,transcriber's ,notes4 ,the spelling1 punctuation and hyphenation from the original has been retained except for apparent typographical errors4 ,italic text is marked thus4 ,bold text is marked thus4 ,in ,chapter #8,,formulas ,,and ,,tables'1 #8#g4 ,,weights ,,and ,,areas ,,of ,,square ,,and ,,round ,,bars4444' square represents a square symbol in the original and round represents a circular symbol4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,manual ,,training ,,forge ,,shop ,,forge ,,work ,,by ,,william ,l4 ,,ilgen ,,forging ,,instructor1 ,,crane ,,technical ,,high ,,school ,,chicago1 ,,illinois ,,with ,,editorial ,,revision ,,by ,,charles ,f4 ,,moore ,,head ,,of ,,mechanical ,,department1 ,,central ,,high ,,school1 ,,newark1 ,,new ,,jersey ,,new ,,york ,,cincinnati ,,chicago ,,american ,,book ,,company ,,copyright1 #aiab1 ,,by ,,william ,l4 ,,ilgen4 ,,forge ,,work4 ,w4 ,p4 ,i ,,preface ,teachers of forge work generally supply their own course of instruction and arrange the exercises for practice4 ,the necessary explanations and information are given orally1 and hence often with very unsatisfactory results1 as the average student is not able to retain all the essential points of the course4 ,it was the desire to put this instruction in some permanent form for the use of forge students that led the author to undertake this work4 ,the author wishes to express his thanks for the advice and encouragement of his fellow-teachers1 ,dr4 ,h4 ,c4 ,peterson1 ,mr4 ,frank ,a4 ,fucik1 and ,mr4 ,richard ,hartenberg4 ,special obligations are due to ,mr4 ,charles ,f4 ,moore1 ,head of the ,mechanical ,department in the ,central ,commercial and ,manual ,training ,high ,school of ,newark1 ,new ,jersey1 for his valuable editorial service4 ,figures #adf1 #adg1 #aej1 #aec1 #aeg1 and #aeh have been reproduced1 by permission of the publishers1 from 8,manufacture of ,iron0 and 8,manufacture of ,steel10 copyrighted #aijb1 by the ,international ,textbook ,company4 ,acknowledgments are due also to the ,inland ,steel ,company for the privilege of using ,figures #ade1 #adh1 #adi1 #aei-afc1 #aff2 and to the ,columbia ,tool ,steel ,company for the use of ,figures #aea1 #aeb1 #aed-aef4 ,,william ,l4 ,,ilgen4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,page ,,chapter ,i4 ,,tools ,,and ,,appliances4--#a4 ,the ,forge2 #b4 ,fire ,tools2 #c4 ,fuels2 #d4 ,the ,anvil2 #e4 ,the ,hammers2 #f4 ,the ball peen hammer2 #g4 ,the cross peen hammer2 #h4 ,the straight peen hammer2 #i4 ,the sledges2 #aj4 ,the ,tongs2 #aa4 ,the flat-jawed tongs2 #ab4 ,the hollow bit tongs2 #ac4 ,the pick-up tongs2 #ad4 ,the side tongs2 #ae4 ,the chisel tongs2 #af4 ,the link tongs2 #ag4 ,the tool or box tongs2 #ah4 ,anvil and ,forging ,tools2 #ai4 ,the hardy2 #bj4 ,the cold and hot cutters2 #ba4 ,the hot cutter2 #bb4 ,the flatter2 #bc4 ,the square- and round-edged set hammers2 #bd4 ,the punches2 #be4 ,the top and bottom swages2 #bf4 ,the top and bottom fullers2 #bg4 ,the button head set or snap2 #bh4 ,the heading tool2 #bi4 ,the swage block2 #cj4 ,the surface plate2 #ca4 ,the tapered mandrels2 #cb4 ,bench and ,measuring ,tools2 #cc4 ,the bench or box vise2 #cd4 ,the chisels2 #ce4 ,the center punch2 #cf4 ,the rule2 #cg4 ,the dividers2 #ch4 ,the calipers2 #ci4 ,the scriber or scratch awl2 #dj4 ,the square2 #da4 ,the bevel2 #db4 ,the hack saw2 #dc4 ,the files #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,forging ,,operations4--#dd4 ,the ,hammer ,blows2 #de4 ,the upright blow2 #df4 ,the edge-to-edge blow2 #dg4 ,the overhanging blow2 #dh4 ,the beveling or angle blows2 #di4 ,the leverage blows2 #ej4 ,the backing-up blows2 #ea4 ,the shearing blow2 #eb4 ,forging2 #ec4 ,drawing2 #ed4 ,bending2 #ee4 ,upsetting2 #ef4 ,forming2 #eg4 ,straightening2 #eh4 ,twisting2 #ei4 ,welding2 #fj4 ,the ,material for ,welding2 #fa4 ,heating2 #fb4 ,scarfing2 #fc4 ,the lap weld2 #fd4 ,the cleft weld2 #fe4 ,the butt weld2 #ff4 ,the jump weld2 #fg4 ,the ,v weld #cj ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,practice ,,exercises4--#fh4 ,staple2 #fi4 ,draw ,spike2 #gj4 ,s ,hook2 #ga4 ,pipe ,hook2 #gb4 ,gate ,hook2 #gc4 ,door ,hasp2 #gd4 ,hexagonal ,head ,bolt2 #ge4 ,square-cornered ,angle2 #gf4 ,fagot ,welding2 #gg4 ,round ,weld2 #gh4 ,flat ,right-angled ,weld2 #gi4 ,t ,weld2 #hj4 ,chain ,making2 #ha4 ,welded ,ring2 #hb4 ,chain ,swivel2 #hc4 ,chain ,swivel2 #hd4 ,chain ,grabhook #eh ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,treatment ,,of ,,tool ,,steel4--#he4 ,selecting and ,working ,steel2 #hf4 ,uses of ,different ,grades of ,steel2 #hg4 ,injuries2 #hh4 ,annealing2 #hi4 ,hardening and ,tempering2 #ij4 ,casehardening #hc ,,chapter ,v4 ,,tool ,,making ,,and ,,stock ,,calculation4--#ia4 ,tongs2 #ib4 ,heavy ,flat ,tongs2 #ic4 ,light ,chain ,tongs2 #id4 ,lathe ,tools2 #ie4 ,brass ,tool2 #if4 ,cutting-off or ,parting ,tool2 #ig4 ,heavy ,boring ,tool2 #ih4 ,light ,boring or ,threading ,tool2 #ii4 ,diamond ,point ,tool2 #ajj4 ,right ,side ,tool2 #aja4 ,forging ,tools2 #ajb4 ,cold ,chisel2 #ajc4 ,hot ,cutter2 #ajd4 ,cold ,cutter2 #aje4 ,square-edged ,set2 #ajf4 ,hardy2 #ajg4 ,flatter2 #ajh4 ,small ,crowbar2 #aji4 ,eye or ,ring ,bolts2 #aaj4 ,calipers2 #aaa4 ,stock ,calculation for ,bending #if ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,steam ,,hammer1 ,,tools1 ,,and ,,exercises4--#aab4 ,a ,forging2 #aac4 ,the ,drop ,hammer2 #aad4 ,presses2 #aae4 ,the ,steam ,hammer2 #aaf4 ,steam ,hammer ,tools2 #aag4 ,the hack or cutter2 #aah4 ,the circular cutter2 #aai4 ,the trimming chisel2 #abj4 ,the cold cutter2 #aba4 ,the checking tool or side fuller2 #abb4 ,the fuller2 #abc4 ,the combined spring fullers2 #abd4 ,the combination fuller and set2 #abe4 ,the combined top and bottom swages2 #abf4 ,the top and bottom swages2 #abg4 ,the bevel or taper tool2 #abh4 ,the ,v block2 #abi4 ,the yoke or saddle2 #acj4 ,bolsters or collars2 #aca4 ,punches2 #acb4 ,steam ,hammer ,work2 #acc4 ,crank ,shaft2 #acd4 ,connecting ,rod2 #ace4 ,rod ,strap2 #acf4 ,eccentric ,jaw2 #acg4 ,hand ,lever2 #ach4 ,connecting ,lever2 #aci4 ,solid ,forged ,ring2 #adj4 ,double and ,single ,offsets #abc ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,art ,,smithing ,,and ,,scroll ,,work4--#ada4 ,art ,smithing2 #adb4 ,scroll ,fastenings2 #adc4 ,scroll ,former2 #add4 ,bending or ,twisting ,fork2 #ade4 ,bending or ,twisting ,wrench2 #adf4 ,clip ,former2 #adg4 ,clip ,holder2 #adh4 ,clip ,tightener or ,clincher2 #adi4 ,jardinire ,stand or ,taboret2 #aej4 ,umbrella ,stand2 #aea4 ,reading ,lamp2 #aeb4 ,andirons and ,bar2 #aec4 ,fire ,set2 #aed4 ,fire ,set ,separated #adf ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,iron ,,ore1 ,,preparation ,,and ,,smelting4--#aee4 ,iron ,ore2 #aef4 ,magnetite2 #aeg4 ,red hematite2 #aeh4 ,limonite or brown hematite2 #aei4 ,ferrous carbonate2 #afj4 ,the ,value of ,ores2 #afa4 ,preparation of ,ores2 #afb4 ,weathering2 #afc4 ,washing2 #afd4 ,crushing2 #afe4 ,roasting or calcination2 #aff4 ,fuels2 #afg4 ,fluxes2 #afh4 ,the ,blast2 #afi4 ,the ,reduction or ,blast ,furnace2 #agj4 ,classification of ,pig ,iron2 #aga4 ,bessemer iron2 #agb4 ,basic iron2 #agc4 ,mill iron2 #agd4 ,malleable iron2 #age4 ,charcoal iron2 #agf4 ,foundry iron2 #agg4 ,grading ,iron #afa ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,iron ,,and ,,steel4--#agh4 ,refining ,pig ,iron2 #agi4 ,the ,open-hearth or ,finery ,process2 #ahj4 ,the ,puddling ,process2 #aha4 ,steel2 #ahb4 ,the ,crucible ,process2 #ahc4 ,the ,bessemer ,process2 #ahd4 ,the ,open-hearth ,process #agg ,,formulas ,,and ,,tables #aig ,,index #bjg ,,dedicated ,,to ,,the ,,memory ,,of ,,mr4 ,,david ,,gorrie ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,the ,,forge4 ,,forge ,,work ,,chapter ,i ,,tools ,,and ,,appliances #a4 ,the ,forge4--,the forge is an open hearth or fireplace used by the blacksmith for heating his metals4 ,the kind most commonly used by the general smiths is such as can be seen in small villages or where the ordinary class of blacksmithing is done4 7,see ,fig4 #a47 ,forges are usually built of brick2 in form they are square or rectangular1 and generally extend out from a side wall of the shop4 ,the chimney is built up from the middle of the left side and is provided with a hood ,b1 which projects over the fire sufficiently to catch the smoke and convey it to the flue4 ,the fire is kindled on the hearth ,a under the hood and over the tuyre iron4 ,this iron1 the terminal of the blast pipe that leads from the bellows ,e1 is made in various forms and of cast iron2 sometimes it has a large opening at the bottom1 but often it has none4 ,the bellows are operated by the lever ,f1 which expands the sides and forces air through the tuyre iron1 thereby causing the fire to burn freely and creating a temperature sufficient for heating the metals4 ,the coal box ,c is to the right1 where it is convenient4 ,the coal should always be dampened with water to prevent the fire from spreading4 ,this will produce a more intense and more concentrated heat1 so that a certain part of the metal can be heated without danger of affecting the rest4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,a ,,manual ,,training ,,forge4 ,the water tub1 or slack tub ,d1 as it is more properly called1 stands at the right of the forge near the coal box1 where the water for dampening the coal can be most readily obtained4 ,it is used for cooling the iron or tongs and for tempering tools4 ,modern forges are made of cast iron or sheet steel4 ,there are various kinds designed mostly for special purposes4 ,they are generally used with the fan blast instead of the bellows and have a suction fan for withdrawing the smoke4 ,the forge illustrated in ,fig4 #b was designed for manual training use and is excellent for such a purpose4 ,the bottom or base has six drawers which provide convenient places for keeping exercises and individual tools4 ,as each drawer is provided with a special lock1 much of the trouble resulting from having the tools or the work mislaid or lost is prevented4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,sectional ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,forge ,,shown ,,in ,,fig4 #b4 ,the hearth ,a where the fire is built is provided with a cast-iron fire pot or tuyre4 ,this is constructed with an opening at the bottom where there is a triangular tumbler which is cast upon a rod projecting through the front of the forge2 by revolving the rod and tumbler the cinders or ashes can be dropped into the ash drawer at the bottom of the forge without disturbing the fire4 ,a sectional view of these parts is shown in ,fig4 #c1 also the valve which regulates the blast4 ,suspended on the upper edge surrounding the hearth1 and located to the right and left of the operator1 two boxes ,c and ,d are located1 which are used for storing an adequate supply of coal and water1 where they may be conveniently obtained4 ,in front are two handles2 the upper one operates the clinker or ash valve1 the lower one regulates the blast4 ,the front and back edges surrounding the hearth are cut out1 so that long pieces of metal can be laid down in the fire4 ,these openings can be closed1 when desired1 with the hinged slides shown at ,g4 ,the hood ,b projects over the fire sufficiently to catch the smoke and convey it to the opening of the down-draft pipe ,e4 ,when necessary the hood can be raised out of the way with the lever ,f1 which is constructed with cogs and provided with a locking pin to keep the hood in position4 #b4 ,fire ,tools4--,the necessary tools required for maintaining the fire and keeping it in good working condition are shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,a is the poker with which the coke can be broken loose from the sides4 ,b is the rake with which the coke can be moved over the fire on top of the metal to prevent the air from retarding the heating4 ,the shovel ,c is used for adding fresh coal1 which should always be placed around the fire and not on top4 ,in this way unnecessary smoke will be prevented1 and the coal will slowly form into coke4 ,the dipper ,d is used for cooling parts of the work that cannot be cooled in the water box4 ,the sprinkler ,e is used for applying water to the coal1 or around the fire to prevent its spreading4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,,fire ,,tools4 ,a1 poker2 ,b1 rake2 ,c1 shovel2 ,d1 dipper2 ,e1 sprinkler4 #c4 ,fuels4--,the fuels used for blacksmithing are coal1 coke1 and charcoal4 ,most commonly a bituminous coal of superior quality is used4 ,it should be free from sulphur and phosphorus1 because the metals will absorb a certain amount of these impurities if they are in the fuel4 ,the best grade of bituminous coal has a very glossy appearance when broken4 ,coke is used mostly in furnaces or when heavy pieces of metal are to be heated4 ,it is a solid fuel made by subjecting bituminous coal to heat in an oven until the gases are all driven out4 ,charcoal is the best fuel1 because it is almost free from impurities4 ,the most satisfactory charcoal for forging purposes is made from maple or other hard woods4 ,it is a very desirable fuel for heating carbon steel1 because it has a tendency to impart carbon instead of withdrawing it as the other fuels do to a small extent4 ,it is the most expensive fuel1 and on that account1 and because the heating progresses much more slowly1 it is not used so generally as it should be for heating carbon steel4 #d4 ,the ,anvil4--,the anvil 7,fig4 #e7 is indispensable to the smith1 for upon it the various shapes and forms of metal can be forged or bent by the skilled workman4 ,except for a few that have been designed for special purposes1 it has a peculiar shape which has remained unchanged for hundreds of years4 ,that the ancient smiths should have designed one to meet all requirements is interesting to note1 especially as most other tools have undergone extensive improvements4 ,anvils are made of wrought iron or a special quality of cast iron4 ,in the latter case the face is sometimes chilled to harden it1 or is made of steel which is secured to the base when the anvil is cast4 ,those that are made of wrought iron are composed of three pieces3 the first is the base ,b which is forged to the required dimensions2 the second is the top which includes the horn ,c and the heel2 the third is the face ,a of tool steel which is welded to the top at the place shown by the upper broken line4 ,the top and base are then welded together at the lower broken line4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,,the ,,anvil4 ,after the anvil has been finished1 the face is hardened with a constant flow of water1 then it is ground true and smooth and perfectly straight lengthwise1 but slightly convex crosswise1 and both edges for about four inches toward the horn are ground to a quarter round1 thus providing a convenient place for bending right angles4 ,this round edge prevents galling1 which is liable to occur in material bent over a perfectly square corner4 ,the round hole in the face is called the pritchel hole1 over which small holes can be punched in the material4 ,when larger ones are to be punched1 they can be made on a nut or collar placed over the square hole or hardy hole4 ,this hardy hole is used mostly for holding all bottom tools1 which are made with a square shank fitted loosely to prevent their becoming lodged4 ,the flat portion ,d at the base of the horn1 and a little below the level of the face1 is not steel1 consequently not hardened1 and is therefore a suitable place for cutting or splitting1 because there is not much liability of injuring the cutter if the latter comes in contact with the anvil4 ,the horn ,c is drawn to a point and provides a suitable place for bending and forming1 also for welding rings1 links1 or bands4 ,the anvil is usually mounted on a wooden block and is securely held by bands of iron as shown in the illustration1 or it may be fastened by iron pins driven around the concave sides of the base4 ,it is sometimes mounted on a cast-iron base made with a projecting flange which holds the anvil in place4 ,a convenient height for the mounting is with the top of the face just high enough to touch the finger joints of the clenched hand when one stands erect4 ,it is generally tipped forward slightly1 but the angle depends considerably upon the opinion of the workman who arranges it in position4 ,for some time most of the anvils were made in ,europe1 but at present the majority that are purchased here are made by ,american manufacturers4 #e4 ,the ,hammers4--,of the multitude of tools used by mechanics1 the hammer is undoubtedly the most important one4 ,there was a time when man had only his hands to work with1 and from them he must have received his ideas for tools4 ,three prominent ones which are used extensively at present were most probably imitations of the human hand4 ,from the act of grasping1 man could easily have originated the vise or tongs for holding materials that he could not hold with the hand4 ,scratching with the finger nails undoubtedly impressed him with the need of something that would be effective on hard substances1 and so he devised such tools as picks1 chisels1 and numerous other cutting instruments4 ,the clenched fist must have suggested the need of a hammer4 ,the first thing to be substituted for the fist was a stone held in the hand4 ,next a thong of fiber or leather was wound around the stone1 and used as a handle4 ,from these beginnings we have progressed until we have hammers of all sizes and shapes1 from the tiny hammer of the jeweler to the ponderous sledge4 ,workmen have adapted various shapes of hammers to their individual needs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,,hand ,,hammers4 ,a1 ball peen hammer2 ,b1 cross peen hammer2 ,c1 straight peen hammer4 #f4 ,the ball peen hammer 7,a1 ,fig4 #f71 sometimes called a machinist's hammer1 is very conveniently shaped for forging1 as the ball end is handy for drawing out points of scarfs or smoothing concave surfaces4 ,a suitable weight of this kind of hammer is one and a half pounds1 but lighter ones can be used to good advantage for fastening small rivets4 #g4 ,the cross peen hammer 7,b1 ,fig4 #f7 is one of the older styles and is mostly employed in rough1 heavy work or for spreading metal4 #h4 ,the straight peen hammer 7,c1 ,fig4 #f7 is shaped similarly to the ball peen hammer1 except that the peen is flattened straight with the eye4 ,it is convenient for drawing metal lengthwise rapidly4 #i4 ,the sledges 7,a1 ,b1 and ,c1 ,fig4 #g7 are used for striking on cutters1 swages1 fullers1 or other top tools2 when they are used by the helper1 the blacksmith can be assisted in rapidly drawing out metal4 ,the only difference between these two sledges is in the peen--one is crosswise with the eye and the other lengthwise4 ,the double-faced sledge ,c is sometimes called a swing sledge1 because it is used mostly for a full swing blow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,,the ,,sledges4 #aj4 ,the ,tongs4--,there is an old saying that 8a good mechanic can do good work with poor tools10 which may be true2 but every mechanic surely should have good tools1 on which he can rely and thereby have more confidence in himself4 ,among the good tools that are essential for acceptable smith work are the tongs4 ,very few shops have a sufficient variety of tongs to meet all requirements1 and it is often necessary to fit a pair to the work to be handled4 ,sometimes quite serious accidents happen because the tongs are not properly fitted4 ,they should always hold the iron securely and1 if necessary1 a link should be slipped over the handles as shown in ,b1 ,fig4 #h4 ,the workman is thus relieved from gripping the tongs tightly and is allowed considerable freedom in handling his work4 #aa4 ,the flat-jawed tongs are shown at ,a1 ,fig4 #h4 ,they are made in various sizes to hold different thicknesses of material4 ,tongs of this kind hold the work more securely if there is a groove lengthwise on the inside of the jaw2 the full length of the jaw always should grip the iron4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,,the ,,tongs4 ,a1 flat-jawed tongs2 ,b1 hollow bit tongs2 ,c1 pick-up tongs2 ,d1 side tongs2 ,e1 chisel tongs2 ,f1 link tongs2 ,g1 tool or box tongs4 #ab4 ,the hollow bit tongs1 shown at ,b1 ,fig4 #h1 are very handy for holding round iron or octagonal steel4 ,they can be used also for holding square material1 in which case the depressions in the jaws should be ,v-shaped4 #ac4 ,the pick-up tongs 7,c1 ,fig4 #h7 are useful for picking up large or small pieces1 as the points of the jaws are fitted closely together1 and the two circular openings back of the point will securely grip larger pieces when seized from the side4 #ad4 ,the side tongs 7,d1 ,fig4 #h7 are used for holding flat iron from the side4 ,tongs for holding round iron from the side can be made in this form with circular jaws4 #ae4 ,the chisel tongs are shown at ,e1 ,fig4 #h4 ,one or more pairs of these are necessary in all forge shops4 ,as the hot and cold cutters frequently get dull or broken1 it will be necessary to draw them out and retemper them2 and1 as the heads of these cutters become battered considerably1 they are difficult to hold without chisel tongs4 ,the two projecting lugs at the ends of the jaws fit into the eye1 and the circular bows back of them surround the battered head of the cutter1 so that it can be held without any difficulty4 #af4 ,the link tongs 7,f1 ,fig4 #h7 are as essential as anything else required in making chains or rings of round material4 ,they can be made to fit any size of stock4 #ag4 ,the tool or box tongs 7,g1 ,fig4 #h7 should be made to fit the various sizes of lathe tool stock that are used4 ,they should be made substantially and fit the steel perfectly so that it can be held securely and without danger of stinging the hand1 while the tool is being forged4 ,another style of tool tongs is made with one jaw perfectly flat2 on the other jaw1 lugs are provided to hold the steel firmly4 ,these are not illustrated4 ,almost an unlimited number of different tongs could be explained and illustrated1 but1 from those given1 any one should be able to add to or change the tongs he has so that his material can be securely held4 #ah4 ,anvil and ,forging ,tools4--,if a complete set of these tools were to be illustrated and explained1 a volume would be required4 ,even then1 the worker would very often be compelled to devise some new tool to suit the particular work at hand4 ,one advantage that the blacksmith has over all other mechanics is that when a special tool is required1 if he is a thorough mechanic he can make it4 ,an almost unlimited number of tools might be required in a general smith shop2 but only such tools as are essential in manual training or elementary smith work will be considered here4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,a1 hardy2 ,b1 cold cutter2 ,c1 hot cutter4 #ai4 ,the hardy 7,a1 ,fig4 #i7 should fit the hardy hole of the anvil loosely enough so that it will not stick or wedge fast4 ,it is made of cast steel and should be tempered so that it will not chip or batter from severe use4 ,it is an indispensable tool1 especially to one who has to work without a helper1 for with it iron can be cut either hot or cold1 and steel when it is heated4 ,the material should be held on the cutting edge of the hardy1 then struck with the hammer4 ,a deep cut should be made entirely around the material1 round1 square1 or flat1 so that it can be broken off by being held over the outer edge of the anvil and struck a few downward blows with the hammer4 ,material should not be cut through from one side1 for the cut would then be angular instead of square2 furthermore1 there would be the effect of dulling the hardy if the hammer should come in contact with it4 ,the hardy is frequently used to mark iron where it is to be bent or forged1 but it is not advisable to use it for such purposes1 unless the subsequent operations would entirely remove the marks1 for they might be made deep enough to weaken the metal1 especially at a bending point4 #bj4 ,the cold and hot cutters 7,b and ,c1 ,fig4 #i7 are made1 as are all other top tools1 with an eye for inserting a handle1 and should be held by the workman while some one acting as his helper strikes on them with the sledge4 ,the handles can be of any convenient length from eighteen inches to two feet4 ,cast steel should be used for making both these cutters1 but their shapes differ somewhat4 ,the cold cutter ,b is forged considerably heavier on the cutting end than is the hot cutter1 in order to give it plenty of backing to withstand the heavy blows that it receives4 ,the cutting edge is ground convex to prevent the possibility of the corners breaking off easily1 and is ground more blunt than the hot cutter4 ,it should be used only to nick the metal1 which should then be broken off with the hammer or sledge1 as described in cutting iron with the hardy4 #ba4 ,the hot cutter 7,c1 ,fig4 #i7 is drawn down1 tapering from two depressions or shoulders near the eye to an edge about #a_/h inch thick1 which is ground equally from both sides to form a cutting edge parallel with the eye4 ,it should be used exclusively for cutting hot metal1 because the shape and temper will not stand the cutting of cold iron4 ,in order to avoid dulling the cutter and the possibility of injuring some one with the piece of hot metal that is being cut off1 the cut should be held over the outside edge of the anvil when the final blows are being struck2 the operation will then have a shearing action1 and the piece of metal will drop downward instead of flying upward4 ,great care should be taken in hardening and tempering each of these cutters to prevent possible injury from small particles of steel that might fly from them if they were tempered too hard4 ,the cold cutter should be hard enough to cut steel or iron without being broken or battered on its cutting edge4 ,the hot cutter should not be quite so hard and should be dipped in water frequently when it is being used to prevent the temper from being drawn4 #bb4 ,the flatter 7,a1 ,fig4 #aj7 is as useful and as essential for the production of smooth and nicely finished work as the finishing coat of varnish on a beautiful piece of furniture4 ,any work that is worth doing is certainly worth doing well1 and in order to make forge work present a finished appearance the smith should use the flatter freely4 ,with it the rough markings of the various forging tools or hammer can be entirely removed4 ,by using it while the work is at a dull red heat1 and by occasionally dipping the flatter in water before it is applied1 all the rough scale can be removed1 thus leaving the work with a smooth1 finished appearance4 ,there are various sizes of this tool1 but one with a #b-;inch face is convenient for use on light forgings4 ,the edges of the face may be made slightly round1 so that markings will not be left on the work1 but frequently the edges are left perfectly square4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,a1 flatter2 ,b1 square-edged set hammer2 ,c1 round-edged set hammer4 ,it is not necessary to temper this tool2 in fact1 the constant hammering on it has a tendency to crystallize the steel1 often causing it to break off at the eye4 ,as the constant hammering on the head of the flatter will also cause the head to become battered1 it is good practice frequently to draw out the head and lay the flatter aside to cool4 ,this will anneal the steel and prevent crystallization1 at least for some time4 #bc4 ,the square-and round-edged set hammers 7,b and ,c1 ,fig4 #aj7 are employed for various purposes4 ,the former is used for making square shoulders or depressions such as could not be produced with the hand hammer alone1 or for drawing metal between two shoulders or projections4 ,the latter is used for the same purposes1 with the exception that it produces a rounded fillet instead of a square corner4 ,it is also convenient for use in small places where the flatter cannot be employed4 ,the sizes of these tools vary according to the requirements of the work1 but it is advisable to have about three sizes of the square-edged one4 ,a good outfit of set hammers consists of one #e_/h-;inch1 one #c_/d-;inch1 one #a-;inch1 all square-edged2 and one round-edged set with a #a-a_/d-;inch face4 ,these four should fulfill all requirements for light forgings4 ,these tools need not be tempered1 for the reason explained in connection with the flatter4 #bd4 ,the punches 7,a1 ,b1 and ,c1 ,fig4 #aa7 are merely samples of the multitude of such tools that may be required4 ,they may be of various sizes1 depending upon the requirements of the work1 and either round1 square1 or oval in shape at the end4 ,the hand punch ,a is held with one hand while blows are delivered with the other4 ,it is convenient for punching holes in light pieces2 but when the work is heavy the intense heat from the metal makes it impossible to hold a punch of this kind4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,,the ,,punches4 ,in such cases the handle punches ,b and ,c are employed4 ,they eliminate the danger of burning the hand1 but it is necessary to have some one act as helper and do the striking4 ,the proper way to use a punch on hot metal is to drive it partly through1 or until an impression can be seen on the opposite side after the punch has been removed2 then the punch is placed on the impression and driven through the metal while it is held over the pritchel hole1 the hardy hole1 or anything that will allow the punch to project through without causing the end to be battered4 ,if heavy pieces of metal are to be punched1 it is a great advantage to withdraw the tool1 drop a small piece of coal into the hole1 and cool the punch before again inserting it4 ,the coal prevents the tool from sticking fast1 and the operation can be repeated as often as necessary4 ,punches need not be tempered1 because the strength of the steel from which they should be made will withstand the force of the blows1 and also because the metal is generally hot when the punches are used2 therefore the temper would be quickly drawn out of them4 ,if sheet metal or light material is to be punched cold1 it is advisable to harden the punch slightly2 then the hole may be punched through from one side1 while the metal is held on something containing a hole slightly larger than the punch4 ,this method has the effect of producing a smoothly cut hole1 provided the metal is properly placed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,,the ,,top ,,and ,,bottom ,,swages4 #be4 ,the top and bottom swages 7,fig4 #ab7 are made with semicircular grooves of different sizes to fit the various diameters of round material4 ,the former has an eye for the insertion of a handle by which it is held when in use4 ,the eye should be crosswise to the groove in the face4 ,the bottom swage is made with a square projecting shank to fit loosely into the hardy hole of the anvil4 ,it should be placed in position for use with the groove crosswise to the length of the anvil1 unless the form of the forging should require otherwise4 ,swages are conveniently used for smoothing round material after it has been welded1 or for swaging parts of a forging after they have been roughly hammered out4 ,by dipping the top swage in water occasionally while in use1 the work can be made much smoother and the scale of oxide removed2 this is called water swaging4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,,the ,,top ,,and ,,bottom ,,fullers4 #bf4 ,the top and bottom fullers 7,fig4 #ac7 are made in pairs with convex semicircular projections or working faces1 whose diameters should correspond1 if intended to be used together4 ,as the former is quite frequently used alone1 it may be made of any desired size4 ,the top fuller1 like the top swage1 is made to be used with a handle2 the bottom fuller1 fitted to the anvil like a bottom swage1 generally is placed for use with the length of its face parallel to the length of the anvil4 ,they are used together for forming depressions or shoulders on opposite sides of the material2 from the shoulders thus formed1 the metal may be forged without disturbing them4 ,they are used also for rapidly drawing out metal between shoulders or projections which may have been previously made and are to be left undisturbed4 ,the top fuller is used singly in making scarfs for welding1 in forming grooves1 in smoothing fillets and semicircular depressions1 or in forming shoulders on only one side of metal4 #bg4 ,the button head set or snap 7,a1 ,fig4 #ad7 as it is sometimes called1 has a hemispherical depression on its face4 ,it is used for making heads of rivets or finishing the heads of bolts4 ,only a few different sizes are required1 unless considerable riveting or bolt making is to be done4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,a1 the button head set2 ,b1 the heading tool4 #bh4 ,the heading tool 7,b1 ,fig4 #ad7 is used exclusively for forming the heads of bolts or rivets4 ,formerly a very large assortment of these tools was required in a general shop2 but as bolts can now be made so cheaply by modern machinery1 there are not many made by hand4 ,it would be advisable to have a few general sizes1 however1 because they are sometimes convenient in making other forgings1 and bolt making affords an instructive exercise4 #bi4 ,the swage block 7,a1 ,fig4 #ae7 rests on a cast-iron base ,b4 ,it is a very useful tool in any smith shop and does away with the necessity of having a large assortment of bottom swages1 as only top swages will be required for large-sized material4 ,the block is made of cast iron and of different thicknesses4 ,the depressions on the edges include a graduated series of semicircular grooves that can be used in place of bottom swages2 a large segment of a circle1 which is handy in bending hoops or bands2 graduated grooves for forming hexagonal boltheads or nuts2 and sometimes a ,v-shaped and a right-angled space used for forming forgings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,,the ,,swage ,,block4 ,the holes through the blocks are round1 square1 or oblong4 ,the round ones can be used in place of heading tools for large sized bolts1 or in breaking off octagon or round steel after it has been nicked with the cold cutter4 ,the square holes may be used either for making and shaping the face of a flatter or a round-edged set hammer1 or in place of a heading tool1 when a square shoulder is required under the head4 ,they may be used1 also1 for breaking square steel4 ,the oblong holes are convenient for breaking lathe tool material4 ,some swage blocks have in addition a hemispherical depression on the side1 convenient for forming dippers or melting ladles4 ,the base upon which the swage block rests is constructed with lugs on the inner side1 as indicated by the broken lines on the sketch4 ,upon these it is supported1 either flat or on any of its four edges4 ,these lugs prevent the swage block from tipping sidewise4 #cj4 ,the surface plate 7,c1 ,fig4 #af7 is generally made of cast iron about #a-a_/b to #b inches thick1 from #bj to #bd inches wide1 and from #c to #d feet long4 ,it should be planed perfectly smooth and straight on its face1 the edges slightly round4 ,it should be supported on a strong wooden bench ,d and placed somewhere in the middle of the shop so that it is accessible to all the workmen4 ,on it work is tested to see whether it is straight1 perpendicular1 or if projections are parallel4 ,the anvil is sometimes used for this purpose1 but as it is subjected to such severe use1 the face becomes untrue and therefore