,transcriber's ,notes3    ,italicized   
text is enclosed in underscores4        
,narrow text within square brackets are 
sidenotes2 numbers within square        
brackets refer to footnotes at the end  
of this e,book4    8,ve0 in ,footnote #c
 indicates that the 8e0 is a            
superscript4    ,other notes will be    
found at the end of this e,book4        
,the ,new ,universal ,library      ,a   
,,general ,,view ,,of ,,positivism      
,a ,,general ,,view      ,,of           
,,positivism        ,translated from the
 ,french of      ,,auguste ,,comte      
,by ,j4 ,h4 ,,bridges1 ,m4,b4      ,late
 ,fellow of ,oriel ,college1 ,oxford    
,a ,new ,edition1 with an ,introduction 
7#aijh71 by      ,,frederic ,,harrison  
,and the ,additional ,notes in the last 
,french      ,edition 7,paris1 #aijg7   
,illustration        ,,london           
,,george ,,routledge  ,,sons ,,limited  
,,new ,,york3 ,e4 ,p4 ,,dutton  ,,co4   
,published by the kind consent of ,mrs4 
,bridges and the ,positivist            

,committee1 to whom the copyright of    
this translation belongs4               
,republic of the ,west      ,order and  
,progress        ,a ,,general ,,view    
,,of      ,,positivism        ,or1      
,,summary ,,exposition ,,of ,,the       
,,system ,,of ,,thought      ,,and      
,,life      ,adapted to the ,great      
,western ,republic1 formed of the ,five 
,advanced    ,nations1 the ,french1     
,italian1 ,spanish1 ,british and        
,german1 which1    since the time of    
,charlemagne1 have always constituted a 
,political    ,whole        ,rorganiser1
 sans dieu ni roi1 par le culte         
systmatique de    l',humanit4      ,nul 
n'a droit qu' faire son devoir4         
,l'esprit doit toujours tre le ministre 
du coeur1 et jamais son    esclave4     
,reorganisation1 irrespectively of ,god 
or king1 by the worship of    ,humanity1
 systematically adopted4      ,man's    
only right is to do his duty4      ,the 
,intellect should always be the servant 
of the ,heart1 and should    never be   

its slave4          ,by      ,,auguste  
,,comte        ,author of #8,system of  
,positive ,philosophy'      ,,paris1    
#ahdh          ,,introduction    ,by    
,,frederic ,,harrison      ,although    
,positivism has been pretty widely      
discussed of late1 not only  by those   
interested in philosophy and religion1  
but by the general  reader and the      
public press1 perhaps but few of them1  
whether readers  or critics1 have       
exactly grasped the full meaning of it  
as a system at  once of thought and of  
life4 ,the vast range of the ground it  
covers and  the technical1 allusive1 and
 close style of ,comte's writings in the
  original have made it difficult to    
master the subject as a whole4 ,it  has 
accordingly been thought that the time  
has come to add to the #8,new           
,universal ,library' a translation of   
,the ,general ,view of ,positivism1     
i4e41 the careful summary of the        
,positive ,polity which ,auguste ,comte 
prefixed to the four volumes of his     

principal work4 ,the translation  which 
was published by ,dr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,bridges  
in #ahfe is at the same time  a most    
accurate version by one of ,comte's     
earliest followers1 and  also it is     
turned in an easy and simpler style1    
with the references  and allusions      
explained1 marginal headings to the     
paragraphs1 and a  complete analysis of 
the contents4    ,positivism is not     
simply a system of ,philosophy2 nor is  
it simply a new  form of ,religion2 nor 
is it simply a scheme of social         
regeneration4  ,it partakes of all of   
these1 and professes to harmonize them  
under  one dominant conception that is  
equally philosophic and social4  #8,its 
primary object1' writes ,comte1 #8is    
twofold3 to generalize our  scientific  
conceptions and to systematize the art  
of social life4'  ,accordingly ,comte's 
ideal embraces the three main elements  
of which  human life                    
consists--,thoughts1 ,feelings and      
,actions4    ,now it is clear that no   

such comprehensive system was ever      
before  offered to the world4 ,neither  
the ,gospel nor any known type of       
religion  undertook to give a synthetic 
grouping of the ,sciences4 ,no synthetic
  scheme of philosophy ever attempted to
 correlate religion1 politics1  art1 and
 industry4 ,no system of ,socialism1    
ancient or modern1 started  with        
mathematics and led up to an ideal of a 
human devotion to duty1  with a ritual  
of worship1 both public and private4    
,now ,comte's famous ,positive ,polity  
did attempt this gigantic task4  ,and   
the novelty and extent of such a work   
explains and accounts for the  extreme  
difficulty met with by readers of the   
original ,french1 and also  for the     
fascination which it has maintained more
 than fifty years after  the author's   
death4 ,it has been talked about1       
criticized1 and even  ridiculed1 with an
 ignorance of its true character which  
can only be  excused by the abstract and
 severe form in which ,comte thought    

right to  condense his thoughts4 ,comte 
was primarily a mathematician1 and      
neither  ,descartes nor ,newton troubled
 themselves about #8the general reader'4
  ,kepler1 they say1 declared himself   
satisfied if he had one convert  in a   
century2 and philosophers have seldom   
had justice done them  until some       
generations have passed4 ,the           
difficulties presented by the           
scientific form of ,comte's works have  
been obviated for ,english readers  by  
the versions of his ,english followers1 
which are at once literal  translations1
 analyses1 and elucidations4 ,for the   
#8general reader'  nothing could be more
 serviceable than ,bridges' clear       
presentation of  ,comte's own #8general 
view'1 or summary of his system4    ,the
 translation itself is a literary       
masterpiece4 ,it renders an  extremely  
abstract and complex ,french type of    
philosophical dogmatism  into easy and  
simple ,english1 whilst at the same time
 preserving and  even elucidating the   

somewhat cryptic allusions and nuances  
of the  original4 ,the thought in the   
,french is full1 pregnant1 and          
suggestive1  at once subtle and         
abstract1 and rich with words of a new  
coinage--such  as altruism1 sociology1  
dynamics 7i4e41 history71 and old  words
 used in a special sense4 ,this         
difficulty ,dr4 ,bridges surmounts  by  
breaking up the involved sentences1     
supplying names and facts  indirectly   
referred to1 and by transferring        
technical language into  popular        
,english4 ,the success of the           
translation has been proved by the      
thousands of copies sold in the original
 #abmo edition of #ahfe1 in the  #hvo   
edition of #ahge1 and in the stereotyped
 reprint of #ahha4    ,a pathetic       
interest attaches to the history of the 
translation4 ,in  #ahfj ,dr4 ,bridges1  
just settled as a physician in          
,melbourne1 lost his  young wife by     
fever4 ,he at once returned to ,england1
 bringing the  remains of his wife for  

interment in the family graveyard in    
,suffolk4  ,in those days of sailing    
vessels the voyage home round ,cape     
,horn  occupied at least three months4  
,dr4 ,bridges resolved to conquer his   
sorrow1 shut himself in his cabin during
 the voyage home and completed  the     
translation 7in #dcj pages of print7    
within the time at sea3--        ,the   
sad mechanic exercise1      ,like dull  
narcotics1 numbing pain4    ,auguste    
,comte always spoke of the ,positive    
,polity as #8his principal  work'4 ,the 
,discours sur l',ensemble1 or ,general  
,view of ,positivism1  formed the       
introduction to the four volumes4 ,it   
forms a summary of the  entire work1 and
 it is indeed a systematic application  
of the doctrine  to the actual condition
 of society4 ,as the ,polity1 taken as a
 whole1  professes to embody a set of   
doctrines for the regulation of thought 
and life1 the present ,introduction is  
designed to show the need of  such a    
body of doctrine1 the result that they  

would produce1 and the  mode in which   
they are likely to work4 ,thus1 one who 
desires to see in  one view the social  
purpose which ,positivism proposes to   
effect would  find it in no single      
volume better than in this treatise4    
,the work consists of six chapters1     
treating ,positivism respectively  in   
its intellectual aspect1 its social     
aspect1 its influence on the  working   
classes1 on women1 on art1 and on       
religion4 ,in other words it            
illustrates the application of the      
system to ,philosophy1 ,politics1       
,industry1 ,the ,family1 ,poetry and    
,the ,future4 ,it opens with a          
comparison  of ,positivist doctrines    
with those of the leading extant        
philosophies4  ,it closes with a picture
 of society should those doctrines be   
realized4  ,it is thus both a criticism 
of current theories1 and an utopia of a 
possible ,future4 ,of the intermediate  
chapters1 the first deals with the      
principal changes proposed in our actual

 political system3 the next  chapter    
deals with the changes proposed in our  
present social system4  ,then come the  
last two chapters1 dealing with the     
principal agents1  ,art1 ,poetry and    
,religion1 by which those changes may be
 promoted4 ,the  book is therefore a    
practical introduction to the subject as
 a whole2  for it sets forth the aim of 
,positivism as a system1 and then how it
  seeks to effect that aim4             
,,table ,,of ,,contents      ,,chapter  
,i        ,,intellectual ,,character    
,,of ,,positivism                       
#h      ,the object of ,philosophy is to
 present a systematic view of    human  
life as a basis for modifying its       
imperfections--,the    ,theological     
,synthesis failed to include the        
practical side of    human nature--,but 
the ,positive spirit originated in      
practical    life--,in human nature1 and
 therefore in the ,positive system1     
,affection is the preponderating        
element--,the proper function    of     

,intellect is the service of the ,social
 ,sympathies--,under    ,theology the   
,intellect was the slave of the ,heart2 
under    ,positivism1 its servant--,the 
subordination of the ,intellect to      
the ,heart is the subjective principle  
of ,positivism--,objective    basis of  
the system3 ,order of the external      
,world1 as revealed    by ,science--,by 
it the selfish affections are           
controlled2 the    unselfish            
strengthened--,our conception of this   
,external ,order    has been gradually  
growing from the earliest times1 and is 
but    just complete--,even where not   
modifiable1 its influence on the        
character is of the greatest value--,but
 in most cases we can modify    it2 and 
in these the knowledge of it forms the  
systematic basis    of human            
action--,the chief difficulty of the    
,positive ,synthesis    was to complete 
our conception of the ,external ,order  
by extending    it to ,social           
,phenomena--,by the discovery of        

sociological laws    social questions   
are made paramount2 and thus our        
subjective    principle is satisfied    
without danger to free                  
thought--,distinction    between        
,abstract and ,concrete laws4 ,it is the
 former only    that we require for the 
purpose before us--,in our ,theory of   
,development the required ,synthesis of 
,abstract conceptions already           
exists--,therefore we are in a position 
to proceed at once with    the work of  
social regeneration--,error of          
identifying ,positivism    with         
,atheism1 ,materialism1 ,fatalism1 or   
,optimism4 ,atheism1 like    ,theology1 
discusses insoluble                     
mysteries--,materialism is due to the   
encroachment of the lower sciences on   
the domain of the higher1    an error   
which ,positivism rectifies--,nor is    
,positivism fatalist1    since it       
asserts the ,external ,order to be      
modifiable--,the charge    of ,optimism 
applies to ,theology rather than to     

,positivism4 ,the    ,positivist judges 
of all historical actions relatively1   
but does    not justify them            
indiscriminately--,the word ,positive   
connotes all    the highest intellectual
 attributes1 and will ultimately have a 
moral significance4      ,,chapter ,,ii 
,,the ,,social ,,aspect ,,of            
,,positivism                            
#fd      ,the relation of ,positivism to
 the ,french ,revolution--,the          
negative or destructive phase of the    
,revolution stimulated    the desire of 
,progress1 and consequently the study of
 social    phenomena--,the constructive 
phase of the ,revolution4 ,the first    
attempts to construct failed1 being     
based on destructive                    
principles--,counter-revolution from    
#agid to #ahcj--,political    stagnation
 between #ahcj and #ahdh--,the present  
position1 #ahdh-ahej4    ,republicanism 
involves the great principle of         
subordinating    ,politics to           
,morals--,it gives prominence to the    

problem of    reconciling ,order and    
,progress--,it brings the metaphysical  
revolutionary schools into              
discredit--,and it proves to all the    
necessity of a true spiritual power2 a  
body of thinkers whose    business is to
 study and to teach principles1 holding 
aloof    from political action--,the    
need of a spiritual power is common     
to the whole ,republic of ,western      
,europe--,this ,republic consists    of 
the ,italian1 ,spanish1 ,british1 and   
,german populations1    grouped round   
,france as their centre--,relation of   
,positivism    to the medival system1 to
 which we owe the first attempt    to   
separate ,spiritual from ,temporal      
power--,but the medival    attempt was  
premature2 and ,positivism will renew   
and complete    it--,the ,ethical system
 of ,positivism--,subjection of         
,self-love    to ,social love is the    
great ethical problem4 ,the ,social     
state    of itself favours this result2 
but it may be hastened by    organized  

and conscious effort--,intermediate     
between ,self-love    and universal     
,benevolence are the domestic           
affections3 filial1    fraternal1       
conjugal1 paternal--,personal virtues   
placed upon a    social basis--,moral   
education consists partly of scientific 
demonstration of ethical truth1 but     
still more of culture of the    higher  
sympathies--,organization of ,public    
,opinion--,commemoration    of great    
men--,the political motto of            
,positivism3 ,order and                 
,progress--,progress1 the development of
 ,order--,analysis of ,progress3        
material1 physical1 intellectual1 and   
moral--,application of our    principles
 to actual politics4 ,all government    
must for the present    be              
provisional--,danger of attempting      
political reconstruction    before      
spiritual--,politically what is wanted  
is ,dictatorship1 with    liberty of    
speech and discussion--,such a          
dictatorship would be a    step towards 

the separation of spiritual and temporal
 power--,the    motto of #ahcj1 ,liberty
 and ,public ,order--,liberty should be 
extended to ,education--,order demands  
centralization--,intimate    connexion  
of ,liberty with ,order4      ,,chapter 
,,iii        ,,the ,,action ,,of        
,,positivism ,,upon ,,the ,,working     
,,classes                #adj           
,positivism will not for the present    
recommend itself to the    governing    
classes1 so much as to the ,people--,the
 working man who    accepts his position
 is favourably situated for the         
reception    of comprehensive principles
 and generous sympathies--,this the     
,convention felt2 but they encouraged   
the ,people to seek political           
supremacy1 for which they are not       
fit--,it is only in exceptional    cases
 that the ,people can be really         
#8sovereign'--,the truth    involved in 
the expression is that the well-being of
 the people    should be the one great  
object of government--,the ,people's    

function is to assist the spiritual     
power in modifying the action    of     
government--,their combined efforts     
result in the formation    of ,public   
,opinion--,public opinion involves1 7#a7
 principles of    social conduct1 7#b7  
their acceptance by society at large1   
7#c7 an    organ through which to       
enunciate them--,working men's          
clubs--,all    three conditions of      
,public ,opinion exist1 but have not yet
    been combined--,spontaneous         
tendencies of the people in a right     
direction4 ,their ,communism--,its new  
title of ,socialism--,property    is in 
its nature social1 and needs            
control--,but ,positivism    rejects the
 ,communist solution of the ,problem4   
,property is to    be controlled by     
moral not legal                         
agencies--,individualization    of      
functions as necessary as               
co-operation--,industry requires    its 
captains as well as ,war--,communism is 
deficient in the    historical          

spirit--,in fact1 as a system it is     
worthless1 though    prompted by noble  
feelings--,property is a public trust1  
not to    be interfered with            
legally--,inheritance favourable to its 
right    employment--,intellect needs   
moral control as much as wealth--,action
    of organized public opinion upon    
,capitalists4 ,strikes--,public         
,opinion must be based upon a sound     
system of ,education--,education    has 
two stages2 from birth to puberty1 from 
puberty to adolescence4    ,the first1  
consisting of physical and esthetic     
training1 to    be given at home--,the  
second part consists of public lectures 
on the ,sciences1 from ,mathematics to  
,sociology--,travels of                 
,apprentices--,concentration of         
study--,governmental assistance    not  
required1 except for certain special    
institutions1 and    this only as a     
provisional measure--,we are not ripe   
for this    system at present2 and      
,government must not attempt to hasten  

its    introduction--,intellectual      
attitude of the people4 ,emancipation   
from theological belief--,from          
metaphysical doctrines--,their          
mistaken preference of literary and     
rhetorical talent to real               
intellectual power--,moral attitude of  
the people4 ,the workman    should      
regard himself as a public              
functionary--,ambition of power    and  
wealth must be abandoned--,the working  
classes are the best    guarantee for   
,liberty and ,order--,it is from them   
that we shall    obtain the dictatorial 
power which is provisionally required4  
,,chapter ,,iv        ,,the ,,influence 
,,of ,,positivism ,,upon ,,women        
#bbg      ,women represent the affective
 element in our nature1 as              
philosophers and people represent the   
intellectual and practical              
elements--,women have stood aloof from  
the modern movement1 because    of its  
anti-historic and destructive           
character--,but they will    sympathize 

with constructive tendencies2 and will  
distinguish    sound philosophy from    
scientific specialities--,women's       
position    in society4 ,like           
philosophers and people1 their part is  
not to    govern1 but to modify--,the   
united action of philosophers1 women1   
and proletaries constitutes ,moral      
,force--,superiority of the    new      
spiritual power to the old4             
,self-regarding tendencies of           
,catholic doctrine--,the spirit of      
,positivism1 on the contrary1    is     
essentially social4 ,the ,heart and the 
,intellect mutually    strengthen each  
other--,intellectual and moral          
affinities of women    with             
,positivism--,catholicism purified love1
 but did not directly    strengthen     
it--,women's influence over the working 
classes and their    teachers--,their   
social influence in the salon--,but the 
,family    is their principal sphere of 
action--,woman's mission as a wife4     
,conjugal love an education for         

universal sympathy--,conditions of      
marriage4 ,indissoluble                 
monogamy--,perpetual widowhood--,woman's
    mission as a mother--,education of  
children belongs to mothers4    ,they   
only can guide the development of       
character--,modern sophisms    about    
,woman's rights4 ,the domesticity of her
 life follows from    the principle of  
,separation of ,powers--,the position of
 the sexes    tends to differentiation  
rather than identity--,woman to be      
maintained by ,man--,the education of   
women should be identical    with that  
of men--,women's privileges4 ,their     
mission is in    itself a               
privilege--,they will receive honour and
 worship from    men--,development of   
medival chivalry--,the practice of      
,prayer1 so    far from disappearing1 is
 purified and strengthened in ,positive 
religion--,the worship of ,woman a      
preparation for the worship of          
,humanity--,exceptional women4 ,joan of 
,arc--,it is for women to    introduce  

,positivism into the ,southern nations4 
,,chapter ,v        ,,the ,,relation    
,,of ,,positivism ,,to ,,art            
#cjd      ,positivism when complete is  
as favourable to ,imagination1 as1 when 
incomplete1 it was unfavourable to      
it--,esthetic talent is for the         
adornment of life1 not for its          
government--,the political influence    
of literary men a deplorable sign and   
source of anarchy--,theory    of        
,art--,art is the idealized             
representation of ,fact--,poetry is     
intermediate between ,philosophy and    
,polity--,art calls each element    of  
our nature into harmonious              
action--,three stages in the esthetic   
process3 ,imitation1 ,idealization1     
,expression--,classification of    the  
arts on the principle of decreasing     
generality1 and increasing              
intensity--,poetry--,music--,painting4  
,sculpture4 ,architecture--,the         
conditions favourable to ,art have never
 yet been combined--,neither    in      

,polytheism--,nor under the ,medival    
system--,much less in    modern         
times--,under ,positivism the conditions
 will all be    favourable4 ,there will 
be fixed principles1 and a nobler moral 
culture--,predisposing influence of     
,education--,relation of ,art    to     
,religion--,idealization of historical  
types--,art requires the    highest     
education2 but little special           
instruction--,artists as    a class will
 disappear4 ,their function will be     
appropriated by    the philosophic      
priesthood--,identity of esthetic and   
scientific    genius--,women's          
poetry--,people's poetry--,value of ,art
 in the    present crisis--,construction
 of normal types on the basis furnished 
by philosophy--,pictures of the ,future 
of ,man--,contrasts with the    ,past4  
,,chapter ,,vi        ,,conclusion4     
,,the ,,religion ,,of ,,humanity        
#cee      ,recapitulation of the results
 obtained--,humanity is the centre    to
 which every aspect of ,positivism      

converges--,with the    discovery of    
sociological laws1 a synthesis on the   
basis of    ,science becomes possible1  
science being now concentrated on    the
 study of ,humanity--,statical aspects  
of ,humanity--,dynamical                
aspects--,inorganic and organic sciences
 elevated by their connexion    with the
 supreme science of ,humanity--,the new 
religion is even    more favourable to  
,art than to ,science--,poetic          
portraiture of    the new ,supreme      
,being1 and contrast with the           
old--,organization    of festivals1     
representing statical and dynamical     
aspects of    ,humanity--,worship of the
 dead4 ,commemoration of their          
service--,all    the arts may co-operate
 in the service of religion--,positivism
    the successor of ,christianity1 and 
surpasses it--,superiority of           
,positive morality--,rise of the new    
,spiritual power--,temporal power       
will always be necessary1 but its action
 will be modified by the                

spiritual--,substitution of duties for  
rights--,consensus of the    ,social    
,organism--,continuity of the past with 
the present--,necessity    of a         
spiritual power to study and teach these
 truths1 and thus    to govern men by   
persuasion1 instead of by               
compulsion--,nutritive    functions of  
,humanity1 performed by ,capitalists1 as
 the temporal    power--,these are      
modified by the cerebral functions1     
performed    by the spiritual           
power--,women and priests to have their 
material    subsistence                 
guaranteed--,normal relation of priests1
 people1 and    capitalists--,we are not
 yet ripe for the normal state4 ,but the
    revolution of #ahdh is a step       
towards it--,first revolutionary motto2 
,liberty and ,equality--,second motto2  
,liberty and ,order--,third    motto2   
,order and ,progress--,provisional      
policy for the period of                
transition--,popular dictatorship with  
freedom of speech--,positive            

,committee for ,western                 
,europe--,occidental                    
navy--,international                    
coinage--,occidental school--,flag for  
the ,western ,republic--,colonial    and
 foreign ,associates of the ,committee1 
the action of which will    ultimately  
extend to the whole human               
race--,conclusion4 ,perfection    of the
 ,positivist ideal--,corruption of      
,monotheism4          ,a ,,general      
,,view ,,of ,,positivism      #8,we tire
 of thinking and even of acting2 we     
never tire of loving4'      ,in the     
following series of systematic essays   
upon ,positivism the  essential         
principles of the doctrine are first    
considered2 ,i then  point out the      
agencies by which its propagation will  
be effected2 and  ,i conclude by        
describing certain additional features  
indispensable to  its completeness4 ,my 
treatment of these questions will of    
course be  summary2 yet it will suffice1
 ,i hope1 to overcome several excusable 

but  unfounded prejudices4 ,it will     
enable any competent reader to assure   
himself that the new general doctrine   
aims at something more than  satisfying 
the ,intellect2 that it is in reality   
quite as favourable to  ,feeling and    
even to ,imagination4                   
,,introductory ,,remarks    ,positivism 
consists essentially of a ,philosophy   
and a ,polity4 ,these can  never be     
dissevered2 the former being the basis1 
and the latter the  end of one          
comprehensive system1 in which our      
intellectual faculties  and our social  
sympathies are brought into close       
correlation with  each other4 ,for1 in  
the first place1 the science of         
,society1 besides  being more important 
than any other1 supplies the only       
logical and  scientific link by which   
all our varied observations of phenomena
  can be brought into one consistent    
whole#a4 ,of this science it is  even   
more true than of any of the preceding  
sciences1 that its real  character      

cannot be understood without explaining 
its exact relation in  all general      
features with the art corresponding to  
it4 ,now here we find  a coincidence    
which is assuredly not fortuitous4 ,at  
the very time when  the theory of       
society is being laid down1 an immense  
sphere is opened  for the application of
 that theory2 the direction1 namely1 of 
the  social regeneration of ,western    
,europe4 ,for1 if we take another point 
of  view1 and look at the great crisis  
of modern history1 as its character  is 
displayed in the natural course of      
events1 it becomes every day  more      
evident how hopeless is the task of     
reconstructing political  institutions  
without the previous remodelling of     
opinion and of life4  ,to form then a   
satisfactory synthesis of all human     
conceptions is the  most urgent of our  
social wants3 and it is needed equally  
for the sake  of ,order and of          
,progress4 ,during the gradual          
accomplishment of this  great           

philosophical work1 a new moral power   
will arise spontaneously  throughout the
 ,west1 which1 as its influence         
increases1 will lay down  a definite    
basis for the reorganization of society4
 ,it will offer a  general system of    
education for the adoption of all       
civilized nations1  and by this means   
will supply in every department of      
public and  private life fixed          
principles of judgment and of conduct4  
,thus the  intellectual movement and the
 social crisis will be brought          
continually  into close connexion with  
each other4 ,both will combine to       
prepare the  advanced portion of        
humanity for the acceptance of a true   
spiritual  power1 a power more coherent1
 as well as more progressive1 than the  
noble but premature attempt of mediaeval
 ,catholicism4    ,the primary object1  
then1 of ,positivism is two-fold3 to    
generalize our  scientific conceptions1 
and to systematize the art of social    
life4  ,these are but two aspects of one

 and the same problem4 ,they will form  
the subjects of the two first chapters  
of this work4 ,i shall first  explain   
the general spirit of the new           
philosophy4 ,i shall then show its      
necessary connexion with the whole      
course of that vast revolution which  is
 now about to terminate under its       
guidance in social reconstruction4      
,this will lead us naturally to another 
question4 ,the regenerating  doctrine   
cannot do its work without adherents2 in
 what quarter should  we hope to find   
them8 ,now1 with individual exceptions  
of great value1  we cannot expect the   
adhesion of any of the upper classes in 
society4  ,they are all more or less    
under the influence of baseless         
metaphysical  theories1 and of          
aristocratic self-seeking4 ,they are    
absorbed in blind  political agitation  
and in disputes for the possession of   
the useless  remnants of the old        
theological and military system4 ,their 
action only  tends to prolong the       

revolutionary state indefinitely1 and   
can never  result in true social        
renovation4    ,whether we regard its   
intellectual character or its social    
objects1 it  is certain that ,positivism
 must look elsewhere for support4 ,it   
will  find a welcome in those classes   
only whose good sense has been left     
unimpaired by our vicious system of     
education1 and whose generous           
sympathies are allowed to develop       
themselves freely4 ,it is among  women1 
therefore1 and among the working classes
 that the heartiest  supporters of the  
new doctrine will be found4 ,it is      
intended1 indeed1  ultimately for all   
classes of society4 ,but it will never  
gain much real  influence over the      
higher ranks till it is forced upon     
their notice by  these powerful patrons4
 ,when the work of spiritual            
reorganization is  completed1 it is on  
them that its maintenance will          
principally depend2  and so too1 their  
combined aid is necessary for its       

commencement4  ,having but little       
influence in political government1 they 
are the more  likely to appreciate the  
need of a moral government1 the special 
object  of which it will be to protect  
them against the oppressive action of   
the temporal power4    ,in the third    
chapter1 therefore1 ,i shall explain the
 mode in which  philosophers and working
 men will co-operate4 ,both have been   
prepared  for this coalition by the     
general course which modern history has 
taken1 and it offers now the only hope  
we have of really decisive  action4 ,we 
shall find that the efforts of          
,positivism to regulate and  develop the
 natural tendencies of the people1 make 
it1 even from the  intellectual point of
 view1 more coherent and complete4      
,but there is another and a more        
unexpected source from which ,positivism
  will obtain support2 and not till then
 will its true character and  the full  
extent of its constructive power be     
appreciated4 ,i shall  show in the      

fourth chapter how eminently calculated 
is the ,positive  doctrine to raise and 
regulate the social condition of women4 
,it is  from the feminine aspect only   
that human life1 whether individually or
  collectively considered1 can really be
 comprehended as a whole4 ,for the  only
 basis on which a system really         
embracing all the requirements  of life 
can be formed1 is the subordination of  
intellect to social  feeling3 a         
subordination which we find directly    
represented in the  womanly type of     
character1 whether regarded in its      
personal or social  relations4          
,although these questions cannot be     
treated fully in the present work1 ,i   
hope to convince my readers that        
,positivism is more in accordance with  
the spontaneous tendencies of the people
 and of women than ,catholicism1  and is
 therefore better qualified to institute
 a spiritual power4 ,it  should be      
observed that the ground on which the   
support of both these  classes is       

obtained is1 that ,positivism is the    
only system which can  supersede the    
various subversive schemes that are     
growing every day  more dangerous to all
 the relations of domestic and social   
life4 ,yet  the tendency of the doctrine
 is to elevate the character of both of 
these classes2 and it gives a most      
energetic sanction to all their         
legitimate aspirations4    ,thus it is  
that a philosophy originating in        
speculations of the most  abstract      
character1 is found applicable not      
merely to every department  of practical
 life1 but also to the sphere of our    
moral nature4 ,but  to complete the     
proof of its universality ,i have still 
to speak of  another very essential     
feature4 ,i shall show1 in spite of     
prejudices  which exist very naturally  
on this point1 that ,positivism is      
eminently  calculated to call the       
,imaginative faculties into exercise4   
,it is by  these faculties that the     
unity of human nature is most distinctly

  represented3 they are themselves      
intellectual1 but their field lies      
principally in our moral nature1 and the
 result of their operation is  to       
influence the active powers4 ,the       
subject of women treated in the  fourth 
chapter1 will lead me by a natural      
transition to speak in the  fifth of the
 ,esthetic aspects of ,positivism4 ,i   
shall attempt to show  that the new     
doctrine by the very fact of embracing  
the whole range of  human relations in  
the spirit of reality1 discloses the    
true theory of  ,art1 which has hitherto
 been so great a deficiency in our      
speculative  conceptions4 ,the principle
 of the theory is that1 in co-ordinating
 the  primary functions of humanity1    
,positivism places the ,idealities of   
the  poet midway between the ,ideas of  
the philosopher and the ,realities of   
the statesman4 ,we see from this theory 
how it is that the poetical  power of   
,positivism cannot be manifested at     
present4 ,we must wait  until moral and 

mental regeneration has advanced far    
enough to awaken  the sympathies which  
naturally belong to it1 and on which    
,art in its  renewed state must depend  
for the future4 ,the first mental and   
social  shock once passed1 ,poetry will 
at last take her proper rank4 ,she will 
lead ,humanity onward towards a future  
which is now no longer vague and        
visionary1 while at the same time she   
enables us to pay due honour to  all    
phases of the past4 ,the great object   
which ,positivism sets before  us       
individually and socially1 is the       
endeavour to become more perfect4  ,the 
highest importance is attached therefore
 to the imaginative  faculties1 because 
in every sphere with which they deal    
they stimulate  the sense of perfection4
 ,limited as my explanations in this    
work must  be1 ,i shall be able to show 
that ,positivism1 while opening out a   
new  and wide field for art1 supplies in
 the same spontaneous way new means  of 
expression4    ,i shall thus have       

sketched with some detail the true      
character of  the regenerating doctrine4
 ,all its principal aspects will have   
been  considered4 ,beginning with its   
philosophical basis1 ,i pass by natural 
transitions to its political purpose2   
thence to its action upon the  people1  
its influence with women1 and lastly1 to
 its esthetic power4  ,in concluding    
this work1 which is but the introduction
 to a larger  treatise1 ,i have only to 
speak of the conception which unites all
 these  various aspects4 ,as summed up  
in the positivist motto1 ,love1 ,order1 
,progress1 they lead us to the          
conception of ,humanity1 which          
implicitly  involves and gives new force
 to each of them4 ,rightly interpreting 
this  conception1 we view ,positivism at
 last as a complete and consistent      
whole4 ,the subject will naturally lead 
us to speak in general terms of  the    
future progress of social regeneration1 
as far as the history of  the past      
enables us to foresee it4 ,the movement 

originates in ,france1  and is limited  
at first to the great family of ,western
 nations4 ,i shall  show that it will   
afterwards extend1 in accordance with   
definite laws1  to the rest of the white
 race1 and finally to the other two     
great races  of man4          ,,chapter 
,i    ,,the ,,intellectual ,,character  
,,of ,,positivism       ,the object of  
,philosophy   is to present a systematic
   view of human life1 as a   basis for 
modifying its   imperfections    ,the   
object of all true ,philosophy is to    
frame a system which shall  comprehend  
human life under every aspect1 social as
 well as individual4  ,it embraces1     
therefore1 the three kinds of phenomena 
of which our life  consists1 ,thoughts1 
,feelings1 and ,actions4 ,under all     
these aspects1 the  growth of ,humanity 
is primarily spontaneous2 and the basis 
upon which  all wise attempts to modify 
it should proceed1 can only be furnished
  by an exact acquaintance with the     
natural process4 ,we are1 however1  able

 to modify this process systematically2 
and the importance of  this is extreme1 
since we can thereby greatly diminish   
the partial  deviations1 the disastrous 
delays1 and the grave inconsistencies to
  which so complex a growth would be    
liable were it left entirely to  itself4
 ,to effect this necessary intervention 
is the proper sphere  of politics4 ,but 
a right conception cannot be formed of  
it without  the aid of the philosopher1 
whose business it is to define and amend
  the principles on which it is         
conducted4 ,with this object in view the
  philosopher endeavours to co-ordinate 
the various elements of man's           
existence1 so that it may be conceived  
of theoretically as an integral  whole4 
,his synthesis can only be valid in so  
far as it is an exact  and complete     
representation of the relations         
naturally existing4 ,the  first         
condition is therefore that these       
relations be carefully studied4  ,when  
the philosopher1 instead of forming such

 a synthesis1 attempts  to interfere    
more directly with the course of        
practical life1 he  commits the error of
 usurping the province of the statesman1
 to whom  all practical measures        
exclusively belong4 ,philosophy and     
,politics are  the two principal        
functions of the great social organism4 
,morality1  systematically considered1  
forms the connecting link and at the    
same  time the line of demarcation      
between them4 ,it is the most important 
application of philosophy1 and it gives 
a general direction to polity4  ,natural
 morality1 that is to say the various   
emotions of our moral  nature1 will1 as 
,i have shown in my previous work1      
always govern the  speculations of the  
one and the operations of the other4    
,this ,i shall  explain more fully4     
,but the synthesis1 which it is the     
social function of ,philosophy to       
construct1 will neither be real nor     
permanent1 unless it embraces  every    
department of human nature1 whether     

speculative1 effective1 or  practical4  
,these three orders of phenomena react  
upon each other so  intimately1 that any
 system which does not include all of   
them must  inevitably be unreal and     
inadequate4 ,yet it is only in the      
present day1  when ,philosophy is       
reaching the positive stage1 that this  
which is her  highest and most essential
 mission can be fully apprehended4      
,the ,theological synthesis   failed to 
include the   practical side of human   
nature    ,the theological synthesis    
depended exclusively upon our affective 
nature2 and this is owing its original  
supremacy and its ultimate  decline4    
,for a long time its influence over all 
our highest  speculations was paramount4
 ,this was especially the case during   
the  ,polytheistic period1 when         
,imagination and ,feeling still retained
 their  sway under very slight restraint
 from the reasoning faculties4 ,yet     
even during the time of its highest     
development1 intellectually and         

socially1 theology exercised no real    
control over practical life4 ,it        
reacted1 of course1 upon it to some     
extent1 but the effects of this  were in
 most cases far more apparent than real4
 ,there was a natural  antagonism       
between them1 which though at first     
hardly perceived1 went  on increasing   
till at last it brought about the entire
 destruction  of the theological fabric4
 ,a system so purely subjective could   
not  harmonize with the necessarily     
objective tendencies and stubborn       
realities of practical life4 ,theology  
asserted all phenomena to  be under the 
dominion of ,wills more or less         
arbitrary3 whereas in  practical life   
men were led more and more clearly to   
the conception of  invariable ,laws4    
,for without laws human action would    
have admitted of  no rule or plan4 ,in  
consequence of this utter inability of  
theology  to deal with practical life1  
its treatment of speculative and even of
  moral problems was exceedingly        

imperfect1 such problems being all more 
or less dependent on the practical      
necessities of life4 ,to present  a     
perfectly synthetic view of human nature
 was1 then1 impossible as  long as the  
influence of theology lasted2 because   
the ,intellect was  impelled by ,feeling
 and by the ,active powers in two       
totally different  directions4 ,the     
failure of all metaphysical attempts to 
form a  synthesis need not be dwelt upon
 here4 ,metaphysicians1 in spite of     
their claims to absolute truth have     
never been able to supersede  theology  
in questions of feeling1 and have proved
 still more inadequate  in practical    
questions4 ,ontology1 even when it was  
most triumphant in  the schools1 was    
always limited to subjects of a purely  
intellectual  nature2 and even here its 
abstractions1 useless in themselves1    
dealt  only with the case of individual 
development1 the metaphysical spirit    
being thoroughly incompatible with the  
social point of view4 ,in my  work on   

,positive ,philosophy ,i have clearly   
proved that it constitutes  only a      
transitory phase of mind1 and is totally
 inadequate for any  constructive       
purpose4 ,for a time it was supreme2 but
 its utility lay  simply in its         
revolutionary tendencies4 ,it aided the 
preliminary  development of ,humanity by
 its gradual inroads upon ,theology1    
which1  though in ancient times         
entrusted with the sole direction of    
society1  had long since become in every
 respect utterly retrograde4     ,but   
the ,positive spirit   originated in    
practical life    ,but all ,positive    
speculations owe their first origin to  
the occupations  of practical life2 and1
 consequently1 they have always given   
some  indication of their capacity for  
regulating our active powers1 which  had
 been omitted from every former         
synthesis4 ,their value in this  respect
 has been and still is materially       
impaired by their want of  breadth1 and 
their isolated and incoherent character2

 but it has  always been instinctively  
felt4 ,the importance that we attach to 
theories which teach the laws of        
phenomena1 and give us the power of     
prevision1 is chiefly due to the fact   
that they alone can regulate  our       
otherwise blind action upon the external
 world4 ,hence it is that  while the    
,positive spirit has been growing more  
and more theoretical1  and has gradually
 extended to every department of        
speculation1 it has  never lost the     
practical tendencies which it derived   
from its source2  and this even in the  
case of researches useless in           
themselves1 and  only to be justified as
 logical exercises4 ,from its first     
origin  in mathematics and astronomy1 it
 has always shown its tendency to       
systematize the whole of our conceptions
 in every new subject which  has been   
brought within the scope of its         
fundamental principle4 ,it  exercised   
for a long time a modifying influence   
upon theological and  metaphysical      

principles1 which has gone on           
increasing2 and since the  time of      
,descartes and ,bacon it has become     
evident that it is destined  to         
supersede them altogether4 ,positivism  
has gradually taken possession  of the  
preliminary sciences of ,physics and    
,biology1 and in these the  old system  
no longer prevails4 ,all that remained  
was to complete the  range of its       
influence by including the study of     
social phenomena4 ,for  this study      
metaphysics had proved incompetent2 by  
theological thinkers  it had only been  
pursued indirectly and empirically as a 
condition of  government4 ,i believe    
that my work on ,positive ,philosophy   
has so far  supplied what was wanting4  
,i think it must now be clear to all    
that  the ,positive spirit can embrace  
the entire range of thought without     
lessening1 or rather with the effect of 
strengthening its original  tendency to 
regulate practical life4 ,and it is a   
further guarantee for  the stability of 

the new intellectual synthesis that     
,social science1  which is the final    
result of our researches1 gives them    
that systematic  character in which they
 had hitherto been wanting1 by supplying
 the  only connecting link of which they
 all admit4    ,this conception is      
already adopted by all true thinkers4   
,all must  now acknowledge that the     
,positive spirit tends necessarily      
towards  the formation of a             
comprehensive and durable system1 in    
which every  practical as well as       
speculative subject shall be included4  
,but such  a system would still be far  
from realizing that universal character 
without which ,positivism would be      
incompetent to supersede ,theology in   
the spiritual government of ,humanity4  
,for the element which really           
preponderates in every human being1 that
 is to say1 ,affection1 would  still be 
left untouched4 ,this element it is1 and
 this only1 which  gives a stimulus and 
direction to the other two parts of our 

nature3  without it the one would waste 
its force in ill-conceived1 or1 at      
least1 useless studies1 and the other in
 barren or even dangerous  contention4  
,with this immense deficiency the       
combination of our  theoretical and     
active powers would be fruitless1       
because it would  lack the only         
principle which could ensure its real   
and permanent  stability4 ,the failure  
would be even greater than the failure  
of  ,theology in dealing with practical 
questions2 for the unity of human       
nature cannot really be made to depend  
either on the rational or the  active   
faculties4 ,in the life of the          
individual1 and1 still more1  in the    
life of the race1 the basis of unity1 as
 ,i shall show in the  fourth chapter1  
must always be feeling4 ,it is to the   
fact that theology  arose spontaneously 
from feeling that its influence is for  
the most  part due4 ,and although       
theology is now palpably on the decline1
 yet  it will retain1 in principle at   

least1 some legitimate claims to the    
direction of society so long as the new 
philosophy fails to occupy this         
important vantage-ground4 ,we come then 
to the final conditions with  which the 
modern synthesis must comply4 ,without  
neglecting the spheres  of ,thought and 
,action it must also comprehend the     
moral sphere2 and the  very principle on
 which its claim to universality rests  
must be derived  from ,feeling4 ,then1  
and not till then1 can the claims of    
theology be  finally set aside4 ,for    
then the new system will have surpassed 
the old  in that which is the one       
essential purpose of all general        
doctrines4  ,it will have shown itself  
able to effect what no other doctrine   
has  done1 that is1 to bring the three  
primary elements of our nature into     
harmony4 ,if ,positivism were to prove  
incapable of satisfying this  condition1
 we must give up all hope of            
systematization of any kind4 ,for  while
 ,positive principles are now           

sufficiently developed to neutralize    
those of ,theology1 yet1 on the other   
hand1 the influence of theology  would  
continue to be far greater4 ,hence it is
 that many conscientious  thinkers in   
the present day are so inclined to      
despair for the future  of society4     
,they see that the old principles on    
which society has been  governed must   
finally become powerless4 ,what they do 
not see is that a  new basis for        
morality is being gradually laid down4  
,their theories are  too imperfect and  
incoherent to show them the direction   
towards which  the present time is      
ultimately tending4 ,it must be owned1  
too1 that  their view seems borne out by
 the present character of the ,positive 
method4 ,while all allow its utility in 
the treatment of practical1  and even of
 speculative1 problems1 it seems to most
 men1 and very  naturally1 quite unfit  
to deal with questions of morality4     
,in human nature1 and   therefore in the
 ,positive   system1 ,affection is the  

preponderating element    ,but on closer
 examination they will see reason to    
rectify their  judgment4 ,they will see 
that the hardness with which ,positive  
science  has been justly reproached1 is 
due to the speciality and want of       
purpose with which it has hitherto been 
pursued1 and is not at all  inherent in 
its nature4 ,originating as it did in   
the necessities of our  material nature1
 which for a long time restricted it to 
the study of  the inorganic world1 it   
has not till now become sufficiently    
complete  or systematic to harmonize    
well with our moral nature4 ,but now    
that it  is brought to bear upon social 
questions1 which for the future will    
form its most important field1 it loses 
all the defects peculiar to  its long   
period of infancy4 ,the very attribute  
of reality which is  claimed by the new 
philosophy1 leads it to treat all       
subjects from the  moral still more than
 from the intellectual side4 ,the       
necessity of  assigning with exact truth

 the place occupied by the intellect and
 by  the heart in the organization of   
human nature and of society1 leads to   
the decision that ,affection must be the
 central point of the synthesis4  ,in   
the treatment of social questions       
,positive science will be found  utterly
 to discard those proud illusions of the
 supremacy of reason1  to which it had  
been liable during its preliminary      
stages4 ,ratifying1  in this respect1   
the common experience of men even more  
forcibly than  ,catholicism1 it teaches 
us that individual happiness and public 
welfare  are far more dependent upon the
 heart than upon the intellect4 ,but1   
independently of this1 the question of  
co-ordinating the faculties of  our     
nature will convince us that the only   
basis on which they can be  brought into
 harmonious union1 is the preponderance 
of ,affection over  ,reason1 and even   
over ,activity4    ,the fact that       
intellect1 as well as social sympathy1  
is a distinctive  attribute of our      

nature1 might lead us to suppose that   
either of these  two might be supreme1  
and therefore that there might be more  
than one  method of establishing unity4 
,the fact1 however1 is that there is    
only  one2 because these two elements   
are by no means equal in their fitness  
for assuming the first place4 ,whether  
we look at the distinctive  qualities of
 each1 or at the degree of force which  
they possess1 it  is easy to see that   
the only position for which the         
intellect is  permanently adapted is to 
be the servant of the social sympathies4
  ,if1 instead of being content with    
this honourable post1 it aspires to     
become supreme1 its ambitious aims1     
which are never realized1 result  simply
 in the most deplorable disorder4       
,even with the individual1 it is        
impossible to establish permanent       
harmony between our various impulses1   
except by giving complete  supremacy to 
the feeling which prompts the sincere   
and habitual desire  of doing good4     

