of practical precepts4 ,he concludes with his usual benediction4 ,this epistle is written in terms of high commendation1 earnestness1 and affection4 ,it is generally believed that the messenger who carried the former epistle into ,macedonia1 upon his return to ,corinth1 informed ,st4 ,paul that the ,thessalonians had inferred1 from some expressions in it1 that the coming of ,christ and the final judgment were near at hand1 and would happen in the time of many who were then alive1 #a ,thess4 iv1 #ae1 #ag2 v1 #f4 ,the principal design of the ,second ,epistle to the ,thessalonians was to correct that error1 and prevent the mischief which it would naturally occasion4 ,it was written from ,corinth1 probably at the end of ,a4 ,d4 #eb4 ,st4 ,paul begins with the same salutation as in the former epistle1 and then expresses his devout acknowledgments to ,god for the increasing faith and mutual love of the ,thessalonians in the midst of persecution2 he represents to them the rewards which will be bestowed upon the faithful1 and the punishment which will be inflicted upon the disobedient1 at the coming of ,christ1 #b ,thess4 i2 he earnestly entreats them not to suppose1 as upon authority from him1 or upon any other ground1 that the last day is at hand2 he assures them1 that before that awful period a great apostasy will take place1 and reminds them of some information which he had given them upon that subject when he was at ,thessalonica2 he exhorts them to steadfastness in their faith1 and prays to ,god to comfort their hearts1 and establish them in every good word and work1 #b ,thess4 ii2 he desires their prayers for the success of his ministry1 and expresses his confidence in their sincerity2 he cautions them against associating with idle and disorderly persons1 and recommends diligence and quietness4 ,he adds a salutation in his own hand1 and concludes with his usual benediction4 ,,thessalonica1 a celebrated city in ,macedonia1 and capital of that kingdom1 standing upon the ,thesmaic ,sea4 ,stephen of ,byzantium says that it was improved and beautified by ,philip1 king of ,macedon1 and called ,thessalonica in memory of the victory that he obtained over the ,thessalians4 ,its old name was ,thesma4 ,the ,jews had a synagogue here1 and their number was considerable1 ,acts xvii4 ,,thief4 ,among the ,hebrews theft was not punished with death3 8,men do not despise a thief if he steal to satisfy his soul when he is hungry4 ,but if he be found1 he shall restore sevenfold2 he shall give all the substance of his house10 ,prov4 vi1 #cj1 #ca4 ,the law allowed the killing of a night-robber1 because it was supposed his intention was to murder as well as to rob1 ,exod4 xxii1 #b4 ,it condemned a common thief to make double restitution1 ,exod4 xxii1 #d4 ,if he stole an ox he was to restore it fivefold2 if a sheep1 only fourfold1 ,exod4 xxii1 #a2 #b ,sam4 xii1 #f4 ,but if the animal that was stolen was found alive in his house he only rendered the double of it4 ,if he did not make restitution1 they seized what was in his house1 put it up to sale1 and even sold the person himself if he had not wherewithal to make satisfaction1 ,exod4 xxii1 #c4 ,,thomas1 the ,apostle1 otherwise called ,didymus1 which in ,greek signifies a twin1 ,matt4 x1 #c2 ,luke vi1 #ae4 ,we know no particulars of his life till ,a4 ,d4 #cc1 ,john xi1 #af2 xiv1 #e1 #f2 xx1 #bd-bi2 xxi1 #a-ac4 ,ancient tradition says1 that in the distribution which the ,apostles made of the several parts of the world1 wherein they were to preach the ,gospel1 the country of the ,parthians fell to the share of ,st4 ,thomas4 ,it is added1 that he preached to the ,medes1 ,persians1 ,carmanians1 ,hircanians1 ,bactrians1 c4 ,several of the fathers inform us that he also preached in the ,east ,indies1 c4 ,,thorn4 ,a general name for several kinds of prickly plants4 #a4 ,in the curse denounced against the earth1 ,gen4 iii1 #ah1 its produce is threatened to be 8thorns and thistles10 1 in the ,septuagint 4 ,st4 ,paul uses the same words1 ,heb4 vi1 #h1 where the last is rendered 8briers20 they are also found ,hos4 x1 #h4 ,the word kutz is put for 8thorns10 in other places1 as ,exod4 xxii1 #f2 ,judges viii1 #g2 ,ezek4 ii1 #f2 xxviii1 #bd2 but we are uncertain whether it means a specific kind of thorn1 or may be a generic name for all plants of a thorny kind4 ,in the present instance it seems to be general for all those obnoxious plants1 shrubs1 c1 by which the labours of the husbandman are impeded1 and which are only fit for burning4 ,if the word denotes a particular plant1 it maybe the 8rest-harrow10 a pernicious prickly weed1 which grows promiscuously with the large thistles in the uncultivated grounds1 and covers entire fields and plains1 in ,egypt and ,palestine4 ,from the resemblance of the ,hebrew dardar1 to the ,arabic word dardargi1 ,scheuchzer supposes the cnicus to be intended4 #b4 1 from its etymology1 must be a kind of thorn1 with incurvated spines1 like fish hooks1 similar to those of the ,north ,american 8witch hazel40 ,celsius says that the same word1 and of the same original in ,arabic1 is the 8black thorn10 or 8sloe tree10 the prunus spinosa of ,linnus4 #c4 4 ,it is impossible to determine what plants are intended by this word4 ,meninski says that serbin1 in the ,persic language1 is the name of a tree bearing thorns4 ,in ,eccles4 vii1 #f1 and ,nahum i1 #aj1 they are mentioned as fuel which quickly burns up2 and in ,hosea ii1 #f1 as obstructions or hedges2 it may be the lycium ,afrum4 #d4 1 mentioned ,josh4 xxiii1 #ac2 ,ezek4 ii1 #f1 xxviii1 #bd4 ,from the vexatious character ascribed to this thorn in the places just referred to1 compared with ,num4 xxxiii1 #ee2 ,judges ii1 #c2 it is probably the kantuffa1 as described by ,bruce4 #e4 ,by 1 ,num4 xxxiii1 #ee1 may be intended goads1 or sharp-pointed sticks1 like those with which cattle were driven4 #f4 ,the 1 ,isa4 v1 #f2 x1 #ag1 must mean some noxious plant that overruns waste grounds4 #g4 ,the word 1 ,num4 xxxiii1 #ee2 ,josh4 xxiii1 #ac2 ,isa4 v1 #e4 ,it seems1 from its application1 to describe a bad kind of thorn4 ,hiller supposes it to be the vepris4 ,perhaps it is the rhamnus paliurus1 a deciduous plant or tree1 a native of ,palestine1 ,spain1 and ,italy4 ,it will grow nearly to the height of fourteen feet1 and is armed with sharp thorns1 two of which are at the insertion of each branch1 one of them straight and upright1 the other bent backward4 #h4 1 translated 8briers10 ,judges viii1 #af4 8,there is no doubt but this word means a sharp1 jagged kind of plant3 the difficulty is to fix on one1 where so many offer themselves4 ,the ,septuagint preserves the original word4 ,we should hardly think ,gideon went far to seek these plants4 ,the thorns are expressly said to be from the wilderness1 or common hard by2 probably the barkanim were from the same place4 ,in our country this would lead us to the blackberry bushes on our commons2 but it might not be so around ,succoth4 ,there is a plant mentioned by ,hasselquist1 whose name and properties somewhat resemble those which are required in the barkanim of this passage3 8,nabka paliurus ,atheni1 is the nabka of the ,arabs4 ,there is every appearance that this is the tree which furnished the crown of thorns which was put on the head of our ,lord4 ,it is common in the east4 ,a plant more proper for this purpose could not be selected2 for it is armed with thorns1 its branches are pliant1 and its leaf of a deep green like that of ivy4 ,perhaps the enemies of ,christ chose this plant1 in order to add insult to injury by employing a wreath approaching in appearance that which was used to crown emperors and generals40 ,in the ,new ,testament1 the ,greek word translated 8thorn10 is 2 ,matt4 vii1 #af1 xiii1 #g1 xxvii1 #bi1 ,john xix1 #b4 ,the note of ,bishop ,pearce on ,matt4 xxvii1 #bi1 is this3 8,the word may as well be the plural genitive case of the word 1 as of 2 if of the latter1 it is rightly translated #8of thorns1' but the former would signify what we call #8bear's foot1' and the ,french branche ursine4 ,this is not of the thorny kind of plants1 but is soft and smooth4 ,virgil calls it mollis acanthus4 ,so does ,pliny3 and ,pliny the elder says that it is lvis1 8smooth20 and that it is one of those plants that are cultivated in gardens4 ,i have somewhere read1 but cannot at present recollect where1 that this soft and smooth herb was very common in and about ,jerusalem4 ,i find nothing in the ,new ,testament concerning this crown which ,pilate's soldiers put on the head of ,jesus1 to incline one to think that it was of thorns1 and intended1 as is usually supposed1 to put him to pain4 ,the reed put into his hand1 and the scarlet robe on his back1 were meant only as marks of mockery and contempt4 ,one may also reasonably judge by the soldiers being said to plat this crown1 that it was not composed of such twigs and leaves as were of a thorny nature4 ,i do not find that it is mentioned by any of the primitive ,christian writers as an instance of the cruelty used toward our ,saviour before he was led to crucifixion1 till the time of ,tertullian1 who lived after ,jesus' death at the distance of above one hundred and sixty years4 ,he indeed seems to have understood in the sense of thorns1 and says1 #8,quale oro te1 ,jesus ,christus sertum pro utrogue sexu subiit8 ,ex spinis1 opinor1 et tribulis4' ,what kind of a crown1 ,i beseech you1 did ,jesus ,christ sustain8 ,one made of thorns and thistles1 ,i think4 ,the total silence of ,polycarp1 ,barnabas1 ,clemens ,romanus1 and all the other ,christian writers whose works are now extant1 and who wrote before ,tertullian1 in particular1 will give some weight to incline one to think that this crown was not platted with thorns4 ,but as this is a point on which we have not sufficient evidence1 ,i leave it almost in the same state of uncertainty in which ,i found it40 ,see ,,garden4 ,,threshing ,,floors1 among the ancient ,jews1 were only1 as they are to this day in the east1 round level plats of ground in the open air1 where the corn was trodden out by oxen1 the libyc are of ,horace4 ,thus1 ,gideon's floor1 ,judges vi1 #cg1 appears to have been in the open air2 as was likewise that of ,araunah the ,jebusite2 else it would not have been a proper place for erecting an altar and offering sacrifice4 ,in ,hosea xiii1 #c1 we read of the chaff which is driven by the whirlwind from the floor4 ,this circumstance of the threshing floor's being exposed to the agitation of the wind seems to be the principal reason of its ,hebrew name2 which may be farther illustrated by the direction which ,hesiod gives his husbandman to thresh his corn in a place well exposed to the wind4 ,from the above account it appears that a threshing floor 7rendered in our textual translation 8a void place07 might well be near the entrance of the gate of ,samaria1 and that it might afford no improper place in which the kings of ,israel and ,judah could hear the prophets1 #a ,kings xxii1 #aj2 #b ,chron4 xviii1 #i2 ,psalm i1 #d4 ,,throne is used for that magnificent seat on which sovereign princes usually sit to receive the homage of their subjects1 or to give audience to ambassadors2 where they appear with pomp and ceremony1 and from whence they dispense justice2 in a word1 the throne1 the sceptre1 the crown1 are the ordinary symbols of royalty and regal authority4 ,the ,scripture commonly represents the ,lord as sitting upon a throne2 sometimes it is said that the heaven is his throne1 and the earth his footstool1 ,isaiah lxvi1 #a4 ,the ,son of ,god is also represented as sitting upon a throne1 at the right hand of his ,father1 ,psalm cx1 #a2 ,heb4 i1 #h2 ,rev4 iii1 #ba4 ,and ,jesus ,christ assures his ,apostles that they should sit upon twelve thrones1 to judge the twelve tribes of ,israel1 ,luke xxii1 #cj4 ,though a throne and royal dignity seem to be correlatives1 or terms that stand in reciprocal relation to each other1 yet the privilege of sitting on a throne has been sometimes granted to those that were not kings1 particularly to some governors of important provinces4 ,we read of the throne of the governor of this side the river2 the throne1 in other words1 of the governor for the king of ,persia of the provinces belonging to that empire on the west of the ,euphrates4 ,so ,d',herbelot tells us that a ,persian monarch of aftertimes gave the governor of one of his provinces permission to seat himself in a gilded chair1 when he administered justice2 which distinction was granted him on account of the importance of that post1 to which the guarding a pass of great consequence was committed4 ,this province1 he tells us1 is now called ,shirvan1 but was formerly named ,serir-aldhahab1 which signifies1 in ,arabic1 8the throne of gold40 ,to which he adds1 that this privilege was granted to the governor of this province1 as being the place through which the northern nations used to make their way into ,persia2 on which account1 also1 a mighty rampart or wall was raised there4 ,in the ,revelation of ,st4 ,john1 we find the twenty-four elders sitting upon as many thrones in the presence of the ,lord2 8and they fall down before him that sat on the throne1 c1 and cast their crowns before the throne40 ,many of the travellers in eastern countries have given descriptions highly illustrative of this mode of adoration4 ,thus ,bruce1 in his ,travels1 says1 8,the next remarkable ceremony in which these two nations 7of ,persia and ,abyssinia7 agreed is that of adoration1 inviolably observed in ,abyssinia to this day1 as often as you enter the sovereign's presence4 ,this is not only kneeling1 but absolute prostration2 you first fall upon your knees1 then upon the palms of your hands1 then incline your head and body till your forehead touches the ground2 and1 in case you have an answer to expect1 you lie in that posture till the king1 or somebody from him1 desires you to rise40 ,and ,stewart observes1 8,we marched toward the emperor with our music playing1 till we came within about eighty yards of him1 when the old monarch1 alighting from his horse1 prostrated himself on the earth to pray1 and continued some minutes with his face so close to the earth1 that1 when we came up to him1 the dust remained upon his nose40 ,the circumstance of 8casting their crowns before the throne0 may be illustrated by several cases which occur in history4 ,that of ,herod1 in the presence of ,augustus1 has been already mentioned4 7,see ,herod47 ,tiridates1 in this manner1 did homage to ,nero1 laying the ensigns of his royalty at the statue of ,csar1 to receive them again from his hand4 ,tigranes1 king of ,armenia1 did the same to ,pompey4 ,in the inauguration of the ,byzantine ,csars1 when the emperor comes to receive the sacrament1 he puts off his crown4 8,this short expedition10 says ,malcolm1 8was brought to a close by the personal submission of ,abool ,fyze ,khan1 who1 attended by all his court1 proceeded to the tents of ,nadir ,shah1 and laid his crown1 and other ensigns of royalty1 at the feet of the conqueror1 who assigned him an honourable place in his assembly1 and in a few days afterward restored him to his throne40 ,,thyatira1 a city of ,lydia1 in ,asia ,minor1 and the seat of one of the seven churches in ,asia4 ,it was situated nearly midway between ,pergamos and ,sardis1 and is still a tolerable town1 considering that it is in the hands of the ,turks1 and enjoys some trade1 chiefly in cottons4 ,it is called by that people ,ak-hisar1 or ,white ,castle4 ,,tiberias1 a city situated in a small plain1 surrounded by mountains1 on the western coast of the sea of ,galilee1 which1 from this city1 was also called the sea of ,tiberias4 ,tiberias was erected by ,herod ,antipas1 and so called in honour of ,tiberius ,csar4 ,he is supposed to have chosen1 for the erection of his new city1 a spot where before stood a more obscure place called ,chenereth or ,cinnereth1 which also gave its name to the adjoining lake or sea4 ,,timbrels4 ,see ,,music4 ,,timotheus1 commonly called ,timothy1 a disciple of ,st4 ,paul4 ,he was a native of ,lystra in ,lycaonia4 ,his father was a ,gentile2 but his mother1 whose name was ,eunice1 was a ,jewess1 ,acts xvi1 #a1 and educated her son with great care in her own religion1 #b ,tim4 i1 #e2 iii1 #ae4 ,to this young disciple ,st4 ,paul addressed two epistles2 in the first of which he calls him his 8own son in the faith10 #a ,tim4 i1 #b2 from which expression it is inferred that ,st4 ,paul was the person who converted him to the belief of the ,gospel2 and as1 upon ,st4 ,paul's second arrival at ,lystra1 ,timothy is mentioned as being then a disciple1 and as having distinguished himself among the ,christians of that neighbourhood1 his conversion1 as well as that of ,eunice his mother1 and ,lois his grandmother1 must have taken place when ,st4 ,paul first preached at ,lystra1 ,a4 ,d4 #df4 ,upon ,st4 ,paul's leaving ,lystra1 in the course of his second apostolical journey1 he was induced to take ,timothy with him1 on account of his excellent character1 and the zeal which1 young as he was1 he had already shown in the cause of ,christianity2 but before they set out1 ,st4 ,paul caused him to be circumcised1 not as a thing necessary to his salvation1 but to avoid giving offence to the ,jews1 as he was a ,jew by the mother's side1 and it was an established rule among the ,jews that partus sequitur ventrem4 ,timothy was regularly appointed to the ministerial office by the laying on of hands1 not only by ,st4 ,paul himself1 but also by the presbytery1 #a ,tim4 iv1 #ad2 #b ,tim4 i1 #f4 ,from this time ,timothy acted as a minister of the ,gospel2 he generally attended ,st4 ,paul1 but was sometimes employed by him in other places2 he was very diligent and useful1 and is always mentioned with great esteem and affection by ,st4 ,paul1 who joins his name with his own in the inscription of six of his epistles4 ,he is sometimes called bishop of ,ephesus1 and it has been said that he suffered martyrdom in that city1 some years after the death of ,st4 ,paul4 ,the principal design of ,st4 ,paul's ,first ,epistle to ,timothy was to give him instructions concerning the management of the church of ,ephesus2 and it was probably intended that it should be read publicly to the ,ephesians1 that they might know upon what authority ,timothy acted4 ,after saluting him in an affectionate manner1 and reminding him of the reason for which he was left at ,ephesus1 the ,apostle takes occasion1 from the frivolous disputes which some ,judaizing teachers had introduced among the ,ephesians1 to assert the practical nature of the ,gospel1 and to show its superiority over the law2 he returns thanks to ,god for his own appointment to the apostleship1 and recommends to ,timothy fidelity in the discharge of his sacred office2 he exhorts that prayers should be made for all men1 and especially for magistrates2 he gives directions for the conduct of women1 and forbids their teaching in public2 he describes the qualifications necessary for bishops and deacons1 and speaks of the mysterious nature of the ,gospel dispensation2 he foretels that there will be apostates from the truth1 and false teachers in the latter times1 and recommends to ,timothy purity of manners and improvement of his spiritual gifts2 he gives him particular directions for his behaviour toward persons in different situations in life1 and instructs him in several points of ,christian discipline2 he cautions him against false teachers1 gives him several precepts1 and solemnly charges him to be faithful to his trust4 ,that the ,second ,epistle to ,timothy was written while ,st4 ,paul was under confinement at ,rome1 appears from the two following passages3 8,be not thou therefore ashamed of the testimony of our ,lord1 nor of me his prisoner10 #b ,timothy i1 #h4 8,the ,lord give mercy unto the house of ,onesiphorus2 for he oft refreshed me1 and was not ashamed of my chain2 but when he was at ,rome1 he sought me out very diligently1 and found me10 #b ,tim4 i1 #af1 #ag4 ,the epistle itself will furnish us with several arguments to prove that it could not have been written during ,st4 ,paul's first imprisonment4 #a4 ,it is universally agreed that ,st4 ,paul wrote his epistles to the ,ephesians1 ,colossians1 ,philippians1 and to ,philemon1 while he was confined the first time at ,rome4 ,in no one of these epistles does he express any apprehension for his life2 and in the two last mentioned we have seen that1 on the contrary1 he expresses a confident hope of being soon liberated2 but in this epistle he holds a very different language3 8,i am now ready to be offered1 and the time of my departure is at hand4 ,i have fought a good fight1 ,i have finished my course1 ,i have kept the faith4 ,henceforth there is laid up for me a crown of righteousness1 which the ,lord1 the righteous ,judge1 shall give me at that day10 #b ,tim4 iv1 #f1 c4 ,the danger in which ,st4 ,paul now was1 is evident from the conduct of his friends1 when he made his defence3 8,at my first answer no man stood with me1 but all men forsook me10 #b ,tim4 iv1 #af4 ,this expectation of death1 and this imminent danger1 cannot be reconciled either with the general tenor of his epistles written during his first confinement at ,rome1 with the nature of the charge laid against him when he was carried thither from ,jerusalem1 or with ,st4 ,luke's account of his confinement there2 for we must remember that in ,a4 ,d4 #fc1 ,nero had not begun to persecute the ,christians2 that none of the ,roman magistrates and officers who heard the accusations against ,st4 ,paul at ,jerusalem thought that he had committed any offence against the ,roman government2 that at ,rome ,st4 ,paul was completely out of the power of the ,jews2 and1 so little was he there considered as having been guilty of any capital crime1 that he was suffered to dwell 8two whole years10 that is1 the whole time of his confinement1 8in his own hired house1 and to receive all that came in unto him1 preaching the word of ,god1 and teaching those things which concern the ,lord ,jesus ,christ with all confidence1 no man forbidding him10 ,acts xxviii1 #cj1 #ca4 #b4 ,from the inscriptions of the epistles to the ,colossians1 ,philippians1 and ,philemon1 it is certain that ,timothy was with ,st4 ,paul in his first imprisonment at ,rome2 but this epistle implies that ,timothy was absent4 #c4 ,st4 ,paul tells the ,colossians that ,mark salutes them1 and therefore he was at ,rome with ,st4 ,paul in his first imprisonment2 but he was not at ,rome when this epistle was written1 for ,timothy is directed to bring him with him1 #b ,tim4 iv1 #aa4 #d4 ,demas1 also1 was with ,st4 ,paul when he wrote to the ,colossians3 8,luke1 the beloved physician1 and ,demas1 greet you10 ,col4 iv1 #ad4 ,in this epistle he says1 8,demas has forsaken me1 having loved this present world1 and is departed into ,thessalonica10 #b ,tim4 iv1 #aj4 ,it may be said that this epistle might have been written before the others1 and that in the intermediate time ,timothy and ,mark might have come to ,rome1 more especially as ,st4 ,paul desires ,timothy to come shortly1 and bring ,mark with him4 ,but this hypothesis is not consistent with what is said of ,demas1 who was with ,st4 ,paul when he wrote to the ,colossians1 and had left him when he wrote this second epistle to ,timothy2 consequently the epistle to ,timothy must be posterior to that addressed to the ,colossians4 ,the case of ,demas seems to have been1 that he continued faithful to ,st4 ,paul during his first imprisonment1 which was attended with little or no danger2 but deserted him in the second1 when ,nero was persecuting the ,christians1 and ,st4 ,paul evidently considered himself in great danger4 #e4 ,st4 ,paul tells ,timothy1 8,erastus abode at ,corinth1 but ,trophimus have ,i left at ,miletum sick10 #b ,tim4 iv1 #bj4 ,these were plainly two circumstances which had happened in some journey which ,st4 ,paul had taken not long before he wrote this epistle1 and since he and ,timothy had seen each other2 but the last time ,st4 ,paul was at ,corinth and ,miletum1 prior to his first imprisonment at ,rome1 ,timothy was with him at both places2 and ,trophimus could not have been then left at ,miletum1 for we find him at ,jerusalem immediately after ,st4 ,paul's arrival in that city2 8for they had seen before with him in the city ,trophimus1 an ,ephesian1 whom they supposed that ,paul had brought into the temple10 ,acts xxi1 #bi4 ,these two facts must therefore refer to some journey subsequent to the first imprisonment2 and1 consequently1 this epistle was written during ,st4 ,paul's second imprisonment at ,rome1 and probably in ,a4 ,d4 #fe1 not long before his death4 ,it is by no means certain where ,timothy was when this epistle was written to him4 ,it seems most probable that he was somewhere in ,asia ,minor1 since ,st4 ,paul desires him to bring the cloak with him which he had left at ,troas1 #b ,tim4 iv1 #ac2 and also at the end of the first chapter1 he speaks of several persons whose residence was in ,asia4 ,many have thought that he was at ,ephesus2 but others have rejected that opinion1 because ,troas does not lie in the way from ,ephesus to ,rome1 whither he was directed to go as quickly as he could4 ,st4 ,paul1 after his usual salutation1 assures ,timothy of his most affectionate remembrance2 he speaks of his own apostleship and of his sufferings2 exhorts ,timothy to be steadfast in the true faith1 to be constant and diligent in the discharge of his ministerial office1 to avoid foolish and unlearned questions1 and to practise and inculcate the great duties of the ,gospel2 he describes the apostasy and general wickedness of the last days1 and highly commends the ,holy ,scriptures2 he again solemnly exhorts ,timothy to diligence2 speaks of his own danger1 and of his hope of future reward2 and concludes with several private directions1 and with salutations4 ,,tin1 1 ,num4 xxxi1 #bb2 ,isa4 i1 #be2 ,ezek4 xxii1 #ah1 #bj2 xxvii1 #ab2 a well-known coarse metal1 harder than lead4 ,mr4 ,parkhurst observes1 that ,moses1 in ,num4 xxxi1 #bb1 enumerates all the six species of metals4 ,the ,lord1 by the ,prophet ,isaiah1 having compared the ,jewish people to silver1 declares1 8,i will turn my hand upon thee1 and purge away thy dross1 and remove all 1 thy particles of tin30 where ,aquila1 ,symmachus1 and ,theodotion have 1 and the ,vulgate stannum tuum1 8thy tin20 but the ,,lxx4 1 wicked ones4 ,this denunciation1 by a comparison of the preceding and following context1 appears to signify that ,god would1 by a process of judgment1 purify those among the ,jews who were capable of purification1 as well as destroy the reprobate and incorrigible1 ,jer4 vi1 #bi1 #cj2 ix1 #g2 ,mal4 iii1 #c2 ,ezek4 xii1 #ah1 #bj4 ,in ,ezek4 xxvii1 #ab1 ,tarshish is mentioned as furnishing 2 and ,bochart proves from the testimonies of ,diodorus1 ,pliny1 and ,stephanus1 that ,tartessus in ,spain1 which he supposes the ancient ,tarshish1 anciently furnished tin4 ,as ,cornwall in very ancient times was resorted to for this metal1 and probably first by the ,phenicians1 some have thought that peninsula to be the ,tarshish of the ,scriptures2 a subject which1 however1 from the vague use of the word1 is involved in much uncertainty4 ,see ,,tarshish4 ,,tithes4 ,we have nothing more ancient concerning tithes1 than what we find in ,gen4 xiv1 #bj1 that ,abraham gave tithes to ,melchisedec1 king of ,salem1 at his return from his expedition against ,chedorlaomer1 and the four kings in confederacy with him4 ,abraham gave him tithe of all the booty he had taken from the enemy4 ,jacob imitated this piety of his grandfather1 when he vowed to the ,lord the tithe of all the substance he might acquire in ,mesopotamia1 ,gen4 xxviii1 #bb4 ,under the law1 ,moses ordained1 8,all the tithe of the land1 whether of the seed of the land1 or of the fruit of the tree1 is the ,lord's2 it is holy unto the ,lord4 ,and if a man will at all redeem aught of his tithes1 he shall add thereto the fifth part thereof4 ,and concerning the tithe of the herd1 or of the flock1 even of whatsoever passeth under the rod1 the tenth shall be wholly unto the ,lord10 ,lev4 xxvii1 #cj-cb4 ,the ,pharisees1 in the time of ,jesus ,christ1 to distinguish themselves by a more scrupulous observance of the law1 did not content themselves with paying the tithe of the grain and fruits growing in the fields2 but they also paid tithe of the pulse and herbs growing in their gardens1 which was more than the law required of them4 ,the tithes were taken from what remained1 after the offerings and first fruits were paid4 ,they brought the tithes to the ,levites in the city of ,jerusalem1 as appears from ,josephus and ,tobit1 i1 #f4 ,the ,levites set apart the tenth part of their tithes for the priest2 because the priests did not receive them immediately from the people1 and the ,levites were not to meddle with the tithes they had received1 before they had given the priests such a part as the law assigned them4 ,of those nine parts that remained to the proprietors1 after the tithe was paid to the ,levites1 they took still another tenth part1 which was either sent to ,jerusalem in kind1 or1 if it was too far1 they sent the value in money2 adding to it a fifth from the whole as the rabbins inform us4 ,this tenth part was applied toward celebrating the festivals in the temple1 which bore a near resemblance to the agap1 or love feasts of the first ,christians4 ,thus are those words of ,deuteronomy understood by the rabbins3 8,thou shalt truly tithe all the increase of thy seed1 that the field bringeth forth year by year4 ,and thou shalt eat before the ,lord thy ,god1 in the place which he shall choose to place his name there1 the tithe of thy corn1 of thy wine1 and of thy oil1 and of the firstlings of thy herds and of thy flocks3 that thou mayest learn to fear the ,lord thy ,god always10 ,deut4 xiv1 #bb1 #bc4 ,tobit i1 #f1 says1 that every three years he punctually paid his tithe to strangers and proselytes4 ,this was probably because there were neither priests nor ,levites in the city where he dwelt4 ,moses speaks of this last kind of tithe3 8,at the end of three years thou shalt bring forth all the tithe of thine increase the same year1 and shalt lay it up within thy gates4 ,and the ,levite1 7because he hath no part nor inheritance with thee17 and the stranger1 and the fatherless1 and the widow1 which are within thy gates1 shall come1 and shall eat and be satisfied2 that the ,lord thy ,god may bless thee in all the work of thine hand which thou doest10 ,deut4 xiv1 #bh2 xxvi1 #ab4 ,it is thought that this tithe was not different from the second kind before noticed1 except that in the third year it was not brought to the temple1 but was used upon the spot by every one in the city of his habitation4 ,so1 properly speaking1 there were only two sorts of tithes1 that which was given to the ,levites and priests1 and that which was applied to making feasts of charity1 either in the temple of ,jerusalem1 or in other cities4 ,samuel tells the children of ,israel1 that the king they had a mind to have over them would 8take the tenth of their seed1 and of their vineyards1 and give to his officers1 and his servants4 ,he will take the tenth of your sheep1 and ye shall be his servants10 #a ,sam4 viii1 #ae1 #ag4 ,yet it does not clearly appear from the history of the ,jews1 that they regularly paid any tithe to their princes4 ,but the manner in which ,samuel expresses himself1 seems to insinuate that it was looked upon as a common right among the kings of the cast4 ,at this day1 the ,jews no longer pay any tithe2 at least they do not think themselves obliged to do it1 except it be those who are settled in the territory of ,jerusalem1 and the ancient ,judea4 ,for there are few ,jews now that have any lands of their own1 or any flocks4 ,they only give something for the redemption of the first-born1 to those who have any proofs of their being descended from the race of the priests or ,levites4 ,however1 we are assured1 that such among the ,jews as would be thought to be very strict and religious give the tenth part of their whole income to the poor4 ,,titus4 ,it is remarkable that ,titus is not mentioned in the ,acts of the ,apostles4 ,the few particulars which are known of him1 are collected from the epistles of ,st4 ,paul4 ,we learn from them that he was a ,greek1 ,gal4 ii1 #c2 but it is not recorded to what city or country he belonged4 ,from ,st4 ,paul's calling him 8his own son according to the common faith10 ,titus i1 #d1 it is concluded that he was converted by him2 but we have no account of the time or place of his conversion4 ,he is first mentioned as going from ,antioch to the council at ,jerusalem1 ,a4 ,d4 #di1 ,gal4 ii1 #a1 c2 and upon that occasion ,st4 ,paul says that he would not allow him to be circumcised1 because he was born of ,gentile parents4 ,he probably accompanied ,st4 ,paul in his second apostolical journey1 and from that time he seems to have been constantly employed by him in the propagation of the ,gospel2 he calls him his partner and fellow-helper1 #b ,cor4 viii1 #bc4 ,st4 ,paul sent him from ,ephesus with his ,first ,epistle to the ,corinthians1 and with a commission to inquire into the state of the church at ,corinth2 and he sent him thither again from ,macedonia with his ,second ,epistle1 and to forward the collections for the saints in ,judea4 ,from this time we hear nothing of ,titus till he was left by ,st4 ,paul in ,crete1 after his first imprisonment at ,rome1 to 8set in order the things that were wanting1 and to ordain elders in every city10 ,titus i1 #e4 ,it is probable that he went thence to join ,st4 ,paul at ,nicopolis1 ,titus iii1 #ab2 that they went together to ,crete to visit the churches there1 and thence to ,rome4 ,during ,st4 ,paul's second imprisonment at ,rome ,titus went into ,dalmatia1 #b ,tim4 iv1 #aj2 and after the apostle's death1 he is said to have returned into ,crete1 and to have died there in the ninety-fourth year of his age3 he is often called bishop of ,crete by ecclesiastical writers4 ,st4 ,paul always speaks of ,titus in terms of high regard1 and intrusted him1 as we have seen1 with commissions of great importance4 ,it is by no means certain from what place ,st4 ,paul wrote this epistle2 but as he desires ,titus to come to him at ,nicopolis1 and declares his intention of passing the winter there1 some have supposed that1 when he wrote it he was in the neighbourhood of that city1 either in ,greece or ,macedonia2 others have imagined that he wrote it from ,colosse1 but it is difficult to say upon what ground4 ,as it appears that ,st4 ,paul1 not long before he wrote this epistle1 had left ,titus in ,crete for the purpose of regulating the affairs of the church1 and at the time he wrote it had determined to pass the approaching winter at ,nicopolis1 and as the ,acts of the ,apostles do not give any account of ,st4 ,paul's preaching in that island1 or of visiting that city1 it is concluded that this epistle was written after his first imprisonment at ,rome1 and probably in ,a4 ,d4 #fd4 ,it may be considered as some confirmation of that opinion1 that there is a great similarity between the sentiments and expressions of this epistle and of the ,first ,epistle to ,timothy1 which was written in that year4 ,it is not known at what time a ,christian church was first planted in ,crete2 but as some ,cretans were present at the first effusion of the ,holy ,ghost at ,jerusalem1 ,acts ii1 #aa1 it is not improbable that1 upon their return home1 they might be the means of introducing the ,gospel among their countrymen4 ,crete is said to have abounded with ,jews2 and from the latter part of the first chapter of this epistle it appears that many of them were persons of very profligate lives1 even after they had embraced the ,gospel4 ,the principal design of this epistle was to give instructions to ,titus concerning the management of the churches in the different cities of the island of ,crete1 and it was probably intended to be read publicly to the ,cretans1 that they might know upon what authority ,titus acted4 ,st4 ,paul1 after his usual salutation1 intimates that he was appointed an apostle by the express command of ,god1 and reminds ,titus of the reason of his being left in ,crete2 he describes the qualifications necessary for bishops1 and cautions him against persons of bad principles1 especially ,judaizing teachers1 whom he directs ,titus to reprove with severity2 he informs him what instructions he should give to people in different situations of life1 and exhorts him to be exemplary in his own conduct2 he points out the pure and practical nature of the ,gospel1 and enumerates some particular virtues which he was to inculcate1 avoiding foolish questions and frivolous disputes2 he instructs him how he is to behave toward heretics and concludes with salutations4 ,,tizri1 or ,,tisri1 the first ,hebrew month of the civil year1 and the seventh of the sacred year1 answering to the moon of ,september4 ,on the first day of this month was kept the feast of trumpets1 because the beginning of the civil year was proclaimed with the sound of trumpets4 ,,tob1 a country of ,palestine1 lying beyond ,jordan1 in the northern part of the portion of ,manasseh4 ,to this district ,jephthah retired1 when he was driven away by his brethren1 ,judges xi1 #c1 #e4 ,it is also called ,tobie1 or ,tubin1 #a ,mac4 v1 #ac2 and the inhabitants of this canton were called ,tubieni4 ,it is supposed to be the same as ,ishtob1 one of the small principalities of ,syria1 which appears1 like the other little kingdoms in its neighbourhood1 to have been swallowed up in the kingdom of ,damascus4 ,this principality furnished twelve thousand men to the confederacy formed by the ,syrians and ,ammonites against ,david1 #b ,sam4 x4 ,,tobiah1 an ,ammonite1 an enemy to the ,jews4 ,he was one of those who strenuously opposed the rebuilding of the temple1 after the return from the captivity of ,babylon1 ,neh4 ii1 #aj2 iv1 #c2 v1 #a1 #ab1 #ad4 ,this ,tobiah is called 8the servant10 or 8slave10 in some parts of ,nehemiah2 probably because he was of a servile condition4 ,however1 he was of great consideration in the land of the ,samaritans1 of which he was governor with ,sanballat4 ,this ,tobiah married the daughter of ,shechaniah1 one of the principal ,jews of ,jerusalem1 ,neh4 vi1 #ah1 and had a powerful party in ,jerusalem itself1 who were opposed to that of ,nehemiah4 ,he maintained a correspondence by letter with this party against the interest of ,nehemiah1 vi1 #ag-ai2 but that prudent governor1 by his wisdom and moderation1 defeated all their machinations4 ,after some time1 ,nehemiah was obliged to return to ,babylon1 subsequent to having repaired the walls of ,jerusalem4 ,tobiah took this opportunity to come and dwell at ,jerusalem2 and even obtained of ,eliashib1 who had the care of the house of the ,lord1 to have an apartment in the temple4 ,but at ,nehemiah's return from ,babylon1 some years after1 he drove ,tobiah out of the courts of the temple1 and threw his goods out of the holy place1 ,neh4 xiii1 #d-h4 ,from this time the ,scripture makes no farther mention of ,tobiah4 ,it is probable he retired to ,sanballat at ,samaria4 ,,togarmah1 the third son of ,gomer1 ,gen4 x1 #d4 ,the learned are divided as to what country he peopled4 ,josephus and ,st4 ,jerom were of opinion1 that ,togarmah was the father of the ,phrygians3 ,eusebius1 ,theodoret1 and ,isidorus of ,seville1 that he peopled ,armenia3 the ,chaldee and the ,talmudists are for ,germany4 ,several moderns believe that the children of ,togarmah peopled ,turcomania in ,tartary and ,scythia4 ,bochart is for ,cappadocia3 he builds upon what is said in ,ezekiel xxvii1 #ad1 8,they of the house of ,togarmah traded in thy fairs10 that is1 at ,tyre1 8with horses and horsemen and mules40 ,he proves that ,cappadocia was famous for its excellent horses and its asses4 ,he observes also1 that certain ,gauls1 under the conduct of ,trocmus1 made a settlement at ,cappadocia1 and were called ,trocmi1 or ,throgmi4 ,the opinion1 says ,calmet1 which places ,togarmah in ,scythia and ,turcomania1 seems to stand upon the best foundation4 ,,tokens1 ,,tesser1 or ,,tickets1 were written testimonials to character1 much in use in the primitive church4 ,by means of letters1 and of brethren who travelled about1 even the most remote churches of the ,roman empire were connected together4 ,when a ,christian arrived in a strange town1 he first inquired for the church2 and he was here received as a brother1 and provided with every thing needful for his spiritual or corporeal sustenance4 ,but since deceivers1 spies with evil intentions1 and false teachers abused the confidence and the kindness of ,christians1 some measure of precaution became necessary1 in order to avert the many injuries which might result from this conduct4 ,an arrangement was therefore introduced1 that only such travelling ,christians should be received as brethren into churches where they were strangers1 as could produce a testimonial from the bishop of the church from which they came4 ,they called these church letters1 which were a kind of tesser hospitales1 tickets of hospitality1 by which the ,christians of all quarters of the world were brought into connection1 epistol1 or liter format1 formal letters1 1 because1 in order to avoid forgery1 they were made after a certain schema1 71 forma17 or else1 epistol communicatori1 epistles of fellowship1 1 because they contained a proof that those who brought them were in the communion of the church1 as well as that the bishops1 who mutually sent and received such letters1 were in connection together by the communion of the church2 and afterward these church letters1 epistol cleric1 were divided into different classes1 according to the difference of their purposes4 ,,tongue4 ,this word is taken in three different senses4 #a4 ,for the material tongue1 or organ of speech1 ,james iii1 #e4 #b4 ,for the tongue or language that is spoken in any country1 ,deut4 xxviii1 #di4 7,see ,language47 #c4 ,for good or bad discourses1 ,prov4 xii1 #ah2 xvii1 #bj4 ,tongue of the sea signifies a gulf4 ,to gnaw the tongue1 ,rev4 xvi1 #aj1 is a token of fury1 despair1 and torment4 ,the gift of tongues was that which ,god granted to the apostles and disciples assembled at ,jerusalem on the day of pentecost1 ,acts ii4 ,the tongue of angels1 a kind of hyperbole made use of by ,st4 ,paul1 #a ,cor4 xiii1 #a4 ,,tooth4 ,it was ordered by the law of retaliation1 that they should give tooth for tooth1 ,exod4 xxi1 #bd4 ,the opinion that it is every man's right and duty to do himself justice1 and to revenge his own injuries1 is by no means eradicated from among the ,afghans1 a people of ,india1 to the southward of ,cashmere1 and according to a paper in the ,asiatic ,researches1 supposed to be descended from the ,jews2 and the right of society1 even to restrain the reasonable passions of individuals1 and to take the redress of wrongs and the punishment of crimes into its own hands1 is still very imperfectly understood2 or1 if it is understood1 is seldom present to the thoughts of the people2 for although1 in most parts of their country1 justice might now be obtained by other means1 and though private revenge is every where preached against by the mollahs1 priests1 and forbidden by the government1 yet it is still lawful1 and even honourable in the eyes of the people1 to seek that mode of redress4 ,the injured party is considered to be entitled to strict retaliation on the aggressor4 ,if the offender be out of his power1 he may wreak his vengeance on a relation1 and1 in some cases1 on any man in the tribe4 ,if no opportunity of exercising this right occurs1 he may defer his revenge for years2 but it is disgraceful to neglect or abandon it entirely2 and it is incumbent on his relations1 and sometimes on his tribe1 to assist him in his retaliation4 ,to gnash the teeth is a token of sorrow1 rage1 despair1 ,psalm xxxv1 #af1 c4 ,god breaks the teeth of the wicked1 ,psalm iii1 #g4 ,cleanness of teeth denotes famine1 ,amos iv1 #f4 ,the wicked complain1 that the 8fathers have eaten sour grapes1 and their children's teeth are set on edge10 ,ezek4 xviii1 #b1 to signify1 that the children have suffered for their transgressions4 ,,topaz1 1 ,exod4 xxviii1 #ag2 xxxix1 #aj2 ,job xxviii1 #ai2 ,ezek4 xxviii1 #ac2 1 ,rev4 xxi1 #bj2 a precious stone of a pale dead green1 with a mixture of yellow2 and sometimes of fine yellow1 like gold4 ,it is very hard1 and takes a fine polish4 ,we have the authority of the ,septuagint and ,josephus for ascertaining this stone4 ,the oriental topazes are most esteemed4 ,those of ,ethiopia were celebrated for their wonderful lustre1 ,job xxviii1 #ai4 ,,tophet4 ,it is thought that ,tophet was the butchery1 or place of slaughter1 at ,jerusalem1 lying to the south of the city1 in the valley of the children of ,hinnom4 ,it is also said1 that a large fire was constantly kept there for burning carcasses1 garbage1 and other filth brought thither from the city4 ,it was the place where they burned the remains of images and false gods1 c1 ,isa4 xxx1 #cc4 ,others think the name ,tophet was given to the valley of ,hinnom1 from the beating of drums1 7the word toph signifying a drum17 which accompanied the sacrifices of infants that were offered there to the god ,moloch4 ,for the manner of performing those sacrifices in ,tophet1 see ,,moloch4 ,,tower4 8,the tower of the flock10 or the tower of ,ader1 ,micah iv1 #h4 ,it is said this tower was in the neighbourhood of ,bethlehem1 ,gen4 xxxv1 #ba1 and that the shepherds1 to whom the angel revealed the birth of our ,saviour1 were near to this tower1 ,luke ii1 #h1 #ae4 ,many interpreters assert1 that the passage of ,micah1 in which mention is made of the tower of the flock3 8,and thou tower of the flock1 the strong hold of the daughter of ,zion10 is to be understood of the city of ,bethlehem1 out of which our ,saviour was to come4 ,others maintain1 that the prophet speaks of the city of ,jerusalem1 in which there was a tower of this name1 through which the flocks of sheep were driven to the sheep-market4 8,from the tower of the watchmen to the fenced city10 #b ,kings xvii1 #i4 ,this form of speaking expresses in general all the places of the country1 from the least to the greatest4 ,the towers of the watchmen1 or of the shepherds1 stood alone in the midst of the plain1 in which the shepherds and herdsmen who looked after the flocks1 or watchmen1 might lodge4 ,king ,uzziah caused several towers to be built for the shepherds in the desert1 and made many cisterns there1 because he had a great number of flocks1 #b ,chronicles xxvi1 #aj4 ,the tower of the flock1 and that which ,isaiah1 v1 #b1 notices1 which was built in the midst of a vineyard1 were of the same kind4 ,,tower ,,of ,,babel4 ,see ,,babel4 ,,tower ,,of ,,shechem was a citadel1 or fortress1 standing upon a higher ground than the rest of the city1 and capacious enough to contain above a thousand persons4 ,this tower1 filled with the inhabitants of ,shechem1 was burned by ,abimelech down to the very ground1 together with those who had taken refuge in it4 ,,trachonitis1 ,luke iii1 #a4 ,this province had ,arabia ,deserta to the east1 ,batanea to the west1 ,iturea to the south1 and the country of ,damascus to the north4 ,it belonged rather to ,arabia than ,palestine2 was a rocky province1 and served as a shelter for thieves and depredators4 ,,tradition4 ,see ,,cabbala4 ,,transfiguration ,,of ,,christ4 ,this event relates to a very remarkable occurrence in the history of our ,lord's life1 which is recorded by three of the evangelists1 ,matthew xvii2 ,mark ix2 ,luke ix4 ,the substance of what we learn from their accounts is1 that upon a certain occasion ,jesus took ,peter1 ,james1 and ,john1 into a high mountain apart from all other society1 and that he was there transfigured before them2 his face shining as the sun1 and his raiment white as the light2 that moreover there appeared unto them ,moses and ,elias1 conversing with him2 and that while they spake together on the subject of his death1 which was soon afterward to take place at ,jerusalem1 a bright cloud overshadowed them1 and a voice out of the cloud proclaimed1 8,this is my beloved ,son1 in whom ,i am well pleased40 ,the ,apostle ,peter1 adverting to this memorable occurrence1 says1 8,we have not followed cunningly devised fables1 when we made known unto you the power and coming of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 but were eye-witnesses of his majesty4 ,for he received from ,god the ,father honour and glory1 when there came such a voice to him from the excellent glory1 ,this is my beloved ,son1 in whom ,i am well pleased4 ,and this voice which came from heaven we heard1 when we were with him in the holy mount10 #b ,peter i1 #af-ah4 ,this event is to be considered3 #a4 ,as a solemn confirmation of the prophetic office of ,christ4 #b4 ,as designed to support the faith of the disciples1 which was to be deeply tried by his approaching humiliations2 and to afford consolation to the human nature of our ,lord himself1 by giving him a foretaste of 8the joy set before him40 #c4 ,as an emblem of humanity glorified at the resurrection4 #d4 ,as declaring ,christ to be superior to ,moses and ,elias1 the giver and the restorer of the law4 #e4 ,as an evidence to the disciples of the existence of a separate state1 in which good men consciously enjoy the felicity of heaven4 #f4 ,as a proof that the bodies of good men shall be so refined and changed1 as1 like ,elias1 to live in a state of immortality1 and in the presence of ,god4 #g4 ,as exhibiting the sympathy which exists between the church in heaven and the church on earth1 and the instruction which the former receives from the events which take place in the latter3--,moses and ,elias conversed with our ,lord on his approaching death1 doubtless to receive1 not to convey information4 #h4 ,as maintaining the grand distinction1 the infinite difference1 between ,christ and all other prophets3 he is 8,,the ,,son40 8,this is my beloved ,son1 hear him40 ,it has been observed1 with much truth1 that the condition in which ,jesus ,christ appeared among men1 humble1 weak1 poor1 and despised1 was a true and continual transfiguration2 whereas1 the transfiguration itself1 in which he showed himself in the real splendour of his glory1 was his true and natural condition4 ,,transubstantiation4 ,the ,lord's ,supper being observed in commemoration of the death of ,christ1 which was the sacrifice offered for the sins of men1 the idea of a sacrifice was early conjoined with it2 and finally1 it came to be regarded not merely as the symbol of a sacrifice1 but in some sense a sacrifice itself4 ,there was also another cause which contributed to this belief4 ,it was the anxious wish of some of the fathers to give to their religion a degree of splendour1 which might make a powerful impression upon the senses4 ,under the ,jewish economy1 the numerous sacrifices that were offered1 in a remarkable degree riveted the attention2 and1 with reference to this1 it became customary to hold forth the ,lord's ,supper as the great sacrifice in the ,christian church4 ,this mode of speaking quickly gained ground2 it is often used by ,cyprian1 although he plainly understood it in a mystical sense2 and the ordinance of the supper was not unfrequently styled the eucharistical sacrifice4 ,it was very early the practice to hold up the elements1 previous to their being distributed1 to the view of the people1 probably to excite in them more effectually devout and reverential feelings2 and this laid the foundation for that adoration of them which was1 at a subsequent period1 as we shall soon find1 extensively introduced4 ,for several ages1 says ,dr4 ,cook1 the state of opinion respecting the sacramental elements was1 that they were memorials of ,christ's death1 but that1 agreeably to his own declaration1 his body and blood were1 in some sense1 present with them4 ,the questions1 however1 what was the nature of that presence8 and what were the physical consequences as to the bread and the wine8 however much we may conceive these points to have been involved in the opinion actually held1 or the language actually used1 seem not to have been for a long period much agitated1 or1 at all events1 not authoritatively decided1 although the ,roman ,catholic writers gladly and triumphantly bring forward the expressions that were so often used from the earliest age1 in support of the tenet which their church at length espoused4 ,but it was not to be supposed that the curiosity of man would be permanently arrested at the threshold of this most mysterious inquiry2 and accordingly a definite theory1 with respect to it1 was1 in the ninth century1 avowed1 and zealously defended4 ,pascasius ,radbert1 a monk1 and afterward abbot of ,corbey in ,picardy1 published a treatise concerning the sacrament of the body and blood of ,christ1 in which he did not hesitate to maintain the following most extraordinary positions3 8,that after the consecration of the bread and wine in the ,lord's ,supper1 nothing remained of these symbols but the outward form or figure under which the body and blood of ,christ were really and locally present2 and that this body so present was the identical body that had been born of the ,virgin ,mary1 had suffered on the cross1 and had been raised from the dead40 ,the publication of notions so decidedly at war with all which human beings must credit1 excited1 as might have been expected1 astonishment and indignation2 and1 accordingly1 many writers exerted their talents against it4 ,among these was the celebrated ,johannes ,scotus1 who laid the axe to the root of the tree1 and1 shaking off all that figurative language which had been so sadly abused1 distinctly and powerfully stated1 that the bread and wine used in the eucharist were the signs or symbols of the absent body and blood of ,christ4 ,the light of reason and truth was1 however1 too feeble to penetrate through the darkness which during this age was spread over the minds and understandings of men4 ,no public declaration1 indeed1 as to the nature of the sacramental elements was made2 and even the popes did not interpose their high and revered authority with regard to it2 but there seems little doubt that the opinion of ,pascasius was adopted by the greater part of the western church1 although it is not likely that much deference was paid to his explanations of it4 ,the question was again agitated1 and attracted more notice than it had ever before done1 in the course of the eleventh century4 ,several theologians1 distinguished for the period at which they lived1 shocked with the grossness and absurdity of the conversion which had been defended1 strenuously opposed it4 ,among these ,berenger holds the most conspicuous place1 both on account of the zeal and ability which he displayed1 and the cruel and unchristian manner in which he was resisted4 ,about the commencement of the century1 he began to inculcate that the bread and wine of the eucharist were not truly and actually1 but only figuratively1 and by similitude1 the body and blood of ,christ2 and a doctrine so rational obtained many adherents in ,france1 ,italy1 and ,england4 ,he was1 however1 encountered by a host of opponents1 numbers of whom possessed the highest situations in the church2 and the church itself1 either from having perceived that the doctrine which he laboured to confute was grateful to the people1 or1 what is more likely1 tended to exalt the powers and to increase the influence and wealth of the priesthood1 declared against him1 various councils having been assembled1 and having pronounced their solemn decrees in condemnation of what he taught4 ,the councils did not rest their hope of overcoming ,berenger upon the strength of the reasoning which they could urge against him3 they took a much more summary method1 and threatened to put him to death if he did not recant4 ,at one synod held at ,rome1 under the immediate eye of the pope1 the fathers of whom it consisted so successfully alarmed ,berenger1 that1 not having sufficient vigour of mind to stand firm against their cruelty1 he confessed that he had been in error1 and subscribed the following declaration composed by one of the cardinals3 8,the bread and wine which are placed on the altar are1 after consecration1 not merely a sacrament1 symbol1 or figure1 but even the true body and blood of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 which is handled by the hands of the priests1 and broken and chewed by the teeth of the faithful40 ,he had no sooner escaped from the violence which he had dreaded1 than he shrunk from the tenet to which he had been forced to give his assent1 and he again avowed his original sentiments2 but he was afterward turned aside from his integrity by the arts and the infamous persecution of new councils1 although he died adhering to the spirituality of ,christ's presence in the eucharist4 ,from this time the strange opinion of ,pascasius rapidly gained ground1 being supported by all the influence of popes and councils2 but there had not yet been devised a term which clearly expressed what was really implied in that opinion4 ,in the next century1 the ingenuity of some theologian invented what was wanting2 the change that takes place on the elements after consecration having been denominated by him transubstantiation4 ,still1 however1 some latitude was afforded to those who interpreted the epithet2 but this in the thirteenth century was taken away1 a celebrated council of the ,lateran1 attended by no fewer than four hundred and twelve bishops1 and eight hundred abbots and priors1 having1 at the instigation of ,innocent the ,third1 one of the most arrogant and presumptuous of the pontiffs1 explicitly adopted transubstantiation as an article of faith1 in the monstrous form in which it is now held in the popish church1 and denounced anathemas against all who hesitated to give their assent4 ,the opposition which after this was made to a doctrine so revolting to the senses and the reason1 was very feeble1 insomuch that it may1 in consequence of the decree of the ,lateran council1 be considered as having become the established faith of the western church4 ,in the ,greek church it was long resisted1 and1 indeed1 was not embraced till the seventeenth century1 a time at which it might have been thought that it could not have extended the range of its influence4 ,after transubstantiation was thus sanctioned1 a change necessarily took place with respect to various parts of the service used in administering the eucharist4 ,that solemn service was now viewed as an actual sacrifice or offering of the body of ,christ for the sins of men1 and the elevation of the host was held forth as calling for the adoration and worship of believers2 so that an ordinance mercifully designed to preserve the pure influence of the most spiritual and elevated religion1 became the instrument1 in the hands of ignorant or corrupt men1 of introducing the most senseless and degrading idolatry4 ,when the ,reformation shook the influence of the church1 and brought into exercise the intellectual faculties of man1 the subject of the eucharist demanded and received the closest and most anxious attention4 ,it might have been naturally supposed1 that when ,luther directed his vigorous mind to point out and to condemn the abuses which had been sanctioned in the popish church1 he would not have spared a doctrine the most irrational and objectionable which that church avows1 and that he would have vindicated the holy ordinance of the ,lord's ,supper from the abomination with which it had been associated4 ,he did1 indeed1 object to transubstantiation1 but he did so with a degree of hesitation truly astonishing1 although that hesitation was displayed by many of the first reformers4 ,he declared that he saw no warrant for believing that the bread and wine were actually changed into the body and blood of ,christ2 but he adhered to the literal import of our ,saviour's words1 teaching that his body and blood were received1 and that they were in some incomprehensible manner conjoined or united with the bread and wine4 ,it is quite evident1 that although this system got rid of one difficulty by leaving the testimony of the senses as to the bread and wine unchallenged1 yet it is just as incomprehensible as the other1 assumes as a fact what the senses cannot discern1 and involves in it difficulties equally repugnant to the plainest dictates of reason4 ,powerful accordingly as most deservedly was his ascendency1 and great as was the veneration with which he was contemplated1 he was upon this point happily opposed2 his colleague1 the celebrated ,carlostadt1 openly avowing1 that when our ,lord said of the bread1 8,this is my body10 he pointed to his own person1 and thus taught that the bread was merely the sign or emblem of it4 ,luther warmly resisted this opinion2 ,carlostadt was obliged1 surely in little consistency with the fundamental principle of ,protestantism1 in consequence of having professed it1 to leave ,wirtemberg2 and although it procured some adherents1 yet as it rested upon an assertion of which there could be no proof1 it was never extensively disseminated1 and was ultimately abandoned by ,carlostadt himself4 ,the discussion1 however1 which he had commenced stimulated others to the consideration of the subject1 and led ,zuinglius1 who had previously often meditated upon it1 and colampadius1 two of the most distinguished reformers1 to submit to the public the doctrine1 that the bread and wine are only symbols of ,christ's body and blood1 but that the body of our ,lord was in heaven1 to which after his resurrection he had ascended4 ,luther composed several works to confute the opinions of ,zuinglius4 ,at the commencement of the controversy respecting the eucharist among the defenders of the ,protestant faith1 there seem to have been only two opinions1 that of ,luther1 asserting that the body and blood of ,christ were actually with the bread and wine1 and that of ,zuinglius1 colampadius1 and ,bucer1 that the bread and wine were the emblems or signs of ,christ's body and blood1 no other advantage being derived from partaking of them than the moral effect naturally resulting from the commemoration of an event so awful and so deeply interesting as the crucifixion of our ,redeemer4 ,calvin soon published what may be regarded as a new view of the subject4 ,admitting the justness of the interpretation of our ,lord's words given by ,zuinglius1 he maintained that spiritual influence was conveyed to worthy partakers of the ,lord's ,supper1 insomuch that ,christ may be said to be spiritually present with the outward elements4 ,the sentiments of this most eminent theologian made a deep impression upon the public mind2 and although the churches of ,zurich and ,berne long adhered to the creed of ,zuinglius1 yet1 through the perseverance and dexterity of ,calvin1 the ,swiss ,protestant churches at length united with that of ,geneva in assenting to the spiritual presence of ,christ in the sacrament of the ,lord's ,supper4 ,in other countries1 too1 he saw many adhering to what he had taught1 and carrying to as great length as it could be carried what1 under his system1 must be termed the allegorical language which he recommended4 ,the ,french ,protestants in their confession thus express themselves3 8,we affirm that the holy supper of our ,lord is a witness to us of our union with the ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 because that he is not only once dead and raised up again from the dead for us1 but also he doth indeed feed and nourish us with his flesh and blood4 ,and although he be now in heaven1 and shall remain there till he come to judge the world1 yet we believe that1 by the secret and incomprehensible virtue of his ,spirit1 he doth nourish and quicken us with the substance of his body and blood4 ,but we say that this is done in a spiritual manner2 nor do we hereby substitute in place of the effect and truth an idle fancy and conceit of our own2 but rather1 because this mystery of our union with ,christ is so high a thing that it surmounteth all our senses1 yea and the whole order of nature1 and in short1 because it is celestial1 it cannot be comprehended but by faith40 ,knox1 who revered ,calvin1 carried into ,scotland the opinions of that reformer2 and in the original ,scottish confessions1 similar language1 though somewhat more guarded than that which has been just quoted1 is used3 8,we assuredly believe that in the supper rightly used1 ,christ ,jesus is so joined with us1 that he becometh the very nourishment and food of our souls4 ,not that we imagine any transubstantiation1--but this union and communion which we have with the body and blood of ,christ ,jesus in the right use of the sacrament1 is wrought by the operation of the ,holy ,ghost1 who by true faith carrieth us above all things that are visible1 carnal1 and earthly1 and maketh us to feed upon the body and blood of ,christ ,jesus4 ,we most assuredly believe that the bread which we break is the communion of ,christ's body1 and the cup which we bless is the communion of his blood2 so that we confess and undoubtedly believe1 that the faithful in the right use of the ,lord's table so do eat the body and drink the blood of the ,lord ,jesus1 that he remaineth in them and they in him2 yea1 that they are so made flesh of his flesh1 and bones of his bones1 that as the eternal ,godhead hath given to the flesh of ,christ ,jesus life and immortality1 so doth ,christ ,jesus's flesh and blood1 eaten and drunken by us1 give to us the same prerogatives40 ,the church of ,scotland1 which did not long use this first confession1 seems to have seen1 in the course of the following century1 the propriety1 if not of relinquishing1 yet of more cautiously employing the phraseology now brought into view2 for in the ,westminster confession1 which is still the standard of faith in that church1 there is unquestionably a great improvement in the style which has been adopted in treating of this subject4 ,in it the compilers declare1 that 8the outward elements in the sacrament of the ,lord's ,supper duly set apart to the uses ordained by ,christ1 have such relation to him crucified1 as that truly1 yet sacramentally only1 they are sometimes called by the name of the things they represent2 namely the body and blood of ,christ1 albeit in substance and nature they still remain truly and only bread and wine1 as they were before40 ,then after most powerfully exposing the absurdity of transubstantiation1 representing it as repugnant not to ,scripture alone1 but to reason and common sense1 they proceed3 8,worthy receivers1 outwardly partaking of the visible elements in this sacrament1 do then also inwardly by faith1 really and indeed1 yet not carnally and corporally1 but spiritually1 receive and feed upon ,christ crucified1 and all benefits of his death3 the body and blood of ,christ being then not corporally or carnally in1 with1 or under the bread and wine1 yet as really but spiritually present to the faith of believers in that ordinance1 as the elements themselves are to their outward senses40 ,the church of ,england was in its first reformation from popery inclined to adhere to the ,lutherans2 but in the time of ,edward the ,sixth1 a more correct and ,scriptural view seems to have been taken4 ,in the thirty-nine articles1 the present creed of the ,english church1 it is said of this ordinance3 8,the supper of the ,lord is not only a sign of the love that ,christians ought to have among themselves one to another1 but rather it is a sacrament of our redemption by ,christ's death2 insomuch that1 to such as rightly1 worthily1 and with faith receive the same1 the bread which we break is a partaking of the body of ,christ1 and likewise the cup is a partaking of the blood of ,christ40 ,this strong language is1 however1 in the same article1 so modified1 as to show that all which was intended by it was to represent the spiritual influence conveyed through the ,lord's ,supper2 for it is taught1 8that the body of ,christ is given1 taken1 and eaten in the supper1 only after a heavenly and spiritual manner40 ,the idea of ,zuinglius1 that the ,lord's ,supper is merely a commemoration of ,christ's death1 naturally producing a moral effect upon the serious and considerate mind1 has been held by members of both the established churches in ,great ,britain4 ,it was vigorously defended1 about the beginning of last century1 by ,bishop ,hoadly1 in a work which he entitled1 8,a plain ,account of the ,nature and ,ends of the ,sacrament of the ,lord's ,supper20 and it has more recently been supported by ,dr4 ,bell1 in a treatise denominated 8,an ,attempt to ascertain the ,authority1 ,nature1 and ,design of the ,lord's ,supper40 ,the ingenuity of particular individuals has been exerted in giving other peculiar illustrations of the subject4 ,cudworth and ,bishop ,warburton1 for example1 represented the sacrament of the supper under the view of a feast upon a sacrifice2 but such speculations have not influenced the faith of any large denomination of ,christians4 ,,travelling4 ,the mode in which the patriarchs performed their pastoral migrations will be illustrated1 with several differences in circumstances1 by the following extract from ,parsons' ,travels3 8,it was entertaining enough to see the horde of ,arabs decamp1 as nothing could be more regular4 ,first went the sheep and goat herds1 each with their flocks in divisions1 according as the chief of each family directed2 then followed the camels and asses1 loaded with the tents1 furniture1 and kitchen utensils2 these were followed by the old men1 women1 boys1 and girls1 on foot4 ,the children that cannot walk are carried on the backs of the young women1 or the boys and girls2 and the smallest of the lambs and kids are carried under the arms of the children4 ,to each tent belong many dogs1 among which are some greyhounds2 some tents have from ten to fourteen dogs1 and from twenty to thirty men1 women1 and children1 belonging to it4 ,the procession is closed by the chief of the tribe1 whom they call emir and father1 7emir means