cannot be depended upon4 ,a true surface plate is always reliable and convenient for testing work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,,the ,,surface ,,plate4 #ca4 ,the tapered mandrels 7,fig4 #ag7 are made of cast iron1 and are used for truing rings1 hoops1 bands1 or anything that is supposed to have a perfectly circular form4 ,the height ranges from #b-a_/b to #e feet2 the largest diameter varies from #h to #ah inches4 ,they are cone-shaped with a smooth surface1 and should be used with caution4 ,the blows should be delivered on the metal where it does not come in contact with the mandrel2 when bands of flat material are to be trued1 the best method is to place them on the mandrel from each side alternately4 ,unless this precaution is observed1 the band will be found tapered the same as the mandrel4 ,alternating is not so necessary when bands or rings of round material are handled4 ,mandrels are sometimes made in two sections1 as shown at ,b and ,c4 ,as ,b is made to fit into the top of ,c1 the two parts become continuous2 the smaller one can also be held in the vise or swage block and thus used separately4 ,they are frequently made with a groove running lengthwise1 which allows work to be held with tongs and provides a recess for any eyebolt or chain that may be attached to the ring4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,,the ,,tapered ,,mandrels4 ,it should not be supposed that all mandrels are of this particular form2 any shape of bar1 block1 or rod of iron that is used for the purpose of forming or welding a special shape is called a mandrel4 #cb4 ,bench and ,measuring ,tools4--,another set of blacksmith appliances includes the bench vise1 chisels1 center punch1 rule1 dividers1 calipers1 scriber1 square1 bevel1 hack saw1 and files4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,,the ,,bench ,,vise4 #cc4 ,the bench or box vise 7,fig4 #ah7 is not ordinarily used in general blacksmithing4 ,the back jaw of a general smith's vise extends to the floor1 forming a leg1 and is held in position on the floor by a gudgeon on its end4 ,this vise is not illustrated1 because the bench or box vise is preferable for manual training work4 ,the vise should be set so that the tops of the jaws are at the height of the elbows1--a position convenient in filing4 ,it is used for holding the work for filing1 chipping1 twisting1 and sometimes for bending4 ,but when it is used for bending1 especially when bending a right angle1 the operation should be performed cautiously1 for the sharp edges of the jaws are very liable to cut the inner corner of the angle and cause a gall which will weaken the metal at the bend4 #cd4 ,the chisels 7,a and ,b1 ,fig4 #ai7 are very familiar1 yet1 though they are so common1 they are the most abused tools used by both skilled and unskilled workmen4 ,the mere name 8cold chisel0 seems to convey the impression to most people that with it they ought to be able to cut anything4 ,but that impression is wrong2 chisels ought to be made of a certain grade of steel and drawn for either rough or smooth work1 as may be required4 ,then they should be properly tempered to cut the material for which they are intended4 ,a chisel for rough1 heavy work should not be drawn too thin or too broad at the cutting edge4 ,if it is flattened out into a fan-shaped cutting edge1 there should be no surprise if it breaks1 for1 in order to make a chisel stand rough usage1 it should have sufficient metal to back up the corners4 ,on the other hand1 a chisel for smooth finishing work can safely be drawn thin but not fan-shaped1 as the cuts that ought to be required of such a chisel should not be heavy4 ,a chisel for ordinary work ought to be ground so that the two faces form an angle of #fj degrees2 if the work is heavy1 it should be ground even more blunt4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,a1 cold chisel2 ,b1 cape chisel2 ,c1 center punch2 ,d1 rule4 ,the chisel illustrated at ,a represents a common cold chisel1 which can be used for various purposes4 ,the chisel ,b is called a cape chisel and is used for cutting and trimming narrow grooves and slots4 ,it is indispensable for cutting key seats in shafting or work of that kind4 ,on account of its being used in such narrow places it is necessary to make the cutting edge somewhat fan-shaped to prevent the chisel from sticking fast2 but for additional strength the metal is allowed to spread1 as shown4 ,when using the cape chisel1 it is a good practice occasionally to dip the cutting edge in some oily waste1 which will tend to prevent its wearing away or sticking4 #ce4 ,the center punch 7,c1 ,fig4 #ai7 should be made of the same quality of material as the cold chisel4 ,it can be made of steel from #a_/d to #e_/h of an inch in diameter2 octagon steel is preferable4 ,after it has been roughly drawn out1 it is ground to a smooth round point1 then it is tempered as hard as it will stand without breaking4 ,it is used for marking centers of holes to be drilled1 or for marking metal where it is to be bent1 twisted1 or forged4 ,when used for marking hot metal1 it is frequently made with an eyehole in the body1 so that a small handle can be inserted2 this will prevent burning the hands4 #cf4 ,the rule 7,d1 ,fig4 #ai7 should be of good quality4 ,the one best adapted for forge work is the #b-;foot rule1 which is jointed in the center4 ,it is #c_/d inch wide and is made of either tempered spring steel or hard rolled brass4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,a1 dividers2 ,b1 calipers2 ,c1 scriber2 ,d1 square2 ,e1 bevel4 #cg4 ,the dividers 7,a1 ,fig4 #bj7 are used for measuring distances and for describing circles4 ,the points are clamped in a rigid position with the small thumbscrew1 which comes in contact with the segmental arc4 ,close adjustments can be made with the milled-edge nut on the end of the segmental arc4 ,when metal is to be bent to a circular form1 a good method is to rub chalk on the surface plate and describe the desired curve on this chalk4 ,as the markings thus made are not easily removed1 this plan is much better than drawing upon a board4 #ch4 ,the calipers 7,b1 ,fig4 #bj7 are used for measuring diameters1 widths1 and thicknesses4 ,those illustrated are the kind generally used in forge work4 ,they are called double calipers and are the most convenient because two dimensions can be determined by them4 ,as the accuracy of the work depends on them1 they should be well made4 ,in the illustration here given1 each bow is held securely by an individual rivet4 ,sometimes they are secured with one2 if so1 the rivet should be square in the straight central part and tightly fitted4 ,the projecting ends of the rivet should be filed round1 and the holes in the bowed sides should be made to fit the round ends of the rivet2 then the sides should be riveted on tight so that each bow may be moved independently of the other4 #ci4 ,the scriber or scratch awl 7,c1 ,fig4 #bj7 is used in marking holes1 sawing1 chipping1 or in laying out distances1 which can afterward be marked with a center punch if required4 ,it should be made of a good quality of steel1 and the point should be well hardened so that it will cut through the surface scale of the metal4 ,a suitable-sized steel for making a scriber is #c_/af inch round and the length over all about #f inches4 #dj4 ,the square 7,d1 ,fig4 #bj7 is another indispensable tool when accurate work is to be produced4 ,convenient sizes for manual training work are the #h #ab-;inch1 with a #af #bd-;inch for general use4 #da4 ,the bevel 7,e1 ,fig4 #bj7 should be used when bending and laying out angles of various degrees4 ,when metal is to be bent to a given angle1 the pupil should set and use the bevel4 #db4 ,the hack saw 7,fig4 #ba7 is at present considered a necessary part of any forge shop equipment4 ,it is used for sawing iron or untempered steel1 and when a power shear is not included in the equipment1 considerable filing can be saved by sawing4 ,the frame illustrated is adjustable so that the blades can be made of different lengths and be set at right angles to the frame1 which is sometimes convenient4 ,when using the hack saw1 make slow1 full-swing strokes2 when drawing back for another stroke1 it will prolong the efficiency of the blades if the saw is raised up to prevent the teeth from bearing on the metal1 as the backward stroke is more destructive to the teeth than the forward or cutting stroke4 ,the blades are made from #h to #ab inches in length1 #a_/b inch in width1 and with from #ad to #be teeth to the inch4 ,they are tempered so hard that they cannot be filed1 but are so inexpensive that when they cease to be efficient they may be thrown away4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,,the ,,hack ,,saw ,,and ,,files4 #dc4 ,the files 7,fig4 #ba7 are illustrated merely to show that they are to be used for special purposes4 ,as finishing or filing is almost a trade in itself1 the file should not be used in blacksmithing1 unless it is especially necessary4 ,a piece of smith's work that has been roughly forged is much more admirable than a highly polished piece that has been filed into elegance4 ,files are round1 flat1 square1 half round1 and of numerous other shapes1 and vary in lengths and cuts for rough or smooth filing4 ,any of them may be used as required1 but it should be remembered that filing is not blacksmithing4 ,,questions ,,for ,,review ,what is the main difference between the old type of smithing forge and a modern one8 ,how is the air supplied for each8 ,what is a tuyre iron8 ,describe the hearth4 ,what kind of coal is used for forging8 ,is coal the best fuel for heating all metals8 ,why is charcoal the best fuel for heating carbon steel8 ,how should the fire be built to prevent making excess smoke8 ,what other fuel is used in forging8 ,what kind of work is it used for8 ,describe the different parts of the anvil4 ,how is a cast-iron anvil hardened8 ,how is a wrought-iron anvil hardened8 ,name and describe the different kinds of hammers4 ,why should the tongs fit properly the iron to be handled8 ,name and describe the different tongs you have been made familiar with4 ,how would you secure the tongs to relieve the hand8 ,what is a hardy8 ,what is it used for8 ,explain the proper method of using it4 ,is it always good practice to use a hardy for marking the iron8 ,why8 ,what is the difference between a cold and a hot cutter8 ,what is the general use for a flatter8 ,should it be tempered8 ,why8 ,what are set hammers8 ,what is a punch used for8 ,explain the difference between a hand punch and a handle punch4 ,when punching a heavy piece of metal1 how is the tool prevented from sticking fast8 ,are all punches tempered8 ,why8 ,describe and explain the use of top and bottom swages4 ,how should the bottom swage be placed for use8 ,what is meant by water swaging8 ,state the effect it has on the iron4 ,what are top and bottom fullers used for8 ,are they always used in pairs8 ,how is the bottom one placed for use8 ,what are the button head set and heading tool used for8 ,what is the special advantage of having a swage block8 ,explain some of the different uses of that tool4 ,what is the special use of the surface plate8 ,what is the tapered mandrel used for8 ,are all mandrels of this particular kind8 ,explain others4 ,is it good practice to use the vise for bending8 ,why8 ,describe the cold chisel4 ,should all cold chisels be made alike8 ,what is the center punch used for8 ,describe the other bench and measuring tools mentioned4 ,what is the special objection to using the files8 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,forging ,,operations #dd4 ,the ,hammer ,blows4--,metal can be forced into desired shapes or forms by delivering the hammer blows in different ways4 ,all hammer blows are not alike2 some will have one effect and others will produce an entirely different result4 #de4 ,the upright blow is delivered so that the hammer strikes the metal in an upright position and fully on the anvil4 ,such blows force the metal equally in all directions1 providing the surrounding dimensions are equal4 ,they will also reduce the thickness of the metal in the direction in which they are delivered1 the reduction depending upon the amount of force put into the blows4 ,they are used for drawing where the metal is supposed to spread equally in all directions and for making smooth surfaces4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,,the ,,upright ,,blow4 ,figure #bb shows an upright blow as delivered on a piece of flat material4 ,if the material is as wide as the face of the hammer1 or wider1 the force of the blow will spread the metal equally1 but if it is narrower1 the blow will lengthen the material more rapidly1 because the hammer will cover more in length than in width4 #df4 ,the edge-to-edge blow is delivered so that the edge or side of the hammer face will be directly above the edge or side of the anvil4 ,when blows are delivered in this manner 7a1 ,fig4 #bc71 the hammer forms a depression on the upper side of the metal and the anvil forms one on the bottom4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,,the ,,edge-,,to-,,edge ,,blow4 ,when a piece of metal is to be drawn to a smaller dimension1 with shoulders opposite each other1 on either two or four sides1 these blows will produce the required result to the best advantage4 ,they are more effective if the metal is held at a slight angle across the edge of the anvil face1 but then the hammer blows must be delivered a little beyond the anvil edge1 so that the upper and lower depressions in the metal will be formed exactly opposite each other1 as shown at b1 where the depressions are indicated by the broken lines4 ,in forming shoulders such as are required on the hasp exercise 7page #fd7 the first pair may be formed as shown at b and the second pair as shown at c4 ,in the latter case the metal is held across the nearer edge of the anvil face and the blows delivered in a manner similar to that described in the preceding paragraph4 ,hammer blows of this class may be used on any edge of the anvil as required4 #dg4 ,the overhanging blow is delivered so that half the width of the hammer face extends over the edge of the anvil4 7,see ,fig4 #bd47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,,the ,,overhanging ,,blow4 ,it is used for forming shoulders on one side of the metal and for drawling out points of scarfs4 ,when blows are delivered in this manner1 the anvil will form a depression or shoulder on the lower side of the metal1 and the hammer will keep the metal straight on the upper side4 ,this blow also will be more effective if the metal is held at a slight angle across the edge of the anvil face1 but the blows must always be delivered squarely on the upper side of the metal to keep it straight4 #dh4 ,the beveling or angle blows are delivered at any angle that the form of the work may require4 ,when the metal is to be drawn with a taper on one side1 it must be held level on the anvil and the blows delivered at an angle determined by the amount of taper required4 ,figure #be shows the manner of holding the metal and the way the blows are to be delivered4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,,the ,,beveling ,,or ,,angle ,,blow4 ,when the metal is to be drawn tapering on two opposite sides1 it should be held to the proper angle on the anvil to establish the taper desired on the bottom1 while the hammer blows are delivered so as to form a similar taper on the upper side4 7,see ,fig4 #be47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--;,,drawing ,,metal ,,to ,a ,,point ,,by ,,beveling ,,or ,,angle ,,blows4 ,a1 correct position2 ,b1 incorrect position4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,,the ,,leverage ,,blow4 ,blows of this kind are used for chamfering corners or edges1 and may be delivered at any required angle4 ,they are also used when drawing metal to a point1 either square1 round1 hexagonal1 or octagonal1 but the metal should be held on the anvil1 as shown at ,a1 ,fig4 #bf4 ,then the hammer will not come in contact with the face of the anvil1 as shown at ,b4 ,if the hammer strikes the anvil1 small chips of steel are liable to break off from the hammer at the place indicated by c1 and cause serious injury4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,,bending ,,by ,,leverage ,,blows4 #di4 ,the leverage blows are used mostly for bending1 as they will not leave marks where the bending occurs4 ,for instance1 when a ring is to be formed1 the metal is first held in the tongs and rested on the horn of the anvil1 as shown in ,fig4 #bg4 ,note that the metal will bend at a1 providing the heat is uniform4 ,if1 therefore1 bending is required at a certain place1 that place should rest on the anvil and the blows should be delivered beyond it4 ,after the first end has been bent to the required radius1 the other should be bent by holding it in the manner shown in ,fig4 #bh1 because the joint of the tongs will prevent its being struck out of them while the blow is being delivered4 ,when both ends have been bent to the proper radius1 the ring should be finished as described in the ring exercise 7page #gd71 where upright blows are used with a leverage effect4 #ej4 ,the backing-up blows are used to upset metal when it is impossible to upset it in the usual manner1 and in backing up the heel of a scarf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,,the ,,backing-,,up ,,blow1 ,,for ,,upsetting4 ,upsetting with backing-up blows is done in the manner shown in ,fig4 #bi4 ,the metal should be extended over the anvil and thrust forward as the blow is being delivered1 to get the best results4 ,this will also prevent jarring the hand4 ,the metal should be as hot as possible when being upset in this manner4 ,the heel of a scarf is formed with backing-up blows after the metal has been upset in the usual manner4 ,the blows should be directed so that they will have an upsetting effect1 as indicated in ,fig4 #cj1 and not a drawing one4 ,after a few blows have been delivered with the face of the hammer1 they should then be delivered with the ball to form the heel better and more rapidly4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,,backing-,,up ,,blows ,,used ,,for ,,scarfing4 #ea4 ,the shearing blow 7see ,fig4 #ca7 is conveniently used for cutting off small portions of metal instead of employing the hardy4 ,it is delivered so that the side or edge of the hammer will pass by and nearly against the side or edge of the anvil4 ,a blow so delivered will have a shearing effect and cut the metal4 ,it is perfectly proper to use this blow for its intended purpose1 but it should not be used when the edge-to-edge blow is the one really required4 #eb4 ,forging4--,forging is the operation of hammering or compressing metals into a desired shape4 ,seven specific operations are used4 ,sometimes a piece of work or forging requires two1 three1 or even all of them to complete it4 ,these operations are designated by the following names3 drawing1 bending1 upsetting1 forming1 straightening1 twisting1 and welding4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,,the ,,shearing ,,blow4 #ec4 ,drawing1 the process of spreading or extending metal in a desired direction1 is accomplished by hammering or by pressing the metal between such tools as the swages and fullers1 or by holding it on the anvil and using either of the set hammers1 the flatter1 or the fuller4 ,when using any of these pressing tools for drawing1 a helper is supposed to use the sledge to deliver the blows upon them4 ,it is always best to draw round metal with the swages1 as it will be smoother when finished than if it were done with the hammer2 it should be rolled in the swage a little after each blow of the sledge1 and after a complete revolution in one direction it should be turned in the opposite direction1 and so alternately continued until finished4 ,especially if iron is being drawn1 this will prevent twisting of the fiber1 which1 if prolonged1 would cause the metal to crack4 ,figure #cb shows the method of drawing with the swages4 ,when drawing any shape or size of metal to a smaller round diameter1 it is best first to draw it square to about the required size1 delivering the blows by turns on all four sides1 then to make it octagonal1 and finally round4 ,the finishing should be done with the swages1 if those of proper size are at hand2 if not1 light blows should be used1 and the metal revolved constantly in alternate directions1 to make an acceptable shape4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--;,,drawing ,,with ,,the ,,swages4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--;,,drawing ,,with ,,the ,,flatter4 ,drawing with the top and bottom fullers1 in the manner shown with the swages 7,fig4 #cb71 ought to be done cautiously1 as the metal decreases in size so rapidly that there is danger of its becoming too small at the fullered place before the operator is aware of it4 ,when using the top fuller alone1 in the same manner as the flatter 7,fig4 #cc71 similar precautions should be observed4 ,if the metal is to be decreased between two shoulders1 the top fuller may be used to rough it out2 but the fuller marks should be distributed between the shoulders1 until one of the set hammers or the flatter can be used4 ,if the metal is being drawn and is held crosswise on the anvil1 as shown at a1 ,fig4 #cd1 it will increase in length more rapidly than it will in width1 and if held lengthwise as at b1 it will increase more in width than in length4 ,this is due to the fact that the anvil is slightly convex on its face1 so that it has the effect of a large fuller4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--;,,drawing ,,with ,,the ,,hand ,,hammer4 ,the most difficult drawing for the beginner is to form metal into a square or hexagonal shape4 ,to draw it into a square form1 the metal must always be turned either one quarter or one half of a revolution to prevent its becoming diamond-shaped1 and the blows must be delivered equally on the four sides to prevent its becoming oblong4 ,if it does become diamond-shaped1 it can be made square by delivering blows at a slight angle on the corners and sides of its long diagonal as shown at ,a1 ,b1 and ,c1 ,fig4 #ce4 ,if it is but slightly diamond-shaped1 the method shown at ,b will prove satisfactory1 but if badly out of square1 the method at ,a will be the best4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,,squaring ,,up ,a ,,diamond-,,shaped ,,piece4 ,in drawing the hexagonal form1 the metal should be turned by sixths of a revolution4 ,if it becomes distorted1 it may be forged with such blows as are shown at ,b and ,c2 if held as at ,a1 it would be marred by the edge e4 #ed4 ,bending is the operation of deflecting metal from a straight line or changing its form by increasing the deflection already present4 ,iron of any cross-sectional shape can be bent1 but some shapes are much more difficult than others4 ,the easiest to bend is the round1 the only difficulty being to prevent the hammer blows from showing4 ,if the metal is to be round in section when finished1 the work will not have a good appearance if the cross section is oval at some places and round at others1 and unless the hammer blows are cautiously delivered this will be the result4 ,bending metal of a square section at right angles with the sides is not very difficult1 but bending such a section in line with the diagonal is quite difficult1 because the edges are liable to be marred where they rest on the anvil and where the blows are delivered4 ,the best method of making bends of this kind is to heat the metal only where the bend is to be1 and then to bend it by pressure or pulling1 while the work is held securely in the vise1 hardy hole1 or swage block4 ,if the heating cannot be confined to the desired space1 all excessively heated parts should be cooled4 ,oval sections are easily bent through their short diameters1 but in bending through the long diameters1 the same method should be pursued as described above for bending the square section in the plane of its diagonal4 ,further explanations for bending are given on pages #aah-aba4 #ee4 ,upsetting is the operation of enlarging metal at some desired point or place4 ,it is done by hammering1 ramming1 or jarring4 ,when a piece of metal is too long it can be shortened by upsetting1 or when it is too thin at a certain place it can be thickened by the same method4 ,this is done by having the metal hot only at the point or place where the upsetting is required4 ,it is frequently necessary to cool the metal where the heat is not needed in order to confine the upsetting to the desired place4 ,upsetting is not a very difficult operation as long as the metal is kept perfectly straight2 otherwise the task will prove tedious and the metal may break from the constant bending back and forth4 ,bending will always take place1 but breaking generally can be prevented by having the metal hot when it is straightened4 ,the greatest difficulty in this respect will be experienced when operating on common wrought iron4 ,upsetting by hammering is done by holding the metal perpendicularly on the anvil or something solid enough to withstand the blows which will be delivered upon it4 ,figure #cf shows this method4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,,upsetting ,,by ,,hammering4 ,if the end of a bar is being upset1 and the upsetting is supposed to extend up through the bar for some distance1 the heated end should be placed on the anvil as shown in the figure1 because the anvil will slightly chill the end of the bar1 and the upsetting will continue much farther than if the blows were delivered on the hot end4 ,striking the hot end with the hammer increases the diameter of the end excessively1 because the contact of the hammer does not have a tendency to cool the metal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--8;,,backing ,,up0 ,,metal4 ,another method of upsetting with the hammer1 which is called 8backing up0 the metal1 is shown in ,fig4 #cg4 ,this method does not upset the metal so rapidly1 because the force of the hammer blows jars the hand and arm which hold the bar4 ,upsetting by ramming or jarring is thrusting the metal forcibly against some heavy object like the surface plate1 the swage block1 or the anvil4 ,figure #ch shows upsetting by this process4 ,this method is very effective and is used mostly when the metal is long enough to be held with the hands1 as shown4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--,,upsetting ,,by ,,ramming4 #ef4 ,forming is a term generally applied to the making of a forging with special tools1 dies1 or forms4 ,this process may include bending1 punching1 and other operations4 ,swages are used for forming4 ,a block of steel with a depression of a special design is known as a forming die2 a number of other tools and appliances may be used for forming1 but it is needless to mention them here4 #eg4 ,straightening is one of the most frequent operations4 ,when metal is being forged1 the various blows have a tendency to make it crooked1 and if the work is supposed to be straight when finished1 it should be so4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;,a1 ,,straightening ,,with ,,the ,,hammer2 ,b1 ,,straightening ,,with ,,the ,,swage4 ,there is as much skill required to straighten properly a piece of metal as there is to bend it4 ,the most common method 7,a1 ,fig4 #ci7 is to hold the metal lengthwise on the anvil with the bowed side or edge upwards1 then to deliver the blows at the highest point of the bow4 ,the blows will be most effective at the point where they are delivered1 so they should be distributed in order to get the object perfectly straight and to avoid making unsightly hammer marks4 ,if the metal to be straightened is round1 or if it is flat with round edges1 it is best to use a top swage of the proper size and deliver the blows on the swage as shown at ,b1 ,fig4 #ci4 ,then the surface of the round or the edges of the flat stock will not show any marks4 ,the flatter or round-edged set hammer may be used in the same manner on flat or square material4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,,straightening ,,wide ,,metal4 ,when wide pieces of flat metal are to be straightened edgewise1 and such blows as are shown at ,a1 ,fig4 #ci1 are not effective1 then the blows should be delivered along the concave edge as shown in ,fig4 #dj1 and distributed as indicated by the dotted circular lines4 ,blows delivered in this manner will stretch or lengthen the metal on the concave edge and straighten it4 #eh4 ,twisting is the operation of rotating metal to give it a spiral appearance4 ,it may be done either hot or cold1 as the dimensions of the material may require4 ,it is done by holding the material in the vise1 the hardy hole1 or the swage block1 and turning one end of it with a pair of tongs or a monkey wrench as many times as may be required4 ,the twisting will be confined between the places where it is held with the vise1 and where it is seized by the tongs or wrench4 ,if the material to be twisted is heavy enough to require heating1 a uniform heat is necessary or the twist will be irregular1 and1 as an artistic appearance is usually desired1 this operation should be carried out with that result in view4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--;,a1 ,,metal ,,twisted ,,while ,,hot2 ,b1 ,,metal ,,twisted ,,while ,,cold4 ,a1 ,fig4 #da1 illustrates a piece of #a_/b-;inch square stock that has been twisted while hot4 ,b shows a piece of #a_/b #a_/h-;inch material that has been twisted cold4 ,another difficulty met with in twisting a piece of metal is that of its becoming crooked4 ,it can be straightened by laying the twisted portion on a wooden block and striking it with a wooden mallet4 ,this will prevent the corners from becoming marred4 ,a good method of avoiding this trouble is to twist the metal inside of a piece of pipe whose inside diameter is equal to the diameter of the metal4 #ei4 ,welding1 the most difficult operation in the art of forging1 is the process of joining two or more pieces of metal into one solid mass4 ,all the previous operations allow some time for thought2 in welding1 the worker must determine instantly where each blow is to be delivered1 as the welding heat of the metal vanishes rapidly2 therefore1 he is compelled to think and act very quickly4 ,a scientific analysis of a perfect weld shows that it consists of several processes1 and that each one must be perfectly executed4 ,if any of these operations are improperly done1 the result will be a partial failure2 if they are essential ones1 the weld may readily be considered as totally unfit4 #fj4 ,the ,material for ,welding4--,this must be considered1 because there are different qualities in each metal to be operated upon1 and some metals can be worked more easily than others4 ,a cross section of a bar of iron viewed through the microscope is seen to be made up of a great number of layers or fibers1 called lamin1 resembling the grain or fiber in wood4 ,these were cemented together in the process of rolling or welding in the mill where the iron was manufactured1 and are continuous through its length4 ,this makes the bar of uniform quality throughout4 ,in welding1 these fibers are joined diagonally at the ends1 consequently the strength of the weld depends entirely on how closely or perfectly this cohesion is made4 ,careful hammering at the proper heat brings the fibers in as close contact as possible1 squeezes out the slag and scale1 and therefore greatly assists in strengthening the weld4 ,iron is an easy metal to weld4 ,to prove this1 place two pieces of iron in a clean1 non-oxidizing fire1 allowing them to attain a white or welding heat2 then place them in contact and notice how readily they stick together1 proving that iron is easily welded at the proper temperature4 ,but in order to make the contact thorough1 the pieces must be hammered4 ,this shows that hammering is a secondary operation1 and that iron cannot be joined by either heating or hammering alone4 ,by a similar experiment with soft steel1 you will notice that the pieces do not adhere like iron4 ,if borax is applied while they are heating1 then slight indications of adhesion will be noticeable4 ,this shows that borax1 sand1 or something of a like nature must be used in welding steel4 ,in this case hammering is not a secondary operation1 but an essential one4 ,a higher carbon or tool steel may be experimented upon1 with nearly the same result4 ,the noticeable difference between the lower and higher qualities of steel proves that the greater the quantity of carbon1 the harder will be the welding1 and if the experiments were extended to still higher carbon steels1 it would be discovered that they could not be joined except by the use of a specially prepared flux4 ,there are indeed some high carbon steels that cannot be welded4 ,if a forging is to be made of a special quality of material1 it is frequently advisable to avoid welds1 because two pieces that are welded can hardly be considered so strong as a piece of the same material that has not been welded4 ,the weldings which are alluded to here are such as are used by practical blacksmiths in their general work without any special appliances or apparatus whatever4 ,the majority of the exercises on welding in this book require the use of iron2 for this reason this preliminary consideration of metals need not have any further special attention4 #fa4 ,heating4--,when the word 8fuel0 is used here1 either coal or coke may be meant4 ,coal is the original in either case1 for coke is formed from it by the removal of gaseous substances4 ,it is better that the coal first be converted into coke1 and that only the coke should come in direct contact with the heating metals4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,,sectional ,,view ,,of ,a ,,blacksmithing ,,fire4 ,figure #db shows a sectional view of a blacksmithing fire3 d is the bed of hot coke2 c is the dampened and unburned coal which surrounds the fire1 continually forming more coke as it is needed and also holding the fire in a compact form2 a shows the proper way of placing the metal in the fire1 b1 the improper way because the metal is too near the entrance of the blast4 ,as heating is such an important operation1 a thorough understanding of what causes imperfect heats1 as well as how to prevent them1 is necessary4 ,the best fire for perfect heating is a reducing one1 that is1 one in which the combustion of the fuel is rapid enough to use entirely the oxygen in the air which is supplied4 ,an oxidizing fire is one that does not use all the oxygen in the blast for the combustion of the fuel4 ,the surplus oxygen will produce1 on the surface of the metal1 oxide of iron1 or a black scale1 which is extremely injurious4 ,this scale will prevent welding1 so all possible precautions should be taken to avoid its forming4 ,a reducing fire can be maintained1 and an oxidizing one avoided1 by having plenty of fuel surrounding the metal1 equally1 and allowing the entrance of only sufficient air or blast to provide the necessary heating4 ,if a piece of metal is left in a fixed position while heating1 the lower side will become the hottest4 ,for that reason1 all metals to be welded are placed with scarfs downward4 ,if the required heat is to be a penetrating and thorough one1 the metal is turned frequently to bring all surfaces in contact with the most intense point of heat4 ,even though every possible precaution is taken in all other steps of the welding1 the pieces cannot