,,design ,,and ,,tradition 8,they are the elect to whom beautiful things mean only ,beauty40--,oscar ,wilde4 ,illustration3 ,sketch ,design for ,equestrian ,statue1 by ,e4 ,a4 ,rickards1 ,f4,r4,i4,b4,a4 ,this drawing is remarkable as an anticipation of eventual appearance4 ,thoroughly impressionistic in treatment1 all irrelevant detail is omitted4 ,,universal ,,art ,,series ,,edited ,,by ,,frederick ,,marriott ,,design ,,and ,,tradition ,a ,,short ,,account ,,of ,,the ,,principles ,,and ,,historic ,,development ,,of ,,architecture ,,and ,,the ,,applied ,,arts ,,by ,,amor ,,fenn ,illustration3 colophon ,,london ,,chapman ,,and ,,hall1 ,,ltd4 #aibj ,illustration ,,the ,,westminster ,,press ,,harrow ,,road ,,london ,,author',s ,,preface ,it may be urged with some reasonable basis of truth that much of the modern art work fails to attain the level of that of the past4 ,it must be conceded1 however1 that demand and appreciation is more general and widely diffused4 ,as social conditions have developed1 interest in environment has been stimulated4 ,improved processes resulting in more economic production have rendered possible an indulgence by those of moderate means1 attainable only at earlier periods by the wealthier class4 ,as a result of this more general appreciation the professional services of the artist are necessarily in greater request1 thus affording a sphere of work not only lucrative but temperamentally attractive4 ,at the present time the facilities available to the prospective artist are considerably greater than at any previous period4 ,in every district and important centre1 there are schools specialising in the ,arts and ,crafts1 giving opportunities for training at fees that are purely nominal4 ,most of these deal with the various phases of artistic expression on logical and sound lines1 but the knowledge and experience essential to a successful artistic career is invariably acquired in professional work to which the art school training is preparatory4 ,to those specialising in design1 the study of ,historic ,style is of paramount importance4 ,intelligent investigation will show that in all the varying phases1 the underlying factors are much the same1 and appreciation of these will be found invaluable in personal work4 ,necessarily brief1 this book has been prompted by the memory of early bewilderment and difficulties1 when a guiding hand would have saved much valuable time and mis-directed energy4 ,a considerable amount of the available space is devoted to ,architectural features1 with the conviction that a knowledge of these will be found helpful in the formation of methods1 logical and constructive4 ,attention is directed to the frontispiece1 a typical example of the extraordinary genius of ,e4 ,a4 ,rickards1 ,f4,r4,i4,b4,a41 the original of which is in the possession of ,philip ,connard1 ,a4,r4,a41 to whom indebtedness for its use is acknowledged4 ,the author's thanks are also due to ,miss ,dora ,bard and ,mr4 ,c4 ,e4 ,bernard for the reproduction of drawings made by them during their tenure in successive years of the 8,travelling ,studentship0 of the ,society of ,british ,decorators4 ,for the use of the following photographs the author desires to make acknowledgment to the ,authorities of the ,victoria and ,albert ,museum1 ,south ,kensington1 as holders of the ,crown copyright3 ,nos4 #beg4 #beh4 #bei4 #bfe4 #bga4 #bgb4 #bgc4 #bgd4 #bge4 #bha;,a4 ,,contents ,,chapter44444,,page ,i ,introductory44444#a ,human ,limitations1 p4 #a--;,inspiration--,process and ,material1 p4 #b--;,early ,training1 p4 #d--;,art and ,existence1 p4 #e--,natural ,taste--,commercial ,production1 p4 #f--8,ornaments10 p4 #g--,modern ,development--,public ,apathy1 p4 #h--;,elementary ,pattern1 p4 #i--;,early ,impressionism--,personal ,production1 p4 #aj--;,early ,social ,conditions1 p4 #aa--;,influence--,commercial ,intercourse1 p4 #ab--;,effect on ,design1 p4 #ac--;,ethical side of ,art1 p4 #ad--;,desire for ,novelty1 p4 #ae4 ,,ii ,historic ,review44444#af ,style1 p4 #af--;,intercommunication--,climate and ,material1 p4 #ag--,phases in ,style1 p4 #ah--,the ,lintel1 p4 #ai--,the ,arch1 p4 #bj--;,egyptian ,art1 p4 #bb--;,chaldean ,art1 p4 #be--;,greek ,art1 p4 #bh--,roman ,art1 p4 #ce--,vaulting1 p4 #cf--;,greek ,influence1 p4 #cg--,roman ,development of ,ornament1 p4 #ch--;,grco-,roman ,painted ,decoration1 p4 #ci--;,byzantine ,dome1 p4 #dc--;,early ,christian ,art1 p4 #df--;,byzantine ,metal ,work1 and ,enamel1 p4 #dg--,roman ,influence ,abroad--,romanesque ,style1 p4 #di--;,church ,development1 p4 #ej--;,dark ,ages1 p4 #ec--;,crusades1 p4 #ef--,origin of the ,pointed ,arch1 p4 #eh--;,gothic ,style1 p4 #ei--,phases of ,gothic--,early ,pointed1 p4 #fj--;,decorated ,gothic1 p4 #fd--,perpendicular ,gothic--,glass ,windows1 p4 #fg--;,civic ,influences1 p4 #gj--;,effect of ,commerce--,classic ,tradition in ,italy1 p4 #ga--;,foreign ,influence in ,england--,the ,dwelling ,house1 p4 #gb--,the ,reformation1 p4 #gd--,the ,renaissance1 p4 #ge--;,early ,florentine ,exponents1 p4 #gf--,rome1 p4 #gh--,venice1 p4 #hj--,venetian ,influence1 p4 #ha--,painted ,decoration1 p4 #hb--;,grco-,roman ,influence1 p4 #hc--;,early ,french ,renaissance1 p4 #he--,native ,exploitation1 p4 #hg--;,english ,renaissance1 p4 #hh--;,italians in ,england1 p4 #hi--,study of ,classic ,style--,thomas ,thorpe1 p4 #ia--;,flemish ,influence1 p4 #ib--;,jacobean ,work1 p4 #ic--;,development in ,dwellings1 p4 #ih--;,evolution of ,professional ,designer1 p4 #aja--;,inigo ,jones1 p4 #ajb--,louis ,,xiii1 p4 #ajc--,louis ,,xiv1 p4 #ajf--8;,boule0 ,work--,mirrors1 p4 #aji--,louis ,,xv1 p4 #aaj--,rgence--,rococo1 p4 #aaa--,lacquer 8,vernis ,martin0--,later ,english ,renaissance1 p4 #aac--,sir ,christopher ,wren1 p4 #aad--;,classic ,treatment of the ,spire1 p4 #aaf--;,dutch and ,french ,influences1 p4 #aah--,queen ,anne ,period--,early ,georgian1 p4 #abj--;,furniture ,design1 ,chippendale1 p4 #aba--,mayhew--,robert ,adam1 p4 #abc--;,hepplewhite1 p4 #abf--,sheraton--,louis ,,xvi1 p4 #abg--,riesener and ,gouthire1 p4 #acc--;,empire--,empire in ,england--,later ,english ,architecture1 p4 #ace--;,french ,influence on ,europe1 p4 #acf4 ,,iii ,mouldings44444#ach ,purpose--,the ,fillet--,sheltering ,mouldings--,the ,cavetto1 p4 #aci--;,cyma ,recta--,bracketing ,mouldings--,the ,ovolo1 p4 #adj--;,cyma ,reversa--,binding ,mouldings1 p4 #ada--,the ,torus--,the ,scotia--,the ,facia1 p4 #adb--;,decoration of ,mouldings1 p4 #adc--,orthodox ,details--,angle ,leaf1 p4 #ade--;,dentils1 p4 #adf--;,employment of ,mouldings1 p4 #adg--;,attitude1 p4 #adh--,panel ,mouldings--,woodwork1 p4 #adi--;,applied ,mouldings1 p4 #aea--;,bolection ,moulding1 p4 #aeb--,mouldings in ,plaster ,work--,wood ,turning1 p4 #aec--,metal ,turning--,pottery1 p4 #aed--,mechanically produced ,metal ,mouldings--,wrought ,iron1 p4 #aee--,silver ,work1 p4 #aef--,sheet ,metal1 ,spinning1 and ,repouss1 p4 #aeg4 ,,iv ,architectural ,proportions44444#aeh ,introduction1 p4 #aeh--,system of ,proportion1 p4 #aei--,the ,order1 p4 #afj--;,doric ,order1 p4 #afa--;,ionic ,order--,corinthian ,order1 p4 #afc--;,doric ,entablatures--,mutules1 p4 #afd--;,ionic ,entablature1 p4 #afi--;,corinthian ,entablature1 p4 #aga--,the ,column1 p4 #agb--,the ,capital--,doric ,capital1 p4 #agc--;,ionic ,capital--,ionic ,volute1 p4 #age--;,corinthian ,capital1 p4 #agh--,the ,base1 p4 #ahj--;,doric ,base1 p4 #aha--;,ionic ,base1 p4 #ahb--;,corinthian ,base--,the ,arch1 p4 #ahd--;,doric ,impost1 p4 #ahe--;,doric ,archivolt--,ionic ,impost1 p4 #ahf--;,ionic ,archivolt--,corinthian ,impost--,corinthian ,archivolt--,the ,keystone1 p4 #ahg--,the ,pedestal1 p4 #ahh--;,doric ,pedestal1 p4 #ahi--;,ionic ,pedestal--,corinthian ,pedestal1 p4 #aij--,the ,baluster1 p4 #aia--,spacing of ,balusters--,balustrading1 p4 #aic--,use of ,columns1 p4 #aid--;,disposition and ,spacing in ,colonnades1 p4 #aie--,orders above ,orders1 p4 #aig--,the ,pilaster1 p4 #aii--;,arcades1 p4 #bjj--,the ,subsidiary ,order1 p4 #bjb--,treatment of ,superimposed ,orders1 p4 #bjd--,rustication1 p4 #bje--,the ,basement1 p4 #bjg--,the ,attic1 p4 #bjh--,the ,pediment1 p4 #bji--;,doors1 p4 #baa--,windows1 p4 #bac4 ,v ,division of ,surface44444#baf ,wall ,treatment1 p4 #baf--;,ceilings1 p4 #bah--;,jacobean--,carolean and ,georgian1 p4 #bba--;,adam ,ceilings1 p4 #bbb--,vaults and ,domes1 p4 #bbd--,the ,cove1 p4 #bbe--,the ,frieze1 p4 #bbf--;,borders1 p4 #bbg--;,geometric ,elements--,the ,undulate ,line1 p4 #bcj--,repetition and ,alternation1 p4 #bcc--,treatment of ,angles1 p4 #bcd--,pilaster ,treatment--,panelled ,pilasters1 p4 #bce--;,capitals and ,bases--,treatment of ,panels1 p4 #bcf--;,juxtaposition1 p4 #bch--,the ,growth ,line in ,composition1 p4 #bda--;,grouping and ,massing of ,detail--,division of ,area1 p4 #bdb--;,human and ,animal ,life in ,composition1 p4 #bdd--;,forms in the ,round1 p4 #bde ,supports and ,balusters--,standards1 p4 #bdf--,proportion1 p4 #bdg--,vase ,forms and ,treatment1 p4 #bdh--,working ,drawings1 p4 #bdi--,the ,segment or ,stretch out1 p4 #bej4 ,,vi ,development of ,conventional ,ornament44444#bed ,outline ,drawing1 p4 #bed--,undesirable ,realism1 p4 #bee--;,craft ,restrictions1 p4 #bef--,materialistic ,influence1 p4 #beh--;,early ,renderings1 p4 #bfa--,the ,anthemion1 p4 #bfb--;,greek ,sculptured ,ornament1 p4 #bfc--,the ,acanthus ,leaf1 p4 #bfd--,roman ,development--,the ,scroll1 p4 #bff--;,grco-,roman--,byzantine1 p4 #bfg--,romanesque--,gothic--,italian ,renaissance1 p4 #bfh--,the ,husk ,leaf1 p4 #bfi--,the ,rosette1 p4 #bgj--,tendrils1 p4 #bga--,nature ,influence--,inconsistent employment of ,symbolic ,elements1 p4 #bgb--;,consistency in ,growth--,branching1 p4 #bgc--,treatment and ,employment of ,leaves1 p4 #bge--,the start in ,ornament1 p4 #bgf--;,italian ,renaissance ,influence--,jacobean1 p4 #bhj--;,french ,renaissance--,henry ,,ii1 p4 #bha--,louis ,,xiii1 ,louis ,,xiv1 ,rgence--,louis ,,xv1 p4 #bhc--,rococo--,louis ,,xvi1 p4 #bhd--;,grinling ,gibbons ,school of ,carving--,adam ,style1 p4 #bhe--;,empire--,system of the ,acanthus ,leaf1 p4 #bhf4 ,,vii ,treatment in ,design44444#bhh ,natural ,attraction1 p4 #bhh--;,decorative ,materials1 p4 #bhi--;,justification of ,treatment1 p4 #bij--,undesirable ,imitation1 p4 #bia--,technical ,considerations--,methods of ,expression1 p4 #bib--,treatment of ,leaves1 p4 #bic--,surface ,interest--,painted ,decoration1 p4 #bid--,stencilled ,work1 p4 #bie--,mechanical ,production--,printed and ,woven ,fabrics--,needlework--,appliqu1 p4 #bif--,lace-,wood ,inlay--,intarsia1 p4 #big--,veneer--,marquetry--8,boule0 ,work1 p4 #bih--,mosaic1 p4 #bii--;,byzantine use of ,marble--,book ,decoration1 p4 #cjj--;,bindings--,relief ,work--,economic ,result of ,method--,desirable ,treatment in ,carving1 p4 #cja--;,backgrounds1 p4 #cjc--,reproduction ,processes--,metal ,repouss1 p4 #cjd--;,cast ,metal1 p4 #cjf--;,character of ,cast ,work1 p4 #cjg4 ,,vii ,mythology and ,symbolism44444#caj ,early ,symbolic ,ornament1 p4 #caj--;,customs1 p4 #caa--,origin of ,mythology--,nature ,myths1 p4 #cab--,light and ,darkness--,melanesian ,legend1 p4 #cac--;,darkness as a ,devouring ,monster--,season ,myths1 p4 #cad--,sun ,myths--,belief in ,natural ,phenomena1 p4 #cae--;,greek and ,roman ,deities1 p4 #caf--,scandinavian ,mythology1 p4 #cag--,rising and ,setting ,symbolised1 p4 #cah--,winds ,personified--,predestination1 p4 #cai--,the ,fates--,propitiation and ,sacrifice1 p4 #cbj--;,early ,burial ,customs--,taboo--,roman ,lares1 p4 #cbb--,medival ,legend--,early ,spiritual ,belief1 p4 #cbc--,prehistoric ,treatment of ,epileptics--,prohibition1 p4 #cbd--;,belief in ,magical ,qualities1 p4 #cbe--,the ,shirt of ,nessus--,swords1 p4 #cbf--;,invulnerability1 p4 #cbg--;,belief in ,numbers--,the ,muses1 p4 #cbh--,sacred ,trees and ,flowers1 p4 #cbi--,sacred ,animals--,evangelist ,symbols1 p4 #cca--,the ,serpent--,the ,dragon1 p4 #ccb--,poetic ,license in ,tradition1 p4 #ccc--;,animals in ,christian ,art1 p4 #ccd--;,association of ,human and ,animal ,qualities--,totemism--,cannibalism1 p4 #ccf--,the ,sphinx--,assyrian ,winged ,monsters1 p4 #ccg--,pegasus--,the ,harpy--,sirens1 p4 #cch--,pan--,the ,nymphs--,the ,centaur1 p4 #cci--,symbolism of the ,circle1 p4 #cdj--,symbols of the ,trinity--,the ,wand1 a ,symbol of ,authority--,the ,hand1 p4 #cda--,the ,caduceus--,the ,thyrsus1 p4 #cdb--,the ,trident--,the ,cross1 p4 #cdc--,the ,pastoral ,staff1 p4 #cdd--,symbols of ,martyrdom--,symbolism of ,gems and ,colours1 p4 #cde--,masks--,symbols of ,time1 p4 #cdf--,secular ,symbols--,trophies1 p4 #cdg--;,heraldry--,interest and ,meaning in ,modern ,art1 p4 #cdh4 ,,ix ,ways and ,means44444#cej ,perception1 p4 #cej--;,accepted ,conventions1 p4 #cea--;,influence of ,fashion--,harmonious ,consistency1 p4 #ceb--,natural ,suggestion--,colour ,scheme1 p4 #cec--;,early ,training--,nature ,study1 p4 #cee--;,aspect and ,attitude1 p4 #cef--,treatment of ,studies1 p4 #ceh--;,drawings for ,reproduction1 p4 #cei--,opaque ,colour--,method of ,enlarging or ,reducing ,drawings1 p4 #cfj--,textile ,designs1 p4 #cfa--,wall ,papers1 p4 #cfb--;,architectural ,drawings--,structural ,design1 p4 #cfc--,lucid ,arrangement of ,details1 p4 #cfd--,mathematical ,equipment1 p4 #cfe--,use of the ,ruling ,pen--,proportional ,compasses1 p4 #cfg--,tracings--,conclusion1 p4 #cfh4 ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,sketch ,design for ,equestrian ,statue1 by ,e4 ,a4 ,,rickards1 ,f4,r4,i4,b4,a4 ,frontispiece ,,architecture1 ,,historic ,no4 ,page ,egyptian ,temple1 ,section and ,plan of #aj #bc ,temple1 ,entrance ,faade #aa #bd ,capital from ,phil #ab #bd ,persian ,capitals from ,persepolis #af #bg ,greek ,doric ,temple1 ,the ,parthenon #ba #cj ,ionic1 ,the ,erectheum #bb #ca ,corinthian1 ,the ,choragic ,monument #bc #cb ,vase paintings of ,doric and ,ionic ,orders #ai #bi ,house about #ajj ,a4,d4 ,bas-relief in ,british ,museum #bj #bi ,roman1 ,the ,pantheon1 ,rome #bf #cf ,the ,coliseum1 ,rome #bg #cg ,the ,arch of ,titus1 ,rome #bh #ch ,byzantine ,st4 ,vitali ,ravenna1 ,section and ,plan #ce #dd ,capitals #cf 7,plate7 ,interior1 ,ravenna #ci 7,plate7 ,romanesque ,capitals #db #ej ,tower #dc #ej ,plan1 ,cathedral at ,worms #dd #ea ,bay of ,cathedral at ,worms #de #eb ,window1 ,st4 ,alban's ,abbey #df #eb ,church ,interior with ,triforium #dg #eb ,doorway1 ,kilpeck ,church #di #ed ,gothic ,buttresses #ec #eh ,early ,pointed ,pier #ed #fj ,early ,pointed ,bay of ,church #ee #fa ,early ,lancet ,windows #ef #fb ,early ,pointed ,windows1 ,plate ,tracery #eg #fb ,early ,pointed ,arch ,mouldings #eh #fb ,early ,pointed ,capital #ei #fc ,early ,pointed ,tracery ,windows #fj #fc ,early ,pointed ,spire #fa #fd ,decorated1 ,tracery ,windows #fb #fd ,decorated1 ,carving #fc #fe ,decorated1 ,arch ,mouldings #fd #fe ,decorated1 ,capital #fe #ff ,decorated1 ,capital #ff #ff ,decorated1 ,spire #fg #ff ,perpendicular1 ,bay of ,church showing ,development of ,clerestory #fh #fg ,perpendicular1 ,windows #fi #fh ,perpendicular1 ,fan ,vaulting #gj #fi ,perpendicular1 ,tower #ga #fi ,domestic ,tudor1 ,window #ge #gd ,renaissance1 ,italian1 ,strozzi ,palace #gf #gf ,italian1 ,pandolfini ,palace #gg #gg ,italian1 ,st4 ,peter's1 ,rome #gh #gi ,italian1 ,farnese ,palace #gi #hj ,italian1 ,vendramini ,palace #hj #ha ,italian1 ,library of ,st4 ,mark #ha #hb ,english1 ,banqueting ,house1 ,whitehall #je #ajca ,french1 ,louis ,,xiii4 ,luxembourg #jf #ajda ,french1 ,louis ,,xiii4 ,barocco ,detail1 ,ste4 ,marie1 ,nevers #jg #ajea ,french1 ,louis ,,xiv4 ,louvre #ji #ajfa ,french1 ,louis ,,xv4 ,pantheon #ab #aaja ,english1 ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral #ah #aaea ,english1 ,spire1 ,st4 ,mary le ,strand #ai #aafa ,tomb of ,tantalus in ,lydia #e #ai ,tomb of ,beni ,hassan #ag #bh ,tomb at ,kyanea-,jaghu #ah #bh ,,architectural ,,features ,arch1 ,the ,principle of the #f #bj ,balusters1 ,details of #agj #aib ,cornice1 ,treatment where ,order is not employed #ahj #bji ,doors1 ,general ,proportion of #ahb #baa ,treatment of #ahc #bab ,frieze1 ,roman #aih #bbf ,frieze1 ,roman #aii #bbg ,gothic ,vault1 ,section of #g #bj ,vaulting #i #ba ,cross ,vaulting #dh #ec ,lintel1 ,the #d #ai ,lintel1 ,the1 ,joggled ,joints #h #ba ,orders1 ,general ,proportions of the #aed #afb ,order1 ,the ,doric #aec #afj ,the ,doric ,entablature1 ,vignola #aee #afe ,the ,doric ,entablature1 ,mutular #aef #aff ,order1 ,the ,doric ,capital #aei #agc ,the ,doric ,base #afe #aha ,the ,doric ,pedestal #afi #ahi ,the ,doric ,archivolt #afh #ahf ,the ,doric ,impost #afh #ahf ,the ,doric ,arcading #agd #bja ,the ,doric ,arcading with ,pedestal #age #bjb ,the ,doric ,column and ,pilaster #agc #bjj ,the ,ionic ,entablature #aeg #afh ,the ,ionic ,capital #afj #agd ,the ,ionic ,capital 7,angular ,volutes7 #afa #agf ,the ,ionic1 ,detail of ,angular ,volute #afb #agg ,the ,ionic ,base #aff #ahb ,the ,ionic ,pedestal #afi #ahi ,the ,ionic ,archivolt #afh #ahf ,the ,ionic ,impost #afh #ahf ,the ,corinthian ,entablature #aeh #agj ,the ,corinthian ,capital #afc #agi ,the ,corinthian ,capital #afd #ahj ,the ,corinthian ,base #afg #ahc ,the ,corinthian ,pedestal #afi #ahi ,the ,corinthian ,archivolt #afh #ahf ,the ,corinthian ,impost #afh #ahf ,the ,superimposed #agb #aih ,the ,subsidiary #agf #bjc ,the ,subsidiary1 ,detail of ,entablature #ahj #bji ,pediment1 ,the #aha #baj ,pilaster ,the1 ,capital #bji #bcf ,the1 ,french ,renaissance #bjh #bcf ,rustication1 ,types of #agh #bjf ,in ,arcades #agi #bjg ,spacing of ,columns #aga #aif ,windows #ahd #bad ,three-,light #ahe #bae ,,decorative ,,features ,acanthus ,leaf1 ,brush ,work #bce #bfd ,development #bea #bha ,development #beb #bhb ,construction of #bec #bhg ,anthemion1 ,greek1 ,relief ,treatment #bcb #bfb ,greek1 ,vase ,painting #bca #bfa ,border1 ,the ,geometric1 ,key or ,labyrinth #bjj #bbh ,border1 ,the ,geometric1 ,interlacing #bja #bbi ,the ,scroll #bjd #bcb ,the ,evolute ,scroll #bjg #bcd ,the ,vertebrate #bdd #bgd ,branching1 ,types of #bdc #bgd ,inlay1 ,wood1 ,geometric #bfj #big ,wood ,borders #bfa #big ,wood ,panel #bfb #big ,wood ,panel #bfc #bih ,wood1 ,italian ,intarsia #bfd #bih ,metal 8,boule0 ,work #bff #bii ,metal 8,boule0 ,work #bfg #bii ,inlaid ,floor1 ,italian ,renaissance #ahh #bai ,lace #bei 7,plate7 ,marquetry #bfe 7,plate7 ,mosaic ,work1 ,spandril1 ,byzantine #dj 7,plate7 ,borders #bfh 7,plate7 ,border1 ,roman #bfi 7,plate7 ,border1 ,roman #bgj 7,plate7 ,panel1 ,roman #bga 7,plate7 ,needlework #beg 7,plate7 ,appliqu #beh 7,plate7 ,relief ,ornament1 ,prehistoric #b 7,plate7 ,greek ,stone ,carving #bah 7,plate7 ,roman ,stone ,carving #bcg 7,plate7 ,roman ,stone ,carving #bi #ci ,byzantine ,stone ,carving #cg #df ,byzantine ,stone ,carving #ch #dg ,byzantine ,stone ,carving #baf #bdd ,romanesque ,stone ,carving #bag #bdd ,gothic ,stone ,carving #bch #bfh ,gothic ,stone ,carving #bci #bfi ,gothic ,stone ,carving #bai 7,plate7 ,renaissance1 ,italian #bdh #bgh ,renaissance1 ,italian #bdi #bgi ,renaissance1 ,french #hh #hf ,renaissance1 ,french #bej #bhj ,renaissance1 ,french #ij #hh ,jacobean ,gouge ,work #bgf #cjb ,jacobean ,wood ,carving #bgg #cjc ,jacobean ,wood ,carving #ie #id ,louis ,,xiv4 ,wood ,carving #bge 7,plate7 ,english ,wood ,carving #bgd 7,plate7 ,relief ,ornament1 ,french ,wood ,carving #aac #aaa ,french ,wood ,carving #bgi #cjf ,french ,wood ,carving #bab #bci ,french ,wood ,carving #baa #bch ,french1 ,part of ,ceiling #baj #bcg ,french ,wood ,carving #acc #acd ,icelandic ,wood ,carving #bhj #cjf ,english #ahth ,century #bgc 7,plate7 ,english1 ,modern #bac #bdj ,analysis of ,composing ,lines #bad #bda ,rosettes1 ,types of #bda #bgj ,scroll1 ,the1 ,greek ,stone ,carving #bcc #bfb ,the ,evolute1 ,archaic #bbi #bei ,the ,evolute1 ,savage ,art #bcj #bfj ,scroll1 ,the1 ,wrought ,iron #bcd #bfc ,brush ,work #bcf #bfe ,as a ,growth ,line #bjb #bcj ,italian ,renaissance #bdj #bgj ,start1 ,the1 ,nest or ,cup ,leaf #bdf #bgg ,half ,figure #bdg #bgg ,tendril1 ,roman #bdb #bgb ,terminals1 ,branch and ,scroll #bde #bge ,textiles1 #adth ,century ,woven ,fabric #c #ac #adth ,century ,woven ,fabric #ea #ef ,sicilian ,tapestry #eb #eg #adth ,century ,tapestry #bje #bcb ,turkish ,brocade #bjc #bca ,french ,brocade #bjf #bcc ,details of ,inhabited ,pattern #bef #bie ,tooled ,book ,binding #bgb 7,plate7 ,,furniture ,egyptian #ac #be ,egyptian #ad #bf ,assyrian ,seat #ae #bg ,greek #bd #cc ,roman ,couch #cj #ci ,roman ,sella or ,seat #ca #ci ,romanesque ,chair #ej #ee ,gothic ,chair #gb #gj ,gothic ,bedstead #gc #ga ,italian ,renaissance #hf #hd ,italian ,renaissance #hg #he ,italian ,renaissance #ib #hi ,french ,renaissance #ia #hh ,english #agth ,century #ii #ih ,english #agth ,century #ajj #ii ,english #agth ,century #aja #ajj ,english #agth ,century #ajb #ajj ,english #agth ,century4 ,baluster #bba #bdf ,french ,louis ,,xiii #ajh #aje ,french ,louis ,,xiv #aaa #ajh ,french ,louis ,,xv #bfe 7,plate7 ,english late #agth ,century #aaf #aac ,english late #agth ,century #aag #aad ,dutch and ,queen ,anne ,chairs #aba #aai ,english #ahth ,century #abb #abb ,french ,louis ,,xvi #acb #acc ,,interior ,,features ,ceilings1 ,italian ,renaissance #ahg #bah ,italian1 ,general ,plan #ahi #bbj ,italian ,renaissance1 ,painted1 #hc 7,plate7 ,italian ,renaissance1 ,painted1 #he 7,plate7 ,tudor #aij #bba ,jacobean #aia #bbb ,jacobean #aib #bbc ,carolean #aic #bbd ,robert ,adam #aid #bbe ,chimney ,pieces1 ,gothic #acth ,century #gd #ga ,italian ,renaissance #ic #ij ,french ,renaissance #hi #hg ,jacobean #if #ie ,domes and ,vaults1 ,italian ,renaissance3 ,st4 ,peter's1 ,rome #aig 7,plate7 ,villa ,madama #aif 7,plate7 ,ducal ,palace1 ,venice #aie 7,plate7 ,doors1 ,jacobean #ig #if ,jacobean #ih #ig ,french ,renaissance #bgh #cje ,french ,renaissance1 ,louis ,,xv #aad #aab ,english ,renaissance #abj #aag ,french ,renaissance1 ,louis ,,xvi #acj #acb ,frieze1 ,the ,jacobean1 ,carved ,wood #id #ic ,french1 ,louis ,,xvi #aca #acc ,interior ,decoration1 ,grco-,roman #cb #dj ,interior ,decoration1 ,wall ,division #ahf #bag ,italian ,renaissance #hd 7,plate7 ,french ,renaissance1 ,louis ,,xiv #aaj #ajg ,english 8,adam0 #abc #abd ,english 8,adam0 #abd #abe ,french ,louis ,,xvi #abf #abh ,french ,louis ,,xvi #abg #abi ,french ,louis ,,xvi #abh #acj ,french ,louis ,,xvi #abi #aca ,,metal ,,work ,grco-,roman #cc #da ,grco-,roman #cd #db ,byzantine ,tradition #da #dh ,wrought ,iron #bhb #cjg ,wrought ,iron1 ,venetian #bhc #cjg ,repouss #ajc #aja ,repouss #bha 7,plate7 ,cast #ajd #ajb ,cast1 ,louis ,,xv #aae #aac ,sheffield ,plate #abe #abf ,filagree ,jewellery #bbh #beg ,cast ,iron 7,modern7 #bbb #bdg ,surface ,decoration of #bhd #cjh ,,method ,of ,enlarging and ,reducing ,drawings #bhf #cfa ,,mouldings ,profiles of #acd #ach ,enrichment of #ace #add ,detail of the ,dentil #acf #adg ,aspect of #acg #adh ,stone1 ,panel ,effect #ach #adi ,wood ,panels #aci #aej ,wood ,panels1 ,applied #adj #aea ,wood ,panels1 ,applied #ada #aeb ,the ,bolection #adb #aeb ,table ,top #adc #aec ,turned ,wood #add #aec ,pottery #ade #aed ,pottery #adf #aed ,rolled ,metal #adg #aee ,drawn ,metal #adh #aee ,wrought ,iron1 ,swaged #adi #aef ,wrought ,iron1 ,built up #aej #aef ,wrought ,iron1 ,built up #aea #aef ,spun ,metal #aeb #aeg ,,vase ,,forms ,primitive ,pottery #a 7,plate7 ,greek ,pottery #be #cd ,greek ,pottery1 ,painted ,details #ai #bi ,effect of ,perspective #bbj #bde ,segments of ,contoured ,surfaces #bbf #bea ,segments of ,contoured ,surfaces #bbg #beb ,stretch-out of the ,cylinder #bbd #bdi ,stretch-out of the ,cone #bbe #bej ,types of ,vase ,decoration #bbc #bdh ,,chapter ,i ,,introductory ,it is an article of faith that to design entails the possession of the creative faculty1 which may be taken for granted with the proviso1 that the creative faculty is concerned rather with the association of elements common to all than with invention pure and simple4 ,human ,limitations ,to be more explicit1 the human imagination is limited to personal or acquired experience4 ,at no period has any form been created that is not traceable to some process of production1 or natural suggestion2 for instance1 the artistic conception of an angel is merely a combination of human and bird form1 and is in no sense an original creation4 ,the term originality is indeed generally misunderstood1 and for the reasons already advanced it is impossible to be original4 ,the real interest in artistic production of any kind is the expression of personality1 in other words1 the individual point of view of the artist2 which is more or less interesting1 as it is more or less personal in idea and expression4 ,in the training of the designer it is essential that the imagination be carefully cultivated and trained to accept suggestion from any possible source4 ,design is distinct from any phase of realistic expression inasmuch as the subject does not exist in any concrete form1 but has to be mentally visualised4 8,inspiration0 ,too much importance is attached to what is believed to be inspiration1 but obviously if inspired1 design is rather in the nature of an accident than of the deliberate intention it should be and cannot be credited to the individual exponent4 ,what at first sight suggests inspired thought may be accounted for by sub-consciousness1 which is really responsible for the evolution of an idea or the solution of some problem4 ,it would be beneficial to reject once and for all the idea of inspiration with its tendency to encourage the 8artistic temperament0 in the belief that it 8does not feel like it40 ,the designer must be ready to respond at any time1 and this implies a logical and balanced mind1 capable of grasping essentials1 and conditions1 and of evolving some desirable solution4 ,another superstition is that a design is a drawing1 and it only requires a facility in this form of expression to produce a design4 ,this is a fallacy1 as though many designs are for convenience expressed through this medium1 any such drawing must be made with a knowledge of the technical details of the final method of production1 to be a practical design4 ,process and ,material ,design is therefore inseparable from consideration of material and process1 with which the designer must be acquainted2 without this technical knowledge it is impossible to take full advantage of the method of production either in the direction of economy or effect4 ,other considerations are utilitarian and sthetic1 the former having regard to purpose1 the latter to appearance4 ,that mere utility is not in itself sufficient is evident2 the common enamelled saucepan and the medicine bottle are certainly utilitarian1 but no one would assert that they are satisfying from the sthetic point of view4 ,an important consideration in design is the 8market0 which is governed by popular or individual demand4 ,those who pay the piper call the tune1 and the designer has often to work to prescribed conditions4 ,this apparently implies restriction of individuality1 but the designer who refuses to conform will probably find the market even more restricted4 ,it also implies that he must be well versed in the various styles or historic tradition1 so that his work1 if desirable1 may be in harmony with existing environment2 but in these circumstances it is quite possible to produce work that is individual and distinctive4 ,designers1 craftsmen and manufacturers are all dependent upon public demand1 which must be taken into account1 and their business is as far as possible to raise the general standard of taste1 by producing of their best4 ,any attempt on their part to insist on what shall or shall not be done would undoubtedly result in failure4 ,to sum up1 the designer must not only be an accomplished draughtsman well versed in traditional ornament and style1 but it is necessary that he should cultivate the imaginative and perceptive faculties2 and1 in addition1 the commercial qualities of promptness and business insight4 ,early ,training ,the question is often raised1 can design be taught8 ,if by this it is understood1 can the designing faculty be created in the ordinary student1 the answer is distinctly in the negative2 but undoubtedly students can be directed through a course of training that will enable them to produce at least work that is good1 though it may not be personally distinctive4 ,an intelligent study of the elements and basis of pattern and of traditional styles should result in the ability to produce work on safe traditional lines that will be in harmony with environment4 ,such work it may be claimed would only attain the level of mediocrity2 how much farther the student will go depends largely upon application and natural faculty4 ,natural faculty is fairly common1 while genius is rare and can look after itself4 ,the teacher is concerned with the rank and file1 and the training and development of the natural faculty should be the aim4 ,where this exists it should be carefully nursed1 involving great responsibility in the choice and direction of the courses of study4 ,the able exponent does not always make the best teacher1 as students are apt to be influenced by a strong personality and to be imitative4 ,influence in the early stages is quite natural1 and to some extent beneficial1 but if permanent1 the student becomes one of the crowd in failing to develop the personality1 which is the sole interest1 and is the teacher's responsibility to preserve as far as possible4 ,negative criticism is not teaching1 and in any suggested modifications reasons should be given1 so that the teaching be constructive2 to which end it is desirable that the teacher be capable of analysis and possessed of method4 ,popular taste as a factor that has to be considered has already been suggested1 but it is evident that the average member of the public has little knowledge of ,art1 and still less of design4 ,art and ,existence ,that ,art is necessary to existence may be questioned1 as life would be possible--if not very interesting--if regulated only by considerations of utility4 ,in a less cultivated state we are satisfied with the gratification of merely physical wants2 so in a more cultivated state ,art becomes one of the mind's necessities4 ,the dictionary definition of ,art is 8practical skill guided by rules10 and that of an artist as 8one who practises an ,art40 ,possibly the former might be better expressed by the statement that 8,art is an appeal to the emotions by colour1 form1 rhythm and sound40 ,art exists not only in that which appeals to the vision1 but also in that which is transmitted to the aural sense1 as in declamation1 oratory and music4 ,the dictionary particularises the fine arts of ,painting1 ,sculpture and ,architecture1 but to what extent is the possession of examples of these possible to the public at large except in the most general sense8 ,what is invariably lost sight of is that the personal environment1 the furniture and domestic surroundings of the individual constitute the actual field for artistic expression4 ,it is questionable whether our present system of ,art instruction is sufficiently far-reaching1 devoted to the training of would-be artistic exponents rather than in the cultivation of the public at large4 8,natural ,taste0 ,there is still a superstitious belief in 8natural taste10 and whereas the individual member of the public would immediately1 in the ordinary affairs of life1 consult a specialist1 yet in a matter of artistic selection there is profound confidence in personal exercise of judgment4 ,it is not contended that taste may not be inherited1 but taste may be good or bad4 ,good taste is invariably our own2 bad1 the selection of others1 but it is surely irrational to assume that we all naturally possess a knowledge which indisputably takes many years to acquire and cultivate4 ,commercial ,production ,it is often stated that the common inartistic environment is the result of commercial output1 and it is true that the ordinary member of the public is restricted in choice to what is on the market2 but it can be urged that the object of the manufacturer is to sell1 and that he makes it his business to study and supply existing demand4 ,the manufacturer's standard is therefore regulated by the evidence of public taste1 and as this is improved so will the artistic quality of production be raised4 ,the buying public is influenced by what it believes to be the fashion of the moment rather than any conscious appreciation of fitness and purpose1 or perception based on artistic education4 8,ornaments0 ,this is evidenced by a casual survey of the contents of shop windows in any neighbourhood1 and it will be noticed that preponderance is given to the class of objects generally known as ornaments2 objects that have no possible utility and intended solely for display4 ,it is conceded that many objects fall into this category1 and the display of old brass candlesticks and ,italian drug pots1 for instance1 may be excused as examples of a period when such utensils1 strictly utilitarian1 were incidentally made beautiful4 ,modern furniture frequently offends--being too often constructed with less regard to utility than to external effect4 ,the present tendency is to hide in cupboards and remote regions the actual things we use1 and to display objects that are only moved at the perennial spring-cleaning2 one honest piece of furniture remains in the modern house--the kitchen dresser1 of which we are apparently ashamed1 as also of the dinner service with which it is occupied4 ,to some extent the reason may be found in short tenancies1 and the three years' lease may have much to answer for4 ,it is usually felt to be more convenient to move than to put up with the nuisance of re-decorating2 and consequent on frequent change of environment1 is a lack of interest in furniture and other personal belongings4 ,modern ,development ,the advent of the motor car is also to some extent a factor1 resulting in the town flat and country cottage1 which means the abandonment of the large house and its interests and responsibilities2 bringing about a change in domestic life1 with the growing tendency to entertain at hotels and restaurants4 ,this tendency to more public life naturally results in even less interest in personal possession and environment2 still further fostered by the hire-furnish system which enables its patrons to indulge in frequent change of style and locality4 ,public ,apathy ,lamentable as it may seem from the artistic point of view1 it certainly appears that the general public are at least apathetic1 and that ,art appeals less to them than the facilities for change and personal indulgence2 still there is plenty of scope for the designer and producer if they adapt themselves to the everchanging conditions and requirements4 ,the earliest design was probably due to materialistic causes1 imperfect implements and difficulties and accidents turned to account4 ,it is conceivable that primitive man in his early essays in pottery found extreme difficulty in obtaining a smooth surface1 which1 notwithstanding all endeavours1 would be1 in the unbaked state1 sensitive to scratches and other damage4 ,this difficulty may have suggested intentionally covering the surface with such scratches1 etc41 more or less arranged1 thus making a virtue of necessity4 ,elementary ,pattern ,examination of early pottery will reveal simple patterns scratched or incised1 consisting mainly of straight lines arranged in zigzag or herringbone form2 in some instances the pattern is apparently the result of pressure of some simple implement1 resembling what is known in plastering as trowel point4 ,such details are simply those that could be produced by means of some form of point1 stone1 stick or finger nail1 and are not representative of any known form2 and it is not till a much later period that any indication occurs suggestive of a growth line or natural type4 ,curves seldom occur1 certainly not in the scroll form1 though rings singly or concentric are among the early details2 but these could easily be the result of pressure by the ends of hollow reeds4 ,the evolute wave and scroll that figures so largely in later ornament was presumably in imitation of wire-work1 forms which the material would readily suggest1 particularly the continuous line of the evolute4 ,development in the direction of relief ornament in primitive pottery is indicated in the decoration consisting of incrusted pellets and slithers of clay4 ,there is ample evidence that human appreciation and desire for expression in art is natural and instinctive1 as is demonstrated by the marvellous work of the ,paleolithic etchers and bone carvers1 who may well be considered the first impressionists4 ,early ,impressionism ,they could have only studied many of their subjects at a respectful distance1 and this adds to the merit of the successful embodiment of characteristics4 ,the work is invariably realistic1 that is1 imitative of natural form1 and is evidence of insight and appreciation that for the time and working condition is quite extraordinary1 and is in distinct contrast with the earlier ornament1 which is not in any way imitative of1 or traceable to1 any natural suggestion4 ,on investigation it will be found that artistic expression has generally three phases2 the first where purely inorganic details are employed such as directly arise from the process and material involved4 ,the second phase is realistic or imitative of natural form1 and the third--conventional1 where the details are probably derived from natural suggestion but are treated with restraint2 the last being the result of cultured appreciation of process and sthetic considerations4 ,personal ,production ,it is essential to assume that originally it was customary to personally produce whatever was considered necessary in the way of pottery or weapons1 but that eventually certain workers would devote themselves more or less exclusively to producing for the community1 being compensated by immunity from other labour1 and that this developed in course of time into patronage1 and the producer being entirely supported by his craft4 ,appreciation from would-be possessors stimulated ,illustration3 ,,ancient ,,pottery ,no4 #a4 ,a4 ,cup1 ,barrow1 ,denzell1 ,cornwall4 ,b4 ,cinerary ,urn1 ,barrow1 ,stanlake1 ,oxon4 ,c4 ,sepulchral remains1 ,nilgiri ,hills1 ,sth4 ,india4 ,d4 ,jug1 ,german sepulchral mounds1 ,bronze ,age4 ,e4 ,sepulchral remains1 ,nilgiri ,hills1 ,sth4 ,india4 ,f4 ,early ,english puzzle jug4 ,g4 ,cinerary ,urn1 ,barrow1 ,bloxworth ,down1 ,dorset4 ,h4 ,food ,vessel1 sepulchral mounds1 earliest ,bronze ,age1 ,ireland4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #b4 ,a4 ,b4 ,palaeolithic ,bone ,carvings4 ,c4 ,etching on ,bone4 the primitive craftsmen who1 in proportion to their individual skill1 would be rewarded1 and this naturally led to the establishment of the professional worker and artist4 ,to appreciate the evolution of art it is necessary to consider the early social conditions4 ,the primitive life was insular and nomadic1 the family or tribe staying in any locality only so long as food was available for themselves and herds2 such communities were necessarily pastoral and predatory4 ,the simple requirements under these conditions would be vessels for storage1 conveyance1 or cooking1 probably pottery2 weapons1 and doubtless jewellery or objects of personal adornment4 ,later by necessity and under favourable conditions they would develop agriculture1 which would result in fixity of abode2 and this would entail precautionary measures for protection from predatory tribes4 ,the original camp or stockade for this purpose in time led to the fortress or castle for the protection of the town1 and the more substantial nature of these gave rise to architecture4 ,with comparative security more pacific conditions would prevail1 and the simple communal life develop into more complex social distinctions4 ,early ,social ,conditions ,the military class established for protective reasons would be dependent upon the general community for their upkeep1 thus imposing taxation on the various workers1 and necessitating a system of government and of officials for effective collection and distribution4 ,social distinctions would be drawn between the various classes1 governing1 administrative1 military1 and non-combatant2 the latter would furnish the bulk of the workers and be further divided into craftsmen1 agriculturists and traders4 ,in process of time from the executive class would develop the nobility1 priestly and legal classes4 ,influence ,art was originally local1 that is1 confined to the community1 but later was subjected to various influences--,political1 ,religious1 and ,commercial4 ,political1 by treaty or intermarriage1 when imported taste or interchange would result1 or by conquest4 ,judging by the past1 the conquered have invariably imposed their taste on their conquerors1 as instanced in the ,greek conquest of ,persia2 that of the ,romans of the ,greeks1 and later the perpetuation of the ,roman influence after their subjugation at the hands of the ,goths4 ,the ,crusades resulted in the importation of fabrics of ,eastern and ,sicilian origin1 and may be classed as a religious influence2 an earlier example of which may be cited in the edict of ,pope ,leo ,,iii in ,a4,d4 #gbf in response to the iconoclastic movement1 by reason of which the ,byzantine art workers1 deprived of their living1 emigrated to the ,rhine district4 ,commercial ,intercourse4 ,the establishment of commercial intercourse had great influence on the arts1 and did much to modify local character1 as it was found necessary to study market conditions in order to secure sales2 and goods were therefore made to suit foreign requirements and taste1 thereby resulting in confusion and difficulty in defining the original source4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #c4 #adth ,century ,textile showing ,heraldic influence4 ,notable1 for instance1 were the ,sicilian weavers1 who1 contrary to their local traditions1 introduced heraldry into the patterns of their fabrics1 so as to conform to the taste of the crusaders4 ,the ,phnicians were the early merchant adventurers1 and traded in work of ,tyrian and ,sidonian production with remote parts of ,europe1 taking back local produce in exchange4 ,later on1 through the medium of the ,hanseatic league1 brass work from ,flanders and cast-iron fire-backs from ,sussex were distributed through-out the area of their operations2 of which surviving examples demonstrate that local taste and requirement were considered and embodied4 ,effect on ,design ,apart from this cause of loss in local character1 ,art production was further influenced by the rise in social position of the worker4 ,when the craftsman remained the sole factor1 his design and work was invariably true to materialistic conditions2 but with increasing emolument incidental to appreciation and patronage1 the designer emerged as a professional4 ,in the early times the craftsman was independent to a great extent of architectural influence1 but later he was compelled to study the architectural environment and adapt his designs in accordance4 ,even then he was true to his craft conditions until the designing was taken out of his hands by the newly evolved professional who1 in many instances had little knowledge of1 or was indifferent to the technical side of the craft4 ,possibly the greatest offender in this respect was the ,french designer of the ,rococo period1 whose woodwork design is regardless of constructive detail1 and it is to the everlasting credit of the workmen that they overcame the difficulties thrown in their way1 and that so much of this work is still in existence4 ,ethical ,side of ,art ,art is also reflective of the ethics and morals of the time2 compare1 for instance1 the robust character of ,gothic work with the lack of meaning and insincerity of the later ,renaissance1 degenerating into the license of the ,rococo4 ,much that is commonly regarded as ornament in traditional work was originally invested with symbolic meaning1 in later times lost sight of1 with resultant loss of character and interest4 ,the study of traditional work is essential to the designer1 not merely for reproduction but on account of its value as reflective of the experience and point of view of past exploiters4 ,desire for ,novelty ,the present is marked by a feverish anxiety to be new1 but the old worker had a more humble spirit and was content to carry on a tradition a little further if possible4 ,much that appears to be new will on investigation prove to be an old friend in disguise1 and in venturing on what is apparently a new idea it may be well to reflect as to whether it may not have occurred to others1 and whether it is worth doing4 8,novelty10 a detestable word1 should have no place in artistic considerations4 ,that which is really good should be good for all time2 but the sporadic outbreaks that occur from time to time in so-called new phases1 have their little day and relapse into the limbo of the forgotten4 ,in the meantime tradition still goes on1 sometimes progressing1 now and then retrogressing1 but at all times unbroken4 ,history as written is misleading1 dealing as it does with personalities and conquests2 the real history of the world can be read in its artistic development4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,historic ,,review ,some of the factors in the evolution of ,art have already been briefly suggested1 but to thoroughly appreciate artistic production a passing acquaintance1 at least1 with the various phases of historic developments is essential4 ,the scope of the present work obviously renders it impossible to deal with the subject in detail1 but libraries are accessible to those who are desirous of extending their knowledge4 ,it has already been stated that the earlier crafts were independent of any influence other than that of material and process1 and this has continued in some of the crafts to the present time2 but those more closely allied to building1 particularly those associated with furniture and decoration1 eventually became subject to the architectural phase or style of the period1 which dominated form and detail4 ,style4 ,style may be described as manner of expression1 either individual or local1 and for convenience is defined by nationality and period4 ,it is usual to speak of ,greek1 ,roman1 ,gothic1 etc41 of such a century2 in the case of the ,renaissance1 it is customary to particularise the variants1 as ,italian1 ,french1 ,english1 etc41 also with the period or century4 ,the development of style1 intimately involved as it is in the social1 religious and political history of nations1 must ever be powerful in its interest and far-reaching in its appeal4 ,the first idea in the mind of man is undoubtedly that of utility1 but in succeeding stages of culture there comes a natural craving for something more than this4 ,and so with the progress of a race we can trace the progress of its decorative art4 ,inter-,communication ,then there is the consideration of the effect that one race or community inevitably has on another with which it comes in contact--either through conquest or through the establishment of commercial relations4 ,naturally the market is captured by the workmanship displaying the finest qualities1 sthetic and practical1 and these qualities advance with the development of society and with progress in mechanical skill4 ,as a result of conquest the civilisation of either conqueror or conquered must become the dominant influence1 and the possible fusion and interchange of ideas may modify style to a considerable extent4 ,climate and ,material ,locality has always been a determining factor1 particularly in architecture where the material available is of necessity utilised1 and in most cases is the one best suited to the climatic conditions2 for instance1 where wood abounds we find it successfully employed4 ,climate is also largely responsible for architectural form4 ,in the ,north1 owing to heavy snows1 the roofs are high-pitched4 ,the early ,egyptian buildings were of mud and wattle1 the readiest material to hand1 and form ample protection from the sun in a practically rainless district4 ,it is interesting to note that the character of these structures was imparted to their later work in stone4 ,this was used in the most important buildings1 and was readily obtainable from the ,nubian quarries and transported down the ,nile on rafts4 ,phases in ,style ,it must be remembered that although broad classifications can be made in styles1 yet there are intermediate stages which are transitional1 and which are usually due to the importation of some foreign influence4 ,the phases of a transitional period can usually be defined2 at first the new style is slavishly imitated or else executed by the foreign worker exploiting it4 ,this is followed by its being used in conjunction with the native construction1 and lastly1 the native interpretation of the foreign style is possibly grafted on to older forms4 ,it should be understood that at no time was there any great immediate change in style1 but that there are phases which can be described as typical1 connected by periods of gradual change or transition2 due1 doubtless1 to individual expression of taste1 either on the part of exponent or patron1 or as previously suggested1 by influences political1 religious or commercial4 ,careful study will show that the change in the majority of instances was due to reaction from a florid to a more severe treatment1 which in its turn became redundant in character and detail4 ,apart from the artistic point of view1 these changes are interesting as reflective of the character of the times4 ,from the constructive point of view there are two distinct principles to be appreciated1 the ,lintel and the ,arch4 ,the ,lintel1 which is the earlier1 may be described as a large stone style1 and consists of the bridging of apertures by means of horizontal slabs1 supported by vertical columns or piers4 ,this is a method of construction with distinct limitations1 as it was impossible to bridge large areas or spaces without frequent support4 ,the ,lintel ,illustration3 ,no4 #d4 ,the ,lintel4 ,the joints of the ,lintel necessarily occur over the centres of the supporting columns1 and the space between was controlled by the size of the obtainable material and the imposed weight it could bear2 the result being1 as in the great hall at ,karnak1 a forest of closely spaced columns4 ,it was not until the principle of the ,arch was developed into vaulting that interiors of any considerable dimension with clear floor spaces were possible4 ,lintel construction was employed in the ,egyptian1 ,chaldean and ,greek styles4 ,the ,arch1 as a constructive form1 did not appear until a later period1 and possibly was due to some extent to the employment of brick and stones of small size4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #e4 ,tomb of ,tantalus in ,lydia4 ,vault form1 but not vault construction4 ,form or shape is not involved1 as it is quite possible to so shape the ,lintel as to give the appearance of the ,arch by cutting the underside to the required curve4 ,in the early ,greek architecture examples have been found of both ,arch and vault appearance1 but these are the result of horizontal courses1 successively projecting2 that is1 built in the form of inverted steps1 the underside being cut to the arch curve1 and is a form of construction restricted to bridging relatively small areas4 ,the ,arch ,illustration3 ,no4 #f4 ,a4 ,structural ,arch4 ,b4 ,arch appearance1 result of cutting away4 ,the principle of the ,arch depends upon the separate pieces of material being formed to a wedge shape1 the joints corresponding to radial lines drawn through the centre from which the ,arch curve is struck4 ,the weak part of the ,lintel is the centre of the span which may have a tendency to give way under pressure1 but the wedged construction of the ,arch renders the centre strong enough to bear the imposed weight4 ,in contrast with the ,lintel1 material of small size could be employed1 not only stone1 but brick being used in ,arch construction4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #g4 ,section of ,gothic ,vault showing courses of stone and centering4 ,the ,lintel1 in relatively small spans1 is sometimes composed of separate small stones1 shaped to fit each other in the form of ,joggled joints4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #h4 ,a4 ,lintel in one piece4 ,b4 ,c4 ,d4 ,various forms of ,joggled joints4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #i4 ,gothic ,vaulting showing intersecting ribs forming framework of structure4 ,the outward and manifest appearance suggests to the lay observer a striking divergence in the style known as ,gothic from the ,roman manner of building2 but the main difference is in proportion and treatment of detail1 the underlying principle being much the same4 ,the use of the ,arch and vaulting was common to both1 but in the ,gothic development greater strength was obtained1 with even greater economy of material4 ,the archivolts and intersecting ribs of vaults1 with their supports1 literally formed the bones of the building1 constituting a framework to which the bays of walls and roofing were only a matter of filling in4 ,in the words of ,mr4 ,c4 ,h4 ,moore1 in his work on 8,development and ,character of ,gothic ,architecture0--8the ,gothic style developed into a system where stability depends not upon any inert massiveness except in the outermost abutments1 but upon a logical adjustment of active parts whose opposing forces produce a perfect equilibrium4 ,it is thus a system of balanced thrusts1 as opposed to the former system of inert stability40 ,egyptian ,the ,egyptian buildings1 in common with those of ,palestine1 were frequently of mud1 strengthened by wattle or reeds interwoven1 evidence of which is apparent in later incised decoration4 ,buildings were also of sun-baked bricks1 those of an important character being faced with stone2 the exteriors of these latter were simple and severe1 the walls being slightly tapered and surmounted by a simple cove cornice1 with gateways and entrances of massive form4 ,the internal effect was of mystery1 doubtless due to the comparative absence of light1 and to the many columns necessary to carry the roofings4 ,the columns which were mostly employed in the interiors1 were squat and stunted in proportion1 being from four to seven diameters in height1 with capitals of the ,lotus1 ,papyrus or ,hathor variety4 ,mouldings were of the simplest character and sparsely used1 and the decoration included renderings of the ,lotus and ,papyrus plants1 either painted or incised in stone with the addition of colour4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aj4 ,longitudinal section and half plan of ,egyptian ,temple4 ,egyptian architecture may be generally described as monumental1 while the ornament was apparently inspired by religious feeling and desire for symbolic expression1 rather than by more sthetic considerations4 ,in ,egyptian ,art ornament is subordinated to the architecture1 and the employment of wall pictures and of inscriptions in the hieroglyphic character1 added considerably to the decorative effect4 ,in the wall pictures the figures were depicted in silhouette1 in conventional attitudes1 the head and limbs being displayed in severe profile1 while the torso is represented in full front view4 ,the methods of expression were painting1 or incised in outline on stone1 invariably filled in with colour1 the effect in both being of flatness1 with little suggestion of modelling or rotundity1 the various features being defined by local colour4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aa4 ,entrance ,faade of ,egyptian ,temple4 ,though much of the ,egyptian work was in the round1 and evident of great sculptural ability and appreciation of form1 yet generally their decorative work may be described as a colour style1 rather than one in which light and shade were important factors4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ab4 ,egyptian ,capital from ,philae4 ,with regard to the domestic life1 the examples of furniture in the ,british ,museum convey some idea1 and these bear a remarkable similarity to forms with which we are familiar at the present day1 both in detail and construction1 which is simple and direct1 with mortise and tenon joints4 ,turning was frequently employed1 and1 in the decoration of furniture1 inlays of ivory1 ebony and glass1 the ,egyptians being expert workers in both glass and enamels4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ac4 ,egyptian ,furniture4 ,a4 ,stand ,inlaid4 ,b4 ,ebony seat inlaid with ivory4 ,c4 ,folding stool4 ,d4 ,ebony box inlaid with porcelain and ivory4 ,illustrations taken from bas reliefs and wall painting give a good idea of the furniture1 which is often depicted as gilded4 ,the ,egyptian couch was straight like an ottoman4 ,sometimes the couch took the form of an animal with the head and tail at either end1 and the legs and feet carved to complete the effect4 ,chaldean ,chaldean art in character had much in common with that of ,egypt1 the difference being more that of expression than in idea1 probably due to intercourse and mutual influence4 ,the buildings1 which were mostly in brick1 often faced with a form of terra-cotta1 stamped with relief or ornament1 were pyramidal in general form1 raised on terraces forming a succession of platforms1 approached by steps or inclined planes4 ,columns were employed1 but the capitals were distinctive in the use of volutes culminating in the ,persian renderings at ,persepolis4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ad4 ,egyptian ,chairs4 ,a4 ,wall painting in ,british ,museum1 ,b4,c4 #aejj-adjj4 ,b4 at ,thebes4 ,compound animal and human forms1 analagous to the ,egyptian sphinx1 were employed1 such as the winged lion and bull with human heads1 generally to flank the gateways4 ,wall pictures in low relief formed part of the interior decoration1 these being arranged in successive rows and representing historic episodes were1 like the ,egyptian decoration1 probably coloured4 ,a prominent detail in the decoration is that of the date palm which1 symbolical in meaning1 was the prototype of the ,greek anthemion2 the volute also occurs in much of the decoration in the form of the evolute scroll4 ,our conclusions regarding ,assyrian woodwork are drawn from the sculptured bas-reliefs of stone or alabaster with which the ,assyrians faced their brick structures internally and externally4 ,the examples in the ,british ,museum are about #hhh ,b4,c4 ,furniture1 such as tables1 thrones and couches1 was evidently made of wood1 and was probably inlaid with ivory and other precious materials4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ae4 ,assyrian ,seat4 ,on the monuments of ,khorsabad representations have been discovered of chairs1 supported by animals and human figures4 ,the intention in the use of figures was probably to depict prisoners taken in war4 ,chairs1 thrones1 stools and tables were square in shape4 ,the ends of the rails and legs were carved1 and the ornamentation employed for these and similar positions included the heads of lions1 bulls and rams1 the sacred palm and pine cone4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #af4 ,capitals from ,persepolis4 ,the seats of chairs and thrones were much higher than is now customary1 and necessitated the use of foot-stools4 ,in some cases both chairs and tables were made to fold on a central pivot4 ,in some cases metal was used either for part or for the complete structure4 ,exact chronology is a matter of surmise1 but at an early period1 about #djjj ,b4,c41 in the valley of the ,nile and in ,mesopotamia1 civilization had attained a very high level1 extremely favourable to the development of architecture and the artistic crafts4 ,the early ,greeks1 as a result of the peculiar formation of their coast line1 like the later ,scandinavians1 were adventurers on the sea1 piratical and trading1 and were thus brought into communication with1 and influenced by1 the arts of ,egypt and ,chaldea4 ,greek ,illustration3 ,no4 #ag4 ,early ,treatment of ,doric ,order4 ,tomb of ,beni ,hassan4 ,though1 in their architecture1 the ,greeks progressed no further than the ,lintel1 yet they must be credited with the development of the system of the orders1 which formed the basis of subsequent styles4 ,the two prominent orders were the ,doric and the ,ionic2 the former has its prototype in the tomb of ,beni ,hasan1 the date of which is #agdj ,b4,c41 while the latter is evidently derived as to the voluted form of the capital1 from ,assyrian and ,persian originals4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ah4 ,early anticipation of ,ionic ,order4 ,tomb at ,kyanea-,jaghu4 ,the capital of the ,corinthian order may be considered to be a development of the ,egyptian ,papyrus form1 the earliest features of both consisting of an inverted bell-shape decorated with leaf-like detail4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ai4 ,greek ,vase ,paintings4 ,a4 ,doric columns4 ,b4 ,wall fountain4 ,c4 ,ionic columns with pediment4 ,characteristic ,greek details1 such as the ,anthemion and wave scroll1 are traceable to the same sources4 ,their architectural work1 which was monumental in character1 was mostly manifested in the temples1 the domestic buildings being relatively unimportant4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bj4 ,greek house about #ajj ,a4,d4 ,bas-relief in ,british ,museum1 ,bacchus visiting ,icarius4 ,some idea as to these may be gathered from the vase paintings in the ,british ,museum1 on which they appear simple in form1 mostly ,doric in character1 and probably of wood construction1 the metopes in the frieze being open spaces for purpose of interior lighting4 ,though the ,greeks invested many of their creations with ,epic and ,symbolic meaning1 much of their ornament was purely sthetic4 ,the sculptured metopes of the ,parthenon1 representing the conflict between the ,lapithae and the ,centaurs1 are an example of the ,epic treatment4 ,the ,sphinx1 borrowed from ,egyptian art1 was1 however1 invested with a different meaning1 and is an example of the ,symbolic class1 which formed so large a part in ,greek art4 ,greek architecture differs from preceding styles in the development of mouldings1 and the exterior columnar effect4 ,the mouldings in the ,ionic and ,corinthian phases were enriched with carved details1 probably developed from or suggested by earlier painted decoration4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ba4 ,front elevation and plan of ,parthenon1 ,athens ,illustration3 ,no4 #bb4 ,greek ,ionic ,erectheum1 ,athens4 ,the ,doric style was presumably so decorated1 with painted details on the ovolo and abacus of the capital1 and the corona and other members of the cornice4 ,colour was employed on the backgrounds of the metopes1 mostly blue and red1 resulting in an alternation of colour with plain stone areas2 the colour decoration forming horizontal bands4 ,one important development1 due to climatic conditions1 was the pitched roof1 which entailed the end walls being carried up in triangular form 7literally gables71 which were framed by the upper members of the entablature4 ,this feature1 technically known as the ,pediment1 was in buildings of importance invariably filled by sculpture1 ,mythological or ,epic in subject1 designed to occupy the shape4 ,the styles mostly employed were the ,doric and ,ionic1 and these were exploited contemporaneously1 the ,parthenon1 #dcj ,b4,c41 representing the culmination of the former4 ,of the ,corinthian style--comparatively little used by the ,greeks1 though much employed and developed later--the ,choragic monument at ,athens1 #ccj ,b4,c41 is the most complete example1 though the leaf capital was anticipated in a simpler form in the earlier ,tower of the ,winds4 ,the earliest representations of ,greek furniture are to be found in the ,syrian ,room at the ,british ,museum4 ,these are the chairs dated about #f ,b4,c41 in which the antique figures are seated4 ,the backs are perpendicular1 and the frame pieces of the seats are mortised into the legs4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bc4 ,greek ,corinthian1 ,choragic ,monument1 ,athens4 ,the ,greek couch was not unlike the modern sofa4 ,it was used for sleeping and resting4 ,chairs and stools were sometimes made of metal1 and were often of a folding type4 ,tables were constructed in various shapes--sometimes the supports were fashioned as heads and legs of lions and leopards1 and sometimes as sphinxes with lifted wings4 ,in common with other pieces of furniture1 they were made in wood1 metal and marble4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bd4 ,greek ,furniture4 ,a4 ,couch or bed1 ,archaic ,etruscan4 ,b4 8 8 ,vase painting4 ,c4 ,archaic chair1 #ehj-ebj ,b4,c4 ,d4 ,chair from ,hydria4 ,e4 ,f4 ,archaic chairs1 ,harpy ,tomb1 #ejj ,b4,c4 ,the vase rooms of the ,british ,museum provide considerable matter for study with regard to the details of ,greek furniture1 couches especially are frequently depicted4 ,the ,greeks were expert workers in cast bronze1 as is evidenced1 not only by their statuary1 but in many utensils of domestic life1 notably the oil lamps1 which were also in many instances modelled in terra cotta4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #be4 ,greek ,pottery4 ,a4 ,kelebe 7mixing bowl71 #fth century ,b4,c4 ,b4 ,lekythos 7oil bottle71 ,athenian 7about7 #dej ,b4,c4 ,c4 ,mastos1 coloured black1 red and white4 ,d4 ,hydria 7pitcher71 #cej-bej ,b4,c4 ,e4 ,kylix 7goblet71 #ebj ,b4,c4 ,soon after the sack of ,corinth in #adj ,b4,c41 ,greece became a ,roman province1 and the ,greek art workers eventually found more encouragement from ,roman patronage than in local requirement4 ,they therefore went where their work was appreciated and rewarded1 thereby effecting a potential influence in the art and work of their conquerors4 ,roman ,originally there were no special native characteristics by which ,roman work could be distinguished1 as the ,romans absorbed various influences from the races that they conquered4 ,their conquests extended ,east and ,west1 and from these widely differing outside influences the ,roman style developed4 ,the ,romans1 who by temperament1 were great soldiers1 organisers and engineers1 rather than artistic1 in their early essays in architecture were influenced by ,etruscan work4 ,etruria 7now ,tuscany7 is presumed to have been a ,greek colony1 and the local style1 a form of debased ,doric1 was adopted by the first ,tarquin 7who was of ,etruscan origin7 and introduced to ,rome about #faj ,b4,c4 ,with the growth of the ,roman ,empire1 and its consequent wealth and development of luxury1 great impetus was given to building and the arts generally4 ,the orders based on the ,greek originals were developed in detail and proportion1 particularly in the latter respect4 ,whereas in the ,greek ,doric the height of the column varied from about four1 to six and a half diameters1 the ,roman version became more slender1 being about eight diameters in height4 ,the ,corinthian order1 perhaps1 underwent the greatest change1 a change that has practically remained unaltered to the present day4 ,vaulting ,the most significant development in building was the ,arch and subsequent vaulting1 by means of which extensive covered areas were rendered possible4 ,the ,pantheon at ,rome is covered with a hemispherical vault or dome #aci feet in diameter4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bf4 ,section and interior elevation of ,pantheon1 ,rome4 ,the dome1 which is interiorally occupied by radiating and horizontal ribs1 resulting in five horizontal rows of cassons1 or coffers1 is really a casting in cement2 and in principle is identical with the present method of building1 in which concrete or cement forms a considerable part in construction4 ,apart from other reasons1 the ,arch was necessitated by small material1 which1 in the case of the ,lintel1 could not be employed without the device of joggelled joints4 ,in the absence of suitable material to cover spans1 it became necessary to devise some means to the desired result4 ,this was achieved by bridging the span with separate pieces of material cut to the necessary wedge form4 ,the ,arch was first applied to such useful and necessary buildings as the ,cloaca ,maxima1 to aqueducts1 bridges1 and viaducts1 from which its firm construction and power of resistance were found to be applicable to buildings of many storeys4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bg4 ,coliseum1 ,rome4 ,section and part elevation showing arch and vault construction4 ,greek ,influence ,apart from the early employment and development of the ,arch1 the ,romans were content to borrow their architecture from outside sources1 and also were indebted to the ,greeks for their ideal expressions in poetry1 art1 even to religion1 whose gods they invested with different names4 ,notwithstanding1 the ,roman development in architecture was undoubtedly dignified and grand in manner1 particularly in their treatment of the ,corinthian order4 ,with regard to detail1 much of the delicacy and refinement of the ,greek character was lost1 yet this was compensated by greater variety and freedom of treatment1 especially in the development of the ,acanthus type of foliage4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bh4 ,arch of ,titus1 ,rome4 ,development of ,ornament ,decoration was more generally used1 pilaster and other panels being occupied with ornament arranged on growth lines1 mostly composed of undulate stems1 with scrolling branches1 clothed with conventional leaves and flowers4 ,there was also a tendency to employ occasionally natural types in foliage1 and further variety was obtained by the introduction of human and animal form1 which1 though originally significant1 were used for their sthetic value4 ,the ,roman domestic life was materially different from the ,greek1 and while they had their ,temples1 they also had their palaces1 public halls and baths1 besides the amphitheatre and the circus4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bi4 ,typical ,roman ,ornament4 ,excavations at ,herculaneum and ,pompeii have thrown considerable light on the domestic life of the ,romans--their dwellings1 decorations and furniture4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #cj4 ,roman couch4 ,sepulchral urn1 ,british ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ca4 ,roman ,sella4 ,grco-,roman ,painted ,decoration ,in the luxurious life of the ,romans colour ,illustration3 ,no4 #cb4 ,graeco-,roman ,hall in house of ,sallust1 ,pompeii4 decoration played a conspicuous part1 as is evidenced in the painted work of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii4 ,in this1 which is generally known as the ,grco-,roman period1 the interiors were decorated with paintings1 the general scheme being based on an architectural setting1 the wall areas being divided into bays by slender columns1 sometimes by pilaster panels1 with plinth1 or dado1 frieze1 and cornice1 the prevailing colours being red1 buff and black4 ,illustration3 ,grco-,roman ,hanging ,lamp ,bronze ,no4 #cc4 ,the decoration of the frieze in many instances suggested openings1 through which distant vistas could be seen4 ,the bays or spaces between the apparent dividing supports were further decorated with small panel pictures with frames2 generally the supports were united by festoons or scrolling detail1 the whole expressed by painting in colour without actual relief4 ,the use of glass for glazing windows was employed in the later period2 that the ,romans were expert workers in glass can be verified by the examples in the ,national collections4 ,illustration3 ,grco-,roman ,hand ,lamp and ,stand4 ,bronze ,no4 #cd4 ,for artificial lighting of interiors oil lamps were customary1 which were boat shape in form1 sometimes used in groups or clusters suspended from branching stems or supported on tripod standards4 ,these were invariably in cast bronze1 though terra-cotta was also used1 but in either material were extremely beautiful in form and detail4 ,in any attempt to review the past1 it is difficult to visualise the actual life at the back of the pageantry1 with which we are naturally prone to be obsessed1 in history as written2 but the exhibits of the various domestic appliances of the ,roman period at the ,british ,museum are of considerable interest1 and a scrutiny of these cannot fail to bring the individual to a closer understanding of the times and people4 ,at ,byzantium or ,constantinople1 the capital of the ,eastern ,roman ,empire1 a distinct style developed out of a curious mingling of the characteristics of ,east and ,west2 and it was marked particularly by a grafting of earlier ,greek detail on to simplified ,roman forms4 ,the establishment in #ccj ,a4,d4 of ,byzantium or ,constantinople as the ,eastern capital of the ,roman ,empire and the recognition by the state of ,christianity resulted in a great change in architecture and the associated crafts4 ,prior to this the early ,christians had been compelled to hold their meetings secretly1 and when this was no longer necessary they at first utilised for their public worship the existing ,basilicas or public halls4 ,later on churches were built1 the plan being arranged in the form of a ,greek cross 7e4g41 with equal arms71 surmounted by a central dome4 ,domes ,the dome was supported on four piers1 united by arches1 and the change in plan from these piers to the dome necessitated vaultings from the inner angles to reconcile the diagonal dimension to the diameter of the imposed circle4 ,these vaultings spreading from the angles are technically known as ,pendentives4 ,the ,illustration3 ,no4 #ce4 ,byzantine4 ,section and plan of ,st4 ,vitali1 ,ravenna4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #cf4 ,byzantine ,capitals from ,ravenna4 four arms of the cross constituting transepts1 nave and chancel were also surmounted by either complete or semi-domes4 ,the ,byzantine dome differs from the ,roman type in matters of detail1 thus the interior surface is plain instead of the intersecting ribs with resulting coffers as in that of the ,pantheon4 ,in this latter the lighting of the interior is accomplished by a central opening or eye1 but in some ,byzantine examples1 notably ,st4 ,sophia 7built for ,justinian by ,anthemius7 the lighting is the result of windows ranged round the base1 constituting what is known as the ariel type of dome4 ,the dome of ,st4 ,sophia is segmental instead of hemispherical as in the ,pantheon1 being only one-sixth of the diameter in height1 the diameter being #ajf ft4 #g ins4 ,the architectural features generally were considerably modified1 particularly with regard to mouldings1 which were almost eliminated4 ,the entablature was also at times dispensed with1 and arches springing direct from the capitals of supporting columns were general2 a feature which is characteristic of the later ,romanesque4 ,the capitals became simple in form1 being mostly inverted pyramidal or cushion shapes1 in which the abacus is considerably enlarged and as a rule unmoulded4 ,the carved details reveal simplicity of execution1 being merely cut back from the surface1 the relief being uniform and greatly in contrast to the plastic feeling of the ,roman work4 ,though the leaves employed were of the acanthus type1 they were quite devoid of modelling1 being merely channelled with ,v-shaped grooves2 the eyes between the lobes being round and suggestive of the use of the drill1 the execution being a reversion to the archaic ,greek4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #cg4 ,byzantine ,panels4 ,st4 ,appollinare1 ,nuovo1 ,ravenna4 ,early ,christian ,art ,a notable feature in the ,byzantine detail is the prevalence of the circle1 frequently grouped in three1 four and five1 with the respective significance of the ,trinity1 the ,evangelists and the ,cross1 or ,five ,wounds4 ,the grotesques of the ,pagan detail are conspicuously absent1 giving place to forms more in keeping with the new religion1 such1 for instance1 as the cross and the vine4 ,it is questionable if the polytheism of the average cultured ,roman was taken very seriously1 but incidental to the religious observances were certain rites and symbolic forms1 with which the ,christians were familiar1 and the early preachers evidently found it a matter of policy to invest some of these with a new meaning4 ,during the period of intolerance and persecution1 signs and symbols grew in importance as a ,illustration3 ,no4 #ci4 ,byzantine ,interior1 ,ravenna4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #dj4 #eth ,century ,mosaic ,work in the ,baptistery at ,ravenna4 ,from a ,drawing by ,miss ,dora ,bard4 means of secret communication2 and in the later period when secrecy was no longer necessary1 these became a corporate part of the ornament and decoration4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ch4 ,byzantine ,panel from the sarcophagus of ,st4 ,theodore4 ,st4 ,appollinare in ,classe1 ,ravenna4 ,in contrast to the ,roman ornament1 in which the effect depended mostly on light and shade1 the ,byzantine was a colour style1 and it became customary to line the walls of the principal buildings with marble slabs quartered and placed reciprocally1 so that the figurings formed symmetrical patterns4 ,mosaic work1 either of marble or glass1 constituted the decoration in such suitable positions as the floors1 spandrils1 lunettes and domes1 gold being largely employed in the backgrounds4 ,windows1 at times large in area1 were glazed as in ,roman times with cast slabs of glass1 set in metal frames1 usually bronze2 and thin slabs of translucent marble and onyx were also used for glazing purposes4 ,metal ,work and ,enamel ,the ,byzantines were also expert carvers of ivory and workers in metal1 decorated in repouss and with wire filigree2 the metal work was invariably set with jewels and precious stones1 in conjunction with champleve enamel1 the whole being gilt4 ,as a result of the ,iconoclastic movement1 and the decree of ,pope ,leo ,,iii in #gbf ,a4,d41 the art workers1 deprived of local patronage and compelled to pursue their crafts elsewhere1 migrated to the ,rhine district1 where for some centuries the ,byzantine traditions were preserved and largely influenced ,western art1 particularly with regard to the working in metal and enamels4 ,the attraction of the centre of the ,eastern ,empire for northern adventurers had its effect in the introduction of the ,byzantine style into the detail of the different phases of the ,romanesque4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #da4 ,champleve enamel ,byzantine tradition4 ,the tradition thus becoming widely known was finally absorbed by local craftsmen and modified according to local conditions1 with the result that both in expression and in execution1 the style tended to become more and more crude1 until the original forms and details were almost entirely lost4 ,but in spite of changes the classic feeling never completely died out4 ,roman ,influence ,abroad ,under the ,roman system1 in colonizing1 their architecture1 customs and laws were imposed on the conquered population4 ,when later1 under stress of events1 the governing bodies and military forces had to be withdrawn1 these left behind them universal traces of their occupation and influence4 ,the inhabitants of the provinces thus abandoned and thrown on their own resources1 were immediately menaced by invasions1 which had been hitherto kept in check by the armies of occupation1 and for some protracted period ensued a condition of unrest and conflict1 under which the arts naturally suffered4 ,eventually1 from the chaos emerged a native manner of building1 which1 though rude and coarse in execution1 was based on the ,roman tradition4 ,romanesque ,style ,the transition thus brought about is known for convenience as ,romanesque4 ,its most typical exponents were possibly the ,scandinavians1 whose ,christianised descendants1 the ,normans1 preserved the same tradition4 ,the work of the ,saxons in ,england1 although stimulated by the same influences1 was much cruder in execution4 ,this period was not remarkable for great artistic development1 and luxury in any form was practically non-existent4 ,notwithstanding local character1 the prevailing features are similar1 in that the round arch is employed1 supported by columns or piers1 from which the arches spring direct1 the entablature being eliminated4 ,the columns are squat in proportion1 and surmounted by capitals of truncated cone or cushion shape1 the abacus being deep and square in plan4 ,mouldings were little used1 and the archivolts were formed in a series of recessed bands1 either plain or decorated4 ,distinct from the ,byzantine style1 the ,romanesque depended for effect upon contrast of light and shade4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #db4 ,romanesque ,capitals from ,cloister1 ,st4 ,guillem du ,desert1 ,herault4 ,reminiscent of ,roman ,corinthian4 ,details were carved1 and rude in execution1 preserving to some extent the ,byzantine feeling1 the prevailing ornament being the undulate stem1 with scroll branches1 clothed with leafage1 simply channelled or grooved1 but less spikey in form4 ,church ,development ,of the buildings of importance of this period the churches form the most interesting examples of development4 ,the usual plan consisted of an oblong nave with side aisles half its width and height4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #dc4 ,romanesque ,tower1 ,thaon1 ,normandy4 ,at the end of the nave1 projecting transepts separated it from the chancel 7which is generally raised in level71 continuing the line of nave1 the whole taking the shape of the ,latin cross in contrast to the ,byzantine plan2 the chancel end facing ,east1 the nave ,west1 and the transepts respectively ,north and ,south4 ,a feature of this period is the ,apse1 a semi-circular extension of the choir or chancel2 when the side aisles were extended to the latter they formed what is known as an ambulatory1 or passage way1 round the choir1 within which was the altar1 and the stalls for monks and clergy4 ,the ,narthex or atrium1 of the basilicas1 utilised by the early ,christians for their public worship 7to which were admitted those outside the community7 was abandoned1 its place being taken by the ,west entrance or porch1 enclosed between two towers4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #dd4 ,romanesque plan of ,cathedral1 ,worms4 ,the upper walls of the nave were carried on arches supported by columns1 which constituted the division of the side aisles2 these latter being formed by vaultings from the nave columns to the outer walls1 the vaulting being roofed over4 ,the upper part of the nave was pierced by windows1 small and comparatively narrow1 with semi-circular heads forming the ,clerestory4 ,similar windows in some instances occur in the aisles1 the jambs of these windows being bevelled both inside and out for the freer admission of light4 ,the nave was roofed in with timber1 but as the result of frequent destruction by fire1 the roof was eventually vaulted2 in early examples by the barrel or tunnel vault1 but later this developed into cross-vaulting1 which was also introduced into the side aisles4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #de4 ,romanesque1 bay of interior1 ,worms ,cathedral4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #dg4 ,romanesque ,church interior with ,triforium4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #df4 ,romanesque ,window1 ,st4 ,alban's ,abbey4 ,in the early churches of this period the walls of the nave were unbroken except for the upper windows4 ,with the development of vaulting1 the space above the aisle vaults and the covering roof was used as a gallery known as the ,triforium4 ,this was not lighted from without1 and was a distinguishing characteristic of the ,romanesque and early ,gothic styles4 ,the introduction of vaulting in the roof of the nave entailed supports for the arch bands or vaulting ribs1 which were carried on pilasters or half columns1 dividing the interior faade into bays4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #dh4 ,construction of intersecting vaults4 ,dark ,ages ,the unsettled condition of ,europe1 both before and after the final subjugation of the ,roman ,empire by ,charlemagne in #ggd ,a4,d41 was necessarily detrimental to artistic progress1 and the period to the fifteenth century may be truly described as the dark ages as regards the arts and culture in general4 ,such literary knowledge as survived was mostly confined to the priests1 and under the monastic and feudal systems that prevailed the bulk of the people were kept in ignorance and subjection4 ,building was devoted almost exclusively to fortresses and churches1 the domestic conditions being extremely crude as compared with earlier periods1 though ,eastern luxury must have been known and experienced by the alien adventurers to the ,byzantine courts4 ,this was a period of reversion to comparative barbaric taste by people indifferent to refinement and luxurious environment1 to whom1 however1 personal adornment would appeal in the form of jewellery and sumptuous attire4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #di4 ,romanesque1 south door ,kilpeck ,church1 ,herefordshire4 ,domestic arrangements were simple in the extreme4 ,the dwellings of the well-to-do in ,england1 similarly to those of the ,scandinavians1 consisted principally of a barn-like hall4 ,the centre of the hall was occupied by a long table1 and at one end raised on a platform or dais another table was placed in the opposite direction4 ,at the latter sat the most important members of the household1 while the lower part was reserved for retainers and servants4 ,heavy chairs and settles were used at the upper table1 and benches or forms at the lower4 ,walls1 when covered at all1 were adorned with hangings1 but then only at the dais end of the hall4 ,fireplaces in the modern sense were not known4 ,the fire was built on the floor1 and the smoke allowed to escape as best it might4 ,arrangements for sleeping were no more complex than those for dining4 ,beds were provided only for persons of distinction1 and were placed in recesses screened off from the hall by curtains or shutters4 ,they were1 in fact1 little more than wooden boxes1 with sacks of straw to serve as mattresses4 ,later1 bedsteads were used of massive construction1 which on occasions of journeying were placed on wheels1 forming a sort of coach or carriage ironically termed whirlicots1 in which the aged and infirm were transported4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ej4 ,chair of ,dagobert1 ,french #gth century1 bronze4 ,for some time after the ,norman ,conquest the unsettled state of the country rendered it necessary that household effects and valuables should be few in number and of such a nature as to be easily transportable4 ,thus chests in which belongings could be stored came into general use4 ,they were simple in construction1 and without carving1 but were strengthened and decorated by hinges and scroll strappings in iron4 ,such chests served a double purpose1 as they could be used as tables and seats4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ea4 #adth ,century ,textile ,sicilian tradition4 ,for convenience of transport1 chairs and stools were made with projecting tenons secured by pins or wedges so as to be easily taken apart4 ,crusades ,that the ,crusades were incidental to the importation of examples of ,eastern art1 is evidenced by the celebrated cup of ,eden ,hall1 on the safe preservation of which depended the worldly welfare of the owners1 according to the couplet3 8,if that cup either break or fall1 ,farewell the luck of ,eden ,hall40 ,this cup is of ,saracenic origin1 and is of glass1 painted in enamels1 similar in character to the mosque lamps in the ,british ,museum4 ,tapestries of ,sicilian manufacture were also introduced through the medium of the ,crusades1 and led to the employment of painted wall decoration1 evidently in imitation1 even in some instances to indicating the folds of the material4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #eb4 ,sicilian ,textile4 ,a precept exists in the twentieth year of the reign of ,henry ,,iii directing 8that the ,king's great chamber at ,westminster be painted a good green colour like a curtain10 and 8that the ,king's little wardrobe should also be painted of a green colour to imitate a curtain40 ,this was undoubtedly suggested by the custom abroad of draping the walls with tapestries1 though carpets were unknown4 ,probably the first time these were seen in ,england was in the apartments in the ,temple occupied by the suite of the infant ,don ,sancho1 archbishop elect of ,toledo1 who with ,don ,garcias ,madinez1 officiated as avant-courriers to ,eleanor of ,castile in the autumn of #abee4 ,pointed ,arch ,illustration3 ,no4 #ec4 ,types of ,buttress4 ,the origin of the pointed ,arch1 which is the chief characteristic of the ,gothic style1 is much disputed1 but there is ample evidence that the new departure appeared almost simultaneously in different parts of ,europe soon after the ,first ,crusade4 ,it is reasonable to assume that this particular form was suggested by examples in ,syria1 where arches elliptic and even ogival in shape were employed4 ,though not common in ,roman work1 the pointed ,arch was employed in the ,aqueduct built to supply ,constantinople with water1 completed under ,valens1 #cfd-cgh ,a4,d41 by which it is probable that the ,saracenic work was inspired4 ,whatever the origin1 the innovation was found to be economic1 and more sound in construction than the older prevailing method4 ,it was also more flexible in design1 as apertures of varying dimensions could be spanned with arches equal in height1 which is not possible with the semi-circular form1 except by the expedient of stepping4 ,further strength was imparted by the employment of buttresses on the outer walls1 as well as at the angles of the building4 ,gothic ,style ,in ,france1 ,england and ,germany the ,gothic style superseded the ,romanesque with varying phases of transition1 and with local development of character4 ,in ,spain the ,moors had established a system of architecture thoroughly ,eastern that was but little affected by the ,gothic style1 the influence of which is apparent in the later ,spanish rendering of the ,renaissance4 ,in ,italy the ,gothic attained but slight development in comparison with more northern and western treatments1 at least from a structural point of view4 ,the ,italian phase known as ,lombardic is conspicuous for the evidence of ,eastern and ,byzantine traditions4 ,phases of ,gothic ,the phases and dates of the ,gothic style in ,england are as follow1 and lasted well into the sixteenth century1 with periods of transition3 ,early ,english or ,pointed1 #aahi to #abgb4 ,transition #abgb to #acjg4 ,middle period or ,decorated1 #acjg to #acgg4 ,transition #acgg to #adjg4 ,late or 444 ,perpendicular1 #adjg to #aedg4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ed4 ,early pointed ,gothic ,pier1 elevation and plan4 ,in church architecture the general plan and essential features of the ,romanesque style were preserved2 but there was a complete change in the details1 as well as a general lightening of the whole structure4 ,the heavy columns or piers gave place to clusters of slender shafts1 which supported the archivolts and vaulting ribs1 these shafts being bound together at bases and capitals4 ,the ,triforium was retained1 the openings being arched and similar in detail to the windows4 ,early ,pointed ,in the early variety of the ,pointed ,gothic the arches were acutely pointed1 technically known as 8lancet10 but later became more equilateral4 ,the windows were narrow in proportion1 and were single1 or in groups4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ee4 ,early pointed bay with ,triforium4 ,window of ,aisle is of later date4 ,later they were divided into compartments1 and the triangular head filled in with stonework1 pierced with simple geometrical openings1 known as plate tracery1 thus forming a transition between the simple open lancet and the intersecting ribs1 which constituted the true tracery of the later periods4 ,commonly shafts of circular section1 with caps and bases1 were employed in the windows1 both internally and externally4 ,roofs were high pitched1 and the ceilings vaulted1 the vaulting ribs being moulded and decorated at the intersections with carved bosses4 ,mouldings were rich in effect1 being composed of a succession of hollows or flutings1 contrasted and divided by rounded ribs in relief4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ef4 ,early ,lancet ,windows4 ,a4 ,canterbury ,cathedral4 ,b4 ,lincoln ,cathedral4 ,c4 ,salisbury ,cathedral4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #eg4 ,early pointed ,gothic ,windows4 ,plate tracery4 ,carved detail occurs in the capitals of shafts1 sometimes in leaf-like forms in the bases and in the mouldings1 also in the crockets1 and finials of the gables1 and pinnacles of the buttresses4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #eh4 ,early pointed ,arch ,mouldings4 ,the ornament was extremely conventional1 that on capitals1 crockets and other free positions consisting of crisply curling trefoil or cinquefoil groups of lobes having little resemblance to natural type4 ,the later windows became more elaborate in the tracery1 which was essentially geometric1 and further elaborated by cusping4 ,triforium arches and canopy heads being similar in design4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ei4 ,early pointed ,gothic ,capital4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #fj4 ,pointed ,gothic tracery ,windows4 ,a4 ,ely ,cathedral4 ,b4 ,meophan ,church1 ,kent4 ,the central tower1 which was common in the ,romanesque1 developed into the spire1 which was carried to a great height2 the lower part occasionally pierced with openings for purpose of interior lighting1 forming the lantern4 ,decorated ,gothic ,the principal characteristics of the ,decorated period are the form of the ,arch1 the elimination of detached shafts and the enlarged clerestory with increased lighting area4 ,the ,arch1 when used structurally1 was still of the simple pointed form1 but in small windows1 niches and canopies1 the shape at the head became ogival and the tracery displays considerable license as compared with that of the preceding phase4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #fa4 ,early pointed ,gothic ,spire1 ,warmington4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #fb4 ,decorated ,gothic ,windows4 ,a4 ,merton ,college1 ,oxford4 ,b4 ,cathedral1 ,oxford4 ,mouldings were shallower as contrasted with the undercut hollows of the earlier period2 in many instances the arch mouldings were merely a continuation of those of the supporting piers1 which took the place of the earlier detached shafts4 ,the greatest innovation occurs in the foliage1 in which natural suggestion is evident1 adapted with considerable freedom1 and skilful in execution4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #fc4 ,decorated ,gothic ,carving1 ,chancel screen1 ,southwell ,minster4 ,in the preceding style the foliage of the capitals invariably sprung from the necking1 in simple firm curves1 revealing the underlying bell-shape4 ,in the ,decorated period the foliage generally wreaths round the structural form1 the detail being frequently deeply pierced and cut away at the back till it was almost detached1 giving an extremely rich effect4 ,diaper detail of pater1 or foliage arranged in squares1 occurs in the spandrils between arches4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #fd4 ,decorated ,gothic ,mouldings4 ,illustration3 ,nos4 #fe #ff4 ,decorated ,gothic ,capitals1 leaves deeply undercut and wreathed round bell4 ,a distinct feature of this period and of the succeeding ,perpendicular style1 is the battlement1 which was used in all suitable positions either as a parapet or as a cresting4 ,the ,decorated variety differs from the later1 in that the moulded edges only appear horizontally1 whereas in the ,perpendicular period the moulded edge is continuous1 being carried round the angles of the battlement4 ,externally the spire gave place to the tower with culminating lantern4 ,during the period of the style known as ,decorated ,gothic1 furniture was framed and panelled1 and the details closely resembled those used in architectural decoration in stone4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #fg4 ,decorated ,gothic ,spire1 ,whittlesea4 ,the general effect of ,decorated is a tendency to horizontal banding1 in contrast to the vertical effect of the earlier period1 to which eventually the later ,perpendicular reverted4 ,perpendicular ,gothic ,in the succeeding phase the ,triforium which had gradually become less important1 entirely disappeared and the clerestory windows enlarged1 to the extent that this part of the structure became merely a frame for the increased glass areas4 ,it will be apparent from the foregoing that whereas in the early churches of the ,romanesque period the interior effect was mysterious owing to inadequate openings for light1 the later and growing tendency was to increase the lighting capacity by enlarging the windows of the clerestory4 ,glass ,windows ,doubtless the development in the size of windows was due to some extent to the growing use of glass1 which1 though rare1 was employed during the later ,romanesque through ,byzantine tradition4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #fh4 ,perpendicular ,gothic ,bay shewing development of ,clerestory4 ,these early windows were geometric in design1 consisting of medallions1 oval1 circular or quatrefoil in shape1 containing figure subjects set in a diapered background1 the whole being executed in small pieces of coloured glass united by lead framings4 ,while the windows were single openings1 this form of glazing necessarily restricted the size1 though more adequate lighting was achieved by grouping two or more windows together4 ,with the development of tracery the technical difficulties were to some extent overcome2 a window divided into comparatively small compartments could be more easily glazed than single openings of large size2 thus glazed windows of greater dimensions were rendered possible4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #fi4 ,perpendicular ,gothic ,windows4 ,a4 ,aylsham ,church1 ,norfolk4 ,b4 ,king's ,college ,chapel1 ,cambridge4 ,in the ,decorated windows the lower lights were devoted to the subject1 which in many instances was carried through the area1 regardless of the dividing bars or mullions4 ,in the ,perpendicular each light or opening had usually its own subject or figure1 surmounted by canopies1 the upper spaces formed by intersection of the tracery bars were occupied by various details suitable to the different shapes4 ,the ,arch of the ,perpendicular style is materially different1 being composed of elliptic curves struck from four centres4 ,mouldings became even more shallow in section1 and the tracery less florid than formerly1 though extremely rich in appearance when used in the profusion that developed in the fan vaulting of this period4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #gj4 ,perpendicular ,gothic ,fan ,vaulting4 ,st4 ,mary1 ,aldermary4 ,the foliation reverted to a more conventional character1 and became lifeless and monotonous in comparison with the ,decorated work4 ,it must not be assumed that examples in every instance will be found complete in any of these phases2 on the contrary1 the various styles are to be found side by side in the same building1 the result of later additions or rebuilding4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ga4 ,perpendicular ,gothic ,tower1 ,all ,saints1 ,derby4 ,painted decoration and sculpture were also employed during the various periods2 wood-work where necessary was used1 and in detail was in harmony with the architectural character of the period4 ,civic ,influences ,illustration3 ,no4 #gb4 ,coronation ,chair1 ,westminster ,abbey1 #acth century4 ,the feudal period was not favourable to the development of domestic conditions1 though considerable advance had been made by the fourteenth century1 chiefly by the ,italian states and in the principal cities4 ,the importance of the latter is evidenced particularly in the ,city of ,london1 with its merchant class and civic authorities1 who1 by reason of their wealth1 attained potential political influence1 the prevailing contentious conditions necessitating the continual raising of large sums of money4 ,such conditions were favourable to the merchants1 who1 acting as bankers1 supplied the means1 and thus a class was established and apparently lived in profusion and some pretention to sumptuous environment4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #gc4 ,bedstead and ,cradle from ,m4,s4 in ,bodleian ,library1 #adth century4 ,effect of ,commerce ,similar conditions to those in ,england prevailed on the ,continent with certain local variations4 ,a big stride was made with the development of commerce1 mainly through the agency of ,venetian and ,flemish merchants4 ,the effect of increasing opulence as signalised by the appearance in the home of such comfort and refinement as had formerly been possible only for princes and great nobles4 ,among the luxuries imported were ,oriental silks1 carpets and pottery4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #gd4 ,fireplace1 #acth century4 ,italy ,whereas1 throughout ,europe generally1 the ,gothic character in furniture and woodwork developed on similar lines1 in ,italy alone its appeal to the national sympathies was not strong enough for it to become thoroughly assimilated1 and there the ,byzantine style persisted4 ,the woods most in use were oak and chestnut4 ,in ,italy walnut and cypress were used--the latter being considered especially valuable for chests4 ,early examples of ,italian chests are decorated with closely spaced incised ornament1 filled in with colour4 ,the ,venetians derived from ,persia and ,india a form of marquetry or inlay of ivory1 metal and various woods1 generally geometric in design4 ,the wood used was stained in order to vary the colour4 ,foreign ,influence in ,england ,through the policy of seeking foreign princesses as brides for the ,english kings1 foreign influences crept in1 and had a marked effect on the development of style4 ,moreover1 increasing commercial intercourse with the ,continent paved the way for the introduction of the new ideas of the ,renaissance then beginning to dawn in ,italy4 ,the ,wars of the ,roses checked progress in many ways1 but this was but the more rapid when peace was restored with the advent of ,henry ,,vii4 ,the ,house ,there was a great change in the character of the dwelling-house1 which though still built on defensive lines1 was also arranged with a view to domestic comfort and convenience4 ,the commonest form of plan was that in which the buildings were grouped round a central court and surrounded by a moat4 ,these buildings consisted of hall1 parlour1 kitchen and domestic offices4 ,the hall itself was lofty1 had an open-timbered roof1 and was usually lighted from both sides4 ,one end of the hall was invariably screened off1 and as the screen did not reach to the roof the musicians' gallery was placed above it4 ,the fireplace was set in one of the side walls4 ,the windows1 as a rule1 had few lights1 and these had pointed and cusped heads4 ,the upper rooms were accessible by staircases4 ,a not uncommon feature on the upper floor was the long gallery1 which generally traversed the whole length of the building immediately under the roof4 ,the rooms were panelled most often to about two-thirds the height of the wall1 while the remaining third was of plaster4 ,the ceiling also was of plaster1 which was moulded into intersecting ribs arranged geometrically1 sometimes with stalactite pendants at the intersections4 ,fireplaces were made of stone1 and chimney-pieces sometimes of wood4 ,furniture was beginning to assume some of its modern forms1 as shown by the chairs1 which were railed1 and copied from ,italian models4 ,buffets or sideboards with closed cupboards were in use4 ,table legs were carved or turned1 and connected by stretchers4 ,windows were now glazed with leaded panes1 and when made to open were of the casement type1 with iron frames which were hinged and furnished with turnbuckle fastenings4 ,doors seldom had locks1 but usually shut with latches of wrought iron4 ,the hinges also were of wrought iron1 and though simple in form were often quite ornamental4 ,henry ,,vii and his successor were responsible for various country residences1 an example which was followed by the nobility4 ,during the latter monarch's reign it became the fashion to arrange the plan of the mansion in the form of the letter ,h2 that is1 in two parallel wings connected at a right angle4 ,in the reign of ,elizabeth this was modified into a plan resembling the letter ,e1 otherwise a faade1 with wings bent at right angles1 with a central projection forming the main entrance4 ,in the domestic ,tudor style the ,arch was in vogue for window openings1 etc41 but much flattened in form4 ,the windows were divided into a number of lights1 by vertical mullions1 with arch headings1 occasionally cusped4 ,if of tall proportions1 they were further divided by horizontal bars or transoms1 and were glazed with small panes of glass set in lead frames1 arranged in some cases to open in iron casements4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ge4 ,tudor ,window with leaded lights4 ,the ,reformation ,an important factor in the development of this period was the ,reformation1 with the resultant liberty of thought4 ,before this1 architecture and the associated arts were entirely dominated by the ,church1 at the sacrifice of the individuality of the artist and craftsman1 who after this emancipation were enabled to exploit their work untrammelled by clerical restriction4 ,in some respects this was not productive of the best results1 as it removed the various co-ordinated branches of work from the restraint of architectural dominance1 with some loss to the unities4 ,it also opened the way to the professional designer as distinct from the craftsman 7who hitherto had been responsible for his share of the work7 resulting in occasional loss of character4 ,renaissance ,the ,renaissance1 which had its origin it ,italy1 was the next factor in the evolution of architecture and the arts4 ,as early as #adbb there were indications of the coming change1 though the medieval system of construction was still adhered to4 ,impetus was given to this revival by the taking of ,constantinople by the ,turks in #adec ,a4,d41 resulting in the dispersion of the ,greek scholars1 who found refuge in ,italy4 ,gothic1 essentially a ,northern style1 scarcely affected ,italy1 where ,byzantine tradition persisted until the ,revival of ,learning in the latter half of the fifteenth century brought a fresh