prince17 mounted on the very best horse1 and surrounded by the heads of each family1 all on horses1 with many servants on foot4 ,between each family is a division or space of one hundred yards1 or more1 when they migrate2 and such great regularity is observed1 that neither camels1 asses1 sheep1 nor dogs1 mix1 but each keeps to the division to which it belongs1 without the least trouble4 ,they had been here eight days1 and were going four hours' journey to the north-west1 to another spring of water4 ,this tribe consisted of about eight hundred and fifty men1 women1 and children4 ,their flocks of sheep and goats were about five thousand1 beside a great number of camels1 horses1 and asses4 ,horses and greyhounds they breed and train up for sale3 they neither kill nor sell their ewe lambs4 ,at set times a chapter in the ,koran is read by the chief of each family1 either in or near each tent1 the whole family being gathered round1 and very attentive40 ,instead of the ,koran of modern times1 let us conceive of ,abraham1 and other patriarchal emirs1 collecting their numerous dependents and teaching them the true religion1 and we then see with what truth they are called the ,lord's 8prophets40 ,,treasure4 ,the ,hebrew word signifies any thing collected together1 provisions1 or magazines4 ,so they say1 a treasure of corn1 of wine1 of oil1 of honey1 ,jer4 xli1 #h2 treasures of gold1 silver1 brass1 ,ezek4 xxviii1 #d2 ,dan4 xi1 #dc4 ,snow1 winds1 hail1 rain1 waters1 are in the treasuries of ,god1 ,psalm cxxxv1 #g2 ,jer4 li1 #af4 ,the wise men opened their treasures1 ,matt4 ii1 #aa1 that is1 their packets1 or bundles1 to offer presents to our ,saviour4 ,joseph acquainted his brethren1 when they found their money returned in their sacks1 that ,god had given them treasures1 ,genesis xliii1 #bc4 ,the treasures of the house of ,god1 whether in silver1 corn1 wine1 or oil1 were under the care of the ,levites4 ,the kings of ,judah had also keepers of the treasures both in city and country1 #a ,chron4 xxvii1 #be2 and the places where these magazines were laid up were called treasure cities4 ,pharaoh compelled the ,hebrews to build him treasure cities1 or magazines4 ,,tree is the first and largest of the vegetable kind1 consisting of a single trunk1 out of which spring forth branches and leaves4 ,heat is so essential to the growth of trees1 that we see them grow larger and smaller in a sort of gradation as the climates in which they stand are more or less hot4 ,the hottest countries yield1 in general1 the largest and tallest trees1 and those1 also1 in much greater beauty and variety than the colder do2 and even those plants which are common to both arrive at a much greater bulk in the southern than in the northern climates2 nay1 there are some regions so bleak and chill1 that they raise no vegetables at all to any considerable height4 ,greenland1 ,iceland1 and similar places1 afford no trees at all2 and the shrubs which grow in them are always little and low4 ,in the warmer climates1 where trees grow to a moderate size1 any accidental diminution of the common heat is found very greatly to impede vegetation2 and even in ,england the cold summers we sometimes have give us an evident proof of this in the scarcity of produce from all our large fruit trees4 ,heat1 whatever be the producing cause1 acts as well upon vegetation one way as another4 ,thus the heat of manure1 and the artificial heat of coal fires in stoves1 are found to supply the place of the sun4 ,great numbers of the eastern trees1 in their native soil1 flower twice in a year1 and some flower and bear ripe fruit all the year round2 and it is observed of these last1 that they are at once the most frequent and the most useful to the inhabitants2 their fruits1 which always hang on them in readiness1 containing cool juices1 which are good in fevers1 and other of the common diseases of hot countries4 ,the umbrageous foliage1 with which the ,god of providence has generally furnished all trees in warm climates1 affords a most refreshing and grateful shade to those who seek relief from the direct and hurtful rays of a tropical sun4 ,the ,land of ,promise cannot boast1 like many other countries1 of extensive woods2 but considerable thickets of trees and of reeds sometimes arise to diversify and adorn the scene4 ,between the ,lake ,samochonites and the sea of ,tiberias1 the river ,jordan is almost concealed by shady trees from the view of the traveller4 ,when the waters of the ,jordan are low1 the ,lake ,samochonites is only a marsh1 for the most part dry and overgrown with shrubs and reeds4 ,in these thickets1 among other ferocious animals1 the wild boar seeks a covert from the burning rays of the sun4 ,large herds of them are sometimes to be seen on the banks of the river1 near the sea of ,tiberias1 lying among the reeds1 or feeding under the trees4 ,such moist and shady places are in all countries the favourite haunts of these fierce and dangerous animals4 ,those marshy coverts are styled woods in the sacred ,scriptures2 for the wild boar of the wood is the name which that creature receives from the royal psalmist3 8,the boar out of the wood doth waste it2 and the wild beast of the field doth devour it10 ,psalm lxxx1 #ac4 ,the wood of ,ephraim1 where the battle was fought between the forces of ,absalom and the servants of ,david1 was probably a place of the same kind2 for the sacred historian observes1 that the wood devoured more people that day than the sword1 #b ,sam4 xviii1 #h4 ,some have supposed the meaning of this passage to be1 that the soldiers of ,absalom were destroyed by the wild beasts of the wood2 but it can scarcely be supposed1 that in the reign of ,david1 when the ,holy ,land was crowded with inhabitants1 the wild beasts could be so numerous in one of the woods as to cause such a destruction4 ,but1 supposing the wood of ,ephraim to have been a morass covered with trees and bushes1 like the haunts of the wild boar near the banks of ,jordan1 the difficulty is easily removed4 ,it is certain that such a place has more than once proved fatal to contending armies1 partly by suffocating those who in the hurry of flight inadvertently venture over places incapable of supporting them1 and partly by retarding them till their pursuers come up and cut them to pieces4 ,in this manner a greater number of men than fell in the heat of battle may be destroyed4 ,it is probable1 however1 that nothing more is intended by the sacred historian1 than the mention of a fact familiar to military men in all ages1 and whatever kind of weapons were then employed in warfare1--that forests1 especially such thick and impassable forests as are common in warm countries1 constitute the very worst ground along which a discomfited army can be compelled to retreat4 ,their orderly ranks are broken2 the direction which each warrior for his own safety must take is uncertain2 and while one tumultuous mass is making a pass for itself through intervening brushwood and closely matted jungle1 and another is hurrying along a different path and encountering similar or perhaps greater impediments1 the cool and deliberate pursuers1 whether archers or sharp shooters1 enjoy an immense advantage in being able to choose their own points of annoyance1 and by flank or cross attacks to kill their retreating foes1 with scarcely any risk to themselves1 but with immense carnage to the routed army4 ,several critics imagine that by 1 rendered 8goodly trees10 ,lev4 xxiii1 #dj1 the citron tree is intended4 -1 rendered 8thick trees0 in the same verse1 and in ,neh4 viii1 #ae2 ,ezek4 xx1 #bh1 is the myrtle1 according to the rabbins1 the ,chaldee paraphrase1 ,syriac version1 and ,deodatus4 ,the word 1 translated 8grove0 in ,gen4 xxi1 #cc1 has been variously translated4 ,parkhurst renders it an oak1 and says1 that from this word may be derived the name of the famous asylum1 opened by ,romulus between two groves of oak at ,rome4 ,on the other hand1 ,celsius1 ,michalis1 and ,dr4 ,geddes render it the tamarisk1 which is a lofty and beautiful tree1 and grows abundantly in ,egypt and ,arabia4 ,the same word in #a ,sam4 xxii1 #f2 xxxi1 #ac1 is rendered 8a tree40 ,it must be noted too1 that in the first of these places1 the common version is equally obscure and contradictory1 by making ramah a proper name3 it signifies hillock or bank4 ,of the trees that produced precious balsams there was one in particular that long flourished in ,judea1 having been supposed to have been an object of great attention to ,solomon1 which was afterward transplanted to ,matarea1 in ,egypt1 where it continued till about two hundred and fifty years ago1 according to ,maillet1 who gives a description of it1 drawn1 it is supposed1 from the ,arabian authors1 in which he says1 8,this shrub had two very differently coloured barks1 the one red1 the other perfectly green2 that they tasted strongly like incense and turpentine1 and when bruised between the fingers they smelt very nearly like cardamoms4 ,this balsam1 which was extremely precious and celebrated1 and was used by the ,coptic church in their chrism1 was produced by a very low shrub2 and it is said1 that all those shrubs that produced balsams are every where low1 and do not exceed two or three cubits in height40 ,descriptions of the principal trees and shrubs mentioned in ,holy ,writ the reader will find noticed in distinct articles under their several denominations4 ,,tribe4 ,jacob having twelve sons1 who were the heads of so many great families1 which altogether formed a great nation2 every one of these families was called a tribe4 ,but ,jacob on his death bed adopted ,ephraim and ,manasseh1 the sons of ,joseph1 and would have them also to constitute two tribes of ,israel1 ,gen4 xlviii1 #e4 ,instead of twelve tribes1 there were now thirteen1 that of ,joseph being divided into two4 ,however1 in the distribution of lands to each which ,joshua made by the order of ,god1 they counted but twelve tribes1 and made but twelve lots4 ,for the tribe of ,levi1 which was appointed to the service of the tabernacle of the ,lord1 had no share in the distribution of the land1 but only some cities in which to dwell1 and the first fruits1 tithes1 and oblations of the people1 which was all their subsistence4 ,the twelve tribes continued united under one head1 making but one state1 one people1 and one monarchy1 till after the death of ,solomon4 ,then ten of the tribes of ,israel revolted from the house of ,david1 and received for their king ,jeroboam1 the son of ,nebat2 and only the tribes of ,judah and ,benjamin continued under the government of ,rehoboam4 ,this separation may be looked upon as the chief cause of those great misfortunes that afterward happened to those two kingdoms1 and to the whole ,hebrew nation4 ,for1 first1 it was the cause of the alteration and change of the old religion1 and of the ancient worship of their forefathers4 ,jeroboam the son of ,nebat substituted the worship of golden calves for the worship of the true ,god2 which was the occasion of the ten tribes forsaking the temple of the ,lord4 ,secondly1 this schism caused an irreconcilable hatred between the ten tribes1 and those of ,judah and ,benjamin1 and created numerous wars and disputes between them4 ,the ,lord1 being provoked1 delivered them up to their enemies4 ,tiglath-,pileser first took away captive the tribes of ,reuben1 ,gad1 ,naphtali1 and the half tribe of ,manasseh1 which were beyond ,jordan1 and carried them beyond the ,euphrates1 #b ,kings xv1 #bi2 #a ,chron4 v1 #bf2 ,a4 ,m4 #cbfd4 ,some years after1 ,shalmaneser king of ,assyria took the city of ,samaria1 destroyed it1 took away the rest of the inhabitants of ,israel1 carried them beyond the ,euphrates1 and sent other inhabitants into the country to cultivate and possess it1 #b ,kings xvii1 #f2 xviii1 #aj1 #aa4 ,thus ended the kingdom of the ten tribes of ,israel1 ,a4 ,m4 #cbhc4 ,as to the tribes of ,judah and ,benjamin1 who remained under the government of the kings of the family of ,david1 they continued a much longer time in their own country4 ,but at last1 after they had filled up the measure of their iniquity1 ,god delivered them all into the hands of their enemies4 ,nebuchadnezzar took the city of ,jerusalem1 entirely ruined it1 and took away all the inhabitants of ,judah and ,benjamin to ,babylon1 and the other provinces of his empire1 ,a4 ,m4 #cdaf4 ,the return from this captivity is stated in the books of ,ezra and ,nehemiah4 ,see ,,jews4 ,,tribute4 ,the ,hebrews acknowledged none for sovereign over them but ,god alone2 whence ,josephus calls their government a theocracy1 or divine government4 ,they acknowledged the sovereign dominion of ,god by a tribute1 or capitation tax1 of half a shekel a head1 which every ,israelite paid yearly1 ,exod4 xxx1 #ac4 ,our ,saviour1 in the ,gospel1 thus reasons with ,st4 ,peter3 8,what thinkest thou1 ,simon8 of whom do the kings of the earth take custom or tribute8 of their own children1 or of strangers80 ,matt4 xvii1 #be1 meaning1 that as he was the ,son of ,god1 he ought to be exempt from this capitation tax4 ,we do not find that either the kings or the judges of the ,hebrews1 when they were themselves ,jews1 demanded any tribute of them4 ,solomon1 at the beginning of his reign1 #a ,kings xi1 #bb1 #cc2 #b ,chron4 viii1 #i1 compelled the ,canaanites1 who were left in the country1 to pay him tribute1 and to perform the drudgery of the public works he had undertaken4 ,as to the children of ,israel1 he would not suffer one of them to be employed upon them1 but made them his soldiers1 ministers1 and chief officers1 to command his armies1 his chariots1 and his horsemen4 ,yet1 afterward1 toward the end of his reign1 he imposed a tribute upon them1 and made them work at the public buildings1 #a ,kings v1 #ac1 #ad2 ix1 #ae2 xi1 #bg2 which much alienated their minds from him1 and sowed the seeds of that discontent which afterward appeared in an open revolt1 by the rebellion of ,jeroboam1 the son of ,nebat2 who was at first indeed obliged to take shelter in ,egypt4 ,but afterward the defection became general1 by the total revolt of the ten tribes4 ,hence it was1 that the ,israelites said to ,rehoboam the son of ,solomon1 8,thy father made our yoke grievous2 now therefore1 make thou the grievous service of thy father1 and the heavy yoke which he put upon us1 lighter1 and we will serve thee10 #a ,kings xii1 #d4 ,it is needless to observe1 that the ,israelites were frequently subdued by foreign princes1 who laid great taxes and tribute upon them1 to which fear and necessity compelled them to submit4 ,yet in the latter times1 that is1 after ,archelaus had been banished to ,vienne in ,france1 in the sixth year of the vulgar era1 and after ,judea was reduced to a province1 ,augustus sent ,quirinius into this country to take a new poll of the people1 and to make a new estimate of their substance1 that he might thereby regulate the tribute that every one was to pay to the ,romans4 ,then ,judas1 surnamed the ,galilean1 formed a sedition1 and made an insurrection1 to oppose the levying of this tribute4 ,see in ,st4 ,matthew xxii1 #af1 #ag1 c1 the answer that ,jesus ,christ returned to the ,pharisee1 who came with an insidious design of tempting him1 and asked him1 whether or not it was lawful to pay tribute to ,csar8 and in ,john viii1 #cc1 where the ,jews boast of having never been slaves to any body1 of being a free nation1 that acknowledged ,god only for master and sovereign4 ,,trinity4 ,that nearly all the ,pagan nations of antiquity1 says ,bishop ,tomline1 in their various theological systems1 acknowledged a kind of ,trinity1 has been fully evinced by those learned men who have made the ,heathen mythology the subject of their elaborate inquiries4 ,the almost universal prevalence of this doctrine in the ,gentile kingdoms must be considered as a strong argument in favour of its truth4 ,the doctrine itself bears such striking internal marks of a divine original1 and is so very unlikely to have been the invention of mere human reason1 that there is no way of accounting for the general adoption of so singular a belief1 but by supposing that it was revealed by ,god to the early patriarchs1 and that it was transmitted by them to their posterity4 ,in its progress1 indeed1 to remote countries1 and to distant generations1 this belief became depraved and corrupted in the highest degree2 and he alone who brought 8life and immortality to light10 could restore it to its original simplicity and purity4 ,the discovery of the existence of this doctrine in the early ages1 among the nations whose records have been the best preserved1 has been of great service to the cause of ,christianity1 and completely refutes the assertion of infidels and skeptics1 that the sublime and mysterious doctrine of the ,trinity owes its origin to the philosophers of ,greece4 8,if we extend10 says ,mr4 ,maurice1 8our eye through the remote region of antiquity1 we shall find this very doctrine1 which the primitive ,christians are said to have borrowed from the ,platonic school1 universally and immemorially flourishing in all those countries where history and tradition have united to fix those virtuous ancestors of the human race1 who1 for their distinguished attainments in piety1 were admitted to a familiar intercourse with ,jehovah and the angels1 the divine heralds of his commands40 ,the same learned author justly considers the first two verses of the ,old ,testament as containing very strong1 if not decisive1 evidence in support of the truth of this doctrine3 ,elohim1 a noun substantive of the plural number1 by which the ,creator is expressed1 appears as evidently to point toward a plurality of persons in the divine nature1 as the verb in the singular1 with which it is joined1 does to the unity of that nature3 8,in the beginning ,god created20 with strict attention to grammatical propriety1 the passage should be rendered1 8,in the beginning ,gods created10 but our belief in the unity of ,god forbids us thus to translate the word ,elohim4 ,since1 therefore1 ,elohim is plural1 and no plural can consist of less than two in number1 and since creation can alone be the work of ,deity1 we are to understand by this term so particularly used in this place1 ,god the ,father1 and the eternal ,logos1 or ,word of ,god2 that ,logos whom ,st4 ,john1 supplying us with an excellent comment upon this passage1 says1 was in the beginning with ,god1 and who also was ,god4 ,as the ,father and the ,son are expressly pointed out in the first verse of this chapter1 so is the ,third ,person in the blessed ,trinity not less decisively revealed to us in ,gen4 i1 #b3 8,and the ,spirit of ,god moved upon the face of the waters30 8brooded upon0 the water1 incubavit1 as a hen broods over her eggs4 ,thus we see the ,spirit exerted upon this occasion an active effectual energy1 by that energy agitating the vast abyss1 and infusing into it a powerful vital principle4 ,elohim seems to be the general appellation by which the ,triune ,godhead is collectively distinguished in ,scripture2 and in the concise history of the creation only1 the expression1 bara ,elohim1 8the ,gods created10 is used above thirty times4 ,the combining this plural noun with a verb in the singular would not appear so remarkable1 if ,moses had uniformly adhered to that mode of expression2 for then it would be evident that he adopted the mode used by the ,gentiles in speaking of their false gods in the plural number1 but by joining with it a singular verb or adjective1 rectified a phrase that might appear to give a direct sanction to the error of polytheism4 ,but1 in reality1 the reverse is the fact2 for in ,deut4 xxxii1 #ae1 #ag1 and other places1 he uses the singular number of this very noun to express the ,deity1 though not employed in the august work of creation3 8,he forsook ,god10 ,eloah2 8they sacrificed to devils not to ,god10 ,eloah4 ,but farther1 ,moses himself uses this very word ,elohim with verbs and adjectives in the plural4 ,of this usage ,dr4 ,allix enumerates many other striking instances that might be brought from the ,pentateuch2 and other inspired writers use it in the same manner in various parts of the ,old ,testament1 ,job xxxv1 #aj2 ,joshua xxiv1 #ai2 ,psalm cix1 #a2 ,ecclesiastes xii1 #c2 #b ,samuel vii1 #bc4 ,it must appear1 therefore1 to every reader of reflection1 exceedingly singular1 that when ,moses was endeavouring to establish a theological system1 of which the unity of the ,godhead was the leading principle1 and in which it differed from all other systems1 he should make use of terms directly implicative of a plurality in it2 yet so deeply was the awful truth under consideration impressed upon the mind of the ,hebrew legislator1 that this is constantly done by him2 and1 indeed1 as ,allix has observed1 there is scarcely any method of speaking from which a plurality in ,deity may be inferred1 that is not used either by himself in the ,pentateuch1 or by the other inspired writers in various parts of the ,old ,testament4 ,a plural is joined with a verb singular1 as in the passage cited before from ,genesis i1 #a2 a plural is joined with a verb plural1 as in ,gen4 xxxv1 #g1 8,and ,jacob called the name of the place ,el-beth-el1 because the ,gods there appeared to him20 a plural is joined with an adjective plural1 ,joshua xxiv1 #ai1 8,you cannot serve the ,lord2 for he is the holy ,gods40 ,to these passages1 if we add that remarkable one from ,ecclesiastes1 8,remember thy ,creators in the days of thy youth10 and the predominant use of the terms1 ,jehovah ,elohim1 or1 the 8,lord thy ,gods10 which occur a hundred times in the law1 7the word ,jehovah implying the unity of the essence1 and ,elohim a plurality in that unity17 we must allow that nothing can be more plainly marked than this doctrine in the ancient ,scriptures4 ,though the august name of ,jehovah in a more peculiar manner belongs to ,god the ,father1 yet is that name1 in various parts of ,scripture1 applied to each person in the holy ,trinity4 ,the ,hebrews considered that name in so sacred a light1 that they never pronounced it1 and used the word ,adonai instead of it4 ,it was1 indeed1 a name that ranked first among their profoundest cabala2 a mystery1 sublime1 ineffable1 incommunicable4 ,it was called tetragrammaton1 or the name of four letters1 and these letters are jod1 he1 vau1 he1 the proper pronunciation of which1 from long disuse1 is said to be no longer known to the ,jews themselves4 ,this awful name was first revealed by ,god to ,moses from the centre of the burning bush2 and ,josephus1 who1 as well as ,scripture1 relates this circumstance1 evinces his veneration for it1 by calling it the name which his religion did not permit him to mention4 ,from this word the ,pagan title of ,iao and ,jove is1 with the greatest probability1 supposed to have been originally formed2 and in the ,golden ,verses of ,pythagoras1 there is an oath still extant to this purpose1 8,by ,him who has the four letters40 ,as the name ,jehovah1 however1 in some instances applied to the ,son and the ,holy ,spirit1 was the proper name of ,god the ,father1 so is ,logos in as peculiar a manner the appropriated name of ,god the ,son4 ,the ,chaldee ,paraphrasts translate the original ,hebrew text by ,mimra da ,jehovah1 literally1 8the ,word of ,jehovah10 a term totally different1 as ,bishop ,kidder has incontestably proved1 in its signification1 and in its general application among the ,jews1 from the ,hebrew dabar1 which simply means a discourse or decree1 and is properly rendered by pithgam4 ,in the ,septuagint translation of the ,bible1 a work supposed by the ,jews to have been undertaken by men immediately inspired from above1 the former term is universally rendered 1 and it is so rendered and so understood by ,philo and all the more ancient rabbins4 ,the name of the third person in the ever blessed ,trinity has descended unaltered from the days of ,moses to our own time2 for1 as well in the sacred writings as by the ,targumists1 and by the modern doctors of the ,jewish church1 he is styled ,ruach ,hakhodesh1 the ,holy ,spirit4 ,he is sometimes1 however1 in the rabbinical books1 denominated by ,shechinah1 or glory of ,jehovah2 in some places he is called ,sephirah1 or ,wisdom2 and in others the ,binah1 or ,understanding4 ,from the enumeration of these circumstances1 it must be sufficiently evident to the mind which unites piety and reflection1 that so far from being silent upon the subject1 the ancient ,scriptures commence with an avowal of this doctrine1 and that1 in fact1 the creation was the result of the joint operations of the ,trinity4 ,if the argument above offered should still appear inconclusive1 the twenty-sixth verse of the first chapter of ,genesis contains so pointed an attestation to the truth of it1 that1 when duly considered1 it must stagger the most hardened skeptic2 for in that text not only the plurality is unequivocally expressed1 but the act which is the peculiar prerogative of ,deity is mentioned together with that plurality1 the one circumstance illustrating the other1 and both being highly elucidatory of this doctrine3 8,and ,god 7,elohim7 said1 ,let us make man in our image1 after our likeness40 ,why the ,deity should speak of himself in the plural number1 unless that ,deity consisted of more than one person1 it is difficult to conceive2 for the answer given by the modern ,jews1 that this is only a figurative mode of expression1 implying the high dignity of the speaker1 and that it is usual for earthly sovereigns to use this language by way of distinction1 is futile1 for two reasons4 ,in the first place it is highly degrading to the ,supreme ,majesty to suppose he would take his model of speaking and thinking from man1 though it is highly consistent with the vanity of man to arrogate to himself1 as doubtless was the case in the licentiousness of succeeding ages1 the style and imagined conceptions of ,deity2 and it will be remembered1 that these solemn words were spoken before the creation of any of those mortals1 whose false notions of greatness and sublimity the ,almighty is thus impiously supposed to adopt4 ,in truth1 there does not seem to be any real dignity in an expression1 which1 when used by a human sovereign in relation to himself1 approaches very near to absurdity4 ,the genuine fact1 however1 appears to be this4 ,when the tyrants of the east first began to assume divine honours1 they assumed likewise the majestic language appropriated to1 and highly becoming1 the ,deity1 but totally inapplicable to man4 ,the error was propagated from age to age through a long succession of despots1 and at length ,judaic apostasy arrived at such a pitch of profane absurdity1 as to affirm that very phraseology to be borrowed from man which was the original and peculiar language of the ,divinity4 ,it was1 indeed1 remarkably pertinent when applied to ,deity2 for1 in a succeeding chapter1 we have more decisive authority for what is thus asserted1 where the ,lord ,god himself says1 8,behold1 the man is become as one of us20 a very singular expression1 which some ,jewish commentators1 with equal effrontery1 contend was spoken by the ,deity to the council of angels1 that1 according to their assertions1 attended him at the creation4 ,from the name of the ,lord ,god being used in so emphatical a manner1 it evidently appears to be addressed to those sacred persons to whom it was before said1 8,let us make man20 for would indeed the omnipotent ,jehovah1 presiding in a less dignified council1 use words that have such an evident tendency to place the ,deity on a level with created beings8 ,the first passage to be adduced from the ,new ,testament in proof of this important doctrine of the ,trinity1 is1 the charge and commission which our ,saviour gave to his apostles1 to 8go and teach all nations1 baptizing them in the name of the ,father1 and of the ,son1 and of the ,holy ,ghost10 ,matt4 xxviii1 #ai4 ,the ,gospel is every where in ,scripture represented as a covenant or conditional offer of eternal salvation from ,god to man2 and baptism was the appointed ordinance by which men were to be admitted into that covenant1 by which that offer was made and accepted4 ,this covenant being to be made with ,god himself1 the ordinance must of course be performed in his name2 but ,christ directed that it should be performed in the name of the ,father1 and of the ,son1 and of the ,holy ,ghost2 and therefore we conclude that ,god is the same as the ,father1 the ,son1 and the ,holy ,ghost4 ,since baptism is to be performed in the name of the ,father1 the ,son1 and the ,holy ,ghost1 they must be all three persons2 and since no superiority or difference whatever is mentioned in this solemn form of baptism1 we conclude that these three persons are all of one substance1 power1 and eternity4 ,are we to be baptized in the name of the ,father1 of the ,son1 and of the ,holy ,ghost1 and is it possible that the ,father should be self-existent1 eternal1 the ,lord ,god ,omnipotent2 and that the ,son1 in whose name we are equally baptized1 should be a mere man1 born of a woman1 and subject to all the frailties and imperfections of human nature8 or1 is it possible that the ,holy ,ghost1 in whose name also we are equally baptized1 should be a bare energy or operation1 a quality or power1 without even personal existence8 ,our feelings1 as well as our reason1 revolt from the idea of such disparity4 ,this argument will derive great strength from the practice of the early ages1 and from the observations which we meet with in several of the ancient fathers relative to it4 ,we learn from ,ambrose1 that persons at the time of their baptism1 declared their belief in the three persons of the ,holy ,trinity1 and that they were dipped in the water three times4 ,in his ,treatise upon the ,sacraments he says1 8,thou wast asked at thy baptism1 ,dost thou believe in ,god the ,father ,almighty8 and thou didst reply1 ,i believe1 and thou wast dipped2 and a second time thou wast asked1 ,dost thou believe in ,jesus ,christ the ,lord8 thou didst answer again1 ,i believe1 and thou wast dipped2 a third time the question was repeated1 ,dost thou believe in the ,holy ,ghost8 and the answer was1 ,i believe1 then thou wast dipped a third time40 ,it is to be noticed1 that the belief1 here expressed separately1 in the three persons of the ,trinity1 is precisely the same in all4 ,tertullian1 ,basil1 and ,jerom1 all mention this practice of trine immersion as ancient2 and ,jerom says1 8,we are thrice dipped in the water1 that the mystery of the ,trinity may appear to be but one4 ,we are not baptized in the names of ,father1 ,son1 and ,holy ,ghost1 but in one name1 which is ,god's2 and1 therefore1 though we be thrice put under water to represent the mystery of the ,trinity1 yet it is reputed but one baptism40 ,thus the mysterious union of the ,father1 the ,son1 and the ,holy ,ghost1 as one ,god1 was1 in the opinion of the purer ages of the ,christian church1 clearly expressed in this form of baptism4 ,by it the primitive ,christians understood the ,father's gracious acceptance of the atonement offered by the ,messiah2 the peculiar protection of the ,son1 our great ,high ,priest and ,intercessor2 and the readiness of the ,holy ,ghost to sanctify1 to assist1 and to comfort all the obedient followers of ,christ1 confirmed by the visible gift of tongues1 of prophecy1 and divers other gifts to the first disciples4 ,and as their great ,master's instructions evidently distinguished these persons from each other1 without any difference in their authority or power1 all standing forth as equally dispensing the benefits of ,christianity1 as equally the objects of the faith required in converts upon admission into the church1 they clearly understood that the ,father1 the ,son1 and the ,holy ,ghost1 were likewise equally the objects of their grateful worship3 this fully appears from their prayers1 doxologies1 hymns1 and creeds1 which are still extant4 ,the second passage to be produced in support of the doctrine now under consideration1 is1 the doxology at the conclusion of ,st4 ,paul's ,second ,epistle to the ,corinthians1 8,the grace of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 the love of ,god1 and the fellowship of the ,holy ,ghost1 be with you40 ,the manner in which ,christ and the ,holy ,ghost are here mentioned1 implies that they are persons1 for none but persons can confer grace or fellowship2 and these three great blessings of grace1 love1 and fellowship1 being respectively prayed for by the inspired apostle from ,jesus ,christ1 ,god the ,father1 and the ,holy ,ghost1 without any intimation of disparity1 we conclude that these three persons are equal and ,divine4 ,this solemn benediction may therefore be considered as another proof of the ,trinity1 since it acknowledges the divinity of ,jesus ,christ and of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,the third passage is the following salutation or benediction in the beginning of the ,revelation of ,st4 ,john3 8,grace and peace from ,him which is1 and which was1 and which is to come2 and from the seven spirits which are before his throne1 and from ,jesus ,christ40 ,here the ,father is described by a periphrasis taken from his attribute of eternity2 and 8the seven spirits0 is a mystical expression for the ,holy ,ghost1 used upon this occasion either because the salutation is addressed to seven churches1 every one of which had partaken of the ,spirit1 or because seven was a sacred number among the ,jews1 denoting both variety and perfection1 and in this case alluding to the various gifts1 administrations1 and operations of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,since grace and peace are prayed for from these three persons jointly and without discrimination1 we infer an equality in their power to dispense those blessings2 and we farther conclude that these three persons together constitute the ,supreme ,being1 who is alone the object of prayer1 and is alone the ,giver of every good and of every perfect gift4 ,it might be right to remark1 that the seven spirits cannot mean angels1 since prayers are never in ,scripture addressed to angels1 nor are blessings ever pronounced in their name4 ,it is unnecessary to quote any of the numerous passages in which the ,father is singly called ,god1 as some of them must be recollected by every one1 and the divinity of the ,father is not called in question by any sect of ,christians2 and those passages which prove the divinity of the ,son and of the ,holy ,ghost separately1 will be more properly considered under those heads4 ,in the mean time we may observe1 that if it shall appear from ,scripture1 that ,christ is ,god1 and the ,holy ,ghost is ,god1 it will follow1 since we are assured that there is but one ,god1 that the three persons1 the ,father1 the ,son1 and the ,holy ,ghost1 by a mysterious union1 constitute the one ,god1 or1 as it is expressed in the first article of the church of ,england3 8,there is a ,trinity in ,unity2 and in the unity of this ,godhead there be three ,persons of one substance1 power1 and eternity1 the ,father1 the ,son1 and the ,holy ,ghost40 ,the word ,trinity does not occur in ,scripture1 nor do we find it in any of the early confessions of faith2 but this is no argument against the doctrine itself1 since we learn from the fathers of the first three centuries1 that the divinity of the ,son and of the ,holy ,ghost was1 from the days of the ,apostles1 acknowledged by the catholic church1 and that those who maintained a contrary opinion were considered as heretics2 and as every one knows that neither the divinity of the ,father1 nor the unity of the ,godhead1 was ever called in question at any period1 it follows that the doctrine of the ,trinity in ,unity has been in substance1 in all its constituent parts1 always known among ,christians4 ,in the fourth century it became the subject of eager and general controversy2 and it was not till then that this doctrine was particularly discussed4 ,while there was no denial or dispute1 proof and defence were unnecessary3 ,nunquid enim perfect de ,trinitate tractatum est1 antequam oblatrarent ,ariani8 ,but this doctrine is positively mentioned as being admitted among catholic ,christians1 by writers who lived long before that age of controversy4 ,justin ,martyr1 in refuting the charge of atheism urged against ,christians1 because they did not believe in the gods of the ,heathen1 expressly says1 8,we worship and adore the ,father1 and the ,son who came from him and taught us these things1 and the prophetic ,spirit20 and soon after1 in the same apology1 he undertakes to show the reasonableness of the honour paid by ,christians to the ,father in the first place1 to the ,son in the second1 and to the ,holy ,ghost in the third2 and says1 that their assigning the second place to a crucified man1 was1 by unbelievers1 denominated madness1 because they were ignorant of the mystery1 which he then proceeds to explain4 ,athenagoras1 in replying to the same charge of atheism urged against ,christians1 because they refused to worship the false gods of the ,heathen1 says1 8,who would not wonder1 when he knows that we1 who call upon ,god the ,father1 and ,god the ,son1 and ,god the ,holy ,spirit1 showing their power in the unity1 and their distinction in order1 should be called atheists80 ,clement of ,alexandria not only mentions three divine persons1 but invokes them as one only ,god4 ,praxeas1 ,sabellius1 and other ,unitarians1 accused the orthodox ,christians of tritheism1 which is of itself a clear proof that the orthodox worshipped the ,father1 the ,son1 and the ,holy ,ghost2 and though in reality they considered these three persons as constituting the one true ,god1 it is obvious that their enemies might easily represent that worship as an acknowledgment of three ,gods4 ,tertullian1 in writing against ,praxeas1 maintains1 that a ,trinity rationally conceived is consistent with truth1 and that unity irrationally conceived forms heresy4 ,he had before said1 in speaking of the ,father1 ,son1 and ,holy ,ghost1 that 8there are three of one substance1 and of one condition1 and of one power1 because there is one ,god30 and he afterward adds1 8,the connection of the ,father in the ,son1 and of the ,son in the ,comforter1 makes three united together1 the one with the other2 which three are one thing1 not one person2 as it is said1 ,i and the ,father are one thing1 with regard to the unity of substance1 not to the singularity of number30 and he also expressly says1 8,the ,father is ,god1 and the ,son is ,god1 and the ,holy ,ghost is ,god20 and again1 8,the ,father1 the ,son1 and the ,holy ,ghost1 believed to be three1 constitute one ,god40 ,and in another part of his works he says1 8,there is a ,trinity of one ,divinity1 the ,father1 and the ,son1 and the ,holy ,ghost40 ,and ,tertullian not only maintains these doctrines1 but asserts that they were prior to any heresy1 and had1 indeed1 been the faith of ,christians from the first promulgation of the ,gospel4 ,to these writers of the second century1 we may add ,origen and ,cyprian in the third2 the former of whom mentions baptism 7alluding to its appointed form7 as 8the source and fountain of graces to him who dedicates himself to the divinity of the adorable ,trinity40 ,and the latter1 after reciting the same form of baptism1 says that 8by it ,christ delivered the doctrine of the ,trinity1 unto which mystery or sacrament the nations were to be baptized40 ,it would be easy to multiply quotations upon this subject2 but these are amply sufficient to show the opinions of the early fathers1 and to refute the assertion that the doctrine of the ,trinity was an invention of the fourth century4 ,to these positive testimonies may be subjoined a negative argument3 those who acknowledged the divinity of ,christ and of the ,holy ,ghost1 are never called heretics by any writer of the first three centuries2 and this circumstance is surely a strong proof that the doctrine of the ,trinity was the doctrine of the primitive church2 more especially1 since the names of those who first denied the divinity of ,christ and of the ,holy ,ghost1 are transmitted to us as of persons who dissented from the common faith of ,christians4 ,but while we contend that the doctrine of the ,trinity in ,unity is founded in ,scripture1 and supported by the authority of the early ,christians1 we must acknowledge that it is not given to man to understand in what manner the three persons are united1 or how1 separately and jointly1 they are ,god4 ,it would1 perhaps1 have been well1 if divines1 in treating this awful and mysterious subject1 had confined themselves to the expressions of ,scripture2 for the moment we begin to explain it beyond the written word of ,god1 we plunge ourselves into inextricable difficulties4 ,and how can it be otherwise8 ,is it to be expected that our finite understandings should be competent to the full comprehension of the nature and properties of an infinite ,being8 8,can we find out the ,almighty to perfection10 ,job xi1 #g2 or penetrate into the essence of the ,most ,high8 8,god is a ,spirit10 ,john iv1 #bd1 and our gross conceptions are but ill-adapted to the contemplation of a pure and spiritual ,being4 ,we know not the essence of our own mind1 nor the precise distinction of its several faculties2 and why then should we hope to comprehend the personal characters which exist in the ,godhead8 8,if ,i tell you earthly things1 and you understand them not1 how shall ye understand if ,i tell you heavenly things80 ,when we attempt to investigate the nature of the ,deity1 whose existence is commensurate with eternity1 by whose power the universe was created1 and by whose wisdom it is governed2 whose presence fills all space1 and whose knowledge extends to the thoughts of every man in every age1 and to the events of all places1 past1 present1 and to come1 the mind is quickly lost in the vastness of these ideas1 and1 unable to find any sure guide to direct its progress1 it becomes1 at every step1 more bewildered and entangled in the endless mazes of metaphysical abstraction4 8,god is a ,god that hideth himself40 8,we cannot by searching find out ,god40 8,behold1 ,god is great1 and we know him not10 ,job xxiii1 #i2 xi1 #g2 xxxvi1 #bf4 8,such knowledge is too wonderful and excellent for us2 it is high2 we cannot attain unto it10 ,psalm cxxxix1 #f4 ,it is for us1 simply and in that docile spirit which becomes us1 to receive the testimony of ,god as to himself1 and to fix ourselves upon that firmest of all foundations1 and most rational of all evidence1 8,thus saith the ,lord40 ,,triumphs1 ,,military4 ,the ,hebrews1 under the direction of inspired prophets1 celebrated their victories by triumphal processions1 the women and children dancing1 and playing upon musical instruments1 and singing hymns and songs of triumph to the living and true ,god4 ,the song of ,moses at the ,red ,sea1 which was sung by ,miriam and the women of ,israel to the dulcet beat of the timbrel1 is a majestic example of the triumphal hymns of the ancient ,hebrews4 ,the song of ,deborah and ,barak1 after the decisive battle in which ,sisera lost his life1 and ,jabin his dominion over the tribes of ,israel1 is a production of the same sort1 in which the spirit of genuine heroism and of true religion are admirably combined4 ,but the song which the women of ,israel chanted when they went out to meet ,saul and his victorious army1 after the death of ,goliath1 and the discomfiture of the ,philistines1 possesses somewhat of a different character1 turning chiefly on the valorous exploits of ,saul and the youthful champion of ,israel3 8,and it came to pass1 as they came1 when ,david was returned from the slaughter of the ,philistine1 that the women came out of all the cities of ,israel1 singing and dancing1 to meet ,king ,saul with tabrets1 with joy1 and with instruments of music3 and the women answered one another as they played1 and said1 ,saul hath slain his thousands1 and ,david his ten thousands10 #a ,sam4 xviii1 #f1 #g4 ,but the most remarkable festivity1 perhaps1 on the records of history1 was celebrated by ,jehoshaphat1 the king of ,judah1 in a succeeding age4 ,when that religious prince led forth his army to battle against a powerful confederacy of his neighbours1 he appointed a band of sacred music to march in front1 praising the beauty of holiness as they went before the army1 8and to say1 ,praise the ,lord1 for his mercy endureth for ever40 ,after the discomfiture of their enemies1 he assembled his army in the valley of ,beracha1 near the scene of victory1 where they resumed the anthem of religious praise3 8,then they returned1 every man of ,judah and ,jerusalem1 and ,jehoshaphat in the fore front of them1 to go again to ,jerusalem with joy2 for the ,lord had made them to rejoice over their enemies4 ,and they came to ,jerusalem with psalteries1 and harps1 and trumpets1 unto the house of the ,lord10 #b ,chron4 xx1 #ba1 #bg4 ,instead of celebrating his own heroism1 or the valour of his troops1 on this memorable occasion1 that excellent prince sung with his whole army the praises of the ,lord of hosts1 who disposes of the victory according to his pleasure4 ,this conduct was becoming the descendant and successor of ,david1 the man according to ,god's own heart1 and a religious people1 the peculiar inheritance of ,jehovah4 ,the ,roman conquerors used to carry branches of palm in their hands when they went in triumph to the capitol2 and sometimes wore the toga palmata1 a garment with the figures of palm trees upon it1 which were interwoven in the fabric4 ,in the same triumphant attitude1 the ,apostle ,john beheld in vision those who had overcome by the blood of the lamb1 standing 8before the throne1 clothed with white robes1 and palms in their hands10 ,rev4 vii1 #i4 ,the highest military honour which could be obtained in the ,roman state1 was a triumph1 or solemn procession1 in which a victorious general and his army advanced through the city to the capitol4 ,he set out from the ,campus ,martius1 and proceeded along the ,via ,triumphalis1 and from thence through the most public places of the city4 ,the streets were strewed with flowers1 and the altars smoked with incense4 ,first went a numerous band of music1 singing and playing triumphal songs2 next were led the oxen to be sacrificed1 having their horns gilt1 and their heads adorned with fillets and garlands2 then1 in carriages1 were brought the spoils taken from the enemy2 also golden crowns sent by the allied and tributary states4 ,the titles of the vanquished nations were inscribed on wooden frames2 and images or representations of the conquered countries and cities were exhibited4 ,the captive leaders followed in chains1 with their children and attendants2 after the captives came the lictors1 having their faces wreathed with laurel1 followed by a great company of musicians and dancers1 dressed like satyrs1 and wearing crowns of gold2 in the midst of whom was a pantomime1 clothed in a female garb1 whose business it was1 with his looks and gestures1 to insult the vanquished2 a long train of persons followed1 carrying perfumes2 after them came the general1 dressed in purple1 embroidered with gold1 with a crown of laurel on his head1 a branch of laurel in his right hand1 and in his left an ivory sceptre1 with an eagle on the top1 his face painted with vermilion1 and a golden ball hanging from his neck on his breast2 he stood upright in a gilded chariot1 adorned with ivory1 and drawn by four white horses1 attended by his relations1 and a great crowd of citizens1 all in white4 ,his children rode in the chariot along with him2 his lieutenants and military tribunes1 commonly by his side4 ,after the general followed the consuls and senators1 on foot2 and the whole procession was closed by the victorious army drawn up in order1 crowned with laurel1 and decorated with the gifts which they had received for their valour1 singing their own and their general's praises4 ,the triumphal procession was not confined to the ,romans2 the ,greeks had a similar custom2 for the conquerors used to make a procession through the middle of their city1 crowned with garlands1 repeating hymns and songs1 and brandishing their spears2 the captives followed in chains1 and all their spoils were exposed to public view4 ,the great ,apostle of the ,gentiles alludes to these splendid triumphal scenes in his ,epistle to the ,ephesians1 where he mentions the glorious ascension of his ,redeemer into heaven3 8,when he ascended up on high1 he led captivity captive1 and gave gifts unto men10 ,eph4 iv1 #h4 ,these words are a quotation from the sixty-eighth ,psalm1 where ,david in spirit describes the ascension of ,messiah in very glowing colours3 8,the chariots of ,god are twenty thousand1 even thousands of angels3 the ,lord is among them1 as in ,sinai1 in the holy place4 ,thou hast ascended on high1 thou hast led captivity captive10 or an immense number of captives2 8thou hast received gifts for men2 yea1 for the rebellious also2 that the ,lord ,god might dwell among them4 ,blessed be the ,lord1 who daily loadeth us with his benefits1 even the ,god of our salvation4 ,selah10 ,psalm lxviii1 #ag-ai4 ,knowing the deep impression which such an allusion is calculated to make on the mind of a people familiarly acquainted with triumphal scenes1 the ,apostle returns to it in his ,epistle to the ,colossians1 which was written about the same time3 8,having spoiled principalities and powers1 he made a show of them openly1 triumphing over them in it10 ,col4 ii1 #ae4 ,after obtaining a complete victory over all his enemies1 he ascended in splendour and triumph into his ,father's presence on the clouds of heaven1 the chariots of the ,most ,high1 thousands of holy angels attending in his train2 he led the devil and all his angels1 together with sin1 the world1 and death1 as his spoils of war1 and captives in chains1 and exposed them to open contempt and shame1 in the view of all his angelic attendants1 triumphing like a glorious conqueror over them1 in virtue of his cross1 upon which he made complete satisfaction for sin1 and by his own strength1 without the assistance of any creature1 destroyed him that had the power of death1 that is1 the devil4 ,and as mighty princes were accustomed to scatter largesses among the people1 and reward their companions in arms with a liberal hand1 when1 laden with the spoils of vanquished nations1 they returned in triumph to their capital2 so the ,conqueror of death and hell1 when he ascended far above all heavens1 and sat down in the midst of the throne1 shed forth blessings of his grace and ,holy ,spirit1 upon people of every tongue and of every nation4 ,the officers and soldiers1 also1 were rewarded according to their merit4 ,among the ,romans1 the noblest reward which a soldier could receive1 was the crown1 made of leaves4 ,alluding to this high distinction1 the ,apostle says to his son ,timothy1 8,i have fought a good fight2 henceforth there is laid up for me a crown of righteousness1 which the ,lord1 the righteous ,judge1 will give me at that day2 and not to me only1 but unto all them also that love his appearing10 #b ,tim4 iv1 #g1 #h4 ,and lest any one should imagine that the ,christian's crown is perishable in its nature1 and soon fades away1 like a crown of oak leaves1 the ,apostle ,peter assures the faithful soldier of ,christ that his crown is infinitely more valuable and lasting3 8,ye shall receive a crown of glory that fadeth not away10 #a ,peter v1 #d4 ,and this account is confirmed by ,st4 ,james3 8,blessed is the man that endureth temptation2 for when he is tried1 he shall receive the crown of life1 which the ,lord hath promised to them that love him10 ,james i1 #ab4 ,the military crowns were conferred by the general in presence of his army2 and such as received them1 after a public eulogium on their valour1 were placed next his person4 ,the ,christian also receives his unmerited reward from the hand of the ,captain of his salvation3 8,be thou faithful unto death1 and ,i will give thee a crown of life10 ,rev4 ii1 #aj4 ,and1 like the brave veteran of ancient times1 he is promoted to a place near his ,lord3 8,to him that overcometh1 will ,i grant to sit with me in my throne1 even as ,i also overcame1 and am set down with my ,father on his throne10 ,rev4 iii1 #ba4 ,,troas1 a city of ,phrygia1 or of ,mysia1 upon the ,hellespont1 having the old city of ,troy to the north1 and that of ,assos to the south4 ,sometimes the name of ,troas is put for the province1 wherein the city of ,troy stood4 ,st4 ,paul was at ,troas1 when he had the vision of the ,macedonian inviting him to come and preach in that kingdom1 ,acts xvi1 #h4 ,beside this1 the ,apostle was several times at ,troas2 but we know nothing particular of his transactions there1 ,acts xx1 #e1 #f2 #b ,cor4 ii1 #ad2 #b ,tim4 iv1 #ac4 ,,trophimus1 a disciple of ,st4 ,paul1 and an ,ephesian by birth4 ,he came from ,ephesus to ,corinth with the ,apostle1 and kept him company in his whole journey from ,corinth to ,jerusalem1 ,a4 ,d4 #eh1 ,acts xx1 #d4 ,when ,st4 ,paul was in the temple there1 the ,jews laid hold of him1 crying out1 8,men of ,israel1 help2 this is the man that teacheth all men every where against the people1 and the law1 and this place2 and farther1 brought ,greeks also into the temple1 and hath polluted this holy place10 ,acts xxi1 #bh1 #bi4 ,and this they said1 because certain ,jews of ,ephesus having seen ,trophimus with ,st4 ,paul in the city1 whom they looked upon as a ,gentile1 imagined that ,st4 ,paul had introduced him into the temple4 ,the whole city was immediately in an uproar1 and ,st4 ,paul was secured4 ,trophimus afterward accompanied ,st4 ,paul2 for that ,apostle writes to ,timothy1 that he had left ,trophimus sick at ,miletus1 #b ,tim4 iv1 #bj4 ,,trumpet4 ,the ,lord commanded ,moses to make two trumpets of beaten silver1 to be employed in calling the people together when they were to decamp1 ,num4 x1 #b1 #c1 c4 ,they also chiefly made use of these trumpets1 to proclaim the beginning of the civil year1 the beginning of the ,sabbatical year1 and the beginning of the jubilee1 ,lev4 xxv1 #i1 #aj4 ,josephus says1 that these trumpets were near a cubit long2 and had a tube1 or pipe1 of the thickness of a common flute4 ,their mouths were only wide enough to be blown into1 and their ends were like those of a modern trumpet4 ,at first there were but two in the camp1 but afterward a greater number were made4 ,even in the time of ,joshua there were seven of them1 ,joshua vi1 #d4 ,at the dedication of the temple of ,solomon six-score priests sounded as many trumpets1 #b ,chron4 v1 #ab4 ,beside the sacred trumpets of the temple1 the use of which was restrained to the priests only1 in war there were others1 which the generals sometimes employed for gathering their troops together4 ,for example1 ,ehud sounded the trumpet1 to assemble the ,israelites against the ,moabites1 who oppressed them1 and whose king ,eglon he had lately slain1 ,judg4 vi1 #bg4 ,gideon took a trumpet in his hand1 and gave every one of his people one1 when he assaulted the ,midianites1 ,judges vii1 #b1 #af4 ,joab sounded the trumpet1 to give the signal of retreat to his soldiers1 in the battle against those of ,abner's party1 and in that against ,absalom2 and lastly1 in the pursuit of ,sheba the son of ,bichri1 #b ,sam4 ii1 #bh2 xviii1 #af2 xx1 #bb4 ,the feast of trumpets was kept on the first day of the seventh month of the sacred year1 the first of the civil year4 ,see ,,music4 ,,truth is used1 #a4 ,in opposition to falsehood1 lies1 or deceit1 ,prov4 xii1 #ag1 c4 #b4 ,it signifies fidelity1 sincerity1 and punctuality in keeping promises2 and to truth taken in this sense is generally joined mercy or kindness1 as in ,gen4 xxiv1 #bg1 and other places of ,scripture4 #c4 ,truth is put for the true doctrine of the ,gospel1 ,galatians iii1 #a4 #d4 ,truth is put for the substance of the types and ceremonies of the law1 ,john i1 #ag4 ,,tubal1 the fifth son of ,japheth4 ,the ,scripture commonly joins together ,tubal and ,meshech1 which makes it thought that they peopled countries bordering upon each other4 ,the ,chaldee interpreters1 by ,tubal and ,meshech understand ,italy and ,asia1 or rather ,ausonia4 ,josephus accounts them to be ,iberia and ,cappadocia4 ,st4 ,jerom affirms that ,tubal represents the ,spaniards1 heretofore called ,iberians4 ,bochart is very copious in proving1 that by ,meshech and ,tubal are intended the ,muscovites and the ,tibarenians4 ,,tubal-,,cain1 or ,,thubal-,,cain1 son of ,lamech the bigamous1 and of ,zillah1 ,gen4 ix1 #bi4 ,the ,scriptures tell us1 that he was the father and inventor1 or master1 of the art of forging and managing iron1 and of making all kinds of iron-work4 ,there is great reason to believe that this was the ,vulcan of the ,heathens4 ,,turtle1 1 1 ,gen4 xv1 #i2 ,lev4 i1 #ad2 v1 #g1 #aa2 xii1 #f1 #h2 xiv1 #bb1 #cj2 xv1 #ad1 #bi2 ,num4 vi1 #aj2 ,psalm lxxiv1 #ai2 ,cant4 ii1 #ab2 ,jer4 viii1 #g2 1 ,luke ii1 #bd4 ,we have the authority of the ,septuagint1 the ,targum1 and of all the ancient interpreters1 for understanding this of the turtle4 ,indeed1 it is one of those evident instances in which the name of the bird is by onomatopia formed from its note or cry4 ,the turtle is mentioned among migratory birds by ,jeremiah viii1 #g1 and in this sense differs from the rest of its family1 which are all stationary4 ,the fact to which the prophet alludes is attested by ,aristotle in these words3 8,the pigeon and the dove are always present1 but the turtle only in summer3 that bird is not seen in winter40 ,and in another part of his work1 he asserts that the dove remains1 while the turtle migrates4 ,varro1 and other ancient writers1 make the like statement4 ,thus ,solomon1 ,cant4 ii1 #ab1 mentions the return of this bird as one of the indications of spring3 8,the voice of the turtle is heard in the land40 ,see ,,dove4 ,,tychicus1 a disciple of ,st4 ,paul1 whom the ,apostle often employed to carry his letters to the several churches4 ,he was of the province of ,asia1 and accompanied ,st4 ,paul1 when1 in ,a4 ,d4 #eh1 he made his journey from ,corinth to ,jerusalem1 ,acts xx1 #d4 ,it was he that carried the epistle to the ,colossians1 that to the ,ephesians1 and the first to ,timothy4 ,st4 ,paul did not send him merely to carry his letters1 but also to learn the state of the churches1 and to bring him an account of them4 ,wherefore he calls him his dear brother1 a faithful minister of the ,lord1 and his companion in the service of ,god1 ,eph4 vi1 #ba1 #bb2 ,col4 iv1 #g1 #h4 ,he had thoughts also of sending him into ,crete1 to preside over that church in the absence of ,titus1 iii1 #ab4 ,,type4 ,this word is not frequently used in ,scripture2 but what it signifies is supposed to be very frequently implied4 ,we usually consider a type as an example1 pattern1 or general similitude to a person1 event1 or thing which is to come3 and in this it differs from a representation1 memorial1 or commemoration of an event1 c1 which is past4 ,the ,spirit of ,god has adopted a variety of means to indicate his perfect foreknowledge of all events1 and his power to control them4 ,this is sometimes declared by express verbal prophecy2 sometimes by specific actions performed by divine command2 and sometimes by those peculiar events1 in the lives of individuals1 and the history or religious observances of the ,israelites1 which were caused to bear a designed reference to some parts of the ,gospel history4 ,the main point1 says ,chevallier1 in an inquiry into these historical types1 is to establish the fact of a preconcerted connection between the two series of events4 ,no similarity1 in itself1 is sufficient to prove such a correspondence4 ,even those recorded in ,scripture are recorded under very different circumstances4 ,if the first event be declared to be typical1 at the time when it occurs1 and the second correspond with the prediction so delivered1 there can be no doubt that the correspondence was designed4 ,if1 before the occurrence of the second event1 there be delivered a distinct prophecy1 that it will happen1 and will correspond with some previous event2 the fulfilment of the prophecy furnishes an intrinsic proof1 that the person who gave it spake by divine inspiration4 ,it may not1 from this fact1 follow1 that the two events were connected by a design formed before either of them occurred3 but it certainly does follow1 that the second event1 in some measure1 had respect to the first2 and that whatever degree of connection was1 by such a prophet1 assumed to exist1 did really exist4 ,if1 again1 no specific declaration be made1 respecting the typical character of any event or person1 until after the second event has occurred1 which is then declared to have been prefigured2 the fact of preconcerted connection will rest solely upon the authority of the person who advances the assertion4 ,but1 if we know1 from other sources1 that his words are the words of truth1 our only inquiry will be1 if he either distinctly asserts1 or plainly infers1 the existence of a designed correspondence4 ,the fact1 then1 of a preconcerted connection between two series of events1 is capable of being established in three ways3 and the historical types may be accordingly arranged in three principal divisions4 ,some of them afford intrinsic evidence1 that the ,scriptures1 which record them1 are given by inspiration of ,god2 the others can be proved to exist only by assuming that fact3 but all1 when once established1 display the astonishing power and wisdom of ,god2 and the importance of that scheme of redemption1 which was ushered into the world with such magnificent preparations4 ,in contemplating this wonderful system1 we discern one great intention interwoven1 not only into the verbal prophecies and extraordinary events of the history of the ,israelites1 but into the ordinary transactions of the lives of selected individuals1 even from the creation of the world4 ,adam was 8the figure of him that was to come10 ,romans v1 #ad4 ,melchisedec was 8made like unto the ,son of ,god10 ,heb4 vii1 #c4 ,abraham1 in the course of events in which he was engaged by the especial command of ,heaven1 was enabled to see ,christ's day1 ,john viii1 #ef2 and ,isaac was received from the dead 8in a figure10 ,heb4 xi1 #ai4 ,at a later period1 the paschal lamb was ordained to be sacrificed1 not only as a memorial of the immediate deliverance1 which it was instituted to procure and to commemorate1 but also as a continued memorial of that which was to be 8fulfilled in the kingdom of ,god10 ,luke xxii1 #af4 ,moses was raised up to deliver the people of ,israel2 to be to them a lawgiver1 a prophet1 a priest2 and to possess the regal authority1 if not the title of king4 ,but1 during the early period of his life1 he was himself taught1 that one great prophet should be raised up like unto him3 before his death he delivered the same prophecy to the people3 and1 after that event1 the ,israelites continually looked for that faithful prophet1 who should return answer to their inquiries1 #a ,macc4 iv1 #df2 xiv1 #da4 ,their prophets all pointed to some greater lawgiver1 who should introduce a new law into their hearts1 and inscribe them upon their minds1 ,jer4 xxxi1 #cc4 ,the whole people of ,israel were also made1 in some instances1 designedly representative of ,christ3 and the events1 which occurred in their national history1 distinctly referred to him4 ,during their wanderings in the wilderness1 ,god left not himself without witness1 which should bear reference to the great scheme of the ,gospel4 ,they ate spiritual meat4 ,it was an emblem of the true bread of life1 which came down from heaven1 ,john vi1 #cb4 8,they drank of that spiritual ,rock that followed them3 and that ,rock was ,christ10 #a ,cor4 x1 #d4 ,they were destroyed of serpents2 and a brazen serpent was lifted up on a pole1 that whosoever looked might live4 ,it was a sensible figure of the ,son of man1 who was1 in like manner to be lifted up2 8that whosoever believeth in him should not perish1 but have eternal life10 ,john iii1 #ae4 ,beside1 their religious ordinances were only 8a figure for the time then present10 ,heb4 ix1 #i4 ,their tabernacle was made after the pattern of heavenly things1 ,heb4 viii1 #e2 ,exod4 xxv1 #i1 #dj2 and was intended to prefigure the 8greater and more perfect tabernacle1 not made with hands10 ,heb4 ix1 #aa4 ,the high priest was a living representative of the great 8,high ,priest of our profession10 ,heb4 iii1 #a3 and the ,levitical sacrifices plainly had respect to the one great sacrifice for sins4 ,joshua the son of ,nun represented ,jesus in name3 and by his earthly conquests in some measure prefigured the heavenly triumphs of his ,lord4 ,in a subsequent period1 ,david was no indistinct type of 8the ,messiah the ,prince10 ,dan4 ix1 #be1 for a long time humbled1 and at length triumphant over his enemies4 ,and the peaceable dominion of ,solomon prefigured that eternal rest and peace1 which remaineth to the people of ,god4 ,in a still later age1 the miraculous preservation of the ,prophet ,jonah displayed a sign1 which was fulfilled in the resurrection of ,christ4 ,and when the temple was rebuilt1 ,joshua1 the son of ,josedech1 the high priest1 and his fellows1 were set forth as 8men of sign10 representatives of the ,branch1 which should1 in the fulness of time1 be raised up to the stem of ,jesse1 ,zech4 iii1 #h2 ,isa4 xi1 #a4 ,the illustration1 then1 to be derived from the historical types of the ,old ,testament1 is found diffused over the whole period1 which extends from the creation of the world1 to the time when vision and prophecy were sealed4 ,and all the light1 which emanates from so many various points1 is concentrated in the person of ,christ4 ,,tyrannus4 ,it is said in ,acts xix1 #i1 that ,st4 ,paul being at ,ephesus1 and seeing that the ,jews to whom he preached1 instead of being converted1 were rather more hardened and obstinate1 he withdrew from their society1 nor went to preach in their synagogue1 but taught every day in the school of one ,tyrannus4 ,it is inquired1 ,who was this ,tyrannus8 ,some think him to have been a prince or great lord1 who accommodated the ,apostle with his house1 in which to receive and instruct his disciples4 ,but the generality conclude1 that ,tyrannus was a converted ,gentile1 a friend of ,st4 ,paul1 to whom he withdrew4 ,,tyre1 or ,,tyrus1 was a famous city of ,phenicia4 ,its ,hebrew name is or 1 which signifies a rock4 ,the city of ,tyre was allotted to the tribe of ,asher1 ,joshua xix1 #bi1 with the other maritime cities of the same coast2 but it does not appear that the ,asherites ever drove out the ,canaanites4 ,isaiah1 xxiii1 #ab1 calls ,tyre the daughter of ,sidon1 that is1 a colony from it4 ,homer never speaks of ,tyre1 but only of ,sidon4 ,josephus says1 that ,tyre was built not above two hundred and forty years before the temple of ,solomon2 which would be in ,a4 ,m4 #bgfj1 two hundred years after ,joshua4 ,tyre was twofold1 insular and continental4 ,insular ,tyre was certainly the most ancient2 for this it was which was noticed by ,joshua3 the continental city1 however1 as being more commodiously situated1 first grew into consideration1 and assumed the name of ,paltyrus1 or ,old ,tyre4 ,want of sufficient attention to this distinction1 has embarrassed both the ,tyrian chronology and geography4 ,insular ,tyre was confined to a small rocky island1 eight hundred paces long1 and four hundred broad1 and could never exceed two miles in circumference4 ,but ,tyre1 on the opposite coast1 about half a mile from the sea1 was a city of vast extent1 since many centuries after its demolition by ,nebuchadnezzar1 the scattered rains measured nineteen miles round1 as we learn from ,pliny and ,strabo4 ,of these1 the most curious and surprising are1 the cisterns of ,roselayne1 designed to supply the city with water2 of which there are three still entire2 about one or two furlongs from the sea1 so well described by ,maundrell1 for their curious construction and solid masonry4 ,old ,tyre withstood the mighty ,assyrian power1 having been besieged in vain1 by ,shalmaneser1 for five years2 although he cut off their supplies of water from the cisterns2 which they remedied by digging wells within the city4 ,it afterward held out thirteen years against ,nebuchadnezzar1 king of ,babylon1 and was at length taken2 but not until the ,tyrians had removed their effects to the insular town1 and left nothing but the bare walls to the victor1 which he demolished4 ,what completed the destruction of the city was1 that ,alexander afterward made use of these materials to build a prodigious causeway1 or isthmus1 above half a mile long1 to the insular city1 which revived1 as the phnix1 from the ashes of the old1 and grew to great power and opulence1 as a maritime state2 and which he stormed after a most obstinate siege of five months4 ,pococke observes1 that 8there are no signs of the ancient city2 and as it is a sandy shore1 the face of every thing is altered1 and the great aqueduct is in many parts almost buried in the sand40 ,thus has been fulfilled the prophecy of ,ezekiel3 8,thou shalt be built no more3 though thou be sought for1 yet shalt thou never be found again10 ,ezek4 xxvi1 #ba4 ,the fate of insular ,tyre has been no less remarkable4 ,when ,alexander stormed the city1 he set fire to it4 ,this circumstance was foretold4 8,tyre did build herself a strong hold1 and heaped up silver as the dust1 and fine gold as the mire of the streets4 ,behold1 the ,lord will cast her out1 and he will smite her power in the sea1 and she shall be devoured with fire10 ,zech4 ix1 #c1 #d4 ,after this terrible calamity1 ,tyre again retrieved her losses4 ,only eighteen years after1 she had recovered such a share of her ancient commerce and opulence1 as enabled her to stand a siege of fourteen months against ,antigonus1 before he could reduce the city2 but after this1 ,tyre fell alternately under the dominion of the kings of ,syria and ,egypt1 and then of the ,romans1 until it was taken by the ,saracens1 about ,a4 ,d4 #fci1 retaken by the ,crusaders1 ,a4 ,d4 #aabd2 and at length sacked and razed by