be joined perfectly if the heating is carelessly done4 #fb4 ,scarfing4--,this is the operation of preparing or shaping metal for welding4 ,there are five general kinds of welds1 the distinct form of each depending either on the quality of the material or on the shape of the desired forging4 ,they are called the lap weld1 the cleft weld1 the butt weld1 the jump weld1 and the ,v weld4 #fc4 ,the lap weld 7,fig4 #dc7 is so called because the pieces lap over each other when placed in contact4 ,it is most commonly used in general practice1 and all welds formed in a similar manner belong to this class1 regardless of the sectional form of the material or the shape of the completed weld4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,,lap ,,weld ,,scarfs4 ,the pieces should always be upset where the scarfs are to be formed1 to provide excess metal for welding4 ,they should be formed with their end surfaces convex1 and at an angle of about #de degrees1 which would not make the joining surfaces too long4 ,when the fire and all tools are ready1 place both scarfs face down in the fire2 when they are removed to the anvil1 the piece held in the right hand should be turned face up and rest on the anvil1 in order that the other may be placed in position on top of it4 ,the left-hand scarf should be placed carefully1 with its point meeting the heel of the other4 ,if placed too high and overlapping1 it will increase the surface to be welded and perhaps decrease the dimensions of the material where the points are welded down upon the exterior4 ,if placed too low1 in all probability the surplus metal provided by upsetting will not be sufficient to form the weld to a uniform dimension4 ,a little practice with the scarfs before heating is advisable to prevent this difficulty4 ,the hand hammer should be placed conveniently on the anvil1 with the handle projecting sufficiently over the heel so that it can be grasped quickly with the right hand as soon as the two pieces are in position4 ,if this precaution is not taken1 the welding heat may disappear before any blows can be struck4 ,the first blows after the pieces are placed should be directed toward the center of the scarfs2 when the center has been thoroughly united1 the blows should be directed toward the points to complete the operation1 if this can possibly be done in one heating4 ,it is impossible to give an invariable routine of blows2 those given are sufficient for the beginning1 the rest must be left to the observation and skill of the operator4 ,practice and judgment will determine where the blows should be delivered1 and when they should cease4 ,as the welding heat vanishes very rapidly1 it requires careful judgment to determine when the pieces cease to unite4 ,all blows delivered after this will reduce the dimensions of the metal2 if reheating is necessary1 there should be no metal sacrificed by unnecessary hammering4 ,welds are generally weaker than the metal from which they are made2 consequently if the stock is made smaller at the weld1 its strength is greatly decreased4 ,the old adage 8,haste makes waste0 does not always apply4 ,if you hasten the operation of welding while the pieces are sufficiently hot1 you will not waste the metal4 ,if through want of haste you are compelled to reheat1 you will waste metal1 for every time a piece is heated it loses a fractional part of its area1 regardless of any hammering4 ,welds made with scarfs of this kind are considered to be nearly as strong as the metal itself1 because they allow of a more thorough lamination by hammering than other welds1 consequently they are frequently used on various qualities of metal when strength is considered a chief requirement4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--;,a1 ,,cleft ,,weld ,,scarfs2 ,b1 ,,butt ,,weld ,,scarfs4 #fd4 ,the cleft weld 7,a1 ,fig4 #dd7 is so called because one piece of metal is split to receive the other4 ,it is used for welding iron to iron or steel to iron 7the inserted portion being the steel74 ,whatever the metal1 the inserted portion is usually roughened with a hot cutter on the pointed surfaces and the cleft hammered down and securely fitted before the whole is heated4 ,the pieces should not be placed in the fire separately1 but together1 as they have been fitted4 ,when a welding heat appears1 if possible1 light blows should be delivered on the end of the inserted portion while the two are in the fire2 these blows will partly join the pieces and make them secure before removal4 ,if this cannot be done1 the first blows after removal from the fire should be on the end4 ,when a final and thorough welding heat has been attained1 they should be removed to the anvil and securely joined4 ,if heavy pieces are being operated upon1 they may be welded with the steam hammer4 #fe4 ,the butt weld 7,b1 ,fig4 #dd7 is so called because the pieces are butted together and almost thoroughly joined by ramming or backing-up blows before any blows are delivered on the exterior surface4 ,the scarfs are easily formed4 ,the outer edges of the pieces are backed up to form a rounded or convex end to insure their being joined at the center first4 ,as the blows are delivered on the end1 the metal will upset and the pieces will be joined from the center to the outer edges4 ,after they have been quite thoroughly joined with these blows1 they should be hammered on their exterior to weld them securely4 ,when scarfed in this manner1 the pieces are frequently placed in the fire for heating with the ends in contact1 then partly joined while in the fire and removed to the anvil or the steam hammer for final welding4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--;,,jump ,,weld ,,scarfs4 #ff4 ,the jump weld is shown in ,fig4 #de4 ,the scarfs require perfect forming1 because the opportunity for hammering is limited1 as blows can be delivered only at certain places3 on the end of the scarf #a driving it into the concave groove #c2 on a fuller which is held in the fillet #d2 and on both the edges indicated at #c4 ,the groove at #c should be formed with sufficient metal at points #j1 to meet the projections ,x1 and form a fillet4 ,the convex scarf #a should first come in contact at #c1 so that welding will proceed from that place4 ,welds made in this way are considered the weakest of those here described1 on account of the limited assistance which can be provided by hammering4 ,still they are frequently used to avoid the laborious operations required to make such forgings out of solid metal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--,v ,,weld ,,scarfs4 #fg4 ,the ,v weld 7,fig4 #df7 is a very important but difficult one4 ,it is generally used on extremely heavy work1 such as locomotive frames 7,fig4 #dg71 beam straps1 rudder stems1 and all cumbersome forgings4 ,the process is as follows3 ,pieces #e and #f are to be welded4 ,they are held in a rigid position with heavy straps and bolts1 as shown on the locomotive frame in ,fig4 #dg1 sometimes while the ,v-shaped opening is being formed2 however1 they must always be held secure while the welding heat is being obtained4 ,the ,v-shaped opening formed by the scarfs on #e and #f should penetrate about two thirds of their thickness and form an angle of about #ej degrees1 with sufficient metal at #i to provide for the waste which will occur while a welding heat is being procured4 ,the wedge #g is formed with some surplus metal for filling the ,v-shaped opening4 ,it is handled by a bar which is welded to it4 ,the angle of the wedge should be not less than #e degrees smaller than the angle of the opening4 ,this will insure that the welding proceeds from the apex or point of the wedge outward4 ,two fires are required2 #e and #f1 securely strapped and bolted together1 are placed in one with the ,v-shaped opening turned downward4 ,plenty of coke is placed around this opening1 completely covered with moistened coal1 and securely packed with a shovel2 then two openings or vents are made through the coal with a poker1 one on each side of the metal and leading to the scarfs4 ,this is called a covered fire4 ,the blast is now turned on and slowly increased until the proper heat is attained4 ,the progress of heating can be observed through the openings thus made1 and the fire replenished with coke when necessary4 ,these operations are supervised by the smith who has the work in charge1 with two or more helpers or assistants1 according to the size of the forging4 ,the wedge #g also is heated in a covered fire with only one opening on the workman's side of the forge2 the wedge is inserted in that opening1 and is attended and handled by another smith1 who watches its progress in heating4 ,when the supervising and attending smiths have signaled to each other that the heats are ready1 #e and #f are removed1 turned over1 and placed on the anvil or on the steam hammer die to receive the wedge which is placed in position by the attending smith4 ,after the wedge has been thoroughly welded into place with either sledges or steam hammer1 the handle and all surplus metal surrounding the openings are removed by the aid of hot cutters and sledges4 ,this procedure must now be repeated and another wedge welded into place on the opposite side indicated by the broken lines4 ,with these two wedges #e and #f will be securely joined4 ,to insure a perfect weld1 a good quality of material should be selected for the wedges4 ,it should be thoroughly hammered to produce good texture1 and if iron is operated upon1 the fiber of the wedges should run parallel to the fiber of the piece to be welded4 ,as this is not generally observed1 welds of this character often break through the centers of the two wedges4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--;,a ,,broken ,,locomotive ,,frame4 ,the broken locomotive frame shown in ,fig4 #dg would be repaired by the above method4 ,the irregular line at ,a shows where the break has occurred4 ,the straps and bolts at ,b indicate the method of holding the parts in alignment4 ,two tie rods at ,c prevent the parts from separating4 ,,questions ,,for ,,review ,what effect is produced by the upright blow8 ,by the edge-to-edge blow8 ,by the overhanging blow8 ,by the beveling or angle blow8 ,by the leverage blows8 ,what are the backing-up blows used for8 ,the shearing blows8 ,what is meant by forging8 ,how many different operations are used in forging8 ,name them4 ,what is meant by drawing8 ,what tools may be employed in drawing metal8 ,if you desire to increase the length more than the width1 how should you hold the metal on the anvil8 ,why8 ,what precaution should be observed in revolving metal when it is being drawn into a round form8 ,what is meant by bending8 ,can iron of any sectional shape be bent8 ,which is the easiest to bend8 ,what shapes are difficult to bend8 ,how are these difficulties overcome8 ,what is meant by upsetting8 ,explain how it is done4 ,what difficulty is often experienced in upsetting8 ,what is the difference in effect between resting the heated end on the anvil1 and striking on the heated end while upsetting8 ,what is meant by forming8 ,what other operations may be involved8 ,what special tools or appliances are sometimes used for forming8 ,state what has been said about straightening8 ,does it require much skill8 ,would it be as easy to straighten a wide flat piece of metal1 as it would a round one8 ,why8 ,explain the operation of twisting4 ,why is it generally done8 ,how can twisting be done and keep the work perfectly straight8 ,explain the essential parts of a weld4 ,is a weld as strong as the original unwelded bar8 ,can all iron and steel be welded8 ,what kind of fire is best for heating8 ,what is meant by an oxidizing fire8 ,what effect does it have on the metal8 ,how can an oxidizing fire be prevented8 ,how should scarfs be placed in the fire8 ,why8 ,if a penetrating and thorough heat is desired on a piece of metal1 how can it be obtained8 ,what is meant by scarfing8 ,are all scarfs formed alike8 ,name and describe the different kinds of scarfs and welds4 ,which one is considered the weakest8 ,why8 ,on what kind of work is the ,v weld used8 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,practice ,,exercises #fh4 ,staple4--,fig4 #dh4 ,drawing and bending4 ,material required3 #e inches of #a_/d-;inch round iron4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,,steps ,,in ,,making ,a ,,staple4 ,draw #a inch of each end to a flat chisel-shaped point #a_/d inch wide2 these drawn ends should be #a-c_/d inches long1 leaving #c inches of round stock between them4 ,heat the center and bend it1 with points edgewise1 to a semicircle of #c_/d inch inside diameter4 ,these ends should be of equal length1 parallel and straight4 ,when drawing the ends1 heat the metal to a white heat to prevent the fibers from splitting or separating4 ,heat only to a cherry red for bending1 to prevent heavy scaling1 which is one cause of rough-appearing work4 ,rough work may also be caused by improper use of the hammer in striking too hard or frequently at one place4 7,see ,fig4 #dh for dimensions and stages47 #fi4 ,draw ,spike4--,fig4 #di4 ,bending and drawing4 ,material required3 #g inches of #a_/d-;inch round iron4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,,steps ,,in ,,making ,a ,,draw ,,spike4 ,bend #c-a_/d inches of one end nearly to a right angle2 have the inner corner almost sharp and square1 the outer portion circular at the corner4 ,then form a perfectly circular eye of the #c-a_/d-;inch end1 having the center of the eye in line with the central portion of the stem4 ,when drawing the point1 first draw it square1 then octagonal1 and then finish it to a round4 7,see ,fig4 #di for dimensions and stages47 #gj4 ,s ,hook4--,fig4 #ej4 ,drawing and bending4 ,material required3 #e inches of #a_/d-;inch round iron4 ,draw #a_/b inch of each end to a smooth1 round point2 this should make the length from point to point #f-a_/d inches1 and the central portion for #d inches should be full-sized #a_/d-;inch round4 ,using half of the entire length1 bend the first hook to an inside diameter of #g_/h inch1 then bend the remaining half in the opposite direction to the same diameter1 bringing both points directly toward each other1 as shown4 ,when heating for bending1 be careful to avoid burning the points4 7,see ,fig4 #ej for dimensions and stages47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,,steps ,,in ,,making ,,an ,s ,,hook4 #ga4 ,pipe ,hook4--,fig4 #ea4 ,upsetting1 forging1 and bending4 ,material required3 #i inches of #a_/b-;inch square4 ,norway iron or soft steel is best for this exercise4 7,caution4 ,to avoid injuring the fiber of the metal and to upset it rapidly with the least amount of labor1 always have the metal perfectly straight1 and heat it only where the upsetting is required47 ,bring #d inches of the central portion of the material to a white heat2 if the heat extends beyond that distance1 cool #b-a_/b inches of each end1 then the upsetting will be confined to the desired place4 ,cool the ends quickly and thoroughly1 so that the upsetting blows may be delivered before the heat has vanished4 ,the material should be held vertically with the lower end resting on the anvil1 while heavy blows are delivered on the top end1 thus upsetting the heated metal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,,steps ,,in ,,making ,a ,,pipe ,,hook4 ,these operations should be repeated until the center is #g_/h inch thick one way1 with all excess metal forged on one side1 as at a1 and the three others perfectly straight4 ,now form a shoulder b1 with overhanging blows1 about #a_/h of an inch from the center or thickest portion1 but draw it no smaller than #e_/af of an inch at the bottom4 ,then draw the metal marked c to an approximate dimension of #a_/b #e_/af inch4 ,form this shoulder perfectly square1 by holding it over a square corner of the anvil and delivering backing-up blows on the heavy end1 while the drawn part rests flat on the anvil2 the metal should be hot at the shoulder and cold on the end where the blows are to be delivered4 ,then use the flatter on the drawn end to smooth and draw it to the finished dimensions of #a_/b #a_/d inch1 making it perfectly smooth and straight on all sides4 ,cut off this drawn end #f inches from the shoulder1 as shown at d4 ,draw the heavy end to a sharp1 square point1 making it straight on the side opposite to the shoulder and tapering from a point about #b-a_/d inches from the shoulder2 this should also be made smooth with the flatter4 ,sketch e shows this so far completed4 ,beginning #a_/b inch from the shoulder1 bend the #f-;inch end backward through its smallest dimension1 to a semicircle of #c inches inside diameter4 ,an outline of the required semicircle should be inscribed on a plate1 or models may be made to verify it4 ,sketch ,f shows the completed hook4 #gb4 ,gate ,hook4--,fig4 #eb4 ,drawing1 bending1 and twisting4 ,material required3 #g-a_/d inches of #c_/h-;inch square mild steel4 ,mark lightly with the hardy on two edges #a-a_/b inches from one end1 as shown at a4 ,form shoulders at these marks on three sides of the metal2 do not make them too deep1 as surplus metal will be required for bending here4 ,draw the metal at the shoulders just made1 continuing to the end to #e_/af inch round and #b-a_/b inches long4 ,sketch b shows the work completed to this point4 ,mark the opposite end on the same edges and in a like manner #d-a_/b inches from where the first shoulders have been formed2 form shoulders at these marks and also draw down to #e_/af inch round1 making the extreme end a smooth1 round point1 #b-a_/b inches long from the shoulders1 as at c4 ,both of these ends should be round and smoothly drawn with the hand hammer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,,steps ,,in ,,making ,a ,,gate ,,hook4 ,bend the straight1 round end from the side e to a right angle1 proceeding as follows3 ,when placing the work on the anvil1 have the side e uppermost and the shoulder projecting over the edge of the anvil the thickness of the round1 or #e_/af inch2 then when the metal is bent1 the inside corner will be formed at the proper place and the shoulder will readily form into a right angle on the outer side4 ,light upright and backing-up blows will aid in forming the right angle after it has been bent1 provided the piece is held with the round end vertical and resting on the face of the anvil4 ,if such blows are used while it is being held over the edge of the anvil1 they will reduce the sectional dimensions and not materially aid in forming the angle4 ,sketch d shows this angle in solid lines4 ,now form the round portion of this angle into a circular eye1 making the inside diameter #a_/b inch1 with the center on a line with the center of the main stem4 ,sketch d shows this eye in broken lines4 ,bend the pointed end in the same manner and in the same direction as the eye1 having the distance between the eye and the angle #d inches1 as shown in sketch ,f4 ,now heat this end and cool the extreme corner of the angle to prevent its straightening1 then form the hook to the dimensions given in the sketch4 ,heat the central portion of the square metal to an even cherry red2 hold the hook and #a inch of the square portion securely in the vise2 then grasp the other end with the tongs or wrench #b inches from the vise1 and revolve it once1 thus forming a twist of the proper length4 ,before cooling this work1 see that the eye and hook are parallel and the body of the hook is perfectly straight4 #gc4 ,door ,hasp4--,fig4 #ec4 ,drawing1 forging1 punching1 cutting1 and bending4 ,material required3 #g inches of #a #c_/af-;inch mild steel4 ,mark lightly with the hardy on the edges #a inch and #c-a_/d inches from one end1 as at a4 ,form shoulders at these marks with edge-to-edge blows1 as shown at b1 so that the metal between them may be drawn to smaller dimensions4 ,the shoulders should be formed not deeper than #a_/h inch at first1 and the metal between them should be drawn to a corresponding dimension4 ,then forge the #a-;inch end into a round eye1 as at c1 and punch a #e_/af-;inch hole in its center1 as shown at d4 ,now draw the metal between the eye and the shoulders to exact dimensions1 #c inches long1 #e_/h inch wide1 and #c_/af inch thick1 as shown at d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,,steps ,,in ,,making ,a ,,door ,,hasp4 ,mark the other end in the same manner #b-a_/b inches from the shoulders1 and form new shoulders at these marks with edge-to-edge blows4 ,draw the metal to a length of #b-a_/h inches1 making it #e_/h #c_/af inch at the shoulders and #a_/b #a_/h inch at the end2 the extreme end should be forged round4 ,sketch ,e shows these operations completed4 ,locate the center of the #b-a_/b-;inch length2 from that point place a center-punch mark #g_/h inch each side of the center and punch a #e_/af-;inch hole at each mark with a hand punch1 by placing the outer edge of the punch at the center-punch mark4 ,deliver no blows on the edges of this metal after the holes are punched4 ,using a sharp1 hot cutter1 remove the metal between the holes1 by cutting it equally from both sides1 thus forming the slot as indicated by the broken lines in sketch ,e4 ,by placing it over the hardy1 straighten the metal which forms the sides of this slot1 and all other portions1 so that all edges will be straight and parallel to each other4 ,smooth all flat surfaces with a flatter1 using water to remove the scale of oxide4 ,if the marking and punching of the holes have been carefully done1 the inside length of the slot will now be #b inches4 ,bend the #b-a_/h-;inch end to a right angle at the shoulders1 having the length from the inside of the angle to the outside of the eye about #g inches4 ,heat this entire end and quickly cool the extreme corner of the angle to prevent its straightening there1 then form the hook to the dimensions given in sketch ,f4 ,the inner edges of the slot may be filed straight and parallel to the outside edges1 but the semicircular ends which have been formed by the punch should not be disturbed4 #gd4 ,hexagonal ,head ,bolt4--,fig #ed4 ,upsetting and forging to a hexagonal cross section4 ,material required3 #g inches of #a_/b-;inch round iron4 ,heat one end to a white heat1 then cool off #d-a_/b inches of the opposite end1 thus confining the upsetting to the required area2 upset the hot end until its diameter is #c_/d inch1 and the length over all is about #e-a_/b inches4 ,it is important that the #d-a_/b inches be kept perfectly cold1 to prevent upsetting there1 also to prevent its sticking fast in the heading tool1 or possibly using more metal than is required for forming the head4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--;,,hexagonal ,,head ,,bolt4 ,the upset metal should extend equally around the bolt4 ,this will tend to prevent the head from forming unequally when the metal is being forged down on the heading tool4 ,the head can be prevented from forming on one side by directing the blows toward the opposite side4 ,form the head by heating the upset end to a white heat1 by inserting the opposite end in the heading tool1 and by delivering upright blows on the heated end1 unless others are required1 thus forging down the upset metal to #a_/b inch thick4 ,remove it from the heading tool and forge the head into a hexagonal form4 ,it will be necessary to insert the bolt in the heading tool several times to obtain the exact dimensions of the head1 which should be #g_/h inch through its short diameter and #a_/b inch thick4 ,the chamfered finish on the top of the head is produced by using a button head set while the bolt is held in the heading tool4 #ge4 ,square-cornered ,angle4--,fig4 #ee4 ,upsetting1 chamfering1 and forging a square corner4 ,material required3 #aj inches of #a #a_/b-;inch iron4 ,upset the center by cooling #c-a_/b inches of each end to confine the operation to the required place4 ,the center should be #g_/h inch thick1 and all upset metal should be forged to one side2 the opposite side and both edges should be straight4 ,draw both ends tapering from where the upsetting ceases to #c_/d #a_/d inch at the ends2 chamfer the edges of the drawn ends on the straight1 flat side1 beginning about #b inches from the center and continuing to the ends4 ,if the drawing and chamfering are properly done1 each end will be #e-a_/b inches from the center4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,,upsetting ,,for ,a ,,square ,,corner4 ,heat and bend the stock at the upset center to a right angle1 with the upset metal on the outer side to provide for the square corner4 ,the bending should be done over the horn of the anvil to produce the quarter-round fillet on the inner side1 and may be confined to the center by cooling both ends to where the upsetting begins4 ,as bends of this kind are somewhat difficult to make correctly1 it would be a great advantage to provide a form which may be made to fit into the vise2 then one end of the angle can be held securely with the form while the opposite end is bent over it4 ,by any simple form it is impossible to make the outside corner perfectly sharp and square with one operation2 it is therefore necessary to forge the outside corner sharp and square by delivering blows on both sides1 somewhat in the manner shown in ,fig4 #ef1 but good judgment must be used in doing this4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--,,square-,,cornered ,,angle4 ,the chamfering may be marred or entirely removed in forging the corner2 if so1 rechamfer1 and if the ends are of unequal lengths1 the longer one should be cut off equal with the other4 ,then all surfaces should be made straight and smooth with the flatter and the scale removed by occasionally dipping the flatter in water4 #gf4 ,fagot ,welding4--,welding and forging to dimensions4 ,material required3 convenient pieces of scrap iron and a bar of #e_/h-;inch round stock from #bd to #cj inches long4 ,temporarily weld several separate pieces of scrap on to the bar until sufficient metal is provided for a thorough welding and forging of a solid piece of square iron #c-a_/b inches long and #aa_/af inch square4 ,the welding should be done so as not to show where the pieces were joined4 ,forge it perfectly square and smooth with the flatter4 ,cut one end off square with a sharp hot cutter1 then cut it to the required length4 #gg4 ,round ,weld4--,fig4 #eg4 ,scarfing1 welding1 and swaging4 ,material required3 two pieces of #g_/af-;inch round iron1 #d-a_/b inches long4 ,upset one end to #i_/af inch1 as shown at a4 ,to form the scarf1 deliver backing-up blows with the face of the hammer1 as shown at b1 and finish with blows delivered similarly with the ball4 ,these backing-up blows will form the heel of the scarf4 ,draw out the point of the scarf with overhanging blows1 as shown at c4 ,the joining surface should be convex so that welding will proceed from the center4 ,scarf both pieces in the same manner1 as at d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,,steps ,,in ,,scarfing ,,for ,a ,,round ,,weld4 ,heat and weld according to instructions on welding and finish the work smoothly with swages2 then cut to a length of #f inches1 having the weld in the center4 ,properly formed scarfs will produce perfect welds provided they are heated to the welding temperature when they are joined1 but those improperly formed generally produce imperfect welds1 although the heat is right4 #gh4 ,flat ,right-angled ,weld4--,fig4 #eh4 ,material required3 two pieces of iron #c_/d #c_/h1 #d-a_/b inches long4 ,upset one end #a_/h inch larger than its diameters1 as at a4 ,by using backing-up blows as in the previous exercise1 form a heel on one side1 as shown at b1 then resting the straight side on the anvil1 draw out the point with the ball of the hammer1 as at c4 ,in drawing this point1 the metal will spread and form a wide fan-shaped end1 but by resting the right side d on the horn of the anvil and delivering blows on the left1 the latter edge will be straightened1 leaving all projecting metal on the right4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--,,steps ,,in ,,scarfing ,,for ,a ,,corner ,,weld4 ,upset one end of the other piece to the same dimensions1 allowing this upsetting to continue along the metal about #a inch4 ,form a scarf on the left edge at e1 with the ball of hammer1 using blows similar to those shown at c and leaving the end square4 ,place them together to see if the points meet the heels2 if not1 make necessary alterations so they will4 ,place the pieces in the fire1 so that the side scarf will be removed with the left hand and the end scarf with the right4 ,when placing for welding1 the right-hand piece should be laid on the anvil and the left-hand one placed in its proper position on top of it4 ,the inside corner should form a quarter-round fillet1 the outside should be sharp and square1 and the longer end cut off to make them both equal4 ,smooth all surfaces with a flatter4 ,sketch ,f shows the weld completed2 the dotted lines indicate the location of the scarfs before welding4 #gi4 ,t ,weld4--,fig4 #ei4 ,scarfing and welding4 ,material required3 two pieces of #c_/d #c_/h-;inch iron1 #h and #d-a_/b inches long4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--,,steps ,,in ,,scarfing ,,for ,a ,t ,,weld4 ,upset one end of the shorter piece #a_/h inch larger than its diameters1 and form a scarf similar to the first one for the right-angled weld1 but here allow it to form fan-shaped and project equally over each edge1 as shown at a4 ,upset the center of the long piece to #a_/h inch or more larger than its diameters1 with the upset portion fully #a inch long1 as at b4 ,form a scarf at this place with the ball of the hammer1 allowing the metal to bend edgewise1 as at c4 ,do not make this scarf quite so wide as the first one1 as its edges should be entirely covered by scarf a without leaving any openings4 ,see that they fit properly before heating for welding4 ,especial care should be taken to have a good fire4 ,the long piece should be placed in the fire so as to be removed with the left hand1 and the short one with the right4 ,place the short piece on the anvil1 with the long piece1 held in the left hand1 on top of and overlapping it sufficiently to prevent any openings4 ,when welded1 the long piece should be perfectly straight1 with the short one at a right angle to it4 ,finish the weld with the flatter while it is at a dull red heat4 ,sketch ,d shows the ,t completed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--;,,chain ,,making4 #hj4 ,chain ,making4--,fig4 #fj4 ,bending1 scarfing1 and welding links4 ,material required3 #h pieces of #c_/h-;inch round iron1 #f inches long4 ,heat and bend the center of each piece to a semicircle #c_/d inch inside diameter2 make the ends of equal length and parallel from the semicircle1 as at a4 ,take one of these bent pieces and form a scarf on one end by holding it on the edge of the anvil at an angle of #de degrees1 as shown at b1 and delivering overhanging blows1 as indicated by the dotted circle1 which represents the hammer4 ,turn the link over1 placing the other end in the same position as the first1 and scarf4 ,bend both scarfs toward each other equally until they overlap sufficiently to prevent any opening being formed1 as at c2 this is called closing the scarf4 ,heat and weld the link by delivering the first few blows on its sides while it is resting on the face of the anvil1 then by delivering lighter ones1 while it is hung on the horn4 ,while striking the light blows1 do not hold the link in a fixed position1 but move it to receive the blows around the circumference4 ,the finished dimensions are #b #c_/d inches inside2 a slight variation in length does not make any difference1 but their ends and widths should be uniform4 ,proceed with another piece in like manner1 but after scarfing it insert the finished link and continue adding new ones1 until there are five links all together4 ,the three extra pieces are for use in the next three exercises4 #ha4 ,welded ,ring4--,fig4 #fa4 ,bending1 scarfing1 and welding a ring of round iron4 ,material required3 one piece of #g_/af-;inch round iron1 #h inches long4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--,,steps ,,in ,,making ,a ,,ring4 ,heat1 and bend over the horn of the anvil about #a-a_/b inches of each end to an inside radius of no less than #a inch1 as at ,a4 ,then heat the straight portion to a uniform temperature and bend it by holding the piece in a vertical position on the anvil1 and delivering upright blows1 as shown at ,b2 this should produce a form similar to that shown at ,c4 ,continue the bending by holding the work as at ,d4 ,by carefully observing the effect of these blows1 you will be able to determine how the work ought to be held to produce the complete ring4 ,these blows are used here to give the same effect as leverage blows4 ,if the position of the metal is changed when and where it should be1 almost a perfect ring may be produced without holding it on the horn of the anvil4 ,it is not the best method to hold the work on the horn1 because blows delivered in this way have a tendency to produce oval sections where they hit4 ,in forming this ring the ends should be left open about #a inch4 ,the directions for scarfing and welding are somewhat similar to those given for links1 except that the angle of the scarf should be nearly a right angle4 ,after the welding is completed1 the ring should be made perfectly round by placing it over a mandrel or the horn of the anvil4 ,when the ring is welded and complete1 connect it to the chain with one of the extra links4 #hb4 ,chain ,swivel4--,fig4 #fb4 ,bending1 scarfing1 welding1 and riveting4 ,material3 about #b feet of #g_/af-;inch round iron4 ,norway iron is the best1 and this length is the most convenient for the first operations4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--;,,chain ,,swivel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,,tool ,,for ,,welding ,a ,,swivel4 ,for making this swivel1 a special mandrel 7,fig4 #fc7 should be provided1 made of #c_/d-;inch round1 mild or tool steel1 with a short offset of #c_/d inch2 the gudgeon or pin which is shown at a should be #a-a_/d inches long1 #g_/af inch in diameter at the shoulder1 and tapering to #e_/af inch at the end4 ,any convenient length of handle that will prevent burning the hand when welding1 will do4 ,bend about #b-a_/b inches of the #g_/af-;inch round stock to a right angle1 as at a1 ,fig4 #fd2 make the corner as square as possible1 by upsetting it before bending2 or after bending1 by using upright and backing-up blows4 ,flatten the bent portion b parallel with the bar1 by first delivering the blows with the ball of the hammer to increase the width as much as possible1 then finish it to #c_/af inch thick with the face of the hammer4 ,the corner should be scarfed with the ball of the hammer and the rib worked out1 as shown at c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,,steps ,,in ,,making ,a ,,swivel4 ,cut off the flat portion #b inches from the bar1 and form a thin scarf at the end of b4 ,notice that this should be formed on the same side with c4 ,beginning with the scarf at the end1 the flat portion should be bent or rolled up so that the scarfs will overlap considerably1 as indicated in the end view d4 ,the special mandrel should now be inserted in the opening shown here1 and all placed in a #c_/d-;inch bottom swage1 while the scarfs are hammered into close contact4 ,the long bar should now be cut off #d-a_/b inches from the inside of the bend1 and a fan-shaped scarf formed with the ball