impulse into all branches of ,art and ,literature4 ,an awakened interest in classical remains was an integral part of the vitality with which the great change known in its culmination as the ,renaissance was imbued2 and the commercial prosperity of the times was favourable to its encouragement and development4 ,early ,exponents ,an active agent in this revival was ,brunelleschi1 a native of ,florence1 who in company with ,donatello1 visited ,rome to study the remains of classical antiquity4 ,his principal successor1 ,leo ,battista ,alberti1 contributed largely to the new style4 ,ultimately the ,roman ,orders and their details were appropriated and adapted to local requirements4 ,the most prominent artists of the day turned their attention to the designing and making of wood-work1 and the decoration of rooms4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #gf4 ,strozzi ,palace1 ,florence4 ,the earlier work is severely architectural in character1 being closely based on the antique1 with all the usual features of columns1 pilasters1 cornices and pediments4 ,the greatest achievement of the architects of the ,renaissance was perhaps their adaptation of the antique ,roman style to the modified needs of secular buildings1 of which the ,palazzo ,pitti at ,florence by ,brunelleschi is an early and notable example4 ,this creating a form of architecture which perhaps reached its noblest expression in the ,palazzo ,strozzi1 begun in #adhi ,a4,d4 by ,benedetto da ,majano4 ,as previously suggested1 climate and local material are essential agents in the formation of style1 and from ,tuscany stone of large size was easily obtainable4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #gg4 ,pandolfini ,palace1 ,florence4 ,the contentious conditions existing in many of the ,italian cities1 entailing necessity for defence1 must also be taken into account1 and in connection with the foregoing were responsible for the massive and fortress-like construction of the principal dwellings of this period4 ,in the best examples of these1 though columns and pilasters were not employed in the faade1 the stories are proportioned as if the orders were used4 ,the crowning cornice1 however1 is proportioned to the whole1 varying in height between one fourteenth to one fifteenth4 ,from ,florence the movement spread to ,rome and other cities1 but ,venetian ,renaissance indicates undoubted evidence of ,lombardic influence4 ,until the end of the fifteenth century the period was one of experiment1 but from #aejj to about #aefj the style may be said to have attained a phase distinct and local4 ,at first the various features1 structural and decorative1 were frank reproductions from the antique1 which were studied and measured1 and from which systems of proportion were deduced by various exponents1 among whom the names of ,vignola1 ,palladio and ,serlio are conspicuous4 ,rome ,the ,roman version of the ,renaissance1 as distinct from that of ,florence1 was less massive1 ,rome being comparatively free from insurrectionary troubles4 ,columns and pilasters were used to divide the faade into bays1 or in the inner courts1 which were frequently arcaded1 and the principal entrance became a prominent feature4 ,the founder of the ,roman school was ,bramante1 born in #addd ,a4,d41 originally a painter1 who was responsible for the original design of ,st4 ,peter's1 at the instigation of ,pope ,julius ,,ii4 ,the partly executed work was found to be too weak to bear the superstructure1 and ,bramante in the meanwhile dying1 ,raffaelle1 ,giocondo and ,giuliano di ,san ,gallo1 and afterwards ,baldazzare ,peruzzi and ,antonio ,san ,gallo were engaged on the edifice4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #gh4 ,st4 ,peter's1 ,rome4 ,finally ,michael ,angelo was entrusted with the sole conduct1 and ,st4 ,peter's in its present form must be credited to him1 with the exception of the nave1 which was added by ,carlo ,maderno4 ,of the secular buildings1 the ,farnese ,palace1 the work of ,san ,gallo1 is typical of the ,roman adaptation of the antique architecture to the altered conditions4 ,to the above list of architects of the ,roman ,renaissance may be added the names of ,sansovino1 ,vignola and ,bernini1 the last-named being the author of designs for the ,louvre at ,paris4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #gi4 ,farnese ,palace1 ,rome4 ,venice ,the ,venetian ,states1 since the twelfth century1 had been growing in power1 and the ,republic's rise in importance was favourable to the arts1 particularly to architecture4 ,local influence is evident in the comparatively restricted ground areas1 entailing the maximum accommodation possible4 ,the ,venetian school is distinguished by the profuse use of columns and arcading2 also for the employment of circular-headed windows1 frequently subdivided by tracery of smaller arched and circular forms1 and by general lightness of effect4 ,the founder of the ,venetian school was ,san ,micheli1 born in #adhd ,a4,d41 who spent many years studying the ancient ,roman monuments1 and who was responsible for the ,grimani ,palace4 ,jacopo ,tatti1 a ,florentine1 more usually known as ,sansovino1 though mentioned in the ,roman group of architects1 was however more associated with ,venice1 his adopted city4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #hj4 ,vendramini ,palace1 ,venice4 ,prominent among his works is the ,library of ,st4 ,mark1 which consists of two orders1 an upper of the ,ionic1 supported by an arcade in which the ,doric is employed1 the whole surmounted by a balustrade with statues on the piers4 ,venetian ,influence ,in the ,venetian school must be included the name of ,andrea ,palladio1 who possibly had a greater influence on the architecture of the time than any of his contemporaries2 an influence that may be traced in the work of ,inigo ,jones1 and in that of ,sir ,christopher ,wren and his immediate school4 ,vincenzo ,scamozzi1 who died in #afaf ,a4,d41 like ,palladio and others1 was influenced by the antique1 and was perhaps the last architect of the ,venetian school to attain celebrity4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ha4 ,library of ,st4 ,mark by ,sansovino1 ,venice4 ,painted ,decoration ,a conspicuous feature of the ,italian ,renaissance was the development of painted decoration1 which had in ,italy succeeded the ,byzantine mosaic4 ,as in this method of decoration1 mouldings in relief were ineffective1 and were replaced by decorative bands or borders1 so in the succeeding painted work similar framings were adopted4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #hb4 ,painted ,decoration4 ,palazzo ,publico1 ,sienna1 from a drawing by ,c4 ,e4 ,bernard1 ,goldsmiths' ,college ,school of ,art4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #hc4 ,painted ,ceiling in the ,castello ,san ,angelo1 ,rome1 by ,giulio ,romano1 from a drawing by ,miss ,dora ,bard1 ,goldsmiths' ,college ,school of ,art4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #hd4 ,painted ,decoration in the collonade of the ,villa ,papa ,giulio1 ,rome1 showing ,pompeian influence1 from a drawing by ,c4 ,e4 ,bernard1 ,goldsmiths' ,college ,school of ,art4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #he4 ,ceiling-,painting from the ,castello ,san ,angelo1 ,rome1 reminiscent of ,graeco-,roman work1 from a drawing by ,c4 ,e4 ,bernard1 ,goldsmiths' ,college ,school of ,art4 ,mosaics were in vogue in ,italy to the twelfth century1 when painted decoration came into favour1 and notable in the exploitation of this latter phase was the school of ,giotto in the early part of the fourteenth century4 ,vaultings and spandrils were covered with painted subjects1 strongly framed by ornamental borders1 which served to strengthen the sense of construction in reinforcing the dividing ribs4 ,with the advent of the ,renaissance1 these divisional bands became more architectural in treatment1 and large areas1 such as ceilings1 were subdivided1 the sub-divisions being based on a logical sense of construction4 ,the name of ,pinturrichio is associated with the ,renaissance1 among his works being the decorations of the ,appartamenti ,borgia in the ,vatican1 the ,choir in ,santa ,maria del ,popolo1 ,rome1 and in ,santa ,maria ,maggiore at ,spello2 contemporaneous was ,perugino2 another celebrated name is that of ,gian ,antonio ,bazzi of ,sienna1 generally known as ,sodoma4 ,grco-,roman ,influence ,later exploiters of painted decoration1 ,raffaelle at the ,vatican1 ,giulio ,romano1 ,pierino del ,vaga and ,giovanni da ,udine1 were evidently influenced by the then recent discovery of late ,grco-,roman decorations in the remains of the ,baths of ,titus4 ,the same influence is found also in minor details--in the decoration of rooms and in the various pieces of furniture4 ,walls were panelled1 sometimes enriched with carving1 with inlaid patterns in intarsia1 or with inlay of different woods in imitation of marble mosaic4 ,hangings of ,genoese velvet or stamped and gilded leather were often used4 ,chairs were at first simple in form1 having straight backs and legs1 with broad1 elaborately carved rails at the head of the back and between the front legs4 ,chests or cassone1 called also marriage coffers1 because it was customary to give them as wedding presents1 generally took the form of the sarcophagus1 supported on claw feet4 ,in many instances they were decorated with gilt gesso1 or were covered with exuberant carving4 ,with the development of inlay1 which degenerated into picture making1 some later examples show attempts at perspectives1 in which arches1 doors1 balustrades and paved floors were depicted4 ,cabinets were invariably raised on open supports and furnished with doors enclosing compartments and sets of drawers1 the fronts of which were frequently decorated4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #hf4 ,venetian ,table4 ,tables were inlaid1 carved and gilded4 ,the prevailing form was a rectangular top1 sometimes of marble1 with wide1 richly carved supports consisting of human and animal forms at either end2 these were connected by a central stretcher at the base1 from which sprang a series of arched forms reaching to the underside of the top4 ,walnut was commonly employed for constructive purposes1 and ebony and many other woods were used both for veneers and inlay1 as also were such materials as ivory1 tortoiseshell and mother-of-pearl4 ,it is not easy to form an idea of the furniture in ordinary use1 as the examples which survive and which can generally be seen in museums are misleading1 being typical rather of that belonging to the nobility and wealthy classes4 ,probably owing to the rougher usage to which it was subjected1 and possibly also to its being but little esteemed by its owners1 and consequently no effort being made to preserve it1 the domestic furniture of the middle classes seems to have disappeared4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #hg4 ,carved ,walnut ,chair4 ,italian1 #afth century4 ,early ,french ,renaissance ,france had been brought into contact with the new architecture through the ,italian wars under ,charles ,,viii1 ,louis ,,xii1 and ,francis ,i4 ,the chief characteristic of the early ,french ,renaissance is that the details of the new school were imposed on structures which were ,gothic in general form4 ,italian architects were employed by ,francis ,i1 and although in the many important buildings erected for him he preferred native workmen1 ,italians were retained to furnish designs and lead the new style4 ,leonardo da ,vinci and ,andrea del ,sarto were both employed in the decoration of ,fontainebleau4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #hh4 ,wood ,panelling4 ,early ,french ,renaissance4 ,fontainebleau1 ,chateau de ,chambord1 ,chenonceaux sur ,loire1 ,chateau de ,madrid and the commencement of the ,louvre were all due to ,francis ,i1 and the ,italian influence was strengthened by the marriage of ,henry ,,ii with ,catharine di ,medici4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #hi4 ,stone ,chimney-piece1 ,fontainbleau1 ,henry ,,ii ,salon4 ,native ,exploitation ,under the influence of ,vignola and ,serlio1 the ,italian style became more popular1 and finally extinguished the lingering ,gothic tradition2 and eventually the assimilated style became local1 the first prominent native exploiter being ,philibert ,delorme1 the architect of the ,tuileries1 for ,queen ,catharine of ,medicis4 ,strapwork was a pronounced feature of this period1 carved panels being subdivided by framings of straight and curved forms interlaced with cornucop and scroll work4 ,scrolling straps with ,i shaped incisions were also used4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ij4 ,wood ,panel4 ,early ,french ,renaissance4 ,masks are of frequent occurrence1 and sometimes form scroll centres4 ,medallions were often employed1 and were occupied by profile heads1 and surrounded by foliated wreaths4 ,pilasters were narrow1 and had sunk and moulded panels1 lozenge shaped in the centre4 ,in ,england great impetus was given to building1 consequent on the suppression of the religious houses during the reign of ,henry ,,viii1 and mansions were erected in various parts of the country with some pretension to both external effect and domestic comfort1 not merely by the nobility1 but also by the wealthy merchant class4 ,english ,renaissance ,from the rise of the ,italian ,renaissance a century elapsed before the new style began to affect ,english work4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ia4 ,french ,chair4 ,period ,henry ,,ii4 ,in ,italy classic tradition had never died1 and consequently ,gothic gained no real hold there1 the best examples of ,italian ,gothic being inferior to those of ,france and ,england4 ,in the early days of the ,revival of ,learning1 when interest in architecture was at its height1 ,italians set out to emulate the style of building and decoration which prevailed in ancient ,rome4 ,gradually the same spirit spread to other parts of ,europe4 ,students were attracted to the birth-place of the ,revival1 and workers and designers from ,italy were eagerly welcomed by her neighbours4 ,naturally enough each country interpreted the new style in a different way1 and as it reached ,england chiefly through ,france and the ,netherlands1 the ,french and ,flemish interpretations in turn influenced the development of the ,english style4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ib4 ,walnut ,chair upholstered in ,appliqu4 ,italian1 about #afjj4 ,italians in ,england ,before either ,french or ,flemish influence had been felt1 however1 there were ,italian workers settled in ,england carrying out designs purely ,italian in character4 ,the earliest example is the tomb of ,henry ,,vii in ,westminster ,abbey1 by ,torrigiano4 ,many tombs and monuments were made entirely by ,italians4 ,holbein1 who was employed by ,henry ,,viii1 was distinctly a ,renaissance painter and designer and encouraged the new movement4 ,as the style became more widely disseminated it lost much of its original purity1 and classical details were used in conjunction with ,gothic forms and methods of construction1 due1 doubtless1 to the apparent difficulty with which the native workers grasped the essentials of the new style2 indeed1 there is more intermixing of styles in ,england than in any other part of ,europe with the exception of ,flanders4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ic4 ,stone ,chimney-piece4 ,sala ,borgia1 ,rome4 #afth ,century4 ,the purely ,italian phase was followed by a rendering which was largely borrowed from ,french work1 and this in turn was supplanted by the influence of the ,flemish interpretation4 ,the delicately modelled foliage1 dolphins1 candelabra1 vases and cherubs1 so characteristic of ,italian and ,french work1 were replaced by such typically ,flemish details as interlacing strapwork with curved and scrolled ends1 frequently cartouche-like in form1 festoons of fruit and foliage1 and terminal figures used as pilasters4 ,study of ,classic ,style ,in the late ,jacobean and succeeding phases the classic manner was more thoroughly understood1 and a more scholarly handling was the result1 until the culmination was reached in the work of ,inigo ,jones and ,wren4 ,the ,elizabethan phase indicates an imperfectly understood1 and in many instances meaningless1 employment and adaptation of ,italian forms to the requirements of the times4 ,a notable example if this is the central feature of the ,public ,schools at ,oxford1 the work of ,thomas ,holt1 a native of ,york1 in which the orders appear ranged one above the other4 ,thomas ,thorpe ,the most prominent name associated with the architecture of the period is ,thomas ,thorpe1 who was concerned in many of the principal edifices erected during the reign of ,elizabeth and of her successor1 ,james ,i4 ,the general arrangement of woodwork consisted of architectural faades1 and the orders and pediments were utilised wherever possible4 ,doorways and chimney-pieces offered the principal opportunities for display in interior work4 ,panelling was retained for the large halls and most of the rooms4 ,the walls were frequently divided into bays by means of pilasters and surmounted by friezes and cornices more or less determined by traditional forms4 ,flemish ,influence ,the style degenerated in the same reign into a coarser rendering1 and was followed by a period of strong ,flemish influence4 ,there is1 in fact1 such a marked similarity between the later ,elizabethan and ,flemish furniture and wood-work that it is not easy to distinguish the nationality of examples of this period4 ,in cases where figure sculpture is employed1 however1 it is not difficult to decide1 as a considerably higher standard was attained by the ,flemish school of figure carvers than is found in ,english work4 ,tapered pilaster-like supports1 surmounted by half figures or ,ionic caps1 were often employed in the framing of doors and chimney-pieces1 and sometimes on furniture4 ,table supports and newels of stairs increased in size4 ,the heavy acorn-shaped baluster is a feature4 ,inlay came into use for panelling as well as for furniture4 ,synchronously with the changes in detail1 there was a more classical tendency displayed in moulded features such as strings and cornices4 ,in the early seventeenth century the scale of the details of ,flemish work increased4 ,diamond-shaped panels were superimposed on square ones2 turned work was split and the two halves applied2 drop ornaments were used below tables and from the centres of panels under arches--all these being additions to the general structure4 ,jacobean ,english work developed in much the same way as ,flemish1 probably owing to the commerce in wood-work between ,england and ,flanders at this time4 ,in the earlier work1 where the orders were employed1 there was some regard to proportion and detail1 probably direct translation of ,italian designs1 but in the later ,jacobean work there was considerable falling-off1 presumably due to native exploitation and experiment4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #id4 ,jacobean ,wood ,carving4 ,palace of ,bromley-by-,bow4 ,architectural feeling was prominent in the treatment of interiors1 which were invariably panelled as in the earlier period4 ,the characteristic 8linen fold0 variety of the late ,tudor giving place to plain panelling1 framed by stiles and rails closely spaced4 ,walls were occasionally divided into bays by means of pilasters1 often supported on pedestals4 ,the panels in the later development were invariably plain1 but a decorated frieze1 carved in relief1 was carried round immediately under the cornice4 ,coats of arms at intervals sometimes supplied the decoration4 ,the carved frieze gave place to a simple form of patterning1 which was produced by sinking the ground to practically one level and leaving the ornament which had little or no modelling1 flush with the face of the panel4 ,this led to fretting out the pattern and applying it to the surface4 ,the idea of planting ornament evidently spread1 and may be seen in such obviously applied details as studs and half-balusters4 ,a typical room of the period would be treated with plain panelling1 perhaps divided into bays by pilasters1 and all elaboration was confined to the doorways and chimney-piece4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ie4 ,jacobean ,wood ,carving4 ,palace of ,bromley-by-,bow4 ,the chimney-piece might be in wood1 stone or marble1 and while there were many varieties of treatment1 the designs readily fall under one general type4 ,columns or pilasters flanked the opening1 ,illustration3 ,no4 #if4 ,jacobean ,chimney-piece4 ,palace of ,bromley-by-,bow4 carrying an entablature consisting of architrave frieze and cornice1 the latter forming a shelf4 ,above this there was a similar arrangement1 but on a smaller scale and with finer proportions4 ,the space between the columns above the shelf was usually filled with carving1 which sometimes took the form of armorial bearings4 ,in many examples the upper part is divided into two panels1 which were generally filled with carved ornament such as strapwork or shields charged with heraldic devices4 ,where the chimney-piece was of wood1 the fireplace opening was surrounded by a stone lining1 which had moulded splays on the upright jambs4 ,in earlier examples the jambs were connected by a flattened arch with carved spandrils4 ,in later work a horizontal panel was employed or a frieze of carved detail4 ,the opening itself was wide1 and was lined with brick or stone4 ,the interior was occupied by a fire-back of cast-iron and a movable grate or basket supported on dogs4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ig4 ,jacobean ,door1 shewing absense of architrave4 ,doors were at first merely a part of the panelling without hanging frames1 but later they were treated as important features of the rooms4 ,they were often framed with columns and pilasters1 surmounted by entablatures1 with or without pediments4 ,obelisks were sometimes placed over the pilasters4 ,the frieze was fluted or carved4 ,in many cases the tympanum of the pediment or even one of the door panels bore the owner's coat of arms4 ,in the earlier phases the mouldings framing the panels were simple in form1 and worked on the stiles and rails4 ,but later they were applied1 being wider in display and more elaborate in section4 ,these applied mouldings1 evidently the result of mechanical appliances1 later led to extreme license in broken angles and panellings of complicated form4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ih4 ,jacobean ,doors4 ,ceilings1 and occasionally the frieze1 were in plaster1 decorated with intersecting ribs1 or bands dividing the surface into compartments geometric in shape1 and further enriched with stamped or modelled ornament4 ,windows were relatively small as to individual openings1 large lighting areas being obtained by grouping a number of these side by side1 and also in tiers1 the dividing bars or mullions being either in wood or stone4 ,glazing took the form of small pieces of glass united by lead frames1 commonly arranged in trellis form1 resulting in diamond-shaped pieces4 ,occasionally painted or coloured glass was used1 generally in heraldic devices in the upper portions of the windows4 ,the windows themselves were frequently deeply embayed4 ,development in ,dwellings ,the growing appreciation of domestic comfort1 evident in the general arrangement of the buildings of this period1 is also apparent in the furniture1 which from this time approximates somewhat to the modern forms1 though still crude1 and leaving much to be desired in the way of personal comfort4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ii4 ,oak ,table1 ,english4 #agth century4 ,tables1 which had hitherto been mere portable boards laid on trestles1 or1 if fixed1 were on heavy legs with rails below1 developed into more useful forms4 ,these were the draw-inge table which could be extended by drawing out two flaps worked on runners from beneath the normal top1 and the gate-leg table1 which in principle resembled the modern folding type4 ,large tables were formed by putting a number of gate-leg tables together1 and when not so in use they could be placed in different parts of the room4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ajj4 ,english ,chairs1 early #agth century4 ,legs and the under rails of chairs and tables were turned in the lathe1 and the carved details were invariably simple and direct in execution1 similar in character to much of the work in the early ,french ,renaissance1 in contrast to the ,italian carving1 which was in high relief and plastic in character4 ,the majority of examples in our national collection of this period are of ,court furniture1 and cannot be taken as typical of what was in common use4 ,the over-ornamented ,italian work compares unfavourably with the ,english ,jacobean furniture1 in which utility is obvious and the decoration subordinate and to the purpose4 ,oak was chiefly employed in ,england1 but in ,italy1 and later in ,france1 walnut was much used4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aja4 ,english ,chair1 middle of #agth century1 influenced by ,italian design4 ,panelling was prevalent for interiors in the ,italian and ,french ,renaissance4 ,in ,italy1 where the art of weaving had been preserved at ,lucca1 and other places1 tapestry was also frequently employed as wall hangings1 also as coverings for upholstered work4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ajb4 ,oak ,chair1 ,english1 #agth century4 ,compared with the earlier period1 this was a time of luxury and display1 favourable to the arts generally4 ,painting1 freed from the restrictions of the church1 broke away from the ,byzantine traditions1 and revelling in realism1 lost to some extent its decorative character4 ,illustration3 ,dutch ,wall sconce #agth ,centy ,brass ,no4 #ajc4 ,evolution of ,professional ,designer ,under patronage1 the individual artist and craftsman was allowed to develop on his own lines1 and no longer worked under the dominance of the architect4 ,demand1 owing to growing appreciation of artistic production1 eventuated in the evolution of the professional designer4 ,inigo ,jones ,illustration3 ,dutch ,wall ,bracket #agth ,centy ,brass4 ,no4 #ajd4 ,although the ,renaissance had come to stay1 the manner of its interpretation in ,england by the native workers was very far removed from the ,italian school which had supplied the first impulse1 until the advent of ,inigo ,jones in the reign of ,james ,i4 ,this artist1 who had visited ,italy and studied principally the architecture of ,palladio and his school1 was appointed ,king's ,surveyor of ,works4 ,under his influence proportions and details were used1 which conformed more nearly to classic types4 ,born about #aegb ,a4,d41 he studied in ,italy1 where he became acquainted with the work of ,palladio1 and was a follower of the ,venetian school4 ,dying in #afeb1 he left a tradition which would have had a more immediate effect but for the internecine troubles of the later period of his life4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aje4 ,banqueting ,house1 ,whitehall4 ,inigo ,jones4 ,a typical example of his work in ,london is the ,banqueting ,house in ,whitehall1 the only part built of the projected palace for ,james ,i1 now used as a museum by the ,united ,service ,institution4 ,also the ,church of ,st4 ,paul1 ,covent ,garden4 ,louis ,,xiii ,by the time of ,louis ,,xiii the principles of the ,renaissance had become thoroughly assimilated in ,france1 and a native school of architecture had arisen of marked distinction4 ,france from then onward took the initiative1 though strongly influenced by the ,venetian school4 ,the orders were used consistently as to proportion and detail1 but in the decoration considerable development in character is manifest4 ,the general construction and details developed on ,illustration3 ,no4 #ajf4 ,louis ,,xiii4 ,luxembourg ,pavilion ,entrance1 by ,salamon de ,brose1 #afae-bd4 more architectural lines1 and shew a better appreciation of the ,italian originals4 ,pilasters were used to divide the wall surfaces1 these and the entablatures closely following in detail the classic types4 ,panels were much wider than in the preceding style1 generally occupying the whole space between the pilasters4 ,the usual arrangement for these panels was to have them in two tiers--the shallow ones confined to the lower portions of walls and those of deeper proportions above4 ,fireplaces and doors were surrounded by boldly moulded architraves1 and surmounted by panels occupied by carved details of scroll-work and foliage4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ajg4 ,ste4 ,marie1 ,nevers4 ,louis ,,xiii4 ,example of ,barocco 7,flemish influence74 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ajh4 ,upholstered ,chair4 ,louis ,,xiii4 ,ceilings were modelled in stucco and sub-divided into compartments1 which were richly moulded1 and in some cases decorated with paintings4 ,during the reign of ,louis ,,xiii1 chairs were made more comfortable by being upholstered in velvet1 tapestry or needlework1 instead of being smothered with carving4 ,the frames were covered by velvet or other material1 leaving only the legs and arms visible1 and these were but slightly carved4 ,louis ,,xiv ,in ,france the ,renaissance reached its highest degree of splendour in the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aji4 ,louis ,,xiv4 ,louvre1 ,paris1 by ,perrault4 ,the palace of ,versailles1 designed by ,jules ,hardouin ,mansart1 was completed1 and ,french designers were many and famous4 ,amongst the most prominent were ,lebrun1 who was responsible for much of the interior work at ,versailles1 ,jean and ,claude ,berain1 ,lepautre1 ,daniel ,marot and ,andr ,charles ,boule1 the inventor of the particular class of inlay which bears his name4 ,the style of ,louis ,,xiv is characteristic of its time4 ,love of display was manifested in every direction1 but nowhere did it give rise to greater magnificence than in furniture and decoration4 ,the employment of architectural features1 with a close approximation to accepted proportions1 had been the keynote of the preceding style1 but the work of this period broke away from all tradition4 ,as a departure it was quite original1 and constituted a phase in the development of the ,renaissance that was purely and typically ,french1 and this particularly in its massiveness and grandeur4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aaj4 ,the ,king's ,bedchamber1 ,versailles4 ,louis ,,xiv4 ,panelling became more varied in proportion1 and heavily framed with mouldings of the ,bolection type4 ,glass was also used in panels as at ,versailles in the ,hall of ,mirrors1 where the windows on one side of the gallery are repeated in form by mirrors in reciprocal positions4 ,important rooms were panelled and divided by pilasters1 surmounted by entablatures4 ,the ,corinthian order was the one most frequently used4 ,panel mouldings were heavily and richly carved4 ,curved sections and facias were fluted1 or carved with guilloche or leaf detail4 ,figures and amorini1 heavy festoons1 wreaths1 cartouches and shields were among the decorative motifs4 ,strapwork1 a survival of the preceding styles1 was moulded and clothed with foliage of the acanthus variety4 ,ceilings were modelled in stucco and were divided into bold geometrical compartments by strongly moulded ribs4 ,the compartments were sometimes occupied by paintings4 ,in some cases the cornice was not taken up to the height of the ceiling1 but the ceiling line was continued in form of a curve to meet the top of the cornice1 forming what is known as a cove4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aaa4 ,upholstered ,chair4 ,louis ,,xiv4 ,chairs were massive1 the frames were carved and gilt1 and the seats and backs upholstered in tapestry4 ,in the latter part of the reign of ,louis ,,xiv metal was used in the construction of furniture in the form of mounts--as framing and protecting pieces to angles1 and was gilt by the mercury process4 ,the introduction of veneer probably led to this use of metal4 ,boule0 ,work ,a method of decorating furniture with inlays of brass or tin and tortoiseshell originated by ,andr ,charles ,boule1 came into vogue4 ,the sheets of metal and shell were placed together and cut simultaneously1 with the result that the patterns produced were interchangeable--thus the metal pattern could be fitted with a tortoiseshell background and vice versa4 ,there was a tendency for this style of work to become more ornate and showy1 and later1 instead of the transparent shell being used in its natural colour1 either vermilion or gold leaf was placed underneath4 ,mirrors ,mirrors1 in the sixteenth century1 had been imported from ,italy1 and those of considerable size were first made in ,venice4 ,later glass manufactories were established in ,england--near ,battersea--and in ,france1 where larger mirrors and plates of glass were produced than hitherto4 ,rooms lined with mirrors became popular1 in some cases even the ceiling being made of glass4 ,console tables1 which were frequently gilt1 were often placed under the large wall mirrors4 ,hanging bands of material were employed to drape the heads of windows and the tops of bedsteads4 ,beds were important pieces of furniture1 and had elaborately carved head and foot boards4 ,the overhanging ,tester was also ornamented1 and besides the valances already mentioned1 was surmounted by groups of plumes4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aab4 ,pantheon1 ,paris4 ,soufflet4 ,louis ,,xv4 ,louis ,,xv ,little advance was made in architecture during the reign of ,louis ,,xv1 to which period belongs the ,pantheon at ,paris1 originally the ,church of ,st4 ,genevive1 the work of ,soufflet1 born in #agac4 ,rgence ,the style passed through two stages4 ,the earlier1 known as the ,rgence--the principal exponents of which were ,charles ,cressent1 ,gilles ,marie ,oppenord1 and ,nicholas ,pineau--is distinguished by a certain reserve and moderation which were entirely abandoned in the later ,rococo period4 ,rococo ,the term 8,rococo0 is derived from a ,french word meaning rockwork1 and is applied to the style in which rock and shell forms are used as details4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aac4 ,detail of ,wood-carving1 ,regency ,period4 ,ornament became extravagant and meaningless1 and was wrongly used to serve the purpose of construction1 the actual constructive elements being at times completely ignored4 ,it cannot be denied1 however1 that powerful draughtsmanship and inventiveness were displayed1 but without the consideration of practical execution1 which is essential to all good design4 ,evidently the artist or designer dominated the craftsman1 who1 however1 grappled with difficulties in an admirable manner1 often achieving results which would appear from the constructional point of view almost impossible of attainment4 ,the work of the latter part of the period expresses the enervated and frivolous spirit of the time4 ,walls were panelled and often divided by pilasters1 which1 however1 lost all structural significance4 ,cornices and friezes were dispensed with1 the frieze being replaced by a cove curving into the ceiling4 ,mouldings were broken at angles and intersections into curves1 scrolls and foliage4 ,carved details of the curiously twisted leafage peculiar to the style were employed wherever possible4 ,painted panels were fashionable1 and were used particularly over doorheads4 ,they were surrounded or framed by curved and enriched mouldings4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aad4 ,carved ,wood ,door4 ,louis ,,xv4 ,interiors of this later period were invariably painted white1 and partly gilt1 the wall panels decorated with tapestry or paintings with which are associated the names of ,bouchier1 ,watteau1 and ,fragonard4 ,ceilings were also painted1 wall mirrors were employed and furniture 7at this period at times extremely costly7 was veneered and decorated with metal mounts in gilt ormolu4 ,chair and table legs were of the cabriole type4 ,bureaux fronts were swelled into curves both horizontally and vertically4 ,veneer and marqueterie were much used4 ,chased and gilt brass was employed to protect angles1 as feet1 handles1 escutcheons and other ornamental details4 ,illustration3 ,french ,louis ,,xv ,no4 #aae4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aaf4 ,chair with cane back ,english1 later half #agth century4 ,lacquer 8,vernis ,martin ,furniture was also decorated in imitation of ,chinese lacquer4 ,the principal worker in it was ,robert ,martin1 who introduced a varnish of fine transparent quality4 ,later ,english ,renaissances ,artistic progress was hindered in ,england by the disturbed conditions at the time of the ,civil ,war1 and in consequence little change in style took place in this and the ,commonwealth period4 ,with the ,restoration came the influence of the ,french ,court1 and foreign furniture was imported1 thus giving fresh models for the ,english workers4 ,one result of the ,great ,fire in #afff was that a great impetus was given to architecture and to the crafts associated with it1 and the influence of ,wren and ,grinling ,gibbons produced a school of most efficient carvers and craftsmen4 ,sir ,christopher ,wren ,wren was a worthy successor to ,inigo ,jones1 and the general destruction wrought by the fire in the city gave him a fine field for his activity4 ,he was employed not only to rebuild the churches1 eighty-nine of which had been burnt1 but also many of the city halls2 and was commissioned by ,william and ,mary to build the state-rooms at ,hampton ,court ,palace4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aag4 ,english ,chair1 period of ,charles ,,ii4 ,the style of ,wren1 which1 like that of ,inigo ,jones1 was based rather upon the ,venetian school1 was perpetuated and found individual exponents in the works of his pupils and immediate successors4 ,among whom may be mentioned ,james ,gibbs 7#agbj to #aged71 architect of ,st4 ,martin's in the ,fields 7#agbf7 and ,st4 ,mary le ,strand1 and ,nicholas ,hawksmoor1 who was responsible for the churches of ,st4 ,george's1 ,bloomsbury1 and ,st4 ,mary1 ,woolnoth1 the latter commenced in #agaf was finished in #agah4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aah4 ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral4 ,wren4 ,notable among ,wren's churches is that of ,st4 ,stephen's1 ,walbrook1 in the ,city of ,london2 of his secular work an example may be cited in the library of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,classic ,spires ,a characteristic of the period in the churches of ,wren and his school is the spire1 which1 though tapering like the ,gothic variety1 is invested with features quite ,renaissance in form1 arranged in successive tiers4 ,the architecture of the period is in excellent proportion1 and all the details of mouldings1 capitals1 etc41 were executed in a masterly manner4 ,panelling was still employed1 mostly in oak1 and was now carried up to the ceiling4 ,the panels were very wide1 frequently bevelled at the edges--the stiles and rails forming the framings being much wider than hitherto4 ,the framing mouldings were sometimes carved4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aai4 ,spire of ,st4 ,mary le ,strand4 ,doorways and chimneypieces were surrounded by well-designed architraves1 with carved mouldings1 and were surmounted by pediments1 above which it was not unusual to have carved festoons and pendants of fruit and foliage4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #abj4 ,english ,interior ,wood-work4 ,late #agth and early #ahth century4 ,pilasters were decorated with cherubs' heads used as caps1 and pendant drops of the usual type4 ,carving was profusely used1 the details consisted mainly of interlacing scrollwork of acanthus-like foliage1 heavy fruit and flower festoons and drops1 trophies and cherubs' heads4 ,the relief was high1 the work occasionally being detached1 and the manner of execution was sharp and crisp1 implying no hesitation on the part of the carver4 ,the high relief necessitated building up thicknesses of wood1 and formed a great contrast to the earlier work in which the ground was slightly set back1 leaving the original panel face as the highest part of the pattern4 ,the woods commonly used were oak for wainscotting and cedar for doors4 ,where it was intended that the woodwork should be painted or gilt it was made in deal4 ,some of the carving was in oak1 but the favorite material was limewood1 and pear2 cedar or lime was used when small fine detail was required4 ,elm was employed for various articles such as dressers3 ash1 beech1 birch1 poplar1 sycamore1 ,english and ,italian walnut were also used4 ,dutch and ,french ,influences ,with ,william ,,iii and his ,dutch court the influence of the ,netherlands became once more apparent4 ,it was coloured by the ,french style of the ,louis ,,xiv period1 probably through an immigration of ,french workmen after the ,edict of ,nantes in #afhe4 ,this influence can be traced in some of the furniture at ,hampton ,court1 particularly in the carved and gilt tables of ,french design and ,english workmanship4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aba4 ,a4 ,walnut ,chair1 period of ,queen ,anne4 ,b4 ,dutch ,chair1 #agth century4 ,c4 ,inlaid ,chair1 period of ,queen ,anne4 ,d4 ,carved ,chair1 period of ,queen ,anne4 ,the chairs and settees of the period have shaped backs1 generally with delicately carved central vertical panels of vase-like form2 and cabriole legs with a carved shell ornament on the knee4 ,bureaux and corner cupboards were introduced4 ,they were decorated with marqueterie or with inlay of boxwood or holly on a walnut ground4 ,queen ,anne ,period ,flemish or ,dutch influence prevailed during the period known as ,queen ,anne4 ,the typical ,queen ,anne chair in common with all the furniture of the period was made of walnut4 ,the seat was wide1 the front legs cabriole shaped1 ending1 as a rule1 in club or claw-and-ball feet4 ,the back was high and curved at the top1 and this was connected centrally with the seat by a long vase or fiddle-shaped splat4 ,carving was not much used1 but the splat was sometimes ornamented with floral and other designs in marqueterie after the ,dutch fashion4 ,during this period an appreciation for ,oriental china and lacquer work had an important effect on furniture and decoration4 ,the later fashion of inlay and marquetry work of ,sheraton was perhaps as much the outcome of the ,dutch practice of this form of decoration1 as it was due to the discovery of the possibilities of mahogany as a suitable wood for furniture4 ,early ,georgian ,the eighteenth century in ,england was the age of the connoisseur and dilettante1 and the struggling professional1 literary or artistic1 had little opportunity except by the favour of a patron4 ,as for instance1 ,lord ,burlington1 who is reported to have practised architecture in conjunction with his protg ,kent4 ,william ,kent1 born in #afhe1 died #agdh1 a painter as well as an architect1 was responsible for many designs1 among which may be mentioned the ,horse ,guards in ,whitehall1 and ,holkham in ,norfolk for the ,earl of ,leicester4 ,georgian work shows more evidence of ,french influence1 but is invariably stiff and heavy in feeling4 ,in panelling rooms a surbase or dado was employed4 ,the bolection moulding was universally used round panels4 ,doorways and chimneypieces were made up of architraves1 surmounted by pediments1 and were formal in design and detail4 ,the ,greek key was often most unsatisfactorily used in their decoration4 ,chippendale ,among others1 ,chippendale's name is associated with the furniture of this period1 and his book of designs1 published about the middle of the eighteenth century1 contained1 besides furniture1 suggestions for the complete decoration of rooms4 ,chippendale was undoubtedly influenced by the ,louis ,,xv style1 and at one period he attempted to exploit ,chinese forms and details4 ,the chairs designed by him were based on the earlier ,queen ,anne type1 but the vase-shaped back was replaced by pierced and carved interlacing bands and ribbons4 ,for a time the cabriole leg was retained1 but ,illustration3 ,no4 #abb4 ,a4 ,transitional ,chair1 #ahth century4 ,b4 ,mahogany ,sheraton4 ,c4 8 ,chippendale4 ,d4 ,walnut ,hepplewhite4 later examples have straight square legs4 ,the chairs were fitted with loose upholstered seats covered with morocco leather4 ,furniture was generally in mahogany1 which had been introduced a little earlier from the ,west ,indies1 and had become popular on account of the colour and figure developed by polishing4 ,mahogany lends itself to fine mouldings and detail1 and this was evidently appreciated1 as relief decoration on furniture in this wood received a more restrained treatment1 while plain surfaces were made more extensive4 ,mayhew ,contemporary workers were ,mainwaring and ,mayhew4 ,mayhew was responsible for a form of fretwork decoration which is often ascribed to ,chippendale4 ,adam ,style ,prominent among his contemporaries1 more perhaps for his influence on interior decoration1 was ,robert ,adam1 who died at the age of ninety-four in #agib4 ,a student of the later antique ,roman work1 and inspired by the remains of ,diocletian's ,palace at ,spalatro1 he evolved a style which bears his name1 that was personal and distinctive4 ,a style that had many followers1 and which largely influenced the work of ,sheraton4 ,simple as to structural form1 and delicate in detail1 it carried on the tradition of the later ,graeco-,roman work on which it was founded1 avoiding absolute reproduction4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #abc4 ,interior ,decoration4 8,adam40 ,illustration3 ,no4 #abd4 ,interior ,decoration4 8,adam40 ,the ,adam influence is evident also in the pottery of this period1 and in the details of ,sheffield plate4 ,examples of ,robert ,adam's architectural design may be seen in ,london at the ,adelphi1 which was built as a speculation1 in the ,admiralty screen in ,whitehall1 and houses in ,portland ,place1 ,w4 ,illustration3 ,sheffield ,plate #ahth ,centy ,no4 #abe4 ,adam influence4 ,hepplewhite ,hepplewhite also was designing and manufacturing about this time1 and is noted principally for his japanned or painted furniture4 ,in this process the wood was first coated with a preparation after the manner of ,chinese or ,japanese lacquer1 and then decorated with fruit and flowers in gold on a background4 ,subsequently1 furniture of this character1 instead of being japanned1 was merely painted white4 ,hepplewhite's chair-backs differ in form from ,chippendale's1 being shield or oval shaped4 ,satinwood came into use1 and much of the work ascribed to ,sheraton was made of it4 ,painted decoration of a delicate character1 the details including ribbons1 borders and medallions1 was applied to table-tops1 harpsichord cases1 chair-backs and other objects4 ,the names of ,angelica ,kauffmann and ,cipriani are associated with this form of decoration4 ,hepplewhite and ,sheraton were apparently influenced by the work of the brothers ,adam1 which was a distinct departure from the earlier style4 ,the cabriole leg was rarely used1 its place being taken by gracefully tapered forms4 ,sheraton ,although some of ,sheraton's furniture had painted detail1 he more often used marqueterie and inlay of fine design4 ,panels were treated in marqueterie1 with ovals or other simple shapes surrounded by narrow bands or lines of contrasting colour4 ,sheraton sideboards were usually without backs1 and were sometimes furnished with brass rails on top4 ,bookcases had glass doors with well designed and finely worked sash bars4 ,the general tendency was towards elegance and refinement1 and led to simplicity of treatment rather than over enrichment4 ,indeed this may be taken as the culminating period for the finest production of furniture1 not only with regard to design and exquisite workmanship1 but in carefully studied utility4 ,this consideration may be seen in the dressing-tables and secretaires1 which were full of ingenious devices1 and secret drawers and contrivances for hiding papers and valuables were quite a feature of the work4 ,louis ,,xvi ,towards the end of the reign of ,louis ,,xv there was a distinct change in taste1 and consequently in style4 ,this was manifested by a return to simplicity of line1 ,illustration3 ,no4 #abf4 ,painted ,interior ,decoration4 ,marie ,antoinette ,boudoir4 ,louis ,,xvi4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #abg4 ,interior ,treatment4 ,louis ,,xvi4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #abh4 ,chimney-piece with ,mirror4 ,louis ,,xvi4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #abi4 ,library with fitted ,book-cases4 ,louis ,,xvi4 a more sparing use of enrichments and greater refinement of detail4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #acj4 ,door ,treatment4 ,louis ,,xvi4 ,probably the same influence that inspired ,adam was at work in ,france1 when the license that marked the ,rococo gave place to a more severe and restrained expression in the succeeding ,louis ,,xvi style1 in which the curvilinear and plastic forms became once more structural in feeling and refined in detail4 ,associated with this change was ,jacques ,gondouin1 who died at ,paris in #ahah at the age of eighty-one1 whose most celebrated work is the ,ecole de ,mdcine4 ,he was also entrusted with the erection of the column in the ,place ,vendme4 ,riesener and ,gouthire ,illustration3 ,no4 #aca4 ,detail of ,cornice4 ,louis ,,xvi4 ,the most familiar names associated with the wood-work at the ,louis ,,xvi period are ,riesener and ,gouthire4 ,riesener is famous for his furniture1 and ,gouthire for the highly finished chased mounts with which this furniture was decorated4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #acb4 ,arm-chair covered with ,beauvais ,tapestry4 ,louis ,,xvi4 ,interior woodwork was generally of oak1 painted white4 ,pilasters were used1 and were either carved or painted in colours4 ,mouldings were frequently gilt4 ,chairs and sofas were1 in many instances1 painted white and partly gilt4 ,they were upholstered in silk or ,beauvais tapestry1 the designs of which were in panel form specially made for the purpose4 ,cabinets1 tables and other pieces of furniture were often exquisitely inlaid with various woods1 tulip1 rosewood1 pear1 holly and ebony were the most common1 and ,svres porcelain placques and gilt metal mounts were also used to embellish them4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #acc4 ,carved ,oak ,panel4 ,louis ,,xvi4 ,furniture supports1 such as table and chair legs1 were straight1 tapered and fluted1 with husks in the hollows of the flutes4 ,among the decorative details were torches1 quivers and other emblems1 trophies1 musical instruments1 bouquets and festoons of flowers1 and ribbons with peculiarly square and crisp folds4 ,the laurel leaf was much used in borders1 festoons and wreaths4 ,the style of the ,louis ,,xvi period was more severe than the preceding one1 and was1 in fact1 a reaction from the flippancy which characterised the reign of ,louis ,,xv4 ,there was a tendency to return to more classic forms1 which prepared the way for the still more austere ,empire phase which was deliberately based on the ,roman and ,greek styles4 ,empire ,furniture was made in mahogany1 rosewood and ebony1 and was decorated with brass mounts or with carved ornaments1 which were gilded4 ,furniture legs and supports were fashioned after ,greek and ,roman forms1 human figures and sphinxes being often employed4 ,inlay was used of ivory and metal1 and this class of work attained a very high degree of excellence4 ,metal-work was unquestionably good1 except that the details were somewhat hard in character4 ,the most striking decorative features were sphinxes1 winged figures of ,liberty1 masks1 the thyrsus of ,bacchus1 laurel wreaths and festoons1 which were all severe in treatment and delicate in execution4 ,empire in ,england ,the ,empire style spread to other parts of ,europe1 and was closely imitated in ,england1 where it was chiefly remarkable for the extreme nicety and finish of the metal-work1 metal being extensively used for the enrichment of furniture1 for clocks1 vases1 candlesticks1 inkstands and other objects4 ,later ,english ,architecture ,probably the most important name associated with ,english architecture towards the end of the eighteenth century is that of ,sir ,william ,chambers1 who died in #agif4 ,chambers1 who at one time held the position of ,surveyor ,general in the ,board of ,works1 was one of those concerned in the establishment of the ,royal ,academy of ,arts in #agfh4 ,during his professional career he executed commissions in various parts of the country1 his principal work being ,somerset ,house1 which was commenced in #aggf4 ,another name associated with this period is that of ,george ,dance1 who designed the ,mansion ,house of the ,city of ,london1 which was built during the years #agci-ec4 ,dance died in #agfh1 and was succeeded by his son1 who was the architect of ,newgate ,prison1 the site of which is now occupied by a modern building4 ,a pupil of ,sir ,william ,chambers1 ,james ,gandon1 had the distinction of carrying off the first gold medal given for architecture by the newly-founded ,royal ,academy of ,arts in #agfh4 ,he designed1 