the ,mamelukes of ,egypt1 with ,sidon1 and other strong towns1 that they might no longer harbour the ,christians1 ,a4 ,d4 #abhi4 ,the final desolation of ,tyre was thus foretold3 8,i will scrape her dust from her1 and make her like the top of a rock3 it shall be a place for the spreading of nets in the midst of the sea3 for ,i have spoken it1 saith the ,lord ,god40 8,i will make thee like the top of a rock3 thou shalt be a place to spread nets upon3 thou shalt be built no more2 for ,i the ,lord have spoken it1 saith the ,lord ,god40 ,nothing can be more literally and astonishingly executed than this sentence4 ,huetius relates of one ,hadrianus ,parvillerius1 that 8when he approached the ruins of ,tyre1 and beheld the rocks stretched forth to the sea1 and the great stones scattered up and down on the shore1 made clean and smooth by the sun and waves and wind1 and useful only for the drying of fishermen's nets1 many of which happened at that time to be spread thereon1 it brought to his memory the prophecy of ,ezekiel concerning ,tyre1 that such should be its fate40 ,maundrell1 who visited the ,holy ,land1 ,a4 ,d4 #afig1 describes it thus3 8,this city1 standing in the sea upon a peninsula1 promises at a distance1 something very magnificent2 but when you come to it1 you find no similitude of that glory for which it was so renowned in ancient times1 and which the ,prophet ,ezekiel describes1 xxvi1 xxvii1 xxviii4 ,on the north side it has an old ,turkish ungarrisoned castle2 beside which1 you see nothing here but a mere ,babel of broken walls1 pillars1 vaults1 c2 there being not so much as one entire house left6 ,its present inhabitants are only a few poor wretches harbouring themselves in the vaults1 and subsisting chiefly by fishing3 who seem to be preserved in this place by ,divine ,providence1 as a visible argument how ,god has fulfilled his word concerning ,tyre1 namely1 that it should be as the top of a rock2 a place for fishers to dry their nets upon1 ,ezek4 xxvi1 #ad40 ,hasselquist1 who saw it since1 in ,a4 ,d4 #agea1 observes as follows3 8,none of those cities which were formerly famous are so totally ruined as ,tyre1 now called ,zur2 except ,troy4 ,zur now scarcely can be called a miserable village1 though it was formerly ,tyre1 the queen of the sea4 ,here are about ten inhabitants1 ,turks and ,christians1 who live by fishing40 ,bruce1 who visited this country about eighty years after ,maundrell1 says1 that 8passing by ,tyre from curiosity1 ,i came to be a mournful witness of the truth of that prophecy1 that ,tyre1 the queen of nations1 should be a rock for fishers to dry their nets on40 ,mr4 ,buckingham1 who visited it in #ahaf1 represents it as containing about eight hundred substantial stone-built houses1 and from five to eight thousand inhabitants4 ,but ,mr4 ,jowett1 on the authority of the ,greek archbishop1 reduces this number to less than four thousand2 namely1 one thousand two hundred ,greek ,catholics1 one hundred ,maronites1 one hundred ,greeks1 one thousand ,montonalis1 and one hundred ,turks4 ,mr4 ,jowett observed numerous and beautiful columns stretched along the beach1 or standing in fragments half buried in the sand1 that has been accumulating for ages3 8the broken aqueduct1 and the ruins which appear in its neighbourhood1 exist as an affecting monument of the fragile and transitory nature of earthly grandeur40 ,mr4 ,joliffe states1 that there now exist scarcely any traces of this once powerful city4 8,some miserable cabins1 ranged in irregular lines1 dignified with the name of streets1 and a few buildings of a rather better description1 occupied by the officers of government1 compose nearly the whole of the town4 ,it still makes1 indeed1 some languishing efforts at commerce1 and contrives to export annually to ,alexandria cargoes of silk and tobacco2 but the amount merits no consideration4 ,the noble dust of ,alexander1 traced by the imagination till found stopping a beer barrel1 would scarcely afford a stronger contrast of grandeur and debasement1 than ,tyre1 at the period of being besieged by that conqueror1 and the modern town of ,tsour erected on its ashes40 ,as commercial cities1 says ,mansford1 ancient ,alexandria and ,london may be considered as approaching the nearest to ,tyre4 ,but ,alexandria1 during the whole of her prosperous days1 was subject to foreign rule2 and ,london1 great as are her commerce and her wealth1 and possessing as she does almost a monopoly of what has in all ages been the most enviable and most lucrative branch of trade1 that with the east1 does not centre in herself1 as ,tyre did1 without a rival and without competition1 the trade of all nations1 and hold an absolute monopoly1 not of one1 but of every branch of commerce4 ,for the long period of a thousand years1 not a single production of the east passed to the west1 or of the west to the east1 but by the merchants of ,tyre4 ,nor for many ages were any ships found but those of ,tyre daring enough to pass the straits of the ,red ,sea on one side1 or of the ,mediterranean on the other4 ,while the vessels of other countries were groping along their coasts1 clinging to their landmarks1 and frightened at a breeze1 the ships of ,tyre were found from ,spain1 if not from ,britain1 on the west1 to the coast of ,malabar and ,sofala on the east and south4 ,no wonder that her merchants were princes1 and that they lived in a style of magnificence unknown in any other country in the same age2 or that she should be considered a desirable prey by the conquerors of the times4 ,but enterprise and wealth did not alone complete the character of the ,tyrians2 they had an undoubted claim to valour of no common order4 ,their city1 which possessed scarcely any territory beyond their own walls1 maintained a siege of thirteen years 7the longest in history except that of ,ashdod7 against the whole power of ,babylon2 and another of seven months against ,alexander1 whose successes had afforded no instance of similar delay4 ,and in neither case had the captors much to boast of1 as the ,tyrians had shipped off their most valuable property to ,carthage2 and in the former particularly1 as has been already related1 they so effectually secured or sacrificed the whole1 that the soldiers of ,nebuchadnezzar found nothing to reward them for their length of labour1 during which1 by excessive toil and heat1 8their heads were made bald1 and their very shoulders peeled10 but vacant streets1 and houses already sacked4 ,carthage1 ,utica1 and ,cadiz1 are celebrated monuments of the power of ,tyre on the ,mediterranean1 and in the west4 ,she extended her navigation even into the ocean1 and carried her commerce beyond ,england to the north1 and the ,canaries to the south4 ,her connections with the east1 though less known1 were not less considerable2 the islands of ,tyrus and ,aradus1 7the modern ,barhain17 in the ,persian ,gulf4 ,the cities of ,faran and ,phnicum ,oppidum1 on the ,red ,sea1 in ruins even in the time of the ,greeks1 prove that the ,tyrians had long frequented the coast of ,arabia and the ,indian ,sea4 ,but1 through the vicissitudes of time1 ,tyre1 reduced to a miserable village1 has no other trade than the exportation of a few sacks of corn and raw cotton1 nor any merchant1 says ,volney1 but a single ,greek factor in the service of the ,french ,saide1 7,sidon17 who scarcely makes sufficient profit to maintain his family4 ,in allusion to ,tyre in her better days1 ,forbes observes1 when speaking of ,surat1 8,the bazars1 filled with costly merchandise2 picturesque and interesting groups of natives on elephants1 camels1 horses1 and mules2 strangers from all parts of the globe1 in their respective costume2 vessels building on the stocks1 others navigating the river2 together with ,turks1 ,persians1 and ,armenians1 on ,arabian chargers2 ,european ladies in splendid carriages1 the ,asiatic females in hackeries drawn by oxen2 and the motley appearance of the ,english and nabob's troops on the fortifications1 remind us of the following description of ,tyre1 8,o thou that art situate at the entry of the sea1 which art a merchant of the people for many isles10 c1 ,ezek4 xxvii1 #c4 ,this is a true picture of oriental commerce in ancient times2 and a very exact description of the port and the bazars of ,surat1 at the present day40 ,dr4 ,vincent has given the following able illustration of the trade of ,tyre as described in ,ezek4 xxvii1 which must be considered as one of the most ample and early accounts extant4 ,the learned author has rendered the ,hebrew names into others better known in the geography of more recent times3--,tyre produced from ,hermon1 and the mountains near it1 fir for planking2 and from ,libanus1 cedars for masts4 ,from ,bashan1 east of the sea of ,galilee1 oaks for oars4 ,from ,greece1 or the ,grecian isles1 ivory to adorn the benches or the waists of the galleys4 ,from ,egypt1 linen1 ornamented with different colours1 for sails1 or flags1 or ensigns4 ,from ,peloponnesus1 blue and purple cloths for awnings4 ,from ,sidon and ,aradus1 mariners2 but ,tyre itself furnished pilots and commanders4 ,from ,gebal1 or ,biblos1 on the coast between ,tripolis and ,berytus1 caulkers4 ,from ,persia and ,africa1 mercenary troops4 ,from ,aradus1 the troops that garrisoned ,tyre with the ,gamadim4 ,from ,tarshish1 or by distant voyages toward the west1 and toward the east1 great wealth1 iron1 tin1 lead1 and silver4 ,tin implies ,britain or ,spain1 or at least a voyage beyond the ,straits of ,hercules4 ,from ,greece1 and the countries bordering on ,pontus1 slaves1 and brass ware4 ,from ,armenia1 horses1 horsemen1 and mules4 ,from the ,gulf of ,persia1 and the isles within that gulf1 horns 7tusks7 of ivory1 and ebony4 ,the export to these isles was the manufacture of ,tyre4 ,from ,syria1 emeralds1 purple1 broidered work1 fine linen1 coral1 and agate4 ,the exports to ,syria were the manufactures of ,tyre in great quantities4 ,from ,judah and ,israel1 the finest wheat1 honey1 oil1 and balsam4 ,from ,damascus1 wine of ,chalybon1 7the country bordering on the modern ,aleppo17 and wool in the fleece4 ,the exports to ,damascus were costly and various manufactures4 ,from the tribe of ,dan1 situated nearest to the ,philistines1 the produce of ,arabia1 bright or wrought iron1 cassia or cinnamon1 and the calamus aramaticus4 ,in conducting the transport of these articles1 ,dan went to and fro1 that is1 formed or conducted the caravans4 ,by one interpretation1 they are said to come from ,uzal2 and ,uzal is said to be ,sana1 the capital of ,yemen1 or ,arabia ,felix4 ,from the ,gulf of ,persia1 rich cloth for the decoration of chariots or horsemen4 ,from ,arabia ,petra and ,hedjaz1 lambs1 and rams1 and goats4 ,from ,sabea and ,oman1 the best of spices4 ,from ,india1 gold1 and precious stones4 ,from ,mesopotamia1 from ,carrh1 and ,babylonia1 the ,assyrians brought all sorts of exquisite things2 that is1 fine manufacture1 blue cloth1 and broidered work1 or fabric of various colours1 in chests of cedar bound with cords1 containing rich apparel4 ,if these articles were obtained farther from the east1 may they not be the fabrics of ,india1 first brought to ,assyria by the ,gulf of ,persia1 or by caravans from ,karmania and the ,indus1 and then conveyed by the ,assyrians1 in other caravans1 to ,tyre and ,syria8 ,in this view1 the care of package1 the chests of cedar1 and the cording of the chests1 are all correspondent to the nature of such a transport4 ,from ,tarshish the ships came that rejoiced in the markets of ,tyre3 they replenished the city1 and made it glorious in the midst of the sea1 ,ezek4 xxvii1 #e-be4 ,dr4 ,vincent observes1 that from the ,tarshish last mentioned the ships returned to the ports in the ,red ,sea2 as from the nineteenth to the twenty-fourth verse every particular relates to the east1 while that referred to in the twelfth implies the west--,spain1 or beyond4 ,we have here some light thrown on the obscurity which surrounds the situation of this distant and unknown place4 ,there is1 indeed1 a clear reference to two distinct places1 or parts of the world1 denominated ,tarshish2 perhaps from those very circumstances1 their distance1 and the little that was known respecting them4 ,that one was situated westward1 and reached by a passage across the ,mediterranean1 is certain from other parts of ,scripture2 that the other was eastward1 or southward1 on the coast of ,arabia1 ,india1 or ,africa1 is equally certain4 ,see ,,tarshish1 and ,,ophir4 ,,unbelief or ,,infidelity is a want of credence in the word of ,god2 or it may be defined1 a calling in question the divine veracity1 in what ,god hath either testified1 promised1 or threatened2 and thus it is the opposite of faith1 which consists in crediting what ,god hath said1 ,john iii1 #ah1 #cc4 ,it is said that the ,jews could not enter into the promised land1 8because of their unbelief10 ,heb4 iii1 #ah1 #ai4 ,and the ,apostle1 teaching the believing ,hebrews what instruction they should deduce from that portion of the history of their forefathers1 says1 as the words literally translated would run1 8,we are evangelized as well as they were2 but the word which they heard did not profit them1 not being mixed with faith in them that heard it10 ,heb4 iv1 #b4 ,the meaning is1 ,we ,christians are favoured with the good news of the heavenly rest1 as well as ,israel in the wilderness were with the good news of the earthly rest in ,canaan2 but the word which they heard concerning that rest did not profit them1 because they did not believe it4 ,hence it appears that faith and unbelief are not confined to the spiritual truths and promises of the ,gospel of ,christ1 but respect any truth which ,god may reveal1 or any promise which he may make even concerning temporal things4 ,it is a crediting or discrediting ,god in what he says1 whatever be the subject4 ,christ could not do many mighty works in his own country1 because of their unbelief1 ,matt4 vi1 #e1 #f2 their mean opinion of him1 and contempt of his miracles1 rendered them unfit objects to have miracles wrought upon or among them4 ,the ,apostles' distrust of ,christ's promises1 of enabling them to cast out devils1 rendered them incapable of casting one out1 ,mark xvii1 #af2 and ,st4 ,peter's distrust of his ,master's power occasioned his sinking in the water1 ,matt4 xiv1 #cj1 #ca4 ,the unbelief for which the ,jews were broken off from their being a church was their denial of ,christ's ,messiahship1 their contempt and refusal of him1 and their violent persecution of his cause and members1 ,rom4 xi1 #bj4 ,adverting to the infidelity which prevailed among the educated class of ,heathens when ,christianity first appeared in the world1 ,dr4 ,neander observes3--,it was ,christianity which first presented religion under the form of objective truth1 as a system of doctrines perfectly independent of all individual conceptions of man's imagination1 and calculated to meet the moral and religious wants of man's nature1 and in that nature every where to find some point on which it might attach itself4 ,the religions of antiquity1 on the contrary1 consist of many elements of various kinds1 which1 either by the skill of the first promulgator1 or1 in the length of years1 by the impress of national peculiarities1 were moulded together into one whole4 ,by the transmission of tales1 half mythical1 and half historical1 by forms and statutes bearing the impress of religious feelings or ideas1 mingled with multifarious poems1 which showed a powerful imaginative spirit1 rugged indeed1 or1 if animated by the spirit of beauty1 at least devoid of that of holiness1--all these varied materials were interwoven so completely into all the characters1 customs1 and relations of social life1 that the religious matter could no longer be separated from the mixed mass1 nor be disentangled from the individual nature of the life and political character of each people with which it was interwoven4 ,there was no religion generally adapted to human nature1 only religions fitted to each people4 ,the ,divinity appeared here1 not as free and elevated above nature2 not as that which1 overruling nature1 might form and illuminate the nature of man2 but was lowered to the level of nature1 and made subservient to it4 ,through this principle of deifying the powers of nature1 by which every exertion of bare power1 even though immoral1 might be received among the objects of religious veneration1 the idea of holiness which beams forth from man's conscience must continually have been thrown into the back ground and overshadowed4 ,the old lawgivers were well aware how closely the maintenance of an individual state religion depends on the maintenance of the individual character of the people1 and their civil and domestic virtues4 ,they were well aware that when once this union is dissolved no power can restore it again4 ,therefore we find1 especially in ,rome1 where politics were the ruling passion1 a watchfulness after the most punctilious observance of traditional religious ceremonies1 and a jealous aversion to any innovations in religion4 ,the belief of a divine origin of all existence is a first principle in man's nature1 and he is irresistibly impelled to ascend from many to ,one4 ,this very feeling showed itself even in the polytheism of national religions1 under the idea of a highest ,god1 or a father of the gods4 ,among those who gave themselves up to the consideration of divine things1 and to reflection upon them1 this idea of an original unity must have been more clearly recognized1 and must have formed the centre point of all their inward religious life and thought4 ,the imagination of the people was to be engaged with the numerous powers and energies flowing forth from that one highest ,being1 while to the contemplation of that unity1 only a small number of exalted spirits1 the initiated leaders of the multitude1 could elevate themselves4 ,the one ,god was the ,god of philosophers alone4 ,the ruling opinion of all the thinking men of antiquity1 from which all religious legislation proceeded1 was1 that pure religious truth could not be proposed to the multitude1 but only such a mixture of fiction1 poetry1 and truth1 as would serve to represent religious notions in such a manner that they might make an impression on men1 whose only guide was their senses4 ,the principle of a so called fraus pia pious fraud was prevalent in all the legislation of antiquity4 ,but how miserable would be the case of mankind1 if the higher bond1 connecting human affairs with heaven1 could only be united by means of lies2 if lies were necessary in order to restrain the greater portion of mankind from evil6 ,and what could their religion in such a case effect8 ,it could not impart holy dispositions to the inward heart of man2 it could only restrain the open outbreaking of evil that existed in the heart1 by the power of fear4 ,falsehood1 which cannot be arbitrarily imposed on human nature1 would never have been able to obtain this influence1 had not a truth1 which is sure to make itself felt by human nature1 been working through it1--had not the belief in an unseen ,god1 on whom man universally feels himself dependent1 and to whom he feels himself attracted1--had not the impulse toward an invisible world1 which is implanted in the human heart1--been able to work also through this covering of superstition4 ,the geographer ,strabo thinks that1 in the same manner that mythical tales and fables are needful for children1 so also they are necessary for the uneducated and uninformed1 who are in some sort children1 and also for those who are half educated2 for even with them reason is not sufficiently powerful1 and they are not able to free themselves from the habits they have acquired as children4 ,this is1 indeed1 a sad condition of humanity1 when the seed of holiness1 which can develope itself only in the whole course of a life1 cannot be strewn in the heart of the child1 and when mature reason must destroy that which was planted in the early years of infancy6 when holy truth cannot form the foundation of the future developement of life from the earliest dawn of childish consciousness6 ,the thinking ,roman statesmen also of the time at which ,christianity appeared1 as ,varro1 for instance1 distinguish between the theologia philosophica philosophical theology and the theologia civilis1 civil theology1 which contradicts the principles of the former1 as ,cotta in ,cicero distinguished between the belief of ,cotta1 and the belief of the ,pontifex4 ,the philosopher required in religion a persuasion grounded on reasoning2 the citizen1 the statesman1 followed the tradition of his ancestors without inquiry4 ,suppose now this theologia civilis1 and this theologia philosophica to proceed together1 without a man's wishing to set the opposition between the two in a very clear light to himself2 that the citizen and the statesman1 the philosopher and the man1 could be united in the same individual with contradictory sentiments1 7a division which in the same man is very unnatural17 and then he would perhaps say1 8,philosophical reason conducts to a different result from that which is established by the state religion2 but the latter has in its favour the good fortune which the state has enjoyed in the exercise of religion handed down from our ancestors4 ,let us follow experience even where we do not thoroughly understand40 ,thus speaks ,cotta1 and thus also many ,romans of education in his time1 either more or less explicitly4 ,or perhaps we may suppose1 that men openly expressed this contradiction1 and did not scruple to assign the pure truth to the theologia philosophica1 and to declare the theologia civilis only a matter of politics4 ,in the east1 which is less subject to commotions1 where tranquil habits of life were more common1 and where a mystical spirit of contemplation1 accompanying and spiritualizing the symbolical religion of the people1 was more prevalent than an intellectual cultivation opposed to it1 and developing itself independently1 it was possible that this kind of esoteric and exoteric religion should proceed hand in hand without change for many centuries4 ,but it was otherwise with the more stirring spirits and habits of the west4 ,here this independently proceeding developement of the intellect must have been at open war with the religion of the people2 and as intellectual culture spread itself more widely1 so also must a disbelief of the popular religion have been more extensively diffused2 and1 in consequence of the intercourse between the people and the educated classes1 this disbelief must also have found its way at last among the people themselves2 more especially since1 as this perception of the nothingness of the popular religion spread itself more widely1 there would naturally be many who would not1 with the precaution of the men of old1 hide their new illumination from the multitude1 but would think themselves bound to procure for it new adherents1 without any regard to the injury of which they might be laying the foundations1 without inquiring of themselves1 whether they had any thing to offer to the people in the room of that of which they robbed them2 in the room of their then source of tranquillity under the storms of life2 instead of that which taught them moderation under affliction2 and1 lastly1 in the place of their then counterpoise against the power of wild desires and passions4 ,men saw1 in the religious systems of different nations which then came into contact with each other in the enormous empire of ,rome1 nothing but utter contradiction and opposition4 ,the philosophical systems also exhibited nothing but opposition of sentiments1 and left those who could see in the moral consciousness no criterion of truth to doubt whether there were any such thing or not4 ,in this sense1 as representing the opinions of many eminent and cultivated ,romans1 with a sneer at all desire for truth1 ,pilate made the sarcastic inquiry1 8,what is truth80 ,many contented themselves with a shallow lifeless deism1 which usually takes its rise where the thirst after a living union with heaven is wanting2 a system which1 although it denies not the existence of a ,god1 yet drives it as far into the back ground as possible2 a listless ,god6 who suffers every thing to take its own course1 so that all belief in any inward connection between this ,divinity and man1 any communication of this ,divinity to man1 would seem to this system fancy and enthusiasm6 ,the world and human nature remain at least free from ,god4 ,this belief in ,god1 if we can call it a belief1 remains dead and fruitless1 exercising no influence over the life of man4 ,the belief in ,god here produced neither the desire after that ideal perfection of holiness1 the contemplation of which shows at the same time to man the corruption of his own nature1 so opposite to that holiness2 nor that consciousness of guilt by which man1 contemplating the holiness of ,god within him1 feels himself estranged from ,god2 nor does this belief impart any lively power of sanctification4 ,man is not struck by the inquiry1 8,how shall ,i1 unclean as ,i am1 approach the holy ,god1 and stand before him1 when he judges me according to the holy law which he has himself engraven on my conscience8 ,what shall ,i do to become free from the guilt which oppresses me1 and again to attain to communion with him80 ,to make inquiries such as these1 this spirit of deism considers as fanaticism2 and it casts away from itself all notions of ,god's anger1 judgments1 or punishments1 as representations arising only from the limited nature of the human understanding4 ,more lively and penetrating spirits1 who felt in the world an infinite ,spirit which animated all things1 fell into an error of quite an opposite nature to this deism1 which removed ,god too far from the world2 namely into a pantheism1 which confused ,god and the world1 which was just as little calculated to bestow tranquillity and consolation4 ,they conceived ,god only as the infinite ,being elevated above frail man1 and not as being connected with him1 attracting him to himself1 and lowering himself down to him4 ,it was only the greatness1 not the holiness nor the love1 of ,god which filled their souls4 ,yet the history of all ages proves that man cannot for any length of time disown the desire for religion implanted in his nature4 ,whenever man1 entirely devoted to the world1 has for a long time wholly overwhelmed the perception of the ,divinity which exists in his nature1 and has long entirely estranged himself from divine things1 these at last prevail over humanity with greater force4 ,man feels that something is wanting to his heart1 which can be replaced to him by nothing else2 he feels a hollowness within him which can never be satisfied by earthly things1 and can find satisfaction and blessing suited to his condition in the ,divinity alone1 and an irresistible desire impels him to seek again his lost connection with ,heaven4 ,the times of the dominion of superstition also1 as history teaches us1 are always times of earthly calamity2 for the moral corruption which accompanies superstition necessarily1 also1 destroys all the foundations of earthly prosperity4 ,thus the times in which superstition extended itself among the ,romans were those of the downfall of civil freedom1 and of public suffering under cruel despots4 ,but1 however1 the consequences of these evils conducted man1 also to their remedy2 for by distress from without man is brought to the consciousness of his own weakness1 and his dependence on a higher than earthly power2 and when he is forsaken by human help1 he is compelled to seek it here4 ,man becomes induced to look upon his misfortunes as the punishments of a higher ,being1 and to seek for means by which he may secure again for himself the favour of that ,being4 ,the need of a connection with ,heaven1 from which man felt himself estranged1 and dissatisfaction with the cold and joyless present1 obtained a more ready belief for the picture which mythology presented1 of a golden age1 when gods and men lived together in intimate union2 and warm imaginations looked back on such a state with longing and desire4 ,this belief and this desire1 it must be owned1 were founded on a great truth which man could rightly apprehend only through ,christianity2 and this desire was a kind of intimation which pointed to ,christianity4 ,from the nature of the case1 however1 it is clear that a fanatical zeal1 where the heat of passion concealed from man the hollowness and falsehood of his faith1 might be created for a religion1 to which man only betook himself as a refuge in his misery1 and in his dread of the abyss of unbelief2 a religion which no longer served for the developement of man's nature1 and into which1 nevertheless1 he felt himself driven back from the want of any other2 and that men must use every kind of power and art to uphold that which was in danger of falling from its own internal weakness1 and to defend that which was unable to defend itself by its own power4 ,fanaticism was therefore obliged to avail itself of every kind of power in the struggle with ,christianity1 in order to uphold ,heathenism1 which was fast sinking by its own weakness4 ,although the ,romans had from the oldest times been noted for their repugnance to all foreign sorts of religious worship1 yet this trait of the old ,roman character had with many altogether disappeared4 ,because the old national temples of the ,romans had lost their respect1 in many dispositions man was inclined to bring in to their assistance foreign modes of worship4 ,those which obtained the readiest admission were such as consisted of mysterious1 symbolical customs1 and striking1 sounding forms4 ,as is always the case1 men looked for some special and higher power in what is dark and mysterious4 ,the very simplicity of ,christianity became therefore a ground of hatred to it4 ,,unicorn1 1 ,num4 xxiii1 #bb2 xxiv1 #h2 ,deut4 xxxiii1 #ag2 ,job xxxix1 #i1 #aj2 ,psalm xxii1 #ba2 xxix1 #f2 xcii1 #aj2 ,isa4 xxxiv1 #g4 ,in each of these places it is rendered in the ,septuagint 1 except in ,isaiah1 where it is 1 the great or mighty ones4 ,barrow1 in his 8,travels in ,southern ,africa10 has given a drawing of the head of the unicorn1 8a beast with a single horn projecting from the forehead20 accompanied with such details as1 he thinks1 offer strong arguments for the existence of such animals in the country of the ,bosjesmans4 ,he observes that this creature is represented as a 8solid-ungulous animal resembling a horse1 with an elegantly shaped body1 marked from the shoulders to the flanks with longitudinal stripes or bands40 ,still he acknowledges that the animal to which the writer of the book of ,job1 who was no mean natural historian1 makes a poetical allusion1 has been supposed1 with great plausibility1 to be the one-horned rhinoceros2 and that ,moses also very probably meant the rhinoceros1 when he mentions the unicorn as having the strength of ,god4 8,there are two animals10 says ,bruce1 8named frequently in ,scripture1 without naturalists being agreed what they are4 ,the one is the behemoth1 the other the reem2 both mentioned as types of strength1 courage1 and independence on man2 and1 as such1 exempted from the ordinary lot of beasts1 to be subdued by him1 or reduced under his dominion4 ,the behemoth1 then1 ,i take to be the elephant2 his history is well known1 and my only business is with the reem1 which ,i suppose to be the rhinoceros4 ,the derivation of this word1 both in the ,hebrew and ,ethiopic1 seems to be from erectness1 or standing straight4 ,this is certainly no particular quality in the animal itself1 which is not more1 nor even so much erect as many other quadrupeds1 for its knees are rather crooked2 but it is from the circumstance and manner in which his horn is placed4 ,the horns of all other animals are inclined to some degree of parallelism with the nose1 or os frontis1 front bone4 ,the horn of the rhinoceros alone is erect and perpendicular to this bone1 on which it stands at right angles2 thereby possessing a greater purchase or power1 as a lever1 than any horn could possibly have in any other position4 ,this situation of the horn is very happily alluded to in the sacred writings3 #8,my horn shalt thou exalt like the horn of a reem1' ,psalm xcii1 #aj4 ,and the horn here alluded to is not wholly figurative1 but was really an ornament worn by great men in the days of victory1 preferment1 or rejoicing1 when they were anointed with new1 sweet1 or fresh oil2 a circumstance which ,david joins with that of erecting the horn4 ,balaam1 a priest of ,midian1 and so in the neighbourhood of the haunts of the rhinoceros1 and intimately connected with ,ethiopia1 for they themselves were shepherds of that country1 in a transport1 from contemplating the strength of ,israel1 whom he was brought to curse1 says1 that they had as it were the strength of the reem1 ,num4 xxiii1 #bb4 ,job1 xxxix1 #i1 #aj1 makes frequent allusion to his great strength1 ferocity1 and indocility4 ,isaiah1 xxxiv1 #g1 who of all the prophets seems to have known ,egypt and ,ethiopia the best1 when prophesying about the destruction of ,idumea1 says1 that the reem shall come down with the fat cattle3 a proof that he knew his habitation was in the neighbourhood4 ,in the same manner as when foretelling the desolation of ,egypt1 he mentions1 as one manner of effecting it1 the bringing down the fly from ,ethiopia1 ,isa4 vii1 #ah1 #ai1 to meet the cattle in the desert and among the bushes1 and destroy them there1 where that insect did not ordinarily come but on command1 ,exodus viii1 #bb1 and where the cattle fled every year1 to save themselves from that insect4 8,the rhinoceros in ,geez is called arw harish1 and in the ,amharic auraris1 both which names signify the large wild beast with the horn4 ,this would seem as if applied to the species that had but one horn4 ,the ,ethiopic text renders the word reem1 arwe harish1 and this the ,septuagint translates 1 or unicorn4 ,if the ,abyssinian rhinoceros had invariably two horns1 it seems to me improbable the ,septuagint would call him 1 especially as they must have seen an animal of this kind exposed at ,alexandria in their time1 when first mentioned in history1 at an exhibition given to ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 at his accession to the crown1 before the death of his father4 ,the principal reason for translating the word reem unicorn1 and not rhinoceros1 is from a prejudice that he must have but one horn4 ,but this is by no means so well founded1 as to be admitted as the only argument for establishing the existence of an animal1 which never has appeared after the search of so many ages4 ,scripture speaks of the horns of the unicorn1 ,deut4 xxxiii1 #ag2 ,psalm xxii1 #ba2 so that even from this circumstance the reem may be the rhinoceros as the rhinoceros may be the unicorn40 ,in the book of ,job1 xxxix1 #i1 #aj1 the reem is represented as an unmanageable animal1 which1 although possessed of sufficient strength to labour1 sternly and pertinaciously refused to bend his neck to the yoke4 ,will the reem submit to serve thee8 ,will he1 indeed1 abide at thy crib8 ,canst thou make his harness bind the reem to the furrow8 ,will he1 forsooth1 plough up the valleys for thee8 ,wilt thou rely on him for his great strength1 ,and commit thy labour unto him8 ,wilt thou trust him that he may bring home thy grain1 ,and gather in thy harvest8 ,the rhinoceros1 in size1 is only exceeded by the elephant2 and in strength and power is inferior to no other creature4 ,he is at least twelve feet in length1 from the extremity of the snout to the insertion of the tail2 six or seven feet in height1 and the circumference of the body is nearly equal to its length4 ,he is particularly distinguished from the elephant and all other animals by the remarkable and offensive weapon he carries upon his nose4 ,this is a very hard horn1 solid throughout1 directed forward1 and has been seen four feet in length4 ,mr4 ,browne1 in his ,travels1 says1 that the ,arabians call the rhinoceros abu-kurn1 8father of the one horn40 ,the rhinoceros is very hurtful1 by the prodigious devastation which he makes in the fields4 ,this circumstance peculiarly illustrates the passage from ,job4 ,instead of trusting him to bring home the grain1 the husbandman will endeavour to prevent his entry into the fields1 and hinder his destructive ravages4 ,in a note upon this passage1 ,mr4 ,good says1 8,the original reem1 by all the older translators rendered rhinoceros1 or unicorn1 is by some modern writers supposed to be the bubalus1 bison1 or wild ox4 ,there can be no doubt that rhinoceros is the proper term2 for this animal is universally known in ,arabia1 by the name of reem1 to the present day40 ,the rhinoceros1 though next in size1 yet in docility and ingenuity greatly inferior1 to the elephant1 has never yet been tamed1 so as to assist the labours of mankind1 or to appear in the ranks of war4 ,the rhinoceros is perfectly indocile and untractable1 though neither ferocious nor carnivorous4 ,he is among large animals what the hog is among smaller ones1 brutal and insensible2 fond of wallowing in the mire1 and delighting in moist and marshy situations near the banks of rivers4 ,he is1 however1 of a pacific disposition2 and1 as he feeds on vegetables1 has few occasions for conflict4 ,he neither disturbs the less1 nor fears the greater1 beasts of the forest1 but lives amicably with all4 ,he subsists principally on large succulent plants1 prickly shrubs1 and the branches of trees2 and lives to the age of seventy or eighty years4 ,,unitarians1 a comprehensive term1 including all who believe the ,deity to subsist in one person only4 ,the chief article in the religious system of the ,unitarians is1 that ,christ was a mere man4 ,but they consider him as the great instrument in the hands of ,god of reversing all the effects of the fall2 as the object of all the prophecies from ,moses to his own time2 as the great bond of union to virtuous and good men1 who1 as ,christians1 make one body in a peculiar sense4 ,the ,socinian creed was reduced to what ,dr4 ,priestley calls ,humanitarianism1 by denying the miraculous conception1 the infallibility1 and the impeccability of the ,saviour2 and1 consequently1 his right to any divine honours or religious worship4 ,as to those texts which declare that ,jesus ,christ 8knew no sin10 c1 his followers explain them in the sense in which it is said of believers1 8,whosoever is born of ,god doth not commit sin10 #a ,john iii1 #i4 ,or1 if this be not satisfactory1 ,dr4 ,priestley refers us to the 8,theological ,repository10 8in which10 he says1 8,i think ,i have shown that the ,apostle ,paul often reasons inconclusively2 and1 therefore1 that he wrote as any other person of his turn of mind or thinking1 and in his situation1 would have written1 without any particular inspiration4 ,facts1 such as ,i think ,i have there alleged1 are stubborn things1 and all hypotheses must be accommodated to them40 ,nor is this sentiment peculiar to ,dr4 ,priestley4 ,mr4 ,belsham says1 8,the ,unitarian doctrine is1 that ,jesus of ,nazareth was a man constituted in all respects like other men1 subject to the same infirmities1 the same ignorance1 prejudices1 and frailties2 descended from the family of ,david1 the son of ,joseph and ,mary1 though some indeed still adhere to the popular opinion of the miraculous conception2 that he was born in low circumstances1 having no peculiar advantages of education or learning1 but that he was a man of exemplary character2 and that1 in conformity to ancient prophecy1 he was chosen and appointed by ,god to introduce a new moral dispensation into the world1 the design of which was to abolish the ,jewish economy1 and to place believing ,gentiles upon an equal ground of privilege and favour with the posterity of ,abraham2 in other words1 he was authorized to reveal to all mankind1 without distinction1 the great doctrine of a future life1 in which men shall be rewarded according to their works40 ,mr4 ,belsham goes on to state the ,unitarian opinion to be1 that ,jesus was not conscious of his high character till after his baptism2 that he afterward spent some time in the wilderness1 where he was invested with miraculous powers1 and favoured with heavenly visions1 like ,st4 ,paul1 #b ,cor4 xii1 in which he supposed himself taken up into heaven1 and in consequence of which he speaks of his descent from heaven2 that he exercised his ministry on earth for the space of a year or more1 and then suffered death upon the cross1 not to exhibit the evil of sin1 or in any sense to make atonement for it1 but as a martyr to the truth1 and as a necessary preliminary to his resurrection1 which they consider as a pledge of the resurrection of mankind4 ,many also believe that ,jesus maintained some personal and sensible connection with the church during the apostolic age1 and the continuance of miraculous powers in the church4 ,they farther believe that he is appointed to revisit the earth1 and to judge the world1--a difficult task one would suppose1 if 8he be constituted10 as said above1 8in all respects like other men1 subject to the same ignorance1 prejudices frailties10 c6 ,so this blasphemous system contains1 in this respect1 and in almost every other1 its own refutation4 ,see ,,socinians4 ,the creed which the celebrated council of ,nice established1 says ,grier1 in his 8,epitome of ,general ,councils10 is that which ,christians now profess2 the errors and impieties which it condemned are those which1 according to the refinements of ,socinus1 his followers of the present day have moulded into their antichristian system4 ,arius1 a presbyter in the church of ,alexandria1 a man of consummate talent and address1 but of a cold and speculative mind1 impiously maintained that there had been a time when the ,son of ,god was not2 that he was capable of virtue and vice2 and that he was a creature1 and mutable as creatures are6 ,it is true that ,arius held a qualified prexistence1 when he said that ,god created the ,son from nothing before he created the world2 in other words1 that the ,son was the first of created beings2 but such prexistence does not imply coxistence or coternity with the ,father4 ,after this manner did he deny the divinity of the ,son1 and his coternity with the ,father4 ,seduced by the pride of reasoning1 no less than by his fondness for novelty1 did he likewise reject the 1 as it is called1 or the tenet of the ,son being of the same substance with the ,father4 ,the blasphemies of ,arius consisted in the denial of ,christ's being either co-eternal or consubstantial with ,god4 ,after a lapse of twelve centuries1 ,socinus lowered him another step by declaring his inferiority to the ,father2 for that he1 as well as all other things1 was subject to the supreme ,creator of the universe2 and although he held his mere humanity1 yet1 inconsistently enough1 he would offer him divine worship6 ,inconsistently it may be said1 because the ,socinian1 on his own principles1 thereby incurs the guilt of idolatry as much as the ,roman ,catholic who worships the ,virgin ,mary1 a mere created being4 ,the ,unitarian1 or ,humanitarian1 sinks the character of the ,saviour still lower1 by withholding all worship from him2 and while he considers him as a mere man1 and therefore as not possessing the attributes of the ,deity1 with an inconsistency as singular as that of ,socinus1 he acknowledges his divinity so as to call him ,god2 as if the terms ,deity and ,divinity bore different significations1 or as if the principle which constituted the essence of the ,godhead were separable from the ,godhead itself6 ,it should be observed1 that the lowest denomination of unbelievers in the descending scale1 namely1 the modern ,unitarian1 combines with his own peculiar errors and impieties all the errors and impieties of both ,arius and ,socinus1 together with an absolute denial of the ,holy ,ghost being a divine ,person4 ,having touched on the shades of difference which exist between the followers of ,arius and ,socinus1 a more minute detail of the division and subdivision of the classes into which they may be ranged may not be unacceptable to the reader3 ,arians and ,semi-,arians constituted the original distinction2 that of a subsequent day was high and low ,arians4 ,the high ,arians entertain the highest views of the mediatorial influence of ,christ1 and believe in the entire ,scriptures2 the low ,arians run into the opposite extreme1 yet neither high nor low ,arians consider ,christ to be truly ,god4 ,the old ,socinians admitted the miraculous conception1 and the worship of the ,son2 the modern ,socinians do not2 a circumstance that identifies the modern ,socinian with the ,unitarian4 ,some high ,arians1 such as ,dr4 ,samuel ,clarke1 c1 thought that ,christ might be worshipped2 others of them affect to have no distinct notion of what the ,holy ,ghost meant1 and to believe that worship is not to be addressed to ,christ1 but through ,christ6 ,these variations in the ,unitarian creed have been deduced from the evidence of ,unitarians themselves1 given before the ,commissioners of ,education ,inquiry in ,ireland in #ahbf1 as detailed in their ,report to ,parliament2 a circumstance that renders them the more valuable1 as it imparts to them a living1 speaking authority4 ,it must1 however1 be observed1 that motley as they are1 they all terminate in one point1 the rejection of ,christ's divinity2 and that1 diversified as the distinctions appear to be1 they all will be ultimately found to be without a shadow of difference4 ,in short1 ,arians1 ,socinians1 ,unitarians1 c1 not only agree with each other in their antichristian scheme2 but can scarcely be said to differ from the infidel ,musselmans1 who are taught by their ,koran to regard ,christ as a great prophet1 and the forerunner of their own4 ,with ,deism doubtless ,unitarianism has an intimate alliance4 ,for ,deists reject all the doctrines of the ,christian revelation1 while ,unitarians reject all its peculiar doctrines3 #a4 ,the ,trinity of ,persons in the ,godhead4 #b4 ,the divinity of ,christ4 #c4 ,the personality of the ,holy ,spirit4 #d4 ,the miraculous birth of ,christ4 #e4 ,the atonement of ,christ4 #f4 ,the sanctification of the ,spirit4 #g4 ,the existence of angels and spirits2 #h4 ,and1 therefore1 of the devil and his angels4 8,in what1 then10 says the learned ,dr4 ,burgess1 bishop of ,salisbury1 after this enumeration of the peculiar doctrines of ,christianity1 8does ,unitarianism differ from ,deism8 ,deists deny the essential doctrines of ,christianity by rejecting the whole of the ,christian revelation2 ,unitarians reject the ,christian revelation by denying all its peculiar and essential doctrines40 ,,universalists4 ,those who believe that ,christ so died for all1 that1 before he shall have delivered up his mediatorial kingdom1 all fallen creatures shall be brought to a participation of the benefits of his death1 in their restoration to holiness and happiness4 ,they are called also ,universal ,restorationists1 and their doctrine1 the doctrine of universal restoration4 ,some of its friends have maintained it1 also1 under the name of universal salvation2 but perhaps the former name is that by which it should be distinguished2 for the ,universalists do not hold any universal exemption from future punishment1 but merely the recovery of all those that shall have been exposed to it4,a ,they have likewise a just claim to this title on other grounds2 for their doctrine1 which includes the restoration1 or 8restitution of all the intelligent offspring of ,god10 or of all ,footnote ,a3 ,this may be true in respect to the ,universalists in ,europe2 but in ,america there are those who deny any future punishment whatever4 ,in this country also they have formed themselves into separate and distinct societies4 ,,am4 ,,ed4 8lapsed intelligences10 seems to embrace even the fallen angels4 ,they admit the reality and equity of future punishment2 but they contend that it will be corrective in its nature1 and limited in its duration4 ,they teach the doctrine of election1 but not in the exclusive ,calvinistic sense of it4 ,they suppose that ,god has chosen some for the good of all2 and that his final purpose toward all is intimated by his calling his elect the first-born and the first-fruits of his creatures1 which1 say they1 implies other branches of his family1 and a future ingathering of the harvest of mankind4 ,they teach1 also1 that the righteous shall have part in the first resurrection1 shall be blessed and happy1 and be made priests and kings to ,god and to ,christ in the millennial kingdom1 and that over them the second death shall have no power2 that the wicked will receive a punishment apportioned to their crimes2 that punishment itself is a mediatorial work1 and founded upon mercy1 and1 consequently1 that it is a means of humbling1 subduing1 and finally reconciling the sinner to ,god4 ,they add1 that the words rendered 8eternal10 8everlasting10 8for ever10 and 8for ever and ever10 in the ,scriptures1 are frequently used to express the duration of things that have ended or must end2 and if it is contended that these words are sometimes used to express proper eternity1 they answer1 that then the subject with which the words are connected must determine the sense of them2 and as there is nothing in the nature of future punishment which can be offered as a reason why it should be endless1 they infer that the above words ought always to be taken in a limited sense when connected with the infliction of misery4 ,those who deny the eternity of future punishments have not formed themselves into any separate body or distinct society2 but are to be found in most ,christian countries1 and among several denominations4 ,their doctrines form part of the creed of some ,arians1 as of ,mr4 ,whiston2 of many ,deists1 as of ,mr4 ,hobbes1 ,mr4 ,tindal1 c2 and of most ,socinians4 ,nor need we be surprised that libertines and atheists hold it1 and that they strive to bring others over to their opinion4 8,the tyranny of priests10 said ,dupont the atheist1 in the national convention1 ,december1 #agib1 8extends their opinion to another life1 of which they have no other idea than that of eternal punishment2 a doctrine which some men have hitherto had the good nature to believe4 ,but these prejudices must now fall3 we must destroy them1 or they will destroy us40 ,the ,mennonites in ,holland have long held the doctrine of the ,universalists2 the people called ,dunkers1 or ,tunkers1 in ,america1 descended from the ,german ,baptists1 hold it2 and also the ,shakers4 ,excellent refutations of this specious system have been published by the ,rev4 ,s4 ,jerram1 and the ,rev4 ,daniel ,isaac4 ,the ,arminians are sometimes called 8,universalists10 on account of their holding the tenet of general redemption2 in opposition to the ,calvinists1 who1 from their specifically restricting the saving grace of ,god to certain fore ordained individuals1 receive the denomination of 8,particularists40 ,by the epithet 8,hypothetical ,universalists10 are designated on the continent those who have adopted the theological system of ,amyraut and ,cameron1 but who are better ,,known in this country as 8,baxterians40 ,see ,,amyraut1 ,,baxterianism1 and ,,cameron4 ,,upper ,,room4 ,the principal rooms anciently in ,judea were those above1 as they are to this day at ,aleppo2 the ground floor being chiefly made use of for their horses and servants4 8,the house in which ,i am at present living10 says1 ,jowett1 8gives what seems to be a correct idea of the scene of ,eutychus' falling from the upper loft while ,st4 ,paul was preaching1 ,acts xx1 #f-ab4 ,according to our idea of houses1 the scene is very far from intelligible2 and1 beside this1 the circumstance of preaching generally leaves on the mind of cursory readers the notion of a church4 ,to describe this house1 which is not many miles distant from the ,troad1 and perhaps1 from the unchanging character of oriental customs1 nearly resembles the houses then built1 will fully illustrate the narrative4 ,on entering my host's door1 we find the first floor entirely used as a store3 it is filled with large barrels of oil1 the produce of the rich country for many miles round3 this space1 so far from being habitable1 is sometimes so dirty with the dripping of the oil1 that it is difficult to pick out a clean footing from the door to the first step of the staircase4 ,on ascending1 we find the first floor1 consisting of an humble suit of rooms1 not very high2 these are occupied by the family for their daily use4 ,it is on the next story that all their expense is lavished3 here my courteous host has appointed my lodging3 beautiful curtains and mats1 and cushions to the divan1 display the respect with which they mean to receive their guest4 ,here1 likewise1 their splendour1 being at the top of the house1 is enjoyed by the poor ,greeks with more retirement1 and less chance of molestation from the intrusion of ,turks3 here1 when the professors of the college waited upon me to pay their respects1 they were received in ceremony1 and sat at the window4 ,the room is both higher and also larger than those below2 it has two projecting windows2 and the whole floor is so much extended in front beyond the lower part of the building1 that the projecting windows considerably overhang the street4 ,in such an upper room1 secluded1 spacious1 and commodious1 ,st4 ,paul was invited to preach his parting discourse4 ,the divan1 or raised seat1 with mats or cushions1 encircles the interior of each projecting window2 and ,i have remarked that when the company is numerous1 they sometimes place large cushions behind the company seated on the divan2 so that a second tier of company1 with their feet upon the seat of the divan1 are sitting behind1 higher than the front row4 ,eutychus1 thus sitting1 would be on a level with the open window2 and1 being overcome with sleep1 he would easily fall out from the third loft of the house into the street1 and be almost certain1 from such a height1 to lose his life4 ,thither ,st4 ,paul went down1 and comforted the alarmed company by bringing up ,eutychus alive4 ,it is noted that #8there were many lights in the upper chamber4' ,the very great plenty of oil in this neighbourhood would enable them to afford many lamps2 the heat of these and so much company would cause the drowsiness of ,eutychus1 at that late hour1 and be the occasion1 likewise1 of the windows being open40 ,,urim ,,and ,,thummim4 ,the high priests of the ,jews1 we are told1 consulted ,god in the most important affairs of their commonwealth1 and received answers by the ,urim and ,thummim4 ,what these were1 is disputed among the critics4 ,josephus1 and some others1 imagine the answer was returned by the stones of the breastplate appearing with an unusual lustre when it was favourable1 or in the contrary case dim4 ,others suppose1 that the ,urim and ,thummim were something enclosed between the folding of the breastplate2 this some will have to be the tetragrammaton1 or the word ,jehovah4 ,christophorus de ,castro1 and after him ,dr4 ,spencer1 maintain them to be two little images shut up in the doubling of the breastplate1 which gave the oracular answer from thence by an articulate voice4 ,accordingly1 they derive them from the ,egyptians1 who consulted their lares1 and had an oracle1 or teraphim1 which they called ,truth4 ,this opinion1 however1 has been sufficiently confuted by the learned ,dr4 ,pococke and by ,witsius4 ,the more common opinion among ,christians concerning the oracle by ,urim and ,thummim1 and which ,dr4 ,prideaux espouses1 is1 that when the high priest appeared before the veil1 clothed with his ephod and breastplate1 to ask counsel of ,god1 the answer was given with an audible voice from the mercy seat1 within the veil2 but1 it has been observed1 that this account will by no means agree with the history of ,david's consulting the oracle by ,abiathar1 #a ,sam4 xxiii1 #i1 #aa2 xxx1 #g1 #h2 because the ark1 on which was the mercy seat1 was then at ,kirjathjearim2 whereas ,david was in the one case at ,ziklag1 and in the other in the forest of ,hareth4 ,braunius and ,hottinger have adopted another opinion3 they suppose1 that1 when ,moses is commanded to put in the breastplate the ,urim and ,thummim1 signifying lights and perfections in the plural number1 it was meant that he should make choice of the most perfect set of stones1 and have them so polished as to give the brightest lustre2 and1 on this hypothesis1 the use of the ,urim and ,thummim1 or of these exquisitely polished jewels1 was only to be a symbol of the divine presence1 and of the light and perfection of the prophetic inspiration2 and1 as such1 constantly to be worn by the high priest in the exercise of his sacred function1 especially in consulting the oracle4 ,michalis observes3 ,that in making distributions of property1 and in cases of disputes relative to meum mine and tuum1 thine1 recourse was had to the lot1 in default of any other means of decision1 will naturally be supposed4 ,the whole land was partitioned by lot2 and that1 in after times1 the lot continued to be used1 even in courts of justice1 we see from ,prov4 xvi1 #cc2 xviii1 #ah2 where we are expressly taught to remember1 that it is ,providence which maketh the choice1 and that therefore we ought to be satisfied with the decision of the lot1 as the will of ,god4 ,it was for judicial purposes1 in a particular manner1 that the sacred lot called ,urim and ,thummim was employed2 and on this account the costly embroidered pouch1 in which the priest carried this sacred lot on his breast1 was called the judicial ornament4 8,but was this sacred lot used likewise in criminal trials80 ,yes1 says ,michalis1 only to discover the guilty1 to convict them2 for in the only two instances of its use in such cases which occur in the whole ,bible1 namely1 in ,joshua vii1 #ad-ah1 #a ,sam4 xiv1 #cg-de1 we find the confessions of the two delinquents1 ,achan and ,jonathan1 annexed4 ,it appears also to have been used only in the case of an oath being transgressed which the whole people had taken1 or the leader of the host in their name1 but not in the case of other crimes2 for an unknown murder1 for example1 was not to be discovered by recourse to the sacred lot4 ,the inner sanctuary1 within the veil of the tabernacle1 observes ,dr4 ,hales1 or most holy place1 was called the oracle1 #a ,kings vi1 #af1 because there the ,lord communed with ,moses1 face to face1 and gave him instructions in cases of legal difficulty or sudden emergency1 ,exod4 xxv1 #bb2 ,num4 vii1 #hi2 ix1 #h2 ,exod4 xxxiii1 #aa2 a high privilege granted to none of his successors4 ,after the death of ,moses a different mode was appointed for consulting the oracle by the high priest1 who put on 8the breastplate of judgment10 a principal part of the pontifical dress1 on which were inscribed the words ,urim and ,thummim1 emblematical of divine illumination2 as the inscription on his mitre1 8,holiness to the ,lord10 was of sanctification1 ,exod4 xxviii1 #cj-cg2 ,lev4 viii1 #h4 ,thus prepared1 he presented himself before the ,lord to ask counsel on public matters1 not in the inner sanctuary1 which he presumed not to enter1 except on the great day of national atonement1 but without the veil1 with his face toward the ark of the covenant1 inside2 and behind him1 at some distance1 without the sanctuary1 stood ,joshua1 the judge1 or person who wanted the response1 which seems to have been given with an audible voice from within the veil1 ,num4 xxvii1 #ba1 as in the case of ,joshua1 vi1 #f-ae2 of the ,israelites during the civil war with ,benjamin1 ,judges xx1 #bg1 #bh2 on the appointment of ,saul to be king1 when he hid himself1 #a ,sam4 x1 #bb-bd2 of ,david1 #a ,sam4 xxii1 #aj2 xxiii1 #b-ab2 xxx1 #h2 #b ,sam4 v1 #bc1 #bd2 of ,saul1 #a ,sam4 xxviii1 #f4 ,this mode of consultation subsisted under the tabernacle erected by ,moses in the wilderness1 and until the building of ,solomon's temple2 after which we find no instances of it4 ,the oracles of the ,lord were thenceforth delivered by the prophets2 as by ,ahijah to ,jeroboam1 #a ,kings xi1 #bi2 by ,shemaiah to ,rehoboam1 #a ,kings xii1 #bb2 by ,elijah to ,ahab1 #a ,kings xvii1 #a2 xxi1 #ag-bi2 by ,michaiah to ,ahab and ,jehoshaphat1 #a ,kings xxii1 #g2 by ,elisha to ,jehoshaphat and ,jehoram1 #b ,kings iii1 #aa-ad2 by ,isaiah to ,hezekiah1 #b ,kings xix1 #f-cd2 xx1 #a-aa2 by ,huldah to ,josiah1 #b ,kings xxii1 #ac-bj2 by ,jeremiah to ,zedekiah1 ,jer4 xxxii1 #c-e1 c4 ,after the ,babylonish captivity1 and the last of the prophets1 ,haggai1 ,zechariah1 and ,malachi1 the oracle ceased2 but its revival was foretold by ,ezra1 ii1 #fc1 and accomplished by ,christ1 who was himself the oracle1 under the old and new covenants1 ,gen4 xv1 #a2 ,john i1 #a4 ,see ,,breastplate4 ,,usury1 profit or gain from lending money or goods4 ,moses enacted a law to the effect that interest should not be taken from a poor person1 neither for borrowed money1 nor for articles of consumption1 for instance1 grain1 which was borrowed with the expectation of being returned1 ,exod4 xxii1 #be2 ,lev4 xxv1 #ce-cg4 ,a difficulty arose in determining who was to be considered a poor person in a case of this kind2 and the law was accordingly altered in ,deut4 xxiii1 #bj1 #ba1 and extended in its operation to all the ,hebrews1 whether they had more or less property2 so that interest could be lawfully taken only of foreigners4 ,as the system of the ,jews went to secure every man's paternal inheritance to his own family1 they could not exact it from their brethren1 but only from strangers4 ,as the law of nature does not forbid the receipt of moderate interest in the shape of rent1 for the use of lands or houses1 neither does it prohibit it for the loan of money or goods4 ,when one man trades with the capital of another1 and obtains a profit from it1 he is bound in justice to return a part of it to his benefactor1 who1 in the hands of ,god1 has been a second cause of 8giving him power to get wealth40 ,but should ,divine ,providence not favour the endeavours of some who have borrowed money1 the duty of the lenders is to deal gently with them1 and to be content with sharing in their losses1 as they have been sharers in their gains4 ,the ,hebrews were therefore exhorted to lend money1 c1 as a deed of mercy and brotherly kindness1 ,deut4 xv1 #g-aa2 xxiv1 #ac4 ,and hence it happens that we find encomiums every where bestowed upon those who were willing to lend without insisting upon interest for the use of the thing lent1 ,psalm xv1 #ae2 xxxvii1 #ba1 #bf2 cxii1 #e2 ,prov4 xix1 #ag2 ,ezek4 xviii1 #h4 ,this regulation in regard to taking interest was very well suited to the condition of a state that had been recently founded1 and which had but very little mercantile dealings2 and its principle1 though not capable of being generally introduced into communities that are much engaged in commerce1 may still be exercised toward those who stand toward us in the relation of brethren4 ,,uz1 ,,land ,,of1 the country of ,job4 ,as there were three persons of this name1 namely1 the son of ,aram1 the son of ,nahor1 and the grandson of ,seir the ,horite1 commentators are divided in their opinion as to the situation of the country meant by the land of ,uz4 ,bochart1 ,spanheim1 ,calmet1 ,wells1 and others1 place it in ,arabia ,deserta4 ,michalis places it in the valley of ,damascus2 which city was1 in fact1 built by ,uz1 the grandson of ,shem4 ,archbishop ,magee1 ,bishop ,lowth1 ,dr4 ,hales1 ,dr4 ,good1 and others1 with more reason1 fix the scene of the history of ,job in ,idumea4 ,this is also the opinion of ,mr4 ,horne1 who refers for a confirmation of it to ,lam4 iv1 #ba1 where ,uz is expressly said to be in ,edom2 and to ,jer4 xlix1 #g1 #h1 #bj2 ,ezek4 xxv1 #ac2 ,amos i1 #aa1 #ab2 ,obad4 #h1 #i1 where both ,teman and ,dedan are described as inhabitants of ,edom4 ,in effect1 says ,mr4 ,horne1 nothing is clearer than that the history of an inhabitant of ,idumea is the subject of the poem which bears the name of ,job1 and that all the persons introduced into it were ,idumeans1 dwelling in ,idumea2 in other words1 ,edomite ,arabs4 ,,veil4 ,women were wont to cover their faces with veils in token of modesty1 of reverence1 and subjection to their husbands1 ,gen4 xxiv1 #fe2 #a ,cor4 xi1 #c1 c4 ,in modern times1 the women of ,syria never appear in the streets without their veils4 ,these are of two kinds1 the furragi and the common ,aleppo veil2 the former being worn by some of the ,turkish women only1 the latter indiscriminately by all4 ,the first is in the form of a large cloak1 with long straight sleeves1 and a square hood hanging flat on the back2 it is sometimes made of linen1 sometimes of a shawl or cloth4 ,this veil1 reaching to the heels1 conceals the whole of the dress1 from the neck downward2 while the head and face are covered by a large white handkerchief over the head dress and forehead1 and a smaller one tied transversely over the lower part of the face1 hanging down on the neck4 ,many of the ,turkish women1 instead of the smaller handkerchief1 use a long piece of black crape stiffened1 which1 sloping a little from the forehead1 leaves room to breathe more freely4 ,in this last way1 the ladies are completely disguised2 in the former1 the eyes and nose remaining visible1 they are easily known by their acquaintances4 ,the radid is a species of veil1 which ,calmet supposes is worn by married women1 as a token of their submission and dependence1 and descends low down on the person4 ,to lift up the veil of a virgin is reckoned a gross insult2 but to take away the veil of a married woman is one of the greatest indignities that she can receive1 because it deprives her of the badge which distinguishes and dignifies her in that character1 and betokens her alliance to her husband1 and her interest in his affections4 ,this is the reason why the spouse so feelingly complains3 8,they took away my veil1 1 from me10 ,cant4 v1 #g4 ,when it is forcibly taken away by the husband1 it is equivalent to divorce1 and justly reckoned a most severe calamity2 therefore1 ,god threatened to take away the ornamental dresses of the daughters of ,zion1 including the radidim1 the low descending veils3 8,in that day the ,lord will take away the changeable suits of apparel1 and the mantles1 and the fine linen1 and the hoods1 and the veils10 ,isaiah iii1 #ah1 c4 ,the ordinary ,aleppo veil is a linen sheet1 large enough to cover the whole habit from head to foot1 and is brought over the face in a manner to conceal all but one eye4 ,this is perhaps alluded to by the bridegroom in these words3 8,thou hast ravished my heart with one of thine eyes10 ,cant4 iv1 #i4 ,in ,barbary1 when the ladies appear in public1 they always fold themselves up so closely in their hykes1 that1 even without their veils1 one can discover very little of their faces4 ,but1 in the summer months1 when they retire to their country seats1 they walk abroad with less caution2 though1 even then1 on the approach of a stranger1 they always drop their veils1 as ,rebekah did on the approach of ,isaac4 ,but1 although they are so closely wrapped up1 that those who look at them cannot see even their hands1 still less their face1 yet it is reckoned indecent in a man to fix his eyes upon them2 he must let them pass without seeming at all to observe them4 ,when a lady of distinction1 says ,hanway1 travels on horseback1 she is not only veiled1 but has generally a servant1 who runs or rides before her to clear the way2 and on such occasions the men1 even in the market places1 always turn their backs till the women are past1 it being thought the highest ill manners to look at them4 ,a lady in the east considers herself degraded when she is exposed to the gaze of the other sex1 which accounts for the conduct of ,vashti in refusing to obey the command of the king4 ,their ideas of decency1 on the other hand1 forbid a virtuous woman to lay aside or even to lift up her veil in the presence of the other sex4 ,she who ventures to disregard this prohibition inevitably ruins her character4 ,from that moment she is noted as a woman of easy virtue1 and her act is regarded as a signal for intrigue4 ,pitts informs us that in ,barbary the courtezan appears in public without her veil2 and1 in ,prov4 vii1 #ac1 #ad1 the harlot exposes herself in the same indecent manner3 8,so she caught him1 and kissed him1 and with an impudent face10 a face uncovered and shameless1 8said unto him1 ,i have peace-offerings with me1 this day have ,i paid my vows40 ,but it must nevertheless be remarked1 that1 at different times1 and in different parts of the east1 the use1 or partial use of the veil has greatly varied4 ,,vine1 1 ,gen4 xl1 #i2 1 ,matt4 xxvi1 #bi2 ,mark xiv1 #be2 ,luke xxii1 #ah2 ,john xv1 #d1 #e2 ,james iii1 #ab2 ,rev4 xiv1 #ai2 a noble plant of the creeping kind1 famous for its fruit1 or grapes1 and the liquor they afford4 ,the vine is a common name or genus1 including several species under it2 and ,moses1 to distinguish the true vine1 or that from which wine is made1 from the rest1 calls it1 the wine vine1 ,num4 vi1 #d4 ,some of the other sorts were of a poisonous quality1 as appears from the story related among the miraculous acts of ,elisha1 #b ,kings iv1 #ci1 #da4 7,see ,grapes47 ,the expression of 8sitting every man under his own vine10 probably alludes to the delightful eastern arbours1 which were partly composed of vines4 ,capt4 ,norden1 in like manner1 speaks of vine arbours as common in the ,egyptian gardens2 and the ,prnestine pavement in ,dr4 ,shaw gives us the figure of an ancient one4 ,plantations of trees about houses are found very useful in hot countries1 to give them an agreeable coolness4 ,the ancient ,israelites seem to have made use of the same means1 and probably planted fruit trees1 rather than other kinds1 to produce that effect4 8,it is their manner in many places10 says ,sir ,thomas ,rowe's chaplain1 speaking of the country of the ,great ,mogul1 8to plant about and among their buildings1 trees which grow high and broad1 the shadow whereof