of the hammer1 as at e4 ,this should be drawn thin on the end and sides4 ,the center of the #d-a_/b-;inch length is next bent and the last scarf placed in position at f by again inserting the mandrel1 placing it in the swage1 and closing down the edges around the portions at f4 ,it is then ready for welding4 ,figure #fb shows this in solid lines4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,,making ,,an ,,eye ,,for ,a ,,swivel4 ,a good clean heat should be procured for welding2 the mandrel should be quickly inserted1 placed in the swage1 and the welding done4 ,this being completed1 a small eye is to be made of #c_/h-;inch round iron3 first1 by bending it in the form shown at a1 ,fig4 #fe2 second1 by inserting a punch in the opening and hammering the ends together1 forming the eye1 as shown at b2 third1 by welding these ends solidly together1 as at c1 and forging the whole to fit loosely in the swivel4 ,the fitted end is now cut off square #c_/h inch longer than the depth of the hole in the swivel1 heated1 and1 while the eye is held in the vise1 it is quickly riveted into place with a small straight or ball peen hammer4 ,the eye is shown in place by the broken lines in ,fig4 #fb4 ,connect this swivel to the chain with one of the extra links4 #hc4 ,chain ,swivel4--,figs4 #ff and #fg4 ,fullering1 forging1 bending1 welding1 and riveting4 ,material3 a piece of #a #a_/b-;inch iron1 #d or more inches long4 ,using top and bottom fullers1 form two sets of depressions not deeper than #a_/d inch1 on each edge and opposite to each other1 the first pair to be #a inch from the end1 the second pair #a inch from the first1 as at a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--,,steps ,,in ,,making ,a ,,swivel4 ,draw the #a-;inch end to #g_/af inch round1 leaving it slightly heavier where it was fullered to provide excess metal for further bending4 ,the opposite end should now be cut off #a inch from the fullered place and drawn to the same dimensions as the first end4 ,forge the central portion into a circular form and punch a #c_/h-;inch hole in its center4 ,cut off all surplus material1 making the ends #c-a_/b inches long from the center of the hole1 as at b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--,,the ,,completed ,,swivel4 ,bend each end to a right angle close up to the eye and make the arms parallel and one inch apart1 as at c4 ,drift the hole by driving the punch through between the parallel ends1 thereby forming a slightly tapered hole4 ,scarf and weld the ends as you would a link4 ,make a small eye of #c_/h-;inch round stock1 proceeding in the manner explained in the previous exercise1 also following the same instructions as to fitting1 cutting1 and riveting4 ,connect the link end of this swivel to the chain with one of the extra links4 7,see ,fig4 #fg47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--,,steps ,,in ,,making ,a ,,chain ,,grabhook4 #hd4 ,chain ,grabhook4--,fig4 #fh4 ,forging1 punching1 and bending4 ,material3 one piece of #c_/d #c_/h-;inch iron1 #d-a_/b inches long4 ,form a depression as at a1 #a_/d inch deep and #c_/d inch from one end with overhanging blows4 7,the opposite edge should be kept perfectly straight during this and the following operations47 ,forge the #c_/d-;inch end into a circular-shaped eye #c_/h inch thick1 and punch a #a_/d-;inch hole1 in the center1 as at b4 ,this hole should be drifted or expanded with a punch driven through from both sides alternately until the diameter becomes #a_/b inch4 ,by hanging this eye over the horn of the anvil so that the inner corners of the eye rest on the horn1 by delivering blows opposite to those corners1 and by changing its location so that blows will be delivered on all outside corners1 the sectional form will be changed from square to octagon2 by similar operations the form may be changed from octagon to round4 ,during this change1 light blows should be used in order to make the eye smooth4 ,this stage is shown at c with a sectional view of the eye4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--,,the ,,completed ,,chain ,,grabhook4 ,proceeding from the eye toward the opposite end1 forge both edges round to correspond with the eye1 leaving the metal #c_/d inch wide1 #c inches from the eye1 as shown at d4 ,draw the remaining section tapering from this extreme width to #a_/d inch1 and forge the edges round as before4 ,the hook should be #c_/af inch round at the end and #c inches long from the widest point1 as shown at ,e4 ,heat the middle portion2 cool the point and the eye1 and bend the hook edgewise over the horn of the anvil toward the straight side1 until the point is opposite the depression first formed4 ,the inside semicircle formed by bending should be #a_/b inch in diameter1 the other inside lines straight and parallel4 ,the extreme point should be slightly curved away from the eye1 and all flat surfaces hammered smooth with light blows while the hook is at a dull red heat4 ,figure #fi shows the hook completed4 ,using the remaining extra link1 connect the hook to the swivel4 ,,questions ,,for ,,review ,what forging operations are employed in making the staple and the draw spike8 ,what hammer blows are used on them8 ,what caution should be observed in heating the ,s hook for bending8 ,what operations are employed in making the pipe hook8 ,which is the most difficult8 ,where was the most difficult forging encountered8 ,how was the point drawn8 ,what operations are employed in making the gate hook8 ,explain how the angle should be bent1 and how the blows should be delivered to make it square4 ,why should the extreme corner of the angle be cooled off before bending the hook8 ,what operations are employed in making the hasp8 ,which one is used first8 ,into what form is the metal to be forged in making the bolt8 ,what is meant by chamfering8 ,what kind of hammer blows should be used in chamfering8 ,why should the metal be upset for the round weld8 ,what special hammer blows are to be used in forming the scarfs8 ,explain how the scarfs are formed for the right-angled weld4 ,how should scarfs be placed in the fire8 ,how should they be placed on the anvil8 ,explain how the scarfs are formed for the ,t weld4 ,describe the scarfing of a link4 ,describe the welding of a link4 ,what is the effect of bending the ring over the horn of the anvil8 ,what operations are used in making the chain swivel8 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,treatment ,,of ,,tool ,,steel #he4 ,selecting and ,working ,steel4--,in making a tool1 the differences in quality of steel should be considered1 because steel suitable for a razor would not do for a cold chisel or any battering tool4 7,see sec4 #aha47 ,if the steel at hand is not exactly suitable1 but the selection must be made from it1 then that should be chosen which will most nearly meet the requirements1 and tempering must be relied upon to make up the deficiency4 ,in most large factories all grades of steel are kept on hand and are assorted in the stock room so that there need be no difficulty in making the proper selection4 ,the percentage of carbon in steel represents the amount of carbon it contains4 ,a steel that is called a #ge-point carbon steel is one that contains 74#ge7 seventy-five one hundredths of one per cent1 each point representing 74#ja7 one one hundredth of one per cent4 ,some steel makers use the word 8temper0 to indicate the amount of carbon1 expecting the user of the steel to be familiar with the amounts of carbon each different temper represents4 ,for instance1 a razor-temper steel represents one that contains #a4ej per cent carbon and a tool-temper steel represents one containing about #a4be per cent4 ,the word 8temper0 as used in this connection should not be confused with the word as it is used in the art of tempering1 where it indicates the operation of reducing the hardness of the metal in order to make it less brittle and more suitable for some particular use4 #hf4 ,uses of ,different ,grades of ,steel4--,as the percentage of carbon1 and consequently the quality of steel1 will vary somewhat with different makes1 it is rather difficult to give a rule that will apply generally1 but the following list of different grades of carbon will give a general idea of how steel should be selected1 forged1 and hardened4 ,steel of #j4g to #j4h per cent carbon should be used for snaps1 rivet sets1 cupping tools1 etc4 ,this grade of steel should be forged at a light red heat4 ,it can be welded easily and will harden at a light red heat4 ,steel from #j4h to #j4i per cent carbon should be used for drop-forging dies1 hammers1 cold sets1 track chisels1 blacksmith's tools1 well drills1 etc4 ,it should be forged at a light red heat2 it welds easily and hardens at a light red heat4 ,steel from #j4i to #a per cent carbon should be used for large hand chisels1 large punches1 shear blades1 dies1 etc4 ,forging should be done at a light red heat4 ,it welds readily and hardens at a bright red heat4 ,steel from #a to #a4a per cent carbon should be used for hand chisels1 punches1 punch dies1 small shear blades1 etc4 ,forging should be done at a light red heat4 ,it welds readily and hardens at a bright red heat4 ,steel from #a4a to #a4b per cent carbon should be used for screw-cutting dies1 large cutting and trimming dies1 small punches1 small hand chisels1 large milling cutters1 cups1 cones1 etc4 ,forging should be done at a light red heat4 ,it welds readily when care is taken in heating1 and hardens at a bright red heat4 ,steel from #a4b to #a4c per cent carbon should be used for drills1 taps1 reamers1 milling cutters1 circular cutters1 cutting and trimming dies1 mill picks1 engraving tools1 twist drills1 etc4 ,forging should be done at a bright red heat4 ,welding can be done when precaution is taken against overheating and burning4 ,it hardens at a dull red heat4 ,steel from #a4c to #a4d per cent carbon should be used for small drills1 taps1 cutters1 boring tools1 etc4 ,forging should be done at a bright red heat2 welding can be done with care against overheating4 ,it hardens at a dull red heat4 ,this steel should be handled carefully4 ,steel from #a4d to #a4e per cent carbon should be used for tools for working chilled castings or locomotive wheel tires1 lathe and planer tools1 razors1 or any tools required to cut hard materials4 ,forging should be done at a dull red heat4 ,welding can scarcely be accomplished with this grade of stock4 ,hardening should be done at a dark red heat4 #hg4 ,injuries4--,one of the most common injuries to steel comes from carelessness in the heating for forging4 ,it is one of the important operations1 for unless the metal is uniformly heated1 violent strains are liable to occur1 and1 when hardened1 the steel will show these strains by cracking4 ,these defects are known as fire cracks4 ,the smith should always have plenty of fuel surrounding the metal while it is in the fire so that the cold-air blast will not come in direct contact with the metal4 ,the air should be heated by passing through a bed of hot coals before it strikes the steel4 ,it is always necessary to heat steel thoroughly to make it plastic1 being careful not to overheat or burn any part of the metal4 ,if it is overheated or burned1 it cannot be completely restored to its former state2 the grain becomes coarse and the structure weak4 ,never let steel lie in the fire to soak up heat after it is hot enough to work4 ,if for any cause it cannot be worked when it is ready1 it should be taken from the fire and left to cool1 then reheated when it can be worked4 ,by this precaution injury to the steel will be prevented4 ,if steel is heated so that the outer parts are hotter than the center1 the metal will forge unevenly4 ,the outer portion will be forged by the hammer blows1 while the center remains almost in the original form4 ,this will also cause an uneven grain1 sure to produce cracks when the tool is hardened4 ,forging at too low a heat will injure the steel in the same manner as uneven heating4 ,after the steel has been properly heated1 and forging has begun1 the first blows should be struck rather heavily and followed by lighter ones as the heat vanishes4 ,the forging should cease when the steel gets too cold1 but it may be reheated as often as necessary to complete the work4 #hh4 ,annealing4--,after the steel has been forged to the desired shape1 it usually is necessary to do some finishing upon it before it can be hardened and tempered2 in order to do this1 it must be annealed or softened so that it can be machined or filed into shape4 ,annealing is the process of softening steel4 ,it is done by heating the steel slowly to an even low red heat and placing it in an iron box containing unslaked lime or fine charcoal and leaving it there until perfectly cold4 ,the object of this process is to retain the heat and prolong the cooling4 ,the box is usually of cast iron1 but sheet steel is equally good4 ,it should be placed in a perfectly dry place and rest on bricks1 if necessary1 to avoid any dampness4 ,if an annealing box is not at hand1 small steel forgings can be softened very satisfactorily by placing them between two boards1 then completely covering all with dry ashes and leaving them there until entirely cold4 ,precaution should be taken here1 also1 to leave them in a dry place4 ,another method1 which is sometimes used1 is called water annealing4 ,some mechanics claim to have had good results with it1 while others condemn it entirely4 ,by this method the article is heated to a dull red and allowed to cool partly1 out of any direct current of air4 ,when all redness has disappeared as it is held in a dark place1 it is plunged into water and left there until perfectly cold4 ,the first method mentioned above is always the best2 the second is nearly as good2 and only when there is not sufficient time to allow the metal to cool slowly1 should water annealing be attempted4 ,such tools as cold chisels and lathe tools may be heated and laid in or on warm ashes until nearly cold1 when they may be ground1 hardened1 and tempered4 ,quite frequently1 if not generally1 these tools are not treated in this manner1 but it is no doubt the course to pursue to get the best results4 #hi4 ,hardening and ,tempering4--,when steel has been properly heated1 forged1 finished1 or ground1 the next two steps are hardening and tempering4 ,these two processes are often understood as one1 but they are entirely different in their results4 ,the confusion arises because the two operations are sometimes performed with one heating of the steel as in hardening and tempering a cold chisel1 or other similar tools4 ,as the steel has been subjected to severe strains during the heating and forging operations1 its structure may have been somewhat altered4 ,it can be restored to the proper crystalline structure by the hardening1 scientifically known as refining4 ,the hardening or refining heat is always lower than the forging heat1 and should be only as high as is necessary to harden the steel to the required density by sudden cooling4 ,then this first operation of cooling will harden and refine the steel at the same time4 ,extreme hardness is always accompanied by extreme brittleness1 a quality undesirable in any cutting tool1 and especially so in a tool required to withstand sudden shocks4 ,as the hardness is reduced by subsequent heating1 the toughness increases4 ,this modification1 called tempering1 is accomplished by reheating the hardened portion of the tool until a sufficient toughness has been obtained1 when the process is stopped by again plunging the tool into cold water4 ,the heat for tempering may be supplied from the uncooled portion of the tool as in tempering a cold chisel1 from the forge fire1 from another hot piece of metal1 or from a carefully heated furnace4 ,it has been found that the colored oxides formed on the surface of a piece of polished steel or iron represent a definite temperature in that metal4 ,these colors have been used1 therefore1 to determine the desired temperature in tempering a tool4 ,when we say 8temper a tool to a light straw10 we mean that the hardened tool is to be heated again to a degree which will produce that color2 namely1 about #dcj degrees ,fahr4 ,the colors as they appear are light straw1 dark straw1 bronze1 bronze with purple spots1 purple1 dark blue4 ,the light color appears first4 ,do not allow the colors to pass too quickly1 as will happen if the heat applied is too intense4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--;,,hardening ,a ,,chisel4 ,there are two distinct methods of hardening and tempering4 ,the one generally followed in tempering cold chisels1 lathe and various other tools1 requires only one heating4 ,the tool is heated to a proper hardening temperature at the end1 where hardness is desired1 and also over an excess area to supply the heat for tempering4 ,about #b inches of the cutting end is heated2 about #a inch of this is plunged perpendicularly into water1 as shown in ,fig4 #gj2 it is then kept in motion perpendicularly between the places indicated at a and b1 while the end is cooling4 ,this will prevent a fixed cooling point and prevent a fracture that might possibly occur if it were held in one position while cooling4 ,the portion between b and c should retain sufficient heat to produce the necessary temper4 ,when the end is perfectly cold it should be removed and immediately polished with sandstone or emery cloth to remove the scale of oxide so that the different colors may be more readily seen as they move from b toward the point4 ,the heat in the portion between b and c flows toward the point1 causing the colors to appear as the heat extends4 ,when the desired color covers the point1 it should again be plunged into the water and left there until entirely cold4 ,in this method the first cooling is the hardening1 and the second the tempering4 ,a comparative color chart is appended to this chapter for guidance in obtaining the tempers for various tools4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--;,,hardening ,a ,,reamer4 ,by the second method the steel is heated as in the first method1 then it is cooled off entirely by immersing the tool exactly perpendicularly1 as shown in hardening a reamer in ,fig4 #ga2 after this it is polished4 ,the temper is then drawn by holding the tool in contact with a piece of heated metal1 cast iron preferably4 ,in ,fig4 #gb the reamer is shown inside of a heated bushing1 which is a more practical way than laying it on top of a heated flat plate4 ,the bushing will impart sufficient heat to the tool to produce the desired color1 when it should be again cooled4 ,this method is used mostly for tempering plane bits1 wood chisels1 milling cutters1 taps1 reamers1 and various other tools of a like nature4 ,sometimes tools having sharp protruding edges1 as milling cutters1 taps1 reamers1 etc41 are very liable to crack by the sudden cooling in water2 this difficulty is avoided by using oil for hardening and tempering4 ,any so treated are called oil-tempered tools4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--,,tempering ,a ,,reamer4 ,the above methods of tempering are such as are ordinarily used when only a common shop equipment is at hand1 and the operator must depend entirely upon his judgment of the colors which represent the proper forging1 annealing1 hardening1 and tempering heats4 ,the degree of accuracy that has been attained in this practice is most surprising4 ,in large manufacturing establishments where many duplicate pieces are to be tempered1 a more modern as well as scientific apparatus is employed to relieve the operator of dependence upon his discernment of colors4 ,here the steel is heated in a furnace1 to which is attached a pyrometer that registers the exact degree of temperature4 ,in this manner all pieces can be heated uniformly for any of the four required heats4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--,,sectional ,,views ,,of ,,tool ,,steel1 ,,showing ,,the ,,effects ,,of ,,proper ,,and ,,improper ,,treatment4 ,a4 ,natural ,bar4 ,b4 ,refined4 ,c4 ,too hot4 ,d4 ,burned4 ,the views in ,fig4 #gc were photographed from the same grade or bar of steel to show the various granular structures produced by different heat treatments4 ,a shows the condition of the natural bar1 which was broken to be photographed just as it was received from the steel makers4 ,the lower left side shows where it was nicked with the cutter to be broken4 ,b shows the structure when proper conditions of heating and hardening have been maintained4 ,notice how much finer the structure here appears to be2 this effect was caused by1 and previously referred to as1 the refining heat of steel4 ,a similar condition should be produced with any tool steel under correct treatment4 ,c shows a much coarser structure2 it was heated too hot and hardened in the same manner4 ,if a tool were made thus1 its weakness would be hardly noticeable at the time1 but the structure shows that it is considerably weaker4 ,d shows the condition of the stock after being burned4 ,it has produced from a quality of steel that was valuable1 a metal worthless for any kind of tool4 #ij4 ,casehardening4--,another method of hardening1 called casehardening1 is used for wrought iron and low carbon or soft steel parts which are to be subjected to considerable friction4 ,neither of these metals could be hardened by the other methods mentioned4 ,this process adds carbon to the exterior surfaces only1 and for that reason is called casehardening1 as the outside is made extremely hard1 while the inner portion or core remains in a condition like that produced by sudden cooling1 thus providing a hard wearing surface and great strength at the same time4 ,it is similar to the old cementation process of steel making1 but is not prolonged sufficiently to allow the hardening to continue through the entire structure4 ,the articles to be hardened are packed in a box somewhat similar to an annealing box4 ,this should be partly filled with charred leather1 ground bone1 or wood or bone charcoal1 all of which are highly carbonaceous materials2 then the articles are placed in and entirely surrounded with a thin coating of cyanide of potassium1 especially if iron is being hardened4 ,the remaining space in the box is filled with the leather1 bone1 or pieces of charcoal4 ,the box should be provided with a lid that will drop loosely between the outer projecting rims4 ,the outer edges of this lid should be luted with clay to keep it as air-tight as possible4 ,if a few small holes are provided in the center of the lid1 test wires can be inserted2 by removing a wire and cooling it1 the progress of the operation may be known4 ,these wires should be inserted before the box is placed in the furnace4 ,the box and its contents are then placed in a suitable furnace and kept thoroughly heated from #f to #ae hours1 depending upon the depth of hardness required4 ,then it is withdrawn1 the lid removed1 and the articles quickly plunged into a large tank of water4 ,this will complete the hardening4 ,when a number of very small articles are to be hardened1 it is advisable to connect them with strong bailing wire before they are placed in the box so that they can all be removed at once4 ,beside holding the articles together1 the wire will provide a means of testing the depth and quality of the process4 ,if only a thin coating of hardness is needed1 or the labor and expense are excessive1 the following method may be used3 ,the article is heated thoroughly and evenly to about a bright red and thoroughly sprinkled with1 or rolled in1 cyanide of potassium4 ,then it is reheated so that the cyanide may penetrate as deeply as possible1 after which it is quickly chilled in cold water4 ,this is a good method of hardening small tack hammers made of soft steel1 set screws1 nuts1 and very small tools4 ,,temperature ,,and ,,color ,,chart ,,to ,,be ,,used ,,in ,,tempering ,tools ,temperature 7,fahr47 ,color ,degrees ,scrapers for brass #dcj ,very pale yellow ,light turning tools #dcj ,very pale yellow ,lathe and planer tools for steel #dcj ,very pale yellow ,steel engraving tools #dcj ,very pale yellow ,milling and boring cutters #dfj ,straw yellow ,screw-cutting dies #dfj ,straw yellow ,taps and reamers #dfj ,straw yellow ,punches and dies #dhj ,dark straw ,penknives #dhj ,dark straw ,twist drills #ejj ,bronze ,plane irons #ejj ,bronze ,surgical instruments #ecj ,dark purple ,cold chisels for steel #edj ,dark purple ,cold chisels for cast iron #eej ,dark blue ,cold chisels for wrought iron #eej ,dark blue ,springs #egj ,very dark blue ,,suitable ,,temperature 7,,fahr47 ,,for3 ,degrees ,annealing tool steel #ijj ,forging tool steel #abjj to #aejj ,hardening tool steel #abjj to #adjj ,casehardening iron or soft steel #acjj to #aejj ,,colors ,,and ,,corresponding ,,temperatures 7,,fahr47 ,,for ,,iron ,bright red in dark #gej to #gfj ,red hot in twilight #hhj to #hij ,dark red hardly visible in daylight #igj ,red visible by daylight #ajgj ,brighter red by daylight #acjj ,cherry red by daylight #adej ,bright cherry red by daylight #afej ,light cherry red by daylight #ahjj ,orange #bjjj ,yellow #baej ,white heat #bcej ,white welding heat #bfjj ,white welding and dazzling #bhjj ,,questions ,,for ,,review ,what is meant by the carbon contents of steel8 ,why is steel graded according to its carbon content8 ,explain the cause of fire cracks4 ,how can they be prevented8 ,why should steel be thoroughly healed8 ,if steel is overheated or burned1 what is the effect8 ,why should steel never be left in the fire to soak up heat8 ,how does steel forge if it is unevenly heated8 ,how should the blows be delivered in forging steel8 ,what is annealing8 ,describe three methods of annealing4 ,is it best to anneal cold chisels and lathe tools8 ,explain the process of hardening steel4 ,what effects does hardening have8 ,are the forging and the hardening heats the same8 ,why is steel polished after it is hardened8 ,explain the process of tempering4 ,what is the effect of tempering8 ,how may the heat be supplied for tempering8 ,name the colors in order as they appear in heating steel4 ,explain the methods of hardening and tempering4 ,why should a cold chisel be kept in motion when it is being hardened8 ,what is meant by oil-tempering8 ,what is meant by casehardening8 ,explain different methods of casehardening4 ,,chapter ,v ,,tool ,,making ,,and ,,stock ,,calculation #ia4 ,tongs4--,as tongs are among the most important tools and quite difficult to make1 they will be taken up in this chapter on tool making4 ,the weakest places in a pair of tongs are where the shoulders or offsets are formed for the jaws and handles4 ,these places should be renforced by fillets as large as the usefulness and appearance of the tongs will permit2 they should never be made sharp and square1 unless their construction demands it4 ,all tongs for general blacksmithing can be forged properly with the hand hammer and the use of such tools as the top fuller1 the swages1 and the round-edged set hammer4 ,some assistance with a light sledge will be necessary4 ,the use of such tools as a square-edged set or the file for forming shoulders or fillets is very objectionable1 especially in the hands of unskilled workmen4 ,if the two parts do not seem to fit as they should1 due to the fillets which are present1 they will generally adjust themselves when they are riveted together1 heated1 and worked freely4 #ib4 ,heavy ,flat ,tongs4--,fig4 #gd4 ,fullering1 forging1 swaging1 punching1 and riveting4 ,material3 #ae inches of #g_/h-;inch square mild steel4 ,mark the center of the #ae-;inch length with a hardy or cold chisel4 ,form two depressions #c_/h inch deep1 with a top fuller1 one #b inches from the end at a1 the other #c inches from the same end but on the opposite side4 ,form a third depression to the same depth1 but at an angle of #de degrees1 starting from the bottom of the first one1 and on the side indicated by the broken line1 as at b4 ,draw the #b-;inch end to #a #a_/b inch from a1 tapering to #a #c_/h inch at the end4 ,this portion forms one jaw1 as shown at c4 ,now flatten out about #b inches of the metal from the beveled depression b toward the center mark1 to #i_/af inch thick1 allowing the metal to spread as wide as possible4 ,this should then be forged and formed into shape for the joint d1 and the fuller again placed in the second depression to make the dimension there #e_/h inch1 as shown at d4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--,,steps ,,in ,,making ,,heavy ,,flat ,,tongs4 ,forge the other end in the same manner1 exerting due care to have all dimensions correspond2 cut the stock in two at the center4 ,draw out the heavy ends for the handles with the power hammer or with some assistance from a sledge4 ,they should be roughly forged at first with an allowance for finishing as follows3 ,beginning at the joint1 use the top and bottom swages on the outer edges through the greatest width1 and swage to #e_/h #a_/b inch4 ,this swaging should be continued toward the end to form the handle4 ,by using the flatter during the swaging1 the sides may be kept straight1 smooth1 and slightly tapering to a round section4 ,make the end #c_/h inch in diameter for a length of #c inches4 ,sketch ,f shows one side of a pair of tongs drawn and swaged4 ,place the parts together to see if they fit properly2 if they do not1 make the necessary alterations4 ,use a top fuller to form a groove e about #a_/h inch deep1 lengthwise on the inside of the jaws1 and smooth the sides and edges with a flatter4 ,then punch a #c_/h-;inch hole in the center of the joint1 as shown in sketch ,f4 ,this should be done on both parts4 ,heat thoroughly the end of a #c_/h-;inch rivet1 #a-c_/d inches long1 and with it rivet the two portions tightly together4 ,heat the tongs1 make them work freely1 and adjust them to hold #c_/h-;inch flat iron1 with the entire length of the jaws in contact and with the ends of the handles #a inch apart4 ,the jaws and handles should be adjusted so that a line extended lengthwise across the center of the rivet would pass midway between them4 #ic4 ,light ,chain ,tongs4--,fig4 #ge4 ,forging1 swaging1 punching1 fullering1 and riveting4 ,material3 #ac inches of #c_/d-;inch square mild steel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--,,steps ,,in ,,making ,,light ,,chain ,,tongs4 ,mark the center of this length with a hardy or cold chisel4 ,form a shoulder #a-a_/d inches from the end1 and draw this end to #g_/h #a_/b inch at the bottom of the shoulder1 tapering to #c_/d #c_/h inch at the end1 as at a4 ,form a second shoulder at an angle of #de degrees1 starting from the bottom of the first one1 by holding the work on the anvil1 as shown at b4 ,the blows should be directed a little toward the center mark1 to flatten and spread the metal for forming the joint of the tongs4 ,form a third shoulder at c1 #a inch from and on the opposite side to the first and toward the center mark1 the thickness here being #a_/b inch4 ,note that these shoulders should be made with overhanging blows and not by using the fuller4 ,the metal between the shoulders c and a should now be forged into shape for the joint4 ,forge the other end in a similar manner1 being careful to have all dimensions correspond2 then cut the stock in two at the center4 ,draw out the heavy ends for the handles with a power hammer or with some assistance from a sledge4 ,roughly forge them from #a_/b #g_/af at c1 down to #e_/af inch round1 #c inches from the end4 ,finish the edges by using the top and bottom swages4 ,by using the flatter on the sides during the swaging1 the handle may be kept straight1 smooth1 and slightly tapered to where it terminates into round4 ,sketch ,f in ,fig4 #gd shows the handle drawn out and swaged4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,,the ,,completed ,,light ,,tongs4 ,place the two parts together to see if they fit properly2 if they do not1 make the necessary alterations4 ,taking each piece separately1 perform the following operations3 ,fuller a groove #a_/h inch deep1 lengthwise on the inside of the jaw1 and another crosswise about #a_/d inch from the end as shown at ,a1 ,fig4 #gf4 ,then punch a #e_/af-;inch hole in the center of the joint4 ,a #e_/af-;inch rivet #a-a_/b inches long should be obtained1 its end should be thoroughly heated1 and the two parts riveted tightly together4 ,heat the tongs and make them work freely2 adjust them to hold #c_/af-;inch flat iron with the full length of the jaws in contact1 also to hold #c_/h-;inch round material in the cross groove when the handles are #a inch apart4 ,they should be adjusted1 so that if a line were extended lengthwise through the center of the rivet1 it would pass midway between the jaws and handles4 ,when complete these tongs will appear as in ,fig4 #gf4 #id4 ,lathe ,tools4--,a complete description of lathe tools would require too much space in this book1 therefore only six common ones will be explained2 by applying the knowledge received from making these1 the operator should be able to forge many others4 ,these with the other tool steel exercises should supply sufficient practice in forging1 hardening1 and tempering tool steel4 ,if these tools are to be put into practical use1 a good quality of tool steel should be provided1 cut about #h inches long for each one1 and great care should be taken in the heating1 forging1 and tempering4 ,if1 however1 they are to be made for practice alone1 then much shorter pieces may be conveniently used1 also an inferior grade of steel2 mild or soft steel would be sufficiently good to provide the needed practice in heating1 forging1 and tempering4 ,even though the material is inferior1 the operations should receive the most careful attention4 ,the material may be #a #a_/b-;inch1 #g_/h #c_/h-;inch1 or any suitable stock size4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--;,,brass ,,tool4 #ie4 ,brass ,tool4--,fig4 #gg4 ,forging1 hardening1 and tempering4 ,material3 #f to #h inches of #a_/b #a-;inch tool steel4 ,starting about #c_/d inch from one end1 draw to a uniform taper on both sides and on one edge only1 so that the metal is #a_/d inch thick and #a_/b inch wide at the end4 ,the lower or beveled edge also should be drawn thinner than the upper to provide the necessary clearance amounting to about #e degrees on each side1 as shown in the sectional view4 ,the end should be cut off at an angle of #gj degrees and ground semicircular in form with the necessary clearance4 ,heat about #b inches of this end and harden in the manner described for the cold chisel1 but in this case the color for tempering is a very pale yellow4 #if4 ,cutting-off or ,parting ,tool4--,fig4 #gh4 ,fullering1 forging1 hardening1 and tempering4 ,material3 #g inches of #a_/b #a-;inch tool steel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--;,,cutting-,,off ,,or ,,parting ,,tool4 ,with a top fuller form a depression across one side #e_/h inch from the end1 fullering the metal to #c_/af inch thick4 ,draw this end down to #a #c_/af inch4 ,the thickness of the metal where it was fullered should also be decreased to #a_/h inch1 gradually increasing to #c_/af inch at the end1 taking extreme care to have sufficient clearance from front to back and from top to bottom4 ,the cutting edge is generally allowed to project about #a_/h inch above the stock2 the end is trimmed off at an angle of #ge to #hj degrees and ground1 as shown in ,fig4 #gh1 after which it is hardened and tempered to a pale yellow4 #ig4 ,heavy ,boring ,tool4--,fig4 #gi4 ,drawing1 bending1 hardening1 and tempering4 ,material3 #g inches of #a_/b #a-;inch tool steel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--;,,heavy ,,boring ,,tool4 ,draw about #b-a_/b inches tapering to #a_/b inch square at the end2 the taper on the top edge should be only #a_/h inch1 while that on the bottom should be #c_/h inch1 as shown at a4 ,with the metal resting flat on the anvil and the top edge to the left1 bend down #c_/d inch of the end to an angle of about #hj degrees1 then forge down the corners from the point back to the heel1 to a slight octagonal form1 as shown in ,fig4 #gi4 ,grind the projecting end of the angle semicircular with a clearance of #ae degrees1 then harden and temper to a pale yellow4 #ih4 ,light ,boring or ,threading ,tool4--,fullering1 drawing1 hardening1 and tempering4 ,material3 #e inches of #a_/b #a-;inch tool steel4 ,using a top fuller1 form a depression #g_/af inch deep on one edge and #b inches from the end4 ,draw this metal slightly tapering to #g_/af inch square at the end1 keeping it straight on the top4 ,with the metal resting flat on the anvil and the straight edge to the left1 bend down #c_/d inch of the end to an angle of #hj degrees1 then forge the corners between the angle and where the depression was formed to a slight octagonal form4 ,for a boring tool1 grind the projecting end of the angle semicircular in form1 with sufficient clearance for boring a hole of the desired size2 for a threading tool grind it to the proper angle of the thread with sufficient clearance1 then harden and temper it to a pale yellow4 #ii4 ,diamond ,point ,tool4--,fig4 #hj4 ,forging1 hardening1 and tempering4 ,material3 #g inches of #a_/b #a-;inch tool steel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--;,,first ,,steps ,,in ,,making ,a ,,diamond ,,point ,,tool4 ,using a top fuller1 form a depression #c_/h inch deep on one edge #c_/d inch from the end1 as at a4 ,then holding the depression over a round edge of the anvil and delivering blows on the end1 as indicated at b1 forge the #c_/d-;inch end into a square form1 at an angle of #gj degrees to the lower edge of the stock1 as shown at c4 ,by resting the inner corners of this end on the face of the anvil and delivering blows on the opposite outside corners1 as shown in ,fig4 #ha1 its form should be changed to #g_/af inch square1 projecting diagonally from the stock1 as shown at a1 ,fig4 #hb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--;,,changing ,,the ,,form ,,of c1 ,,fig4 #hj1 ,,to ,,that ,,of a1 ,,fig4 #hb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--;,,diamond ,,point ,,tool1 ,,finished4 ,by using a sharp1 hot cutter and cutting entirely from the right inside surface 7a1 ,fig4 #hb71 and by holding the point over the edge of the anvil1 so that the operation will have a shearing effect1 the excess metal which extends more than #c_/h inch above the upper line of the stock may be removed4 ,for a right-hand tool the point should be set #a_/h inch to the left1 as shown at b1 the two outside surfaces being ground smooth and forming an acute angle2 the inside portion of the end on the side indicated by a should be ground somewhat shorter1 producing a diamond-shaped appearance4 ,harden and temper to a very pale yellow4 ,reverse the operations of cutting1 setting1 and grinding for a left-hand tool4 #ajj4 ,right ,side ,tool4--,fig4 #hc4 ,forging1 offsetting1 hardening1 and tempering4 ,material3 #g inches of #a_/b #a-;inch tool steel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--;,,first ,,steps ,,in ,,making ,,the ,,side ,,tool4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--,,side ,,tool4 ,heat and cut off about #e_/h inch of one corner1 as at a1 ,fig4 #hc1 and form a depression with the top fuller #a-a_/b inches from the end on the side indicated at b1 #a_/d inch deep at the upper edge1 leaving the metal full thickness at the lower edge4 ,then the metal should be roughly spread out from the upper edge of the stock by holding the fuller lengthwise1 as shown at ,c1 leaving the lower edge the full thickness1 and smoothed with a flatter1 drawing the upper edge to #a_/h inch in thickness4 ,the above operations could be done with a hand hammer1 but not without considerable hard work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4--,,offsetting ,,the ,,side ,,tool ,,for ,,clearance4 ,trim this end to the form shown in ,fig4 #hd1 by using a sharp1 hot cutter and cutting entirely from the side indicated by d4 ,when this has been done correctly remove all metal extending more than #a_/d inch above the upper edge of the stock4 ,when this has been forged to the correct shape1 heat and place the tool so that the fullered shoulder is just beyond the edge of the anvil1 then form the offset with a round-edged set hammer1 as shown in ,fig4 #he4 ,grind the upper edge parallel with the stock but at a slight angle1 to produce a cutting edge1 and grind the face side straight and smooth4 ,in cooling this tool for hardening it should be placed in the water1 as shown in ,fig4 #hf1 to insure hardening the whole cutting edge4 ,leave sufficient heat in the heel or bottom of the tool to draw the temper uniformly to a pale yellow4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--;,,hardening ,,the ,,side ,,tool4 #aja4 ,forging ,tools4--,the following forging tools are somewhat smaller than those used in general smith work1 but they are perfectly serviceable and sufficiently heavy for manual training or considerable ordinary work4 ,the material for their construction should be tool steel of #j4hj to #j4ij per cent carbon1 #a-a_/d inches square1 unless otherwise specified4 ,the holes or eyes should be punched straight1 and the precautions formerly given under the head of punches should be observed4 ,a tapered drift pin of an oval section #g_/h #e_/h inch at the largest end1 also a smaller oval-shaped handle punch1 should first be provided4 #ajb4 ,cold ,chisel4--,fig4 #hg4 ,forging1 hardening1 and tempering tool steel4 ,material3 #f-a_/b inches of #c_/d-;inch octagonal tool steel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--;,,cold ,,chisel4 ,first draw #a_/b inch of one end to a smooth1 round taper about #c_/h inch in diameter at the extreme end1 then grind off the rough projecting edges until it is #a_/b inch in diameter4 ,this end should not be cooled quickly1 because it might harden somewhat1 which would cause it to break easily4 ,starting #b inches from the opposite end1 draw the tool tapering to #a_/h inch thick and #a inch wide1 using the flatter on these tapered sides and edges4 ,they should be made straight and smooth1 with the edges perfectly parallel4 ,two views with dimensions are shown in ,fig4 #hg4 ,grind the cutting edge of the chisel to the desired angle1 then harden and temper it as follows3 ,heat about #b inches of the cutting end to a dull cherry red and plunge about #a inch of this perpendicularly into water2 withdraw it about #a_/b inch1 and keep it in motion between the first and second cooling places until the end is perfectly cold4 ,remove the tool and quickly polish one side with emery cloth or sandstone1 watching the varying colors as they make their appearance and move toward the edge2 when the dark purple or blue color entirely covers the point1 thrust it into the water again and leave it there until thoroughly cooled4 ,regrind cautiously1 protecting the temper1 and test its cutting qualities on a piece of cast iron or soft steel4 #ajc4 ,hot ,cutter4--,figs4 #hh and #hi4 ,punching1 fullering1 forging1 hardening1 and tempering4 ,material3 #d inches of #a-a_/d-;inch square tool steel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--,,steps ,,in ,,making ,,the ,,hot ,,cutter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--;,,hot ,,cutter4 ,punch and drift an eyehole #a-c_/d inches from the end1 making all sides straight and smooth1 as shown at a1 ,fig4 #hh4 ,with a pair of #c_/d-;inch fullers1 form two depressions on opposite sides #a_/d inch from the eye1 as at b1 fullering the metal to #e_/h inch thick4 ,from this place draw the end tapering to #a-a_/b #a_/h inch1 and trim it off at a right angle to the stock1 as at c4 ,using a hot cutter and working equally from all sides1 cut the tool from the bar #a-a_/d inches from the edge of the eye4 ,draw the head end tapering to about #g_/h inch from the eye1 draw the corners to form a slightly octagonal section4 ,remove all projecting metal so as to produce a convex head4 7,see ,fig4 #hi47 ,this will be referred to later as forming the head4 ,grind both sides of the cutting end equally to form an angle of #fj degrees1 with the cutting edge parallel to the eye4 ,harden1 and temper to a dark purple or blue4 #ajd4 ,cold ,cutter4--,figs4 #ij and #ia4 ,punching1 forging1 hardening1 and tempering4 ,material3 #d inches of #a-a_/d-;inch square tool steel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--,,steps ,,in ,,making ,,the ,,cold ,,cutter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--;,,cold ,,cutter4 ,punch and drift an eye #b inches from the end a1 ,fig4 #ij4 ,draw this end tapering on the sides parallel with the eye1 forming convex surfaces and terminating in #a #c_/af inch4 7,see sketches b and c47 ,cut the tool off at c1 #a-a_/d inches from the eye1 and form the head4 ,grind the cutting end equally from both sides to form an angle of #fj degrees1 and a convex cutting edge similar to that shown at d4 ,harden1 and temper to a dark purple or light blue4 ,the finished tool is shown in ,fig4 #ia4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--,,square-,,edged ,,set ,,hammer4 #aje4 ,square-edged ,set4--,fig4 #ib4 ,punching and forging4 ,material3 #c-a_/b inches of #a-;inch square tool steel4 ,heavier or lighter stock may be used if desired4 ,punch and drift an eye #a-a_/d inches from the end1 then1 using a pair of #c_/h-;inch fullers1 form depressions about #a_/h inch deep across the corners1 as at a1 ,fig4 #ib4 ,cut the tool off #a-a_/b inches from the eye1 and form the head to #c_/d inch at the end4 ,heat and anneal in warm ashes2 when it is cold1 grind the face smooth1 straight1 and at right angles to the stock4 #ajf4 ,hardy4--,fig4 #ic4 ,fullering1 forging1 hardening1 and tempering4 ,material3 #c inches of #b #g_/h-;inch tool steel4 ,using steel #b inches wide with a thickness equal to the dimension of the hardy hole1 fuller and draw a slightly tapered shank #a-c_/d or #b inches long1 to fit loosely into the anvil4 ,the broken lines at a1 ,fig4 #ic1 indicate the drawn shank4 ,cut off the stock #a-a_/b inches from the shoulders at b4 ,heat and drive the drawn end into the hardy hole so as to square up the shoulders and fit them to the anvil4 ,then draw the heavy end tapering gradually from the sides1 terminating #a_/h inch thick and #b inches wide4 ,grind this tool similar to the hot cutter2 harden1 and temper to a purple or blue4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--;,,hardy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4--;,,flatter ,,or ,,round-,,edged ,,set ,,hammer4 #ajg4 ,flatter4--,fig4 #id4 ,upsetting1 forging1 and punching4 ,material3 #d-c_/d inches of #a-a_/b-;inch square tool steel4 ,in forming the face of a flatter1 the metal should be upset4 ,this may be accomplished by ramming1 but when so done1 excess metal is formed just above the wide portion1 causing considerable fullering and forging4 ,if a piece of steel #d-c_/d inches long and #a-a_/b inches square is cut off1 and one end is drawn slightly tapering1 it may1 when heated1 be placed in a square hole of the right size in the swage block1 with the drawn end supported on something solid1 leaving #a-a_/b inches projecting4 ,the hot steel can then be hammered down with a couple of sledges1 until the face is formed to #c_/h inch thick or about #b inches square1 as at a1 ,fig4 #id4 ,punch and drift an eyehole #a-a_/d inches from the face1 then draw and form the head4 ,anneal in warm ashes4 ,when it is cold1 the face should be ground perfectly straight1 smooth1 and at a right angle to the body1 with the surrounding edges slightly round1 as shown1 or they may be left sharp and square if desired4 ,a round-edged set hammer may be made in this manner1 but as the face should not be so large1 less metal is required4 #ajh4 ,small ,crowbar4--,fig4 #ie4 ,drawing1 swaging1 welding1 and tempering steel4 ,material3 #af inches of #c_/d-;inch square mild steel1 also a small piece of tool steel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--,,steel-,,faced ,,crowbar4 ,draw #aa inches to the following dimensions3 the first #d inches to #c_/d-;inch octagon1 then beginning with #c_/d-;inch round gradually reduce to #a_/b-;inch round at the end4 ,this should be smoothly forged and swaged4 ,form a depression #a_/d inch deep on one side of the square portion #b inches from the end2 from this1 draw the metal to #a_/b #c_/d inch2 by using a hot cutter where the depression was made1 split and raise up a scarf fully #c_/d inch long1 as shown in the sketch4 ,prepare a piece of tool steel #b-a_/b #c_/d #a_/b inches2 on one end of this draw a long1 thin scarf and roughen it with a hot cutter1 so it can be held in place securely4 7,see ,fig4 #ie47 ,heat the bar cautiously where the scarf was raised1 to avoid burning it2 slightly cool the tool steel and put it into place4 ,by holding the piece of steel against a hardy1 swage1 or fuller1 the scarf can be hammered down tightly over the tool steel1 which should hold it securely for heating4 ,place the pieces in the fire and heat them to a red2 remove and thoroughly cover them with borax2 replace them and raise the heat to a bright yellow or welding heat4 ,while the first light blows for the welding are being delivered1 the end should be held against something to prevent the steel from being displaced2 when positive that welding is proceeding1 make the blows heavier and complete the operation4 ,when the pieces are securely joined1 cut off the corner opposite to the steel face1 and draw the bar tapering from this side1 to a sharp1 flat edge #a inch wide4 ,bend this through its smallest dimensions to an inside radius of about #c-a_/b or #d inches and with the edge extending #a_/b inch to one side of the bar1 as in ,fig4 #ie4 ,file or grind the outside surface and edge of this2 then harden1 and temper to a blue4 #aji4 ,eye or ,ring ,bolts4--,an assortment of eyes is shown in ,figs4 #if1 #ig1 and #ih4 ,all eyes should possess two essentials3 the necessary strength and a good appearance2 therefore the method of making should be chosen to fulfill those requirements4 ,generally the eyes that have the most strength require the greatest amount of labor4 ,a1 ,fig4 #if1 is an open eye which is very easily made1 because bending is the only operation required4 ,the method of making this form of eye has already been explained in section #fi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4--;,,eye ,,or ,,ring ,,bolts4 ,a1 an open eye2 ,b1 a welded eye4 ,b is a welded eye4 ,it is made by forming first a flat1 pointed scarf on the end of the bar and bending it through its smallest diameter where the drawing was begun4 ,this bend should be no less than #gj degrees on the outer side4 ,determine the length of the material needed for forming a ring of the required diameter1 then subtract the diameter of the material from the determined length4 ,using this result1 place a center-punch mark f that distance from e1 and bend the piece at f in the same direction as e4 ,form the metal between the bends into a circle1 and place the scarf in position for welding1 as at ,b4 ,during the heating for welding1 if the circle heats more rapidly than desired1 it should be cooled off and the heating then continued4 ,the welding should be done as quickly as possible and swaged if required4 ,the eye bolt1 shown in ,fig4 #ig1 is similar to a solid forged eye4 ,it is formed and welded with a specially forged scarf called a butterfly scarf4 ,determine the amount of material needed to form a ring of the required diameter1 and add to that a sufficient allowance for upsetting and welding1 which would be approximately equal to the diameter of the material used4 ,an invariable rule for that allowance cannot be given1 because the results of the upsetting are seldom the same4 ,place a center-punch mark the estimated distance from one end of the bar2 then upset the end #a_/h inch larger than its original diameter1 next upset it at the mark to a similar dimension1 and bend it there to an angle of no less than #gj degrees4 ,now with the bend lying flat on the face of the anvil1 draw out a thin1 narrow scarf with a small ball peen hammer1 not any wider than the thickness of the metal4 ,the scarf may be drawn also by holding the outer portion of the bend on a sharp corner of the anvil and by drawing with overhanging blows4 ,this scarf is shown in the upper view of ,fig4 #ig as it should appear4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--;,,eye ,,bolt ,,made ,,with ,a ,,butterfly ,,scarf4 ,the butterfly scarf should now be formed on the opposite side from the one just finished1 by holding each side of the end at an angle of about #de degrees on the edge of the anvil2 this scarf may be drawn with overhanging blows4 ,the extreme end should also be drawn thin in a similar manner1 while it is held at a right angle with the edge of the anvil4 ,all outer edges of this scarf should be thin and sharp4 ,bend the metal into a circle and place the scarfs in position1 as shown at ,c1 having all edges overlapping slightly and hammered down into close contact4 ,heat the work for welding1 observing the precaution given in the explanation of the former eye4 ,in welding1 deliver the first few blows uprightly on each side1 then weld the edges of the scarfs with the ball of the hammer4 ,a few careful experiments with these scarfs will show what is required1 and with practice no more labor will be needed than is required for the previous eye4 ,the finished product will be more substantial and presentable4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #ih4--;,d1 ,a ,,ship-,,smith ,,eye2 ,e1 ,a ,,solid ,,forged ,,eye4 ,d1 ,fig4 #ih1 is generally called a ship-smith eye1 because it is commonly used in ship work where strength is essential4 ,special swages1 convex lengthwise1 are usually provided for shaping the concave curves where they are formed and welded4 ,the eye should be circular between the places indicated by f in sketch ,d1 and the lines from f to where it is welded should be as nearly straight as possible1 to increase the strength4 ,in estimating the material1 take two thirds of the length for a ring of the required diameter1 and add to that the proper allowance for the stock which forms the portion from f to the weld1 and also an amount sufficient for the scarf4 ,this scarf is drawn similar to the one for the welded eye in ,fig4 #if1 but it should be made convex through its smallest dimension with a top fuller1 whose diameter is equal to that of the metal4 ,this is done while the metal is held in a bottom swage of corresponding size4 ,when the scarf is finished1 bend the eye into shape and bring the scarf close up to the stem of the eye4 ,heat and weld with swages2 if convex swages are not obtainable1 others may be used by taking care to prevent marring the curves4 ,this eye may also be welded with a large fuller while it is held over the horn of the anvil4 ,if the curves are severely marred1 the strength of the eye is lessened4 ,a solid forged eye is shown at ,e4 ,when eyes like this are drop-forged in special dies1 as they generally are1 they do not require much skill1 but when made entirely by hand they require considerable experience4 ,in forging an eye of this kind1 the volume of material needed must first be determined1 making some extra allowance for the usual waste4 ,a convenient size of material should then be selected 7round is preferable7 and the amount required for the eye marked off4 ,the round stem should be drawn down to size and the part for the eye forged to a spherical shape1 then flattened1 punched1 and enlarged to correct dimensions4 #aaj4 ,calipers4--,the calipers shown in ,fig4 #ii may be easily made from the dimensions given2 #c_/d #a_/h-;inch stock should be used for the main piece1 and #a_/b #a_/h-;inch stock for the legs4 #aaa4 ,stock ,calculation for ,bending4--,in the expansion and contraction of metals during the operation of bending1 there is a fixed line1 where the metal is left undisturbed2 in other words1 where it is not increased or decreased in length4 ,so all measurements taken to determine the length of material required for producing any bent shapes should be taken from that fixed or undisturbed location1 in order to attain accurate results4 ,all materials which have a symmetrical cross section1 such as round1 square1 octagonal1 oval1 or oblong1 have the above line at their true centers1 no matter which way they are bent4 ,while the metal remains undisturbed at the center of any of the above sections1 the rest of it undergoes a change2 the inner portion1 in the direction of bending1 will contract and become thicker1 and the outer portion will expand and become thinner4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--,,steps ,,in ,,making ,,calipers4 ,other conditions arise1 however1 to modify these rules4 ,if the heat is unevenly distributed1 or if the stock is not of a uniform thickness1 the results will not be exactly as estimated4 ,when a heavy ring is formed of oblong material and bent through its larger diameter1 as shown in sketch ,a1 ,fig4 #ajj1 and the product is to be finished to a uniform thickness1 the expansion of the outer portion will make it necessary to use somewhat thicker material1 to provide for the decrease of metal which will take place4 ,the inner half1 then too thick1 could be reduced to the required size1 but this operation always alters natural conditions of bending1 and changes the general results4 ,these conditions are not very noticeable and do not require special attention when small-sized materials are operated upon1 but they must be observed when large oblong or square stock is formed into a ring requiring exact dimensions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--;,,calculations ,,of ,,lengths ,,for ,,rings4 ,in all cases of this kind1 the required length must be established from the undisturbed center and the ends cut at an angle of #he degrees4 ,if the material is to be welded1 it should be scarfed on opposite sides and lapped when bent4 ,when hoops or bands of flat or oblong material are bent1 scarfed1 and welded through the small diameter1 then both scarfs should be formed on the same side while straight1 and bent as shown at ,b1 ,fig4 #ajj2 the scarfs then will fit more readily than if they were formed on opposite sides4 ,sometimes1 in instances of this kind1 only one end is scarfed1 and the piece is bent in a similar manner1 with the unscarfed end on the outside and just lapping enough to cover the heel of the inner scarf4 ,another form of ring requiring a calculation of the area as well as of the length is one of a wedge-shaped section1 as shown at ,c1 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,here the area of the required section is found and the material supplied with the proper thickness and area4 ,the length also must be computed1 then cut1 scarfed1 and welded1 as previously explained2 after this the ring may be drawn to the form desired4 ,the circumference of a circle may be found by multiplying its diameter by #c4adaf 774 7,see tables1 pages #bje-bjf47 ,for rings or bands the length of the center line1 c1 ,fig4 #ajj1 should be found4 ,example3 ,if a equals #e inches and b equals #b inches1 c will equal #g inches1 and the length of stock for the ring will be #g #c4adaf #ba4iia inches1--practically #bb inches4 #c-a_/g may be used for the value of instead of #c4adaf4 ,,questions ,,for ,,review ,describe the proper construction of a pair of tongs4 ,what sort of steel should be used in making lathe tools8 ,what operations are employed in making them8 ,what is the color of the temper8 ,if they were tempered to a blue1 would they be tempered harder or softer8 ,are forging and hardening heats the same8 ,state the difference in grinding a boring and a threading tool4 ,explain the difference in making a right- and a left-hand diamond point tool4 ,how should a side tool be hardened8 ,why shouldn't the head of a cold chisel be cooled off quickly when it is finished8 ,explain the difference between tempering a cold chisel and tempering a lathe tool4 ,describe the shapes of the hot and the cold cutter4 ,how should they be tempered8 ,how are the square-edged set and the flatter treated in place of tempering4 ,explain how it is done4 ,describe different methods of making eye or ring bolts4 ,how should measurements be made on stock to be bent8 ,state what has been said about scarfing flat or oblong material for rings4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,steam ,,hammer1 ,,tools1 ,,and ,,exercises #aab4 ,a ,forging4--,a forging is an article made of metal1 generally steel or iron1 and produced by heating and hammering4 ,it may be used for either practical or ornamental purposes4 ,the various forgings already described were made by methods such as the older class of smiths practiced1 and are called hand forgings4 ,from a practical standpoint these smiths were familiar with the characteristic composition of metals and with the knowledge of how they should be worked4 ,many forgings are produced at present by machinery4 ,the product is satisfactory for most practical purposes1 and is generally equal to that made by hand4 ,the machines used are the drop hammers1 horizontal and vertical presses1 steam hammers1 and numerous other devices4 ,the power used for operating them may be either steam1 air1 water1 or electricity4 #aac4 ,the ,drop ,hammer4--,the drop hammer is provided with a pair of dies made of cast steel1 one upper and one lower1 having suitably shaped depressions made in them for forming the forgings4 ,the lower die is held stationary on a solid foundation block1 and the upper one is secured to a heavy weight or hammer4 ,this is raised perpendicularly and allowed to drop upon the metal1 which is held on the fixed die by the smith1 thus forming the forging4 ,if the work is small and simple1 all depressions may be made in a single pair of dies1 and the forging can be completed with one hammer and without changing the dies4 ,work somewhat complicated may require two or more pairs of dies1 with various shapes of depressions4 ,the stock is broken down or blocked out by the first pair and then completed by the stamping and finishing dies4 ,larger pieces may require also a number of pairs of dies1 then an equal number of hammers may be used1 each fitted with a set of dies4 ,the material is passed from one to the other1 and the work completed without changing dies1 and possibly without reheating the metal4 #aad4 ,presses4--,presses may be either horizontal or vertical and are generally used for bending or pressing the metal into some desired shape or form2 they are quite convenient for producing duplicate and accurate shapes4 ,forming-dies or blocks are also required here1 but they are generally made of cast iron1 and their construction need not be so accurate4 ,after the presses have been properly adjusted1 very little skill is required in their operation1--simply the heating of the material and placing it against a gauge or between the dies4 ,one thrust of the plunger will complete the operation4 #aae4 ,the ,steam ,hammer4--,the steam hammer was first recorded by ,mr4 ,james ,nasmyth in his 8scheme book0 on the #bdth of ,november1 #ahci4 ,although this was the exact date of its origin1 he first saw it put into practical use by the ,creuzot ,iron ,works of ,france in #ahdb4 ,nasmyth's invention legally dates from ,june1 #ahdb1 when his patent was procured4 ,of the various machines that have been devised for the smith's use1 to relieve him of the laboriousness of pounding metal into shape1 there is none that could take the place of this invention4 ,numerous shapes and forms can be produced more accurately and rapidly by the employment of the steam hammer than by the use of hand methods4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--;,a ,,steam ,,hammer ,,equipped ,,with ,a ,,foot ,,lever4 ,before proceeding any further1 a few words of warning and advice may not be out of place4 ,although this invention is a great benefactor to the smith1 it is not possessed with human intelligence1 nor is it a respecter of persons4 ,the power of steam will always exert its utmost force when liberated1 so do not let in too much steam at first4 ,unless the material is held horizontally and flat on the die1 the blow will jar the hands badly and will bend the material4 ,all tools such as cutters and fullers should be held firmly but lightly1 so that they may adjust themselves to the die and the descending blow4 ,after the hammer has been put into motion1 the blows will fall in a perfectly routine manner4 ,by his careful observation and a thorough understanding of the necessary requirements1 and by signals from the smith1 the hammer operator should regulate the force of the blows to suit the smith's convenience4 ,a caution pertaining to the tongs used for handling the material should be carefully observed4 ,whenever work is to be forged with the steam hammer1 the material should be held with perfect-fitting tongs secured by slipping a link over the handles2 a few light blows delivered on the link will tighten their grip4 #aaf4 ,steam ,hammer ,tools4--,first some necessary tools will be explained1 then exercises requiring their use will be given1 followed by a few operations where simple appliances are needed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--,,the ,,hack ,,or ,,cutter4 #aag4 ,the hack or cutter 7,fig4 #ajb7 is used for nearly the same purposes as the hot cutter already described4 ,it should be made of tool steel from #j4hj to #j4ij per cent carbon4 ,the head or top is made convex1 as shown1 and not more than #e_/h inch thick1 tapering equally on both sides to the cutting edge1 which may be made either #c_/af or #a_/d inch thick4 ,it should be ground straight and parallel to the top and tempered to a dark blue4 ,the blade is about #b-a_/d or #b-a_/b inches wide1 unless intended for heavy forgings1 when all dimensions should be increased4 ,the width of the blade should not be too great1 however1 for the broader the cutter1 the greater its liability to glance sidewise or turn over when the blows are delivered upon it4 ,the length of this cutter may be from #c-c_/d to #d inches4 ,the handle may be about #bh inches long1 approximately #c_/d inch in diameter at a and gradually tapered towards the end1 where it is about #a_/b inch4 ,the portion indicated at b is flattened to an oblong section1 as shown1 to allow springing when the blows are delivered and to prevent bruising the hands4 #aah4 ,the circular cutter 7,fig4 #ajc7 is made of the same material and with a handle of similar dimensions and form as the hack4 ,a section of the cutting portion on a-a is shown1 and suitable dimensions given4 ,if convex ends are to be cut1 the perpendicular side of the blade should always be on the inner side of the curve1 but on the outer side for concave ends4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4--,,the ,,circular ,,cutter4 ,an assortment of these cutters with various-sized arcs may be provided to suit requirements1 but quite frequently the curved cutting portion is altered to suit the particular work at hand4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4--,,the ,,trimming ,,chisel4 #aai4 ,the trimming chisel 7,fig4 #ajd7 is made quite similar to an ordinary hot cutter and likewise provided with a wooden handle4 ,it should be strongly constructed1 perfectly straight on one side1 and not too long from the cutting edge to the top to avoid its being turned over when the blows are delivered upon it4 ,the grinding should be done on the tapered side only1 with the cutting edge tempered to a dark blue4 #abj4 ,the cold cutter 7,fig4 #aje7 is used for purposes similar to those of the ordinary cold cutter4 ,it should be strongly made in a triangular form1 as shown in the end view1 also with a spring handle like that of the hack4 ,the top is made convex1 and the sides taper to the cutting edge1 which should be ground equally from both sides4 ,it should be carefully tempered for cutting cold material4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aje4--,,the ,,cold ,,cutter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--;,,breaking ,,cold ,,stock4 ,in cutting stock with this tool1 the material should be nicked sufficiently deep on the exterior to allow it to be broken4 ,by holding the piece securely with the hammer1 and the nicked portion even with the edge of the dies1 it may be broken off by a few blows from a sledge4 ,the steam hammer may also be used to break the stock when nicked with the cold cutter4 ,the piece should be placed on the lower die of the hammer1 as shown in ,fig4 #ajf1 and broken by one or two sharp blows from the hammer4 ,a piece of round stock can be used instead of the triangular piece of steel1 with the same result4 ,when material is being broken in this way1 see that no one is standing in a direct line with the stock1 as there is some liability of one or both pieces flying in either direction4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--;,,cutting ,,stock4 ,when using the hack 7,fig4 #ajb7 for cutting square stock1 cut equally from all sides1 as shown at a1 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,this will produce smoother ends than if it were cut unequally and will prevent the short end from turning upward when the final blows are delivered4 ,the fin or core that is formed by the hack1 shown at b1 generally adheres to one of the pieces1 but it can be removed by using the trimming chisel in the manner shown4 ,these fins are commonly removed by the use of an ordinary hot cutter and sledge4 ,the hack1 if held perpendicularly1 will not cut the end of either piece square4 ,if one end is to be cut square1 the cutter should be held as shown at c4 ,round material may be cut similarly1 but to avoid marring its circular section it may be held in a swage fitted to the hammer die4 ,flat stock may be cut equally from both sides1 or if it is cut nearly through from one side1 the operation can be completed by placing a small piece of square untempered steel over the cut1 as shown at e4 ,a sharp blow of the hammer will drive the steel through into the opening and produce a straight1 smooth cut4 ,when a semicircular end is to be produced1 similar to that indicated by the broken line at d1 the circular cutter should be used4 ,here1 also1 the cutting should be done equally from each side4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4--,,the ,,checking ,,tool ,,or ,,side ,,fuller4 #aba4 ,the checking tool or side fuller 7,fig4 #ajh7 is made of tool steel with a carbon content1 the same as for the cutters4 ,the handle also is the same1 with the exception of part a1 which provides the spring4 ,here1 on account of its being used in two different positions1 a twisted form is much better1 because the tool may spring in either direction4 ,from the end view you will notice that it has a triangular section with one square corner and two curved ones4 ,a convenient dimension for this tool is about #b-a_/b inches over all from the square to the circular corners4 ,it would be convenient to have a smaller one also1 of about #a-a_/b inches4 ,the length of this tool should correspond with that of