among other works1 the ,customs ,house1 the ,four ,courts1 and the building which is now the ,bank of ,ireland1 all at ,dublin4 ,french ,influence on ,europe ,throughout this necessarily brief summary it will be noted that attention is mainly given to the architectural development in ,france and ,england4 ,the rest of ,europe was similarly affected more or less1 both in the ,gothic period and in the revival known as the ,renaissance1 in which the initiative was taken by ,france early in the seventeenth century4 ,from which period may be dated the decline in ,italian taste4 ,french feeling1 both as to form and detail1 is apparent in not only ,dutch and ,flemish work1 but in the more southern parts of ,europe1 particularly the phase known as ,rococo4 ,even in ,england1 though the architectural traditions of ,inigo ,jones and ,sir ,christopher ,wren became national in character1 ,french feeling is evident in much of the decorative work1 as in the designs of ,chippendale and his contemporaries2 with the exception of the brilliant period of ,grinling ,gibbons1 whose distinctive manner and robust treatment survived1 and constituted a school of carving typically ,english and unique in its artistry and craftsmanship4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,mouldings ,in ,architecture the edges of projecting courses are softened into curved profiles1 sometimes enriched with details1 which are technically known as mouldings4 ,these are invariably a stumbling-block to the beginner1 presumably due to want of appreciation of their purpose1 which properly understood1 is indicative of their desirable employment4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #acd4 ,forms of ,mouldings4 ,mouldings are an important factor in effect1 not only in ,architecture1 but in structural form generally4 ,in flat decoration they have to some extent their corollary in borders1 the proportionate widths of which are governed by similar rules4 ,of mouldings with curved profiles there are only six distinct forms1 though the individual character of these curves is subject to great variation in treatment4 ,purpose ,as suggested1 mouldings have a distinct purpose1 are1 in fact1 functional features1 and may be defined as ,sheltering or ,crowning1 ,bracketing or ,supporting1 and ,binding4 ,in any composition where they may be necessary these functions should be taken into consideration4 ,the profiles should always be concise whether the character of the curve be refined or robust4 ,in classic architecture the relative proportions of the mouldings to the other features are defined1 and these proportions will be found useful in other than purely architectural design4 ,the ,fillet ,mouldings are divided from each other by narrow vertical bands or ,fillets1 the employment of which is universal4 ,the ,fillet in projection is equal to its height1 and though strictly divisional in its employment1 is shown in conjunction with the curved profiles to indicate relative proportion4 ,sheltering ,mouldings ,there are two mouldings of curved profile in each category1 the ,sheltering being the ,cavetto and the ,cyma ,recta4 ,the ,cavetto ,the ,cavetto is the culminating moulding of the ,italian ,doric cornice1 and is a concave curve1 which may be the result of a quarter circle4 ,the ,cavetto profile is used in other positions1 which would appear to challenge the previous statement1 but reflection will confirm the contention4 ,for instance1 the vertical face of the ,frieze in some instances terminates with a cavetto curve which1 though surmounted by the cornice1 is yet at the top of the frieze4 ,the upper extremity of the column shaft is similarly treated1 and1 it may be urged1 so is the lower1 but this1 though an exception to the rule1 is at least an sthetic necessity4 ,the projection of the ,cavetto is equal to the height of the curve1 and the crowning ,fillet may be from one-third to one-fourth the total height1 preferably the latter4 ,cyma ,recta ,the other sheltering moulding1 the ,cyma ,recta1 is a curve of double flexure with upper fillet4 ,its proper employment is as the crowning member of the cornice1 though1 like the ,cavetto1 it is employed in other positions1 notably as a plinth moulding1 when it appears in a reversed position4 ,the projection is about equal to the height of the curved profile1 the height of the crowning fillet being from one-fourth to one-fifth of the whole4 ,bracketing ,mouldings ,the supporting mouldings are the ,ovolo and the ,cyma ,reversa4 ,the ,ovolo ,the ,ovolo is composed of a full convex curve1 either a quarter circle or slightly elliptic1 which in height is equal to projection2 and a fillet at base one-fifth the total height4 ,frequently this lower member is in the form of a half round bead of the same dimension as the fillet4 ,as a ,bracketing moulding the ,ovolo occurs in the capital of the ,doric column1 and in the ,ionic and ,corinthian cornices under the corona or facia1 and is employed in other positions1 where the sense of support is justified4 ,cyma ,reversa ,the ,cyma ,reversa1 like the ,cyma ,recta1 is a curve of double flexure1 and is headed with a fillet one-third to one-fourth the total height4 ,the projection is equal to the height of curved profile4 ,the ,cyma ,reversa is employed in the cornice of the ,doric order as a supporting moulding to the dentil course and below the culminating ,cavetto4 ,it also occurs in the ,capital of the column1 where it forms the upper member of the abacus4 ,an apparent contradiction of the theory of employment1 which however is justified by the circumstance that the column forms the support for the entablature4 ,it also occurs as a supporting moulding under the capping of the pedestal1 and is used in similar positions in the other orders4 ,binding ,mouldings ,the ,binding mouldings1 the ,torus and the ,scotia1 appear chiefly on columns and pilasters1 particularly the ,scotia1 which is essentially a base moulding4 ,the ,torus ,the ,torus is a convex curve composed of a full half circle1 with upper fillet one-fifth to one-sixth the total height4 ,the projection is decided by the curvature1 which is based on a semi-circle with centre slightly in advance of the vertical line of fillet4 ,the ,torus varies in size according to position4 ,for instance1 in the base of the ,ionic column two are employed1 the lower being the larger4 ,it is also invariably used on a smaller scale as a necking moulding beneath the ,capitals2 in the small form it is commonly known as a bead or astragal4 ,this employment of the ,torus is distinctly appropriate and suggestive in the sense of imparting strength by binding4 ,when used in other positions its purpose should be equally evident4 ,the ,scotia ,the ,scotia in section is a deeply recessed concave curve with upper fillet1 and is generally used between the upper and lower ,torii of the base4 ,the upper fillet is of less projection than the lower extremity of curved profile4 ,the extreme projection being merely equal to the height of curve and that of the upper fillet about one-half1 the fillet being about one-fifth the total height4 ,the ,facia ,the foregoing constitute the range of mouldings with curved profiles1 but there is another member1 the ,facia1 that is an important feature in composition4 ,the ,facia1 which is rectilinear in form with external face vertical or slightly inclined1 may be classed with the binding mouldings4 ,with regard to proportion1 the height of the ,facia should either exceed or be less than that of the curved moulding with which it is invariably surmounted4 ,the projection being either considerably less or more than its height4 ,when used in the cornice or in the capping of pedestals its under face is generally recessed1 this recess being equal to the height of the top fillet of supporting moulding4 ,only occasionally the ,facia is furnished with an upper fillet 7for instance1 when it occurs immediately below the ,cyma ,recta7 to which it is reconciled by a ,cavetto curve4 ,the ,facia is a divisional feature between the mouldings of curved profile to which it is in valuable contrast4 ,decoration of ,mouldings ,mouldings may be plain or decorated1 usually by carving1 the details probably being derived from the painted decoration of an early period4 ,when thus enriched the moulding is formed as to its profile1 and the details carved back from the face1 leaving the highest parts in the original surface4 ,the carving being deeper and more sharply defined in the case of mouldings that are in shadow4 ,such1 for example1 as the ,ovolo1 and in lighter relief on those more exposed to direct light4 ,the decoration of mouldings ordinarily consists of the repetition of a unit1 composed on a central axis1 in which curves are contrasted with vertical features4 ,illustration3 ,,enrichment ,,of ,,the ,,cyma ,,recta ,,enrichment ,,of ,,the ,,facia ,,enrichment ,,of ,,the ,,ovolo ,,enrichment ,,of ,,the ,,cyma ,,reversa ,,enrichment ,,of ,,the ,,torus ,no4 #ace4 ,the principle involved is to base the detail on the sectional curvature or profile line4 ,orthodox ,details ,thus the orthodox detail of the ,ovolo1 technically known as the 8,egg and ,tongue10 consists of a framing curve1 which is obtained by repeating the profile on a centre line enclosing an ovoid shape4 ,the angles between the outer curves being occupied by a tongue or dart4 ,as previously stated1 this moulding is deeply carved1 the ovoid being bold and well-rounded2 the edges of the framing curves 7in some instances grooved or channelled7 being left sharp and precise4 ,frequently the 8,bead and ,reel0 enrichment occurs at the base of the ,ovolo instead of the ,fillet1 this being the characteristic detail of the ,bead or ,astragal4 ,the treatment of the ,cyma ,reversa is identical and results in the detail known as the 8,leaf and ,dart02 but the carving is not so deep and the relief1 in consequence1 comparatively slight4 ,angle ,leaf ,when mouldings meet at mitral angles it is customary to employ a covering leaf the midrib of which forms the angle4 ,the same principle is applicable to the ,cyma ,recta and the ,cavetto1 though these mouldings are more often left plain2 when decorated the relief is comparatively slight4 ,the ,scotia needs no decoration1 the cast shadow resulting from its form being sufficiently effective4 ,the ,torus1 though frequently left plain1 can be decorated in various ways4 ,the ,guilloche is perhaps the most characteristic1 but as suggestive of its function1 the ,torus is at times carved in the form of a rope or cable4 ,leaves suggestive of a wreath are used1 also a reed band crossed at intervals with ribbons1 quite in keeping with the suggestion of binding4 ,the ,facia is generally plain1 but the decoration1 if used should1 following the principle1 be rectilinear in character2 such as vertical flutings1 or the key detail1 both of which are used4 ,dentils ,dentils1 which form a distinctive feature in cornices1 are a series of rectilinear blocks1 attached to a ,facia1 and may be placed in the category of supporting members4 ,in their formation they are carved back from a facia of the requisite projection4 ,in proportion they should be from one and a half to one and three quarters their width in height1 the intervals between being about half the width4 ,the first ,dentil at the angle1 lines flush with the return face of supporting ,facia leaving a right angular interval between the two end ,dentils4 ,this space is sometimes occupied by a pendant knob1 acorn-like in shape4 ,the heads of intervals are often sloped backwards and downwards1 or occupied by a narrow fillet set back from face4 ,below the ,dentils the supporting ,facia is displayed to about the height of a fillet4 ,considerable license prevailed in the later developments of the ,renaissance in the decoration of mouldings1 license which is permissible providing the general principle be borne in mind4 ,the concensus of opinion is in favour of repetition of a simple unit and absence of variety4 ,the vertical tendency resulting from the bi-symmetrical character of the unit is desirable1 and in happy contrast to the horizontal direction of the moulding1 while it also emphasises the sense of structural support4 ,illustration3 ,,detail ,,of ,,the ,,dentil ,no4 #acf4 ,the profiles also are amenable to considerable variation1 the curves being the direct result of ,geometry1 or ,freehand1 either treatment being a matter of attitude and discretion4 ,employment ,when employed in ,architecture the forms and proportions given will be found most suitable4 ,in interior decoration and structural work1 as in furniture1 considerable latitude is permissible4 ,it must be understood that the profiles of mouldings should not be designed merely for the play of line1 but for the effect resulting from light and shade4 ,in those close to the eye and in fair light1 elliptic curves will be more effective than more rounded sections1 which are most suitable to remote positions4 ,in composition1 mouldings of curved profile should always be separated by fillets or occasionally a facia1 and the various members associated with regard to their functional purpose4 ,obvious repetition of the same dimension is to be avoided1 and contrast should exist not only in the shapes of profiles1 but also in their respective heights4 ,illustration3 ,,modified ,,proportion ,,due ,,to ,,perspective ,no4 #acg4 ,attitude ,attitude must be taken into account1 as1 for instance1 in a cornice which is above the eye level it is apparent that the mouldings will not appear in elevation but in perspective2 and not only the respective heights will be visible1 but also the projections4 ,when mouldings are decorated the details ranging above each other should be so distributed as to fall in vertical alignment4 ,this is particularly necessary when the ,ovolo enrichment occurs below dentils1 or where it is surmounted by ,modillions as in the ,corinthian cornice4 ,panel mouldings cannot legitimately be considered as functional in the foregoing sense1 though in wood-work they are directly incidental to the construction4 ,regarded as frames1 their general purpose may be considered as to bind or enclose4 ,in stone-work it may be at times desirable to introduce panel effects1 which may be obtained by boasting out or recessing parts1 possible only on a large scale4 ,a comparatively simple and justifiable treatment is to sink channels of moulded profiles framing the enclosed area1 which is left in the original plane4 ,a treatment that is effective and comparatively economical4 ,illustration3 ,,channelled ,,moulding ,,in ,,stone ,no4 #ach4 ,wood ,panelling ,panelling in wood-work is not only legitimate1 but structurally necessary1 as it is not practical to cover large areas except by some method of building up4 ,therefore1 not only panelling1 but doors and structural wood-work generally are constructed of stiles ,illustration3 ,no4 #aci4 ,panel ,mouldings in ,wood4 ,a4 ,late ,linen-fold ,panel1 with scribed mouldings on stiles and rails4 ,b4 ,c4 ,panels of ,settleback and ,chest1 with framing with simple moulded edges4 ,d4 ,early ,jacobean ,panelling1 with stopped mouldings on stiles and rails4 ,e4 ,later ,jacobean ,panelling4 ,f4 ,later ,jacobean ,section of applied mouldings of the ,bolection type4 and rails1 forming framings2 the spaces enclosed being occupied by the panels4 ,the edges of the stiles and rails are moulded4 ,in the late ,gothic and ,tudor periods the mouldings were often simply scribed2 but later the profiles became more distinct in contour4 ,these early mouldings were narrow and simple in form1 arrived at mainly by softening or rounding the square edges of the frame4 ,applied ,mouldings ,applied mouldings were apparently employed in the ,jacobean period1 and the sections became more elaborate4 ,worked independently1 they were frequently higher in relief than the framings4 ,the facility with which they could be worked and applied resulted at this period in a fashion for complicated mitreing hardly justifiable from a constructional point of view1 though effective if not overdone4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #adj4 ,applied ,mouldings4 ,in the composition of such mouldings it is desirable that the sizes and contours employed should be contrasting1 and that all curved sections be divided by fillets4 ,as the width of the moulding throughout is uniform1 it is obvious that mitral angles must be perfect bi-sections of the meeting lines4 ,with regard to proportion1 the width of mouldings may generally be one-fourth to one-eighth that of the panel according to desired effect1 robust or refined4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ada4 ,part of ,dresser4 ,applied mouldings on drawer fronts4 ,bolection ,moulding ,when boldness in appearance is required the type known as the ,bolection ,moulding may be used4 ,this1 in its orthodox form1 is a species of inner frame between the main framing of the stiles and rails1 and the panels1 but was more commonly an applied moulding4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #adb4 ,bolection ,moulding4 ,in any case1 it is worked independently1 and its outer edges lap the framing1 on which it is in relief1 resulting in strong effect of light and shade4 ,panel mouldings may be decorated by carving with the orthodox enrichments or variants based on them1 but should always be in contrast to the panels they enclose4 ,in furniture1 mouldings play an important part1 and in many positions can be regulated by functional considerations4 ,in horizontal positions1 such as in tables and sideboards1 where personal contact is possible1 any moulded edges should be of softly rounded character for obvious reasons4 ,illustration3 ,,table ,,top ,,mouldings ,no4 #adc4 ,plaster ,in plaster-work mouldings may be cast in a mould or run by the strigil4 ,when decorated1 the former only is possible1 and as such work is originally modelled1 it is permissible to introduce details of a plastic nature1 such as interrupting the run by imposed and enveloping floral or other forms4 ,mechanically produced mouldings cannot be undercut1 though this is practicable in plaster where the jelly mould is employed4 ,illustration3 ,,turned ,,wood ,no4 #add4 ,mouldings are used for decorative and divisional purposes in various materials1 and to some extent their character is affected by the formative process involved4 ,wood-turning ,thus in wood-turning the general profiles are kept fairly soft1 taking usually1 as in the case of stair rails and furniture legs1 the baluster form4 ,as a rule there is little variation between the maximum and minimum diameters4 ,the baluster shafts have bases and capitals of curved profiles1 with intervening fillets1 which latter may be fairly sharp1 as they are by their position protected from damage4 ,metal ,turning ,turning is also employed in metal work1 the stems and bodies of ,dutch candelabra1 both standard and hanging1 being originally cast as to general form and finished in the lathe4 ,illustration3 ,,thrown ,,moulded ,,thrown ,,turned ,,pottery ,no4 #ade4 ,the general treatment is similar to that of wood-turning1 except that the material being much harder1 the mouldings can be more sharply defined and delicate in detail4 ,pottery ,the throwing of pottery is analagous to turning1 but by this method little more can be accomplished than thickened edges4 ,the ,greek vases show some precision of profile1 the result of turning on a lathe after the vessel had been formed on the wheel4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #adf4 ,moulded ,vase in ,terra-cotta4 ,in moulded pottery more definition is possible than in thrown variety1 but the profiles are comparatively blunt and never attain the precision due to turning4 ,metal ,mouldings ,in metal1 mouldings may be rolled or drawn4 ,in the first they are formed in the solid1 but drawn mouldings are formed in plate or sheet metal and are therefore hollow and of uniform thickness4 ,illustration3 ,,rolled ,,metal ,,mouldings ,no4 #adg4 ,by either method mouldings of any required section are obtainable provided they are not undercut4 ,both varieties are ordinarily obtainable in various sections and sizes in iron1 brass1 bronze1 and silver4 ,where special sections are required1 the cost of the tools necessary for their production would have to be taken into account4 ,illustration3 ,,drawn ,,metal ,,mouldings ,no4 #adh4 ,wrought ,iron ,though the employment of rolled or drawn mouldings is usual in wrought iron-work1 the effect is somewhat mechanical and lacking in character4 ,preferably only such forms as are attained by either swaging or building up should be employed as being more characteristic of the material and method of working4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #adi4 ,wrought ,iron ,swaged ,moulding4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aej4 ,wrought ,iron ,built-up ,mouldings4 ,silver-work ,in silver-work drawn mouldings are usually formed by hand1 the necessary draw plates being made by the workman4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aea4 ,wrought ,iron ,built-up ,mouldings4 ,spinning ,mouldings in metal are also formed by the process of spinning1 in which undercutting is not permissible4 ,illustration3 ,,spun ,,metal ,no4 #aeb4 ,repouss ,they are also possible in ,repouss work1 but are soft in character1 and lack the precision that marks the mechanical production4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,architectural ,,proportions ,introduction ,in architectural drawing concise draughtsmanship is essential1 the profiles of mouldings in particular should be well defined4 ,architectural designs1 which should always be drawn to scale1 are expressed geometrically1 that is in plan1 elevation and section4 ,the actual effect is therefore a matter of conjecture only to be grasped by those familiar with the arbitrary form of expression4 ,perspectives are generally made with a view to depicting the appearance to the uninitiated1 but are practically useless as working drawings4 ,the student is advised to take advantage of every opportunity of studying existing examples in museums and elsewhere4 ,this study should not be confined to geometric drawings1 but these should be supplemented by sketches and careful observation4 ,attention should also be paid to the profiles of mouldings4 ,a practice should be made also of making freehand sketches of the various features1 indicating broadly the effects of light and shade4 ,the study of architectural proportions should be methodical1 and the general divisions given here might advantageously be committed to memory4 ,when this is accomplished attention may be devoted to individual features4 ,system of ,proportion ,it is customary1 when any of the orders of ,architecture are employed1 to adopt a system of proportions which has been evolved from the best traditions of the past1 and is generally accepted as the most satisfactory4 ,naturally these proportions are subject to modification to suit special conditions or personal treatment4 ,according to the academic method1 the diameter of the column is divided into two parts1 which are called ,modules1 and each of these is again subdivided into thirty divisions called parts4 ,this gives a scale by means of which all dimensions of height and projection are obtained4 ,since the diameter of the column forms the standard of measurement1 the proportions of the relative parts are constant and in no way influenced by the size of the structure4 ,this method1 although very complete1 is--owing to its multiplicity of dimensions--somewhat laborious in practice1 and the method here proposed in its stead1 though not claimed to be exact1 will yet be found to be sufficiently accurate for ordinary requirements4 ,it is proposed to deal here with the orders commonly employed in ,renaissance architecture4 ,these were based by the early exponents of the style on ,roman examples4 ,the ,doric selected is that of ,vignola1 and is a refined version of the order used in the ,theatre of ,marcellus at ,rome4 ,the ,ionic closely resembles the ,roman ,ionic order in the same building4 ,the ,corinthian is the ,roman example from the ,pantheon4 ,the ,order ,an ,order consists of a vertical column and a horizontal entablature1 while in some instances the column rests on a pedestal4 ,it is desirable before dealing with proportions to enumerate the various parts of which an order is composed4 ,the column consists of a shaft1 base and capital4 ,the shaft is circular on plan and invariably tapered4 ,the base is composed of mouldings1 which are circular on plan1 and a rectangular block or plinth4 ,the capital is circular on plan1 and in the ,doric and ,corinthian orders is divided from the shaft by a necking moulding4 ,the capital is surmounted by a feature known as the abacus1 which is rectangular on plan1 but varies in detail in the different orders4 ,columns may be isolated or engaged1 that is1 built into walls so that they form projections from the surface4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aec4 ,doric ,order with ,pedestal4 ,the pilaster is always engaged1 and is rectangular on plan1 but otherwise it has the same general features and proportions as the column4 ,the entablature is the superstructure supported by the columns4 ,it consists of an architrave1 which is the lowest part1 a frieze1 the intermediate part1 and a series of projecting mouldings known as the cornice4 ,the pedestal1 which occasionally forms a support for the columns1 consists of a plinth1 die and capping4 ,the lower part or plinth is separated from the die by mouldings1 and the capping is a projecting course of mouldings forming a simple cornice4 ,to sum up a simple classification1 which may be termed the triology of the orders1 will be found to assist the memory4 ,the ,orders commonly employed are three--the ,doric1 ,ionic and ,corinthian4 7,there are two others which are less used1 and are really derived from the other three3 they are the ,tuscan1 which is a form of debased ,doric1 and the ,composite1 which is made up of the ,ionic and ,corinthian74 ,the ,order may be divided into three parts3 ,pedestal1 ,column and ,entablature4 ,these may again be sub-divided4 ,the ,pedestal into ,plinth1 ,die and ,capping4 ,the ,column into ,base1 ,shaft and ,capital4 ,the ,entablature into ,architrave1 ,frieze and ,cornice4 ,the method of arriving at the proportions of the order is as follows4 ,in this division the pedestal is not taken into account1 but is reserved for later consideration4 ,doric ,order ,divide the total height into five equal parts4 ,then the upper fifth will give the height of the entablature and an eighth of the remaining four-fifths the diameter of the column4 ,from this it will be seen that the column is eight diameters high and the entablature two diameters4 ,in using the term diameter it must be understood that it is always the lower diameter of the column that is referred to4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aed4 ,general ,proportions of the ,orders4 ,the capital is half a diameter high exclusive of the necking moulding1 and the base also is half a diameter4 ,in all the orders the column is tapered2 the upper diameter is in each case five-sixths of the lower or major diameter4 ,the taper is not in a straight line1 but a slight curve1 which is known as entasis4 ,it is obtained by drawing the lower third of the shaft vertical and from these lines springing a curve to the upper diameter1 which may readily be done by slightly altering the angle of the pencil in ruling them4 ,the entablature is divided as follows3 the architrave is half a diameter1 the frieze and cornice each three-quarters of a diameter4 ,ionic ,order ,the total height should be divided into six parts4 ,then the upper sixth will be the entablature1 and one ninth of the remainder the diameter of the column1 hence the column will be nine diameters high4 ,the capital is half a diameter high2 the base also is half a diameter4 ,the total height of the entablature is divided into ten parts1 three of these should be taken as the height of the architrave1 three that of the frieze and the remaining four that of the cornice4 ,corinthian ,order ,the total height should be divided into six parts4 ,then the upper sixth is the height of the entablature4 ,a tenth of the remainder will be the diameter of the column4 ,the capital is one diameter and one-sixth in height exclusive of the necking moulding1 and the base is half a diameter high1 exclusive of the top fillet4 ,the division of the entablature is the same as that of the ,ionic1 and the mouldings1 although more elaborate1 are similar in character4 ,the architrave and frieze are each three-tenths of the height and the cornice four-tenths4 ,it will be seen from the foregoing that the diameters of the three orders are respectively one-eighth1 one-ninth and one-tenth the heights of the columns1 and that the entablature is1 in the ,doric1 two diameters high or one fourth the height of the column2 in the ,corinthian also two diameters or one-fifth the height of the column4 ,the ,ionic is intermediate between the two4 ,doric ,entablatures ,the ,doric cornice is three-quarters of a diameter in height and one diameter in projection from the face of the frieze1 which should always be in vertical alignment with the architrave4 ,it is convenient to divide the cornice height into three4 ,the upper third consists of a crowning cavetto moulding1 supported by a cyma reversa1 under which is a facia or corona1 in turn supported by a dentil course4 ,the lower third should be taken as the centre of the dentil course1 and if the height from the top of the cavetto to the underside of the corona be bisected1 the point of bisection should fall in the centre of the intervening reversa4 ,mutules ,in orthodox examples of the order the underside or soffit of the corona is decorated with a series of sunk panels4 ,those immediately over the triglyphs of the frieze are occupied by rows of conical drops4 ,a variation of this and a treatment frequently employed is a series of brackets known as mutules4 ,they consist of a facia and a reversa1 which is carried round the upper edge to support the corona4 ,when mutules are used the dentil course is omitted4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aee4 ,doric ,entablature1 ,vignola4 ,the dentils are rectilinear blocks on a flat projecting band1 and they are supported by a cyma reversa moulding4 ,a fillet beneath this moulding completes the cornice4 ,the reversa is about the same height as the fillet1 and the dentil course is about twice this height1 but owing to the soffit of the corona sloping slightly upward and inwards the full height of the dentil facia is not apparent when drawn in elevation4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aef4 ,doric ,entablature1 with ,mutules4 ,above the dentil facia is a small cavetto moulding and a fillet4 ,these are directly beneath the corona1 and are carried round to form the panels on its soffit4 ,the ,doric frieze is three-quarters of a diameter high4 ,it is divided into panels technically known as metopes1 by projecting features half a diameter in width which are called triglyphs4 ,the metopes should be square1 and one of the triglyphs is always placed immediately over each column1 having the same central axis1 hence the spacing of the columns apart is regulated by the triglyphs and metopes4 ,examples of various spacings of columns will be given later4 ,the frieze is bounded above and below by rectilinear projecting bands or fillets2 that at the top breaks round or follows the projection of the triglyphs4 ,the triglyphs are so named because they are channelled vertically with grooves or glyphs1 ,v shaped in section1 with intervening spaces or inter-glyphs4 ,the width of the triglyph should be divided into twelve parts--then the half glyphs which are placed at the angles will each be one of these parts1 and the remaining two glyphs and three inter-glyphs are each two of them4 ,the glyphs terminate at the base on the fillet band1 but at the top are cut off a little below the upper fillet1 invariably in a straight line1 thus forming a triangular heading with the apex of the triangle sloping backwards and downwards in conformity with the ,v shaped section of the glyphs4 ,under the lower fillet band1 and immediately below the triglyph1 is a small fillet and six pendant drops of conical form known as guttae4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aeg4 ,ionic ,entablature4 ,the architrave is half a diameter high1 inclusive of the fillet band1 which is roughly a sixth of this height4 ,the small fillet and guttae are together equal in height to the fillet band4 ,it may be taken as an invariable rule that whatever order is used1 the face of the architrave must be in vertical alignment with the upper part of the shaft of the column4 ,ionic ,entablature ,the total height of the entablature is divided into ten parts2 three of these should be taken as the height of the architrave1 three that of the frieze1 and the remaining four that of the cornice4 ,to find the projection of the cornice a line should be drawn at an angle of #de degrees from the top of the frieze1 and the profiles of the mouldings composing the cornice will fall within this line4 ,the lowest member is a small reversa moulding1 with a fillet supporting a dentil course1 above which is an ovolo2 these occupy half the height of the cornice4 ,the remaining half is composed of the facia1 surmounted by a reversa and the crowning cyma moulding1 rather more than half of the height being allotted to these two4 ,the frieze of the ,ionic order has no characteristic detail as the ,doric1 and may be plain or decorated according to conditions1 and should be in vertical alignment with the lowest member of the architrave4 ,in some of the later ,renaissance examples the profile of the ,ionic frieze is a segmental curve of about a third of a circle4 ,the architrave is usually formed of three facias1 which may be either vertical or slightly inclined4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aeh4 ,corinthian ,entablature4 ,a fifth of the total height is taken for the upper moulding1 which is a reversa with its accompanying fillet4 ,a point bisecting the underside of the fillet and bottom of architrave will give the line of the lower edge of the top facia4 ,the other two facias should be taken in a decreasing ratio1 the lower being the shorter4 ,corinthian ,entablature ,the division of the entablature is the same as that of the ,ionic4 ,the total height is divided into ten4 ,three of these parts form the architrave1 three the frieze and four the cornice4 ,an angle of #de degrees set off from the top of the frieze will determine the general contour and projection of the cornice4 ,the cornice is more complex than in the other styles1 but a division of eleven will help to determine1 three being the height to underside of bead moulding and seven that of the main facia4 ,the lowest moulding of the cornice is a cyma reversa supporting a dentil course with a bead moulding above it4 ,above the bead there is an ovolo1 which forms the bed of a series of brackets known as modillions4 ,the height of the modillions is about one-fifth including the reversa moulding1 which1 besides completing the modillions1 is carried round between them as a support for the upper facia4 ,the modillions have a profile of ogee form4 ,they are about a sixth of a diameter in width and project about twice their width1 and are so spaced as to leave squares between them on the soffit or underside of the corona4 ,the frieze1 which may or may not be decorated1 is in vertical alignment with the lowest member of the architrave4 ,the architrave is made up of three facias with intervening mouldings4 ,if the height be divided into two1 the upper half is devoted to the first facia and reversa moulding1 which latter occupies rather more than one-third2 the remaining half is taken up by the other two facias in a diminishing ratio4 ,the ,column--,the ,shaft ,the general proportions of the column have already been given4 ,the shaft is invariably tapered for two-thirds of its height1 the lower third being cylindrical1 and the taper terminates at the necking moulding4 ,in all three orders the difference between the upper and lower diameters is the same1 that is1 the upper is five-sixths of the lower1 but although the amount of taper is numerically the same1 the different ratios of the diameters to the heights produce naturally very different results4 ,the shaft of the ,doric column may be plain or channelled with vertical grooves called flutes4 ,there are twenty of these flutes round the circumference4 ,on plan they are shallow1 and may be formed of arcs of a third of a circle4 ,the curves meet without intervening fillets4 ,the flutes are finished off in segmental curves at the top and bottom1 leaving a small plain space below the necking and above the base4 ,the ,ionic and ,corinthian columns may have plain or decorated shafts4 ,if decorated they have twenty-four flutes round the circumference4 ,these are semi-circular on plan1 and are spaced with fillets between them4 ,the ,capital ,the ,capital is the culminating feature of the column in which horizontal lines predominate in sthetic contrast to the vertical lines of the shaft4 ,in all the orders there is some form of crowning block or moulding known as the abacus4,a ,a ,though the proportions given are approximately accurate for general division1 it will be found necessary in detailing to adopt a more intimate system of measurement4 ,in the following diagrams the diameter is divided into #cf parts1 which are expressed in figures1 giving heights1 etc41 of the various features4 ,doric ,capital ,the ,doric abacus consists of a rectangular slab1 square on plan1 which in detail consists of a fillet and reversa moulding surmounting a facia4 ,its extreme width is one and a half times the upper diameter4 ,the square abacus is supported by an ovolo1 which is circular on plan1 and is connected with the necking by three small fillets4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aei4 ,doric ,capital4 ,the capital is half a diameter in height1 exclusive of the mouldings between the necking and the shaft1 and the upper part to the underside of the ovolo occupies rather more than half4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #afj4 ,ionic ,capital4 ,the necking is a vertical extension of the upper diameter of the column1 and is separated from the shaft by a boldly projecting moulding1 which in height should be about equal to the three small fillets below the ovolo4 ,the moulding consists of a torus and a fillet1 and a cavetto curve is carried from the underside of the fillet and dies into the line of the shaft of the column4 ,sometimes the ovolo is decorated with its characteristic egg and tongue detail1 and occasionally the reversa of the abacus is also enriched4 ,the necking is sometimes ornamented with four rosettes1 which are placed centrally under the square faces of the abacus4 ,ionic ,capital ,the ,ionic capital is half a diameter high1 and is readily distinguished by its bolster-like form with voluted ends4 ,this bolster is rectangular on plan1 and measures laterally rather more than one and a half diameters1 while from back to front it is slightly less than a diameter4 ,the shaft terminates in a cavetto curve1 and is surmounted by a fillet1 a small torus and an ovolo moulding1 which is invariably decorated with egg and tongue detail4 ,these mouldings all conform to the circular plan of the shaft4 ,on the ovolo rests the voluted bolster4 ,the abacus1 which is square on plan1 consists of a reversa moulding and fillet4 ,from the top of the abacus to the base of the ovolo the height is about a third of a diameter1 and one-fourth of this height will give the height of the abacus4 ,the centre or eye of the volute can readily be found by dropping a perpendicular from the lower edge of the reversa to intersect the horizontal line defining the base of the ovolo4 ,this point of intersection is the required centre4 ,to ,draw the ,volute ,from this as centre and one part as radius describe a circle4 ,within this circle draw a square1 having for a diagonal the diameter of the circle4 ,bisect the sides of the square and draw the diameters by joining the points of bi-section4 ,divide these diameters of the square into six and these points will be the centres for the segments of circles which form the volute4 ,vertical and horizontal lines drawn from the centres will define the extent of each segment4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #afa4 ,ionic ,capital1 with angular volutes4 ,for small scale drawings the volutes are drawn free-hand1 but for larger working drawings it is necessary to use some method such as that given here4 ,the angle formed by the meeting of the ovolo and the volute is masked by a detail of anthemion form4 ,the ends of the bolster between the volutes consist of concave or ogee curves1 which are symmetrically arranged from a centre line2 moulded ridges or conventional leaf detail decorate the centre4 ,the form of the ,ionic capital1 while suitable for a faade1 requires some modification if it is to be carried round the side of a building1 owing to the great dissimilarity in the front and side views4 ,in this case the end volute of the capital at the angle of the building is projected forward at an angle of #de degrees1 and the side is then treated in the same way as the front4 ,in late ,renaissance buildings this difficulty was overcome by making all the volutes project at angles of #de degrees1 so that the four faces of the capital were uniform4 ,this entails the bolster being dispensed with1 and the volutes1 no longer connected laterally1 spring directly from the top of the ovolo moulding1 and the space between the springing lines is occupied by a husk4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #afb4 ,ionic ,capital4 ,detail of ,angular ,volute4 ,as the volutes make equal angles they conform more or less to a square plan4 ,the plan of the abacus is composed of four concave curves with small straight intervals at the meeting angles4 ,the general proportions for this form of capital are the same as for the bolster type4 ,corinthian ,capital ,the ,corinthian capital differs widely from those of the preceding orders in proportion and detail4 ,its general form may be described as a bell1 which is circular on plan4 ,it springs from the upper extremity of the shaft1 from which it is separated by a necking moulding4 ,under the abacus it terminates in a fillet4 ,the bell is one diameter high4 ,the height of the abacus is one-sixth of a diameter in addition2 on plan the abacus falls within a square1 having four concave faces with short straight lines at the angles4 ,the distance across the diagonal is two diameters4 ,the bell is clothed with leaves of acanthus type1 which are arranged in two tiers of eight leaves each4 ,between the upper leaves are eight stems with husks and branching scrolls1 which terminate in volutes at the angles and centres4 ,the necking moulding consists of a small torus and fillet4 ,although the arrangement of the principal features of the ,corinthian capital is horizontal1 yet owing to the channelling of the leaves and the firmly springing scrolls the vertical direction appears to predominate4 ,this verticality emphasises the function of the capital as a supporting feature1 and is sthetically satisfactory1 being in harmony with the flutings of the shaft4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #afc4 ,corinthian ,capital4 ,the effect produced by the capitals of the other two orders is horizontal1 and suggests the idea of binding4 ,they are equally satisfactory as giving contrast of direction4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #afd4 ,corinthian ,capital4 ,detail giving divisions of height1 and profiles4 ,the ,base ,in all the orders a square plinth is the lowest member of the base of the column4 ,on this plinth rests a series of mouldings which follow the circular plan of the shaft4 ,the shaft invariably terminates in a fillet1 the diameter of which exceeds that of the column1 and on to which the line of the shaft is carried by means of a curve4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #afe4 ,doric ,base4 ,doric ,base ,the ,doric base is extremely simple4 ,it consists of the square plinth on which rests a torus moulding surmounted by a smaller moulding of the same section and a fillet above4 ,the width of the plinth is one and a third the diameter of the column1 and its height a quarter diameter or half the total height of the base4 ,the other half is made up of the large torus1 the small torus and fillet4 ,the torus moulding should be bold in projection1 practically semi-circular and at the fullest part of its curvature in vertical alignment with the centres of the horizontal faces of the plinth block4 ,the small torus and fillet are about equal in height4 ,ionic ,base ,illustration3 ,no4 #aff4 ,ionic ,base4 ,the ,ionic base differs from the ,doric in the introduction of a hollow or scotia moulding between the two torus mouldings4 sthetically it may be considered more satisfactory in that the strong shadow obtained by the use of the scotia produces an effect of binding which adds to the impression of strength4 ,the type is technically known as the ,attic base4 ,the total width is one and a third diameter4 ,the height of half a diameter may be divided into three4 ,one of these divisions will give the height of the plinth1 one the large torus and the fillet above it1 and the other the scotia and small torus with the fillets above and below4 ,the fillets either side of the upper torus may be in the same vertical alignment4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #afg4 ,corinthian ,base4 ,the smallest diameter of the base1 which will be in the hollow of the scotia1 should exceed the diameter of the shaft1 or an effect of weakness will be imparted4 ,as in the ,doric base a curve of a quarter circle connects the shaft with the upper fillet4 ,corinthian ,base ,the orthodox base of the ,corinthian order is similar to that of the ,ionic1 with an additional scotia and small torus with its accompanying fillets4 ,the width of the plinth is one and a third diameter4 ,the height of half a diameter does not include the top fillet4 ,the proportions may be approximated by dividing the height into four4 ,one of these parts will be the height of the plinth1 another that of the large torus and its fillet1 the third--the upper edge of fillet of top scotia1 and the fourth that of the upper scotia and torus with the intervening fillet4 ,vertically the uppermost fillet is in alignment with that of the upper scotia1 and the extremity of the upper torus with the small bead mouldings dividing this from the lower scotia4 ,although this is the orthodox ,corinthian base1 it is not used as frequently as the ,ionic type1 but when the order is on a large scale the more elaborate version is justified4 ,the ,arch ,when the arch is used in conjunction with the column it is supported on pilasters which are attached to the columns4 ,the columns and pilasters thus form piers4 ,in the ,doric order the columns are placed five diameters apart from centre to centre1 in the ,ionic five and a quarter1 and in the ,corinthian five and a half4 ,the necking moulding of the capital is generally carried through above the arch1 the outer line of which is struck so as to nearly touch the underside4 ,the projection of the pilasters which carry the arch is half a diameter from the outer lines of the column1 and is measured on the same level as the springing point of the arch4 ,the centre from which the arch is struck is sometimes in the same horizontal line as the springing points1 but more frequently a little above the line and thereby a rather better effect is produced4 ,the arch-band or archivolt is the same width as the pilaster supporting it1 and a series of mouldings known as the impost is placed at the top of the pilaster4 ,the base of the pilaster consists of a plain plinth of slight projection equal in height to the base of the column4 ,from the spacing of the columns and the proportions here given it will be seen that the height and width of the aperture made by the arch and pilasters are arrived at automatically1 but if measured1 the height will be found to be about twice the width and the top of the impost about two-thirds the height of the column4 ,these proportions may be accepted as giving satisfactory results under ordinary conditions4 ,as a general rule1 in all the orders the impost is half a diameter high1 and so is the same as the projection of the pilaster and the width of the archivolt4 ,this rule is not always adhered to1 however1 but in any case the width of the archivolt should never be more than one-eighth or less than one-tenth of the diameter of the arch1 and should always be the same as the width of the pilaster4 ,doric ,impost ,the mouldings of the ,doric ,impost are as follows3 ,at the top there is a fillet and a bold ovolo1 below which there is a bead-moulding or small torus with fillet and two facias4 ,the lower facia1 which is of slight projection is one-fourth of the total height4 ,the upper facia and fillet are half the remainder4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #afh4 ,detail of ,archivolts and ,imposts4 ,archivolt ,the archivolt mouldings are in the ,doric order1 the same as those of the impost4 ,ionic ,impost ,the total height of half a diameter may be divided into two1 and the upper half sub-divided into three4 ,then the upper division will be the height of the top fillet and a reversa moulding2 the second the height of a facia and the third an ovolo and small torus4 ,the lower half of the impost consists of two facias1 the upper of which is broader than the lower4 ,ionic ,archivolt ,the archivolt1 commencing at the outer rim1 consists of a fillet and bold reversa moulding which occupies rather less than a fourth of the total width1 and two facias of unequal widths4 ,the width of the inner facia is nearly one-third more than that of the reversa moulding4 ,corinthian ,impost ,the ,corinthian impost differs from those of the other two orders in having a necking and necking moulding in place of the two unequal facias4 ,the total height should be divided into two1 and the upper half divided into four4 ,then the top fillet and reversa moulding will be one of these divisions1 the facia two1 and the supporting ovolo will occupy the remaining one4 ,the lower half of the impost consists of a small torus and fillet beneath the ovolo1 the necking1 and the torus and fillet which form the necking moulding4 ,corinthian ,archivolt ,the archivolt1 commencing at the outer rim1 consists of a fillet and reversa and three unequal facias4 ,if the total width is divided into two1 the point of bisection will be the centre of a small reversa moulding between the two outer facias4 ,the outer reversa and the inner facia are each about one-sixth of the total width and the small reversa is about two-thirds of the inner facia4 ,the ,keystone ,a projecting block1 or keystone1 is sometimes used at the centre of the arch4 ,the face width of its lowest edge should not be less than the width of the archivolt4 ,its height is not often less than one and a half times or more than twice this width4 ,it may be decorated in various ways1 and is frequently in the shape of a console4 ,this form is especially suitable when the keystone comes in contact with the architrave of the entablature1 in which case it is capped with a moulded abacus4 ,the ,pedestal ,the height of the pedestal is a fourth that of the column and entablature together1 though this proportion may be varied to suit different conditions4 ,for instance1 when the pedestal forms part of the structure of a balcony or balustrading the height must be modified to suit the special requirements of the position4 ,the pedestal is composed of plinth1 die and capping4 ,the width of the die is the same as the plinth of the base of the column above it1 that is1 one and one-third diameter4 ,the projection of the capping1 which is the same for all three orders is obtained by drawing a line at an angle of #cj degrees with the vertical from the top of the die4 ,the width of the plinth corresponds to the projection of the capping1 and is determined by dropping perpendiculars from the top fillet4 ,the height of the mouldings between the die and plinth is determined by a line drawn from the bottom of the die at an angle of #de degrees to intersect the vertical face of the plinth4 ,the angle is the same for all the orders4 ,doric ,pedestal ,in the ,doric order the height of the capping is one-third diameter4 ,the face of the die is square1 and this determines the height of the plinth4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #afi4 ,detail of ,pedestals4 ,the capping mouldings consist of a fillet1 facia1 ovolo1 fillet and cavetto4 ,the facia is carried to the underside of the fillet in a curve1 and its height is half the total height of the capping4 ,the facia is supported by the ovolo1 and a fillet and cavetto complete the capping4 ,the height of the course of mouldings at the top of the plinth should be divided into three1 then the upper third will contain a cavetto moulding and fillet1 and the remaining two-thirds an ogee and final fillet4 ,ionic ,pedestal ,in the ,ionic pedestal the plinth with its mouldings should occupy one-third the height and the capping one-fifth the remainder4 ,the mouldings