keeps their houses by far more cool3 this ,i observed in a special manner1 when we were ready to enter ,amadavar2 for it appeared to us as if we had been entering a wood rather than a city40 8,immediately on entering10 says ,turner1 8,i was ushered into the court yard of the aga1 whom ,i found smoking under a vine1 surrounded by horses1 servants1 and dogs1 among which ,i distinguished an ,english pointer40 ,there were in ,palestine many excellent vineyards4 ,scripture celebrates the vines of ,sorek1 of ,sebamah1 of ,jazer1 of ,abel4 ,profane authors mention the excellent wines of ,gaza1 ,sarepta1 ,libanus1 ,saron1 ,ascalon1 and ,tyre4 ,jacob1 in the blessing which he gave ,judah1 8,binding his foal unto the vine1 and his ass's colt unto the choice vine1 he washed his garments in wine1 and his clothes in the blood of grapes10 ,gen4 xlix1 #aa2 he showed the abundance of vines that should fall to his lot4 8,joseph is a fruitful bough1 even a fruitful bough by a well1 whose branches hang over the wall10 ,gen4 xlix1 #bb4 8,to the northward and westward10 says ,morier1 8are several villages1 interspersed with extensive orchards and vineyards1 the latter of which are generally enclosed by high walls4 ,the ,persian vine dressers do all in their power to make the vine run up the wall1 and curl over on the other side1 which they do by tying stones to the extremity of the tendril4 ,the vine1 particularly in ,turkey and ,greece1 is frequently made to entwine on trellises around a well1 where1 in the heat of the day1 whole families collect themselves1 and sit under the shade40 ,noah planted the vine after the deluge1 and is supposed to have been the first who cultivated it1 ,gen4 ix1 #bj4 ,many are of opinion that wine was not unknown before the deluge2 and that this patriarch only continued to cultivate the vine after that event1 as he had done before it3 but the fathers think that he knew not the force of wine1 having never used it before1 nor having ever seen any one use it4 ,he was the first that gathered the juice of the grape1 and preserved it till by fermentation it became a potable liquor4 ,before him men only ate the grapes like other fruit4 ,the law of ,moses did not allow the planters of vineyards to eat the fruit before the fifth year1 ,lev4 xix1 #bd1 #be4 ,the ,israelites were also required to indulge the poor1 the orphan1 and the stranger1 with the use of the grapes on the seventh year4 ,a traveller was allowed to gather and eat the grapes in a vineyard as he passed along1 but he was not permitted to carry any away1 ,deut4 xxiii1 #bd4 ,the scarcity of fuel1 especially wood1 in most parts of the east1 is so great1 that they supply it with every thing capable of burning2 cow dung dried1 roots1 parings of fruits1 withered stalks of herbs and flowers1 ,matthew vi1 #cj4 ,vine twigs are particularly mentioned as used for fuel in dressing their food1 by ,d',arvieux1 ,la ,roque1 and others3 ,ezekiel says1 in his parable of the vine1 used figuratively for the people of ,god1 8,shall wood be taken thereof to do any work8 ,or will men take a pin of it to hang any vessel thereon8 ,behold1 it is cast into the fire for fuel10 ,ezekiel xv1 #c1 #d4 8,if a man abide not in me10 saith our ,lord1 8he is cast forth as a branch0 of the vine1 8and is withered2 and men gather them1 and cast them into the fire1 and they are burned10 ,john xv1 #f4 ,,vinegar1 1 ,num4 vi1 #c2 ,ruth ii1 #ad2 ,psalm lxix1 #ba2 ,prov4 x1 #bf2 xxv1 #bj2 1 ,matt4 xxvii1 #dh2 ,mark xv1 #cf2 ,john xix1 #bi1 #cj2 an acid produced by a second fermentation of vinous liquors4 ,the law of the ,nazarite was that he should 8separate himself from wine and strong drink1 and should drink no vinegar of wine1 nor vinegar of strong drink1 nor any liquor of grapes40 ,this is exactly the same prohibition that was given in the case of ,john the ,baptist1 ,luke i1 #ae1 1 wine and sikera he shall not drink4 ,any inebriating liquor1 says ,jerom1 is called sicera1 whether made of corn1 apples1 honey1 dates1 or other fruits4 ,one of the four prohibited drinks among the ,mohammedans in ,india is called sakar1 which signifies inebriating drink in general1 but especially date wine4 ,from the original word1 probably1 we have our term cider or sider1 which among us1 exclusively means the fermented juice of apples4 ,vinegar was used by harvesters for their refreshment4 ,boaz told ,ruth that she might come and dip her bread in vinegar with his people4 ,pliny says1 0,aceto summa vis in refrigerando40 ,there is the greatest power in vinegar1 in cooling4 ,it made a very cooling beverage4 ,it was generally diluted with water4 ,when very strong1 it affected the teeth disagreeably1 ,prov4 x1 #bf4 ,in ,proverbs xxv1 #bj1 the singing of songs to a heavy heart is finely compared to the contrariety or colluctation between vinegar and nitre2 untimely mirth to one in anxiety serves only to exasperate1 and as it were put into a ferment by the intrusion4 ,the ,emperor ,pescennius ,niger gave orders that his soldiers should drink nothing but vinegar on their marches4 ,that which the ,roman soldiers offered to our ,saviour at his crucifixion1 was1 probably1 the vinegar they made use of for their own drinking4 ,constantine the ,great allowed them wine and vinegar alternately1 every day4 ,this vinegar was not of that sort which we use for salads and sauces2 but it was a tart wine called pesca1 or sera4 ,they make great use of it in ,spain and ,italy1 in harvest time4 ,they use it also in ,holland1 and on shipboard1 to correct the ill taste of the water4 ,,viper1 1 ,job xx1 #af2 ,isaiah xxx1 #f2 lix1 #e2 1 ,matt4 iii1 #g2 xii1 #cd2 xxiii1 #cc2 ,luke iii1 #g2 ,acts xxviii1 #c2 a serpent famed for the venomousness of its bite1 which is one of the most dangerous poisons in the animal kingdom4 ,so remarkable1 says ,dr4 ,mead1 has the viper been for its venom1 that the remotest antiquity made it an emblem of what is hurtful and destructive4 ,nay1 so terrible was the nature of these creatures1 that they were very commonly thought to be sent as executioners of divine vengeance upon mankind1 for enormous crimes which had escaped the course of justice4 ,an instance of such an opinion as this we have in the history of ,st4 ,paul1 ,acts xxviii1 whom the people of ,melita1 when they saw the viper leap upon his hand1 presently concluded to be a murderer2 and as readily made a god of him when1 instead of having his hand inflamed1 or falling down dead1 one or other of which is usually the effect of these bites1 he without any harm shook the reptile into the fire3 it being obvious enough to imagine that he must stand in a near relation at least to the gods themselves1 who could thus command the messengers of their vengeance1 and counterwork the effects of such powerful agents4 ,,vision1 the act of seeing2 but1 in ,scripture1 it generally signifies a supernatural appearance1 either by dream or in reality1 by which ,god made known his will and pleasure to those to whom it was vouchsafed1 ,acts ix1 #aj1 #ab2 xvi1 #i1 xxvi1 #ac2 #b ,cor4 xii1 #a4 ,thus1 in the earliest times1 to patriarchs1 prophets1 and holy men ,god sent angels1 he appeared to them himself by night in dreams1 he illuminated their minds1 he made his voice to be heard by them1 he sent them ecstasies1 and transported them beyond themselves1 and made them hear things that eye had not seen1 ear had not heard1 and which had not entered into the heart of man4 ,the ,lord showed himself to ,moses1 and spoke to him when he was at the mouth of the cave4 ,jesus ,christ manifested himself to his ,apostles1 in his transfiguration upon the mount1 and on several other occasions after his resurrection4 ,god appeared to ,abraham under the form of three travellers2 he showed himself to ,isaiah and ,ezekiel1 in the splendour of his glory4 ,vision is also used for the prophecies written by the prophets4 ,the beatific vision denotes the act of angels and glorified spirits beholding in heaven the unveiled splendours of the ,lord ,jehovah1 and privileged to contemplate his perfections and plans in and by himself4 ,,vocation1 or ,,calling1 is a gracious act of ,god in ,christ1 by which1 through his word and ,spirit1 he calls forth sinful men1 who are liable to condemnation and placed under the dominion of sin1 from the condition of the animal life1 and from the pollutions and corruptions of this world1 #b ,tim4 i1 #i2 ,matt4 xi1 #bh2 #a ,peter ii1 #i1 #aj2 ,gal4 i1 #d2 #b ,peter ii1 #bj2 ,romans x1 #ac-ae2 #a ,peter iii1 #ai2 ,gen4 vi1 #c1 unto 8the fellowship of ,jesus ,christ10 and of his kingdom and its benefits2 that1 being united unto him as their head1 they may derive from him life1 sensation1 motion1 and a plenitude of every spiritual blessing1 to the glory of ,god and their own salvation1 #a ,cor4 i1 #i2 ,gal4 ii1 #bj2 ,eph4 i1 #c1 #f2 #b ,thess4 ii1 #ac1 #ad4 ,the end intended is1 that they who have been called answer by faith to ,god and to ,christ who give the call1 and that they thus become the covenanted people of ,god through ,christ the ,mediator of the new covenant2 and1 after having become believers and parties to the covenant1 that they love1 fear1 honour1 and worship ,god and ,christ1 render in all things obedience to the divine precepts 8in righteousness and true holiness10 and that by this means they 8make their calling and election sure10 ,prov4 i1 #bd2 ,heb4 iii1 #g2 ,rev4 iii1 #bj2 ,eph4 ii1 #aa-af2 ,titus iii1 #h2 ,deut4 vi1 #d1 #e2 ,jer4 xxxii1 #ch1 #ci2 ,luke i1 #gd1 #ge2 #b ,peter i1 #a1 #aj4 ,the glory of ,god1 who is supremely wise1 good1 merciful1 just1 and powerful1 is so luminously displayed in this communication both of his grace and glory1 as deservedly to raise into rapturous admiration the minds of angels and of men1 and to employ their loosened tongues in celebrating the praises of ,jehovah1 ,rev4 iv1 #h-aa2 v1 #h-aj4 ,see ,,calling4 ,,vow1 a promise made to ,god1 of doing some good thing hereafter4 ,the use of vows is observable throughout ,scripture4 ,when ,jacob went into ,mesopotamia1 he vowed to ,god the tenth of his estate1 and promised to offer it at ,bethel1 to the honour of ,god1 ,gen4 xxviii1 #bb4 ,moses enacts several laws for the regulation and execution of vows4 ,a man might devote himself1 or his children1 to the ,lord4 ,jephthah devoted his daughter1 ,judges xi1 #cj1 #ca4 ,samuel was vowed or consecrated to the service of the ,lord before his birth1 by his pious mother ,hannah2 and was really offered to him1 to serve in the tabernacle1 #a ,sam4 i1 #ba1 c4 ,if a man and woman vowed themselves to the ,lord1 they were obliged to adhere strictly to his service1 according to the conditions of the vow2 but in some cases they might be redeemed4 ,a man from twenty years of age till sixty1 gave fifty shekels of silver2 and a woman thirty1 ,lev4 xxvii1 #c4 ,from the age of five years to twenty1 a man gave twenty shekels1 and a woman ten2 from a month old to five years1 they gave for a boy five shekels1 and for a girl three4 ,a man of sixty years old1 or upward1 gave fifteen shekels1 and a woman of the same age gave ten4 ,if the person was poor1 and could not procure this sum1 the priest imposed a ransom upon him1 according to his abilities4 ,if any one had vowed an animal that was clean1 he had not the liberty of redeeming it1 or of exchanging it1 but was obliged to sacrifice it to the ,lord4 ,if it was an unclean animal1 and such as was not allowed to be sacrificed1 the priest made a valuation of it2 and if the proprietor would redeem it1 he added a fifth part to the value1 by way of forfeit4 ,they did the same in proportion1 when the thing vowed was a house or a field4 ,they could not devote the first born1 because in their own nature they belonged to the ,lord1 ,lev4 xxvii1 #bh1 #bi4 ,whatever was devoted by way of anathema1 could not be redeemed1 of whatever nature or quality it was4 ,an animal was put to death1 and other things were devoted for ever to the ,lord4 ,the consecration of ,nazarites was a particular kind of vow4 ,the vows and promises of children were void1 of course1 except they were ratified either by the express or tacit consent of their parents4 ,it was the same with the vows of a married woman2 they were of no validity1 except confirmed by the express or tacit consent of her husband1 ,num4 xxx4 ,but widows1 or liberated wives1 were bound by their vows1 whatever they were4 ,whosoever invokes the awful name of ,god to witness any untruth1 knowing it to be such1 is guilty of taking it in vain4 ,our ,lord did not mean to preclude solemn appeals to heaven1 whether oaths or vows1 in courts of justice1 or in important compacts4 ,for an oath1 or appeal to the greatest of all beings1 as the ,searcher of hearts1 to witness a transaction1 and to punish falsehood or perjury1 is necessary1 for putting an end to all strife or controversy among men1 to promote confirmation or security of property1 ,heb4 vi1 #af4 ,and it was sanctioned by the example of ,god1 swearing by himself1 ,genesis xxii1 #ae2 ,heb4 vi1 #ag1 #ah2 and by the example of the patriarchs and saints of old2 thus ,abraham swore by the most high ,god1 ,creator of heaven and earth1 ,gen4 xiv1 #bb2 the transjordanite tribes1 by the ,god of gods1 the ,lord1 ,joshua xxii1 #bb4 ,and the law prescribed1 8,thou shalt fear the ,lord thy ,god1 and serve him1 and shalt swear by his name10 ,deut4 vi1 #ac4 ,and afterward1 8,all ,judah rejoiced at the oath1 for they had sworn unto the ,lord with a loud voice1 with all their heart1 and sought him with their whole desire3 and he was found of them2 and the ,lord gave them rest round about10 #b ,chron4 xv1 #ad1 #ae4 ,and a highly gifted ,apostle uses the following most solemn asseveration1 8,the ,god and ,father of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 who is blessed for evermore1 knoweth that ,i lie not10 #b ,cor4 xi1 #ca4 ,see the vows of the priests and ,levites1 to put away strange wives1 ,ezra x1 #e2 and to take no usury from their brethren1 ,neh4 x1 #bi4 ,st4 ,paul also vowed a vow1 which he performed1 ,acts xviii1 #ah2 xxi1 #bc4 ,our ,lord1 therefore1 renacted the law1 while he guarded against the abuse of it1 by prohibiting all oaths in common conversation1 as a profanation either of ,god's name1 where that was irreverently used1 or where any of his works was substituted instead of the awful and terrible name of the ,lord1 which the ,jews1 through superstitious dread1 at length ceased to use1 from misinterpretation of ,deut4 xxviii1 #eh3 8,but ,i say unto you1 ,swear not at all10 in common conversation1 by any of your usual oaths1 8neither by heaven1 for it is ,god's throne2 nor by the earth1 for it is his footstool10 c4 ,for1 by the detestable casuistry of the scribes and ,pharisees1 some oaths were reckoned binding1 others not1 as we learn from the sequel2 thus1 to swear by the temple1 the altar1 heaven1 c1 they considered as not binding3 but to swear by the gold of the temple1 by the gift on the altar1 c1 they considered as binding2 the absurdity and impiety of which practice is well exposed by our ,lord in ,matt4 xxiii1 #af-bb4 ,,vulgate1 a very ancient ,latin translation of the ,bible2 and the only one the church of ,rome acknowledges to be authentic4 ,the ancient ,vulgate of the ,old ,testament was translated almost word for word1 from the ,greek of the ,septuagint4 ,the author of the version is not known4 ,it was a long time known by the name of the ,italic1 or old version2 as being of very great antiquity in the ,latin church4 ,it was the common1 or vulgar version1 before ,st4 ,jerom made a new one from the ,hebrew original1 with occasional references to the ,septuagint2 whence it has its name ,vulgate4 ,nobilius1 in #aeeh1 and ,f4 ,morin1 in #afbh1 gave new editions of it2 pretending to have restored and re-collated it from the ancients who had cited it4 ,it has since been retouched from the correction of ,st4 ,jerom2 and it is this mixture of the ancient ,italic version1 and some corrections of ,st4 ,jerom1 that is now called the ,vulgate1 and which the council of ,trent has declared to be authentic4 ,it is this ,vulgate alone that is used in the ,romish church1 excepting some passages of the ancient ,vulgate1 which were left in the ,missal and the ,psalms1 and which are still sung according to the old ,italic version4 ,st4 ,jerom declares that1 in his revisal of the ,italic version1 he used great care and circumspection1 never varying from that version but when he thought it misrepresented the sense4 ,but as the ,greek copies to which he had access were not so ancient as those from which the ,italic version had been made1 some learned authors have been of opinion that it would have been much better if he had collected all the copies1 and1 by comparing them1 have restored that translation to its original purity4 ,it is plain that he never completed this work1 and that he even left some faults in it1 for fear of varying too much from the ancient version1 since he renders in his commentaries some words otherwise than he has done in his translation4 ,this version was not introduced into the church but by degrees1 for fear of offending weak persons4 ,rufinus1 notwithstanding his enmity to ,st4 ,jerom1 and his having exclaimed much against this performance1 was one of the first to prefer it to the vulgar or ,italian4 ,this translation gained at last so great an authority1 by the approbation of ,pope ,gregory ,i41 and his declared preference of it to every other1 that it was subsequently brought into public use through all the western churches4 ,although it was not regarded as authentic1 except by the council of ,trent1 it is certainly of some use1 as serving to illustrate several passages both of the ,old and ,new ,testament4 ,the two principal popish editions of the ,vulgate are those of pope ,sixtus ,v4 and ,clement ,,viii43 the former was printed in #aeij1 after ,pope ,sixtus had collected the most ancient ,,mss4 and best printed copies1 summoned the most learned men out of all the nations of the ,christian world1 assembled a congregation of cardinals for their assistance and counsel1 and presided over the whole himself4 ,this edition was declared to be corrected in the very best manner possible1 and published with a tremendous excommunication against every person who should presume ever afterward to alter the least particle of the edition thus authentically promulgated by his holiness1 sitting in that chair1 in qu ,petri vivit potestas1 et excellit auctoritas1 in which the power of ,peter lived1 and his authority excelled4 ,the other edition was published in #aeib1 by ,pope ,clement ,,viii42 which was so different from that of ,sixtus1 as to contain two thousand variations1 some of whole verses1 and many others clearly and designedly contradictory in sense2 and yet this edition is also1 ex cathedr1 from the chair1 pronounced as the only authentic one1 and enforced by the same sentence of excommunication with the former4 ,clement suppressed the edition of his predecessor2 so that copies of the ,sixtine ,vulgate are now very scarce1 and have long been reckoned among literary rarities4 ,our learned countryman1 ,dr4 ,james1 the celebrated correspondent and able coadjutor of ,archbishop ,usher1 relates1 with all the ardour of a hard student1 the delight which he experienced on unexpectedly obtaining a ,sixtine copy2 and he used it to good and effective purpose in his very clever book1 entitled 8,bellum ,papale10 in which he has pointed out numerous additions1 omissions1 contradictions1 and glaring differences between the ,sixtine and ,clementine editions4 ,all the popish champions are exceedingly shy about recognizing this irreconcilable conflict between the productions of two such infallible personages2 and the boldest of them wish to represent it as a thing of nought4 ,but it is no light matter thus to tamper with the word of ,god4 ,the ,romanists generally hold the ,vulgate of the ,new ,testament preferable to the common ,greek text2 because it is this alone1 and not the ,greek text1 that the council of ,trent has declared authentic3 accordingly that church has1 as it were1 adopted this edition1 and the priests read no other at the altar1 the preachers quote no other in the pulpit1 nor the divines in the schools4 ,yet some of their best authors1 ,f4 ,bouhours for instance1 own1 that among the differences that are found between the common ,greek and the ,vulgate1 there are some in which the ,greek reading appears more clear and natural than that of the ,latin2 so that the second might be corrected from the first1 if the holy see should think fit4 ,but those differences1 taken in general1 only consist in a few syllables or words2 they rarely concern the sense4 ,beside1 in some of the most considerable1 the ,vulgate is authorized by several ancient manuscripts4 ,bouhours spent the last years of his life in giving a ,french translation of the ,new ,testament according to the ,vulgate4 ,it is probable that at the time the ancient ,italic or ,vulgate version of the ,new ,testament was made1 and at the time it was afterward compared with the ,greek manuscripts by ,st4 ,jerom1 as they were then nearer the times of the ,apostles1 they had more accurate ,greek copies1 and those better kept1 than any of those used when printing was invented4 8,highly as the ,latin ,vulgate is extolled by the church of ,rome10 says ,michalis1 8it was depreciated beyond measure at the beginning of the sixteenth century by several learned ,protestants1 whose example has been followed by men of inferior abilities4 ,at the restoration of learning1 when the faculty of writing elegant ,latin was the highest accomplishment of a scholar1 the ,vulgate was regarded with contempt1 as not written with classical purity4 ,but after the ,greek manuscripts were discovered1 their readings were preferred to those of the ,latin1 because the ,new ,testament was written in ,greek1 and the ,latin was only a version2 but it was not considered that these ,greek manuscripts were modern in comparison of those originals from which the ,latin was taken2 nor was it known at that time1 that the more ancient the ,greek manuscripts and the other versions were1 the closer was their agreement with the ,vulgate4 ,our ablest writers1 such as ,mill and ,bengel1 have been induced by ,f4 ,simon's treatise to abandon the opinion of their predecessors1 and have ascribed to the ,latin ,vulgate a value perhaps greater than it deserves40 ,,vulture1 1 and 1 ,lev4 xi1 #ad2 ,isa4 xxxiv1 #ae2 a large bird of prey1 somewhat resembling the eagle4 ,there are several birds of the vulturine kind1 which1 though they differ much in respect to colour and dimensions1 yet are all easily distinguished by their naked heads1 and beaks partly straight and partly crooked4 ,they are frequent in ,arabia1 ,egypt1 and many parts of ,africa and ,asia4 ,they have a most indelicate voracity1 preying more upon carrion than live animals4 ,they were declared unclean in the ,levitical constitution4 ,,waldenses1 ,,wallenses1 or ,,albigenses1 the ,vaudois1 or inhabitants of the beautiful valleys of the ,alps1 between ,italy and ,provence4 ,many have supposed that they derived their name from ,peter ,waldo1 or ,valdo1 a merchant of ,lyons1 in the twelfth century1 and one of their leaders and patrons2 but their history has been traced considerably farther back1 which has led others to suppose that1 on the contrary1 he derived his name from them1 as ,peter the ,waldensian1 or ,peter of the ,valleys4 ,the learned ,dr4 ,allix1 in his 8,history of the ,churches of ,piedmont10 gives this account3 ,for three hundred years or more1 the bishop of ,rome attempted to subjugate the church of ,milan under his jurisdiction2 and at last the interest of ,rome grew too potent for the church of ,milan1 planted by one of the disciples2 insomuch that the bishop and the people1 rather than own their jurisdiction1 retired to the valleys of ,lucerne and ,angrogne1 and thence were called ,vallenses1 ,wallenses1 or1 ,the ,people in the ,valleys4 ,from a confession of their faith1 of the early date1 ,a4 ,d4 #aabj1 we extract the following particulars3 #a4 ,that the ,scriptures teach that there is one ,god1 almighty1 all-wise1 and all-good1 who made all things by his goodness2 for he formed ,adam in his own image and likeness2 but that by the envy of the devil sin entered into the world1 and that we are sinners in and by ,adam4 #b4 ,that ,christ was promised to our fathers1 who received the law2 that so knowing by the law their unrighteousness and insufficiency1 they might desire the coming of ,christ1 to satisfy for their sins1 and accomplish the law by himself4 #c4 ,that ,christ was born in the time appointed by ,god the ,father2 that is to say1 in the time when all iniquity abounded1 that he might show us grace and mercy1 as being faithful4 #d4 ,that ,christ is our life1 truth1 peace1 and righteousness2 as also our pastor1 advocate1 and priest1 who died for the salvation of all who believe1 and is risen for our justification4 #e4 ,that there is no mediator and advocate with ,god the ,father1 save ,jesus ,christ4 #f4 ,that after this life there are only two places1 the one for the saved1 and the other for the damned4 #g4 ,that the feasts1 the vigils of saints1 the water which they call holy1 as also to abstain from flesh on certain days1 and the like1 but especially the masses1 are the inventions of men1 and ought to be rejected4 #h4 ,that the sacraments are signs of the holy thing1 visible forms of the invisible grace2 and that it is good for the faithful to use those signs or visible forms2 but that they are not essential to salvation4 #i4 ,that there are no other sacraments but baptism and the ,lord's ,supper4 #aj4 ,that we ought to honour the secular powers by subjection1 ready obedience1 and paying of tribute4 ,on the subject of infant baptism1 they held different opinions1 as ,christians do in the present day4 ,for bearing this noble testimony against the church of ,rome1 these pious people were for many centuries the subjects of a most cruel persecution2 and in the thirteenth century the pope instituted a crusade against them1 and they were pursued with a fury perfectly diabolical4 ,their principles1 however1 continued unsubdued1 and at the ,reformation their descendants were reckoned among the ,protestants1 with whom they were in doctrine so congenial2 but in the seventeenth century the flames of persecution were again rekindled against them by the cruelty of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,at the revocation of the edict of ,nantz1 about fifteen thousand perished in the prisons of ,pignerol1 beside great numbers who perished among the mountains4 ,they received1 however1 the powerful protection and support of ,england under ,william ,,iii4 ,but still the house of ,saxony continued to treat them as heretics1 and they were oppressed by a variety of cruel edicts4 ,when ,piedmont was subjected to ,france in #ahjj1 the ,french government1 ,buonaparte being first consul1 placed them on the same plan of toleration with the rest of ,france2 but on the return of the king of ,sardinia to ,genoa1 notwithstanding the intercession of ,lord ,william ,bentinck1 the old persecuting edicts were revived in the end of #ahad2 and though they have not been subjected to fire and faggot as aforetime1 their worship has been restrained1 and they were not only stripped of all employments1 but1 by a most providential circumstance only1 saved from a general massacre4 ,since then they have been visited by some pious and benevolent ,englishmen2 and the number of ,waldenses1 or ,vaudois1 has been taken at nineteen thousand seven hundred and ten1 beside about fifty families residing at ,turin4 ,mr4 ,milner very properly connects this people with the ,cathari1 or ,paulicians1 of the seventh century1 who resided chiefly in the valleys of ,piedmont1 and who1 in the twelfth century1 according to this valuable historian1 received a great accession of members from the learned labours and godly zeal of ,peter ,waldo1 a pious man of unusual learning for a layman at that period4 ,his thoughts being turned to divine things by the sudden death of a friend1 he applied himself to the study of the ,scriptures1 and was1 according to ,mr4 ,milner1 the first who1 in the west of ,europe1 translated the ,bible into a modern language4 ,waldo was rich1 and distributed his wealth among the poor1 and with it the bread of life1 which endeared him to the lower classes2 and it was probably the great increase of these pious people1 in consequence of his exertions1 which brought upon them the horrible crusade in the next century4 ,this was1 however1 wholly on account of their pretended heresies1--their bitterest enemies bearing testimony to the purity of their life and manners4 ,thus a pontifical inquisitor1 quoted by ,usher1 says1 8,these heretics are known by their manners and conversation2 for they are orderly and modest in their behaviour and deportment2 they avoid all appearance of pride in their dress2 they are chaste1 temperate1 and sober2 they seek not to amass riches2 they abstain from anger2 and1 even while at work1 are either learning or teaching40 ,seysillius1 another popish writer1 says of them1 8,their heresy excepted1 they generally live a purer life than other ,christians40 ,liclenstenius1 a ,dominican1 says1 8,in morals and life they are good2 true in words2 unanimous in brotherly love2 but their faith is incorrigible and vile1 as ,i have shown you in my treatise40 ,but most remarkable is the testimony of ,reinerus1 an inquisitor of the thirteenth century3 8,of all the sects which have been1 or now exist1 none is more injurious to the church1 7that is1 of ,rome17 for three reasons3 #a4 ,because it is more ancient4 ,some say it has continued from the time of ,silvester2 others from the time of the ,apostles4 #b4 ,because it is more general4 ,there is scarcely any country into which this sect has not crept4 #c4 ,because all other heretics excite horror by the greatness of their blasphemies against ,god2 but these have a great appearance of piety1 as they live justly before men1 and believe rightly all things concerning ,god1 and all the articles which are contained in the creed40 ,,war1 or ,,warfare1 the attempt to decide a contest or difference between princes1 states1 or large bodies of people1 by resorting to extensive acts of violence1 or1 as the phrase is1 by an appeal to arms4 ,the ,hebrews were formerly a very warlike nation4 ,the books that inform us of their wars display neither ignorance nor flattery2 but are writings inspired by the ,spirit of truth and wisdom4 ,their warriors were none of those fabulous heroes or professed conquerors1 whose business it was to ravage cities and provinces1 and to reduce foreign nations under their dominion1 merely for the sake of governing1 or purchasing a name for themselves4 ,they were commonly wise and valiant generals1 raised up by ,god 8to fight the battles of the ,lord10 and to exterminate his enemies4 ,such were ,joshua1 ,caleb1 ,gideon1 ,jephthah1 ,samson1 ,david1 ,josiah1 and the ,maccabees1 whose names alone are their own sufficient encomiums4 ,their wars were not undertaken upon slight occasions1 or performed with a handful of people4 ,under ,joshua the affair was of no less importance than to make himself master of a vast country which ,god had given up to him2 and to root out several powerful nations that ,god had devoted to an anathema2 and to vindicate an offended ,deity1 and human nature which had been debased by a wicked and corrupt people1 who had filled up the measure of their iniquities4 ,under the ,judges1 the matter was to assert their liberty1 by shaking off the yoke of powerful tyrants1 who kept them in subjection4 ,under ,saul and ,david the same motives prevailed to undertake war2 and to these were added a farther motive1 of making a conquest of such provinces as ,god had promised to his people4 ,far was it from their intention merely to reduce the power of the ,philistines1 the ,ammonites1 the ,moabites1 the ,idumeans1 the ,arabians1 the ,syrians1 and the several princes that were in possession of those countries4 ,in the later times of the kingdoms of ,israel and ,judah1 we observe their kings bearing the shock of the greatest powers of ,asia1 of the kings of ,assyria and ,chaldea1 ,shalmaneser1 ,sennacherib1 ,esarhaddon1 and ,nebuchadnezzar1 who made the whole east tremble4 ,under the ,maccabees a handful of men opposed the whole power of the kings of ,syria1 and against them maintained the religion of their fathers1 and shook off the yoke of their oppressors1 who had a design both against their religion and liberty4 ,in still later times1 with what courage1 intrepidity1 and constancy1 did they sustain the war against the ,romans1 who were then masters of the world6 ,we may distinguish two kinds of wars among the ,hebrews3 some were of obligation1 as being expressly commanded by the ,lord2 but others were free and voluntary4 ,the first were such as ,god appointed them to undertake3 for example1 against the ,amalekites and the ,canaanites1 which were nations devoted to an anathema4 ,the others were undertaken by the captains of the people1 to revenge some injuries offered to the nation1 to punish some insults or offences1 or to defend their allies4 ,such was that which the ,hebrews made against the city of ,gibeah1 and against the tribe of ,benjamin1 which would support them in their fault2 that which ,david made against the ,ammonites1 whose king had affronted his ambassadors2 and that of ,joshua against the kings of the ,canaanites1 to protect the ,gibeonites4 ,whatever reasons authorize a nation or a prince to make war against another1 obtained1 likewise1 among the ,hebrews2 for all the laws of ,moses suppose that the ,israelites might make war1 and might defend themselves1 against their enemies4 ,when a war was resolved upon1 all the people that were capable of bearing arms were collected together1 or only part of them1 according as the exigence of the existing case and the necessity and importance of the enterprise required4 ,for it does not appear that1 before the reign of ,king ,david1 there were any regular troops or magazines in ,israel4 ,a general rendezvous was appointed1 a review was made of the people by tribes and by families1 and then they marched against the enemy4 ,when ,saul1 at the beginning of his reign1 was informed of the cruel proposal that the ,ammonites had made to the men of the city of ,jabesh-,gilead1 he cut in pieces the oxen belonging to his plough1 and sent them through the country1 saying1 8,whosoever cometh not forth after ,saul and ,samuel1 to the relief of ,jabesh-,gilead1 so shall it be done unto his oxen10 #a ,sam4 xi1 #g4 ,in ancient times1 those that went to war generally carried their own provisions along with them1 or they took them from the enemy4 ,hence these wars were generally of short continuance2 because it was hardly possible to subsist a large body of troops for a long time with such provisions as every one carried along with him4 ,when ,david1 ,jesse's younger son1 stayed behind to look after his father's flocks while his elder brothers went to the wars along with ,saul1 ,jesse sent ,david to carry provisions to his brothers1 #a ,sam4 xvii1 #ac4 ,we suppose that this way of making war prevailed also under ,joshua1 the ,judges1 ,saul1 ,david at the beginning of his reign1 the kings of ,judah and ,israel who were successors to ,rehoboam and ,jeroboam1 and under the ,maccabees1 till the time of ,simon ,maccabus1 prince and high priest of the ,jews1 who had mercenary troops1 that is1 soldiers who received pay1 #a ,mac4 xiv1 #cb4 ,every one also provided his own arms for the war4 ,the kings of the ,hebrews went to the wars in person1 and1 in earlier times1 fought on foot1 as well as the meanest of their soldiers2 no horses being used in the armies of ,israel before ,david4 ,the officers of war among the ,hebrews were the general of the army1 and the princes of the tribes or of the families of ,israel1 beside other princes or captains1 some of a thousand1 some of a hundred1 some of fifty1 and some of ten1 men4 ,they had also their scribes1 who were a kind of commissaries that kept the muster roll of the troops2 and these had others under them who acted by their direction4 ,military fortifications were at first nothing more than a trench or ditch1 dug round a few cottages on a hill or mountain1 together with the mound1 which was formed by the sand dug out of it2 except1 perhaps1 there might have sometimes been an elevated scaffolding for the purpose of throwing stones with the greater effect against the enemy4 ,in the age of ,moses and ,joshua1 the walls which surrounded cities were elevated to no inconsiderable height1 and were furnished with towers4 ,the art of fortification was encouraged and patronized by the ,hebrew kings1 and ,jerusalem was always well defended1 especially ,mount ,zion4 ,in later times the temple itself was used as a castle4 ,the principal parts of a fortification were1 #a4 ,the wall1 which1 in some instances1 was triple and double1 #b ,chron4 xxxii1 #e4 ,walls were commonly made lofty and broad1 so as to be neither readily passed over nor broken through1 ,jer4 li1 #eh4 ,the main wall terminated at the top in a parapet for the accommodation of the soldiers1 which opened at intervals in a sort of embrasures1 so as to give them an opportunity of fighting with missile weapons4 #b4 ,towers1 which were erected at certain distances from each other on the top of walls1 and ascended to a great height1 terminated at the top in a flat roof1 and were surrounded with a parapet1 which exhibited openings similar to those in the parapet of the walls4 ,towers of this kind were erected1 likewise1 over the gates of cities4 ,in these towers guards were kept constantly stationed2 at least1 this was the case in the time of the kings4 ,it was their business to make known any thing that they discovered at a distance2 and whenever they noticed an irruption from an enemy1 they blew the trumpet1 to arouse the citizens1 #b ,sam4 xiii1 #cd2 xviii1 #bf1 #bg2 #b ,kings ix1 #ag-ai2 ,nahum ii1 #a2 #b ,chron4 xvii1 #b4 ,towers1 likewise1 which were somewhat larger in size1 were erected in different parts of the country1 particularly on places which were elevated2 and these were guarded by a military force1 ,judges viii1 #i1ag2 ix1 #df1 #di1 #ea2 ,isaiah xxi1 #f2 ,hab4 ii1 #a2 ,hosea v1 #h2 ,jer4 xxxi1 #f4 ,we find1 even to this day1 that the circular edifices of this sort1 which are still erected in the solitudes of ,arabia ,felix1 bear their ancient name of castles or towers4 #c4 ,the walls were erected in such a way as to curve inward2 the extremities of them1 consequently1 projected outward1 and formed a kind of bastions4 ,the object of forming the walls so as to present such projections1 was to enable the inhabitants of the besieged city to attack the assailants in flank4 ,we learn from the history of ,tacitus1 that the walls of ,jerusalem1 at the time of its being attacked by the ,romans1 were built in this manner4 ,these projections were introduced by ,king ,uzziah1 ,b4,c4 #haj1 and are subsequently mentioned in ,zeph4 i1 #af4 #d4 ,the digging of a fosse put it in the power of the inhabitants of a city to increase the elevation of the walls1 and of itself threw a serious difficulty in the way of an enemy's approach1 #b ,sam4 xx1 #ae2 ,isaiah xxvi1 #a2 ,neh4 iii1 #h2 ,psalm xlviii1 #ac4 ,the fosse1 if the situation of the place admitted it1 was filled with water4 ,this was the case at ,babylon4 #e4 ,the gates were at first made of wood1 and were small in size4 ,they were constructed in the manner of valve doors1 and were secured by means of wooden bars4 ,subsequently1 they were made larger and stronger2 and1 in order to prevent their being burned1 were covered with plates of brass or iron4 ,the bars were covered in the same manner1 in order to prevent their being cut asunder2 but it was sometimes the case that they were made wholly of iron4 ,the bars were secured by a sort of lock1 ,psalm cvii1 #af2 ,isaiah xlv1 #b4 ,previously to commencing war1 the ,heathen nations consulted oracles1 soothsayers1 necromancers1 and also the lot1 which was ascertained by shooting arrows of different colours1 #a ,sam4 xxviii1 #a-aj2 ,isaiah xli1 #ba-bd2 ,ezek4 xxv1 #aa4 ,the ,hebrews1 to whom things of this kind were interdicted1 were in the habit1 in the early part of their history1 of inquiring of ,god by means of ,urim and ,thummim1 ,judges i1 #a2 xx1 #bg1 #bh2 #a ,sam4 xxiii1 #b2 xxviii1 #f2 xxx1 #h4 ,after the time of ,david1 the kings who reigned in ,palestine consulted1 according to the different characters which they sustained1 and the feelings which they exercised1 sometimes true prophets1 and sometimes false1 in respect to the issue of war1 #a ,kings xxii1 #f-ac2 #b ,kings xix1 #b1 c4 ,sacrifices were also offered1 in reference to which the soldiers were said to consecrate themselves to the war1 ,isaiah xiii1 #c2 ,jer4 vi1 #d2 li1 #bg2 ,joel iii1 #i2 ,obad4 #a4 ,there are instances of formal declarations of war1 and sometimes of previous negotiations1 #b ,kings xiv1 #h2 #b ,chron4 xxv1 #bg2 ,judges xi1 #ab-bh2 but ceremonies of this kind were not always observed1 #b ,sam4 x1 #a-ab4 ,when the enemy made a sudden incursion1 or when the war was unexpectedly commenced1 the alarm was given to the people by messengers rapidly sent forth1 by the sound of warlike trumpets1 by standards floating on the loftiest places1 by the clamour of many voices on the mountains1 that echoed from summit to summit1 ,judges iii1 #bg2 vi1 #cd2 vii1 #bb2 xix1 #bi1 #cj2 #a ,sam4 xi1 #g1 #h2 ,isaiah v1 #bf2 xiii1 #b2 xviii1 #c2 xxx1 #ag2 xlix1 #b2 lxii1 #aj4 ,military expeditions commonly commenced in the spring1 #b ,sam4 xi1 #a1 and were continued in the summer1 but in the winter the soldiers went into quarters4 ,the firm persuasion that ,god fights for the good against the wicked1 discovers itself in the ,old ,testament1 and accounts for the fact1 that1 not only in the ,hebrew1 but also in the ,arabic1 ,syriac1 and ,chaldaic languages1 words1 which originally signify justice1 innocence1 or uprightness1 signify likewise victory2 and that words1 whose usual meaning is injustice or wickedness1 also mean defeat or overthrow4 ,the same may be said in respect to words which signify help or aid1 inasmuch as the nation which conquered received aid from ,god1 and ,god was its helper1 ,psalm vii1 #i2 ix1 #i2 xx1 #f2 xxvi1 #a2 xxxv1 #bd2 xliii1 #a2 xliv1 #e2 lxxv1 #c2 lxxvi1 #ac2 lxxviii1 #i2 lxxxii1 #h2 #a ,sam4 xiv1 #de2 #b ,kings v1 #a2 ,isa4 lix1 #ag2 ,hab4 iii1 #h4 ,the attack of the orientals in battle has always been1 and is to this day1 characterized by vehemence and impetuosity4 ,in case the enemy sustain an unaltered front1 they retreat1 but it is not long before they return again with renewed ardour4 ,it was the practice of the ,roman armies to stand still in the order of battle1 and to receive the shock of their opposers4 ,to this practice there are allusions in the following passages3 #a ,cor4 xvi1 #ac2 ,gal4 v1 #a2 ,eph4 vi1 #ad2 ,phil4 i1 #bg2 #a ,thess4 iii1 #h2 #b ,thess4 ii1 #ae4 ,the ,greeks1 while they were yet three or four furlongs distant from the enemy1 commenced the song of war2 something resembling which occurs in #b ,chron4 xx1 #ba4 ,they then raised a shout1 which was also done among the ,hebrews1 #a ,sam4 xvii1 #eb2 ,joshua vi1 #f2 ,isa4 v1 #bi1 #cj2 xvii1 #ab2 ,jer4 iv1 #ai2 xxv1 #cj4 ,the war shout in ,judges vii1 #bj1 was as follows1 8,the sword of the ,lord and of ,gideon40 ,in some instances it seems to have been a mere yell or inarticulate cry4 ,the mere march of armies with their weapons1 chariots1 and trampling coursers1 occasioned a great and confused noise1 which is compared by the prophets to the roaring of the ocean1 and the dashing of the mountain torrents1 ,isa4 xvii1 #ab1 #ac2 xxvii1 #b4 ,the descriptions of battles in the ,bible are very brief2 but although there is nothing especially said1 in respect to the order in which the battle commenced and was conducted1 there is hardly a doubt that the light-armed troops1 as was the case in other nations1 were the first in the engagement4 ,the main body followed them1 and1 with their spears extended1 made a rapid and impetuous movement upon the enemy4 ,hence swiftness of foot in a soldier is mentioned as a ground of great commendation1 not only in ,homer1 but in the ,bible1 #b ,sam4 ii1 #ai-bd2 #a ,chron4 xii1 #h2 ,psalm xviii1 #cc4 ,those who obtained the victory were intoxicated with joy2 the shout of triumph resounded from mountain to mountain1 ,isa4 xlii1 #aa2 lii1 #g1 #h2 ,jer4 #a1 #b2 ,ezek4 vii1 #g2 ,nahum i1 #ae4 ,the whole of the people1 not excepting the women1 went out to meet the returning conquerors with singing and with dancing1 ,judges xi1 #cd-cg2 #a ,sam4 xviii1 #f1 #g4 ,triumphal songs were uttered for the living1 and elegies for the dead1 #b ,sam4 i1 #ag1 #ah2 #b ,chron4 xxxv1 #be2 ,judges v1 #a-ca2 ,exod4 xv1 #a-ba4 ,monuments in honour of the victory were erected1 #b ,sam4 viii1 #ac2 ,psalm lx1 #a2 and the arms of the enemy were hung up as trophies in the tabernacle1 #a ,sam4 xxxi1 #aj2 #b ,kings xi1 #aj4 ,the soldiers who conducted themselves meritoriously were honoured with presents1 and had the opportunity of entering into honourable matrimonial connections1 ,joshua xiv2 #a ,sam4 xvii1 #be2 xxviii1 #ag2 #b ,sam4 xviii1 #aa4 ,see ,,armies1 and ,,arms4 ,,water4 ,in the sacred ,scriptures1 bread and water are commonly mentioned as the chief supports of human life2 and to provide a sufficient quantity of water1 to prepare it for use1 and to deal it out to the thirsty1 are among the principal cares of an oriental householder4 ,the ,moabites and ,ammonites are reproached for not meeting the ,israelites with bread and water2 that is1 with proper refreshments1 ,deut4 xxxiii1 #d4 ,nabal says in an insulting manner to ,david's messengers1 8,shall ,i then take my bread and my water1 and my flesh that ,i have killed for my shearers1 and give it unto men whom ,i know not whence they be80 #a ,sam4 xxv1 #aa4 ,to furnish travellers with water is1 even in present times1 reckoned of so great importance1 that many of the eastern philanthropists have been at considerable expense to procure them that enjoyment4 ,the nature of the climate1 and the general aspect of the oriental regions1 require numerous fountains to excite and sustain the languid powers of vegetation2 and the sun1 burning with intense heat in a cloudless sky1 demands for the fainting inhabitants the verdure1 shade1 and coolness which vegetation produces4 ,hence fountains of living water are met with in the towns and villages1 in the fields and gardens1 and by the sides of the roads and of the beaten tracks on the mountains2 and a cup of cold water from these wells is no contemptible present4 8,fatigued with heat and thirst10 says ,carne1 8we came to a few cottages in a palm wood1 and stopped to drink of a fountain of delicious water4 ,in this northern climate no idea can be formed of the luxury of drinking in ,egypt3 little appetite for food is felt2 but when1 after crossing the burning sands1 you reach the rich line of woods on the brink of the ,nile1 and pluck the fresh limes1 and1 mixing their juice with ,egyptian sugar and the soft river water1 drink repeated bowls of lemonade1 you feel that every other pleasure of the senses must yield to this4 ,one then perceives the beauty and force of those similes in ,scripture1 where the sweetest emotions of the heart are compared to the assuaging of thirst in a thirsty land40 ,in ,arabia1 equal attention is paid1 by the wealthy and benevolent1 to the refreshment of the traveller4 ,on one of the mountains of ,arabia1 ,niebuhr found three little reservoirs1 which are always kept full of fine water for the use of passengers4 ,these reservoirs1 which are about two feet and a half square1 and from five to seven feet high1 are round1 or pointed at the top1 of mason's work1 having only a small opening in one of the sides1 by which they pour water into them4 ,sometimes he found1 near these places of ,arab refreshment1 a piece of a ground shell1 or a little scoop of wood1 for lifting the water4 ,the same attention to the comfort of travellers is manifested in ,egypt1 where public buildings are set apart in some of their cities1 the business of whose inhabitants is to supply the passengers with water free of expense4 ,some of these houses make a very handsome appearance2 and the persons appointed to wait on the passengers are required to have some vessels of copper1 curiously tinned and filled with water1 always ready on the window next the street4 ,some of the ,mohammedan villages in ,palestine1 not far from ,nazareth1 brought ,mr4 ,buckingham and his party bread and water1 while on horseback1 without even being solicited to do so2 and when they halted to accept it1 both compliments and blessings were mutually interchanged4 8,here1 as in every other part of ,nubia10 says ,burckhardt1 8the thirsty traveller finds1 at short distances1 water jars placed by the road side under a low roof4 ,every village pays a small monthly stipend to some person to fill these jars in the morning1 and again toward evening4 ,the same custom prevails in ,upper ,egypt1 but on a larger scale3 and there are caravanserais often found near the wells which supply travellers with water40 ,in ,india the ,hindoos go sometimes a great way to fetch water1 and then boil it1 that it may not be hurtful to travellers that are hot2 and after this stand from morning till night in some great road1 where there is neither pit nor rivulet1 and offer it in honour of their gods1 to be drunk by the passengers4 ,this necessary work of charity in these hot countries seems to have been practised among the more pious and humane ,jews2 and our ,lord assures them1 that if they do this in his name1 they shall not lose their reward4 ,hence a cup of water is a present in the east of great value1 though there are some other refreshments of a superior quality4 ,it is still the proper business of the females to supply the family with water4 ,from this drudgery1 however1 the married women are exempted1 unless when single women are wanting4 ,the proper time for drawing water in those burning climates is in the morning1 or when the sun is going down2 then they go forth to perform that humble office adorned with their trinkets1 some of which are often of great value4 ,agreeably to this custom ,rebecca went instead of her mother to fetch water from the well1 and the servant of ,abraham expected to meet an unmarried female there who might prove a suitable match for his master's son4 ,in the ,east ,indies1 the women also draw water at the public wells1 as ,rebecca did1 on that occasion1 for travellers1 their servants and their cattle2 and women of no mean rank literally illustrate the conduct of an unfortunate princess in the ,jewish history1 by performing the services of a menial1 #b ,sam4 xiii1 #h4 ,the young women of ,guzerat daily draw water from the wells1 and carry the jars upon the head2 but those of high rank carry them upon the shoulder4 ,in the same way ,rebecca carried her pitcher2 and probably for the same reason1 because she was the daughter of an eastern prince1 ,gen4 xxiv1 #de4 ,water sometimes signifies the element of water1 ,gen4 i1 #aj2 and metaphorically1 trouble and afflictions1 ,psalm lxix1 #a4 ,in the language of the prophets1 waters often denote a great multitude of people1 ,isa4 viii1 #g2 ,rev4 xvii1 #ae4 ,water is put for children or posterity1 ,num4 xxiv1 #g2 ,isa4 xlviii1 #a2 for the clouds1 ,psalm civ1 #c4 ,waters sometimes stand for tears1 ,jer4 ix1 #a1 #g2 for the ordinances of the ,gospel1 ,isa4 xii1 #c2 xxxv1 #f1 #g2 lv1 #a2 ,john vii1 #cg1 #ch4 8,stolen waters0 denote unlawful pleasures with strange women1 ,prov4 ix1 #ag4 ,the ,israelites are reproached with having forsaken the fountain of living water1 to quench their thirst at broken cisterns1 ,jer4 ii1 #ac2 that is1 with having quitted the worship of ,god for the worship of false and ridiculous deities4 ,waters of ,meribah1 or the waters of strife1 were so called because of the quarrelling or contention and murmuring of the ,israelites against ,moses and against ,god4 ,when they came to ,kadesh1 and there happened to be in want of water1 they made a sedition against him and his brother ,aaron1 ,numbers xx1 #a1 c4 ,upon this occasion ,moses committed that great sin with which ,god was so much displeased1 that he deprived him of the honour of introducing his people into the land of promise4 ,,wax1 1 ,psalm xxii1 #ad2 lxviii1 #b2 xcvii1 #e2 ,micah i1 #d4 ,thus the ,,lxx4 throughout1 1 and vulgate cera2 so there is no room to doubt but this is the true meaning of the word3 and the idea of the root appears to be soft1 melting1 yielding1 or the like1 which properties are not only well known to belong to wax1 but are also intimated in all the passages of ,scripture in which this word occurs4 ,,wayfaring ,,men4 ,in the primitive ages of the world there were no public inns or taverns4 ,in those days the voluntary exhibition of hospitality to one who stood in need of it was highly honourable4 ,the glory of an open-hearted and generous hospitality continued even after public inns or caravanserais were erected1 and continues to this day in the east1 ,job xxii1 #g2 xxxi1 #ag2 ,gen4 xviii1 #c-i2 xix1 #b-aj2 ,exodus ii1 #bj2 ,judges xix1 #b-aj2 ,acts xvi1 #ae2 xvii1 #g2 xxviii1 #g2 ,matt4 xxv1 #ce2 ,mark ix1 #da2 ,rom4 xii1 #ac2 #a ,tim4 iii1 #b2 v1 #aj2 ,heb4 xiii1 #b4 ,buckingham in his 8,travels among the ,arab ,tribes10 says1 8,a foot passenger could make his way at little or no expense1 as travellers and wayfarers of every description halt at the sheikh's dwelling1 where1 whatever may be the rank or condition of the stranger1 before any questions are asked him as to where he comes from1 or whither he is going1 coffee is served to him from a large pot always on the fire2 and a meal of bread1 milk1 oil1 honey1 or butter1 is set before him1 for which no payment is ever demanded or even expected by the host1 who1 in this manner1 feeds at least twenty persons on an average every day in the year from his own purse2 at least1 ,i could not learn that he was remunerated in any manner for this expenditure1 though it is considered as a necessary consequence of his situation1 as chief of the community1 that he should maintain this ancient practice of hospitality to strangers4--,we had been directed to the house of ,eesa1 or ,jesus4 ,our horses were taken into the court yard of the house1 and unburdened of their saddles1 without a single question being asked on either side2 and it was not until we had seated ourselves that our intention to remain here for the night was communicated to the master of the house3 so much is it regarded a matter of course1 that those who have a house to shelter themselves in1 and food to partake of1 should share those comforts with wayfarers40 ,the passage in ,isa4 xxxv1 #h1 8,the wayfaring men1 though fools1 shall not err therein10 receives elucidation from some of the accounts of modern travellers4 ,irwin1 speaking of his passing through the deserts on the eastern side of the ,nile1 in his going from ,upper ,egypt to ,cairo1 tells us1 that1 after leaving a certain valley1 which he mentions1 their road lay over level ground4 8,as it would be next to an impossibility to find the way over these stony flats1 where the heavy foot of a camel leaves no impression1 the different bands of robbers10 wild ,arabs1 he means1 who frequent that desert1 8have heaped up stones at unequal distances for their direction through this desert4 ,we have derived great assistance from the robbers in this respect1 who are our guides when the marks either fail1 or are unintelligible to us40 8,it was on the #bdth of ,march10 says ,hoste1 8that ,i departed from ,alexandria for ,rosetta3 it was a good day's journey thither1 over a level country1 but a perfect desert1 so that the wind plays with the sand1 and there is no trace of a road4 ,we travel first six leagues along the sea coast2 but when we leave this1 it is about six leagues more to ,rosetta1 and from thence to the town there are high stone or bark pillars1 in a line1 according to which travellers direct their journey40 ,,ways1 in ,scripture1 means conduct3 for example3 8,make your paths straight40 ,the paths of the wicked are crooked4 ,to forsake the ways of the ,lord1 is to forsake his laws4 ,ways also signifies custom1 manners1 and way of life3 8,all flesh had corrupted his way upon the earth10 ,gen4 vi1 #ab2 xix1 #ca2 ,jer4 xxxii1 #ai4 ,the way of the ,lord expresses his conduct to us3 8,my thoughts are not your thoughts1 neither are your ways my ways1 saith the ,lord10 ,isa4 lv1 #h4 ,we find through the whole of ,scripture this kind of expressions3 ,the way of peace1 of justice1 of iniquity1 of truth1 of darkness4 ,to go the way of all the earth1 ,joshua xxiii1 #ad1 signifies dying and the grave4 ,a hard way represents the way of sinners1 a way of impiety1 ,judges ii1 #ai4 ,jesus ,christ is called the ,way1 ,john xiv1 #f1 because it is by him alone that believers obtain eternal life1 and an entrance into heaven4 ,the psalmist says1 8,thou wilt show me the path of life10 ,psalm xvi1 #aa2 that is1 ,thou wilt raise my body from death to life1 and conduct me to the place and state of everlasting happiness4 ,when a great prince in the east sets out on a journey1 it is usual to send a party of men before him1 to clear the way4 ,the state of those countries in every age1 where roads are almost unknown1 and1 from the want of cultivation1 in many parts overgrown with brambles1 and other thorny plants1 which renders travelling1 especially with a large retinue1 very incommodious1 requires this precaution4 ,the emperor of ,hindostan1 in his progress through his dominions1 as described in the narrative of ,sir ,thomas ,roe's embassy to the court of ,delhi1 was preceded by a very great company1 sent before him to cut up the trees and bushes1 to level and smooth the road1 and prepare their place of encampment4 ,balin1 who swayed the imperial sceptre of ,india1 had five hundred chosen men1 in rich livery1 with their drawn sabres1 who ran before him1 proclaiming his approach1 and clearing the way4 ,nor was this honour reserved exclusively for the reigning emperor2 it was often shown to persons of royal birth4 ,when an ,indian princess made a visit to her father1 the roads were directed to be repaired1 and made clear for her journey2 fruit trees were planted1 water vessels placed in the road side1 and great illuminations prepared for the occasion4 ,mr4 ,bruce gives nearly the same account of a journey1 which the king of ,abyssinia made through a part of his dominions4 ,the chief magistrate of every district through which he had to pass was1 by his office1 obliged to have the roads cleared1 levelled1 and smoothed2 and he mentions1 that a magistrate of one of the districts1 having failed in this part of his duty1 was1 together with his son1 immediately put to death on the spot1 where a thorn happened to catch the garment1 and interrupt for a moment the progress of his majesty4 ,this custom is easily recognized in that beautiful prediction3 8,the voice of him that crieth in the wilderness1 ,prepare ye the way of the ,lord1 make straight in the desert a highway for our ,god4 ,every valley shall be exalted1 and every mountain and hill shall be brought low2 and the crooked shall be made straight1 and the rough places plain2 and the glory of the ,lord shall be revealed1 and all flesh shall see it together1 for the mouth of the ,lord hath spoken it10 ,isa4 xl1 #c-e4 ,we shall be able1 perhaps1 to form a more clear and precise idea1 from the account which ,diodorus gives of the marches of ,semiramis1 the celebrated queen of ,babylon1 into ,media and ,persia4 ,in her march to ,ecbatane1 says the historian1 she came to the ,zarcean mountain1 which1 extending many furlongs1 and being full of craggy precipices and deep hollows1 could not be passed without taking a great compass4 ,being therefore desirous of leaving an everlasting memorial of herself1 as well as of shortening the way1 she ordered the precipices to be digged down1 and the hollows to be filled up2 and at great expense she made a shorter and more expeditious road2 which to this day is called1 from her1 the road of ,semiramis4 ,afterward she went into ,persia1 and all the other countries of ,asia subject to her dominion2 and wherever she went1 she ordered the mountains and the precipices to be levelled1 and raised causeways in the plain country1 and at a great expense made the ways passable4 ,whatever may be in this story1 the following statement is entitled to the fullest credit3 8,all eastern potentates have their precursors and a number of pioneers to clear the road1 by removing obstacles1 and filling up the ravines and the hollow ways in their route4 ,in the days of ,mogul splendour1 the emperor caused the hills and mountains to be levelled1 and the valleys to be filled up for his convenience4 ,this beautifully illustrates the figurative language in the approach of the ,prince of ,peace1 when every valley shall be exalted1 and every mountain and hill shall be made low1 and the crooked shall be made straight1 and the rough places plain40 ,,weaving4 ,the combined arts of spinning and weaving are among the first essentials of civilized society1 and we find both to be of very ancient origin4 ,the fabulous story of ,penelope's web1 and1 still more1 the frequent allusions to this art in the sacred writings1 tend to show that the fabrication of cloth from threads1 hair1 c1 is a very ancient invention4 ,it has1 however1 like other useful arts1 undergone a vast succession of improvements1 both as to the preparation of the materials of which cloth is made1 and the apparatus necessary in its construction1 as well as in the particular modes of operation by the artist4 ,weaving1 when reduced to its original principle1 is nothing more than the interlacing of the weft or cross threads into the parallel threads of the warp1 so as to tie them together1 and form a web or piece of cloth4 ,this art is doubtless more ancient than that of spinning2 and the first cloth was what we now call matting1 that is1 made by weaving together the shreds of the bark1 or fibrous parts of plants1 or the stalks1 such as rushes and straws4 ,this is still the substitute for cloth among most rude and savage nations4 ,when they have advanced a step farther in civilization than the state of hunters1 the skins of animals become scarce1 and they require some more artificial substance for clothing1 and which they can procure in greater quantities4 ,when it was discovered that the delicate and short fibres which animals and vegetables afford could be so firmly united together by twisting1 as to form threads of any required length and strength1 the weaving art was placed on a very permanent foundation4 ,by the process of spinning1 which was very simple in the origin1 the weaver is furnished with threads far superior to any natural vegetable fibres in lightness1 strength1 and flexibility2 and he has only to combine them together in the most advantageous manner4 ,in the beautiful description which is given1 in the last chapter of ,solomon's ,proverbs1 of the domestic economy of the virtuous woman1 it is said1 8,she seeketh wool and flax1 and worketh willingly with her hands3 she layeth her hands to the spindle1 and her hands hold the distaff4 ,she maketh herself coverings of tapestry10 c4 ,such is the occupation of females in the east in the present day4 ,not only do they employ themselves in working rich embroideries1 but in making carpets filled with flowers and other pleasing figures4 ,dr4 ,shaw gives us an account of the last3 8,carpets1 which are much coarser than those from ,turkey1 are made here in great numbers1 and of all sizes4 ,but the chief branch of their manufactories is the making of hykes1 or blankets1 as we should call them4 ,the women alone are employed in this work1 7as ,andromache and ,penelope were of old17 who do not use the shuttle1 but conduct every thread of the woof with their fingers40 ,hezekiah says1 8,i have cut off like a weaver my life10 ,isa4 xxxviii1 #ab4 ,mr4 ,harmer suggests whether the simile here used may not refer to the weaving of a carpet filled with flowers and other ingenious devices2 and that the meaning may be1 that1 just as a weaver1 after having wrought many decorations into a piece of carpeting1 suddenly cuts it off1 while the figures were rising into view fresh and beautiful1 and the spectator expecting he would proceed in his work2 so1 after a variety of pleasing transactions in the course of life1 it suddenly and unexpectedly comes to its end4 ,,weeks4 ,a period of seven days1 under the usual name of a week1 1 is mentioned as far back as the time of the deluge1 ,gen4 vii1 #d1 #aj2 viii1 #aj1 #ab2 xxix1 #bg1 #bh4 ,it must1 therefore1 be considered a very ancient division of time1 especially as the various nations among whom it has been noticed1 for instance1 the ,nigri in ,africa1 appear to have received it from the sons of ,noah4 ,the enumeration of the days of the week commenced at ,sunday4 ,saturday was the last or seventh1 and was the ,hebrew ,sabbath1 or day of rest4 ,the ,egyptians gave to the days of the week the same names that they assigned to the planets4 ,from the circumstance that the ,sabbath was the principal day of the week1 the whole period of seven days was likewise called 1 in ,syriac 1 in the ,new ,testament and 4 ,the ,jews1 accordingly1 in designating the successive days of the week1 were accustomed to say1 the first day of the ,sabbath1 that is1 of the week2 the second day of the ,sabbath1 that is1 ,sunday1 ,monday1 c1 ,mark xvi1 #b1 #i2 ,luke xxiv1 #a2 ,john xx1 i1 #ai4 ,in addition to the week of days1 the ,jews had three other seasons1 denominated weeks1 ,lev4 xxv1 #a-ag2 ,deut4 xvi1 #i-aj3 #a4 ,the week of weeks4 ,it was a period of seven weeks or forty-nine days1 which was succeeded on the fiftieth day by the feast of pentecost1 1 8fifty10 ,deut4 xvi1 #i1 #aj4 #b4 ,the week of years4 ,this was a period of seven years1 during the last of which the land remained untilled1 and the people enjoyed a ,sabbath or season of rest4 #c4 ,the week of seven sabbatical years4 ,it was a period of forty-nine years1 and was succeeded by the year of jubilee1 ,lev4 xxv1 #a-bb2 xxvi1 #cd4 ,see ,,year4 ,,weights4 ,see 8,table of ,weights and ,measures0 at the end of the volume4 ,,wells4 ,when the pool1 the fountain1 and the river fail1 the oriental shepherd is reduced to the necessity of digging wells2 and1 in the patriarchal age1 the discovery of water was reckoned of sufficient importance to be the subject of a formal report to the master of the flock1 who commonly distinguished the spot by an appropriate name4 ,a remarkable instance of this kind is recorded by ,moses in these terms3 8,and ,isaac departed thence1 and pitched his tent in the valley of ,gerar1 and dwelt there4 ,and ,isaac digged again the wells of water which they had digged in the days of ,abraham his father2 for the ,philistines had stopped them after the death of ,abraham2 and he called their names after the names by which his father had called them4 ,and ,isaac's servants digged in the valley1 and found there a well of springing water4 ,and the herdmen of ,gerar did strive with ,isaac's herdmen1 saying1 ,the water is ours2 and he called the name of the well ,ezek1 because they strove with him4 ,and they digged another well2 and they strove for that also1 and he called the name of it ,sitnah1 7opposition27 and he removed from thence and digged another well3 and for that they strove not2 and he called the name of it ,rehoboth1 7room27 and he said1 ,for now the ,lord hath made room for us1 and we shall be fruitful in the land10 ,gen4 xxvi1 #ag1 c4 8,strife10 says ,dr4 ,richardson1 8between the different villagers and the different herdsmen here1 exists still1 as it did in the days of ,abraham and ,lot3 the country has often changed masters2 but the habits of the natives1 both in this and other respects1 have been nearly stationary40 ,so important was the successful operation of sinking a well in ,canaan1 that the sacred historian remarks in another passage3 8,and it came to pass the same day1 7that ,isaac and ,abimelech had concluded their treaty17 that ,isaac's servants came and told him concerning the well which they had digged1 and said unto him1 ,we have found water2 and he called it ,shebah1 7the oath17 therefore the name of the city is ,beershebah unto this day10 ,gen4 xxvi1 #cc4 ,to prevent the sand1 which is raised from the parched surface of the ground by the winds1 from filling up their wells1 they were obliged to cover them with a stone4 ,in this manner the well was covered1 from which the flocks of ,laban were commonly watered3 and the shepherds1 careful not to leave them open at any time1 patiently waited till all the flocks were gathered together1 before they removed the covering1 and then1 having drawn a sufficient quantity of water1 they replaced the stone immediately4 ,the extreme scarcity of water in these arid regions1 entirely justifies such vigilant and parsimonious care in the management of this precious fluid2 and accounts for the fierce contentions about the possession of a well1 which so frequently happened between the shepherds of different masters4 ,but after the question of right1 or of possession1 was decided1 it would seem the shepherds were often detected in fraudulently watering their flocks and herds from their neighbour's well4 ,to prevent this1 they secured the cover with a lock1 which continued in use so late as the days of ,chardin1 who frequently saw such precautions used in different parts of ,asia1 on account of the real scarcity of water there4 ,according to that intelligent traveller1 when the wells and cisterns were not locked up1 some person was so far the proprietor that no one dared to open a well or cistern but in his presence4 ,this was probably the reason that the shepherds of ,padanaram declined the invitation of ,jacob to water the flocks1 before they were all assembled2 either