,this feeling is1 no doubt1 like the    
rest1 in itself  blind2 it has to learn 
from reason the right means of obtaining
  satisfaction2 and our active faculties
 are then called into requisition  to   
apply those means4 ,but common          
experience proves that after all the    
principal condition of right action is  
the benevolent impulse2 with  the       
ordinary amount of intellect and        
activity that is found in men  this     
stimulus1 if well sustained1 is enough  
to direct our thoughts and  energies to 
a good result4 ,without this habitual   
spring of action they  would inevitably 
waste themselves in barren or incoherent
 efforts1 and  speedily relapse into    
their original torpor4 ,unity in our    
moral nature  is1 then1 impossible1     
except so far as affection preponderates
 over  intellect and activity4     ,the 
proper function of   ,intellect is the  
,service of   the ,social ,sympathies   
,true as this fundamental principle is  
for the individual1 it is in  public    

life that its necessity can be          
demonstrated most irrefutably4  ,the    
problem is in reality the same1 nor is  
any different solution of  it required2 
only it assumes such increased          
dimensions1 that less  uncertainty is   
felt as to the method to be adopted4    
,the various beings  whom it is sought  
to harmonize have in this case each a   
separate  existence2 it is clear1       
therefore1 that the first condition of  
co-operation must be sought in their own
 inherent tendency to universal  love4  
,no calculations of self-interest can   
rival this social instinct1  whether in 
promptitude and breadth of intuition1 or
 in boldness and  tenacity of purpose4  
,true it is that the benevolent emotions
 have in  most cases less intrinsic     
energy than the selfish4 ,but they have 
this  beautiful quality1 that social    
life not only permits their growth1  but
 stimulates it to an almost unlimited   
extent1 while it holds their            
antagonists in constant check4 ,indeed  

the increasing tendency in the  former  
to prevail over the latter is the best  
measure by which to judge  of the       
progress of ,humanity4 ,but the         
intellect may do much to confirm  their 
influence4 ,it may strengthen social    
feeling by diffusing juster  views of   
the relations in which the various parts
 of society stand to  each other2 or it 
may guide its application by dwelling on
 the lessons  which the past offers to  
the future4 ,it is to this honourable   
service  that the new philosophy would  
direct our intellectual powers4 ,here   
the highest sanction is given to their  
operations1 and an exhaustless  field is
 opened out for them1 from which far    
deeper satisfaction may be  gained than 
from the approbation of the learned     
societies1 or from the  puerile         
specialities with which they are at     
present occupied4    ,in fact1 the      
ambitious claims which1 ever since the  
hopeless decline  of the theological    
synthesis1 have been advanced by the    

intellect1  never were or could be      
realized4 ,their only value lay in their
 solvent  action on the theological     
system when it had become hostile to    
progress4 ,the intellect is intended for
 service1 not for empire2 when  it      
imagines itself supreme1 it is really   
only obeying the personal  instead of   
the social instincts4 ,it never acts    
independently of  feeling1 be that      
feeling good or bad4 ,the first         
condition of command  is force2 now     
reason has but light2 the impulse that  
moves it must  come from elsewhere4 ,the
 metaphysical ,utopias1 in which a life 
of pure  contemplation is held out as   
the highest ideal1 attract the notice of
  our men of science2 but are really    
nothing but illusions of pride1 or      
veils for dishonest schemes4 ,true there
 is a genuine satisfaction in  the act  
of discovering truth2 but it is not     
sufficiently intense to  be an habitual 
guide of conduct4 ,indeed1 so feeble is 
our intellect1  that the impulse of some

 passion is necessary to direct and     
sustain  it in almost every effort4     
,when the impulse comes from kindly     
feeling  it attracts attention on       
account of its rarity or value2 when it 
springs from the selfish motives of     
glory1 ambition1 or gain1 it is too     
common to be remarked4 ,this is usually 
the only difference between the  two    
cases4 ,it does indeed occasionally     
happen that the intellect is  actuated  
by a sort of passion for truth in       
itself1 without any mixture  of pride or
 vanity4 ,yet1 in this case1 as in every
 other1 there is  intense egotism in    
exercising the mental powers            
irrespectively of all  social objects4  
,positivism1 as ,i shall afterwards     
explain1 is even more  severe than      
,catholicism in its condemnation of this
 type of character1  whether in         
metaphysicians or in men of science4    
,the true philosopher  would consider it
 a most culpable abuse of the           
opportunities which  civilization       

affords him for the sake of the welfare 
of society1 in  leading a speculative   
life4    ,we have traced the ,positive  
principle from its origin in the        
pursuits  of active life1 and have seen 
it extending successively to every      
department of speculation4 ,we now find 
it1 in its maturity1 and that  as a     
simple result of its strict adherence to
 fact1 embracing the  sphere of         
affection1 and making that sphere the   
central point of its  synthesis4 ,it is 
henceforth a fundamental doctrine of    
,positivism1 a  doctrine of as great    
political as philosophical importance1  
that the  ,heart preponderates over the 
,intellect4     ,under ,theology the    
intellect was the slave of   the heart2 
under ,positivism1   its servant    ,it 
is true that this doctrine1 which is the
 only basis for establishing  harmony in
 our nature1 had been1 as ,i before     
remarked1 instinctively  accepted by    
theological systems4 ,but it was one of 
the fatalities of  society in its       

preliminary phase1 that the doctrine was
 coupled with  an error which1 after a  
time1 destroyed all its value4 ,in      
acknowledging  the superiority of the   
heart the intellect was reduced to      
abject  submission4 ,its only chance of 
growth lay in resistance to the         
established system4 ,this course it     
followed with increasing effect1  till  
after twenty centuries of insurrection1 
the system collapsed4  ,the natural     
result of the process was to stimulate  
metaphysical and  scientific pride1 and 
to promote views subversive of all      
social order4  ,but ,positivism1 while  
systematically adopting the principle   
here spoken  of as the foundation of    
individual and social discipline1       
interprets  that principle in a         
different way4 ,it teaches that while it
 is for the  heart to suggest our       
problems1 it is for the intellect to    
solve them4  ,now the intellect was at  
first quite inadequate to this task1 for
 which  a long and laborious training   

was needed4 ,the heart1 therefore1 had  
to  take its place1 and in default of   
objective truth1 to give free play to   
its subjective inspirations4 ,but for   
these inspirations1 all progress1  as ,i
 showed in my ,system of ,positive      
,philosophy1 would have been  totally   
impossible4 ,for a long time it was     
necessary that they should  be believed 
absolutely2 but as soon as our reason   
began to mould its  conceptions upon    
observations1 more or less accurate1 of 
the external  world1 these supernatural 
dogmas became inevitably an obstacle to 
its  growth4 ,here lies the chief source
 of the important modifications which   
theological belief has successively     
undergone4 ,no further modifications    
are now possible without violating its  
essential principles2 and since1        
meantime1 ,positive science is assuming 
every day larger proportions1  the      
conflict between them is advancing with 
increasing vehemence and  danger4 ,the  
tendency on the one side is becoming    

more retrograde1 on  the other more     
revolutionary2 because the impossibility
 of reconciling  the two opposing forces
 is felt more and more strongly4 ,never 
was this  position of affairs more      
manifest than now4 ,the restoration of  
theology  to its original power1        
supposing such a thing were possible1   
would have  the most degrading influence
 on the intellect1 and1 consequently1 on
  the character also2 since it would    
involve the admission that our views  of
 scientific truth were to be strained   
into accordance with our wishes  and our
 wants4 ,therefore no important step in 
the progress of ,humanity  can now be   
made without totally abandoning the     
theological principle4  ,the only       
service of any real value which it still
 renders1 is that  of forcing the       
attention of ,western ,europe1 by the   
very fact of its  reactionary           
tendencies1 upon the greatest of all    
social questions4 ,it  is owing to its  
influence that the central point of the 

new synthesis  is placed in our moral   
rather than our intellectual nature2 and
 this1  in spite of every prejudice and 
habit of thought that has been formed   
during the revolutionary period of the  
last five centuries4 ,and while  in     
this1 which is the primary condition of 
social organization1  ,positivism1      
proves more efficient than ,theology1 it
 at the same time  terminates the       
disunion which has existed so long      
between the intellect  and the heart4   
,for it follows logically from its      
principles1 and also  from the whole    
spirit of the system1 that the intellect
 shall be free  to exercise its full    
share of influence in every department  
of human  life4 ,when it is said that   
the intellect should be subordinate to  
the heart1 what is meant is1 that the   
intellect should devote itself          
exclusively to the problems which the   
heart suggests1 the ultimate  object    
being to find proper satisfaction for   
our various wants4  ,without this       

limitation1 experience has shown too    
clearly that it  would almost always    
follow its natural bent for useless or  
insoluble  questions1 which are the most
 plentiful and the easiest to deal with4
  ,but when any problem of a legitimate 
kind has been once proposed1 it  is the 
sole judge of the method to be pursued1 
and of the utility of  the results      
obtained4 ,its province is to inquire   
into the present1 in  order to foresee  
the future1 and to discover the means of
 improving  it4 ,in this province it is 
not to be interfered with4 ,in a word   
the  intellect is to be the servant of  
the heart1 not its slave4 ,under  these 
two correlative conditions the elements 
of our nature will at  last be brought  
into harmony4 ,the equilibrium of these 
two elements1  once established1 is in  
little danger of being disturbed4 ,for  
since  it is equally favourable to both 
of them1 both will be interested  in    
maintaining it4 ,the fact that ,reason  
in modern times has become  habituated  

to revolt1 is no ground for supposing   
that it will always  retain its         
revolutionary character1 even when its  
legitimate claims  have been fully      
satisfied4 ,supposing the case to arise1
 however1  society1 as ,i shall show    
afterwards1 would not be without the    
means  of repressing any pretensions    
that were subversive of order4 ,there is
  another point of view which may assure
 us that the position given to  the     
heart under the new system will involve 
no danger to the growth of  intellect4  
,love1 when real1 ever desires light1 in
 order to attain its  ends4 ,the        
influence of true feeling is as         
favourable to sound thought  as to wise 
activity4     ,the subordination of the 
intellect to the heart is   the         
,subjective ,principle   of ,positivism 
,our doctrine1 therefore1 is one which  
renders hypocrisy and oppression  alike 
impossible4 ,and it now stands forward  
as the result of all the  efforts of the
 past1 for the regeneration of order1   

which1 whether  considered individually 
or socially1 is so deeply compromised by
 the  anarchy of the present time4 ,it  
establishes a fundamental principle by  
which true philosophy and sound polity  
are brought into correlation2 a         
principle which can be felt as well as  
proved1 and which is at once the        
keystone of a system and a basis of     
government4 ,i shall show1 moreover1  in
 the fifth chapter1 that the doctrine is
 as rich in esthetic beauty  as in      
philosophical power and in social       
influence4 ,this will complete  the     
proof of its efficacy as the centre of a
 universal system4 ,viewed  from the    
moral1 scientific1 or poetical aspect1  
it is equally valuable2  and it is the  
only principle which can bring ,humanity
 safely through  the most formidable    
crisis that she has ever yet undergone4 
,it will  be now clear to all that the  
force of demonstration1 a force peculiar
  to modern times1 and which still      
retains much of its destructive         

character1 becomes matured and elevated 
by ,positivism4 ,it begins  to develop  
constructive tendencies1 which will soon
 be developed  more largely4 ,it is not 
too much1 then1 to say that ,positivism1
  notwithstanding its speculative       
origin1 offers as much to natures  of   
deep sympathy as to men of highly       
cultivated intellects1 or of  energetic 
character4     ,objective basis of the  
system2 ,external ,order of   the       
,world1 as revealed by   ,science       
,the spirit and the principle of the    
synthesis which all true  philosophers  
should endeavour to establish1 have now 
been defined4 ,i  proceed to explain the
 method that should be followed in the  
task1 and  the peculiar difficulty with 
which it is attended4    ,the object of 
the synthesis will not be secured until 
it embraces  the whole extent of its    
domain1 the moral and practical         
departments  as well as the             
intellectual4 ,but these three          
departments cannot be  dealt with       

simultaneously4 ,they follow an order of
 succession which1  so far from         
dissevering them from the whole to which
 they belong1 is  seen when carefully   
examined to be a natural result of their
 mutual  dependence4 ,the truth is1 and 
it is a truth of great importance1 that 
,thoughts must be systematized before   
,feelings1 ,feelings before ,actions4   
,it is doubtless1 owing to a confused   
apprehension of this truth1 that        
philosophers hitherto1 in framing their 
systems of human nature1 have  dealt    
almost exclusively1 with our            
intellectual faculties4    ,the         
necessity of commencing with the        
co-ordination of ideas is not  merely   
due to the fact that the relations of   
these1 being more  simple and more      
susceptible of demonstration1 form a    
useful logical  preparation for the     
remainder of the task4 ,on closer       
examination we  find a more important1  
though less obvious reason4 ,if this    
first  portion of the work be once      

efficiently performed1 it is the        
foundation  of all the rest4 ,in what   
remains no very serious difficulty will 
occur1 provided always that we content  
ourselves with that degree of           
completeness which the ultimate purpose 
of the system requires4    ,to give such
 paramount importance to this portion of
 the subject may  seem at first sight   
inconsistent with the proposition just  
laid down1  that the strength of the    
intellectual faculties is far inferior  
to that  of the other elements of our   
nature4 ,it is quite certain that       
,feeling  and ,activity have much more  
to do with any practical step that we   
take  than pure ,reason4 ,in attempting 
to explain this paradox1 we come at     
last to the peculiar difficulty of this 
great problem of human ,unity4    ,the  
first condition of unity is a subjective
 principle2 and this  principle in the  
,positive system is the subordination of
 the intellect  to the heart3 ,without  
this the unity that we seek can never be

 placed  on a permanent basis1 whether  
individually or collectively4 ,it is    
essential to have some influence        
sufficiently powerful to produce        
convergence amid the heterogeneous and  
often antagonistic tendencies of  so    
complex an organism as ours4 ,but this  
first condition1 indispensable  as it   
is1 would be quite insufficient for the 
purpose1 without some  objective basis1 
existing independently of ourselves in  
the external  world4 ,that basis        
consists for us in the laws or ,order of
 the phenomena  by which ,humanity is   
regulated4 ,the subjection of human life
 to this  order is incontestable2 and as
 soon as the intellect has enabled us to
  comprehend it1 it becomes possible for
 the feeling of love to exercise  a     
controlling influence over our          
discordant tendencies4 ,this1 then1 is  
the mission allotted to the intellect in
 the ,positive synthesis2 in  this sense
 it is that it should be consecrated to 
the service of the  heart4    ,i have   

said that our conception of human unity 
must be totally  inadequate1 and1       
indeed1 cannot deserve the name1 so long
 as it does  not embrace every element  
of our nature4 ,but it would be equally 
fatal  to the completeness of this great
 conception to think of human nature    
irrespectively of what lies outside it4 
,a purely subjective unity1  without any
 objective basis1 would be simply       
impossible4 ,in the first  place any    
attempt to co-ordinate man's moral      
nature1 without regard  to the external 
world1 supposing the attempt feasible1  
would have very  little permanent       
influence on our happiness1 whether     
collectively or  individually2 since    
happiness depends so largely upon our   
relations  to all that exists around us4
 ,besides this1 we have to consider the 
exceeding imperfection of our nature4   
,self-love is deeply implanted in  it1  
and when left to itself is far stronger 
than ,social ,sympathy4 ,the  social    
instincts would never gain the mastery  

were they not sustained  and called into
 constant exercise by the economy of the
 external world1  an influence which at 
the same time checks the power of the   
selfish  instincts4     ,by it the      
selfish   affections are controlled2    
the unselfish strengthened    ,to       
understand this economy aright2 we must 
remember that it embraces  not merely   
the inorganic world1 but also the       
phenomena of our own  existence4 ,the   
phenomena of human life1 though more    
modifiable than  any others1 are yet    
equally subject to invariable laws2 laws
 which  form the principal objects of   
,positive speculation4 ,now the         
benevolent  affections1 which themselves
 act in harmony with the laws of social 
development1 incline us to submit to all
 other laws1 as soon as the  intellect  
has discovered their existence4 ,the    
possibility of moral  unity depends1    
therefore1 even in the case of the      
individual1 but  still more in that of  
society1 upon the necessity of          

recognizing our  subjection to an       
external power4 ,by this means our      
self-regarding  instincts are rendered  
susceptible of discipline4 ,in          
themselves they  are strong enough to   
neutralize all sympathetic tendencies1  
were it  not for the support that the   
latter find in this ,external ,order4   
,its  discovery is due to the intellect2
 which is thus enlisted in the  service 
of feeling1 with the ultimate purpose of
 regulating action4    ,thus it is that 
an intellectual synthesis1 or systematic
 study of  the laws of nature1 is needed
 on far higher grounds than those of    
satisfying our theoretical faculties1   
which are1 for the most part1  very     
feeble1 even in men who devote          
themselves to a life of thought4 ,it  is
 needed1 because it solves at once the  
most difficult problem of the  moral    
synthesis4 ,the higher impulses within  
us are brought under the  influence of a
 powerful stimulus from without4 ,by its
 means they are  enabled to control our 

discordant impulses1 and to maintain a  
state of  harmony towards which they    
have always tended1 but which1 without  
such  aid1 could never be realized4     
,moreover1 this conception of the order 
of  nature evidently supplies the basis 
for a synthesis of human action2  for   
the efficacy of our action depends      
entirely upon their conformity  to this 
order4 ,but this part of the subject has
 been fully explained in  my previous   
work1 and ,i need not enlarge upon it   
further4 ,as soon as  the synthesis of  
mental conceptions enables us to form a 
synthesis of  feelings1 it is clear that
 there will be no very serious          
difficulties  in constructing a         
synthesis of actions4 ,unity of action  
depends upon  unity of impulse1 and     
unity of design2 and thus we find that  
the  co-ordination of human nature1 as a
 whole1 depends ultimately upon the     
co-ordination of mental conceptions1 a  
subject which seemed at first of        
comparatively slight importance4    ,the

 subjective principle of ,positivism1   
that is1 the subordination of  the      
intellect to the heart is thus fortified
 by an objective basis1  the immutable  
,necessity of the external world2 and by
 this means it  becomes possible to     
bring human life within the influence of
 social  sympathy4 ,the superiority of  
the new synthesis to the old is even    
more  evident under this second aspect  
than under the first4 ,in theological   
systems the objective basis was supplied
 by spontaneous belief in a             
supernatural ,will4 ,now1 whatever the  
degree of reality attributed  to these  
fictions1 they all proceeded from a     
subjective source2 and  therefore their 
influence in most cases must have been  
very confused  and fluctuating4 ,in     
respect of moral discipline they cannot 
be compared  either for precision1 for  
force1 or for stability1 to the         
conception  of an invariable ,order1    
actually existing without us1 and       
attested1  whether we will or no1 by    

every act of our existence4     ,our    
conception of this   ,external ,order   
has been   gradually growing from the   
earliest times1 and is but   just       
complete    ,this fundamental doctrine  
of ,positivism is not to be attributed  
in the  full breadth of its meanings to 
any single thinker4 ,it is the slow     
result of a vast process carried out in 
separate departments1 which  began with 
the first use of our intellectual       
powers1 and which is only  just         
completed in those who exhibit those    
powers in their highest form4  ,during  
the long period of her infancy ,humanity
 has been preparing  this the most      
precious of her intellectual            
attainments1 as the basis  for the only 
system of life which is permanently     
adapted to our  nature4 ,the doctrine   
has to be demonstrated in all the more  
essential  cases from observation only1 
except so far as we admit argument from 
analogy4 ,deductive argument is not     
admissible1 except in such cases  as are

 evidently compounded of others in which
 the proof given has  been sufficient4  
,thus1 for instance1 we are authorized  
by sound logic  to assert the existence 
of laws of weather2 though most of these
 are  still1 and1 perhaps1 always will  
be1 unknown4 ,for it is clear that      
meteorological phenomena result from a  
combination of astronomical1  physical  
and chemical influences1 each of which  
has been proved to  be subject to       
invariable laws4 ,but in all phenomena  
which are not  thus reducible1 we must  
have recourse to inductive reasoning2   
for a  principle which is the basis of  
all deduction cannot be itself deduced4 
,hence it is that the doctrine1 being so
 entirely foreign as it is to  our      
primitive mental state1 requires such a 
long course of preparation4  ,without   
such preparation even the greatest      
thinkers could not  anticipate it4 ,it  
is true that in some cases metaphysical 
conceptions  of a law have been formed  
before the proof really required had    

been  furnished4 ,but they were never of
 much service1 except so far as they    
generalized in a more or less confused  
way the analogies naturally  suggested  
by the laws which had actually been     
discovered in simpler  phenomena4       
,besides1 such assertions always        
remained very doubtful and  very barren 
in result1 until they were based upon   
some outline of a  really ,positive     
theory4 ,thus1 in spite of the apparent 
potency of  this metaphysical method1 to
 which modern intellects are so         
addicted1  the conception of an         
,external ,order is still extremely     
imperfect in  many of the most          
cultivated minds1 because they have not 
verified it  sufficiently in the most   
intricate and important class of        
phenomena1  the phenomena of society4 ,i
 am not1 of course1 speaking of the few 
thinkers who accept my discovery of the 
principal laws of ,sociology4  ,such    
uncertainty in a subject so closely     
related to all others1  produces great  

confusion in men's minds1 and affects   
their perception  of an invariable      
order1 even in the simplest subjects4 ,a
 proof of this  is the utter delusion   
into which most geometricians of the    
present day  have fallen with respect to
 what they call the ,calculus of        
,chances2  a conception which           
presupposes that the phenomena          
considered are not  subject to law4 ,the
 doctrine1 therefore1 cannot be         
considered as firmly  established in any
 one case1 until it has been verified   
specially in  every one of the primary  
categories in which phenomena may be    
classed4  ,but now that this difficult  
condition has really been fulfilled by  
the  few thinkers who have risen to the 
level of their age1 we have at last  a  
firm objective basis on which to        
establish the harmony of our moral      
nature4 ,that basis is1 that all events 
whatever1 the events of our  own        
personal and social life included1 are  
always subject to natural  relations of 

sequence and similitude1 which in all   
essential respects  lie beyond the reach
 of our interference4     ,even where   
not modifiable1   its influence on the  
character is of the greatest   value    
,this1 then1 is the external basis of   
our synthesis1 which includes  the moral
 and practical faculties1 as well as the
 speculative4 ,it  rests at every point 
upon the unchangeable ,order of the     
world4 ,the  right understanding of this
 order is the principal subject of our  
thoughts2 its preponderating influence  
determines the general course  of our   
feelings2 its gradual improvement is the
 constant object of  our actions4 ,to   
form a more precise notion of its       
influence1 let us  imagine that for a   
moment it were really to cease4 ,the    
result would  be that our intellectual  
faculties1 after wasting themselves in  
wild extravagancies1 would sink rapidly 
into incurable sloth2 our  nobler       
feelings would be unable to prevent the 
ascendancy of the  lower instincts2 and 

our active powers would abandon         
themselves to  purposeless agitation4   
,men have1 it is true1 been for a long  
time  ignorant of this ,order4          
,nevertheless we have been always       
subject to  it2 and its influence has   
always tended1 though without our       
knowledge1  to control our whole being2 
our actions first1 and subsequently  our
 thoughts1 and even our affections4 ,as 
we have advanced in our  knowledge of   
it1 our thoughts have become less vague1
 our desires less  capricious1 our      
conduct less arbitrary4 ,and now that we
 are able to  grasp the full meaning of 
the conception1 its influence extends to
  every part of our conduct4 ,for it    
teaches us that the object to be  aimed 
at in the economy devised by man1 is    
wise development of the  irresistible   
economy of nature1 which cannot be      
amended till it is  first studied and   
obeyed4 ,in some departments it has the 
character  of fate2 that is1 it admits  
of no modification4 ,but even here1 in  

spite of the superficial objections to  
it which have arisen from  intellectual 
pride1 it is necessary for the proper   
regulation of human  life4 ,suppose1 for
 instance1 that man were exempt from the
 necessity  of living on the earth1 and 
were free to pass at will from one      
planet  to another1 the very notion of  
society would be rendered impossible by 
the licence which each individual would 
have to give way to whatever  unsettling
 and distracting impulses his nature    
might incline him4  ,our propensities   
are so heterogeneous and so deficient in
 elevation1  that there would be no     
fixity or consistency in our conduct1   
but  for these insurmountable           
conditions4 ,our feeble reason may fret 
at  such restrictions1 but without them 
all its deliberations would be  confused
 and purposeless4 ,we are powerless to  
create3 all that we can  do in bettering
 our condition is to modify an order in 
which we can  produce no radical change4
 ,supposing us in possession of that    

absolute  independence to which         
metaphysical pride aspires1 it is       
certain that so  far from improving our 
condition1 it would be a bar to all     
development1  whether social or         
individual4 ,the true path of human     
progress lies in  the opposite          
direction2 in diminishing the           
vacillation1 inconsistency1  and        
discordance of our designs by furnishing
 external motives for those  operations 
of our intellectual1 moral and practical
 powers1 of which  the original source  
was purely internal4 ,the ties by which 
our various  diverging tendencies are   
held together would be quite inadequate 
for  their purpose1 without a basis of  
support in the external world1 which  is
 unaffected by the spontaneous          
variations of our nature4    ,but1      
however great the value of ,positive    
doctrine in pointing out the            
unchangeable aspects of the universal   
,order1 what we have principally  to    
consider are the numerous departments in

 which that order admits of  artificial 
modifications4 ,here lies the most      
important sphere of human  activity4    
,the only phenomena1 indeed1 which we   
are wholly unable to  modify are the    
simplest of all1 the phenomena of the   
,solar ,system which  we inhabit4 ,it is
 true that now that we know its laws we 
can easily  conceive them improved in   
certain respects2 but to whatever degree
 our  power over nature may extend1 we  
shall never be able to produce the      
slightest change in them4 ,what we have 
to do is so to dispose our life  as to  
submit to these resistless fatalities in
 the best way we can2 and  this is      
comparatively easy1 because their       
greater simplicity enables  us to       
foresee them with more precision and in 
a more distinct future4  ,their         
interpretation by ,positive science has 
had a most important  influence on the  
gradual education of the human          
intellect3 and it will  always continue 
to be the source from which we obtain   

the clearest and  most impressive sense 
of ,immutability4 ,too exclusively      
studied they  might even now lead to    
fatalism2 but controlled as their       
influence will  be henceforward by a    
more philosophic education1 they may    
well become a  means of moral           
improvement1 by disposing us to submit  
with resignation  to all evils which are
 absolutely insurmountable4     ,but in 
most cases we can   modify it2 and in   
these the   knowledge of it forms the   
systematic basis of human   action      
,in other parts of the external economy1
 invariability in all primary  aspects  
is found compatible with modifications  
in points of secondary  importance4     
,these modifications become more        
numerous and extensive as  the phenomena
 are more complex4 ,the reason of this  
is that the causes  from a combination  
of which the effects proceed being more 
varied and  more accessible1 offer      
greater facilities to our feeble powers 
to  interfere with advantage4 ,but all  

this has been fully explained in my     
,system of ,positive ,philosophy4 ,the  
tendency of that work was to show  that 
our intervention became more efficacious
 in proportion as the  phenomena upon   
which we acted had a closer relation to 
the life of man  or society4 ,indeed the
 extensive modifications of which       
society admits1  go far to keep up the  
common mistake that social phenomena are
 not  subject to any constant law4      
,at the same time we have to remember   
that this increased possibility of      
human intervention in certain parts of  
the ,external ,order necessarily        
coexists with increased imperfection1   
for which it is a valuable but  very    
inadequate compensation4 ,both features 
alike result from the  increase of      
complexity4 ,even the laws of the ,solar
 ,system are very far  from perfect1    
notwithstanding their greater           
simplicity1 which indeed  makes their   
defects more perceptible4 ,the existence
 of these defects  should be taken into 

careful consideration2 not indeed with  
the hope  of amending them1 but as a    
check upon unreasoning admiration4      
,besides1  they lead us to a clearer    
conception of the true position of      
,humanity1  a position of which the most
 striking feature is the necessity of   
struggling against difficulties of every
 kind4 ,lastly1 by observing  these     
defects we are less likely to waste our 
time in seeking for  absolute           
perfection1 and so neglecting the wiser 
course of looking for  such improvements
 as are really possible4    ,in all     
other phenomena1 the increasing         
imperfection of the economy  of nature  
becomes a powerful stimulus to all our  
faculties1 whether  moral1 intellectual 
or practical4 ,here we find sufferings  
which can  really be alleviated to a    
large extent by wise and well-sustained 
combination of efforts4 ,this           
consideration should give a firmness and
  dignity of bearing1 to which ,humanity
 could never attain during her  period  

of infancy4 ,those who look wisely into 
the future of society  will feel that   
the conception of man becoming1 without 
fear or boast1  the arbiter1 within     
certain limits1 of his own destiny1 has 
in it  something far more satisfying    
than the old belief in ,providence1     
which  implied our remaining passive4   
,social union will be strengthened by   
the  conception1 because every one will 
see that union forms our principal      
resource against the miseries of human  
life4 ,and while it calls out our       
noblest sympathies1 it impresses us more
 strongly with the importance  of high  
intellectual culture1 being itself the  
object for which such  culture is       
required4 ,these important results have 
been ever on the  increase in modern    
times2 yet hitherto they have been too  
limited and  casual to be appreciated   
rightly1 except so far as we could      
anticipate  the future of society by the
 light of sound historical principles4  
,art1 so far as it is yet organized1    

does not include that part of the       
economy of nature which1 being the most 
modifiable1 the most imperfect1  and the
 most important of all1 ought on every  
ground to be regarded as  the principal 
object of human exertions4 ,even        
,medical ,art1 specially  so called1 is 
only just beginning to free itself from 
its primitive  routine4 ,and ,social    
,art1 whether moral or political1 is    
plunged in  routine so deeply that few  
statesmen admit the possibility of      
shaking  it off4 ,yet of all the arts1  
it is the one which best admits of being
  reduced to a system2 and until this is
 done it will be impossible to  place on
 a rational basis all the rest of our   
practical life4 ,all these  narrow views
 are due simply to insufficient         
recognition of the fact1  that the      
highest phenomena are as much subject to
 laws as others4 ,when  the conception  
of the ,order of ,nature has become     
generally accepted  in its full extent1 
the ordinary definition of ,art will    

become as  comprehensive and as         
homogeneous as that of ,science2 and it 
will then  become obvious to all sound  
thinkers that the principal sphere of   
both  ,art and ,science is the social   
life of man4    ,thus the social        
services of the ,intellect are not      
limited to revealing  the existence of  
an external ,economy1 and the necessity 
of submission  to its sway4 ,if the     
theory is to have any influence upon our
 active  powers1 it should include an   
exact estimate of the imperfections  of 
this economy and of the limits within   
which it varies1 so as to  indicate and 
define the boundaries of human          
intervention4 ,thus it will  always be  
an important function of philosophy to  
criticize nature in  a ,positive spirit1
 although the antipathy to theology by  
which such  criticism was formerly      
animated has ceased to have much        
interest1 from  the very fact of having 
done its work so effectually4 ,the      
object of  ,positive criticism is not   

controversial4 ,it aims simply at       
putting  the great question of human    
life in a clearer light4 ,it bears      
closely  on what ,positivism teaches to 
be the great end of life1 namely1 the   
struggle to become more perfect2 which  
implies previous imperfection4  ,this   
truth is strikingly apparent when       
applied to the case of our own  nature1 
for true morality requires a deep and   
habitual consciousness of  our natural  
defects4     ,the chief difficulty of   
the ,positive ,synthesis was   to       
complete our conception   of the        
,external ,order1 by   extending it to  
,social   phenomena    ,i have now      
described the fundamental condition of  
the ,positive  ,synthesis4 ,deriving its
 subjective principle from the          
affections1 it  is dependent ultimately 
on the intellect for its objective      
basis4 ,this  basis connects it with the
 ,economy of the external world1 the    
dominion  of which ,humanity accepts1   
and at the same time modifies4 ,i have  

left  many points unexplained2 but      
enough has been said for the purpose of 
this work1 which is only the            
introduction to a larger treatise4 ,we  
now come to the essential difficulty    
that presented itself in the            
construction of the ,synthesis4 ,that   
difficulty was to discover the true     
,theory of human and social             
,development4 ,the first decisive step  
in this  discovery renders the          
conception of the ,order of ,nature     
complete4 ,it  stands out then as the   
fundamental doctrine of an universal    
system1 for  which the whole course of  
modern progress has been preparing the  
way4  ,for three centuries men of       
science have been unconsciously         
co-operating  in the work4 ,they have   
left no gap of any importance1 except in
 the  region of ,moral and ,social      
phenomena4 ,and now that man's history  
has  been for the first time            
systematically considered as a whole1   
and has  been found to be1 like all     

other phenomena1 subject to invariable  
laws1  the preparatory labours of modern
 ,science are ended4 ,her remaining task
  is to construct that synthesis which  
will place her at the only point  of    
view from which every department of     
knowledge can be embraced4    ,in my    
,system of ,positive ,philosophy both   
these objects were aimed  at4 ,i        
attempted1 and in the opinion of the    
principal thinkers of our  time         
successfully1 to complete and at the    
same time co-ordinate ,natural          
,philosophy1 by establishing the general
 law of human development1  social as   
well as intellectual4 ,i shall not now  
enter into the  discussion of this law1 
since its truth is no longer contested4 
,fuller consideration of it is reserved 
for the third volume of my new          
treatise4 ,it lays down1 as is generally
 known1 that our speculations  upon all 
subjects whatsoever1 pass necessarily   
through three successive  stages3 a     
,theological stage1 in which free play  

is given to spontaneous  fictions       
admitting of no proof2 the ,metaphysical
 stage1 characterized  by the prevalence
 of personified abstractions or         
entities2 lastly1  the ,positive stage1 
based upon an exact view of the real    
facts of  the case4 ,the first1 though  
purely provisional1 is invariably the   
point from which we start2 the third is 
the only permanent or normal  state2 the
 second has but a modifying or rather a 
solvent influence1  which qualifies it  
for regulating the transition from the  
first stage  to the third4 ,we begin    
with theological ,imagination1 thence we
 pass  through metaphysical ,discussion1
 and we end at last with positive       
,demonstration4 ,thus by means of this  
one general law we are enabled to  take 
a comprehensive and simultaneous view of
 the past1 present1 and  future of      
,humanity4    ,in my ,system of         
,positive ,philosophy1 this law of      
,filiation has always  been associated  
with the law of ,classification1 the    

application of  which to ,social        
,dynamics furnishes the second element  
requisite for  the theory of            
development4 ,it fixes the order in     
which our different  conceptions pass   
through each of these phases4 ,that     
order1 as is  generally known1 is       
determined by the decreasing generality1
 or  what comes to the same thing1 by   
the increasing complexity of the        
phenomena2 the more complex being       
naturally dependent upon those that  are
 more simple and less special4          
,arranging the sciences according to    
this mutual relation1 we find them      
grouped naturally in six primary        
divisions#b2 ,mathematics1 ,astronomy1  
,physics1 ,chemistry1 ,biology1  and    
,sociology4 ,each passes through the    
three phases of developments  before the
 one succeeding it4 ,without continuous 
reference to this  classification the   
theory of development would be confused 
and vague4    ,the theory thus derived  
from the combination of this second or  

statical law with the dynamical law of  
the three stages1 seems at  first sight 
to include nothing but the intellectual 
movement4 ,but my  previous remarks will
 have shown that this is enough to      
guarantee  its applicability to social  
progress also2 since social progress has
  invariably depended on the growth of  
our fundamental beliefs with  regard to 
the economy that surrounds us4 ,the     
historical portion of  my ,positive     
,philosophy has proved an unbroken      
connexion between  the development of   
,activity and that of ,speculation2 on  
the combined  influence of these depends
 the development of ,affection4 ,the    
theory  therefore requires no           
alteration3 what is wanted is merely an 
additional statement explaining the     
phases of active1 that is to say1  of   
political development4 ,human activity1 
as ,i have long since shown1  passes    
successively through the stages of      
,offensive warfare1 ,defensive  warfare1
 and ,industry4 ,the respective         

connexion of these states with  the     
preponderance of the theological1 then  
metaphysical1 or the  positive spirit   
leads at once to a complete explanation 
of history4 ,it  reproduces in a        
systematic form the only historical     
conception which  has become adopted by 
universal consent2 the division1 namely1
 of  history into ,ancient1 ,mediaeval1 
and ,modern4    ,thus the foundation of 
,social science depends simply upon     
establishing  the truth of this theory  
of development4 ,we do this by combining
 the  dynamic law1 which is its         
distinctive feature1 with the statical  
principle which renders it coherent2 we 
then complete the theory by  extending  
it to practical life4 ,all knowledge is 
now brought within  the sphere of       
,natural ,philosophy2 and the           
provisional distinction by  which1 since
 ,aristotle and ,plato1 it has been so  
sharply demarcated  from ,moral         
,philosophy1 ceases to exist4 ,the      
,positive spirit1 so long  confined to  

the simpler inorganic phenomena1 has now
 passed through  its difficult course of
 probation4 ,it extends to a more       
important and  more intricate class of  
speculations1 and disengages them for   
ever from  all theological or           
metaphysical influence4 ,all our notions
 of truth  are thus rendered            
homogeneous1 and begin at once to       
converge towards a  central principle4  
,a firm objective basis is consequently 
laid down for  that complete            
co-ordination of human existence towards
 which all sound  ,philosophy has ever  
tended1 but which the want of adequate  
materials  has hitherto made impossible4
     ,by the discovery of               
,sociological laws social   questions   
are made   paramount2 and thus our      
subjective principle is   satisfied     
without danger to   free thought    ,it 
will be felt1 ,i think1 that the        
principal difficulty of the ,positive   
,synthesis was met by my discovery of   
the laws of development1 if  we bear in 

mind that while that theory completes   
and co-ordinates  the objective basis of
 the system1 it at the same time holds  
it in  subordination to the subjective  
principle4 ,it is under the influence   
of this moral principle that the whole  
philosophical construction  should be   
carried on4 ,the inquiry into the ,order
 of the ,universe is  an indispensable  
task1 and it comes necessarily within   
the province  of the intellect2 but the 
intellect is too apt to aim in its pride
 at  something beyond its proper        
function1 which consists in unremitting 
service of the social sympathies4 ,it   
would willingly escape from all  control
 and follow its own bent towards        
speculative digressions2 a  tendency    
which is at present favoured by the     
undisciplined habits of  thought        
naturally due to the first rise of      
,positivism in its special  departments4
 ,the influence of the moral principle  
is necessary to  recall it to its true  
function2 since if its investigations   

were  allowed to assume an absolute     
character1 and to recognize no limit1   
we should only be repeating in a        
scientific form many of the worst       
results of theological and metaphysical 
belief4 ,the ,universe is to be  studied
 not for its own sake1 but for the sake 
of ,man or rather of  ,humanity4 ,to    
study it in any other spirit would not  
only be immoral1  but also highly       
irrational4 ,for1 as statements of pure 
objective  truth1 our scientific        
theories can never be really            
satisfactory4 ,they  can only satisfy us
 from the subjective point of view2 that
 is1 by  limiting themselves to the     
treatment of such questions as have some
  direct or indirect influence over     
human life4 ,it is for social feeling   
to determine these limits2 outside which
 our knowledge will always  remain      
imperfect as well as useless1 and this  
even in the case of the  simplest       
phenomena2 as astronomy testifies4 ,were
 the influence of  social feeling to be 

slackened1 the ,positive spirit would   
soon fall  back to the subjects which   
were preferred during the period of its 
infancy2 subjects the most remote from  
human interest1 and therefore  also the 
easiest4 ,while its probationary period 
lasted1 it was natural  to investigate  
all accessible problems without         
distinction2 and this  was often        
justified by the logical value of many  
problems that1  scientifically speaking1
 were useless4 ,but now that the        
,positive  method has been sufficiently 
developed to be applied exclusively to  
the purpose for which it was intended1  
there is no use whatever in  prolonging 
the period of probation by these idle   
exercises4 ,indeed the  want of purpose 
and discipline in our researches is     
rapidly assuming  a retrograde          
character4 ,its tendency is to undo the 
chief results  obtained by the spirit of
 detail during the time when that spirit
 was  really essential to progress4     
,here1 then1 we are met by a serious    

difficulty4 ,the construction of  the   
objective basis for the ,positive       
synthesis imposes two conditions  which 
seem1 at first sight1 incompatible4 ,on 
the one hand we must  allow the         
intellect to be free1 or else we shall  
not have the full  benefit of its       
services2 and1 on the other1 we must    
control its natural  tendency to        
unlimited digressions4 ,the problem was 
insoluble1 so long  as the study of the 
natural economy did not include         
,sociology4 ,but  as soon as the        
,positive spirit extends to the         
treatment of social  questions1 these at
 once take precedence of all others1 and
 thus the  moral point of view becomes  
paramount4 ,objective science1          
proceeding  from without inwards1 falls 
at last into natural harmony with the   
subjective or moral principle1 the      
superiority of which it had for  so long
 a time resisted4 ,as a mere speculative
 question it may be  considered as      
proved to the satisfaction of every true

 thinker1 that  the social point of view
 is logically and scientifically supreme
  over all others1 being the only point 
from which all our scientific           
conceptions can be regarded as a whole4 
,yet its influence can never be         
injurious to the progress of other      
,positive studies2 for these1 whether   
for the sake of their method or of their
 subject matter1 will always  continue  
to be necessary as an introduction to   
the final science4  ,indeed the         
,positive system gives the highest      
sanction and the most  powerful stimulus
 to all preliminary sciences1 by        
insisting on the  relation which each of
 them bears to the great whole1         
,humanity4    ,thus the foundation of   
social science bears out the statement  
made at  the beginning of this work1    
that the intellect would1 under         
,positivism1  accept its proper position
 of subordination to the heart4 ,the    
recognition of this1 which is the       
subjective principle of ,positivism1    

renders the construction of a complete  
system of human life possible4  ,the    
antagonism which1 since the close of the
 ,middle ,ages1 has arisen  between     
,reason and ,feeling1 was an anomalous  
though inevitable  condition4 ,it is now
 for ever at an end2 and the only system
 which can  really satisfy the wants of 
our nature1 individually or             
collectively1  is therefore ready for   
our acceptance4 ,as long as the         
antagonism  existed1 it was hopeless to 
expect that ,social ,sympathy could do  
much  to modify the preponderance of    
self-love in the affairs of life4 ,but  
the case is different as soon as reason 
and sympathy are brought into  active   
co-operation4 ,separately1 their        
influence in our imperfect  organization
 is very feeble2 but combined it may    
extend indefinitely4  ,it will never1   
indeed1 be able to do away with the fact
 that practical  life must1 to a large  
extent1 be regulated by interested      
motives2 yet  it may introduce a        

standard of morality inconceivably      
higher than any  that has existed in the
 past1 before these two modifying forces
 could  be made to combine their action 
upon our stronger and lower instincts4  
,distinction between   ,abstract and    
,concrete laws4   ,it is the former only
 that   we require for the purpose      
before us    ,in order to give a more   
precise conception of the intellectual  
basis  on which the system of ,positive 
,polity should rest1 ,i must explain the
  general principle by which it should  
be limited4 ,it should be confined  to  
what is really indispensable to the     
construction of that ,polity4           
,otherwise the intellect will be carried
 away1 as it has been before1 by  its   
tendency to useless digressions4 ,it    
will endeavour to extend the  limits of 
its province2 thereby escaping from the 
discipline imposed  by social motives1  
and putting off all attempts at moral   
and social  regeneration for a longer   
time than the construction of the       

philosophic  basis for action really    
demands4 ,here we shall find a fresh    
proof of  the importance of my theory of
 development4 ,by that discovery the    
intellectual synthesis may be considered
 as having already reached the  point   
from which the synthesis of affections  
may be at once begun2 and  even that of 
actions1 at least in its highest and    
most difficult part1  morality properly 
so called4    ,with the view of         
restricting the construction of the     
objective basis  within reasonable      
limits1 there is this distinction to be 
borne in  mind4 ,in the ,order of       
,nature1 there are two classes of laws2 
those  that are simple or ,abstract1    
those that are compound or ,concrete4   
,in  my work on ,positive ,philosophy1  
the distinction has been thoroughly     
established1 and frequent use has been  
made of it4 ,it will be  sufficient here
 to point out its origin and the method 
of applying it4    ,positive science may
 deal either with objects themselves as 

they exist1  or with the separate       
phenomena that the objects exhibit4 ,of 
course we  can only judge of an object  
by the sum of its phenomena2 but it is  
open to us either to examine a special  
class of phenomena abstracted  from all 
the beings that exhibit it1 or to take  
some special object1  and examine the   
whole concrete group of phenomena4 ,in  
the latter case  we shall be studying   
different systems of existence2 in the  
former1  different modes of activity4   
,as good an example of the distinction  
as  can be given is that1 already       
mentioned1 of ,meteorology4 ,the facts  
of  weather are evidently combinations  
of astronomical1 physical1 chemical1    
biological1 and even social phenomena2  
each of these classes requiring  its own
 separate theories4 ,were these abstract
 laws sufficiently  well known to us1   
then the whole difficulty of the        
concrete problem  would be so to combine
 them1 as to deduce the order in which  
each  composite effect would follow4    

,this1 however1 is a process which      
seems to me so far beyond our feeble    
powers of deduction1 that1 even         
supposing our knowledge of the abstract 
laws perfect1 we should still  be       
obliged to have recourse to the         
inductive method4    ,now the           
investigation of the economy of nature  
here contemplated is  evidently of the  
abstract kind4 ,we decompose that       
economy into its  primary phenomena1    
that is to say1 into those which are not
 reducible  to others4 ,these we range  
in classes1 each of which1              
notwithstanding  the connexion that     
exists between all1 requires a separate 
inductive  process2 for the existence of
 laws cannot be proved in any one of    
them  by pure deduction4 ,it is only    
with these simpler and more abstract    
relations that our synthesis is directly
 concerned3 when these are  established1
 they afford a rational groundwork for  
the more composite  and concrete        
researches4 ,the great complexity of    

concrete relations  makes it probable   
that we shall never be able to          
co-ordinate them  perfectly4 ,in that   
case the synthesis would always remain  
limited to  abstract laws4 ,but its true
 object1 that of supplying an objective 
basis for the great synthesis of human  
life1 will none the less be  attained4  
,for this groundwork of abstract        
knowledge would introduce  harmony      
between all our mental conceptions1 and 
thereby would make it  impossible to    
systematize our feelings and actions1   
which is the object  of all sound       
philosophy4 ,the abstract study of      
nature is therefore  all that is        
absolutely indispensable for the        
establishment of unity  in human life4  
,it serves as the foundation of all wise
 action2 as the  philosophia prima1 the 
necessity of which in the normal state  
of  humanity was dimly foreseen by      
,bacon4 ,when the abstract laws         
exhibiting  the various modes of        
activity have been brought              

systematically before  us1 our practical
 knowledge of each special system of    
existence ceases  to be purely          
empirical1 though the greater number of 
concrete laws may  still be unknown4 ,we
 find the best example of this truth in 
the most  difficult and important       
subject of all1 ,sociology4 ,knowledge  
of the  principal statical and dynamical
 laws of social existence is evidently  
sufficient for the purpose of           
systematizing the various aspects of    
private or public life1 and thereby of  
rendering our condition far  more       
perfect4 ,should this knowledge be      
acquired1 of which there is  now no     
doubt1 we need not regret being unable  
to give a satisfactory  explanation of  
every state of society that we find     
existing throughout  the world in all   
ages4 ,the discipline of social feeling 
will check  any foolish indulgence of   
the spirit of curiosity1 and prevent the
  understanding from wasting its powers 
in useless speculations2 for  feeble as 

these powers are1 it is from them that  
,humanity derives  her most efficient   
means of contending against the defects 
of the  ,external ,order4 ,the discovery
 of the principal concrete laws would no
  doubt be attended by the most         
beneficial results1 moral as well as    
physical2 and this is the field in which
 the science of the future  will reap   
its richest harvest4 ,but such knowledge
 is not indispensable  for our present  
purpose1 which is to form a complete    
synthesis of  life1 effecting for the   
final state of humanity what the        
theological  synthesis effected for its 
primitive state4 ,for this purpose      
,abstract  philosophy is undoubtedly    
sufficient2 so that even supposing that 
,concrete philosophy should never become
 so perfect as we desire1 social        
regeneration will still be possible4    
,in my ,theory of   ,development1 the   
required   ,synthesis of ,abstract      
conceptions already exists    ,regarded 
under this more simple aspect1 our      

system of scientific  knowledge is      
already so far elaborated1 that all     
thinkers whose nature  is sufficiently  
sympathetic may proceed without delay to
 the problem  of moral regeneration2 a  
problem which must prepare the way for  
that  of political reorganization4 ,for 
we shall find that the theory of        
development of which we have been       
speaking1 when looked at from another   
point of view1 condenses and            
systematizes all our abstract           
conceptions  of the order of nature4    
,this will be understood by regarding   
all departments of our knowledge  as    
being really component parts of one and 
the same science2 the  science of       
,humanity4 ,all other sciences are but  
the prelude or the  development of this4
 ,before we can enter upon it directly1 
there  are two subjects which it is     
necessary to investigate2 our external  
circumstances1 and the organization of  
our own nature4 ,social life  cannot be 
understood without first understanding  

the medium in which  it is developed1   
and the beings who manifest it4 ,we     
shall make no  progress1 therefore1 in  
the final science until we have         
sufficient  abstract knowledge of the   
outer world and of individual life to   
define  the influence of these laws on  
the special laws of social phenomena4   
,and this is necessary from the logical 
as well as from the scientific  point of
 view4 ,the feeble faculties of our     
intellect require to be  trained for the
 more difficult speculations by practice
 in the easier4  ,for the same reasons1 
the study of the inorganic world should 
take  precedence of the organic4 ,for1  
in the first place1 the laws of the     
more universal mode of existence have a 
preponderating influence over  those of 
the more special modes2 and in the      
second place it is clearly  incumbent on
 us to begin the study of the ,positive 
method with its  simplest and most      
characteristic applications4 ,i need not
 dwell further  upon principles so fully

 established in my former work4         
,social ,philosophy1 therefore1 ought on
 every ground to be preceded by         
,natural ,philosophy in the ordinary    
sense of the word2 that is to say  by   
the study of inorganic and organic      
nature4 ,it is reserved for our  own    
century to take in the whole scope of   
science2 but the commencement  of these 
preparatory studies dates from the first
 astronomical  discoveries of antiquity4
 ,natural ,philosophy was completed by  
the  modern science of ,biology1 of     
which the ancients possessed nothing but
  a few statical principles4 ,the       
dependence of biological conditions upon
  astronomical is very certain4 ,but    
these two sciences differ too much  from
 each other and are too indirectly      
connected to give us an adequate        
conception of ,natural ,philosophy as a 
whole4 ,it would be pushing the         
principle of condensation too far to    
reduce it to these two terms4 ,one      
connecting link was supplied by the     

science of ,chemistry which arose  in   
the ,middle ,ages4 ,the natural         
succession of ,astronomy1 ,chemistry1   
and ,biology leading gradually up to the
 final science1 ,sociology1 made  it    
possible to conceive more or less       
imperfectly of an intellectual          
synthesis4 ,but the interposition of    
,chemistry was not enough3 because1     
though its relation to ,biology was     
intimate1 it was too remote from        
,astronomy4 ,for want of understanding  
the mode in which astronomical          
conditions really affected us1 the      
arbitrary and chimerical fancies  of    
astrology were employed1 though of      
course quite valueless except  for this 
temporary purpose4 ,in the seventeenth  
century1 however1 the  science of       
,physics specially so called1 was       
founded2 and a satisfactory  arrangement
 of scientific conceptions began to be  
formed4 ,physics  included a series of  
inorganic researches1 the more general  
branch of  which bordered on ,astronomy1

 the more special on ,chemistry4 ,to    
complete  our view of the scientific    
hierarchy we have now only to go back to
  its origin1 ,mathematics2 a class of  
speculations so simple and so  general1 
that they passed at once and without    
effort into the ,positive  stage4       
,without ,mathematics1 ,astronomy was   
impossible3 and they will  always       
continue to be the starting-point of    
,positive education for the  individual 
as they have been for the race4 ,even   
under the most absolute  theological    
influence they stimulate the ,positive  
spirit to a certain  degree of          
systematic growth4 ,from them it extends
 step by step to the  subjects from     
which at first it had been most rigidly 
excluded4    ,we see from these brief   
remarks that the series of the abstract 
sciences naturally arranges itself      
according to the decrease in  generality
 and the increase in complication4 ,we  
see the reason for the  introduction of 
each member of the series1 and the      

mutual connexion  between them4 ,the    
classification is evidently the same as 
that before  laid down in my theory of  
development4 ,that theory therefore may 
be  regarded1 from the statical point of
 view1 as furnishing a direct basis  for
 the co-ordination of ,abstract         
conception1 on which1 as we have  seen1 
the whole synthesis of human life       
depends4 ,that co-ordination  at once   
establishes unity in our intellectual   
operations4 ,it realizes  the desire    
obscurely expressed by ,bacon for a     
scala intellects1  a ladder of the      
understanding1 by the aid of which our  
thoughts may  pass with ease from the   
lowest subjects to the highest1 or vice 
versa1  without weakening the sense of  
their continuous connexion in nature4   
,each of the six terms of which our     
series is composed is in its central    
portion quite distinct from the two     
adjoining links2 but it is closely      
related in its commencement to the      
preceding term1 in its conclusion  to   