are similar to those of the ,doric pedestal1 but a little more elaborate4 ,in the capping a reversa is used under the top fillet and a small torus or bead is placed between the ovolo and the cavetto4 ,in the mouldings of the plinth a similar bead is introduced above the ogee moulding4 ,corinthian ,pedestal ,the same general divisions as the ,ionic will give the proportions of the ,corinthian pedestal1 the difference being that of the scale and the detail of the mouldings4 ,the capping may be divided into two4 ,the top half consists of a fillet1 reversa and facia1 and the lower half a supporting cyma recta1 a bead and a cavetto curve4 ,the plinth mouldings are the same as those of the ,ionic pedestal with the addition of a torus beneath the ogee4 ,the height of this torus is one-fourth the total height and is about equal to that of the cavetto and bead together4 ,when the pedestal is employed the arch becomes proportionately larger4 ,in the ,doric order the columns are then spaced seven and a half diameters apart2 in the ,ionic seven and three quarters1 and in the ,corinthian eight diameters centre to centre4 ,the archivolt1 the radius of which is determined by the above spacing1 is supported as before by an impost and pilaster4 ,the base of the pilaster consists of a slightly projecting block equal in height to the plinth block of the pedestal4 ,the height of the arch varies slightly1 inasmuch as the inner curve may be about a diameter from the architrave1 but in the ,corinthian order should not fall below the level of the necking moulding of the capital4 ,the ,baluster ,as already stated1 the pedestal may be used as a part of a balustrading associated with balusters1 and must conform to the proportions necessitated by the conditions4 ,the usual height for balustradings1 whether to steps1 balconies1 or before windows1 is three feet two inches1 though in special cases it may be slightly more4 ,the baluster is a species of small column4 ,its usual form is bulbous or vase-shaped1 and it is furnished with a capital and base4 ,a series of balusters is technically known as a balustrade4 ,the balusters are raised on a plinth1 which corresponds to the plinth of the pedestal1 and surmounted by a rail of horizontal mouldings1 which correspond to the capping of the pedestal2 hence the baluster is of the same height as the die4 ,the height of the baluster should be divided into five1 then one-fifth will be the height of the base1 and the capital exclusive of the necking will be another fifth4 ,the extreme diameter of the bulbous shaft is one-third the total height of the baluster1 and the diameter of the necking and the top of the shaft is about one-sixth4 ,the capital has a square abacus slightly less in width than the plinth of the base4 ,below the abacus is ,illustration3 ,no4 #agj4 ,detail of ,balusters4 an ovolo and fillet1 which are circular on plan4 ,the necking is separated from the shaft by a small torus and fillet4 ,the base has for its lowest member a square plinth1 which occupies rather less than half the height and is equal in width to the extreme diameter of the bulbous shaft4 ,above the plinth is a scotia and a necking moulding1 which are circular on plan4 ,spacing of ,balusters ,the balusters should be spaced with not more than half their diameters or less than a third between their bases1 except when employed on the rake of steps1 when they may be slightly closer4 ,balustrading ,in a balustrading an unequal number of balusters should always be used1 and not less than five in one group exclusive of the half balusters which are attached to the flanking or dividing dies4 ,seven and nine form very satisfactory groups1 but if more than nine are necessary for the space to be filled1 intermediate dies must be interposed1 and these may vary from two-thirds to three-quarters the width of the principal dies4 ,in some cases1 when a large number of balusters are to be grouped1 the dies are flanked by half dies1 which are less in projection than the dies themselves4 ,balustrades are sometimes used above the cornice of a building1 and their height should not be more than four-fifths or less than two-thirds the height of the entablature4 ,this height would be exclusive of the plinth on which the balusters are raised4 ,the height of the plinth is determined by the height of the building1 and the projection of the cornice1 as its purpose is to raise the balusters so that they may be seen from the ordinary point of view4 ,the principal dies may be placed over columns or pilasters and should be equal in width to the upper diameters of these1 though flanking half dies may be used in addition to avoid an appearance of thinness4 ,the plinth and capping mouldings always follow the plan of the principal dies1 and are carried in unbroken lines across each interval4 ,when the height of the balustrade does not conform to the orthodox proportions the method of determining the relative proportions is as follows3--,the height is divided into seven parts2 of these one part gives the height of the capping1 four the baluster and two the plinth4 ,the mouldings in character and detail are the same as those of the pedestal1 and should be in harmony with the order used4 ,when balustrading forms part of a stair1 the height on landings should be three feet two inches4 ,on the rake two feet ten inches from the step at a line vertical with the face of the riser4 ,the plinth is invariably used as a string enclosing the ends of the steps and following the rake or angle in a straight line1 and carried to the levels by means of curving ramps4 ,in interior work the bulbous shafts of balusters are often decorated with carved detail1 and the mouldings also may be enriched4 ,use of ,columns ,columns were originally used in the porticos and courts of temples and other buildings1 and sometimes to form supports for vaulted roofs4 ,wherever employed their function was directly structural1 but this was not the case at the time of the ,renaissance4 ,the requirements demanded by widely different social conditions led to their being used more as decorative than structural features4 ,the use of engaged columns and pilasters in a faade can be justified to some extent4 ,although such columns and pilasters may not be absolutely essential for support1 yet they act as buttresses and add to the strength of the structure with a certain economy of material4 ,also they are sthetically satisfactory in their effect of light and shade4 ,disposition and ,spacing in ,colonnades ,the disposition of columns either in a faade or a colonnade is controlled by proportions which have been found to be desirable or are necessitated by special features of the order itself4 ,the latter is the case with the ,doric order1 the spacing being determined by the trigylphs and metopes4 ,if the triglyphs are placed centrally over the columns or pilasters the spacing of these apart will be two and a half diameters centre to centre1 three and three-quarters1 or five diameters1 with two1 three or four metopes respectively between them in the frieze4 ,with the wider spacing of five diameters it is usual to employ coupled columns to add to the appearance of strength4 ,as the triglyphs are one and a quarter diameters apart centre to centre1 the coupled columns are brought very close together1 entailing a slight modification of the bases4 ,since the ordinary projection of the plinth of a sixth of a diameter beyond the line of the shaft is not possible between the two columns1 the plinth-blocks are united1 and the torus moulding made slightly less in projection4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aga4 ,spacing of ,columns4 ,the capitals being less in width are not affected1 a small interval is left between the crowning reversa mouldings4 ,in the ,ionic order the columns are spaced three and a quarter1 three and three-quarters and four and a quarter diameters centre to centre4 ,the coupled columns used with the wide spacing are one and a half diameters centre to centre or half a diameter apart at the lower extremity of the shafts4 ,the ,corinthian spacing is slightly wider1 three and a half diameters1 four diameters1 or with coupled columns four and a half diameters centre to centre4 ,the coupled columns are placed as in the ,ionic order one and a half diameters centre to centre4 ,it is desirable that attention should be given to the vertical alignment of the principal features4 ,dentils and modillions and indeed all strongly marked features should centre with the columns1 and be equally spaced in the intervals4 ,orders ,above ,orders ,occasionally in faades orders are used above one another4 ,the ,colosseum is an antique ,roman example of this1 and it was a treatment often adopted by the architects of the early ,renaissance4 ,it is desirable that the simpler order should be the lower one4 ,ionic may be used over ,doric1 or ,corinthian over ,ionic4 ,it is obvious that the central axes of the columns or pilasters of each order used should be in vertical alignment1 not only when seen from the front1 but in the case of detached columns1 from the side view also4 ,when engaged columns or pilasters are employed1 the upper tier may be set back slightly from the face of the lower order which supports it2 an example of this is to be found in the ,theatre of ,marcellus at ,rome4 ,the proportions of the upper order are obtained by making the lower diameter of the upper tier of columns or pilasters equal to the upper diameter of those ,illustration3 ,no4 #agb4 ,order above ,order4 of the supporting order1 and an effect of continuous tapering is produced4 ,it is usual to place above the entablature of the lower order a plinth on which the bases of the upper columns rest4 ,the height of the plinth is regulated by the point of view1 as its purpose is to display the bases of the imposed order above the projecting cornice4 ,generally this height will be about half a diameter4 ,in many historical examples the upper columns are placed on pedestals1 but this treatment1 although useful when a balcony is desired1 is not to be recommended as the extra width and projection which the use of the pedestal entails1 gives an appearance of undue weight to be borne by the supporting columns4 ,if balconies are necessary they may terminate with their own pedestals1 which can be kept clear of the columns and should not exceed them in projection4 ,the ,pilaster ,it may be as well to deal here with the treatment of pilasters1 which may be defined as columns in bas-relief4 ,their projection may vary from one-half to about one-sixth their face width1 though in antique examples it is sometimes much less than this4 ,in the pilasters of the ,pantheon at ,rome it is one-tenth4 ,the projection is1 however1 partly determined by the order with which the pilaster is used1 as an appearance of mutilation might easily be produced in the capitals of the ,ionic and ,corinthian orders4 ,the ,doric capital1 being composed of moulded profiles1 is not in any way affected by the amount of projection4 ,nor does the ,ionic capital suffer when the volutes are in one plane except when used on an angle4 ,but if the later ,renaissance type with the volutes arranged at angles of #de degrees is employed1 the projection of the pilaster must not be less than half its upper diameter1 so that the volute on the return face may be complete4 ,the ,corinthian capital would be affected in the same way1 and should also be not less than half a diameter in projection in order to obtain a satisfactory result4 ,the pilaster is usually tapered1 and when associated with columns and supporting the same entablature it is essential to preserve universal alignment in the upper extremities and the architrave1 but when used by itself the pilaster is often not tapered4 ,at the angle of buildings1 where both faces are displayed1 it is an invariable rule that pilasters should be straight4 ,the details of capitals and bases are the same as those of the columns4 ,when fluting is employed an odd number of channels should be used1 usually seven on the front face4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #agc4 ,doric ,order4 ,treatment of coupled ,column and ,pilaster4 ,arcades ,arcades1 as already suggested1 may be composed of a series of arches1 supported on pilasters which flank the columns4 ,the backs of the piers thus formed may be treated with pilasters1 which can be repeated on the opposite wall1 with the architrave frieze and cornice above4 ,there are several alternative treatments for the ceilings of arcades4 ,they may be flat and panelled by beams carried across in a line with the pilasters and with a cornice moulding carried round the sides of the beams4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #agd4 ,doric ,arcading4 ,the interior can also be vaulted by means of archivolts springing from the line of the imposts4 ,the archivolts should be supported by pilasters at the back of the piers and on the opposite wall1 and a cornice may be carried round between the vaults4 ,cross vaulting also may be employed1 and in this case the entablature is no longer necessary4 ,the proportions already given determine the width of piers when an order is used1 but when an order is not used some further general rules for proportions are necessary4 ,the height of the opening formed by arches1 which may spring from piers--with or without an impost--should be about twice the width4 ,the supporting piers should not be less than a third or more than two-thirds the width of the aperture4 ,in any form of arcading1 piers must be employed at the angles1 and these should be wider than the intermediate ones by a half1 a third1 or a fourth4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #age4 ,doric ,arch1 with pedestal4 ,subsidiary ,order ,a secondary or subsidiary order is sometimes used in an arcading4 ,the height of the arch should then be twice its width1 and the height of the small order two-thirds the height of the column of the principal order4 ,this height of two-thirds the column should be sub-divided into nine parts1 of which eight will give the height of the column and the remaining one that of the entablature4 ,the entablature consists of architrave and cornice1 the frieze being omitted1 and a division into five will give the relative proportions4 ,two-fifths may be taken as the height of the architrave and three that of the cornice4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #agf4 ,employment of the ,subsidiary ,order4 ,pilasters are used with the columns of the subsidiary order with a space of half a diameter between them and the columns4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #agg4 ,subsidiary ,order4 ,division of ,entablature4 ,the archivolt should be equal in width to the upper diameter of the column1 and the width of the lower edge of the keystone should also be of the same dimension4 ,the subsidiary order may be the same as the principal order1 but more often the ,ionic is used in conjunction with the ,doric1 or the ,corinthian with the ,ionic4 ,as regards the treatment of the bases1 the horizontal alignment must be maintained4 ,it is obvious that if the height of the base of the large column is adopted for the subsidiary one it will be very much out of proportion4 ,this can be obviated by carrying through the plinth of the larger column to form a step on which the base of the smaller rests1 and always the top line of the smaller bases should agree with that of the larger4 ,superimposed ,orders ,when arcades are used one above the other1 the lower order is usually mounted on a plinth1 and the upper furnished with a pedestal4 ,the height of the pedestal is determined by the balustrading or balcony1 the height of which is governed by its use4 ,if the ,doric is taken as the lower order the centres of the columns are six and a quarter diameters apart1 which gives a frieze of five metopes with intervening triglyphs4 ,the plinth on which the order stands is three-quarters of a diameter high4 ,the pilaster supporting the archivolt projects half a diameter1 and the height of the arch is determined by the impost1 which is two-thirds the height of the column inclusive of the plinth4 ,the base of the pilaster may be moulded1 but the top line should coincide with the top of the plinth4 ,above the ,doric an ,ionic order might be placed1 and the die and plinth of the superimposed order should be kept as narrow as possible so as to reduce the impression of weight4 ,the pilasters carrying the arch rest on the plinth of the pedestal1 and the plinth mouldings are carried round the bases4 ,the plinth and rail of the balustrading should not project but be kept between the pilasters4 ,the centres of the arches of both tiers are in a line with the tops of the imposts1 and the outer edges of the archivolts may nearly reach the lower lines of the architraves4 ,when the ,ionic is used as the lower order it may be surmounted by the ,corinthian4 ,the distance between the centres of the lower columns should then be six and a half diameters4 ,the other proportions can be obtained in the same way as the preceding4 ,if a subsidiary order is employed the columns of the principal order are placed further apart4 ,in the case of the ,doric the distance is seven and a half diameters1 and the other orders are increased in proportion4 ,rustication ,the joints of the material used must necessarily be considered1 and when plain piers or plain wall surfaces occur the joints may readily be accentuated and so turned to decorative account4 ,the edges of the stones forming the separate courses may be chamfered or moulded4 ,the joints may also be worked so as to form a square recess4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #agh4 ,rustication4 ,the surface of the stone is sometimes roughly tooled or frosted1 or worked in an arbitrary pattern1 which is termed 8vermiculated40 ,this treatment probably gave rise to the word rustication4 ,when rusticated work is used with an order the height of each course of stone should not be less than half a diameter1 and when square recessed joints are used they can be one-eighth or one-tenth the height of the course4 ,occasionally only the horizontal courses are thus marked1 and this has been objected to as producing a boarded appearance1 though undoubtedly the horizontal effect is at times agreeably in contrast to the vertical features4 ,a much more usual treatment in ,renaissance examples was to emphasise the vertical joints also4 ,the length of each stone should be from one and a half to three times the height4 ,rustication may be used in the formation of the arch1 which frequently has at its springing line a slightly projecting course1 in which the vertical joints are not emphasised4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #agi4 ,rusticated ,arcade4 ,rustication is also used in columns1 either square on plan or conforming to the plan of the column4 ,its most legitimate employment is in basements and to emphasise the angles of buildings4 ,basement ,a basement is really a continuous pedestal on which an order rests4 ,it necessarily varies in height according to conditions1 thus if its purpose is merely to raise the ground floor it may be no more than three to six feet high1 but if it is required to form a storey1 it should not exceed the height of the order employed or be less than one half4 ,the joints of the work in basements are generally accentuated by some form of rustication1 and the heights of the horizontal courses should not be less than half a diameter of the column of the order above4 ,when a high basement is used it is sometimes crowned with a cornice1 or more frequently with a slightly projecting facia technically known as a plat-band4 ,in either case1 the height should be equal to that of the courses exclusive of moulded edges or chamfers4 ,also a plinth is placed at the base of the same height as the plat-band or a little more4 ,when a cornice is used the plinth should be moulded and may then exceed the height of the courses4 ,attic ,an attic storey is sometimes used instead of a second order1 and this may vary from one-third to one-tenth the height of the order beneath it4 ,the attic may be quite plain1 but it often has breakings or projections on its face corresponding to the vertical features of the supporting order4 ,it usually forms a storey in a building1 and then is of necessity pierced with windows4 ,in architectural design the character and requirements of the building must1 of course1 be the first consideration1 but the basement may constitute the ground floor1 the height occupied by the order may contain two stories and the attic may be an upper floor4 ,when an order is not employed the divisions and proportions already stated may still be applied1 the heights and widths should govern each other as would be the case if the faade were divided into bays by columns or pilasters4 ,in the absence of the order a cornice is substituted for the entablature1 and this1 according to different authorities1 may be from one-twelfth to one-sixteenth the total height from the ground1 but one-fourteenth or one-fifteenth will be found a safe mean4 ,the ,pediment ,the pediment in its original and orthodox employment was a gable conforming to the pitch of the roof4 ,it is framed with mouldings1 and the enclosed space is technically known as the tympanum4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ahj4 ,cornice where order is not employed4 ,the use made of the pediment by the architects of the ,renaissance was not always justified in the strictest sense4 ,it was often used to vary the sky line1 and to form door and window heads4 ,although the latter use can be to some extent justified in exterior work1 a similar employment in interiors may be open to question4 ,the sloping lines of the pediment are not always straight1 sometimes they are in the form of a curve composed of a segment of a circle4 ,the triangular and curved forms are often used alternately in a row of windows with good effect4 ,the lines of the pediment mouldings are not always continuous2 sometimes the sloping or the horizontal lines or both are broken4 ,this is a treatment that cannot readily be justified as the pediment is a feature that implies shelter4 ,sometimes ogee curves take the place of the straight sloping lines1 and these terminate towards the centre1 with scroll ends1 leaving an interval between them4 ,illustration3 ,,detail ,,of ,,pediment ,no4 #aha4 ,the mouldings of the pediment are the same as those of the cornice1 the crowning moulding of which is carried round and omitted in the horizontal course forming the base of the pediment4 ,beneath the cyma the mouldings of the cornice are repeated in their proper order1 detailing at the lower angles on the top of the horizontal cornice1 which terminates with the fillet above the facia4 ,when dentils and modillions are introduced in the cornice they are invariably repeated in the mouldings of the pediment4 ,the tympanum or face of the pediment should be in vertical alignment with the face of the frieze4 ,when this space is small it is best left plain1 but on a large scale the tympanum affords a very suitable position in which to place sculpture4 ,the height of the pediment varies according to the width4 ,thus where the base is short1 as in door and window heads1 it will be comparatively higher than when used in a faade4 ,the height may vary from a fourth to a fifth of the width of the base4 ,doors ,obviously door openings should be of sufficient size to admit the free passage of a tall person4 ,the minimum height for ordinary doors in domestic buildings should be six feet nine inches1 and the width two feet nine inches4 ,for entrance doors under similar conditions the width may be three feet six1 but when it is more than this the door should be in two halves4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ahb4 ,general proportions of doors and windows4 ,the size of doors should be proportioned to the building1 and should be designed to meet probable requirements1 thus in public buildings door openings should not be less than six feet wide4 ,generally a satisfactory proportion may be obtained by making the height twice the width1 and the framing architrave one-sixth the width of the opening4 ,if a frieze and cornice are carried over the door the height inclusive of architrave should be half the width of the opening4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ahc4 ,door ,treatment4 ,a4 ,architrave with simple pilasters and consoles4 ,b4 ,ionic order rusticated1 with pediment4 ,c4 ,doric order with pediment4 ,d4 ,doric order rusticated4 ,in addition to the framing architrave narrow pilasters bearing consoles supporting the cornice are sometimes used4 ,the total width of architrave and pilaster may be about one-third the width1 and the entire entablature one-third the height of the opening4 ,the mouldings and decorations used should be in harmony with the general structure and in character with the order if one is used4 ,occasionally columns or pilasters are introduced1 with or without the arch1 but the same general proportions apply1 the aperture being two squares4 ,when doors are placed under arches the top line of the entablature should agree with that of the impost4 ,when a pediment is used1 the height should be one-fourth the width of the base4 ,windows ,the general proportions and treatments of doors apply also to windows1 and if doors and windows are placed in the same line the heads of the openings should be in horizontal alignment4 ,if this is not possible the top of the cornice may agree with the inner line of the window openings4 ,windows terminate below in a sill1 or sometimes in a balcony1 and as a general rule those on the same level should be similar in treatment1 but an alternation such as already suggested with curved and straight lined pediments is quite satisfactory4 ,the frieze and consoles of doors and windows are often decorated with relief ornament4 ,when a faade is divided by columns or pilasters the bays are pierced with windows ranged above each ,illustration3 ,no4 #ahd4 ,windows4 ,a4 ,rusticated ,architrave4 ,b4 ,rusticated ,ionic ,columns4 ,c4 ,d4 ,rustication with ,horizontal and ,vertical ,joints ,defined4 other1 the heights varying with the different floors4 ,those on the first storey are usually of full height1 and those above less in height and simpler in treatment4 ,the width of apertures should be the same for the different levels1 except in the case of basements1 where they may be narrower4 ,when an order is not employed in a faade variety may be obtained by grouping the windows2 or three-light windows may be introduced4 ,the centre light1 which may be treated with an arched head1 should be twice the width of the side lights4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ahe4 ,three-,light ,window4 ,the number of windows in a faade should be odd1 so that there may be a centre one1 and the end windows of a range should be kept well clear of the angles of the building4 ,,chapter ,v ,,division ,,of ,,surface ,in interior decoration surfaces such as walls and ceilings may be divided into panels of various shapes by a system of framing4 ,the form of the framing may be rectangular1 square1 polygonal1 circular or oval2 and the panel is generally recessed from the dividing stiles and rails or ribs1 while the latter are frequently supplemented by mouldings4 ,wall ,treatment ,in dealing with walls the division can be planned in accordance with architectural proportions1 but the orthodox features are not necessarily employed4 ,in some phases of traditional decoration much use has been made of pilasters--the spacing and distribution of which1 while conforming to the conditions of the interior1 are similar to the usual employment of pilasters in exterior architecture1 with the difference that the spaces between them are occupied by panels or other features4 ,except in apartments of unusual height1 pilasters should not be mounted on a pedestal2 though a pedestal-like feature is often introduced in the form of a ,dado or surbase4 ,in such a scheme the entablature also should be used so that the cornice forms a bed moulding for the ceiling4 ,coupled pilasters may also be employed1 and in ,illustration3 ,no4 #ahf4 ,wall ,division4 ,a4 ,b4 ,pilaster ,treatment4 ,c4 ,d4 ,alternation of wide and narrow panels4 some well-known instances are placed wider apart than is ordinarily the case1 and the space between is then occupied by a narrow panel4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ahg4 ,detail of ,ceiling4 ,library of ,s4 ,lorenzo1 ,florence4 ,m4 ,angelo4 ,in smaller apartments the pilaster may be dispensed with1 but the division of the wall surface can conform to the same general plan both vertically and horizontally4 ,in the absence of pilasters the spaces may be divided into panels alternately narrow and wide4 ,ceilings ,when the ceiling is divided the dividing ribs or beams should bear some relation to the general construction1 though in the past this rule has not always been strictly adhered to4 ,for example1 the ceiling may very desirably be divided into equal squares or rectangles by means of wooden or plaster mouldings1 leaving the enclosed spaces plain or decorated4 ,when mouldings are used these may be enriched1 but contrast should be maintained between the framing ribs and the panels4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ahh4 ,detail of ,inlaid ,floor4 ,library of ,s4 ,lorenzo1 ,florence4 ,repeating general pattern of ceiling4 ,the ,late ,tudor decorated ceiling often had narrow moulded ribs geometrically arranged with pater in between and fleur-de-lys details on the outer angles where the ribs met4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #ahi4 ,ceiling of ,library of ,s4 ,lorenzo1 ,florence4 ,plan of general arrangement4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aij4 ,late ,tudor ,ceiling4 ,littlecotes ,hall1 ,wilts4 ,jacobean ,in the later ,jacobean style the rib was replaced by floral bands projecting comparatively slightly and enclosed by narrow borders4 ,these bands were disposed in various ways--sometimes intersecting at right angles and enclosing rectangular or square panels1 sometimes forming geometric curves occasionally interrupted by straight lines4 ,if any of these methods of breaking up the surface be employed1 it is obvious that the general proportions must be taken into account4 ,carolean and ,georgian ,in the ,carolean and ,georgian periods it was customary to decorate the ceiling with a heavily modelled band of foliated detail1 circular or oval in form--the whole in harmony with the plan of the room4 ,sometimes the angles were occupied by other detail1 but the centre was invariably left plain4 ,adam ,ceilings ,illustration3 ,no4 #aia4 ,jacobean ,ceiling4 ,sizergh ,hall1 ,westmorland4 ,the ceilings of the ,adam period were similarly treated4 ,the oval or circular band would sometimes consist of a series of festoons--an arrangement which1 though graceful enough in effect1 cannot be defended ,illustration3 ,no4 #aib4 ,jacobean ,ceiling4 ,reindeer ,inn1 ,banbury4 as consistent4 ,the angles of the ,adam ceiling were generally decorated with the characteristic fan detail4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aic4 ,carolean ,ceiling4 ,vaults and ,domes ,in vaulted ceilings or domes the division may be effected by horizontal or vertical bands1 in which case the spaces between diminish in size towards the centre4 ,if the division of the dome is vertical1 or more properly speaking1 by radial lines1 it is desirable to divide further the spaces thus formed by introducing intermediate shapes1 such as circles1 unless the diameter be relatively small4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aid4 ,adam ,ceiling4 ,the ,cove ,in some cases the walls meet the ceiling in an arch1 which is technically known as a ,cove4 ,the arch generally springs from the top of the cornice and forms a vaulted frieze1 which may or may not be decorated4 ,when the ceiling is divided by means of heavy beams there should be obvious support for these1 such as brackets or consoles1 which are themselves to be supported by pilasters4 ,the brackets in this case make a break in the frieze or cove4 ,it may be objected that architectural features serve no purpose in interior decoration1 but on the other hand1 in extenuation of their use it may be urged that1 though considerations of actual weight and structure are not involved1 yet the appearance of support has to be maintained1 and it is essential that the scheme as a whole should realise the effect of stability4 ,the ,frieze ,illustration3 ,no4 #aih4 ,festoon ,frieze4 ,continuous treatment with vertical contrast4 ,temple of ,vesta1 ,tivoli ,in considering the decoration of the various parts1 the two principal questions to be asked are--what is the purpose8 and1 what is the attitude8 ,the purpose of the ,frieze may be said to be to bind1 and the attitude of the ,frieze is certainly a horizontal one--therefore the usual continuous treatment is justified4 ,this is not the only way in which the ,frieze can be treated1 however1 for the continuous horizontal treatment may be varied by vertical effects such as occur in the ,doric order4 ,the employment of ,festoons with intermediate ,illustration3 ,photo ,no4 #aie4 ,vault ,treatment4 ,ducal ,palace1 ,venice1 ,sansovino4 ,alinari ,illustration3 ,photo ,no4 #aif4 ,dome ,treatment4 ,vertical and horizontal division1 resulting in panels4 ,villa ,madama1 ,rome4 ,alinari ,illustration3 ,photo ,no4 #aig4 ,dome1 ,st4 ,peter's1 ,rome4 ,example of radial division4 ,alinari pendants is really a continuous horizontal treatment in which the vertical direction is emphasised by way of contrast4 ,the same principle is involved in the decoration of mouldings4 ,vertical features should be in alignment with adjacent and dominant details4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #aii4 ,frieze4 ,temple of ,antoninus and ,faustina1 ,rome4 ,horizontal direction suggested by ,gryffons1 with vertical contrast by ,candelabra4 ,all kinds of elements can be employed in ,frieze decoration1 and as much interest and liveliness imparted as is compatible with the necessary repetition4 ,borders ,borders1 with or without mouldings1 may be considered as frames to the spaces they separate or enclose2 in the latter case they are invariably uniform in width 7except when used in ,typography and illuminations1 where some license is permissible74 ,as borders are structural in suggestion1 the elements employed should be simple and without that interest which is desirable in other positions4 ,the detail to be used is largely determined by scale and position4 ,when on a small scale1 borders may be mainly composed of a series of lines spaced so as to suggest the various features of a moulded band1 in which case it is essential that the same width be maintained throughout the length1 while the lines are returned at the corners at mitral angles4 ,this treatment can be elaborated by the introduction of other lines between those most widely spaced at right angles with the direction1 and these can again be broken at intervals by rosettes or other simple forms4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bjj4 ,key-,pattern ,borders4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bja4 ,interlacing ,borders4 ,the well-known key-border is a continuous narrow band or line which traces out a labyrinth pattern by bending inwards at right angles and then returning to the original direction4 ,this1 in its simplest form1 is an elaboration of adjacent squares in which a top and bottom line is alternately dispensed with4 ,geometric ,elements ,the simplest elements in border decoration are geometric in character4 ,the border may be divided by straight lines intersecting at various angles1 or by curves struck from equidistant centres1 or by a combination of straight lines and curves4 ,the ,undulate ,line ,illustration3 ,no4 #bjb4 ,growth ,line based on ,geometric ,curves4 ,intersecting straight lines form the basis of the different chequered patterns in conjunction with the simple device of alternating light and dark masses4 ,interlacing patterns are also based on intersecting straight lines4 ,when segmental curves are employed either the chequered or interlacing effect may be obtained4 ,such patterns are essentially geometric and mechanical1 but some idea of the growth line is suggested by the undulating stems formed out of the arcs of circles struck from either side of the border4 ,this effect may be used with purely artificial detail1 such as arises naturally from the spaces left1 or with the introduction of floral detail4 ,it is evident that the curve of the undulating stem will vary according to the position of the centres from which the arcs are struck4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bjc4 ,brocade composed of ,undulate ,borders4 ,a fuller effect1 giving more space for branching and other detail1 will be obtained by basing the stem upon ,illustration3 ,no4 #bjd4 ,scroll ,border based on ,adjacent ,circles4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bje4 #adth ,century ,textile composed of ,undulate ,borders arranged obliquely4 a series of complete adjacent circles struck within the border4 ,the latter device is the basis of the wave line1 which1 after all1 is only the key or labyrinth with the square angles rounded4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bjf4 ,french ,brocade1 #ahth ,century1 composed of ,borders4 ,border decoration can also consist of leaves or other details symmetrically arranged on a central axis1 with perhaps occasional flowers or rosettes to break the monotony4 ,repetition and ,alternation ,generally speaking1 the detail should preferably be of a formal character1 and should consist of the repetition of units with no interest beyond that imparted by alternation4 ,the detail must1 moreover1 be designed with due regard to the space to be filled1 and1 in any border which encloses any space1 a common divisor of height and width should be found in accordance with which the unit can be designed4 ,treatment of ,angles ,illustration3 ,no4 #bjg4 ,the ,evolute ,scroll as a ,border4 ,a4 ,continuous4 ,b4 ,reciprocal ,the meeting angles or corners of borders invariably require special treatment1 and in those positions the detail should be compact and stronger in appearance than the general pattern4 ,the simplest expedient is some form of patera or rosette1 but1 whatever the detail1 it should always be in strong contrast to that of the run of the border4 ,the only forms that can be continuous without any marked change in the angles1 are the undulating stem1 the wave1 and its square form the key or labyrinth2 but even with these the proportion of width to height at times needs modification4 ,if a common divisor is not possible1 the difficulty can to some extent be overcome by making the form reciprocal and letting the two sides meet in the centre of the border1 so that any slight disparity in treatment and dimensions will not be noticeable4 ,pilaster ,treatment ,as the ,pilaster is used structurally in order to give support1 so its treatment in interior decoration must conform to architectural requirements1 and the decoration should be symmetrical on a central axis and vertical in direction4 ,when flutes are employed to decorate the pilasters1 they should be unequal in number--seven being a favourite number4 ,the flutes may be further decorated by cabling1 though this should extend to only one-third of the height4 ,the cabling can be elaborated into a series of husks which may arise from the base or be pendant from the top of the pilaster4 ,in either case the general rule must be observed that the cabling shall occupy only a third of the total height4 ,panelled ,pilasters ,sunk panels are also used for decorating pilasters4 ,they cover about half the width1 and are moulded at the edges4 ,in some instances1 notably in pilasters of the ,early ,french ,renaissance1 the panel is broken in the centre by the introduction of a smaller circular or lozenge-shaped panel4 ,sometimes the panel is adorned with floral or other detail1 and this should be symmetrically arranged on a central axis4 ,for this purpose the undulate stem should never be employed4 ,such detail requires a start at the base and a definite finish at the top of the pilaster1 but for the rest1 it may consist of the same unit repeated1 or of two alternating units4 ,in order to emphasise the structural character of the pilaster it was customary to introduce features in the form of mouldings1 vases and labels4 ,capitals and ,bases ,the capitals and bases of pilasters should be in harmony with the other decorations used4 ,the usual capital of the ,italian ,renaissance is a modified ,corinthian type1 and this is quite suitable when the pilaster has plain or decorated panels1 but when flutes are employed on the pilaster a more ornate capital is desirable4 ,in the latter case a composite form in which the ,doric abacus and enriched ovolo figure together with a row of stiffly-arranged vertical leaves1 could fitly be used4 ,the ,ionic type would also be suitable2 when the base of the pilaster is decorated1 the lowest detail of reeds of the principal torus may be bound with cross ribbons4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bjh4 ,pilaster ,treatment4 ,french ,renaissance4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bji4 ,treatment of ,pilaster ,capital1 with ,vertical ,emphasis4 ,treatment of ,panels ,panels and enclosed spaces have no structural significance1 and therefore in the treatment of them attitude alone has to be considered--that is to say1 the only question is1 as to whether the surface to be decorated is in a vertical or a horizontal plane4 ,in the decoration of a panel in a horizontal plane1 since it is not desirable to mark any one direction1 the detail may radiate diagonally or diametrically from a centre4 ,if1 however1 in the case of a ceiling1 details are employed in the angles formed by the walls1 these should grow towards the centre of the ceiling4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #baj4 ,ceiling ,decoration4 ,growth from ,angle4 ,when panels or enclosed spaces are used on walls or on furniture of any height the vertical direction should be emphasised as a general rule2 but if the height is less than the width1 the decoration1 though it should remain vertical in tendency1 should also spread so as to conform to the width4 ,the design of a panel or enclosed space1 whatever the shape or attitude1 should be complete in itself1 having its proper start and appropriate terminals4 ,if the enclosing border were removed the detail should1 by its general disposition maintain the shape1 even though the whole surface may not be occupied4 ,rich ornamentation is thoroughly in keeping with the nature of the panel--certainly more interest should be centred on panel decoration than on adornment in more subordinate positions4 ,the decoration may either completely fill the space or only partially do so4 ,in the latter case1 the shapes of the unoccupied parts must be carefully considered4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #baa4 ,semi-,lunette ,panel4 ,central ,feature based on ,circle4 ,whether the design is a unit repeated on a central axis or is a balanced one1 is largely a matter to be settled by individual taste and the position of the panel4 ,both treatments are admissible in a range of panels2 greater variety can be obtained by symmetrically disposed designs being flanked on either side by balanced designs4 ,juxtaposition ,when panels occur together1 either side by side or ranged one above the other1 they may exert influence on one another4 ,for example1 vertical features close to the framing stiles should be repeated in the adjacent panel even though the width of each panel may differ4 ,when the panels are one above the other1 central features should be avoided and the interest should be kept close to the opposing margins2 otherwise the effect will be spotty and lacking in repose4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bab4 ,panels in ,juxtaposition4 ,as panels present the best opportunity for display1 on account of their treatment being comparatively untrammelled by the considerations to which the more structural features must submit1 there is open to them ,illustration3 ,no4 #bac4 ,design for ,panel based on ,treatment of ,celery4 ,by ,c4 ,a4 ,sheehan1 ,bristol4 a proportionately large field of possible decoration4 ,in the first place1 the panel may be treated pictorially1 with due regard to the requirements of surface and reciprocal effect which must be insisted on in mural decoration4 ,if not treated pictorially1 ornament of a traditional character1 or designs derived more directly from natural forms can be made use of4 ,in either case the ornament must complete itself within the given area4 ,the ,growth ,line ,illustration3 ,no4 #bad4 ,analysis of ,composing ,lines of ,panel4 ,in traditional ornament1 composing or strongly marked lines are used1 but in types more nearly allied to natural forms1 it is necessary for the lines to bear some relation to the character of the selected growth4 ,the disposition of leaves and other elements must also be characteristic1 and natural terminals must be taken advantage of near enclosing lines so as to avoid any appearance of mutilation4 ,when such forms as branches or leaves approach or cross1 they should always do so at decided angles2 their points or extremities should never be directly opposed to other details or to margins4 ,the main growth should be clearly discernible1 and the direction of the stem lines evident even when clothed with foliage4 ,grouping and ,massing ,it must be borne in mind when designs are based on natural forms that the mere rendering of a natural attitude does not in itself constitute a design4 ,in the case of plant forms1 flowers and leaves should be grouped and massed1 primarily with a view to the composition of a harmonious whole4 ,sometimes interest may be added by introducing animal forms in keeping with the general environment4 ,interest in design depends on the massing and emphasis of detail1 because1 if a plain or uniform surface be completely covered with detail equally distributed1 with no regard to mass or emphasis of parts1 it is obvious that the result will again be uniform--the only difference being that a certain texture is imparted to the surface1 and this1 though not undesirable in a wallpaper1 is not consonant with the nature of a panel4 ,division of ,area ,the massing of detail should be as simple as possible and to some extent should be guided by the scale4 ,one expedient in panel designing is to draw within the area1 whether it be square1 rectangular or any other shape1 a circle or oval to control the predominant detail in contrast to that which is to be less conspicuous4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bae4 ,phases of ,elaboration of ,simple ,shape4 ,large areas may be sub-divided into several masses1 but the grouping of these must be controlled by the general shape4 ,when dealing with borders a suggestion was made that the undulate stem could follow the lines of adjacent circles1 and this device is the basis of most of the scrolling growth lines that are characteristic of ,renaissance ornament4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #baf4 ,byzantine ,panel4 ,composition based on ,circles4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bag4 ,romanesque ,lunette ,panel4 ,composition based on ,circular ,shapes4 ,human and ,animal ,life ,decoration1 when the human figure or any form of animal life is employed1 is bounded with the same conditions with regard to composition1 inasmuch that they ,illustration3 ,no4 #bah4 ,figure ,composition4 ,recognition of ,framing ,lines4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bai4 ,figure ,composition4 ,spandril ,treatment4 must be so arranged as to occupy the area and be in harmony with the boundaries or framing lines4 ,the license that is permissible in ornament1 particularly of the purely conventional type1 when it may be compelled in any direction and fitted into any space that is desirable from a decorative point of view1 is not possible where the human or animal form is concerned4 ,this adds to the consideration1 as natural attitude and proportions are obligatory if consistency has to be observed4 ,the problem in certain shaped areas affords little latitude1 in particular the triangular spandril where the invariable device of wings or floating drapery is as insistent as the head of ,king ,charles in the memorial of ,mr4 ,dick4 ,forms in the ,round ,forms in the round--such that can be seen from any point of view--need special treatment4 ,height may appear normal1 but the details round the surface will be materially affected by the rotundity4 ,thus a vase of varying contour might have its surface divided by a series of vertical lines1 any one of which1 seen from a point of view exactly opposite1 would appear straight1 whereas those approaching the profiles would appear curved proportionately to the sectional curvature4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bbj4 ,effect of ,perspective of ,vertical ,division4 ,perspective also affects the vertical appearance more or less according to the profile curvature1 and in decoration1 for bodies that are bulbous in form1 the foreshortening and its effect on details must be taken into consideration so as to avoid undesirable distortion4 ,supports and ,balusters ,other forms in the round that may be considered are supports for furniture1 balusters and lamp-post standards4 ,furniture supports and balusters are invariably in the form of tapered or vase-shaped shafts1 and the divisions may be in accordance with the proportions previously suggested4 ,appropriate mouldings are used to decorate the shaft4 ,when in wood1 these forms are either partly or wholly turned1 and in this case may be further decorated by carved work4 ,in supports1 the general tendency of the details should be in the vertical direction so as to enhance the structural suggestion4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bba4 ,jacobean ,baluster1 ,carved ,wood1 showing ,vertical and ,horizontal ,contrast4 ,standards ,in the treatment of standards it is not so necessary to emphasise the element of support1 and the diameter or lateral dimensions can vary to a greater degree4 ,whether the standards are fixtures or movable1 as in interior fittings1 there must be a base that will not only be adequate but will convey the idea of stability4 ,in the case of portable standards the tripod form of base is possibly the most suitable1 but when the standard is small the base can be circular1 square or polygonal4 ,the commonest form is a shaft1 which is frequently tapered4 ,this is supported on a bulbous or vase-shaped form arising out of the base4 ,at the upper end of the shaft is a capital of some kind4 ,these different parts are held together by appropriate mouldings4 ,the decoration of a standard1 which is largely dependent on its size1 should1 generally speaking1 be applied in the vertical direction with occasional horizontal features by way of contrast4 ,the treatment must also vary according to material4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bbb4 ,cast ,iron ,lamp ,standard4 ,proportion ,apart from considerations of use and material1 the design of this kind of round form is based on inequalities of proportion in height and diameter4 ,obvious repetitions of the same dimension are to be avoided4 ,the profiles should be carefully composed with a view to effecting harmony or contrast--the curves either approaching one another in a flexible line or being deliberately contrasting4 ,mouldings may be used at intervals to mark the various stages4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bbc4 ,types of ,vase ,decoration4 ,a4 ,horizontal ,banding with vertical ,contrast4 ,b4 ,oblique or ,spiral ,treatment4 ,c4 ,panel ,treatment4 ,vase forms vary considerably4 ,when the profile is formed by straight lines they may be cylindrical or cone-shaped4 ,of course profiles may take other forms--they may be ovoid or trace an ogee curve4 ,when the diameter varies the bulk should preponderate at some one point4 ,when unity of line is desired1 the curves of the profile should flow easily into each other1 even if broken at intervals by mouldings4 ,in contrasting curves the lines should intersect at right angles in order to avoid indecision of form4 ,positions for ,decoration ,the areas capable of being decorated on vase forms are those bounded by mouldings4 ,the nature and direction of the decoration will be determined by the profile curves on the sectional form4 ,the direction of the ornament may be horizontal as in the form of a band1 but to avoid distortion such detail should only be applied to surfaces of uniform curvature4 ,if the vertical direction be chosen the decoration may take the form of flutes1 of leaves or of panels decorated with detail4 ,a variation of the vertical treatment is obtained by employing similar details in an oblique direction1 thus giving the appearance of ornament twisting or twining round the shape4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bbd4 ,stretch ,out and ,segments of the ,cylinder4 ,in the vertical panel treatment1 as in mouldings1 the sectional or profile curve may be used to determine the general framing lines1 with contrasting details between the panels4 ,in order to give variety it may be