they had not the key of the lock which secured the stone1 or1 if they had1 they durst not open it but in the presence of ,rachel1 to whose father the well belonged4 ,it is ridiculous to suppose the stone was so heavy that the united strength of several ,mesopotamian shepherds could not roll it from the mouth of the well1 when ,jacob had strength or address to remove it alone2 or that1 though a stranger1 he ventured to break a standing rule for watering the flocks1 which the natives did not dare to do1 and that without opposition4 ,the oriental shepherds were not on other occasions so passive1 as the violent conduct of the men of ,gerar sufficiently proves4 ,twice in the day they led their flocks to the wells2 at noon1 and when the sun was going down4 ,to water the flocks was an operation of much labour1 and occupied a considerable space of time4 ,it was1 therefore1 an office of great kindness with which ,jacob introduced himself to the notice of his relations1 to roll back the stone which lay upon the mouth of the well1 and draw water for the flocks which ,rachel tended4 ,some of these wells are furnished with troughs and flights of steps down to the water1 and other contrivances to facilitate the labour of watering the cattle4 ,it is evident the well to which ,rebekah went to draw water1 near the city of ,nahor1 had some convenience of this kind2 for it is written1 8,rebekah hasted and emptied her pitcher into the trough1 and ran again unto the well to draw water1 and drew for all his camels10 ,gen4 xxiv1 #bj4 ,a trough was also placed by the well1 from which the daughters of ,jethro watered his flocks1 ,exod4 ii1 #af2 and1 if we may judge from circumstances1 was a usual contrivance in every part of the east4 ,in modern times1 ,mr4 ,park found a trough near the well1 from which the ,moors watered their cattle1 in the sandy deserts of ,sahara4 ,dr4 ,shaw1 speaking of the occupation of the ,moorish women in ,barbary1 says1 8,to finish the day1 at the time of the evening1 even at the time that the women go out to draw water1 they are still to fit themselves with a pitcher or goat skin1 and tying their sucking children behind them1 trudge it in this manner two or three miles to fetch water40 8,the women in ,persia10 says ,morier1 8go in troops to draw water for the place4 ,i have seen the elder ones sitting and chatting at the well1 and spinning the coarse cotton of the country1 while the young girls filled the skins which contain the water1 and which they all carry on their backs into the town40 8,a public well10 says ,forbes1 8without the gate of ,diamonds1 in the city ,dhuboy1 was a place of great resort3 there1 most travellers halted for shade and refreshment3 the women frequented the fountains and reservoirs morning and evening1 to draw water4 ,many of the ,gwzerat wells have steps leading down to the surface of the water2 others have not1 nor do ,i recollect any furnished with buckets and ropes for the convenience of a stranger2 most travellers are therefore provided with them1 and halcarras and religious pilgrims frequently carry a small brass pot affixed to a long string for this purpose40 ,,whale1 and 1 ,gen4 i1 #ba2 ,job vii1 #ab2 ,ezek4 xxxii1 #b2 1 ,matt4 xii1 #dj2 the largest of all the inhabitants of the water4 ,a late author1 in a dissertation expressly for the purpose1 has proved that the crocodile1 and not the whale1 is spoken of in ,gen4 i1 #ba4 ,the word in ,job vii1 #ab1 must also be taken for the crocodile4 ,it must mean some terrible animal1 which1 but for the watchful care of ,divine ,providence1 would be very destructive4 ,our translators render it by dragon in ,isaiah xxvii1 #a1 where the prophet gives this name to the king of ,egypt3 8,he shall slay the dragon that is in the sea40 ,the sea there is the river ,nile1 and the dragon the crocodile1 ,ezek4 xxxii1 #b4 ,on this passage ,bochart remarks1 0,the is not a whale1 as people imagine2 for a whale has neither feet nor scales1 neither is it to be found in the rivers of ,egypt2 neither does it ascend therefrom upon the land2 neither is it taken in the meshes of a net2 all of which properties are ascribed by ,ezekiel to the of ,egypt4 ,whence it is plain that it is not a whale that is here spoken of1 but the crocodile4 ,merrick supposes ,david1 in ,psalm lxxiv1 #ac1 to speak of the tunnie1 a kind of whale1 with which he was probably acquainted2 and ,bochart thinks it has its ,greek name thunnos from the ,hebrew thanot4 ,the last-mentioned fish is undoubtedly that spoken of in ,psalm civ1 #bf4 ,we are told1 that1 in order to preserve the ,prophet ,jonah when he was thrown overboard by the mariners1 8the ,lord prepared a great fish to swallow him up40 ,what kind of fish it was1 is not specified2 but the ,greek translators take the liberty to give us the word 1 whale2 and though ,st4 ,matthew1 xii1 #dj1 makes use of the same word1 we may probably conclude that he did so in a general sense2 and that we are not to understand it as an appropriated term1 to point out the particular species of fish4 ,it is notorious that sharks are common in the ,mediterranean4 ,,wheat1 1 ,gen4 xxx1 #ad2 ,deut4 viii1 #h2 1 ,matt4 xiii1 #be2 ,luke xvi1 #g2 #a ,cor4 xv1 #cg2 the principal and the most valuable kind of grain for the service of man4 7,see ,barley1 and ,fitches47 ,in ,lev4 ii1 directions are given for oblations1 which in our translation are called meat-offerings2 but as meat means flesh1 and all kinds of offerings there specified1 were made of wheat1 it had been better to render it 8wheaten offerings40 ,calmet has observed1 that there were five kinds of these1 simple flour1 oven cakes1 cakes of the fire plate1 cakes of the frying pan1 and green ears of corn4 ,the word 1 translated corn1 ,gen4 xli1 #ce1 and wheat in ,jer4 xxiii1 #bh2 ,joel ii1 #bd2 ,amos v1 #aa1 c1 is undoubtedly the burr1 or wild corn of the ,arabs1 mentioned by ,forskal4 ,,whirlwind1 a wind which rises suddenly from almost every point1 is exceedingly impetuous and rapid1 and imparts a whirling motion to dust1 sand1 water1 and occasionally to bodies of great weight and bulk1 carrying them either upward or downward1 and scattering them about in different directions4 ,whirlwinds and water spouts are supposed to proceed from the same cause2 their only difference being1 that the latter pass over the water1 and the former over the land4 ,both of them have a progressive as well as a circular motion1 generally rise after calms and great heats1 and occur most frequently in warm latitudes4 ,the wind blows in every direction from a large surrounding space1 both toward the water spout and the whirlwind2 and a water spout has been known to pass1 in its progressive motion1 from sea to land1 and1 when it has reached the latter1 to produce all the phenomena and effects of a whirlwind4 ,there is no doubt1 therefore1 of their arising from a similar cause1 as they are both explicable on the same general principles4 ,in the imagery employed by the sacred writers1 these frightful hurricanes are introduced as the immediate instruments of the divine indignation3 8,he shall take them away as with a whirlwind1 both living and in his wrath10 ,psalm lviii1 #i4 8,god shall rebuke them1 and they shall flee far off1 and shall be chased as the chaff of the mountains before the wind1 and like a rolling thing before the whirlwind10 ,isaiah xvii1 #ac4 8,the ,lord hath his way in the whirlwind and in the storm1 and the clouds are the dust of his feet10 ,nahum i1 #c4 ,all these are familiar images to the inhabitants of eastern countries1 and receive some elucidation from the subjoined descriptions of ,english travellers4 8,on the #beth10 says ,bruce1 8at four o'clock in the afternoon1 we set out from the villages of the ,nuba1 intending to arrive at ,basbock1 where is the ferry over the ,nile2 but we had scarcely advanced two miles into the plain1 when we were enclosed in a violent whirlwind1 or what is called at sea the water spout4 ,the plain was red earth1 which had been plentifully moistened by a shower in the night time4 ,the unfortunate camel that had been taken by ,cohala seemed to be nearly in the centre of its vortex2 it was lifted and thrown down at a considerable distance1 and several of its ribs broken2 although1 as far as ,i could guess1 ,i was not near the centre1 it whirled me off my feet1 and threw me down upon my face1 so as to make my nose gush out with blood3 two of the servants1 likewise1 had the same fate4 ,it plastered us all over with mud1 almost as smoothly as could have been done with a trowel4 ,it took away my sense and breathing for an instant2 and my mouth and nose were full of mud when ,i recovered4 ,i guess the sphere of its action to be about two hundred feet4 ,it demolished one half of a small hut1 as if it had been cut through with a knife1 and dispersed the materials all over the plain1 leaving the other half standing40 8,when there was a perfect calm10 observes ,morier1 8partial and strong currents of air would arise1 and form whirlwinds1 which produced high columns of sand all over the plain4 ,those that we saw at ,shiraz were formed and dissipated in a few minutes3 nor is it the nature of this phenomenon to travel far2 it being a current of air that takes its way in a capricious and sudden manner1 and is dissolved by the very nature of its formation4 ,whenever one of them took our tents1 it generally disturbed them very materially1 and frequently threw them down4 ,their appearance was that of water spouts at sea1 and perhaps they are produced in the same manner40 ,and ,burchell remarks3 8,the hottest days are often the most calm2 and at such times the stillness of the atmosphere was sometimes suddenly disturbed in an extraordinary manner4 ,whirlwinds1 raising up columns of dust to a great height in the air1 and sweeping over the plains with momentary fury1 were no unusual occurrence4 ,as they were always harmless1 it was an amusing sight to watch these tall pillars of dust as they rapidly passed by1 carrying up every light substance to the height of from one to even three or four hundred feet4 ,the rate at which they travelled varied from five to ten miles in the hour3 their form was seldom straight1 nor were they quite perpendicular1 but uncertain and changing4 ,whenever they happened to pass over our fire1 all the ashes were scattered in an instant1 and nothing remained but the heavier sticks and logs4 ,sometimes they were observed to disappear1 and in a minute or two afterward to make their re-appearance at a distance farther on4 ,this occurred whenever they passed over rocky ground1 or a surface on which there was no dust1 nor other substances sufficiently light to be carried up in the vortex4 ,sometimes they changed their colour1 according to that of the soil or dust which lay in their march2 and when they crossed a tract of country where the grass had lately been burned1 they assumed a corresponding blackness4 ,but to-day the calm and heat of the air was only the prelude to a violent wind1 which commenced as soon as the sun had sunk1 and continued during the greater part of the night4 ,the great heat and long-protracted drought of the season had evaporated all moisture from the earth1 and rendered the sandy soil excessively light and dusty4 ,astonishing quantities of the finer particles of this sand were carried up by the wind1 and filled the whole atmosphere1 where1 at a great height1 they were borne along by the tempest1 and seemed to be real clouds1 although of a reddish hue2 while the heavier particles1 descending again1 presented1 at a distance1 the appearance of mist or driving rains40 ,,white1 a favourite and emblematical colour in ,palestine4 ,see ,,habits4 ,,widow4 ,among the ,hebrews1 even before the law1 a widow who had no children by her husband was to marry the brother of her deceased spouse1 in order to raise up children who might inherit his goods and perpetuate his name and family4 ,we find the practice of this custom before the law in the person of ,tamar1 who married successively ,er and ,onan1 the sons of ,judah1 and who was likewise to have married ,selah1 the third son of this patriarch1 after the two former were dead without issue1 ,gen4 xxxviii1 #f-aa4 ,the law that appoints these marriages is ,deut4 xxv1 #e1 c4 ,two motives prevailed to the enacting of this law4 ,the first was1 the continuation of estates in the same family2 and the other was to perpetuate a man's name in ,israel4 ,it was looked upon as a great misfortune for a man to die without an heir1 or to see his inheritance pass into another family4 ,this law was not confined to brothers-in-law only1 but was extended to more distant relations of the same kind2 as we see in the example of ,ruth1 who married ,boaz after she had been refused by a nearer kinsman4 ,see ,,sandals4 ,,will4 8,in his primitive condition as he came out of the hands of his ,creator1 man was endowed with such a portion of knowledge1 holiness1 and power1 as enabled him to understand1 esteem1 consider1 will1 and to perform the true good1 according to the commandment delivered to him3 yet none of these acts could he do1 except through the assistance of divine grace4 ,but in his lapsed and sinful state1 man is not capable1 of and by himself1 either to think1 to will1 or to do that which is really good2 but it is necessary for him to be regenerated and renewed in his intellect1 affections or will1 and in all his powers1 by ,god in ,christ through the ,holy ,spirit1 that he may be qualified rightly to understand1 esteem1 consider1 will1 and perform whatever is truly good4 ,when he is made a partaker of this regeneration1 or renovation1 since he is delivered from sin1 he is capable of thinking1 willing1 and doing that which is good1 but yet not without the continued aids of divine grace40 ,such were the sentiments of the often misrepresented ,arminius on this subject2 to which is only to be added1 to complete the ,scriptural view1 that a degree of grace to consider his ways1 and to return to ,god1 is through the merit of ,christ vouchsafed to every man4 ,every one must be conscious that he possesses free will1 and that he is a free agent2 that is1 that he is capable of considering and reflecting upon the objects which are presented to his mind1 and of acting1 in such cases as are possible1 according to the determination of his will4 ,and1 indeed1 without this free agency1 actions cannot be morally good or bad2 nor can the agents be responsible for their conduct4 ,but the corruption introduced into our nature by the fall of ,adam has so weakened our mental powers1 has given such force to our passions1 and such perverseness to our wills1 that a man 8cannot turn and prepare himself by his own natural strength and good works to faith and calling upon ,god40 ,the most pious of those who lived under the ,mosaic dispensation often acknowledged the necessity of extraordinary assistance from ,god3 ,david prays to ,god to open his eyes1 to guide and direct him2 to create in him a clean heart1 and renew a right spirit within him1 ,psalm li1 #aj2 cxix1 #ah1 #cc1 #ce4 ,even we1 whose minds are enlightened by the pure precepts of the ,gospel1 and urged by the motives which it suggests1 must still be convinced of our weakness and depravity1 and confess1 in the words of the tenth article1 that 8we have no power to do good works pleasant and acceptable to ,god1 without the grace of ,god preventing us1 that we may have a good will1 and working with us when we have that good will40 ,the necessity of divine grace to strengthen and regulate our wills1 and to coperate with our endeavours after righteousness1 is clearly asserted in the ,new ,testament3 8,they that are in the flesh cannot please ,god10 ,rom4 viii1 #h4 8,abide in me10 says our ,saviour1 8and ,i in you4 ,as the branch cannot bear fruit of itself1 except it abide in the vine1 no more can ye1 except ye abide in me4 ,i am the vine1 and ye are the branches3 he that abideth in me1 and ,i in him1 the same bringeth forth much fruit2 for without me ye can do nothing10 ,john xv1 #d1 #e4 8,no man can come to me1 except the ,father1 which hath sent me1 draw him40 8,it is ,god that worketh in you1 both to will and to do of his good pleasure10 ,phil4 ii1 #ac4 8,not that we are sufficient of ourselves to think any thing as of ourselves1 but our sufficiency is of ,god10 #b ,cor4 iii1 #e4 8,we know not what to pray for as we ought1 but the ,spirit helpeth our infirmities10 ,rom4 viii1 #bf4 ,we are said to be 8led by the ,spirit10 and to 8walk in the ,spirit10 ,rom4 viii1 #ad2 ,gal4 v1 #af1 #be4 ,these texts sufficiently prove that we stand in need both of a prevenient and of a coperating grace4 ,this doctrine we find asserted in many of the ancient fathers1 and particularly in ,ambrose1 who1 in speaking of the effects of the fall1 uses these words3 8,thence was derived mortality1 and no less a multitude of miseries than of crimes4 ,faith being lost1 hope being abandoned1 the understanding blinded1 and the will made captive1 no one found in himself the means of repairing these things4 ,without the worship of the true ,god1 even that which seems to be virtue is sin2 nor can any one please ,god without ,god4 ,but whom does he please who does not please ,god1 except himself and ,satan8 ,the nature therefore1 which was good is made bad by habit3 man would not return unless ,god turned him40 ,and ,cyprian says1 8,we pray day and night that the sanctification and enlivening1 which springs from the grace of ,god1 may be preserved by his protection40 ,dr4 ,nicholls1 after quoting many authorities to show that the doctrine of divine grace always prevailed in the catholic church1 adds1 8,i have spent1 perhaps1 more time in these testimonies than was absolutely necessary2 but whatever ,i have done is to show that the doctrine of divine grace is so essential a doctrine of ,christianity1 that not only the ,holy ,scriptures and the primitive fathers assert it1 but likewise that the ,christians could not in any age maintain their religion without it1--it being necessary1 not only for the discharge of ,christian duties1 but for the performance of our ordinary devotions40 ,and this seems to have been the opinion of the compilers of our excellent liturgy1 in many parts of which both a prevenient and a coperating grace is unequivocally acknowledged2 particularly in the second collect for the evening service2 in the fourth collect at the end of the communion service2 in the collect for ,easter day2 in the collect for the fifth ,sunday after ,easter2 in the collects for the third1 ninth1 seventeenth1 nineteenth1 and twenty-fifth ,sundays after ,trinity4 ,this assistance of divine grace is not inconsistent with the free agency of men3 it does not place them under an irresistible restraint1 or compel them to act contrary to their will4 ,our own exertions are necessary to enable us to work out our salvation2 but our sufficiency for that purpose is from ,god4 ,it is1 however1 impossible to ascertain the precise boundary between our natural efforts and the divine assistance1 whether that assistance be considered as a coperating or a prevenient grace4 ,without destroying our character as free and accountable beings1 ,god may be mercifully pleased to counteract the depravity of our hearts by the suggestions of his ,spirit2 but still it remains with us to choose whether we will listen to those suggestions1 or obey the lusts of the flesh4 ,we may rest assured that he will1 by the communication of his grace1 varied often as to power and distinctness1 help our infirmities1 invigorate our resolutions1 and supply our defects4 ,the promises that if we draw nigh to ,god1 ,god will draw nigh to us1 and pour out his ,spirit upon us1 ,james iv1 #h2 ,acts ii1 #ag1 and that he will give his ,holy ,spirit to every one that asketh him1 ,luke xi1 #ac1 imply that ,god is ever ready to work upon our hearts1 and to aid our well-doing through the powerful1 though invisible1 operation of his ,spirit3 8,the wind bloweth where it listeth1 and thou hearest the sound thereof1 but canst not tell whence it cometh and whither it goeth2 so is every one that is born of the ,spirit10 ,john iii1 #h4 ,the joint agency of ,god and man1 in the work of human salvation1 is pointed out in the following passage3 8,work out your own salvation with fear and trembling2 for it is ,god that worketh in you both to will and to do of his good pleasure10 ,phil1 ii1 #ab1 #ac2 and therefore we may assure ourselves that free will and grace are not incompatible1 though the mode and degree of their coperation be utterly inexplicable1 and though at different times one may appear for a season to overwhelm the other4 ,this doctrine has1 however1 been the subject of much dispute among ,christians3 some sects contend for the irresistible impulses of grace1 and others reject the idea of any influence of the divine ,spirit upon the human mind4 ,the former opinion seems irreconcilable with the free agency of man1 if held as the constant unvarying mode in which he carries on his work in the soul of man1 and the latter contradicts the authority of ,scripture2 8and therefore10 says ,veneer1 8let us neither ascribe nothing to free will1 nor too much2 let us not1 with the defenders of irresistible grace1 deny free will1 or make it of no effect1 not only before1 but even under1 grace2 nor let us suffer the efficacy of saving grace1 on the other hand1 to be swallowed up in the strength and freedom of our wills2 but1 allowing the government or superiority to the grace of ,god1 let the will of man be admitted to be its handmaid1 but such a one as is free1 and freely obeys2 by which1 when it is freely excited by the admonitions of prevenient grace1 when it is prepared as to its affections1 strengthened and assisted as to its powers and faculties1 a man freely and willingly coperates with ,god1 that the grace of ,god be not received in vain40 8,all men are also to be admonished10 observes ,cranmer1 in his 8,necessary ,doctrine10 8and chiefly preachers1 that in this high matter they1 looking on both sides1 so temper and moderate themselves1 that they neither so preach the grace of ,god that they take away thereby free will1 nor on the other side so extol free will1 that injury be done to the grace of ,god40 ,and ,jortin remarks3 8,thus do the doctrine of divine grace and the doctrine of free will or human liberty unite and conspire1 in a friendly manner1 to our everlasting good4 ,the first is adapted to excite in us gratitude1 faith1 and humility2 the second1 to awaken our caution and quicken our diligence40 ,many1 indeed1 relying on mere abstract arguments1 deny free will1 in the strict meaning of the term1 altogether1 and define the mental faculties of man according to their various fancies4 ,but the existence and nature of our moral and rational powers are and ought to be1 in true philosophy1 the subject of mental observation1 not the sport of hypothesis4 ,those who love metaphysical abstractions may people the worlds of their imagination with beings of whatsoever character they prefer2 but the nature and capabilities of man1 as he really is1 must be determined not by speculation but by experience4 ,it is true that this experience is the object of consciousness1 not of the senses2 and1 accordingly1 each man is1 in some respect1 the judge in his own case1 and may1 if he chooses1 deny his own freedom and his power of self control1 or of using those means which ,god hath appointed to lead to this result4 ,but this is seldom done in ordinary life1 except by those abandoned individuals who seek1 in such a statement1 an excuse for capricious or unprincipled conduct1--an excuse which is never admitted by the majority of reasoning persons1 much less by the truly pious4 ,the latter1 indeed1 will always be found attributing any thing good they achieve to the coperating efficacy of superior assistance4 ,but they will1 with equal sincerity1 blame themselves for what they have done amiss2 or1 in other words1 acknowledge that they should and might have willed and acted otherwise2 and this is exactly the practical question1 the very turning point1 on which the whole controversy hinges4 ,the only competent judges in such a question1 says ,dr4 ,r4 ,h4 ,graves1 are those who have made it the subject of mental observation1 exertion1 and pursuit2 or1 in other words1 those who have sought after righteousness1 under whatever dispensation1 ,acts x1 #ce2 ,romans ii1 #g1 #aj4 ,and surely the confessions1 the prayers1 the repentance1 and the sacrifices1 of the humble and pious of all ages show that they felt1 not only that they were themselves to blame for their actions1 and therefore that they might have done otherwise1 that is1 they had a free will1 but that1 to make this will operative in spiritual matters1 they required an aid beyond the reach of mere human attainment4 ,some may fancy this statement inconsistent in itself2 and ,i allow that it cannot satisfy the mere speculative supporters either of free will or its opponents4 ,but to me it seems the testimony of conscience and experience1 which1 in natural religion1 must1 as ,i conceive1 be preferred to abstract hypothesis4 ,the inquiry is not how the mind may be1 but how it is actually1 constituted4 ,this surely is a question of fact1 not of conjecture1 and must therefore be decided by an appeal to common sense and experience1 not by random speculation4 ,again3 even those who in theory contend for the doctrine of necessity1 yet in all the affairs of life where their interests1 comforts1 or gratifications are concerned1 both speak and act as if they disbelieved it1 and as if they really imagined themselves capable of such self determination and self control1 as to improve their talents1 their opportunities1 and their acquirements1 and so to exercise a material influence on their worldly fortunes4 ,but suppose the assertions of individuals1 as to their consciousness in this particular1 to disagree4 ,it is then evident1 that1 the question being as to the nature of man in general1 it must be determined by the voice of preponderating testimony4 ,but how1 it may be asked1 are the suffrages to be collected8 ,since the judgment of each individual must in this scheme be considered as a separate fact1 how is a sufficiently extensive induction to be made8 ,in answer1 it may be asserted1 that in every civilized nation the induction has been already made1 the suffrages have been taken1 the case has been tried1 and the decision is on record4 ,and the verdict is the most impartial that can be looked for in such a case1 because given without any reference to the controversy in dispute4 ,all human laws1 forbidding1 condemning1 and punishing vicious actions1 are grounded on the acknowledged supposition that man is possessed of a self control1 a self determining power1 by which he could1 both in will and in deed1 have avoided the very actions for which he is condemned1 and in the very circumstances in which he has committed them4 ,nor would it be easy to find a case where the criminal has deceived himself1 or hoped to deceive his judges1 by pleading that he laboured under a fatal necessity1 which rendered his crimes unavoidable1 and therefore excusable4 ,the justice of all legislative enactments evidently and essentially depends on the principle1 that the things prohibited can be avoided1 or1 in other words1 might have been done otherwise than they were done2 and this is the very turning point of the controversy4 ,accordingly1 in whatever instances such freedom of will is not presupposed1 7as in the cases of idiots and madmen17 the operation of such enactments is suspended4 ,all nations1 therefore1 who consent to frame and abide by such laws1 do thereby testify their deliberate and solemn assent to the truth of this principle1 and1 consequently1 to the existence of free will in man2 and do certify the sincerity of their conviction by staking upon it their properties1 their liberties1 and their lives4 ,numberless other instances might be adduced in which the practice of mankind implies their belief in this principle4 ,and so conscious of this are the opponents of free will1 that they generally deprecate appeals to common sense and experience1 and resort to metaphysical arguments to examine what is in truth a matter of truth1 not of conjecture2 or1 in other words1 to determine1 not what man is1 but what they imagine he must be4 ,in their reasonings they differ1 as might have been expected1 as much from each other as they do from truth and reality4 ,but the experience of common sense and conscience will always decide1 that no man can conscientiously make this excuse for his crimes1 that he could not have willed or acted otherwise than he did4 ,the existence of the above faculties in the human mind once acknowledged leads1 by necessary inference1 to the admission1 that there exists in the great ,first ,cause a power to create them4 ,not1 indeed1 that these faculties themselves exist in him in the same manner as in us1 but the power of originating and producing them in all possible variety4 ,we can indeed conclude1 that having created all these in us1 his nature must be so perfect that we cannot attribute to him any line of conduct inconsistent with whatever is excellent in the exercise of these faculties in ourselves4 ,and therefore we cannot ascribe to him1 as his special act1 any thing we should perceive to be unworthy of any just or merciful1 any wise or upright1 being4 ,but this furnishes no clue whatever to a knowledge of the real constitution of his nature1 or of the manner in which his divine attributes exist together4 ,in truth1 we no more comprehend how he wills than how he acts1 and therefore we have no better right to assert that he wills evil than that he does evil4 ,again3 we as little understand how he knows as how he sees1 and therefore might as well argue that all things exist in consequence of his beholding them1 as that all events arise in consequence of his foreknowing them4 ,in short1 all that can be inferred by reason concerning the intrinsic nature of the invisible1 unsearchable ,deity1 must be admitted by the candid inquirer to be no better than conjecture4 ,and he who should hope from such doubtful support as his fancied insight into the unknown operations of the divine mind to suspend a system of irrespective decrees1 embracing the moral government of the world1 would but too much resemble him who should imagine the material globe adequately sustained if upheld by a chain whose highest links were wrapped in clouds and darkness4 ,thus our affirmative knowledge of the ,deity1 as derived from this part of our inquiry1 consists in the certainty1 7though his nature is unknown to us17 that he is the creative source of all that is great1 glorious1 and good in heaven or in earth2 while we may negatively conclude1 that his moral government shall1 on the whole1 be conducted in a manner not inconsistent with whatever is excellent in the exercise of power and wisdom1 justice and mercy1 goodness and truth4 ,nor is it a little important1 as connected with the present inquiry1 to keep in mind this distinction between our affirmative and negative knowledge in this matter4 ,for it shows us that as1 on the one side1 we cannot pretend to such an insight into the nature and character of the divine knowledge as to deduce therefrom a system of eternal and irrespective decrees2 so neither1 on the other1 can this system of moral government be ascribed to the ,deity1 because it would be manifestly unworthy1 not merely of him who has created all moral excellence1 but of any of those beings on whom he has conferred the most ordinary degrees of mercy and justice4 ,the natural benefits or evils arising out of moral or immoral practices are1 in fact1 so many rewards or punishments1 exhibiting the ,being who has so constituted our nature as a moral governor4 ,this part of his government may not be so clearly discernible in individual instances1 because much of the happiness and unhappiness attending virtue and vice is mental and invisible4 ,in the case of nations1 however1 considered merely as bodies politic1 the internal sanction of an approving or reproaching conscience1 of subdued or distracting passions1 can have no existence2 and therefore the external sanctions are more uniformly enforced4 ,hence1 whoever carefully examines the dealings of ,providence with the human race will admit1 that national prosperity has ever kept pace with national wisdom and integrity2 whereas1 the greatest empires1 when once corrupted1 have soon become the prey of internal strife or foreign domination4 ,again3 man is made for society1 and cannot exist without it3 consequently1 all the regulations which are really conducive to the maintenance of civil policy and social order must be regarded as evident consequences of our nature1 when enlightened to the rational pursuit of its own advantage2 and therefore should be considered as intimations of a moral government1 carried on through their intervention4 ,in addition to which1 it ought to be observed1 that these laws may be regarded in another point of view1--as a most important class of moral phenomena2 inasmuch as they virtually exhibit the most unexceptionable declarations of reason on this subject1 because they are collected from the common consent of mankind1 and therefore rendered1 in a great measure1 independent of the obliquities of individual intellect1 the errors of private judgment1 and the partial views of self interest1 prejudice1 or passion4 ,but all the laws of civilized nations1 both in their enactment and administration1 not only presuppose certain notions concerning the freedom and accountableness of man1 the merit and demerit of human actions1 and the inseparable connection of virtue and vice with rewards and punishments1 but greatly contribute to fix and perpetuate these notions4 ,it is therefore evidently the intention of that part of the moral government with which we are acquainted1 to impress these principles deeply on the human mind1 and to induce the human race to regulate their conduct accordingly4 ,the laws1 then1 of this moral government under which we find ourselves placed1 and from which we cannot escape1 correspond with and corroborate the conclusions deduced from the observation of mental phenomena4 ,and from both we conclude that similar principles of government will be adopted1 7so far1 at least1 as man is concerned17 in other worlds and in future ages2 only more developed1 and therefore more evidently free from its present apparent imperfections4 ,upon this account we look1 in another life1 for some such general disclosure and consummation of the ways and wisdom of ,providence as shall vindicate1 even in the minor details1 the grand principles upon which1 generally speaking1 the government of ,god is at present obviously conducted4 ,how this may be done1 with many questions connected therewith1 reason without revelation could1 as ,i conceive1 do little more than form plausible conjectures4 ,though now that it has pleased ,god in ,christ to bring 8life and immortality to light through the ,gospel10 it is possible for reason to estimate the beauty and the mercy and the wisdom of the dispensation by which it has been effected4 ,,wind4 ,the ,hebrews1 like us1 acknowledge four principal winds1 ,ezek4 xiii1 #af-ah3 the east wind1 the north wind1 the south wind1 and the west wind1 or that from the ,mediterranean sea4 ,see ,,whirlwind4 ,,windows4 ,the method of building both in ,barbary and the ,levant seems to have continued the same from the earliest ages4 ,all the windows open into private courts1 if we except sometimes a latticed window or balcony toward the street4 ,it is only during the celebration of some zeenah1 or public festival1 that these houses and their latticed windows are left open2 for this being a time of great liberty1 revelling1 and extravagance1 each family is ambitious of adorning both the inside and outside of their houses with the richest part of their furniture2 while crowds of both sexes1 dressed out in their best apparel1 and laying aside all ceremony and restraint1 go in and out where they please4 ,the account we have1 #b ,kings ix1 #cj1 of ,jezebel's painting her face1 tiring her head1 and looking out at a window upon ,jehu's public entry into ,jezreel1 gives us a lively idea of an eastern lady at one of those solemnities4 ,,wine1 1 ,gen4 xix1 #cb1 1 ,matt4 ix1 #ag1 a liquor expressed from grapes4 ,the art of refining wine upon the lees was known to the ,jews4 ,the particular process1 as it is now practised in the island of ,cyprus1 is described in ,mariti's ,travels4 ,the wine is put immediately from the vat into large vases of potters' ware1 pointed at the bottom1 till they are nearly full1 when they are covered tight and buried4 ,at the end of a year what is designed for sale is drawn into wooden casks4 ,the dregs in the vases are put into wooden casks destined to receive wine1 with as much of the liquor as is necessary to prevent them from becoming dry before use4 ,casks thus prepared are very valuable4 ,when the wine a year old is put in1 the dregs rise1 and make it appear muddy1 but afterward they subside and carry down all the other feculences4 ,the dregs are so much valued that they are not sold with the wine in the vase1 unless particularly mentioned4 ,the 8new wine10 or 8must10 is mentioned1 ,isa4 xlix1 #bf2 ,joel i1 #e2 iii1 #ah2 and ,amos ix1 #ac1 under the name 4 ,the 8mixed wine10 1 ,prov4 xxiii1 #cj1 and in ,isaiah lxv1 #aa rendered 8drink-offering10 may mean wine made stronger and more inebriating by the addition of higher and more powerful ingredients1 such as honey1 spices1 defrutum1 or wine inspissated by boiling it down1 myrrh1 mandragora1 and other strong drugs4 ,thus the drunkard is properly described as one that seeketh 8mixed wine10 ,prov4 xxiii1 #cj1 and is mighty to 8mingle strong drink10 ,isa4 v1 #bb2 and hence the psalmist took that highly poetical and sublime image of the cup of ,god's wrath1 called by ,isaiah1 li1 #ag1 8the cup of trembling10 containing1 as ,st4 ,john expresses it1 ,rev4 xiv1 #aj1 pure wine made yet stronger by a mixture of powerful ingredients3 8,in the hand of ,jehovah is a cup1 and the wine is turbid2 it is full of a mixed liquor1 and he poureth out of it10 or rather1 8he poureth it out of one vessel into another10 to mix it perfectly2 8verily the dregs thereof10 the thickest sediment of the strong ingredients mingled with it1 8all the ungodly of the earth shall wring them out1 and drink them40 8,spiced wine10 ,cant4 viii1 #b1 was wine rendered more palatable and fragrant with aromatics4 ,this was considered as a great delicacy4 ,spiced wines were not peculiar to the ,jews2 ,hafiz speaks of wines 8richly bitter1 richly sweet40 ,the ,romans lined their vessels1 amphor1 with odorous gums1 to give the wine a warm bitter flavour3 and the orientals now use the admixture of spices to give their wines a favourite relish4 ,the 8wine of ,helbon10 ,ezek4 xxvii1 #ah1 was an excellent kind of wine1 known to the ancients by the name of chalibonium vinum4 ,it was made at ,damascus2 the ,persians had planted vineyards there on purpose1 says ,posidosius1 quoted by ,athenus4 ,this author says that the kings of ,persia used no other wine4 ,hosea1 xiv1 #g1 mentions the wine of ,lebanon4 ,the wines from the vineyards on that mount are even to this day in repute2 but some think that this may mean a sweet-scented wine1 or wine flavoured with fragrant gums4 ,,wine ,,press4 ,the vintage in ,syria commences about the middle of ,september1 and continues till the middle of ,november4 ,but grapes in ,palestine1 we are informed1 were ripe sometimes even in ,june or ,july1 which arose perhaps from a triple pruning1 in which case there was also a third vintage4 ,the first vintage was in ,august1 the second in ,september1 and the third in ,october4 ,the grapes when not gathered were sometimes found on the vines until ,november and ,december4 ,the ,hebrews were required to leave gleanings for the poor1 ,lev4 xix1 #aj4 ,the season of vintage was a most joyful one1 ,judges ix1 #bg2 ,isaiah xvi1 #aj2 ,jer4 xxv1 #cj2 xlviii1 #cc4 ,with shoutings on all sides1 the grapes were plucked off and carried to the wine press1 1 1 1 which was in the vineyard1 ,isa4 liii1 #c2 ,zech4 xiv1 #aj2 ,haggai ii1 #af2 ,matt4 xxi1 #cc2 ,rev4 xiv1 #ai1 #bj4 ,the presses consisted of two receptacles1 which were either built of stones and covered with plaster1 or hewn out of a large rock4 ,the upper receptacle1 called 1 as it is constructed at the present time in ,persia1 is nearly eight feet square and four feet high4 ,into this the grapes are thrown and trodden out by five men4 ,the juice flows out into the lower receptacle1 through a grated aperture1 which is made in the side near the bottom of the upper one4 ,the treading of the wine press was laborious1 and not very favourable to cleanliness2 the garments of the persons thus employed were stained with the red juice1 and yet the employment was a joyful one4 ,it was performed with singing1 accompanied with musical instruments2 and the treaders1 as they jumped1 exclaimed1 1 ,isa4 xvi1 #i1 #aj2 ,jer4 xxv1 #cj2 xlviii1 #cb1 #cc4 ,figuratively1 vintage1 gleaning1 and treading the wine press1 signified battles and great slaughters1 ,isa4 xvii1 #f2 lxiii1 #a-c2 ,jer4 xlix1 #i2 ,lam4 i1 #ae4 ,the must1 as is customary in the east at the present day1 was preserved in large firkins1 which were buried in the earth4 ,the wine cellars were not subterranean1 but built upon the earth4 ,when deposited in these1 the firkins1 as is done at the present time in ,persia1 were sometimes buried in the ground1 and sometimes left standing upon it4 ,formerly1 also1 new wine or must was preserved in leathern bottles2 and1 lest they should be broken by fermentation1 the people were very careful that the bottles should be new1 ,job xxxii1 #ai2 ,matt4 ix1 #ag2 ,mark ii1 #bb4 ,sometimes the must was boiled and made into syrup1 which is comprehended under the term 1 although it is commonly rendered 8honey10 ,gen4 xliii1 #aa2 #b ,chron4 xxxi1 #e4 ,sometimes the grapes were dried in the sun and preserved in masses1 which were called 8bunches or clusters of raisins10 #a ,sam4 xxv1 #ah2 #b ,sam4 xvi1 #a2 #a ,chron4 xii1 #dj2 ,hosea iii1 #a4 ,from these dried grapes1 when soaked in wine and pressed a second time1 was manufactured sweet wine1 which is also called new wine1 1 ,acts ii1 #ac4 ,,wisdom is put for that prudence and discretion which enables a man to perceive that which is fit to be done1 according to the circumstances of time1 place1 persons1 manners1 and end of doing1 ,eccles4 ii1 #ac1 #ad4 ,it was this sort of wisdom that ,solomon intreated of ,god with so much earnestness1 and which ,god granted him with such divine liberality1 #a ,kings iii1 #i1 #ab1 #bh4 ,it also signifies quickness of invention1 and dexterity in the execution of several works1 which require not so much strength of body1 as industry1 and labour of the mind4 ,for example1 ,god told ,moses1 ,exod4 xxxi1 #c1 that he had filled ,bezaleel and ,aholiab with wisdom1 and understanding1 and knowledge1 to invent and perform several sorts of work for completing the tabernacle4 ,it is used for craft1 cunning1 and stratagem1 and that whether good or evil4 ,thus it is said by ,moses1 that ,pharaoh dealt wisely with the ,israelites1 when he opposed them in ,egypt1 ,exodus i1 #aj3 it is observed of ,jonadab1 the friend of ,ammon1 and nephew of ,david1 that he was very wise1 that is1 very subtle and crafty1 #b ,sam4 xiii1 #c2 and ,job1 v1 #ac1 says1 that ,god 8taketh the wise in their own craftiness40 ,wisdom means also doctrine1 learning1 and experience3 8,with the ancient is wisdom1 and in length of days understanding10 ,job xii1 #ab4 ,it is put for true piety1 or the fear of ,god1 which is spiritual wisdom3 8,so teach us to number our days1 that we may apply our hearts unto wisdom10 ,psalm xc1 #ab2 8,the fear of the ,lord that is wisdom10 ,job xxvii1 #bh4 ,wisdom is put for the eternal ,wisdom1 the ,word of ,god4 ,it was by wisdom that ,god established the heavens1 and founded the earth1 ,prov4 iii1 #ai4 ,how magnificently does ,solomon describe the primeval birth of the eternal ,son of ,god1 under the character of ,wisdom personified2 to which so many references and allusions are to be found in the ,old and ,new ,testament6 8,the ,lord possessed me in the beginning of his way1 before his works of old4 ,i was set up from everlasting1 from the beginning1 or ever the earth was4 ,when there were no depths1 ,i was brought forth2 when there were no fountains abounding with water4 ,before the mountains were settled1 before the hills was ,i brought forth10 ,prov4 viii1 #bb-be4 ,the apocryphal book of ,wisdom introduces1 by a reference to this passage1 the following admirable invocation1 ,wisdom ix1 #i1 #aj3-- 8,o send forth wisdom1 out of thy holy heavens1 ,even from the throne of thy glory2 ,that being present she may labour with me1 ,that ,i may know what is pleasing in thy sight60 ,and our ,lord assumes the title of ,wisdom1 ,luke xi1 #di2 ,matt4 xxiii1 #cd2 and declares that 8wisdom shall be justified of all her children10 ,matt4 xi1 #ai2 ,luke vii1 #ce4 ,,wisdom1 ,,book ,,of1 an apocryphal book of ,scripture1 so called on account of the wise maxims contained in it4 ,this book has been commonly ascribed to ,solomon1 either because the author imitated that king's manner of writing1 or because he sometimes speaks in his name4 ,but it is certain ,solomon was not the author of it2 for it was not written in ,hebrew1 nor was it inserted in the ,jewish canon1 nor is the style like that of ,solomon2 and therefore ,st4 ,jerom observes justly that it smells strong of the ,grecian eloquence2 that it is composed with art and method1 after the manner of the ,greek philosophers1 very different from that noble simplicity so full of life and energy to be found in the ,hebrew books4 ,it has been ascribed by many of the ancients to ,philo4 ,,wolf1 1 in ,arabic1 zeeb1 ,gen4 xlix1 #bg2 ,isa4 xi1 #f2 lxv1 #be2 ,jer4 v1 #f2 ,ezek4 xxii1 #bg2 ,zeph4 iii1 #c2 ,hab4 i1 #h2 1 ,matt4 vii1 #ae2 x1 #af2 ,luke x1 #c2 ,john x1 #ab2 ,acts xx1 #bi2 ,eccles4 xiii1 #ag4 ,m4 ,majus derives it from the ,arabic word zaab or daaba1 8to frighten20 and hence1 perhaps1 the ,german word dieb1 8a thief40 ,the wolf is a fierce1 strong1 cunning1 mischievous1 and carnivorous quadruped2 externally and internally so nearly resembling the dog1 that they seem modelled alike1 yet have a perfect antipathy to each other4 ,the ,scripture observes of the wolf1 that it lives upon rapine2 is violent1 bloody1 cruel1 voracious1 and greedy2 goes abroad by night to seek its prey1 and is a great enemy to flocks of sheep4 ,indeed1 this animal is fierce without cause1 kills without remorse1 and by its indiscriminate slaughter seems to satisfy its malignity rather than its hunger4 ,the wolf is weaker than the lion or the bear1 and less courageous than the leopard2 but he scarcely yields to them in cruelty and rapaciousness4 ,his ravenous temper prompts him to destructive and sanguinary depredations2 and these are perpetrated principally in the night4 ,this circumstance is expressly mentioned in several passages of ,scripture4 8,the great men have altogether broken the yoke and burst the bonds2 wherefore1 a lion out of the forest shall slay them1 and a wolf of the evenings shall spoil them10 ,jer4 v1 #f4 ,the rapacious and cruel conduct of the princes of ,israel is compared by ,ezekiel1 xxii1 #bg1 to the mischievous inroads of the same animal3 8,her princes in the midst thereof are like wolves ravening the prey1 to shed blood1 to destroy lives1 to get dishonest gain20 and ,zephaniah1 iii1 #c1 says1 8,her princes within her are roaring lions1 her judges are evening wolves3 they gnaw not the bones till the morrow40 ,instead of protecting the innocent and restraining the evil doer1 or punishing him according to the demerit of his crimes1 they delight in violence and oppression1 in blood and rapine2 and so insatiable is their cupidity1 that1 like the evening wolf1 they destroy more than they are able to possess4 ,the dispositions of the wolf to attack the weaker animals1 especially those which are under the protection of man1 is alluded to by our ,saviour in the parable of the hireling shepherd3 8,the wolf catcheth them1 and scattereth the flock10 ,matt4 vii1 #ae4 ,and the ,apostle ,paul1 in his address to the elders of ,ephesus1 gives the name of this insidious and cruel animal to the false teachers who disturbed the peace and perverted the faith of their people3 8,i know this1 that after my departing shall grievous wolves enter in among you1 not sparing the flock10 ,acts xx1 #bi4 ,,word4 ,sometimes the ,scripture ascribes to the word of ,god certain supernatural effects1 and often represents it as animated and active3 8,he sent his word and healed them10 ,psalm cvii1 #bj4 ,it also signifies what is written in the sacred books of the ,old and ,new ,testament1 ,luke xi1 #bh2 ,james i1 #bb2 the divine law which teaches and commands good things1 and forbids evil1 ,psalm cxix1 #aja2 and is used to express every promise of ,god1 ,psalm cxix1 #be1 c1 and prophecy or vision1 ,isaiah1 ii1 #a4 ,this term is likewise consecrated and appropriated to signify the only ,son of the ,father1 the uncreated ,wisdom1 the second ,person of the most holy ,trinity1 equal to and consubstantial with the ,father4 ,st4 ,john the evangelist1 more expressly than any other1 has opened to us the mystery of the ,word of ,god1 when he tells us1 8,in the beginning was the ,word1 and the ,word was with ,god1 and the ,word was ,god4 ,the same was in the beginning with ,god4 ,all things were made by him1 and without him was not any thing made that was made10 ,john i1 #a-c4 ,the ,chaldee paraphrasts1 the most ancient ,jewish writers extant1 generally make use of the word memra1 which signifies 8the ,word10 in those places where ,moses puts the name ,jehovah4 ,they say1 for example1 that it was the ,memra1 or the ,word1 which created the world1 which appeared to ,moses on ,mount ,sinai1 which gave him the law1 which spoke to him face to face1 which brought ,israel out of ,egypt1 which marched before the people1 and which wrought all those miracles that are recorded in ,exodus4 ,it was the same ,word that appeared to ,abraham in the plain of ,mamre1 that was seen of ,jacob at ,bethel1 to whom ,jacob made his vow1 and acknowledged as ,god1 saying1 8,if ,god will be with me1 and will keep me in this way that ,i go1 then shall the ,lord be my ,god10 ,gen4 xxviii1 #bj1 #ba4 ,the manner in which ,st4 ,john commences his ,gospel is strikingly different from the introductions to the histories of ,christ by the other evangelists2 and no less striking and peculiar is the title under which he announces him--8the ,word40 ,it has therefore been a subject of much inquiry and discussion1 from whence this evangelist drew the use of this appellation1 and what reasons led him1 as though intending to solicit particular attention1 to place it at the very head of his ,gospel4 ,that it was for the purpose of establishing an express opinion1 as to the personal character of him it is used to designate1 is made more than probable from the predominant character of the whole ,gospel1 which is more copiously doctrinal1 and contains a record more full of what ,jesus 8said0 than the others4 ,as to the source from which the term ,logos was drawn by the ,apostle1 some have held it to be taken from the ,jewish ,scriptures2 others1 from the ,chaldee paraphrases2 others1 from ,philo and the ,hellenizing ,jews4 ,the most natural conclusion certainly appears to be1 that1 as ,st4 ,john was a plain1 8unlearned0 man1 chiefly conversant in the ,holy ,scriptures1 he derived this term from the sacred books of his own nation1 in which the ,hebrew phrase1 ,dabar ,jehovah1 8the ,word of ,jehovah10 frequently occurs in passages which must be understood to speak of a personal ,word1 and which phrase is rendered the word of the ,lord by the ,septuagint interpreters4 ,certainly1 there is not the least evidence in his writings1 or in his traditional history1 that he ever acquainted himself with ,philo or with ,plato2 and none1 therefore1 that he borrowed the term from them1 or used it in any sense approaching to or suggested by these refinements3--in the writings of ,st4 ,paul there are allusions to poets and philosophers2 in those of ,st4 ,john1 none1 except to the rising sects afterward known under the appellation of ,gnostics4 ,the ,hebrew ,scriptures contain frequent intimations of a distinction of ,persons in the ,godhead2 one of these ,divine ,persons is called ,jehovah2 and1 though manifestly represented as existing distinct from the ,father1 is yet arrayed with attributes of divinity1 and was acknowledged by the ancient ,jews to be1 in the highest sense1 8their ,god10 the ,god with whom1 through all their history1 they chiefly 8had to do40 ,this ,divine ,person is proved to have been spoken of by the prophets as the future ,christ2 the evangelists and ,apostles represent ,jesus as that ,divine ,person of the prophets2 and if1 in the writings of the ,old ,testament1 he is also called the ,word1 the application of this term to our ,lord is naturally accounted for4 ,it will then appear to be a theological1 not a philosophic appellation1 and one which1 previously even to the time of the ,apostle1 had been stamped with the authority of inspiration4 ,celebrated as this title of the ,logos was in the ,jewish theology1 it is not1 however1 the appellation by which the ,spirit of inspiration has chosen that our ,saviour should be principally designated4 ,it occurs but a very few times1 and principally and emphatically in the introduction to ,st4 ,john's ,gospel4 ,a cogent reason can be given why this ,apostle adopts it2 and we are not without a probable reason why1 in the ,new ,testament1 the title 8,son of ,god0 should have been preferred1 which is a frequent title of the ,logos in the writings also of ,philo4 ,originating from the spiritual principle of connection1 between the first and the second ,being in the ,godhead2 marking this1 by a spiritual idea of connection2 and considering it to be as close and as necessary as the ,word is to the energetic mind of ,god1 which cannot bury its intellectual energies in silence1 but must put them forth in speech2 it is too spiritual in itself1 to be addressed to the faith of the multitude4 ,if with so full a reference to our bodily ideas1 and so positive a filiation of the second ,being to the first1 we have seen the attempts of ,arian criticism endeavouring to resolve the doctrine into the mere dust of a figure2 how much more ready would it have been to do so1 if we had only such a spiritual denomination as this for the second6 ,this would certainly have been considered by it as too unsubstantial for distinct personality1 and therefore too evanescent for equal divinity4 ,one of the first teachers of this system was ,cerinthus4 ,we have not any particular account of all the branches of his system2 and it is possible that we may ascribe to him some of those tenets by which later sects of ,gnostics were discriminated4 ,but we have authority for saying1 that the general principle of the ,gnostic scheme was openly taught by ,cerinthus before the publication of the ,gospel of ,st4 ,john4 ,the authority is that of ,irenus1 a bishop who lived in the second century1 who in his youth had heard ,polycarp1 the disciple of the ,apostle ,john1 and who retained the discourses of ,polycarp in his memory till his death4 ,there are yet extant of the works of ,irenus1 five books which he wrote against heresies1 one of the most authentic and valuable monuments of theological erudition4 ,in one place of that work he says1 that ,cerinthus taught in ,asia that the world was not made by the ,supreme ,god1 but by a certain power very separate and far removed from the ,sovereign of the universe1 and ignorant of his nature4 ,in another place1 he says that ,john the ,apostle wished1 by his ,gospel1 to extirpate the error which had been spread among men by ,cerinthus2 and ,jerom1 who lived in the fourth century1 says that ,st4 ,john wrote his ,gospel1 at the desire of the bishops of ,asia1 against ,cerinthus and other heretics1 and chiefly against the doctrines of the ,ebionites1 then springing up1 who said that ,christ did not exist before he was born of ,mary4 8,it appears10 says ,dr4 ,hill1 8to have been the tradition of the ,christian church1 that ,st4 ,john1 who lived to a great age1 and who resided at ,ephesus1 in ,proconsular ,asia1 was moved by the growth of the ,gnostic heresies1 and by the solicitations of the ,christian teachers1 to bear his testimony to the truth in writing1 and particularly to recollect those discourses and actions of our ,lord1 which might furnish the clearest refutation of the persons who denied his prexistence4 ,this tradition is a key to a great part of his ,gospel4 ,matthew1 ,mark1 and ,luke had given a detail of those actions of ,jesus which are the evidences of his divine mission2 of those events in his life upon earth which are most interesting to the human race2 and of those moral discourses in which the wisdom1 the grace1 and the sanctity of the ,teacher shine with united lustre4 ,their whole narration implies that ,jesus was more than man4 ,but as it is distinguished by a beautiful simplicity1 which adds very much to their credit as historians1 they have not1 with the exception of a few incidental expressions1 formally stated the conclusion that ,jesus was more than man2 but have left the ,christian world to draw it for themselves from the facts narrated1 or to receive it by the teaching and the writings of the ,apostles4 ,st4 ,john1 who was preserved by ,god to see this conclusion1 which had been drawn by the great body of ,christians1 and had been established in the epistles1 denied by different heretics1 brings forward1 in the form of a history of ,jesus1 a view of his exalted character1 and draws our attention particularly to the truth of that which had been denied4 ,when you come to analyze the ,gospel of ,st4 ,john1 you will find that the first eighteen verses contain the positions laid down by the ,apostle1 in order to meet the errors of ,cerinthus2 that these positions1 which are merely affirmed in the introduction1 are proved in the progress of the ,gospel1 by the testimony of ,john the ,baptist1 and by the words and the actions of our ,lord2 and that after the proof is concluded by the declaration of ,thomas1 who1 upon being convinced that ,jesus had risen1 said to him1 #8,my ,lord1 and my ,god1' ,st4 ,john sums up the amount of his ,gospel in these few words3 #8,these are written that ye might believe that ,jesus is the ,christ1 the ,son of ,god2' that is1 that ,jesus and the ,christ are not distinct persons1 and that ,jesus ,christ is the ,son of ,god4 ,the ,apostle does not condescend to mention the name of ,cerinthus1 because that would have preserved1 as long as the world lasts1 the memory of a name which might otherwise be forgotten4 ,but1 although there is dignity and propriety in omitting the mention of his name1 it was necessary1 in laying down the positions that were to meet his errors1 to adopt some of his words1 because the ,christians of those days would not so readily have applied the doctrine of the ,apostle to the refutation of those heresies which ,cerinthus was spreading among them1 if they had not found in the exposition of that doctrine some of the terms in which the heresy was delivered2 and as the chief of these terms1 ,logos1 which ,cerinthus applied to an inferior spirit1 was equivalent to a phrase in common use among the ,jews1 #8the ,word of ,jehovah1' and was probably borrowed from thence1 ,john by his use of ,logos rescues it from the degraded use of ,cerinthus1 and restores it to a sense corresponding to the dignity of the ,jewish phrase40 ,the ,logos was no fanciful term1 merely invented by ,st4 ,john1 pro re nat1 according to circumstances1 or even suggested by the ,holy ,spirit1 as a suitable title for a prophet by whom ,god chose to reveal himself or his ,word4 ,it was a term diversely understood in the world before ,st4 ,john began his ,gospel4 ,is it possible1 therefore1 that he should have used the term without some express allusion to these prevailing opinions8 ,had he contradicted them all1 it would1 of course1 have been a plain proof1 that they were all equally fabulous and fanciful2 but by adopting the term1 he certainly meant to show1 that the error did not consist in believing that there was a ,logos1 or ,word of ,god1 but in thinking amiss of it4 ,we might1 indeed1 have wondered much had he decidedly adopted the ,platonic or ,gnostic notions1 in preference to the ,jewish2 but that he should harmonize with the latter1 is by no means surprising2 first1 because he was a ,jew himself2 and1 secondly1 because ,christianity was plainly to be shown to be connected with1 and1 as it were1 regularly to have sprung out of1 ,judaism4 ,it is certainly1 then1 in the highest degree consistent with all we could reasonably expect1 to find ,st4 ,john and others of the sacred writers expressing themselves in terms not only familiar to the ,jews under the old covenant1 but1 in such as might tend1 by a perfect revelation of the truth1 to give instruction to all parties2 correcting the errors of the ,platonic and oriental systems1 and confirming1 in the clearest manner1 the hopes and expectations of the ,jews4 ,while the reasons for the use of this term by ,st4 ,john are obvious1 the argument from it is irresistible2 for1 first1 the ,logos of the evangelist is a person1 not an attribute1 as many ,socinians have said1 who have1 therefore1 sometimes chosen to render it wisdom4 ,for if it be an attribute1 it were a mere truism to say1 that 8it was in the beginning with ,god20 because ,god could never be without his attributes4 ,the ,apostle also declares1 that the ,logos was the ,light2 but that ,john ,baptist was not the light4 ,here is a kind of parallel supposed1 and it presumes1 also1 that it was possible that the same character might be erroneously ascribed to both4 ,between person and person this may1 undoubtedly1 be the case2 but what species of parallel can exist between man and an attribute8 ,nor will the difficulty be obviated by suggesting1 that wisdom here means not the attribute itself1 but him whom that attribute inspired1 the man ,jesus ,christ1 because the name of our ,saviour has not yet been mentioned2 because that rule of interpretation must be inadmissible1 which at one time would explain the term ,logos by an attribute1 at another by a man1 as best suits the convenience of hypothesis2 and because1 if it be1 in this instance1 conceived to indicate our ,saviour1 it must follow1 that our ,saviour created the world1 7which the ,unitarians will by no means admit17 for the ,logos1 who was that which ,john the ,baptist was not1 the true ,light1 is expressly declared to have made the world4 ,again3 the ,logos was made flesh1 that is1 became man2 but in what possible sense could an attribute become man8 ,the ,logos is 8the only begotten of the ,father20 but it would be uncouth to say of any attribute1 that it is begotten2 and1 if that were passed over1 it would follow1 from this notion1 either that ,god has only one attribute1 or that wisdom is not his only begotten attribute4 ,farther3 ,st4 ,john uses terms decisively personal1 as that he is ,god1 not divine as an attribute1 but ,god personally2 not that he was in ,god1 which would properly have been said of an attribute1 but with ,god1 which he could only say of a person2 that 8all things were made by him20 that he was 8in the world20 that 8he came to his own20 that he was 8in the bosom of the ,father20 and that 8he hath declared the ,father40 ,the absurdity of representing the ,logos of ,st4 ,john as an attribute seems1 at length1 to have been perceived by the ,socinians themselves1 and their new version accordingly regards it as a personal term4 ,if the ,logos be a person1 then is he ,divine2 for1 first1 eternity is ascribed to him3 8,in the beginning was the ,word40 ,the ,unitarian comment is1 8from the beginning of his ministry10 or 8the commencement of the ,gospel dispensation20 which makes ,st4 ,john use another trifling truism1 and solemnly tell his readers1 that our ,saviour1 when he began his ministry1 was in existence6 8in the beginning of his ministry the ,word was60 ,it is true1 that 1 8the beginning10 is used for the beginning of ,christ's ministry1 when he says that the ,apostles had been with him from the beginning2 and it may be used for the beginning of any thing whatever4 ,it is a term which must be determined in its meaning by the context2 and the question1 therefore1 is1 how the connection here determines it4 ,almost immediately it is added1 8,all things were made by him20 which can only mean the creation of universal nature4 ,he1 then1 who made all things was prior to all created things2 he was when they began to be1 and before they began to be2 and1 if he existed before all created things1 he was not himself created1 and was1 therefore1 eternal4 ,secondly1 he is expressly called ,god2 and1 thirdly1 he is as explicitly said to be the ,creator of all things4 ,the two last particulars have often been largely established1 and nothing need be added1 except1 as another proof that the ,scriptures can only be fairly explained by the doctrine of a distinction of divine ,persons in the ,godhead1 the declaration of ,st4 ,john may be adduced1 that 8the ,word was with ,god1 and the ,word was ,god40 ,what hypothesis but this goes a single step to explain this wonderful language8 ,arianism1 which allows the prexistence of ,christ with ,god1 accords with the first clause1 but contradicts the second4 ,sabellianism1 which reduces the personal to an official1 and therefore a temporal1 distinction1 accords with the second clause1 but contradicts the first2 for ,christ1 according to this theory1 was not with ,god in the beginning1 that is in eternity4 ,socinianism contradicts both clauses2 for on that scheme ,christ was neither with ,god in the beginning1 nor was he ,god4 8,the faith of ,god's elect0 agrees with both clauses1 and by both it is established3 8,the ,word was with ,god1 and the ,word was ,god40 ,see ,,unitarians4 ,,worm1 the general name in ,scripture for little creeping insects4 ,several kinds are spoken of3 #a4 ,those that breed in putrefied bodies1 1 ,exod4 xvi1 #bj1 #bd2 ,job vii1 #e2 xvii1 #ad2 xxi1 #bf2 xxiv1 #bj2 xxv1 #f2 ,isa4 xiv1 #aa2 1 ,ecclus4 vii1 #ag2 x1 #aa2 #a ,mac4 ii1 #fb2 #b ,mac4 ix1 #i2 ,judith xvi1 #ag2 ,mark ix1 #dd1 #df1 #dh2 ,acts xii1 #bc4 #b4 ,that which eats woollen garments1 1 ,isa4 li1 #h2 1 ,matt4 vi1 #ai1 #bj2 ,luke xii1 #cc4 #c4 ,that which1 perforating the leaves and bark of trees1 causes the little excrescences called kermes1 whence is made a crimson dye1 1 ,deut4 xxviii1 #ci2 ,job xxv1 #f2 ,psalm xxii1 #f2 ,isa4 xiv1 #aa2 xii1 #ad2 lxvi1 #bd2 ,exod4 xvi1 #bj2 ,jonah iv1 #g4 #d4 ,the worm destructive of the vines1 referred to in ,deut4 xxviii1 #ci2 which was the pyralis vitan1 or pyralis fasciana1 of ,forskal1 the vine weevil1 a small insect extremely hurtful to the vines4 ,,wormwood1 1 ,deut4 xxix1 #ah2 ,prov4 v1 #d2 ,jer4 ix1 #ae2 xxiii1 #ae2 ,lam4 iii1 #ae1 #ai2 ,amos v1 #g2 vi1 #ab2 1 ,rev4 viii1 #aa4 ,in the ,septuagint the original word is variously rendered1 and generally by terms expressive of its figurative sense1 for what is offensive1 odious1 or deleterious2 but in the ,syriac and ,arabic versions1 and in the ,latin ,vulgate1 it is rendered 8wormwood20 and this is adopted by ,celsius1 who names it the absinthium santonicum ,judaicum1 bitter wormwood of ,judea4 ,from the passages of ,scripture1 however1 where this plant is mentioned1 something more than the bitterness of its qualities seems to be intimated1 and effects are attributed to it greater than can be produced by the wormwood of ,europe4 ,the ,chaldee paraphrase gives it even the character of 8the wormwood of death40 ,it may therefore mean a plant allied1 perhaps1 to the absinthium in appearance and in taste1 but possessing more nauseous1 hurtful1 and formidable properties4 ,,worship4 ,the ,scriptural obligation of public worship is partly founded upon example1 and partly upon precept2 so that no person who admits that authority1 can question this great duty without manifest and criminal inconsistency4 ,the institution of public worship under the law1 and the practice of synagogue worship among the ,jews1 from at least the time of ,ezra1 cannot be questioned2 both of which were sanctioned by the practice of our ,lord and his ,apostles4 ,the preceptive authority for our regular attendance upon public worship1 is either inferential or direct4 ,the command to publish the ,gospel includes the obligation of assembling to hear it2 the name by which a ,christian society is designated in ,scripture is a church2 which signifies an assembly for the transaction of business2 and1 in the case of a ,christian assembly1 that business must necessarily be spiritual1 and include the sacred exercises of prayer1 praise1 and hearing the ,scriptures4 ,but we have more direct precepts1 although the practice was obviously continued from ,judaism1 and was therefore consuetudinary4 ,some of the epistles of ,st4 ,paul are commanded to be read in the churches4 ,the singing of psalms1 hymns1 and spiritual songs is enjoined as an act of solemn worship to the ,lord2 and ,st4 ,paul cautions the ,hebrews that they 8forsake not the assembling of themselves together40 ,the practice of the primitive age is also manifest from the epistles of ,st4 ,paul4 ,the ,lord's ,supper was celebrated by the body of believers collectively2 and this ,apostle prescribes to the ,corinthians regulations for the exercises of prayer and prophesyings1 8when they came together in the church10--the assembly4 ,the statedness and order of these holy offices in the primitive church1 appear also from the apostolical epistle of ,st4 ,clement3 8,we ought also1 looking into the depths of the divine knowledge1 to do all things in order1 whatsoever the ,lord hath commanded to be done4 ,we ought to make our oblations1 