the term which follows4 ,a further proof
 of the homogeneousness and  continuity 
of the system is that the same principle
 of classification1  when applied more  
closely1 enables us to arrange the      
various theories  of which each science 
consists4 ,for example1 the three great 
orders of  mathematical speculations1   
,arithmetic1 ,geometry1 and ,mechanics1 
follow  the same law of classification  
as that by which the entire scale is    
regulated4 ,and ,i have shown in my     
,positive ,philosophy that the same     
holds good of the other sciences4 ,as a 
whole1 therefore1 the series  is the    
most concise summary that can be formed 
of the vast range of  ,abstract truth2  
and conversely1 all rational researches 
of a special  kind result in some       
partial development of this series4     
,each term in  it requires its own      
special processes of induction2 yet in  
each we  reason deductively from the    
preceding term1 a method which will     
always  be as necessary for purposes of 

instruction as it was originally for    
the purpose of discovery4 ,thus it is   
that all our other studies are  but a   
preparation for the final science of    
,humanity4 ,by it their mode  of culture
 will always be influenced and will     
gradually be imbued with  the true      
spirit of generality1 which is so       
closely connected with  social sympathy4
 ,nor is there any danger of such       
influence becoming  oppressive1 since   
the very principle of our system is to  
combine a  due measure of independence  
with practical convergence4 ,the fact   
that  our theory of classification1 by  
the very terms of its composition1      
subordinates intellectual to social     
considerations1 is eminently  calculated
 to secure its popular acceptance4 ,it  
brings the whole  speculative system    
under the criticism1 and at the same    
time under the  protection of the       
public1 which is usually not slow to    
check any abuse  of those habits of     
abstraction which are necessary to the  

philosopher4    ,the same theory then   
which explains the mental evolution of  
,humanity1  lays down the true method by
 which our abstract conceptions should  
be  classified2 thus reconciling the    
conditions of ,order and ,movement1     
hitherto more or less at variance4 ,its 
historical clearness and its            
philosophical force strengthen each     
other1 for we cannot understand  the    
connexion of our conceptions except by  
studying the succession of  the phases  
through which they pass4 ,and on the    
other hand1 but for the  existence of   
such a connexion1 it would be impossible
 to explain the  historical phases4 ,so 
we see that for all sound thinkers1     
,history and  ,philosophy are           
inseparable4     ,therefore we are in a 
position to proceed at once   with the  
work of social   regeneration    ,a     
theory which embraces the statical as   
well as the dynamical aspects  of the   
subject1 and which fulfils the          
conditions here spoken of1 may          

certainly be regarded as establishing   
the true objective basis on  which unity
 can be established in our intellectual 
functions4 ,and  this unity will be     
developed and consolidated as our       
knowledge of its  basis becomes more    
satisfactory4 ,but the social           
application of the  system will have far
 more influence on the result than any  
overstrained  attempts at exact         
scientific accuracy4 ,the object of our 
philosophy  is to direct the spiritual  
reorganization of the civilized world4  
,it  is with a view to this object that 
all attempts at fresh discovery  or at  
improved arrangement should be          
conducted4 ,moral and political         
requirements will lead us to investigate
 new relations2 but the search  should  
not be carried farther than is necessary
 for their application4  ,sufficient for
 our purpose1 if this incipient         
classification of our  mental products  
be so far worked out that the synthesis 
of ,affection  and of ,action may be at 

once attempted2 that is1 that we may    
begin  at once to construct that system 
of morality under which the final       
regeneration of ,humanity will proceed4 
,those who have read my ,positive       
,philosophy will1 ,i think1 be convinced
 that the time for this attempt  has    
arrived4 ,how urgently it is needed will
 appear in every part of the  present   
work4     ,error of identifying         
,positivism with ,atheism1              
,materialism1 ,fatalism1   or ,optimism4
 ,atheism1   like ,theology1 discusses  
insoluble mysteries    ,i have now      
described the general spirit of         
,positivism4 ,but there are  two or     
three points on which some further      
explanation is necessary1 as  they are  
the source of misapprehensions too      
common and too serious to  be           
disregarded4 ,of course ,i only concern 
myself with such objections as  are made
 in good faith4    ,the fact of entire  
freedom from theological belief being   
necessary  before the ,positive state   

can be perfectly attained1 has induced  
superficial observers to confound       
,positivism with a state of pure        
negation4 ,now this state was at one    
time1 and that even so recently as  the 
last century1 favourable to progress2   
but at present in those who             
unfortunately still remain in it1 it is 
a radical obstacle to all sound  social 
and even intellectual organization4 ,i  
have long ago repudiated  all           
philosophical or historical connexion   
between ,positivism and what  is called 
,atheism4 ,but it is desirable to expose
 the error somewhat  more clearly4      
,atheism1 even from the intellectual    
point of view1 is a very imperfect  form
 of emancipation2 for its tendency is to
 prolong the metaphysical  stage        
indefinitely1 by continuing to seek for 
new solutions of  ,theological problems1
 instead of setting aside all           
inaccessible  researches on the ground  
of their utter inutility4 ,the true     
,positive  spirit consists in           

substituting the study of the invariable
 ,laws of  phenomena for that of their  
so-called ,causes1 whether proximate or 
primary2 in a word1 in studying the ,how
 instead of the ,why4 ,now  this is     
wholly incompatible with the ambitious  
and visionary attempts  of ,atheism to  
explain the formation of the ,universe1 
the origin of  animal life1 etc4 ,the   
,positivist comparing the various phases
 of human  speculation1 looks upon these
 scientific chimeras as far less        
valuable  even from the intellectual    
point of view than the first spontaneous
  inspirations of primeval times4 ,the  
principle of ,theology is to explain    
everything by supernatural ,wills4 ,that
 principle can never be set  aside until
 we acknowledge the search for ,causes  
to be beyond our  reach1 and limit      
ourselves to the knowledge of ,laws4 ,as
 long as men  persist in attempting to  
answer the insoluble questions which    
occupied  the attention of the childhood
 of our race1 by far the more rational  

plan is to do as was done then1 that is1
 simply to give free play to  the       
imagination4 ,these spontaneous beliefs 
have gradually fallen into  disuse1 not 
because they have been disproved1 but   
because mankind has  become more        
enlightened as to its wants and the     
scope of its powers1  and has gradually 
given an entirely new direction to its  
speculative  efforts4 ,if we insist upon
 penetrating the unattainable mystery of
  the essential ,cause that produces    
phenomena1 there is no hypothesis  more 
satisfactory than that they proceed from
 ,wills dwelling in them  or outside    
them2 an hypothesis which assimilates   
them to the effect  produced by the     
desires which exist within ourselves4   
,were it not for  the pride induced by  
metaphysical and scientific studies1 it 
would  be inconceivable that any        
atheist1 modern or ancient1 should have 
believed that his vague hypotheses on   
such a subject were preferable  to this 
direct mode of explanation4 ,and it was 

the only mode which  really satisfied   
the reason1 until men began to see the  
utter inanity  and inutility of all     
search for absolute truth4 ,the ,order  
of ,nature is  doubtless very imperfect 
in every respect2 but its production is 
far  more compatible with the hypothesis
 of an intelligent ,will than with  that
 of a blind mechanism4 ,persistent      
atheists therefore would seem  to be    
most illogical of theologists3 because  
they occupy themselves  with theological
 problems1 and yet reject the only      
appropriate  method of handling them4   
,but the fact is that pure ,atheism even
 in  the present day is very rare4 ,what
 is called ,atheism is usually a  phase 
of ,pantheism1 which is really nothing  
but a relapse disguised  under learned  
terms1 into a vague and abstract form of
 ,fetichism4  ,and it is not impossible 
that it may lead to the reproduction in 
one  form or other of every theological 
phase as soon as the check which  modern
 society still imposes on metaphysical  

extravagance has become  somewhat       
weakened4 ,the adoption of such theories
 as a satisfactory  system of belief1   
indicates a very exaggerated or rather  
false view  of intellectual             
requirements1 and a very insufficient   
recognition of  moral and social wants4 
,it is generally connected with the     
visionary  but mischievous tendencies of
 ambitious thinkers to uphold what they 
call the empire of ,reason4 ,in the     
moral sphere it forms a sort of  basis  
for the degrading fallacies of modern   
metaphysicians as to the  absolute      
preponderance of self-interest4         
,politically1 its tendency is  to       
unlimited prolongation of the           
revolutionary position3 its spirit  is  
that of blind hatred to the past3 and it
 resists all attempts to  explain it on 
,positive principles1 with a view of    
disclosing the  future4 ,atheism1       
therefore1 is not likely to lead to     
,positivism except  in those who pass   
through it rapidly as the last and most 

short-lived  of metaphysical phases4    
,and the wide diffusion of the          
scientific  spirit in the present day   
makes this passage so easy that to      
arrive at  maturity without             
accomplishing it1 is a symptom of a     
certain mental  weakness1 which is often
 connected with moral insufficiency1 and
 is  very incompatible with ,positivism4
 ,negation offers but a feeble and      
precarious basis for union3 and         
disbelief in ,monotheism is of itself   
no better proof of a mind fit to grapple
 with the questions of the  day than    
disbelief in ,polytheism or ,fetichism1 
which no one would  maintain to be an   
adequate ground for claiming            
intellectual sympathy4  ,the atheistic  
phase indeed was not really necessary1  
except for the  revolutionists of the   
last century who took the lead in the   
movement  towards radical regeneration  
of society4 ,the necessity has already  
ceased2 for the decayed condition of the
 old system makes the need of           

regeneration palpable to all4           
,persistence in anarchy1 and ,atheism is
  the most characteristic symptom of    
anarchy1 is a temper of mind more       
unfavourable to the organic spirit1     
which ought by this time to have        
established its influence1 than sincere 
adhesion to the old forms4  ,this latter
 is of course obstructive3 but at least 
it does not hinder  us from fixing our  
attention upon the great social problem4
 ,indeed  it helps us to do so3 because 
it forces the new philosophy to throw   
aside every weapon of attack against the
 older faith except its own  higher     
capacity of satisfying our moral and    
social wants4 ,but in the  ,atheism     
maintained by many metaphysicians and   
scientific men of the  present day1     
,positivism1 instead of wholesome       
rivalry of this kind1  will meet with   
nothing but barren resistance4          
,anti-theological as such  men may be1  
they feel unmixed repugnance for any    
attempts at social  regeneration1       

although their efforts in the last      
century had to some  extent prepared the
 way for it4 ,far1 then1 from counting  
upon their  support1 ,positivists must  
expect to find them hostile3 although   
from  the incoherence of their opinions 
it will not be difficult to reclaim     
those of them whose errors are not      
essentially due to pride4               
,materialism is due to the              
encroachment of the lower   sciences on 
the domain of   the higher3 an error    
which   ,positivism rectifies    ,the   
charge of ,materialism which is often   
made against ,positive  philosophy is of
 more importance4 ,it originates in the 
course of  scientific study upon which  
the ,positive system is based4 ,in      
answering  the charge1 ,i need not enter
 into any discussion of impenetrable    
mysteries4 ,our theory of development   
will enable us to see distinctly  the   
real ground of the confusion that exists
 upon the subject4    ,positive science 
was for a long time limited to the      

simplest subjects3  it could not reach  
the highest except by a natural series  
of  intermediate steps4 ,as each of     
these steps is taken1 the student is    
apt to be influenced too strongly by the
 methods and results of the  preceding  
stage4 ,here1 as it seems to me1 lies   
the real source of that  scientific     
error which men have instinctively      
blamed as materialism4  ,the name is    
just1 because the tendency indicated is 
one which degrades  the higher subjects 
of thought by confounding them with the 
lower4 ,it  was hardly possible that    
this usurpation by one science of the   
domain  of another should have been     
wholly avoided4 ,for since the more     
special  phenomena do really depend upon
 the more general1 it is perfectly      
legitimate for each science to exercise 
a certain deductive influence  upon that
 which follows it in the scale4 ,by such
 influence the special  inductions of   
that science were rendered more         
coherent4 ,the result1  however1 is that

 each of the sciences has to undergo a  
long struggle  against the encroachments
 of the one preceding it2 a struggle    
which1  even in the case of the subjects
 which have been studied longest1 is    
not yet over4 ,nor can it entirely cease
 until the controlling influence  of    
sound philosophy be established over the
 whole scale1 introducing  juster views 
of the relations of its several parts1  
about which at  present there is such   
irrational confusion4 ,thus it appears  
that  ,materialism is a danger inherent 
in the mode in which the scientific     
studies necessary as a preparation for  
,positivism were pursued4  ,each science
 tended to absorb the one next to it1 on
 the ground of  having reached the      
,positive stage earlier and more        
thoroughly4 ,the  evil then is really   
deeper and more extensive than is       
imagined by  most of those who deplore  
it4 ,it passes generally unnoticed      
except  in the highest class of         
subjects4 ,these doubtless are more     

seriously  affected1 inasmuch as they   
undergo the encroaching process from all
  the rest2 but we find the same thing  
in different degrees1 in every  step of 
the scientific scale4 ,even the lowest  
step1 ,mathematics1 is  no exception1   
though its position would seem at first 
sight to exempt  it4 ,to a philosophic  
eye there is ,materialism in the common 
tendency  of mathematicians at the      
present day to absorb ,geometry or      
,mechanics  into the ,calculus1 as well 
as in the more evident encroachments of 
,mathematics upon ,physics1 of ,physics 
upon ,chemistry1 of ,chemistry1  which  
is more frequent1 upon ,biology1 or     
lastly in the common tendency  of the   
best biologists to look upon ,sociology 
as a mere corollary of  their own       
science4 ,in all cases it is the same   
fundamental error3  that is1 an         
exaggerated use of deductive reasoning2 
and in all it is  attended with the same
 result2 that the higher studies are in 
constant  danger of being disorganized  

by the indiscriminate application of the
  lower4 ,all scientific specialists at 
the present time are more or less       
materialists1 according as the phenomena
 studied by them are more or  less      
simple and general4 ,geometricians1     
therefore1 are more liable to  the error
 than any others2 they all aim          
consciously or otherwise at a  synthesis
 in which the most elementary studies1  
those of ,number1 ,space1  and ,motion1 
are made to regulate all the rest4 ,but 
the biologists who  resist this         
encroachment most energetically1 are    
often guilty of the  same mistake4 ,they
 not unfrequently attempt1 for instance1
 to explain  all sociological facts by  
the influence of climate and race1 which
  are purely secondary2 thus showing    
their ignorance of the fundamental  laws
 of ,sociology1 which can only be       
discovered by a series of direct        
inductions from history4    ,this       
philosophical estimate of ,materialism  
explains how it is that  it has been    

brought as a charge against ,positivism1
 and at the same  time proves the deep  
injustice of the charge4 ,positivism1   
far from  countenancing so dangerous an 
error1 is1 as we have seen1 the only    
philosophy which can completely remove  
it4 ,the error arises from  certain     
tendencies which are in themselves      
legitimate1 but which have  been carried
 too far2 and ,positivism satisfies     
these tendencies in  their due measure4 
,hitherto the evil has remained         
unchecked1 except by  the               
theologico-metaphysical spirit1 which1  
by giving rise to what is  called       
,spiritualism1 has rendered a very      
valuable service4 ,but useful  as it has
 been1 it could not arrest the active   
growth of ,materialism1  which has      
assumed in the eyes of modern thinkers  
something of a  progressive character1  
from having been so long connected with 
the  cause of resistance to a retrograde
 system4 ,notwithstanding all the       
protests of the spiritualists1 the lower

 sciences have encroached upon  the     
higher to an extent that seriously      
impairs their independence and  their   
value4 ,but ,positivism meets the       
difficulty far more effectually4  ,it   
satisfies and reconciles all that is    
really tenable in the rival  claims of  
both ,materialism and ,spiritualism2    
and1 having done this1  it discards them
 both4 ,it holds the one to be as       
dangerous to ,order  as the other to    
,progress4 ,this result is an immediate 
consequence of  the establishment of the
 encyclopdic scale1 in which each       
science  retains its own proper sphere  
of induction1 while deductively it      
remains subordinate to the science which
 precedes it4 ,but what really  decides 
the matter is the fact that such        
paramount importance1 both  logically   
and scientifically1 is given by         
,positive ,philosophy to social         
questions4 ,for these are the questions 
in which the influence of  ,materialism 
is most mischievous1 and also in which  

it is most easily  introduced4 ,a system
 therefore which gives them the         
precedence over all  other questions    
must hold ,materialism to be quite as   
obstructive as  ,spiritualism1 since    
both are alike an obstacle to the       
progress of that  science for the sake  
of which all other sciences are studied4
 ,further  advance in the work of social
 regeneration implies the elimination of
  both of them1 because it cannot       
proceed without exact knowledge of  the 
laws of moral and social phenomena4 ,in 
the next chapter ,i shall  have to speak
 of the mischievous effects of          
,materialism upon the ,art  or practice 
of social life4 ,it leads to a          
misconception of the most  fundamental  
principle of that ,art1 namely1 the     
systematic separation  of spiritual and 
temporal power4 ,to maintain that       
separation1 to carry  out on a more     
satisfactory basis the admirable attempt
 made in the  ,middle ,ages by the      
,catholic ,church1 is the most important

 of political  questions4 ,thus the     
antagonism of ,positivism to            
,materialism rests upon  political no   
less than upon philosophical grounds4   
,with the view of securing a            
dispassionate consideration of this     
subject1 and of avoiding all confusion1 
,i have laid no stress upon the  charge 
of immorality that is so often brought  
against ,materialism4  ,the reproach1   
even when made sincerely1 is constantly 
belied by  experience1 indeed it is     
inconsistent with all that we know of   
human  nature4 ,our opinions1 whether   
right or wrong1 have not1 fortunately1  
the absolute power over our feelings and
 conduct which is commonly  attributed  
to them4 ,materialism has been          
provisionally connected  with the whole 
movement of emancipation1 and it has    
therefore often  been found in common   
with the noblest aspirations4 ,that     
connexion1  however1 has now ceased2 and
 it must be owned that even in the most 
favourable cases this error1 purely     

intellectual though it be1 has to  a    
certain extent always checked the free  
play of our nobler instincts1  by       
leading men to ignore or misconceive    
moral phenomena1 which were  left       
unexplained by its crude hypothesis4    
,cabanis gave a striking  example of    
this tendency in his unfortunate attack 
upon mediaeval  chivalry4#c ,cabanis was
 a philosopher whose moral nature was as
 pure  and sympathetic as his intellect 
was elevated and enlarged4 ,yet the     
materialism of his day had entirely     
blinded him to the beneficial  results  
of the attempts made by the most        
energetic of our ancestors to  institute
 the ,worship of ,woman4    ,we have now
 examined the two principal charges     
brought against the  ,positive system1  
and we have found that they apply merely
 to the  unsystematic state in which    
,positive principles are first          
introduced4  ,but the system is also    
accused of ,fatalism and of ,optimism2  
charges  on which it will not be        

necessary to dwell at great length1     
because1  though frequently made1 they  
are not difficult to refute4     ,nor is
 ,positivism   fatalist1 since it       
asserts   the ,external ,order to be    
modifiable    ,the charge of ,fatalism  
has accompanied every fresh extension of
  ,positive science1 from its first     
beginnings4 ,nor is this surprising2    
for when any series of phenomena passes 
from the dominion of ,wills1  whether   
modified by metaphysical abstractions or
 not1 to the dominion  of ,laws1 the    
regularity of the latter contrasts so   
strongly with the  instability of the   
former1 as to present an appearance of  
fatality1  which nothing but a very     
careful examination of the real         
character of  scientific truth can      
dissipate4 ,and the error is the more   
likely to  occur from the fact that our 
first types of natural laws are derived 
from the phenomena of the heavenly      
bodies4 ,these1 being wholly beyond  our
 interference1 always suggest the notion

 of absolute necessity1 a  notion which 
it is difficult to prevent from         
extending to more complex  phenomena1 as
 soon as they are brought within the    
reach of the ,positive  method4 ,and it 
is quite true that ,positivism holds the
 ,order of ,nature  to be in its primary
 aspects strictly invariable4 ,all      
variations1  whether spontaneous or     
artificial1 are only transient and of   
secondary  import4 ,the conception of   
unlimited variations would in fact be   
equivalent to the rejection of ,law     
altogether4 ,but while this accounts    
for the fact that every new ,positive   
theory is accused of ,fatalism1  it is  
equally clear that blind persistence in 
the accusation shows a  very shallow    
conception of what ,positivism really   
is4 ,for1 unchangeable  as the ,order of
 ,nature is in its main aspects1 yet all
 phenomena1  except those of ,astronomy1
 admit of being modified in their       
secondary  relations1 and this the more 
as they are more complicated4 ,the      

,positive  spirit1 when confined to the 
subjects of ,mathematics and ,astronomy1
 was  inevitably fatalist2 but this     
ceased to be the case when it extended  
to  ,physics and ,chemistry1 and        
especially to ,biology1 where the margin
 of  variation is very considerable4    
,now that it embraces ,social phenomena1
  the reproach1 however it may have been
 once deserved1 should be heard  no     
longer1 since these phenomena1 which    
will for the future form its  principal 
field1 admit of larger modification than
 any others1 and that  chiefly by our   
own intervention4 ,it is obvious then   
that ,positivism1  far from encouraging 
indolence1 stimulates us to action1     
especially to  social action1 far more  
energetically than any ,theological     
doctrine4 ,it  removes all groundless   
scruples1 and prevents us from having   
recourse  to chimeras4 ,it encourages   
our efforts everywhere1 except where    
they  are manifestly useless4     ,the  
charge of ,optimism   applies to        

,theology rather   than to ,positivism4 
,the   positivist judges of   all       
historical actions   relatively1 but    
does not justify them   indiscriminately
    ,for the charge of ,optimism there  
is even less ground than for that  of   
,fatalism4 ,the latter was1 to a certain
 extent1 connected with  the rise of the
 ,positive spirit2 but ,optimism is     
simply a result  of ,theology2 and its  
influence has always been decreasing    
with the  growth of ,positivism4        
,astronomical laws1 it is true1 suggest 
the idea  of perfection as naturally as 
that of necessity4 ,on the other hand1  
their great simplicity places the       
defects of the ,order of ,nature in so  
clear a light1 that optimists would     
never have sought their arguments  in   
astronomy1 were it not that the first   
elements of the science had  to be      
worked out under the influence of       
,monotheism1 a system which  involved   
the hypothesis of absolute wisdom4 ,but 
by the theory of  development on which  

the ,positive synthesis is here made to 
rest1  ,optimism is discarded as well as
 ,fatalism1 in the direct proportion  of
 the intricacy of the phenomena4 ,it is 
in the most intricate that  the defects 
of ,nature1 as well as the power of     
modifying them1 become  most manifest4  
,with regard1 therefore1 to social      
phenomena1 the most  complex of all1    
both charges are utterly misplaced4 ,any
 optimistic  tendencies that writers on 
social subjects may display1 must be due
  to the fact that their education has  
not been such as to teach them  the     
nature and conditions of the true       
scientific spirit4 ,for want  of sound  
logical training1 great misuse has been 
made in our own  time of a property     
peculiar to social phenomena4 ,it is    
that we find  in them a greater amount  
of spontaneous wisdom than might have   
been  expected from their complexity4   
,it would be a mistake1 however1 to     
suppose this wisdom perfect4 ,the       
phenomena in question are those of      

intelligent beings who are always       
occupied in amending the defects  of    
their economy4 ,it is obvious1          
therefore1 that they will show less     
imperfection than if1 in a case equally 
complicated1 the agents could  have been
 blind4 ,the standard by which to judge 
of action is always  to be taken        
relatively to the social state in which 
the action takes  place4 ,therefore all 
historical positions and changes must   
have at  least some grounds of          
justification2 otherwise they would be  
totally  incomprehensible1 because      
inconsistent with the nature of the     
agents  and of the actions performed by 
them4 ,now this naturally fosters a     
dangerous tendency to ,optimism in all  
thinkers1 who1 whatever their  powers   
may be1 have not passed through any     
strict scientific training1  and have   
consequently never cast off metaphysical
 and theological modes  of thought in   
the higher subjects4 ,because every     
government shows a  certain adaptation  

to the civilization of its time1 they   
make the loose  assertion that the      
adaptation is perfect2 a conception     
which is of  course chimerical4 ,but it 
is unjust to charge ,positivism with    
errors  which are evidently contrary to 
its true spirit1 and merely due to  the 
want of logical and scientific training 
in those who have hitherto  engaged in  
the study of social questions4 ,the     
object of ,sociology is  to explain all 
historical facts2 not to justify them   
indiscriminately1  as is done by those  
who are unable to distinguish the       
influence of the  agent from that of    
surrounding circumstances4     ,the word
 ,positive   connotes all the highest   
intellectual attributes1 and   will     
ultimately have a moral   significance  
,on reviewing this brief sketch of the  
intellectual character of  ,positivism1 
it will be seen that all its essential  
attributes  are summed up in the word   
,positive1 which ,i applied to the new  
philosophy at its outset4 ,all the      

languages of ,western ,europe agree in  
understanding by this word and its      
derivatives the two qualities of        
reality and usefulness4 ,combining      
these1 we get at once an adequate       
definition of the true philosophic      
spirit1 which1 after all1 is nothing    
but good sense generalized and put into 
a systematic form4 ,the term  also      
implies in all ,european languages1     
certainty and precision1  qualities by  
which the intellect of modern nations is
 markedly  distinguished from that of   
antiquity4 ,again1 the ordinary         
acceptation  of the term implies a      
directly organic tendency4 ,now the     
metaphysical  spirit is incapable of    
organizing2 it can only criticize4 ,this
  distinguishes it from the ,positive   
spirit1 although for a time they  had a 
common sphere of action4 ,by speaking of
 ,positivism as organic1  we imply that 
it has a social purpose2 that purpose   
being to supersede  ,theology in the    
spiritual direction of the human race4  

,but the word will bear yet a further   
meaning4 ,the organic character  of the 
system leads us naturally to another of 
its attributes1 namely  its invariable  
relativity4 ,modern thinkers will never 
rise above  that critical position which
 they have hitherto taken up towards the
  past1 except by repudiating all       
absolute principles4 ,this last meaning 
is more latent than the others1 but is  
really contained in the term4  ,it will 
soon become generally accepted1 and the 
word ,positive will  be understood to   
mean relative as much as it now means   
organic1  precise1 certain1 useful1 and 
real4 ,thus the highest attributes  of  
human wisdom have1 with one exception1  
been gradually condensed  into a single 
expressive term4 ,all that is now       
wanting is that the  word should denote 
what at first could form no part of the 
meaning1  the union of moral with       
intellectual qualities4 ,at present1    
only the  latter are included2 but the  
course of modern progress makes it      

certain  that the conception implied by 
the word ,positive1 will ultimately have
  a more direct reference to the heart  
than to the understanding4 ,for  it will
 soon be felt by all that the tendency  
of ,positivism1 and that  by virtue of  
its primary characteristic1 reality1 is 
to make ,feeling  systematically supreme
 over ,reason as well as over ,activity4
 ,after all1  the change consists simply
 in realizing the full etymological     
value of  the word ,philosophy#d4 ,for  
it was impossible to realize it until   
moral and mental conditions had been    
reconciled2 and this has been now  done 
by the foundation of a ,positive science
 of society4          ,,chapter ,,ii    
,,the ,,social ,,aspect ,,of            
,,positivism1 ,,as ,,shown ,,by ,,its   
,,connexion ,,with ,,the  ,,general     
,,revolutionary ,,movement ,,of         
,,western ,,europe      ,as the chief   
characteristic of ,positive ,philosophy 
is the paramount  importance that is    
given1 and that on speculative grounds1 

to social  considerations1 its          
efficiency for the purposes of practical
 life  is involved in the very spirit of
 the system4 ,when this spirit is       
rightly understood1 we find that it     
leads at once to an object far  higher  
than that of satisfying our scientific  
curiosity2 the object1  namely1 of      
organizing human life4 ,conversely1 this
 practical aspect  of ,positive         
,philosophy exercises the most salutary 
influence upon its  speculative         
character4 ,by keeping constantly before
 us the necessity  of concentrating all 
scientific efforts upon the social      
object which  constitutes their value1  
we take the best possible means of      
checking  the tendency inherent in all  
abstract inquiries to degenerate into   
useless digressions4 ,but this general  
connexion between theory and  practice  
would not by itself be sufficient for   
our purpose4 ,it would be  impossible to
 secure the acceptance of a mental      
discipline1 so new and  so difficult1   

were it not for considerations derived  
from the general  conditions of modern  
society2 considerations calculated to   
impress  philosophers with a more       
definite sense of obligation to do their
  utmost towards satisfying the wants of
 the time4 ,by thus arousing  public    
sympathies and showing that the success 
of ,positivism is a  matter of permanent
 and general importance1 the coherence  
of the system  as well as the elevation 
of its aims will be placed beyond       
dispute4  ,we have hitherto been        
regarding ,positivism as the issue in   
which  intellectual development         
necessarily results4 ,we have now to    
view it  from the social side2 for until
 we have done this1 it is impossible to 
form a true conception of it4     ,the  
relation of ,positivism   to the ,french
 ,revolution    ,and to do this1 all    
that is here necessary is to point out  
the close  relation in which the new    
philosophy stands to the whole course   
of the ,french ,revolution4 ,this       

revolution has now been agitating       
,western nations for sixty years#e4 ,it 
is the final issue of the vast          
transition through which we have been   
passing during the five previous        
centuries4    ,in this great crisis     
there are naturally two principal       
phases2 of  which only the first1 or    
negative1 phase has yet been            
accomplished4 ,in  it we gave the last  
blow to the old system1 but without     
arriving at  any fixed and distinct     
prospect of the new4 ,in the second or  
positive  phase1 which is at last       
beginning1 a basis for the new social   
state  has to be constructed4 ,the first
 phase led as its ultimate result to    
the formation of a sound philosophical  
system2 and by this system the  second  
phase will be directed4 ,it is this     
twofold connexion which we  are now to  
consider4     ,the negative or          
destructive   phase of the ,revolution  
stimulated the desire of   ,progress1   
and consequently   the study of social  

phenomena    ,the strong reaction which 
was exercised upon the intellect by the 
first great shock of revolution was     
absolutely necessary to rouse and       
sustain our mental efforts in the search
 for a new system4 ,for the  greatest   
thinkers of the eighteenth century had  
been blinded to the  true character of  
the new state by the effete remnants of 
the old4  ,and the shock was especially 
necessary for the foundation of social  
science4 ,for the basis of that science 
is the conception of human  ,progress1 a
 conception which nothing but the       
,revolution could have  brought forward 
into sufficient prominence4    ,social  
,order was regarded by the ancients as  
stationary3 and its theory  under this  
provisional aspect was admirably        
sketched out by the great  ,aristotle4  
,in this respect the case of ,sociology 
resembles that of  ,biology4 ,in        
,biology statical conceptions were      
attained without the  least knowledge of
 dynamical laws4 ,similarly1 the social 

speculations  of antiquity are entirely 
devoid of the conception of ,progress4  
,their  historical field was too narrow 
to indicate any continuous movement of  
,humanity4 ,it was not till the ,middle 
,ages that this movement became         
sufficiently manifest to inspire the    
feeling that we were tending  towards a 
state of increased perfection4 ,it was  
then seen by all  that ,catholicism was 
superior to ,polytheism and ,judaism2   
and this  was afterwards confirmed by   
the corresponding political improvement 
produced by the substitution of         
,feudalism for ,roman government4       
,confused as this first feeling of human
 ,progress was1 it was yet very  intense
 and very largely diffused2 though it   
lost much of its vitality  in the       
theological and metaphysical discussions
 of later centuries4 ,it  is here that  
we must look if we would understand that
 ardour in the  cause of ,progress which
 is peculiar to the ,western family of  
nations1  and which has been strong     

enough to check many sophistical        
delusions1  especially in the countries 
where the noble aspirations of the      
,middle ,ages have been least impaired  
by the metaphysical theories of         
,protestantism or ,deism4    ,but       
whatever the importance of this nascent 
feeling1 it was very  far from          
sufficient to establish the conviction  
of ,progress as a  fundamental principle
 of human society4 ,to demonstrate any  
kind of  progression1 at least three    
terms are requisite4 ,now the absolute  
character of theological philosophy1 by 
which the comparison between            
,polytheism and ,catholicism was        
instituted1 prevented men from          
conceiving the bare possibility of any  
further stage4 ,the limits of           
perfection were supposed to have been   
reached by the mediaeval system1  and   
beyond it there was nothing but the     
,christian ,utopia of a future  life4   
,the decline of mediaeval theology soon 
set the imagination free  from any such 

obstacles2 but it led at the same time  
to a mental  reaction which for a long  
time was unfavourable to the development
  of this first conception of ,progress4
 ,it brought a feeling of blind         
antipathy to the ,middle ,ages4 ,almost 
all thinkers in their dislike of  the   
,catholic dogmas were seized with such  
irrational admiration for  ,antiquity as
 entirely to ignore the social          
superiority of the mediaeval  system2   
and it was only among the untaught      
masses1 especially in the  countries    
preserved from ,protestantism1 that any 
real feeling of this  superiority was   
retained4 ,it was not till the middle of
 the seventeenth  century that modern   
thinkers began to dwell on the          
conception of  ,progress4    ,it        
re-appeared then under a new aspect4    
,conclusive evidence had by  that time  
been furnished that the more civilized  
portion of our  race had advanced in    
science and industry1 and even1 though  
not so  unquestionably1 in the fine     

arts4 ,but these aspects were only      
partial3  and though they were          
undoubtedly the source of the more      
systematic  views held by our own       
century upon the subject1 they were not 
enough  to demonstrate the fact of a    
progression4 ,and indeed1 from the      
social  point of view1 so far more      
important than any other1 ,progress     
seemed  more doubtful than it had been  
in the ,middle ,ages4    ,but this      
condition of opinion was changed by the 
revolutionary shock  which impelled     
,france1 the normal centre of ,western  
,europe1 to apply  itself to the task of
 social regeneration4 ,a third term of  
comparison1  that is to say the type on 
which modern society is being moulded1  
now  presented itself2 though it lay as 
yet in a distant and obscure future4    
,compared with the mediaeval system it  
was seen to be an advance as  great as  
that which justified our ancestors of   
chivalrous times in  asserting          
superiority to their predecessors of    

antiquity4 ,until the  destruction of   
,catholic ,feudalism became an overt    
fact1 its effete  remnants had concealed
 the political future1 and the fact of  
continuous  progress in society had     
always remained uncertain4 ,social      
phenomena  have this peculiarity1 that  
the object observed undergoes a process 
of development as well as and           
simultaneously with the observer4 ,now  
up to the time of the ,revolution1      
political development1 on which the     
principal argument for the theory of    
,progress must always be based1         
corresponded in its imperfection to the 
incapacity of the scientific  spirit to 
frame the theory of it4 ,a century ago1 
thinkers of the  greatest eminence were 
unable to conceive of a really          
continuous  progression2 and ,humanity1 
as they thought1 was destined to move in
  circles or in oscillations4 ,but under
 the influence of the ,revolution a     
real sense of human development has     
arisen spontaneously and with more  or  

less result1 in minds of the most       
ordinary cast2 first in ,france1  and   
subsequently throughout the whole of    
,western ,europe4 ,in this  respect the 
crisis has been most salutary2 it has   
given us that mental  courage as well as
 force without which the conception     
could never have  arisen4 ,it is the    
basis of social science and therefore of
 all ,positive  ,philosophy2 since it is
 only from the social aspect that       
,positive  ,philosophy admits of being  
viewed as a connected whole4 ,without   
the  theory of ,progress1 the theory of 
,order1 even supposing that it  could be
 formed1 would be inadequate as a basis 
for ,sociology4 ,it is  essential that  
the two should be combined4 ,the very   
fact that ,progress1  however viewed1 is
 nothing but the development of ,order1 
shows that  ,order cannot be fully      
manifested without ,progress4 ,the      
dependence  of ,positivism upon the     
,french ,revolution may now be          
understood more  clearly4 ,nor was it by

 a merely fortuitous coincidence that by
 this  time the introductory course of  
scientific knowledge by which the mind  
is prepared for ,positivism should have 
been sufficiently completed4    ,but we 
must here observe that1 beneficial as   
the intellectual reaction  of this great
 crisis undoubtedly was1 its effects    
could not be realized  until the ardour 
of the revolutionary spirit had been to 
some extent  weakened4 ,the dazzling    
light thrown upon the ,future for some  
time  obscured our vision of the ,past4 
,it disclosed1 though obscurely1 the    
third term of the social progression2   
but it prevented us from fairly         
appreciating the second term4 ,it       
encouraged that blind aversion to  the  
,middle ,ages1 which had been inspired  
by the emancipating process  of modern  
times2 a feeling which had once been    
necessary to induce us  to abandon the  
old system4 ,the suppression of this    
intermediate step  would be as fatal to 
the conception of ,progress as the      

absence of the  last2 because this last 
differs too widely from the first to    
admit  of any direct comparison with it4
 ,right views upon the subject were     
impossible therefore until full justice 
had been rendered to the ,middle  ,ages1
 which form at once the point of union  
and of separation between  ancient and  
modern history4 ,now it was quite       
impossible to do this as  long as the   
excitement of the first years of the    
revolution lasted4 ,in  this respect the
 philosophical reaction1 organized at   
the beginning  of our century by the    
great ,de ,maistre1 was of material     
assistance  in preparing the true theory
 of ,progress4 ,his school was of brief 
duration1 and it was no doubt animated  
by a retrograde spirit2 but it  will    
always be ranked among the necessary    
antecedents of the ,positive  system2   
although its works are now entirely     
superseded by the rise of  the new      
philosophy1 which in a more perfect form
 has embodied all their  chief results4 

,what was required therefore for the    
discovery of ,sociological laws1 and    
for the establishment upon these laws of
 a sound philosophical system1  was an  
intellect in the vigour of youth1 imbued
 with all the ardour of  the            
revolutionary spirit1 and yet           
spontaneously assimilating all that  was
 valuable in the attempts of the        
retrograde school to appreciate  the    
historical importance of the ,middle    
,ages4 ,in this way and in no  other    
could the true spirit of history arise4 
,for that spirit consists  in the sense 
of human continuity1 which had hitherto 
been felt by no  one1 not even by my    
illustrious and unfortunate predecessor 
,condorcet4  ,meantime the genius of    
,gall was completing the recent attempts
 to  systematize biology1 by commencing 
the study of the internal functions  of 
the brain2 as far at least as these     
could be understood from the  phenomena 
of individual as distinct from social   
development4 ,and now  ,i have explained

 the series of social and intellectual  
conditions  by which the discovery of   
sociological laws1 and consequently the 
foundation of ,positivism1 was fixed for
 the precise date at which ,i  began my 
philosophical career3 that is to say1   
one generation after  the progressive   
dictatorship of the ,convention1 and    
almost immediately  after the fall of   
the retrograde tyranny of ,bonaparte4   
,thus it appears that the revolutionary 
movement1 and the long period  of       
reaction which succeeded it1 were alike 
necessary1 before the new  general      
doctrine could be distinctly conceived  
of as a whole4 ,and if  this preparation
 was needed for the establishment of    
,positivism as a  philosophical system1 
far more needful was it for the         
recognition of  its social value4 ,for  
it guaranteed free exposition and       
discussion of  opinion3 and it led the  
public to look to ,positivism as the    
system  which contained in germ the     
ultimate solution of social problems4   

,this  is a point so obvious that we    
need not dwell upon it further4         
,having satisfied ourselves of the      
dependence of ,positivism upon the      
first phase of the ,revolution1 we have 
now to consider it as the future  guide 
of the second phase4     ,the           
constructive phase of   the ,revolution4
 ,the first   attempts to construct     
failed1 being based on   destructive    
principles    ,it is often supposed that
 the destruction of the old regime was  
brought  about by the ,revolution4 ,but 
history when carefully examined points  
to  a very different conclusion4 ,it    
shows that the ,revolution was not the  
cause but the consequence of the utter  
decomposition of the mediaeval  system2 
a process which had been going on for   
five centuries throughout  ,western     
,europe1 and especially in ,france2     
spontaneously at first1  and afterwards 
in a more systematic way4 ,the          
,revolution1 far from  protracting the  
negative movement of previous centuries1

 was a bar to  its further extension4   
,it was a final outbreak in which men   
showed  their irrevocable purpose of    
abandoning the old system altogether1   
and of proceeding at once to the task of
 entire reconstruction4 ,the  most      
conclusive proof of this intention was  
given by the abolition of  royalty2     
which had been the rallying point of all
 the decaying remnants  of the old      
,french constitution4 ,but with this    
exception1 which only  occupied the     
,convention during its first sitting1   
the constructive  tendencies of the     
movement were apparent from its outset2 
and they  showed themselves still more  
clearly as soon as the republican spirit
  had become predominant4 ,it is        
obvious1 however1 that strong as these  
tendencies may have been1 the first     
period of the ,revolution produced      
results of an extremely negative and    
destructive kind4 ,in fact the  movement
 was in this respect a failure4 ,this is
 partly to be attributed  to the        

pressing necessities of the hard        
struggle for national  independence     
which ,france maintained so gloriously  
against the combined  attacks of the    
retrograde nations of ,europe4 ,but it  
is far more largely  owing to the purely
 critical character of the metaphysical 
doctrines by  which the revolutionary   
spirit was at that time directed4       
,the negative and the positive movements
 which have been going on in  ,western  
,europe since the close of the ,middle  
,ages1 have been of course  connected   
with each other4 ,but the former has    
necessarily advanced  with greater      
rapidity than the latter4 ,the old      
system had so entirely  declined1 that a
 desire for social regeneration had     
become general1  before the groundwork  
of the new system had been sufficiently 
completed  for its true character to be 
understood4 ,as we have just seen1 the  
doctrine by which social regeneration is
 now to be directed could  not have     
arisen previously to the ,revolution4   

,the impulse which the  ,revolution gave
 to thought was indispensable to its    
formation4 ,here  then was an           
insurmountable fatality by which men    
were forced to make  use of the critical
 principles which had been found        
serviceable in  former struggles1 as the
 only available instruments of          
construction4  ,as soon as the old order
 had once been fairly abandoned1 there  
was  of course no utility whatever in   
the negative philosophy4 ,but its       
doctrines had become familiar to men's  
minds1 and its motto of  #8,liberty and 
,equality'1 was at that time the one    
most compatible with  social progress4  
,thus the first stage of the            
revolutionary movement  was accomplished
 under the influence of principles that 
had become  obsolete1 and that were     
quite inadequate to the new task        
required of  them4    ,for constructive 
purposes the revolutionary philosophy   
was valueless2  except so far as it put 
forward a vague programme of the        

political  future founded on sentiment  
rather than conviction1 and             
unaccompanied  by any explanation of the
 right mode of realizing it4 ,in default
 of  organic principles the doctrines of
 the critical school were employed3  and
 the result speedily showed their       
inherent tendency to anarchy2 a         
tendency as perilous to the germs of the
 new order as to the ruins  of the old4 
,the experiment was tried once for all1 
and it left such  ineffaceable memories 
that it is not probable that any serious
 attempt  will be made to repeat it4    
,the incapacity for construction        
inherent in  the doctrine in which the  
revolutionary spirit had embodied itself
 was  placed beyond the reach of doubt4 
,the result was to impress every one    
with the urgent necessity for social    
renovation2 but the principles of  that 
renovation were still left undetermined4
     ,counter-revolution from   #agid to
 #ahcj    ,in this condition of         
philosophical and political opinion1 the

 necessity  of ,order was felt to be    
paramount1 and a long period of reaction
  ensued4 ,dating from the official     
,deism introduced by ,robespierre1 it   
reached its height under the aggressive 
system of ,bonaparte1 and it was  feebly
 protracted1 in spite of the peace of   
#ahae1 by his insignificant  successors4
 ,the only permanent result of this     
period was the historical  and doctrinal
 evidence brought forward by ,de        
,maistre and his school1  of the social 
inutility of modern metaphysics1 while  
at the same time  their intellectual    
weakness was being proved by the        
successful attempts  of ,cabanis1 and   
still more of ,gall1 to extend the      
,positive method to  the highest        
biological questions4 ,in all other     
respects this elaborate  attempt to     
prevent the final emancipation of       
,humanity proved a complete  failure2 in
 fact1 it led to a revival of the       
instinct of ,progress4  ,strong         
antipathies were roused everywhere by   

these fruitless efforts  at             
reconstructing a system which had become
 so entirely obsolete1 that  even those 
who were labouring to rebuild it no     
longer understood its  character or the 
conditions of its existence4    ,a      
re-awakening of the revolutionary spirit
 was thus inevitable2 and it  took place
 as soon as peace was established1 and  
the chief upholder  of the retrograde   
system had been removed4 ,the doctrines 
of negation  were called back to life2  
but very little illusion now remained as
  to their capacity for organizing4 ,in 
want of something better1 men  accepted 
them as a means of resisting retrograde 
principles1 just as  these last had owed
 their apparent success to the necessity
 of checking  the tendency to anarchy4  
,amidst these fresh debates on worn-out 
subjects1 the public soon became aware  
that a final solution of the  question  
had not yet arisen even in germ4 ,it    
therefore concerned itself  for little  
except the maintenance of ,order and    