desirable to combine two treatments--for instance1 the horizontal band may be contrasted with vertical flutes and leaves4 ,working ,drawings ,for a practical drawing the form must be shown in elevation and not in perspective4 ,all the horizontal divisions must be drawn in parallel lines4 ,it is obvious that except for profiles and general height1 further details must be given for a working drawing4 ,the ,segment or ,stretch ,out ,illustration3 ,no4 #bbe4 ,stretch ,out of the ,cone4 ,in designing for forms in the round it is necessary to detail the ornament on a segment or a stretching-out of the area4 ,this is easily done in the case of a cylinder of which the height is evident1 and the extreme width and circumference easily obtainable4 ,if the object is not in existence for direct measurement the width can be determined from the diameter as expressed in the drawing4 ,as this diameter is about one-third of the circumference a parallelogram three times the width of the diameter will provide1 in the flat1 the complete area on which detail has to be drawn4 ,should the shape of the object be that of a truncated cone--that is1 with straight inclined sides and a circular plan1 the procedure must necessarily be different4 ,in this case the lines of the sides should be extended till they intersect4 ,this intersection forms a centre from which arcs may be struck coinciding with the lines of top and base4 ,the greatest diameter should be set off on each side of the elevation on the larger radius and the points joined up with the centres from which the arcs were struck4 ,the result is a fan-shaped figure bounded by these outer lines and the two arcs4 ,this figure gives the entire area of the surface of the truncated cone4 ,in either of the figures thus obtained for designing detail on1 the surfaces can be sub-divided4 ,for instance1 if the decoration consists of a unit repeated three or six times round the form1 it will not be necessary to reproduce the whole area1 provided always that the profiles are straight or tapered4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bbf4 ,method of obtaining a ,segment of one-sixth of ,vase4 ,as the diameter is about one-third of the circumference the elevational drawing of the cylinder gives one-third of the area and half a diameter gives one-sixth4 ,in the truncated cone shape the widths are similarly determined1 but it will be found that the height1 when measured on the centre line1 is less than the lengths of the profile lines which constitute the actual height4 ,when the profiles are curved1 the procedure is more complicated4 ,as in the case of the cone shape1 there is naturally some discrepancy between the height of the elevation and the profile1 the actual dimension of which is affected by perspective 7as also in plan curvature74 ,to obtain the actual height of the area the profile must be measured vertically with some flexible material1 such as thin lead wire1 which will readily embrace the curvature4 ,if a division of a third or a sixth is required the diameter or half diameter can be taken1 but the segment of the area should be set off on a fresh centre line quite independent of the elevational drawing4 ,in order to obtain the true shape of the segment the elevation should be divided by horizontal lines drawn at the points of marked change in curvature1 and these can be lettered or numbered for identification4 ,the distance between each of these lines should be measured and set off on the new centre line1 and then these can be used for drawing the parallels through4 ,the various diameters can be determined from the corresponding lines on the elevation4 ,lines drawn through the points thus obtained will give the required segment or area on the flat4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bbg4 ,method of obtaining a ,segment of one-fifth of ,vase4 ,if other divisions than those deducible from three or six are required1 it will be necessary to draw also the plan curves from which the division can be obtained4 ,assuming that the elevation has been vertically divided as before1 and the plan to be circular1 a circle should be struck which is to represent the largest diameter and its circumference divided into the required number of parts4 ,lines are then drawn through to the centre4 ,on the same centre other circles are struck with radii equal to the remaining horizontals1 and each identified with the corresponding number or letter4 ,the heights are obtained as before1 and the diameters of the variations in the curvature can be ascertained by measuring round each of the plan curves in succession4 ,in the case of the plan being other than circular1 the same rules apply1 but the different plans would have to be drawn in each individual example4 ,owing to the effect of perspective on rounded shapes1 it is undesirable to employ the human figure1 unless in bold relief1 and then only on straight or slightly curved profiles4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,development ,,of ,,conventional ,,ornament ,the term ,convention is applied to decoration in which there is distinct evidence of artistic restraint1 which may be purely sthetic or due to technical conditions4 ,outline ,drawing ,the rendering of any form in outline is probably the simplest form of convention1 which is generally accepted through tradition as representation4 ,though the objects so depicted really depend on light1 shade1 and local colour for their appearance4 ,such outline drawings may be in other respects realistic1 but a further degree of convention is the desirable elimination of perspective where it is unsuitable to the effect desired4 ,for instance1 in silhouette1 profile renderings only are intelligible1 and in delicate bas-relief modelling any foreshortening should be avoided if confusing to the effect4 ,in direct personal work1 such as drawing or painting1 when craft conditions other than that of the medium employed are not involved1 convention is purely a matter of discretion and consideration of the nature and object of the work2 but it is essential in design when the material and method of production have to be considered4 ,in painting the artist may employ the full resources of his palette and be as realistic in his effect as is in his power1 but if the purpose be mural decoration restraint is at once imposed4 ,undesirable ,realism ,under certain conditions realism would be out of place1 and any attempt at illusion would fail to convince4 ,the one time fashion of painting ceilings with sprawling deities of either sex1 which cannot be seen without a painful crick in the neck1 or worse still to suggest sky with floating amorini1 occasionally framed by marble balustrading in wonderful perspective is deplorable4 ,such decoration1 if it can be so termed1 is not only stagey but is foredoomed to failure in effect1 as the ordinary interior lighting is not adequate4 ,furthermore1 it displays a lack of appreciation of fitness1 and that the purpose of a ceiling is to convey a sense of shelter4 ,realism1 though desirable in portraiture1 either of individuals1 places or events1 is not necessarily of the greatest interest except to those concerned4 ,in mural decoration realism should give place to convention1 and the whole considered as a design with regard to balance of form and colour1 and recognition of the surface to which the decoration is applied4 ,the first attempts at decoration were the direct results of material and the manner of working1 in which there was no attempt at representation4 ,this was succeeded when the early artists attained more skill by a phase of realism1 later still with acquired culture there was a deliberate return to convention4 ,the dignified conception of the ,egyptian rendering of the ,lion1 though thoroughly conventional1 reveals technical skill and anatomical knowledge of a high order2 also appreciation for desirable treatment1 and may be contrasted favourably with those by ,sir ,edwin ,landseer round the pedestal of the ,nelson ,column in ,trafalgar ,square1 in which realism is not subordinated to the decorative and symbolic conditions4 ,craft ,restrictions ,when any craft process is involved the design is only a means to the end1 and convention is then imposed by the technical conditions of the craft in question4 ,the designer has to keep these conditions in view1 the desirable object being to make the greatest economic use of the process compatible with a good result4 ,it would be a waste of both time and energy to depict effects that could not be realised4 ,in woven or printed fabrics it is impossible to produce natural effects2 even if that were possible the inevitable repetition of the unit would be not merely unnatural but a gross absurdity4 ,the great bulk of the public do not understand convention1 hence the popularity of textiles and wall-papers in which the designs consist of flowers treated 7however inconsistently7 in natural aspect as far as possible2 in particular the ,rose which1 like the poor1 is ever with us4 ,traditional ornament at its best has generally been conventional1 the various details of foliage being sthetic creations1 with at times1 perhaps1 some suggestion derived from natural types4 ,the scroll in the form of volutes as employed in the ,ionic capital may have been suggested by the fossil known as the ,ammonite ,illustration3 ,no4 #bbh4 ,filagree ,jewellery4 ,a4 ,hook for ,jacket in ,silver4 ,swedish1 ,mid4 #ahth ,century4 ,b4 ,pendant ,cross4 ,gold set with ,garnets4 ,modern ,italian4 ,c4 ,ear-ring4 ,gold4 ,modern ,french4 ,d4 ,ear-ring4 ,gold4 ,modern ,italian4 ,e4 ,ear-ring4 ,gold4 ,modern ,italian4 ,f4 ,pendant4 ,northern ,portuguese4 #agth or early #ahth ,century4 ,g4 ,ear-ring4 ,gold4 ,modern ,italian4 ,h4 ,pendant4 ,gold4 ,as worn by peasants in ,etruria4 shell1 so called because it resembles the ram's horn of ,jupiter ,ammon4 ,its traditional employment in conjunction with the undulate stem1 is certainly far from any natural suggestion in the way of growth1 while the variety known as the evolute scroll is distinctly artificial4 ,materialistic ,influence ,it is probable that it had its origin in the facility with which wire could be bent1 and in early jewellery such scroll forms are conspicuous4 ,a reasonable conjecture is that the similar forms in early repouss work1 such as that of the gold ornaments found at ,enkomi1 ,cyprus and the painted decoration of the ,greek vases1 were inspired by the treatment which was the outcome of the use of metal in the form of thin wire4 ,similar details occur in ,peruvian and ,new ,guinea work1 which is certainly coincidental as it is difficult to imagine these people having any communication with the ,old ,world4 ,scandinavian and ,keltic art was to a certain extent influenced by ,eastern tradition through the medium of the ,phnician merchant adventurers2 but no such conjecture is feasible in the ,maori incised work and tattooing in which similar details occur4 ,the scrolling line alone may be used1 generally in decoration of small scale1 as in the ,greek vases4 ,in this form it frequently occurs in pottery1 either incised or painted1 and in filagree jewellery4 ,wrought iron partakes largely of the scrolling character1 but this1 as in filagree1 is the direct result of the material employed4 ,scandinavian and ,keltic ornament consisted mainly ,illustration3 ,no4 #bbi4 ,the ,evolute ,scroll4 ,a4 ,pottery 7painted7 ,archaic ,greek4 ,b4 ,pottery 7painted7 ,cyprus1 #hjj ,b4,c4 ,c4 ,d4 ,f4 ,gold ,ornaments from ,tombs at ,enkomi1 ,cyprus4 ,e4 ,pottery 7painted7 ,ancient ,mexico4 ,g4 ,early ,greek ,stone ,carving4 ,treasury of ,minyas at ,orchomenos1 ,boeotia4 ,h4 ,assyrian ,stone ,carving4 ,sacred ,hom or ,palm4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bcj4 ,the ,evolute ,scroll in ,savage ,art4 ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 ,spatula ,handles1 ,carved ,wood1 ,new ,guinea4 ,d4 ,detail on ,paddle1 ,carved ,wood1 ,new ,guinea4 ,e4 ,maori ,chief's ,staff ,handle1 ,carved ,wood4 ,f4 ,detail from ,tattooed ,maori ,head4 ,g4 ,engraved ,bamboo1 ,borneo4 ,h4 ,carved ,wood ,detail1 ,new ,guinea4 of a series of scrolling forms1 as also did much of the ornament of the illuminated ,gothic work and mural decoration4 ,the desire for variety and mass lead eventually to the employment of diverse elements1 arising in many instances from different treatment of existing details2 thus1 during the ,renaissance1 the side view of a poppy-like flower suggested and became a profile mask1 and the husk leaf was frequently elaborated into the form of a dolphin4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bca4 ,scroll ,anthemion ,ornament from ,greek ,vase ,paintings4 ,early ,renderings ,the evolute scroll which plays so conspicuous a part in ,greek art1 was employed at earlier periods by the ,egyptians and ,chaldeans1 and the widespread appreciation and use of this form of detail is plainly indicative that it was not disseminated from any one centre4 ,in the early employment of these curved forms there is no evidence of natural suggestion1 but later1 leaves and floral details were added conveying the idea of growth4 ,in ,egyptian and ,assyrian art certain natural types occur1 such as the ,lotus1 ,papyrus and the ,palm1 but these were utterly denaturalised1 all realism being eliminated4 ,these conventions1 though incidentally decorative1 were invested with symbolic meaning with which their employment was concerned rather than with the imitation of natural form4 ,the ,anthemion ,illustration3 ,no4 #bcb4 ,greek ,anthemion4 ,relief ,treatment4 ,the ,anthemion alone or in conjunction with the scroll or evolute line1 appears in a painted form in the ,greek vase decoration4 ,examination of these will reveal evidence of brush-work1 the separate details being the result of direct flexion4 ,in sculptured form it appears in the ,antefixe1 also as a cresting or finial to the stele heads1 the separate radial features being channelled with sunken grooves or with ridges in relief4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bcc4 ,greek ,scroll from ,choragic ,monument of ,lysikrates1 ,athens4 ,carved ,stone4 ,it is conceivable that the attenuated effect of the mere scrolling line suggested the desirability of the occasional mass and variety that would be obtained by employing leaves4 ,greek ,sculptured ,ornament ,illustration3 ,no4 #bcd4 ,wrought ,iron ,scroll4 ,detail of ,hinge1 ,notre ,dame1 ,paris4 ,early ,french ,gothic4 ,greek sculptural ornament is comparatively devoid of natural suggestion1 the branching scrolls with sheath leaves being sthetic rather than imitative4 ,the leaves employed bear little resemblance to those of the later ,roman period1 and consist generally of a succession of radial grooves with undulating or prickly edges1 and are obviously adapted from the anthemion detail4 ,in the scrolls employed on the ,choragic monument at ,athens the desire was evidently play of line and silhouette4 ,the flexible and open form1 though possible in bent metal or in painted work1 is unsuitable to carving in stone4 ,adequate support being essential1 the scrolls had to be united by the leaves1 which were necessarily massed in form and decorated by channellings or grooves to give further detail and interest4 ,a development of the leaf treatment was the division into lobes1 each lobe being channelled with a group of radial grooves ending in serrations4 ,the lobes were divided by holes1 or1 as they are generally termed1 eyes1 more or less circular in shape1 and these were connected with the base of the leaf by pipes or ,tines in relief1 conforming with the general radial distribution4 ,acanthus ,leaf ,illustration3 ,no4 #bce4 ,acanthus ,leaf4 ,composed of groups of ,anthemions4 ,brush-work4 ,leaves of this type are known as ,acanthus1 and it is a tradition that the leaf in its original employment was derived from a natural source4 ,the anthemion1 too1 is often mis-called the honeysuckle owing to the supposed resemblance2 but it is much more probable that both were purely artistic creations developing as previously suggested from the painted anthemion details4 ,elaboration and relief expression were the natural outcome of material1 and desire for surface interest4 ,the honeysuckle origin is completely confuted by comparison of the ,greek anthemion with the ,assyrian treatment of the ,palm1 by which it was evidently inspired4 ,in ,greek ornament such flowers as occur are mostly of the rosette type1 quite conventional in character1 though in the painted decoration such natural forms as the ivy and vine are evident2 but these were always conventional in treatment and symbolic in interest4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bcf4 ,acanthus ,scroll4 ,brush-work4 ,the ,greeks were not creative in art either in their architecture or ornament1 and were evidently indebted to the earlier culture of ,mesopotamia for many of their details4 ,as they based the anthemion on the ,assyrian treatment of the ,palm1 so they borrowed the ,ionic capital from ,persia and the ,corinthian variety had its prototype in the ,egyptian ,papyrus capital4 ,even their architecture was no advance in principle on that which previously existed4 ,their treatment1 however1 was extremely artistic1 and they invested all their work with great refinement and delicacy of detail4 ,at a later period under subjugation the ,roman art development was practically in the hands of ,greek designers and craftsmen1 and acquired great freedom of expression marked by exquisite workmanship in the ,grco-,roman period4 ,roman ,development ,the details and treatment of ornament developed rapidly in the ,roman period1 in the variety and forms of the elements employed4 ,the principal exponents were ,greek1 but the original austere character of expression underwent considerable modification4 ,the ,scroll ,in ,roman art the scroll1 which constituted the chief decoration of the friezes and panels1 was greatly developed and rendered with more freedom and variety of treatment2 assuming the form of a growing or climbing stem1 bearing flowers and clothed with leaves4 ,a treatment which is fairly consistent with such types as the ,vine and other climbing growths in nature4 ,the undulating stem with branching scrolls is prominent1 both in friezes and panels2 the character of the foliage became more varied1 the stiff and formal acanthus leaf being only used in the capitals of columns and in structural features4 ,the version employed in more decorative positions ,illustration3 ,photo ,no4 #bcg4 ,detail of ,roman ,frieze1 in ,carved ,stone4 ,e4 ,richter4 exhibited greater freedom in form1 attitude and section4 ,natural types for the sake of variety were used1 generally in subordinated positions1 and there is occasional evidence of the influence of these in the treatment of the acanthus detail4 ,grco-,roman ,the development of art during this period cannot be attributed to native talent1 the ,romans being content to borrow their art as they did their religion4 ,it was rather due to the opulence of the times1 though the practical character of the race resulted in a great advance in architecture4 ,the later ,roman1 generally termed ,grco-,roman1 varied from the more robust treatment and reverted somewhat to the earlier ,greek manner2 tending to delicacy and refinement1 but retaining the variety of character and detail4 ,byzantine ,the ,state recognition of ,christianity had a great influence on art in that there was a return to symbolism4 ,various pagan elements associated with the earlier decoration that were unsuitable to the feeling of the time were eliminated4 ,eastern influence is evident1 in not only the architecture but in the treatment which is known as ,byzantine1 of the foliage1 which resembles that of the archaic ,greek1 the leaves being more stiffly lobed1 and severely channelled with ,v-shaped grooves1 in place of the subtle modelling of those of the ,roman period4 ,the stem or growth line is comparatively absent1 and the prevalence of the circle as a shape or in the arrangement of details is evident4 ,decoration displays more regard to profile than to variety of relief1 which was practically uniform4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bch4 ,gothic ,spandril4 ,carved ,stone4 ,geometric basis obvious in central circle uniting angular shape with minor circular forms occupying angles4 ,the ,byzantine influence is evident in the succeeding ,romanesque4 ,romanesque ,early ,gothic detail1 the closely curled foliage of which is suggestive of lobes though without serrations1 is reminiscent of debased ,roman tradition1 evident also in the general shape and disposition of leaves in the capitals of columns4 ,the floral ornament of the ,middle or ,decorated period1 though freely adapted from natural types1 shows traces at times of the earlier tradition in the treatment of lobed and serrated leaves4 ,italian ,renaissance ,the ,italian ,renaissance was not merely a revival of ,classic architecture adapted to more modern conditions1 but was in its earlier stages a frank reproduction of the ,roman ornament in design and rendering4 ,in later development in ,italy and other parts of ,europe it acquired local character differing materially from the original4 ,fresh elements were adopted and details originally significant were introduced for purely decorative reasons4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bci4 ,early ,pointed ,gothic ,stone ,carving4 ,ely ,cathedral4 ,the ,husk ,leaf ,a feature of the foliated scroll is the ,husk ,leaf1 either ,acanthus1 that is--lobed and serrated1 or compounded of water leaves with smooth and undulating edges somewhat similar to the hart's tongue fern4 ,the ,husk either grows tangentially from the stem which it sometimes envelopes in the sheath form1 or has at its base a floral-like feature known as the ,bract2 this1 however1 was seldom employed in ,greek ornament1 a boss-like annulet being more general4 ,the ,husk is largely employed to mask or cover branching1 and either1 as previously stated1 grows tangentially from the stem1 or takes a bulbous form with a broad and rounded base when it appears to be threaded on1 rather than articulated to1 the stem4 ,the ,rosette ,illustration3 ,no4 #bdj4 ,italian ,renaissance ,scroll1 shewing ,acanthus husks with bracts1 sheath leaves and floral terminals4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bda4 ,types of ,rosettes4 ,such flowers as were employed in the earlier ornament displayed little regard to nature1 being mostly of the rosette form with petals radiating from the centre2 as a rule these were composed of simple leaf-shaped petals in one1 two or more tiers arranged concentrically2 in this form of rosette the petals are symmetrical in shape4 ,the number of petals is a matter of scale and taste1 but an unequal number will invariably be found more interesting4 ,arrangements of five or seven in preference to four1 six and eight4 ,frequently the spaces between the outer tier are occupied by narrow leaves suggestive of the sepals in natural flowers1 and these serve the double purpose of giving variety and preserving the circular shape4 ,further variety can be imparted by the arrangements of the petals on a revolving instead of a straight axis1 either consistently in one direction or symmetrically disposed from a centre in a palmate form4 ,the ,rosette in ornament is useful as a pause point1 giving repose1 but where it is desirable to continue the flow of line1 other floral forms can be employed1 such as the tulip or the lily1 which are displayed to the best advantage in profile or perspective4 ,in conventional ornament the flower petals should be in contrast to the leaves employed on the scrolling stem4 ,the ,pistil in nature is reflected in the various sprouting forms which emerge from the conventional flowers of the ,renaissance1 and at times develop into further stem growth4 ,on sthetic grounds this may be excused in cases where flow of line is of greater importance than consistency4 ,the ,pistil takes many forms1 being frequently composed of a series of diminutive husks4 ,flower buds of similar husk form occur1 the petals being similar to those of the flowers employed4 ,tendrils ,tendrils serve a useful purpose in giving unity to the design1 for which there is ample suggestion in such natural growths as the ,vine1 ,pea1 etc4 ,too often in traditional ornament they are employed to merely occupy obviously awkward spaces4 ,in ,roman ornament flowers articulated on tendril-like stems were often used apparently to occupy the spandril-like spaces resulting from the branching scrolls4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bdb4 ,ornamental ,treatment of ,tendril from ,roman ,frieze4 ,nature ,influence ,during the ,roman development greater variety was introduced in the treatment of leaves and flowers which in many instances display evidence of natural suggestion4 ,the main stems are sometimes twisted1 a characteristic of some strongly growing natural types1 but this was only a variant of the earlier treatment of decorating the scrolling stem with channels or hollow flutes4 ,birds and animals were also used in antique ornament--grotesque combinations of foliage with human and animal forms1 and such symbolic monsters as the ,gryphon and the ,sphinx1 were employed with little regard to the original significance4 ,other symbolic elements1 such as wreaths1 garlands1 festoons1 altars1 tripods1 and urns were also introduced merely for their decorative value and to afford variety4 ,symbolic ,employment ,the modern mind is naturally out of sympathy with forms that have no direct appeal1 but it should be considered that these elements were originally not merely the expression of the art of the period1 but were also invested in many instances with symbolic meaning4 ,the ,roman citizen saw nothing incongruous in decorating a triumphal arch with the chaplet of the victor and trophies of arms4 ,the later misuse of symbolic elements can only be defended on sthetic grounds1 and is probably undesirable4 ,without these there is still left sufficient material for beautiful effects4 ,dull slavish reproduction is not only without interest1 but displays lack of inventiveness4 ,it is possible in good hands to utilise the past tradition so as to appeal to modern appreciation4 ,consistency in ,growth ,however arbitrary traditional ornament may appear1 there is consistency in the best examples1 which display in many details some general observance of the principle of natural growth4 ,there may be no attempt to exploit any known type1 the creation being purely artificial2 still the association of stem1 leaves and flowers is suggestive of natural growth4 ,the arrangement is generally progressive1 as in nature a plant develops outwards and onwards from the root1 and the orthodox scroll ornament may be considered as a stem of undulate form 7constituting the growth line7 with branches1 elaborated with leaves and flowers which are arranged successively4 ,branching ,in traditional ornament the most general form of branching is tangential1 the scrolls and leaves emerging radially from the main stem1 with slight divergence2 but in nature many varieties of branching may be observed and applied with advantage in design4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bdc4 ,types of ,branching4 ,a4 ,tangential4 ,b4 ,acute-angular4 ,c4 ,right-angular4 ,generally natural branching may be classified into ,tangential1 typical of grass growth and water-plants2 ,acute and ,right-angular4 ,the latter is sometimes usefully employed in ornament1 as it conveys a sense of strength and vigour1 though as a concession to the rhythmic flow of line it should follow for a short distance the curve of the main stem4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bdd4 ,formal ,opposite ,branching suitable for ,vertical ,borders ,pilasters4 ,independent of the angle1 branches may occur opposite1 that is1 grow simultaneously each side of the stem1 ,alternate1 or spirally round the stem4 ,the distances between the branches may be equal1 or1 as in some instances1 in alternate long and short distances4 ,the opposite arrangement of branches is most suitable where rigidity of effect is required1 but the alternate branching is susceptible of greater freedom and license4 ,the stem1 as it throws out each branch1 may gradually diminish in diameter1 each branch being less than the parent stem2 the length of each successive branch may also diminish and the leaves on these be subordinate in size to those of the main stem4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bde4 ,branch and ,scroll ,terminations4 ,leaves ,the detail of these smaller leaves may be less complex as they approach the terminals1 a characteristic in natural growth where the necessary energy to produce the flowers results in restricted development of the leaves on the flower stalk4 ,equally consistent from the nature point of view is the employment of the large husk leaves which generally cover the points of branch emergence4 ,as already stated1 these are not articulated1 but either spring tangentially from or are threaded on the main stem in contrast to the smaller leaves1 which are often provided with individual stems4 ,occasionally the scroll terminals are not furnished with flowers but develop into sprays of small leaves radially disposed4 ,the ,start ,an essential condition in panel ornament is the ,start or commencement1 which should at least be consistent4 ,the natural root is not in every case sufficient1 though at times it may be employed with effect4 ,the start point of the growth line or lines varies in position according to attitude4 ,in panels in a horizontal plane1 the start is frequently central and the traditional treatment is usually some form of rosette from which the other details radiate4 ,in some positions1 particularly pilaster panels1 the ornament is suspended1 which is consistently rendered by the employment of knobs and ribbons4 ,ribbons are not only logical1 but interesting on account of the variety afforded and are also of service in giving unity to a composition4 ,extremely amenable to harmonious arrangement and susceptible of great variation1 the ribbon can be twisted1 folded or arranged in groups of pleatings1 the ends being occasionally scrolled or split4 ,the start mostly in evidence in ornament is that known as the ,cup or ,nest1 which is composed of leaves arranged somewhat in the form of a tulip1 with generally an inverted cup leaf below4 ,it is composed of leaves either of the ,acanthus or water type1 but for the sake of variety one of these may appear in the upper part of the cup and the contrasting form in the lower4 ,the proportion between the two parts as to height and width should also be varied1 and when the cup leaf is used in pilaster panels it generally occupies the whole width of the base4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bdf4 ,the ,nest or ,cup-leaf ,start4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bdg4 ,italian ,renaissance ,foliated ,figure ,start4 ,such artificial objects as vases and baskets form fairly consistent base starts for floral detail1 others as ,altars and ,tripods are not quite so logical1 though useful in conveying a sense of support4 ,shields and ,labels1 generally employed centrally in wide panels where the ornament is displayed laterally1 are effective in the contrast they afford to the floral details4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bdh4 ,italian ,renaissance ,panel1 ,choir ,stalls1 ,st4 ,pietro1 ,perugia4 ,stefano ,martelli1 #aece4 ,the employment of half figures as starts cannot be defended2 the illogical association of life1 either human or animal1 with foliage as employed by the designers of the later ,italian ,renaissance1 is too incongruous to be excused on sthetic grounds4 ,such were due to change in taste and desire for variety1 and probably were suggested by the much earlier employment of compound animal forms as furniture supports4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bdi4 ,italian ,renaissance ,panel1 ,choir ,stalls1 ,st4 ,pietro1 ,perugia4 ,stefano ,martelli1 #aece4 ,the ,acanthus leaf prominent in ,renaissance detail1 was at first deliberately reproduced from ,roman examples1 and its architectural employment as in the capitals of the ,corinthian order1 has survived to modern times as the most suitable rendering for such structural features4 ,in more decorative positions marked changes are evident in the later phases1 the ,cinque ,cento renderings being perhaps the high water mark of the ,italian designer4 ,in these the lobes were angular in general outline1 with beautifully balanced minor lobations and the surface contours delicate and subtle in modelling4 ,renaissance ,influence ,the early examples of ,italian ,renaissance in ,france and ,england are generally pure in style1 being in most instances of ,italian design and execution4 ,later work by native exploiters in emulation of the style is invariably quite different1 until the new style was better understood and assimilated2 eventuating in versions that were distinctive and local4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bej4 ,early ,french ,renaissance ,carving4 ,francis ,i4 ,in the early ,french ,renaissance the acanthus leaf was generally displayed in profile1 the lobe being elliptic and pointed in shape1 with clearly defined minor divisions2 the sectional form was comparatively simple4 ,similar treatment1 without the precision and grace of line characterised the ,jacobean work in ,england2 the relief work of which1 being rather in the category of flat carving1 consisting mainly of incised lines and grooves by which leaf form was expressed in profile or silhouette4 ,these were invariably archaic and crude1 though in view of the direct and simple execution not without individuality and interest4 ,jacobean4 ,a characteristic feature of the ,jacobean style is the ornamental interlacing strapwork1 with foliated or ,illustration3 ,no4 #bea4 ,development of the ,acanthus ,leaf4 ,a4 ,greek4 ,b4 ,roman4 ,c4 ,byzantine4 ,d4 ,romanesque4 ,e4 ,decorated ,gothic4 ,f4 ,g4 ,italian ,renaissance4 ,h4 ,french ,renaissance1 ,period of ,francis ,i4 scrolling ends4 ,this doubtless was in emulation of the ,french work of the period of ,henry ,,ii1 when strapping composed of straight and curved lines entered largely into ornamental detail4 ,in the period of ,louis ,,xiii ,illustration3 ,no4 #beb4 ,development of the ,acanthus ,leaf4 ,i4 ,french1 ,louis ,,xiv4 ,j4 ,english1 ,grinling ,gibbons4 ,k4 ,french1 ,louis ,,xv4 ,l4 ,english1 ,adam4 ,m4 ,french1 ,louis ,,xvi4 ,n4 ,louis ,,xvi 7,salombier74 ,o4 ,english1 ,late #ahth ,century4 shield and cartouche shapes were much in vogue1 on account probably of their mass value and the contrast afforded with the subordinate detail1 which developed into the foliated strap frame of the ,louis ,,xiv style4 ,the details of this latter period were expressed in bold relief1 the decorated areas being well filled1 in contrast to the earlier ,italian style in which the background frequently predominated over the ornament4 ,the sectioning or modelling of the leaves1 which by this time were typically ,french1 was elaborate but well considered as to harmonious play of line4 ,shell forms were employed and were effective1 both as mass shapes and for the radial elaboration of their surfaces4 ,in conjunction with artificial details1 natural foliage was employed in the form of wreaths and festoons1 composed of leaves and appropriate flowers2 the conventional stem was little used1 the foliated strap being more often evident4 ,rgence ,the immediate successor of the style of the ,grand ,monarch was the phase known as ,rgence1 in which the strap frame was moulded in section1 and the whole detail became much lighter1 resulting in more open or plain spaces4 ,in the period of ,louis ,,xv restraint was thrown overboard1 panels and enclosed areas were framed with mouldings irresponsible in curvature1 and without regard to structural conditions4 ,the growth line disappeared1 the leafage and other details being arbitrarily disposed on the framing mouldings1 which were generally in flattened and elongated curves opposed to each other in flexured lines4 ,in comparison with the preceding ,louis ,,xiv style the ornament is thin and liney in character1 the leaf1 still of the acanthus type1 is greatly modified both in form and detail1 the ends of the lobes being curled and twisted spirally4 ,rococo ,in minor floral details natural types were employed1 also such artificial features as canopies or hammercloths2 rock and shell forms1 and stalactite details suggestive of icicles are comprised in the later phase to which the term ,rococo is applied4 ,louis ,,xvi ,as a natural revulsion from the license of this period in the succeeding ,louis ,,xvi style there was a distinct reversion4 ,the curved framings were abandoned and panels and other areas were enclosed by mouldings with regard both to structural and materialistic conditions4 ,great refinement is evident1 not only in the mouldings but in the details throughout4 ,in contrast to those of the ,louis ,,xiv period1 panels were occupied rather than filled1 the dominant details being placed at the upper and lower extremities and connected by vertical features either centrally or at the sides1 steadily arranged as to alignment both horizontal and vertical4 ,familiar details thus employed are such amorous emblems as quivers1 torches1 trophies of musical instruments and bouquets and festoons of natural flowers4 ,the artificial leaf reverted somewhat to the earlier ,italian type1 and was mostly displayed in profile with the lobes and serrations carefully composed4 ,the detail though comparatively low in relief1 was boldly modelled1 and the direction and emphasis of the lobes and veinings of the leaves considered with regard to the composing lines4 ,grinling ,gibbons ,school of ,carving ,in ,england the work of the school of ,grinling ,gibbons was productive of a phase of ornamental expression distinctive for its artistry and technical skill4 ,conventional details were combined with natural forms of all kinds1 the conspicuous arrangement being interlacing scrolls1 and festoons and pendant swags4 ,in the artificial leaf1 with its boldly grooved surface and accentuated lobes1 the evidence of the tool is manifest throughout4 ,the tradition established by the ,grinling ,gibbons school had a lasting effect upon the native carving1 which endured throughout the ,georgian period1 though largely influenced in detail by ,french taste--,rococo in particular4 ,adam ,style ,the designs of the brothers ,adam1 which were in vogue in the reign of ,george ,,iii1 though peculiarly individual and distinctive1 were based upon the study of ,grco-,roman details4 ,in the ,adam style the ornament is delicate in relief1 and mostly displayed in profile4 ,panels and enclosed spaces are occupied1 the decorative elements being carefully disposed with regard to balance and stability1 with large areas of plain surface4 ,the characteristic and prevailing details are the fan and delicate festoons of leaves or husks1 at times of beads4 ,the anthemion is much used on friezes and borders1 and compound animal forms1 such as the ,sphinx1 were borrowed from the antique1 the same source doubtless inspiring the employment of vases1 altars1 and tripods4 ,medallions occur occupied by figures after the manner of the ,greek vases4 ,in some instances these were in pottery1 the work of ,wedgwood4 ,the general structural form was architectural1 the mouldings slight in projection and refined in their profiles being decorated by orthodox enrichments4 ,the foliage is mostly artificial in character1 the leaf lobes in those of the acanthus type being orderly in arrangement with regard to profile and radial display1 with comparatively little modelling4 ,empire ,a similar revival of the ,antique succeeded the ,revolution in ,france1 in the ,empire style1 which1 more literal in reproduction than the ,adam work1 is characterised with1 at times1 undesirable severity and precision of detail1 particularly in the treatment of the human figure4 ,system of the ,acanthus ,leaf ,the system of the acanthus leaf is based entirely on radiation1 the tines and veinings being arranged in consistently diverging directions from a common base or start-point4 ,whether the whole leaf be displayed or merely the half leaf used1 the shape should be bounded by general lines controlling the lobes and their serrations--the mass shape forming a satisfactory silhouette4 ,the length of the lobes should be relative to the breadth of the leaf1 the maximum length agreeing with the maximum width1 and the others in proportion4 ,the edges or outlines of serrations and lobes should also be controlled by radial lines from the base4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bec4 ,construction of the ,acanthus ,leaf4 ,in turn-overs and curling or twisting lobes the silhouette shape and composing line must be considered4 ,the apex of leaf terminates with a central lobe balanced by side lobes repeated throughout4 ,in treatment these may be displayed clear of each other1 or they may overlap1 but care must be taken to avoid confusion in effect4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,treatment ,,in ,,design ,appreciation of design by the individual is largely a matter of temperament1 though it may be due to some extent to acquired knowledge4 ,generally1 few are conscious of any guiding principle1 and selection in their case is mostly the result of fashion or custom4 ,to others certain colours and forms have an appeal1 though they may be quite unconscious of1 or unable to explain the attraction other than it suits their taste4 ,in the last few years it has been recognised that colour may be employed beneficially in curative treatment1 but the normal healthy individual is often indifferent to environment other than that of material gratification4 ,when any artistic work creates pleasurable emotion1 it is purely a matter of cause and effect4 ,to design successfully involves some understanding of the causes or factors which constitute the appeal4 ,natural ,attraction ,the attraction of colour and form is undoubtedly universal1 and may be generally understood1 though there are delicate degrees of proportion and association in both that may only be appreciated by the cultivated eye4 ,early essays in drawing generally exhibit an undesirable redundancy in curves1 and in many instances the student is slow to realise that those that approximate to the elliptic form are proportionately of more interest than those obviously composed of segments of circles4 ,undoubtedly this subtlety of line is one of the predominant factors in appreciation of form4 ,a factor in pattern that is largely responsible for the charm is the presence of small detail in juxtaposition with larger forms4 ,this is entailed in instances by technical conditions1 such1 for instance1 as in some tapestries where inhabited pattern is essential to the process of production4 ,decorative ,materials ,some materials are employed partly for their decorative effect1 such as naturally figured woods and certain varieties of stone2 and design mainly consists of judicious selection1 use and treatment4 ,oak and walnut being woods extremely suitable for structural work and furniture have always been in request when obtainable4 ,polishing is to some extent a preservative1 but work in oak or walnut1 especially when carved1 should be kept comparatively dull1 otherwise confusion between the relief and the natural figuring would result4 ,in mahogany or satinwood1 where the chief interest exists in the figuring and colour1 carving is undesirable and the best effects are obtained by high polish4 ,it may be urged that in the ,chippendale period the work was invariably carved1 but the detail was always in very low relief1 and the finishing dark in colour1 in which the figuring was subdued4 ,mahogany in its more general employment owes its chief beauty to the development of figuring and colour4 ,certain marbles are used for their decorative effect1 and the natural colour and figuring developed by polish4 ,statuary marble that is sometimes employed1 is more suitable for carved details1 and appears at its best when unpolished1 though in this state it is extremely subject to discolouration owing to its absorbent nature4 ,granite1 so popular in our cemeteries1 is often polished1 when the natural figuring is unpleasantly aggressive4 ,an extremely hard stone and laborious to work1 it is not suitable for carving1 and is best left roughly tooled or frosted1 when the natural chrystaline formation appears to the best advantage4 ,justification of ,treatment ,the softer woods used in interior structural work are generally painted1 partly as a preservative and largely because they do not possess any figuring of particular interest4 ,graining in imitation of more precious woods is often condemned as inartistic1 but it may be urged in extenuation that it is the most economic treatment1 as it helps to minimise the effect of wear and incidental damage4 ,the use of pattern wall-papers and floor coverings can be justified on the same grounds1 as in those with plain surfaces any disfigurement is readily seen4 ,wallpaper1 however1 is quite a legitimate form of decoration and not necessarily imitative1 though to some extent it is reminiscent of the early custom of employing tapestries as wall coverings4 ,a more durable and artistic treatment of interiors is that of the wainscotting of the ,georgian period1 but the initial cost is proportionately great1 though probably when maintenance is taken into consideration it would be cheaper in the long run4 ,apart from the question of cost1 the modern tendency is favourable to change of effect and environment1 due partly to the facility afforded by the comparative cheapness of wall-paper1 but even more to the prevalent short tenancies4 ,undesirable ,imitation ,many excellent designs are produced in wall-papers1 though there is a tendency at times to reproduce textural effects which can only be justified on sthetic grounds4 ,those of the frankly imitative kind cannot be condoned4 ,it is still possible to have the hall and stairs papered and varnished to resemble slabs of precious marble1 or patterns in mosaic1 which were undreamt of in ,byzantine times2 and the orthodox design for the bathroom is still that of tiles with the joints neatly printed4 ,similar imitation is also apparent in linoleum1 when the pattern simulates the appearance of either wood parquet or mosaic1 or even worse--that of a ,turkey or ,axminster carpet4 ,there is an element of priggishness in such cheap art in which1 as though ashamed of poverty of material1 there is an assumption of something better2 and it is lamentable that there is not merely a market for these shams and imitations but curiously enough they also find appreciation4 ,there are phases of work where simulation may to some extent be justified1 for instance1 silver is sometimes gilt4 ,for this there is the excuse that silver1 although a beautiful metal1 is subject to oxidation and requires constant attention to keep bright4 ,gilding acts as a preservative1 and is therefore justified in certain forms of silver work1 which it is not convenient to clean in the ordinary way4 ,technical ,considerations ,it has already been suggested that ,design is not merely a question of idea and draughtsmanship1 but is also dependent upon materialistic conditions1 which1 in practical work1 must be understood and properly considered4 ,whether the intended design be for some form of flat pattern1 such as weaving1 etc41 or for any particular craft expression1 it is essential that the limitations of the process and material involved be clearly kept in view1 and that suitable elements for expression be chosen4 ,convention1 to a large extent1 exists in the adaptation of forms1 natural or otherwise1 to the exigencies of production1 a proper understanding of which will not only tend to economy in cost1 but also to more effective results1 if full advantage be taken of the craft or mechanical conditions1 which should always be foreseen in design4 ,methods of ,expression ,methods of expression vary1 according to position and material1 and may be ,flat--either silhouette1 or with appearance of relief1 or in actual relief4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bed4 ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 ,flat ,treatment1 ,silhouette important4 ,d4 ,relief ,treatment of ,c4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bee4 ,a4 ,flat ,treatment4 ,b4 ,relief of ,husk ,leaf4 ,contrast exists always1 thus in the ,flat with or without outline the contrast is in ,light and ,dark1 whether colour is involved or not4 ,in ,relief the contrast is in ,light and ,shade4 ,contrast exists also in both treatments in lines straight and curved--in the variety of the latter1 in lines with mass forms1 and in dominant forms with smaller detail4 ,in the treatment of ,flat ,ornament the most important considerations are play of line and silhouette1 and forms should be displayed in interesting profile2 perspective and foreshortening being eliminated whenever they would result in distorted or inharmonious shapes4 ,in ,relief treatment the designer is concerned with the effect of ,light and ,shade in harmonious arrangement of mass and line4 ,perspective and foreshortening are permissible to some extent1 but are largely dependent upon the work1 greater license being allowable in high than in low relief4 ,treatment of ,leaves ,in ,flat ornament1 leaves are invariably in profile1 but in ,relief expression they may be folded1 that is1 wrapped round the stem4 ,greater freedom is possible in the turn-overs4 ,relief ornament should recognise ground by details being occasionally displayed in lower relief4 ,whether expressed in ,flat or ,relief1 the composing lines should always be emphatic1 and their direction traceable through the details1 floral or otherwise4 ,surface ,interest ,in addition to the foregoing1 a further consideration is that of interest of surface1 which may consist of contrast in textures of rough surface with smooth1 of patterning on form1 veining and striation of leaves and flowers1 and of the employment of trellis or imbricated pattern4 ,the latter in conjunction with other details1 occur in the decorative work of the later ,french ,renaissance4 ,painted ,decoration ,the technical means of obtaining the interest of surfaces is1 of course1 incidental to the process involved4 ,if the decoration be the result of painting1 the design is free and untrammelled by any other than purely sthetic conditions4 ,such1 for instance1 as the desirable recognition of surface1 and the pattern sense suggested by recurrence1 if a decorative rather than a pictorial effect is desired4 ,when the decorations consist of ornament1 wholly or partly1 they are occasionally rendered in a conventional manner1 based upon the appearance of ,relief1 as in the ,pompeian wall decorations and the painted work of the ,italian ,renaissance4 ,there is ample precedent for this treatment in traditional painted decoration1 but deliberate attempts at realistic effects are not only undesirable but to be deplored4 ,the interest in ,painted ,decoration1 apart from colour1 design or subject1 would be that of the individual manifestation of the designer and painter4 ,stencilled ,work ,stencilled decoration is a compromise between painting and mechanical printing1 and is restricted by the unit4 ,the repetition of this is practically mechanical1 though considerable license is possible in the treatment of colour1 which has to be personally applied and is therefore amenable to controlled variation4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bef4 ,inhabited ,details from ,woven ,fabrics4 ,interest imparted by patterning on forms4 ,the design in stencilled work is not limited to one unit1 and is not subject to hard and fast rules1 the plates being of a size convenient to handle4 ,alternate units1 or a series can be employed1 the interest1 apart from colour and subject consisting mainly of contrast in detail1 and in the individualism expressed4 ,mechanical ,production1 ,printed and ,woven ,in textiles1 where such mechanical processes as printing and weaving are involved1 the design is restricted to the unit1 the repetition of which is infallible both as to form and colour4 ,apart from colour1 the surface interest consists of suggested or actual contrasts of texture1 the result of veining and striating leaves and flowers or of patterning forms or backgrounds with smaller details4 ,needlework ,needlework1 being a personal performance1 has no such mechanical restriction2 the design can1 and should be1 complete within the area1 and the expression perfectly free4 ,beside ,design and ,colour1 the surface interest is that of contrast in the different textures resulting from the various stitches1 and the employment of darning1 knots1 laid-work1 etc4 ,appliqu ,in ,appliqu work1 interest is imparted by the mass effects enriched by embroidery1 the large shapes entailing detail of the inhabited variety to keep them from puckering4 ,in all needlework the effect is due to some extent to light and shade1 particularly in ,appliqu1 where a corded edge is employed4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #beg4 ,needlework1 contrasting effect of various stitches4 7,photo3 ,v ,a ,museum74 ,illustration3 ,no4 #beh4 ,needlework ,appliqu4 ,interest due to contrast of material1 effect of relief imparted