and perform our holy offices1 at their appointed seasons2 for these he hath commanded to be done1 not irregularly or by chance1 but at determinate times and hours2 as he hath likewise ordained by his supreme will1 where1 and by what persons1 they shall be performed2 that so all things being done according to his pleasure1 may be acceptable in his sight40 ,this passage is remarkable for urging a divine authority for the public services of the church1 by which ,st4 ,clement1 no doubt1 means the authority of the inspired directions of the ,apostles4 ,the ends of the institution of public worship are of such obvious importance1 that it must ever be considered as one of the most condescending and gracious dispensations of ,god to man4 ,by this his church confesses his name before the world2 by this the public teaching of his word is associated with acts calculated to affect the mind with that solemnity which is the best preparation for hearing it to edification4 ,it is thus that the ignorant and the vicious are collected together1 and instructed and warned2 the invitations of mercy are published to the guilty1 and the sorrowful and afflicted are comforted4 ,in these assemblies ,god1 by his ,holy ,spirit1 diffuses his vital and sanctifying influence1 and takes the devout into a fellowship with himself1 from which they derive strength to do and to suffer his will in the various scenes of life1 while he there affords them a foretaste of the deep and hallowed pleasures which are reserved for them at his right hand for evermore4 ,prayers and intercessions are offered for national and public interests2 and while the benefit of these exercises descends upon a country1 all are kept sensible of the dependence of every public and personal interest upon ,god4 ,praise calls forth the grateful emotions1 and gives cheerfulness to piety2 and that instruction in righteousness which is so perpetually repeated1 diffuses the principles of morality and religion throughout society2 enlightens and gives activity to conscience2 raises the standard of morals2 attaches shame to vice1 and praise to virtue2 and thus exerts a powerfully purifying influence upon mankind4 ,laws thus receive a force1 which1 in other circumstances1 they could not acquire1 even were they enacted in as great perfection2 and the administration of justice is aided by the strongest possible obligation and sanction being given to legal oaths4 ,the domestic relations are rendered more strong and interesting by the very habit of the attendance of families upon the sacred services of the sanctuary of the ,lord2 and the rich and the poor meeting together1 and standing on the same common ground as sinners before ,god1 equally dependent upon him1 and equally suing for his mercy1 has a powerful1 though often an insensible1 influence in humbling the pride which is nourished by superior rank1 and in raising the lower classes above abjectness of spirit1 without injuring their humility4 ,piety1 benevolence1 and patriotism are equally dependent for their purity and vigour upon the regular and devout worship of ,god in the simplicity of the ,christian dispensation4 ,the following is an abridgment of ,dr4 ,neander's account of the mode of conducting public worship among the primitive ,christians1 which1 though questionable on some points1 is upon the whole just and interesting3--,since the religion of the ,new ,testament did not admit of any peculiar outward priesthood1 similar to that of the ,old1 the same outward kind of worship1 dependent on certain places1 times1 and outward actions and demeanours1 would also have no place in its composition4 ,the kingdom of ,god1 the temple of the ,lord1 were to be present1 not in this or that place1 but in every place where ,christ himself is active in the ,spirit1 and where through him the worship of ,god in spirit and in truth is established4 ,every ,christian in particular1 and every church in general1 were to represent a spiritual temple of the ,lord2 the true worship of ,god was to be only in the inward heart1 and the whole life proceeding from such inward disposition1 sanctified by faith1 was to be a continued spiritual service2 this is the great fundamental idea of the ,gospel1 which prevails throughout the ,new ,testament1 by which the whole outward appearance of religion was to assume a different form1 and all that once was carnal was to be converted into spiritual1 and ennobled4 ,this notion came forward most strongly in the original inward life of the first ,christians1 particularly when contrasted with ,judaism1 and still more so when contrasted with ,heathenism2 a contrast which taught the ,christians to avoid all pomp that caught the eye1 and all multiplication of means of devotion addressed to the senses1 while it made them hold fast the simple1 spiritual character of the ,christian worship of ,god4 ,it was this which always struck the ,heathen so much in the ,christian worship2 namely1 that nothing was found among them of the outward pomp of all other religions2 no temples1 no altars1 no images4 ,this reproach was made to the ,christians by ,celsus1 and answered thus by ,origen3 8,in the highest sense the temple and image of ,god are in the human nature of ,christ2 and hence1 also1 in all the faithful1 who are animated by the ,spirit of ,christ1--living images6 with which no statue of ,jove by ,phidias is fit to be compared40 ,christianity impelled men frequently to seek for the stillness of the inward sanctuary1 and here to pour forth their heart to ,god1 who dwells in such temples2 but then the flames of love were also lighted in their hearts1 which sought communion in order to strengthen each other mutually1 and to unite themselves into one holy flame which pointed toward heaven4 ,the communion of prayer and devotion was thought a source of sanctification1 inasmuch as men knew that the ,lord was present by his ,spirit among those who were gathered together in his name2 but then they were far from ascribing any peculiar sacredness and sanctity to the place of assembly4 ,such an idea would appear to partake of ,heathenism2 and men were at first in less danger of being seduced into such an idea1 because the first general places of assembly of the ,christians were only common rooms in private houses1 just according as it happened that any member of the church had sufficient accommodation for the purpose4 ,thus ,gaius of ,corinth1 ,rom4 xvi1 is called the host of the church1 because the church was in the habit of assembling in a room of his house4 ,origen says1 8,the place where believers come together to pray has something agreeable and useful about it20 but then he only says this in respect to that spiritual communion4 ,man1 we must avow1 is very easily led to fall away from the worship of ,god in spirit and in truth1 and to connect the religion of the ,spirit with outward and earthly things2 as the ,apostle says1 8,having begun in the ,spirit1 to wish to end in the flesh40 ,watchfulness on this point was constantly needed1 lest the ,jewish or the ,heathen notions should here intrude themselves on those of the ,gospel1 which was likely enough to happen as soon as the ,old and the ,new ,testament notions of the priesthood had been confused4 ,even in the time of ,clemens of ,alexandria he found himself obliged to combat the notion1 which allowed the essentials of a ,christian life to be of one kind in1 and of another out of1 the church4 8,the disciples of ,christ10 he says1 8must form the whole course of their life and conduct on the model which they assume in the churches1 for the sake of propriety2 they must be such1 and not merely seem so2 as mild1 as pious1 and as charitable4 ,but now1 ,i know not how it is1 they change their habits and their manners with the change of place1 as the polypus1 they say1 changes its colour1 and becomes like the rock on which it hangs4 ,they lay aside the spiritual habit which they had assumed in the church1 as soon as they have left the church1 and assimilate themselves to the multitude among whom they live4 ,i should rather say1 that they convict themselves of hypocrisy1 and show what they really are in their inward nature1 by laying aside the mask of piety which they had assumed2 and while they honour the word of ,god1 they leave it behind them in the place where they heard it40 ,the ,christian places of assembly were1 at first1 in the rooms of private houses2 it may perhaps be the case1 that in large towns1 where the number of ,christians was soon considerable1 and no member of the church had any room in his house sufficient to contain all his brethren1 or in places where men did not fear any prejudicial consequences from large assemblies1 the church divided itself into different sections1 according to the habitations of its members1 of which each section held its assemblies in one particular chamber of the house of some wealthy member of the church2 or1 perhaps1 while it was usual to unite on ,sundays in one general assembly1 yet each individual part of the church met together daily in the rooms which lay the most convenient to it4 ,perhaps the passages in ,st4 ,paul's epistles1 which speak of churches in the houses of particular persons1 are thus to be understood4 ,the answer of ,justin ,martyr to the question of the prefect1 8,where do you assemble80 exactly corresponds to the genuine ,christian spirit on this point4 ,this answer was1 8,where each one can and will4 ,you believe1 no doubt1 that we all meet together in one place2 but it is not so1 for the ,god of the ,christians is not shut up in a room1 but1 being invisible1 he fills both heaven and earth1 and is honoured every where by the faithful40 ,justin adds1 that when he came to ,rome1 he was accustomed to dwell in one particular spot1 and that those ,christians who were instructed by him1 and wished to hear his discourses1 assembled at his house4 ,he had not visited any other congregations of the church4 ,the arrangements which the peculiarities of the ,christian worship required1 were gradually made in these places of assembly1 such as an elevated seat for the purpose of reading the ,scriptures and preaching1 a table for the distribution of the sacrament1 to which as early as the time of ,tertullian the name of altar1 ara or altare1 was given1 and perhaps not without some mixture of the unevangelical ,old ,testament notion of a sacrifice2 or at least this idea might easily attach itself to this name4 ,when the churches increased1 and their circumstances improved1 there were1 during the course of the third century1 already separate church buildings for the ,christians1 as the name 1 religious places1 of the ,christians occurs in the edict of ,gallienus4 ,in the time of the external prosperity of the church1 during the reign of ,diocletian1 many handsome churches arose in the great towns4 ,the use of images was originally quite foreign to the ,christian worship and churches1 and it remained so during this whole period4 ,the intermixture of art and religion1 and the use of images for the latter1 appeared to the first ,christians a ,heathenish practice4 ,as in ,heathenism the divine becomes desecrated and tarnished by intermixture with the natural2 and as men have often paid homage to the beauties of nature1 with injury to the cause of holiness1 the first warmth of ,christian zeal1 which opposed the idolatry of nature1 so common to ,heathenism1 and sought to maintain the divine in all its purity and elevation1 was inclined rather to set holiness in the strongest contrast with what is beautiful by nature1 than to endeavour to grace it by lending it a beautiful form4 ,men were more inclined in general to carry into extremes the idea of the appearance of the ,divinity in the form of a servant1 which suited the oppressed condition of the church in these centuries than to throw it into the back ground1 and overwhelm it under the predominance of their sthetic dispositions1 and their love of art4 ,this is peculiarly shown by the general belief of the early church1 that ,christ had clothed his inward divine glory in a mean outward form1 which was in direct contradiction to it2 a conclusion which was drawn from interpreting the prophecy of the ,messiah in ,isa4 liii1 #b1 too literally4 ,thus1 ,clemens of ,alexandria warns the ,christians1 from the example of ,christ1 not to attribute too much value to outward beauty3 8,the ,lord himself was mean in outward form2 and who is better than the ,lord8 ,but he revealed himself not in the beauty of the body1 perceptible to our senses1 but in the true beauty of the soul as well as of the body2 the beauty of the soul consisting in benevolence1 and that of the body in immortality60 ,fathers of entirely opposite habits of mind1 the adherents of two different systems of conceiving divine things1 were nevertheless united on this point by their common opposition to the mixture of the natural and the divine in ,heathenism1 and by the endeavour to maintain the devotion to ,god1 in spirit and in truth1 pure and undefiled4 ,clemens of ,alexandria is as little favourable as ,tertullian to the use of images4 ,heathens1 who1 like ,alexander ,severus1 saw something divine in ,christ's personal form1 and sects which mixed ,heathenism and ,christianity together1 were the first who made use of images of ,christ2 as1 for instance1 the ,gnostic sect of the followers of ,carpocratian1 who put his image beside those of ,plato and ,aristotle4 ,the use of religious images among the ,christians did not proceed from their ecclesiastical but from their domestic life4 ,in the intercourse of daily life1 the ,christians saw themselves every where surrounded by objects of ,heathen mythology1 or by such as shocked their moral and ,christian feelings4 ,similar objects adorned the walls of chambers1 the drinking vessels1 and the signet rings1 7on which the ,heathen had constantly idolatrous images17 to which1 whenever they pleased1 they could address their devotions2 and the ,christians naturally felt themselves obliged to replace these objects1 which wounded their moral and religious feelings1 with others more suited to those feelings4 ,therefore1 they gladly put the likeness of a shepherd carrying a lamb upon his shoulders1 on their cups1 as a symbol of the ,redeemer1 who saves the sinners that return to him1 according to the parable in the ,gospel4 ,and ,clemens of ,alexandria says1 in reference to the signet rings of the ,christians1 8,let our signet rings consist of a dove10 the emblem of the ,holy ,ghost1 8or a fish1 or a ship sailing toward heaven10 the emblem of the ,christian church1 or of individual ,christian souls1 8or a lyre10 the emblem of ,christian joy1 8or an anchor10 the emblem of ,christian hope2 8and he who is a fisherman1 let him remember the ,apostle1 and the children who were dragged out from the water2 for those men ought not to engrave idolatrous forms1 to whom the use of them is forbidden2 those can engrave no sword and no bow1 who seek for peace2 the friends of temperance cannot engrave drinking cups40 ,and yet1 perhaps1 religious images made their way from domestic life into the churches as early as the end of the third century1 and the walls of the churches were painted in the same way4 ,the council of ,elvira set itself against this innovation as an abuse1 for it made the following order3 8,objects of reverence and worship shall not be painted on the walls40 ,it is probable that the visible representation of the cross found its way very early into domestic and ecclesiastical life4 ,this token was remarkably common among them2 it was used to consecrate their rising and their going to bed1 their going out and their coming in1 and all the actions of daily life2 it was the sign which ,christians made involuntarily whenever any thing of a fearful nature surprised them4 ,this was a mode of expressing1 by means perceptible to the senses1 the purely ,christian idea1 that all the actions of ,christians1 as well as the whole course of their life1 must be sanctified by faith in the crucified ,jesus1 and by dependence upon him2 and that this faith is the most powerful means of conquering all evil1 and preserving oneself against it4 ,but here also1 again1 men were too apt to confuse the idea and the token which represented it2 and they attributed the effects of faith in the crucified ,redeemer to the outward sign1 to which they ascribed a supernatural1 sanctifying1 and preservative power2 an error of which we find traces as early as the third century4 ,we now pass from the consideration of the places of public worship1 to that of the seasons of worship1 and the festivals of the early ,christians4 ,it is here shown again1 that the ,gospel1 as it remodelled the former conceptions of the priesthood1 of worship in general1 and of holy places1 also entirely changed the then views of sacred seasons4 ,and here again1 also1 the character of the theocracy of the ,new ,testament revealed itself1 a theocracy spiritualized1 ennobled1 and freed from its outward garb of sense1 and from the limits which bounded its generalization4 ,the ,jewish laws relating to their festivals were not merely abrogated by the ,gospel1 in such a manner as to transfer these festivals to different seasons2 but they were entirely abolished1 as far as fixing religious worship to particular times is concerned4 ,st4 ,paul expressly declares all sanctifying of certain seasons1 as far as men deduced this from the divine command1 to be ,jewish and unevangelical1 and to be like returning to the slavery of the law1 and to captivity to outward precepts4 ,such was the opinion of the early church4 ,at first the churches assembled every day2 as1 for instance1 the first church of ,jerusalem1 which assembled daily for prayer in common1 and for the public consideration of the divine word1 for the common celebration of the ,lord's ,supper and the agap1 as well as to maintain the connection between the common head of the spiritual body of the church and themselves1 and between one another as members of this body4 ,traces of this are also found in later times in the daily assembling of the churches for the purpose of hearing the ,scriptures read1 and of celebrating the communion4 ,although1 in order to meet the wants of human nature generally1 consisting as it does of sense as well as soul1 and those of a large body of ,christians in particular1 who were only in a state of education1 and were to be brought up to the ripeness of ,christian manhood1 men soon selected definite times beside the authorized ,christian ,sabbath1 the first day of the week for religious admonitions1 and to consecrate them to a fuller occupation with religious things1 as well as to public devotion1 with the intention1 that the influence of these definite times should animate and sanctify the rest of their lives1 and that ,christians who withdrew themselves from the distractions of business on these days1 and collected their hearts before ,god in the stillness of solitude1 as well as in public devotion1 might make these seasons of service to the other parts of their life2 yet this was in itself1 and of itself1 nothing unevangelical4 ,it was only a dropping down from the purely spiritual point of view1 on which even the ,christian1 as he still carries about two natures in himself1 cannot always maintain himself1 to the carnal2 a dropping down which became constantly more necessary1 the more the fire of the first animation and the warmth of the first love of the ,christians died away4 ,it was no more unevangelic than the gradual limitation of the exercise of many rights1 belonging to the common priesthood of all ,christians1 to a certain class in the church1 which circumstances rendered necessary4 ,but just as the unevangelic made its appearance1 men supposed certain days distinguished from others1 and hallowed by divine right1 when they introduced a distinction between holy and common days into the life of the ,christian1 and in this distinction forgot his calling to sanctify all days alike4 ,when the ,montanists wished to introduce and make imperative new fasts1 which were fixed to certain days1 the ,epistle to the ,galatians was very properly brought to oppose them2 but ,tertullian1 who stood on the boundary between the original pure evangelic times and those when the intermixture of ,jewish and ,christian notions first took place1 confuses here the views of the two religions1 because he makes the evangelical to consist1 not in a wholly different method of considering festivals altogether1 but in the celebration of different particular festivals2 and he makes the ,judaizing1 which the ,apostle condemns1 to consist only in the observation of the ,jewish instead of the peculiarly ,christian festivals4 ,the weekly and the yearly festivals originally arose from the self-same fundamental idea1 which was the centre point of the whole ,christian life2 the idea of imitating ,christ1 the crucified and the risen2 to follow him in his death1 by appropriating to ourselves1 in penitence and faith1 the effects of his death1 by dying to ourselves and to the world2 to follow him in his resurrection1 by rising again with him1 by faith in him and by his power1 to a new and holy life1 devoted to ,god1 which1 beginning here below in the seed1 is matured in heaven4 ,hence the festival of joy was the festival of the resurrection2 and the preparation for it1 the remembrance of the sufferings of ,christ1 with mortification and crucifixion of the flesh1 was the day of fasting and penitence4 ,thus in the week the ,sunday was the joyful festival2 and the preparation for it was a day of penitence and prayer1 consecrated to remembrance of the sufferings of ,christ and the preparations for them1 and this was celebrated on the ,friday2 and thus also the yearly festivals were to celebrate the resurrection of ,christ1 and the operations of the ,redeemer after he had risen again2 the preparation for this day was in commemoration of the sufferings and fastings of our ,saviour4 ,allusion is made to ,sunday under the character of a festival1 as a symbol of a new life1 consecrated to the ,lord in opposition to the old ,sabbath1 in the epistle of ,ignatius to the ,magnesians3 8,if they who were brought up under the ,old ,testament have attained to a new hope1 and no longer keep ,jewish ,sabbaths holy1 but have consecrated their life to the day of the ,lord1 on which also our life rose up in him1 how shall we be able to live without him80 ,sunday was distinguished as a day of joy by the circumstances1 that men did not fast upon it1 and that they prayed standing up and not kneeling1 as ,christ had raised up fallen man to heaven again through his resurrection4 ,and farther3 two other days in the week1 ,friday and ,wednesday1 particularly the former1 were consecrated to the remembrance of the sufferings of ,christ1 and of the circumstances preparatory to them2 congregations were held on them1 and a fast till three o'clock in the afternoon1 but nothing was positively appointed concerning them2 in respect to joining in these solemnities every one consulted his own convenience or inclination4 ,such fasts1 joined with prayer1 were considered as the watches of the milites ,christi soldiers of ,christ on their post by the ,christians1 who compared their calling to a warfare1 the militia ,christi1 and they were stationes1 and the days on which they took place were called dies stationum1 day of their stations4 ,the churches1 which were a graft of a ,christian on a ,jewish spirit1 although they received the ,sunday1 retained also that of the ,sabbath2 and from them the custom spread abroad in the oriental church1 of distinguishing this day1 as well as the ,sunday1 by not fasting and by praying in an erect posture2 in the western churches1 particularly the ,roman1 where opposition to ,judaism was the prevailing tendency1 this very opposition produced the custom of celebrating the ,saturday in particular as a fast day4 ,this difference in customs would of course be striking1 where members of the oriental church spent their ,sabbath day in the western church4 ,it was only too soon that men lost sight of the principle of the apostolic church1 which retained the unity of faith and spirit in the bond of love1 but allowed all kinds of difference in external things2 and then they began to require uniformity in these things4 ,the first yearly festivals of the ,christians proceeded from similar views2 and at first the contrast which had in early times the most powerful influence on the developement as well of the churchly life1 as of the doctrines of ,christianity1 is peculiarly prominent2 ,i mean the contrast between the ,jewish churches and those of the ,gentile converts4 ,the former retained all the ,jewish festivals as well as the whole ceremonial law2 although by degrees they introduced into them a ,christian meaning which spontaneously offered itself4 ,on the contrary1 there was probably no yearly festival at all1 from the beginning1 among the ,heathen converts2 for no trace of any thing of the sort is found in the whole of the ,new ,testament4 ,the passover of the ,old ,testament was easily ennobled and converted to a passover which suited the ,new ,testament1 by merely substituting the idea of deliverance from spiritual bondage1 that is1 from the slavery of sin1 for that of deliverance from earthly bondage4 ,the paschal lamb was a type of ,christ1 by whom that deliverance was wrought4 ,these representations went on the supposition1 that ,christ had partaken his last meal with his disciples1 as a proper passover1 at the very time that the ,jews were celebrating theirs4 ,this passover was1 therefore1 always celebrated on the night between the fourteenth and fifteenth of the ,jewish month ,nisan1 as a remembrance at the same time of the last supper of ,christ4 ,this was the fundamental notion of the whole ,jewish ,christian passover1 on which all the rest was built4 ,the day following this passover was consecrated to the remembrance of the sufferings of ,christ1 and the third day from it to the remembrance of his resurrection4 ,on the contrary1 in the greater number of ,heathen churches1 as soon as men began to celebrate yearly festivals1 7a time which cannot be determined very precisely17 they followed the method observed in the weekly festivals4 ,they appointed one ,sunday in the year for the festival of the resurrection1 and one ,friday as a day of penitence and fasting preparatory to this ,sunday1 in remembrance of the sufferings of ,christ2 and they gradually lengthened this time of penitence and fasting1 as a preparation for that high and joyful festival4 ,in these churches they were more inclined to take up a kind of antithetical turn against the ,jewish festivals1 than to graft ,christian ones upon them4 ,it was far from their notions to think of observing a yearly passover with the ,jews4 ,the following was the view which they took of the matter3 8,every typical feast has lost its true meaning by the realization of that which is typified2 in the sacrifice of ,christ1 the ,lord's ,supper1 as the new covenant1 has taken the place of that of the old covenant40 ,this difference of outward customs between the ,jewish ,christian churches and the churches allied to them on the one hand1 and the ,heathen ,christian churches founded by ,st4 ,paul on the other1 existed at first without its being supposed that external things of this nature were of importance enough to lead to a controversy4 ,a fast formed the introduction to the passover2 and this was the only fast formally established by the church4 ,the necessity of this fast was deduced from ,matthew ix1 #ae2 but it was by a carnal interpretation of the passage1 and an application of it quite contrary to its real sense4 ,for it does not relate to the time of ,christ's suffering1 but to the time when he should be with his disciples no more4 ,as long as they enjoyed his society they were to give themselves up to joy1 and to be disturbed in it by no forced asceticism4 ,but a time of sorrow was to follow this time of joy1 although only for a season1 after which a time of higher and imperishable joy1 in invisible communion with him1 was to follow1 ,john xvi1 #bb4 ,the duration of this fast1 however1 was not determined2 the imitation of the temptation of our ,lord for forty days introduced the custom of fasting forty hours in some places1 which afterward was extended to forty days2 and thus the fast of forty days1 the quadrigesimal fast1 arose4 ,the festival of pentecost1 ,whitsuntide1 was closely connected with that of the resurrection2 and this was dedicated to commemorating the first visible effects of the operations of the glorified ,christ upon human nature1 now also ennobled by him1 the lively proofs of his resurrection and reception into glory2 and therefore ,origen joins the festivals of the resurrection and of pentecost together as one whole4 ,the means of transition from an ,old ,testament festival to one befitting the ,new ,testament1 were here near at hand4 ,the first fruits of harvest in the kingdom of nature2 the first fruits of harvest in the kingdom of grace2 the law of the letter from ,mount ,sinai--the law of the ,spirit from the heavenly ,jerusalem4 ,this festival originally embraced the whole season of fifty days from ,easter1 and was celebrated like a ,sunday1 that is to say1 no fasts were kept during the whole of it1 and men prayed standing1 and not kneeling2 and perhaps also in some places assemblies of the church were held1 and the communion was celebrated every day4 ,afterward1 two peculiar points of time1 the ascension of ,christ and the effusion of the ,holy ,spirit1 were selected from this whole interval4 ,these were the only festivals generally celebrated at that time1 as the passage cited from ,origen proves4 ,the fundamental notion of the whole ,christian life1 which referred every thing to the suffering1 the resurrection1 and the glorification of ,christ1 as well as the adherence1 or1 on the other hand1 the opposition1 to the ,jewish celebration of festivals1 were the cause that these were the only general festivals4 ,the notion of a birth-day festival was far from the ideas of the ,christians of this period in general2 they looked upon the second birth as the true birth of men4 ,the case must have been somewhat different with the birth of the ,redeemer2 human nature was to be sanctified by him from its first developement2 but then this last notion could not at first come so prominently forward among the early ,christians1 because so many of them were first converted to ,christianity when well advanced in years1 after some decisive excitement of their life2 but then it may have entered generally into domestic life1 though at first gradually4 ,nevertheless1 we find in this period apparently one trace of ,christmas as a festival4 ,its history is intimately connected with the history of a kindred festival2 the festival of the manifestation of ,jesus in his character of ,messiah1 his consecration to the office of ,messiah by the baptism of ,john1 and the beginning of his public ministry as the ,messiah1 which was afterward called ,epiphany1 the 1 or 1 the festival of ,epiphany1 or of the appearance of ,christ4 ,we find in later times that these festivals extended themselves in opposite directions1 that of ,christmas spreading from west to east1 and the other from east to west4 ,clemens of ,alexandria merely relates1 that the ,gnostic sect of the ,basilidians celebrated the festival of the ,epiphany at ,alexandria in his time4 ,we can hardly suppose that this sect invented the festival1 although they may have had some dogmatical reason for celebrating it2 for it is highly improbable that the catholic church should have afterward received a festival from the ,gnostics2 and these ,gnostics most probably received it from the ,jewish ,christian churches in ,palestine or ,syria4 ,for this time of our ,saviour's life would appear the most important to the notions of the ,jewish ,christians2 and the ,gnostics would afterward explain it according to their own ideas4 ,the character of a spiritual worship of ,god distinguished the ,christian worship from that of other religions1 which consisted in symbolical pageantry and lifeless ceremonies4 ,as a general elevation of spirit and sanctification of heart was the object of every thing in this religion1 instruction and edification1 through a common study of the divine word1 and through prayer in common1 were the leading features in the ,christian worship4 ,and in this respect it might in its form adhere to the arrangements made about the congregations in the ,jewish synagogues1 in which also the element of a spiritual religious worship was the prevailing ingredient4 ,as the reading of portions of the ,old ,testament had formed the ground work of religious instruction in the ,jewish synagogues1 this custom also passed into the ,christian congregations4 ,first the ,old ,testament1 and especially the prophetic parts of it1 were read as things that pointed to the ,messiah2 then followed the ,gospels1 and after that the epistles of the ,apostles4 ,the reading of the ,scriptures was of still greater consequence then1 because it was desirable that every ,christian should be acquainted with them2 and yet1 by reason of the rarity and dearness of manuscripts1 and the poverty of a great proportion of the ,christians1 or perhaps also because all were not able to read1 the ,bible itself could not be put into the hands of all4 ,frequent hearing was therefore with many to supply the place of their own reading4 ,the ,scriptures were therefore read in the language which all could understand1 and that was1 in most parts of the ,roman empire1 the ,greek or the ,latin4 ,in very early times different translations of the ,bible into ,latin were in existence2 as every one who knew a little of ,greek1 found it needful to have his own ,bible in his own mother tongue4 ,in places where the ,greek or the ,latin language was understood only by a part of the church1 that is to say1 by the educated classes1 while the rest understood only their native language1 as was the case in many ,egyptian and ,syrian towns1 church interpreters were appointed1 as in the ,jewish synagogues1 and they immediately translated what had been read into the language of the country1 so that it might be intelligible to all4 ,after the reading of the ,scripture there followed1 as there had previously in the ,jewish synagogues1 short1 and at first very simple1 addresses in familiar language1 the momentary effusions of the heart1 which contained an explanation and application of what had just been read4 ,justin ,martyr expresses himself thus on the subject3 8,after the reading of the ,scriptures1 the president instructs the people in a discourse1 and incites them to the imitation of these good examples40 ,among the ,greeks1 where the taste was more rhetorical1 the sermon from the very earliest times was of a more lengthened kind1 and formed a very important part of the service4 ,singing also passed from the ,jewish service into that of the ,christian church4 ,st4 ,paul exhorts the early churches to sing spiritual songs4 ,what was used for this purpose were partly the ,psalms of the ,old ,testament1 and partly songs composed with this very object1 especially songs of praise and thanks to ,god and ,christ2 and these1 we know1 ,pliny found to be customary among the ,christians4 ,in the controversies with the ,unitarians1 about the end of the second century1 and the beginning of the third1 the hymns1 in which from early times ,christ had been honoured as a ,god1 were appealed to4 ,the power of church singing over the heart was soon recognized2 and hence those who wished to propagate any peculiar opinions1 like ,bardasanes1 or ,paul of ,samosata1 endeavoured to spread them by means of hymns4 ,in compliance with the infirmities of human nature1 composed as it is of sense and spirit1 the divine ,founder of the church1 beside his word1 ordained two outward signs1 as symbols of the invisible communion which existed between him1 the ,head of the spiritual body1 and the faithful1 its members2 and also of the connection of these members1 as with him1 so also with one another4 ,these were visible means to represent the invisible1 heavenly benefits to be bestowed on the members of this body through him2 and while man received in faith the sign presented to his senses1 the enjoyment of that heavenly communion and those heavenly advantages was to gladden his inward heart4 ,as nothing in all ,christianity and in the whole ,christian life stands isolated1 but all forms one whole1 proceeding from one centre1 therefore1 also1 that which this outward sign represented must be something which should continue through the whole of the inward ,christian life1 something which1 spreading itself forth from this one moment over the whole ,christian life1 should be capable of being especially excited again and promoted in return1 by the influence of isolated moments4 ,thus1 baptism was to be the sign of a first entrance into communion with the ,redeemer1 and with the church1 the first appropriation of those advantages which ,christ has bestowed on man1 namely1 of the forgiveness of sins and the inward union of life1 which proceeds from it1 as well as of the participation in a sanctifying divine ,spirit of life4 ,and the ,lord's ,supper was to be the sign of a constant continuance in this communion1 in the appropriation and enjoyment of these advantages2 and thus were represented the essentials of the whole inward ,christian life1 in its earliest rise and its continued progress4 ,the whole peculiar spirit of ,christianity was particularly stamped in the mode in which these external things were administered2 and the mode of their administration in return exerted a powerful influence on the whole nature of the ,christian worship4 ,the connection of the moments1 represented by these signs1 with the whole ,christian life1 the connection of inward and divine things with the outward act was present to the lively ,christian feelings of the first ,christians4 ,,writing4 ,in regard to alphabetic writing1 all the ancient writers attribute the invention of it to some very early age1 and some country of the east2 but they do not pretend to designate precisely either the time or the place4 ,they say1 farther1 that ,cadmus introduced letters from ,phenicia into ,greece1 if we may credit the ,parisian ,chronicle1 ,b4 ,c4 #aeai1 that is1 forty-five years after the death of ,moses4 ,anticlides asserts1 and attempts to prove1 that letters were invented in ,egypt fifteen years before ,phoroneus1 the most ancient king of ,greece2 that is1 four hundred and nine years after the deluge1 and in the one hundred and seventeenth year of ,abraham4 ,on this it may be remarked that they might have been introduced into ,egypt at this time1 but they had been previously invented by the ,phenicians4 ,epigenes1 who1 in the estimation of ,pliny1 is weighty authority1 informs us that observations1 made upon the heavenly bodies for seven hundred and twenty years at ,babylon1 were written down upon baked tiles2 but ,berosus and ,critodemus1 also referred to by ,pliny1 make the number of years four hundred and eighty4 ,pliny from these statements draws the conclusion that the use of letters1 as he expresses it1 must have been eternal1 that is1 beyond all records4 ,simplicius1 who lived in the fifth century1 states1 on the authority of ,porphyry1 an acute historian1 that ,callisthenes1 the companion of ,alexander1 found at ,babylon a record of observations on the heavenly bodies for one thousand nine hundred and three years4 ,of course the record must have been begun ,b4 ,c4 #bbcd1 that is1 the eighty-ninth year of ,abraham4 ,this statement receives some confirmation from the fact that the month of ,march is called ,adar in the ,chaldaic dialect2 and at the time mentioned1 namely1 the eighty-ninth year of ,abraham1 the sun1 during the whole month of ,march1 was in the sign of the zodiac called ,aries1 or the ,ram4 ,the word ,adar means the same with ,aries4 ,but1 as letters would be unquestionably first used for the purposes of general intercourse1 they must have been known long before they were employed to transmit the motions of the stars4 ,of this we have an evidence in the bill of sale1 which1 as we have reason to suppose from the expressions used in ,gen4 xxiii1 #bj1 was given to ,abraham by the sons of ,heth4 ,hence it is not at all wonderful that books and writings are spoken of in the time of ,moses1 as if well known1 ,exodus xvii1 #ad2 xxiv1 #d2 xxviii1 #i-aa2 xxxii1 #cb2 xxxiv1 #bg1 #bh2 ,numbers xxxiii1 #b2 ,deut4 xxvii1 #h4 ,nor is it a matter of surprise that long before his time there had been public scribes1 who kept written genealogies3 they were called by the ,hebrews 1 ,exod4 v1 #ad2 ,deut4 xx1 #e-i4 ,even in the time of ,jacob1 seals1 upon which names are engraved in the east1 were in use1 ,gen4 xxxviii1 #ah2 xii1 #db2 which is another probable testimony to the great antiquity of letters4 ,letters1 which had thus become known at the earliest period1 were communicated by means of the ,phenician merchants and colonies1 and subsequently by ,egyptian emigrants1 through all the east and the west4 ,a strong evidence of this is to be found in the different alphabets themselves1 which betray by their resemblance a common origin4 ,that the posterity of the ,hebrew patriarchs preserved a knowledge of alphabetical writing during their abode in ,egypt1 where essentially the same alphabet was in use1 is evident from the fact1 that the ,hebrews while remaining there always had public genealogists4 ,the law1 also1 was ordered to be inscribed on stones2 a fact which implies a knowledge of alphabetical writing4 ,the writing thus engraven upon stones is designated by its appropriate name1 namely1 1 ,exodus xxxii1 #af1 #cb4 ,not a few of the ,hebrews might be unable to read and write1 ,judges viii1 #ad2 but those who were capable of writing wrote for others1 when necessary4 ,such persons were commonly priests1 who1 as they do to this day in the east1 bear an inkhorn in their girdle1 ,ezek4 x1 #b1 #c1 #aa4 ,in the inkhorn were the materials for writing1 and a knife for sharpening the pen1 ,jer4 xxxvi1 #bc4 ,the rich and noble had scribes of their own1 and readers also2 whence there is more frequent mention made of hearing than of reading1 #a ,kings iv1 #c2 #b ,kings xii1 #aj2 ,isa4 xxix1 #ah2 ,jer4 xxxvi1 #d2 ,rom4 ii1 #ac2 ,james v1 #aa2 ,rev4 i1 #c4 ,the scribes took youth under their care1 who learned from them the art of writing4 ,some of the scribes seem to have held public schools for instruction2 some of which1 under the care of ,samuel and other prophets1 became in time quite illustrious1 and were called the schools of the prophets1 #a ,sam4 xix1 #af1 c2 #b ,kings ii1 #c1 #e2 iv1 #ch2 vi1 #a4 ,the disciples in these schools were not children or boys1 but young men1 who inhabited separate edifices1 as is the case in the ,persian academies4 ,they were taught music and singing1 and without doubt writing also1 the ,mosaic law and poetry4 ,they were denominated1 in reference to their instructers1 the sons of the prophets2 teachers and prophets being sometimes called fathers4 ,after the captivity there were schools for instruction either near the synagogues or in them4 ,the materials and instruments of writing were1 #a4 ,the leaves of trees4 #b4 ,the bark of trees1 from which1 in the process of time1 a sort of paper was manufactured4 #c4 ,a table of wood1 1 1 ,deut4 ix1 #i2 ,ezek4 xxxvii1 #e2 ,luke i1 #fc4 ,in the east1 these tables were not covered with wax as they were in the west2 or at any rate very rarely so4 #d4 ,linen was first used for the object in question at ,rome4 ,linen books are mentioned by ,livy4 ,cotton cloth also1 which was used for the bandages of ,egyptian mummies1 and inscribed with hieroglyphics1 was one of the materials for writing upon4 #e4 ,the paper made from the reed papyrus1 which1 as ,pliny has shown1 was used before the ,trojan war4 #f4 ,the skins of various animals2 but they were poorly prepared for the purpose1 until some improved methods of manufacture were invented at ,pergamus1 during the reign of ,eumenes1 about ,b4 ,c4 #cjj4 ,hence the skins of animals1 prepared for writing1 are called in ,latin pergamena1 in ,english parchment1 to this day1 from the city ,pergamus4 ,they are sometimes denominated in ,greek1 1 #b ,tim4 iv1 #ac4 #g4 ,tables of lead1 1 ,job xix1 #bd4 #h4 ,tables of brass1 4 ,of all the materials1 brass was considered among the most durable1 and was employed for those inscriptions which were designed to last the longest1 #a ,macc4 viii1 #bb2 xiv1 #bj-bg4 #i4 ,stones or rocks1 upon which public laws1 c1 were written4 ,sometimes the letters engraved were filled up with lime1 ,exod4 xxiv1 #ab2 xxxi1 #ah2 xxxii1 #ai2 xxxiv1 #a2 ,deut4 xxvii1 #a-i2 ,joshua viii1 #cb2 ,job xix1 #bd4 #aj4 ,tiles4 ,the inscriptions were made upon the tiles first1 and afterward they were baked in the fire4 ,they are yet to be found in the ruins of ,babylon2 others of later origin are to be found in many countries in the east4 #aa4 ,the sand of the earth1 in which the children in ,india to this day learn the art of writing1 and in which ,archimedes himself delineated his mathematical figures1 ,john viii1 #a-h4 ,if in ,ezekiel iii1 #a1 and in ,revelation x1 #i1 we are informed that books were eaten1 we must remember that the descriptions are figurative1 and that they were eaten in vision2 and consequently we are not at liberty to draw the conclusion from these passages1 that any substance was used as materials for writing upon1 which was at the same time used for food4 ,the representations alluded to are symbolic1 introduced to denote a communication or revelation from ,god4 ,as to the instruments used in writing1 when it was necessary to write upon hard materials1 as tables of stone and brass1 the style was made of iron1 and sometimes tipped with diamond1 ,jer4 xvii4 #a4 ,the letters were formed upon tablets of wood1 7when they were covered with wax17 with a style sharpened at one end1 broad and smooth at the other2 by means of which the letters1 when badly written1 might be rubbed out and the wax smoothed down4 #b4 ,wax1 however1 was but rarely used for the purpose of covering writing tables in warm regions4 ,when this was not the case1 the letters were painted on the wood with black tincture or ink4 #c4 ,on linen1 cotton cloth1 paper1 skins1 and parchment1 the letters were painted with a very small brush1 afterward with a reed1 which was split4 ,the orientals use this elegant instrument to the present day instead of a pen4 ,ink1 called 1 is spoken of in ,num4 v1 #bc1 as well known and common1 ,jer4 xxxvi1 #ah1 and was prepared in various ways1 which are related by ,pliny4 ,the most simple1 and consequently the most ancient1 method of preparation was a mixture of water with coals broken to pieces1 or with soot1 with an addition of gum4 ,the ancients used other tinctures also2 particularly1 if we may credit ,cicero and ,persius1 the ink extracted from the cuttle fish1 although their assertion is in opposition to ,pliny4 ,the ,hebrews went so far as to write their sacred books in gold1 as we may learn from ,josephus compared with ,pliny4 ,hieroglyphics1 that is1 sacred sculptures or engravings1 received that appellation1 because it was once1 and indeed till very lately1 thought1 that they were used only to express1 in a manner hidden from the vulgar1 what was exclusively religious2 and which it was thought proper to conceal from all but the learned4 ,the fact1 however1 is1 that the hieroglyphic was a kind of picture writing1 which passed through various modifications1 and was applied alike to sacred and to civil purposes2 to the emblazonment of the attributes of idols1 the exploits of warriors1 and the events of illustrious history4 ,rudiments of the same art have been found among almost all savages4 ,among the semi-civilized ,mexicans history was pictorial3 and in ,ceylon and ,continental ,india the same vehicle of instruction is made use of on the walls of their temples1 to convey moral lessons1 or to indicate the character and exploits of their deities4 ,in ,egypt1 however1 the art was carried into a more perfect system1 and was more ostensibly set before the public eye on the massive and almost eternal monuments which cover the country4 ,there1 too1 it ascends to ages of the world with which the ,scriptures have made us familiar1 and stands associated with royal dynasties1 and vicissitudes of conquest1 more intimately blended with that stream of civil history1 along the margin of which ,european education conducts us4 ,these mystic characters have acquired an adventitious interest also1 from the circumstance that the key to them was for so many ages lost4 ,this knowledge perished among that people themselves1 the records of whose kings and conquests lay hid under the inexplicable symbol1 or the fanciful representation of letters and sounds which were still familiar to the lips of those to whom the signs had become wholly unmeaning4 ,age after age they were gazed at by the curious2 conjectures respecting their nature and use were offered by the learned1 some absurd and some approaching the truth1 but all failing to throw light upon a mystery1 which at length was surrendered1 by common consent1 to the receptacle of lost and irrecoverable knowledge4 ,whether the hieroglyphics were symbols only1 or words1 or picturesque alphabetical characters1 or expressed the popular tongue1 or one known only to the priests1 were questions answered at random by the prompt and dogmatic2 and even the more modest and probable solutions of the cautious had so little collateral evidence to support them1 that they led to no result4 ,as to their intent1 one thought that they involved the mysteries of magic2 another1 that they were a form of the ,chinese language2 a third1 that they veiled the doctrines of the true patriarchal religion2 a fourth1 that they enveloped the dogmatic arcana of the ,egyptian priesthood4 ,the great point1 however1 to be determined was1 whether the hieroglyphics were the signs of a language2 that is1 of the sounds of any language2 and1 if so1 whether the language was now known1 or knowable1 from books still extant4 ,each of these points was of equal importance2 for in vain would it have been ascertained that these signs represented the sounds of a tongue once spoken1 if that tongue had perished from the earth4 ,clement of ,alexandria1 who lived about the end of the second century1 asserted that the ,egyptians had three modes of writing1--the epistolographic1 or common characters2 the hieratic1 or sacerdotal1 employed chiefly by the priesthood in writing books2 and the hieroglyphic1 used on public monuments4 ,the symbolical he again distributes into imitative1 which represent the plain figure of an object1 as a circle to express the sun1 and a half circle the moon2 tropical1--which have recourse to analogy for the representation of the object2 and enigmatical1--as 8a serpent1 to signify the oblique course of the stars40 ,this writer could not so accurately have expressed the truth of the case1 unless he had known much more than he has written2 and we may presume1 that if he had been more liberal in his communications1 the present age would not have had the honour of throwing open the gate to this branch of ancient learning4 ,the notion which has generally prevailed1 that by whatever rule the hieroglyphics were composed1 they were invented by the ,egyptian priests to conceal their wisdom from the vulgar1 was combated by ,bishop ,warburton1 with his usual acuteness4 ,according to him1 the first kind of hieroglyphics were mere pictures2 because the most natural way of communicating our conceptions by marks or figures was1 to trace out the images of things4 ,but the hieroglyphics invented by the ,egyptians were an improvement on this rude and inconvenient essay toward writing2 for they contrived to make them both pictures and characters4 ,he proceeds to other observations1 which have lost their interest in consequence of the recent discoveries2 but he argues conclusively1 that hieroglyphics could not1 in a vast number of cases1 have been resorted to for purposes of secrecy1 since they were employed to record openly and plainly their laws1 history1 and all kinds of civil matters4 ,this1 as a general view1 has been proved to be correct2 but still no key to the reading of these characters was found4 ,the figures of deities might1 in many instances1 be deciphered by their attributes2 other symbols were not difficult to explain1 as they spoke a universal language4 ,thus two hands1 one holding a bow1 and another a shield1 suggested a battle2 an eye and a sceptre1 a monarch of intelligence and vigilance2 a ship and a pilot1 the governor of a state if associated with a man1 the ruler of the universe if associated with a deity4 ,a lion was a natural emblem of strength and courage2 a bullock1 of agriculture2 a horse1 of liberty2 a sphynx1 of subtlety4 ,but still those hieroglyphics were in the greatest number which appeared to represent letters2 and many might prove1 at the same time1 both emblematic and alphabetical4 ,approaches to the truth of the case had been1 indeed1 made4 ,warburton1 from an attentive perusal of what ,clemens ,alexandrinus had said on the subject1 had1 in fact1 concluded1 in a way highly creditable to his acuteness1 that hieroglyphics were a real written language1 applicable to the purposes of history and common life1 as well as to those of religion2 and that1 among the different sorts of hieroglyphics1 the ,egyptians possessed those which were used phonetically1 or alphabetically1 as letters2 but1 till recently1 the means of following out this ingenious and correct conjecture were wanting to the learned4 ,the first effectual step was taken by ,m4 ,quattermere1 who proved1 in his work ,sur la ,langue et ,littrature de l',egypte1 ,concerning the ,language and ,literature of ,egypt1 that the ,coptic1 a language of easy attainment1 at least to a considerable extent1 was the language of the ancient ,egyptians4 ,the second favouring circumstance of modern times was1 the publication of the researches made as to the monuments of ,egypt by the literary men and artists who accompanied the ,french expedition to that country4 ,previous to this1 the specimens which had been brought to ,europe were few1 and the impressions and the fac similes of them incorrect4 ,some1 too1 were imitations1 and others spurious4 ,in the works published in ,france after this expedition1 the representations of ,egyptian monuments were numerous2 and the inscriptions were given with perfect exactness and fidelity4 ,still1 however1 those would have remained as unintelligible as the originals but for the discovery of the ,rosetta stone1 now among the ,egyptian antiquities in the gallery of the ,british museum4 ,this stone was dug up by the ,french1 near ,rosetta1 and contained an inscription in three sets of characters3 one in hieroglyphics2 a second in a sort of running hand1 called enchorial1 that is1 in the common characters of the country2 and a third in ,greek4 ,the latter appearing1 from the disposition of the whole1 to be a translation of the enchorial inscription1 as that was of the hieroglyphic1 the importance of this stone was at once seen by the ,french savans2 but by the fortune of war1 it was taken1 with other valuables1 by the ,british troops1 and was sent to this country4 ,the ,antiquarian ,society had it immediately engraved2 and the fac similes1 which were circulated through ,europe attracted great attention4 ,dr4 ,young has1 however1 the honour of being the discoverer of the nature and use of the hieroglyphical inscription4 ,m4 de ,sacy1 and more especially ,mr4 ,ackerblad1 a ,danish gentleman1 made some progress in identifying the sense of several parts of the second inscription1 or that in demotic or enchorial characters1 but made no progress in the hieroglyphics2 and it was left for ,british industry to convert to permanent profit a monument which had been a useless1 though a glorious1 monument of ,british valour4 ,the inscription upon this celebrated stone proved to be a decree of the ,egyptian priests1 solemnly assembled in the temple1 to record upon a monument1 as a public expression of their gratitude1 all the events of the reign of ,ptolemy ,epiphanes2 his liberality to the temples and to the gods2 his success against his rebellious subjects2 his clemency toward some of the traitors2 his measures against the fatal consequences of excessive inundations of the ,nile2 and his munificence toward the college of the priests1 by remitting the arrears of several years' payment of taxes4 ,it was an important circumstance1 that the whole concludes by ordering that this decree 8shall be engraved on a hard stone in sacred characters1 in common characters1 and in ,greek40 ,by this it was ascertained that the second and third inscriptions were translations of the first2 and that the second inscription was in the common character of the country4 ,it was this that led ,ackerblad to the investigation of the enchorial text1 in order to discover its alphabet2 in which he partially succeeded4 ,his labours were1 however1 for some time unnoticed2 but in #ahad1 ,dr4 ,young published1 in the ,archologia1 an improvement on the alphabet of ,ackerblad1 and a translation of the ,egyptian inscription4 ,difficulties of no ordinary kind1 beside those arising from the mutilated state of the stone1 presented themselves to all who had applied to make out even the second1 or enchorial inscription4 8,the method10 says the ,marquis ,spineto1 8pursued by our learned men in this ,herculean task of deciphering the ,rosetta stone1 deserves to be noticed2 it may serve to give you a proper idea of the infinite labour to which they have been obliged to submit2 a labour which at first seemed calculated to deter the most indefatigable scholar4 ,figure to yourself1 for a moment1 the fashion introduced of writing the ,english language with the omission of most of its vowels1 and then suppose our alphabet to be entirely lost or forgotten1 a new mode of writing introduced1 letters totally different from those we use1 and then conceive what our labour would be1 if1 after the lapse of fifteen hundred years1 when the ,english language1 by the operation of ages1 and the intercourse with foreigners1 was much altered from what it now is1 we should be required1 by the help of a ,greek translation1 to decipher a bill of parliament written in this old1 forgotten1 and persecuted alphabet1 in every word of which we should find1 and even this not always1 the regular number of consonants1 but most of the vowels left out4 ,and yet this is precisely what our learned antiquarians have been obliged to do4 ,the ,egyptians1 like most of the orientals1 left out many of the vowels in writing4 ,the enchorial1 or demotic alphabet1 which they used1 has been laid aside since the second or third century of our era4 ,from that time to this1 that is1 for nearly sixteen hundred years1 the ,coptic alphabet has been used2 and yet in this ,coptic language1 and in these very enchorial or demotic characters1 was engraved on the ,rosetta stone the inscription which they have deciphered40 ,the steps of this interesting process are given by ,dr4 ,young1 in the ,supplement to the ,encyclopdia ,britannica4 ,the substance is as follows3 8,as the demotic characters showed something like the shape of letters1 it was shrewdly suspected that they might have been used as an alphabet4 ,by comparing1 therefore1 its different parts with each other1 and with the ,greek1 it was observed that the two groups in the fourth and seventeenth lines of the ,greek inscription1 in which ,alexander and ,alexandria occur1 corresponded with two other groups in the second and the tenth line of the demotic inscription4 ,these two groups1 therefore1 were considered as representing these two names1 and thus not less than seven characters1 or letters1 were ascertained4 ,again3 it was observed that a small group of character occurs very often in almost every line4 ,at first it was supposed that this group was either a termination1 or some very common particle2 and after some words had been identified1 it was found to mean the conjunction and4 ,it was then observed1 that the next remarkable collection of characters was repeated twenty-nine or thirty times in the enchorial inscription2 and nothing found to occur so often in the ,greek1 except the word king1 which with its compounds1 is repeated about thirty-seven times4 ,a fourth assemblage of characters was found fourteen times in the enchorial inscription1 agreeing sufficiently well in frequency with the name of ,ptolemy1 which occurs eleven times in the ,greek1 and generally in passages corresponding to those of the enchorial text1 in their relative situation2 and1 by a similar comparison1 the name of ,egypt was identified4 ,having thus obtained a sufficient number of common points of subdivision1 the next step was to write the ,greek text over the enchorial1 in such a manner that the passages ascertained should coincide as nearly as possible2 taking1 however1 a proper care to observe that the lines of the demotic or enchorial inscription are written from right to left1 while those of the ,greek run in a contrary direction from left to right4 ,at first sight this difficulty seemed very great2 but it was conquered by proper attention and practice2 because1 after some trouble1 the division of the several words and phrases plainly indicated the direction in which they were to be read4 ,thus it was obvious that the intermediate parts of each inscription stood then very near to the corresponding passages of the other40 ,by means of the process above mentioned1 ,ackerblad1 ,de ,sacy1 and ,dr4 ,young1 among whom a correspondence had been carried on1 obtained a sort of alphabet from the enchorial characters1 which might aid them in future researches4 ,this result was published by ,dr4 ,young in #ahad4 ,the examination of another stone at ,menoup1 containing an inscription in enchorial and in ,greek characters1 enabled ,dr4 ,young to confirm the accuracy of former discoveries1 and to add several new characters to the enchorial or demotic alphabet4 ,dr4 ,young next turned his attention to the hieroglyphics2 and1 though not with equal success1 yet so as to demonstrate that they were phonetic or alphabetical1 and to spell several proper names4 ,the difficulty here1 indeed1 was how to begin2 but his success opened a certain way to future progress2 and it was upon ,dr4 ,young's discovery that ,champollion afterward engrafted his system1 and was enabled to carry his researches into ,egyptian antiquities and ,egyptian hieroglyphics1 to an extent which is now deeply engaging the attention of the literary world4 ,two practical ends appear to have been answered already by the deciphering of the mystic monuments of ,egypt4 ,the first is1 that the inscriptions which have been read by ,champollion1 afford assistance in settling some questions of ancient chronology2 the other is1 that important collateral proof has been afforded of the historical accuracy of the ,old ,testament1 and the antiquity of its books4 ,it is presumptive in favour of the genuineness and antiquity of the writings of ,moses1 that such proper ,egyptian names as are found in no other ancient writings beside his own1 such as ,on1 and ,rameses1 and ,potipherah1 and ,asenath1 should now be read in hieroglyphic characters on monuments still standing in the same country4 ,but the confirmatory evidence goes still farther4 ,in one inscription the names of two of the ,pharaohs1 ,osorgon and ,scheschonk1 are exhibited4 ,of the characters which compose this legend some are phonetic1 some figurative1 and some symbolic4 ,the whole reading in ,coptic1 is1 8,ouab an ,amon-re soten annenoute ,osorchon pri 7or pre7 ce or ci an ouab an ,amon-re ,souten ,scheschonk-re ,soten ,nebto1 7,amonmai ,osorchon170 c4 ,the meaning of which is1 8,the pure by ,amon-re1 king of the gods1 ,osorchon deceased1 son of the pure1 by ,amon-re1 king of the gods1 ,scheschonk deceased1 son of king of the world1 7beloved by ,amon-re1 ,osorchon17 imparting life1 like the sun1 for ever40 ,this ,osorchon seems to have been the ,zarah1 or ,zarach1 the king of ,ethiopia1 recorded in the ,second ,book of ,chronicles1 who1 with a host of a thousand thousand and three hundred chariots1 came to make war against ,asa1 the grandson of ,jeroboam1 and was defeated at ,mareshah4 ,although the ,greek historians have never mentioned either the name or exploits of ,osorchon1 this fact is attested by an hieroglyphical manuscript1 published by ,denon4 ,it is a funeral legend1 loaded with figures1 on and round which there are several hieroglyphical inscriptions4 ,with respect to the other ,pharaoh1 ,champollion1 speaking of the temple of ,karnac1 says1 8,in this marvellous place ,i saw the portraits of most of the ancient ,pharaohs1 known by their great actions4 ,they are real portraits1 represented a hundred times on the basso-relievos of the outer and inner walls4 ,each of them has his peculiar physiognomy1 different from that of his predecessors and successors4 ,thus1 in colossal representations1 the sculpture of which is lively1 grand1 and heroic1 more perfect than can be believed in ,europe1 we see the ,pharaoh ,mandouei combating the nations hostile to ,egypt1 and returning triumphant to his country4 ,farther on1 the campaigns of ,rhamses ,sesostris2 elsewhere ,sesonchis1 or ,shishak1 dragging to the feet of the ,theban ,trinity1 ,ammon1 ,mouth1 and ,khous1 the chiefs of thirty conquered nations1 among which is found1 written in letters at full length1 the word ,joudahamalek1 that is1 the kingdom of the ,jews1 or the kingdom of ,judah4 ,this is a commentary on the fourteenth chapter of the ,first ,book of ,kings1 which relates the arrival of ,shishak at ,jerusalem1 and his success there4 ,thus the identity between the ,egyptian ,sheschonk1 the ,sesonchis of ,manetho1 and the ,sesac1 or ,schischak of the ,bible1 is confirmed in the most satisfactory manner40 ,,year4 ,the ,hebrews had always years1 of twelve months each4 ,but at the beginning1 and in the time of ,moses1 these were solar years1 of twelve months2 each having thirty days1 except the twelfth which had thirty-five4 ,we see1 by the reckoning that ,moses gives us of the days of the deluge1 ,gen4 vii1 that the ,hebrew year consisted of three hundred and sixty-five days4 ,it is supposed that they had an intercalary month at the end of one hundred and twenty years2 at which time the beginning of their year would be out of its place full thirty days4 ,but it must be owned1 that no mention is made in ,scripture of the thirteenth month1 or of any intercalation4 ,it is not improbable that ,moses retained the order of the ,egyptian year1 since he himself came out of ,egypt1 was born in that country1 had been instructed and brought up there1 and since the people of ,israel1 whose chief he was1 had been for a long time accustomed to this kind of year4 ,but the ,egyptian year was solar1 and consisted of twelve months of thirty days each1 and that for a very long time before4 ,after the time of ,alexander the ,great1 and the reign of the ,grecians in ,asia1 the ,jews reckoned by lunar months1 chiefly in what related to religion1 and the order of the festivals4 ,st4 ,john1 in his ,revelation1 xi1 #b1 #c2 xii1 #f1 #ad2 xiii1 #e1 assigns but twelve hundred and sixty days to three years and a half1 and consequently just thirty days to every month1 and just three hundred and sixty days to every year4 ,maimonides tells us1 that the years of the ,jews were solar1 and their months lunar4 ,since the completing of the ,talmud1 they have made use of years that are purely lunar1 having alternately a full month of thirty days1 and then a defective month of twenty-nine days4 ,and to accommodate this lunar year to the course of the sun1 at the end of three years they intercalate a whole month after ,adar2 which intercalated month they call ,ve-adar1 or the second ,adar4 ,the beginning of the year was various among different nations3 the ancient ,chaldeans1 ,babylonians1 ,medes1 ,persians1 ,armenians1 and ,syrians1 began their year about the vernal equinox2 and the ,chinese in the east1 and ,latins and ,romans in the west1 originally followed the same usage4 ,the ,egyptians1 and from them the ,jews1 began their civil year about the autumnal equinox4 ,the ,athenians and ,greeks in general began theirs about the summer solstice2 and the ,chinese1 and the ,romans after ,numa's correction1 about the winter solstice4 ,at which of these the primeval year1 instituted at the creation1 began1 has been long contested among astronomers and chronologers4 ,philo1 ,eusebius1 ,cyril1 ,augustine1 ,abulfaragi1 ,kepler1 ,capellus1 ,simpson1 ,lange1 and ,jackson1 contend for the vernal equinox2 and ,josephus1 ,scaliger1 ,petavius1 ,usher1 ,bedford1 ,kennedy1 c1 for the autumnal4 ,the weight of ancient authorities1 and also of argument1 seems to preponderate in favour of the former opinion4 #a4 ,all the ancient nations1 except the ,egyptians1 began their civil year about the vernal equinox3 but the deviation of the ,egyptians from the general usage may easily be accounted for1 from a local circumstance peculiar to their country2 namely1 that the annual inundation of the ,nile rises to its greatest height at the autumnal equinox4 #b4 ,josephus1 the only ancient authority of any weight on the other side seems to be inconsistent with himself1 in supposing that the deluge began in the second civil month1 ,dius1 or ,marheshvan1 rather than in the second sacred month2 because ,moses1 throughout the ,pentateuch1 uniformly adopts the sacred year2 and fixes its first month by an indelible and unequivocal character1 calling it ,abib1 as ushering in the season of green corn4 ,and as ,josephus calls the second month elsewhere ,artemisius1 or ,iar1 in conformity with ,scripture1 there is no reason why he should deviate from the same usage in the case of the deluge4 #c4 ,to the authority of ,josephus1 we may oppose that of