the cutters4 ,in use1 one of the circular corners of the checking tool is forced into the metal1 forming a triangular-shaped depression1 as shown at b4 ,two depressions are shown in this sketch in opposite directions to each other1 made by holding the tool in different positions and using both the circular edges4 ,the object of this operation is to set off the rectangular portion b so that the ends c-c can be drawn out without disturbing the center4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aji4--,,the ,,fuller4 #abb4 ,the fuller 7,fig4 #aji7 is made with a handle like that of the checking tool1 but the portion used for fullering is made circular in section and about #d inches long4 ,an assortment of sizes should be provided1 with diameters of #a1 #a-a_/b1 and #b inches4 ,when smaller sizes are needed1 a bar of round steel may be conveniently substituted4 ,these tools may be properly termed top fullers1 because they are generally held on top of the metal and the blows are delivered from above1 thus forming depressions on one side only4 ,sometimes double depressions are required directly opposite to each other4 ,in such cases a short piece of round metal1 the same size as the fuller1 is placed on the die directly under the top fuller1 with the metal between the two4 ,if the depressions are to be only semicircular1 a short piece of half-round material may be provided which is not liable to be dislocated or jarred out of position on the die4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4--,,the ,,spring ,,fullers4 #abc4 ,the combined spring fullers 7,fig4 #aaj7 are very convenient for making double depressions4 ,they are similar to the single fuller1 but are flattened out at a and b1 so that they may be opened for various sizes of stock4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4--,,the ,,combination ,,fuller ,,and ,,set4 #abd4 ,the combination fuller and set 7,fig4 #aaa7 may be made with a straight1 round handle1 but a twisted one is more desirable1 because the tool is frequently used in different positions4 ,it should be made of a quality of steel that will withstand severe hammering without becoming battered4 ,the heavy end which forms the tool is made about #a-a_/b by #b-a_/b inches2 the corners on one side are left sharp and square1 while those opposite are made quarter-round4 ,one side of this tool may be made almost semicircular if it is intended to be used as a fuller4 ,the length may be about #d inches4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aab4--;,,drawing ,,and ,,finishing ,,with ,,the ,,combination ,,fuller ,,and ,,set4 ,this tool is used as a fuller or set in drawing metal between projections which have been formed by using the checking tool4 ,in ,fig4 #aab the sections of metal1 indicated by a and c1 are to be drawn to smaller dimensions4 ,this cannot be done with the hammer1 because these places are narrower than the width of the hammer dies4 ,at c the fuller or set is being used flatwise1 which is the better way1 because the two round corners will not cause galling4 ,at a it is shown in use edgewise2 but this should not be continued after the opening has been enlarged sufficiently to use the tool as at c1 unless perfectly sharp corners are desired4 ,another convenient use for this tool is for finishing a roughly drawn tapered piece of metal1 as at d4 ,here are shown the roughened tapered surfaces1 as they have been produced by the hammer1 also the method of using the set4 ,if there is much of this kind of work to be done1 it would be advisable to provide a special tool with a circular side which could be used solely as a flatter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aac4--,,the ,,combined ,,top ,,and ,,bottom ,,swages4 #abe4 ,the combined top and bottom swages 7,fig4 #aac7 are also called spring swages1 because they are somewhat flexible at the connecting loop1 which keeps them in adjustment4 ,the best material for these swages1 on account of the constant hammering to which they are subjected1 is a good quality of mild or soft steel4 ,much hammering has a tendency to crystallize the metal and causes frequent breakage4 ,the heavy parts forming the swages ought to be well proportioned and made from sufficiently heavy stock4 ,the handles are drawn out from the same material and welded1 or merely stub ends may be drawn from this material1 and then flat stock welded on to form the handles4 ,in either case the edges should be swaged half-round previous to welding4 ,the top and bottom of the handles are not parallel with the upper and lower parts of the swages1 because the heavy parts only should receive hammer blows4 ,the grooves should be perfect semicircles1 with the exception of the edges indicated at e1 which should be slightly round1 as shown4 ,this prevents metal from becoming lodged in the swages4 ,if the metal sticks1 the smith will be unable to revolve it in the swages1 and it will become oblong in section4 ,the corners on top of the upper swage should be removed1 as shown1 so that the blows will be received more directly through its center4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aad4--,,the ,,top ,,and ,,bottom ,,swages4 #abf4 ,the top and bottom swages 7,a and ,b1 ,fig4 #aad7 are made separate1 but of the same quality of material as those just described4 ,the handle of the top swage ,a1 however1 should be round1 with a small portion flattened1 as shown4 ,the bottom swage ,b is constructed with projecting lugs d1 as shown4 ,the distance between the lugs should be equal to the width of the lower hammer die1 over which the swage should fit closely enough to prevent its displacement4 ,the swages may be used together or separately1 as desired1 the lower one being convenient for cutting round material1 as it prevents marring the sectional form of the stock4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aae4--,,the ,,bevel ,,or ,,taper ,,tool4 #abg4 ,the bevel or taper tool 7,fig4 #aae7 is provided with lugs and fits the hammer die4 ,when constructed for general use1 the pitch should not be too great1 because it may be increased by placing a short piece of metal under one end1 as shown1 or decreased by inserting metal under the opposite end4 ,the heavy end should be made as nearly perpendicular as possible1 with the outer edge of the die4 ,this tool is very handy for drawing any tapering work1 such as cold chisels1 levers1 keys1 etc4 #abh4 ,the ,v block 7,fig4 #aaf7 was introduced by the inventor of the steam hammer1 and was used instead of a bottom swage4 ,when large1 round sections are to be produced1 and swages of the proper size are not obtainable1 this tool may be used4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4--,,the ,v ,,block4 ,when round stock is drawn without a swage1 only two portions directly opposite to each other are acted on by the hammer1 thus causing some liability of producing an oblong section or a hollow centered forging4 ,these difficulties are avoided to a certain extent by the use of the ,v block1 because the force of the blow acts in three directions4 #abi4 ,the yoke or saddle 7,fig4 #aag7 should be made of heavy flat material bent into the form of a ,u1 with the ends perfectly straight and parallel4 ,it should be provided with lugs fitted to the lower die so that both sides will stand erect and at right angles to it1 as at ,a4 ,the distance between the sides may be of any convenient width1 #b-a_/b inches or more1 depending upon the character of the work to be done4 ,semicircular depressions should be made on the edges1 as shown at e4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aag4--,,the ,,yoke ,,or ,,saddle4 ,another view of the yoke is given at ,b1 with one side removed4 ,as seen here1 it is used to draw weldless or solid rings after the stock has been blocked out and a sufficiently large hole has been punched in it to allow it to be hung over the pin p1 which rests in the depressions previously mentioned4 ,hammer blows can be delivered on the exterior of the stock1 thus drawing it and increasing its diameter4 ,as this is increased1 larger pins should be used1 to produce a smoother and more evenly drawn ring4 ,the yoke1 shown at ,c1 is being used as a bridge for drawing the ends of a solid forged jaw4 ,by using it for purposes like this1 considerable hand labor may be saved4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aah4--;,a1 ,,bolster2 ,b1 ,a ,,plug ,,punch ,,in ,,position ,,for ,,use4 #acj4 ,bolsters or collars 7a1 ,fig4 #aah7 are used for punching holes1 upsetting metal for bolt heads1 and similar operations4 ,they should be made of soft steel4 #aca4 ,punches4--,at b1 ,fig4 #aah1 a plug punch is shown in position on the metal over a washer or bolster ready for punching4 ,when properly located1 a few blows of the hammer will force the punch through the metal and produce a smoothly finished hole4 ,notice that the punch is made somewhat tapering1 and that the heavier portion is driven through first4 ,precaution should be taken not to have the punch fit the bolster too closely or be too long1 also to have it directly over the hole in the bolster before attempting to drive it through4 ,holes can be punched with ordinary handle punches1 but care should be taken not to have them too long2 even then a bolster or something must be used1 so that the punch can be driven clear through the metal and not come in contact with the lower hammer die4 #acb4 ,steam ,hammer ,work4--,the following exercises are known as machine forgings4 ,they will require the use of the steam or power hammer and the tools just described4 ,it will be necessary to know beforehand what parts of the work are to be finished1 so as to provide a proper allowance at those places4 ,the term 8finished0 means that the surface is to be removed by the machinist1 and the work made smooth and to the required dimensions4 ,all machine drawings should designate the parts that require finishing1 by either the entire word or just the letter 8,f40 ,the symbol is more convenient to use for only certain parts1 but if the entire forging is to be finished1 it may be indicated by 8finished all over40 #acc4 ,crank ,shaft4--,fig4 #aai4 ,this is shown without dimensions or finish marks4 ,select stock sufficiently heavy to produce a forging equal to that shown at b4 ,make two depressions with the checking tool1 as shown1 the distance c between them corresponding with the dimension a on the crank4 ,draw the ends square and straight on the lower side1 as shown at d1 then octagonal1 and then round4 ,in this way the fillets and shoulders will be equal1 as shown at e4 ,the two ends should be swaged smooth and round1 then made perfectly straight and at right angles to the crank4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai4--,,steps ,,in ,,making ,a ,,crank ,,shaft4 #acd4 ,connecting ,rod4--,fig4 #abj4 ,the volume of the material required for section e must first be estimated4 ,then ascertain how many inches of the selected material will be required to give this volume4 ,this will be the distance b for the fullering shown at a4 ,the sizes of the fullers to be used should be the same as the required radii r4 ,fuller in the depressions as shown1 so that they will correspond with the dimensions g1 h1 and l of the finished rod4 ,the metal between g and h should then be drawn slightly tapered1 as shown in the top view1 and to a uniform thickness l4 ,the small end must now be drawn to the proper size and trimmed with the circular cutter4 ,make the rod perfectly straight1 with the ends parallel to each other and to the rod4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj4--,,steps ,,in ,,making ,a ,,connecting ,,rod4 #ace4 ,rod ,strap4--,fig4 #aba4 ,this forging is begun by blocking out1 as shown at ,b1 with e a little greater than h and plenty of stock at f4 ,the length k must equal l1 with a slight allowance of surplus metal for the bending operation4 ,sketch ,c shows the method of bending4 ,a forming block m should be provided for this1 the width of which corresponds nearly with the dimension g1 and the thickness is somewhat greater than that at d4 ,the length may be equal to the inside length of the finished strap1 but it could be used if shorter4 ,by placing this block perpendicularly on the bottom die1 with the forging resting on it and a small piece of metal n for a blocking on top of that1 the upper die may be brought down and a full head of steam turned on while the stroke lever is held down4 ,both ends can be bent down simultaneously with sledges4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aba4--,,steps ,,in ,,making ,a ,,rod ,,strap4 ,after the bending1 there may be required more or less labor with the flatter and sledge to square it up in proper shape4 ,then the ends can be cut off to equal lengths with the hack or hot cutter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abb4--,,steps ,,in ,,making ,,an ,,eccentric ,,jaw4 #acf4 ,eccentric ,jaw4--,a1 ,fig4 #abb4 ,first form the depression c with the checking tool2 then draw out the end d to the form e and punch a hole at f by using an oblong punch4 ,then using the hack1 carefully cut from both sides at the places indicated by the broken lines at f4 ,any fin remaining after the cutting can be removed with a hot cutter or the trimming chisel4 ,the ends forming the jaw can be drawn to the proper size by the use of the yoke4 ,the semicircular ends can also be cut by using the circular cutter1 but these ends will require some trimming with a hot cutter1 because all the work must be done from exterior sides4 #acg4 ,hand ,lever4--,a1 ,fig4 #abc4 ,this illustrates and explains a simple method of stamping which may be extended or adjusted to suit a variety of forgings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abc4--,,steps ,,in ,,making ,a ,,hand ,,lever4 ,in this case two stamping rings are made to suit the work at hand1 as follows3 ,if the dimension h is #b inches and the thickness of the lever i is #a_/b inch1 the rings must be made of #c_/d-;inch round stock1 and welded to an inside diameter corresponding with the dimension k4 ,first draw the material to correspond exactly with the dimension k in one direction and somewhat greater than that of h in the opposite4 ,the latter dimension is made larger1 to provide some excess metal for the stamping operation1 which is done in the following manner3 ,place one of the rings centrally on the bottom die of the hammer1 as shown at ,b2 lay the material on this1 with the dimension h perpendicular and the proper distance from the end to provide enough metal for forming the lever and handle4 ,then place the other ring on top of the material directly above the lower one1 and deliver blows on these rings until the entire thickness almost corresponds with the desired dimension h4 ,the rings will be forced into the metal and form two depressions1 as shown at ,c4 ,next with a hot cutter or trimming chisel remove the metal forming the corners e4 ,then draw out the lever portion roughly1 at first2 by using the taper tool a uniform taper can be produced correctly4 ,cut off the extra stock at the boss1 and remove the surplus metal which projects between the bosses as indicated at d1 and finish the end smoothly with a common top swage4 ,the handle portion can be formed at the anvil with top and bottom swages after the end has been cut semicircular and to the desired length4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abd4--,,steps ,,in ,,making ,a ,,connecting ,,lever4 #ach4 ,connecting ,lever4--,a1 ,fig4 #abd4 ,after drawing the metal to an appropriate dimension1 fuller two depressions b on opposite sides1 the proper distance from the end1 to form the jaw4 ,a single boss c should be stamped with one ring1 at the required distance from b to provide the necessary amount of metal for the length d of the lever4 ,then remove the corners1 as indicated by the broken lines4 ,begin drawing the lever by using the combination set1 and finish the flat side with the hammer1 producing the taper edge with the taper tool4 ,punch a square hole in the jaw and remove the metal indicated by the broken lines at e1 with a hot cutter4 ,finish the jaw similar to the eccentric jaw and the boss as in the previous exercise4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abe4--,,solid ,,forged ,,ring4 #aci4 ,solid ,forged ,ring4--,fig4 #abe4 ,this should be made of soft steel1 the dimensions being supplied by the instructor to suit the stock and equipment at hand4 ,the volume 7see calculating rules and tables1 pp4 #aig-bjf7 of the forging must first be determined and some surplus allowance for forging provided4 ,the process of making the ring will be found in the explanation of the use of the yoke in section #abi4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abf4--,,producing ,,double ,,and ,,single ,,offsets4 #adj4 ,double and ,single ,offsets4--,fig4 #abf4 ,the following exercises are given to explain the use of simple appliances for producing work accurately and rapidly4 ,examples similar to the four following ones would require considerable care and skill if they were to be produced without the use of the steam hammer4 ,at a is shown a double offset bend1 the depth of which1 for illustration1 may be #a_/b inch4 ,to produce this1 place two pieces of #a_/b-;inch flat material1 with width corresponding to that of the material to be bent1 on the lower die1 and sufficiently far apart to allow the offsets to form between them4 ,on these the material is placed1 and on top of that also1 located midway between the #a_/b-;inch supporting pieces1 a third piece of #a_/b-;inch stock is placed4 ,the width of this should correspond with the required dimension at a and should be somewhat longer than the width of the material to be bent4 ,this arrangement is shown at c4 ,by delivering a sufficiently heavy blow upon them1 the two offsets1 will be formed simultaneously and accurately4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abg4--,,simple ,,methods ,,for ,,bending ,,clamps ,,with ,a ,,steam ,,hammer4 ,in all operations of this kind the thickness of the lower forming pieces should always correspond with the required depth of the offset1 and the corners should be ground round to prevent shearing or galling4 ,at d is shown a single offset which can be produced in a similar way1 with the exception that here only two blocks are required4 ,but the forming corners of these should also be ground as previously stated1 and they are placed in position as shown at e4 ,figure #abg shows the method of bending a semicircular pipe or rod clamp4 ,here a piece of round stock f is used above for stamping1 but as the lower blocks are easily displaced1 it would be advisable to make a stamping block like that shown at g4 ,this could be used instead of the two lower pieces4 ,if the clamps were to be made square1 then the stamping block should be like the one shown at h1 and the upper piece as at f should be made square4 ,,questions ,,for ,,review ,what is a forging8 ,name the machines used in making forgings4 ,who invented the steam hammer8 ,how should material be held on the dies8 ,what tool is used in place of a hot cutter at the hammer8 ,how can a convex end be produced8 ,describe the special form of a trimming chisel4 ,how should metal be broken after it has been nicked with the cold cutter8 ,describe the correct way of using a hack in cutting square stock4 ,explain the use of a checking tool4 ,describe the different fullers used at the hammer4 ,explain their uses4 ,for what is a combination fuller and set used8 ,describe the hammer swages4 ,the bevel or taper tool4 ,what is it used for8 ,what is the advantage in the use of the ,v block8 ,describe the yoke4 ,explain its use4 ,what is the difference between a plug punch and a handle punch8 ,how is a bolster used for punching8 ,what does the word 8finished0 mean on a drawing8 ,what hammer tools are brought into use in making a crank shaft8 ,in making the connecting rod8 ,describe how the hammer is used in bending a rod strap4 ,what tools are brought into use in making the eccentric jaw8 ,describe the method of forming the bosses on the hand lever4 ,explain some simple methods of bending work with the steam hammer4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,art ,,smithing ,,and ,,scroll ,,work #ada4 ,art ,smithing4--,this subject might appropriately be considered a separate branch1 because many smiths1 who really deserve the credit of being excellent mechanics1 have never become proficient in this particular line of work4 ,art smithing is the highest development of metal work4 ,the best art smiths are foreigners1 as ,european countries use much more of this kind of work for decoration than this country does4 ,the greater part of this work is entirely too difficult for the average student unless it is attempted with the assistance of machinery4 ,it is possible1 however1 to do a certain amount of scroll work with accuracy and make simple decorative pieces4 ,one should commence with the design of the article to be made4 ,the harmonious combinations of straight and curved lines and their adaptation for different purposes should be studied4 ,the study of design will not be taken up here1 but several examples which will furnish a basis for further work along this line are given for consideration4 ,designing may be done on any convenient material such as paper1 wood1 or blackboard4 ,the last is preferable because confusing marks can easily be erased4 ,a sketch thus made may be used as a working drawing4 ,if the design is to be used many times1 a very convenient and substantial method is to reproduce it on a piece of shellacked pine board1 and then paint it on in solid form4 ,when this is dry1 a few more coats of shellac should be applied to preserve it4 ,if desired1 the length of each individual scroll may be indicated4 ,there are various methods of obtaining the different lengths3 by placing a strong string over the scroll and then measuring the string2 by using a piece of soft wire in the same manner1 lead wire being preferred2 or by the following method3-- ,take a piece of #a_/h-;inch material #c or #d feet long1 mark it lightly on both edges into equal spaces either #c or #f inches long1 and stamp the feet or inches upon it with steel figures4 ,after this is done1 a small rolling curl1 as shown in ,fig4 #abi1 should be formed1 and the entire length bent on the scroll former while the material is cold4 ,this is the manner1 minus the markings mentioned1 in which all scrolls are to be formed4 ,this product with the markings upon it should be kept for ascertaining the number of inches required for either large or small scrolls4 ,always place the curled end of this measure in position on the working drawing and adjust it until it conforms to the outline of the design4 ,then place a crayon mark on both the drawing and the measure where they cease to correspond2 the length of that portion which corresponds can be ascertained from the markings on the measure1 and all remaining irregular curves can be measured by a string1 wire1 or rule4 ,this measure will prove also to be quite a satisfactory and accurate means of arranging new designs4 #adb4 ,scroll ,fastenings4--,there are three different methods used for joining scrolls3 welding1 riveting1 and banding with clips4 ,the first is the most difficult and the most artistic1 but unless one is quite expert at welding1 especially in joining light material such as is generally used for scroll work1 it would perhaps be better to disregard this method entirely4 ,riveting presents a very neat appearance and makes the product quite strong and substantial1 but unless the marking and drilling of holes is accurately done1 the result presents a distorted and ill-shaped combination1 which cannot be remedied without drilling new holes4 ,it would be advisable1 then1 to adopt the last method generally1 resorting to riveting wherever it is impossible to use clips or bands1 or where strength is an essential requirement4 ,if a clip is misplaced1 it can be replaced with a new one1 or it may be moved into the proper position without showing that an error has been made4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abh4--,,the ,,scroll ,,former4 #adc4 ,scroll ,former4--,fig4 #abh4 ,this is a very handy tool for producing scrolls in a rapid and uniform manner4 ,it should be a perfectly designed variable spiral4 ,if several are provided1 they should be exactly alike1 otherwise the scrolls produced with them will be unequal and irregular and will present an inartistic appearance4 ,the former illustrated is made of #a #a_/b-;inch soft steel4 ,draw the end and form the central portion1 gradually tapering to about #c_/af of an inch thick1 but leave it of a uniform width4 ,this end should be slightly beveled from one side to form a protruding edge1 over which the small curled end of the material is securely held while the scroll is being bent4 ,a view of the former as it is used to start a scroll is given in ,fig4 #abi showing the metal in proper position for forming4 ,the end indicated at a1 ,fig4 #abh1 may be bent downward and edgewise to a right angle1 as shown1 or1 if desired1 it may be forged square to fit the hardy hole of the anvil1 but as this tool is most conveniently used when held in the vise1 the method shown at a is better4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abi4--,,starting ,a ,,scroll ,,on ,,the ,,former4 #add4 ,bending or ,twisting ,fork4--,fig4 #acj4 ,this fork is shown with dimensions suitable for bending material #a_/h or #c_/af inch in thickness4 ,for thicker material all dimensions should be proportionately increased4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acj4--;,,bending ,,or ,,twisting ,,fork4 ,this tool is very serviceable and quite easily made of round tool steel2 if such stock is not at hand1 octagonal tool steel can be swaged to the desired dimension4 ,if it is made of soft steel1 it will meet requirements for a considerable length of time4 #ade4 ,bending or ,twisting ,wrench4--,fig4 #aca4 ,this should be made from the same quality of steel of the same dimensions as the preceding tool4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aca4--;,,bending ,,or ,,twisting ,,wrench4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acb4--,,scroll ,,bending4 ,the bending wrench is used in connection with the bending fork for shaping a scroll1 as shown in ,fig4 #acb4 ,when the wrench is placed over the material so that its jaws will grip the sides and the handle of the wrench is pulled in the direction indicated by the arrow1 bending will take place at e4 ,if the straight end of the scroll were pulled in the same direction1 bending would occur at f4 ,sometimes when scrolls are being connected with the band1 they are sprung out of place4 ,by the use of this wrench they can be brought again into position by bending them close to where the band was put on4 ,these tools may be used together for twisting light material1 when the vise and monkey wrench could not readily be utilized4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acc4--;,,clip ,,former4 #adf4 ,clip ,former4--,fig4 #acc4 ,this and the two following tools should be made of #j4hj to #j4ij per cent carbon tool steel4 ,a convenient size of material for the one shown is #a #a_/b inch4 ,the portion forming the connecting loop must be flattened and forged to about #a_/d inch thick to provide a spring for retaining its shape4 ,the ends should be forged to two different thicknesses4 ,the #a_/d-;inch side is used in bending clips for banding two pieces of #a_/h-;inch material1 and the #c_/h-;inch side for three pieces4 ,when a different thickness of material is to be used1 these ends should be made to correspond with it4 ,the inner and outer edges of these ends should be made slightly rounding to prevent cutting the material from which the clips are made4 ,most of this light scroll work is made from stock with round edges1 therefore it is not necessary to have the clips bent sharp and square4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acd4--,,use ,,of ,,the ,,clip ,,former4 ,the former should be so proportioned that it can be placed between the jaws of the vise1 as shown in ,fig4 #acd4 ,here the loop is resting on the box of the vise1 which supports it and prevents it from falling out of position when the pressure of the vise is released4 ,the ends of the clip former should extend above the jaws of the vise about #b inches1 so that the clips can be bent without striking the vise with the hammer4 ,a view of these ends1 with a piece of half-oval iron in position for bending1 is shown at ,a1 ,fig4 #acg4 ,one end of the clip material should be placed between the ends of the former1 one half the width of the scroll stock1 #c_/af of an inch if the stock is #c_/h inch wide4 ,by tightening the jaws of the vise upon the sides of the former1 the half-oval iron will be securely held1 while it is being bent over with the hand hammer to the form indicated by the broken lines4 ,the clip will then be ready for fastening the scrolls together4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ace4--;,,clip ,,holder4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acf4--,,use ,,of ,,the ,,clip ,,holder4 #adg4 ,clip ,holder4--,fig4 #ace4 ,stock #c_/d inch square is best suited for making this tool4 ,the central portion forming the loop should be drawn and forged to about #a_/d inch thick1 gradually increased to #a_/b inch where the shoulders are formed4 ,the distance from these shoulders to the outside end of the loop should be less than the distance from the top of the vise jaws to the vise box4 ,then the tool will be supported entirely on these shoulders1 as shown in ,fig4 #acf1 and the tool may be placed near the ends of the vise jaws1 which sometimes will prove to be quite an advantage4 ,the length from the shoulders to the ends may be about #b inches4 ,these ends should be drawn tapering from the outer sides to about #a_/b inch square4 ,on the inside a depression #c_/af inch deep should be formed so that the holder will fit over the bent end of a clip1 as shown at ,b1 ,fig4 #acg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acg4--;,,forming ,a ,,clip4 ,the clip and a sectional view of the two pieces of material that are to be connected are shown at ,b as they are placed in this tool4 ,by tightening the vise upon the holder1 the lower portion of the clip will be clamped securely on the pieces and held while the upright end of the clip is bent over and around the upper half of the material with the hand hammer4 ,then the following tool will be brought into use4 #adh4 ,clip ,tightener or ,clincher4--,fig4 #ach4 ,the most convenient stock from which to make this tool is #c_/d-;inch octagon tool steel4 ,it is made by upsetting and forging the end to about #a-a_/d #a_/b inches1 then filing a depression not more than #c_/af inch deep and wide enough to fit tightly over the outer portion of the bent end of a clip4 ,the corners indicated at e should be made slightly round to prevent them from marring the outside of the clips4 ,this tool should be about #f-a_/b inches long1 with the head end drawn as for a cold chisel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ach4--;,,clip ,,tightener ,,or ,,clincher4 ,by holding this tool on top of the bent-over clip1 as shown at ,c1 ,fig4 #acg1 and delivering a few heavy blows upon it1 the clip will be tightened and clinched securely over and around the pieces4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aci4--;,,jardini,,re ,,stand ,,or ,,taboret4 #adi4 ,jardinire ,stand or ,taboret4--,fig4 #aci4 ,the height from the floor line to the top of the circular board is #bf inches2 the height from the floor line to the upper ring ,e is #ai-a_/b inches2 the height from the floor line to the lower ring ,f is #g inches2 the extreme width is #ah-a_/b inches4 ,the process of making this stand will be given here4 ,by following a similar course1 any of the other designs given in this chapter may be made4 ,the material usually employed for making this is #a_/b #a_/h-;inch1 and there should be four sections or legs1 as shown at the left1 also two bands or rings1 like the one shown in the upper right1 and one top board #g_/h inch thick and #h inches in diameter1 which is shown under the ring4 ,the following list gives the number and lengths of the various pieces required3-- #d pieces #de-a_/b inches long4 #d pieces #bb-a_/b inches long4 #d pieces #ae-a_/b inches long4 #d pieces #ae inches long4 #b pieces #ad-a_/b inches long4 #d pieces #ac inches long4 ,all pieces should be straightened immediately after being cut to length4 ,the main branch1 #de-a_/b inches long1 should be marked with a center punch at all places where bending or twisting is to be done4 ,from the end of the stock to ,a is #f inches2 from ,a to ,b1 #i inches2 ,b to ,c1 #d-a_/b inches2 the length of the twisted portion is #b-a_/b inches4 ,all ends that are to be scrolled1 should be drawn1 curled1 and fitted to the central portion of the former1 as previously indicated4 ,when both ends of the same piece are to be scrolled1 observe carefully whether they revolve in the same or in opposite directions4 ,these ends should not be cooled after drawing and fitting1 because cooling will have a tendency to harden them slightly and prevent uniform bending4 ,all ends that are to be connected to another piece by clips should now be drawn out to a thin edge1 but of a uniform width4 ,now proceed to form the main branch by making the twisted portion between ,b and ,c2 straighten if necessary4 ,form the upper angular bend of #ij degrees at ,a while it is held in the vise2 this can be done cold1 by carefully avoiding breaking or cutting the material with the sharp edge of the vise4 ,now form a scroll at the top on the former4 ,next bend at ,b in the same manner and direction as before1 and make the two quarter circles between ,a and ,b1 with the bending fork alone or by combining the use of it with the bending wrench4 ,exercise care in doing this1 in order to have the correct space for scroll #b and ring ,e1 which should be #e inches outside diameter4 ,the lower angular bend at ,c should now be made1 followed by forming as much of the scroll ,d as possible on the former4 ,then bend the irregular curve between ,d and ,c4 ,the next member to be scrolled and fitted into position is the #ae-a_/b-;inch piece1 #d4 ,this must be carefully made in order to have the extreme height of the scroll at the proper distance from the bottom line1 also at the proper distance from the center line1 to provide an exact dimension where the lower ring ,f is to be connected4 ,the outside diameter of ring ,f should be #e inches4 ,then scroll and fit the #ae-;inch piece1 #c1 followed by the #ac-;inch piece1 #e1 and finish this leg by arranging the #bb-a_/b-;inch piece1 #b1 last1 so that it will not extend above the bottom line of the circular board and will leave at least a #a_/d-;inch space between the center line and the sides of the curves4 ,all parts should be assembled on the drawing after they are fitted1 and marked with crayon wherever the clips are to be placed to secure them4 ,the material for the clips1 which should be #c_/h-;inch half-oval ,norway iron1 should be cut up in lengths equal to the four outside dimensions of the combined materials plus #a_/h of an inch for bending1 or #a-e_/h inches in this case4 ,after these pieces are bent on the clip former1 fasten the scrolls together with the clip holder and the clincher4 ,after the four legs or parts have been assembled1 lay each separately on the drawing1 to make sure that the