by corded edges1 and to embroidery on applied details4 7,photo3 ,v ,a ,museum74 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bei4 ,lace4 ,surface interest due to contrast of various fillings4 7,photo3 ,v ,a ,museum74 ,lace ,in ,lace1 the interest consists solely of textural contrast1 not only in the treatment of the various details1 but in the patterning of intervals due to the necessary fillings4 ,design may be complete1 or a repeated unit1 according to the purpose and variety of lace4 ,wood ,inlay ,illustration3 ,no4 #bfj4 ,wood ,inlay4 ,geometric arrangement4 ,design for ,inlays in ,wood-work may be free in expression1 or a unit1 at discretion4 ,the latter variety frequently takes the form of lines spaced with regard to good proportion1 forming borders1 chequers and geometric shapes of various kinds4 ,floral or other forms simple in character and profile may be used1 the design being expressed in silhouette4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bfa4 ,wood ,inlay4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bfb4 ,wood ,inlay4 ,simple silhouette depending on natural colour4 ,intarsia ,in the ,intarsia detail of the ,italian ,renaissance1 the inlaid forms were elaborated by surface markings and graduated effects were obtained by means of hot sand2 but the natural contrast in the varied colour and fibres of the material employed probably form the more legitimate interest in all inlaid work4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bfc4 ,wood ,inlay4 ,simple silhouette4 ,veneer1 ,marquetry ,in ,veneer work and in ,marquetry1 where the work is quartered and juxtaposed1 the interest consists in the patterning of the figured woods1 particularly when these are arranged to form reciprocal shapes4 ,boule ,work ,the interest of ,buhl or ,boule work1 an inlay of metal employed in the ,french ,renaissance in the decoration of furniture1 often in conjunction with tortoiseshell1 is that of contrast of texture4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bfd4 ,italian ,intarsia4 ,forms elaborated by incised lines4 ,in the design1 profile or silhouette is the primary consideration1 being used3 #a4 ,as a form of framing1 #b4 ,in angles or centres on table-tops1 #c4 ,in panels in furniture3 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bfe4 ,louis ,,xv ,cabinet with ,ormolu ,mounts4 ,marquetry1 veneer quartered and inlaid with floral detail4 7,photo3 ,v ,a ,museum74 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bff4 ,boule ,work4 ,period of ,louis ,,xvi4 ,the design can invariably be complete within the area4 ,coloured grounds are employed as well as tortoiseshell4 ,mosaic ,mosaic designs may be complete in themselves or be the result of repetition1 according to attitude and purpose1 and with regard to variety and colour1 only restricted by sthetic considerations4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bfg4 ,boule ,work4 ,period of ,louis ,,xvi4 ,owing to technical limitations1 modelling can only be broadly suggested2 therefore forms should be generally in silhouette except when on a large scale4 ,when employed on walls and vaults1 gold is frequently used in the backgrounds4 ,this not only serves to define detail1 but affords contrast to the general surface1 the inevitable joints in the tessar adding also to the interest4 ,byzantine ,use of ,marble ,associated with ,mosaic decoration in the ,byzantine ,period was the employment of marble in shafts of columns and for lining walls by banding or slabbing1 frequently quartered1 so as to display the markings in reciprocal forms4 ,such marbles were chosen for figuring and colour1 the former in its variety being an important factor in the surface interest4 ,similar employment of slabs occurs in the treatment of floors1 where contrast in colour is the chief consideration4 ,it is sometimes associated with ,mosaic of small tesser1 also in marble1 whereas that used on walls and in vaults was frequently of glass4 ,the foregoing is a broad summary of ornamental expression in the ,flat1 with the exception of ,book ,decoration4 ,book ,decoration ,in ,black and ,white1 which is chiefly employed1 the designs may be in tone or line with suggestion of rotundity or relief2 or line decoratively employed1 according to subject1 or purely decorative4 ,the same applies to renderings in colour4 ,designs for covers are controlled by the processes involved1 whether printed1 stamped or tooled4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bfh4 ,mosaic ,borders4 ,a4 ,from ,carthage4 ,b4 ,c4 ,withington1 ,gloucester4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bfi4 ,mosaic ,border1 ,roman4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bgj4 ,roman ,mosaic4 ,woodchester1 ,gloucester4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bga4 ,roman ,mosaic4 ,treatment in ,light and ,shade suggestive of relief4 7,photo3 ,v ,a ,museum74 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bgb4 ,tooled ,bookbinding in ,leather4 ,repetition due to tools or stamps4 7,photo3 ,v ,a ,museum74 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bgc4 ,modelled ,plaster1 shewing relatively large ground area4 7,photo3 ,v ,a ,museum74 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bgd4 ,wood ,carving4 ,grinling ,gibbons4 ,attention devoted to detail with elimination of ground4 7,photo3 ,v ,a ,museum74 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bge4 ,wood ,carving4 ,french1 ,louis ,,xiv4 7,photo3 ,v ,a ,museum74 ,bindings ,in the two latter the ornament should be in profile or silhouette4 ,in tooled bindings1 repetition of unit or motif is essential1 the design being the direct result of available tools4 ,in such bindings further interest may be imparted by gilding either the detail or by introducing gold as powdering on shapes or backgrounds1 or by the so-called inlaying of other colours4 ,relief--,economic ,result of ,method ,in ,relief ornament1 design and character should be the result of technical expression4 ,if considered from an economic point of view1 the tendency would naturally be to obtain the maximum effect with the minimum of labour2 and this would invariably result1 when the decoration is built up or applied to an existing ground as in modelled work1 in slight occupation1 with comparatively large intervals4 ,in carving1 where the original surface forms the highest relief1 and has to be cut back to form the ground1 the result would be reversed1 the individual worker being more attracted to the treatment of detail than to clearing away uninteresting spaces4 ,carving1 whether in wood or stone1 is employed in various decorative positions1 and except in the enrichment of friezes or mouldings--when the repeating unit is desirable--the design should be complete in itself4 ,desirable ,treatment in ,carving ,the treatment should evidence the direct employment of the tool1 any attempt to efface or soften will result in loss of character and suggest the plastic effect incidental to modelling4 ,for convenience1 and possibly in the absence of more desirable examples1 students are often allowed in their early attempts at carving to reproduce casts of plastic origin4 ,this is undoubtedly pernicious1 as the model is probably unsuitable1 and the student is thereby biassed4 ,examples should be selected in which the characteristic treatment is sufficiently evident if a true and thorough appreciation of the craft is to be instilled4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bgf4 ,simple ,jacobean ,wood ,carving4 ,direct gouge work4 ,in the design--which may occupy or fill the shape and can be symmetrically arranged on a central axis1 or balanced--the effect is due mainly to ,light and ,shade4 ,further interest may be imparted by the sectional form or modelling of the details1 groovings1 striations or other textural suggestions4 ,backgrounds ,the employment of punched grounds in carved work is to be deprecated as mechanical in effect4 ,sufficient interest is obtainable by the process of cutting back1 in the perfect levelling of which the carver need not be too concerned4 ,suspiciously uniform grounds are suggestive of work fret-sawed and applied4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bgg4 ,wood ,carving4 ,english4 ,late ,elizabethan or ,early ,jacobean4 ,when carving in wood is in very high relief1 it is occasionally1 as in the ,grinling ,gibbons work1 built up4 ,this may not be a matter of great objection if properly attached1 and the grain of fibre matched1 but is1 however1 better avoided4 ,reproduction ,processes ,modelled ornament is generally employed in reproduction processes1 such as moulding of ,terra-cotta1 plaster1 etc4 ,the design can be free in expression1 or a unit of repetition according to requirement4 ,the detail which is applied to an existing surface is invariably more open1 with a resulting display in the background4 ,the surface interest consists of contrasts in texture1 the result of veining1 striating and patterning forms4 ,the relief is not1 as in carved work1 controlled by an original surface1 but1 being built up1 is susceptible to greater variation4 ,mouldings may be broken by lapping and overlapping details1 and though in some traditional work similar treatment occurs in wood-carving1 it must be remembered that such details are too suggestive of1 and more proper to1 plastic renderings4 ,in economic moulded work undercutting of details should be avoided as this is only possible in piece or elastic moulds4 ,in wood-carving1 however1 there is no restriction4 ,metal ,repouss ,freedom and variety in detail are possible in ,metal ,repouss1 but as the light and shade is considerably modified by the nature of the surface1 the design which is plastic in character incidental to method of working1 should have regard for silhouette or profile display1 and not be dependent upon surface modelling4 ,the principal factor in effect is ,light1 both direct and reflected4 ,surface interest is the result of imparting by chasing various textures in striations or matt4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bgh4 ,wood ,carving from ,fontainbleau4 ,early ,french ,renaissance4 ,excellent effect can be obtained by outlining with the tracing tool1 leaving the surface of detail plain and uniform in height1 and imparting texture with the matt tools in the intervals for the sake of contrast4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bgi4 ,economic ,wood ,carving4 ,the method of working is simple1 entailing manipulation from the face of the metal only1 and the detail is left in slight relief by the ground being set back in the texturing4 ,this treatment is only suitable where the ornamented area is enclosed4 ,when the design is freely displayed on a ground without enclosing lines1 it should appear in relief1 the result of raising from the back2 and texturing should be employed only on the details in contrast to the smooth ground4 ,as in all applied work1 the economic result is slight occupation4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bhj4 ,oak ,box decorated with flat carving4 ,icelandic4 #ahth ,century4 ,metal1 ,cast ,cast metal is produced in sand moulds1 a model or pattern being employed of which the casting is a reproduction4 ,the ,illustration3 ,no4 #bha4 ,repouss ,work4 ,a4 ,pattern defined by tracing tool and interest imparted by different textures of ground4 ,b4 ,pattern raised from back1 and defined and enriched by tracing and matt tools on face1 affording textural contrast with plain ground4 7,photo of ,a4 ,v ,a ,museum74 pattern may be originally modelled or carved1 and this determines the character of the metal result1 though it is a matter of indifference when the necessary finishing is by turning or filing4 ,castings in iron are left as they leave the mould1 but in bronze1 except in ,cire ,perdu casting1 the surface has to be entirely worked down4 ,in common work1 however1 this is accomplished by means of small files or riffles and by chasing the more elaborate details4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bhb4 ,wrought ,iron1 simple form enriched by use of punches4 ,character of ,cast ,work ,illustration3 ,no4 #bhc4 ,gondola ,prow4 ,wrought ,iron1 comparative flat surface enriched by chiselled work4 ,as a matter of opinion it is consistent that the ,illustration3 ,no4 #bhd4 ,surface ,interest in ,metal4 ,a4 ,blade of ,state ,battle-axe1 damascened with silver1 ,indian4 ,b4 ,blade of ,khyber ,knife1 engraved1 ,indian4 ,c4 ,hilt of ,tulwar1 damascened with gold1 ,indian4 ,d4 ,vase1 ,bidri ,ware1 pewter inlaid with silver1 ,indian4 ,e4 ,scabbard ,end1 gold inlay1 ,indian4 ,f4 ,ornament on ,gauntled ,sword1 damascened with gold1 ,indian4 character of cast work should be plastic1 and if the original pattern is the result of carving1 care should be taken to impart the desired feeling1 the pattern being merely a means to the end4 ,much depends upon the final finish2 if this is to be bright1 surface modelling should be a secondary consideration to surface interest resulting from contrast of textures4 ,it1 however1 becomes of proportionate importance as the work is dull or toned1 and therefore is subject to the ordinary conditions of ,light and ,shade4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,mythology ,,and ,,symbolism ,traditional ornament is replete with forms and details that were originally invested with meaning1 though in the later employment this was disregarded1 being used for the sake of variety and their sthetic value4 ,such details as the festoons1 wreaths1 tripods and altars as appear in the ,renaissance ornament were originally associated with victory1 sacrifice and religious observance4 ,early ,symbolic ,ornament ,it has previously been suggested that the early employment of natural types was symbolic in the ,egyptian treatment of the ,lotus and ,papyrus1 which1 providing material for woven fabrics and for manuscripts1 were therefore esteemed4 ,these details associated as they frequently are with the zigzag line1 are symbolic of the fertilizing of the land resulting from the periodical inundation of the ,nile4 ,the date-palm on account of its value as food was symbolised by the ,assyrians as the tree of life in the fronding ,anthemion form1 which undoubtedly influenced the later ornament4 ,the ,palm-tree was said to grow faster for being weighted down1 hence it was the symbol of ,resolution overcoming ,calamity4 ,the oriental belief was that it sprang from the residue clay from which ,adam was formed4 ,symbolism1 universally understood as it undoubtedly was in early times1 implied a universal interest on the part of the individual and the general community4 ,the absence of this interest in more modern work is to be deplored4 ,a common example of the employment of such symbols1 which however is fast disappearing1 is the barber's pole1 the gilt knob of which represents the basin1 and the pole the staff held by the patients in the operation of venesection4 ,the painted spiral stripes are to indicate the respective bandages1 one for twisting round the arm previous to blood-letting1 the other for final bindings4 ,customs ,the modern custom in salutation of shaking hands or raising the hat is a survival--the former of the ancient custom of adversaries in treating of a truce taking hold of the weapon hand to ensure against treachery--the latter of the removal of the helmet when no danger is nigh1 to show that one can stand unprotected4 ,the custom in ,courts-martial of placing the sword hilt or point towards the accused1 according to judgment1 is also a survival4 ,in ancient times1 if a stranger on arrival held the point of a spear forward1 it denoted a declaration of war2 but if carried with the point behind1 he came in friendship and peace4 ,there are opportunities where the decorative element could be such as to1 embody or vindicate local character or purpose1 but with the decadence of symbolism much of our modern ornament fails to interest1 because it has no meaning that is understood or can be appreciated4 ,origin of ,mythology ,mythology had its origin in the superstitions of primitive man1 to whom the gods were forces of ,nature improperly understood1 and to whom ,light and ,darkness would appeal as beneficent or malignant forces according to how they affected his personal comfort4 ,the uncontrollable nature and effects of these in the absence of more modern conditions would naturally tend toward belief in ,fatalism and ,destiny1 which eventuated in mythological expression4 ,nature ,myths ,early myths had their origin in processes of ,nature1 or aspects of natural phenomena which1 to the primitive mind1 appeared supernatural4 ,inducing a belief in powers invisible1 infinite and divine1 and in future existence4 ,with this belief these aspects were eventually invested with personality4 ,an example is the ,greek tradition of ,kronos1 a native myth accounting for the separation of ,heaven and ,earth4 ,uranus 7,heaven7 husband to ,ga 7,earth7 kept his progeny ,oceanus 7sea7 ,hyperion 7,sun7 and ,kronos 7,light and ,dark1 or ,time7 in the hollows of the earth1 in darkness4 ,kronos revolted1 and forcing ,uranus away1 kept him for ever at a distance4 ,a ,new ,zealand parallel is the ,maori ,tree or ,forest god ,tani1 who effected a similar severance by lying down on the earth and pushing the ,heavens away with his feet4 ,the native belief being that man was a tree upside down1 his hair forming the roots and his legs the branches4 ,light and ,darkness ,some myths appear in many forms1 associated with rising and setting4 ,the ,greek rendering is that ,kronos 7,time7 married ,rhea and devoured all his children at birth except ,zeus 7,air71 ,poseidon 7,water71 and ,hades 7the ,grave71 which three ,time cannot consume4 ,an earlier tradition is that ,kronos devoured all his progeny except ,zeus1 for whom a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes was substituted and promptly swallowed1 the child ,zeus being secreted4 ,on arriving at adult age1 ,zeus compelled ,kronos to disgorge1 first the stone1 then the other children in succession4 ,the literal meaning being that of night covering up or swallowing the world1 the disgorging being the sunrise4 ,melanesian ,myth ,an interesting variant is the tradition of the ,melanesian hero ,qat and his brothers1 who lived in perpetual day4 ,qat heard of ,night1 and setting forth in search1 was successful in his quest4 ,on his return he told his brothers to sit quite still1 and when they felt something in their eyes to take no notice but keep quiet2 thereon they fell asleep4 ,when ,night had lasted long enough1 ,qat took a slab of red obsidian and cut the darkness and ,dawn came out4 ,a tradition reminiscent of the 8dustman0 or the 8sand-man0 of the nursery1 though the slab of red obsidian is a touch both poetic and symbolic in its suggestion4 ,darkness as a ,devouring ,monster ,in the early myths1 ,night or ,darkness is invariably a malignant influence or a devouring monster threatening the earth or the sun1 e4g41 the ,scandinavian ,wolf ,fenrir or ,fenris1 the ,python slain by ,apollo1 and in ,oannes the ,chaldean sea-god devoured or destroyed by darkness4 ,oannes1 who is represented in composite fish and man form1 according to tradition lived with mankind during the day to instruct them in the ,arts and ,sciences2 being immolated at night and re-incarnated at dawn4 ,season ,myths ,in the ,scandinavian tradition of ,baldur1 the god of ,peace1 which bears some resemblance in respect to immolation and re-incarnation1 the god was killed by the blind ,hoder at the instigation of ,loki4 ,by order of ,odin1 everything that sprung from earth1 air1 fire and water was forbidden to injure ,baldur1 but the mistletoe1 not being included1 was made into an arrow and shot at random4 ,it effected his death1 but by general request of the gods1 he was restored to life4 ,baldur is really a season myth1 symbolizing the death of the sun at the end of the year1 with the resuscitation in the ,spring4 ,so also is the tradition of ,persephone abducted by ,pluto1 and allowed to revisit her mother1 ,demeter1 at the dawn of ,summer4 ,another parallel is the story of ,orpheus and ,eurydice4 ,sun ,myths ,of myths associated with the ,dawn there is the tradition of ,apollo and ,daphne1 where the story of the nymph being chased by the god and transformed into the tree symbolised the early dawn dispersed by the ,sun1 or the effect of the growing power of the ,sun on vegetation4 ,similar in idea is the tradition of ,wabun1 son of ,mudjekee-,wee1 the ,north ,american ,indian ,apollo1 who chased ,darkness with his arrows over hill and valley1 waking the villagers1 calling the ,thunder and bringing the morning4 ,he married ,wabung ,annung1 whom he transplanted to the ,heavens1 where she became the ,morning ,star4 ,associated also with the sun is the myth of ,clytie1 a water nymph1 who for unrequited love of ,apollo1 was changed into a sun-flower1 which traditionally still turns towards the sun1 following him through his daily course4 ,belief in ,natural ,phenomena ,it has already been suggested that in primitive times intentional and conscious life was ascribed to a host of natural objects and phenomena1 indications of which survive in the common speech of the present day4 ,thus we speak of inanimate things as if they had consciousness and intelligence4 ,we say the ,weather is good or bad1 the ,wind furious1 the ,sea treacherous1 the ,seasons inconstant or the ,earth thirsty4 ,it is also customary to speak of the 8head0 or 8foot0 of a mountain1 and 8arm0 of the sea and the 8mouth0 of a river or a cave4 ,conscious action is suggested by such statement as the wind 8whistles10 8howls0 or 8moans02 the torrent or river 8murmurs02 the fields 8smile0 or the sky 8threatens40 ,these afford undoubted evidence of early belief in personality and consciousness--a belief originally simple1 but later becoming more complex1 monotheistic in the earlier form1 developing into polytheism in assigning different deities to the various elements4 ,greek and ,roman ,deities ,in ,greek and ,roman mythology there are twelve deities1 six gods and six goddesses4 ,greek4 ,gods4 ,roman4 ,zeus4 ,the air or the ,jupiter4 living one 7king7 ,apllon4 ,sun ,god4 ,apollo4 ,ares4 ,war ,mars4 ,hermes4 ,messenger4 ,mercury4 ,poseidon4 ,sea ,god4 ,neptune4 ,hephaistos4 ,smith4 ,vulcan4 ,goddesses4 ,hera4 ,queen4 ,juno4 ,demeter4 ,tillage4 ,ceres4 ,artemis4 ,moon-,hunting4 ,diana4 ,athen4 ,wisdom4 ,minerva4 ,aphrodite4 ,love and ,beauty4 ,venus4 ,hesta4 ,home life4 ,vesta4 ,these are the original twelve1 but four others are referred to as follows3 ,dionsus4 ,the ,god of ,wine4 ,bacchus4 ,eros4 ,the love lad4 ,cupid4 ,plutn4 ,god of the ,inferno4 ,pluto4 ,kronos4 ,time4 ,saturn4 ,scandinavian ,mythology ,in the ,scandinavian mythology ,ymir the personification of ,chaos or first created being1 was produced by the antagonism of heat and cold1 nourished by the four milky streams from the cow ,audhumla4 ,while he slept a man and woman grew out of his left arm1 and sons from his feet1 from whom was formed the race of ,frost ,giants4 ,odin and his two brothers slew ,ymir and threw the carcase into the ,ginnungagap1 or abyss of abysses4 ,the blood formed the waters of the ,earth2 the bones the ,mountains1 the skull the ,heavens2 the teeth1 ,rocks2 the brains1 ,clouds2 the hair1 plants of every kind2 and the eyebrows1 a wall of defence against the ,giants4 ,as in the ,greek and ,roman mythology1 the ,celestials or sir of the ,scandinavians were twelve in number1 the chief being ,odin4 ,each god dwelt in his mansion in ,asgard 7,god's ,ward71 situated on the heavenly hills between the ,earth and the ,rainbow4 ,the other gods or ,asa were3 ,thor4 ,god of ,thunder and ,war4 ,tyr4 ,wisdom4 ,baldur4 ,sun4 ,bragi4 ,eloquence4 ,vidar4 ,silence4 ,hodar4 ,the ,blind4 ,harnod4 ,the ,messenger 7divine intelligence7 ,odur4 ,loki4 ,god of ,mischief4 ,all these were sons of ,odin--the youngest being ,vale4 ,the mansion of ,odin was ,gladsheim--that of ,frigga1 his wife ,fensalir4 ,baldur's was ,broadblink or 8,vast ,splendour40 ,the ,refectory1 or ,hall of the sir1 was ,valhalla1 in which the spirits of warriors were entertained by the twelve ,valkyries 7armed and mounted nymphs71 who in battle selected those destined for death4 ,supreme were the 8,mysterious ,three0 called ,har the ,mighty1 the ,like ,mighty and the third person1 who sat on the throne above the ,rainbow4 ,the ,scandinavian ,fates or ,nornir1 representing the ,past1 ,present and ,future1 sat spinning the web of events of human life beneath the ash tree ,yggdrasil1 whose roots ran in three directions1 one to ,asgard1 one to the ,frost ,giants1 and the third to the underworld4 ,beneath each was a fountain of wonderful virtue4 ,in the tree from which drops honey sit an eagle1 a squirrel and four stags2 lying at and gnawing the root is the serpent ,nithhggr1 while the squirrel ,ratatsker runs up and down endeavouring to cause strife between the serpent and the eagle at the top4 ,rising and ,setting ,symbolised ,the ,egyptian ,horus1 the hawk-headed son of ,osiris and ,isis1 symbolised the sun's path1 or the rising sun2 ,ra the noon-day and ,osiris the setting4 ,osiris1 the husband of ,isis1 is represented by the moon1 and by an eye at the top of fourteen steps and symbolises any waning luminary1 as the setting sun or waning moon4 ,isis1 to whose worship the sacred cow was dedicated1 symbolises rising1 becoming visible1 and is represented with two horns on a stem rising from her head4 ,the ancient ,egyptian indulged in the supposition that the swelling of the ,nile at the annual innundation occurred on the anniversary of the death of ,osiris1 and was due to the tears of the lamenting ,isis4 ,endymion in the ,greek tradition is the setting sun1 with whom the moon is in love4 ,he was visited and kissed every night by ,selene on the ,latmian ,hills1 where he was condemned to sleep1 and eternal youth4 ,winds ,personified ,that the ,winds as natural forces should become personified is easy to imagine1 as in the ,roman olus1 father of ,zephyr1 the ,west wind4 ,aquilo or ,boreas1 son of ,astrus a ,titan1 and ,eos 7morning7 was the ,north ,wind1 and lived in a cave on ,mount ,hermus in ,thrace4 ,the other winds were ,notus1 7,south71 ,eurus 7,east71 ,corus 7,north-,west71 ,argests 7,north-,east71 ,volturnus 7,south-,east71 and ,aferventus 7,south-,west74 ,the natural phenomenon of the ,echo is embodied in the poetic tradition of a nymph1 who1 on account of unrequited love for ,narcissus1 pined away till only her voice remained4 ,predestination ,to the primitive mind disaster or affliction from quite natural causes would be attributed to the wrath of some deity1 even though there was no personal offence4 ,this superstition would find expression in a belief in predestination or fatalism1 as is evidenced in the tragedies of ,orestes and dipus1 and to a certain extent in the protracted return of ,ulysses from ,troy4 ,the ,fates ,the ,greeks and ,romans believed that birth1 events and death were arbitrarily controlled by the ,parc or ,fates1 of which there were three--,clotho1 who held the distaff--,lachesis1 who spun the thread of life and ,atropos who bore the shears and cut the thread when life was ended4 ,thus ,clotho presided over birth and drew the thread of life from the distaff1 while ,atropos presided over death1 ,lachesis spinning the thread between life and death4 ,the ,harpies and ,furies were also responsible agents in disaster4 ,the former were vultures with female heads and breasts1 living in an atmosphere of filth and stench and contaminating everything they came near4 ,their names ,ocypeta 7rapid71 ,celeno 7blackness71 and ,aello 7storm7 indicate that they were the personification of tumult and whirlwind4 ,equally arbitrary were the reputed acts of the ,furies1 of whom there were likewise three1 their names being ,tisiphone 7avenger of blood71 ,alectro 7implacable71 and ,megra 7disputatious74 ,propitiation and ,sacrifice ,propitiation and sacrifice1 to avoid such visitation would be the natural outcome1 and the various traditions are probably records of actual occurrences1 embroidered by poetic imagery and miraculous conditions4 ,in later tradition1 cause or justification is indicated as in the story of ,iphigenia1 daughter of ,clytemnestra and ,agamemnon4 ,the latter having offended ,artemis by killing her favourite stag1 vowed to sacrifice the most beautiful thing that came into his possession during the next twelve months4 ,this was an infant daughter1 but the sacrifice was deferred till she reached womanhood1 when the combined ,greek fleet arrived at ,aulis on its way to ,troy4 ,calchas declared this would be wind-bound as long as the vow remained unfulfilled1 but ,artemis interposed at the last moment by spiriting ,iphigenia away from the altar and leaving a hind to suffer in her stead4 ,a similar story is that of ,andromeda1 rescued by ,perseus from the sea monster sent by ,poseidon to devastate the land4 ,the reputed cause was ,cassiopeia1 mother of ,andromeda1 boasting of her daughter's beauty1 and on appeal to the oracle the sacrifice was declared necessary to save the country and to appease the offended deity4 ,similar instances in ,bible history are the vows of sacrifice made by ,abraham and ,jephthah4 ,the latter has a parallel in the ,greek tradition of ,idomeneus1 ,king of ,crete1 who vowed to sacrifice the first being he encountered if the gods granted him a safe return after the burning of ,troy4 ,the first person met on landing was his son1 who was sacrificed1 and in consequence ,idomeneus was banished as a murderer4 ,early ,burial ,customs ,the ancient burial customs are evidence of an early belief in future existence1 and that not only human beings but inanimate objects have souls4 ,it was considered necessary that the departed should be accompanied not only by his weapons and personal belongings1 but also by attendants or slaves1 who were immolated so that they could continue their ministrations in the future life4 ,taboo ,the reverence with which burial places were regarded gave rise to the belief in the spirits of the dead as guardians1 and this survives at the present day in the mysterious custom of 8,taboo10 a ,polynesian term which means 8consecrated0 or 8set apart40 ,it really has a double meaning3 to consecrate1 and to insure penalty1 whereby dwellings are abandoned after the death of their owners in the supposition that they are sacred to the spirits of the departed4 ,roman ,lares ,the ,lares of the ,romans were domestic or public1 the domestic ,lares were the souls of the virtuous ancestors exalted to the rank of protectors4 ,they took the form of images like dogs set behind the ,entrance1 or in the ,lararium or shrine4 ,there were also public ,lares1 whose province was the protection of streets and roads4 ,this belief in the dead as guardian spirits accounts for a form of sacrifice in which the victims were buried under foundations1 a custom modified in later times to the sacrifice of animals4 ,it survives at the present day in burying current coins at the ceremony of laying the foundation-stone in public buildings4 ,typical ,legend ,many of the legends of the ,middle ,ages associated with ,architecture are reminiscent of the early customs of sacrifice in the oft-repeated traditions of demoniacal aid4 ,the story generally deals with some difficult problem in design or construction for the solution of which the architect or builder enters into the usual compact with the evil one1 the terms being that the latter party to the contract shall take possession of the first living being that enters into or crosses the structure4 ,invariably the enemy of mankind is outwitted1 a dog or some other animal being the first to enter1 the builder's sense of caution being in every instance greater than his vanity4 ,similar in idea was the ,hebrew custom of the scapegoat1 which also anticipated and symbolised the ,atonement4 ,with the ,greeks the cock was not sacrificed1 it being sacred to the ,sun and ,moon1 as it announced the hours4 ,the cock was also sacred to the ,goddess of ,wisdom and to sculapius4 ,therefore it represented ,time1 ,wisdom and ,health1 none of which should be sacrificed4 ,early ,spiritual ,belief ,experience due to the involuntary action of the brain in dreaming1 when the ordinary laws of time and space are modified could hardly fail to impress the primitive imagination and suggest the duality of being--physical and spiritual4 ,in some savage communities at the present day there is a belief that the soul or spirit is absent during sleep and that it would be dangerous to wake the sleeper1 as1 should he close his mouth1 the soul would be unable to return4 ,this belief that the soul should be free to go and come is evidenced in the aperture that has been found in ,kist-vaens and other forms of tombs4 ,prehistoric ,treatment of ,epileptics ,prehistoric skulls have been found bearing evidence of the operation of trepanning1 arising from the belief that the patient was possessed by devils which would be released by making a hole in the head4 ,this treatment was apparently applied to epileptics4 ,with the primitive instruments and ignorance of ansthetics in that remote period it could hardly have been a pleasant experience4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans believed that the souls escaped with life through the aperture of the death wound1 and the ,moslems had a superstition that it was necessary in strangling a victim to relax the cord before death occurred1 so as to allow the soul to escape4 ,even to modern times it is customary to open a window of a death chamber4 ,prohibition ,a form of taboo in legend and tradition is prohibition either as to act or question4 ,the ,biblical instance of ,lot's wife has its parallel in ,eurydice1 wife of ,orpheus1 who1 killed on her wedding night1 was redeemed on condition that ,orpheus should not look back till she had reached the upper world4 ,forgetting the prohibition1 he turned to see if she were following1 and ,eurydice was instantly caught back into ,hades4 ,the story is a poetical rendering of the capture of ,eurydice by ,adonius1 ,king of ,thresprotia1 called ,pluto1 on account of his cruelty4 ,orpheus obtained her return on conditions that were not fulfilled2 therefore he lost her a second time4 ,the prohibition of ,persephone to ,psyche to look at the casket of ,divine beauty until she reached the upper world and the consequence1 is similar in idea1 though the sequel is the result of feminine curiosity and devotion4 ,as examples of the forbidden question1 the stories of ,cupid and ,psyche and ,lohengrin may be quoted2 in both instances curiosity as to name and origin was interdicted4 ,disregard of the command resulted in abandonment4 ,a more modern tradition is that of ,melusina1 who for her sins was condemned to become every ,saturday a serpent from her waist downwards4 ,she married ,raymond1 ,count of ,lusignan1 and made him vow never to visit her on that day4 ,excited by jealousy1 he hid himself on one of the prohibited days and saw her in her transformed state1 whereupon she was obliged to quit1 and wander about as a spirit till the day of doom4 ,belief in ,magical ,qualities4 ,the ancient belief in the supernatural was not confined to the spiritual world1 but also extended to inanimate objects which were sometimes invested with magical qualities1 as for instance1 the ,helms of ,perseus and ,pluto1 which rendered their wearers invisible4 ,the same virtue was possessed by ,albric's cloak1 ,tarnkappe1 which also invested the wearer with the strength of twelve men2 by means of which1 and the invisibility conferred1 ,siegfried was able to overcome ,brunhild1 the martial queen of ,iceland4 ,the ,shirt of ,nessus ,more malignant in character was the ,shirt of ,nessus as the source of misfortune from which there was no escape4 ,according to tradition1 ,nessus the ,centaur1 while conveying ,dejanira across a river1 was shot by ,hercules for his rudeness4 ,the dying ,centaur bequeathed his tunic to ,dejanira1 assuring her that to whomsoever she gave it1 they would love her exclusively4 ,believing this1 she presented it to ,hercules1 who on wearing it was subjected to such torture that1 being unable to remove the garment1 he immolated himself on a funeral pyre4 ,similarly malignant was the poison-cloak sent as a present to ,arthur by ,queen ,morgan la ,fay4 ,swords ,swords at all times have been possessed of magical qualities1 but the belief possibly indicates stages of development4 ,the description of the sword of ,perseus as a form of diamond1 suggests that the story had its origin in the ,stone ,age4 ,it is reasonable to presume that the later improvements were such an advance that they suggested supernatural origin2 e4g41 the sword of ,siegfried1 the name of which was ,balmung or ,gram 7literally 8grief074 ,the sword was reputed to be made by ,wieland ,smith1 the ,vulcan of the ,scandinavians4 ,to test the blade he tried it on ,amilias1 a brother smith1 cleaving him through helm and armour down to the waist1 but the cut was so fine that ,amilias was not aware that he was wounded until he attempted to move1 when he fell in two pieces4 ,arthur's sword ,excalibur 7liberated from the stone7 is a later development1 as the magical property was in the sheath1 which rendered the wearer immune from injury4 ,arthur's undoing was the result of losing the sheath1 though he retained the sword4 ,invulnerability ,associated with this is invulnerability1 variously bestowed or acquired4 ,in the tradition of ,achilles1 he was immersed in the river ,styx by his mother ,thetis1 but the immersion did not extend to his heel1 in which he received his mortal wound from the arrow of ,paris4 ,jason was rendered invulnerable in his battle with the giants that sprang from the sowing of the ,cadmean teeth by being anointed by ,meda with the ,promethean unguent4 ,siegfried1 the horny1 made himself similarly proof from injury by bathing in the dragon's blood1 but one spot on his back1 where a linden leaf had stuck1 escaped4 ,through this only vulnerable spot he met his death1 being killed by ,hagan the ,dane while drinking in a pool4 ,this probably is a poetic allusion to early employment of defensive armour1 in which the back1 as compared to the front1 would be unprotected4 ,belief in ,numbers ,certain numbers have at all times been invested with mystic significance1 e4g41 8,three0 the 8perfect0 number1 expressive of ,beginning1 ,middle and ,end2 also symbol of ,deity4 ,an earlier term of ,trinity is ,triad1 and almost every mythology has a three-fold deity4 ,that of the ancient ,greeks consisted of ,zeus1 ,apollo and ,aphrodite1 the ,egyptian being ,osiris1 ,isis and ,horus4 ,the ,romans believed the world to be under the rule of three gods--,jupiter 7,heaven71 ,neptune 7,ocean71 and ,pluto 7,hades74 ,the first has three thunderbolts--,neptune1 the ,trident1 and ,pluto1 ,cerberus1 the triple-headed dog4 ,three in number also were the ,fates1 ,furies1 ,graces1 ,harpies and ,sibylline ,books4 ,in the underworld the three judges of hell were ,rhadamanthos1 ,minos and acos4 ,muses ,the ,muses were three times three as follows3 ,calliope4 ,epic ,poetry4 ,clio4 ,history4 ,melpomene4 ,tragedy4 ,euterpe4 ,lyric ,poetry4 ,urania4 ,astronomy4 ,terpsichore4 ,dancing4 ,polyhegmnia4 ,religious service4 ,erato4 ,erotic ,poetry--,geometry4 ,thalia4 ,comedy4 ,the world is compounded of three elements--,earth1 ,water and ,air4 ,man also is three--,body1 ,soul and ,spirit2 and the kingdom of ,nature--,mineral1 ,animal and ,vegetable4 ,there are three ,christian ,graces--,faith1 ,hope and ,charity1 and three enemies of mankind1 the ,world1 ,flesh and ,devil4 ,the number 8,four0 symbolises the quarters of the ,world--the ,winds--the ,gospels--the ,evangelists and the four sacred ,rivers4 8,five0 signifies the ,cross and the ,five ,wounds4 8,seven0 has also been regarded as a mystic number1 as in the ,days of ,creation1 the days of the week1 the ,spirits before the ,throne1 the ,ages in the life of man1 the seven-armed candlesticks of the ,hebrews2 the sleepers of ,ephesus2 the champions of ,christendom and the ,wonders of the world4 ,sacred ,trees and ,flowers1 etc4 ,certain flowers and trees were in ancient times dedicated to the ,deities4 ,the cornel cherry tree and the laurel were sacred to ,apollo2 the ,cypress and ,maidenhair to ,pluto2 the ,dittany to the ,moon2 the ,lily to ,juno2 the ,myrtle to ,venus2 the ,narcissus and ,poppy to ,ceres2 the ,oak to ,jupiter2 the ,olive to ,minerva2 and the ,vine to ,bacchus4 ,the ,laurel wreath was given to the victor in the ,pythian games4 ,the victor in the ,olympic games had a wreath of wild olive--of green parsley in the ,nemean games1 and of dried parsley or green pine in the ,isthmian games4 ,the ,ancients believed that the laurel communicated the spirit of prophecy and poetry2 hence the custom of crowning the ,pythoness and poets4 ,in modern times the laurel is a symbol of ,victory and ,peace4 ,the ,olive1 sacred to ,pallas ,athen1 was anciently a symbol of peace1 an olive twig in the hands of kings1 as represented on medals indicating a peaceful reign4 ,the ,palm also symbolised ,victory1 and in ,christian ,art is generally borne by the martyr--indicating victory over ,death4 ,the ,lily--which1 according to tradition1 sprang from the repentant tears of ,eve as she went forth from ,paradise--is the emblem of ,chastity1 ,innocence and ,purity and is associated with representations of the ,virgin4 ,the ,daffodil or ,lenten ,lily1 which it was customary to plant on graves1 was once white1 the tradition being that ,persephone1 daughter of ,demeter1 delighted to wander about the flowering meads of ,sicily4 ,one springtime she tripped over the meadows1 wreathed her head with wild lilies and1 throwing herself on the leaves1 fell asleep4 ,pluto1 god of the infernal regions1 fell in love with her and carried her to the nether world4 ,at his touch the white flowers changed to a golden yellow4 ,in ,christian ,art the apple is symbolical of the fall of man1 and represents original sin2 the rose symbolises ,christian ecstacy1 the ,pomegranate 7generally burst open with the seeds displayed7 is the symbol of the future life and immortality4 ,the vine and ears of corn are symbols of ,christ1 and the ,wine-press an emblem of the ,passion4 ,the ,passion-flower is emblematical of the ,crucifixion--the leaf symbolising the spear2 the anthers1 the five wounds2 the tendrils1 cords or whips2 the column or oviary1 the hammer2 the three styles1 nails2 the fleshy threads within the flower the crown of thorns1 and the calyx1 the nimbus4 ,the white tint indicates 8purity10 the blue 8,heaven10 and the flower keeping open three days symbolises the three years' ministry4 ,sacred ,animals ,animals were also dedicated to special deities1 the wolf1 gryffon and crow being sacred to ,apollo2 the dragon and panther to ,bacchus2 the stag to ,diana2 the serpent to sculapius2 the deer to ,hercules2 the heifer to ,isis2 the eagle to ,jupiter2 the peacock and lamb to ,juno2 the dog to the ,lares2 the horse and vulture to ,mars2 the cock to ,mercury2 the owl to ,minerva2 the bull to ,neptune2 the dove1 swan and sparrow to ,venus2 and the lion to ,vulcan4 ,the lion also is the emblem of the tribe of ,judah and is symbolical of the ,resurrection4 ,according to tradition the lion whelp is born dead1 and so remains for three days1 when the father breathes on it and it receives life4 ,evangelist ,symbols ,mark1 the ,evangelist1 is symbolised by a lion1 because he begins his gospel with the scene of ,john the ,baptist and ,jesus in the ,wilderness4 ,matthew1 whose gospel commences with the humanity of ,jesus as a descendant of ,david1 is the only one of the ,evangelists represented as a man4 ,luke is symbolised by a bull or calf1 and ,john by an eagle--the former because his gospel opens with the priests sacrificing in the ,temple1 and the latter because he soars high and begins his gospel with the divinity of the ,logos4 ,in ,greek and ,roman art the lion's head is used particularly on fountains4 ,the ,egyptians employed the lion1 to symbolise the annual inundations of the ,nile1 which happens when the sun is in ,leo4 ,the ,serpent ,the serpent in ancient times was symbolical of wisdom and subtlety1 and1 considered as a guardian spirit1 is depicted on altars4 ,it was also the symbol of ,hygeia1 the goddess of ,health1 from the tradition that sculapius assumed the form of a serpent during a pestilence in ,rome4 ,in later art the serpent appears as a tempter4 ,the ,brazen ,serpent of the ,hebrews that gave newness of life to those who1 bitten by the fiery dragon1 raised their eyes to it1 is an anticipation of the ,crucifixion4 ,the ,dragon ,the mythical dragon is a ,middle ,age symbol of sin in general and ,paganism in particular4 ,the ,celtic use of the word for 8a chief0 is the source of the legendary dragon slayer1 as a knight killing a chief thereby slew a dragon4 ,the dragon1 which appears as a guardian1 as in the garden of the ,hesperides1 watching the tree bearing the golden apples of ,hera1 is also a poetic allusion to flood or inundation4 ,the tradition of the ,python and ,apollo is an instance of poetic allusion to the power of the sun drying up the overflow1 as also the deliverance of the city of ,rouen by ,st4 ,romanus from the dragon ,gargouille 7waterspout7 which lived in the ,seine4 ,poetic ,license in ,tradition ,in ,art and ,literature traditions and legends dealing with probable occurrences have been handed down--in many cases completely transformed--by reason of this poetic license2 e4g41 the legend of ,marsyas the ,phrygian flute-player1 who1 challenging ,apollo to a contest of skill and being beaten1 was flayed alive for his presumption4 ,the story is not without its moral1 as the flute on which he played was one thrown away by ,athen1 and1 filled with the breath of that goddess1 still discoursed sweet music4 ,the story is based upon the respective superiority of the instruments--the ,dorian mode in the worship of ,apollo employing the lute or lyre1 and the ,phrygian mode in the worship of ,cebele the flute1 the reeds of which grew on the banks of the river ,marsyas4 ,another example is the tradition of the ,danaides1 daughters of ,danaos1 ,king of ,argos1 who1 fifty in number1 married the fifty sons of gytos4 ,all but one murdered their husbands on the wedding night1 and were punished in the infernal regions by having to draw water everlastingly in sieves from a deep well4 ,the literal explanation is that the followers of ,danaos taught the ,argives to dig wells and irrigate the land in the ,egyptian manner4 ,the soil of ,argos1 being dry and porous1 resembling a sieve4 ,the extreme of poetic license is perhaps reached in the tradition of ,geryon1 a human monster with three bodies and three heads1 whose oxen fed on human flesh and were guarded by a two-headed dog--both slain by ,hercules4 ,this is a fanciful account of the defeat of ,geryon1 who reigned over three kingdoms and had an ally who was at the head of two tribes4 ,another fantastic tradition relates that ,xerxes inflicted three hundred lashes on the sea1 and bound it in chains--a ,greek myth based on the peculiar construction of the second pontoon ,xerxes employed to cross the ,dardanelles4 ,this consisted of three hundred boats1 secured by chains to two ships which acted as supporters4 ,a more modern instance is ,cleopatra's pearl1 which she is reputed to have dissolved in wine at the banquet1 the costliness of which excited the wonder of ,antony4 ,it is probable that the pearl was sold either to defray the cost or to provide a bribe for ,antony4 ,animals in ,christian ,art ,the ,dog in ,medival ,art symbolises ,fidelity and appears on monuments at the feet of women1 signifying affection and faithfulness2 and at the feet of men1 signifying courage and magnanimity4 ,when the dog appears on the tombs of ,crusaders1 it is to indicate that they followed the standard of the ,lord as a dog follows its master4 ,other animals in ,christian ,art symbolise respectively3 ,the ,ant4 ,prudence4 8 ,ape4 ,malice1 lust and cunning4 8 ,ass4 ,sobriety4 8 ,asp4 ,christ1 or ,christian ,faith4 8 ,bee4 ,industry4 8 ,camel4 ,submission4 8 ,cock4 ,vigilance4 8 ,fox4 ,fraud and cunning4 8 ,hog4 ,impurity4 8 ,lamb4 ,innocence4 8 ,leopard4 ,sin4 8 ,ox4 ,pride4 8 ,dragon1 ,serpent1 ,satan and his crew4 8 ,swine4 8 ,lamb4 8 ,pelican4 ,symbols of ,christ4 8 ,unicorn4 ,the ,lamb1 which is reminiscent of the ,paschal ,lamb of the ,exodus1 appears on ,church plate and decorations1 and is usually depicted carrying a banner bearing the ,cross1 sometimes with blood issuing from its breast caught in a chalice4 ,the ,pelican is the symbol of ,charity and the emblem of the ,atonement4 ,it is generally represented on the nest feeding its young from the flesh of its breast4 ,the ,phnix1 owing to its traditional rejuvenation every hundred years1 is the symbol of the ,resurrection4 ,the ,dove is an emblem of ,peace1 ,fidelity and of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,the ,fish was adopted by the early ,christians as the symbol of ,purity and ,faith4 ,it conveys a comparison of the ,christian passage through life with the fish passing through salt water still remaining fresh1 and is occasionally suggested in the ,vesica ,piscis1 which it resembles in general shape4 ,association of ,human and ,animal ,qualities ,such arbitrary creatures as the ,sphinx1 the ,winged and ,man-headed ,bull and ,lion1 and the ,griffin1 were invested with symbolic meaning in the association of qualities--animal and human2 and probably had their origin in an early belief in ,totemism4 ,totemism ,most primitive communities have superstitious regard for certain animals1 as the mythical origin of personal or tribal descent1 and appreciation for animal qualities is evidenced1 for example1 in the belief that to eat hare or any timorous animal would be disastrous1 resulting in the transference of timidity to the consumer4 ,cannibalism ,the underlying idea of ,cannibalism is the belief that in consuming part of an adversary his virtues will also be acquired4 ,the practice in1 that sense is really a tribute to his superior courage or mentality4 ,the ,lion and ,bull were associated with courage and strength1 either for protection or menace4 ,the ,serpent1 with wisdom1 subtilty and cunning4 ,the ,eagle typifies alertness and watchfulness as well as speed4 ,wings may symbolise rapidity and mobility1 or ever-present1 as hovering1 the bat's wing being potential in darkness4 ,the human element denotes ,intelligence1 and bird claws--,ferocity4 ,the ,sphinx ,the ,sphinx in ,egyptian ,art1 always represented in a crouching position1 is a combination of ,lion body with human head and bust 7generally female7 and symbolises ,intelligence and ,power4 ,the ,greek ,sphinx1 borrowed from the ,egyptian1 is generally represented in a seated attitude1 and invested with wings4 ,it had a different meaning1 that of ,malignity and ,mystery4 ,probably in allusion to the tradition of the ,theban sphinx that menaced the town1 until her destruction was accomplished by dipus1 who solved the riddle that had resulted fatally for his predecessors4 ,assyrian ,winged ,monsters ,the ,assyrian combination of ,winged ,lion or ,bull with human head1 is symbolic of association of strength with courage and intelligence1 the wings suggesting mobility or ever-present4 ,the ,gryffon1 a ,greek creation1 was composed of a lion body1 with eagle head and wings1 typifying not only swiftness1 strength and courage1 but alertness or watchfulness4 ,it was employed on the ,acroteria of the pediments2 alertness being indicated by the forward position of the ears4 ,the ,chimer as an emblem of terror and devastation1 is in the form of a lion body1 the tail being a serpent1 the lion mouth belching forth flames4 ,from the centre of the back protrudes a goat's head4 ,the whole is presumed to embody the idea of a volcanic mountain1 the head being the crater1 the goat representing the mountain slopes1 and the snake tail the morass at the foot4 ,the ,dragon1 compounded of a lizard head and body1 bat wings and serpent tail1 is a product of medival times1 probably suggested by the mythological ,gryffon4 ,sometimes the dragon is invested with the legs of a lion1 and to testify to its potency for evil1 flames are depicted issuing from the mouth4 ,pegasus ,pegasus1 the winged horse on which ,bellerophon rode against the ,chimer1 also used by ,perseus in the rescue of ,andromeda1 is typical of poetic inspiration4 ,another form of horse is ,hippocampus1 associated with the chariot of ,poseidon or ,neptune1 in which the fore-legs develop into fins and the hinder part into a fish-tail in harmony with its element4 ,the ,harpy ,in all such associations the character is indicated by the various parts employed4 ,the ,harpy of the ,greeks being a combination of female head1 with bird body1 wings1 and claws1 was suggestive of swiftness and ferocity1 and was the personification of sudden events4 ,sirens ,equally disastrous1 but more alluring1 were the ,sirens 7or entanglers7 of whom there were three1 ,parthenope1 ,ligea1 and ,leucosia4 ,they symbolised the dangers of treacherous coasts1 and were reputed to lure their victims by their beauty and wonderful singing4 ,failing to entrance ,ulysses1 they were doomed to destroy themselves4 ,the siren is represented in the form of a beautiful woman1 but the lower limbs terminate with bird claws1 typical of their ferocity4 ,in allusion to their