,liberty2 conditions  as indispensable  
for the free action of philosophy as for
 material  prosperity4 ,the whole       
position was most favourable for the    
construction  of a definite solution2   
and it was1 in fact1 during the last    
phase of  the retrograde movement that  
the elementary principle of a solution  
was furnished1 by my discovery1 in      
#ahbb1 of the two-fold law of           
intellectual development4     ,political
 stagnation   between #ahcj and #ahdh   
,the apparent indifference of the       
public1 to whom all the existing        
parties seemed equally devoid of insight
 into the political future1  was at last
 mistaken by a blind government for     
tacit consent to its  unwise schemes4   
,the cause of ,progress was in danger4  
,then came the  memorable crisis of     
#ahcj1 by which the system of reaction1 
introduced  thirty-six years previously1
 was brought to an end4 ,the convictions
  which that system inspired were indeed
 so superficial1 that its  supporters   

came of their own accord to disavow     
them1 and to uphold in  their own       
fashion the chief revolutionary         
doctrines4 ,these again were  abandoned 
by their previous supporters on their   
accession to power4  ,when the history  
of these times is written1 nothing will 
give a clearer  view of the revulsion of
 feeling on both sides1 than the debates
 which  took place on ,liberty of       
,education4 ,within a period of twenty  
years1  it was alternately demanded and 
refused by both2 and this in behalf of  
the same principles1 as they were       
called1 though it was in reality a      
question of interest rather than        
principle on either side4    ,all       
previous convictions being thus         
thoroughly upset1 more room was  left   
for the instinctive feeling of the      
public2 and the question of  reconciling
 the spirit of ,order with that of      
,progress now came into  prominence4 ,it
 was the most important of all problems1
 and it was now  placed in its true     

light4 ,but this only made the absence  
of a solution  more manifest2 and the   
principle of the solution existed       
nowhere but in  ,positivism1 which as   
yet was immature4 ,all the opinions of  
the day had  become alike utterly       
incompatible both with ,order and with  
,progress4  ,the ,conservative school   
undertook to reconcile the two2 but it  
had no  constructive power2 and the only
 result of its doctrine was to give     
equal encouragement to anarchy and to   
reaction1 so as to be able always  to   
neutralize the one by the other4 ,the   
establishment of ,constitutional        
,monarchy was now put forward as the    
ultimate issue of the great             
,revolution4 ,but no one could seriously
 place any real confidence in a  system 
so alien to the whole character of      
,french history1 offering as  it did    
nothing but a superficial and unwise    
imitation of a political  anomaly       
essentially peculiar to ,england4       
,the period then between #ahcj and #ahdh

 may be regarded as a natural  pause in 
the political movement4 ,the reaction   
which succeeded the  original crisis had
 exhausted itself2 but the final or     
organic phase  of the ,revolution was   
still delayed for want of definite      
principles  to guide it4 ,no conception 
had been formed of it1 except by a small
  number of philosophic minds who had   
taken their stand upon the  recently    
established laws of social science1 and 
had found themselves  able1 without     
recourse to any chimerical views1 to    
gain some general  insight into the     
political future1 of which ,condorcet1  
my principal  predecessor1 knew so      
little4 ,but it was impossible for the  
regenerating  doctrine to spread more   
widely and to be accepted as the        
peaceful  solution of social problems1  
until a distinct refutation had been    
given  of the false assertion so        
authoritatively made that the           
parliamentary  system was the ultimate  
issue of the ,revolution4 ,this notion  

once  destroyed1 the work of spiritual  
reorganization should be left entirely  
to the free efforts of independent      
thinkers4 ,in these respects our last   
political change 7#ahdh7 will have      
accomplished all that is required4      
,the present position1   #ahdh-ahej4    
,republicanism   involves the great     
principle   of subordinating ,politics  
to   ,morals    ,thanks to the          
instinctive sense and vigour of our     
working classes1 the  reactionist       
leanings of the ,orleanist government1  
which had become  hostile to the purpose
 for which it was originally instituted1
 have  at last brought about the final  
abolition of monarchy in ,france4 ,the  
prestige of monarchy had long been lost1
 and it now only impeded  ,progress1    
without being of any real benefit to    
,order4 ,by its fictitious  supremacy it
 directly hindered the work of spiritual
 reformation1  whilst the measure of    
real power which it possessed was       
insufficient to  control the wretched   

political agitation maintained by       
animosities of a  purely personal       
character4    ,viewed negatively1 the   
principle of ,republicanism sums up the 
first  phase of the ,revolution4 ,it    
precludes the possibility of recurrence 
to ,royalism1 which1 ever since the     
second half of the reign of ,louis      
,,xiv1 has been the rallying point of   
all reactionist tendencies4             
,interpreting the principle in its      
positive sense1 we may regard it as a   
direct step towards the final           
regeneration of society4 ,by            
consecrating  all human forces of       
whatever kind to the general service of 
the  community1 republicanism recognizes
 the doctrine of subordinating          
,politics to ,morals4 ,of course it is  
as a feeling rather than as a  principle
 that this doctrine is at present       
adopted2 but it could not  obtain       
acceptance in any other way2 and even   
when put forward in a  more systematic  
shape1 it is upon the aid of feeling    

that it will  principally rely1 as ,i   
have shown in the previous chapter4 ,in 
this  respect ,france has proved worthy 
of her position as the leader of the    
great family of ,western nations1 and   
has in reality already entered  upon the
 normal state4 ,without the intervention
 of any theological  system1 she has    
asserted the true principle on which    
society should  rest1 a principle which 
originated in the ,middle ,ages under   
the impulse  of ,catholicism2 but for   
the general acceptance of which a       
sounder  philosophy and more suitable   
circumstances were necessary4 ,the      
direct  tendency1 then1 of the ,french  
,republic is to sanction the fundamental
  principle of ,positivism1 the         
preponderance1 namely1 of ,feeling over 
,intellect and ,activity4 ,starting from
 this point1 public opinion will  soon  
be convinced that the work of organizing
 society on republican  principles is   
one which can only be performed by the  
new philosophy4     ,it gives prominence

 to the   problem of reconciling ,order 
and ,progress    ,the whole position    
brings into fuller prominence the       
fundamental  problem previously         
proposed1 of reconciling ,order and     
,progress4 ,the  urgent necessity of    
doing so is acknowledged by all2 but the
 utter  incapacity of any of the        
existing schools of opinion to realize  
it  becomes increasingly evident4 ,the  
abolition of monarchy removes the  most 
important obstacle to social ,progress3 
but at the same time it  deprives us of 
the only remaining guarantee for public 
,order4 ,thus the  time is doubly       
favourable to constructive tendencies2  
yet at present  there are no opinions   
which possess more than the purely      
negative value  of checking1 and that   
very imperfectly1 the error opposite to 
their  own4 ,in a position which        
guarantees ,progress and compromises    
,order1 it  is naturally for the latter 
that the greatest anxiety is felt2 and  
we  are still without any organ capable 

of systematically defending it4 ,yet    
experience should have taught us how    
extremely fragile every government  must
 be which is purely material1 that is1  
which is based solely upon              
self-interest1 and is destitute of      
sympathies and convictions4 ,on  the    
other hand1 spiritual order is not to be
 hoped for at present in  the absence of
 any doctrine which commands general    
respect4 ,even the  social instinct is a
 force on the political value of which  
we cannot  always rely3 for when not    
based on some definite principle1 it not
  unfrequently becomes source of        
disturbance4 ,hence we are driven back  
to the continuance of a material system 
of government1 although its  inadequacy 
is acknowledged by all4 ,in a republic1 
however1 such a  government cannot      
employ its most efficient instrument1   
corruption4  ,it has to resort instead  
to repressive measures of a more or less
  transitory kind1 every time that the  
danger of anarchy becomes too           

threatening4 ,these occasional measures1
 however1 naturally proportion          
themselves to the necessities of the    
case4 ,thus1 though ,order is  exposed  
to greater perils than ,progress1 it can
 count on more powerful  resources for  
its defence4 ,shortly after the         
publication of the first  edition of    
this work1 the extraordinary outbreak of
 ,june1 #ahdh1 proved  that the republic
 could call into play1 and1 indeed1     
could push to  excess1 in the cause of  
public ,order1 forces far greater than  
those  of the monarchy4 ,thus royalty no
 longer possesses that monopoly of      
preserving ,order1 which has hitherto   
induced a few sincere and thinking  men 
to continue to support it2 and          
henceforth the sole political           
characteristic which it retains is that 
of obstructing ,progress4 ,and  yet by  
another reaction of this contradictory  
position of affairs1  the monarchical   
party seems at present to have become   
the organ of  resistance in behalf of   

material ,order4 ,retrograde as its     
doctrines  are1 yet from their still    
retaining a certain organic tendency1   
the  conservative instincts rally round 
them4 ,to this the progressive          
instincts offer no serious obstacle1    
their insufficiency for the  present    
needs being more or less distinctly     
recognized4 ,it is not to  the          
monarchical party1 however1 that we must
 look for conservative  principles2 for 
in this quarter they are wholly         
abandoned1 and  unhesitating adoption of
 every revolutionary principle is       
resorted to  as a means of retaining    
power2 so that the doctrines of the     
,revolution  would seem fated to close  
their existence in the retrograde camp4 
,so urgent is the need of ,order that we
 are driven to accept for the  moment a 
party which has lost all its old        
convictions1 and which  had apparently  
become extinct before the ,republic     
began4 ,positivism  and ,positivism     
alone can disentangle and terminate this

 anomalous  position4 ,the principle on 
which it depends is manifestly this3 ,as
  long as ,progress tends towards       
anarchy1 so long will ,order continue to
  be retrograde4 ,but the retrograde    
movement never really attains its       
object3 indeed its principles are always
 neutralized by inconsistent            
concessions4 ,judged by the boastful    
language of its leaders1 we might       
imagine that it was destroying          
republicanism2 whereas the movement     
would not exist at all1 but for the     
peculiar circumstances in which  we are 
placed2 circumstances which are forced  
into greater prominence  by the foolish 
opposition of most of the authorities4  
,as soon as the  instinct of political  
improvement has placed itself under     
systematic  guidance1 its growth will   
bear down all resistance2 and then the  
reason  of its present stagnation will  
be patent to all4     ,it brings the    
metaphysical   revolutionary schools    
into   discredit    ,and for this       

,theologism is1 unawares1 preparing the 
way4 ,its apparent  preponderance places
 ,positivism in precisely that position 
which  ,i wished for ten years ago4 ,the
 two organic principles can now be      
brought side by side1 and their relative
 strength tested1 without the           
complication of any metaphysical        
considerations4 ,for the incoherence  of
 metaphysical systems is now recognized1
 and they are finally  decaying under   
the very political system which seemed  
at one time  likely to promote their    
acceptance4 ,construction is seen by all
  to be the thing wanted3 and men are   
rapidly becoming aware of the  utter    
hollowness of all schools which confine 
themselves to protests  against the     
institutions of theologism1 while       
admitting its essential  principles4 ,so
 defunct1 indeed1 have these schools    
become1 that they  can no longer fulfil 
even their old office of destruction4   
,this has  fallen now as an accessory   
task upon ,positivism1 which offers the 

only  systematic guarantee against      
retrogression as well as against        
anarchy4  ,psychologists1 strictly so   
called1 have already for the most part  
disappeared with the fall of            
constitutional monarchy2 so close is the
  relation between these two            
importations from ,protestantism4 ,it   
seemed  likely therefore that the       
,ideologists1 their natural rivals1     
would  regain their influence with the  
people4 ,but even they cannot win back  
the confidence reposed in them during   
the great ,revolution1 because  the     
doctrines in virtue of which it was then
 given are now so utterly  exploded4    
,the most advanced of their number1     
unworthy successors of  the school of   
,voltaire and ,danton1 have shown       
themselves thoroughly  incapable either 
morally or intellectually of directing  
the second  phase of the ,revolution1   
which they are hardly able to           
distinguish  from the first phase4      
,formerly ,i had taken as their type a  

man of  far superior merit1 the noble   
,armand ,carrel1 whose death was such a 
grievous loss to the republican cause4  
,but he was a complete exception  to the
 general rule4 ,true republican         
convictions were impossible  with men   
who had been schooled in parliamentary  
intrigues1 and who  had directed or     
aided the pertinacious efforts of the   
,french press  to rehabilitate the name 
of ,bonaparte4 ,their accession to power
 was  futile2 for they could only       
maintain material order by calling in   
the retrograde party2 and they soon     
became mere auxiliaries of this  party1 
disgracefully abjuring all their        
philosophical convictions4  ,there is   
one proceeding which1 though it is but  
an episode in the  course of events1    
will always remain as a test of the true
 character  of this unnatural alliance4 
,i allude to the ,roman expedition of   
#ahdi2  a detestable and contemptible   
act1 for which just penalties will      
speedily be imposed on all who were     

accessory to it2 not to speak of  the   
damnatory verdict of history4 ,but      
precisely the same hypocritical         
opposition to progress has been         
exhibited by the other class of         
,deists1 the disciples1 that is1 of     
,rousseau1 who profess to adopt         
,robespierre's policy4 ,having had no   
share in the government1 they have  not 
so entirely lost their hold upon the    
people2 but they are at the  present    
time totally devoid of political        
coherence4 ,their wild anarchy  is      
incompatible with the general tone of   
feeling maintained by the  industrial   
activity1 the scientific spirit1 and the
 esthetic culture of  modern life4      
,these ,professors of the ,guillotine1  
as they may be called1  whose           
superficial sophisms would reduce       
exceptional outbreaks of  popular fury  
into a cold-blooded system1 soon found  
themselves forced1  for the sake of     
popularity1 to sanction the law which   
very properly  abolished capital        

punishment for political offences4 ,in  
the same way  they are now obliged to   
disown the only real meaning of the red 
flag  which serves to distinguish their 
party1 too vague as it is for any  other
 name4 ,equally wrong have they shown   
themselves in interpreting  the         
tendencies of the working classes1 from 
being so entirely taken  up with        
questions of abstract rights4 ,the      
people have allowed these  rights to be 
taken from them without a struggle      
whenever the cause of  ,order has seemed
 to require it2 yet they still persist1 
mechanically1  in maintaining that it is
 on questions of this sort that the     
solution  of all our difficulties       
depends4 ,taking for their political    
ideal a  short and anomalous period of  
our history which is never likely to    
recur1 they are always attempting to    
suppress liberty for the sake of  what  
they call progress4 ,in a time of       
unchangeable peace they are the  only   
real supporters of war4 ,their          

conception of the organization of       
labour is simply to destroy the         
industrial hierarchy of capitalist  and 
workman established in the ,middle      
,ages2 and1 in fact1 in every  respect  
these sophistical anarchists are utterly
 out of keeping with  the century in    
which they live4 ,there are some1 it is 
true1 who still  retain a measure of    
influence with the working classes1     
incapable and  unworthy though they be  
of their position4 ,but their credit is 
rapidly  declining2 and it is not likely
 to become dangerous at a time when     
political enthusiasm is no longer to be 
won by metaphysical prejudices4  ,the   
only effect really produced by this     
party of disorder1 is to  serve as a    
bugbear for the benefit of the          
retrograde party1 who thus  obtain      
official support from the middle class1 
in a way which is quite  contrary to all
 the principles and habits of that      
class4 ,it is very  improbable that     
these foolish levellers will ever       

succeed to power4  ,should they do so1  
however1 their reign will be short1 and 
will soon  result in their final        
extinction2 because it will convince the
 people  of their profound incapacity to
 direct the regeneration of ,europe4    
,the  position of affairs1 therefore1 is
 now distinct and clear2 and it is      
leading men to withdraw their confidence
 from all metaphysical schools1  as they
 had already withdrawn it from theology4
 ,in this general  discredit of all the 
old systems the way becomes clear for   
,positivism1  the only school which     
harmonizes with the real tendencies as  
well as  with the essential needs of the
 nineteenth century4     ,and it proves 
to all   the necessity of a true        
spiritual power2 a body of   thinkers   
whose business   is to study and to     
teach   principles1 holding aloof   from
 political action    ,in this           
explanation of the recent position of   
,french affairs one point  yet remains  
to be insisted on4 ,we have seen from   

the general course  of the              
philosophical1 and yet more of the      
political1 movement1 the  urgent        
necessity for a universal doctrine      
capable of checking erroneous  action1  
and of avoiding or moderating popular   
outbreaks4 ,but there is  another need  
equally manifest1 the need of a         
spiritual power1 without  which it would
 be utterly impossible to bring our     
philosophy to bear  upon practical life4
 ,widely divergent as the various       
metaphysical  sects are1 there is one   
point in which they all spontaneously   
agree2  that is1 in repudiating the     
distinction between temporal and        
spiritual  authority4 ,this has been the
 great revolutionary principle ever     
since the fourteenth century1 and more  
especially since the rise of            
,protestantism4 ,it originated in       
repugnance to the mediaeval system4     
,the so-called philosophers of our time1
 whether psychologists or  ideologists1 
have1 like their ,greek predecessors1   

always aimed at a  complete             
concentration of all social powers2 and 
they have even spread  this delusion    
among the students of special sciences4 
,at present there  is no appreciation1  
except in the ,positive system1 of that 
instinctive  sagacity which led all the 
great men of the ,middle ,ages to       
institute1  for the first time1 the     
separation of moral from political      
authority4  ,it was a masterpiece of    
human wisdom2 but it was premature1 and 
could  not be permanently successful at 
a time when men were still governed on  
theological principles1 and practical   
life still retained its military        
character4 ,this separation of powers1  
on which the final organization  of     
society will principally depend1 is     
understood and valued nowhere  but in   
the new school of philosophy1 if we     
except the unconscious and  tacit       
admiration for it which still exists in 
the countries from which  ,protestantism
 has been excluded4 ,from the outset of 

the ,revolution1  the pride of theorists
 has always made them wish to become    
socially  despotic2 a state of things to
 which they have ever looked forward as 
their political ideal4 ,public opinion  
has by this time grown far too          
enlightened to allow any practical      
realization of a notion at once  so     
chimerical and so retrograde4 ,but      
public opinion not being as yet         
sufficiently organized1 efforts in this 
direction are constantly being  made4   
,the longing among metaphysical         
reformers for practical as well  as     
theoretical supremacy is now greater    
than ever2 because1 from the  changed   
state of affairs1 their ambition is no  
longer limited to mere  administrative  
functions4 ,their various views diverge 
so widely1 and  all find so little      
sympathy in the public1 that there is   
not much  fear of their ever being able 
to check free discussion to any serious 
extent1 by giving legal sanction to     
their own particular doctrine4 ,but     

quite enough has been attempted to      
convince every one how essentially      
despotic every theory of society must be
 which opposes this fundamental         
principle of modern polity1 the         
permanent separation of spiritual  from 
temporal power4 ,the disturbances caused
 by metaphysical ambition  corroborate1 
then1 the view urged so conclusively by 
the adherents of  the new school1 that  
this division of powers is equally      
essential to  ,order and to ,progress4  
,if ,positivist thinkers continue to    
withstand  all temptations to mix       
actively in politics1 and go on quietly 
with  their own work amidst the         
unmeaning agitation around them1 they   
will  ultimately make the impartial     
portion of the public familiar with     
this great conception4 ,it will         
henceforth be judged irrespectively of  
the religious doctrines with which it   
was originally connected4 ,men  will    
involuntarily contrast it with other    
systems1 and will see more  and more    

clearly that ,positive principles afford
 the only basis for  true freedom as    
well as for true union4 ,they alone can 
tolerate full  discussion1 because they 
alone rest upon solid proof4 ,men's     
practical  wisdom1 guided by the        
peculiar nature of our political        
position1 will  react strongly upon     
philosophers1 and keep them strictly to 
their  sphere of moral and intellectual 
influence4 ,the slightest tendency      
towards the assumption of political     
power will be checked1 and the  desire  
for it will be considered as a certain  
sign of mental weakness1  and indeed of 
moral deficiency4 ,now that royalty is  
abolished1 all  true thinkers are secure
 of perfect freedom of thought1 and even
 of  expression1 as long as they abide  
by the necessary conditions of  public  
order4 ,royalty was the last remnant of 
the system of castes1  which gave the   
monopoly of deciding on important social
 questions to  a special family2 its    
abolition completes the process of      

theological  emancipation4 ,of course   
the magistrates of a republic may show  
despotic  tendencies2 but they can never
 become very dangerous where power is   
held on so brief a tenure1 and where1   
even when concentrated in a  single     
person1 it emanates from suffrage1      
incompetent as that may be4  ,it is easy
 for the ,positivist to show that these 
functionaries know  very little more    
than their constituents of the logical  
and scientific  conditions necessary for
 the systematic working out of moral and
 social  doctrines4 ,such authorities1  
though devoid of any spiritual sanction1
  may1 however1 command obedience in the
 name of ,order4 ,but they can  never be
 really respected1 unless they adhere   
scrupulously to their  temporal         
functions1 without claiming the least   
authority over thought4  ,even before   
the central power falls into the hands  
of men really fit to  wield it1 the     
republican character of our government  
will have forced  this conviction upon a

 nation that has now got rid of all     
political  fanaticism1 whether of a     
retrograde or anarchical kind4 ,and the 
conviction is the more certain to arise1
 because practical authorities  will    
become more and more absorbed in the    
maintenance of material  order1 and will
 therefore leave the question of        
spiritual order to the  unrestricted    
efforts of thinkers4 ,it is neither by  
accident nor by  personal influence that
 ,i have myself always enjoyed so large 
a measure  of freedom in writing1 and   
subsequently in public lectures1 and    
this  under governments all of which    
were more or less oppressive4 ,every    
true philosopher will receive the same  
licence1 if1 like myself1 he  offers the
 intellectual and moral guarantees which
 the public and the  civil power are    
fairly entitled to expect from the      
systematic organs of  ,humanity4 ,the   
necessity of controlling levellers may  
lead to occasional  acts of unwise      
violence4 ,but ,i am convinced that     

respect will always be  shown to        
constructive thinkers1 and that they    
will soon be called in to  the          
assistance of public order4 ,for order  
will not be able to exist  much longer  
without the sanction of some rational   
principle4     ,the need of a spiritual 
power is common to the whole   ,republic
 of ,western ,europe    ,the result1    
then1 of the important political changes
 which have  recently taken place is    
this4 ,the second phase of the          
,revolution1 which  hitherto has been   
restricted to a few advanced minds1 is  
now entered  by the public1 and men are 
rapidly forming juster views of its true
  character4 ,it is becoming recognized 
that the only firm basis for a  reform  
of our political institutions1 is a     
complete reorganization of  opinion and 
of life2 and the way is open for the new
 religious doctrine  to direct this     
work4 ,i have thus explained the way in 
which the social  mission of ,positivism
 connects itself with the spontaneous   

changes  which are taking place in      
,france1 the centre of the revolutionary
  movement4 ,but it would be a mistake  
to suppose that ,france will be the     
only scene of these reorganizing        
efforts4 ,judging on sound historical   
principles1 we cannot doubt that they   
will embrace the whole extent of        
,western ,europe4    ,during the five   
centuries of revolutionary transition   
which have  elapsed since the ,middle   
,ages1 we have lost sight of the fact   
that  in all fundamental questions the  
,western nations form one political     
system4 ,it was under ,catholic         
,feudalism that they were first united2 
a  union for which their incorporation  
into the ,roman empire had prepared     
them1 and which was finally organized by
 the incomparable genius of             
,charlemagne4 ,in spite of national     
differences1 embittered as they were    
afterwards by theological discord1 this 
great ,republic has in modern  times    
shown intellectual and social growth    

both in the positive and  negative      
direction1 to which other portions of   
the human race1 even  in ,europe1 can   
show no parallel4 ,the rupture of       
,catholicism1 and  the decline of       
,chivalry1 at first seriously impaired  
this feeling  of relationship4 ,but it  
soon began to show itself again under   
new  forms4 ,it rests now1 though the   
basis is inadequate1 upon the feeling   
of community in industrial development1 
in esthetic culture1 and in  scientific 
discovery4 ,amidst the disorganized     
state of political  affairs1 which have 
obviously been tending towards some     
radical change1  this similarity in     
civilization has produced a growing     
conviction  that we are all             
participating in one and the same social
 movement2  a movement limited as yet to
 our own family of nations4 ,the first  
step in the great crisis was necessarily
 taken by the ,french nation1  because  
it was better prepared than any other4  
,it was there that the  old order of    

things had been most thoroughly         
uprooted1 and that most  had been done  
in working out the materials of the new4
 ,but the strong  sympathies which the  
outbreak of our revolution aroused in   
every part  of ,western ,europe1 showed 
that our sister-nations were only       
granting  us the honourable post of     
danger in a movement in which all the   
nobler  portion of ,humanity was to     
participate4 ,and this was the feeling  
proclaimed by the great republican      
assembly in the midst of their war  of  
defence4 ,the military extravagances    
which followed1 and which form  the     
distinguishing feature of the           
counter-revolution1 of course checked   
the feeling of union on both sides4 ,but
 so deeply was it rooted in  all the    
antecedents of modern history that peace
 soon restored it to  life1 in spite of 
the pertinacious efforts of all parties 
interested in  maintaining unnatural    
separation between ,france and other    
countries4  ,what greatly facilitates   

this tendency is the decline of every   
form  of theology1 which removes the    
chief source of former disagreement4    
,during the last phase of the           
counter-revolution1 and still more      
during  the long pause in the political 
movement which followed1 each member  of
 the group entered upon a series of     
revolutionary efforts more or  less     
resembling those of the central nation4 
,and our recent political  changes      
cannot but strengthen this tendency2    
though of course with  nations less     
fully prepared the results of these     
efforts have at  present been less      
important than in ,france4 ,meanwhile it
 is evident  that this uniform condition
 of internal agitation gives increased  
security for peace1 by which its        
extension had been originally           
facilitated4 ,and thus1 although there  
is no organized international  union as 
was the case in the ,middle ,ages1 yet  
the pacific habits and  intellectual    
culture of modern life have already been

 sufficiently  diffused to call out an  
instinct of fraternity stronger than any
 that  has ever existed before4 ,it is  
strong enough to prevent the subject  of
 social regeneration from being ever    
regarded as a merely national  question4
    ,and this is the point of view which
 displays the character of the  second  
phase of the ,revolution in its truest  
light4 ,the first phase1  although in   
its results advantageous to the other   
nations1 was  necessarily conducted as  
if peculiar to ,france1 because no other
  country was ripe for the original     
outbreak4 ,indeed ,french nationality   
was stimulated by the necessity of      
resisting the counter-revolutionary     
coalition4 ,but the final and           
constructive phase which has begun now  
that the national limits of the crisis  
have been reached1 should always  be    
regarded as common to the whole of      
,western ,europe4 ,for it consists      
essentially in spiritual reorganization2
 and the need of this in one  shape or  

other presses already with almost equal 
force upon each of the  five nations who
 make up the great ,western family4     
,conversely1 the  more occidental the   
character of the reforming movement1 the
 greater  will be the prominence given  
to intellectual and moral regeneration  
as compared with mere modifications of  
government1 in which of course  there   
must be very considerable national      
differences4 ,the first social  need of 
,western ,europe is community in belief 
and in habits of life2  and this must be
 based upon a uniform system of         
education controlled  and applied by a  
spiritual power that shall be accepted  
by all4 ,this  want satisfied1 the      
reconstruction of governments may be    
carried out in  accordance with the     
special requirements of each nation4    
,difference in  this respect is         
legitimate3 it will not affect the      
essential unity of  the ,positivist     
,republic1 which will be bound together 
by more complete  and durable ties than 

the ,catholic ,republic of the ,middle  
,ages4    ,not only then do we find from
 the whole condition of ,western ,europe
  that the movement of opinion          
transcends in importance all political  
agitation2 but we find that everything  
points to the necessity of  establishing
 a spiritual power1 as the sole means of
 directing  this free yet systematic    
reform of opinion and of life with the  
requisite consistency and largeness of  
view4 ,we now see that the old          
revolutionary prejudice of confounding  
temporal and spiritual power  is        
directly antagonistic to social         
regeneration1 although it once  aided   
the preparation for it4 ,in the first   
place it stimulates the  sense of       
nationality which ought to be           
subordinate to larger feelings  of      
international fraternity4 ,and at the   
same time1 with the view of  satisfying 
the conditions of uniformity which are  
so obviously required  for the solution 
of the common problem1 it induces       

efforts at forcible  incorporation of   
all the nations into one1 efforts as    
dangerous as  they are fruitless4       
,this ,republic consists   of the       
,italian1 ,spanish1   ,british1 and     
,german   populations1 grouped round    
,france as their centre    ,my work on  
,positive ,philosophy contains a        
detailed historical  explanation of what
 ,i mean by the expression1 ,western    
,europe4 ,but the  conception is one of 
such importance in relation to the      
questions of  our time1 that ,i shall   
now proceed to enumerate and arrange in 
their  order the elements of which this 
great family of nations consists4       
,since the fall of the ,roman empire1   
and more especially from the time  of   
,charlemagne1 ,france has always been   
the centre1 socially as well as         
geographically1 of this ,western region 
which may be called the nucleus  of     
,humanity4 ,on the one great occasion of
 united political action on  the part of
 ,western ,europe1 that is1 in the      

crusades of the eleventh  and twelfth   
century1 it was evidently ,france that  
took the initiative4  ,it is true that  
when the decomposition of ,catholicism  
began to assume a  systematic form1 the 
centre of the movement for two centuries
 shifted  its position4 ,it was ,germany
 that gave birth to the metaphysical    
principles of negation4 ,their first    
political application was in the  ,dutch
 and ,english revolutions1 which1       
incomplete as they were1 owing to       
insufficient intellectual preparation1  
yet served as preludes to the  great    
final crisis4 ,these preludes were most 
important1 as showing the  real social  
tendency of the critical doctrines4 ,but
 it was reserved for  ,france to        
co-ordinate these doctrines into a      
consistent system and to  propagate them
 successfully4 ,france then resumed her 
position as the  principal centre in    
which the great moral and political     
questions were  to be worked out4 ,and  
this position she will in all           

probability retain1  as in fact it is   
only a recurrence to the normal         
organization of the  ,western ,republic1
 which had been temporarily modified to 
meet special  conditions4 ,a fresh      
displacement of the centre of the social
 movement  is not to be expected1 unless
 in a future too distant to engage our  
attention4 ,it can indeed only be the   
result of wide extension of our         
advanced civilization beyond ,european  
limits1 as will be explained in  the    
conclusion of this work4    ,north and  
south of this natural centre1 we find   
two pairs of nations1  between which    
,france will always form an intermediate
 link1 partly from  her geographical    
position1 and also from her language and
 manners4 ,the  first pair is for the   
most part ,protestant4 ,it comprises1   
first1 the  great ,germanic body1 with  
the numerous nations that may be        
regarded  as its offshoots2 especially  
,holland1 which1 since the ,middle      
,ages1  has been in every respect the   

most advanced portion of ,germany4      
,secondly1 ,great ,britain1 with which  
may be classed the ,united ,states1     
notwithstanding their present attitude  
of rivalry4 ,the second pair is         
exclusively ,catholic4 ,it consists of  
the great ,italian nationality1  which  
in spite of political divisions has     
always maintained its  distinct         
character2 and of the population of the 
,spanish ,peninsula  7for ,portugal1    
sociologically considered1 is not to be 
separated from  ,spain71 which has so   
largely increased the ,western family by
 its  colonies4 ,to complete the        
conception of this group of advanced    
nations1  we must add two accessory     
members1 ,greece and ,poland1 countries 
which1  though situated in ,eastern     
,europe1 are connected with the ,west1  
the  one by ancient history1 the other  
by modern4 ,besides these1 there are    
various intermediate nationalities which
 ,i need not now enumerate1  connecting 
or demarcating the more important       

branches of the family4    ,in this vast
 ,republic it is that the new philosophy
 is to find its  sphere of intellectual 
and moral action4 ,it will endeavour so 
to modify  the initiative of the central
 nation1 by the reacting influences  of 
the other four1 as to give increased    
efficiency to the general  movement4 ,it
 is a task eminently calculated to test 
the social  capabilities of ,positivism1
 and for which no other system is       
qualified4  ,the metaphysical spirit is 
as unfit for it as the theological4 ,the
  rupture of the mediaeval system is due
 to the decadence of theology3  but the 
direct agency in the rupture was the    
solvent force of the  metaphysical      
spirit4 ,neither the one nor the other  
then is likely to  recombine elements1  
the separation of which is principally  
due to  their own conceptions4 ,it is   
entirely to the spontaneous action of   
the  ,positive spirit that we owe those 
new though insufficient links of  union1
 whether industrial1 artistic1 or       

scientific1 which1 since the  close of  
the ,middle ,ages1 have been leading us 
more and more decidedly  to a           
reconstruction of the ,western alliance4
 ,and now that ,positivism  has assumed 
its matured and systematic form1 its    
competence for the  work is even more   
unquestionable4 ,it alone can           
effectually remove the  national        
antipathies which still exist4 ,but it  
will do this without  impairing the     
natural qualities of any of them4 ,its  
object is by a wise  combination of     
these qualities1 to develop under a new 
form the feeling  of a common           
,occidentality4     ,relation of        
,positivism   to the mediaeval system1  
to which we owe the first   attempt to  
separate   spiritual from temporal      
power    ,by extending the social       
movement to its proper limits1 we thus  
exhibit  on a larger scale the same     
features that were noticed when ,france 
alone was being considered4 ,abroad or  
at home1 every great social  problem    

that arises proves that the object of   
the second revolutionary  phase is a    
reorganization of principles and of     
life4 ,by this means  a body of public  
opinion will be formed of sufficient    
force to lead  gradually to the growth  
of new political institutions4 ,these   
will be  adapted to the special         
requirements of each nation1 under the  
general  superintendence of the         
spiritual power1 from whom our          
fundamental  principles will have       
proceeded4 ,the general spirit of these 
principles  is essentially historical1  
whereas the tendency of the negative    
phase  of the revolution was            
anti-historical4 ,without blind hatred  
of the  past1 men would never have had  
sufficient energy to abandon the old    
system4 ,but henceforth the best        
evidence of having attained complete    
emancipation will be the rendering full 
justice to the past in all its  phases4 
,this is the most characteristic feature
 of that relative spirit  which         

distinguishes ,positivism4 ,the surest  
sign of superiority1 whether  in persons
 or systems1 is fair appreciation of    
opponents4 ,and this  must always be the
 tendency of social science when rightly
 understood1  since its prevision of the
 future is avowedly based upon          
systematic  examination of the past4 ,it
 is the only way in which the free and  
yet  universal adoption of general      
principles of social reconstruction  can
 ever be possible4 ,such reconstruction1
 viewed by the light of  ,sociology1    
will be regarded as a necessary link in 
the series of human  development2 and   
thus many confused and incoherent       
notions suggested by  the arbitrary     
beliefs hitherto prevalent will finally 
disappear4 ,the  growth of public       
opinion in this respect is aided by the 
increasing  strength of social feeling4 
,both combine to encourage the          
historical  spirit which distinguishes  
the second period of the ,revolution1 as
 we  see indicated already in so many of

 the popular sympathies of the day4     
,acting on this principle1 ,positivists 
will always acknowledge the  close      
relation between their own system and   
the memorable effort of  mediaeval      
,catholicism4 ,in offering for the      
acceptance of ,humanity a  new          
organization of life1 we would not      
dissociate it with all that  has gone   
before4 ,on the contrary1 it is our     
boast that we are but  proposing for her
 maturity the accomplishment of the     
noble effort of  her youth1 an effort   
made when intellectual and social       
conditions  precluded the possibility of
 success4 ,we are too full of the future
 to  fear any serious charge of         
retrogression towards the past4 ,it     
would be  strange were such a charge to 
proceed from those of our opponents     
whose  political ideal is that          
amalgamation of temporal and spiritual  
power  which was adopted by the         
theocratic or military systems of       
antiquity4    ,the separation of these  

powers in the ,middle ,ages is the      
greatest  advance ever yet made in the  
theory of social ,order4 ,it was        
imperfectly  effected1 because the time 
was not ripe for it2 but enough was done
  to show the object of the separation1 
and some of its principal  results were 
partially arrived at4 ,it originated the
 fundamental  doctrine of modern social 
life1 the subordination of ,politics to 
,morals2 a doctrine which in spite of   
the most obstinate resistance  has      
survived the decline of the religion    
which first proclaimed it4  ,we see it  
now sanctioned by a republican          
government which has shaken  off the    
fetters of that religion more completely
 than any other4 ,a  further result of  
the separation is the keen sense of     
personal honour1  combined with general 
fraternity1 which distinguishes ,western
 nations1  especially those who have    
been preserved from ,protestantism4 ,to 
the  same source is due the general     
feeling that men should be judged  by   

their intellectual and moral worth1     
irrespectively of social  position1 yet 
without upsetting that subordination of 
classes which  is rendered necessary by 
the requirements of practical life4 ,and
 this  has accustomed all classes to    
free discussion of moral and even of    
political questions2 since every one    
feels it a right and a duty to  judge   
actions and persons by the general      
principles which a common  system of    
education has inculcated alike on all4  
,i need not enlarge on  the value of the
 mediaeval church in organizing the     
political system  of ,western ,europe1  
in which there was no other recognized  
principle  of union4 ,all these social  
results are usually attributed to the   
excellence of the ,christian doctrine2  
but history when fairly examined  shows 
that the source from which they are     
principally derived is the  ,catholic   
principle of separating the two powers4 
,for these effects  are nowhere visible 
except in the countries where this      

separation  has been effected1 although 
a similar code of morals and indeed a   
faith identically the same have been    
received elsewhere4 ,besides1  although 
sanctioned by the general tone of modern
 life1 they have been  neutralized to a 
considerable extent by the decline of   
the ,catholic  organization1 and this   
especially in the countries where the   
greatest  efforts have been made to     
restore the doctrine to its original    
purity  and power4    ,in these respects
 ,positivism has already appreciated    
,catholicism more  fully than any of its
 own defenders1 not even excepting ,de  
,maistre  himself1 as indeed some of the
 more candid organs of the retrograde   
school have allowed4 ,but the merit of  
,catholicism does not merely  depend on 
the fact that it forms a most important 
link in the series  of human            
development4 ,what adds to the glory of 
its efforts is that1  as history clearly
 proves1 they were in advance of their  
time4 ,the  political failure of        

,catholicism resulted from the          
imperfection of  its doctrines1 and the 
resistance of the social medium in which
 it  worked4 ,it is true that           
,monotheism is far more compatible with 
the  separation of powers than          
,polytheism4 ,but from the absolute     
character  of every kind of theology1   
there was always a tendency in the      
mediaeval  system to degenerate into    
mere theocracy4 ,in fact1 the proximate 
cause of its decline was the increased  
development of this tendency  in the    
fourteenth century1 and the resistance  
which it provoked  among the kings1 who 
stood forward to represent the general  
voice of  condemnation4 ,again1 though  
separation of powers was less difficult 
in the defensive system of mediaeval    
warfare than in the aggressive  system  
of antiquity1 yet it is thoroughly      
repugnant to the military  spirit in all
 its phases1 because adverse to that    
concentration of  authority which is    
requisite in war4 ,and thus it was never

 thoroughly  realized1 except in the    
conceptions of a few leading men among  
both the  spiritual and temporal class4 
,its brief success was principally      
caused  by a temporary combination of   
circumstances4 ,it was for the most part
 a  condition of very unstable          
equilibrium1 oscillating between        
theocracy  and empire4     ,but the     
mediaeval attempt   was premature2 and  
,positivism will renew and   complete it
    ,but ,positive civilization will    
accomplish what in the ,middle ,ages    
could only be attempted4 ,we are aided1 
not merely by the example of  the       
,middle ,ages1 but by the preparatory   
labours of the last five  centuries4    
,new modes of thought have arisen1 and  
practical life has  assumed new phases2 
and all are alike tending towards the   
separation  of powers4 ,what in the     
,middle ,ages was but dimly foreseen by 
a few  ardent and aspiring minds1       
becomes now an inevitable and obvious   
result1 instinctively felt and formally 

recognized by all4 ,from the            
intellectual point of view it is nothing
 more than the distinction  between     
theory and practice2 a distinction which
 is already admitted  more or less      
formally throughout civilized ,europe in
 subjects of less  importance2 which    
therefore it would be unreasonable to   
abandon in the  most difficult of all   
arts and sciences4 ,viewed socially1 it 
implies  the separation of education    
from action2 or of morals from politics2
  and few would deny that the           
maintenance of this separation is one of
  the greatest blessings of our         
progressive civilization4 ,the          
distinction  is of equal importance to  
morality and to liberty4 ,it is the only
 way  of bringing opinion and conduct   
under the control of principle2 for  the
 most obvious application of a principle
 has little weight when  it is merely an
 act of obedience to a special command4 
,taking the  more general question of   
bringing our political forces into      

harmony1  it seems clear that           
theoretical and practical power are so  
totally  distinct in origin and         
operation1 whether in relation to the   
heart1 or  intellect1 or character1 that
 the functions of counsel and of command
  ought never to belong to the same     
organs4 ,all attempts to unite them  are
 at once retrograde and visionary1 and  
if successful would lead to  the        
intolerable government of mediocrities  
equally unfit for either  kind of power4
 ,but as ,i shall show in the following 
chapters this  principle of separation  
will soon find increasing support among 
women  and the working classes2 the two 
elements of society in which we find    
the greatest amount of good sense and   
right feeling4    ,modern society is1 in
 fact1 already ripe for the adoption of 
this  fundamental principle of polity2  
and the opposition to it proceeds       
almost entirely from its connexion with 
the doctrines of the mediaeval  church  
which have now become deservedly        

obsolete4 ,but there will be an  end of 
these revolutionary prejudices among all
 impartial observers as  soon as the    
principle is seen embodied in           
,positivism1 the only doctrine  which is
 wholly disconnected with ,theology4    
,all human conceptions1  all social     
improvements originated under           
theological influence1 as we  see proved
 clearly in many of the humblest details
 of life4 ,but this  has never prevented
 ,humanity from finally appropriating to
 herself  the results of the creeds     
which she has outgrown4 ,and so it will 
be  with this great political principle2
 it has already become obsolete  except 
for the ,positive school1 which has     
verified inductively all  the minor     
truths implied in it4 ,the only direct  
attacks against it  come from the       
metaphysicians1 whose ambitious         
aspirations for absolute  authority     
would be thwarted by it4 ,it is they who
 attempt to fasten  on ,positivism the  
stigma of theocracy3 a strange and in   

most cases  disingenuous reproach1      
seeing that ,positivists are            
distinguished from  their opponents by  
discarding all beliefs which supersede  
the necessity  for discussion4 ,the fact
 is that serious disturbances will soon 
be  caused by the pertinacious efforts  
of these adherents of pedantocracy  to  
regulate by law what ought to be left to
 moral influences2 and then  the public 
will become more alive to the necessity 
of the ,positivist  doctrine of         
systematically separating political from
 moral government4  ,the latter should  
be understood to rely exclusively on the
 forces of  conviction and persuasion2  
its influence on action being simply    
that  of counsel2 whereas the former    
employs direct compulsion1 based upon   
superiority of physical force4    ,we   
now understand what is meant by the     
constructive character of  the second   
revolutionary phase4 ,it implies a union
 of the social  aspirations of the      
,middle ,ages with the wise political   

instincts of the  ,convention4 ,in the  
interval of these two periods the more  
advanced  nations were without any      
systematic organization1 and were       
abandoned  to the two-fold process of   
transition1 which was decomposing the   
old  order and preparing the new4 ,both 
these preliminary steps are now         
sufficiently accomplished4 ,the desire  
for social regeneration has  become too 
strong to be resisted1 and a            
philosophical system capable  of        
directing it has already arisen4 ,we    
may1 therefore1 recommence on a  better 
intellectual and social basis the great 
effort of ,catholicism1  to bring       
,western ,europe to a social system of  
peaceful activity  and intellectual     
culture1 in which ,thought and ,action  
should be  subordinated to universal    
,love4 ,reconstruction will begin at the
 points  where demolition began         
previously4 ,the dissolution of the old 
organism  began in the fourteenth       
century by the destruction of its       

international  character4 ,conversely1  
reorganization begins by satisfying the 
intellectual and mental wants common to 
the five ,western nations4     ,the     
,ethical system of   ,positivism    ,and
 here1 since the object of this         
character is to explain the social      
value of ,positivism1 ,i may show       
briefly that it leads necessarily to    
the formation of a definite system of   
universal ,morality2 this being  the    
ultimate object of all ,philosophy1 and 
the starting-point of all  ,polity4     
,since it is by its moral code that     
every spiritual power must  be          
principally tested1 this will be the    
best mode of judging of the  relative   
merits of ,positivism and ,catholicism4 
,subjection of ,self-love to   ,social  
love is the great   ethical problem4    
,the ,social   state of itself favours  
this result2 but it may be   hastened by
 organized and   conscious effort    ,to
 the ,positivist the object of ,morals  
is to make our sympathetic  instincts   

preponderate as far as possible over the
 selfish instincts2  social feelings    
over personal feelings4 ,this way of    
viewing the subject  is peculiar to the 
new philosophy1 for no other system has 
included  the more recent additions to  
the theory of human nature1 of which    
,catholicism gave so imperfect a        
representation4    ,it is one of the    
first principles of ,biology that       
organic life always  preponderates over 
animal life4 ,by this principle the     
,sociologist  explains the superior     
strength of the self-regarding          
instincts1  since these are all         
connected more or less closely with the 
instinct  of self-preservation4 ,but    
although there is no evading this fact1 
,sociology shows that it is compatible  
with the existence of benevolent        
affections1 affections which            
,catholicism had asserted to be         
altogether  alien to our nature1 and to 
be entirely dependent on superhuman     
,grace  derived from a sphere beyond the

 reach of ,law4 ,the great problem1     
then1 is to raise social feeling by     
artificial effort to the position       
which1 in the natural condition1 is held
 by selfish feeling4 ,the  solution is  
to be found in another biological       
principle1 namely1  that functions and  
organs are developed by constant        
exercise1 and  atrophied by prolonged   
inaction4 ,now the effect of the ,social
 state is1  that while our sympathetic  
instincts are constantly stimulated1 the
  selfish propensities are restricted2  
since1 if free play were given  to them1
 human intercourse would very shortly   
become impossible4 ,thus  it compensates
 to some extent the natural weakness of 
the ,sympathies  that they are capable  
of almost indefinite extension1 while   
,self-love  meets inevitably with a more
 or less efficient check4 ,both these   
tendencies naturally increase with the  
progress of ,humanity1 and their        
increase is the best measure of the     
degree of perfection that we have       

attained4 ,their growth1 though         
spontaneous1 may be materially hastened 
by organized intervention1 both of      
individuals and of society1 the  object 
being to increase all favourable        
influences and diminish the             
unfavourable4 ,this is the object of the
 art of ,morals4 ,like every other  art1
 it is restricted within certain limits4
 ,but in this case the  limits are less 
narrow1 because the phenomena1 being    
more complex1 are  also more modifiable4
    ,positive morality differs therefore
 from that of theological as well  as of
 metaphysical systems4 ,its primary     
principle is the preponderance  of      
,social ,sympathy4 ,full and free       
expansion of the benevolent emotions  is
 made the first condition of individual 
and social well-being1 since  these     
emotions are at once the sweetest to    
experience1 and are the  only feelings  
which can find expression simultaneously
 in all4 ,the  doctrine is as deep and  
pure as it is simple and true4 ,it is   

eminently  characteristic of a          
philosophy which1 by virtue of its      
attribute of  reality1 subordinates all 
scientific conceptions to the social    
point  of view1 as the sole point from  
which they can be co-ordinated into  a  
whole4 ,the intuitive methods of        
metaphysics could never advance  with   
any consistency beyond the sphere of the
 individual4 ,theology1  especially     
,christian theology1 could only rise to 
social conceptions by  an indirect      
process1 forced upon it1 not by its     
principles1 but by its  practical       
functions4 ,intrinsically1 its spirit   
was altogether personal2  the highest   
object placed before each individual was
 the attainment  of his own salvation1  
and all human affections were made      
subordinate  to the love of ,god4 ,it is
 true that the first training of our    
higher  feelings is due to theological  
systems2 but their moral value depended 
mainly on the wisdom of the priesthood4 
,they compensated the defects of  their 

doctrine1 and at that time no better    
doctrine was available1 by  taking      
advantage of the antagonism which       
naturally presented itself  between the 
interests of the imaginary and those of 
the real world4  ,the moral value of    
,positivism on the contrary1 is inherent
 in its  doctrine1 and can be largely   
developed1 independently of any         
spiritual  discipline1 though not so far
 as to dispense with the necessity for  
such discipline4 ,thus1 while ,morality 
as a science is made far more           
consistent by being placed in its true  
connexion with the rest of our          
knowledge1 the sphere of natural        
morality is widened by bringing human   
life1 individually and collectively1    
under the direct and continuous         
influence of ,social ,feeling4          
,intermediate between   self-love and   
universal   benevolence are the domestic
   affections3 filial1   fraternal1     
conjugal1   paternal    ,i have stated  
that ,positive morality is brought into 

a coherent and  systematic form by its  
principle of universal love4 ,this      
principle must  now be examined first in
 its application to the separate aspects
 of the  subject1 and subsequently as   
the means by which the various parts may
  be co-ordinated4    ,there are three  
successive states of morality answering 
to the three  principal stages of human 
life2 the personal1 the domestic1 and   
the  social stage4 ,the succession      
represents the gradual training of the  
sympathetic principle2 it is drawn out  
step by step by a series  of affections 
which1 as it diminishes in intensity1   
increases in  dignity4 ,this series     
forms our best resource in attempting as
 far  as possible to reach the normal   
state2 subordination of self-love  to   
social feeling4 ,these are the two      
extremes in the scale of human          
affections2 but between them there is an
 intermediate degree1 namely1  domestic 
attachment1 and it is on this that the  
solution of the  great moral problem    

depends4 ,the love of his family leads  
,man out of  his original state of      
,self-love and enables him to attain    
finally a  sufficient measure of ,social
 love4 ,every attempt on the part of the
  moral educator to call this last into 
immediate action1 regardless  of the    
intermediate stage1 is to be condemned  
as utterly chimerical  and profoundly   
injurious4 ,such attempts are regarded  
in the present  day with far too        
favourable an eye4 ,far from being a    
sign of social  progress1 they would1 if
 successful1 be an immense step         
backwards2  since the feeling which     
inspires them is one of perverted       
admiration  for antiquity4    ,since the
 importance of domestic life is so great
 as a transition from  selfish to social
 feeling1 a systematic view of its      
relations will be  the best mode of     
explaining the spirit of ,positive      
morality1 which is  in every respect    
based upon the order found in nature4   
,the first germ of social feeling is    

seen in the affection of the  child for 
its parents4 ,filial love is the        
starting-point of our moral  education3 
from it springs the instinct of         
,continuity1 and consequently  of       
reverence for our ancestors4 ,it is the 
first tie by which the new  being feels 
himself bound to the whole past history 
of ,man4 ,brotherly  love comes next1   
implanting the instinct of ,solidarity1 
that is to say  of union with our       
contemporaries2 and thus we have already
 a sort of  outline of social existence4
 ,with maturity new phases of feeling   
are  developed4 ,relationships are      
formed of an entirely voluntary nature2 
which have therefore a still more social
 character than the involuntary  ties of
 earlier years4 ,this second stage in   
moral education begins  with conjugal   
affection1 the most important of all1 in
 which perfect  fullness of devotion is 
secured by the reciprocity and          
indissolubility  of the bond4 ,it is the
 highest type of all sympathetic        

instincts1  and has appropriated to     
itself in a special sense the name of   
,love4  ,from this most perfect of      
unions proceeds the last in the series  
of  domestic sympathies1 parental love4 
,it completes the training by which     
,nature prepares us for universal       
sympathy3 for it teaches us to care  for
 our successors2 and thus it binds us to
 the ,future1 as filial love  had bound 
us to the ,past4    ,i placed the       
voluntary class of domestic sympathies  
after the  involuntary1 because it was  
the natural order of individual         
development1 and it thus bore out my    
statement of the necessity of  family   
life as an intermediate stage between   
personal and social life4  ,but in      
treating more directly of the theory of 
the ,family as the  constituent element 
of the body politic1 the inverse order  
should be  followed4 ,in that case      
conjugal attachment would come first1 as
 being  the feeling through which the   
family comes into existence as a new    

social unit1 which in many cases        
consists simply of the original pair4   
,domestic sympathy1 when once formed by 
marriage1 is perpetuated first  by      
parental then by filial affection2 it   
may afterwards be developed  by the tie 
of brotherhood1 the only relation by    
which different  families can be brought
 into direct contact4 ,the order        
followed here  is that of decrease in   
intensity1 and increase in extension4   
,the  feeling of fraternity1 which ,i   
place last1 because it is usually least 
powerful1 will be seen to be of primary 
importance when regarded as  the        
transition from domestic to social      
affections2 it is1 indeed1 the  natural 
type to which all social sympathies     
conform4 ,but there is yet  another     
intermediate relation1 without which    
this brief exposition of  the theory of 
the family would be incomplete2 ,i mean 
the relation of  household servitude1   
which may be called indifferently       
domestic or  social4 ,it is a relation  