the great ,jewish antiquary1 ,philo1 in the generation before him2 who thus accounts for the institution of the sacred year by ,moses3--8,this month1 ,abib1 being the seventh in number and order according to the sun's course1 or civil year1 reckoned from the autumnal equinox1 is virtually the first1 and is therefore called #8the first month' in the sacred books4 ,and the reason1 ,i think1 is this3 because the vernal equinox is the image and representative of the original epoch of the creation of the world4 ,thereby ,god notified the spring1 in which all things bloom and blossom1 to be an annual memorial of the world's creation4 ,wherefore this month is properly called the first in the law1 as being the image of the first original month1 stamped upon it1 as it were1 by that archetypal seal40 #d4 ,the first sacrifice on record seems to decide the question4 ,the time of the sacrifice of ,cain and ,abel appears to have been spring2 when ,cain1 who was a 8tiller of the ground10 brought the first fruits of his tillage1 or a sheaf of new corn2 and ,abel1 who was 8a feeder of sheep10 8the firstlings of his flock10 lambs3 and this was done 8at the end of days10 or 8at the end of the year20 which is the correct meaning of the phrase 1 and not the indefinite expression1 8in process of time10 ,gen4 iv1 #c4 ,it is a remarkable proof of the accuracy of ,moses1 and a confirmation of this expression1 that he expresses the end of the civil year1 or 8ingathering of the harvest10 by different phrases1 1 8at the going out of the year10 ,exod4 xxiii1 #af2 and 1 8at the revolution of the year10 ,exod4 xxxiv1 #bb2 as those phrases may more critically be rendered4 ,but1 in process of time1 it was found that the primeval year of three hundred and sixty days was shorter than the tropical year2 and the first discovery was1 that it was deficient five entire days1 which therefore it was necessary to intercalate1 in order to keep up the correspondence of the civil year to the stated seasons of the principal festivals4 ,how early this discovery and intercalation was made1 is nowhere recorded4 ,it might have been known and practised before the deluge4 ,the apocryphal book of ,enoch1 which probably was as old as the ,septuagint translation of the ,pentateuch1 stated that 8the archangel ,ariel1 president of the stars1 discovered the nature of the month and of the year to ,enoch1 in the one hundred and sixty-fifth year of his age1 and ,a4 ,m4 #abhf40 ,and it is remarkable1 that ,enoch's age at his translation1 three hundred and sixty-five years1 expressed the number of entire days in a tropical year4 ,this knowledge might have been handed down to ,noah and his descendants2 and that it was early communicated indeed to the primitive ,egyptians1 ,chaldeans1 and ,chinese1 we learn from ancient tradition4 ,this article would be rendered too prolix were we to notice the various inventions of eminent men in different ages to rectify the calendar by adjusting the difference between lunar and tropical years2 which at length was effected by ,gregory ,,xiii4 in #aehc4 ,this ,gregorian1 or reformed ,julian year1 was not adopted in ,england until ,a4 ,d4 #agea1 when1 the deficiency from the time of the council of ,nice then amounting to eleven days1 this number was struck out of the month of ,september1 by act of parliament2 and the third day was counted the fourteenth1 in that year of confusion4 ,the next year1 ,a4 ,d4 #ageb1 was the first of the new style4 ,russia is the only country in ,europe which retains the old style4 ,the civil year of the ,hebrews has always begun at autumn1 at the month they now call ,tisri1 which answers to our ,september1 and sometimes enters into ,october1 according as the lunations happen4 ,but their sacred years1 by which the festivals1 assemblies1 and all other religious acts1 were regulated1 begin in the spring1 at the month ,nisan1 which answers to ,march1 and sometimes takes up a part of ,april1 according to the course of the moon4 ,see ,,months4 ,nothing is more equivocal among the ancients1 than the term year4 ,it always has been1 and still is1 a source of disputes among the learned1 whether on account of its duration1 its beginning1 or its end4 ,some people heretofore made their year consist only of one month1 others of four1 others of six1 others of ten1 and others of twelve4 ,some have divided one of our years into two1 and have made one year of winter1 another of summer4 ,the beginning of the year was fixed sometimes at autumn1 sometimes at the spring1 and sometimes at midwinter4 ,some people have used lunar months1 others solar4 ,even the days have been differently divided3 some people beginning them at evening1 others at morning1 others at noon1 and others at midnight4 ,with some the hours were equal1 both in winter and summer2 with others1 they were unequal4 ,they counted twelve hours to the day1 and as many to the night4 ,in summer the hours of the day were longer than those of the night2 but1 on the contrary1 in winter the hours of the night were longer than those of the day4 ,while the ,jews continued in the land of ,canaan1 the beginnings of their months and years were not settled by any astronomical rules or calculations1 but by the phasis1 or actual appearance of the new moon4 ,when they saw the new moon1 they began the month4 ,persons were therefore appointed to watch on the tops of the mountain for the first appearance of the moon after the change4 ,as soon as they saw it1 they informed the sanhedrim1 and public notice was given by lighting beacons throughout the land2 though after they had been often deceived by the ,samaritans1 who kindled false fires1 they used1 say the ,mishnical rabbins1 to proclaim its appearance by sending messengers4 ,yet as they had no months longer than thirty days1 if they did not see the new moon the night following the thirtieth day1 they concluded the appearance was obstructed by the clouds1 and1 without watching any longer1 made the next day the first of the following month4 ,but after the ,jews became dispersed through all nations1 where they had no opportunity of being informed of the first appearance of the new moon1 as they formerly had1 they were forced to make use of astronomical calculations and cycles for fixing the beginning of their months and years4 ,the first cycle they made use of for this purpose was of eighty-four years4 ,but that being discovered to be faulty1 they came afterward into the use of ,meto's cycle of nineteen years1 which was established by the authority of ,rabbi ,hillel ,hannasi1 or prince of the sanhedrim1 about ,a4 ,d4 #cfj4 ,this they still use1 and say it is to be observed till the coming of the ,messiah4 ,in the compass of this cycle there are twelve common years1 consisting of twelve months1 and seven intercalary years1 consisting of thirteen months4 ,we find the ,jews and their ancestors computing their years from different eras1 in different parts of the ,old ,testament2 as from the birth of the patriarchs1 for instance1 of ,noah1 ,gen4 vii1 #aa2 viii1 #ac2 afterward from their exit out of ,egypt1 ,num4 xxxiii1 #ch2 #a ,kings vi1 #a2 then from the building of ,solomon's temple1 #b ,chron4 viii1 #a2 and from the reigns of the kings of ,judah and ,israel4 ,in latter times the ,babylonish captivity furnished them with a new epocha1 from whence they computed their years1 ,ezek4 xxxiii1 #ba2 xl1 #a4 ,but since the times of the ,talmudical rabbins1 they have constantly used the era of the creation4 ,there is not a more prolific source of confusion and embarrassment in ancient chronology1 than the substitution of the cardinal numbers1 one1 two1 three1 for the ordinals1 first1 second1 third1 c1 which frequently occurs in the sacred and profane historians4 ,thus ,noah was six hundred years old when the deluge began1 ,gen4 vii1 #f2 and presently after1 in his six hundredth year3 confounding complete and current years4 ,and the dispute whether ,a4 ,d4 #ahjj1 or ,a4 ,d4 #ahja1 was the first of the nineteenth century1 should be decided in favour of the latter2 the former being in reality the last of the eighteenth century2 which is usually1 but improperly1 called the year one thousand eight hundred1 complete2 whereas it is really the one thousandth1 eight hundredth2 as in ,latin we say1 ,anno ,domini millesimo octingentesimo4 ,there is also another and a prevailing error1 arising from mistranslation of the current phrases1 ' 1 1 c1 usually rendered1 8after eight days10 8after three days10 c2 but which ought to be rendered 8eight days after10 8three days after10 as in other places1 1 ' 1 which are correctly rendered 8some days after10 8not many days after10 in our ,english ,bible1 ,acts xv1 #cf2 ,luke xv1 #ac1 the extreme days being included4 ,such phrases seem to be elliptical1 and the ellipsis is supplied1 ,luke ix1 #bh1 speaking of our ,lord's transfiguration1 1 3 8,after these sayings1 about eight days10 or rather about the eighth day1 counted inclusively2 for in the parallel passages1 ,matt4 xvii1 #a1 ,mark ix1 #b1 there are only 8six days10 counted exclusively1 or omitting the extremes4 ,thus1 circumcision is prescribed1 ,gen4 xvii1 #aa1 when the child is 8eight days old20 but in ,lev4 xii1 #c1 8on the eighth day40 ,and ,jesus accordingly was circumcised1 1 8when eight days were accomplished10 ,luke ii1 #ba2 whereas ,john the ,baptist1 1 8on the eighth day40 ,the last1 which was the constant usage1 explains the meaning of the former4 ,this critically reconciles our ,lord's resurrection1 1 8three days after10 according to ,matt4 xxvii1 #fc2 ,mark viii1 #ca2 with his resurrection1 h1 8on the third day10 according to ,matt4 xvi1 #ba2 ,luke ix1 #bb2 and according to fact3 for our ,lord was crucified on ,good ,friday1 about the third hour2 and he arose before sunrise1 1 8early10 on ,sunday2 so that the interval1 though extending through three calendar days current1 did not in reality amount to two entire days1 or forty-eight hours4 ,this phraseology is frequent among the most correct classic writers4 ,some learned commentators1 ,beza1 ,grotius1 ,campbell1 ,newcome1 render such phrases1 8within eight days10 8within three days20 which certainly conveys the meaning1 but not the literal translation1 of the preposition 1 8after40 ,in memory of the primeval week of creation1 revived among the ,jews1 after their departure from ,egypt1 their principal festivals1 the passover1 pentecost1 and tabernacles1 lasted a week each4 ,they had weeks of seven years a piece1 at the term of which was the sabbatical year2 as also weeks of seven times seven years1 that were terminated by the year of jubilee2 and finally weeks of seven days4 ,and it is remarkable that1 from the earliest times1 sacrifices were offered by sevens4 ,thus1 in the patriarch ,job's days1 8seven bullocks and seven rams were offered up for a burnt offering0 of atonement1 by the divine command1 ,job xiii1 #h4 ,the ,chaldean diviner1 ,balaam1 built seven altars1 and prepared seven bullocks and seven rams1 ,num4 xxiii1 #a4 ,and the ,cuman sibyl1 who came from ,chaldea1 or ,babylonia1 gives the same directions to neas1 that ,balaam did to ,balak3 ,nunc grege de intacto septem mactare juvencos ,prstiterit1 totidem lectas1 de more1 bidentes4 8,seven bullocks1 yet unyoked1 for ,phbus choose1 ,and for ,diana seven unspotted ewes40 ,,dryden4 ,and when the ark was brought home by ,david1 the ,levites offered seven bullocks and seven rams1 #a ,chronicles xv1 #bf4 ,and hence we may account for the peculiar sanctity of the seventh day1 among the older ,heathen writers1 even after the institution of the ,sabbath fell into disuse1 and was lost among them4 ,,the ,,fallow ,,or ,,sabbatic ,,year4 ,agricultural labour among the ,jews ceased every seventh year4 ,nothing was sown and nothing reaped2 the vines and the olives were not pruned2 there was no vintage and no gathering of fruits1 even of what grew wild2 but whatever spontaneous productions there were1 were left to the poor1 the traveller1 and the wild beast1 ,lev4 xxv1 #a-g2 ,deut4 xv1 #a-aj4 ,the object of this regulation seems to have been1 among others1 to let the ground recover its strength1 and to teach the ,hebrews to be provident of their income and to look out for the future4 ,it is true1 that extraordinary fruitfulness was promised on the sixth year1 but in such a way as not to exclude care and foresight1 ,lev4 xxv1 #bj-bd4 ,we are not to suppose1 however1 that the ,hebrews spent the seventh year in absolute idleness3 they could fish1 hunt1 take care of their bees and flocks1 repair their buildings and furniture1 manufacture cloths of wool1 linen1 and of the hair of goats and camels1 and carry on commerce4 ,finally1 they were obliged to remain longer in the tabernacle or temple this year1 during which the whole ,mosaic law was read1 in order to be instructed in religious and moral duties1 and the history of their nation1 and the wonderful works and blessings of ,god1 ,deut4 xxxi1 #aj-ac4 ,this seventh year's rest1 as ,moses predicted1 ,lev4 xxvi1 #cd1 #ce1 was for a long time neglected1 #b ,chron4 xxxvi1 #ba2 after the captivity it was more scrupulously observed4 ,as a period of seven days was every week completed by the ,sabbath1 so was a period of seven years completed by the sabbatic year4 ,it seems to have been the design of this institution1 to afford a longer opportunity than would otherwise have been enjoyed for impressing on the memory the great truth1 that ,god the ,creator is alone to be worshipped4 ,the commencement of this year was on the first day of the seventh month ,tishri1 or ,october4 ,during the continuance of the feast of tabernacles this year1 the law was to be publicly read for eight days together1 either in the tabernacle or temple1 ,deut4 xxxi1 #aj-ac4 ,debts1 on account of there being no income from the soil1 were not collected1 ,deut4 xv1 #a1 #b2 they were not1 however1 cancelled1 as was imagined by the ,talmudists1 for we find in ,deut4 xv1 #i1 that the ,hebrews are admonished not to deny money to the poor on account of the approach of the sabbatical year1 during which it could not be exacted2 but nothing farther than this can be educed from that passage4 ,nor were servants manumitted on this year1 but on the seventh year of their service1 ,exodus xxi1 #b2 ,deut4 xv1 #ab2 ,jer4 xxxiv1 #ad4 ,,the ,,year ,,of ,,jubilee followed seven sabbatic years2 it was on the fiftieth year1 ,lev4 xxv1 #h-aa4 ,to this statement agree the ,jews generally1 their rabbins1 and the ,caraites2 and say farther1 that the argument of those who maintain that it was on the forty-ninth1 for the reason that the omission to till the ground for two years in succession1 namely1 the forty-ninth and fiftieth1 would produce a famine1 is not to be attended to4 ,it is not to be attended to1 simply because these years of rest being known long beforehand1 the people would of course lay up provision for them4 ,it may be remarked farther in reference to this point1 that certain trees produced their fruits spontaneously1 particularly the fig and sycamore1 which yield half the year round1 and that those fruits could be preserved for some months2 which explains at once how a considerable number of the people might have obtained no inconsiderable portion of their support4 ,the return of the year of jubilee was announced on the tenth day of the seventh month1 or ,tishri1 ,october1 being the day of propitiation or atonement1 by the sound of trumpet1 ,lev4 xxv1 #h-ac2 xxvii1 #bd2 ,num4 xxxvi1 #d2 ,isa4 lxi1 #a1 #b4 ,beside the regulations which obtained on the sabbatic year1 there were others which concerned the year of jubilee exclusively3 #a4 ,all the servants of ,hebrew origin on the year of jubilee obtained their freedom1 ,lev4 xxv1 #ci-df2 ,jer4 xxxiv1 #g1 c4 #b4 ,all the fields throughout the country1 and the houses in the cities and villages of the ,levites and priests which had been sold on the preceding years1 were returned on the year of jubilee to the sellers1 with the exception of those which had been consecrated to ,god1 and had not been redeemed before the return of the said year1 ,lev4 xxv1 #aj1 #ac-ag1 #bd-bh2 xxvii1 #af-ba4 #c4 ,debtors1 for the most part1 pledged or mortgaged their lands to the creditor1 and left it to his use till the time of payment1 so that it was in effect sold to the creditor1 and was1 accordingly1 restored to the debtor on the year of jubilee4 ,in other words1 the debts for which land was pledged were cancelled2 the same as those of persons who had recovered their freedom after having been sold into slavery1 on account of not being able to pay4 ,hence it usually happened in the later periods of ,jewish history1 as we learn from ,josephus1 that1 at the return of jubilee1 there was a general cancelling of debts4 ,,zabii1 or ,,zab,,ans1 or ,,zabians1 or ,,sabians4 ,the ,sabians mentioned in ,scripture were evidently a nation1 or perhaps a wandering horde1 such as fell upon ,job's cattle1 ,job i1 #ae2 men of stature1 ,isa4 xiv1 #ad2 a people afar off1 ,joel iii1 #h4 ,but we speak here of the ,zabians as a sect1 probably the first corrupters of the patriarchal religion2 and so called1 as is believed1 from tsabiim1 the 8hosts10 that is1 of heaven2 namely1 the sun1 moon1 and stars1 to whom they rendered worship2 first immediately1 and afterward through the medium of images2 this particularly distinguished them from the magi1 whose idolatry was confined to the solar orb1 and its earthly representative1 the fire4 ,if the above derivation be right1 the ,zabians were originally ,chaldeans1 though afterward the same sect arose in ,arabia4 ,their study of the heavenly bodies led them1 not only to astronomy1 but to astrology1 its degenerate daughter1 which was for many ages the favourite pursuit of the oriental nations4 ,the following account is abridged from ,dr4 ,townley's 8,essays20--,the ,zabii1 or ,zabians1 were a sect of idolaters who flourished in the early ages of the world1 considerable in their numbers1 and extensive in their influence4 ,the denomination of ,zabii1 given to these idolaters1 appears to have been derived from the ,hebrew 1 a host2 with reference to the or1 host of heaven1 which they worshipped2 though others have derived it from the ,arabic tsaba 8to apostatize10 8to turn from one religion to another20 or from 1 or the ,arabic ,tsabin1 8,chaldeans10 or 8inhabitants of the east40 ,lactantius considers ,ham1 the son of ,noah1 as the first seceder from the true religion after the flood2 and supposes ,egypt1 which was peopled by his descendants1 to have been the country in which ,zabaism1 or the worship of the stars1 first prevailed4 ,that the worship of the heavenly bodies prevailed in the east at a very early period1 is certain from the words of ,job1 who thus exculpates himself from the charge of idolatry3 8,if ,i beheld the sun when it shined1 or the moon walking in brightness1 and my heart hath been secretly enticed1 or my mouth hath kissed my hand2 this also were an iniquity to be punished by the judge3 for ,i should have denied the ,god that is above10 ,job xxii1 #bf-bh4 ,it would appear that the idolatrous opinions of the ,zabii originated with the posterity of ,ham1 at a very early period after the flood1 in ,egypt or ,chaldea2 but spread so rapidly and extensively1 that in a very short time nearly the whole of the descendants of ,noah were infected with their pestiferous sentiments and practices4 ,maimonides says1 8,this people10 that is1 the ,zabii1 8had filled the whole world40 ,their first and principal adoration was directed to the host of heaven1 or the stars4 ,they were ignicol1 or 8worshippers of fire40 ,the city of ,ur1 in ,chaldea1 seems to have had its name from the inhabitants being devoted to the worship of fire4 ,they dedicated images to the sun and the other celestial orbs1 supposing that1 by a formal consecration of them to those luminaries1 a divine virtue was infused into them1 by which they acquired the faculty of understanding1 and the power of conferring prophecy and other gifts upon their worshippers4 ,these images were formed of various metals1 according to the particular star to which any of them was dedicated4 ,they also regarded certain trees as being appropriated to particular stars1 and1 when idolatrously dedicated1 as being possessed of very singular virtues4 ,from these opinions sprang the adoption of astrology by them1 in all its various forms4 ,they maintained the doctrine of the eternity of the world4 8,all the ,zabii10 says ,maimonides1 8believe in the eternity of the world2 for1 according to them1 the heavens are ,god40 ,holding the eternity of the world1 they easily became ,pre-,adamites1 affirming that ,adam was not the first man4 ,they also fabled concerning him1 that he was the apostle of the moon1 and the author of several works on husbandry4 ,of ,noah1 they taught1 that he was a husbandman1 and was imprisoned for dissenting from their opinions4 ,they add1 that ,seth was another of those who forsook the worship of the moon4 ,they held agriculture in the highest estimation1 regarding it as intimately connected with the worship of the heavenly bodies4 ,on this account1 it was deemed criminal1 by the major part of them1 to slay or feed upon cattle4 ,goats were also reputed to be sacred animals1 because the demons whom they worshipped were said to appear in the woods and deserts in the forms of goats or of satyrs4 ,of their superstitious practices1 some were dangerous1 as the sacrifices of lions1 tigers1 and other wild beasts4 ,certain of their rites were cruel1 as the passing of their children through the fire1 and branding themselves also with fire4 ,some of their practices were loathsome and disgustful2 such as eating blood1 believing it to be the food of demons1 c4 ,others were frivolous and tedious2 as offering bats and mice to the sun1 various and frequent ablutions1 lustrations1 c4 ,some of them were obscene and beastly1 as the rites practised on engrafting a tree1 or to obtain rain4 ,many of the rites were magical4 ,these ,maimonides divides into three kinds3--8,the first is that which respects plants1 animals1 and metals4 ,the second consists in the limitation and determination of the times in which certain works ought to be performed4 ,the third consists in human gestures and actions1 as leaping1 clapping the hands1 shouting1 laughing1 lying down1 or stretching at full length upon the ground1 burning particular things1 raising a smoke1 and1 lastly1 repeating certain intelligible or unintelligible words4 ,some things cannot be completed without the use of all these rites40 ,it is generally acknowledged that some traces of ,zabianism are still to be found both among the ,hindoos and ,chinese in the east1 and the ,mexicans and other nations in the south4 ,the ,guebres1 or ,parsees1 who inhabit ,persia1 and are scattered through various parts of ,hindostan1 are the acknowledged worshippers of fire1 or the supreme ,deity under that symbol4 8,that the ,persians10 says ,hyde1 8were formerly ,sabians or ,zabii1 is rendered probable by ,ibn ,phacreddin ,angjou1 a ,persian1 who1 in his book #8,pharhangh ,gjihanghiri1' treating of the ,persians descended from ,shem1 says in the preface1 #8,their religion1 at that time1 was ,zabianism2 but at length they became magi1 and built fire temples4' ,and the author of the book #8,mu'gjizat ,pharsi1' adopts the same opinion3 #8,in ancient times1 the ,persians were of the ,zabian religion1 worshipping the stars1 until the time of ,gushtasp1 son of ,lohrasp4' ,for then ,zoroaster reformed their religion40 ,the modern ,sabians1 who inhabit the country round about ,mount ,libanus1 believe the unity of ,god1 but pay an adoration to the stars1 or the angels and intelligences which they suppose reside in them1 and govern the world under the supreme ,deity4 ,they are obliged to pray three times a day1 and they fast three times a year4 ,they offer many sacrifices1 but eat no part of them2 and abstain from beans1 garlic1 and some other pulse and vegetables4 ,they greatly respect the temple of ,mecca and the pyramids of ,egypt1 fancying these last to be the sepulchres of ,seth1 and of ,enoch and ,sabi1 his two sons1 whom they look on as the first propagators of their religion4 ,at these structures1 they sacrifice a cock and a black calf1 and offer up incense4 ,their principal pilgrimage1 however1 is to ,haran1 the supposed birth place of ,abraham4 ,such is the account of this sect given by ,sale1 ,d',herbelot1 and ,hyde4 ,,zaccheus1 chief of the publicans2 that is1 farmer general of the revenues1 ,luke xix1 #a1 c4 ,this is all that is known concerning this person4 ,see ,,publicans and ,,sycamore4 ,,zadok1 son of ,ahitub1 high priest of the ,jews1 of the race of ,eleazar4 ,at the death of ,ahimelech1 or ,abiathar1 he came to the pontificate1 ,a4 ,m4 #bidd4 ,for some time there were two high priests in ,israel1 #b ,sam4 viii1 #ag2 xv1 #bd1 c2 xix1 #aa1 #ab2 #a ,kings i1 #h1 c4 ,after the death of ,david1 #a ,kings ii1 #ce1 ,solomon excluded ,abiathar from the high priesthood1 because he espoused the party of ,adonijah1 and made ,zadok high priest alone4 ,,zamzummim1 or ,,zuzim1 a gigantic race of people1 who1 together with the ,rephaim and ,emim1 men of like stature1 occupied1 in the time of ,abraham1 the country east of ,jordan and the ,dead ,sea1 where they were routed by ,chedorlaomer1 and from which they were afterward expelled by the ,ammonites1 ,deut4 ii1 #bj1 #ba4 ,these1 together with the ,anakim1 another family of giants1 were all evidently of a race foreign to the original inhabitants of the countries where they were found2 they were probably tribes of invading ,cushites4 ,the ,vulgate and the ,septuagint say1 they were conquered with the ,rephaim in ,ashteroth-,karnaim4 ,the ,chaldee interpreters have taken ,zuzim in the sense of an appellative1 for stout and valiant men2 and the ,septuagint have rendered the word ,zuzim1 1 robust nations4 ,we meet with the word ,zuzim only in ,gen4 xiv1 #e4 ,,zeal4 ,the original word1 in its primary signification1 means heat2 such as the heat of boiling water4 ,when it is figuratively applied to the mind1 it means any warm emotion or affection4 ,sometimes it is taken for envy3 so we render it1 ,acts v1 #ag1 where we read1 8,the high priest1 and all that were with him1 were filled with envy10 3 although it might as well be rendered1 8were filled with zeal40 ,sometimes it is taken for anger and indignation2 sometimes1 for vehement desire4 ,and when any of our passions are strongly moved on a religious account1 whether for any thing good1 or against any thing which we conceive to be evil1 this we term religious zeal4 ,but it is not all that is called religious zeal which is worthy of that name4 ,it is not properly religious or ,christian zeal1 if it be not joined with charity4 ,a fine writer 7,bishop ,sprat7 carries the matter farther still4 8,it has been affirmed10 says he1 8no zeal is right1 which is not charitable1 but is mostly so4 ,charity1 or love1 is not only one ingredient1 but the chief ingredient1 in its composition40 ,may we not go farther still8 ,may we not say1 that true zeal is not mostly charitable1 but wholly so8 that is1 if we take charity1 in ,st4 ,paul's sense1 for love2 the love of ,god and our neighbour4 ,for it is a certain truth1 although little understood in the world1 that ,christian zeal is all love4 ,it is nothing else4 ,the love of ,god and man fills up its whole nature4 ,yet it is not every degree of that love to which this appellation is given4 ,there may be some love1 a small degree of it1 where there is no zeal4 ,but it is1 properly1 love in a higher degree4 ,it is fervent love4 ,true ,christian zeal is no other than the flame of love4 ,this is the nature1 the inmost essence of it4 ,phinehas is commended for having expressed much zeal against those wicked persons that violated the law of the ,lord1 ,num4 xxv1 #aa1 #ac2 and in ,psalm lxix1 #i1 the psalmist says1 8,the zeal of thine house hath eaten me up20 my earnest desire to have all things duly ordered about thy worship1 and my just displeasure and indignation at all abuses in it1 have wasted my natural moisture and vital spirits4 ,,zeboim1 one of the four cities of the ,pentapolis1 consumed by fire from heaven1 ,gen4 xiv1 #b2 xix1 #bd4 ,eusebius and ,st4 ,jerom speak of ,zeboim as of a city remaining in their time1 upon the western shores of the ,dead ,sea4 ,consequently1 after the time of ,lot this city must have been rebuilt near the place where it had stood before4 ,mention is made of the valley of ,zeboim1 #a ,sam4 xiii1 #ah1 and of a city of the same name in the tribe of ,benjamin1 ,neh4 xi1 #cd4 ,,zebulun1 the sixth son of ,jacob and ,leah1 ,gen4 xxx1 #bj4 ,he was born in ,mesopotamia1 about ,a4 ,m4 #bbef4 ,his sons were ,sered1 ,elon1 and ,jahleel1 ,gen4 xlvi1 #ad4 ,moses acquaints us with no particulars of his life2 but ,jacob1 in his last blessing1 said of ,zebulun1 8,zebulun shall dwell at the haven of the sea2 and he shall be for a haven of ships2 and his border shall be unto ,zidon10 ,gen4 xlix1 #ac4 ,his portion extended along the coast of the ,mediterranean ,sea1 one end of it bordering on this sea1 and the other on the sea of ,tiberias1 ,joshua xix1 #aj1 c4 ,in the last words of ,moses1 he joins ,zebulun and ,issachar together1 saying1 8,rejoice ,zebulun1 in thy going out1 and ,issachar in thy tents4 ,they shall call the people unto the mountain1 there shall they offer sacrifices of righteousness4 ,for they shall suck of the abundance of the seas1 and of treasures hid in the sand10 ,deut4 xxxiii1 #ah2 meaning1 that these two tribes being at the greatest distance north1 should come together to the temple at ,jerusalem1 to the holy mountain1 and should bring with them such of the other tribes as dwelt in their way2 and that being situated on the coast of the ,mediterranean ,sea1 they should apply themselves to trade and navigation1 and to the melting of metals and glass1 denoted by those words1 8treasures hid in the sand40 ,the river ,belus1 whose sand was very fit for making glass1 was in this tribe4 ,when the tribe of ,zebulun left ,egypt1 it had for its chief ,eliab the son of ,elon1 and comprehended fifty-seven thousand four hundred men able to bear arms1 ,num4 i1 #i-cj4 ,in another review thirty-nine years afterward1 this tribe amounted to sixty thousand five hundred men of age to bear arms1 ,num4 xxvi1 #bf1 #bg4 ,the tribes of ,zebulun and ,naphtali distinguished themselves in the war of ,barak and ,deborah against ,sisera1 the general of the armies of ,jabin1 ,judges iv1 #e1 #f1 #aj2 v1 #ad1 #ah4 ,it is thought these tribes were the first carried into captivity beyond the ,euphrates by ,pul and ,tiglath ,pileser1 kings of ,assyria1 #a ,chron4 v1 #bf4 ,they had also the advantage of hearing and seeing ,jesus ,christ in their country1 oftener and longer than any other of the twelve tribes1 ,isa4 ix1 #a2 ,matthew iv1 #ac1 #ae4 ,,zechariah1 king of ,israel1 #b ,kings xiv1 #bi4 ,he succeeded his father ,jeroboam ,,ii4 ,a4 ,m4 #cbbj4 ,he reigned but six months1 and was murdered4 #b4 ,,zechariah1 son of ,jehoiada1 high priest of the ,jews2 probably the same as ,azariah1 #a ,chron4 vi1 #aj1 #aa4 ,he was put to death by the order of ,joash1 ,a4 ,m4 #cafd1 #b ,chron4 xxiv1 #bj-bb4 ,some think this is the ,zacharias mentioned ,matt4 xxiii1 #ce4 #c4 ,,zechariah1 the eleventh of the twelve lesser prophets1 was the son of ,barachiah1 and the grandson of ,iddo4 ,he was born during the captivity1 and came to ,jerusalem when the ,jews were permitted by ,cyrus to return to their own country4 ,he began to prophesy two months later than ,haggai1 and continued to exercise his office about two years4 ,like his contemporary ,haggai1 ,zechariah begins with exhorting the ,jews to proceed in the rebuilding of the temple2 he promises them the aid and protection of ,god1 and assures them of the speedy increase and prosperity of ,jerusalem2 he then emblematically describes the four great empires1 and foretels the glory of the ,christian church when ,jews and ,gentiles shall be united under their great ,high ,priest and ,governor1 ,jesus ,christ1 of whom ,joshua the high priest1 and ,zerubbabel the governor1 were types2 he predicts many particulars relative to our ,saviour and his kingdom1 and to the future condition of the ,jews4 ,many moral instructions and admonitions are interspersed throughout the work4 ,several learned men have been of opinion that the last six chapters were not written by ,zechariah2 but whoever wrote them1 their inspired authority is established by their being quoted in three of the ,gospels1 ,matt4 xxvi1 #ca2 ,mark xiv1 #bg2 ,john xix1 #cg4 ,the style of ,zechariah is so remarkably similar to that of ,jeremiah1 that the ,jews were accustomed to observe1 that the spirit of ,jeremiah had passed into him4 ,by far the greater part of this book is prosaic2 but toward the conclusion there are some poetical passages which are highly ornamented4 ,the diction is in general perspicuous1 and the transitions to the different subjects are easily discerned4 ,,zedekiah1 or ,,mattaniah1 was the last king of ,judah before the captivity of ,babylon4 ,he was the son of ,josiah1 and uncle to ,jehoiachin his predecessor1 #b ,kings xxiv1 #ag1 #ai4 ,when ,nebuchadnezzar took ,jerusalem1 he carried ,jehoiachin to ,babylon1 with his wives1 children1 officers1 and the best artificers in ,judea1 and put in his place his uncle ,mattaniah1 whose name he changed into ,zedekiah1 and made him promise1 with an oath1 that he would continue in fidelity to him1 ,a4 ,m4 #cdje1 #b ,chron4 xxxvi1 #ac2 ,ezek4 xvii1 #ab1 #ad1 #ah4 ,he was twenty-one years old when he began to reign at ,jerusalem1 and he reigned there eleven years4 ,he did evil in the sight of the ,lord1 committing the same crimes as ,jehoiakim1 #b ,kings xxiv1 #ah-bj2 #b ,chron4 xxxvi1 #aa-ac2 and regarded not the menaces of the ,prophet ,jeremiah1 from the ,lord2 but hardened his heart4 ,the princes of the people1 and the inhabitants of ,jerusalem1 imitated his impiety1 and abandoned themselves to all the abominations of the ,gentiles4 ,in the first year of his reign1 ,zedekiah sent to ,babylon ,elasah1 the son of ,shaphan1 and ,gemariah1 the son of ,hilkiah1 probably to carry his tribute to ,nebuchadnezzar4 ,by these messengers ,jeremiah sent a letter to the captives at ,babylon1 ,jer4 xxix1 #a-bc4 ,four years afterward1 either ,zedekiah went thither himself1 or at least he sent thither2 for the ,hebrew text may admit either of these interpretations1 ,jer4 li1 #ei2 ,baruch i1 #a2 ,jer4 xxxii1 #ab4 ,the chief design of this deputation was to entreat ,nebuchadnezzar to return the sacred vessels of the temple1 ,baruch i1 #h4 ,in the ninth year of his reign1 he revolted against ,nebuchadnezzar1 #b ,kings xxv4 ,it was a sabbatical year1 in which the people should set their slaves at liberty1 according to the law1 ,exod4 xxi1 #b2 ,deut4 xv1 #a1 #b1 #ab2 ,jer4 xxxiv1 #h-aj4 ,then ,king ,nebuchadnezzar marched his army against ,zedekiah1 and took all the fortified places of his kingdom1 except ,lachish1 ,azekah1 and ,jerusalem4 ,he sat down before the last-mentioned city on the tenth day of the tenth month of the holy year1 which answers to our ,january4 ,some time afterward1 ,pharaoh ,hophrah1 king of ,egypt1 marched to assist ,zedekiah1 ,jer4 xxxvii1 #c-e1 #aj4 ,nebuchadnezzar left ,jerusalem1 and went to meet him1 defeated him1 and obliged him to return into ,egypt2 after which he resumed the siege of ,jerusalem4 ,in the mean while1 the people of ,jerusalem1 as if freed from the fear of ,nebuchadnezzar1 retook the slaves whom they had set at liberty1 which drew upon them great reproaches and threatenings from ,jeremiah1 xxxiv1 #aa1 #bb4 ,during the siege ,zedekiah often consulted ,jeremiah1 who advised him to surrender1 and pronounced the greatest woes against him if he should persist in his rebellion1 ,jer4 xxxvii1 #c1 #aj2 xxi4 ,but this unfortunate prince had neither patience to hear1 nor resolution to follow1 good counsels4 ,in the eleventh year of ,zedekiah1 on the ninth day of the fourth month1 7,july17 ,jerusalem was taken1 #b ,kings xxv1 #b-d2 ,jer4 xxxix1 #b1 #c2 lii1 #e-g4 ,zedekiah and his people endeavoured to escape by favour of the night2 but the ,chaldean troops pursuing them1 they were overtaken in the plains of ,jericho4 ,he was seized and carried to ,nebuchadnezzar1 then at ,riblah1 a city of ,syria4 ,the king of ,chaldea1 reproaching him with his perfidy1 caused all his children to be slain before his face1 and his eyes to be put out2 then loading him with chains of brass1 he ordered him to be sent to ,babylon1 #b ,kings xxv1 #d-g2 ,jer4 xxxii1 #d-g2 lii1 #d-aa4 ,thus were accomplished two prophecies which seemed contradictory3 one of ,jeremiah1 who said that ,zedekiah should see and yet not see1 ,nebuchadnezzar with his eyes1 ,jer4 xxxii1 #d1 #e2 xxxiv1 #c2 and the other of ,ezek4 xii1 #ac1 which intimated that he should not see ,babylon1 though he should die there4 ,the year of his death is not known4 ,jeremiah had assured him that he should die in peace2 that his body should be burned1 as those of the kings of ,judah usually were2 and that they should mourn for him1 saying1 8,ah1 lord60 ,jer4 xxxiv1 #d1 #e4 ,,zephaniah was the son of ,cushi1 and was probably of a noble family of the tribe of ,simeon4 ,he prophesied in the reign of ,josiah1 about ,b4 ,c4 #fcj4 ,he denounces the judgments of ,god against the idolatry and sins of his countrymen1 and exhorts them to repentance2 he predicts the punishment of the ,philistines1 ,moabites1 ,ammonites1 and ,ethiopians1 and foretels the destruction of ,nineveh2 he again inveighs against the corruptions of ,jerusalem1 and with his threats mixes promises of future favour and prosperity to his people2 whose recall from their dispersion shall glorify the name of ,god throughout the world4 ,the style of ,zephaniah is poetical2 but it is not distinguished by any peculiar elegance or beauty1 though generally animated and impressive4 ,,zerubbabel1 or ,,zerobabel1 was son of ,salathiel1 of the royal race of ,david4 ,st4 ,matthew1 i1 #ab1 and #a ,chron4 iii1 #ag1 #ai1 make ,jeconiah king of ,judah to be father to ,salathiel2 but they do not agree as to the father of ,zerubbabel4 ,the ,chronicles say ,pedaiah was father of ,zerubbabel2 but ,st4 ,matthew1 ,st4 ,luke1 ,ezra1 and ,haggai1 constantly make ,salathiel his father4 ,we must therefore take the name of son in the sense of grandson1 and say that ,salathiel having educated ,zerubbabel1 he was always afterward looked upon as his father4 ,some think that ,zerubbabel had also the name of ,sheshbazzar1 and that he has this name in ,ezra i1 #h4 ,zerubbabel returned to ,jerusalem long before the reign of ,darius1 son of ,hystaspes4 ,he returned at the beginning of the reign of ,cyrus1 ,a4 ,m4 #cdfh1 fifteen years before ,darius4 ,cyrus committed to his care the sacred vessels of the temple with which he returned to ,jerusalem1 ,ezra i1 #aa4 ,he is always named first1 as being the chief of the ,jews that returned to their own country1 ,ezra ii1 #b2 iii1 #h2 v1 #b2 he laid the foundations of the temple1 ,ezra iii1 #h1 #i2 ,zech4 iv1 #i1 c2 and restored the worship of the ,lord1 and the usual sacrifices4 ,when the ,samaritans offered to assist in rebuilding the temple1 ,zerubbabel and the principal men of ,judah refused them this honour1 since ,cyrus had granted his commission to the ,jews only1 ,ezra iv1 #b1 #c4 ,,ziklag1 a city of the ,philistines1 first assigned to the tribe of ,judah1 and afterward to that of ,simeon1 ,joshua xv1 #ca2 xix1 #e2 but it does not appear that the ,philistines were ever driven out2 as1 when ,david fled into their country from ,saul1 ,achish gave the city to him1 #a ,sam4 xxvii1 #e1 #f4 ,it was afterward burned by the ,amalekites1 #a ,sam4 xxx1 #a4 ,but it appears to have been rebuilt1 as the author of the ,first ,book of ,samuel1 when relating its being given to ,david1 adds1 that it pertained to the kings of ,judah in his time4 ,,zion4 ,see ,,sion4 ,,zuzim4 ,see ,,zamzummim4 ,,an ,,alphabetical ,,table ,,of ,,the ,,proper ,,names ,,in ,,the ,,old ,,and ,,new ,,testaments2 ,,with ,,their ,,pronunciation1 ,,and ,,the ,,chief ,,meaning ,,or ,,leading ,,signification ,,of ,,each ,,word ,,in ,,its ,,original ,,language4 ,,aaron1 ,ay-ron1 lofty1 mountainous4 ,,abad,,don1 the destroyer4 ,,abagtha1 ,ab-ag-tha1 father of the wine press4 ,,abana1 ,ab-ay-nah1 stony4 ,,abarim1 ,ab-a-rim1 passages4 ,,ab,,aron1 strength4 ,,ab,,ba1 father4 ,,ab,,da1 a servant4 ,,ab,,di1 my servant4 ,,abdiel1 ,ab-de-el1 a servant of ,god4 ,,ab,,don1 a servant4 ,,abed-,,nego1 ,a-bed-ne-go1 servant of light4 ,a,,bel1 vanity1 vapour1 mourning4 ,,abel-,,beth-,,maachah1 ,ay-bel-beth-ma-ay-kah1 mourning of the house of ,maachah4 ,a,,bel-,,ma,,im1 the mourning of the waters4 ,,abel-,,meholah1 ,ay-bel-me-ho-lah1 mourning of weakness1 of sickness4 ,,abel-,,mizraim1 ,ay-bel-miz-ra-im1 the mourning of the ,egyptians4 ,a,,bel-,,shit,,tim1 mourning of the thorns4 ,a,,bez1 an egg1 muddy4 ,,abi1 ,a-be1 my father4 ,,abiah1 ,ab-i-ah1 the ,lord is my father4 ,,abi,,ahil1 the father of light or praise4 ,,abi-,,albon1 ,ab-e-al-bon1 intelligent father4 ,,ab,,iam1 the father of the sea4 ,,abi-,,as,,aph1 a gathering or consuming father4 ,,abiathar1 ,ab-i-a-thar1 excellent father4 ,a,,bib1 green fruits1 ears of corn4 ,,abi,,dah1 father of knowledge4 ,,abi,,dan1 father of judgment4 ,,abiel1 ,ab-e-el1 ,god my father4 ,,abiezer1 ,ab-e-e-zer1 father of help4 ,,abi-,,ezrite1 ,ab-e-ez-rite4 ,,abigail1 ,ab-e-gal1 the joy of the father4 ,,abi-,,gibeon1 the father of the cup1 father of ,gibeon4 ,,abihail1 ,ab-e-hay-il1 the father of strength4 ,,abi,,hu1 he is my father1 or his father4 ,,abi,,hud1 the father of praise or confession4 ,,abijah1 ,ab-i-jah1 the will of the ,lord4 ,,abi,,jam1 father of the sea4 ,,abilene1 ,ab-e-le-ne1 the father of the apartment1 or of mourning4 ,,abimael1 ,ab-be-may-el1 a father sent from ,god1 my father comes from ,god4 ,,abimelech1 ,ab-im-me-lek1 father of the king4 ,,abinadab1 ,ab-in-na-dab1 father of willingness1 my father is a prince4 ,,abinoam1 ,ab-in-no-am1 father of beauty or comeliness1 my father is beautiful4 ,,abiram1 ,ab-i-ram1 a high father1 father of fraud4 ,,abishag1 ,ab-be-shag1 ignorance of the father4 ,,abishai1 ,ab-bish-a-i1 the present of my father1 the father of the sacrifice4 ,,abishalom1 ,ab-bish-a-lom1 the father of peace1 the recompence of the father4 ,,abishua1 ,ab-bish-u-a1 father of salvation or of magnificence4 ,,abishur1 ,ab-be-shur1 the father of the wall or of uprightness4 ,,abital1 ,ab-be-tal1 the father of the dew4 ,,abitub1 ,ab-be-tub1 father of goodness4 ,,abiud1 ,ab-be-ud1 father of praise4 ,,ab,,ner1 father of light1 the son of the father4 ,a,,braham1 the father of a great multitude4 ,a,,bram1 a high father1 the father of elevation4 ,,ab,,salom1 father of peace4 ,,accad1 ,ak-ad1 a pitcher1 a sparkle4 ,,accho1 ,ak-ko1 close1 pressed together4 ,,aceldama1 ,a-kel-da-mah1 the field of blood4 ,,achaia1 ,a-kay-yah1 grief1 trouble4 ,,achaicus1 ,a-kay-e-kus1 a native of ,achaia4 ,,achan1 ,,achar1 ,a-kan1 ,a-kar1 he that troubles and bruises4 ,,achbor1 ,ak-bor1 a rat1 bruising4 ,,achim1 ,a-kim1 preparing1 confirming1 revenging4 ,,achir1 ,a-ker1 the brother's light4 ,,achish1 ,a-kish1 thus it is1 how is this8 ,,achmetha1 ,ak-me-thah4 ,,achor1 ,a-kor1 trouble4 ,,achsah1 ,ak-sah1 adorned1 bursting of the veil4 ,,achshaph1 ,ak-shaph1 poison1 tricks1 one that breaks1 the brim of any thing4 ,,achzib1 ,ak-zib1 liar1 one that runs4 ,,adadah1 ,ad-a-dah1 the testimony of the assembly4 ,,adah1 ,ay-dah1 an assembly4 ,,adaiah1 ,ad-a-yah1 the witness of the ,lord4 ,,adaliah1 ,ad-a-ly-ah1 one that draws water1 poverty1 cloud1 death4 ,,ad,,am1 earthy1 taken out of red earth4 ,,adamah1 ,ad-da-mah1 red earth4 ,,adami1 ,ad-da-my1 my man1 red1 earthy4 ,a,,dar1 high1 eminent4 ,,adbeel1 ,ad-be-el1 a vapour1 a cloud of ,god1 a vexer of ,god4 ,,ad,,di1 my witness1 adorned1 passage1 prey4 ,,ad,,don1 basis1 foundation1 the ,lord4 ,,adiel1 ,ad-i-el1 the witness of the ,lord4 ,,adin1 ,ad-din1 adorned1 dainty4 ,,adithaim1 ,ad-e-thay-im1 assemblies1 testimonies4 ,,adlai1 ,ad-lay-i1 my witness1 my ornament4 ,,ad,,mah1 earthy1 red earth4 ,,admatha1 ,ad-ma-thah1 a cloud of death1 a mortal vapour4 ,,ad,,nah1 rest1 testimony1 eternal4 ,,adona,i1 my ,lord4 ,,adoni-,,bezek1 ,ad-o-ne-bee-zek1 the lightning of the ,lord1 the ,lord of ,bezek4 ,,adonijah1 ,ad-o-ny-jah1 the ,lord is my master4 ,,adonikam1 ,ad-o-ny-kam1 the ,lord is raised1 my ,lord hath raised me4 ,,adoniram1 ,ad-o-ny-ram1 my ,lord is most high1 the ,lord of might and elevation4 ,,adoni-,,zedek1 ,ad-o-ne-zee-dek1 justice of the ,lord4 ,,adoraim1 ,ad-o-ray-im1 strength or power of the sea4 ,,adoram1 ,ad-o-ram1 their beauty1 their power1 their praise4 ,,adrammelech1 ,ad-ram-me-lek1 the cloak or glory of the king4 ,,adramyttium1 ,ad-ra-mit-te-um1 the court of death4 ,,adria1 ,ay-dre-ah1 the name of a city1 which gives name to the ,adriatic ,sea1 now the ,gulf of ,venice4 ,a,,driel1 the flock of ,god4 ,,adullam1 ,ad-ul-lam1 their testimony1 their prey1 their ornament4 ,,adum,,mim1 earthly or bloody things4 ,,neas1 praised4 ,,agabus1 ,ag-ga-bus1 a locust1 the feast of the father4 ,,agag1 ,ay-gag1 roof1 floor4 ,a,,gagite1 of the race of ,agag4 ,,aga,p1 love feasts4 ,,agar1 see ,hagar4 ,,agi,e1 a valley1 deepness4 ,,agrippa1 ,a-grip-pah1 one who at his birth causes great pain4 ,a,,gur1 a stranger1 gathering4 ,a,,hab1 the brother of the father4 ,,aha,,rah1 a sweet brother1 an odoriferous meadow4 ,,ahar,,hel1 another host1 another sorrow1 the sleep of the brother4 ,,ahasba,i1 trusting in me1 brother compassing4 ,in ,syriac1 a brother of age4 ,,ahasuerus1 ,a-has-u-e-rus1 prince1 chief4 ,,ahava1 ,a-hay-vah1 essence1 generation4 ,a,,haz1 one that takes and possesses4 ,,ahaziah1 ,a-ha-zy-ah1 possession1 vision of the ,lord4 ,,ahi1 my brother1 my brethren4 ,,ahiah1 ,a-hy-ah1 brother of the ,lord4 ,,ahiam1 ,a-hyam1 brother of the mother1 brother of the nation4 ,,ahian1 ,a-hy-an1 brother of wine4 ,,ahie,,zer1 brother of assistance4 ,,ahi,,hud1 brother of vanity1 a brother of praise4 ,,ahijah1 the same as ,ahiah4 ,,ahikam1 ,a-hy-kam1 a brother that raises up4 ,,ahi,,lud1 a brother born4 ,,ahim,,aaz1 brother of the council4 ,,ahi,,man1 a brother prepared4 ,,ahimelech1 ,a-him-me-lek1 my brother is a king4 ,,ahimoth1 ,a-he-moth1 brother of death4 ,,ahin,,adab1 a willing brother1 a brother of a vow1 brother of the prince4 ,,ahinoam1 ,a-hin-no-am1 the beauty and comeliness of the brother4 ,,ahi,o1 his brother1 his brethren4 ,,ahior4 ,see ,achior4 ,,ahira1 ,a-hy-rah1 brother of iniquity or of the shepherd4 ,,ahiram1 ,a-hy-ram1 brother of craft1 protection4 ,,ahisamach1 ,a-his-sa-mak1 brother of strength or of support4 ,,ahishabar1 ,a-his-sa-bar1 brother of the morning or dew1 brother of blackness4 ,,ahi,,shar1 brother of a prince4 ,,ahithophel1 ,a-hit-to-fel1 brother of ruin or folly4 ,,ahi,,tub1 brother of goodness4 ,,ah,,lab1 which is of milk1 is fat4 ,,ah,,lai1 beseeching1 sorrowing1 beginning1 brother to me4 ,,aho,,ah1 a thistle1 a thorn1 a fish hook1 brotherhood4 ,,aho,,hi1 a living brother1 my thistle or thorn4 ,,aho,,lah1 his tabernacle1 his tent4 ,,aholiab1 ,a-ho-le-ab1 the tent or tabernacle of the father4 ,,aholibah1 ,a-ho-le-bah1 my tent and my tabernacle in her4 ,,aholibamah1 ,a-ho-le-bay-mah1 my tabernacle is exalted4 ,,ahran4 ,see ,charan4 ,,ahu,,mar1 a meadow of waters1 brother of waters4 ,,ahu,,zam1 their taking possession1 vision4 ,,ahuz,,zah1 possession1 apprehension1 vision4 ,,ai1 or ,,hai1 ,ay-i1 mass1 heap4 ,,ai,,ah1 a raven1 a vulture1 alas1 where is it8 ,,ai,,ath1 an hour4 ,,ai,n1 an eye1 a fountain4 ,,aioth1 the same as ,ai4 ,,ajalon1 ,ad-ja-lon1 a chain1 strength1 a stag4 ,,ak,,kub1 the print of the foot where any creature hath gone1 supplantation4 ,,alammelech1 ,al-am-me-lek1 ,god is king4 ,,al,,cimus1 strong1 of strength4 ,,al,,emeth1 a hiding1 youth1 worlds1 upon the dead4 ,,al,,emis1 strength4 ,,alexan,,der1 one that assists men1 one that turns away evil4 ,,alexandria1 ,al-ex-an-dre-a1 the city of ,alexander4 ,,alleluia1 ,al-le-lu-yah1 praise the ,lord4 ,a,,lian1 high4 ,,al,,lon1 an oak4 ,,allon-,,bachuth1 ,al-lon-bak-kuth1 the oak of weeping4 ,,almo,,dad1 measure of ,god4 ,,al,,mon1 hidden4 ,,al,,mon-,,dib,,lathaim1 a hiding1 a heap of fig trees4 ,,alpha1 ,al-fah1 the first letter of the ,greek alphabet1 marked ,a4 ,,alpheus1 ,al-fe-us1 a thousand1 chief4 ,a,,mad1 a people of witness1 people everlasting4 ,,am,,alek1 a people that licks up or uses ill4 ,,amal,,ekites1 people descended from ,amalek4 ,a,,mam1 mother1 fear of them1 people4 ,,amana1 ,am-ay-nah1 integrity and truth4 ,,amariah1 ,am-a-ry-ah1 the ,lord says1 the excellency of the ,lord4 ,,amasa1 ,am-ay-sah1 a forgiving people1 the burden of the people4 ,,amaziah1 ,am-a-zy-ah1 the strength of the ,lord4 ,a,,mi4 ,see ,amam4 ,,am,,mah1 my people4 ,,ammi1 the same as ,ammah4 ,,ammihud1 ,am-me-hud1 people of praise4 ,,amminadab1 ,am-min-na-dab1 prince of the people1 a people that vows4 ,,ammishaddai1 ,am-me-shad-day-i1 the people of the ,almighty4 ,,am,,mon1 the son of my people4 ,,am,,monites1 a people descended from ,benammi1 son of ,lot4 ,,am,,non1 faithful and true1 foster father4 ,,amon1 ,ay-mon1 faithful1 true4 ,,am,,orite1 bitter1 a rebel1 a babbler4 ,,amos1 ,ay-mos1 loading1 weighty4 ,,amoz1 ,ay-moz1 strong1 robust4 ,,amphipolis1 ,am-fip-po-lis1 a city encompassed by the sea4 ,,amplias1 ,am-ple-as1 large1 extensive4 ,,am,,ram1 an exalted people1 handfuls of corn4 ,,amraphel1 ,am-ra-fel1 one that speaks of hidden things or of ruin4 ,,am,,zi1 strong1 mighty4 ,a,,nab1 a grape1 a knot4 ,,anah1 ,ay-nah1 one who answers or sings1 poor1 afflicted4 ,,anak1 ,ay-nak1 a collar1 an ornament4 ,,anakims1 ,an-ak-ims4 ,see ,anak4 ,,anammelech1 ,an-am-me-lek1 answer1 song of the king4 ,a,,nan1 a cloud1 a prophecy4 ,,ananias1 ,an-a-ny-as1 the cloud of the ,lord4 ,,anathoth1 ,an-a-thoth1 answer1 affliction4 ,,andrew1 ,andrue1 a stout and strong man4 ,,andronicus1 ,an-dron-ne-kus1 a man excelling others4 ,,aner1 ,ay-ner1 answer1 song1 affliction4 ,,an,,na1 gracious1 merciful4 ,,an,,nas1 one that answers1 that afflicts4 ,,an,,tichrist1 an adversary to ,christ4 ,,antioch1 ,an-te-ok1 instead of a chariot4 ,,an,,tipas1 against all4 ,,antipatris1 ,an-te-pay-tris1 against his own father4 ,,apelles1 ,a-pel-lees1 to exclude1 to separate4 ,,aphek1 ,ay-fek1 a stream1 vigour4 ,,apollonia1 ,ap-po-lo-ne-ah1 perdition4 ,,apol,,los1 one that destroys and lays waste4 ,,apollyon1 ,a-pol-le-on1 one that exterminates or destroys4 ,,apphia1 ,af-e-ah1 that is fruitful4 ,,appii-,,forum1 ,ap-pe-i-fo-rum1 a town so called from ,appius ,claudius1 whose statue was erected there4 ,,aquila1 ,ak-we-lah1 an eagle4 ,,ar1 awaking1 uncovering4 ,,ara,,bia1 evening1 a place wild and desert2 mixtures1 because this country was inhabited by different kinds of people4 ,,ara,,bian1 an inhabitant of ,arabia4 ,a,,rad1 a wild ass1 a dragon4 ,a,,ram1 magnificence1 one that deceives4 ,,ararat1 ,ar-ra-rat1 the curse of trembling4 ,,araunah1 ,a-raw-nah1 ark1 song1 curse4 ,,ar,,ba1 the city of the four4 ,,archelaus1 ,ar-ke-lay-us1 the prince of the people4 ,,archippus1 ,ar-kip-pus1 governor of horses4 ,,arcturus1 ,ark-tew-rus1 a gathering together4 ,,ard1 one that commands4 ,,areli1 ,ar-e-lie1 the light or vision of ,god4 ,,areopagite1 ,a-re-op-a-gyte1 belonging to the council called ,areopagus4 ,,areopagus1 ,a-re-op-a-gus1 the hill of ,mars2 a place where the magistrates of ,athens held their supreme council2 from 1 8of ,mars10 and 1 8a hill40 ,,aretas1 ,a-re-tas1 one that is agreeable or virtuous4 ,,ar,,gob1 a turf of earth1 curse of the well4 ,,ariel1 ,ay-re-el1 the altar1 light1 lion of ,god4 ,,arimathea1 ,ar-re-ma-the-ah1 a lion dead to the ,lord4 ,ramath1 or ,ramah1 a city where ,samuel dwelt4 ,,arioch1 ,ar-e-ok1 long1 your drunkenness1 your lion4 ,,aristarchus1 ,a-ris-tar-kus1 the best prince4 ,,aristobulus1 ,a-ris-tob-bu-lus1 a good counsellor4 ,,armageddon1 ,ar-ma-ged-don1 the mountain of ,megiddo1 of the gospel1 of fruits4 ,,armenia1 ,ar-me-ne-ah1 a province which is supposed to take its name from ,aram4 ,,ar,,non1 rejoicing1 their ark4 ,,ar,,oer1 heath1 tamarisk1 the nakedness of the skin or of the enemy4 ,,ar,,pad1 the light of redemption1 that lies down4 ,,arphaxad1 ,ar-faks-ad1 one that heals or releases4 ,,artaxerxes1 ,ar-taks-erks-es1 in ,hebrew1 ,artachsasta1 the silence of light4 ,,artemas1 ,ar-te-mas1 whole1 sound4 ,,asa1 ,ay-sah1 physician1 cure4 ,,asahel1 ,as-a-el1 the work or creature of ,god4 ,,asaiah1 ,as-a-i-ah1 the ,lord hath wrought4 ,,asaph1 ,ay-saf1 one that assembles together4 ,,asenath1 ,as-e-nath1 peril1 misfortune4 ,a,,shan1 vapour1 smoke4 ,,ash,,dod1 inclination1 a wild open place4 ,,ash,,er1 blessedness4 ,,as,,hiel1 the work of ,god4 ,,ashima1 ,ash-e-mah1 crime1 position1 fire of the sea4 ,,ashkenaz1 ,ash-ke-naz1 a fire that distils or spreads4 ,,ashtaroth1 ,ash-ta-roth1 flocks1 riches4 ,,ash,,ur1 one that is happy4 ,,ash,,vath1 making vestments4 ,,asia1 ,ay-she-a1 muddy1 boggy4 ,,as,,kelon1 weight1 balance1 fire of infamy4 ,,asnap,,per1 unhappiness1 fruitless4 ,,assir1 prisoner1 fettered4 ,,as,,sos1 approaching4 ,,assyria1 ,as-sir-re-a4 ,,assyrian1 ,as-sir-re-an4 ,,asyncritus1 ,a-sin-kre-tus1 incomparable4 ,a,,tad1 a thorn4 ,,ata,,roth1 crowns1 counsel of making full4 ,,athaliah1 ,ath-a-ly-ah1 the time of the ,lord4 ,,athenians1 ,ath-ee-ne-ans1 inhabitants of ,athens4 ,,ath,,ens1 so called from ,athene1 ,minerva4 ,,attalia1 ,at-ta-ly-ah1 that increases or sends4 ,a,,ven1 iniquity1 force1 riches4 ,,augus,,tus1 increased1 majestic4 ,,azariah1 ,az-a-ry-ah1 assistance1 he that hears the ,lord4 ,,azekah1 ,az-ee-kah1 strength of walls4 ,,az,,gad1 a strong army1 a gang of robbers4 ,,aznoth-,,tabor1 ,az-noth-tay-bor1 the ears of ,tabor1 of choice1 purity1 contrition4 ,,azo,,tus1 the same as ,ashdod4 ,a,,zur1 he that assists1 that is assisted4 ,,baal1 ,bay-al1 he that rules and subdues4 ,,baalah1 ,bay-al-ah1 her idol1 a spouse2 the name of a city4 ,,baal-,,berith1 ,bay-al-be-rith1 idol of the covenant4 ,,baal-,,gad1 ,bay-al-gad1 the idol of the troop1 the ,lord is master of the troop4 ,,baal-,,hamon1 ,bay-al-hay-mon1 one that rules a multitude1 a populous place4 ,,baal-,,hazer1 ,bay-al-hay-zer1 lord of court1 possessor of grace4 ,,ba,,al-,,her,,mon1 the possessor of destruction1 of a thing devoted to ,god4 ,,ba,,ali1 my idol1 or master4 ,,ba,,alim1 idols1 masters4 ,,ba,,alis1 a rejoicing1 proud lord4 ,,baal-,,meon1 ,bay-al-me-on1 the idol1 the master of the house4 ,,baal-,,peor1 ,bay-al-pe-or1 master of the opening4 ,,baal-,,perazim1 ,bay-al-per-a-zim1 master1 or god of divisions4 ,,baal-,,shalisha1 ,bay-al-shal-e-shah1 the third idol1 the third husband4 ,,baal-,,tamar1 ,bay-al-tay-mar1 master of the palm tree4 ,,baal-,,zebub1 ,bay-al-ze-bub1 the master of flies4 ,,baal-,,zephon1 ,bay-al-ze-fon1 the idol of the north1 secret4 ,,baanah1 ,bay-a-nah1 in the answer1 in affliction4 ,,baa,,rah1 a flame1 purging4 ,,baashah1 ,ba-ay-shah1 in the work1 he that demands1 who lays waste4 ,,ba,,bel1 confusion1 mixture4 ,,babylon1 ,bab-be-lon4 ,see ,babel4 ,,babylonians1 ,bab-be-lo-ne-ans4 ,,babylonish1 ,bab-be-lo-nish4 ,,baca1 ,bay-kah1 mulberry tree4 ,,bahurim1 ,ba-hew-rim1 choice1 warlike4 ,,ba,,jith1 a house4 ,,balaam1 ,bay-lam1 the old age or ancient of the people1 without the people4 ,,bala,,dan1 one without rule or judgment1 ancient in judgment4 ,,ba,,lak1 who lays waste1 who laps4 ,,ba,,mah1 an eminence4 ,,barabbas1 ,bar-ab-bas1 son of the father or of confusion4 ,,barachel1 ,bar-a-kel1 who blesses ,god4 ,,barachias1 ,bar-a-ky-as1 the same as ,barachel4 ,,ba,,rak1 thunder1 in vain4 ,,bar-,,je,,sus1 son of ,jesus4 ,,bar-,,jo,,na1 son of ,jona or of a dove4 ,,bar,,nabas1 the son of the prophet or of consolation4 ,,bar,,sabas1 son of return1 of rest1 of swearing4 ,,barthol,,omew1 a son that suspends the waters4 ,,bartimeus1 ,bar-te-me-us1 the son of ,timeus or of the honourable4 ,,baruch1 ,bay-ruk1 who is blessed1 who bends the knee4 ,,barzillai1 ,bar-zil-la-i1 made of iron1 son of contempt4 ,,ba,,shan1 in the tooth1 in the change or sleep4 ,,bashemath1 ,bash-e-math1 perfumed1 in desolation4 ,,bath-,,sheba1 ,bath-she-bah or ,bath-she-bah1 the seventh daughter1 the daughter of an oath4 ,,bathshu,a1 the daughter of salvation4 ,,be,,dad1 alone1 in friendship4 ,,be,,dan1 only1 in the judgment4 ,,beel-,,zebub1 ,be-el-ze-bub4 ,see ,baal-zebub4 ,,beer1 ,be-er1 a well1 the name of a city4 ,,beer-,,lahai-,,roi1 ,be-er-la-hay-e-roy1 the well of him that liveth and seeth me4 ,,beer-,,sheba1 ,be-er-she-bah1 the well of an oath1 of satiety1 the seventh well4 ,,be,,kah1 half a shekel4 ,,bel1 ancient1 nothing1 subject to change4 ,,belial1 ,bee-le-al1 wicked1 the devil4 ,,belshaz,,zar1 master of the treasure4 ,,belteshaz,,zar1 who lays up treasures in secret1 secretly endures pain and pressure4 ,,benaiah1 ,ben-ay-yah1 son of the ,lord1 the ,lord's building4 ,,ben-,,am,,mi1 the son of my people4 ,,benha,,dad1 the son of ,hadad1 of noise4 ,,ben,,jamin1 the son of the right hand4 ,,ben,,jamite1 a descendant of ,benjamin4 ,,benoni1 ,ben-o-ny1 son of my grief4 ,,be,,or1 burning1 mad1 beast4 ,,berachah1 ,ber-a-kah1 blessing4 ,,ber,a1 ,be-ree-ah1 heavy1 from 4 ,,be,,rith1 covenant4 ,,bernice1 ,ber-ny-se1 one that brings victory4 ,,be,,sor1 glad news1 incarnation4 ,,be,,tah1 confidence4 ,,bethabara1 ,beth-ab-ba-rah1 the house of passage1 of anger4 ,,beth,,any1 the house of song1 of affliction1 of obedience1 the grace of the ,lord4 ,,beth-,a,,ven1 the house of vanity1 of strength4 ,,beth-,,birei1 ,beth-bir-re-i1 the house of my ,creator4 ,,beth-,,car1 the house of the lamb1 of knowledge4 ,,beth-,,da,,gon1 the house of corn1 of the fish1 of the god ,dagon4 ,,beth-,,diblathaim1 ,beth-dib-la-thay-im1 the house of dry figs4 ,,beth,,el1 the house of ,god4 ,,bethelite1 ,beth-el-ite1 an inhabitant of ,bethel4 ,,be,,ther1 division1 in the turtle1 in the trial4 ,,bethes,,da1 the house of effusion1 of pity4 ,,beth-,e,,zel1 a neighbour's house4 ,,beth-,,gamul1 ,beth-gay-mul1 the house of recompense1 of the weaned1 of the camel4 ,,beth-,,haccerem1 ,beth-hak-ke-rem1 the house of the vineyard4 ,,beth-,,ho,,ron1 the house of wrath1 of the hole1 of liberty4 ,,bethjesh,,imoth1 the house of desolation4 ,,beth-,,lehem1 the house of bread1 of war4 ,,beth-,,lehem-,,ephratah1 ,beth-le-hem-eff-ray-tah or eff-ra-tah4 ,,beth-,,lehem-,,ju,,dah4 ,,beth-,,lehemite1 an inhabitant of ,bethlehem4 ,,beth-,,pe,,or1 the house of gaping4 ,,bethphage1 ,beth-fa-je1 the house of the mouth1 of early figs4 ,,bethsaida1 ,beth-say-dah1 the house of fruits1 of hunters4 ,,beth-,,shan1 the house of the tooth1 of change1 of sleep4 ,,beth-,,she,,mesh1 the house of the sun4 ,,bethuel1 ,beth-ew-el1 filiation of ,god4 ,,beulah1 ,bew-lah1 married4 ,,bezaleel1 ,bez-a-lee-el1 in the shadow of ,god4 ,,be,,zek1 lightning1 in chains4 ,,bichri1 ,bick-ry1 first-born1 in the ram4 ,,bid,,kar1 in compunction1 in sharp pain4 ,,big,,than1 giving meat4 ,,bil,,dad1 old friendship4 ,,bil,,hah1 who is old1 troubled1 confused4 ,,bir,,sha1 in evil1 son that beholds4 ,,bithiah1 ,be-thy-ah1 daughter of the ,lord4 ,,bith,,ron1 division1 in his examination1 daughter of the song1 of anger1 of liberty4 ,,bithynia1 ,be-thin-e-ah1 violent precipitation4 ,,blas,,tus1 one that sprouts and brings forth4 ,,boanerges1 ,bo-a-ner-jes1 the sons of thunder2 ,james and ,john1 the sons of ,zebedee4 ,,bo,,az1 or ,,bo,,oz1 in strength1 in the goat4 ,,bochim1 ,bo-kim1 the place of weeping1 of mulberry trees4 ,,bo,,zez1 mud1 in the flower4 ,,boz,,rah1 in tribulation or distress4 ,,bul1 changeable1 perishing4 ,,buz1 despised1 plundered4 ,,buzi1 ,bew-zye1 my contempt4 ,,buzite1 ,bew-zyte1 a descendant from ,buz4 ,,cabul1 ,kay-bul1 displeasing1 dirt4 ,c,,sar1 ,see-sar1 one cut out4 ,c,,sarea1 ,ses-a-ree-a1 a bush of hair4 ,,caiaphas1 ,kay-a-fas1 a searcher4 ,,cain1 ,kayn1 possession4 ,,cainan1 ,kay-nan1 possessor1 one that laments4 ,,ca,,lah1 good opportunity1 as the verdure4 ,,ca,,leb1 a dog1 a crow1 a basket4 ,,caleb-,,ephratah1 ,kay-leb-ef-ray-tah or ef-ra-tah1 a place so called by a conjunction of the names of ,caleb and his wife ,ephratah4 ,,calneh1 ,kal-nay1 our consummation1 all we1 as murmuring4 ,,cal,,no1 our consummation1 quite himself4 ,,cal,,vary1 the place of a skull4 ,,ca,,mon1 his resurrection4 ,,ca,,na1 zeal1 possession1 nest1 cane4 ,,canaan1 ,kay-nan1 a merchant1 a trader4 ,the son of ,ham1 who gave name to the land of ,canaan4 ,,canaanite1 ,kay-nan-ite1 an inhabitant of ,canaan4 ,,candace1 ,kan-day-se1 who possesses contrition4 ,,capernaum1 ,ka-per-na-um1 the field of repentance1 city of comfort4 ,,caphtor1 ,kaf-tor1 a sphere1 a buckle1 a hand1 doves1 those that seek and inquire4 ,,cappadocia1 ,kap-pa-do-she-a1 in ,hebrew1 ,caphtor4 ,,carcas1 ,kar-kas1 the covering of a lamb4 ,,carchemish1 ,kar-ke-mish1 a lamb1 as taken away4 ,,car,,mel1 a circumcised lamb1 harvest1 vineyard of ,god4 ,,carmelite1 ,kar-me-lyte1 an inhabitant of ,mount ,carmel4 ,,car,,mi1 my vineyard1 the knowledge or the lamb of the waters4 ,,car,,pus1 fruit1 fruitful4 ,,casiphia1 ,ka-se-fy-a1 money1 covetousness4 ,,cas,,tor1 a beaver4 ,,cedron1 ,see-dron or ,kee-dron1 black1 sad4 ,,cenchrea1 ,senk-re-a1 millet1 small pulse4 ,,cephas1 ,see-fas or ,kee-fas1 a rock or stone4 ,,ce,,sar4 ,see ,csar4 ,,cesarea1 ,ses-a-ree-a4 ,see ,csarea4 ,,chalcol1 ,kal-kol1 who nourishes1 sustains the whole4 ,,chaldea1 ,kal-dee-a1 as demons1 as robbers4 ,,chaldean1 ,kal-dee-an1 an inhabitant of ,chaldea4 ,,chaldees1 ,kal-deez1 the same as ,chaldeans4 ,,charran1 ,kar-ran1 a singing1 the heat of wrath4 ,,chebar1 ,ke-bar1 strength or power4 ,,chedorlaomer1 ,ke-dor-la-o-mer1 as a generation of servitude4 ,,chemarims1 ,kem-a-rims1 the name of ,baal's priests4 ,,chemosh1 ,ke-mosh1 as handling1 as taking away4 ,,chenania1 ,ke-na-ny-ah1 preparation1 rectitude of the ,lord4 ,,cherethims1 ,ker-eth-ims1 who cuts1 tears away4 ,,cherethites1 ,ker-eth-ites4 ,see ,cherethims4 ,,cherith1 ,ke-rith1 cutting1 piercing1 slaying4 ,,chesed1 ,ke-sed1 as a devil1 a destroyer4 ,,chileab1 ,kil-le-ab1 totality or perfection of the father4 ,,chilion1 ,kil-le-on1 finished1 complete4 ,,chilmad1 ,kil-mad1 as teaching or learning4 ,,chimham1 ,kim-ham1 as they1 like to them4 ,,chios1 ,ky-os1 open1 opening4 ,,chisleu1 ,kis-lu1 rashness1 confidence4 ,,chittim1 ,chit-tim1 those that bruise1 gold1 staining4 ,,chiun1 ,ky-un1 an ,egyptian god1 whom some think to be ,saturn4 ,,chloe1 ,klo-e1 green herb4 ,,chorazin1 ,ko-ray-zin1 the secret1 here is a mystery4 ,,chushan-,,rishathaim1 ,kew-shan-rish-a-thay-im1 ,ethiopian1 blackness of iniquities4 ,,chuza1 ,kew-zah1 the prophet1 ,ethiopian4 ,,cilicia1 ,sil-ish-e-a1 which rolls or overturns4 ,,clauda1 ,klaw-dah1 a broken voice1 a lamentable voice4 ,,claudia1 ,klaw-de-ah1 lame4 ,,cle,,ment1 mild1 good1 merciful4 ,,cleophas1 ,klee-o-fas1 the whole glory4 ,,colosse1 ,ko-los-see1 punishment1 correction4 ,,coniah1 ,ko-ny-ah1 the strength or stability of the ,lord4 ,,co,,rinth1 which is satisfied1 beauty4 ,,corin,,thians1 inhabitants of ,corinth4 ,,corne,,lius1 a horn4 ,,coz,,bi1 a liar1 as sliding away4 ,,crescens1 ,kres-sens1 growing1 increasing4 ,,crete1 ,kreet1 carnal1 fleshly4 ,,cretes1 ,kreets1 inhabitants of ,crete4 ,,cretians1 ,kree-she-ans1 the same as ,cretes4 ,,crispus1 ,kris-pus1 curled4 ,,cush1 ,ethiopian1 black4 ,,cush,,an1 ,ethiopia1 blackness1 heat4 ,,cush,i1 the same as ,cushan4 ,,cyprus1 ,sy-prus1 fair1 fairness4 ,,cyrene1 ,sy-re-ne1 a wall1 coldness1 meeting1 a floor4 ,,cyreneans1 ,sy-re-ne-ans1 people of ,cyrene4 ,,cyrenius1 ,sy-re-ne-us1 who governs4 ,,cyrus1 ,sy-rus1 as miserable1 as heir1 the belly4 ,,dabbasheth1 ,dab-ba-sheth1 flowing with honey1 causing infamy4 ,,daberath1 ,dab-be-rath1 word1 thing1 bee1 submissive4 ,,da,,gon1 corn1 a fish4 ,,dalmanutha1 ,dal-ma-new-thah1 a bucket1 leanness1 branch4 ,,dalmatia1 ,dal-may-she-a1 deceitful lamps1 vain brightness4 ,,damaris1 ,dam-a-ris1 a little woman4 ,,damas,,cus1 a sack full of blood1 similitude of burning4 ,,dan1 judgment1 he that judges4 ,,dan,,iel1 judgment of ,god4 ,,da,,ra1 generation1 house of the shepherd1 companion1 race of wickedness4 ,,darius1 ,da-ry-us1 he that inquires and informs himself4 ,,da,,than1 laws1 rites4 ,,da,,vid1 beloved1 dear4 ,,deb,,orah1 a word1 a bee4 ,,decapolis1 ,de-kap-po-lis1 a ,greek word compounded of 1 ten1 and 1 a city1 because this country contained ten cities4 ,,de,,dan1 their breasts1 friendship1 uncle4 ,,dedanim1 ,ded-an-im1 descendants of ,dedan4 ,,del,,ilah1 poor1 head of hair1 bucket4 ,,de,,mas1 popular4 ,,demetrius1 ,de-me-tre-us1 belonging to ,ceres1 to corn4 ,,der,,be1 a sting4 ,,deuel1 ,de-ew-el1 the knowledge of ,god4 ,,diana1 ,dy-ay-nah1 luminous1 perfect4 ,,di,,bon1 understanding1 abundance of building4 ,,di,,bon-,,gad1 abundance of sons1 happy and powerful4 ,,didymus1 ,did-e-mus1 a twin4 ,,di,,mon1 where it is red4 ,,di,,nah1 judgment1 who judges4 ,,din,,habah1 she gives judgment4 ,,dionysius1 ,dy-o-nish-e-us1 divinely touched2 from 1 divine1 and 1 ,i move4 ,,diotrephes1 ,di-ot-re-feez1 nourished by ,jupiter2 from 1 of ,jupiter1 and 1 a foster-child4 ,,do,,eg1 who acts with uneasiness1 a fisherman4 ,,dor1 generation1 habitation4 ,,dor,,cas1 the female of a roe-buck4 ,,do,,than1 the law1 custom4 ,,drusilla1 ,drew-sil-lah1 watered by the dew2 from 1 the dew4 ,,dumah1 ,dew-mah1 silence1 resemblance4 ,,dura1 ,dew-rah1 generation1 habitation4 ,,easter1 ,ees-ter1 the passover1 a feast of the ,jews4 ,e,,bal1 a heap1 collection of old age4 ,e,,bed1 a servant or labourer4 ,,ebed-,,melech1 ,ee-bed-me-lek1 the king's servant4 ,,eben-,,ezer1 ,eb-en-ee-zer1 the stone of help4 ,e,,ber1 one that passes1 anger1 wrath4 ,,ebiasaph1 ,e-by-a-saf1 a father that gathers together4 ,,ed1 witness4 ,e,,den1 pleasure1 delight4 ,e,,dom1 red1 earthy1 red earth4 ,e,,domite1 a descendant of ,esau1 of ,edom4 ,,edrei1 ,ed-re-i1 a very great mass1 cloud1 death of the wicked4 ,,eg,,lah1 heifer1 chariot1 round4 ,,eglaim1 ,eg-lay-im1 drops of the sea4 ,,eg,,lon1 the same as ,eglah4 ,e,,gypt1 in ,hebrew1 ,mizraim2 that binds or straitens1 that troubles or oppresses4 ,,egyp,,tian1 an inhabitant of ,egypt4 ,e,,hud1 he that praises4 ,,ek,,ron1 barrenness1 torn away4 ,,ek,,ronites1 inhabitants of ,ekron4 ,e,,lah1 an oak1 oath1 imprecation4 ,e,,lam1 a young man1 a virgin1 secret1 an age4 ,e,,lamites1 descendants of ,elam4 ,e,,lath1 a hind1 strength1 an oak4 ,,el-,,beth,,el1 the ,god of ,bethel4 ,,el,,dad1 loved or favoured of ,god4 ,,elealeh1 ,el-e-ay-leh ascension or burnt-offering of ,god4 ,,eleazar1 ,el-e-ay-zar1 the help or court of ,god4 ,,el-,,elohe-,,israel1 ,el-el-ho-he-is-ra-el1 ,god1 the ,god of ,israel4 ,,elha,,nan1 grace1 gift1 or mercy of ,god4 ,e,,li1 ,eli1 my ,god1 my ,god4 ,e,,li1 the offering or lifting up4 ,,eli,,ab1 ,god my father4 ,,eliada1 ,e-ly-a-da or ,e-le-ay-da1 the knowledge of ,god4 ,,eliakim1 ,e-ly-a-kim1 the resurrection of ,god1 ,god the avenger4 ,,eli,,am1 the people of ,god4 ,,eli,,as4 ,see ,elijah4 ,,eliashib1 ,e-ly-a-shib1 the ,god of conversion4 ,,eliathah1 ,e-ly-a-thah1 thou art my ,god1 my ,god comes4 ,,eliezer1 ,e-le-ee-zer1 help or court of my ,god4 ,,elihoreph1 ,e-le-ho-ref1 the ,god of winter1 of youth4 ,,eli,,hu1 he is my ,god himself4 ,,eli,,jah1 ,god the ,lord1 the strong ,lord4 ,,eli,,ka1 pelican of ,god4 ,e,,lim1 the rams1 the strong1 the stags1 the valleys4 ,,elimelech1 ,e-lim-me-lek1 my ,god is king4 ,,elioenai1 ,el-e-o-en-a-i1 toward him are my eyes1 my fountains1 toward him is my poverty or misery4 ,,eliphalet1 ,e-lif-fa-let1 the ,god of deliverance4 ,,eliphaz1 ,e-ly-faz1 the endeavour of ,god4 ,,elisabeth1 ,e-liz-a-beth1 ,god hath sworn1 the fulness of ,god4 ,,eli,,sha1 salvation of ,god4 ,,eli,,shah1 son of ,javan2 it is ,god1 ,god that gives help4 ,,elishamah1 ,e-lish-a-mah1 ,god hearing4 ,,elisheba1 ,e-lish-e-ba4 ,see ,elisabeth4 ,,elishua1 ,el-e-shew-ah1 ,god is my salvation4 ,,eliud1 ,e-ly-ud1 ,god is my praise4 ,,eli,,zur1 ,god is my strength1 my rock4 ,,elka,,nah1 ,god the jealous1 the reed of ,god4 ,,elmo,,dam1 the ,god of measure1 of the garment4 ,,elna,,than1 ,god has given4 ,e,,lon1 oak1 grove1 strong4 ,e,,lul1 cry1 outcry4 ,,eluzai1 ,e-lu-za-i1 ,god is my strength4 ,,elymas1 ,el-e-mas1 in ,arabic1 a magician4 ,e,,mims1 fears of terrors1 people4 ,,emmaus1 ,em-may-us or ,em-ma-us1 people despised4 ,,em,,mor1 an ass4 ,e,,nam1 a fountain or well1 the eyes of them4 ,,en,,dor1 fountain or eye of generation4 ,,ene,,as1 laudable2 from 1 8,i praise40 ,,en-,,eglaim1 ,en-eg-lay-im1 the eye of the calves1 of the chariots1 of roundness4 ,,en-,,gedi1 ,en-ge-dy1 fountain of the goat1 of happiness4 ,,en-,,mish,,pat1 fountain of judgment4 ,,enoch1 ,ee-nok1 dedicated1 disciplined1 well regulated4 ,,enon1 ,ee-non1 cloud1 his fountain4 ,,enos1 ,ee-nos1 fallen man1 subject to all kind of evil4 ,,ex-,,rogel1 ,en-ro-gel1 the fuller's fountain4 ,,en-,,shemesh1 ,en-she-mesh1 fountain of the sun4 ,,epaphras1 ,ep-pa-fras1 covered with foam4 ,,epaphroditus1 ,e-paf-ro-dy-tus1 agreeable1 handsome4 ,,epenetus1 ,e-pe-nee-tus1 laudable1 worthy of praise4 ,,ephah1 ,ee-fah1 weary1 to fly as a bird4 ,,ephes-,,dammim1 ,e-fez-dam-mim1 the effusion or drop of blood4 ,,ephesians1 ,e-fee-se-ans1 the people of ,ephesus4 ,,ephesus1 ,ef-fe-sus1 desirable2 chief city of ,asia ,minor4 ,,ephphatha1 ,ef-fa-tha1 be opened4 ,,ephraim1 ,ee-fra-im1 that brings forth fruit or grows4 ,e,,phraimite1 a descendant of ,ephraim4 ,,ephratah1 ,eff-ray-tah1 abundance1 bearing fruit4 ,,ephrath1 ,eff-rath1 ,see ,ephratah4 ,,ephrathite1 ,eff-rath-ite1 an inhabitant of ,ephratah1 or a descendant from ,ephraim4 ,,ephron1 ,ef-ron1 dust4 ,,epicureans1 ,ep-e-kew-re-ans1 who gives assistance2 from the ,greek 1 ,i help4 ,,er1 watch1 enemy4 ,,eras,,tus1 lovely1 amiable4 ,e,,rech1 length1 health4 ,,esaias1 ,e-zay-e-as4 ,see ,isaia4 ,,esar-,,haddon1 ,e-sar-had-don1 that binds1 joy1 or closes the point4 ,e,,sau1 he that does or finishes4 ,e,,sek1 contention4 ,,esh-,,ba,,al1 the fire of the idol4 ,,esh,,col1 a bunch of grapes4 ,,eshtaol1 ,esh-ta-ol1 stout1 strong woman4 ,,eshtemoa1 ,esh-te-mo-a1 which is heard1 the bosom of a woman4 ,,es,,li1 near me1 he that separates4 ,,es,,rom1 the dart of joy1 division of