musical attraction1 they are occasionally depicted as bearing harps or lutes4 ,the representation of ,triton1 the son and trumpeter of ,neptune 7in which capacity he bears the conch or shell trumpet7 as a man with the lower extremities terminating into fish tails1 is to embody the idea of ocean4 ,the ,dolphin has the same significance4 ,pan ,a similar combination of human and animal1 that of ,pan1 depicted as a man with the horns and legs of a goat1 is the personification of ,deity displayed in creation and pervading all things4 ,flocks and herds1 being the chief property of the pastoral age1 were under his divine protection2 therefore ,pan was a rural or rustic god4 ,the ,nymphs ,to the pastoral age also belong the ,hamadryads1 the nymphs of the forest trees1 in which they lived1 dying when the tree died4 ,the leopard skin with which they are often partly draped1 is poetically suggestive of such chequered sunlight as would penetrate woodland growth4 ,centaur ,the ,centaur1 a combination of male bust with ,horse body and legs1 was an embodiment of the ,thessalonian horsemen4 ,the ,epic sculptures of the ,metopes of the ,parthenon are illustrative of the conflict between the ,centaurs1 and the ,lapith1 caused by the rudeness of the former when entertained as guests4 ,the ,circle ,the ,circle1 originally a sun sign1 has been invested with symbolic meaning from the earliest antiquity1 the general significance being that of ,power1 or ,sovereignty2 a significance which also applies to its employment as the crown1 orb and nimbus4 ,in ,egyptian art1 the circular disc1 orb or globe1 is accompanied by two asps1 and spread wings as a symbol of ever-present sovereignty with the power of life and death4 ,the same meaning being expressed in the ,assyrian version1 which is similar in form1 but with the bow-string substituted for the asps4 ,the ,nimbus1 ,aureole1 or ,halo originally symbolised ,power and ,authority1 not ,sanctity1 and its employment in ,christian art was anticipated in pagan times4 ,it was adopted by the early ,christians to express ,divinity1 or as an indication of holiness1 and is usually in the form of a disc4 ,that of the three persons of the ,deity has three rays issuing from the centre1 and sometimes is triangular in form4 ,the ,nimbus of the ,virgin ,mary is circular1 nearly always elaborated1 but not tri-radiated4 ,those of saints and apostles are circular1 more or less ornamented4 ,the ,aureole in the form of the ,vesica ,piscis is sometimes used to envelop the whole figure4 ,symbols of the ,trinity ,three circles interlacing or in the form of a trefoil are employed as emblems of the ,trinity1 as is also the equilateral triangle4 ,the circle is also the symbol of ,eternity1 as having neither beginning nor end2 in ,scandinavian art it is represented as a serpent4 ,the orb as a symbol of power may possibly have its origin in the stone or weight1 which in ancient times was kept by the tribal chief4 ,to lift this was the test of the youth aspiring to manhood1 a custom which is preserved in the ,highland games when 8putting the stone0 is one of the tests of strength4 ,the ,wand a ,symbol of ,authority ,another symbol of authority is the wand in its various forms of sceptre1 mace or baton4 ,this probably had its origin in the strong man's club1 a form which is still retained in the official mace4 ,the sceptre has various forms of terminals1 as the ,dove1 and the open hand1 the significance of the latter being authority with power to reward or punish4 ,the ,hand ,the hand was a symbol of fortitude in ,egypt and of fidelity in ,rome--two joined hands signifying concord4 ,previous to the twelfth century the supreme being was often represented by a hand extended from the clouds1 sometimes open with rays extending from the fingers in token of divine ,grace4 ,the red hand is generally connected with some traditional tale of violence1 and is so expressed on the shield of ,ulster4 ,an allusion to the tradition that the adventurer ,o',neile vowed to be the first to land in ,ireland1 and finding his boat outstripped1 cut off his hand and flung it ashore4 ,the ,hand is also an emblem of handicraft1 when generally an eye is represented in the palm1 as significant of eye and hand being in harmonious accord4 ,the ,caduceus ,the ,caduceus was originally an official wand1 and1 adorned by the ,egyptians with two serpents1 became the symbol of eloquence4 ,in ,greek mythology wings were added1 and it became the attribute of ,hermes or ,mercury4 ,the tradition being that the god one day came upon two serpents quarrelling1 whereon he threw down the staff of authority1 round which the serpents twined in peaceful amity4 ,the symbolism of the caduceus is therefore power1 associated with wisdom1 the wings meaning rapidity or dispatch1 and1 as such1 is employed as an emblem of commerce4 ,thyrsus ,a variant of the wand or staff is the ,thyrsus of ,bacchus1 which takes different forms1 the early examples being a plain staff entwined with ivy leaves1 though later vine leaves were substituted4 ,it also appears in the form of a pine cone impaled on a spear1 which may be in allusion to the ,greek custom of mixing the juice of the pine or fir 7turpentine7 with the new wine to make it keep4 ,it has also been attributed to a strategy of war1 when ,bacchus made a successful advance by the ruse of concealing his followers with branches1 as in the example of ,shakespeare's ,macduff4 ,the pine cone being suggestive of a night attack or that the ,bacchanalian festivities took place at night4 ,the ,trident ,the ,trident of ,neptune1 and the ,paddle or ,rudder of ,triton are also variants of the wand as symbols of authority1 and in their separate use1 are sufficient to indicate ,sea or ,ocean4 ,the ,cross ,though the ,cross was adopted by the early ,christians1 like the nimbus it was employed in more remote times4 ,in ,carthage it was used for ornamental purposes1 but with the ,egyptians1 it was regarded as a sacred symbol4 ,it also occurred in ,greek sculpture on a circle1 when it symbolised the four cardinal points4 ,surmounted by a circle in the form known as the ,crux ,ansata1 it was sacred to ,isis1 and stood as an emblem of immortality and life generally4 ,there are various forms of the cross in ,christian art1 the ,greek cross with four equal arms1 signifies the blessing which the great ,sacrifice extends equally over the four quarters of the world4 ,the ,latin cross1 in which the shaft is longer than the upper arm1 sometimes has three steps which signify the triple foundations of ,faith1 ,hope and ,charity2 the last being the lowest as the foundation of all ,christian virtues4 ,the ,latin cross is sometimes furnished with two transverse arms1 when it is known as the ,ecclesiastical cross1 used by ,cardinals and ,bishops at ,rome4 ,the cross of the ,pope has three transverse arms4 ,the ,cross of ,st4 ,andrew1 or cross saltire1 is in the shape of the letter ,x1 and is used as a symbol of martyrdom4 ,the ,tau ,cross in the shape of the letter ,t--frequently used in ,byzantine representations of the ,crucifixion1 is that on which the ,brazen ,serpent was uplifted2 and was also the sign marked on the door-posts at the sacrifice of the ,paschal ,lamb of the ,exodus4 ,the ,cross with the arms bearing leaves or blossom1 is symbolical of the triumph of ,christianity over sin and persecution4 ,occasionally it takes the form of a spreading tree4 ,when five red marks or jewels are placed in the centre and extremities they are emblematic of the five wounds4 ,in ,christian art the cross is the symbol of ,christ1 either in the simple form1 or as a crucifix1 which in the early renderings was more suggestive of voluntary sacrifice4 ,the realistic treatment of physical suffering belongs to a later period4 ,it is also in its various forms an emblem of martyrdom that of ,st4 ,peter's being in a reversed position in reference to the manner of his execution4 ,the ,pastoral ,staff ,the cross1 invariably with foliated ends1 mounted on a staff1 is the ,crozier of an ,archbishop4 ,the staff of a ,bishop terminates with a curving head in the form of a shepherd's crook which it symbolises2 both being indicative of authority4 ,symbols of ,martyrdom ,martyrdom is symbolised not only by the palm1 and the crown1 as indicative of ,victory over death and reward1 but by the banner of ,triumph over death and persecution4 ,also by the sword1 as a symbol of violent death1 or by other implements of execution4 ,these are represented in conjunction with the individual martyr or saint1 as attributes and as a means of identification4 ,as symbols personal to ,christ1 the emblems of the ,passion and ,crucifixion are proper to the ,cross and chalice4 ,such1 for instance1 as the crown of thorns1 the nails1 scourge1 whipping-post1 ladder1 spear1 lantern1 thirty pieces of silver1 etc4 ,symbolism of ,gems1 etc4 ,in ,christian art1 gems1 metals and colours are invested with symbolic meaning4 ,the amethyst signifies humility1 the ,diamond--,invulnerable ,faith1 the ,sardonyx--,power1 the ,sapphire--,hope1 ,gold represents ,power or ,glory1 and ,silver--,purity4 ,black represents ,grief or ,death1 ,blue--,hope and ,divine ,contemplation1 pale blue--,peace1 ,christian ,prudence or a serene conscience1 ,green--,faith1 ,gladness1 pale green--,baptism1 ,grey--,tribulation1 ,purple--,justice or ,royalty1 ,red--,martyrdom for ,faith1 ,scarlet--,fervour1 and glory of witnesses to the ,church1 ,violet--,penitence1 and ,white--,purity1 ,temperance and ,innocence4 ,shells on tombstones are allusive to the earthly body left behind1 a mere shell of the immortal soul4 ,they are also used to indicate a pilgrim1 by whom they were carried1 probably as a drinking vessel or form of spoon4 ,torches1 either upright or inverted1 symbolised respectively ,life and ,death4 ,when in the latter position the flame is represented as ascending1 the significance is ,death with hope of the ,resurrection4 ,an earlier signification in ,pagan art is the bridal torch of ,hymen4 ,masks ,masks1 which frequently appear in ,renaissance ornament1 are traceable to the ,greek employment to symbolise ,comedy and ,tragedy4 ,the ,medusa head1 which occurs on shields and on the gis of ,athen1 was the emblem of ,terror4 ,the tradition being that ,medusa1 one of the three ,gorgons1 famous for her hair1 set her beauty against that of ,athen4 ,as a punishment1 her hair was converted into serpents1 the aspect of which was so terrible that any who looked thereon were changed to stone4 ,a fate to which the ,gorgon herself succumbed on seeing her reflection in the burnished shield of ,perseus4 ,the ,cornucopia1 or horn of plenty1 another instance of ,pagan survival1 was given by the infant ,zeus to ,almath in gratitude1 with the promise that the possessor should always have abundance in everything desired4 ,the horn being that of a goat from whom the god was fed1 invariably accompanies the representations of ,ceres4 ,symbols of ,time ,time is symbolised by the hour-glass and by the scythe4 ,the latter implement1 though generally accepted is more strictly the emblem of ,death1 which cuts down prematurely4 ,whereas ,time only garners when ripe the sickle would be more appropriate4 ,secular ,symbols ,besides those enumerated1 emblems are used for the arts1 sciences1 and crafts1 and as devices for ,guilds and ,corporations4 ,the arts of ,painting1 ,sculpture and ,architecture are symbolised by the various implements employed1 as are the crafts4 ,music by the ,lyre and other instruments1 ,literature by the ,lamp1 ,books1 and the ,owl as the ,bird of ,wisdom4 ,science and mechanics are similarly indicated4 ,means of transit1 by a winged wheel1 suggestive of ,speed and ,progress2 trade and commerce by bales of goods and by the ,caduceus1 and ,agriculture by implements1 sheaves of corn and fruit4 ,trophies ,groups of weapons used in war and hunting have been employed in a decorative manner4 ,this can be traced to the ,greek custom of hanging the weapons abandoned by a fleeing enemy on trees1 and to the spoils of victory carried in the ,roman triumphal processions4 ,such trophies of arms and armour appear in sculptured form as decoration to the ,roman arches and military monuments4 ,a custom which was emulated in later times in arsenals1 public buildings and tombs4 ,heraldry ,heraldry1 which probably had its origin in ,totemism1 was practised chiefly for purposes of identification1 and was essential in the period of complete armour1 which rendered recognition in the ordinary way difficult4 ,originally expressed on shields1 surcoats and banners1 it was employed later on tombs1 and became a feature in decorative work4 ,indeed the display of heraldic devices on gates and entrances1 and in chimney-pieces1 is quite justified as indicative of ownership4 ,such details were eventually introduced into ornament for the sake of mass effect and variety4 ,heraldry in ,design ,a very early example of this decorative employment is that of the ,lion gate at ,mycen4 ,heraldic designs also appear in the later ,byzantine and ,sicilian tapestries and entered largely into ,renaissance ornament4 ,the shield is particularly conspicuous1 with its development into the strapwork frame and cartouche forms of the ,jacobean and ,french ,renaissance4 ,it will be gathered from the foregoing that the latter day designers1 especially those of the ,renaissance1 borrowed freely from the past1 to which there could be little objection if the employment of such details were justified by conditions4 ,symbolism in ,modern ,art ,unintelligent reproduction is not only retrogressive but a confession of incapacity1 and it is desirable to create an interest in the present and to invest modern art--wherever possible--with meaning4 ,present ,apathy ,in this the co-operation of the general public is essential4 ,in the past1 as is evident in the simplest utensils1 beauty was universally appreciated1 but at the present time the large majority are apathetic to sthetic environment2 regarding art vaguely as the production and display of pictures and sculpture4 ,the present shows a considerable advance on the deplorable taste of the mid-,victorian period1 but we have still far to go4 ,the incongruity of domestic decoration and furniture which1 unhappily1 is too general1 is the result of individual selection which is invariably uneducated4 ,the manufacturer can do much1 and the designer may be prepared to do more1 but until artistic appreciation is more generally diffused1 any progress must necessarily be very slow4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,ways ,,and ,,means ,through the medium of sight1 interest and emotion are excited by phases of colour and form1 varying in individuals according to temperament4 ,the artistic perception and appreciation of these are invariably due to natural faculty1 though much may be acquired by intelligent study4 ,perception ,in most forms of artistic expression the hand is the auxiliary of the eye4 ,though sensitiveness of touch and dexterous manipulation are essential1 these can be acquired by practice4 ,perception1 is of paramount importance1 and it may be assumed that the artist's vision is more sensitive to appearance and subsequent suggestion than that of the layman4 ,the interest of the average individual in art is generally that of subject and sentiment4 ,this is probably a more natural and logical attitude than that of the artist1 to whom--as a craftsman--the interest is often merely that of technique4 ,these possibly represent the two extremes2 the cultured individual is capable of appreciation of the ideal without consideration of schools and isms4 ,many students in their early essays draw rather from an imagined knowledge than from the actual visual aspect--are apt to take forms for granted1 to assume1 for example1 that an object is round when it is really subtilely polygonal4 ,theoretically a curve has no existence1 being really a combination of straight lines varying in length and direction4 ,many beginners are unable to approximate even so obvious a form as a right angle1 and until their vision and judgment is trained1 it is improbable that they can successfully render more subtile combinations4 ,it is the business of the teacher to train the vision so that the perceptive faculties are developed1 and instil in the mind of the student that art is only concerned with appearance4 ,any fact not visually apparent should be ignored4 ,accepted ,conventions ,the whole subject is complicated by convention2 thus for convenience1 forms are drawn in outline1 but these drawings are not representations1 and are only recognisable and accepted as such through education and tradition4 ,drawing in outline is merely to sequestrate a portion of the surface by a line or lines1 and can only define at most two dimensions4 ,when shade and shadow are added there is some approximation to the solid in the suggestion of the third dimension4 ,though these tend to a more lucid explanation1 the work remains a convention if colour and atmosphere are rendered in monochrome4 ,it is generally assumed that appreciation for colour is inherent4 ,that this to some extent is true is evident in the attraction of bright colour to the child and the savage4 ,subtle quantities and combinations are only appreciated by comparatively few1 the faculty for colour being extremely rare4 ,influence of ,fashion ,the average individual is guided as a rule in colour selection by vogue or fashion1 though it is the polite custom to concede that the average woman is naturally endowed with taste4 ,this is delicate ground1 but the awful and impossible associations evident at times in feminine costume certainly do not justify the courtesy4 ,there are superstitions in colour selection evidently the result of tradition1 such1 for instance1 as red and yellow being suitable for a sallow complexion4 ,the actual effect of these colours being to excite the complementaries1 is hardly favourable to the misguided wearer4 ,the average man is generally more discreet in selection when sartorially concerned4 ,not that he necessarily possesses more taste1 but because he is observant of custom1 and moreover1 has generally an instinctive dislike to anything pronounced4 ,at times1 however1 the women-folk take the initiative1 and two of the greatest inflictions that men suffer are the selection of their ties and cigars by one of the opposite sex4 ,in domestic environment the selection is invariably imitative or guided by fashion1 and if the prevailing vogue prescribes brown paper as a lining for walls1 it is probably adopted4 ,but the choice1 however it may be influenced1 is made possibly without thought of the furniture and upholstery that is associated4 ,harmonious ,consistency ,the colour scheme should be determined by aspect and by the use of the particular apartment4 ,a sunny room should be treated differently to one with a north-east aspect1 in which an appearance of warmth is desirable4 ,furniture1 too1 must be considered1 reds being an unsuitable setting for oak as a rule1 while mahogany is best associated with delicate greens and greys4 ,it is a reasonable assumption that the training of the student should result in greater discrimination1 and when the exercise consists of representing1 it is a matter of careful approximation of colours and values4 ,in original design the harmonious effect depends on the individual1 who1 in early attempts in colour1 jumps at it1 being unconscious of any guiding principle4 ,natural ,suggestion ,it would seem that the wealth of colour combination in the various natural aspects apparent to all1 would surely influence selection2 that it generally fails to do so is testimony to lack of observation4 ,nature left alone never makes mistakes1 and the colouring in flowers1 land1 sky1 and water1 the plumage of birds and other natural phenomena1 is always harmonious if seen in original environment4 ,when the balance and correct association is disturbed it is due to human interference1 as is evident too often in the work of the landscape gardener and horticulturist4 ,colour ,scheme ,in decoration the scheme may consist of tints or tones of any one colour1 and the contrast is merely that of tone2 in other words1 of lighter and darker phases4 ,this method of colouring1 which is quite suitable in some instances1 is fairly safe1 as the latitude for error is greatly reduced1 but certainly is not courageous4 ,the problem arises1 when the scheme involves the use of more than one colour1 and the successful effect depends on judicious association and balance4 ,the simple rule is never to display two only of the primary colours in juxtaposition1 the presence of the third being essential to harmonious and satisfactory effect4 ,this1 as a principle1 forms the basis of much of the ,moresque decoration1 in which the details were picked out in blue and red of positive hues1 and separated or outlined with gold4 ,more consideration is required when positive or pure colour is not in request1 and the proportions of juxtaposed tints have to be relative4 ,as any tint departs from the full strength of its particular category1 so those associated should be proportionately remote4 ,respective quantities may vary and one colour occupy relatively a small part of the surface1 when to preserve the balance it may be stronger in hue than others occupying adjacent and larger areas4 ,for such contingencies it is impossible to give exact formul1 as the pigments employed are not always constant4 ,in the case of manufacturers of mixed paints1 it is customary to issue samples of colours for the year or season1 and they cannot guarantee repeating exactly any colour or tint in subsequent mixing4 ,the same applies where coloured papers and textiles are concerned2 therefore judgment based on principle and experience can be the only guide4 ,the ,primary colours are ,red1 ,yellow and ,blue2 admixture of any two of these result in the ,secondary colours which form the complementaries of the ,primaries not involved4 ,thus blue and yellow combined result in green1 which is the complementary of red1 the complementary of yellow being purple1 and that of blue1 orange4 ,intensity of hue of any colour employed may vary considerably1 and this variation should be proportional in other tints associated4 ,part of the charm of colour often depends on its complexity1 in natural aspects due to atmosphere and varied phases of light4 ,pure colours should at times be avoided1 that is1 in the sense in which they are obtainable as pigments4 ,early ,training ,students should have attained some considerable facility in drawing before taking the study of design seriously1 though probably part of the early training has dealt with extremely elementary forms leading in that direction4 ,undoubtedly1 too1 many enter on this phase of study without adequate preparation1 having little appreciation of the underlying geometric construction1 not only in design but in all form4 ,this1 on investigation1 can always be found1 and either the general mass or sub-divisions identified with some simple geometric shape enclosing the more intimate details4 ,correct approximation and placing are essential to the accuracy and success of the drawing4 ,too often through lack of training the tendency is to draw detail right away1 without the necessary preliminary of determining the mass shapes4 ,nature ,study ,the study of natural form is of paramount importance to prospective designers4 ,subjects should be selected as season or opportunity permit1 not merely from plant and floral growth1 but any form available1 animate or inanimate that is suggestive of pattern or susceptible of ornamental treatment4 ,students in their early attempts in design invariably find convention a stumbling-block1 and in making their studies from nature cannot at first grasp the idea that selection should be exercised1 and that only those phases which are favourable to decorative results should be recorded4 ,design is not concerned with facts or exact portraiture so much as pattern1 and only those features and attitudes that are suitable should be dealt with4 ,to perpetuate the ugly and unsuitable is waste of both time and energy4 ,aspect and ,attitude ,in too many instances the first aspect of the subject of study is recorded1 even without any regard to natural attitude4 ,it may be a spray of blossom taken by the student from the parent tree or shrub1 which is fixed up in any position that comes handy4 ,for this there is no excuse2 the spray should not only be placed consistently1 but to the best advantage1 the object being to record aspects that are suggestive of decorative development4 ,in design it is conditional that each individual detail should be primarily effective as a silhouette1 surface interest being of secondary consideration4 ,any leaf or flower that does not conform should be so arranged as to satisfactorily comply with this condition1 and this can easily be achieved by slightly shifting the point of view1 as it is generally due to extreme foreshortening1 or perspective that is confusing in appearance4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bhe4 ,natural ,aspect of ,various ,leaves4 ,those in outline unsuitable without adaptation for ornament4 ,the silhouette versions shew natural aspects that readily lend to decorative purposes4 ,points of study to be noted are the stem growth1 junctions and angles of branching and articulation of leaves1 the difference in development of leaves on main stem and those on flower stalk1 and phases of the flowers4 ,the drawing should be explanatory as far as possible1 and any detail not quite clear should be expressed in separate lucid diagrams4 ,when readily accessible1 a series of studies should be made of the same plant or growth at differing stages1 so as to form a record of the life history and development4 ,care should be exercised to arrange the study with its explanatory details on the paper so as to satisfactorily occupy the area1 not necessarily symmetrically1 but with a view to desirable balance4 ,those with a natural faculty for design will probably do this instinctively1 but the observance is important in developing the sense of arrangement4 ,treatment ,the drawings1 which should be carefully detailed as to form1 and intimate detail--in fact diagrammatic--can be in pencil or ink outline1 light and shade is generally unimportant1 though it may be lightly suggested4 ,with regard to colour1 except in examples of special suggestion1 little time need be wasted in still life renderings1 though suggestive colour schemes may well be noted1 but the drawing should at least be lightly tinted1 this serving the double purpose of fixing the pencil lines1 and defining the silhouette shapes4 ,these studies should form material for designs1 not at first ambitious1 but dealing with single leaves or flowers1 and deriving from them details suitable to some form of decorative expression4 ,these can be expressed in flat colour1 with or without outline1 or further ornamented by treatments suggestive of veining or striation4 ,the blotching of some leaves during autumnal changes or any natural markings can often be turned to decorative account4 ,drawings for ,reproduction ,designs in some instances are in the form of perspective sketches1 when it is desirable to convey an idea of their final appearance1 but as a rule they are expressed as working drawings4 ,this is imperative when the final production is the result of some mechanical production1 as in book decoration and advertisement either black and white or in colour4 ,drawings for these are generally made larger and reduced to the required size by photography1 and the blocks for printing made from the photograph4 ,there is no fixed rule as to size of drawing or reduction1 but if the designs are drawn for one-third reduction there will be no material alteration in values when produced4 ,but as the reduction is increased there is a proportionate risk in alteration of values4 ,it is desirable to bear the proposed reduction in mind and to work more boldly or with thicker lines1 otherwise the final effect may be thin and weak4 ,in pen drawing1 the lines should be clear and distinct whatever their thickness4 ,for designs in black and white1 hot-pressed paper1 ,bristol board or smooth card are most suitable4 ,the ink should be waterproof1 as1 if necessary1 corrections with ,chinese white can be more neatly made4 ,fine pens1 except for very minute work1 are not desirable1 a ,gillott's ladies' fine writing nib yielding as fine a line as is ordinarily required4 ,for some classes of work a brush will be found more suitable1 but care should be taken that all lines--whether thick or thin--are equally black4 ,designs in colour for illustration or advertisement1 which are to be reproduced by lithography or the three-colour process1 can be on card or ,whatman paper4 ,the colours employed being transparent or opaque1 whichever is more suitable to working and effect4 ,larger designs for advertisement1 such as posters1 are usually painted in tempera or opaque colour1 and these should be applied as far as possible edge to edge1 overpainting being avoided4 ,opaque ,colour ,care should be taken in mixing the colour to the required tint or shade4 ,this requires some experience1 as when white forms part of the mixture1 the effect when dry is always lighter and colder than when the paint is in the fluid state2 therefore allowance for this should be made4 ,opaque and tempera colours are not used so fluid as ordinary transparent water colours1 and if applied too thin will fail to cover the surface solidly1 or dry blotchy4 ,cartridge paper is not only good enough but more suitable for opaque colour than papers of better quality4 ,not merely is there no advantage in these1 but the texture is an unnecessary embarrassment2 moreover cartridge paper can be obtained in continuous form of good width4 ,enlarging and ,reducing ,when drawings are enlarged or reduced1 the linear dimensions and not those of the area are implied2 thus one half means one half of both width and height--really one-fourth of the area4 ,it is obvious that half the area would be a different proportion1 and it is the proportion that is concerned4 ,illustration3 ,no4 #bhf4 ,diagonal ,method of ,enlarging or ,reducing4 ,solid line shews given size4 ,divisional measurement is rendered unnecessary by the diagonal method of proportion4 ,given a rectangular shape1 which has to be reduced or enlarged1 a diagonal line should be drawn1 and prolonged if the latter1 through opposite angles4 ,a line parallel to either the vertical or horizontal can be drawn and returned at a right angle where it intersects the diagonal1 and regardless of any dimensions1 this will ensure the exact proportion of the original rectangle4 ,it is obvious that such designs as the foregoing should be complete1 and both in drawing and colour a perfect anticipation of the painted result1 owing nothing of their effect to mechanical reproduction4 ,textiles ,in designs for printed and woven fabrics1 though the process of production varies1 it is still necessary that the drawing be complete in the technical indications4 ,otherwise the reproduced version may suffer1 or at least not fulfil the intention of the designer1 and it follows that the drawings should be concise in every detail1 even to the colour effect desired4 ,the drawings are usually to the full size in most printed fabrics4 ,the design is not reproduced by any mechanical process1 the blocks or rollers used in printing being cut by hand from a transferred tracing made from the original4 ,hence the importance of exactitude in joining and dimensions4 ,in some instances the whole of the pattern is cut in relief in the wood1 but in others1 lines are the result of narrow strips of ribbon-like brass embedded in the surface of the block or roller4 ,these have their influence on the design1 as in the former method of production the lines can vary in thickness and can be invested with greater interest than the employment of the wire can give4 ,the metal results in a hard line of unvarying thinness4 ,drawings for printed and woven fabrics are usually in opaque colour1 and each tint employed should display a defined edge1 graduated effects being only technically possible by means of tapering lines or stipple4 ,each distinct colour or tint involves separate printing2 therefore as it is economically desirable to attain the best effect with the minimum cost1 the utmost should be made of the colours employed4 ,wallpapers ,wallpapers as a rule are printed in opaque colour1 but in textiles1 when the colour is transparent1 more elaborate effects are possible by overprinting or super-imposing one colour on another4 ,in woven fabrics similar effects can be obtained by judicious manipulation of the shuttles1 but in all cases it should be borne in mind that a working drawing is necessary in which the details are clearly indicative of the final result4 ,designs that have to be realised by some form of handicraft require the same care and concise regard to detail1 though the drawings need not be so complete as to appearance1 and may be to scale or drawn full size according to condition4 ,architectural ,drawings ,architectural drawings are drawn to scale1 that of eight feet to one inch being general1 with working drawings to a scale of half an inch to the foot accompanied by full-size details and profiles of mouldings4 ,the drawings are geometric1 that is in plan1 elevation1 and section1 expressed in line and generally tinted4 ,on plans and sections arbitrary colours are employed to indicate material1 for instance1 red denotes brick1 purple-grey1 stone1 warm grey1 cement1 ,prussian blue1 iron or steel1 and burnt sienna or ,vandyke brown1 wood4 ,these drawings convey little idea of the intended effect to the lay mind1 and it is customary to suggest the eventual appearance by perspective views1 but for practical reasons they constitute the most convenient form from which dimensions can be taken for working purposes4 ,structural ,design ,in all structural design similar drawings are necessary1 although sketch designs in perspective may be made to suggest effect1 working drawings are imperative to the execution of the work4 ,these1 when reduced to the essential conditions of rendering1 with explanatory details and sections1 assume a very different aspect to the original sketch4 ,the success of the completed work depends upon skilful detailing1 which must be thoroughly explicit to be of real value4 ,for convenience such working drawings are generally made on detail paper1 which is usually obtainable in rolls sixty inches wide by twenty-five or fifty yards4 ,this is sufficiently transparent to be employed for tracings1 a great convenience when copies are in request1 and is a good surface for pen1 pencil or chalk1 though somewhat thin for colour4 ,designs can be sketched in charcoal1 and the desired lines drawn in ink4 ,when dry the charcoal lines can be obliterated by rubbing with a leather or soft cloth1 by which the charcoal is distributed1 forming a tone over the whole surface4 ,this is easily removable by india-rubber1 and excellent relief effects can be obtained by judiciously taking out lights and strengthening shadows1 though to avoid any possible misunderstanding it is usual to also indicate the relief by sections drawn through the details4 ,lucid ,arrangement ,in geometric and working drawings when plans and sections are incidental to lucid explanation1 these latter should appear relatively2 that is1 the plan should be in alignment with the elevation1 etc4 ,statements and directions as to procedure are often necessary1 and these1 placed with judgment and in good lettering1 are valuable in balancing the drawing4 ,not that this has any effect on the work1 but because it has a good influence on the designer4 ,possibly the story of ,giotto and the circle that figured in the early school primers is responsible for the very general impression that the use of mechanical instruments is inartistic4 ,another characteristic of the young beginner is a total disregard for anything in the nature of exact dimension4 ,no useful purpose is served1 and much valuable time is wasted1 in attempts to accomplish freehand1 forms that may be perfectly achieved by proper implements4 ,familiarity with the use of these will be found of great assistance in all design in which geometric construction1 apparent or not1 plays so large a part4 ,of this the average beginner has little conception1 and though ,geometry has been a subject of their early training1 they seldom have any clear idea as to its employment in design4 ,except in few instances1 they are unpractised in the use of geometrical instruments1 and at times oblivious that these serve any practical purpose4 ,mathematical ,equipment ,in design1 where accuracy is of paramount importance1 a reasonable equipment is imperative4 ,drawing boards vary in size1 but for most ordinary work the antiquarian will suffice2 the best type being that commonly used in engineering and architectural offices1 with battens for adjustment and invariably a steel guide for the ,t square4 ,large ,t squares are more reliable on account of the wider head1 the better sort being in mahogany with bevelled ebony edge4 ,when accuracy is essential1 the ,t square should only be employed for horizontal lines1 those in a vertical direction being attained by the use of the set square1 when the right angle can be assured by contact of the base of the latter on the edge of the ,t square4 ,set squares indispensable for ordinary work are those of the angles of #de degrees and #fj degrees4 ,they should be large1 about twelve inch1 and in celluloid1 which1 being translucent1 tends to greater accuracy4 ,bevelled set squares1 usually in mahogany with ebony edge1 are desirable when the ruling pen is used1 and should be placed with the bevelled side to the surface of drawing as a precaution against blotting through the ink running off the edge from the pen4 ,for the same reason the edge of the ,t square should be slightly tilted1 so as not to be in contact with the drawing when ruling lines with the pen4 ,the mathematical instruments in common request are dividers1 indispensable in scale drawing4 ,for delicate work spring dividers with needle points ensure greater accuracy4 ,the bow or pencil compass1 large with extending bar1 and small2 with spring bows1 for minute work4 ,for very large circles the beam compass is employed1 consisting of a wood bar with two sliding clamps fitted respectively with point1 and either pencil or pen which can be adjusted to the required radius4 ,for ink drawings the bow or pen compass is employed for circular curves2 spring bows for extremely small details1 medium for general purposes4 ,the large compass in the ordinary set is provided with both pen and pencil joints1 which can be adjusted as required4 ,use of the ,ruling ,pen ,for straight lines the ruling pen should be employed4 ,in this implement1 the nibs1 as in the pen compasses are provided with a screw1 by means of which the pen can be adjusted to form thick or thin lines as required4 ,care should be taken in the adjustment2 for the thinnest line the points should only be in contact4 ,if screwed too tightly the nibs may be bent and would have to be re-set4 ,there is a limit to the thickness of line in individual ruling pens1 which are made in varying sizes for fine or bold work4 ,bow and ruling pens should never be filled to the full capacity1 as they are then liable to flood and blot the work4 ,it is better also to charge the pen with the filler1 which is usually provided with the ordinary liquid ink1 or a brush2 otherwise blotting may result4 ,if the pen is filled by dipping1 the nibs should be wiped dry on each occasion on the external faces4 ,in use the ruling pen should be held as vertical as possible1 with the nibs perfectly parallel to the edge of ,t or set square1 any divergence from the vertical might result in a curve instead of the straight line required4 ,if the nibs are at an angle with the ruling edge1 the ink will not flow freely1 and there is also a tendency to cut the surface4 ,proportional ,compass ,another instrument of great use1 though not so commonly in request1 is the proportional compass1 by means of which drawings are enlarged or reduced4 ,it consists of two shanks furnished with points at each end1 the shanks being slotted out centrally to form a slide4 ,the adjustment is accomplished by a set screw which also forms a pivot1 which1 set at any of the marked divisions1 assures the given proportion4 ,tracings ,tracing paper is largely in request1 not only as a means of repeating details and units by transferring1 but when copies of a drawing are required4 ,it can be obtained in rolls varying in width1 forty inch being generally useful1 and in different surfaces1 rough and smooth1 the former being good for pencil work--the smooth being more suitable for ink tracings4 ,when tracings of a more durable character are required they are made on linen1 which for this purpose has a highly glazed surface on which the ink will not always run equally4 ,this can be rectified by lightly rubbing the surface with ,french chalk and by adding a little ox gall to the ink4 ,the latter is a useful agent in counteracting any greasiness of surface and is often necessary in colour work4 ,conclusion ,the stimulus of competition is always healthy1 and the necessity to attract has resulted generally in raising the standard1 notably in forms of advertisement4 ,the designer has not only to keep pace with modern conditions1 but in some phases of work has also to anticipate future demand4 ,students are too often infected with the phase of the moment1 or by the work of some distinguished exponent4 ,this is quite natural1 and to some extent such emulation may be condoned1 but if it becomes an obsession it is fatal to the development of individualism4 ,it is desirable1 indeed commendable1 for students to be interested in contemporaneous work2 but they should realise that personality will never be achieved by imitation1 though emulation and experiment are legitimate methods of training4 ,art training is largely in that of technique1 consisting chiefly of the handling of the tools and mediums involved4 ,it is obvious that when this technique is successfully acquired it implies a high standard of craftsmanship4 ,this is essential1 but personality is of greater importance and its development depends upon the individual4 ,some who have nothing personal to express may be capable of attaining great facility in various mediums1 but stop at the imitative1 and though this may be lucrative1 no great artistic distinction is possible4 ,if personality is latent it will develop quite unconsciously1 and the endeavour of the student should be to see1 understand and express the subject of study or idea with sincerity1 regardless of any current phase however interesting4 ,in this way only can be attained the personal attitude and expression that really constitutes the interest in all forms of art4 ,,index ,acanthus ,foliage1 #ch1 #bfc 8 ,leaf 7,greek7 #bfd 8 8 7,roman7 #bff 8 8 7,byzantine7 #bfg ,romanesque1 #bfh ,gothic1 #bfh ,italian ,renaissance1 #bgi ,french ,renaissance1 #bhj ,jacobean1 #bhj ,louis ,,xiv1 #bhc ,louis ,,xv1 #bhd ,louis ,,xvi1 #bhd ,grinling ,gibbons1 #bhe ,adam1 #bhf ,system of the1 #bhf ,adam1 ,robert1 #abc ,alberti1 ,leo ,battista1 #gf ,ancient ,pottery1 #h ,animals in ,art1 #cca1 #ccd 8 8 ,compound1 #ccf ,angelo1 ,m41 #gi ,anthemion1 ,the1 #bfb ,anthemius1 #de ,apathy1 ,public1 #h ,appliqu1 #bif ,appreciation of ,design1 #bhh ,architecture1 ,egyptian1 #bb ,chaldean1 #be ,greek1 #bh ,roman1 #ce ,byzantine1 #dc ,romanesque1 #di ,gothic1 #ei ,renaissance1 ,italian1 #ge 8 ,florentine1 #gf 8 ,roman1 #gh 8 ,venetian1 #hj 8 ,french1 #he 8 in ,england1 #hh 8 ,elizabethan1 #ia 8 ,jacobean1 #ic 8 ,english1 #ajb 8 ,louis ,,xiii1 #ajc 8 ,louis ,,xiv1 #ajf 8 ,louis ,,xv1 #aaj 8 ,later ,english1 #aac ,architectural ,drawing1 #aeh1 #cfc ,architectural ,features1 ,abacus1 ,the1 #agc1 #age1 #agh ,arch1 #bj 8 ,pointed1 #eh 8 ,decorated1 #fd 8 ,perpendicular1 #fh 8 #ahd ,arcades1 #bjj 8 ,vaulted1 #bja ,architrave1 #afa1 #afd1 #afi1 #agb1 #baa ,archivolt1 ,the1 #ahf1 #ahg ,attic1 ,the1 #bjh ,baluster1 ,the1 #aia ,balustrading1 #aic ,battlement1 ,the1 #ff ,base1 ,the ,doric1 #aha 8 ,the ,ionic1 #ahb 8 ,the ,corinthian1 #ahc ,basement1 ,the1 #bjg ,buttress1 ,the1 #ei ,capital1 ,the ,doric1 #agc 8 ,the ,ionic1 #age 8 ,the ,corinthian1 #agh ,clerestory1 ,the1 #ea1 #fg ,column1 ,the1 #agb 8 ,employment of1 #aid 8 ,disposition and ,spacing of1 #aie ,corinthian ,order1 ,the1 #afc ,cornice1 #afa1 #afd1 #afi1 #aga1 #bji ,doric ,order1 ,the1 #afa ,doors1 #baa ,entablature1 ,the ,doric1 #afd 8 ,the ,ionic1 #afi 8 ,the ,corinthian1 #aga ,frieze1 ,the1 #afa1 #afd1 #afg1 #afi1 #aga1 #bac1 #bbf ,impost1 ,the ,doric1 #ahe 8 ,the ,ionic1 #ahf 8 ,the ,corinthian1 #ahg ,ionic ,order1 ,the1 #afc ,keystone1 ,the1 #ahg ,lintel1 ,the1 #ai ,mouldings1 #fa1 #fd1 #fh1 #ig1 #ajg 8 ,profiles1 #ach 8 ,purpose of1 #aci 8 ,decoration of1 #adc 8 ,employment of #adg ,mutule1 ,the1 #afd ,order1 ,the1 #afj 8 ,the ,doric1 #afa 8 ,the ,ionic1 #afc 8 ,the ,corinthian1 #afc ,pedestal1 ,the1 #ahh ,pedestal1 ,the ,doric1 #ahi 8 ,the ,ionic1 #aij 8 ,the ,corinthian1 #aij ,pediment1 ,the1 #bji ,piers1 #fj1 #ahd1 #bjj1 #bje ,pilaster1 ,the1 #afj1 #aii1 #bce ,plynth1 ,the1 #afa1 #aha1 #ahc1 #ahd1 #ahh1 #aij1 #aia1 #aic1 #bjd1 #bjh ,rustication1 #bje ,subsidiary ,order1 ,the1 #bjb ,superimposed ,orders1 #aig1 #bjd ,system of ,proportion1 #aei ,triforium1 ,the1 #ec1 #fj1 #fg ,vault1 ,the1 #bj1 #cf1 #ec 8 ,treatment of1 #bbd ,vaulting1 ,fan1 #fh ,volute1 ,the1 #age ,windows1 #fj1 #bac 8 ,plate ,tracery1 #fa 8 ,tracery of1 #fc1 #fd ,art1 ,interest in1 #a ,definition of1 #e ,as an ,appeal1 #e ,ethical ,side of1 #ad ,desire for ,novelty in1 #ae ,egyptian1 #bc ,chaldean1 #be ,greek1 #cc ,roman1 #ch ,grco-,roman1 #dj ,byzantine1 #de ,artistic ,phases of ,expression1 #aj ,aureole1 ,the1 #cdj ,baluster1 ,the1 #aec1 #aia1 #bdf ,bank of ,ireland1 #acf ,base1 ,the ,doric1 #aha ,base1 ,the ,ionic1 #ahb 8 ,the ,corinthian1 #ahc ,basement1 ,the1 #bjg ,battlement1 ,the1 #ff ,bazzi ,gian ,antonio 7,sodoma71 #hc ,berain1 ,claude1 #ajf 8 ,jean1 #ajf ,bernini1 #hj ,book ,decoration1 #cjj ,borders1 #bbg 8 ,treatment1 #bcc ,boule1 ,andr ,charles1 #ajf1 #aji 8 ,work1 #bih ,bramante1 #gh ,branching1 ,types of1 #bgc ,brunelleschi1 #gf ,buttress1 ,the1 #ei ,byzantine1 ,art1 #de ,caduceus1 ,the1 #cdb4 ,cannibalism1 #ccf ,capital1 ,the1 #bb1 #ej ,capital1 ,doric1 #agc ,ionic1 #age ,corinthian1 #agh ,carved ,work1 #cja ,design for1 #cjb ,ceilings1 ,jacobean1 #ig ,louis ,,xiii1 #aje ,louis ,,xiv1 #ajh ,louis ,,xv1 #aab ,treatment of1 #bah ,centaur1 ,the1 #cci ,chaldean ,art1 #be ,chambers1 ,sir ,william1 #acf ,chambord1 ,chateau de1 #hf ,champleve ,enamel1 #dg ,chenonceaux1 sur ,loire1 #hf ,chimney-piece1 ,jacobean1 #id ,chippendale1 #aba ,choragic ,monument1 #cb ,christian ,art1 ,early1 #df ,circle1 ,symbolic meaning of1 #cdj ,cipriani1 #abf ,clerestory1 ,the1 #ea1 #fg ,colour1 ,symbolism of1 #cde ,use of1 #cec ,opaque1 #cfj ,column1 ,the1 #agb ,employment of1 #aid ,disposition and ,spacing of1 #aie ,commercial ,production1 #f ,intercourse1 #ab ,convention1 #bib ,accepted1 #cea ,cornucopia1 ,the1 #cdf ,corinthian1 ,order1 #afc ,entablature1 #aga ,capital1 #agh ,base1 #ahd ,pedestal1 #aij ,impost1 #ahg ,craft ,restriction1 #bef ,cressent1 ,charles1 #aaa ,cross1 ,the1 #cdc ,crozier1 ,the1 #cdd ,crux ,ansata1 #cdc ,customs1 ,survival of1 #caa ,early ,burial1 #cbb ,dance1 ,george1 #acf ,decorative1 ,materials1 #bhi ,deities1 ,egyptian1 #cah ,deities1 ,greek and ,roman1 #caf ,scandinavian1 #cag ,pan1 #cci ,delorme1 ,philibert1 #hg ,dentils1 #adf ,design1 ,mental vision in1 #a ,inspired1 #b ,process and material in1 #b1 #h ,considerations in1 #c ,public demand1 #c ,training in1 #d ,influence in1 #d1 #h1 #ab1 #ah ,architectural influence in1 #ad ,appreciation of1 #bhh ,structural1 #cfc ,domes1 ,byzantine1 #dc ,treatment of1 #bbd ,domestic ,conditions1 #ed1 #gb1 #gd ,donatello1 #gf ,doors1 ,jacobean1 #if ,proportions and ,treatment1 #baa ,doric ,order1 #bh1 #afa ,entablature1 #afd ,capital1 #agc ,base1 #aha ,pedestal1 #ahi ,impost1 #ahe ,ecole de ,mdcine1 #acb ,echo1 #cai ,egyptian ,art1 #bb ,enamel1 ,byzantine1 #dg ,endymion1 #cai ,enlarging ,drawings1 #cfj ,equipment1 ,mathematical1 #cfe ,eurydice1 #cbd ,evangelists1 #cca ,evolute ,scroll1 ,the1 #bcd1 #bfa ,farnese ,palace1 #gi ,fates1 #cah1 #cbj ,figure ,composition1 #bdd ,filagree ,jewellery1 #beh ,flowers1 in ,ornament #bgj ,fontainebleau1 ,palace of1 #hf ,forms in the round1 #bde ,four ,courts1 ,dublin1 #acf ,french ,renaissance1 #he ,louis ,,xiii1 #ajc ,louis ,,xiv1 #ajf ,rgence1 #aaa ,louis ,,xv1 #aaj ,louis ,,xvi1 #abg ,empire1 #ace ,frieze1 ,the1 #bbf1 #bff ,furniture1 ,egyptian1 #bd ,chaldean1 #bg ,greek1 #cb ,roman1 #ci ,middle ,age1 #ed ,decorated ,gothic1 #ff1 #gc ,italian ,renaissance1 #hd ,english ,renaissance1 #ib ,jacobean1 #ih ,louis ,,xiii1 #aje ,louis ,,xiv1 #ajh ,louis ,,xv1 #aac ,english 7,dutch ,influence7 #aah ,queen ,anne1 #abj ,chippendale1 #aba ,lacquered1 #aac1 #abf ,painted1 #abf ,sheraton1 #abg ,louis ,,xvi1 #acc ,empire1 #ace ,gallo1 ,antonio ,san1 #gi ,gallo1 ,giuliano di ,san1 #gi ,gandon1 ,james1 #acf ,gems1 ,symbolism of1 #cde ,gibbons1 ,grinling1 #aad1 #acg1 #bhe ,gibbs1 ,james1 #aae ,giocondo1 #gi ,giotto1 #hc ,gondouin1 ,jacques1 #acb ,gouthire1 #acc ,graces1 ,christian1 #cbi ,grco-,roman ,art1 #dj ,greek ,art1 #bh ,grimani ,palace1 #hj ,growth1 ,consistency in1 #bgc ,half ,figures in ,ornament1 #bgh ,halo1 ,the1 #cdj ,hamadryads1 #cci ,hampton ,court ,palace1 #aad ,hand1 ,symbolism of the1 #cda ,harpy1 ,the1 #cbj1 #cch ,hawksmoor1 ,nicholas1 #aae ,hepplewhite1 #abf ,heraldry1 #cdh ,holbein1 #hi ,holkham1 ,norfolk1 #aba ,holt1 ,thomas1 #ia ,horse ,guards1 ,whitehall1 #aba ,husk ,leaf1 ,the1 #bfi ,impost1 ,doric1 #ahe ,ionic1 #ahf ,corinthian1 #ahg ,impressionism1 ,early1 #aj ,influence of ,material1 #h1 #beh ,political1 #ab1 #ag1 #ga ,religious1 #ab1 #ag ,commercial1 #ab1 #ag1 #ga ,civic1 #gj ,of the ,crusades1 #ef ,of ,fashion1 #ceb ,inspiration1 ,belief in1 #b ,intarsia1 #big ,interior treatment1 ,grco-,roman1 #ci ,romanesque ,church1 #ea ,domestic1 ,tudor1 #gc ,italian ,renaissance1 #hc ,jacobean1 #id ,louis ,,xiii1 #ajd ,louis ,,xiv1 #ajg ,louis1 ,,xv1 #aab ,wren ,period1 #aaf ,georgian1 #aba ,adam1 #abf ,louis1 ,,xvi1 #acc ,walls1 #baf ,ceilings1 #bah1 #bba1 #bbb ,vaults and ,domes1 #bbd ,ionic ,order1 ,greek1 #cb ,renaissance1 #aei ,proportions of1 #afc ,entablature1 #afi ,capital1 #age ,base1 #ahb ,pedestal1 #aij ,impost1 #ahf ,italian ,renaissance1 #ge1 #gh1 #hj ,jewellery1 ,filagree1 #beh ,jones1 ,inigo1 #ha1 #ajb1 #acg ,kauffman1 ,angelica1 #abf ,kent1 ,william1 #aba ,lace1 #big ,lacquered ,furniture1 #aac1 #abf ,lares1 ,roman1 #cbb ,leaves1 ,employment of1 #bge ,treatment of1 #bic ,lebrun1 #ajf ,legend1 #cbc1 #ccc ,lepautre1 #ajf ,limitations1 ,human1 #a ,lintel1 ,the1 #ai ,louvre1 #hj1 #hf ,maderno1 ,carlo1 #gi ,madrid1 ,chateau de1 #hf ,magical ,qualities1 ,belief in1 #cbe ,mainwaring1 #abc ,majano1 ,benedetto da1 #gg ,mansart1 ,jules ,hardouin1 #ajf ,mansion ,house1 ,london1 #acf ,marble1 ,byzantine use of1 #dg1 #cjj ,marquetry1 #bih ,marot1 ,daniel1 #ajf1 #aji ,martyrdom1 ,symbols of1 #cde ,masks1 #cdf ,mathematical ,equipment1 #cfe ,material in ,design1 #beh ,mayhew1 #abc ,medusa1 #cdf ,metal ,work1 ,bronze1 #db ,byzantine1 #dg ,repouss1 #cjd ,cast1 #cjf ,mounts in ,furniture1 #ajh1 #ace ,methods of ,expression1 #bib ,micheli1 ,san1 #hj ,modelling1 #cja1 #cjd ,mosaics1 ,byzantine1 #dg1 #bii ,mouldings1 ,attitude of1 #adh ,bolection1 #aeb ,decorated ,gothic1 #fd ,decoration of1 #adc ,drawn ,metal1 #aee ,employment of1 #adg ,jacobean1 #ig ,pointed ,gothic1 #fa ,plaster1 #aec ,pottery1 #aed ,profiles of1 #ach ,purpose of1 #aci ,repouss1 #aeg ,rolled ,metal1 #aee ,spun ,metal1 #aeg ,turned ,wood1 #aec ,wood ,panel1 #adi ,muses1 #cbh ,mythology1 ,origin of1 #cab ,scandinavian1 #cag ,myths1 ,nature1 #cab ,season1 #cad ,sun1 #cae ,nature1 ,myths1 #cab ,study1 #cee ,natural ,attraction1 #bhh ,natural ,suggestion1 #cec ,phenomena1 ,belief in1 #cae ,needlework1 #bif ,newgate ,prison1 #acf ,nimbus1 ,the1 #cdj ,noon1 #cah ,numbers1 ,belief in1 #cbh ,oppenord1 ,giles ,marie1 #aaa ,order1 #afj ,order1 ,doric1 #afa ,ionic1 #afc ,corinthian1 #afc ,originality1 #a ,ornament1 ,roman1 #ci ,byzantine1 #de ,romanesque1 #ej ,pointed ,gothic1 #fc ,decorated ,gothic1 #fe ,perpendicular ,gothic1 #fi ,french ,renaissance1 #hh ,english 8 #hh1 #ia ,later ,english 8 #aah ,louis ,,xvi1 #acd ,empire1 #ace ,outline1 ,drawing1 #bed ,painted ,decoration1 ,roman1 #ci ,renaissance1 #hb1 #bid ,painted ,furniture1 #abf ,palazzo1 ,pitti1 #gg ,strozzi1 #gg ,palladio1 #gh1 #ha ,pan1 #cci ,panels1 ,treatment of1 #bcf ,juxtaposition1 #bch ,the ,composing ,lines1 #bda ,grouping and ,massing1 #bdb ,division of1 #bdb ,pantheon1 ,rome1 #cf ,passion1 ,symbols of the1 #cde ,pastoral ,staff1 #cdd ,parthenon1 #cj ,perugino1 #hc ,peruzzi1 ,baldazzare1 #gi ,pineau1 ,nicholas1 #aaa ,piers1 ,gothic1 #fj ,pinturrichio1 #hc ,potters1 ,elementary1 #i ,pottery1 ,ancient1 #h ,greek1 #cd ,predestination1 #cai ,prehistoric ,workers1 #i ,personal ,production1 #aj ,primitive ,essays1 #h ,requirements1 #aa ,prohibition1 #cbd ,propitiation1 #cbj ,raffaelle1 #gi ,realism1 #bee ,rgence1 #aaa ,relief ,work1 ,treatment of1 #bic1 #cja ,reproduction ,processes1 #cjd ,drawing for1 #cei ,riesener1 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