which at the present time is not        
properly  appreciated on account of our 
dislike to all subjection2 and yet the  
word domestic is enough to remind us    
that in every normal state  of          
,humanity1 it supplies what would       
otherwise be a want in household        
relations4 ,its value lies in completing
 the education of the social  instinct1 
by a special apprenticeship in obedience
 and command1 both  being subordinated  
to the universal principle of mutual    
sympathy4    ,the object of the         
preceding remarks was to show the       
efficacy of the  ,positive method in    
moral questions by applying it to the   
most important  of all moral theories1  
the theory of the ,family4 ,for more    
detailed  proof1 ,i must refer to my    
treatise on ,positive ,polity1 to which 
this work is introductory4 ,i would call
 attention1 however1 to the  beneficial 
influence of ,positivism on personal    
morality4 ,actions which  hitherto had  
always been referred even by ,catholic  

philosophers to  personal interests1 are
 now brought under the great principle  
of ,love  on which the whole ,positive  
doctrine is based4     ,personal virtues
 placed   upon a social basis           
,feelings are only to be developed by   
constant exercise2 and exercise is  most
 necessary when the intrinsic energy of 
the feeling is least4 ,it  is therefore 
quite contrary to the true spirit of    
moral education to  degrade duty in     
questions of personal morality to a mere
 calculation  of self-interest4 ,of     
course1 in this elementary part of      
,ethics1 it  is easier to estimate the  
consequences of actions1 and to show the
  personal utility of the rules         
enjoined4 ,but this method of procedure 
inevitably stimulates the self-regarding
 propensities1 which are  already too   
preponderant1 and the exercise of which 
ought as far as  possible to be         
discouraged4 ,besides1 it often results 
in practical  failure4 ,to leave the    
decision of such questions to the       

judgment of the  individual1 is to give 
a formal sanction to all the natural    
difference  in men's inclinations4 ,when
 the only motive urged is consideration 
for  personal consequences1 every one   
feels himself to be the best judge  of  
these1 and modifies the rule at his     
pleasure4 ,positivism1 guided  by a     
truer estimate of the facts1 entirely   
remodels this elementary  part of       
,ethics4 ,its appeal is to social       
feeling1 and not to personal1  since the
 actions in question are of a kind in   
which the individual is  far from being 
the only person interested4 ,for        
example1 such virtues  as temperance and
 chastity are inculcated by the         
,positivist on other  grounds than those
 of their personal advantages4 ,he will 
not of course  be blind to their        
individual value2 but this is an aspect 
on which  he will not dwell too much1   
for fear of concentrating attention on  
self-interest4 ,at all events1 he will  
never make it the basis of his          

precepts1 but will invariably rest them 
upon their social value4  ,there are    
cases in which men are preserved by an  
unusually strong  constitution from the 
injurious effects of intemperance or    
libertinage2  but such men are bound to 
sobriety and continence as vigorously as
 the  rest1 because without these       
virtues they cannot perform their social
  duties rightly4 ,even in the commonest
 of personal virtues1 cleanliness1  this
 alteration in the point of view may be 
made with advantage4 ,a  simple sanitary
 regulation is thus ennobled by knowing 
that the object  of it is to make each  
one of us more fit for the service of   
others4  ,in this way and in no other1  
can moral education assume its true     
character at the very outset4 ,we shall 
become habituated to the feeling  of    
subordination to ,humanity1 even in our 
smallest actions4 ,it is in  these that 
we should be trained to gain the mastery
 over the lower  propensities2 and the  
more so that1 in these simple cases1 it 

is less  difficult to appreciate their  
consequences4    ,the influence of      
,positivism on personal morality is in  
itself a proof  of its superiority to   
other systems4 ,its superiority in      
domestic  morality we have already seen1
 and yet this was the best aspect of    
,catholicism1 forming indeed the        
principal basis of its admirable moral  
code4 ,on social morality strictly so   
called1 ,i need not dwell at  length4   
,here the value of the new philosophy   
will be more direct and  obvious1 the   
fact of its standing at the social point
 of view being  the very feature which  
distinguishes it from all other systems4
 ,in  defining the mutual duties arising
 from the various relations of life1  or
 again in giving solidity and extension 
to the instinct of our common           
fraternity1 neither theological nor     
metaphysical morality can bear          
comparison with ,positivism4 ,its       
precepts are adapted without difficulty 
to the special requirements of each     

case1 because they are ever in  harmony 
with the general laws of society and of 
human nature4 ,but on  these obvious    
characteristics of ,positivism ,i need  
not further enlarge1  as ,i shall have  
other occasions for referring to them4  
,after this brief exposition of         
,positive morality ,i must allude with  
equal brevity to the means by which it  
will be established and applied4  ,these
 are of two kinds4 ,the first lay down  
the foundations of moral  training for  
each individual3 they furnish           
principles1 and they  regulate feelings4
 ,the second carry out the work begun1  
and ensure the  application of the      
principles inculcated to practical life4
 ,both these  functions are in the first
 instance performed spontaneously1 under
 the  influence of the doctrine and of  
the sympathies evoked by it4 ,but for   
their adequate performance a spiritual  
power specially devoted to the  purpose 
is necessary4     ,moral education      
consists   partly of scientific         

demonstration of ethical   truth1 but   
still more of   culture of the highest  
sympathies    ,the moral education of   
the ,positivist is based both upon      
,reason and on  ,feeling1 the latter    
having always the preponderance1 in     
accordance  with the primary principle  
of the system4    ,the result of the    
rational basis is to bring moral        
precepts to the test  of rigorous       
demonstration1 and to secure them       
against all danger from  discussion1 by 
showing that they rest upon the laws of 
our individual  and social nature4 ,by  
knowing these laws1 we are enabled to   
form a  judgment of the influence of    
each affection1 thought1 action1 or     
habit1  be that influence direct or     
indirect1 special or general1 in private
  life or in public4 ,convictions based 
upon such knowledge will be as  deep as 
any that are formed in the present day  
from the strictest  scientific evidence1
 with the excess of intensity due to    
their higher  importance and their close

 connexion with our noblest feelings4   
,nor  will such convictions be limited  
to those who are able to appreciate  the
 logical value of the arguments4 ,we see
 constantly in other  departments of    
,positive science that men will adopt   
notions upon trust1  and carry them out 
with the same zeal and confidence1 as if
 they were  thoroughly acquainted with  
all the grounds for their belief4 ,all  
that  is necessary is1 that they should 
feel satisfied that their confidence  is
 well bestowed1 the fact being1 in spite
 of all that is said of the             
independence of modern thought1 that it 
is often given too readily4  ,the most  
willing assent is yielded every day to  
the rules which  mathematicians1        
astronomers1 physicists1 chemists1 or   
biologists1 have  laid down in their    
respective arts1 even in cases where the
 greatest  interests are at stake4 ,and 
similar assent will certainly be        
accorded  to moral rules when they1 like
 the rest1 shall be acknowledged to be  

susceptible of scientific proof4    ,but
 while using the force of demonstration 
to an extent hitherto  impossible1      
,positivists will take care not to      
exaggerate its  importance4 ,moral      
education1 even in its more systematic  
parts1 should  rest principally upon    
,feeling1 as the mere statement of the  
great  human problem indicates4 ,the    
study of moral questions1 intellectually
  speaking1 is most valuable2 but the   
effect it leaves is not directly  moral1
 since the analysis will refer1 not to  
our own actions1 but to  those of       
others2 for all scientific              
investigations1 to be impartial  and    
free from confusion1 must be objective1 
not subjective4 ,now to  judge others   
without immediate reference to self1 is 
a process which  may possibly result in 
strong convictions1 but so far from     
calling  out right feelings1 it will1 if
 carried too far1 interfere with or     
check their natural development4        
,however1 the new school of moralists   

is the less likely to err in this       
direction1 that it would be totally     
inconsistent with that profound         
knowledge of human nature in which      
,positivism has already shown itself so 
far superior to ,catholicism4  ,no one  
knows so well as the ,positivist that   
the principal source  of real morality  
lies in direct exercise of our social   
sympathies1  whether systematic or      
spontaneous4 ,he will spare no efforts  
to develop  these sympathies from the   
earliest years by every method which    
sound  philosophy can indicate4 ,it is  
in this that moral education1 whether   
private or public1 principally consists2
 and to it mental education  is always  
to be held subordinate4 ,i shall revert 
to these remarks in  the next chapter1  
when ,i come to the general question of 
educating the  ,people4                 
,organization of ,public   ,opinion     
,but however efficient the training     
received in youth1 it will not  be      
enough to regulate our conduct in after 

years1 amidst all the  distracting      
influences of practical life1 unless the
 same spiritual  power which provides   
the education prolong its influence over
 our  maturity4 ,part of its task will  
be to recall individuals1 classes1  and 
even nations1 when the case requires it1
 to principles which they  have         
forgotten or misinterpreted1 and to     
instruct them in the means of  applying 
them wisely4 ,and here1 even more than  
in the work of education  strictly so   
called1 the appeal will be to ,feeling  
rather than to  pure ,reason4 ,its force
 will be derived from ,public ,opinion  
strongly  organized4 ,if the spiritual  
power awards its praise and blame       
justly1  public opinion1 as ,i shall    
show in the next chapter1 will lend it  
the  most irresistible support4 ,this   
moral action of ,humanity upon each of  
her members has always existed whenever 
there was any real community of         
principles and feelings4 ,but its       
strength will be far greater under the  

,positive system4 ,the reality of the   
doctrine and the social character  of   
modern civilization give advantages to  
the new spiritual power which  were     
denied to ,catholicism4                 
,commemoration of great men    ,and     
these advantages are brought forward    
very prominently by the  ,positive      
system of commemoration4 ,commemoration1
 when regularly  instituted1 is a most  
valuable instrument in the hands of a   
spiritual  power for continuing the work
 of moral education4 ,it was the        
absolute  character of ,catholicism1    
even more than the defective state of   
mediaeval society1 that caused the      
failure of its noble aspirations  to    
become the universal religion4 ,in spite
 of all its efforts1 its  system of     
commemoration has always been restricted
 to very narrow  limits1 both in time   
and space4 ,outside these limits1       
,catholicism has  always shown the same 
blindness and injustice that it now     
complains  of receiving from its own    

opponents4 ,positivism1 on the contrary1
  can yield the full measure of praise  
to all times and all countries1  without
 either weakness or inconsistency4      
,possessing the true theory  of human   
development1 every mode and phase of    
that development will be  celebrated4   
,thus every moral precept will be       
supported by the influence  of          
posterity2 and this in private life as  
well as in public1 for the  system of   
commemoration will be applied in the    
same spirit to the  humblest services as
 well as to the highest4    ,while      
reserving special details for the       
treatise to which this work is          
introductory1 ,i may yet give one       
illustration of this important aspect   
of ,positivism2 an illustration which   
probably will be the first step in  the 
practical application of the system4 ,i 
would propose to institute  in ,western 
,europe on any days that may be thought 
suitable1 the  yearly celebration of the
 three greatest of our predecessors1    

,caesar1  ,st4 ,paul and ,charlemagne1  
who are respectively the highest types  
of  ,greco-,roman civilization1 of      
,mediaeval ,feudalism1 and of           
,catholicism1  which forms the link     
between the two periods4 ,the services  
of these  illustrious men have never yet
 been adequately recognized1 for want of
  a sound historical theory enabling us 
to explain the prominent part  which    
they played in the development of our   
race4 ,even in ,st4 ,paul's  case the   
omission is noticeable4 ,positivism     
gives him a still higher  place than has
 been given him by ,theology2 for it    
looks upon him as  historically the     
founder of the religion which bears the 
inappropriate  name of ,christianity4   
,in the other two cases the influence of
 ,positive  principles is even more     
necessary4 ,for ,caesar has been almost 
equally  misjudged by theological and by
 metaphysical writers2 and ,catholicism 
has done very little for the            
appreciation of ,charlemagne4 ,however1 

notwithstanding the absence of any      
systematic appreciation of these  great 
men1 yet from the reverence with which  
they are generally  regarded1 we can    
hardly doubt that the celebration here  
proposed would  meet with ready         
acceptance throughout ,western ,europe4 
,to illustrate my meaning still further1
 ,i may observe that history  presents  
cases where exactly the opposite course 
is called for1 and  which should be held
 up not for approbation but for infamy4 
,blame1  it is true1 should not be      
carried to the same extent as praise1   
because it stimulates the destructive   
instincts to a degree which is  always  
painful and sometimes injurious4 ,yet   
strong condemnation is  occasionally    
desirable4 ,it strengthens social       
feelings and principles1  if only by    
giving more significance to our         
approval4 ,thus ,i would  suggest that  
after doing honour to the three great   
men who have done so  much to promote   
the development of our race1 there      

should be a solemn  reprobation of the  
two principal opponents of progress1    
,julian and  ,bonaparte2 the latter     
being the more criminal of the two1 the 
former  the more insensate4 ,their      
influence has been sufficiently         
extensive to  allow of all the ,western 
nations joining in this damnatory       
verdict4#f    ,the principal function of
 the spiritual power is to direct the   
future  of society by means of          
education2 and1 as a supplementary part 
of  education1 to pronounce judgment    
upon the past in the mode here          
indicated4 ,but there are functions of  
another kind1 relating more  immediately
 to the present2 and these too result   
naturally from its  position as an      
educating body4 ,if the educators are   
men worthy of  their position1 it will  
give them an influence over the whole   
course  of practical life1 whether      
private or public4 ,of course it will   
merely  be the influence of counsel1 and
 practical men will be free to accept   

or reject it2 but its weight may be very
 considerable when given  prudently1 and
 when the authority from which it       
proceeds is recognized  as competent4   
,the questions on which its advice is   
most needed are the  relations between  
different classes4 ,its action will be  
coextensive  with the diffusion of      
,positive principles2 for nations       
professing the  same faith1 and sharing 
in the same education1 will naturally   
accept  the same intellectual and moral 
directors4 ,in the next chapter ,i shall
  treat this subject more in detail4 ,i 
merely mention it here as one  among the
 list of functions belonging to the new 
spiritual power4     ,the political     
motto of   ,positivism3 ,order and      
,progress    ,it will now not be        
difficult to show all the               
characteristics of  ,positivism are     
summed up in the motto1 ,order and      
,progress1 a motto  which has a         
philosophical as well as political      
bearing1 and which ,i  shall always feel

 glad to have put forward4              
,positivism is the only school which has
 given a definite significance  to these
 two conceptions1 whether regarded from 
their scientific  or their social       
aspect4 ,with regard to ,progress1 the  
assertion  will hardly be disputed1 no  
definition of it but the ,positive ever 
having yet been given4 ,in the case of  
,order1 it is less apparent2  but1 as ,i
 have shown in the first chapter1 it is 
no less profoundly  true4 ,all previous 
philosophies had regarded ,order as     
stationary1 a  conception which rendered
 it wholly inapplicable to modern       
politics4  ,but ,positivism1 by         
rejecting the absolute1 and yet not     
introducing  the arbitrary1 represents  
,order in a totally new light1 and      
adapts it  to our progressive           
civilization4 ,it places it on the      
firmest possible  foundation1 that is1  
on the doctrine of the invariability of 
the  laws of nature1 which defends it   
against all danger from subjective      

chimeras4 ,the ,positivist regards      
artificial ,order in ,social phenomena1 
as in all others1 as resting necessarily
 upon the ,order of nature1 in  other   
words1 upon the whole series of natural 
laws4     ,progress1 the development    
of ,order    ,but ,order has to be      
reconciled with ,progress3 and here     
,positivism is  still more obviously    
without a rival4 ,necessary as the      
reconciliation  is1 no other system has 
even attempted it4 ,but the facility    
with  which we are now enabled1 by the  
encyclopdic scale1 to pass from the     
simplest mathematical phenomena to the  
most complicated phenomena of  political
 life1 leads at once to a solution of   
the problem4 ,viewed  scientifically1 it
 is an instance of that necessary       
correlation of  existence and movement1 
which we find indicated in the inorganic
  world1 and which becomes still more   
distinct in ,biology4 ,finding it  in   
all the lower sciences1 we are prepared 
for its appearance in a  still more     

definite shape in ,sociology4 ,here its 
practical importance  becomes more      
obvious1 though it had been implicitly  
involved before4 ,in  ,sociology the    
correlation assumes this form3 ,order is
 the condition of  all ,progress2       
,progress is always the object of       
,order4 ,or1 to penetrate  the question 
still more deeply1 ,progress may be     
regarded simply as the  development of  
,order2 for the order of nature         
necessarily contains  within itself the 
germ of all possible progress4 ,the     
rational view of  human affairs is to   
look on all their changes1 not as new   
,creations1  but as new ,evolutions4    
,and we find this principle fully borne 
out in  history4 ,every social          
innovation has its roots in the past2   
and the  rudest phases of savage life   
show the primitive trace of all         
subsequent  improvement4     ,analysis  
of ,progress3   material1 physical1     
intellectual1 and moral    ,progress    
then is in its essence identical with   

,order1 and may be looked  upon as      
,order made manifest4 ,therefore1 in    
explaining this double  conception on   
which the ,science and ,art of society  
depend1 we may at  present limit        
ourselves to the analysis of ,progress4 
,thus simplified it  is more easy to    
grasp1 especially now that the novelty  
and importance  of the question of      
,progress are attracting so much        
attention4 ,for the  public is becoming 
instinctively alive to its real         
significance1 as the  basis on which all
 sound moral and political teaching must
 henceforth  rest4    ,taking1 then1    
this point of view1 we may say that the 
one great object  of life1 personal and 
social1 is to become more perfect in    
every  way2 in our external condition   
first1 but also1 and more especially1   
in our own nature4 ,the first kind of   
,progress we share in common  with the  
higher animals2 all of which make some  
efforts to improve  their material      
position4 ,it is of course the least    

elevated stage of  progress2 but being  
the easiest1 it is the point from which 
we start  towards the higher stages4 ,a 
nation that has made no efforts to      
improve  itself materially1 will take   
but little interest in moral or mental  
improvement4 ,this is the only ground on
 which enlightened men can feel  much   
pleasure in the material progress of our
 own time4 ,it stirs up  influences that
 tend to the nobler kinds of ,progress2 
influences which  would meet with even  
greater opposition than they do1 were   
not the  temptations presented to the   
coarser natures by material prosperity  
so irresistible4 ,owing to the mental   
and moral anarchy in which we  live1    
systematic efforts to gain the higher   
degrees of ,progress are  as yet        
impossible2 and this explains1 though it
 does not justify1 the  exaggerated     
importance attributed nowadays to       
material improvements4  ,but the only   
kinds of improvement really             
characteristic of ,humanity  are those  

which concern our own nature2 and even  
here we are not quite  alone2 for       
several of the higher animals show some 
slight tendencies to  improve themselves
 physically4    ,progress in the higher 
sense includes improvements of three    
sorts2  that is to say1 it may be       
,physical1 ,intellectual1 or ,moral     
progress2  the difficulty of each class 
being in proportion to its value and the
  extent of its sphere4 ,physical       
progress1 which again might be divided  
on the same principle1 seems under some 
of its aspects almost the same  thing as
 material4 ,but regarded as a whole it  
is far more important  and far more     
difficult3 its influence on the         
well-being of ,man is also  much        
greater4 ,we gain more1 for instance1 by
 the smallest addition  to length of    
life1 or by any increased security for  
health1 than by  the most elaborate     
improvements in our modes of travelling 
by land or  water1 in which birds will  
probably always have a great advantage  

over  us4 ,however1 as ,i said before1  
physical progress is not exclusively    
confined to ,man4 ,some of the animals1 
for instance1 advance as far as         
cleanliness1 which is the first step in 
the progressive scale4    ,intellectual 
and ,moral progress1 then1 is the only  
kind really  distinctive of our race4   
,individual animals sometimes show it1  
but never a whole species1 except as a  
consequence of prolonged  intervention  
on the part of ,man4 ,between these two 
highest grades1 as  between the two     
lower1 we shall find a difference of    
value1 extent1  and difficulty2 always  
supposing the standard to be the manner 
in  which they affect ,man's well-being1
 collectively or individually4 ,to      
strengthen the intellectual powers1     
whether for art or for science1  whether
 it be the powers of observation or     
those of induction and  deduction1 is1  
when circumstances allow of their being 
made available  for social purposes1 of 
greater and more extensive importance1  

than  all physical1 and1 a fortiori than
 all material improvements4 ,but  we    
know from the fundamental principle laid
 down in the first chapter  of this     
work1 that moral progress has even more 
to do with our  well-being than         
intellectual progress4 ,the moral       
faculties are more  modifiable1 although
 the effort required to modify them is  
greater4  ,if the benevolence or courage
 of the human race were increased1 it   
would bring more real happiness than any
 addition to our intellectual  powers4  
,therefore to the question1 ,what is the
 true object of human  life1 whether    
looked at collectively or individually8 
the simplest  and most precise answer   
would be1 the perfection of our moral   
nature2  since it has a more immediate  
and certain influence on our well-being 
than perfection of any other kind4 ,all 
the other kinds are necessary1  if for  
no other reason than to prepare the way 
for this2 but from the  very fact of    
this connexion it may be regarded as    

their representative2  since it involves
 them all implicitly and stimulates them
 to increased  activity4 ,keeping then  
to the question of moral perfection1 we 
find  two qualities standing above the  
rest in practical importance1 namely1   
,sympathy and ,energy4 ,both these      
qualities are included in the word      
,heart1 which in all ,european languages
 has a different meaning for  the two   
sexes4 ,both will be developed by       
,positivism1 more directly1  more       
continuously1 and with greater result1  
than under any former  system4 ,the     
whole tendency of ,positivism is to     
encourage sympathy2  since it           
subordinates every thought1 desire1 and 
action to social  feeling4 ,energy is   
also presupposed1 and at the same time  
fostered1 by  the system4 ,for it       
removes a heavy weight of superstition1 
it reveals  the true dignity of man1 and
 it supplies an unceasing motive for    
individual and collective action4 ,the  
very acceptance of ,positivism  demands 

some vigour of character2 it implies the
 braving of spiritual  terrors1 which   
were once enough to intimidate the      
firmest minds4    ,progress1 then1 may  
be regarded under four successive       
aspects3  ,material1 ,physical1         
,intellectual1 and ,moral4 ,each of     
these might again  be divided on the    
same principle1 and we should then      
discover several  intermediate phases4  
,these cannot be investigated here2 and 
,i have  only to note that the          
philosophical principle of this analysis
 is  precisely the same as that on which
 ,i have based the ,classification of   
the ,sciences4 ,in both cases the order 
followed is that of increasing          
generality and complexity in the        
phenomena4 ,the only difference is in   
the mode in which the two arrangements  
are developed4 ,for scientific  purposes
 the lower portion of the scale has to  
be expanded into greater  detail2 while 
from the social point of view attention 
is concentrated  on the higher parts4   

,but whether it be the scale of the     
,true or that of  the ,good1 the        
conclusion is the same in both4 ,both   
alike indicate the  supremacy of social 
considerations2 both point to universal 
,love as the  highest ideal4    ,i have 
now explained the principal purpose of  
,positive ,philosophy1  namely1         
spiritual reorganization2 and ,i have   
shown how that purpose  is involved in  
the ,positivist motto1 ,order and       
,progress4 ,positivism1  then1 realizes 
the highest aspirations of mediaeval    
,catholicism1 and  at the same time     
fulfils the conditions1 the absence of  
which caused  the failure of the        
,convention4 ,it combines the opposite  
merits of the  ,catholic and the        
,revolutionary spirit1 and by so doing  
supersedes  them both4 ,theology and    
,metaphysics may now disappear without  
danger1  because the service which each 
of them rendered is now harmonized with 
that of the other1 and will be performed
 more perfectly4 ,the principle  on     

which this result depends is the        
separation of spiritual from  temporal  
power4 ,this1 it will be remembered1 had
 always been the chief  subject of      
contention between the two antagonistic 
parties4     ,application of our        
principles to actual   politics4 ,all   
government   must for the present be    
provisional    ,i have spoken of the    
moral and mental reorganization of      
,western  ,europe as characterizing the 
second phase of the ,revolution4 ,let us
  now see what are its relations with   
the present state of politics4 ,of      
course the development of ,positivism   
will not be much affected by the        
retrograde tendencies of the day1       
whether theological or metaphysical4    
,still the general course of events will
 exercise an influence upon it1  of     
which it is important to take account4  
,so too1 although the new  doctrine     
cannot at present do much to modify its 
surroundings1 there  are yet certain    
points in which action may be taken at  

once4 ,in the  fourth volume of this    
treatise the question of a transitional 
policy  will be carefully considered1   
with the view of facilitating the advent
  of the normal state which social      
science indicates in a more distant     
future4 ,i cannot complete this chapter 
without some notice of this  provisional
 policy1 which must be carried on until 
,positivism has made  its way to general
 acceptance4    ,the principal feature  
of this policy is that it is temporary4 
,to set  up any permanent institution in
 a society which has no fixed opinions  
or principles of life1 would be         
hopeless4 ,until the most important     
questions are thoroughly settled1 both  
in principle and practice1 the  only    
measures of the least utility are those 
which facilitate the  process of        
reconstruction4 ,measures adopted with a
 view to permanence  must end1 as we    
have seen them end so often1 in         
disappointment and  failure1 however    
enthusiastically they may have been     

received at first4    ,inevitable as    
this consequence of our revolutionary   
position is1 it has  never been         
understood1 except by the great leaders 
of the republican  movement in #agic4   
,of the various governments that we have
 had during  the last two generations1  
all1 except the ,convention1 have fallen
  into the vain delusion of attempting  
to found permanent institutions1        
without waiting for any intellectual or 
moral basis4 ,and therefore  it is that 
none but the ,convention has left any   
deep traces in men's  thoughts or       
feelings4 ,all its principal measures1  
even those which  concerned the future  
more than the present1 were avowedly    
provisional2  and the consequence was   
that they harmonized well with the      
peculiar  circumstances of the time4    
,the true philosopher will always look  
with  respectful admiration on these    
men1 who not only had no rational theory
  to guide them1 but were encumbered    
with false metaphysical notions2  and   

who yet notwithstanding proved          
themselves the only real statesmen  that
 ,western ,europe can boast of since the
 time of ,frederick the ,great4  ,indeed
 the wisdom of their policy would be    
almost unaccountable1 only  that the    
very circumstances which called for it  
so urgently1 were to  some extent       
calculated to suggest it4 ,the state of 
things was such  as to make it          
impossible to settle the government on  
any permanent  basis4 ,again1 amidst all
 the wild extravagance of the principles
 in  vogue1 the necessity of a strong   
government to resist foreign invasion   
counteracted many of their worst        
effects4 ,on the removal of this        
salutary pressure1 the ,convention fell 
into the common error1 though to  a less
 extent than the ,constituent ,assembly4
 ,it set up a constitution  framed      
according to some abstract model1 which 
was supposed to be  final1 but which did
 not last so long as the period         
originally proposed  for its own        

provisional labours4 ,it is on this     
first period of its  government that its
 fame rests4    ,the plan originally    
proposed was that the government of the 
,convention  should last till the end of
 the war4 ,if this plan could have been 
carried out1 it would probably have been
 extended still further1 as  the        
impossibility of establishing any       
permanent system would have been        
generally recognized4 ,the only avowed  
motive for making the government        
provisional was of course the urgent    
necessity of national defence4  ,but    
beneath this temporary motive1 which for
 the time superseded  every other       
consideration1 there was another and a  
deeper motive for  it1 which could not  
have been understood without sounder    
historical  principles than were at that
 time possible4 ,that motive was the    
utterly  negative character of the      
metaphysical doctrines then accepted1   
and the  consequent absence of any      
intellectual or moral basis for         

political  reconstruction4 ,this of     
course was not recognized1 but it was   
really  the principal reason why the    
establishment of any definite system of 
government was delayed4 ,had the war    
been brought to an end1 clearer  views  
of the subject would no doubt have been 
formed2 indeed they had  been formed    
already in the opposite camp1 by men of 
the ,neo-catholic  school1 who were not 
absorbed by the urgent question of      
defending  the ,republic4 ,what blinded 
men to the truth was the fundamental    
yet inevitable error of supposing the   
critical doctrines of the  preceding    
generation applicable to purposes of    
construction4 ,they were  undeceived at 
last by the utter anarchy which the     
triumph of these  principles occasioned2
 and the next generation occupied itself
 with the  counter-revolutionary        
movement1 in which similar attempts at  
finality  were made by the various      
reactionist parties4 ,for these parties 
were  quite as destitute as their       

opponents of any principles suited to   
the  task of reconstruction2 and they   
had to fall back upon the old system  as
 the only recognized basis on which     
public ,order could be maintained4      
,danger of attempting   political       
reconstruction   before spiritual       
,and in this respect the situation is   
still unchanged4 ,it still retains  its 
revolutionary character2 and any        
immediate attempt to reorganize         
political administration would only be  
the signal for fresh attempts  at       
reaction1 attempts which now can have no
 other result than anarchy4  ,it is true
 that ,positivism has just supplied us  
with a philosophical  basis for         
political reconstruction4 ,but its      
principles are still so new  and        
undeveloped1 and besides are understood 
by so few1 that they cannot  exercise   
much influence at present on political  
life4 ,ultimately1 and  by slow degrees1
 they will mould the institutions of the
 future2 but  meanwhile they must work  

their way freely into men's minds and   
hearts1  and for this at least one      
generation will be necessary4 ,spiritual
  organization is the only point where  
an immediate beginning can be  made2    
difficult as it is1 its possibility is  
at last as certain as  its urgency4     
,when sufficient progress has been made 
with it1 it will  cause a gradual       
regeneration of political institutions4 
,but any attempt  to modify these too   
rapidly would only result in fresh      
disturbances4  ,such disturbances1 it is
 true1 will never be as dangerous as    
they  were formerly1 because the anarchy
 of opinion is so profound that it  is  
far more difficult for men to agree in  
any fixed principles of  action4 ,the   
absolute doctrines of the last century  
which inspired such  intense conviction1
 can never regain their strength1       
because1 when  brought to the crucial   
test of experience as well as of        
discussion1  their uselessness for      
constructive purposes and their         

subversive  tendency became evident to  
every one4 ,they have been weakened1    
too1 by  theological concessions which  
their supporters1 in order to carry on  
the government at all1 were obliged to  
make4 ,consequently the policy  with    
which they are at present connected is  
one which oscillates  between reaction  
and anarchy1 or rather which is at once 
despotic and  destructive1 from the     
necessity of controlling a society which
 has  become almost as diverse to       
metaphysical as to theological rule4 ,in
  the utter absence1 then1 of any       
general convictions1 the worst forms  of
 political commotion are not to be      
feared1 because it would be  impossible 
to rouse men's passions sufficiently4   
,but unwise efforts  to set up a        
permanent system of government would    
even now lead1 in  certain cases1 to    
lamentable disorder1 and would at all   
events be  utterly useless4 ,quiet at   
home depends now1 like peace abroad1    
simply  on the absence of disturbing    

forces2 a most insecure basis1 since it 
is itself a symptom of the extent to    
which the disorganizing movement  has   
proceeded4 ,this singular condition must
 necessarily continue until  the        
interregnum which at present exists in  
the moral and intellectual  region comes
 to an end4 ,as long as there is such an
 utter want of  harmony in feeling as   
well as in opinion1 there can be no real
 security  against war or internal      
disorder4 ,the existing equilibrium has 
arisen  so spontaneously that it is no  
doubt less unstable than is generally   
supposed4 ,still it is sufficiently     
precarious to excite continual  panics1 
both at home and abroad1 which are not  
only very irritating1  but often        
exercise a most injurious influence over
 our policy4 ,now  attempts at immediate
 reconstruction of political            
institutions1 instead  of improving this
 state of things1 make it very much     
worse1 by giving  factitious life to the
 old doctrines1 which1 being thoroughly 

worn  out1 ought to be left to the      
natural process of decay4 ,the          
inevitable  result of restoring them to 
official authority will be to deter the 
public1 and even the thinking portion of
 it1 from that free exercise of  the    
mental powers by which1 and by which    
only1 we may hope to arrive  without    
disturbance at fixed principles of      
action4    ,the cessation of war        
therefore justifies no change in        
republican  policy4 ,as long as the     
spiritual interregnum lasts1 it must    
retain its  provisional character4      
,indeed this character ought to be more 
strongly  impressed upon it than ever4  
,for no one now has any real belief in  
the  organic value of the received      
metaphysical doctrines4 ,they would     
never  have been revived but for the    
need of having some sort of political   
formula to work with1 in default of any 
real social convictions4 ,but  the      
revival is only apparent1 and it        
contrasts most strikingly with  the     

utter absence of systematic principles  
in most active minds4 ,there  is no real
 danger of repeating the error of the   
first revolutionists  and of attempting 
to construct with negative doctrines4   
,we have only  to consider the vast     
development of industry1 of esthetic    
culture1 and  of scientific study1 to   
free ourselves from all anxiety on this 
head4  ,such things are incompatible    
with any regard for the metaphysical    
teaching of ideologists or              
psychologists4 ,nor is there much to    
fear  in the natural enthusiasm which is
 carrying us back to the first days  of 
the ,revolution4 ,it will only revive   
the old republican spirit1 and  make us 
forget the long period of retrogression 
and stagnation which  have elapsed since
 the first great outbreak2 for this is  
the point  on which the attention of    
posterity will be finally concentrated4 
,but while satisfying these very        
legitimate feelings1 the people will    
soon find that the only aspect of this  

great crisis which we have to  imitate  
is the wise insight of the ,convention  
during the first part  of its           
administration1 in perceiving that its  
policy could only be  provisional1 and  
that definite reconstruction must be    
reserved for  better times4 ,we may     
fairly hope that the next formal attempt
 to set  up a constitution according to 
some abstract ideal1 will convince the  
,french nation1 and ultimately the whole
 ,west1 of the utter futility  of such  
schemes4 ,besides1 the free discussion  
which has now become  habitual to us1   
and the temper of the people1 which is  
as sceptical  of political entities as  
of ,christian mysteries1 would make any 
such  attempts extremely difficult4     
,never was there a time so unfavourable 
to doctrines admitting of no real       
demonstration3 demonstration being  now 
the only possible basis of permanent    
belief4 ,supposing then a new           
constitution to be set on foot1 and the 
usual time to be spent in the  process  

of elaborating it1 public opinion will  
very possibly discard it  before it is  
completed2 not allowing it even the     
short average duration  of former       
constitutions4 ,any attempt to check    
free discussion on the  subject would   
defeat its own object2 since free       
discussion is the  natural consequence  
of our intellectual and social position4
     ,politically what is   wanted is   
,dictatorship1   with liberty of speech 
and   discussion    ,the same conditions
 which require our policy to be         
provisional while  the spiritual        
interregnum lasts1 point also to the    
mode in which  this provisional policy  
should be carried out4 ,had the         
revolutionary  government of the        
,convention continued till the end of   
the war1 it  would probably have been   
prolonged up to the present time4 ,but  
in  one most important respect a        
modification would have been necessary4 
,during the struggle for independence   
what was wanted was a vigorous          

dictatorship1 combining spiritual with  
temporal powers3 a dictatorship  even   
stronger than the old monarchy1 and only
 distinguished from  despotism by its   
ardour in the cause of progress4        
,without complete  concentration of     
political power1 the republic could     
never have been  saved4 ,but with peace 
the necessity for such concentration was
 at an  end4 ,the only motive for still 
continuing the provisional system was   
the absence of social convictions4 ,but 
this would also be a motive for  giving 
perfect liberty of speech and           
discussion1 which till then had  been   
impossible or dangerous4 ,for liberty   
was a necessary condition for           
elaborating and diffusing a new system  
of universal principles1 as the  only   
sure basis for the future regeneration  
of society4    ,this hypothetical view  
of changes which might have taken place 
in the  ,conventional government1 may be
 applied to the existing condition of   
affairs4 ,it is the policy best adapted 

for the republican government  which is 
now arising in all the security of a    
settled peace1 and yet  amidst the most 
entire anarchy of opinion4 ,the         
successors of the  ,convention1 men     
unworthy of their task1 degraded the    
progressive  dictatorship entrusted to  
them by the circumstances of the time   
into a  retrograde tyranny4 ,during the 
reign of ,charles ,x1 which was the last
  phase of the reaction1 the central    
power was thoroughly undermined by  the 
legal opposition of the parliamentary or
 local power4 ,the central  government  
still refused to recognize any limits to
 its authority2 but  the growth of free 
thought made its claims to spiritual    
jurisdiction  more and more untenable1  
leaving it merely the temporal authority
  requisite for public order4 ,during   
the neutral period which followed  the  
counter-revolution1 the dictatorship was
 not merely restricted to  its proper   
functions1 but was legally destroyed2   
that is the local  power as represented 

by parliament took the place of the     
central power4  ,all pretentions to     
spiritual influence were abandoned by   
both2 their  thoughts being sufficiently
 occupied with the maintenance of       
material  order4 ,the intellectual      
anarchy of the time made this task      
difficult  enough2 but they aggravated  
the difficulty by unprincipled attempts 
to establish their government on the    
basis of pure self-interest1            
irrespectively of all moral             
considerations4 ,the restoration of the 
republic and the progressive spirit     
aroused by it has no doubt given to     
both legislative and executive a large  
increase of power3 to an extent  indeed 
which a few years back would have caused
 violent antipathy4 ,but  it would be a 
grievous error for either of them to    
attempt to imitate  the dictatorial     
style of the ,conventional government4  
,unsuccessful in  any true sense as the 
attempt would be1 it might occasion very
 serious  disturbances1 which like the  

obsolete metaphysical principles in     
which  they originate1 would be equally 
dangerous to ,order and to ,progress4   
,we see1 then1 that in the total absence
 of any fixed principles on  which men  
can unite1 the policy required is one   
which shall be purely  provisional1 and 
limited almost entirely to the          
maintenance of material  order4 ,if     
order be preserved1 the situation is in 
all other respects  most favourable to  
the work of mental and moral            
regeneration which  will prepare the way
 for the society of the future4 ,the    
establishment  of a republic in ,france 
disproves the false claims set up by    
official  writers in behalf of          
constitutional government1 as if it was 
the  final issue of the ,revolution4    
,meantime there is nothing irrevocable  
in the republic itself1 except the moral
 principle involved in it1  the absolute
 and permanent preponderance of ,social 
,feeling2 in other  words1 the          
concentration of all the powers of ,man 

upon the common  welfare4 ,this is the  
only maxim of the day which we can      
accept as  final4 ,it needs no formal   
sanction1 because it is merely the      
expression  of feelings generally       
avowed1 all prejudices against it having
 been  entirely swept away4 ,but with   
the doctrines and the institutions      
resulting from them1 through which this 
dominion of social feeling is  to become
 an organized reality1 the republic has 
no direct connexion2  it would be       
compatible with many different solutions
 of the problem4  ,politically1 the only
 irrevocable point is the abolition of  
monarchy1  which for a long time has    
been in ,france and to a less extent    
throughout the ,west1 the symbol of     
retrogression4    ,that spirit of       
devotion to the public welfare1 which is
 the noblest  feature of republicanism1 
is strongly opposed to any immediate    
attempts  at political finality1 as     
being incompatible with conscientious   
endeavours to find a real solution of   

social problems4 ,for before the        
practical solution can be hoped for1 a  
systematic basis for it must  exist3 and
 this we can hardly expect to find in   
the remnants left to  us of the old     
creeds4 ,all that the true philosopher  
desires is simply  that the question of 
moral and intellectual reorganization   
shall be  left to the unrestricted      
efforts of thinkers of whatever school4 
,and in  advocating this cause1 he will 
plead the interests of the republic1 for
  the safety of which it is of the      
utmost importance that no special set   
of principles should be placed under    
official patronage4 ,republicanism      
then1 will do far more to protect free  
thought1 and resist political           
encroachment1 than was done during the  
,orleanist government by the  retrograde
 instincts of ,catholicism4 ,catholic   
resistance to political  reconstructions
 was strong1 but blind3 its place will  
now be more  than supplied by wise      
indifference on the part of the public1 

which  has learnt by experience the     
inevitable failure of these incoherent  
attempts to realize metaphysical        
,utopias4 ,the only danger of the       
position is lest it divert the public1  
even the more reflective portion  of it1
 from deep and continuous thought1 to   
practical experiments based  on         
superficial and hasty considerations4   
,it must be owned that the  temper of   
mind which now prevails would have been 
most unfavourable for  the original     
elaboration of ,positivism4 ,that work1 
however1 had already  been accomplished 
under the ,constitutional system2 which1
 while not so  restrictive as the       
preceding government1 was yet           
sufficiently so to  concentrate our     
intellectual powers1 which of themselves
 would have  been too feeble1 upon the  
task4 ,the original conception had      
indeed been  formed during the preceding
 reign2 but its development and         
diffusion  took place under the         
parliamentary system4 ,positivism now   

offers  itself for practical application
 to the question of social progress1    
which has become again the prominent    
question1 and will ever remain  so4     
,unfavourable as the present political  
temper would have been to  the rise of  
,positivism1 it is not at all so to its 
diffusion2 always  supposing its        
teachers to be men of sufficient dignity
 to avoid the  snare of political       
ambition into which thinkers are now so 
apt to fall4  ,by explaining1 as it     
alone can explain1 the futility and     
danger of the  various ,utopian schemes 
which are now competing with each other 
for  the reorganization of society1     
,positivism will soon be able to divert 
public attention from these political   
chimeras1 to the question of a  total   
reformation of principles and of life4  
,such a dictatorship would   be a step  
towards the   separation of spiritual   
and   temporal power    ,republicanism1 
then1 will offer no obstacle to the     
diffusion of  ,positivist principles4   

,indeed1 there is one point of view from
 which  we may regard it as the         
commencement of the normal state4 ,it   
will  gradually lead to the recognition 
of the fundamental principle that       
spiritual power must be wholly          
independent of every kind of temporal   
power1 whether central or local4 ,it is 
not merely that statesmen will  soon    
have to confess their inability to      
decide on the merits of a  doctrine     
which supposes an amount of deep        
scientific knowledge from  which they   
must necessarily be precluded4 ,besides 
this1 the disturbance  caused by the    
ambition of metaphysical schemers1 who  
are incapable of  understanding the     
times in which they live1 will induce   
the public to  withdraw their confidence
 from such men1 and give it only to     
those  who are content to abandon all   
political prospects1 and to devote      
themselves to their proper function as  
philosophers4 ,thus ,republicanism  is1 
on the whole1 favourable to this great  

principle of ,positivism1  the          
separation of temporal from spiritual   
power1 notwithstanding the  temptations 
offered to men who wish to carry their  
theories into  immediate application4   
,the principle seems1 no doubt1 in      
opposition  to all our revolutionary    
prejudices4 ,but the public1 as well as 
the  government1 will be brought to it  
by experience4 ,they will find it the   
only means of saving society from the   
consequences of metaphysical  ,utopias1 
by which ,order and ,progress are alike 
threatened4 ,thinkers  too1 those of    
them at least who are sincere1 will     
cease to regard  it with such blind     
antipathy1 when they see that while it  
condemns  their aspirations to political
 influence1 it opens out to them a      
noble and most extensive sphere of moral
 influence4 ,independently of  social   
considerations1 it is the only way in   
which the philosopher can  maintain the 
dignity to which his position entitles  
him1 and which is  at present so often  

compromised by the very success of his  
political  ambition4     ,the motto of  
#ahcj1 ,liberty   and ,public ,order    
,the political attitude which ought for 
the present to be assumed is so  clearly
 indicated by all the circumstances of  
the time1 that practical  instinct has  
in this respect anticipated theory4 ,the
 right view is  well expressed in the   
motto1 ,liberty and ,public ,order1     
which was  adopted spontaneously by the 
middle class at the commencement of the 
neutral period in #ahcj4 ,it is not     
known who was the author of it2 but  it 
is certainly far too progressive to be  
considered as representing  the feelings
 of the monarchy4 ,it is not of course  
the expression of  any systematic       
convictions2 but no metaphysical school 
could have  pointed out so clearly the  
two principal conditions required by the
  situation4 ,positivism1 while         
accepting it as an inspiration of       
popular  wisdom1 makes it more complete 
by adding two points which should have  

been contained in it at first1 only that
 they were too much opposed  to existing
 prejudices to have been sanctioned by  
public opinion4  ,both parts of the     
motto require some expansion4 ,liberty  
ought to  include perfect freedom of    
teaching2 ,public ,order should involve 
the  preponderance of the central power 
over the local4 ,i subjoin a few  brief 
remarks on these two points1 which will 
be considered more fully  in the fourth 
volume of this treatise4     ,liberty   
should be extended   to ,education      
,positivism is now the only consistent  
advocate of free speech and  free       
inquiry4 ,schools of opinion which do   
not rest on demonstration1  and would   
consequently be shaken by any           
argumentative attacks1 can  never be    
sincere in their wish for ,liberty1 in  
the extended sense here  given to it4   
,liberty of writing we have now had for 
a long time4 ,but  besides this we want 
liberty of speech2 and also liberty of  
teaching2  that is to say1 the          

abandonment by the ,state of all its    
educational  monopolies4 ,freedom of    
teaching1 of which ,positivists are the 
only  genuine supporters1 has become a  
condition of the first importance3  and 
this not merely as a provisional        
measure1 but as an indication of  the   
normal state of things4 ,in the first   
place1 it is the only means  by which   
any doctrine that has the power of      
fixing and harmonizing  men's           
convictions can become generally known4 
,to legalize any system  of education   
would imply that such a doctrine had    
been already found2  it most assuredly  
is not the way to find it4 ,but again1  
freedom of  teaching is a step towards  
the normal state2 it amounts to an      
admission  that the problem of education
 is one which temporal authorities are  
incompetent to solve4 ,positivists would
 be the last to deny that  education    
ought to be regularly organized4 ,only  
they assert1 first1  that as long as the
 spiritual interregnum lasts1 no        

organization is  possible2 and secondly1
 that whenever the acceptance of a new  
synthesis  makes it possible1 it will be
 effected by the spiritual power to     
which  that synthesis gives rise4 ,in   
the meantime no general system of ,state
  education should be attempted4 ,it    
will be well1 however1 to continue      
,state assistance to those branches of  
instruction which are the most  liable  
to be neglected by private enterprise1  
especially reading and  writing4        
,moreover1 there are certain            
institutions either established  or     
revived by the ,convention for higher   
training in special subjects2  these    
ought to be carefully preserved1 and    
brought up to the present  state of our 
knowledge1 for they contain the germs of
 principles  which will be most valuable
 when the problem of reorganizing       
general  education comes before us4 ,but
 all the institutions abolished by the  
,convention ought now to be finally     
suppressed4 ,even the ,academies  should

 form no exception to this rule1 for the
 harm which they have  done1 both       
intellectually and morally1 since their 
reinstalment1 has  fully justified the  
wisdom of the men who decided on their  
abolition4  ,government should no doubt 
exercise constant vigilance over all    
private  educational institutions2 but  
this should have nothing to do with     
their  doctrines1 but with their        
morality1 a point scandalously neglected
  in the present state of the law4      
,these should be the limits of state    
interference in education4 ,with these  
exceptions it should be left to  the    
unrestricted efforts of private         
associations1 so as to give every       
opportunity for a definitive educational
 system to establish itself4  ,for to   
pretend that any satisfactory system    
exists at present would  only be a      
hypocritical subterfuge on the part of  
the authorities4  ,the most important   
step towards freedom of education would 
be the  suppression of all grants to    

theological or metaphysical societies1  
leaving each man free to support the    
religion and the system of  instruction 
which he prefers4 ,this1 however1 should
 be carried out in  a just and liberal  
spirit worthy of the cause1 and without 
the least  taint of personal dislike or 
party feeling4 ,full indemnity should be
  given to members of ,churches or      
,universities1 upon whom these changes  
would come unexpectedly4 ,by acting in  
this spirit it will be far less         
difficult to carry out measures which   
are obviously indicated by the  position
 in which we stand4 ,as there is now no 
doctrine which commands  general assent1
 it would be an act of retrogression to 
give legal  sanction to any of the old  
creeds1 whatever their former claim to  
spiritual ascendancy4 ,it is quite in   
accordance with the republican  spirit  
to refuse such sanction1 notwithstanding
 the tendency that there  is to allow   
ideologists to succeed to the ,academic 
offices held under  the constitutional  

system by psychologists4     ,order     
demands   centralization    ,but        
,positivism will have as beneficial an  
influence on ,public  ,order as on      
,liberty4 ,it holds1 in exact opposition
 to revolutionary  prejudices1 that the 
central power should preponderate over  
the local4  ,the constitutionalist      
principle of separating the legislative 
from  the executive is only an empirical
 imitation of the larger principle  of  
separating temporal and spiritual power1
 which was adopted in the  ,middle      
,ages4 ,there will always be a contest  
for political supremacy  between the    
central and local authorities2 and it is
 an error into  which1 from various     
causes1 we have fallen recently1 to     
attempt  to balance them against each   
other4 ,the whole tendency of ,french   
history has been to let the central     
power preponderate1 until it            
degenerated and became retrograde       
towards the end of the seventeenth      
century4 ,our present preference for the

 local power is therefore an  historical
 anomaly1 which is sure to cease as soon
 as the fear of  reaction has passed    
away4 ,and as ,republicanism secures us 
against  any dangers of this kind1 our  
political sympathies will soon resume   
their old course4 ,the advantages of the
 central power are1 first1  that it is  
more directly responsible than the      
other2 and1 secondly1  that it is more  
practical and less likely to set up any 
claims to  spiritual influence4 ,this   
last feature is of the highest          
importance1  and is likely to become    
every day more marked4 ,whereas the     
local or  legislative power1 not having 
its functions clearly defined1 is very  
apt to interfere in theoretical         
questions without being in any sense    
qualified for doing so4 ,its            
preponderance would1 then1 in most cases
 be  injurious to intellectual freedom1 
which1 as it feels instinctively1  will 
ultimately result in the rise of a      
spiritual authority destined  to        

supersede its own4 ,on the strength of  
these tendencies1 which  have never     
before been explained1 ,positivists have
 little hesitation  in siding in almost 
all cases with the central as against   
the local  power4 ,philosophers1 whom no
 one can accuse of reactionist or       
servile  views1 who have given up all   
political prospects1 and who are        
devoting  themselves wholly to the work 
of spiritual reorganization1 need not   
be afraid to take this course2 and they 
ought to exert themselves  vigorously in
 making the central power preponderant1 
limiting the  functions of the local    
power to what is strictly indispensable4
 ,and1  notwithstanding all appearances 
to the contrary1 republicanism will     
help to modify the revolutionary feeling
 on this point4 ,it removes  the        
distrust of authority caused naturally  
by the retrograde spirit  of the old    
monarchy2 and it makes it easier to     
repress any further  tendencies of the  
same kind1 without necessitating an     

entire change  in the character of our  
policy for the sake of providing against
 a  contingency1 of which there is now  
so little fear4 ,as soon as the  central
 power has given sufficient proof of its
 progressive intentions1  there will be 
no unwillingness on the part of the     
,french public to  restrict the powers  
of the legislative body1 whether by     
reducing it  to one-third of its present
 numbers1 which are so far too large1 or
  even by limiting its functions to the 
annual vote of the supplies4  ,during   
the last phase of the                   
counter-revolution1 and the long period 
of parliamentary government which       
followed1 a state of feeling has  arisen
 on this subject1 which is quite        
exceptional1 and which sound            
philosophical teaching1 and wise action 
on the part of government1  will easily 
modify4 ,it is inconsistent with the    
whole course of ,french  history2 and   
only leads us into the mistake of       
imitating the ,english  constitution1   

which is adapted to no other country4   
,the very extension  which has just been
 given to the representative system will
 bring  it into discredit1 by showing it
 to be as futile and subversive in      
practice as philosophy had represented  
it to be in theory4     ,intimate       
connexion of   ,liberty with ,order     
,such1 then1 is the way in which        
,positivism would interpret these two   
primary conditions of our present       
policy1 ,liberty and ,public ,order4    
,but besides this1 it explains and      
confirms the connexion which exists     
between them4 ,it teaches in the first  
place1 that true liberty is  impossible 
at present without the vigorous control 
of a central power1  progressive in the 
true sense of the word1 wise enough to  
abdicate all  spiritual influence1 and  
keep to its own practical functions4    
,such a  power is needed in order to    
check the despotic spirit of the various
  doctrines now in vogue4 ,as all of    
them are more or less inconsistent  with

 the principle of separation of powers1 
they would all be willing  to employ    
forcible means of securing uniformity of
 opinion4 ,besides1  the anarchy which  
is caused by our spiritual interregnum1 
might1 but  for a strong government1    
very probably interfere with the        
philosophical  freedom which we now     
enjoy4 ,conversely1 unless ,liberty in  
the sense  here spoken of be granted1 it
 will be impossible for the central     
power to maintain itself in the position
 which public order requires4  ,the     
obstacle to that position at present is 
the fear of reaction2  and a scrupulous 
regard for freedom is the only means of 
removing  these feelings which1 though  
perhaps unfounded1 are but too natural4 
,all fears will be allayed at once when 
liberty of instruction and  association 
becomes part of the law of the land4    
,there will then be no  hope1 and indeed
 no wish1 on the part of government to  
regulate our  social institutions in    
conformity with any particular doctrine4