the song4 ,,esther1 ,ess-ter1 secret1 hidden4 ,e,,tam1 their bird or covering4 ,e,,tham1 their strength or sign4 ,e,,than1 strong1 the gift of the island4 ,,ethanim1 ,eth-an-im1 strong1 valiant4 ,,ethbaal1 ,eth-bay-al1 toward the idol1 he that rules4 ,,ethiopia1 ,ee-the-o-pe-a1 in ,hebrew1 ,cush1 blackness2 in ,greek it signifies heat1 from 1 ,i burn1 and 1 face4 ,,ethiopians1 ,ee-the-o-pe-ans1 ,africans4 ,,eubulus1 ,yew-bu-lus1 a prudent counsellor4 ,,eunice1 ,yew-ny-se1 good victory4 ,,euodias1 ,yew-o-de-as1 sweet scent4 ,,euphrates1 ,yew-fray-tes1 that makes fruitful4 ,,euroc,,lydon1 the north-east wind4 ,,eutychus1 ,yew-te-kus1 happy1 fortunate4 ,,eve1 living1 enlivening4 ,,evil-,,merodach1 ,ee-vil-me-ro-dak1 or mer-o-dak1 the fool of ,merodach1 despising the bitterness of the fool4 ,,ezekiel1 ,e-zee-ke-el1 the strength of ,god4 ,e,,zel1 going abroad1 distillation4 ,,ezion-,,geber1 ,e-ze-on-ge-ber1 the wood of the man1 counsel of the man1 of the strong4 ,,ez,,ra1 a helper4 ,,fe,,lix1 happy1 prosperous4 ,,fes,,tus1 festival1 joyful4 ,,fortuna,,tus1 happy1 prosperous4 ,,gaal1 ,gayal1 contempt1 abomination4 ,,gaash1 ,gay-ash1 tempest1 overthrow4 ,,gabbatha1 ,gab-ba-tha1 high1 elevated4 ,in ,greek1 lithostrotos1 paved with stones4 ,,ga,,briel1 ,god is my strength4 ,,gad1 a band1 happy1 armed and prepared4 ,,gadarenes1 ,gad-a-reens1 surrounded1 walled4 ,,gad,,di1 my happiness1 my troop1 a kid4 ,,gaddiel1 ,gad-de-el1 goat of ,god1 the ,lord is my army4 ,,gadites1 ,gad-dites1 descendants of ,gad4 ,,gaius1 ,gay-e-us1 lord1 an earthly man4 ,,galatia1 ,gal-ay-she-a1 white1 of the colour of milk4 ,,galatians1 ,gal-ay-she-ans1 born in ,galatia4 ,,galbanum1 ,gal-ba-num1 a gum1 sweet spice4 ,,galeed1 ,gal-e-ed1 the heap of witness4 ,,galilee1 ,gal-le-lee1 wheel1 revolution1 heap4 ,,galileans1 ,gal-le-lee-ans1 inhabitants of ,galilee4 ,,gal,,lim1 who heap up1 cover1 roll4 ,,gal,,lio1 he that sucks or lives upon milk4 ,,gama,,liel1 recompense1 camel1 weaned of ,god4 ,,gam,,madims1 soldiers placed in the towers of ,tyrus2 men who came from ,gammade1 a town of ,phenicia4 ,,ga,,tam1 their lowing1 their touch4 ,,gath1 a press4 ,,gath-,,rim,,mon1 the press of the granite1 exalted press4 ,,ga,,za1 strong1 a goat4 ,,ge,,ba1 a hill1 a cup4 ,,ge,,bal1 bound1 limit4 ,,ge,,bim1 grasshoppers1 height4 ,,gedaliah1 ,ged-a-ly-ah1 ,god is my greatness1 fringe of the ,lord4 ,,gehazi1 ,ge-hay-zye1 valley of sight1 of the breast4 ,,gemari,,ah1 accomplishment of the ,lord4 ,,gennesaret1 ,gen-ness-a-ret1 or ,jen-ness-a-ret1 the garden or protection of the prince4 ,,genubath1 ,gen-u-bath1 theft1 garden or protection of the daughter4 ,,ge,,ra1 pilgrimage1 dispute4 ,,ge,,rah1 the twentieth part of a shekel4 ,,ge,,rar4 ,see ,gera4 ,,gergesenes1 ,ger-ge-seens1 those who come from pilgrimage or from fight4 ,,gerizim1 ,ger-re-zim1 cutters4 ,,ger,,shom1 a stranger there1 a traveller of reputation4 ,,ger,,shon1 his banishment1 the change of pilgrimage4 ,,ge,,shur1 the sight of the valley1 the vale of the ox or the wall4 ,,geshurites1 ,gesh-u-rytes1 inhabitants of ,geshur4 ,,ge,,ther1 the vale of trial1 of searching1 the press of inquiry4 ,,gethsemane1 ,geth-sem-a-ne1 a very fat valley4 ,,giah1 ,gy-ah1 to guide1 draw out1 a sigh4 ,,gibeah1 ,gib-e-ah1 a hill4 ,,gib,,eon1 hill1 cup1 that which is without4 ,,gib,,eonites1 people of ,gibeon4 ,,gid,,eon1 he that bruises1 cutting off iniquity4 ,,gihon1 ,gy-hon1 valley of grace1 impetuous4 ,,gilboah1 ,gil-bo-ah1 revolution of inquiry4 ,,gilead1 ,gil-le-ad1 the mass of testimony4 ,,gileadites1 ,gil-le-ad-ites1 the inhabitants of ,gilead4 ,,gil,,gal1 wheel1 revolution1 heap4 ,,giloh1 ,gy-loh1 he that rejoices1 overturns1 or discovers4 ,,gilonite1 ,gy-lo-nite4 ,,girgashite1 ,gir-ga-shite1 who arrives from pilgrimage4 ,,gittite1 ,git-tite1 a wine press4 ,,gob1 cistern1 grasshopper1 eminence4 ,,gog1 roof1 covering4 ,,go,,lan1 passage1 revolution4 ,,gol,,gotha1 a heap of skulls4 ,,goli,,ath1 revolution1 discovery1 heap4 ,,go,,mer1 to finish1 accomplish1 a consumer4 ,,gomor,,rah1 a rebellious people4 ,,go,,shen1 approaching1 drawing near4 ,,go,,zan1 fleece1 pasture1 nourishing the body4 ,,grecia1 ,gree-she-a1 ,greece1 the country of the ,greeks4 ,,grecians1 ,gree-she-ans1 ,greeks1 the inhabitants of ,greece4 ,,gur1 the young of a beast1 dwelling1 fear4 ,,gurba,,al1 the whelp of the governor4 ,,habakkuk1 ,hab-a-kuk1 he that embraces1 a wrestler4 ,,hachaliah1 ,hak-a-ly-ah1 who waits for the ,lord4 ,,hachilah1 ,hak-e-lah1 my trust is in her4 ,,ha,,dad1 joy1 noise4 ,,hadadezer1 ,hay-dad-ee-zer1 the beauty of assistance4 ,,hadad-,,rimmon1 ,hay-dad-rim-mon1 the voice of height1 the invocation of ,rimmon1 a god of the ,syrians4 ,,hadas,,sah1 a myrtle1 joy4 ,,hado,,ram1 their beauty1 power1 praise4 ,,hadrach1 ,hay-drak1 point1 joy of tenderness1 your chamber4 ,,ha,,gar1 a stranger1 that fears4 ,,hagarenes1 ,hay-gar-eens1 of the family of ,hagar4 ,,hagarites1 ,hay-gar-ites4 ,see ,hagarenes4 ,,haggai1 ,hag-ga-i1 feast1 solemnity4 ,,hag,,gith1 rejoicing4 ,,hak,,katan1 little4 ,,halleluiah1 ,hal-le-lu-yah1 praise the ,lord4 ,,ham1 hot1 brown4 ,,ha,,man1 noise1 tumult1 he that prepares4 ,,ha,,math1 anger1 heat1 a wall4 ,,hammedatha1 ,ham-med-a-thah1 or ,ham-me-day-thah1 he that troubles the law4 ,,ha,,mon-,,gog1 the multitude of ,gog4 ,,ha,,mor1 an ass1 clay1 wine4 ,,ha,,mul1 godly1 merciful4 ,,hamu,,tal1 the shadow of his heat1 the heat of the dew4 ,,hanameel1 ,han-am-e-el1 or ,han-am-ee-el1 grace or pity from ,god4 ,,hananeel1 ,han-an-ee-el1 mercy of ,god4 ,,hanani1 ,han-ay-ny1 my grace or mercy4 ,,hanani,,ah1 grace or mercy of the ,lord4 ,,han,,nah1 gracious1 merciful1 taking rest4 ,,ha,,noch1 dedicated4 ,,ha,,nun1 gracious1 merciful1 he that rests4 ,,ha,,ran1 mountainous country1 which is enclosed4 ,,harbo,,nah1 his destruction or dryness4 ,,ha,,rod1 astonishment1 fear4 ,,harosheth1 ,har-o-sheth1 agriculture1 silence1 vessel of earth1 forest4 ,,hashmo,,nah1 diligence1 enumeration1 embassy1 present4 ,,ha,,tach1 he that strikes4 ,,havilah1 ,hav-e-lah1 that suffers pain1 brings forth1 declares to her4 ,,havoth-,,jair1 ,hay-voth-jay-ir1 villages that enlighten4 ,,hazael1 ,haz-a-el1 that sees ,god4 ,,hazarmaveth1 ,hay-zar-may-veth1 court or dwelling of death4 ,,hazelelponi1 ,hay-zel-el-po-ny1 shade1 sorrow of the face4 ,,hazeroth1 ,haz-ee-roth1 villages1 court4 ,,ha,,zor1 court1 hay4 ,,he,,ber1 one that passes1 anger4 ,,he,,brews1 descended from ,heber4 ,,he,,bron1 society1 friendship1 enchantment4 ,,hegai1 or ,,hege1 ,heg-a-i1 meditation1 word1 separation4 ,,he,,lam1 their army1 trouble1 or expectation4 ,,hel,,bon1 milk1 fatness4 ,,heldai1 ,hel-da-i1 or ,hel-day-i1 the world4 ,,he,,li1 ascending1 climbing up4 ,,hel,,kath-,,haz,,urim1 the field of strong men1 of rocks4 ,,he,,man1 their trouble1 their tumult1 much4 ,,hen1 grace1 quiet4 ,,hepher1 ,hee-fer1 a digger or delver4 ,,hephzi-,,bah1 ,hef-ze-bah1 my pleasure4 ,,her,,mes1 ,mercury1 gain1 refuge4 ,,hermogenes1 ,her-moj-e-nes1 begotten of ,mercury1 of lucre4 ,,her,,mon1 anathema1 destruction4 ,,her,,monites1 the inhabitants of ,hermon4 ,,herod1 ,her-rod1 the glory of the skin4 ,,herodians1 ,he-ro-de-ans4 ,,hero,,dias1 the wife of ,herod4 ,,herodion1 ,he-ro-de-on1 song of ,juno4 ,,hesh,,bon1 invention1 industry1 thought1 he that hastens to understand4 ,,heth1 trembling1 fear4 ,,heth,,lon1 fearful dwelling1 his covering4 ,,hezeki,,ah1 strong in the ,lord4 ,,hez,,ron1 the dart of joy1 division of the song4 ,,hiddai1 ,hid-da-i1 praise1 cry4 ,,hiddekel1 ,hid-de-kel1 a sharp voice4 ,,hi,,el1 the life of ,god4 ,,hierapolis1 ,hy-er-ap-po-lis1 holy city4 ,,higgaion1 ,hig-gay-e-on1 meditation4 ,,hilki,,ah1 ,god is my portion1 the ,lord's gentleness4 ,,hil,,lel1 praising folly1 ,lucifer4 ,,hin,,nom1 there they are1 their riches4 ,,hi,,ram1 exaltation of life1 their whiteness1 he that destroys4 ,,hit,,tites1 who are broken or fear4 ,,hi,,vites1 wicked1 bad1 wickedness4 ,,ho,,bab1 favoured and beloved4 ,,ho,,bah1 love1 friendship1 secrecy4 ,,hog,,lah1 his festival1 his dance4 ,,hophni1 ,hoff-ni1 he that covers1 my fist4 ,,hor1 who conceives1 shows4 ,,ho,,reb1 desert1 destruction1 dryness4 ,,hor-,,hagidgad1 ,hor-ha-gidd-gad1 hill of felicity4 ,,hor,,mah1 devoted to ,god1 destruction4 ,,horonaim1 ,hor-o-nay-im1 anger1 raging4 ,,horonite1 ,hor-o-nyte1 anger1 fury1 liberty4 ,,hosea1 and ,,hoshea1 ,ho-zee-a1 and ,ho-shee-a1 ,saviour4 ,,hul1 infirmity1 bringing forth children4 ,,hul,,dah1 the world1 a prophetess4 ,,hur1 liberty1 whiteness1 cavern4 ,,hushai1 ,hew-sha-i1 their haste1 sensuality1 or silence4 ,,huz,,zab1 molten4 ,,hymeneus1 ,hy-men-ee-us1 nuptial1 marriage4 ,,ib,,har1 election1 he that is chosen4 ,,ichabod1 ,ik-a-bod1 where is the glory8 ,,iconium1 ,i-ko-ne-um1 from 1 8,i come40 ,,id,,do1 his hand1 power1 praise1 witness4 ,,idumea1 ,id-ew-mee-a1 red1 earthy4 ,,igdali,a1 the greatness of the ,lord4 ,i,,jon1 look1 eye1 fountain4 ,,illyricum1 ,il-lir-re-kum1 joy1 rejoicing4 ,,im,,lah1 plenitude1 repletion1 circumcision4 ,,imman,,uel1 a name given to our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 signifying1 ,god with us4 ,,im,,rah1 a rebel1 changing4 ,,india1 ,in-de-a1 praise1 law4 ,,iphedeiah1 ,if-fe-dy-ah1 or ,if-fe-dee-ah1 the redemption of the ,lord4 ,i,,ra1 city1 watch1 spoil1 heap of vision4 ,i,,rad1 wild ass1 heap of descents1 of empire4 ,,irijah1 ,i-ry-jah1 the fear1 vision1 or protection of the ,lord4 ,,isaac1 ,i-zak1 laughter4 ,,isaiah1 ,i-zay-yah1 or ,i-zay-e-ah1 the salvation of the ,lord4 ,,iscah1 ,is-kah1 he that anoints1 or covers4 ,,iscariot1 ,is-kar-re-ot1 is thought to signify a native of the town of ,iscarioth4 ,,ish,,bak1 empty1 forsaken1 abandoned4 ,,ishbi-,,benob1 ,ish-by-bee-nob1 he that sits in the prophecy1 conversion4 ,,ish-,,bosheth1 ,ish-bo-sheth1 a man of shame4 ,,ishmael1 ,ish-ma-el1 ,god who hears4 ,,ishmaelites1 ,ish-ma-el-ites1 the posterity of ,ishmael4 ,,israel1 ,is-ra-el1 a prince with ,god1 prevailing with ,god1 that wrestleth with ,god4 ,,israelites1 ,is-ra-el-ites1 the posterity of ,israel1 or ,jacob4 ,,issachar1 ,is-sa-kar1 price1 reward4 ,,italian1 ,i-tal-e-an1 belonging to ,italy4 ,,italy1 ,it-ta-le1 a ,latin word that has its original from vitulus1 or vitula1 8a calf10 or from a king called ,italus4 ,,ith,,amar1 island of the palm tree1 wo to the palm or change4 ,,ithiel1 ,ith-e-el1 ,god with me1 sign4 ,,ithream1 ,ith-re-am1 excellence of the people4 ,,iturea1 ,it-u-ree-a1 which is guarded1 a country of mountains4 ,i,,vah1 iniquity4 ,,jaalam1 ,ja-ay-lam1 hidden1 young man1 kids4 ,,jaazania1 ,ja-az-a-ny-ah1 whom the ,lord will hear1 the balances1 the arms4 ,,ja,,bal1 which glides away1 produces4 ,,jab,,bok1 evacuation1 dissipation4 ,,ja,,besh1 dryness1 confusion1 shame4 ,,jabesh-,,gilead1 ,jay-besh-gil-e-ad4 ,,ja,,bez1 sorrow1 trouble4 ,,ja,,bin1 he that understands1 he that builds4 ,,jabneel1 ,jab-ne-el1 building1 or understanding of ,god4 ,,jachin1 ,jay-kin1 that strengthens4 ,,ja,,cob1 he that supplants1 the heel4 ,,ja,,el1 he that ascends1 a kid4 ,,jah1 the everlasting ,god4 ,,ja,,haz1 dispute1 going out of the ,lord4 ,,jahaza1 ,ja-hay-za1 the same as ,jahaz4 ,,jair1 ,jay-er1 my light1 who diffuses light4 ,,jairus1 ,jay-e-rus or ,ja-i-rus1 is enlightened4 ,,jam,,bres1 the sea with poverty4 ,,james1 the same as ,jacob4 ,,jan,,na1 who speaks1 who answers1 affliction4 ,,jannes1 ,jan-nez1 the same as ,janna4 ,,japheth1 ,jay-feth1 persuades1 handsome4 ,,japhia1 ,ja-fy-ah1 which enlightens1 groans4 ,,ja,,reb1 a revenger4 ,,ja,,red1 he that descends or commands4 ,,ja,,sher1 righteous4 ,,ja,,son1 he that cures1 that gives medicines4 ,,ja,,van1 that deceives1 clay4 ,,ja,,zer1 assistance1 he that helps4 ,,je,,bus1 treads under foot1 contemns4 ,,jeb,,usites1 inhabitants of ,jebus4 ,,jeconi,,ah1 preparation or steadfastness of the ,lord4 ,,jeddi,,el1 the knowledge or joy of ,god4 ,,jedidah1 ,jed-dy-dah1 well-beloved1 amiable4 ,,jedidiah1 ,jed-e-dy-ah1 beloved of the ,lord4 ,,jeduthun1 ,jed-ew-thun or ,jed-ew-thun1 his law1 who gives praise4 ,,jegar-,,sahadutha1 ,je-gar-say-ha-dew-tha1 the heap of witnessing4 ,,jehoahaz1 ,je-ho-ay-haz1 the prize or possession of the ,lord4 ,,jeho,,ash1 the fire or victim of the ,lord4 ,,jehoiachin1 ,je-hoy-a-kin1 preparation or strength of the ,lord4 ,,jehoiada1 ,je-hoy-a-dah1 knowledge of the ,lord4 ,,jehoiakim1 ,je-hoy-a-kim1 the resurrection of the ,lord4 ,,jehon,,adab4 ,see ,jonadab4 ,,jeho,,ram1 exaltation1 rejected of the ,lord4 ,,jehosh,,aphat1 ,god judges4 ,,jeho,,vah1 the incommunicable name of ,god1 self-existing4 ,,jehovah-,,jireh1 ,je-ho-vah-jy-rey1 the ,lord will see or provide1 will be manifested4 ,,jeho,,vah-,,nis,,si1 the ,lord my banner4 ,,jehovah-,,shalom1 ,je-ho-vah-shay-lom or shal-lom1 the ,lord send peace4 ,,jeho,,vah-,,sham,,mah1 the ,lord is there4 ,,jeho,,vah-,,tsid,,kenu1 the ,lord our righteousness4 ,,jehu1 ,je-hew1 he that is or exists4 ,,jehudijah1 ,je-hew-di-jah1 praise of the ,lord4 ,,jemi,,ma1 handsome as the day4 ,,jephthah1 ,jef-thah1 he that opens4 ,,jephunneh1 ,je-fun-neh1 he that beholds4 ,,je,,rah1 the moon1 to scent or smell4 ,,jerahmeel1 ,je-ram-me-el1 mercy or love of ,god4 ,,jeremi,,ah1 grandeur of the ,lord4 ,,jericho1 ,jer-re-ko1 his moon1 sweet smell4 ,,jer,,imoth1 eminences1 he that fears or rejects death4 ,,jerobo,,am1 fighting against1 increasing the people4 ,,jerubbaal1 ,jer-uh-bay-al1 he that revenges the idol1 let ,baal defend his cause4 ,,jerubbesheth1 ,je-rub-be-sheth1 let the idol of confusion defend itself4 ,,jeru,,salem1 the vision or possession of peace4 ,,jeru,,sha1 he that possesses the inheritance1 exiled4 ,,jeshimon1 ,jesh-e-mon1 solitude1 desolation4 ,,jeshua1 ,jesh-u-a1 a ,saviour4 ,,jeshurun1 ,jesh-ew-run1 upright4 ,,jes,,se1 to be1 my present4 ,,jesui1 ,jes-u-i1 who is equal1 flat country4 ,,jesuites1 ,jes-u-ites1 the posterity of ,jesui4 ,,je,,sus1 the holy name ,jesus1 ,saviour1 who saveth his people from their sins4 ,,je,,ther1 he that excels1 remains1 searches4 ,,jeth,,ro1 his excellence or posterity4 ,,je,,tur1 he that keeps1 succession1 mountainous4 ,,je,,ush1 devoured1 gnawed by the moth4 ,,jew1 ,jews1 so called from ,judah4 ,,jew,,ess1 ,,jew,,ish1 ,,jew,,ry4 ,,jez,,ebel1 island of the habitation1 wo to the habitation1 isle of the dunghill4 ,,jezrahiah1 ,jez-ra-hy-ah1 the ,lord is the east1 the ,lord arises1 ,,jezreel1 ,jez-re-el or ,jez-ree-el1 seed of ,god1 dropping of the friendship of ,god4 ,,jezreelite1 ,jez-re-el-ite or ,jez-ree-el-ite1 an inhabitant of ,jezreel4 ,,jidlaph1 ,jid-laf1 he that distils1 hands joined4 ,,jo,,ab1 paternity1 having a father1 voluntary4 ,,jo,,ah1 who has a brother1 brother of the ,lord4 ,,joan,,na1 the grace or mercy of the ,lord4 ,,jo,,ash1 who despairs1 burns1 is on fire4 ,,job1 he that weeps1 cries1 or speaks out of a hollow place4 ,,jochebed1 ,jok-ke-bed1 glorious1 honourable1 a person of merit1 the glory of the ,lord4 ,,jo,,el1 that wills1 commands1 or swears4 ,,joezer1 ,jo-ee-zer1 he that aids4 ,,jo,,ha1 who enlivens and gives life4 ,,joha,,nan1 who is liberal and grants favour4 ,,john1 the gift or mercy of the ,lord4 ,,jok,,shan1 hard1 difficult1 scandalous4 ,,jok,,tan1 small1 disgust1 weariness1 dispute4 ,,jon,,adab1 who acts in good earnest4 ,,jo,,nah1 or ,,jo,,nas1 a dove1 he that oppresses4 ,,jon,,athan1 given of ,god4 ,,jop,,pa1 beauty1 comeliness4 ,,jo,,ram1 to cast1 elevated4 ,,jor,,dan1 the river of judgment1 that rejects judgment1 descent4 ,,jo,,rim1 he that exalts the ,lord4 ,,jo,,se1 raised1 who exists1 or pardons1 ,saviour4 ,,joseph1 ,jo-sef1 increase1 addition4 ,,joses1 ,jo-sez4 ,see ,jose4 ,,josh,,ua1 the ,lord1 the ,saviour4 ,,josi,,ah1 the fire of the ,lord4 ,,jo,,tham1 perfection of the ,lord4 ,,jubal1 ,jew-bal1 he that runs1 he that produces1 a trumpet4 ,,jubilee1 ,jew-be-lee1 a feast of the ,jews1 every fiftieth year2 in ,hebrew1 ,jobel1 a ram's horn1 or a trumpet by which the jubilee year was proclaimed4 ,,ju,,dah1 the praise of the ,lord4 ,,ju,,das1 the same as ,judah4 ,,judea1 ,jew-dee-a1 a country4 ,,ju,,lia1 downy2 from 1 8down40 ,,ju,,lius1 the same as ,julia4 ,,ju,,nia1 from ,juno1 or from juventus1 youth4 ,,jupiter1 ,jew-pe-ter1 as if it were juvans pater1 the father that helpeth4 ,,jus,,tus1 just1 upright4 ,,kabzeel1 ,kab-ze-el1 the congregation of ,god4 ,,ka,,desh1 holiness4 ,,kadesh-,,barnea1 ,kay-desh-bar-ne-a or bar-nee-ah1 holiness of an inconstant son1 of the corn1 of purity4 ,,kad,,miel1 ,god of rising4 ,,ke,,dar1 blackness1 sorrow4 ,,kedemah1 ,ked-de-mah1 oriental4 ,,kedemoth1 ,ked-de-moth1 old age1 orientals4 ,,keilah1 ,ky-lah1 she that divides or cuts4 ,,kemuel1 ,kem-u-el1 ,god is risen4 ,,ke,,naz1 this nest1 lamentation1 possession4 ,,ke,,nites1 possession1 lamentation1 nest4 ,,keren-,,happuch1 ,kee-ren-hap-puk1 the horn or child of beauty4 ,,kerioth1 ,ker-re-oth1 the cities1 the callings4 ,,keturah1 ,ke-tew-rah1 he that burns or makes the incense to fume1 odoriferous4 ,,keziah1 ,ke-zy-ah1 superficies1 angle1 cassia4 ,,ke,,ziz1 end1 extremity4 ,,kibroth-,,hattaavah1 ,kib-roth-hat-tay-a-vah1 the graves of lust4 ,,kid,,ron1 obscurity1 obscure4 ,,kir1 a city1 a wall1 a meeting4 ,,kir-,,haraseth1 ,kir-har-ra-seth1 the city of the sun4 ,,kiriathaim1 ,kir-e-ath-ay-im1 the two cities1 the callings4 ,,kir-,,jath1 city1 vocation1 lesson1 meeting4 ,,kir-,,jath-,,ar,,ba1 the city of four4 ,,kir,,jath-,a,,rim1 city of cities1 the city of those that watch4 ,,kir,,jath-,,ba,,al1 the city of ,baal1 of those that command1 of those that possess4 ,,kirjath-,,jearim1 ,kir-jath-je-a-rim1 the city of woods4 ,,kir,,jath-,,san,,nah1 the city of the bush1 of enmity4 ,,kirjath-,,sepher1 ,kir-jath-see-fer1 the city of letters1 of the book4 ,,kish1 hard1 difficult1 straw4 ,,kis,,ron1 making sweet1 perfuming4 ,,kit,,tim1 they that bruise1 gold1 colouring4 ,,ko,,hath1 congregation1 obedience1 to make blunt4 ,,kohathites1 ,ko-hath-ites1 the posterity of ,kohath4 ,,ko,,rah1 bald1 frozen4 ,,la,,ban1 white1 shining1 gentle4 ,,lachish1 ,lay-kish1 she walks1 who exists of himself4 ,,la,,el1 to ,god1 to the ,almighty4 ,,lah,,mi1 my bread1 my war4 ,,la,,ish1 a lion4 ,,la,,mech1 poor1 made low1 who is struck4 ,,laodicea1 ,lay-o-de-see-a1 just people4 ,,laodiceans1 ,lay-o-de-see-ans1 inhabitants of ,laodicea4 ,,lapedoth1 ,lap-pe-doth1 enlightened1 lamps4 ,,lazarus1 ,laz-za-rus1 the help of ,god4 ,,le,,ah1 weary1 tired4 ,,leb,,anon1 white1 incense4 ,,lebbeus1 ,leb-bee-us1 a man of heart4 ,,lehabim1 ,le-ha-bim or ,le-hay-bim1 flames1 the points of a sword4 ,,le,,hi1 jaw bone4 ,,lem,,uel1 ,god with them4 ,,le,,vi1 who is held and associated4 ,,le,,vites1 the posterity of ,levi4 ,,lib,,nah1 ,,lib,,ni1 white1 whiteness4 ,,libya1 ,lib-e-a1 in ,hebrew1 ,lubim1 the heart of the sea4 ,,libyans1 ,lib-e-ans1 the people of ,libya4 ,,li,,nus1 nets4 ,,lo-,,am,,mi1 not my people4 ,,lo,,is1 better4 ,,lo-,,ruhamah1 ,lo-ru-hay-mah1 not having obtained mercy1 not pitied4 ,,lot1 wrapt up1 myrrh1 rosin4 ,,lu,,cas1 luminous4 ,,lu,,cifer1 ,lu-se-fer1 bringing light4 ,,lucius1 ,lu-she-us4 ,see ,lucas4 ,,lud1 maturity1 generation4 ,,luke4 ,see ,lucas4 ,,luz1 separation1 departure4 ,,lycaonia1 ,ly-ka-o-ne-a1 she-wolf4 ,,lyd,,da1 the name of a city4 ,,lysa,,nias1 that drives away sorrow4 ,,lys,,tra1 that dissolves or disperses4 ,,maachah1 ,may-a-kah1 to squeeze4 ,,maaseiah1 ,ma-a-sy-ah1 the work of the ,lord4 ,,macedonia1 ,mas-se-do-ne-a1 adoration1 prostration4 ,,machir1 ,may-kir1 he that sells or knows4 ,,machpelah1 ,mak-pee-lah1 double4 ,,magdala1 ,mag-da-lah1 tower1 greatness4 ,,magdalene1 ,mag-da-le-ne1 tower1 grand1 elevated4 ,,ma,,gog1 roof1 that dissolves4 ,,magor-,,missabib1 ,may-gor-mis-sa-bib1 fear1 round about4 ,,mahalaleel1 ,ma-ha-la-lee-el1 he that praises ,god4 ,,mahalath1 ,ma-hay-lath1 melodious song1 infirmity4 ,,mahanaim1 ,ma-ha-nay-im1 the two fields or armies4 ,,maher-,,shalal-,,hash-,,baz1 ,may-er-shal-al-hash-baz1 making speed to the spoil4 ,,mah,,lah1 the same as ,mahalath4 ,,mah,,lon1 song1 infirmity4 ,,makkedah1 ,mak-ke-dah1 adoration1 prostration4 ,,malcham1 ,mal-kam1 their king4 ,,malchi-,,shua1 ,mal-ke-shew-ah1 my king is a saviour4 ,,malchus1 ,mal-kus1 king or kingdom4 ,,mam,,mon1 riches4 ,,mam,,re1 rebellious1 bitter1 that changes4 ,,manaen1 ,man-a-en1 or ,ma-nay-en1 a comforter1 he that conducts them4 ,,manas,,seh1 forgetfulness1 he that is forgotten4 ,,maneh1 ,may-neh1 a species of money4 ,,manoah1 ,ma-no-ah1 rest1 a present4 ,,ma,,on1 house1 crime4 ,,ma,,ra1 bitterness4 ,,ma,,rah1 the same as ,mara4 ,,mar,,cus1 polite1 shining4 ,,mark1 the same as ,marcus4 ,,mars-,,hill1 the place where the judges of ,athens held their supreme council4 ,,mar,,tha1 who becomes bitter4 ,,ma,,ry1 exalted1 bitterness of the sea1 mistress of the sea4 ,,masrekah1 ,mas-re-kah1 whistling1 hissing4 ,,mas,,sah1 temptation4 ,,ma,,tri1 rain1 prison4 ,,mat,,tan1 the reins1 the death of them4 ,,mattathias1 ,mat-ta-thy-as1 the gift of the ,lord4 ,,mat,,that1 gift1 he that gives4 ,,matth,,ew1 given1 a reward4 ,,matthias1 ,ma-thy-as4 ,see ,mattathias4 ,,maz,,zaroth1 the twelve signs4 ,,me,,dad1 he that measures1 the water of love4 ,,me,,dan1 judgment1 process1 measure1 covering4 ,,medes1 ,meeds1 people of ,media4 ,,media1 ,mee-de-a1 measure1 covering1 abundance4 ,,megiddo1 ,me-gid-do1 that declares1 his precious fruit4 ,,megiddon1 ,me-gid-don1 the same as ,megiddo4 ,,mehetabel1 ,me-het-ta-ble1 how good is ,god6 ,,mehujael1 ,me-hu-jay-el1 who proclaims ,god1 ,god that blots out4 ,,melchi1 ,mel-ky1 my king1 my counsel4 ,,melchizedek1 ,mel-kiz-ze-dek1 king of righteousness4 ,,melita1 ,me-ly-ta or ,me-lee-ta1 affording honey4 ,,memphis1 ,mem-fis1 by the mouth4 ,,memucan1 ,me-mew-kan1 impoverished1 to prepare1 certain1 true4 ,,menahem1 ,men-na-hem1 comforter1 who conducts them4 ,,mene1 ,meene1 who reckons1 who is counted4 ,,mephibosheth1 ,me-fib-bo-sheth1 out of my mouth proceeds reproach4 ,,me,,rab1 he that fights1 he that multiplies4 ,,merari1 ,me-ray-ry1 bitter1 to provoke4 ,,mercu,,rius1 a false god2 from the ,latin word mercari1 8to buy or sell10 because he presided over merchandise2 in ,greek1 hermes1 8orator0 or 8interpreter40 ,,merib-,,baal1 ,mer-ib-ba-al or ,mer-ib-bay-al1 rebellion1 he that resists ,baal1 and strives against the idol4 ,,meribah1 ,mer-re-bah1 dispute1 quarrel4 ,,merodach1 ,mer-ro-dak1 bitter1 contrition2 in ,syriac1 the little lord4 ,,merodach-,,baladan1 ,mer-ro-dak-bal-la-dan or ba-lay-dan1 who creates contrition1 the son of death1 of thy vapour4 ,,me,,rom1 eminences1 elevations4 ,,me,,roz1 secret1 leanness4 ,,meshach1 ,mee-shak1 that draws with force1 that surrounds the waters4 ,,meshech1 ,mee-shek1 who is drawn by force1 shut up1 surrounded4 ,,meshelemiah1 ,mesh-el-e-my-ah1 peace1 perfection1 retribution of the ,lord4 ,,mesopotamia1 ,mes-o-po-tay-me-a1 in ,hebrew1 ,aramnaharaim1 that is1 8,syria of the two rivers40 ,in ,greek it also signifies 8between two rivers20 from 1 8middle10 and 1 8river40 ,,messiah1 ,mes-sy-ah1 anointed4 ,,me,,theg-,,am,,mah1 the bridle of bondage4 ,,methusael1 ,me-thew-sa-el1 who demands his death4 ,,methuselah1 ,me-thew-se-lah1 he has sent his death4 ,,mi,,cah1 poor1 humble1 who strikes1 is there4 ,,micaiah1 ,my-kay-e-ah1 who is like to ,god8 the lowliness of ,god4 ,,michaiah1 ,my-kay-e-ah1 ,,michael1 ,my-ka-el1 the same as ,micaiah4 ,,michal1 ,my-kal1 who is it that has all8 who is perfect8 ,,michmash1 ,mik-mash1 he that strikes1 the poor taken away4 ,,midian1 ,mid-de-an1 judgment1 measure1 covering4 ,,midianites1 ,mid-de-an-ites1 people of ,midian4 ,,mig,,dol1 a tower1 greatness4 ,,mig,,ron1 fear1 a barn1 from the throat4 ,,mil,,cah1 queen4 ,,mil,,com1 their king4 ,,miletum1 ,my-lee-tum1 red1 scarlet4 ,,mil,,lo1 fulness1 repletion4 ,,min,,ni1 disposed1 reckoned4 ,,min,,nith1 counted1 prepared4 ,,miriam1 ,mir-re-am1 exalted1 bitterness of the sea1 mistress of the sea4 ,,mis,,gab1 the high fort or rock4 ,,mishael1 ,mish-a-el1 asked for1 lent1 ,god takes away4 ,,misrephoth-,,maim1 ,mis-re-foth-may-im1 the burnings of the waters1 furnaces where metals are melted4 ,,mitylene1 ,mit-e-lee-ne1 purity1 press4 ,,mi,,zar1 little4 ,,miz,,pah1 a sentinel1 speculation1 that waits for4 ,,miz,,peh1 the same as ,mizpah4 ,,mizraim1 ,miz-ray-im1 tribulations1 in straits4 ,,mnason1 ,nay-son1 a diligent seeker1 betrothing1 an exhorter4 ,,mo,,ab1 of the father4 ,,mo,,abites1 ,mo-ab-ites1 the descendants of ,moab4 ,,moladah1 ,mol-a-dah1 or ,mo-lay-dah1 birth1 generation4 ,,molech1 ,mo-lek1 king4 ,,moloch1 ,mo-lok1 the same as ,molech4 ,,mordecai1 ,mor-de-kay1 contrition1 bitter bruising2 in ,syriac1 pure myrrh4 ,,mori,,ah1 bitterness or fear of the ,lord4 ,,mosera1 ,mo-see-ra1 ,,moseroth1 ,mo-see-roth1 erudition1 discipline1 bond4 ,,mo,,ses1 taken out of the water4 ,,mu,,shi1 he that touches1 withdraws himself4 ,,my,,ra1 from 1 ,i flow1 pour out1 weep4 ,,mysia1 ,mish-e-a1 criminal1 abominable4 ,,naaman1 ,na-ay-man1 beautiful1 agreeable1 that prepares himself to motion4 ,,naamathite1 ,na-ay-ma-thite1 of ,naamath4 ,,naashon1 ,na-ash-on1 that foretels1 serpent4 ,,na,,bal1 a fool1 senseless4 ,,na,,both1 words1 prophecies1 fruits4 ,,na,,dab1 free and voluntary gift1 prince4 ,,nagge1 ,nag-gee1 brightness4 ,,naharai1 ,na-har-ra-i or ,na-ha-ray-i1 my nostrils1 hoarse1 hot4 ,,nahash1 ,nay-hash1 snake1 one that foretels1 brass4 ,,na,,hor1 hoarse1 hot1 angry4 ,,nahshon1 ,nay-shon4 ,see ,naashon4 ,,na,,hum1 comforter1 penitent1 their guide4 ,,na,,in1 beauty1 pleasantness4 ,,naioth1 ,nay-e-oth1 beauties1 habitations4 ,,naomi1 ,na-o-my1 beautiful1 agreeable4 ,,naphish1 ,nay-fish1 the soul1 he that refreshes himself1 that respires2 in ,syriac1 that multiplies4 ,,naphtali1 ,naf-ta-ly1 comparison1 likeness1 that fights4 ,,narcissus1 ,nar-sis-sus1 astonishment4 ,,na,,than1 who gives1 or is given4 ,,nathanael1 ,na-than-yel1 the gift of ,god4 ,,nathan-,,melech1 ,nay-than-me-lek1 gift of the king4 ,,na,,um4 ,see ,nahum4 ,,nazarene1 ,naz-a-reen1 kept1 flower4 ,,nazareth1 ,naz-a-reth1 separated1 sanctified4 ,,neapolis1 ,ne-ap-po-lis1 new city4 ,,nebaioth1 ,ne-bay-yoth1 prophecies1 fruits4 ,,ne,,bat1 that beholds4 ,,ne,,bo1 that speaks1 prophesies1 or fructifies4 ,,nebuchadnezzar1 ,neb-ew-kad-nez-zar1 tears and groans of judgment4 ,,nebuzar-,,adan1 ,neb-ew-zar-ra-dan1 fruits or prophecies of judgment1 winnowed1 spread4 ,,necho1 ,nee-ko1 lame1 who was beaten4 ,,nehelamite1 ,ne-hel-a-myte1 dreamer1 vale1 brook4 ,,nehemiah1 ,ne-he-my-ah1 consolation1 repentance1 or rest of the ,lord4 ,,nehiloth1 ,ne-hee-loth1 flute1 hautboy1 cornet4 ,,nehushta1 ,ne-hush-tah1 snake1 soothsayer4 ,,nehush,,tan1 which is of brass or copper1 a trifle of brass4 ,,ner1 lamp1 brightness1 land new tilled4 ,,nereus1 ,nee-re-us4 ,see ,ner4 ,,neri1 ,nee-ry1 my light4 ,,neri,,ah1 light and lamp of the ,lord4 ,,nethaneel1 ,ne-than-ne-el4 ,see ,nathanael4 ,,nethania1 ,neth-a-ny-ah1 the gift of the ,lord4 ,,nethinims1 ,neth-e-nims1 given1 offered4 ,,nib,,haz1 that fructifies1 to prophesy1 to speak4 ,,nicanor1 ,ny-kay-nor1 a conqueror1 victorious4 ,,nicodemus1 ,nik-o-dee-mus1 innocent blood2 in ,greek1 the victory of the people4 ,,nicolaitans1 ,nik-o-lay-e-tanz1 the followers of ,nicolas4 ,,nicolas1 ,nik-o-las1 victor of the people2 from 1 ,i overcome1 and 1 the people4 ,,nicopolis1 ,ny-kop-po-lis1 the city of victory4 ,,niger1 ,ny-jer1 black4 ,,nim,,rim1 leopard1 rebellion1 change4 ,,nim,,rod1 rebellious1 sleep of descent4 ,,nim,,shi1 rescued from danger1 that touches4 ,,nineveh1 ,nin-ne-veh1 agreeable dwelling4 ,,ninevites1 ,nin-ne-vites1 people of ,nineveh4 ,,ni,,san1 banner2 in ,syriac1 a miracle4 ,,nis,,roch1 flight1 standard1 proof4 ,,no1 stirring up1 a forbidding4 ,,noadi,,ah1 witness of the ,lord4 ,,no,,ah1 repose1 rest1 consolation4 ,,nob1 discourse1 prophecy4 ,,no,,bah1 that barks or yelps4 ,,nod1 vagabond4 ,,noph1 ,noff1 honey comb1 a sieve1 that drops4 ,,nun1 son1 posterity1 durable4 ,,nymphas1 ,nim-fas1 spouse1 bridegroom4 ,,obadi,,ah1 servant of the ,lord4 ,o,,bal1 inconvenience of old age1 of the flux4 ,o,,bed1 a servant4 ,o,,bed-,e,,dom1 the servant of ,edom1 the ,idumean1 labourer of the man4 ,o,,bil1 that weeps1 deserves to be bewailed1 ancient4 ,,oc,,ran1 disturber4 ,o,,ded1 to sustain1 to lift up4 ,,og1 a cake1 bread baked in the ashes4 ,o,,hel1 tent1 tabernacle1 brightness4 ,,olympas1 ,o-lim-pas1 heavenly4 ,o,,mar1 he that speaks1 bitter4 ,,omega1 ,o-mee-ga1 the last letter of the ,greek alphabet4 ,,om,,ri1 a sheaf of corn1 rebellion1 bitter4 ,,on1 pain1 force1 iniquity4 ,o,,nan1 pain1 strength1 iniquity4 ,,onesimus1 ,o-nes-se-mus1 profitable1 useful4 ,,onesiphorus1 ,on-ne-sif-fo-rus1 who brings profit4 ,,ophel1 ,o-fel1 tower1 obscurity4 ,,ophir1 ,o-fir1 ashes4 ,,ophrah1 ,off-rah1 dust1 fawn1 lead4 ,o,,reb1 a raven1 caution1 evening4 ,,orion1 ,o-ry-on1 the name of a constellation4 ,,or,,nan1 that rejoices1 their bow or ark4 ,,or,,pah1 the neck1 skull1 nakedness of the mouth4 ,,oth,,ni1 my time1 my hour4 ,,othniel1 ,oth-ne-el1 the hour of ,god4 ,o,,zem1 that fasts1 their eagerness4 ,,ozias1 ,o-zy-as1 strength from the ,lord4 ,,paarai1 ,pay-a-ray or ,pay-a-ry1 opening4 ,,padan-,,aram1 ,pay-dan-ay-ram1 ,padan of the field1 and ,aram ,syria4 ,,pagiel1 ,pay-je-el1 prevention or prayer of ,god4 ,,palestina1 ,pal-es-ty-na1 which is covered4 ,,pal,,ti1 deliverance1 flight4 ,,pamphylia1 ,pam-fil-le-a1 a nation made up of every tribe2 from 1 all1 and 1 a tribe4 ,,paphos1 ,pay-fos1 which boils1 is very hot4 ,,pa,,ran1 beauty1 glory1 ornament4 ,,par,,bar1 a gate or building belonging to the temple4 ,,par,,menas1 that abides and is permanent4 ,,parosh1 ,pay-rosh1 a flea1 fruit of the moth4 ,,parshandatha1 ,par-shan-da-tha1 revelation of corporeal impurities1 of his trouble4 ,,parthians1 ,par-the-ans1 horsemen4 ,,paruah1 ,pa-rew-ah1 flourishing1 that flies away4 ,,parva,,im1 supposed to be ,peru or ,ceylon4 ,,pash,,ur1 that extends the hole1 whiteness4 ,,patara1 ,pa-tay-rah1 which is trodden under foot2 from 1 ,i tread under foot4 ,,pathros1 ,path-ros or ,pay-thros1 mouthful of dew4 ,,pat,,mos1 mortal4 ,,patrobas1 ,pat-ro-bas1 paternal1 that pursues the steps of his father4 ,,pau1 ,pay-ew1 that cries aloud1 appears4 ,,paul1 ,,paul,,us1 a worker4 ,his former name was ,,saul1 a sepulchre1 a destroyer4 ,,pedahzur1 ,ped-ah-zur1 saviour1 strong and powerful1 stone of redemption4 ,,pedaiah1 ,ped-ay-e-ah1 redemption of the ,lord4 ,,pe,,kah1 he that opens1 or is at liberty4 ,,pekahiah1 ,pek-a-hy-ah1 it is the ,lord that opens4 ,,pe,,kod1 noble1 rulers4 ,,pelati,,ah1 let the ,lord deliver4 ,,pe,,leg1 division4 ,,pelethites1 ,pel-eth-ites1 judges1 destroyers4 ,,peniel1 ,pe-ny-el1 face or vision of ,god4 ,,penin,,nah1 precious stone1 his face4 ,,penu,,el4 ,see ,peniel4 ,,peor1 ,pee-or1 hold1 opening4 ,,per,,ga1 very earthy4 ,,per,,gamos1 height1 elevation4 ,,perizzites1 ,per-iz-zytes1 the name of a people who dwell in villages4 ,,per,,sia1 ,persis1 that cuts1 nail1 horseman4 ,,pe,,ter1 a rock1 a stone4 ,,pethu,,el1 mouth or persuasion of ,god4 ,,phalec1 ,fay-lek4 ,see ,peleg4 ,,phallu1 ,fal-lu1 admirable1 hidden4 ,,phalti1 ,fal-ty1 deliverance1 flight4 ,,phanuel1 ,fa-new-el1 face or vision of ,god4 ,,pharaoh1 ,fay-ro1 that disperses1 that discovers2 according to the ,syriac1 the revenger1 the king1 the crocodile4 ,,pharez1 ,fay-rez1 division1 rupture4 ,,pharpar1 ,far-par1 that produces fruits1 fall of the bull4 ,,phebe1 ,fee-be1 shining1 pure4 ,,phenice1 ,fe-ny-se1 red1 purple4 ,,phichol1 ,fy-kol1 the mouth of all1 perfection4 ,,philadelphia1 ,fil-a-del-fe-a1 the love of a brother2 from 1 love1 and 1 a brother4 ,,philemon1 ,fil-ee-mon1 or ,fy-lee-mon1 that is affectionate4 ,,philetus1 ,fil-ee-tus or ,fy-lee-tus1 amiable1 beloved4 ,,phil,,ip1 warlike1 a lover of horses4 ,,philippi1 ,fil-lip-py1 the same as ,philip4 ,,philistia1 ,fil-lis-te-a or ,fy-lis-te-a1 the country of the ,philistines4 ,,philistines1 ,fil-lis-tines or ,fil-lis-tins1 those that dwell in villages4 ,,philologus1 ,fil-lol-lo-gus1 lover of learning4 ,,phinehas1 ,fin-ne-has1 a bold countenance4 ,,phlegon1 ,fle-gon1 zealous1 burning4 ,,phrygia1 ,frij-e-a1 dry1 barren4 ,,phurah1 ,few-rah1 that bears fruit1 that grows4 ,,phygellus1 ,fy-jel-lus1 fugitive4 ,,pi-,,be,,seth1 the mouth of despite4 ,,pi-,,hahiroth1 ,py-ha-hy-roth1 the mouth1 the pass of ,hiroth1 the opening of liberty4 ,,pi,,late1 who is armed with a dart4 ,,pi,,non1 gem1 that beholds4 ,,pirathon1 ,pir-a-thon1 his dissipation1 deprivation2 in ,syriac1 his vengeance4 ,,pis,,gah1 hill1 eminence1 fortress4 ,,pisidia1 ,py-sid-e-a1 pitch1 pitchy4 ,,pi,,son1 changing1 doubling1 extended4 ,,pi,,thom1 their mouthful1 bit1 consummation4 ,,pi,,thon1 his mouth1 his persuasion4 ,,pol,,lux1 a boxer4 ,,pontius1 ,pon-she-us1 marine1 belonging to the sea4 ,,pon,,tus1 the sea2 from 4 ,,poratha1 ,por-a-tha1 fruitful4 ,,porcius1 ,por-she-us4 ,,potiphar1 ,pot-te-far1 bull of ,africa1 fat bull4 ,,poti-,,pherah1 ,pot-if-fe-rah or ,pot-e-fee-rah1 that scatters or demolishes the fat4 ,,prisca1 ,pris-kah1 ancient4 ,,priscilla1 ,pris-sil-lah1 the same as ,prisca4 ,,prochorus1 ,prok-o-rus1 he that presides over the choirs4 ,,publius1 ,pub-le-us1 common4 ,,pudens1 ,pew-dens1 shamefaced4 ,,pul1 bean1 destruction4 ,,pu,,non1 precious stone1 that beholds4 ,,pur1 lot4 ,,puteoli1 ,pew-tee-o-ly1 a city in ,campania4 ,,putiel1 ,pew-te-el1 ,god is my fatness4 ,,quar,,tus1 the fourth4 ,,raamah1 ,ray-a-mah or ,ra-ay-mah1 greatness1 thunder1 evil1 bruising4 ,,raamses1 ,ra-am-ses4 ,see ,rameses4 ,,rab,,bah1 powerful1 contentious4 ,,rab-,,mag1 who overthrows a multitude1 chief of the magicians4 ,,rab-,,saris1 grand master of the eunuchs4 ,,rab-,,shakeh1 cup-bearer of the prince1 chamberlain4 ,,rachab1 ,ray-kab1 proud1 strong1 enlarged4 ,,rachal1 ,ray-kal1 injurious1 perfumer4 ,,rachel1 ,ray-tshel1 a sheep4 ,,ragau1 ,ray-gaw1 a friend1 a neighbour4 ,,raguel1 ,rag-ew-el1 shepherd or friend of ,god4 ,,ra,,hab1 proud1 strong1 quarrelsome4 ,,ra,,hab1 large1 extended1 public place4 ,,rak,,kath1 empty1 spittle4 ,,rak,,kon1 vain1 mountain of lamentations4 ,,ram1 elevated1 who rejects4 ,,ramah1 ,ray-mah1 the same as ,ram4 ,,ramath1 ,ray-math1 raised1 lofty4 ,,ramathaim-,,zophim1 ,ra-math-ay-im-zo-fim1 the same as ,ramah4 ,,ra,,math-,,le,,hi1 elevation of the jaw bone4 ,,rameses1 ,ram-e-ses1 thunder1 he that destroys evil4 ,,ramiah1 ,ram-i-ah1 exaltation of the ,lord4 ,,ra,,moth1 high places4 ,,rapha1 ,ray-fa1 relaxation1 physic4 ,,raphael1 ,ray-fay-el4 ,see ,rephael4 ,,raphu1 ,ray-few1 cured1 comforted4 ,,re,,ba1 the fourth1 a square1 that stoops4 ,,rebek,,ah1 fat1 quarrel appeased4 ,,rechab1 ,re-kab1 square1 chariot1 rider4 ,,rechabites1 ,re-kab-ites1 the posterity of ,rechab4 ,,re,,gem1 ,re-jem1 that stones1 purple4 ,,regem-,,melech1 ,re-jem-me-lek1 he that stones the king1 the purple of the king4 ,,rehabi,,ah1 breadth1 place of the ,lord4 ,,re,,hob1 breadth1 extent4 ,,rehobo,,am1 who sets the people at liberty1 space of the people4 ,,reho,,both1 spaces1 places4 ,,re,,hum1 compassionate1 friendly4 ,,re,i1 my shepherd1 companion1 my evil4 ,,remali,,ah1 the exaltation of the ,lord4 ,,rem,,mon1 greatness1 a pomegranate tree4 ,,remphan1 ,rem-fan1 the name of an idol1 which some think to be ,saturn4 ,,rephael1 ,re-fa-el1 the medicine of ,god4 ,,rephaim1 ,,rephaims1 ,re-fay-im1 giant1 physician1 relaxed4 ,,rephidim1 ,ref-e-dim1 beds1 places of rest4 ,,resin1 ,ree-sen1 a bridle or bit4 ,,reu1 ,ree-ew1 his friend1 his shepherd4 ,,reuben1 ,rew-ben1 who sees the son1 vision of the son4 ,,reu,,benites1 the posterity of ,reuben4 ,,reuel1 ,re-yew-el1 shepherd or friend of ,god4 ,,reumah1 ,re-yew-mah1 lofty1 sublime4 ,,rezeph1 ,ree-zeff1 a pavement1 burning coal4 ,,re,,zin1 voluntary1 runner4 ,,re,,zon1 lean1 secret1 prince4 ,,rhegium1 ,ree-je-um1 rupture1 fracture4 ,,rhesa1 ,ree-sah1 will1 course4 ,,rhoda1 ,ro-dah1 a rose4 ,,rhodes1 ,rodes1 the same as ,rhoda4 ,,rib,,lah1 quarrel that increases or spreads4 ,,rim,,mon1 exalted1 pomegranate4 ,,riphath1 ,ry-fath1 remedy1 release4 ,,ris,,sah1 watering1 distillation1 dew4 ,,riz,,pah1 bed1 extension1 coal4 ,,rogel1 ,ro-jel1 a foot2 in ,syriac1 custom4 ,,romamti-,,ezer1 ,ro-mam-te-ee-zer1 exultation of help4 ,,ro,,man1 strong1 powerful4 ,,rome1 strength1 power2 from 4 ,,rosh1 the head1 the beginning4 ,,ru,,fus1 red4 ,,ruhamah1 ,ru-hay-mah1 having obtained mercy4 ,,ru,,mah1 exalted1 rejected4 ,,ruth1 filled1 satisfied4 ,,sabe,,ans1 captivity1 conversion1 old age4 ,,sabtecha1 ,sab-te-kah1 that surrounds4 ,,sa,,doc1 just1 justified4 ,,sa,,lah1 mission1 dart2 according to the ,syriac1 that spoils4 ,,salamis1 ,sal-la-mis1 shaken1 tossed1 beaten4 ,,salathiel1 ,sal-ay-the-el1 ,i have asked of ,god4 ,,sa,,lem1 complete1 peace4 ,,sa,,lim4 ,see ,shalim4 ,,sal,,mon1 peaceable1 perfect1 that rewards4 ,,salmone1 ,sal-mo-ne1 peaceable4 ,,salome1 ,sa-lo-me4 ,see ,salmon4 ,,samaria1 ,sa-may-re-a1 his guard1 prison1 or diamond2 in ,hebrew1 ,shomeron4 ,,samar,,itans1 people of ,samaria4 ,,sam,,lah1 raiment1 his left hand1 his name4 ,,sa,,mos1 full of gravel4 ,,samothracia1 ,sam-o-thray-she-a1 an island so called because it was peopled by ,samians and ,thracians4 ,,sam,,son1 his sun2 according to the ,syriac1 his service1 here the second time4 ,,sam,,uel1 heard or asked of ,god4 ,,sanbal,,lat1 bush or enemy in secret4 ,,saph1 ,saff1 rushes1 end1 threshold4 ,,saphir1 ,saffir or ,say-fir1 a city4 ,,sapphira1 ,saf-fy-rah1 that tells1 that writes books4 ,,sa,,rah1 lady1 princess of the multitude4 ,,sarai1 ,say-ray1 my lady1 my princess4 ,,sar,,dis1 prince or song of joy1 what remains2 in ,syriac1 a pot or kettle4 ,,sarep,,ta1 a goldsmith's shop1 where metals used to be melted and tried4 ,,sar,,gon1 who takes away protection1 who takes away the garden2 according to the ,syriac1 nets1 snares4 ,,sa,,ron4 ,see ,sharon4 ,,sarsechim1 ,sar-see-kim1 master of the wardrobe1 of the perfumes4 ,,saruch1 ,say-ruk1 branch1 layer1 twining4 ,,sa,,tan1 contrary1 adversary1 an accuser4 ,,saul1 demanded1 sepulchre1 destroyer4 ,,sceva1 ,see-vah1 disposed1 prepared4 ,,scythian1 ,sith-e-an1 tanner1 leather-dresser4 ,,se,,ba1 drunkard1 that surrounds2 according to the ,syriac1 old man4 ,,se,,bat1 twig1 sceptre1 tribe4 ,,se,,cundus1 the second4 ,,se,,gub1 fortified1 raised4 ,,seir1 ,see-er1 hairy1 demon1 tempest1 barley4 ,,se,,lah1 a rock4 ,,seleucia1 ,se-lew-she-a1 beaten by waves1 runs as a river4 ,,semei1 ,sem-me-i1 or ,se-mee-i1 hearing1 obeying4 ,,se,,neh1 bush4 ,,se,,nir1 a sleeping candle1 a changing4 ,,sennacherib1 ,sen-nak-ke-rib1 bush of the destruction of the sword1 of drought4 ,,sephar1 ,see-far1 a book1 scribe2 in ,syriac1 a haven4 ,,sepharad1 ,see-fay-rad1 a book1 descending1 ruling4 ,,sepharvaim1 ,sef-ar-vay-im1 two books1 two scribes4 ,,se,,rah1 lady of scent1 song1 the morning4 ,,seraiah1 ,se-ra-i-ah or ,se-ray-yah1 prince of the ,lord4 ,,sergius1 ,ser-je-us1 a net4 ,,se,,rug4 ,see ,saruch4 ,,seth1 put1 who puts4 ,,shaalbim1 ,shay-alb-im1 that beholds the heart4 ,,shaaraim1 ,shay-a-ray-im1 gates1 valuation1 hairs1 barley1 tempests1 demons4 ,,shaashgaz1 ,shay-ash-gaz1 he that presses the fleece4 ,,shadrach1 ,shay-drak1 tender nipple1 tender field4 ,,sha,,lim1 fox1 fist1 path4 ,,shalisha1 ,shal-e-shah1 three1 the third1 prince4 ,,shal,,lecheth1 a casting out4 ,,shal,,lum1 perfect1 peaceable4 ,,shal,,man1 peaceable1 perfect1 that rewards4 ,,shalmanezer1 ,shal-ma-nee-zer1 peace tied1 perfection and retribution4 ,,sham,,gar1 named a stranger1 he is here a stranger1 surprise of the stranger4 ,,sham,,huth1 desolation1 astonishment4 ,,sha,,mir1 prison1 bush1 lees4 ,,sham,,mah1 loss1 desolation1 astonishment4 ,,shammuah1 ,sham-mew-ah1 that is heard or obeyed4 ,,shaphan1 ,shay-fan1 a rabbit1 wild rat1 their lip4 ,,shaphat1 ,shay-fat1 a judge4 ,,sharai1 ,shar-a-i or ,sha-ray-i1 my lord1 my song4 ,,sharezer1 ,shar-ee-zer1 overseer of the treasury4 ,,sha,,ron1 his plain1 field1 song4 ,,sha,,shak1 a bag of linen1 the sixth bag4 ,,sha,,veh1 the plain1 that makes equality4 ,,shealtiel1 ,she-al-te-el1 ,i have asked of ,god4 ,,sheariah1 ,she-a-ry-ah1 gate or tempest of the ,lord4 ,,she,,ar-,,ja,,shub1 the remnant shall return4 ,,she,,ba1 captivity1 compassing about1 repose1 old age4 ,,shebaniah1 ,sheb-a-ny-ah1 the ,lord that converts1 that recals from captivity1 that understands4 ,,sheb,,na1 who rests himself1 who is now captive4 ,,shechem1 ,shee-kem1 portion1 the back1 shoulders4 ,,shedeur1 ,shee-de-ur or ,shed-e-ur1 field1 destroyer of fire4 ,,she,,lah1 that breaks1 that undresses4 ,,shelemiah1 ,shel-le-my-ah1 ,god is my perfection1 my happiness4 ,,sheleph1 ,shee-lef1 who draws out4 ,,shel,,omith1 my happiness1 my recompense4 ,,shelumiel1 ,shel-ew-my-el1 happiness1 retribution of ,god4 ,,shem1 name1 renown1 he that places4 ,,shemaiah1 ,she-ma-i-ah or ,shem-ay-yah1 that obeys the ,lord4 ,,shemariah1 ,shem-a-ry-ah1 ,god is my guard1 diamond4 ,,shemeber1 ,shem-me-ber1 name of force1 fame of the strong4 ,,shemer1 ,shee-mer1 guardian1 thorn4 ,,shemida1 ,she-my-dah1 name of knowledge1 that puts knowledge1 the science of the heavens4 ,,sheminith1 ,shem-me-nith1 the eighth4 ,,shemiramoth1 ,she-mir-ra-moth1 the height of the heavens1 the elevation of the name4 ,,shen1 tooth1 change1 he that sleeps4 ,,shenir1 ,shee-nir1 lantern1 light that sleeps1 he that shows4 ,,shephatiah1 ,shef-a-ty-ah1 the ,lord that judges4 ,,sheshach1 ,shee-shak1 bag of flax1 the sixth bag4 ,,sheshbazzar1 ,shesh-baz-zar1 joy in tribulation1 or of vintage4 ,,sheth4 ,see ,seth4 ,,shether-,,boznai1 ,shee-ther-boz-na-i1 that makes to rot and corrupt4 ,,she,,va1 vanity1 elevation1 fame1 tumult4 ,,shibboleth1 ,shib-bo-leth1 burden1 ear of corn4 ,,shicron1 ,shy-kron1 drunkenness1 his wages4 ,,shiggaion1 ,shig-gay-yon1 a song of trouble4 ,,shigionoth1 ,shig-gy-on-oth1 mournful music4 ,,shiloah1 ,shy-lo-ah4 ,see ,siloah4 ,,shi,,loh1 sent1 the ,apostle4 ,,shi,,loh1 peace1 abundance4 ,,shilonite1 ,shy-lo-nyte1 of the city of ,shiloh4 ,,shimeah1 ,shim-me-ah1 that hears1 that obeys4 ,,shimei1 ,shim-me-i1 that hears1 name of the heap1 my reputation4 ,,shimshai1 ,shim-shay1 my sun4 ,,shinar1 ,shy-nar1 the watching of him that sleeps1 change of the city4 ,,shiphrah1 ,shif-rah1 handsome1 trumpet1 that does good4 ,,shi,,shak1 present of the bag1 of the pot1 of the thigh4 ,,shit,,tim1 that turn away1 scourges1 rods4 ,,sho,a1 tyrants4 ,,sho,,bab1 returned1 turned back4 ,,sho,,bach1 your bonds1 your nets1 his captivity2 according to the ,syriac1 a dove house4 ,,shochoh1 ,sho-koh1 defence1 a bough4 ,,shoshan,,nim1 lilies of the testimony4 ,,shu,,ah1 pit1 humiliation1 meditation4 ,,shu,,al1 fox1 hand1 fist1 traces1 way4 ,,shu,,hite1 a descendant of ,shuah4 ,,shu,,lamite1 peaceable1 perfect1 that recompenses4 ,,shu,,namite1 a native of ,shunem4 ,,shu,,nem1 their change1 their sleep4 ,,shur1 wall1 ox4 ,,shu,,shan1 lily1 rose1 joy4 ,,shu,,thelah1 plant1 verdure1 moist pot4 ,,sib,,mah1 conversion1 captivity1 old age1 rest4 ,,sichem1 ,sy-kem4 ,see ,shechem4 ,,si,,don1 hunting1 fishing1 venison4 ,,sigionoth1 ,sig-gy-o-noth1 according to variable tunes4 ,,si,,hon1 rooting out1 conclusion4 ,,si,,hor1 black1 trouble1 early in the morn4 ,,si,,las1 three1 the third4 ,,siloas1 ,sil-o-as or ,sy-lo-as1 ,,siloam1 ,sil-o-am or ,sy-lo-am1 sent1 dart1 branch4 ,,siloe1 ,sil-o-e or ,sy-lo-e1 the same as ,siloas4 ,,silva,,nus1 one who loves the woods4 ,,sim,,eon1 that hears or obeys4 ,,si,,mon1 that hears or obeys4 ,,sin1 bush4 ,,sinai1 ,sy-nay or ,sy-nay-i1 bush1 according to the ,syriac1 enmity4 ,,si,,nim1 the south country4 ,,si,,on1 noise1 tumult4 ,,si,,rah1 turning aside1 rebellion4 ,,sirion1 ,sir-re-on1 a breastplate1 deliverance4 ,,sisera1 ,sis-se-rah1 that sees a horse or swallow4 ,,si,,van1 bush1 thorn4 ,,smyr,,na1 myrrh4 ,,so1 a measure for grain or dry matters4 ,,so,,coh1 tents1 tabernacles4 ,,so,,di1 my secret4 ,,sodom1 ,sod-dom1 their secret1 their lime1 their cement4 ,,sodomites1 ,sod-dom-ites1 inhabitants of ,sodom4 ,,sol,,omon1 peaceable1 perfect1 one who recompenses4 ,,sopater1 ,so-pay-ter1 who defends or saves his father4 ,,so,,rek1 hissing1 a colour inclining to yellow4 ,,sosipater1 ,so-se-pay-ter4 ,see ,sopater4 ,,sosthenes1 ,sos-the-nes1 a strong and powerful saviour4 ,,spain1 rare1 precious4 ,,stachys1 ,stay-kis1 spike2 from 4 ,,stephanas1 ,stef-fa-nas1 a crown1 crowned4 ,,ste,,phen1 the same as ,stephanas4 ,,suc,,coth1 tents1 tabernacles4 ,,suc,,coth-,,be,,noth1 the tabernacles of young women4 ,,suk,,kiims1 covered1 shadowed4 ,,sur1 that withdraws or departs4 ,,susan,,na1 a lily1 a rose1 joy4 ,,susi1 ,su-sy1 horse1 swallow1 moth4 ,,sychar1 ,sy-kar1 the name of a city4 ,,syene1 ,sy-ee-ne1 bush2 according to the ,syriac1 enmity4 ,,syntyche1 ,sin-te-ke1 that speaks or discourses4 ,,syracuse1 ,sir-ra-kewse1 that draws violently4 ,,syria1 ,sir-re-a1 in ,hebrew1 ,aram1 sublime1 deceiving4 ,,syriac1 ,,syrian1 ,sir-re-ak1 ,sir-re-an1 of ,syria4 ,,syrians1 ,sir-re-ans1 inhabitants of ,syria4 ,,syro-,,phenician1 ,sy-ro-fe-nish-e-an1 purple1 drawn to2 from 1 ,i draw1 and 1 red palm tree4 ,,taanach1 ,tay-a-nak1 or ,ta-ay-nak1 who humbles or answers thee4 ,,tab,,bath1 good1 goodness4 ,,tabeal1 ,tay-be-al or ,tab-ee-al1 good ,god4 ,,tabeel1 ,tay-be-el or ,tab-ee-el1 the same as ,tabeal4 ,,taberah1 ,tab-e-rah or ,tab-ee-rah1 burning4 ,,tabitha1 ,tab-e-tha1 in ,syriac1 clear sighted2 she is also called ,dorcas1 wild goat4 ,,ta,,bor1 choice2 in ,syriac1 contrition4 ,,tabrimon1 ,tab-re-mon1 good promegranate4 ,,tad,,mor1 palm tree1 change4 ,,tahapanes1 ,ta-hap-pa-nes1 secret temptation4 ,,tahpenes1 ,tah-pe-nes1 standard1 flight4 ,,talitha-,,cumi1 ,tal-le-tha-kew-my1 young woman1 arise4 ,,talmai1 ,tal-may1 my furrow1 heap of waters4 ,,ta,,mar1 a palm1 palm tree4 ,,tam,,muz1 abstruse1 concealed4 ,,tanhumeth1 ,tan-hew-meth or ,tan-hu-meth1 consolation1 repentance4 ,,taphath1 ,tay-fath1 little girl4 ,,tar,,pelites1 ravishers1 wearied4 ,,tar,,shish1 contemplation of the marble4 ,,tar,,sus1 winged1 feathered4 ,,tar,,tak1 chained1 bound1 shut up4 ,,tar,,tan1 that searches the gift of the turtle4 ,,tatnai1 ,tat-nay1 that gives4 ,,te,,bah1 murder1 a cook4 ,,te,,beth1 the ,babylonish name of the tenth month of the ,hebrews4 ,,te,,kel1 weight4 ,,tekoa1 ,te-ko-ah1 sound of the trumpet4 ,,tel,,abid1 a heap of new grain4 ,,tel-,,harsa1 ,tel-har-sah1 heap1 suspension of the plough or of the head4 ,,te,,lieth1 goodness4 ,,tel-,,melah1 ,tel-me-lah or ,tel-mee-lah1 heap of salt or of mariners4 ,,te,,ma1 admiration1 perfection4 ,,te,,man1 the south1 ,africa4 ,,te,,manite1 an inhabitant of ,teman4 ,,te,,rah1 to breathe1 to scent1 to blow4 ,,teraphim1 ,ter-ra-fim1 an image1 an idol4 ,,tertius1 ,ter-she-us1 the third4 ,,tertul,,lus1 a liar1 an impostor4 ,,tetrarch1 ,tet-rark or ,tee-trarck1 governor of a fourth part of a kingdom4 ,,thaddeus1 ,thad-dee-us1 that praises4 ,,tha,,hash1 that makes haste1 or keeps silence4 ,,tha,,mah1 that blots out or suppresses4 ,,tha,,mar4 ,see ,tamar4 ,,tham,,muz4 ,see ,tammuz4 ,,the,,bez1 muddy1 silk4 ,,thelasar1 ,the-lass-ar1 that unbinds and grants the suspension or heap4 ,,theophilus1 ,the-of-fe-las1 a friend of ,god4 ,,thessalonica1 ,thes-sa-lo-ny-kah1 victory against the ,thessalians4 ,,theudas1 ,thew-das1 a false teacher4 ,,thomas1 ,tom-mas1 a twin4 ,,thum,,mim1 truth1 perfection4 ,,thyatira1 ,thy-a-ty-rah1 a sweet savour of labour or sacrifice of contrition4 ,,tiberias1 ,ti-bee-re-as1 good vision4 ,,tiberius1 ,ti-bee-re-us1 son of ,tiber4 ,,tib,,ni1 straw1 understanding4 ,,ti,,dal1 that breaks the yoke4 ,,tiglath-,,pileser1 ,tig-lath-pi-lee-zer1 that takes away captivity1 miraculous4 ,,tik,,vah1 hope1 a congregation4 ,,timeus1 ,ti-mee-us1 in ,greek1 perfect1 honourable2 in ,hebrew1 admirable4 ,,tim-,,nath1 image1 enumeration4 ,,timnath-,,heres1 ,tim-nath-hee-res1 image of the dumb4 ,,ti,,mon1 honourable4 ,,timo,,theus1 honour of ,god1 valued of ,god4 ,,tiphsah1 ,tif-sah1 passage1 passover4 ,,tirhakah1 ,tir-hay-kah or ,tir-ha-kah1 inquirer1 law made dull4 ,,tirshatha1 ,tir-shay-tha1 that overturns the foundation2 in ,syriac1 that beholds the time4 ,,tir,,zah1 benevolent1 pleasant4 ,,tish,,bite1 that makes captives1 that dwells4 ,,ti,,tus1 honourable2 from 1 ,i honour4 ,,to,,ah1 a weapon4 ,,tob1 good1 goodness4 ,,tob-,,adonijah1 ,tob-ad-o-ny-jah1 my good ,god4 ,,tobi,,ah1 the ,lord is good4 ,,togar,,mah1 which is all bone1 strong4 ,,to,,hu1 that lives or declares4 ,,toi1 ,to-i1 who wanders4 ,,to,,la1 worm1 scarlet4 ,,to,,lad1 nativity4 ,,tophel1 ,to-fel1 ruin1 folly1 insipid4 ,,tophet1 ,to-fet1 a drum1 betraying4 ,,tro,,as1 penetrated4 ,,trogyllium1 ,tro-jil-le-um1 a city in the isle of ,samos4 ,,trophimus1 ,trof-fe-mus1 well educated4 ,,tryphena1 ,try-fee-nah1 delicate4 ,,trypho,,sa1 thrice shining4 ,,tu,,bal1 the earth1 confusion4 ,,tu,,bal-,,cai,n1 worldly possession1 jealous of confusion4 ,,tychicus1 ,tik-e-kus1 casual1 happening4 ,,tyran,,nus1 a prince1 one that reigns4 ,,tyre1 ,,ty,,rus1 in ,hebrew1 ,sor or ,tzur1 strength4 ,,ucal1 ,yew-kal1 power1 prevalency4 ,,ulai1 ,yew-la-i or ,yew-lay1 strength4 ,,ulam1 ,yew-lam1 the porch1 their strength4 ,,ul,,la1 elevation1 holocaust1 leaf4 ,,un,,ni1 poor1 afflicted4 ,,uphaz1 ,yew-faz1 gold of ,phasis or ,pison4 ,,ur1 fire1 light4 ,,urba,,nus1 civil1 courteous4 ,,uri1 ,yew-ry1 my light or fire4 ,,uriah1 ,,urijah1 ,yew-ry-ah1 ,yew-ry-jah1 the ,lord is my light or fire4 ,,uri,,el1 ,god is my light or fire4 ,,urim and ,,thummim1 ,yew-rim and ,thum-mim1 lights and perfection4 ,,uz1 counsel2 in ,syriac1 to fix4 ,,uz,,zah1 strength1 a goat4 ,,uzzen-,,sherah1 ,uz-zen-shee-rah1 ear of the flesh or of the parent4 ,,uz,,zi1 my strength1 my kid4 ,,uzzi,,ah1 the strength of the ,lord4 ,,uzzi,,el1 the strength of ,god4 ,,uzzielites1 ,uz-zy-el-ites1 the posterity of ,uzziel4 ,,vash,,ni1 the second4 ,,vash,,ti1 that drinks1 thread4 ,,vophsi1 ,vof-sy1 fragment1 diminution4 ,,zaana,,nim1 movings4 ,,za,,bad1 a dowry4 ,,zab,,di1 portion1 dowry4 ,,zaccheus1 ,zak-kee-us1 pure1 justified4 ,,zachari,,ah1 memory of the ,lord4 ,,za,,dok1 just1 justified4 ,,za,,ham1 crime1 impurity4 ,,zair1 ,zay-ir1 little1 afflicted4 ,,zal,,mon1 his shade1 obscurity4 ,,zalmo,,nah1 the shade1 your image4 ,,zalmun,,na1 shadow1 image4 ,,zamzum,,mims1 thinking1 wickedness4 ,,zano,,ah1 forgetfulness1 this rest4 ,,zaphnath-,,paaneah1 ,zaf-nath-pay-a-nee-ah1 one that discovers hidden things2 in the ,egyptian tongue1 a saviour of the world4 ,,za,,rah1 east1 brightness4 ,,zarephath1 ,zar-re-fath1 ambush of the mouth4 ,,zare,,tan1 tribulation1 perplexity4 ,,za,,za1 belonging to all2 in ,syriac1 going back4 ,,zebadi,,ah1 portion of the ,lord4 ,,ze,,bah1 victim1 immolation4 ,,zeb,,edee1 abundant portion4 ,,zebo,,im1 deer1 goats4 ,,ze,,bul1 a habitation4 ,,zeb,,ulun1 dwelling1 habitation4 ,,zechari,,ah4 ,see ,zachariah4 ,,ze,,dad1 his side1 his hunting4 ,,zedeki,,ah1 the ,lord is my justice4 ,,zeeb1 ,zee-eb1 wolf4 ,,ze,,lek1 the noise of him that licks or laps4 ,,zelophehad1 ,ze-lo-fe-ad1 the shade or tingling of fear4 ,,zelotes1 ,ze-lo-tes1 jealous1 full of zeal4 ,,zel,,zah1 noontide4 ,,ze,,nas1 living4 ,,zephani,,ah1 the ,lord is my secret1 the mouth of the ,lord4 ,,zephath1 ,zee-fath1 which beholds1 attends4 ,,ze,,pho1 that sees and observes4 ,,zer1 perplexity1 tribulation1 a rock4 ,,ze,,rah4 ,see ,zarah4 ,,zeredah1 ,zer-e-dah or ,ze-ree-dah1 ambush4 ,,ze,,resh1 misery1 stranger4 ,,ze,,ror1 root1 that straitens1 a stone4 ,,zeru,,ah1 leprous1 hornet4 ,,zerubbabel1 ,ze-rub-ba-bel1 banished1 a stranger at ,babylon1 dispersion of confusion4 ,,zeruiah1 ,zer-ew-i-ah1 pain1 tribulation4 ,,ze,,than1 their olive4 ,,ze,,thar1 he that examines or beholds4 ,,zi,,ba1 army1 fight1 strength1 stag4 ,,zib,,eon1 iniquity that dwells1 the seventh4 ,,zib,,iah1 deer1 goat1 honourable and fine4 ,,zichri1 ,zic-ry1 that remembers1 a male4 ,,zid,,dim1 huntings2 in ,syriac1 destructions4 ,,zi,,don1 hunting1 fishing1 venison4 ,,zido,,nians1 inhabitants of ,zidon4 ,,zif1 this1 that2 according to the ,syriac1 brightness4 ,,zik,,lag1 measure pressed down4 ,,zil,,lah1 shadow1 which is roasted1 the tingling of the ear4 ,,zil,,pah1 distillation1 contempt of the mouth4 ,,zim,,ran1 song1 singer1 vine4 ,,zim,,ri1 my field1 my vine1 my branch4 ,,zin1 buckler1 coldness4 ,,zi,,on1 a monument1 sepulchre1 turret4 ,,zi,,or1 ship of him that watches1 ship of the enemy4 ,,ziph1 ,ziff1 this mouth1 mouthful4 ,,zip,,por1 bird1 crown2 according to the ,syriac1 early in the morning1 goat4 ,,zip,,porah1 beauty1 trumpet4 ,,zith,,ri1 to hide1 overturned4 ,,ziz1 flower1 a lock of hair2 according to the ,syriac1 wing1 feather4 ,,zi,,za4 ,see ,zaza4 ,,zo,,an1 motion4 ,,zo,,ar1 little1 small4 ,,zo,,bah1 an army1 a swelling4 ,,zo,,har1 white1 shining1 dryness4 ,,zohe,,leth1 that creeps or draws4 ,,zophar1 ,zo-far1 rising early1 crown2 in ,syriac1 sparrow1 goat4 ,,zo,,rah1 leprosy1 scab4 ,,zorobabel1 ,zo-rob-ba-bel4 ,see ,zerubbabel4 ,,zuar1 ,zew-ar1 small4 ,,zuph1 that observes1 roof4 ,,zur1 stone1 plan1 form4 ,,zuri,,el1 the rock or strength of ,god4 ,,zurishaddai1 ,zew-ry-shad-da-i1 the ,almighty is my rock1 splendour1 beauty4 ,,zu,,zims1 the posts of a door1 splendour2 in ,syriac1 departing1 money2 in ,chaldee1 strong4 ,,tables ,,of ,,the ,,weights1 ,,measures1 ,,and ,,money1 ,,mentioned ,,in ,,the ,,bible4 ,,jewish ,,weights1 ,,reduced ,,to ,,english ,,troy ,,weight4 lbs4 ozs4 pen4 gr4 ,the ,gerah1 the twentieth part of a ,shekel #j #j #j #ab ,the ,bekah1 half a ,shekel #j #j #e #j ,the ,shekel #j #j #aj #j ,the ,maneh1 sixty ,shekels #b #f #j #j ,the ,talent1 fifty ,maneh1 or three thousand #abe #j #j #j ,shekels ,according to the bishop of ,peterborough's calculations1 the ,gerah is nearly equal to #aa grains ,troy2 the ,bekah1 to about #d pennyweights2 and the ,shekel1 to about #i pennyweights4 ,,tables ,,of ,,scripture ,,measures ,,of ,,length1 ,,reduced ,,to ,,english ,,measure4 ,,short ,,measures4 ,english ,inches4 feet4 ,digit #j #j4iab #d ,palm #j #c4fhd #ab #c ,span #j #aj4idd #bd #f #c ,cubit #a #i4hhh #if #bd #f #b ,fathom #g #c4eeb #add #cf #ab #f #a4e ,ezekiel's reed #aj #aa4cbh #aib #dh #af #h #b #a4c ,arabian pole #ad #g4ajd #aibj #dhj #afj #hj #bj #ac4c #aj ,schnus's #ade #aa4jd meas'ng line ,,long ,,measures4 ,english ,paces4 ,feet4 miles4 ,cubit #j #j #a4hbd #djj ,stadium or ,furlong #j #ade #d4f #bjjj #e ,sabbath day's journey #j #gbi #c4j #djjj #aj #b ,eastern mile #a #djc #a4j #abjjj #cj #f #c ,parasang #d #aec #c4j #ifjjj #bdj #dh #bd #h ,a day's journey #cc #agb #d4j #e ,feet#a ,pace2 #ajefa mile4 ,according to the bishop of ,peterborough1 a ,parasang is equal to #d miles1 #aaf paces4 ,,for ,,tables ,,of ,,time ,,see ,,the ,,articles 8,,months0 ,,and 8,,day40 ,,tables ,,of ,,scripture ,,measures ,,of ,,capacity4 ,,measures ,,for ,,liquids1 ,,reduced ,,to ,,english ,,wine ,,measure4 ,gallons4 ,pints4 ,caph #j #j4fbe #a4c ,log #j #j4hcc #e4c #d ,cab #j #c4ccc #af #ab #c ,hin #a #b #cb #bd #f #b ,seah #b #d #if #gb #ah #f #c ,bath or ,epha #g #d #ifj #gbj #ahj #fj #bj #aj ,chomer1 ,homer1 #ge #e ,kor1 or ,coros ,the ,omer was one-tenth of an ,epha1 and contained #f pints2 the ,metretes of ,syria1 translated in ,john ii1 #f1 8firkins10 #g pints2 and the eastern ,cotyla1 half a pint4 ,this ,cotyla1 says the bishop of ,peterborough1 contains just #aj ounces ,averdupois of rain water2 the ,omer1 #ajj ounces2 the ,epha1 #ajjj2 and the ,chomer1 #aj1jjj ounces4 ,so by these weights all these measures of capacity may be expeditiously recovered to a near exactness4 ,,measures ,,for ,,things ,,dry1 ,,reduced ,,to ,,english ,,corn ,,measure4 ,pecks4 ,gals4 ,pints4 ,gachal #j #j #j4adaf #bj ,cab #j #j #b4hccc #cf #a4h ,omer or ,gomer #j #j #e4a #abj #f #c4c ,seah #a #j #a #cfj #ah #aj #c ,epha #c #j #c #ahjj #ij #ej #ae #e ,letech #af #j #j #cfjj #ahj #ajj #cj #aj #b ,chomer ,homer1 c4 #cb #j #j ,,tables ,,of ,,money4 ,,jewish ,,money1 ,,reduced ,,to ,,the ,,english ,,standard4 4 s4 d4 ,gerah #j #j #a4cfhg #aj ,bekah #j #a #a4fhge #bj #b ,shekel #j #b #c4cge #abjj #abj #ej ,maneh1 or ,mina ,hebraica #e #ad #j4ge #fj1jjj #fjjj #cjjj #fj ,talent #cdb #c #i ,solidus ,aureus1 or ,sextula1 was worth #j #ab #j4e ,siclus ,aureus1 or ,gold ,shekel #a #af #f ,talent of ,gold #edge #j #j ,the bishop of ,peterborough makes the ,mina ,hebraica to contain #fj ,shekels1 and to weigh #bg oz4 #g dwts42 which1 at #es4 per ounce1 will amount to #fl4 #afs4 #aj;d42 and the ,talent of ,silver to contain #ej ,min1 which1 at #es41 will equal the amount in this table1 #cdbl4 #cs4 #i;d4 ,,roman ,,money1 ,,mentioned ,,in ,,the ,,new ,,testament1 ,,reduced ,,to ,,the ,,english ,,standard4 4 s4 d4 far4 ,mite 7,assarium7 #j #j #j ,farthing1 7,quadrans17 about #j #j #j #a ,penny1 or ,denarius 7,silver7 #j #j #g #c ,pound1 or ,mina #c #b #f #j ,according to the bishop of ,peterborough1 the ,roman ,mite is one-third of our farthing2 ,quadrans1 three-fourths of a farthing2 the ,assarium1 a farthing and a half2 and the ,assis three farthings4 ,in the preceding ,tables1 ,silver is valued at #es41 and ,gold at #d4 per ounce4 ,,since the publication1 in #agbg1 of ,dr4 ,arbuthnot's 8,tables of ,ancient ,coins1 ,weights1 and ,measures10 that celebrated work has been regarded by the best divines as the general standard on these difficult subjects4 ,more recently the bishop of ,peterborough has rendered good service to this part of ,biblical antiquity by entering into several nice and extensive calculations on the weights and measures mentioned in the ,bible1 which have1 with very few exceptions1 confirmed the previous investigations of ,dr4 ,arbuthnot3 and as the axiom1 8,what is new in theology is false10 holds good only in regard to the doctrines of ,scripture1 and not to its statics and numismatics1 no hesitation has been felt in presenting the reader1 under each of the preceding ,tables1 with some of the most important of the results which the bishop has thus obtained4 ,in the abstruse department of mensuration of superficies1 the same learned prelate has also ably demonstrated1 that the altar of incense1 described in ,exodus xxx1 #b1 as consisting of a cubit in length1 and a cubit in breadth1 and yet 8four-square10 contained exactly one square cubit1 that is1 three ,english square feet1 and about forty-seven square inches2--that the table of shew bread1 described in ,exodus xxv1 #bc1 as being two cubits long and one broad1 and rectangular1 contained above six ,english square feet2--that the boards of the tabernacle1 described in ,exodus xxvi1 #af1 as ten cubits in length and a cubit and a half in breadth1 and rectangular1 contained nearly fifty square feet of ,english measure2--that the mercy seat1 which ,moses is directed to make 8two cubits and a half the length thereof1 and a cubit and a half the breadth thereof10 ,exodus xxv1 #ag1 contained twelve and a half square feet2--that the altar of incense1 which was directed to be 8a cubit the length thereof and a cubit the breadth thereof1 and four square10 ,exodus xxx1 #b1 contained upward of three square feet2--that the court of the tabernacle1 the orders concerning which were1 8,the length of the court shall be a hundred cubits1 and the breadth fifty every where10 ,exodus xxvii1 #ah1 comprised upward of sixteen thousand six hundred and thirty-four square feet1 or in ,english land measure one rood1 twenty-one perches1 and twenty-seven and a half feet2--and that the ,levites' glebe1 which is thus described in ,numbers xxxv1 #c-e3 8,the cities they shall have to dwell in3 and the suburbs of them shall be for their cattle1 and for their goods1 and for all their beasts4 ,and the suburbs of the cities1 which ye shall give unto the ,levites1 shall reach from the wall of the city and outward a thousand cubits round about4 ,and ye shall measure from without the city on the east side two thousand cubits1 and on the south side two thousand cubits10 c2 8and the city shall be in the midst20 contained three hundred and five acres1 two roods1 and one perch1 which was1 for each of the four sides1 seventy-six acres1 one rood1 twenty perches1 and eighty square feet4 ,respecting the ,egyptian aroura1 which is sometimes mistranslated 8acre10 the bishop remarks1 8,reflecting upon ,moses' measure by cubits1 and10 in the case of the court of the tabernacle1 8finding them to be precisely five thousand square cubits1 ,i observed that they were just half ten thousand1 which ,i had observed from ,herodotus to be the area of the ,egyptian aroura1 by which their land was as generally measured as ours is by acres and roods4 ,i called also to mind a passage in ,manetho1 an ,egyptian priest1 cited by ,josephus1 in his first book against ,apion1 where he affirms1 that ,manetho1 in his history of the reign1 wars1 and expulsion of the ,pastors1 7whom ,africanus affirms to be ,phenicians or ,canaanites1 and ,josephus vainly believed to be ,jews17 wrote out of the public records of ,egypt1 that these ,pastors made at ,abaris a very large and strong encampment1 that encompassed ten thousand arour1 sufficient to contain two hundred and forty thousand men1 and long to maintain their cattle4 ,hence it appears1 that not only the ,egyptians1 but also the ,phenicians or ,canaanites1 that had dwelt among them1 and had reigned there during the time of six kings successively1 used this measure of land called aroura4 ,now this was long before the time of ,moses2 for the beginning of ,amosis or ,tethmosis1 who expelled them out of ,egypt1 was very near the time of ,abraham's death4 ,wherefore ,i believe that ,moses1 who was skilled in all ,egyptian learning1 especially in surveying1 did of choice make the court of the tabernacle to be just half an aroura1 which was a known measure to him and his people1 and that divine authority directed him so to do40 ,in another part of his work he reduces the ,egyptian aroura into ,english measure1 and finds it to be three roods1 two perches1 and fifty-five and a quarter square feet4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,under ,,the ,,article ,,apostles' ,,creed1 for ,creed1 read ,confessions of ,faith4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,transcriber's ,note ,minor lapses in punctuation1 including missing full stops and end-of-line hyphens1 have been corrected with no further notice4 ,in a work this large1 it is inevitable that some inconsistencies in format will occur1 which have been set right4 ,there are some variants of spelling which have1 in general1 been retained1 given the wide range of sources employed by the author4 ,the use of the diaeresis in words like #8coperate' or #8restablishment' was not followed where the prefix appeared hyphenated on a line break 7e4g4 #8re-establishment'74 ,these have been rendered here using the diaeresis4 ,a passage from ,chardin1 cited on p4 #bej1 has an un-opened quotation1 the beginning of which has been placed as noted below1 based on other commentaries citing ,chardin on ,psalms #ij4d4 ,most internal references refer to the main topics1 which are typically in ,,uppercase characters1 but on occasion refer to subtopics in mixed ,,smallcap font1 or1 rarely1 to keywords in paragraphs 7e4g41 allegory74 ,the main entry for ,,moab was printed in a normal font1 and so could be easily missed4 ,that has been corrected here to follow the conventional printing4 ,the ,alphabetical ,table of ,proper ,names1 at the end of the text1 also contains a number of internal references4 ,these refer to other entries in that table4 ,in the article for ,,crane1 the ,hebrew 7marble7 is given for #8crane'1 from ,jer4 viii1 #g4 ,the word 1 or #8swift' would seem to have been meant4 ,in the alphabetical index of names1 a reference to #8,siloah' has no obvious referent4 ,the article for ,,reed directs the reader to an article for ,,cane1 which is not in the text4 ,the following issues should be noted1 along with the resolutions4 ,the references in the first column are to the page1 column1 and line in the original text4 #g4b4ci who gave ,goliath's sword ,added4 #dg4a4eh ,replaced4 _/ #ij4b4fi has been much misrepresented4 ,added4 #ic4b4bi it is necessary1 in order to his salvation sic3 obtain8 #id4b4dg as it does this day sic3 to8 #aja4a4i are undoubtedly mentioned ,added4 #aaa4a4eb in the habit of referring with approbation ,added4 #aac4b4bj the arguments of ,st4 ,augustine ,added4 #aaf4b observed1 some remains of these enclosures ,removed4 #acg4b4fj the ,prophet says4_/1 #8,of the oaks of ,bashan ,replaced4 #aci4a4bj the rendering of an equivalent37' ,parenthesis added4 #adj4b4cb ,the following observations4_/1 from ,replaced4 #adc4a4db exposed in the amphitheatre to fight ,added4 #aga4b4af ,the word1 is formed from the ,gothic ,removed4 #afj4a4be the truth of the principal facts ,added4 #ahe4a4h 8the ,memphian0 or ,egyptian 8boat is made ,removed4 #ahh4a4cg esor_/tetic1 or concealed doctrine ,replaced4 #bja4b4cb became permanently settled at the diet of ,added4 ,augsburg #bjb4a4dh and those who are not1 accepted4' ,probable4 #bjg4a4ei is directed against ,canaan ,added4 #bjg4b4i in his descendants ,added4 #bad4a4ca with hair standing a_/on end on it ,replaced4 #bag4b4bc for their perusal40 ,removed4 #bbd4a4bj like that of the pine40 ,added4 #bcf4a4g who holds her balance1_/4 ,replaced4 #bcf4b4ab more substantial worldly benefits ,added4 #bcf4b4dh ,here the ,christai_/ian ,transposed4 #bda4b4d which was to be performed ,added4 #bdd4a4ac which have no spu_/upport from the magistracy ,transposed4 #bej4a4cf that 8as the people of the east have no ,added4 clocks #bei4b4ed as it occurs in the ,t_/,new ,testament ,replaced4 #bfh4b4i whether they were gold or brass40 ,added4 #bgd4b4ed two birds are mentioned1 the _/ ,replaced4 #bgh4b4ch increases the pio_/oi of the suffering ,transposed4 #bhe4a4ai ,who call thee by thy name1 am ,,the ,,god ,,of ,added4 ,,israel40 #cjc4b4cb #8all sick people1' that were taken with ,removed4 divers diseases #cjg4b4ed which occurs under the word1 _/1 ,lev4 xiii1 #f-h1 #bi4 transposed4 #cah4b4dg 8,the earth is the ,lord's1 and the fulness ,added4 thereof01 ,psalm xxiv1 #a2 #cbe4a4bj in his 8,institututes10 he confirmed ,removed4 #cca4a4af ,volney's account is sufficiently descriptive ,added4 #ccc4b4be placed by the ,egyptian task-masters ,added4 #ccf4a4bd as consisting in outward worldly ,added4 institutions #ccg4b4ab all visible acknowledgment of them ,added4 #cdc4b4ca reckon the dog a filthy creature ,added4 #cdh4b4bd ,i am with you always ,added4 #cej4b4bi ,they have eleven diocesses ,removed4 #ceb4a4eh and they were punnished for their ,removed4 presumption #cef4b4ca answers to the artificial conception ,added4 #cgb4a4ae can consistently refuse to admit ,added4 #cgc4b4df while the bride4_/-groom is with them8 ,replaced4 #chb4b4ch ,if1 then1 such was s_/the superstitious ,replaced4 homage #chb4b4de 8is ,arabic1 and signifies the fly in ,added4 general40 #cid4a4ag in the amphitheatre at ,tiberias ,added4 #cid4a4cj 8,they gave me to eat02 ,added4 #dae4a4ej the ,egyptians1 ,prussians1 ,lithuanians1 ,added4 ,samogitians1 c4 #daf4a4ch to kill his brother ,jacob ,added4 #dbd4b4ca not a bunch of grapes left of_/for those who ,replaced_/ came to glean4 #dch4b4ca church of the-first _/ first-born ,transposed4 #dch4b4ee to make a tpy_/ypical atonement ,transposed4 #ddb4b4bc the gifts of the ,holy ,c_/,ghost ,replaced4 #dde4b4a ,hebron is now called ,el ,h_/,khalil2 ,replaced4 #dej4b4c _/ ,replaced4 #deb4b4ci the only surviving male ,added4 #dfb4b4da ,b_/by the #8testimony of the ,spirit1' ,i mean1 ,replaced4 #dfi4b4be ,a spacious bowl the' admiring patriarch ,removed4 fills #dgd4a4dg 8counterfeit10 signifies also a profane ,added4 wicked man #dha4a4dg according to their originial institution ,removed4 #dhg4b4df are built upon the foundatia_/on of the ,replaced4 ,apostles #dic4b4fe was buried with ,abraham by his sons ,esau and ,missing1 ,jacob1 ,gen4 xxxv1 #bi4 provided4 #dih4a4dj when 8the ,edomites revolted ,added4 #eja4a4ef admitted till after the fourth1 century ,removed4 #ebd4a4db simply as a prediction prior to the event ,added4 #eca4a4ai who occasionally sent officers ,added4 #ech4a4ce the total absence of every_/n the slightest ,replaced4 allusion #eci4b4cc but inferior to the second40 ,added4 #edg4a4bd to visit the tomb of ,thomas-a _/-,becket ,replaced4 #efg4b4g when the puu_/nishment of their iniquity ,inverted4 shall be accomplished #egg4a4ch ,,lead1 1 ,exod4 xv1 #aj2 sic3 #ehd4b4fa if any animalcule of this sort were concealed ,added4 in their garments40 #eic4b4cf ,,lucian1 a philosopher and wit ,added4 #eid4a4fe they are t_/joined by ,isaiah1 lxvi1 #ai1 with ,replaced4 ,pul #fia4b4ae ,thus1 it was infallibly certain ,added4 #fcj4a4i the fancy far more vive_/id1 in the dreaming ,replaced4 #fcg4a4ac utterly averse to oaths ,added4 #ffj4b4ad ,moab_/,,moab was the son of ,lot ,replaced4 #fhd4b4bd bore the character of remarkable simplicity ,added4 #fgb4a4bi so that he 8hearkened not unto them1 as the ,added4 ,lord had said10 #fib4a4a they acccomplished the great designs of ,removed4 ,heaven #fig4b4fg to impugn his doctrine ,added4 #gdc4b4a popular sect among the ,jews the_/,jews4 ,the ,replaced4 time when #gea4b4fg means literally 8branches of oily or ,added4 gummy plants40 #ghh4a4de the opinions of all sober persons ,added4 #ghi4a4cj or _/ 1 also denotes a stranger ,replaced4 #gia4a4ej differ1 in this respect1 from their ,added4 ancestors #gif4b4fi and the sweet psalmist of ,israel1 said1 ,added4 #8,the ,spirit of ,jehovah #hbg4b4fa 8,the orientals hold10 says ,d',herbelot1 ,added4 #hdc4b4ef there should be one hundred s_/and twenty ,replaced4 inhabitants #hdd4b4ah power and malice are restrained ,added4 #hdd4b4ea that can dignifiy human nature ,removed4 #hde4a4d and with which the ancients were ,added4 enraptured40 #hde4b4df will b_/he offer him a scorpion8 ,replaced4 #heh4a4ac that the sk_/hekel was worth twenty gerahs ,replaced4 #hfe4b4ea ,unto him that blasphemeth against the ,holy ,added4 ,ghost #hff4b4eb has three tops of a marvellous height ,added4 #hgb4a4fj appearing to his disciples ,added4 #hgb4b4ei of all subsequent martyrs ,added4 #hhb4a4ba that of ,alexanandria ,removed4 #ije4a4bg that sacred o_/edifice ,replaced4 #ijg4a4fi the teraphim were humna_/an heads ,transposed4 #ibe4b4ci against the doctrine itself ,added4 #icf4b4a like the horn of a reem1' ,psalm xcii1 #aj4 ,added4 #ide4b4eh as they were then nearer the times e_/of the ,replaced4 ,apostles #idf4b4cf among the ,protesttants ,removed4 #iei4b4fa more palatable and fragrant with aromatics ,added4 #igc4a4dg for purposes of secres_/cy ,replaced4 #igg4b4ca _/h ,replaced4