places1 where they are to be connected with the rings and the circular board1 are properly located4 ,if they are correct1 mark these places with a center punch1 and drill #i_/fd-;inch holes where the rings are to be connected and #c_/af-;inch holes where the top is to be secured4 ,the two #ad-a_/b-;inch pieces are for the rings4 ,drill a #i_/fd-;inch hole #c_/h of an inch from each end in both pieces1 countersink one side of one end of each piece1 and grind a beveled edge on this end1 but on the opposite side from the countersink4 ,form them into rings having the countersink inside4 ,connect the ends of each ring with a #a_/h #c_/h-;inch round-head rivet1 inserting it from the outside of the ring and riveting the ends together1 filling the countersink4 ,place the rings separately on the mandrel and make them perfectly round on the inside by forming a slight offset on the outside end where it begins to lap over the beveled inside end4 ,draw a #e-;inch circle on a piece of board and divide it into quarters4 ,place the rings on this outline with the outside end about #a_/d inch from one of the quarter lines4 ,mark where each quarter line crosses the ring1 center-punch these places1 drill #i_/fd-;inch holes1 and countersink them on the inside4 ,then assemble the legs by riveting the upper ring to the standard with #a_/h #a_/b-;inch rivets1 the lower one with #a_/h #c_/h-;inch rivets1 their heads toward the exterior so that riveting will be done on the inside of the rings filling the countersink4 ,place the circular top board in position and secure it with #a-;inch #aj round-head wood screws4 ,this will complete the construction1 with the exception of a coat of black japanning1 if a glossy finish is desired1 or a coat of dead black lacquer if a rich dull black is desired4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adj4--,,umbrella ,,stand4 #aej4 ,umbrella ,stand4--,fig4 #adj4 ,extreme height1 #bg-a_/b inches2 extreme width1 #ah-a_/b inches2 upper rings1 #i-a_/d inches inside diameter2 lower ring1 #e-a_/d inches inside diameter4 ,provide a small deep pan to rest on top of this ring4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ada4--,,reading ,,lamp4 #aea4 ,reading ,lamp4--,fig4 #ada4 ,extreme height1 #bc inches2 height of the stand1 #ad inches2 base1 #h-a_/d inches wide2 shade1 #ad #ad inches wide1 #f-a_/d inches high1 top opening1 #d #d inches4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adb4--;,,andirons ,,and ,,bar4 #aeb4 ,andirons and ,bar4--,fig4 #adb4 ,extreme height1 #bd inches2 extreme width of base1 #ah inches2 height from the floor line to the top of the upper scroll1 #aa-a_/b inches2 length of bar1 #dj inches4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adc4--;,,fire ,,set4 #aec4 ,fire ,set4--,fig4 #adc4 ,extreme height1 #cj inches2 height to the holders1 #bd inches2 height to the top of the upper scroll1 #aa-a_/b inches2 extreme width of the base1 #ad inches4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #add4--;,,fire ,,set ,,separated4 #aed4 ,fire ,set ,separated4--,fig4 #add4 ,extreme length of implements1 #bb inches4 ,,questions ,,for ,,review ,explain three methods of obtaining the length of a scroll4 ,should scrolls be bent hot or cold8 ,why are the ends of the clip former made to different thicknesses8 ,why is the clip former made thinner at the loop8 ,how is that tool placed in the vise8 ,why is the clip holder made with shoulders on its outer sides8 ,give the rule for cutting off clip stock4 ,after the scroll material has been cut to length1 what should be done8 ,when ready to draw and bend the curl for a scroll what should be observed8 ,why shouldn't it be cooled after drawing and curling8 ,what is done with the ends of a scroll if they are to be fastened with clips8 ,explain how the rings are made for the jardinire stand4 ,describe the process of making the umbrella stand in ,fig4 #adj4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,iron ,,ore1 ,,preparation ,,and ,,smelting #aee4 ,iron ,ore4--,an ore is a portion of the earth's substance containing metal for which it is mined and worked2 the class to which it belongs depends upon the amount and variety of the metal it contains4 ,any ore that is to be used for the extraction of a certain metal must contain the metal in sufficient amounts to make the operation profitable4 ,iron1 ordinarily1 does not occur in a native state or in a condition suitable for use in the arts and manufactures4 ,the iron in meteors1 frequently called native iron1 is the nearest possible approach to it4 ,meteorites1 commonly known as falling stones or shooting stars1 are solid masses that have fallen from high regions of the atmosphere and are only occasionally found in different parts of the world4 ,they are considered more valuable as a curiosity than as material for manufacturing purposes4 ,the metallurgist1 chemist1 or geologist can readily distinguish them from other masses1 because they invariably contain considerable nickel1 which seldom appears in any of the ordinary iron ores4 ,they are usually found in a mass containing crystals and are nearly always covered with a thin coating of oxide1 which protects the metal from further oxidation4 ,several large meteors have been found1 one in ,germany weighing #ccjj pounds and a larger one in ,greenland weighing #di1jjj pounds4 ,the largest one known was discovered by ,lieutenant ,peary in the ,arctic regions4 ,it weighs #ge1jjj pounds4 ,he brought it to ,new ,york ,city1 where it can now be seen at the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history4 ,pure iron is obtainable only as a chemical1 and as such it is used in the preparation of medicines4 ,as a commercial product1 such as is used in the arts and manufactures and by the smith1 it is always combined with other substances1 such as carbon1 silicon1 and phosphorus4 ,iron is distributed through the earth very widely1 but not always in sufficient quantities to make its extraction from the ore profitable2 consequently the ores used for the extraction of iron are somewhat limited4 ,there are four general grades of iron ore1 which are known by the following names3 magnetite1 red hematite1 limonite1 and ferrous carbonate4 ,these are subdivided and classified according to the particular composition of each4 #aef4 ,magnetite when pure contains about #gb per cent of iron1 and so is the richest ore used in the manufactures4 ,it is black1 brittle1 and generally magnetic1 and leaves a black streak when drawn across a piece of unglazed porcelain4 ,it sometimes occurs in crystals or in a granular condition like sand1 but generally in a massive form4 ,it is found principally in a belt running along the eastern coast of the ,united ,states1 from ,lake ,champlain to ,south ,carolina4 ,there are considerable quantities of it in ,new ,jersey and eastern ,pennsylvania1 but the greatest deposits are found in ,missouri and northern ,michigan2 some is mined also in eastern ,canada4 ,it is a valuable ore in ,sweden4 ,a mineral known as franklinite1 which is closely allied to magnetite1 is a mixture of magnetite and oxides of manganese and zinc4 ,in appearance it resembles magnetite1 but is less magnetic4 ,in ,new ,jersey1 where it is found quite abundantly1 it is treated for the extraction of the zinc1 and the residue thus obtained is used for the manufacture of spiegeleisen1 which is an iron containing a large amount of manganese1 usually from #h to #be per cent4 #aeg4 ,red hematite is found in earthy and compact forms4 ,it varies in color from a deep red to a steel gray1 but all varieties leave a red streak on unglazed porcelain4 ,it is found also in a number of shapes or varieties1 such as crystalline1 columnar1 fibrous1 and masses of irregular form4 ,special names have been given to these4 ,the brilliant crystalline variety is known as specular ore1 the scaly foliated kind as micaceous ore1 and the earthy one as red ocher4 ,each one of this class contains about #gj per cent of iron1 and on account of the abundance1 the comparative freedom from injurious ingredients1 and the quality of iron it produces1 it is considered the most important of all the ores in the ,united ,states4 ,until the discovery of large deposits of this ore in the ,lake ,superior district it was chiefly obtained from a belt extending along the eastern coast of the ,united ,states just west of the magnetite deposits and ending in ,alabama4 ,some of this ore is found in ,new ,york1 but there is not a great amount of it north of ,danville1 ,pennsylvania4 ,at present the greatest quantities that are used come from the ,lake ,superior district4 ,there1 ore of almost any desired composition may be obtained1 and the enormous quantities1 the purity1 the small cost of mining1 and the excellent shipping facilities have made it the greatest ore-producing section of the ,united ,states4 #aeh4 ,limonite or brown hematite contains about #fj per cent of iron and is found in both compact and earthy varieties4 ,pipe or stalactitic and bog ore belong to this grade4 ,the color varies from brownish black to yellowish brown1 but they all leave a yellowish brown streak on unglazed porcelain4 ,it is found in a belt lying between the red hematite and magnetite ores in the eastern ,united ,states4 ,formerly there was considerable of this mined in central ,pennsylvania1 ,alabama1 and the ,lake ,superior district4 #aei4 ,ferrous carbonate contains about #ej per cent of iron4 ,it also is found in several varieties1 called spathic ore1 clay ironstone1 and blackband4 ,spathic ore when quite pure has a pearly luster and varies in color from yellow to brown4 ,the crystallized variety is known as siderite2 this ore frequently contains considerable manganese and in some places is used for the production of spiegeleisen4 ,when siderite is exposed to the action of the air and water1 brown hematite is formed4 ,clay ironstone is a variety that is found in rounded masses or irregular shapes and sometimes in layers or lumps1 usually in the coal measures4 ,it varies in color from light yellow to brown1 but the light-colored ore rapidly becomes brown when exposed to the atmosphere4 ,like the former it also contains considerable manganese4 ,blackband is also a clay ironstone1 but it is so dark in color that it frequently resembles coal2 hence the name4 ,the ore is not very abundant in this country nor extensively used2 it is generally found with bituminous coal or in the coal measures1 therefore it is mined to some extent in western ,pennsylvania and ,ohio4 ,it is an important ore in ,england4 #afj4 ,the ,value of ,ores4--,ores are valued according to the amount of iron they contain1 the physical properties1 the cost of mining1 the cost of transportation to the furnace1 and their behavior during reduction4 ,the ores of the ,mesaba range in the ,lake ,superior district are very rich1 and free from many impurities2 they are soft and easily reduced1 and as they are found near the surface1 they can be mined with steam shovels4 ,these are great advantages1 but the greatest disadvantage is the fact that the ore is fine and some of it blows out of the furnace with the escaping gases2 this also fouls the heating stoves and clogs the boiler flues4 #afa4 ,preparation of ,ores4--,most of the ores are used just as they come from the mines1 but in some cases they are put through a preliminary treatment4 ,this is sometimes done as an advantage and at other times as a necessity4 ,this treatment is very simple and consists of weathering1 washing1 crushing1 and roasting4 #afb4 ,weathering is a common process4 ,sometimes ores that have been obtained from the coal measures and others that may contain pyrites or similar substances are left exposed to the oxidizing influence of the weather4 ,this separates the shale and the pyrites4 ,the former can easily be removed1 and the latter is partly oxidized and washed away by the water or rain falling upon it4 ,the ore piles shown in ,fig4 #adi are exposed to the atmosphere and partly weathered before being used4 #afc4 ,washing is also done for the purpose of removing substances that would retard the smelting process4 ,for instance1 the limonite ores1 which are generally mixed with considerable clay or earthy compositions1 are put through an ore washer to remove those substances before they are charged into the smelting furnace4 #afd4 ,crushing is done with machinery to reduce to a uniform size such refractory ores as are mined in rather large lumps4 ,if the ore were charged into the furnace as mined1 the coarseness would allow the gases to pass through the ore too readily without sufficient action upon it4 ,smaller pieces will pack more closely together1 thus offering greater resistance to the blast1 and hastening the reduction4 #afe4 ,roasting or calcination is done to desulphurize ore which contains an excess of sulphur4 ,it is done also to expel water1 carbon dioxide1 or other volatile matter which it may contain4 ,ore1 made more porous by roasting1 exposes a larger surface to the reducing gases4 ,in the case of magnetic ores1 roasting converts the ferrous oxide into ferric oxide1 which lessens the possibility of the iron becoming mixed with the slag1 thereby preventing considerable loss of metal4 ,ore is frequently calcined in open heaps1 but in more modern practice stalls or kilns are employed4 ,where fuel is cheap and space is abundant1 the first process may be used4 ,a layer of coal a few inches thick is laid on the ground1 and a layer of ore is spread upon it2 then coal and ore are laid in alternate layers until the pile is from #d to #i feet high4 ,the coal at the bottom is then ignited1 and the combustion extended through the entire mass4 ,if at any time during the operation the combustion proceeds too rapidly1 the pile is dampened with fine ore and the burning allowed to proceed until all the coal is consumed4 ,blackband ore frequently contains enough carbonaceous matter to accomplish roasting without the addition of any fuel except the first layer for starting the operation4 ,when the ore is calcined in stalls1 it is placed in a rectangular inclosure with walls on three sides2 these are from #f to #ab feet high and are perforated to allow a thorough circulation of air4 ,this method is very much like that of roasting in open heaps1 but less fuel is necessary1 for the draft is under better control and a more perfect calcination is accomplished4 ,when the same operation is performed in kilns1 it is more economical in regard to fuel and labor than either of the two methods explained above4 ,the process is under better control1 and a more uniform product is obtained4 ,the kilns are built in a circular form of iron plates1 somewhat like a smelting furnace and lined with about #ad inches of fire brick4 ,the most common size of the kilns is about #ad feet in diameter at the bottom1 #bj feet at the widest part1 and #ah feet at the top2 the entire height is about #cj feet4 ,they are capable of receiving about #fjjj cubic feet of ore4 #aff4 ,fuels4--,a variety of fuels may be used in the blast furnace reduction process1 but the furnace should be modified to suit the particular quality of fuel4 ,in this country the fuels most used are coke1 charcoal1 and anthracite coal4 ,coke is the most satisfactory and is more generally used than either of the others4 ,charcoal is used to a certain extent on account of its freedom from impurities and because it is generally considered that iron produced with charcoal is better for some purposes than that made by using other fuels4 ,anthracite coal is used principally in eastern ,pennsylvania because the coal mines are near at hand1 and it is therefore the cheapest fuel available4 ,in some instances a mixture of anthracite and coke is used4 #afg4 ,fluxes4--,the materials that are charged into the furnace with the ore1 to assist in removing injurious elements that it may contain1 are called fluxes4 ,they collect the impurities and form a slag which floats on top of the molten iron and which is tapped off before the metal is allowed to run out4 ,the fluxes also assist in protecting the lining of the furnace by thus absorbing the impurities which would otherwise attack the lining and destroy it4 ,limestone is almost universally employed as a flux1 although dolomite is used also to some extent4 ,the value of limestone as a flux depends upon its freedom from impurities1 such as silicon and sulphur4 ,sulphur and phosphorus are two elements which must be kept out of the product4 ,when there is too much sulphur1 the iron is exceedingly brittle at a dull red heat1 although it can be worked at a higher or lower temperature4 ,it is called red-short iron and makes welding difficult4 ,with steel1 sulphur diminishes the tensile strength and ductility4 ,if there is too much phosphorus combined with iron1 the metal will crack when hammered cold4 ,iron of this kind is called cold-short iron4 ,this metal can be worked1 however1 at a higher temperature than can the red-short iron just described4 #afh4 ,the ,blast4--,the air blown into the furnace to increase and hasten combustion is called the blast4 ,formerly when a cold blast was used1 considerable extra fuel was required to heat the air after it entered the furnace1 but a hot blast is used now almost exclusively4 ,the air is heated by passing through large stoves built for that purpose4 ,the stoves are heated by burning the waste gases which are generated in the furnace and which are conducted from the top of the furnace through a pipe leading into the stoves4 ,four of these stoves are shown in ,fig4 #adi at the left of the picture4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ade4--,,running ,,metal ,,from ,,the ,,blast ,,furnace ,,to ,,ladles ,,for ,,transporting ,,to ,,either ,,the ,,open ,,hearth ,,furnace ,,or ,,the ,,pig ,,molder4 #afi4 ,the ,reduction or ,blast ,furnace4--,fig4 #ade4 ,the reduction or blast furnace is almost universally used for the reduction of iron ore4 ,it is a large barrel-shaped structure1 the exterior of which is formed of iron plates about #a_/b inch thick1 bent and riveted together like the outer shell of a boiler4 ,this is lined with brickwork or masonry1 the inner portion being made of fire brick to protect the furnace from the intense heat4 ,figure #adf shows a sectional view of a furnace of this kind4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adf4--,,sectional ,,view ,,of ,a ,,blast ,,furnace4 ,the stack ,d is supported on a cast-iron ring1 which rests on iron pillars4 ,the hearth ,k and the boshes ,e are beneath the stack and are built independent of it1 usually after the stack has been erected4 ,this is done so that the hearth can be repaired or relined whenever it becomes injured4 ,the hearth is also perforated for the introduction of the tuyres t1 through which the blast enters the furnace from the blast main ,b4 ,the opening to the downcomer or pipe leading to the stoves is shown at ,a4 ,figure #adg shows the mechanical arrangement at the top of the furnace1 called the bell and hopper1 for receiving and admitting the ore flux and fuel4 ,by lowering the bell ,c the material is allowed to drop into the furnace4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adg4--,,sectional ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,bell ,,and ,,hopper4 ,the fuel1 ore1 and flux are charged into the furnace at the top in alternate layers1 as previously explained2 the iron settles down through the boshes1 is melted1 and drops to the bottom or hearth4 ,the slag is drawn off at the cinder notch c1 ,fig4 #adf1 after which the iron is tapped off at the iron notch g4 ,hollow plates p for water circulation are inserted in the boshes to protect the lining from burning out too rapidly4 ,the melted iron runs from the tapping notch into a large groove made in sand4 ,this groove is called the 8sow40 ,it is connected with smaller grooves called the 8pigs40 ,into these the metal runs and forms pig iron4 ,considerable sand adheres to pigs thus formed1 and as the sand is objectionable for foundry1 ,bessemer1 and open-hearth purposes1 and as an enormous amount of hand labor is required in breaking up and removing it1 pig molding machines are used4 ,figure #adh shows one of these machines with a ladle pouring the metal into it4 ,the only objection to this method is that the metal is chilled rather suddenly by the water through which the molds are led4 ,this sudden chilling causes a structure different from that found in the same quality of metal molded in the sand and allowed to cool off gradually1 and most foundrymen as well as other users of iron judge the quality by the appearance of a fracture4 ,on this account machine-molded pigs are objectionable4 ,it is claimed1 however1 that some machines in use at present have overcome this difficulty4 ,the approximate dimensions of a modern coke-burning furnace are as follows 7see ,fig4 #adf73 ,the hearth ,k is about #ac feet in diameter and about #i feet high4 ,the diameter of the portion above the hearth increases for about #ae feet to approximately #ba feet in diameter at the boshes ,e4 ,from the top of the boshes the diameter gradually decreases until it is about #ad feet in diameter at the stock line4 ,the throat1 or top1 where the fuel and ore are charged in through the bell and hopper1 is about #gj feet above the hearth4 ,on the brackets which are connected to the pillars1 the blast main rests1 completely surrounding the furnace1 and at numerous places terminal pipes convey the blast to the tuyres4 ,after the furnace has been charged1 or 8blown in10 as it is commonly called1 it is kept going continually night and day1 or until it becomes necessary to shut down for repairs4 ,a general view of a smelting plant is shown in ,fig4 #adi4 ,the four circular structures to the left with a tall stack between them are the stoves for heating the blast4 ,next to these in the center of the picture is the blast furnace1 somewhat obstructed by the conveyor which carries the ore and fuel to the top for charging4 ,the structural work to the right is the unloader1 which takes the ore from the vessels and conveys it to the stock pile in the foreground1 where the ore is allowed to drop4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adh4--,,pig ,,molding ,,machine4 #agj4 ,classification of ,pig ,iron4--,the pig iron produced by the blast furnace is graded as to quality1 and is known by the following names3 ,bessemer1 basic1 mill1 malleable1 charcoal1 and foundry iron4 ,this classification indicates the purpose for which each kind is best suited4 #aga4 ,bessemer iron is that used for making ,bessemer steel4 ,in this grade the amounts of sulphur and phosphorus should be as low as possible4 ,bessemer iron is generally understood to contain less than #j4a per cent of phosphorus and less than 4#je per cent of sulphur4 #agb4 ,basic iron is that which is generally used in the basic process of steel manufacture4 ,it should contain as little silicon as possible1 because the silicon will attack the basic lining of the furnace2 therefore the surface of the pig iron used for this purpose should1 if possible1 be free from sand4 ,by the basic process of making steel1 most of the phosphorus in the pig iron is removed1 consequently basic iron may contain considerably more phosphorus than if it were to be used in the ,bessemer process4 #agc4 ,mill iron is that which is used mostly in the puddling mill for the manufacture of wrought iron4 ,it should contain a low percentage of silicon4 ,therefore pig iron that has been made when the furnace was working badly for foundry iron is sometimes used for this purpose4 #agd4 ,malleable iron is that used for making malleable castings4 ,it usually contains more phosphorus than ,bessemer iron and less than foundry iron4 ,the percentage of silicon and graphitic carbon is also very low in this class4 #age4 ,charcoal iron is simply that which has been made in a furnace where charcoal has been used as the fuel4 ,it is generally used as a foundry iron for special purposes4 #agf4 ,foundry iron is used for making castings by being melted and then poured into molds4 ,for this purpose an iron that will readily fill the mold without much shrinkage in cooling is desired4 ,other properties of foundry iron will depend upon the character of the castings desired4 #agg4 ,grading ,iron4--,iron is graded and classified according to its different properties and qualities by two methods2 namely1 chemical analysis and examination of fracture4 ,grading by analysis1 although not universally used at present1 is no doubt the more perfect method1 because the foreign substances contained in the metal can be accurately determined4 ,grading by fracture is more generally used1 although it cannot be considered absolutely perfect1 but when done by one who has had years of experience and has trained his eye to discover the different granular constructions and luster of the fractured parts1 it is very nearly correct2 unless the properties are to be known to an absolute certainty1 grading by fracture is sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adi4--;,,general ,,view ,,of ,a ,,smelting ,,plant1 ,,showing ,,blast ,,furnace ,,stoves ,,and ,,the ,,ore ,,pile4 ,,questions ,,for ,,review ,what is ore8 ,name four grades of iron ore4 ,what is native iron8 ,what is the difference between it and other iron ores8 ,what class of ore contains the largest percentage of iron8 ,red hematite contains less1 so why is it considered more valuable than the magnetite8 ,what amount of iron do the limonite and ferrous carbonate ores contain8 ,what determines the value of an ore8 ,how is ore prepared for reduction8 ,what are the results of these preparations8 ,what are fluxes used for8 ,what flux is most generally used8 ,what effect does sulphur produce in wrought-iron8 ,what is the effect of phosphorus in wrought-iron8 ,how is air heated before it enters the blast furnace8 ,what is the difference between sand-molded and machine-molded pig iron8 ,what is the objection to machine-molded pig iron8 ,name the different classes of pig iron and state the use of each4 ,how is iron graded8 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,iron ,,and ,,steel #agh4 ,refining ,pig ,iron4--,two distinct methods have been adopted for the conversion of pig iron into wrought iron1 each depending upon the kind of furnace used4 ,they are called the open-hearth or finery process1 and the puddling process4 ,the chemical reactions are similar in both processes1 being based on the oxidation of the impurities in the metal4 ,this is accomplished both by means of the oxygen in the air supplied and by the oxide of iron in the fluxes that are added to assist the operation4 #agi4 ,the ,open-hearth or ,finery ,process4--,this is carried on in what is sometimes termed a 8bloomery0 from the product which is called a bloom4 ,the pig iron is placed in direct contact with the fuel on the hearth which is formed of cast-iron plates exposed to a current of air to keep them cool4 ,this mixture of the iron with the fuel is objectionable1 because while the fuel acts as a reducer the excess air decarbonizes the product only partly1 besides prolonging the process considerably2 by the addition of hammer scale and rich slag1 the operation is hastened greatly4 ,however1 if some carbon is supposed to be contained in the product1 making it of a steely nature1 then the open-hearth process is considered a good method of refining4 ,fusion is allowed to take place gradually1 so as to expose the metal for a long period to the oxygen of the blast4 ,at the moment of fusion the foreign elements are rapidly oxidized and form a fusible slag4 ,after the slag becomes neutral and has been partly removed1 fresh basic slag and hammer scale are added1 to hasten the operation4 ,then the mass of iron1 which is now of a white spongy texture1 is lifted up in the furnace to a level with the tuyre1 in order that the combined carbon may be completely oxidized4 ,it is then formed into balls of about #fj to #hj pounds each1 after which it is removed and formed into a bloom by means of a squeezer or hammer4 ,this furnace is not illustrated1 because most of the wrought iron is produced by the puddling process4 ,an open-hearth furnace1 such as is used in producing steel1 is somewhat similar to the one here described and is shown in ,fig4 #afc4 #ahj4 ,the ,puddling ,process4--,the greatest amount of wrought iron is produced from pig iron by this process1 owing to the superior quality of the product4 ,the term 8puddling0 was originally applied to the process of working iron that had never been completely melted1 but had only reached a puddled or pasty state4 ,but later1 when refined or pig iron was similarly treated1 it was discovered that it would melt perfectly and boil up freely4 ,the process was then termed 8pig boiling40 ,the furnace used in this process is of the reverberatory type2 the fuel does not come in contact with the iron4 7,see ,fig4 #aej47 ,it is built in a rectangular form2 the fireplace ,a is located at one end1 next to it is the hearth ,c where the metal is placed1 and beyond are the flue ,b and the chimney ,d4 ,from the fireplace the heat is supplied and directed upon the metal by the top or roof1 which is curved downward from the fireplace toward the flue and chimney4 ,the fireplace also is separated from the hearth by a partial partition wall ,e1 called the fire bridge1 which prevents the fuel from coming in contact with the metal4 ,another similar partition ,f1 located between the hearth and the flue1 prevents the metal from going into the latter and is called the flue bridge4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aej4--,,puddling ,,furnace ,,of ,a ,,reverberatory ,,type4 ,both of these and all interior portions that come in contact with the heat and metal are constructed of fire brick4 ,the bridges are built over hollow iron castings1 through the openings of which there is a circulation of water provided to keep them cool4 ,the bottom of the hearth is formed of iron plates rabbeted together2 this and the sides are sometimes provided also with hollow castings for water circulation4 ,the hearth is lined with blue billy and the sides with bulldog4 ,the former is a fusible silicate1 chiefly ferric oxide1 and is produced from tap cinder2 it does not readily unite with silica when heated4 ,bulldog is made from burnt pyrites1 a quality of ore used for the manufacture of sulphuric acid2 the resulting oxide is sometimes called blue billy1 but more frequently bulldog1 to distinguish it from the former class of oxides4 ,both of these linings are known as fettlings4 ,the flue slopes down toward the stack2 the draft is regulated with a damper1 located in the top and connected by a chain1 which hangs within reach of the operators4 ,various forms of furnaces are used1 such as stationary and rolling furnaces2 but whatever the style of furnace1 the process is based on the decarbonization of the metal1 and the charge of pig iron does not come in direct contact with the fuel1 as in the open-hearth process4 ,an advantage gained in using the puddling furnace is that various kinds of fuel can be employed without injury to the product of iron1 also various labor-saving devices1 which have recently been invented1 can be better used4 ,in the pig-boiling process the furnace is first lined with the fettlings and charged with about #ejj pounds of white foundry or forge pig iron4 ,the refining process is divided into four distinct stages known as melting down1 mixing1 boiling1 and balling4 ,a very high temperature is desired during the first stage1 which usually lasts about thirty-five minutes4 ,during this time the melting down occurs1 and a partial removal of the silicon from the pig iron is effected4 ,in the second or mixing stage1 which lasts about seven minutes1 a comparatively low temperature is maintained by lowering the damper in the stack1 while the charge is being thoroughly mixed with the oxidizing fluxes or cinders that are added4 ,the puddler draws down the metal from around the sides into the center1 where it will become more rapidly refined and mixed4 ,during the third or boiling stage the damper is raised to increase the temperature4 ,at this time a violent reaction occurs1 caused by the release of carbonic oxide1 which is formed when the oxygen unites with the carbon in the pig iron4 ,the gas escapes through the slag on the surface of the metal1 thus causing it to appear as though it were boiling1 from which action the process derives its name4 ,during this stage1 which lasts from twenty to twenty-five minutes1 a large portion of the manganese1 sulphur1 and phosphorus contained in the pig iron is removed4 ,the oxidation is assisted by the constant stirring or rabbling of the metal by the puddler1 done for the purpose of bringing it under the oxidizing influence of the air4 ,the boiling gradually ceases1 and the surface of the charge 8drops10 as it is called1 and the whole mass lies in a pasty state on the bed of the furnace1 where it is worked by the puddler as thoroughly as possible so as to allow the flames to pass uniformly over it4 ,the fourth or balling stage requires from fifteen to twenty minutes4 ,this consists of breaking up the contents into balls weighing from #fj to #hj pounds each4 ,after they have been formed1 they are rolled near the fire bridge to receive a final welding heat before they are removed to the squeezer1 or hammer1 where the slag is expelled and the bloom formed4 ,the blooms from either the open-hearth or puddling process are treated similarly in what is termed the forge2 this includes hammering1 rolling1 and shingling4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aea4--,,rolling ,,tool ,,steel4 ,squeezers or hammers are used for forming the bloom and expelling the inclosed slag4 ,the bloom is then put through the largest groove of the roughing rolls and passed back through the next smaller1 and so on until it is rolled down to the desired size4 ,figure #aea shows #ad-;inch rolls in use which1 although somewhat similar to those employed for rolling iron1 are larger and generally made with more rolls4 ,the product of this first rolling is not usually considered of superior quality1 so1 in order to refine it more thoroughly1 the bars are cut up into short lengths1 piled into bundles1 reheated1 and again welded4 ,this process is called shingling and is done two or three times1 depending upon the desired quality of iron4 ,this shingling produces the lamin of the iron referred to in section #fj4 ,for ordinary bar iron the piles are made about #b feet long by #d inches square1 and for larger sizes they may be made #e or #f feet long by #aj or #ab inches square4 ,the rolls are of various kinds4 ,all shapes and sizes of bar iron used in blacksmithing may be produced in this manner4 ,rolling machines are known as two1 three1 and four high1 meaning that they are provided with that number of rolls1 one above the other4 ,universal rolling machines have two pairs of rolls in one machine2 one pair runs on horizontal axes and the other on vertical axes4 ,each pair can be opened or closed independently1 thus giving the machine a wide range4 #aha4 ,steel4--,the word 8steel0 means very little to those who are uninformed as to its different qualities and the causes of the distinctions between them4 ,people are generally familiar with the various purposes for which steel is used1 but know very little about its nature4 ,there are1 however1 great differences in the qualities1 and definite reasons for them4 ,formerly any combination of iron and carbon that would harden by sudden cooling or quenching was considered steel4 ,but since modern methods of manufacturing have been adopted1 tons of metal1 which would have been classed as iron if judged by the cooling test1 are at present known as mild or soft steel4 ,steel may properly be defined as an alloy of iron with carbon1 the latter not exceeding #a4h per cent2 the materials are completely fused and poured into molds1 allowed to cool1 and then rolled into shape4 ,in the processes of making wrought iron the materials are only partly fused and are not cast into molds1 but are taken out of the furnace in a soft1 pasty condition suitable for immediate working4 ,the older process of producing 8blister0 or 8cementation0 steel is not generally employed now4 ,by this method the bars of iron were put through a soaking or prolonged heating1 while they were packed in charcoal4 ,it was similar to the casehardening process1 explained in section #ij4 ,we have at present three notable processes of making steel2 namely1 the crucible1 ,bessemer1 and open-hearth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeb4--;,a ,,crucible4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aec4--,,sectional ,,view ,,of ,a ,,four-,,hole ,,crucible ,,furnace4 #ahb4 ,the ,crucible ,process4--,crucible furnaces are flat structures containing from two to twenty holes1 each one capable of receiving four or six crucibles4 ,the crucibles are earthen vessels made of fire clay1 mixed with refractory materials for withstanding intense heat4 ,each one is capable of receiving from #gj to #hj pounds of metal4 7,see ,fig4 #aeb47 ,in this furnace the gas and air supply may be applied independently to each hole1 practically making each one a separate furnace1 but all of the holes are connected with one main stack or chimney4 ,a sectional view of a four-hole furnace is shown in ,fig4 #aec1 where the crucibles are shown in position4 ,this process is the most simple4 ,it consists of melting the stock in the crucibles and pouring it1 when completely fused1 into molds1 as shown in ,fig4 #aed1 forming what is known as ingots or steel castings4 ,for that reason it is very frequently called cast steel4 ,the stock is carefully selected and weighed so as to produce the required grade4 ,after the ingots are cooled1 the piped or hollow ends caused by shrinkage are broken off and graded by the appearance of the granular structure and luster of the fractured parts4 ,they are then marked and piled away for future use4 ,on the ingots shown in ,fig4 #aee1 the piped ends can be seen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aed4--,,pouring ,,steel ,,into ,,ingot ,,molds4 ,the ingots are heated in an ordinary heating furnace1 and rolled or hammered into suitable bars1 the sizes being fixed both by the amount of carbon contained in the ingots and by the dimensions required for the manufacture of special tools4 ,figure #aea shows the workmen in the act of rolling tool steel2 in ,fig4 #aef they are seen drawing octagon tool steel with the tilting hammer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aee4--,,steel ,,ingots4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aef4--;,,drawing ,,octagon ,,tool ,,steel ,,with ,,the ,,tilting ,,hammer4 ,special alloys of crucible steel such as ,mushet1 blue chip1 high speed1 or other special brands are made by the same process1 the secret of the difference lying entirely in the selection of the stock4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeg4--;,,cross ,,section ,,of ,a ,,converter ,,through ,,the ,,trunnions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeh4--;,,another ,,cross ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,same4 #ahc4 ,the ,bessemer ,process4--,this consists of blowing air through molten pig iron in a vessel called a converter1 sectional views of which are shown in ,figs4 #aeg and #aeh4 ,a converter is a pear-shaped structure hung on trunnions ,a1 ,a1 so that it can be tipped forward4 ,the air is forced through one of the trunnions1 which is hollow1 and is connected with a pipe which conveys the air to the air chamber f at the bottom of the converter4 ,the bottom grate or tuyre plate is located directly above the air chamber1 and through the openings j1 j1 in the tuyre plate1 the air passes up through the metal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aei4--,,pouring ,,metal ,,into ,,molds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afj4--;,,ingot ,,stripper4 ,the converter is tipped forward into a horizontal position while the molten metal is poured into it4 ,the air is then turned on1 and the converter is raised to a perpendicular position4 ,the air passes up through the entire charge of iron2 consequently the metal is thoroughly acted upon1 while in the open-hearth process it is not4 ,the ,bessemer process is based on oxidation2 it produces a very high temperature and keeps the charge in a liquid state during the time of blowing4 ,this is continued until the sulphur and phosphorus are removed or the charge becomes decarbonized1--a condition termed burned steel1 owing to the presence of dissolved oxygen4 ,this condition is then changed or recarbonized by adding manganese alloys1 such as spiegeleisen or ferromanganese1 which give the necessary amount of carbon4 ,by these additions the iron is changed into steel4 ,the ,bessemer process requires a very short time in comparison with the puddling process4 ,three tons of pig iron can be refined in about twenty minutes1 while by the puddling process the same amount of metal requires about twenty-four hours4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afa4--,,lowering ,,an ,,ingot ,,into ,,the ,,soaking ,,pit4 ,considerable excitement was caused at the time the process was invented1 not only on account of the time saved1 but also because there was such a great saving in fuel4 ,after the metal has been poured from the converter into molds similar to those shown in ,fig4 #aei1 and has cooled sufficiently to become solid1 the molds are stripped off1 as shown in ,fig4 #afj1 and the ingots of metal placed in the soaking pits1 ,fig4 #afa4 ,these pits are somewhat similar to a crucible furnace and are used for reheating ingots before they are slabbed or rolled4 ,such a furnace is generally made of the regenerative type and is divided into several compartments1 each one capable of receiving several ingots which are inserted on end4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afb4--;,a ,,blooming ,,mill4 ,from the pit furnace the ingots are taken and rolled into slabs1 rails1 blooms1 or other forms suitable for use4 ,when the plant is equipped with both blast furnace and converter1 this is all done without additional heating1 but when the plant is not so equipped1 the pig iron is melted in a cupola furnace before being put into the converter4 ,a blooming mill is shown in operation in ,fig4 #afb4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afc4--,,open-,,hearth ,,furnace1 ,,from ,,the ,,charging ,,side4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afd4--,,sectional ,,view ,,of ,,an ,,open-,,hearth ,,furnace4 #ahd4 ,the ,open-hearth ,process4--,fig4 #afc4 ,here again the process depends on the type of furnace4 ,open-hearth steel is produced with a reverberatory furnace1 and the heat is supplied by regenerative gas and air4 ,the furnace is built mostly of brickwork with the exception of the supporting beams1 doors1 tie rods1 and hearth castings1 which are made of cast iron1 wrought iron1 or steel4 ,all brickwork that comes in contact with the intense heat is made of silica brick1 manufactured from rock crystals1 flint1 or other varieties of quartz rock with about two per cent of quicklime4 ,the roof of the furnace slopes toward the center1 so that when the air and gas enter they are directed downward on the charge of metal4 ,the bottom or hearth is constructed of heavy steel plates riveted together and supported on ,i beams4 ,this bottom is first covered with a layer of brick1 then sand is applied to about the thickness of one inch and well rammed down1 then other layers of brick and sand are added until the thickness is about #ad to #af inches4 ,this bottom requires repairing with more sand between successive heats4 ,figure #afd shows a cross section through the center of the charging and discharging openings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afe4--;,,another ,,sectional ,,view ,,of ,,an ,,open-,,hearth ,,furnace4 ,when the furnace has been charged1 the gas and air are allowed to enter at intervals of fifteen minutes1 first from one side1 then from the other4 ,when the air and gas enter one side1 the exhaust or waste gases pass out through the other side4 ,the reversing is done by means of levers which open and close the valves4 ,a sectional view is given in ,fig4 #afe1 showing the air and gas chambers and the brick checker work through which the air and gas pass and are heated4 ,the broken lines represent the passages leading to these chambers2 the valves are also shown4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aff4--,,open-,,hearth ,,furnace ,,discharging4 ,when the metal has been fused sufficiently1 a sample is dipped out and analyzed1 so that its composition may be known and sufficient carbonizing material added to produce the desired quality4 ,this is not possible with the ,bessemer process4 ,it is finally tapped into a large ladle1 from which it is poured into molds forming the ingots1 which are treated in the same way as described in the ,bessemer process4 ,the discharging is shown in ,fig4 #aff4 ,,questions ,,for ,,review ,what methods are used for converting pig iron into wrought iron8 ,describe in full the two methods4 ,what other name is sometimes given to the puddling process8 ,why is it so named8 ,explain the process of puddling4 ,how is the first product of the puddling process treated8 ,what is the object of this treatment8 ,what is steel8 ,name the different qualities1 giving the approximate carbon contents of each4 ,what is the old test for iron and steel8 ,how was 8blister0 steel produced8 ,by what process is cast or tool steel made8 ,what sort of vessel is used in melting the materials8 ,state the differences between making tool and soft steel4 ,what is an ingot8 ,what is the difference between an ingot of tool steel and an ingot of soft steel8 ,what is meant by the piped end of a tool steel ingot8 ,how are these ingots classified8 ,how is octagon tool steel made8 ,what processes are used in making soft steel8 ,describe each4 ,which is the most satisfactory8 ,which is the most rapid8 ,why is the product of the open-hearth process the best8 ,what is the purpose of 8soaking0 the ingots8 ,,formulas ,,and ,,tables 7,from the 8,pocket ,companion10 published by the ,carnegie ,steel ,co47 #a4 ,,weights ,the average weight of wrought iron is #dhj pounds per cubic foot4 ,a bar #a inch square and #c feet long weighs1 therefore1 exactly #aj pounds4 ,the weight of steel is #b per cent greater than the weight of wrought iron1 or #dhi4f pounds4 ,cast iron weighs #dej pounds to the cubic foot4 #b4 ,,lengths ,circumference of circle diameter #c4adaf4 ,diameter of circle circumference #j4cahc4 ,side of square of equal periphery as circle diameter #j4ghed4 ,diameter of circle of equal periphery as square side #a4bgcb4 ,side of an inscribed square diameter of circle #j4gjga4 ,length of arc number of degrees diameter #j4jjhgbg4 #c4 ,,areas ,triangle base half altitude4 ,parallelogram base altitude4 ,trapezoid half the sum of the parallel sides altitude4 ,trapezium1 found by dividing into two triangles4 ,circle square of diameter #j4ghed2 or1 square of circumference #j4jgieh4 ,sector of circle length of arc half radius4 #d4 ,,standard ,,dimensions ,,of ,,nuts ,,and ,,bolts ,short diameter of rough nut #a-a_/b diameter of bolt #a_/h inch4 ,short diameter of finished nut #a-a_/b diameter of bolt #a_/af inch4 ,thickness of rough nut diameter of bolt4 ,thickness of finished nut diameter of bolt #a_/af inch4 ,short diameter of rough head #a-a_/b diameter of bolt #a_/h inch4 ,short diameter of finished head #a-a_/b diameter of bolt #a_/af inch4 ,thickness of rough head #a_/b short diameter of head4 ,thickness of finished head diameter of bolt #a_/af inch4 #e4 ,,decimals ,,of ,,an ,,inch ,,for ,,each #a_/fd,,th #a_/cb;ds4 #a_/fdths4 ,decimal ,fraction -------------------------------------- #a 4#jaefbe #a #b 4#jcabe #c 4#jdfhge #b #d 4#jfbe #a_/af #e 4#jghabe #c #f 4#jicge #g 4#ajicge #d #h 4#abe #a_/h #i 4#adjfbe #e #aj 4#aefbe #aa 4#agahge #f #ab 4#ahge #c_/af #ac 4#bjcabe #g #ad 4#bahge #ae 4#bcdcge #h #af 4#be #a_/d #ag 4#bfefbe #i #ah 4#bhabe #ai 4#bifhge #aj #bj 4#cabe #e_/af #ba 4#cbhabe #aa #bb 4#cdcge #bc 4#ceicge #ab #bd 4#cge #c_/h #be 4#cijfbe #ac #bf 4#djfbe #bg 4#dbahge #ad #bh 4#dcge #g_/af #bi 4#decabe #ae #cj 4#dfhge #ca 4#dhdcge #af #cb 4#e #a_/b #cc 4#eaefbe #ag #cd 4#ecabe #ce 4#edfhge #ah #cf 4#efbe #i_/af #cg 4#eghabe #ai #ch 4#eicge #ci 4#fjicge #bj #dj 4#fbe #e_/h #da 4#fdjfbe #ba #db 4#fefbe #dc 4#fgahge #bb #dd 4#fhge #aa_/af #de 4#gjcabe #bc #df 4#gahge #dg 4#gcdcge #bd #dh 4#ge #c_/d #di 4#gfefbe #be #ej 4#ghabe #ea 4#gifhge #bf #eb 4#habe #ac_/af #ec 4#hbhabe #bg #ed 4#hdcge #ee 4#heicge #bh #ef 4#hge #g_/h #eg 4#hijfbe #bi #eh 4#ijfbe #ei 4#ibahge #cj #fj 4#icge #ae_/af #fa 4#iecabe #ca #fb 4#ifhge #fc 4#ihdcge #cb #fd #a4 #a #f4 ,,weights ,,of ,,flat ,,rolled ,,steel ,,per ,,linear ,,foot ,one cubic foot weighing #dhi4f pounds ,thick- #a- #a- #a- #b- #b- #b- ness in #a #a_/d #a_/b #c_/d #b #a_/d #a_/b #c_/d inches ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #c_/af 4#fch 4#gig 4#ieg #a4aa #a4bh #a4dd #a4ei #a4ge #a_/d 4#hej #a4jf #a4bh #a4di #a4gj #a4ia #b4ab #b4cd #e_/af #a4jf #a4cc #a4ei #a4hf #b4ab #b4ci #b4fe #b4ib #c_/h #a4bh #a4ei #a4ib #b4bc #b4ee #b4hg #c4ai #c4ea #g_/af #a4di #a4hf #b4bc #b4fj #b4ih #c4ce #c4gb #d4ji #a_/b #a4gj #b4ab #b4ee #b4ih #c4dj #c4hc #d4be #d4fg #i_/af #a4ib #b4ci #b4hg #c4ce #c4hc #d4cj #d4gh #e4bf #e_/h #b4ab #b4fe #c4ai #c4gb #d4be #d4gh #e4ca #e4hd #aa_/af #b4cd #b4ib #c4ea #d4ji #d4fg #e4bf #e4hd #f4dc #c_/d #b4ee #c4ai #c4hc #d4dg #e4aj #e4ge #f4ch #g4jb #ac_/af #b4gf #c4de #d4ad #d4hd #e4ec #f4ba #f4ij #g4fj #g_/h #b4ih #c4gb #d4dg #e4bj #e4ie #f4fi #g4dd #h4ah #ae_/af #c4ai #c4ii #d4gh #e4eh #f4ch #g4ah #g4ig #h4gg #a #c4dj #d4be #e4aj #e4ie #f4hj #g4fe #h4ej #i4ce #a-a_/af #c4fa #d4eb #e4db #f4cb #g4bb #h4ac #i4jc #i4ic #a-a_/h #c4hc #d4gh #e4gd #f4gj #g4fe #h4fa #i4eg #aj4eb #a-c_/af #d4jd #e4je #f4jf #g4jg #h4jh #i4ji #aj4aj #aa4aa #a-a_/d #d4be #e4ca #f4ch #g4dd #h4ej #i4eg #aj4fc #aa4fi #a-e_/af #d4df #e4eh #f4fi #g4ha #h4ic #aj4jd #aa4af #ab4bg #a-c_/h #d4fg #e4hd #g4jb #h4ah #i4ce #aj4eb #aa4fi #ab4he #a-g_/af #d4hi #f4aa #g4cd #h4ef #i4gh #aa4jj #ab4bb #ac4dd #a-a_/b #e4aj #f4ch #g4fe #h4ic #aj4bj #aa4dh #ab4ge #ad4jc #a-i_/af #e4cb #f4fd #g4ig #i4cj #aj4fc #aa4ie #ac4bh #ad4fa #a-e_/h #e4eb #f4ij #h4bi #i4fg #aa4je #ab4dc #ac4ha #ae4ai #a-aa_/af #e4gd #g4ag #h4fa #aj4jd #aa4dg #ab4ia #ad4cd #ae4gh #a-c_/d #e4ie #g4dd #h4ic #aj4db #aa4ij #ac4dj #ad4hh #af4cg #a-ac_/af #f4af #g4gj #i4bd #aj4gi #ab4cc #ac4hf #ae4dj #af4ie #a-g_/h #f4ch #g4ig #i4eg #aa4ae #ab4ge #ad4cd #ae4id #ag4ec #a-ae_/af #f4ei #h4bd #i4hh #aa4ec #ac4ah #ad4hc #af4dg #ah4ab #b #f4hj #h4ej #aj4bj #aa4ij #ac4fj #ae4cj #ag4jj #ah4gj ,thick- #c- #c- #c- #d- #d- #d- ness in #c #a_/d #a_/b #c_/d #d #a_/d #a_/b #c_/d inches ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #c_/af #a4ia #b4jg #b4bc #b4ci #b4ee #b4ga #b4hg #c4jc #a_/d #b4ee #b4gf #b4ih #c4ai #c4dj #c4fa #c4hc #d4jd #e_/af #c4ai #c4de #c4gb #c4ii #d4be #d4eb #d4gh #e4je #c_/h #c4hc #d4ae #d4dg #d4gh #e4aj #e4db #e4gd #f4jf #g_/af #d4df #d4hc #e4bj #e4eh #e4ie #f4cb #f4gj #g4jg #a_/b #e4aj #e4ec #e4ie #f4ch #f4hj #g4bb #g4fe #h4jh #i_/af #e4gd #f4bb #f4gj #g4ag #g4fe #h4ac #h4fa #i4ji #e_/h #f4ch #f4ia #g4dd #g4ig #h4ej #i4jc #i4eg #aj4aj #aa_/af #g4jb #g4fj #h4ah #h4gf #i4ce #i4ic #aj4eb #aa4aa #c_/d #g4fe #h4bi #h4ic #i4eg #aj4bj #aj4hd #aa4dh #ab4ab #ac_/af #h4bi #h4ih #i4fg #aj4cf #aa4je #aa4gd #ab4dc #ac4ab #g_/h #h4ic #i4fg #aj4da #aa4af #aa4ij #ab4fe #ac4ci #ad4ac #ae_/af #i4eg #aj4cf #aa4af #aa4ie #ab4ge #ac4ee #ad4cd #ae4ad #a #aj4bj #aa4je #aa4ij #ab4ge #ac4fj #ad4de #ae4cj #af4ae #a-a_/af #aj4hd #aa4gd #ab4fe #ac4ee #ad4de #ae4ce #af4bf #ag4af #a-a_/h #aa4dh #ab4dc #ac4ci #ad4cd #ae4cj #af4bf #ag4bb #ah4ag #a-c_/af #ab4ab #ac4ab #ad4ac #ae4ad #af4ae #ag4af #ah4ag #ai4ah #a-a_/d #ab4ge #ac4ha #ad4hg #ae4id #ag4jj #ah4jf #ai4ac #bj4ai #a-e_/af #ac4ci #ad4ej #ae4fb #af4gd #ag4he #ah4if #bj4jh #ba4bj #a-c_/h #ad4jc #ae4bj #af4cf #ag4ec #ah4gj #ai4hg #ba4jd #bb4ba #a-g_/af #ad4ff #ae4hh #ag4aj #ah4cc #ai4ee #bj4gg #ba4ii #bc4bb #a-a_/b #ae4cj #af4eh #ag4he #ai4ac #bj4dj #ba4fh #bb4ie #bd4bc #a-i_/af #ae4id #ag4bg #ah4fj #ai4ib #ba4be #bb4eh #bc4ia #be4bd #a-e_/h #af4eh #ag4if #ai4cd #bj4gb #bb4aj #bc4dh #bd4hg #bf4be #a-aa_/afag4bb #ah4fe #bj4jh #ba4ea #bb4ie #bd4ch #be4hb #bg4bf #a-c_/d #ag4he #ai4cd #bj4hc #bb4cb #bc4hj #be4bi #bf4gh #bh4bg #a-ac_/afah4di #bj4jc #ba4eg #bc4aa #bd4fe #bf4ai #bg4gc #bi4bg #a-g_/h #ai4ac #bj4gb #bb4ca #bc4ia #be4ej #bg4aj #bh4fi #cj4bh #a-ae_/afai4gg #ba4da #bc4jf #bd4gj #bf4ce #bh4jj #bi4fd #ca4bi #b #bj4dj #bb4aj #bc4hj #be4ej #bg4bj #bh4ij #cj4fj #cb4cj ,thick- #e- #e- #e- ness in #e #a_/d #a_/b #c_/d #f #ab inches ---------------------------------------- ----- #c_/af #c4ai #c4ce #c4ea #c4fg #c4hc #g4fe #a_/d #d4be #d4df #d4fg #d4hi #e4aj #aj4bj #e_/af #e4ca #e4eh #e4hd #f4aa #f4ch #ab4ge #c_/h #f4ch #f4fi #g4jb #g4cd #g4fe #ae4cj #g_/af #g4dd #g4ha #h4ah #h4ef #h4ic #ag4he #a_/b #h4ej #h4ic #i4ce #i4gg #aj4bj #bj4dj #i_/af #i4eg #aj4jd #aj4eb #aa4jj #aa4dh #bb4ie #e_/h #aj4fc #aa4af #aa4fi #ab4bb #ab4ge #be4ej #aa_/af #aa4fi #ab4bg #ab4he #ac4dd #ad4jc #bh4je #c_/d #ab4ge #ac4ci #ad4jc #ad4fg #ae4cj #cj4fj #ac_/af #ac4ha #ad4ej #ae4ai #ae4hh #af4eh #cc4ae #g_/h #ad4hg #ae4fb #af4cf #ag4aj #ag4he #ce4gj #ae_/af #ae4id #af4gd #ag4ec #ah4cc #ai4ac #ch4be #a #ag4jj #ag4he #ah4gj #ai4ee #bj4dj #dj4hj #a-a_/af #ah4jf #ah4if #ai4hg #bj4gg #ba4fh #dc4ce #a-a_/h #ai4ac #bj4jh #ba4jd #ba4ii #bb4ie #de4ij #a-c_/af #bj4ai #ba4bj #bb4ba #bc4bb #bd4bc #dh4de #a-a_/d #ba4be #bb4cb #bc4ch #bd4dd #be4ej #ea4jj #a-e_/af #bb4cb #bc4dc #bd4ed #be4ff #bf4gh #ec4ee #a-c_/h #bc4ch #bd4ed #be4ga #bf4hh #bh4je #ef4aj #a-g_/af #bd4dd #be4ff #bf4hh #bh4aj #bi4cc #eh4fe #a-a_/b #be4ej #bf4gh #bh4je #bi4cc #cj4fj #fa4bj #a-i_/af #bf4eg #bg4hi #bi4bb #cj4ee #ca4hh #fc4ge #a-e_/h #bg4fc #bi4ja #cj4ci #ca4gg #cc4ae #ff4cj #a-aa_/afbh4fi #cj4ab #ca4ee #cb4ii #cd4dc #fh4he #a-c_/d #bi4ge #ca4bd #cb4gc #cd4bb #ce4gj #ga4dj #a-ac_/afcj4ha #cb4ce #cc4hi #ce4dc #cf4ih #gc4ie #a-g_/h #ca4hg #cc4dg #ce4jf #cf4fe #ch4be #gf4ej #a-ae_/afcb4id #cd4ei #cf4bc #cg4hh #ci4ec #gi4je #b #cd4jj #ce4gj #cg4dj #ci4aj #dj4hj #ha4fj #g4 ,,weights ,,and ,,areas ,,of ,,square ,,and ,,round ,,bars ,,and ,,circumferences ,,of ,,round ,,bars ,thickness,weight of,weight of ,area of ,area of ,circumfer- or square round square round ence of ,diameter ,bar one ,bar one ,bar in ,bar in round ,bar in inchesfoot longfoot longsq4 inchessq4 inchesin inches ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #a_/af 4#jac 4#jaj 4#jjci 4#jjca 4#aifc #a_/h 4#jec 4#jdb 4#jaef 4#jabc 4#cibg #c_/af 4#aai 4#jid 4#jceb 4#jbgf 4#ehij #a_/d 4#bab 4#afg 4#jfbe 4#jdia 4#ghed #e_/af 4#ccc 4#bfa 4#jigg 4#jgfg 4#ihag #c_/h 4#dgh 4#cge 4#adjf 4#aajd #a4agha #g_/af 4#fea 4#eaa 4#aiad 4#aejc #a4cgdd #a_/b 4#hej 4#ffg 4#bejj 4#aifc #a4egjh #i_/af #a4jgf 4#hde 4#cafd 4#bdhe #a4gfga #e_/h #a4cbh #a4jdc 4#cijf 4#cjfh #a4ifce #aa_/af #a4fjh #a4bfb 4#dgbg 4#cgab #b4aeih #c_/d #a4iac #a4ejb 4#efbe 4#ddah #b4cefb #ac_/af #b4bde #a4gfc 4#ffjb 4#eahe #b4eebe #g_/h #b4fjc #b4jdd 4#gfef 4#fjac #b4gdhi #ae_/af #b4ihi #b4cdg 4#hghi 4#fijc #b4ideb #a #c4djj #b4fgj #a4jjjj 4#ghed #c4adaf #a_/af #c4hch #c4jad #a4abhi 4#hhff #c4ccgi #a_/h #d4cjc #c4cgi #a4bfef 4#iidj #c4ecdc #c_/af #d4gie #c4gff #a4dajb #a4ajge #c4gcjf #a_/d #e4cab #d4agc #a4efbe #a4bbgb #c4ibgj #e_/af #e4heg #d4fjj #a4gbbg #a4cecj #d4abcc #c_/h #f4dbh #e4jdi #a4hijf #a4dhdi #d4caig #g_/af #g4jbf #e4eah #b4jffd #a4fbcj #d4eafj #a_/b #g4fej #f4jjh #b4bejj #a4gfga #d4gabd #i_/af #h4cja #f4ebj #b4ddad #a4iage #d4ijhg #e_/h #h4igh #g4jea #b4fdjf #b4jgci #e4ajea #aa_/af #i4fhb #g4fjd #b4hdgg #b4bcfe #e4cjad #c_/d #aj4da #h4agh #c4jfbe #b4djec #e4digh #ac_/af #aa4ag #h4ggc #c4bheb #b4ehjb #e4fida #g_/h #aa4ie #i4chh #c4eaef #b4gfab #e4hije #ae_/af #ab4gf #aj4jb #c4geci #b4idhc #f4jhfh #b #ac4fj #aj4fh #d4jjjj #c4adaf #f4bhcb #a_/af #ad4df #aa4cf #d4beci #c4cdaj #f4dgie #a_/h #ae4ce #ab4jf #d4eaef #c4edff #f4fgei #c_/af #af4bg #ab4gh #d4gheb #c4gehc #f4hgbb #a_/d #ag4bb #ac4eb #e4jfbe #c4igfa #g4jfhf #e_/af #ah4ai #ad4bh #e4cdgg #d4bjjj #g4bfdi #c_/h #ai4ah #ae4jg #e4fdjf #d4dcja #g4dfac #g_/af #bj4bj #ae4hf #e4idad #d4fffd #g4fegf #a_/b #ba4be #af4fi #f4bejj #d4ijhg #g4hedj #i_/af #bb4cc #ag4ec #f4effd #e4aegb #h4jejc #e_/h #bc4dc #ah4dj #f4hijf #e4daai #h4bdfg #aa_/af #bd4ef #ai4bi #g4bbbg #e4fgbg #h4ddcj #c_/d #be4 #bj4bj #g4efbe #e4icif #h4fcid #ac_/af #bf4ij #ba4ab #g4iajb #f4babf #h4hceg #g_/h #bh4aj #bb4jg #h4bfef #f4diah #i4jcba #ae_/af #bi4cd #bc4jd #h4fbhi #f4ggga #i4bbhd #c #cj4fj #bd4jc #i4jjjj #g4jfhf #i4dbdh #a_/af #ca4hi #be4jd #i4cghi #g4cffb #i4fbaa #a_/h #cc4bj #bf4jh #i4gfef #g4ffii #i4hage #c_/af #cd4ee #bg4ac #aj4afj #g4igih #aj4jad #a_/d #ce4ib #bh4bj #aj4efc #h4bieh #aj4baj #e_/af #cg4ca #bi4cj #aj4igc #h4fagi #aj4djg #c_/h #ch4gc #cj4db #aa4cia #h4idfb #aj4fjc #g_/af #dj4ah #ca4ef #aa4haf #i4bhjf #aj4gii #a_/b #da4fe #cb4ga #ab4bej #i4fbaa #aj4iif #i_/af #dc4ad #cc4ij #ab4fia #i4ifgh #aa4aib #e_/h #dd4fh #ce4ji #ac4ada #aj4cba #aa4chh #aa_/af #df4bd #cf4ca #ac4eih #aj4fhj #aa4ehe #c_/d #dg4hb #cg4ef #ad4jfc #aa4jde #aa4gha #ac_/af #di4db #ch4ha #ad4ece #aa4daf #aa4igg #g_/h #ea4je #dj4aj #ae4jaf #aa4gic #ab4agd #ae_/af #eb4ga #da4dj #ae4ejd #ab4agg #ab4cgj #d #ed4dj #db4gc #af4jjj #ab4eff #ab4eff #a_/af #ef4aa #dd4jg #af4ejd #ab4ifb #ab4gfc #a_/h #eg4he #de4dd #ag4jaf #ac4cfd #ab4iei #c_/af #ei4fb #df4hc #ag4ece #ac4ggb #ac4aee #a_/d #fa4da #dh4bd #ah4jfc #ad4ahf #ac4ceb #e_/af #fc4bc #di4ff #ah4eih #ad4fjg #ac4edh #c_/h #fe4jh #ea4aa #ai4ada #ae4jcc #ac4gdd #g_/af #ff4ie #eb4eh #ai4fia #ae4dff #ac4ida #a_/b #fh4he #ed4jg #bj4bej #ae4ijd #ad4acg #i_/af #gj4gh #ee4ei #bj4haf #af4cdi #ad4ccd #e_/h #gb4gc #eg4ab #ba4cia #af4hjj #ad4ecj #aa_/af #gd4gj #eh4fg #ba4igc #ag4beg #ad4gbf #c_/d #gf4ga #fj4be #bb4efc #ag4gba #ad4ibc #ac_/af #gh4gd #fa4hd #bc4afj #ah4aij #ae4aai #g_/h #hj4ha #fc4df #bc4gff #ah4ffe #ae4cae #ae_/af #hb4hi #fe4aj #bd4cgi #ai4adg #ae4eab #e #he4jj #ff4gf #be4jjj #ai4fce #ae4gjh #a_/af #hg4ad #fh4dd #be4fbi #bj4abi #ae4ijd #a_/h #hi4cj #gj4ad #bf4bff #bj4fbi #af4aja #c_/af #ia4di #ga4hf #bf4iaj #ba4ace #af4big #a_/d #ic4gb #gc4fj #bg4efc #ba4fdh #af4dic #e_/af #ie4if #ge4cg #bh4bbc #bb4aff #af4fij #c_/h #ih4bc #gg4ae #bh4hia #bb4fia #af4hhf #g_/af #ajj4e #gh4ie #bi4eff #bc4bba #ag4jhb #a_/b #ajb4h #hj4gg #cj4bej #bc4geh #ag4bgi #i_/af #aje4b #hb4fb #cj4ida #bd4cja #ag4dge #e_/h #ajg4f #hd4di #ca4fda #bd4hej #ag4fga #aa_/af #aaj4j #hf4ch #cb4cdh #be4djf #ag4hfh #c_/d #aab4d #hh4bi #cc4jfc #be4ifg #ah4jfd #ac_/af #aad4i #ij4bb #cc4ghe #bf4ece #ah4bfa #g_/h #aag4d #ib4ag #cd4eaf #bg4aji #ah4deg #ae_/af #aai4i #id4ad #ce4bed #bg4fhh #ah4fec #h4 ,,circumferences ,,and ,,circular ,,areas ,,of ,,numbers ,,from #a ,,to #ajj ,number ,diameter ,no4 ---------------------------- ,circumference ,area -------------------------------- #a #c4adb #j4ghed #b #f4bhc #c4adaf #c #i4dbe #g4jfhf #d #ab4eff #ab4effd #e #ae4gjh #ai4fcej #f #ah4hej #bh4bgdc #g #ba4iia #ch4dhde #h #be4acc #ej4bfee #i #bh4bgd #fc4fagc #aj #ca4daf #gh4ecih #aa #cd4eeh #ie4jccb #ab #cg4fii #aac4jig #ac #dj4hda #acb4gcb #ad #dc4ihb #aec4ich #ae #dg4abd #agf4gae #af #ej4bfe #bja4jfb #ag #ec4djg #bbf4ihj #ah #ef4edi #bed4dfi #ai #ei4fij #bhc4ebi #bj #fb4hcb #cad4aei #ba #fe4igc #cdf4cfa #bb #fi4aae #chj4acc #bc #gb4beg #dae4dgf #bd #ge4cih #deb4chi #be #gh4edj #dij4hgd #bf #ha4fha #ecj4ibi #bg #hd4hbc #egb4eee #bh #hg4ife #fae4geb #bi #ia4ajf #ffj4ebj #cj #id4bdh #gjf4heh #ca #ig4chi #ged4gfh #cb #ajj4eca #hjd4bdh #cc #ajc4fgc #hee4bii #cd #ajf4had #ijg4ibj #ce #aji4ief #ifb4aac #cf #aac4jig #ajag4hh #cg #aaf4bci #ajge4ba #ch #aai4cha #aacd4aa #ci #abb4ebb #aaid4ei #dj #abe4ff #abef4fd #da #abh4ha #acbj4be #db #aca4ie #ache4dd #dc #ace4ji #adeb4bj #dd #ach4bc #aebj4ec #de #ada4cg #aeij4dc #df #add4ea #affa4ij #dg #adg4fe #agcd4id #dh #aej4hj #ahji4ef #di #aec4id #ahhe4gd #ej #aeg4jh #aifc4ej #ea #afj4bb #bjdb4hb #eb #afc4cf #babc4gb #ec #aff4ej #bbjf4ah #ed #afi4fe #bbij4bb #ee #agb4gi #bcge4hc #ef #age4ic #bdfc4ja #eg #agi4jg #beea4gf #eh #ahb4ba #bfdb4jh #ei #ahe4ce #bgcc4ig #fj #ahh4ej #bhbg4dc #fa #aia4fd #bibb4dg #fb #aid4gh #cjai4jg #fc #aig4ib #caag4be #fd #bja4jf #cbaf4ii #fe #bjd4bj #ccah4ca #ff #bjg4ce #cdba4ai #fg #baj4di #cebe4fe #fh #bac4fc #cfca4fh #fi #baf4gg #cgci4bh #gj #bai4ia #chdh4de #ga #bbc4je #ciei4ai #gb #bbf4ai #djga4ej #gc #bbi4cd #dahe4ci #gd #bcb4dh #dcjj4hd #ge #bce4fb #ddag4hf #gf #bch4gf #decf4df #gg #bda4ij #dfef4fc #gh #bde4jd #dggh4cf #gi #bdh4ai #dija4fg #hj #bea4cc #ejbf4ee #ha #bed4dg #eaec4jj #hb #beg4fa #ebha4jb #hc #bfj4ge #edaj4fa #hd #bfc4hi #eeda4gg #he #bfg4jd #efgd4ej #hf #bgj4ah #ehjh4hj #hg #bgc4cb #eidd4fh #hh #bgf4df #fjhb4ab #hi #bgi4fj #fbba4ad #ij #bhb4gd #fcfa4gc #ia #bhe4hh #fejc4hh #ib #bhi4jc #ffdg4fa #ic #bib4ag #fgib4ia #id #bie4ca #fici4gh #ie #bih4de #gjhh4bb #if #cja4ei #gbch4bc #ig #cjd4gc #gchi4ha #ih #cjg4hh #gedb4if #ii #caa4jb #gfig4fi #ajj #cad4af #ghec4ih ,,index ,figures in italics indicate pages upon which illustrations occur4 ,andirons and bar1 #aei4 ,angle blow1 see beveling blow4 ,annealing1 #hf1 #hg4 ,anvil1 #e1 #f1 #g4 ,areas1 formulas of1 #aig4 ,art smithing1 #adf4 ,backing-up blow1 #ce1 #cf4 8,backing-up0 metal1 #dc4 ,banding with clips1 #adg4 ,basic iron1 #agd4 ,bellows1 #a4 ,bench and measuring tools1 #bb-bh4 ,bench vise1 #bb1 #bc4 ,bending1 #dj1 #da2 stock calculation for1 #aah-aba4 ,bending or twisting fork1 #adi2 wrench1 #aej1 #aea4 ,bessemer iron1 #agc2 process1 #ahg-aic4 ,bevel1 #be1 #bf4 ,beveling blow1 #cb1 #cc1 #cd4 ,bevel or taper tool1 #ace4 ,blackband1 #afd4 ,blast1 #afh-agj4 ,blast furnace1 see reduction furnace4 ,blister steel1 #ahd4 ,block1 swage1 #ai1 #bj4 ,bloomery1 #agg4 ,blooming mill1 #aia4 ,blue billy1 #ahj4 ,blue chip1 #ahf4 ,bolsters1 #acf4 ,bolt1 hexagonal head1 #ff1 #fg4 ,boring tools1 #ajc1 #ajd4 ,box tongs1 see tool tongs4 ,brass tool1 #aja1 #ajb4 ,brown hematite1 see limonite4 ,bulldog1 #ahj4 ,burned steel1 #ahi4 ,butterfly scarf1 #aae1 #aaf1 #aag4 ,button head set1 #ai4 ,butt weld1 #eb1 #ec4 ,calcination1 see roasting4 ,calipers1 #be1 #bf1 #aah1 #aai4 ,cape chisel1 #bd4 ,carbon1 percentage of1 in tool steel1 #hc-he4 ,casehardening1 #ib1 #ic4 ,cast steel1 #ahe4 ,cementation steel1 see blister steel4 ,center punch1 #bd1 #be4 ,chain grabhook1 #hj1 #ha1 #hb4 ,chain making1 #gc1 #gd4 ,chain swivel1 #gf-hj4 ,charcoal1 #e1 #afg4 ,charcoal iron1 #agd4 ,checking tool or side fuller1 #acj1 #aca4 ,chisel1 trimming1 #abg1 #abh4 ,chisels1 #bc1 #bd1 #ajh1 #aji4 ,chisel tongs #aj1 #aa4 ,circular cutter1 #abg4 ,circumferences and circular areas of numbers from #a to #ajj3 #bje1 #bjf4 ,classification of pig iron1 #agc4 ,clay ironstone1 #afd4 ,cleft weld1 #eb1 #ec4 ,clincher1 see clip tightener4 ,clip1 #adh4 ,clip former1 #aea1 #aeb2 holder1 #aeb1 #aec2 tightener or clincher1 #aec1 #aed4 ,coal box1 #a4 ,coke1 #e1 #afg4 ,cold chisel1 #bc1 #bd1 #hi1 #ajh1 #aji4 ,cold cutters1 #ab1 #ac1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #abh-acj4 ,collars1 see bolsters4 ,colored oxides1 #hh1 #hi4 ,combination fuller and set1 #acb1 #acc4 ,combined spring fullers1 #aca1 #acb2 top and bottom swages1 #acc1 #acd4 ,connecting lever1 #adb1 #adc2 rod1 #ach1 #aci4 ,converter1 #ahg1 #ahh4 ,crank shaft1 #acg1 #ach4 ,crowbar1 steel-faced1 #aac1 #aad4 ,crucible1 #ahd4 ,crucible process1 #ahd-ahg4 ,crucible steel1 alloys of1 #ahf4 ,crushing1 #aff4 ,cutter1 see hack4 circular1 #abg2 cold1 #ab1 #ac1 #abh-acj2 hardening1 #ad2 hot1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #aji1 #aaj4 ,cutting-off or parting tool1 #ajb1 #ajc4 ,cutting stock1 #abh1 #abi1 #acj4 ,decimals of an inch for each #a_/fdth1 #aih4 ,designing1 #adf4 ,diamond point tool1 #ajd-ajf4 ,dies1 #dc1 #abc1 #abd4 ,dimensions of nuts and bolts1 #aig4 ,dipper1 #d4 ,dividers1 #be1 #bf4 ,dolomite as a flux1 #afh4 ,door hasp1 #fd-ff4 ,double and single offsets1 #adc-ade4 ,double-faced sledge1 #i4 ,drawing1 #cg-dj4 ,draw spike1 #ei4 ,drop hammer1 #abc1 #abd4 ,eccentric jaw1 #adj1 #ada4 ,edge-to-edge blow1 #ca1 #cb4 ,eye or ring bolts1 #aad1 #aae1 #aaf-aah4 ,fagot welding1 #fi4 ,ferromanganese1 #ahi4 ,ferrous carbonate1 #afd4 ,fettlings1 #ahj4 ,files1 #bg1 #bh4 ,finery process1 see open-hearth process4 8,finished10 definition of1 #acg4 ,fire cracks1 #he4 ,fire set1 #aei1 #afj2 separated1 #afj4 ,fire tools1 #d4 ,flat-jawed tongs1 #aj4 ,flat right-angled weld1 #gj1 #ga1 #gb4 ,flatter1 #ad1 #ae1 #aab1 #aac4 ,fluxes1 #afg1 #afh4 ,forge1 ,,xii1 #a-c4 ,forging1 definition of1 #cf-cg4 ,forging1 operations used in1 #cf-dg4 ,forgings1 #abc4 ,forging tools1 #ab-bh1 #ajg-aah4 ,forming1 #dc1 #dd4 ,formulas and tables1 #aig-bjf4 ,foundry iron1 #agd4 ,franklinite1 #afb4 ,fuels1 #d1 #e1 #dh1 #di1 #afg4 ,fullers1 combined spring1 #aca1 #acb2 top and bottom1 #ah1 #ai4 ,gate hook1 #fb1 #fc1 #fd4 ,grabhook1 #hj1 #ha1 #hb4 ,grading iron1 #agd1 #agf4 ,hack or cutter1 #abf1 #abg4 ,hack saw1 #bg4 ,hammer blows1 #cj-cf4 ,hammers1 #g1 #h2 ball peen1 #h2 cross peen1 #h2 drop1 #abc1 #abd2 hand1 #h2 round and square-edged set1 #ae1 #af1 #aaa2 steam1 #abd1 #abe1 #abf2 straight peen1 #h4 ,handle punches1 #af1 #ag4 ,hand lever1 #ada1 #adb4 ,hardening tool steel1 #hg-ib2 wrought iron and soft steel1 #ib1 #ic4 ,hardy1 #ab1 #ac1 #aaa1 #aab4 ,hasp1 door1 #fd-ff4 ,heading tool1 #ai4 ,heating1 #dh-ej4 ,heating air for blast furnace1 #afh-agj2 tool steel1 #he1 #hf4 ,heavy boring tool1 #ajc2 flat tongs1 #if1 #ig1 #ih4 ,hollow bit tongs1 #aj1 #aa4 ,hot cutter1 #ab-ad1 #aji1 #aaj4 ,ingots1 #ahe1 #ahf4 ,ingot stripper1 #ahi4 ,injuries to steel1 #he4 ,iron1 cold-short1 #afh2 colors and temperatures for1 #id2 distribution of1 #afb2 native1 #afa2 red-short1 #afh2 welding1 #dg2 wrought1 #agh4 ,iron ore1 #afa-afb2 ferrous carbonate a form of1 #afd2 limonite a form of1 #afc1 #afd2 magnetite a form of1 #afb1 #afc2 nickel in1 #afa2 red hematite a form of1 #afc4 ,iron oxide in flux1 #agg4 ,jardinire stand or taboret1 #aed-aeg4 ,jarring1 see upsetting by jarring4 ,jump weld1 #ec1 #ed4 ,kiln1 #afg4 ,lap weld1 #ej-eb4 ,lathe tools1 #aja-ajg4 ,lengths1 formulas of1 #aig4 ,leverage blow1 #cd1 #ce4 ,light boring tool1 #ajc1 #ajd2 chain tongs1 #ih-aja4 ,limonite1 #afc1 #afd4 ,link tongs1 #aj1 #aa4 ,machine forgings1 #acg-ade4 ,magnetite1 #afb1 #afc4 ,malleable iron1 #agd4 ,manual training forge1 #b1 #c4 ,material for welding1 #dg1 #dh4 ,meteorites1 #afa4 ,mild steel1 #ahc4 ,mill iron1 #agd4 ,mushet1 #ahf4 ,nasmyth1 ,james1 #abd4 ,native iron1 #afa4 ,offsets1 #adc-ade4 ,open eye1 #aad1 #aae4 ,open-hearth furnace1 #aib1 #aic1 #aid1 #aie4 ,open-hearth process1 #agg1 #agh1 #aic-aif4 ,ore1 definition of1 #afa4 ,ores1 preparation of1 #afe2 value of1 #afd1 #afe4 ,overhanging blow1 #cb4 ,oxides1 colored1 #hh1 #hi4 ,oxidizing fire1 #di4 ,parting tool1 see cutting-off tool4 ,phosphorus in iron1 #afh4 ,pick-up tongs1 #aj1 #aa4 ,pig boiling1 #agh4 ,pig iron1 classification of1 #agc4 ,pig molding machine1 #aga-agc4 ,pigs1 cast-iron1 #aga4 ,pipe hook1 #fj1 #fa1 #fb4 ,plug punch1 use of1 #acf4 ,preparation of ores1 #afe4 ,presses1 #abd4 ,puddling process1 #agh1 #agi-ahc4 ,punches1 #af1 #ag1 #bd1 #be1 #acf1 #acg4 ,pure iron1 #afb4 ,questions for review1 #bh1 #bi1 #eg1 #hb1 #ie1 #aba1 #abb1 #ade1 #afj1 #agf1 #aif4 ,ramming1 see upsetting by ramming4 ,reading lamp1 #aeh1 #aei4 ,red hematite1 #afc4 ,reducing fire1 #di1 #ej4 ,reduction furnace1 #agj-agc4 ,refining pig iron1 #agg4 ,refining process1 four stages of1 #ahj1 #aha4 ,refining steel1 #hh4 ,reverberatory furnace1 description of1 #agi1 #aic1 #aid4 ,right side tool1 #ajf1 #ajg4 ,ring bolts1 see eye bolts4 ,riveting1 #adg1 #adh4 ,roasting ore1 #aff1 #afg4 ,rod strap1 #aci1 #adj4 ,rolling machines1 #ahc4 ,rolling tool steel1 #ahb4 ,round-edged set hammer1 #ae1 #af1 #aab1 #aac4 ,round weld1 #fi1 #gj4 ,rule1 #bd1 #be4 ,saddle1 see yoke4 ,scarfing1 #ej4 ,scriber or scratch awl1 #be1 #bf4 ,scroll bending1 #aej2 fastenings1 #adg1 #adh2 former1 #adh1 #adi4 ,shearing blow1 #cf1 #cg4 ,shingling1 #ahb4 ,ship-smith eye1 #aag1 #aah4 ,s hook1 #ei1 #fj4 ,side fuller1 see checking tool4 ,side tongs1 #aj1 #aa2 tool1 #ajf1 #ajg4 ,slag1 #afh4 ,sledges1 #i4 ,snap1 see button head set4 ,solid forged1 eye1 #aag1 #aah2 ring1 #adc4 ,spathic ore1 #afd1 #afe4 ,spiegeleisen1 #afc1 #afd1 #ahi1 #aij4 ,spring fullers1 #aca4 ,spring swages1 see combined top and bottom swages4 ,square1 #be1 #bf4 ,square-cornered angle1 #fg-fi4 ,square-edged set hammer1 #ae1 #af1 #aaa4 ,standard dimensions of nuts and bolts1 #aig4 ,staple1 #eh4 ,steam hammer1 #abd1 #abe4 ,steam hammer tools1 #abf-acg4 ,steam hammer work1 exercises in1 #acg-ade4 ,steel1 #ahc-aif4 ,steel1 kind of1 suitable for tools1 #hc4 ,steel1 tool1 #hc-ie2 annealing of1 #hf1 #hg2 colors on surface of1 #hh1 #hi2 injuries to1 #he1 #hf3 hardening and tempering of1 #hg-ib2 oil-tempered1 #ij2 percentage of carbon in1 #hc-he2 proper and improper heating of1 #he1 #hf2 proper and improper treatment of1 #ia1 #ib2 temperature and color charts for1 #id2 two methods of hardening and tempering1 #hi1 #ij2 water annealing of1 #hg2 welding of1 #dh4 ,steel1 uses of different grades of1 #hd1 #he4 ,stock calculation for bonding1 #aah-aba4 ,straightening1 #dd1 #de4 ,sulphur in iron and steel1 #afh4 ,surface plate1 #bj1 #ba4 ,swage block1 #ai1 #bj4 ,swages1 combined top and bottom1 #acc1 #acd2 top and bottom1 #ag1 #ah1 #acd4 ,swing sledge1 see double-faced sledge4 ,swivels1 #gf-hj4 ,tapered mandrels1 #ba1 #bb4 ,taper tool1 see bevel tool4 ,tempering1 temperature and color chart for1 #id4 ,tempering heat as determined by colors1 #hh-ia2 by scientific apparatus1 #ia1 #ib4 ,tempering tool steel1 #hg-ib4 ,threading tool1 see light boring tool4 ,tilting hammer1 #ahf4 ,tongs1 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #if-aja2 chisel1 #aj1 #aa2 flat-jawed1 #aj2 heavy flat1 #if1 #ig1 #ih2 hollow bit1 #aj1 #aa2 light chain1 #ih1 #ii1 #ajj1 #aja2 link1 #aj1 #aa2 pick-up1 #aj1 #aa3 side1 #aj1 #aa2 tool1 #aj1aa4 ,tool1 checking1 #acj1 #aca2 for welding a swivel1 #gf2 heading1 #ai4 ,tools1 bench and measuring1 #bb-bh2 fire1 #d2 forging1 #ab-bh1 #ajg-aah2 lathe1 #aja-ajg4 ,tool tongs1 #aj1 #aa4 ,top and bottom1 fullers1 #ah1 #ai2 swages1 #acc1 #acd4 ,trimming chisel1 #abg1 #abh4 ,tuyre1 #c1 #ahg1 #ahh4 ,t weld1 #gb1 #gc4 ,twisting1 #de1 #df4 ,twisting wrench1 see bending wrench4 ,umbrella stand1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #aei4 ,upright blow1 #cj1 #ca4 ,upsetting1 #da-dc2 by 8backing-up10 #dc2 by hammering1 #db1 #dc2 by jarring1 #dc2 by ramming1 #dc4 ,value of ores1 #afd-afe4 ,v block1 #ace4 ,vise1 bench1 #bb1 #bc4 ,v weld1 #ed-ef4 ,washing ore1 #afe4 ,water swaging1 #ah4 ,weathering ore1 #afe4 ,weights and areas of square and round bars1 #bjb-bjd4 ,weights1 formulas of1 #aig4 ,weights of flat rolled steel per linear foot1 #aii-bja4 ,welded ring1 #gd1 #ge1 #gf4 ,welding1 #df1 #dg1 #adg2 fagot1 #fi2 heat1 #ea1 #eb2 material for1 #dg1 #dh4 ,welds1 #ej-ef1 #fi-gc2 butt1 #eb1 #ec2 cleft1 #eb1 #ec2 flat right-angled1 #gj1 #ga1 #gb2 jump1 #ec1 #ed2 lap1 #ej-eb2 round1 #fi1 #gj2 ,t1 #gb1 #gc2 ,v1 #ed-ef4 ,yoke or saddle1 #ace1 #acf4