    ,the object of this chapter has been
 to show the social value of            
,positivism4 ,we have found that not    
merely does it throw light upon  our    
,future policy1 but that it also teaches
 us how to act upon the  ,present2 and  
these indications have in both cases    
been based upon  careful examination of 
the ,past1 in accordance with the       
fundamental  laws of human development4 
,it is the only system capable of       
handling  the problem now proposed by   
the more advanced portion of our race to
  all who would claim to guide them4    
,that problem is this2 to reorganize    
human life1 irrespectively of god or    
king2 recognizing the obligation  of no 
motive1 whether public or private1 other
 than ,social ,feeling1  aided in due   
measure by the positive science and     
practical energy of  ,man4              
,,chapter ,,iii    ,,the ,,action ,,of  
,,positivism ,,upon ,,the ,,working     
,,classes       ,positivism will not for
 the   present recommend itself to   the

 governing classes1 so   much as to the 
,people    ,positivism1 whether looked  
at as a philosophical system or as an   
instrument of social renovation1 cannot 
count upon much support  from any of the
 classes1 whether in ,church or ,state1 
by whom the  government of mankind has  
hitherto been conducted4 ,there will be 
isolated exceptions of great value1 and 
these will soon become more  numerous3  
but the prejudices and passions of these
 classes will present  serious obstacles
 to the work of moral and mental        
reorganization which  constitutes the   
second phase of the great ,western      
revolution4 ,their  faulty education and
 their repugnance to system prejudice   
them against  a philosophy which        
subordinates specialities to general    
principles4  ,their aristocratic        
instincts make it very difficult for    
them to  recognize the supremacy of     
,social ,feeling2 that doctrine which   
lies  at the root of social             
regeneration1 as conceived by           

,positivism4 ,that  no support can be   
expected from the classes who were in   
the ascendant  before the ,revolution1  
is of course obvious2 and we shall      
probably meet  with opposition1 quite as
 real though more carefully concealed1  
from  the middle classes1 to whom that  
revolution transferred the authority    
and social influence which they had long
 been coveting4 ,their thoughts  are    
entirely engrossed with the acquisition 
of power2 and they concern  themselves  
but little with the mode in which it is 
used1 or the objects  to which it is    
directed4 ,they were quite convinced    
that the ,revolution  had found a       
satisfactory issue in the parliamentary 
system instituted  during the recent    
period of political oscillation4 ,they  
will long  continue to regret that      
stationary period1 because it was       
peculiarly  favourable to their restless
 ambition4 ,a movement tending to the   
complete regeneration of society is     
almost as much dreaded now by the       

middle classes as it was formerly by the
 higher4 ,and both would at all  events 
agree in prolonging the system of       
theological hypocrisy1 as far  as       
republican institutions admitted of it4 
,that policy is now the only  means by  
which retrogression is still possible4  
,ignoble as it is1 there  are two       
motives for adopting it2 it secures     
respect and submission on  the part of  
the masses1 and it imposes no unpleasant
 duties on their  governors4 ,all their 
critical and metaphysical prejudices    
indispose  them to terminate the state  
of spiritual anarchy which is the       
greatest  obstacle to social            
regeneration3 while at the same time    
their ambition  dreads the establishment
 of a new moral authority1 the          
restrictive  influence of which would of
 course press most heavily upon         
themselves4  ,in the eighteenth century1
 men of rank1 and even kings1 accepted  
the  purely negative philosophy that was
 then in vogue2 it removed many         

obstacles1 it was an easy path to       
reputation1 and it imposed no great     
sacrifice4 ,but we can hardly hope from 
this precedent that the wealthy  and    
literary classes of our own time will be
 equally willing to accept  ,positive   
philosophy2 the avowed purpose of which 
is to discipline our  intellectual      
powers1 in order to reorganize our modes
 of life4    ,the avowal of such a      
purpose is quite sufficient to prevent  
,positivism  from gaining the sympathies
 of any one of the governing classes4   
,the  classes to which it must appeal   
are those who have been left untrained  
in the present worthless methods of     
instruction by words and entities1  who 
are animated with strong social         
instincts1 and who consequently  have   
the largest stock of good sense and good
 feeling4 ,in a word it is  among the   
,working ,classes that the new          
philosophers will find their  most      
energetic allies4 ,they are the two     
extreme terms in the social  series as  

finally constituted2 and it is only     
through their combined  action that     
social regeneration can become a        
practical possibility4  ,notwithstanding
 their difference of position1 a        
difference which  indeed is more        
apparent than real1 there are strong    
affinities between  them1 both morally  
and intellectually4 ,both have the same 
sense of the  real1 the same preference 
for the useful1 and the same tendency to
  subordinate special points to general 
principles4 ,morally they resemble  each
 other in generosity of feeling1 in wise
 unconcern for material  prospects1 and 
in indifference to worldly grandeur4    
,this at least will  be the case as soon
 as philosophers in the true sense of   
that word  have mixed sufficiently with 
the nobler members of the working       
classes  to raise their own character to
 its proper level4 ,when the sympathies 
which unite them upon these essential   
points have had time to show            
themselves1 it will be felt that the    

philosopher is1 under certain  aspects1 
a member of the working class fully     
trained2 while the working  man is in   
many respects a philosopher without the 
training4 ,both too  will look with     
similar feelings upon the intermediate  
or capitalist  class4 ,as that class is 
necessarily the possessor of material   
power1  the pecuniary existence of both 
will as a rule be independent upon it4  
,the working man who accepts   his      
position is favourably   situated for   
the reception   of comprehensive        
principles   and generous sympathies    
,these affinities follow as a natural   
result from their respective  position  
and functions4 ,the reason of their not 
having been recognized  more distinctly 
is1 that at present we have nothing that
 can be called  a philosophic class1 or 
at least it is only represented by a few
  isolated types4 ,workmen worthy of    
their position are happily far less     
rare2 but hitherto it is only in        
,france1 or rather in ,paris1 that  they

 have shown themselves in their true    
light1 as men emancipated  from         
chimerical beliefs1 and careless of the 
empty prestige of social  position4 ,it 
is1 then1 only in ,paris that the truth 
of the preceding  remarks can be fully  
verified4    ,the occupations of working
 men are evidently far more conducive to
  philosophical views than those of the 
middle classes2 since they are  not so  
absorbing1 as to prevent continuous     
thought1 even during the  hours of      
labour4 ,and besides having more time   
for thinking1 they have  a moral        
advantage in the absence of any         
responsibility when their work  is over4
 ,the workman is preserved by his       
position from the schemes of            
aggrandisement1 which are constantly    
harassing the capitalist4 ,their        
difference in this respect causes a     
corresponding difference in their  modes
 of thought2 the one cares more for     
general principles1 the other  more for 
details4 ,to a sensible workman1 the    

system of dispersive  speciality now so 
much in vogue shows itself in its true  
light4 ,he sees  it1 that is1 to be     
brutalizing1 because it would condemn   
his intellect  to the most paltry mode  
of culture1 so much so that it will     
never  be accepted in ,france1 in spite 
of the irrational endeavours of our     
,anglo-maniac economists4 ,to the       
capitalist1 on the contrary1 and even   
to the man of science1 that system1     
however rigidly and consistently        
carried out1 will seem far less         
degrading2 or rather it will be looked  
upon as most desirable1 unless his      
education has been such as to           
counteract these tendencies1 and to give
 him the desire and the ability  for    
abstract and general thought4           
,morally1 the contrast between the      
position of the workman and the         
capitalist is even more striking4 ,proud
 as most men are of worldly  success1   
the degree of moral or mental excellence
 implied in the  acquisition of wealth  

or power1 even when the means used have 
been  strictly legitimate1 is hardly    
such as to justify that pride4 ,looking 
at intrinsic qualities rather than at   
visible results1 it is obvious  that    
practical success1 whether in industry  
or in war1 depends far  more on         
character than on intellect or          
affection4 ,the principal  condition for
 it is the combination of a certain     
amount of energy  with great caution1   
and a fair share of perseverance4 ,when 
a man has  these qualities1 mediocrity  
of intellect and moral deficiency will  
not prevent his taking advantage of     
favourable chances2 chance being        
usually a very important element in     
worldly success4 ,indeed it would       
hardly be an exaggeration to say that   
poverty of thought and feeling  has     
often something to do with forming and  
maintaining the disposition  requisite  
for the purpose4 ,vigorous exertion of  
the active powers  is more frequently   
induced by the personal propensities of 

avarice1  ambition1 or vanity1 than by  
the higher instincts4 ,superiority of   
position1 when legitimately obtained1   
deserves respect2 but the  philosopher1 
like the religionist1 and with still    
better grounds1  refuses to regard it as
 a proof of moral superiority1 a        
conclusion  which would be wholly at    
variance with the true theory of human  
nature4    ,the life of the workman1 on 
the other hand1 is far more favourable  
to  the development of the nobler       
instincts4 ,in practical qualities he is
  usually not wanting1 except in        
caution1 a deficiency which makes his   
energy and perseverance less useful to  
himself1 though fully available  for    
society4 ,but it is in the exercise of  
the higher feelings that  the moral     
superiority of the working class is most
 observable4 ,when  our habits and      
opinions have been brought under the    
influence of  systematic principles1 the
 true character of this class1 which    
forms  the basis of modern society1 will

 become more distinct2 and we shall  see
 that home affections are naturally     
stronger with them than with  the middle
 classes1 who are too much engrossed    
with personal interests  for the full   
enjoyment of domestic ties4 ,still more 
evident is their  superiority in social 
feelings strictly so called1 for these  
with them  are called into daily        
exercise from earliest childhood4 ,here 
it is that  we find the highest and most
 genuine types of friendship1 and this  
even amongst those who are placed in a  
dependent position1 aggravated  often by
 the aristocratic prejudices of those   
above them1 and whom we  might imagine  
on that account condemned to a lower    
moral standard4 ,we  find sincere and   
simple respect for superiors1 untainted 
by servility1  not vitiated by the pride
 of learning1 not disturbed by the      
jealousies  of competition4 ,their      
personal experience of the miseries of  
life is  a constant stimulus to the     
nobler sympathies4 ,in no class is there

  so strong an incentive to social      
feeling1 at least to the feeling of     
,solidarity between contemporaries2 for 
all are conscious of the support  that  
they derive from union1 support which is
 not at all incompatible  with strong   
individuality of character4 ,the sense  
of ,continuity with  the past has not1  
it is true1 been sufficiently developed2
 but this  is a want which can only be  
supplied by systematic culture4 ,it will
  hardly be disputed that there are more
 remarkable instances of prompt  and    
unostentatious self-sacrifice at the    
call of a great public  necessity in    
this class than in any other4 ,note1    
too1 that in the  utter absence of any  
systematic education1 all these moral   
excellences  must be looked upon as     
inherent in the class4 ,it is impossible
 to  attribute them to theological      
influence1 now that they have so        
entirely  shaken off the old faith4 ,the
 type ,i have described would be        
generally  considered imaginary2 and at 

present it is only in ,paris that it can
  be fully realized4 ,but the fact of   
its existence in the centre of  ,western
 ,europe is enough for all rational     
observers4 ,a type so fully  in         
accordance with what we know of human   
nature cannot fail ultimately  to spread
 everywhere1 especially when these      
spontaneous tendencies are  placed under
 the systematic guidance of ,positivism4
     ,this the ,convention felt2   but  
they encouraged the   ,people to seek   
political   supremacy1 for which they   
are not fit    ,these remarks will      
prepare us to appreciate the wise and   
generous  instincts of the ,convention  
in looking to the ,proletariate as the  
mainspring of its policy2 and this is   
not merely on account of the  incidental
 danger of foreign invasion1 but in     
dealing with the larger  question of    
social regeneration1 which it pursued so
 ardently1 though  in such ignorance of 
its true principles4 ,owing1 however1 to
 the want  of a satisfactory system1 and

 the disorder produced by the           
metaphysical  theories of the time1 the 
spirit in which this alliance with the  
people was framed was incompatible with 
the real object in view4 ,it  was       
considered that government ought as a   
rule to be in the hands of  the people4 
,now under the special circumstances of 
the time popular  government was        
undoubtedly very useful4 ,the existence 
of the republic  depended almost        
entirely upon the proletariate1 the only
 class that  stood unshaken and true to 
its principles4 ,but in the absolute    
spirit  of the received political       
theories1 this state of things was      
regarded  as normal1 a view which is    
incompatible with the most important    
conditions of modern society4 ,it is of 
course always right for the  people to  
assist government in carrying out the   
law1 even to the extent  of physical    
force1 should the case require it4      
,interference of this  subordinate kind1
 whether in foreign or internal         

questions1 so far from  leading to      
anarchy1 is obviously a guarantee for   
order which ought to  exist in every    
properly constituted society4 ,indeed in
 this respect our  habits in ,france are
 still very defective2 men are too often
 content to  remain mere lookers on1    
while the police to whom they owe their 
daily  protection is doing its duty4    
,but for the people to take a direct    
part  in government1 and to have the    
final decision of political measures1   
is a state of things which in modern    
society is only adapted to times  of    
revolution4 ,to recognize it as final   
would lead at once to anarchy1  were it 
not so utterly impossible to realize4   
,it is only in exceptional   cases that 
the ,people can be   really #8sovereign'
    ,positivism rejects the metaphysical
 doctrine of the ,sovereignty of the    
people4 ,but it appropriates all that is
 really sound in the doctrine1  and this
 with reference not merely to           
exceptional cases but to the  normal    

state2 while at the same time it guards 
against the danger  involved in its     
application as an absolute truth4 ,in   
the hands of the  revolutionary party   
the doctrine is generally used to       
justify the right  of insurrection4 ,now
 in ,positive ,polity1 this right is    
looked upon  as an ultimate resource1   
with which no society should allow      
itself  to dispense4 ,absolute          
submission1 which is too strongly       
inculcated  by modern ,catholicism1     
would expose us to the danger of        
tyranny4  ,insurrection may be regarded1
 scientifically1 as a sort of reparative
  crisis1 of which societies stand in   
more need than individuals in           
accordance with the well-known          
biological law1 that the higher and  the
 more complicated the organism1 the more
 frequent and also the  more dangerous  
is the pathological state4 ,therefore1  
the fear that  ,positivism1 when        
generally accepted1 will encourage      
passive obedience1  is perfectly        

groundless2 although it is certainly not
 favourable to the  pure revolutionary  
spirit1 which would fain take the       
disease for the  normal type of health4 
,its whole character is so essentially  
relative1  that it finds no difficulty  
in accepting subordination as the rule1 
and yet allowing for exceptional cases  
of revolt2 a course by which  good taste
 and human dignity are alike satisfied4 
,positivism looks upon  insurrection as 
a dangerous remedy that should be       
reserved for extreme  cases2 but it     
would never scruple to sanction and even
 to encourage  it when it is really     
indispensable4 ,this is quite compatible
 with  refusing1 as a rule1 to submit   
the decision of political questions and 
the choice of rulers to judges who are  
obviously incompetent2 and who1  under  
the influence of ,positivism1 will of   
their own free will abdicate  rights    
which are subversive of order4     ,the 
truth involved in the   expression is   
that the   well-being of the people     

should be the one great   object of     
government    ,the metaphysical doctrine
 of the ,sovereignty of the people1     
contains1  however1 a truth of permanent
 value1 though in a very confused form4 
,this truth ,positivism separates very  
distinctly from its dangerous  alloy1   
yet without weakening1 on the contrary1 
with the effect of  enforcing1 its      
social import4 ,there are two distinct  
conceptions in  this doctrine1 which    
have hitherto been confounded2 a        
political  conception applicable to     
certain special cases2 a moral          
conception  applicable to all4    ,in   
the first place the name of the whole   
body politic ought to be  invoked in the
 announcement of any special measure1 of
 which the  motives are sufficiently    
intelligible1 and which directly concern
  the practical interests of the whole  
community4 ,under this head  would be   
included decisions of law courts1       
declarations of war1  etc4 ,when society
 has reached the ,positive state1 and   

the sense of  universal solidarity is   
more generally diffused1 there will be  
even  more significance and dignity in  
such expressions than there is now1     
because the name invoked will no longer 
be that of a special nation1  but that  
of ,humanity as a whole4 ,it would be   
absurd1 however1 to extend  this        
practice to those still more numerous   
cases where the people is  incompetent  
to express any opinion1 and has merely  
to adopt the opinion  of superior       
officers who have obtained its          
confidence4 ,this may be  owing either  
to the difficulty of the question or to 
the fact of its  application being      
indirect or limited4 ,such1 for         
instance1 would be  enactments1 very    
often of great importance1 which deal   
with scientific  principles2 or again   
most questions relating to special      
professions  or branches of industry4   
,in all these cases popular good sense  
would1  under ,positivist influence1    
easily be kept clear from political     

illusions4 ,it is only under the        
stimulus of metaphysical pride that     
such illusions become dangerous2 and the
 untaught masses have but  little       
experience of this feeling4    ,there   
is1 however1 another truth implied in   
the expression1  ,sovereignity of the   
people4 ,it implies that it is the first
 of duties  to concentrate all the      
efforts of society upon the common good4
 ,and in  this there is a more direct   
reference to the working class than to  
any  other2 first1 on account of their  
immense numerical superiority1 and1     
secondly1 because the difficulties by   
which their life is surrounded  require 
special interference to a degree which  
for other classes would  be unnecessary4
 ,from this point of view it is a       
principle which all  true republicans   
may accept4 ,it is1 in fact1 identical  
with what we  have laid down as the     
universal basis of morality1 the direct 
and  permanent preponderance of social  
feeling over all personal interests4    

,not merely1 then1 is it incorporated by
 ,positivism1 but1 as was shown  in the 
first chapter1 it forms the primary     
principle of the system1  even under the
 intellectual aspect4 ,since the decline
 of ,catholicism  the metaphysical      
spirit has been provisionally the       
guardian of this  great social precept4 
,positivism now finally appropriates it1
 and  purifies it for the future from   
all taint of anarchy4 ,revolutionists1  
as we should expect from their          
characteristic dislike to the separation
  of the two powers1 had treated the    
question politically4 ,positivism       
avoids all danger by shifting it to the 
region of morality4 ,i shall  show      
presently that this very salutary       
change1 so far from weakening  the force
 of the principle1 increases its        
permanent value1 and at the  same time  
removes the deceptive and subversive    
tendencies which are  always involved in
 the metaphysical mode of regarding it4 
,the ,people's function is to   assist  

the spiritual power   in modifying the  
action of   government    ,what then1 it
 will be asked1 is the part assigned to 
the ,proletariate  in the final         
constitution of society8 ,this          
similarity of position which  ,i pointed
 out between themselves and the         
philosophic class suggests the  answer4 
,they will be of the most essential     
service to the spiritual  power in each 
of its three social functions1 judgment1
 counsel1 and  even education4 ,all the 
intellectual and moral qualities that we
 have  just indicated in this class     
concur in fitting them for this service4
  ,if we except the philosophic body1   
which is the recognized organ of        
general principles1 there is no class   
which is so habitually inclined  to take
 comprehensive views of any subject4    
,their superiority in ,social  ,feeling 
is still more obvious4 ,in this even the
 best philosophers are  rarely their    
equals2 and it would be a most          
beneficial corrective of  their tendency

 to over-abstraction to come into daily 
contact with the  noble and spontaneous 
instincts of the people4 ,the working   
class1 then1  is better qualified than  
any other for understanding1 and still  
more  for sympathizing with the highest 
truths of morality1 though it may  not  
be able to give them a systematic form4 
,and1 as we have seen1 it  is in social 
morality1 the most important and the    
highest of the three  branches of       
,ethics1 that their superiority is most 
observable4 ,besides1  independently of 
their intrinsic merits1 whether         
intellectual or moral1  the necessities 
of their daily life serve to impress    
them with respect  for the great rules  
of morality1 which in most cases were   
framed for  their own protection4 ,to   
secure the application of these rules in
 daily  life is a function of the       
spiritual power in the performance of   
which  they will meet with but slight   
assistance from the middle classes4 ,it 
is with them that temporal power        

naturally resides1 and it is their      
misuse of power that has to be          
controlled and set right4 ,the working  
classes are the chief sufferers from the
 selfishness and domineering  of men of 
wealth and power4 ,for this reason they 
are the likeliest to  come forward in   
defence of public morality4 ,and they   
will be all the  more disposed to give  
it their hearty support if they have    
nothing to  do directly with political  
administration4 ,habitual participation 
in  temporal power1 to say nothing of   
its unsettling influence1 would  lead   
them away from the best remedy for their
 sufferings of which the  constitution  
of society admits4 ,popular sagacity    
will soon detect the  utter hollowness  
of the off-hand solutions that are now  
being obtruded  upon us4 ,the people    
will rapidly become convinced that the  
surest  method of satisfying all        
legitimate claims lies in the moral     
agencies  which ,positivism offers1     
though it appears to them at the same   

time to  abdicate political power which 
either yields them nothing or results in
  anarchy4    ,so natural is this       
tendency of the people to rally round   
the spiritual  power in defence of      
morality1 that we find it to have been  
the  case even in mediaeval times4      
,indeed this it is which explains the   
sympathies which ,catholicism still     
retains1 notwithstanding its  general   
decline1 in the countries where         
,protestantism has failed to  establish 
itself4 ,superficial observers often    
mistake these sympathies  for evidence  
of sincere attachment to the old creeds1
 though in point  of fact they are more 
thoroughly undermined in those countries
 than  anywhere else4 ,it is an         
historical error which will1 however1   
soon be  corrected by the reception     
which these nations1 so wrongly imagined
  to be in a backward stage of political
 development1 will give to  ,positivism4
 ,for they will soon see its superiority
 to ,catholicism in  satisfying the     

primary necessity with which their      
social instincts are  so justly         
preoccupied4    ,in the ,middle ,ages1  
however1 the relations between the      
working classes  and the priesthood were
 hampered by the institution of serfage1
 which  was not wholly abolished until  
,catholicism had begun to decline4 ,in  
fact a careful study of history will    
show that one of the principal  causes  
of its decline was the want of popular  
support4 ,the mediaeval  church was a   
noble1 but premature attempt4 ,disbelief
 in its doctrines1  and also retrograde 
tendencies in its directors1 had        
virtually  destroyed it1 before the     
,proletariate had attained sufficient   
social  importance to support it        
successfully1 supposing it could have   
deserved  their support4 ,but we are now
 sufficiently advanced for the perfect  
realization of the ,catholic ideal in   
,positivism4 ,and the principal  means  
of realizing it will be the formation of
 an alliance between  philosophers and  

the working classes1 for which both are 
alike prepared  by the negative and     
positive progress of the last five      
centuries4     ,their combined efforts  
result in the formation of   ,public    
,opinion    ,the direct object of their 
combined action will be to set in motion
 the  force of ,public ,opinion4 ,all   
views of the future condition of        
society1  the views of practical men as 
well as of philosophic thinkers1 agree  
in the belief that the principal feature
 of the state to which we  are tending1 
will be the increased influence which   
,public ,opinion is  destined to        
exercise4    ,it is in this beneficial  
influence that we shall find the surest 
guarantee for morality2 for domestic and
 even for personal morality1  as well as
 for social4 ,for as the whole tendency 
of ,positivism is to  induce every one  
to live as far as possible without      
concealment1 the  public will be        
intrusted with a strong check upon the  
life of the  individual4 ,now that all  

theological illusions have become so    
entirely  obsolete1 the need of such a  
check is greater than it was before4 ,it
  compensates for the insufficiency of  
natural goodness which we find in  most 
men1 however wisely their education has 
been conducted4 ,except  the noblest of 
joys1 that which springs from social    
sympathy when  called into constant     
exercise1 there is no reward for doing  
right  so satisfactory as the approval  
of our fellow-beings4 ,even under       
theological systems it has been one of  
our strongest aspirations to  live      
esteemed in the memory of others4 ,and  
still more prominence will  be given to 
this noble form of ambition under       
,positivism1 because  it is the only way
 left us of satisfying the desire which 
all men  feel of prolonging their life  
into the ,future4 ,and the increased    
force of ,public ,opinion will          
correspond to the increased necessity   
for it4 ,the peculiar reality of        
,positive doctrine and its constant     

conformity with facts facilitate the    
recognition of its principles1  and     
remove all obscurity in their           
application4 ,they are not to be  evaded
 by subterfuges like those to which     
metaphysical and theological            
principles1 from their vague and        
absolute character1 have been always    
liable4 ,again1 the primary principle of
 ,positivism1 which is to judge  every  
question by the standard of social      
interests1 is in itself a  direct appeal
 to ,public ,opinion2 since the public  
is naturally the  judge of the good or  
bad effect of action upon the common    
welfare4  ,under theological and        
metaphysical systems no appeal of this  
sort was  recognized2 because the       
objects upheld as the highest aims of   
life were  purely personal4    ,in      
political questions the application of  
our principle is still more  obvious4   
,for political morality ,public ,opinion
 is almost our only  guarantee4 ,we feel
 its force even now in spite of the     

intellectual  anarchy in which we live4 
,neutralized as it is in most cases by  
the  wide divergences of men's          
convictions1 yet it shows itself on the 
occasion of any great public excitement4
 ,indeed1 we feel it to our cost        
sometimes when the popular mind has     
taken a wrong direction2 government  in 
such cases being very seldom able to    
offer adequate resistance4  ,these cases
 may convince us how irresistible this  
power will prove when  used             
legitimately1 and when it is formed by  
systematic accordance in  general       
principles instead of by a precarious   
and momentary coincidence  of feeling4  
,and here we see more clearly than ever 
how impossible  it is to effect any     
permanent reconstruction of the         
institutions of  society1 without a     
previous reorganization of opinion and  
of life4 ,the  spiritual basis is       
necessary not merely to determine the   
character  of the temporal              
reconstruction1 but to supply the       

principal motive  force by which the    
work is to be carried out4 ,intellectual
 and moral  harmony will gradually be   
restored1 and under its influence the   
new  political system will by degrees   
arise4 ,social improvements of the      
highest importance may therefore be     
realized long before the work of        
spiritual reorganization is completed4  
,we find in mediaeval history  that     
,catholicism exercised a powerful       
influence on society during its         
emergence from barbarism1 before its own
 internal constitution had  advanced    
far4 ,and this will be the case to a    
still greater degree with  the          
regeneration which is now in progress4  
,public opinion involves1   7#a7        
principles of social   conduct1 7#b7    
their   acceptance by society at        
large1 7#c7 an organ through   which to 
enunciate them    ,having defined the   
sphere within which ,public ,opinion    
should operate1  we shall find little   
difficulty in determining the conditions

 requisite  for its proper organization4
 ,these are1 first1 the establishment of
  fixed principles of social action2    
secondly1 their adoption by the  public1
 and its consent to their application in
 special cases2 and1  lastly1 a         
recognized organ to lay down the        
principles1 and to apply  them to the   
conduct of daily life4 ,obvious as these
 three conditions  appear1 they are     
still so little understood1 that it will
 be well to  explain each of them       
somewhat more fully4    ,the first      
condition1 that of laying down fixed    
principles1 is1 in fact1  the extension 
to social questions of that separation  
between theory  and practice1 which in  
subjects of less importance is          
universally  recognized4 ,this is the   
aspect in which the superiority of the  
new  spiritual system to the old is most
 perceptible4 ,the principles of  moral 
and political conduct that were accepted
 in the ,middle ,ages  were little      
better than empirical1 and owed their   

stability entirely  to the sanction of  
religion4 ,in this respect1 indeed1 the 
superiority  of ,catholicism to the     
systems which preceded it1 consisted    
merely in  the fact of separating its   
precepts from the special application of
  them4 ,by making its precepts the     
distinct object of preliminary study1   
it secured them against the bias of     
human passions4 ,yet important as  this 
separation was1 the system was so       
defective intellectually1 that  the     
successful application of its principles
 depended simply on the  good sense of  
the teachers2 for the principles in     
themselves were as  vague and as        
absolute as the creeds from which they  
were derived4 ,the  influence exercised 
by ,catholicism was due to its indirect 
action upon  social feeling in the only 
mode then possible4 ,but the claims with
  which ,positivism presents itself are 
far more satisfactory4 ,it is based  on 
a complete synthesis2 one which         
embraces1 not the outer world only1  but

 the inner world of human nature4 ,this1
 while in no way detracting  from the   
practical value of social principles1   
give them the imposing  weight of       
theoretical truth2 and ensures their    
stability and coherence1  by connecting 
them with the whole series of laws on   
which the life of  man and of society   
depend4 ,for these laws will corroborate
 even those  which are not immediately  
deduced from them4 ,by connecting all   
our  rules of action with the           
fundamental conception of social duty1  
we  render their interpretation in each 
special case clear and consistent1  and 
we secure it against the sophisms of    
passion4 ,principles such as  these1    
based on reason1 and rendering our      
conduct independent of the  impulses of 
the moment1 are the only means of       
sustaining the vigour  of ,social       
,feeling1 and at the same time of saving
 us from the errors  to which its       
unguided suggestions so often lead4     
,direct and constant  culture of ,social

 ,feeling in public as well as in       
private life is no  doubt the first     
condition of morality4 ,but the natural 
strength of  ,self-love is such that    
something besides this is required to   
control  it4 ,the course of conduct must
 be traced beforehand in all important  
cases by the aid of demonstrable        
principles1 adopted at first upon       
trust1 and afterwards from conviction4  
,there is no art whatever in which1     
however ardent and sincere our  desire  
to succeed1 we can dispense with        
knowledge of the nature and  conditions 
of the object aimed at4 ,moral and      
political conduct is  assuredly not     
exempt from such an obligation1 although
 we are more  influenced in this case by
 the direct promptings of feeling than  
in  any other of the arts of life4 ,it  
has been shown only too clearly by  many
 striking instances how far ,social     
,feeling may lead us astray  when it is 
not directed by right principles4 ,it   
was for want of fixed  convictions that 

the noble sympathies entertained by the 
,french  nation for the rest of ,europe 
at the outset of the ,revolution so soon
  degenerated into forcible oppression1 
when her retrograde leader began  his   
seductive appeal to selfish passions4   
,inverse cases are still more  common2  
and they illustrate the connexion of    
feeling and opinion as  clearly as the  
others4 ,a false social doctrine has    
often favoured the  natural ascendency  
of ,self-love by giving a perverted     
conception of  public well-being4 ,this 
has been too plainly exemplified in our 
own  time by the deplorable influence   
which ,malthus's sophistical theory  of 
population obtained in ,england4 ,this  
mischievous error met with  very little 
acceptance in the rest of ,europe1 and  
it has been already  refuted by the     
nobler thinkers of his own country2 but 
it still gives  the show of scientific  
sanction to the criminal antipathy of   
the  governing classes in ,great        
,britain to all effectual measures of   

reform4    ,next to a system of         
principles1 the most important condition
 for  the exercise of ,public ,opinion  
is the existence of a strong body of    
supporters sufficient to make the weight
 of these principles felt4 ,now  it was 
here that ,catholicism proved so weak2  
and therefore1 even had  its doctrine   
been less perishable1 its decline was   
unavoidable4 ,but  the defect is amply  
supplied in the new spiritual order1    
which1 as ,i  have before shown1 will   
receive the influential support of the  
working  classes4 ,and the need of such 
assistance is as certain as the         
readiness  with which it will be        
yielded4 ,for though the intrinsic      
efficacy of  ,positive teaching is far  
greater than that of any doctrine which 
is not  susceptible of demonstration1   
yet the convictions it inspires cannot  
be expected to dispense with the aid of 
vigorous popular support4  ,human nature
 is imperfectly organized2 and the      
influence which ,reason  exercises over 

it is not by any means so great as this 
supposition  would imply4 ,even ,social 
,feeling1 though its influence is far   
greater  than that of ,reason1 would not
 in general be sufficient for the right 
guidance of practical life1 if ,public  
,opinion were not constantly at  hand to
 support the good inclinations of       
individuals4 ,the arduous  struggle of  
,social ,feeling against ,self-love     
requires the constant  assertion of true
 principles to remove uncertainty as to 
the proper  course of action in each    
case4 ,but it requires also something   
more4  ,the strong reaction of ,all upon
 ,each is needed1 whether to control    
selfishness or to stimulate sympathy4   
,the tendency of our poor and weak      
nature to give way to the lower         
propensities is so great that1 but  for 
this universal co-operation1 ,feeling   
and ,reason would be almost  inadequate 
to their task4 ,in the working class we 
find the requisite  conditions4 ,they   
will1 as we have seen1 form the         

principal source of  opinion1 not merely
 from their numerical superiority1 but  
also from  their intellectual and moral 
qualities1 as well as from the influence
  directly due to their social position4
 ,thus it is that ,positivism views  the
 great problem of human life1 and shows 
us for the first time that  the bases of
 a solution already exist in the very   
structure of the  social organism4      
,working men's clubs    ,working men1   
whether as individuals or1 what is still
 more important1  collectively1 are now 
at liberty to criticize all the details1
 and  even the general principles1 of   
the social system under which they      
live2 affecting1 as it necessarily does1
 themselves more nearly than  any other 
class4 ,the remarkable eagerness lately 
shown by our people  to form clubs1     
though there was no special motive for  
it1 and no very  marked enthusiasm1 was 
a proof that the checks which had       
previously  prevented this tendency from
 showing itself were quite unsuited to  

our  times4 ,nor is this tendency likely
 to pass away2 on the contrary1 it  will
 take deeper root and extend more       
widely1 because it is thoroughly  in    
keeping with the habits1 feelings1 and  
wants of working men1 who  form the     
majority in these meetings4 ,a          
consistent system of social  truth will 
largely increase their influence1 by    
giving them a more  settled character   
and a more important aim4 ,so far from  
being in any  way destructive1 they form
 a natural though imperfect model of the
  mode of life which will ultimately be 
adopted in the regenerate  condition of 
,humanity4 ,in these unions social      
sympathies are kept in  constant action 
by a stimulus of a most beneficial kind4
 ,they offer the  speediest and most    
effectual means of elaborating ,public  
,opinion3 this  at least is the case    
when there has been a fair measure of   
individual  training4 ,no one at present
 has any idea of the extent of the      
advantages which will one day spring    

from these spontaneous meetings1  when  
there is an adequate system of general  
principles to direct  them4 ,spiritual  
reorganization will find them its       
principal basis  of support1 for they   
secure its acceptance by the people2 and
 this  will have the greater weight1    
because it will always be given without 
compulsion or violence4 ,the objection  
that meetings of this kind may  lead to 
dangerous political agitation1 rests    
upon a misinterpretation  of the events 
of the ,revolution4 ,so far from their  
stimulating a desire  for what are      
called political rights1 or encouraging 
their exercise  in those who possess    
them1 their tendency is quite in the    
opposite  direction4 ,they will soon    
divert working men entirely from all    
useless  attempts to interfere with     
existing political institutions1 and    
bring  them to their true social        
function1 that of assisting and carrying
 out  the operations of the new         
spiritual power4 ,it is a noble prospect

 which  is thus held out to them by     
,positivism1 a prospect far more        
inviting  than any of the metaphysical  
illusions of the day4 ,the real         
intention  of the ,club is to form a    
provisional substitute for the ,church  
of old  times1 or rather to prepare the 
way for the religious building of  the  
new form of worship1 the worship of     
,humanity2 which1 as ,i shall  explain  
in a subsequent chapter1 will be        
gradually introduced under  the         
regenerating influence of ,positive     
doctrine4 ,under our present  republican
 government all progressive tendencies  
are allowed free  scope1 and therefore  
it will not be long before our people   
accept  this new vent for social        
sympathies1 which in former times could 
find  expression only in ,catholicism4  
,in this theory of ,public ,opinion one 
condition yet remains to  be described4 
,a philosophic organ is necessary to    
interpret the  doctrine2 the influence  
of which would otherwise in most cases  

be  very inadequate4 ,this third        
condition has been much disputed2 but it
  is certainly even more indispensable  
than the second4 ,and in fact it  has   
never been really wanting1 for every    
doctrine must have had some  founder1   
and usually has a permanent body of     
teachers4 ,it would be  difficult to    
conceive that a system of moral and     
political principles  should be         
possessed of great social influence1 and
 yet at the same time  that the men who 
originate or inculcate the system should
 exercise no  spiritual authority4 ,it  
is true that this inconsistency did for 
a time  exist under the negative and    
destructive influence of ,protestantism 
and  ,deism1 because men's thoughts were
 for the time entirely taken up with    
the struggle to escape from the         
retrograde tendencies of ,catholicism4  
,during this long period of             
insurrection1 each individual became a  
sort of priest2 each1 that is1 followed 
his own interpretation of a  doctrine   

which needed no special teachers1       
because its function was  not to        
construct but to criticize4 ,all the    
constitutions that have  been recently  
established on metaphysical principles  
give a direct  sanction to this state of
 things1 in the preambles with which    
they  commence4 ,they apparently regard 
each citizen as competent to form a     
sound opinion on all social questions1  
thus exempting him from the  necessity  
of applying to any special interpreters4
 ,this extension  to the normal state of
 things of a phase of mind only suited  
to the  period of revolutionary         
transition1 is an error which ,i have   
already  sufficiently refuted4    ,in   
the minor arts of life1 it is obvious   
that general principles cannot  be laid 
down without some theoretical study2 and
 that the application  of these rules to
 special cases is not to be entirely    
left to the  untaught instinct of the   
artisan4 ,and can it be otherwise with  
the  art of ,social ,life1 so far harder

 and more important than any other1  and
 in which1 from its principles being    
less simple and less precise1  a special
 explanation of them in each case is    
even more necessary8  ,however perfect  
the demonstration of social principles  
may become1  it must not be supposed    
that knowledge of ,positive doctrine1   
even  when it has been taught in the    
most efficient way1 will dispense with  
the necessity of frequently appealing to
 the philosopher for advice  in         
questions of practical life1 whether    
private or public4 ,and this  necessity 
of an interpreter to intervene          
occasionally between the  principle and 
its application1 is even more evident   
from the moral  than it is from the     
intellectual aspect4 ,certain as it is  
that no one  will be so well acquainted 
with the true character of the doctrine 
as  the philosopher who teaches it1 it  
is even more certain that none is  so   
likely as himself to possess the moral  
qualifications of purity1  of exalted   

aims1 and of freedom from party spirit1 
without which his  counsels could have  
but little weight in reforming          
individual or social  conduct4 ,it is   
principally through his agency that we  
may hope in most  cases to bring about  
that reaction of ,all upon ,each1 which1
 as we  have seen1 is of such           
indispensable importance to practical   
morality4  ,philosophers are not indeed 
the principal source of ,public         
,opinion1  as intellectual pride so     
often leads them to believe4 ,public    
,opinion  proceeds essentially from the 
free voice and spontaneous co-operation 
of the people4 ,but in order that the   
full weight of their unanimous  judgment
 may be felt1 it must be announced by   
some recognized organ4  ,there are1 no  
doubt1 rare cases where the direct      
expression of popular  feeling is       
enough1 but these are quite exceptional4
 ,thus working men  and philosophers are
 mutually necessary1 not merely in the  
creation  of ,public ,opinion1 but also 

in most cases in the manifestation of   
it4  ,without the first1 the doctrine1  
however well established1 would not     
have sufficient force4 ,without the     
second1 it would usually be too         
incoherent to overcome those obstacles  
in the constitution of man and  of      
society1 which make it so difficult to  
bring practical life under  the         
influence of fixed principles4    ,in   
fact this necessity for some systematic 
organ to direct and give  effect to     
,public ,opinion1 has always been felt1 
even amidst the  spiritual anarchy which
 at present surrounds us1 on every      
occasion in  which such opinion has     
played any important part4 ,for its     
effect on  these occasions would have   
been null and void but for some         
individual  to take the initiative and  
personal responsibility4 ,this is       
frequently  verified in private life by 
cases in which we see the opposite state
  of things2 we see principles which no 
one would think of contesting1          

practically inadequate1 for want of some
 recognized authority to apply  them4   
,it is a serious deficiency1 which is1  
however1 compensated1  though           
imperfectly1 by the greater facility of 
arriving at the truth in  such cases1   
and by the greater strength of the      
sympathies which they  call forth4 ,but 
in public life1 with its more difficult 
conditions and  more important claims1  
such entire absence of systematic       
intervention  could never be tolerated4 
,in all public transactions even now we 
may perceive the participation of a     
spiritual authority of one kind  or     
other2 the organs of which1 though      
constantly varying1 are in  most cases  
metaphysicians or literary men writing  
for the press4  ,thus even in the       
present anarchy of feelings and         
convictions1 ,public  ,opinion cannot   
dispense with guides and interpreters4  
,only it has to  be content with men who
 at the best can only offer the         
guarantee of  personal responsibility1  

without any reliable security either for
  the stability of their convictions or 
the purity of their feelings4  ,but now 
that the problem of organizing ,public  
,opinion has once been  proposed by     
,positivism1 it cannot remain long      
without a solution4 ,it  plainly reduces
 itself to the principle of separating  
the two social  powers2 just as we have 
seen that the necessity of an           
established  doctrine rested on the     
analogous principle of separating theory
 from  practice4 ,it is clear1 on the   
one hand1 that sound interpretation of  
moral and political rules1 as in the    
case of any other art1 can only  be     
furnished by philosophers engaged in the
 study of the natural laws  on which    
they rest4 ,on the other hand these     
philosophers1 in order to  preserve that
 breadth and generality of view which is
 their principal  intellectual          
characteristic1 must abstain            
scrupulously from all regular           
participation in practical affairs1 and 

especially from political life3  on the 
ground that its specializing influence  
would soon impair their  speculative    
capacity4 ,and such a course is equally 
necessary on moral  grounds4 ,it helps  
to preserve purity of feeling and       
impartiality of  character2 qualities   
essential to their influence upon public
 as well  as upon private life4         
,such1 in outline1 is the ,positive     
theory of ,public ,opinion4 ,in each  of
 its three constituent elements1 the    
,doctrine1 the ,power1 and the  ,organ1 
it is intimately connected with the     
whole question of spiritual             
reorganization2 or rather1 it forms the 
simplest mode of viewing that  great    
subject4 ,all the essential parts of it 
are closely related to  each other4     
,positive principles1 on the one hand1  
cannot count on much  material support1 
except from the working classes2 these  
in their turn  will for the future      
regard ,positivism as the only doctrine 
with which  they can sympathize4 ,so1   

again1 with the philosophic organs of   
opinion2  without the ,people1 their    
necessary independence cannot be        
established  or sustained4 ,to our      
literary classes the separation of the  
two powers  is instinctively repugnant1 
because it would lay down systematic    
limits to the unwise ambition which we  
now see in them4 ,and it will  be       
disliked as strongly by the rich        
classes1 who will look with fear  upon a
 new moral authority destined to impose 
an irresistible check  upon their       
selfishness4 ,at present it will be     
generally understood  and welcomed only 
by the proletary class1 who have more   
aptitude for  general views and for     
social sympathy4 ,in ,france especially 
they are  less under the delusion of    
metaphysical sophisms and of            
aristocratic  prestige than any other   
class2 and the ,positivist view of this 
primary  condition of social            
regeneration will find a ready entrance 
into their  minds and hearts4     ,all  

three conditions of   ,public ,opinion  
exist1 but   have not yet been combined 
,our theory of ,public ,opinion shows us
 at once how far we have already  gone  
in organizing this great regulator of   
modern society2 how far we  still fall  
short of what is wanted4 ,the ,doctrine 
has at last arisen3  there is no doubt  
of the existence of the ,power2 and even
 the ,organ is  not wanting4 ,but they  
do not as yet stand in their right      
relation to  each other4 ,the effective 
impulse towards social regeneration     
depends1  then1 on one ultimate         
condition2 the formation of a firm      
alliance  between philosophers and      
proletaries4    ,of this powerful       
coalition ,i have already spoken4 ,i    
have now to  explain the advantages     
which it offers to the people in the way
 of  obtaining sufficient recognition of
 all legitimate claims4    ,of these    
advantages1 the principal1 and that by  
which the rest will  speedily be        
developed and secured1 is the important 

social function  which is hereby        
conferred upon them4 ,they become       
auxiliaries of the  new spiritual power2
 auxiliaries indispensable to its       
action4 ,this  vast proletary class1    
which ever since its rise in the ,middle
 ,ages has  been shut out from the      
political system1 will now assume the   
position  for which by nature it is best
 adapted1 and which is most conducive   
to the general well-being of society4   
,its members1 independently of  their   
special vocation1 will at last take a   
regular and most important  part in     
public life1 a part which will          
compensate for the hardships            
inseparable from their social position4 
,their combined action1 far  from       
disturbing the established order of     
things1 will be its most  solid         
guarantee1 from the fact of being moral1
 not political4 ,and here  we see       
definitely the alteration which         
,positivism introduces in the           
revolutionary conception of the action  

of the working classes upon  society4   
,for stormy discussions about rights1 it
 substitutes peaceable  definition of   
duties4 ,it supersedes useless disputes 
for the possession  of power1 by        
inquiring into the rules that should    
regulate its wise  employment4          
,spontaneous tendencies   in the people 
of a right   direction4 ,their          
,communism    ,a superficial observer of
 the present state of things might      
imagine our  working classes to be as   
yet very far from this frame of mind4   
,but he  who looks deeper into the      
question will see that the very         
experiment  which they are now trying1  
of extending their political rights1    
will  soon have the effect of showing   
them the hollowness of a remedy which   
has so slight a bearing upon the objects
 really important to them4  ,without    
making any formal abdication of rights1 
which might seem  inconsistent with     
their social dignity1 there is little   
doubt that  their instinctive sagacity  

will lead them to the still more        
efficacious  plan of indifference4      
,positivism will readily convince them  
that  whereas spiritual power1 in order 
to do its work1 must ramify in every    
direction1 it is essential to public    
order that political power should  be as
 a rule concentrated4 ,and this         
conviction will grow upon them1 as  they
 see more clearly that the primary      
social problems which are very  properly
 absorbing their attention are          
essentially moral rather than           
political4    ,one step in this         
direction they have already taken of    
their own accord1  though its importance
 has not been duly appreciated4 ,the    
well-known  scheme of ,communism1 which 
has found such rapid acceptance with    
them1  serves1 in the absence of sounder
 doctrine1 to express the way in which  
they are now looking at the great social
 problem4 ,the experience of  the first 
part of the ,revolution has not yet     
wholly disabused them of  political     

illusions1 but it has at least brought  
them to feel that  ,property is of more 
importance than ,power in the ordinary  
sense of the  word4 ,so far ,communism  
has given a wider meaning to the great  
social  problem1 and has thereby        
rendered an essential service1 which is 
not  neutralized by the temporary       
dangers involved in the metaphysical    
forms  in which it comes before us4     
,communism should therefore be carefully
  distinguished from the numerous       
extravagant schemes brought forward in  
this time of spiritual anarchy2 a time  
which stimulates incompetent  and       
ill-trained minds to the most difficult 
subjects of thought4 ,the  foolish      
schemes referred to have so few definite
 features1 that we have  to distinguish 
them by the names of their authors4 ,but
 ,communism bears  the name of no single
 author1 and is something more than an  
accidental  product of anomalous        
circumstances4 ,we should look upon it  
as the  natural progress in the right   

direction of the revolutionary spirit2  
progress of a moral rather than         
intellectual kind4 ,it is a proof that  
revolutionary tendencies are now        
concentrating themselves upon moral     
questions1 leaving all purely political 
questions in the background4  ,it is    
quite true that the solution of the     
problem which ,communists are  now      
putting forward1 is still as essentially
 political as that of their             
predecessors2 since the only mode by    
which they propose to regulate the      
employment of property1 is by a change  
in the mode of its tenure4 ,still  it is
 owing to them that the question of     
property is at last brought  forward for
 discussion3 and it is a question which 
so evidently needs  a moral solution1   
the solution of it by political means is
 at once  so inadequate and so          
destructive1 that it cannot long        
continue to be  debated1 without leading
 to the more satisfactory result offered
 by  ,positivism4 ,men will see that it 

forms a part of the final regeneration  
of opinion and of life1 which           
,positivism is now inaugurating4    ,to 
do justice to ,communism1 we must look  
at the generous sympathies  by which it 
is inspired1 not at the shallow theories
 in which those  sympathies find        
expression provisionally1 until         
circumstances enable  them to take some 
other shape4 ,our working classes1      
caring but very  little for metaphysical
 principles1 do not attach nearly the   
same  importance to these theories as is
 done by men of literary education4  ,as
 soon as they see a better way of       
bringing forward the points on  which   
they have such legitimate claims1 they  
will very soon adopt the  clear and     
practical conceptions of ,positivism1   
which can be carried  out peaceably and 
permanently1 in preference to these     
vague and  confused chimeras1 which1 as 
they will instinctively feel1 lead only 
to anarchy4 ,till then they will        
naturally abide by ,communism1 as the   

only method of bringing forward the most
 fundamental of social problems  in a   
way which there shall be no evading4    
,the very alarm which their  present    
solution of the problem arouses helps to
 stir public attention1  and fix it on  
this great subject4 ,but for this       
constant appeal to their  fears1 the    
metaphysical delusions and aristocratic 
self-seeking of the  governing classes  
would shelve the question altogether1 or
 pass it by  with indifference4 ,the    
errors of ,communism must be rectified2 
but there  is no necessity for giving up
 the name1 which is a simple assertion  
of  the paramount importance of ,social 
,feeling4 ,however1 now that we have    
happily passed from monarchy to         
republicanism1 the name of ,communist   
is no longer indispensable2 the word    
,republican expresses the meaning  as   
well1 and without the same danger4      
,positivism1 then1 has nothing to  fear 
from ,communism2 on the contrary1 it    
will probably be accepted by  most      

,communists among the working classes1  
especially in ,france where             
abstractions have but little influence  
on minds thoroughly emancipated  from   
theology4 ,the people will gradually    
find that the solution of  the great    
social problem which ,positivism offers 
is better than the  ,communistic        
solution4     ,its new title of         
,socialism    ,a tendency in this       
direction has already shown itself since
 the first  edition of this work was    
published4 ,the working classes have now
  adopted a new expression1 ,socialism1 
thus indicating that they accept  the   
problem of the ,communists while        
rejecting their solution4 ,indeed  that 
solution would seem to be finally       
disposed of by the voluntary  exile of  
their leader4 ,yet1 if the ,socialists  
at present keep clear  of ,communism1 it
 is only because their position is one  
of criticism  or inaction4 ,if they were
 to succeed to power1 with principles so
 far  below the level of their          

sympathies1 they would inevitably fall  
into  the same errors and extravagances 
which they now instinctively feel to  be
 wrong4 ,consequently the rapid spread  
of ,socialism very naturally  alarms the
 upper classes2 and their resistance1   
blind though it be1  is at present the  
only legal guarantee for material order4
 ,in fact1  the problem brought forward 
by the ,communists admits of no solution
  but their own1 so long as the         
revolutionary confusion of temporal  and
 spiritual power continues4 ,therefore  
the universal blame that is  lavished on
 these utopian schemes cannot fail to   
inspire respect for  ,positivism1 as the
 only doctrine which can preserve       
,western ,europe  from some serious     
attempt to bring ,communism into        
practical operation4  ,positivists stand
 forward now as the party of            
construction1 with a  definite basis for
 political action2 namely1 systematic   
prosecution  of the wise attempt of     
mediaeval statesmen to separate the two 

social  powers4 ,on this basis they are 
enabled to satisfy the ,poor1 and at    
the same time to restore the confidence 
of the ,rich4 ,it is a final  solution  
of our difficulties which will make the 
titles of which we  have been speaking  
unnecessary4 ,stripping the old word    
,republican of  any false meaning at    
present attached to it1 we may retain it
 as the  best expression of the social  
sympathies on which the regeneration of 
society depends4 ,for the opinions1     
manners1 and even institutions of       
future society1 ,positivist is the only 
word suitable4     ,property is in its  
nature   social1 and needs control      
,the peculiar reality of ,positivism1   
and its invariable tendency to          
concentrate our intellectual powers upon
 social questions1 are  attributes1 both
 of which involve its adoption of the   
essential  principle of ,communism2 that
 principle being1 that ,property is in  
its  nature social1 and that it needs   
control4    ,property has been          

erroneously represented by most modern  
jurists as  conferring an absolute right
 upon the possessor1 irrespectively of  
the good or bad use made of it4 ,this   
view is instinctively felt by  the      
working classes to be unsound1 and all  
true philosophers will  agree with them4
 ,it is an anti-social theory1 due      
historically to  exaggerated reaction   
against previous legislation of a       
peculiarly  oppressive kind1 but it has 
no real foundation either in justice or 
in fact4 ,property can neither be       
created1 nor even transmitted by the    
sole agency of its possessor4 ,the      
co-operation of the public is always    
necessary1 whether in the assertion of  
the general principle or in  the        
application of it to each special case4 
,therefore the tenure of  property is   
not to be regarded as a purely          
individual right4 ,in every  age and in 
every country the state has intervened1 
to a greater or less  degree1 making    
property subservient to social          

requirements4 ,taxation  evidently gives
 the public an interest in the private  
fortune of each  individual2 an interest
 which1 instead of diminishing with the 
progress  of civilization1 has been     
always on the increase1 especially in   
modern  times1 now that the connexion of
 each member of society with the whole  
is becoming more apparent4 ,the practice
 of confiscation1 which also is  in     
universal use1 shows that in certain    
extreme cases the community  considers  
itself authorized to assume entire      
possession of private  property4        
,confiscation has1 it is true1 been     
abolished for a time in  ,france4 ,but  
this isolated exception is due only to  
the abuses which  recently accompanied  
the exercise of what was in itself an   
undoubted  right2 and it will hardly    
survive when the causes which led to it 
are  forgotten1 and the power which     
introduced it has passed away4 ,in their
  abstract views of property1 then1     
,communists are perfectly able to       

maintain their ground against the       
jurists4    ,they are right1 again1 in  
dissenting as deeply as they do from    
the ,economists1 who lay it down as an  
absolute principle that the  application
 of wealth should be entirely           
unrestricted by society4 ,this  error1  
like the one just spoken of1 is         
attributable to instances of            
unjustifiable interference4 ,but it is  
utterly opposed to all sound            
philosophical teaching1 although it has 
a certain appearance of truth1  in so   
far as it recognizes the subordination  
of social phenomena to  natural laws4   
,but the ,economists seem to have       
adopted this important  principle only  
to show how incapable they are of       
comprehending it4  ,before they applied 
the conception of ,law to the higher    
phenomena of  nature1 they ought to have
 made themselves well acquainted with   
its  meaning1 as applied to the lower   
and more simple phenomena4 ,not having  
done so1 they have been utterly blind to

 the fact that the ,order of  nature    
becomes more and more modifiable as it  
grows more complicated4  ,this          
conception lies at the very root of our 
whole practical life2  therefore nothing
 can excuse the metaphysical school of  
,economists  for systematically         
resisting the intervention of human     
wisdom in the  various departments of   
social action4 ,that the movement of    
society is  subject to natural laws is  
certain2 but this truth1 instead of     
inducing  us to abandon all efforts to  
modify society1 should rather lead to  a
 wiser application of such efforts1     
since they are at once more             
efficacious1 and more necessary in      
social phenomena than in any other4     
,so far1 therefore1 the fundamental     
principle of ,communism is one  which   
the ,positivist school must obviously   
adopt4 ,positivism not  only confirms   
this principle1 but widens its scope1 by
 showing its  application to other      
departments of human life2 by insisting 

that1  not wealth only1 but that all our
 powers shall be devoted in the  true   
republican spirit to the continuous     
service of the community4  ,the long    
period of revolution which has elapsed  
since the ,middle  ,ages has encouraged 
individualism in the moral world1 as in 
the  intellectual it has fostered the   
specializing tendency4 ,but both are    
equally inconsistent with the final     
order of modern society4 ,in all        
healthy conditions of ,humanity1 the    
citizen1 whatever his position1  has    
been regarded as a public functionary1  
whose duties and claims  were determined
 more or less distinctly by his         
faculties4 ,the case  of property is    
certainly no exception to this general  
principle4  ,proprietorship is regarded 
by the ,positivist as an important      
social  function2 the function1 namely1 
of creating and administering that      
capital by means of which each          
generation lays the foundation for the  
operations of its successor4 ,this is   

the only tenable view of property2  and 
wisely interpreted1 it is one which1    
while ennobling to its  possessor1 does 
not exclude a due measure of freedom4   
,it will in fact  place his position on 
a firmer basis than ever4     ,but      
,positivism rejects the   ,communist    
solution of the   problem4 ,property is 
to be   controlled by moral not   legal 
agencies    ,but the agreement here     
pointed out the between sociological    
science  and the spontaneous            
inspirations of popular judgment1 goes  
no farther4  ,positivists accept1 and   
indeed enlarge1 the programme of        
,communism2  but we reject its practical
 solution on the ground that it is at   
once inadequate and subversive4 ,the    
chief difference between our  own       
solution and theirs is that we          
substitute moral agencies for           
political4 ,thus we come again to our   
leading principle of separating         
spiritual from temporal power2 a        
principle which1 disregarded as it  has 

hitherto been in the system of modern   
renovators1 will be found in  every one 
of the important problems of our time to
 be the sole possible  issue4 ,in the   
present case1 while throwing such light 
on the fallacy  of ,communism1 it should
 lead us to excuse the fallacy1 by      
reminding  us that politicians of every 
accredited school are equally guilty of 
it4 ,at a time when there are so very   
few1 even of cultivated minds1  who have
 a clear conception of this the primary 
principle of modern  politics1 it would 
be harsh to blame the people for still  
accepting a  result of revolutionary    
empiricism1 which is so universally     
adopted by  other classes4    ,i need   
not enter here into any detailed        
criticism of the utopian  scheme of     
,plato4 ,it was conclusively refuted    
twenty-two centuries ago1  by the great 
,aristotle1 who thus exemplified the    
organic character1  by which1 even in   
its earliest manifestations1 the        
,positive spirit  is distinguished4 ,in 

modern ,communism1 moreover1 there is   
one fatal  inconsistency1 which while it
 proves the utter weakness of the       
system1  testifies at the same time to  
the honourable character of the motives 
from which it arose4 ,modern ,communism 
differs from the ancient1 as  expounded 
by ,plato1 in not making women and      
children common as well as  property2 a 
result to which the principle itself    
obviously leads4 ,yet  this1 the only   
consistent view of ,communism1 is       
adopted by none but  a very few literary
 men1 whose affections1 in themselves   
too feeble1  have been perverted by     
vicious intellectual training4 ,our     
untaught  proletaries1 who are the only 
,communists worthy our consideration1   
are  nobly inconsistent in this respect4
 ,indivisible as their erroneous  system
 is1 they only adopt that side of it    
which touches on their  social          
requirements4 ,the other side is        
repugnant to all their highest          
instincts1 and they utterly repudiate   

it4    ,without discussing these        
chimerical schemes in detail1 it will be
 well  to expose the errors inherent in 
the method of reasoning which leads to  
them1 because they are common to all the
 other progressive schools1 the         
,positivist school excepted4 ,the       
mistake consists in the first place1  in
 disregarding or even denying the       
natural laws which regulate social      
phenomena2 and secondly1 in resorting to
 political agencies where  moral agency 
is the real thing needed4 ,the          
inadequacy and the danger  of the       
various utopian systems which are now   
setting up their rival  claims to bring 
about the regeneration of society1 are  
all attributable  in reality to these   
two closely-connected errors4 ,for the  
sake of  clearness1 ,i shall continue to
 refer specially to ,communism as the   
most  prominent of these systems4 ,but  
it will be easy to extend the bearing   
of my remarks to all the rest4          
,individualization of   functions as    

necessary as   co-operation    ,the     
ignorance of the true laws of social    
life under which ,communists  labour is 
evident in their dangerous tendency to  
suppress  individuality4 ,not only do   
they ignore the inherent preponderance  
in  our nature of the personal          
instincts2 but they forget that1 in the 
collective ,organism1 the separation of 
functions is a feature no less          
essential than the co-operation of      
functions4 ,suppose for a moment  that  
the connexion between men could be made 
such that they were  physically         
inseparable1 as has been actually the   
case with twins in  certain cases of    
monstrosity2 society would obviously be 
impossible4  ,extravagant as this       
supposition is1 it may illustrate the   
fact that in  social life individuality 
cannot be dispensed with4 ,it is        
necessary  in order to admit of that    
variety of simultaneous efforts which   
constitutes the immense superiority of  
the ,social ,organism over every        

individual life4 ,the great problem for 
man is to harmonize1 as far as          
possible1 the freedom resulting from    
isolation1 with the equally urgent      
necessity for convergence4 ,to dwell    
exclusively upon the necessity  of      
convergence would tend to undermine not 
merely our practical  energy1 but our   
true dignity2 since it would do away    
with the sense  of personal             
responsibility4 ,in exceptional cases   
where life is spent  in forced          
subjection to domestic authority1 the   
comforts of home are  often not enough  
to prevent existence from becoming an   
intolerable  burden1 simply from the    
want of sufficient independence4 ,what  
would  it be1 then1 if everybody stood  
in a similar position of dependence     
towards a community that was indifferent
 to his happiness8 ,yet no less  a      
danger than this would be the result of 
adopting any of those utopian  schemes  
which sacrifice true liberty to         
uncontrolled equality1 or even  to an   

exaggerated sense of fraternity4 ,wide  
as the divergence between  ,positivism  
and the ,economic schools is1           
,positivists adopt substantially  the   
strictures which they have passed upon  
,communism2 especially those  of        
,dunoyer1 their most advanced writer4   
,industry requires its   captains as    
well as ,war    ,there is another point 
in which ,communism is equally          
inconsistent with  the laws of          
,sociology4 ,acting under false views of
 the constitution  of our modern        
industrial system1 it proposes to remove
 its directors1  who form so essential a
 part of it4 ,an army can no more exist 
without  officers than without soldiers2
 and this elementary truth holds good of
  ,industry as well as of ,war4 ,the    
organization of modern industry has not 
been found practicable as yet2 but the  
germ of such organization lies          
unquestionably in the division which has
 arisen spontaneously between           
,capitalist and ,workman4 ,no great     

works could be undertaken if each       
worker were also to be a director1 or if
 the management1 instead of  being      
fixed1 were entrusted to a passive and  
irresponsible body4 ,it is  evident that
 under the present system of industry   
there is a tendency  to a constant      
enlargement of undertakings3 each fresh 
step leads at  once to still further    
extension4 ,now this tendency1 so far   
from being  opposed to the interests of 
the working classes1 is a condition     
which  will most seriously facilitate   
the real organization of our material   
existence1 as soon as we have a moral   
authority competent to control  it4 ,for
 it is only the larger employers that   
the spiritual power can  hope to        
penetrate with a strong and habitual    
sense of duty to their  subordinates4   
,without a sufficient concentration of  
material power1  the means of satisfying
 the claims of morality would be found  
wanting1  except at such exorbitant     
sacrifices as would be incompatible with

 all  industrial progress4 ,this is the 
weak point of every plan of reform      
which limits itself to the mode of      
acquiring power1 whether public  power  
or private1 instead of aiming at        
controlling its use in whosever  hands  
it may be placed4 ,it leads to a waste  
of those forces which1 when  rightly    
used1 form our principal resource in    
dealing with grave social  difficulties4
     ,communism is deficient in   the   
historical spirit    ,the motives1      
therefore1 from which modern ,communism 
has arisen1  however estimable1 lead at 
present1 in the want of proper          
scientific  teaching1 to a very wrong   
view both of the nature of the disease  
and  of its remedy4 ,a heavier reproach 
against it is1 that in one point it     
shows a manifest insufficiency of social
 instinct4 ,communists boast of  their  
spirit of social union2 but they limit  
it to the union of the  present         
generation1 stopping short of historical
 continuity1 which yet  is the principal

 characteristic of ,humanity4 ,when they
 have matured  their moral growth1 and  
have followed out in ,time that         
connexion which  at present they only   
recognize in ,space1 they will at once  
see the  necessity of these general     
conditions which at present they would  
reject4 ,they will understand the       
importance of inheritance1 as the       
natural means by which each generation  
transmits to its successor  the result  
of its own labours and the means of     
improving them4 ,the  necessity of      
inheritance1 as far as the community is 
concerned1 is  evident1 and its         
extension to the individual is an       
obvious consequence4  ,but whatever     
reproaches ,communists may deserve in   
this respect are  equally applicable to 
all the other progressive sects4 ,they  
are all  pervaded by an anti-historic   
spirit1 which leads them to conceive of 
,society as though it had no ancestors2 
and this1 although their own  ideas for 
the most part can have no bearing except

 upon posterity4     ,in fact1 as a     
system1 it is   worthless1 though       
prompted   by noble feelings    ,serious
 as these errors are1 a philosophic mind
 will treat the  ,communism of our day1 
so far as it is adopted in good faith1  
with  indulgence1 whether he look at the
 motives from which it arose1 or at  the
 practical results which will follow    
from it4 ,it is hardly fair to          
criticize the intrinsic merits of a     
doctrine1 the whole meaning and  value  
of which are relative to the peculiar   
phase of society in which  it is        
proposed4 ,communism has in its own way 
discharged an important  function4 ,it  
has brought prominently forward the     
greatest of social  problems2 and1 if we
 except the recent ,positivist          
explanation1 its  mode of stating it has
 never been surpassed4 ,and let no one  
suppose  that it would have been enough 
simply to state the problem1 without    
hazarding any solution of it4 ,those who
 think so do not understand  the        

exigencies of man's feeble intellect4   
,in far easier subjects than  this1 it  
is impossible to give prolonged         
attention to questions which  are simply
 asked1 without any attempt to answer   
them4 ,suppose1 for  instance1 that     
,gall and ,broussais had limited        
themselves to a simple  statement of    
their great problems without venturing  
on any solution2  their principles1     
however incontestable1 would have been  
barren of  result1 for want of that     
motive power of renovation which nothing
 can  give but a systematic solution of 
some kind or other1 hazardous as the    
attempt must be at first4 ,now it is    
hardly likely that we should be  able to
 evade this condition of our mental     
faculties in subjects which  are not    
only of the highest difficulty1 but also
 more exposed than any  others to the   
influence of passion4 ,besides1 when we 
compare the errors  of ,communism with  
those of other social doctrines which   
have recently  received official        

sanction1 we shall feel more disposed to
 palliate  them4 ,are they1 for         
instance1 more shallow and more really  
dangerous  than the absurd and          
chimerical notion which was accepted in 
,france for  a whole generation1 and is 
still upheld by so many political       
teachers2  the notion that the great    
,revolution has found its final issue in
 the  constitutional system of          
government1 a system peculiar to        
,england  during her stage of           
transition8 ,moreover1 our so-called    
conservatives  only escape the errors of
 ,communism by evading or ignoring its  
problems1 though they are becoming every
 day more urgent4 ,whenever  they are   
induced to deal with them1 they render  
themselves liable to  exactly the same  
dangers1 dangers common to all schools  
which reject  the division of the two   
powers1 and which consequently are for  
ever  trying to make legislation do the 
work of morality4 ,accordingly we see   
the governing classes nowadays upholding

 institutions of a thoroughly           
,communist character1 such as           
alms-houses1 foundling hospitals1 etc42 
while popular feeling strongly and      
rightly condemns such institutions1  as 
being incompatible with that healthy    
growth of home affection which  should  
be common to all ranks4    ,were it not 
that ,communism is provisionally useful 
in antagonizing  other doctrines equally
 erroneous1 it would have1 then1 no real
  importance1 except that due to the    
motives which originated it2 since  its 
practical solution is far too chimerical
 and subversive ever to  obtain         
acceptance4 ,yet1 from the high morality
 of these motives1 it  will probably    
maintain and increase its influence     
until our working  men find that their  
wants can be more effectually satisfied 
by gentler  and surer means4 ,our       
republican system seems at first sight  
favourable  to the scheme2 but it cannot
 fail soon to have the reverse effect1  
because1 while adopting the social      

principle which constitutes the real    
merit of ,communism1 it repudiates its  
mischievous illusions4 ,in ,france1  at 
all events1 where property is so easy to
 acquire and is consequently  so        
generally enjoyed1 the doctrine cannot  
lead to much practical harm2  rather its
 reaction will be beneficial1 because it
 will fix men's  minds more seriously on
 the just claims of the ,people4 ,the   
danger is  far greater in other parts of
 ,western ,europe2 especially in        
,england1  where aristocratic influence 
is less undermined1 and where           
consequently  the working classes are   
less advanced and more oppressed4 ,and  
even  in ,catholic countries1 where     
individualism and anarchy have been met 
by a truer sense of fraternity1         
,communistic disturbances can only be   
avoided finally by a more rapid         
dissemination of ,positivism1 which will
  ultimately dispel all social          
delusions1 by offering the true solution
  of the questions that gave rise to    

them4    ,the nature of the evil shows  
us at once that the remedy we seek must 
be almost entirely of a moral kind4     
,this truth1 based as it is on  real    
knowledge of human nature1 the people   
will soon come to feel  instinctively4  
,and here ,communists are1 without      
knowing it1 preparing  the way for the  
ascendancy of ,positivism4 ,they are    
forcing upon men's  notice in the       
strongest possible way a problem to     
which no peaceable  and satisfactory    
solution can be given1 except by the new
 philosophy4     ,property is a public  
trust1   not to be interfered with      
legally    ,that philosophy1 abandoning 
all useless and irritating discussion as
  to the origin of wealth and the extent
 of its possession1 proceeds at  once to
 the moral rules which should regulate  
it as a social function4  ,the          
distribution of power among men1 of     
material power especially1 lies  so far 
beyond our means of intervention1 that  
to set it before us as  our main object 

to rectify the defects of the natural   
order in this  respect1 would be to     
waste our short life in barren and      
interminable  disputes4 ,the chief      
concern of the public is that power1 in 
whosever  hands it may be placed1 should
 be exercised for their benefit2 and    
this  is a point to which we may direct 
our efforts with far greater effect4    
,besides1 by regulating the employment  
of wealth1 we do1 indirectly1  modify   
its tenure2 for the mode in which wealth
 is held has some  secondary influence  
over the right use of it4    ,the       
regulations required should be moral1   
not political in their  source2 general1
 not special1 in their application4     
,those who accept  them will do so of   
their own free will1 under the influence
 of their  education4 ,thus their       
obedience1 while steadily maintained1   
will have1  as ,aristotle long ago      
observed1 the merit of voluntary action4
 ,by  converting private property into a
 public function1 we would subject  it  

to no tyrannical interference2 for this1
 by the destruction of  free impulse and
 responsibility1 would prove most deeply
 degrading to  man's character4 ,indeed1
 the comparison of proprietors with     
public  functionaries will frequently be
 applied in the inverse sense2 with the 
view1 that is1 of strengthening the     
latter rather than of weakening  the    
former4 ,the true principle of          
republicanism is1 that all forces  shall
 work together for the common good4     
,with this view we have on  the one     
hand1 to determine precisely what it is 
that the common good  requires2 and on  
the other1 to develop the temper of mind
 most likely  to satisfy the            
requirement4 ,the conditions requisite  
for these two  objects are1 a recognized
 ,code of principles1 an adequate       
,education1  and a healthy direction of 
,public ,opinion4 ,for such conditions  
we must  look principally to the        
philosophic body which ,positivism      
proposes to  establish at the apex of   

modern society4 ,doubtless this purely  
moral  influence would not be sufficient
 of itself4 ,human frailty is such that 
,government1 in the ordinary sense of   
the word1 will have as before  to       
repress by force the more palpable and  
more dangerous class of  delinquencies4 
,but this additional control1 though    
necessary1 will not  fill so important a
 place as it did in the ,middle ,ages   
under the sway  of ,catholicism4        
,spiritual rewards and punishments will 
preponderate  over temporal1 in         
proportion as human development evokes a
 stronger  sense of the ties which unite
 each with all1 by the threefold bond of
  ,feeling1 ,thought1 and ,action4      
,inheritance favourable to   its right  
employment    ,positivism1 being more   
pacific and more efficacious than       
,communism1  because more true1 is also 
broader and more complete in its        
solution  of great social problems4 ,the
 superficial view of property1 springing
  too often from envious motives1 which 

condemns ,inheritance because  it admits
 of possession without labour1 is not   
subversive merely1  but narrow4 ,from   
the moral point of view we see at once  
the radical  weakness of these empirical
 reproaches4 ,they show blindness to the
  fact that this mode of transmitting   
wealth is really that which is  most    
likely to call out the temper requisite 
for its right employment4  ,it saves the
 mind and the heart from the mean and   
sordid habits which  are so often       
engendered by slow accumulation of      
capital4 ,the man who  is born to wealth
 is more likely to feel the wish to be  
respected4 ,and  thus those whom we are 
inclined to condemn as idlers may very  
easily  become the most useful of the   
rich classes1 under a wise              
reorganization  of opinions and habits4 
,of course too1 since with the advance  
of  ,civilization the difficulty of     
living without industry increases1 the  
class that we are speaking of becomes   
more and more exceptional4 ,in  every   

way1 then1 it is a most serious mistake 
to wish to upset society  on account of 
abuses which are already in course of   
removal1 and which  admit of conversion 
to a most beneficial purpose4           
,intellect needs moral   control as much
 as wealth    ,again1 another feature in
 which the ,positivist solution         
surpasses the  ,communist1 is the       
remarkable completeness of its          
application4 ,communism  takes no       
account of anything but wealth2 as if   
wealth were the only  power in modern   
society badly distributed and           
administered4 ,in reality  there are    
greater abuses connected with almost    
every other power that  man possesses2  
and especially with the powers of       
intellect2 yet these  our visionaries   
make not the smallest attempt to        
rectify4 ,positivism  being the only    
doctrine that embraces the whole sphere 
of human  existence1 is therefore the   
only doctrine that can elevate ,social  
,feeling to its proper place1 by        

extending it to all departments of      
human activity without exception4       
,identification1 in a moral sense1 of   
private functions with public duties is 
even more necessary in the case  of the 
scientific man or the artist1 than in   
that of the proprietor2  whether we look
 at the source from which his powers    
proceed1 or at  the object to which they
 should be directed4 ,yet the men who   
wish to  make material wealth common1   
the only kind of wealth that can be held
  exclusively by an individual1 never   
extend their utopian scheme to          
intellectual wealth1 in which it would  
be far more admissible4 ,in fact  the   
apostles of ,communism often come       
forward as zealous supporters  of what  
they call literary property4 ,such      
inconsistencies show the  shallowness of
 the system2 it proclaims its own       
failure in the very  cases that are most
 favourable for the application4 ,the   
extension of  the principle here        
suggested would expose at once the      

inexpediency  of political regulations  
on the subject1 and the necessity of    
moral  rules2 for these and these only  
can ensure the right use of all our     
faculties without distinction4          
,intellectual effort1 to be of any      
value1 must be spontaneous2 and it is   
doubtless an instinctive sense  of this 
truth which prevents ,communists from   
subjecting intellectual  faculties to   
their utopian regulations4 ,but         
,positivism can deal with  these        
faculties which stand in the most urgent
 need of wise direction1  without       
inconsistency and without disturbance4  
,it leaves to them  their fair measure  
of free action2 and in the case of other
 faculties  which1 though less eminent1 
are hardly less dangerous to repress1 it
  strengthens their freedom4 ,when a    
pure morality arises capable of         
impressing a social tendency upon every 
phase of human activity1 the  freer our 
action becomes the more useful will it  
be to the public4 ,the  tendency of     

modern civilization1 far from impeding  
private industry1 is  to entrust it more
 and more with functions1 especially    
with those of a  material kind1 which   
were originally left to government4     
,unfortunately  this tendency1 which is 
very evident1 leads economists into the 
mistake  of supposing that industry may 
be left altogether without organization4
  ,all that it really proves is that the
 influence of moral principles is       
gradually preponderating over that of   
governmental regulations4     ,action of
 organized public   opinion upon        
,capitalists4   ,strikes    ,the method 
which is peculiar to ,positivism of     
solving our great  social problems by   
moral agencies1 will be found applicable
 also to  the settlement of industrial  
disputes1 so far as the popular claims  
involved are well founded4 ,these claims
 will thus become clear from  all       
tendency to disorder1 and will          
consequently gain immensely in  force2  
especially when they are seen to be     

consistent with principles  which are   
freely accepted by all1 and when they   
are supported by  a philosophic body of 
known impartiality and enlightenment4   
,this  spiritual power1 while impressing
 on the people the duty of respecting   
their temporal leaders1 will impose     
duties upon these latter1 which  they   
will find impossible to evade4 ,as all  
classes will have received  a common    
education1 they will all alike be       
penetrated with the general  principles 
on which these special obligations will 
rest4 ,and these  weapons1 derived from 
no source but that of ,feeling and      
,reason1 and  aided solely by ,public   
,opinion1 will wield an influence over  
practical  life1 of which nothing in the
 present day can give any conception4   
,we  might compare it with the influence
 of ,catholicism in the ,middle ,ages1  
only that men are too apt to attribute  
the results of ,catholicism  to the     
chimerical hopes and fears which it     
inspired1 rather than to  the energy    

with which praise and blame were        
distributed4 ,with the new  spiritual   
power praise and blame will form the    
only resource2 but it  will be developed
 and consolidated to a degree which1 as 
,i have before  shown1 was impossible   
for ,catholicism4    ,this is the only  
real solution of the disputes that are  
so constantly  arising between workmen  
and their employers4 ,both parties will 
look  to this philosophic authority as a
 supreme court of arbitration4 ,in      
estimating its importance1 we must not  
forget that the antagonism of  employer 
and employed has not yet been pushed to 
its full consequences4  ,the struggle   
between wealth and numbers would have   
been far more  serious1 but for the fact
 that combination1 without which there  
can be  no struggle worth speaking of1  
has hitherto only been permitted to the 
capitalist4 ,it is true that in ,england
 combinations of workmen are not        
legally prohibited4 ,but in that country
 they are not yet sufficiently          

emancipated either intellectually or    
morally1 to make such use of the  power 
as would be the case in ,france4 ,when  
,french workmen are allowed  to concert 
their plans as freely as their          
employers1 the antagonism  of interests 
that will then arise will make both     
sides feel the need  of a moral power to
 arbitrate between them4 ,not that the  
conciliating  influence of such a power 
will ever be such as to do away entirely
 with  extreme measures2 but it will    
greatly restrict their application1 and 
in cases where they are unavoidable1    
will mitigate their excesses4 ,such     
measures should be limited on both sides
 to refusal of co-operation2 a  power   
which every free agent ought to be      
allowed to exercise1 on his  own        
personal responsibility1 with the object
 of impressing on those who  are        
teaching him unjustly the importance of 
the services which he has  been         
rendering4 ,the workman is not to be    
compelled to work any more  than the    

capitalist to direct4 ,any abuse of this
 extreme protest on  either side will of
 course be disapproved by the moral     
power2 but the  option of making the    
protest is always to be reserved to each
 element  in the collective organism1 by
 virtue of his natural independence4    
,in the most settled times functionaries
 have always been allowed to  suspend   
their services on special occasions4 ,it
 was done frequently in  the ,middle    
,ages by priests1 professors1 judges1   
etc4 ,all we have to  do is to regulate 
this privilege1 and embody it into the  
industrial  system4 ,this will be one of
 the secondary duties of the philosophic
  body1 who will naturally be consulted 
on most of these occasions1 as  on all  
others of public or private moment4 ,the
 formal sanction which  it may give to a
 suspension or positive prohibition of  
work would  render such a measure far   
more effective than it is at present4   
,the  operation of the measure is but   
partial at present1 but it might in     

this way extend1 first to all who belong
 to the same trade1 then to  other      
branches of industry1 and even          
ultimately to every ,western nation     
that accepts the same spiritual guides4 
,of course persons who think  themselves
 aggrieved may always resort to this    
extreme course on their  own            
responsibility1 against the advice of   
the philosophic body4 ,true  spiritual  
power confines itself to giving counsel3
 it never commands4  ,but in such cases1
 unless the advice given by the         
philosophers has been  wrong1 the       
suspension of work is not likely to be  
sufficiently general  to bring about any
 important result4    ,this theory of   
trade-unions is1 in fact1 in the        
industrial world1  what the power of    
insurrection is with regard to the      
higher social  functions2 it is an      
ultimate resource which every collective
 organism  must reserve4 ,the principle 
is the same in the simpler and more     
ordinary cases as in the more unusual   

and important4 ,in both the             
intervention of the philosophic body1   
whether solicited or not1 whether  its  
purpose be to organize popular effort or
 to repress it1 will  largely influence 
the result4    ,we are now in a position
 to state with more precision the main  
practical difference between the policy 
of ,positivism1 and that of  ,communism 
or of ,socialism4 ,all progressive      
political schools agree in              
concentrating their attention upon the  
problem1 ,how to give the people  their 
proper place as a component element of  
modern ,society1 which  ever since the  
,middle ,ages has been tending more and 
more distinctly  to its normal mode of  
existence4 ,they also agree that the two
 great  requirements of the working     
classes are1 the organization of        
,education1  and the organization of    
,labour4 ,but here their agreement ends4
 ,when  the means of effecting these two
 objects have to be considered1         
,positivists find themselves at issue   

with all other ,progressive  schools4   
,they maintain that the organization of 
,industry must be based  upon the       
organization of ,education4 ,it is      
commonly supposed that both  may be     
begun simultaneously3 or indeed that    
,labour may be organized  irrespectively
 of ,education4 ,it may seem as if we   
are making too much  of a mere question 
of arrangement2 yet the difference is   
one which  affects the whole character  
and method of social reconstruction4    
,the  plan usually followed is simply a 
repetition of the old attempt to        
reconstruct politically without waiting 
for spiritual reconstruction2  in other 
words1 to raise the social edifice      
before its intellectual and  moral      
foundations have been laid4 ,hence the  
attempts made to satisfy  popular       
requirements by measures of a purely    
political kind1 because  they appear to 
meet the evil directly2 a course which  
is as useless  as it is destructive4    
,positivism1 on the contrary1           

substitutes for  such agencies1 an      
influence which is sure and peaceful1   
although it be  gradual and indirect2   
the influence of a more enlightened     
morality1  supported by a purer state of
 ,public ,opinion2 such opinion being   
organized by competent minds1 and       
diffused freely amongst the people4  ,in
 fact1 the whole question1 whether the  
solution of the twofold  problem before 
us is to be empirical1 revolutionary1   
and therefore  confined simply to       
,france2 or whether it is to be         
consistent1 pacific1  and applicable to 
the whole of ,western ,europe1 depends  
upon the  preference or the postponement
 of the organization of ,labour to the  
organization of ,education4     ,public 
,opinion must be   based upon a sound   
system of   ,education    ,this         
conclusion involves a brief explanation 
of the general system of  education     
which ,positivism will introduce4 ,this 
the new spiritual power  regards as its 
principal function1 and as its most     

efficient means of  satisfying the      
working classes in all reasonable       
demands4    ,it was the great social    
virtue of ,catholicism1 that it         
introduced  for the first time1 as far  
as circumstances permitted1 a system of 
education common to all classes without 
distinction1 not excepting  even those  
who were still slaves4 ,it was a vast   
undertaking1 yet  essential to its      
purpose of founding a spiritual power   
which was to be  independent of the     
temporal power4 ,apart from its         
temporary value1 it  has left us one    
imperishable principle1 namely that in  
all education  worthy of the name1 moral
 training should be regarded as of      
greater  importance than scientific     
teaching4 ,catholic education1 however1 
was  of course1 extremely defective2    
owing partly to the circumstances of    
the time1 and partly to the weakness of 
the doctrine on which it  rested4       
,having reference almost exclusively to 
the oppressed masses1  the principal    

lesson which it taught was the duty of  
almost passive  resignation1 with the   
exception of certain obligations imposed
 upon  rulers4 ,intellectual culture in 
any true sense there was none4 ,all     
this was natural in a faith which       
directed men's highest efforts to  an   
object unconnected with social life1 and
 which taught that all the  phenomena of
 nature were regulated by an            
impenetrable ,will4 ,catholic           
,education was consequently quite       
unsuited to any period but the  ,middle 
,ages2 a period during which the        
advanced portion of ,humanity  was      
gradually ridding itself of the ancient 
institution of slavery1  by commuting it
 first into serfdom1 as a preliminary   
step to entire  personal freedom4 ,in   
the ancient world ,catholic education   
would have  been too revolutionary2 at  
the present time it would be servile and
  inadequate4 ,its function was that of 
directing the long and difficult        
transition from the social life of      

,antiquity to that of ,modern times4    
,personal emancipation once obtained1   
the working classes began to  develop   
their powers and rise to their true     
position as a class2 and  they soon     
became conscious of intellectual and    
social wants which  ,catholicism was    
wholly incapable of satisfying4    ,and 
yet this is the only real system of     
universal education which the  world has
 hitherto seen4 ,for we cannot give that
 name to the so-called  ,university     
system which metaphysicians began to    
introduce into ,europe  at the close of 
the ,middle ,ages2 and which offered    
little more than  the special           
instruction previously given to the     
priesthood2 that  is1 the study of the  
,latin language1 with the dialectical   
training  required for the defence of   
their doctrines4 ,morals were untaught  
except as a part of the training of the 
professed theologian4 ,all this         
metaphysical and literary instruction   
was of no great service to social       

evolution1 except so far as it developed
 the critical power2 it had1  however1 a
 certain indirect influence on the      
constructive movement1  especially on   
the development of ,art4 ,but its       
defects1 both practical  and            
theoretical1 have been made more evident
 by its application to  new classes of  
society1 whose occupations1 whether     
practical or  speculative1 required a   
very different kind of training4 ,and   
thus1  while claiming the title of      
,universal1 it never reached the working
  classes1 even in ,protestant          
countries1 where each believer became to
 a  certain extent his own priest4      
,the theological method being obsolete1 
and the metaphysical method  inadequate1
 the task of founding an efficient      
system of popular  education belongs to 
,positivism2 the only doctrine capable  
of  reconciling these two orders of     
conditions1 the intellectual and the    
moral1 which are equally necessary1 but 
which since the ,middle ,ages  have     

always proved incompatible4 ,positivist 
education1 while securing  the supremacy
 of the heart over the understanding    
more efficiently  than ,catholicism1    
will yet put no obstacle in the way of  
intellectual  growth4 ,the function of  
,intellect1 in education as in practical
 life1  will be to regulate ,feeling2   
the culture of which1 beginning at      
birth1  will be maintained by constant  
exercise of the three classes of duties 
relative to ,self1 to the ,family1 and  
to ,society4    ,i have already         
explained the mode in which the         
principles of universal  morality will  
be finally co-ordinated2 a task which1  
as ,i have shown1  is connected with the
 principal function of the new spiritual
 power4  ,i have now only to point out  
the paramount influence of morality on  
every part of ,positive ,education4 ,it 
will be seen to be connected at  first  
spontaneously1 and afterwards in a more 
systematic form1 with the  entire system
 of human knowledge4    ,positive       

,education1 adapting itself to the      
requirements of the ,organism  with     
which it has to deal1 subordinates      
intellectual conditions  to social4     
,social conditions are considered as the
 main object1  intellectual as but the  
means of attaining it4 ,its principal   
aim is  to induce the working classes to
 accept their high social function of   
supporting the spiritual power1 while at
 the same time it will render  them more
 efficient in their own special duties4 
,education has two stages3   from birth 
to puberty1 from   puberty to           
adolescence4   ,the first1 consisting of
   physical and esthetic   training to  
be given at home    ,presuming that     
,education extends from birth to        
manhood1 we may divide  it into two     
periods1 the first ending with puberty1 
that is1 at the  beginning of industrial
 apprenticeship4 ,education here should 
be  essentially spontaneous1 and should 
be carried on as far as possible  in the
 bosom of the family4 ,the only studies 

required should be of  an esthetic kind4
 ,in the second period1 ,education takes
 a systematic  form1 consisting chiefly 
of a public course of scientific        
lectures1  explaining the essential laws
 of the various orders of phenomena4    
,these lectures will be the groundwork  
of ,moral ,science1 which will          
co-ordinate the whole1 and point out the
 relation of each part to  the social   
purpose common to all4 ,thus1 at about  
the time which long  experience has     
fixed as that of legal majority1 and    
when in most  cases the term of         
apprenticeship closes1 the workman will 
be prepared  intellectually and morally 
for his public and private service4     
,the first years of life1 from infancy  
to the end of the period of  second     
dentition1 should be devoted to         
education of the physical  powers1      
carried on under the superintendence of 
the parents1  especially of the mother4 
,physical education1 as usually         
practised1  is nothing but mere muscular

 exercise2 but a more important object  
is  that of training the senses1 and    
giving manual skill1 so as to develop   
from the very first our powers of       
observation and action4 ,study1 in  the 
ordinary acceptation1 there should be   
none during this period1 not  even      
reading or writing4 ,an acquaintance    
with facts of various kinds1  such as   
may spontaneously attract the growing   
powers of attention1  will be the only  
instruction received4 ,the philosophic  
system of the  infant individual1 like  
that of the infant species1 consists in 
pure  ,fetichism1 and its natural       
development should not be disturbed by  
unwise interference4 ,the only care of  
the parents will be to impress  those   
feelings and habits for which a rational
 basis will be given  at a later period4
 ,by taking every opportunity of calling
 the higher  instincts into play1 they  
will be laying down the best foundation 
for  true morality4    ,during the      
period of about seven years comprised   

between the second  dentition and       
puberty1 ,education will become somewhat
 more systematic2  but it will be       
limited to the culture of the fine arts2
 and it will  be still most important1  
especially on moral grounds1 to avoid   
separation from the family4 ,the study  
of ,art should simply consist  in       
practising it more or less              
systematically4 ,no formal lectures are 
necessary1 at least for the purposes of 
general education1 though of  course for
 professional purposes they may still be
 required4 ,there is  no reason why     
these studies should not be carried on  
at home by the  second generation of    
,positivists1 when the culture of the   
parents will  be sufficiently advanced  
to allow them to superintend it4 ,they  
will  include ,poetry1 the art on which 
all the rest are based2 and the two     
most important of the special arts1     
music and drawing4 ,meantime the  pupil 
will become familiar with the principal 
,western languages1 which  are included 

in the study of ,poetry1 since modern   
poetry cannot be  properly appreciated  
without them4 ,moreover1 independently  
of esthetic  considerations1 a knowledge
 of them is most important morally1 as  
a means of destroying national          
prejudices1 and of forming the true     
,positivist standard of ,occidental     
feeling4 ,each nation will be taught  to
 consider it a duty to learn the        
language of contiguous countries2 an    
obvious principle1 which1 in the case of
 ,frenchmen1 will involve their         
learning all the other four languages1  
as a consequence of that central        
position which gives them so many       
advantages4 ,when this rule becomes     
general1 and the natural affinities of  
the five advanced nations are  brought  
fully into play1 a common ,occidental   
language will not be long  in forming   
itself spontaneously1 without the aid of
 any metaphysical  scheme for producing 
a language that shall be absolutely     
universal4    ,during the latter portion

 of primary ,education1 which is devoted
 to  the culture of the imaginative     
powers1 the philosophic development  of 
the individual1 corresponding to that of
 the race1 will carry  him from the     
simple ,fetichism with which he began to
 the state of  ,polytheism4 ,this       
resemblance between the growth of the   
individual and  that of society has     
always shown itself more or less1 in    
spite of the  irrational precautions of 
,christian teachers4 ,they have never   
been  able to give children a distaste  
for those simple tales of fairies and   
genii1 which are natural to this phase4 
,the ,positivist teacher will  let this 
tendency take its own course4 ,it should
 not1 however1 involve  any hypocrisy on
 the part of the parents1 nor need it   
lead to any  subsequent contradiction4  
,the simple truth is enough4 ,the child 
may  be told that these spontaneous     
beliefs are but natural to his age1 but 
that they will gradually lead him on to 
others1 by the fundamental law  of all  

human development4 ,language of this    
kind will not only have the  advantage  
of familiarizing him with a great       
principle of ,positivism1  but will     
stimulate the nascent sense of          
sociability1 by leading him  to         
sympathize with the various nations who 
still remain at his own  primitive stage
 of intellectual development4     ,the  
second part consists   of public        
lectures on the   ,sciences1 from       
,mathematics   to ,sociology    ,the    
second part of ,positivist ,education   
cannot be conducted altogether  at home1
 since it involves public lectures1 in  
which of course the  part taken by the  
parent can only be accessory4 ,but this 
is no reason  for depriving the pupil of
 the advantages of family life2 it      
remains  as indispensable as ever to his
 moral development1 which is always to  
be the first consideration4 ,it will be 
easy for him to follow the best  masters
 without weakening his sense of personal
 and domestic morality1  which is the   

almost inevitable result of the monastic
 seclusion of  modern schools4 ,the     
public-school system is commonly thought
 to  compensate for these disadvantages1
 by the knowledge of the world which  it
 gives2 but this is better obtained by  
free intercourse with society1  where   
sympathies are far more likely to be    
satisfied4 ,recognition  of this truth  
would do much to facilitate and improve 
popular  education2 and it applies to   
all cases1 except perhaps to some       
special  professions1 where seclusion of
 the pupils may still be necessary1     
though even in these cases probably it  
may be ultimately dispensed with4       
,the plan to be followed in this period 
of education1 will obviously be  that   
indicated by the encyclopdic law of     
,classification1 which forms  part of my
 ,theory of ,development4 ,scientific   
study1 whether for the  working man or  
the philosopher1 should begin with the  
inorganic world  around us1 and then    
pass to the subject of ,man and         

,society2 since our  ideas on these two 
subjects form the basis of our practical
 action4 ,the  first class of studies1  
as ,i have stated before1 includes four 
sciences  which we may arrange in pairs3
 ,mathematics and ,astronomy forming the
  first pair2 ,physics and ,chemistry   
the second4 ,to each of these pairs1    
two years may be given4 ,but as the     
first ranges over a wide field1 and  is 
of greater logical importance1 it will  
require two lectures weekly2  whereas1  
for all the subsequent studies one      
lecture will be sufficient4  ,besides1  
during these two years1 the necessities 
of practical life  will not press       
heavily1 and more time may fairly be    
spent in mental  occupation4 ,from the  
study of inorganic science1 the pupil   
will proceed  to ,biology3 this subject 
may easily be condensed in the fifth    
year  into a series of forty lectures1  
without really losing either its        
philosophic or its popular character4   
,this concludes the introductory  part  

of ,education4 ,the student will now    
co-ordinate all his previous  knowledge 
by the direct study of ,sociology1      
statically and dynamically  viewed4 ,on 
this subject also forty lectures will be
 given1 in which the  structure and     
growth of human societies1 especially   
those of modern  times1 will be clearly 
explained4 ,with this foundation we come
 to the  last of the seven years of     
pupillage1 in which the great social    
purpose  of the scheme is at last       
reached4 ,it will be devoted to a       
systematic  exposition of ,moral        
,science1 the principles of which may be
 now fully  understood by the light of  
the knowledge previously obtained of the
  ,world1 of ,life1 and of ,humanity4   
,during this course of study1 part of   
the three unoccupied months of  each    
year will be spent in public            
examinations1 to test the degree to     
which the instruction has been          
assimilated4 ,the pupils will of their  
own accord continue their esthetic      

pursuits1 even supposing their  natural 
tastes in this direction not to be      
encouraged as they ought to  be4 ,during
 the last two years the ,latin and      
,greek languages might be  acquired1 as 
an accessory study1 which would improve 
the poetic culture  of the student1 and 
be useful to him in the historical and  
moral  questions with which he will then
 be occupied4 ,for the purposes of ,art1
  ,greek is the more useful of the two2 
but in the second object1 that of       
enabling us to realize our social       
,filiation1 ,latin is of even greater   
importance4    ,in the course of these  
seven years the philosophic development 
of the  individual1 preserving its      
correspondence with that of the race1   
will  pass through its last phase4 ,as  
the pupil passed before from ,fetichism 
to ,polytheism1 so he will now pass1 as 
spontaneously1 into ,monotheism1        
induced by the influence on his         
imaginative powers which hitherto have  
been supreme1 of the spirit of          

discussion4 ,no interference should be  
offered to this metaphysical transition1
 which is the homage that he  pays to   
the necessary conditions under which    
mankind arrives at truth4  ,there is    
something in this provisional phase     
which evidently harmonizes  well with   
the abstract and independent character  
of ,mathematics1 with  which the two    
first years of the seven are occupied4  
,as long as more  attention is given to 
deduction than to induction1 the mind   
cannot but  retain a leaning to         
metaphysical theories4 ,under their     
influence the  student will soon reduce 
his primitive theology to ,deism of a   
more or  less distinct kind2 and this   
during his physico-chemical studies will
  most likely degenerate into a species 
of ,atheism2 which last phase1  under   
the enlightening influence of biological
 and still more of  sociological        
knowledge1 will be finally replaced by  
,positivism4 ,thus at  the time fixed   
for the ultimate study of moral science1

 each new member  of ,humanity will have
 been strongly impressed by personal    
experience1  with a sense of historical 
,filiation1 and will be enabled to      
sympathize  with his ancestors and      
contemporaries1 while devoting his      
practical  energies to the good of his  
successors4     ,travels of ,apprentices
    ,there is an excellent custom       
prevalent among the working men of      
,france  and creditable to their good   
sense1 with which our educational scheme
  seems at first sight incompatible4 ,i 
refer to the custom of travelling  from 
place to place during the last years of 
apprenticeship2 which  is as beneficial 
to their mind and character1 as the     
purposeless  excursions of our wealthy  
and idle classes are in most cases      
injurious4  ,but there is no necessity  
for its interfering with study1 since it
  always involves long residence in the 
chief centres of production1  where the 
workman is sure to find annual courses  
of lectures similar  to those which he  

would otherwise have been attending at  
home4  ,as the structure and            
distribution of the philosophic body    
will  be everywhere the same1 there need
 be no great inconvenience in  these    
changes4 ,for every centre not more than
 seven teachers will  be required2 each 
of whom will take the whole ,encyclopdic
 scale  successively4 ,thus the total   
number of lectures will be so small as  
to admit of a high standard of merit    
being everywhere attained1 and  of      
finding everywhere a fair measure of    
material support4 ,so far from          
discouraging the travelling system1     
,positivism will give it a new          
character1 intellectually and socially1 
by extending the range of  travel to the
 whole of ,western ,europe1 since there 
is no part of it in  which the workman  
will not be able to prosecute his       
education4 ,the  difference of language 
will then be no obstacle4 ,not only     
would the  sense of fraternity among    
,western nations be strengthened by such

 a  plan1 but great improvement would   
result esthetically4 ,the languages  of 
,europe would be learnt more thoroughly1
 and there would be a  keener           
appreciation of works of art1 whether   
musical1 pictorial1 or  architectural2  
for these can never be properly         
appreciated but in the  country which   
gave them birth4     ,concentration of  
study    ,judging by our present        
practice1 it would seem impossible to   
include  such a mass of important       
scientific studies1 as are here         
proposed1  in three hundred and sixty   
lectures4 ,but the length to which      
courses  of lectures on any subject     
extend at present1 is owing partly to   
the  special or professional object with
 which the course is given1 and  still  
more to the discursive and              
unphilosophical spirit of most of the   
teachers1 consequent on the miserable   
manner in which our scientific  system  
is organized4 ,such a regeneration of   
scientific studies as  ,positivism      

proposes1 will animate them with a      
social spirit1 and thus  give them a    
larger and more comprehensive tendency4 
,teachers will  become more practised in
 the art of condensing1 and their       
lectures  will be far more substantial4 
,they will not indeed be a substitute   
for  voluntary effort1 on which all the 
real value of teaching depends4  ,their 
aim will be rather to direct such       
effort4 ,a striking example1  which is  
not so well remembered as it should be1 
will help to explain  my meaning4 ,at   
the first opening of the ,polytechnic   
,school1 courses of  lectures were      
given1 very appropriately named         
,revolutionary ,courses1  which         
concentrated the teaching of three years
 into three months4  ,what was in that  
case an extraordinary anomaly1 due to   
republican  enthusiasm1 may become the  
normal state when a moral power arises  
not inferior in energy1 and yet based   
upon a consistent intellectual          
synthesis1 of which our great           

predecessors of the ,revolution could   
have  no conception4    ,little         
attention has hitherto been given to the
 didactic value of  ,feeling4 ,since the
 close of the ,middle ,ages1 the heart  
has been  neglected in proportion as the
 mind has been cultivated4 ,but it is   
the characteristic principle of         
,positivism1 a principle as fertile in  
intellectual as in moral results1 that  
the ,intellect1 whether we look  at its 
natural or at its normal position1 is   
subordinate to ,social  ,feeling4       
,throughout this course of popular      
education1 parents and  masters will    
seize every suitable occasion for       
calling ,social ,feeling  into play2 and
 the most abstruse subjects will often  
be vivified by its  influence4 ,the     
office of the mind is to strengthen and 
to cultivate the  heart2 the heart again
 should animate and direct the mental   
powers4  ,this mutual influence of      
general views and generous feelings will
  have greater effect upon scientific   

study1 from the esthetic culture        
previously given1 in which such habits  
of mind will have been formed1  as will 
give grace and beauty to the whole life4
     ,governmental assistance not       
required1 except for certain   special  
institutions1 and   this only as a      
provisional   measure    ,when ,i speak 
of this education as specially destined 
for the people1  ,i am not merely using 
words to denote its comprehensiveness   
and  philosophic character4 ,it is1 in  
my opinion1 the only education1  with   
the exception of certain special        
branches1 for which public  organization
 is needed4 ,it should be looked on as a
 sacred debt which  the republic owes to
 the working classes4 ,but the claim    
does not extend  to other classes1 who  
can easily pay for any special          
instruction that  they may require4     
,besides such instruction will be only a
 partial  development of the more       
general teaching1 or an application of  
it to  some particular purpose4         

,therefore if the general training be   
sound1  most people will be able to     
prosecute accessory studies by          
themselves4  ,apprenticeship to any     
business involves very little1 except   
the  practice of it4 ,even in the       
highest arts1 no course of systematic   
instruction is necessary4 ,the false    
views now prevalent on the subject  are 
due to the unfortunate absence of all   
general education1 since  the decay of  
,catholicism4 ,the special institutions 
founded in ,europe  during the last     
three centuries1 and carefully          
remodelled in ,france  by the           
,convention1 are only valuable as       
containing certain germs of  truth1     
which will be found indispensable when  
general education is  finally           
reorganized4 ,but important as they may 
be from a scientific  aspect1 their     
practical utility1 which seems to have  
been the motive  for establishing them1 
is exceedingly doubtful4 ,the arts which
 they  were intended to promote could   

have done perfectly well without them4  
,i  include in these remarks such       
institutions as the ,polytechnic        
,school1  the ,museum of ,natural       
,history1 etc4 ,their value1 like that  
of all  good institutions of modern     
times1 is purely provisional4 ,viewed in
  this light1 it may be worth our while 
to reorganize them4 ,positivist         
principles1 discarding all attempts to  
make them permanent1 will be all  the   
better able to adapt them to their      
important temporary purpose4  ,indeed   
there are some new institutions which it
 might be advisable to  form2 such1 for 
instance1 as a ,school of ,comparative  
,philology1 the  object of which would  
be to range all human languages         
according to  their true affinities4    
,this would compensate the suppression  
of ,greek  and ,latin professorships1   
which is certainly an indispensable     
measure4  ,but the whole of this        
provisional framework would no doubt    
disappear  before the end of the        

nineteenth century1 when a system of    
general  education will have been       
thoroughly organized4 ,the present      
necessity  for a provisional system     
should lead to no misconception of its  
character and purpose4 ,working men are 
the only class who have a real  claim   
upon the ,state for instruction2 and    
this1 if wisely organized1  dispenses   
with the necessity of special           
institutions4 ,the adoption of  these   
views would at once facilitate and      
ennoble popular education4  ,nations1   
provinces1 and towns will vie with one  
another in inviting  the best teachers  
that the spiritual authorities of       
,western ,europe can  supply4 ,and every
 true philosopher will take pride in    
such teaching1  when it becomes         
generally understood that the popular   
character of  his lectures implies that 
they shall be at the same time          
systematic4  ,members of the new        
spiritual power will in most cases      
regard teaching  as their principal     

occupation1 for at least a considerable 
portion of  their public life4     ,we  
are not ripe for this   system at       
present2 and   ,government must not     
attempt   to hasten its introduction    
,what has been said makes it clear that 
any organization of such  education as  
this at the present time would be       
impossible4 ,however  sincere the       
intentions of governments to effect this
 great result  might be1 any premature  
attempt to do it would but injure the   
work1  especially if they put in a claim
 to superintend it4 ,the truth is  that 
a system of education1 if it deserve the
 name1 presupposes the  acceptance of a 
definite philosophical and social creed 
to determine  its character and purpose4
 ,children cannot be brought up in      
convictions  contrary to those of their 
parents2 indeed1 the influence of the   
parent is essential to the instructor4  
,opinions and habits that have  been    
already formed may subsequently be      
strengthened by an educational  system2 

but the carrying out of any such system 
is impossible1  until the principles of 
combined action and belief have been    
well  established4 ,till then the       
organization that we propose can only be
  effected in the case of individuals   
who are ripe for it4 ,each of  these    
will endeavour to repair the faults and 
deficiencies of his own  education in   
the best way he can1 by the aid of the  
general doctrine  which he accepts4     
,assuming that the doctrine is destined 
to triumph1  the number of such minds   
gradually increases1 and they           
superintend the  social progress of the 
next generation4 ,this is the natural   
process1  and no artificial interference
 can dispense with it4 ,so far1 then1   
from  inviting government to organize   
education1 we ought rather to exhort it 
to abdicate the educational powers which
 it already holds1 and which1  ,i refer 
more especially to ,france1 are either  
useless or a source of  discord4 ,there 
are only two exceptions to this remark1 

namely1 primary  education1 and special 
instruction in certain higher branches4 
,of these  ,i have already spoken4 ,but 
with these exceptions1 it is most       
desirable  that government1 whether     
municipal or central1 should surrender  
its  unreasonable monopoly1 and         
establish real liberty of teaching2 the 
condition of such liberty being1 as ,i  
said before1 the suppression of  all    
annual grants whatsoever for theological
 or metaphysical purposes4  ,until some 
universal faith has been accepted on its
 own merits1 all  attempts made by      
,government to reform education must    
necessarily  be reactionary2 since they 
will always be based on some one of the 
retrogressive creeds which it is our    
object to supersede altogether4    ,it  
is with adults1 then1 that we must deal4
 ,we must endeavour to  disseminate     
systematic convictions among them1 and  
thus open the  door to a real reform of 
education for the next generation4 ,the 
press and the power of free speech offer

 many ways of bringing  about this      
result4 ,the most important of these    
would be a more or  less connected      
series of popular lectures on the       
various positive  sciences1 including   
history1 which may now be ranked among  
them4 ,now  for these lectures to       
produce their full effect1 they must    
even when  treating of the most         
elementary point in mathematics1 be     
thoroughly  philosophic and consequently
 animated by a social spirit4 ,they must
  be entirely independent of government1
 so as not to be hampered by  any of the
 authorized views4 ,lastly1 there is a  
condition in which  all the rest are    
summed up4 ,these lectures should be    
,occidental1 not  simply ,national4     
,what we require is a free association  
of philosophers  throughout ,western    
,europe1 formed by the voluntary        
co-operation of all  who can contribute 
efficiently to this great preliminary   
work2 their  services being essentially 
gratuitous4 ,it is a result which no    

system  but ,positivism is capable of   
effecting4 ,by its agency that coalition
  between philosophers and the working  
classes1 on which so much depends1  will
 speedily be established4    ,while the 
work of propagating ,positivist         
convictions is going on in the  free and
 unrestricted manner here described1 the
 spiritual authority  will at the same  
time be forming itself1 and will be     
prepared to make  use of these          
convictions as the basis for social     
regeneration4 ,thus  the transitional   
state will be brought as nearly as      
possible into  harmony with the normal  
state2 and this the more in proportion  
as the  natural affinity between        
philosophers and workmen is brought out 
more  distinctly4 ,the connexion between
 ,positivist lectures and ,positivist   
clubs will illustrate my meaning4 ,while
 the lectures prepare the  way for the  
,future1 the clubs work in the same     
direction by judging  the ,past1 and    
advising for the ,present2 so that we   

have at once a  beginning of the three  
essential functions of the new spiritual
 power4    ,we have now a clear         
conception of popular education in its  
provisional1  and in its normal state4  
,long before the normal state can be    
realized1  the mutual action of         
philosophers and workmen will have done 
great  service to both4 ,meeting with   
such powerful support from the people1  
the rising spiritual power will win the 
respect if not the affection  of their  
rulers1 even of those among them who are
 now the most  contemptuous of every    
influence but that of material power4   
,their  excess of pride will often be so
 far humbled that they will invite  its 
mediation in cases where the people have
 been roused to just  indignation4 ,the 
force of numbers seems at first so      
violent as to carry  all before it2 but 
in the end it usually proves far        
inferior to that  of wealth4 ,it cannot 
exist for any length of time without    
complete  convergence of opinion and    

feeling4 ,hence1 a spiritual power has  
very  great weight in controlling or    
directing its action4 ,philosophers will
  never1 indeed1 be able to manage the  
working classes as they please1  as some
 unprincipled agitators have imagined2  
but when they exercise  their authority 
rightly1 whether it be in the cause of  
,order or that  of ,progress1 they will 
have great power over their passions and
  conduct4 ,such influence can only     
spring from long cherished feelings  of 
gratitude and trust1 due not merely to  
presumed capacity but to  services      
actually rendered4 ,no one is a fit     
representative of his own  claims2 but  
the philosopher may honourably represent
 the cause of  working men before the   
governing classes2 and the people will  
in their  turn compel their rulers to   
respect the new spiritual power4 ,by    
this  habitual exchange of services the 
aspirations of the people will be  kept 
clear of all subversive tendencies1 and 
philosophers will be led  to abandon the

 folly of seeking political power4      
,neither class will  degrade itself by  
making its own interest the chief       
consideration3 each  will find its own  
reward in keeping to the nobler course  
of its own  social duty4                
,intellectual attitude of   the people4 
,emancipation   from theological belief 
,to complete this view of the political 
attitude which ,positivism  recommends  
to the working class1 ,i have now to    
speak of the  intellectual and moral    
conditions which that attitude requires1
 and on  which the character of their   
spiritual leaders depends4 ,what is     
wanted  is only a more perfect          
development of tendencies which already 
exist in  the people1 and which have    
already shown themselves strong in      
,paris1  the centre of the great        
,western movement4    ,intellectually   
the principal conditions are two2       
,emancipation from  obsolete beliefs1   
and a sufficient amount of mental       
culture4    ,the emancipation of the    

working classes from theology is        
complete1 at  least in ,paris4 ,in no   
other class has it so entirely lost its 
power4  ,the shallow deism1 which       
satisfies so many of our literary men1  
finds  little favour with the people4   
,they are happily unversed in studies   
of words and abstractions1 without which
 this last stage in the  process of     
emancipation speedily comes to an end4  
,we only require a  stronger expression 
of popular feeling on this point1 so as 
to avoid  all deception and false       
statement as to the intellectual        
character of  the reorganization that is
 going on4 ,and the freedom that we are 
now  enjoying will admit of these       
feelings being unmistakably manifested1 
especially now that they have the new   
philosophy for their exponent4  ,a      
distinct declaration of opinion on this 
subject is urgently needed  on social   
grounds4 ,that hypocritical affectation 
of theological belief  against which we 
have to fight1 is designed to prevent1  

or at least  has the effect of          
preventing1 the just enforcement of     
popular claims4  ,these unscrupulous    
attempts to mystify the people involve  
their mental  subjection4 ,the result   
is1 that their legitimate aspirations   
for real  progress are evaded1 by       
diverting their thoughts towards an     
imaginary  future state4 ,it is for the 
working classes themselves to break     
through this concerted scheme1 which is 
even more contemptible than  it is      
odious4 ,they have only to declare      
without disguise what their             
intellectual position really is2 and to 
do this so emphatically as  to make any 
mistake on the part of the governing    
classes impossible4  ,they will         
consequently reject all teachers who are
 insufficiently  emancipated1 or who in 
any way support the system of           
theological  hypocrisy1 which1 from     
,robespierre downwards1 has been the    
refuge of  all reactionists1 whether    
democrat or royalist4 ,but there are    

teachers  of another kind1 who sincerely
 maintain that our life here on earth is
  a temporary banishment1 and that we   
ought to take as little interest  in it 
as possible4 ,a prompt answer may be    
given to such instructors  as these4    
,they should be requested to follow out 
their principle  consistently1 and to   
cease to interfere in the management of 
a world  which is so alien to what1 in  
their ideas1 is the sole aim of life4   
,from metaphysical doctrines            
,metaphysical principles have more hold 
on our working classes than             
theological2 yet their abandonment is   
equally necessary4 ,the subtle          
extravagances by which the ,german mind 
has been so confused1 find1  it is true1
 little favour in ,catholic countries4  
,but even in ,paris  the people retains 
a prejudice in favour of metaphysical   
instruction1  though happily it has not 
been able to obtain it4 ,it is most     
desirable  that this last illusion of   
our working classes should be           

dissipated1  as it forms the one great  
obstacle to their social action4 ,one   
reason for it is that they fall into the
 common error of confounding  knowledge 
with intelligence1 and imagine in their 
modesty that none  but instructed men   
are capable of governing4 ,now this     
error1 natural  as it is1 often leads   
them to choose incompetent leaders4 ,a  
truer  estimate of modern society would 
teach them that it is not among our     
literary1 or even our scientific men1   
proud as they may be of their           
attainments1 that the largest number of 
really powerful intellects are  to be   
found4 ,there are more of them among the
 despised practical class1  and even    
amongst the most uninstructed working   
men4 ,in the ,middle ,ages  this truth  
was better known than it is now4        
,education was thought more  of than    
instruction4 ,a knight would be         
appreciated for his sagacity  and       
penetration1 and appointed to important 
posts1 though he might be  extremely    

ignorant4 ,clear-sightedness1 wisdom1   
and even consistency of  thought1 are   
qualities which are very independent of 
learning2 and1 as  matters now stand1   
they are far better cultivated in       
practical life  than in scholastic      
study4 ,in breadth of view1 which lies  
at the root  of all political capacity1 
our literary classes have certainly     
shown  themselves far below the average4
     ,their mistaken preference   of    
literary and rhetorical   talent to real
 intellectual   power    ,and now we    
come to another and a deeper reason for 
the prejudice of  which ,i am speaking4 
,it is that they make no distinction    
between  one kind of instruction and    
another4 ,the unfortunate confidence    
which they still bestow on literary men 
and lawyers shows that the  prestige of 
pedantry lingers among them longer than 
the prestige of  theology or monarchy4  
,but all this will soon be altered under
 the  influence of republican           
government1 and the strong discipline of

 a  sound philosophical system4 ,popular
 instinct will soon discover that       
constant practice of the faculty of     
expression1 whether in speech or  in    
writing1 is no guarantee for real power 
of thought2 indeed that it  has a       
tendency to incapacitate men from       
forming a clear and decided  judgment on
 any question4 ,the instruction which   
such men receive is  utterly deficient  
in solid principles1 and it almost      
always either  presupposes or causes a  
total absence of fixed convictions4     
,most minds  thus trained1 while skilled
 in putting other men's thoughts into   
shape1  become incapable of             
distinguishing true from false in the   
commonest  subjects1 even when their own
 interest requires it4 ,the people must 
give up the feeling of blind respect    
which leads them to intrust such  men   
with their higher interests4 ,reverence 
for superiors is doubtless              
indispensable to a well-ordered state2  
only it needs to be better  guided than 

it is now4    ,what then1 working men   
may ask1 is the proper training for     
themselves1  and consequently for those 
who claim to guide them8 ,the answer is1
  systematic cultivation of the         
,positive spirit4 ,it is already called 
into exercise by their daily            
occupations2 and all that is wanted is  
to strengthen it by a course of         
scientific study4 ,their daily work     
involves a rudimentary application of   
the ,positive method3 it turns  their   
attention to many most important natural
 laws4 ,in fact1 the  workmen of ,paris1
 whom ,i take as the best type of their 
class1 have  a clearer sense of that    
union of reality with utility by which  
the  ,positive spirit is characterized1 
than most of our scientific men4  ,the  
speciality of their employment is no    
doubt disadvantageous with  respect to  
breadth and coherence of ideas4 ,but it 
leaves the mind  free from              
responsibility1 and this is the most    
favourable condition  for developing    

these qualities to which all vigorous   
intellects are  naturally disposed4 ,but
 nothing will so strongly impress on the
  people the importance of extending and
 organizing their scientific  knowledge1
 as their interest in social questions4 
,their determination  to rectify a      
faulty condition of society will suggest
 to them that  they must first know what
 the laws of ,social life really are2   
knowledge which is obviously necessary  
in every other subject4 ,they  will then
 feel how impossible it is to understand
 the present state  of society1 without 
understanding its relation on the one   
hand with  the ,past1 and on the other  
with the ,future4 ,their desire to      
modify  the natural course of social    
phenomena will make them anxious to know
  the antecedents and consequences of   
these phenomena1 so as to avoid  all    
mischievous or useless interference4    
,they will thus discover  that          
,political ,art is even more dependent  
than other arts1 upon  its corresponding

 ,science4 ,and then they will soon see 
that this  science is no isolated       
department of knowledge1 but that it    
involves  preliminary study of ,man and 
of the ,world4 ,in this way they will   
pass  downwards through the hierarchic  
scale of ,positive conceptions1 until   
they come back to the inorganic world1  
the sphere more immediately  connected  
with their own special avocations4 ,and 
thus they will reach  the conclusion    
that ,positivism is the only system     
which can satisfy  either the           
intellectual or material wants of the   
people1 since its  subject-matter and   
its objects are identical with their    
own1 and since1  like themselves1 it    
subordinates everything to social       
considerations4  ,all that it claims is 
to present in a systematic form         
principles which  they already hold     
instinctively4 ,by co-ordinating these  
principles of  morality and good sense1 
their value1 whether in public or in    
private  questions1 is largely          

increased2 and the union of the two     
forms of  wisdom1 theoretical and       
practical wisdom1 is permanently        
secured4  ,when all this is understood1 
the people will feel some shame at      
having entrusted questions of the       
greatest complexity to minds that  have 
never quite comprehended the difference 
between a cubic inch  and a cubic foot4 
,as to men of science1 in the common    
acceptation of  the word1 who are so    
respected by the middle classes1 we need
 not  be afraid of their gaining much   
influence with the people4 ,they are    
alienated from them by their utter      
indifference to social questions2  and  
before these their learned puerilities  
fade into insignificance4  ,absorbed in 
the details of their own special        
science1 they are quite  incapable of   
satisfying unsophisticated minds4 ,what 
the people want is  to have clear       
conceptions on all subjects1 des clarts 
de tout1 as  ,molire has it4 ,whenever  
the savants of our time are drawn by    

their  foolish ambition into politics1  
ordinary men find to their surprise     
that1 except in a few questions of      
limited extent and importance1  their   
minds have become thoroughly narrow     
under the influence of the  specializing
 system of which they are so proud4     
,positivism explains  the mystery1 by   
showing that1 since the necessity for   
the specializing  system now no longer  
exists1 it naturally results if         
prolonged1 in a  sort of academic       
idiocy4 ,during the last three centuries
 it did real  service to society1 by    
laying down the scientific groundwork   
for the  renovation of ,philosophy      
projected by ,bacon and ,descartes4 ,but
 as soon  as the groundwork was         
sufficiently finished to admit of the   
formation  of true ,science1 that is1 of
 ,science viewed relatively to          
,humanity1  the specializing method     
became retrograde4 ,it ceased to be of  
any  assistance to the modern spirit2   
and indeed it is now1 especially in     

,france1 a serious obstacle to its      
diffusion and systematic working4  ,the 
wise revolutionists of the ,convention  
were well aware of this  when they took 
the bold step of suppressing the        
,academy of ,sciences4  ,the beneficial 
results of this statesman-like policy   
will soon be  appreciated by our        
workmen4 ,the danger lest1 in           
withdrawing their  confidence from      
metaphysicians or literary men1 they    
should fall into  the bad scientific    
spirit1 is not therefore very great4    
,with the social  aims which they have  
in view1 they cannot but see that       
generality in  their conceptions is as  
necessary as positivity4 ,the           
,capitalist class  by which industry is 
directed1 being more concentrated on    
special  objects1 will always look on   
men of pure science with more respect4  
,but the people will be drawn by their  
political leanings towards  philosophers
 in the true sense of that word4 ,the   
number of such men is  but very small at

 present2 but it will soon increase at  
the call of the  working classes1 and   
will indeed be recruited from their     
ranks4     ,moral attitude of the       
people4 ,the workman should   regard    
himself as a public   functionary       
,this1 then1 should be the attitude of  
the working class1  intellectually4     
,morally1 what is required is1 that they
 should have  a sufficient sense of the 
dignity of labour1 and that they should 
be  prepared for the mission that now   
lies before them4    ,the workman must  
learn to look upon himself1 morally1 as 
a public  servant1 with functions of a  
special and also of a general kind4 ,not
  that he is to receive his wages for   
the future from the ,state instead  of  
from a private hand4 ,the present plan  
is perfectly well adapted to  all       
services which are so direct and        
definite1 that a common standard  of    
value can be at once applied to them4   
,only let it be understood  that the    
service is not sufficiently recompensed1

 without the social  feeling of         
gratitude towards the agent that        
performs it4 ,in what are  called       
liberal professions1 this feeling       
already obtains4 ,the client or  patient
 is not dispensed from gratitude by     
payment of his fee4 ,in this  respect   
the republican instincts of the         
,convention have anticipated the        
teaching of philosophy4 ,they valued the
 workman's labour at its true  worth4   
,workmen have only to imagine labour    
suppressed or even suspended  in the    
trade to which they may belong1 to see  
its importance to the  whole fabric of  
modern society4 ,their general function 
as a class1 the  function of forming    
public opinion1 and of supporting the   
action of  the spiritual power1 it is of
 course less easy for them to understand
  at present4 ,but1 as ,i have already  
shown1 it follows so naturally  from    
their character and position1 and       
corresponds so perfectly with  their    
requirements as a class1 that they      

cannot fail to appreciate  its          
importance1 when the course of events   
allows1 or rather compels  them to bring
 it into play4 ,the only danger lies in 
their insisting  on the possession of   
what metaphysicians call political      
rights1 and  in engaging in useless     
discussions about the distribution of   
power1  instead of fixing their         
attention on the manner in which it is  
used4 ,of  this1 however1 there is no   
great fear1 at all events in ,france1   
where  the metaphysical theory of ,right
 has never reached so fanatical a pitch 
with the working classes as elsewhere4  
,ideologists may blame them1 and  may   
use their official influence as they    
will2 but the people have too  much good
 sense to be permanently misled as to   
their true function in  society4        
,deluged as they have been with         
electoral votes1 they will soon         
voluntarily abandon this useless        
qualification1 which now has not even   
the charm of a privilege4 ,questions of 

pure politics have ceased to  interest  
the people2 their attention is fixed1   
and will remain fixed1  on social       
questions1 which are to be solved for   
the most part through  moral agencies4  
,that substitutions of one person or    
party for another1  or that mere        
modifications of any kind in the        
administration should be  looked on as  
the final issue of the great            
,revolution1 is a result in  which they 
will never acquiesce4    ,and if this is
 to be the attitude of the people1 it   
must be the  attitude no less of those  
who seek to gain their confidence4 ,with
  them1 as with the people1 political   
questions should be subordinate  to     
social questions2 and with them the     
conviction should be even more          
distinct1 that the solution of social   
problems depends essentially  on moral  
agencies4 ,they must1 in fact1 accept   
the great principle of  separation of   
spiritual from temporal power1 as the   
basis on which  modern society is to be 

prominently organized4 ,so entirely does
 the  principle meet the wants of the   
people1 that they will soon insist  on  
its adoption by their teachers4 ,they   
will accept none who do not  formally   
abandon any prospects they may have of  
temporal power1  parliamentary as well  
as administrative4 ,and by thus         
dedicating their  lives without         
reservation to the priesthood of        
,humanity1 they will gain  confidence1  
not merely from the people1 but from the
 governing classes4  ,governments will  
offer no impediment to social           
speculations which do  not profess to be
 susceptible of immediate application2  
and thus the  normal state may be       
prepared for in the future without      
disturbance1  and yet without neglecting
 the present4 ,practical statesmen      
meanwhile1  no longer interfered with by
 pretentious sophists1 will give up     
their  retrograde tendencies1 and will  
gradually adapt their policy to the new 
ideas current in the public mind1 while 

discharging the indispensable  function 
of maintaining material order4          
,ambition of power and   wealth must be 
abandoned    ,for the people to rise to 
the true level of their position1 they  
have  only to develop and cultivate     
certain dispositions which already      
exist in them spontaneously4 ,and the   
most important of these is1  absence of 
ambition for wealth or rank4 ,political 
metaphysicians  would say that the sole 
object of the ,great ,revolution was to 
give  the working classes easier access 
to political and civil power4 ,but      
this1 though it should always be open to
 them1 is very far from  meeting their  
true wants4 ,individuals among them may 
be benefited by  it1 but the mass is    
left unaffected1 or rather is placed    
often in  a worse position1 by the      
desertion of the more energetic members4
  ,the ,convention is the only          
government by which this result has been
  properly appreciated4 ,it is the only 
government which has shown due          

consideration for working men as such2  
which has recognized the value  of their
 services1 and encouraged what is the   
chief compensation for  their condition 
of poverty1 their participation in      
public life4 ,all  subsequent           
governments1 whether retrograde or      
constitutional1 have1 on  the contrary1 
done all they could to divert the people
 from their true  social function1 by   
affording opportunity for individuals   
among them  to rise to higher positions4
 ,the monied classes1 under the         
influence  of blind routine1 have lent  
their aid to this degrading policy1 by  
continually preaching to the people the 
necessity of saving2 a precept  which is
 indeed incumbent on their own class1   
but not on others4  ,without saving1    
capital could not be accumulated and    
administered2 it  is therefore of the   
highest importance that the monied      
classes should  be as economical as     
possible4 ,but in other classes1 and    
especially in  those dependent on fixed 

wages1 parsimonious habits are uncalled 
for  and injurious2 they lower the      
character of the labourer1 while they   
do little or nothing to improve his     
physical condition2 and neither  the    
working classes nor their teachers      
should encourage them4 ,both  the one   
and the other will find their truest    
happiness in keeping  clear of all      
serious practical responsibility1 and in
 allowing free  play to their mental and
 moral faculties in public as well as   
private  life4 ,in spite of the         
,economists1 savings-banks are regarded 
by the  working classes with            
unmistakable repugnance4 ,and the       
repugnance is  justifiable2 they do harm
 morally1 by checking the exercise of   
generous  feelings4 ,again1 it is the   
fashion to declaim against wine-shops2  
and  yet after all they are at present  
the only places where the people can    
enjoy society4 ,social instincts are    
cultivated there which deserve our      
approval far more than the self-helping 

spirit which carries men to  the        
savings-bank4 ,no doubt this unconcern  
for money1 wise as it is1  involves real
 personal risk2 but it is a danger which
 civilization is  constantly tending to 
diminish1 without effacing qualities    
which do  the workman honour1 and which 
are the source of his most cherished    
pleasures4 ,the danger ceases when the  
mental and moral faculties  are called  
into stronger exercise4 ,the interest   
which ,positivism  will arouse among the
 people in public questions1 will lead  
to the  substitution of the club for the
 wine-shop4 ,in these questions1 the    
generous inspirations of popular        
instinct hold out a model which         
philosophers will do well to follow     
themselves4 ,fondness for money is  as  
much a disqualification for the         
spiritual government of ,humanity1 as   
political ambition4 ,it is a clear proof
 of moral incompetence1 which is        
generally connected in one way or other 
with intellectual feebleness4    ,one of

 the principal results of the spiritual 
power exercised by  philosophers and the
 working classes under the ,positivist  
system1 will  be to compensate by a just
 distribution of blame and praise for   
the  imperfect arrangements of social   
rank1 in which wealth must always       
preponderate4 ,leaving the present      
subordination of offices untouched1     
each functionary will be judged by the  
intrinsic worth of his mind and  heart1 
without servility and yet without any   
encouragement to anarchy4  ,it must     
always be obvious that the political    
importance which high  position gives1  
is out of all proportion to the real    
merit implied  in gaining that position4
 ,the people will come to see more and  
more  clearly that real happiness1 so   
far from depending on rank1 is far more 
compatible with their own humble        
station4 ,exceptional men no doubt      
there are1 whose character impels them  
to seek power2 a character  more        
dangerous than useful1 unless there be  

sufficient wisdom in the  social body to
 turn it to good account4 ,the best     
workmen1 like the  best philosophers1   
will soon cease to feel envy for        
greatness1 laden1  as it always must be1
 with heavy responsibilities4 ,at       
present1 the  compensation which ,i hold
 out to them has not been realized2 but 
when  it exists1 the people will feel   
that their spiritual and temporal       
leaders are combining all the energies  
of society for the satisfaction  of     
their wants4 ,recognizing this1 they    
will care but little for fame  that must
 be bought by long and tedious          
meditation1 or for power  burdened with 
constant care4 ,there are men whose     
talents call them to  these important   
duties1 and they will be left free to   
perform them2  but the great mass of    
society will be well satisfied that     
their own  lot is one far more in       
keeping with the constitution of our    
nature2  more compatible with that      
harmonious exercise of the faculties of 

,thought1 ,feeling1 and ,action1 which  
is most conducive to happiness4  ,the   
immediate pressure of poverty once      
removed1 the highest reward of          
honourable conduct will be found in the 
permanent esteem1 posthumous as  it may 
be sometimes1 of that portion of        
,humanity which has witnessed  it4 ,in a
 word the title1 servus servorum1 which 
is still retained by  the ,papacy from  
false humility1 but which originated in 
anticipation of  a social truth1 is     
applicable to all functionaries in high 
position4  ,they may be described as the
 involuntary servants of voluntary      
subordinates4 ,it is not chimerical to  
conceive ,positivist society  so        
organized that its theoretical and      
practical directors1 with all  their    
personal advantages1 will often regret  
that they were not born1  or that they  
did not remain1 in the condition of     
workmen4 ,the only  solid satisfaction  
which great minds have hitherto found in
 political  or spiritual power has been 

that1 being more occupied with public   
interests1 they had a wider scope for   
the exercise of social feeling4  ,but   
the excellence of the future condition  
of society will be1 that the            
possibility of combining public and     
private life will be open to all4  ,the 
humblest citizen will be able to        
influence not by command but by         
counsel1 in proportion to his energy and
 worth4    ,all the views brought       
forward in this chapter bear out the    
statement  with which it began1 that the
 ,proletariate forms the principal basis
  of the social system1 not merely as   
finally constituted1 but in its  present
 state of transition2 and admitting     
this1 the present state will  be seen to
 have no essential difference from the  
normal future to which  it tends4 ,the  
principal conditions of our transitional
 policy were  described at the          
conclusion of the last chapter4 ,the    
security for these  conditions is to be 
found in the natural tendencies of the  

people of  ,western ,europe1 and        
especially of ,france4 ,our governors   
will do well to  follow these tendencies
 instead of attempting to lead them2 for
 they  are in perfect keeping with the  
two great requirements of the present   
time1 ,liberty and ,public ,order4      
,the working classes are the   best     
guarantee for ,liberty   and for ,order 
,liberty of thought and speech is       
enjoyed in ,france1 and especially in   
,paris1 to an extent impossible in any  
other country1 and it is due            
principally to the intellectual         
emancipation of our workmen4 ,they have 
rid themselves of theology in all its   
forms1 and yet have not accepted  any   
metaphysical system4 ,at the same time1 
though totally devoid at  present of    
systematic convictions1 there is in them
 a submissiveness of  mind which        
predisposes them to receive convictions 
combining reality  with utility4 ,in all
 other classes there is a tendency to   
use forcible  measures in spreading     

their doctrines when discussion fails4  
,it is  only to the people that         
philosophers can look for the support   
and  extension of ,liberty1 which is so 
essential to their objects2 and from    
this they derive moral confidence far   
more reassuring than any legal          
security4 ,however reactionary or       
stationary the views of particular      
leaders or sects may be1 with such a    
population as that of ,paris1 no  real  
oppression is possible4 ,of all the     
claims which ,france has to the         
leadership of ,europe1 this is the      
strongest4 ,the resistance which is     
still offered to freedom of association 
and freedom of education will  soon be  
overcome by the force of its liberal    
sympathies4 ,a population  of such      
strong social feeling as ours will      
certainly not allow itself  to be       
permanently deprived of the power of    
meeting together freely  in clubs2      
institutions most conducive both to its 
culture and to  the protection of its   

interests4 ,it will insist with equal   
force  upon perfect liberty of teaching1
 feeling deeply the need of solid       
instruction1 and the incapacity of      
metaphysicians and theologians  to give 
it4 ,without popular pressure1 the      
essential conditions of  educational    
liberty will always be evaded4    ,and  
if ,liberty depends upon popular        
support1 ,public ,order1 whether  at    
home or abroad1 depends upon it no less4
 ,the inclinations of the  working      
classes are altogether on the side of   
peace4 ,their strong  dislike of war is 
the principal reason of the present     
remarkable  tranquillity of ,europe4    
,the foolish regret expressed by all the
  retrograde parties for the decline of 
the military spirit is a  sufficient    
indication of what the popular feeling  
is2 but even more  significant is the   
necessity for compulsory enlistment1    
which began  in ,france and has extended
 to other parts of ,europe4 ,there has  
been  much factitious indignation on the

 subject1 but at least it must be       
allowed1 that in our armies the officers
 are the only volunteers4  ,again1 the  
working class is more free than any     
other from international  prejudices1   
which still disunite the great family of
 ,western nations1  although they are   
very much weaker than formerly4 ,they   
are strongest in  the middle classes1 a 
fact principally due to industrial      
competition4  ,but working men feel how 
similar their wants and their conditions
  are in all countries1 and this feeling
 checks their animosity4 ,and  the      
consciousness of union will become far  
stronger1 now that the  great social    
problem of their incorporation into     
modern society is  being raised         
everywhere4 ,no errors that statesmen   
can commit1 whether  in matters of war  
or peace1 can prevent this from becoming
 the  preponderating question in every  
,european country2 and thus it tends to 
preserve their mutual concord4          
,popular sympathies of this sort are1 it

 may be said1 less conducive  to        
internal tranquillity than to pacific   
foreign relations4 ,but the  alarm which
 is naturally aroused by the spiritual  
anarchy around us  must not blind us to 
the real guarantees for ,order which    
popular  tendencies1 rightly            
interpreted1 hold out4 ,it is to the    
people that  we must look for the       
ascendancy of central over local power1 
which1  as we have seen1 is so          
indispensable to public order4 ,the     
executive  authority1 provided only that
 it gives no cause to fear reaction1    
will  always have their support when    
opposed by an assembly the prevalent    
tendencies of which will usually be     
adverse to their interests4 ,they  will 
always turn instinctively to the        
dictatorial rather than to the          
parliamentary branch of the             
administration2 feeling that from its   
practical character and the directness  
of its action1 it is more likely  to    
meet their wants4 ,useless discussions  

on constitutional questions  may suit   
ambitious members of the middle classes1
 by facilitating their  arrival to      
power4 ,but the people take very little 
interest in all this  unmeaning         
agitation1 and often treat it with      
merited contempt4 ,they  know that it   
can be of no use to them1 and that its  
only result is  to evade their real     
wants by undermining the only authority 
that can  do them justice4 ,consequently
 the people are certain to give their   
support to every government that        
deserves it2 especially in ,france1     
where political passions have already   
yielded to the superior and more        
permanent interest of social questions4 
,and while strengthening the  government
 they may do much to elevate its        
character2 by confining  it strictly to 
its practical function1 and resisting   
any attempts  that it may make to       
interfere with opinion4 ,in all these   
respects  the spontaneous influence of  
the working classes will be of material 

assistance in carrying out the          
systematic conceptions of social        
philosophy4     ,it is from them that we
   shall obtain the dictatorial   power 
which is provisionally   required       
,but a more striking proof of the       
political influence to be exercised  by 
the people is this4 ,the dictatorship   
which our transitional policy  requires 
as long as the spiritual interregnum    
lasts must arise in the  first instance 
from their ranks4    ,in the word       
,people1 especially in the ,french      
language1 there is a  fortunate         
ambiguity1 which may serve to remind us 
that the proletariate  class is not1    
properly speaking1 a class at all1 but  
constitutes the  body of society4 ,from 
it proceed the various special classes1 
which we  may regard as organs necessary
 to that body4 ,since the abolition of  
royalty1 the last remnant of caste1 our 
political leaders have been  recruited1 
and will continue to be so1 from the    
working class4 ,in the  normal state1   

however1 it will be required as a       
preliminary condition1  that the holder 
of dictatorial power shall have first   
received the  political training which  
is given by the exercise of authority in
 his  own business4 ,in a settled state 
of society1 ,government1 strictly so    
called1 is a mere extension of civil    
influence4 ,ultimately1 therefore1      
political power will fall into the hands
 of the great leaders of  industry4 ,as 
spiritual reorganization proceeds1 they 
will gradually  become more worthy of it
 than they are at present4 ,besides1 the
 tenure  of power will become less      
burdensome1 because it will be confined 
to  duties of a purely practical kind4  
,as yet1 however1 the case is very      
different2 and therefore the  wealthy1  
though ultimately they will be the      
administrators of power1  are not those 
to whom it should as a rule be entrusted
 in our present  condition4 ,special    
departments may be given to them with   
advantage1 as  we have seen proved      

recently1 and that in cases where the   
functions to  be performed had no       
relation whatever to industrial skill4  
,but they  are not competent as yet for 
dictatorial power1 the power which has  
to  supply the place of royalty4        
,individual exceptions1 of course1 there
  may be1 though none have appeared     
hitherto1 and at least they are  not    
enough for our provisional system to    
rely on4 ,as yet the wealthy  classes   
have shown themselves too debased in    
thought and feeling for  an office of   
such importance4 ,nor do we find greater
 aptitude for  it outside the industrial
 class4 ,scientific men are most        
assuredly  unfit for it1 especially in  
,france1 where the system of ,academies 
has  narrowed the mind1 withered the    
feelings1 and enervated the character   
to such an extent1 that most of them    
fail in the conduct of common  life1 and
 are utterly unworthy of the smallest   
post of authority1 even  in their own   
department4    ,all other classes       

failing us1 we have to look to the      
working class1  which has been left more
 free to form broad views1 and in which 
the  sense of duty has been better      
cultivated4 ,on historical grounds ,i   
feel convinced that the workmen of      
,france are more likely than any  other 
class to supply men competent for       
supreme power1 as long as the  spiritual
 interregnum lasts2 that is1 for at     
least one generation4    ,on looking at 
this question calmly and without        
scholastic or  aristocratic prejudice1  
it will be seen1 as ,i pointed out at   
the  beginning of this chapter1 that the
 working class is better situated  than 
any other with respect to generality of 
views and generosity of  feeling4 ,in   
knowledge and experience of             
administration they would  ordinarily be
 deficient2 they would therefore not be 
fit for the  work of any special        
department4 ,but this is no             
disqualification for  the supreme power1
 or indeed for any of the higher offices

 for which  breadth of view rather than 
special knowledge is required4 ,these   
may be  filled by working men1 whose    
good sense and modesty will at once lead
  them to choose their agents for       
special departments from the classes    
who have usually furnished them before4 
,the practical character and            
progressive spirit of such a government 
being beyond suspicion1 special  talent 
of whatever kind may be made available1 
even in the case of men  who1 if they   
had been placed in a higher position1   
would have proved  thoroughly hostile to
 republican institutions4 ,of all the   
diversified  elements of modern society1
 there is not one which may not be of   
real  service in assisting the          
transition4 ,among soldiers and         
magistrates1  for instance1 there are   
many who will join the popular movement1
 and  become sincere supporters of      
republicanism4 ,a government of this    
kind  would tranquillize the people1    
would obviate the necessity for violent 

compressive measures1 and would at the  
same time have a most beneficial        
influence on the capitalist class4 ,it  
would show them the necessity of        
attaining to greater purity of feeling  
and greater breadth of view1 if  they   
are to become worthy of the position for
 which they are ultimately  destined4   
,thus1 whether we look at the interests 
of ,public ,order1 or at those  of      
,liberty1 it appears necessary as a     
provisional measure1 during  the        
continuance of our spiritual            
interregnum1 that the holders  of       
dictatorial power shall be chosen from  
the working class4 ,the  success of a   
few working men in the pursuit of wealth
 has exercised  an unsettling influence 
on the rest2 but in the present instance
 we  need not fear this result4 ,it will
 be obvious that the career of a        
proletary governor is a rare exception1 
and one which requires peculiar         
endowments4    ,in examining the mode in
 which this anomalous policy should be  

carried  out1 we must bear in mind the  
object with which it was instituted4    
,it is most important to get rid of the 
custom1 based on motives  of            
self-interest1 which has grown up during
 the last generation1  of insisting on  
parliamentary experience as an          
apprenticeship for  executive power2    
executive power being always the real   
object of  ambition4 ,we have found from
 experience what we might have          
anticipated  on theoretical grounds1    
that this plan excludes all except mere 
talkers of the ,girondin type1 men      
totally devoid of statesman-like        
qualities4 ,to working men it offers    
almost insurmountable obstacles2  and   
even supposing these obstacles to be    
overcome1 we may be sure  that they     
would lose the straightforwardness and  
native vigour which  constitute their   
best claim to the exceptional position  
proposed for  them4    ,it is best1     
then1 that they should reach the        
position assigned to them  at once1     

without the circuitous process of a     
parliamentary career4  ,our transition  
towards the normal state will then      
exhibit its true  character4 ,it will be
 tranquil and yet decisive2 for it will 
rest on  the combined action of         
philosophers without political ambition1
 and  dictators adverse to spiritual    
encroachment4 ,the teacher who attempts 
to govern1 the governor who attempts to 
educate1 will both incur severe  public 
censure1 as enemies alike of peace and  
progress4 ,the whole  result will be a  
change in our revolutionary condition   
identical with  that which the          
,convention would have realized1 if1 as 
its founders  contemplated1 it had      
lasted till the ,peace4    ,such1 then1 
is the nature of the compact into which 
all true  philosophers should enter with
 the leading members of the proletary   
class4 ,their object is to direct the   
organic and final phase through  which  
the ,great ,revolution is now passing4  
,what they have to do is  carefully to  

prolong the provisional system adopted  
by the ,convention1  and to ignore1 as  
far as possible1 the traditions of all  
succeeding  governments1 whether        
stationary or retrograde4               
,comprehensiveness of  view and social  
sympathy predominate alike in both      
members of this  great alliance2 and it 
is thus a guarantee for our present     
state of  transition1 and a sure earnest
 of the normal future4 ,the people are  
the spontaneous representatives of this 
alliance2 the philosophers  its         
systematic organ4 ,the intellectual     
deficiencies of the former will  easily 
be remedied by philosophers1 who will   
show them how essential  it is on social
 grounds that they should understand the
 true meaning  of history2 since        
otherwise their conception of the union 
of mankind  must be limited to the      
present generation1 ignoring the more   
important  truth of the continuity of   
the ,present with the ,past and the     
,future4 ,a  far greater obstacle is the

 moral deficiency of most philosophers  
of  our time4 ,but the wholesome        
influence of the people upon them1      
combined  with a deep philosophic       
conviction of the preponderance of      
,feeling  in every subject of thought1  
will do much to overcome the ambitious  
instincts which weaken and distract     
their energies in the common cause  of  
social renovation4          ,,chapter   
,,iv    ,,the ,,influence ,,of          
,,positivism ,,upon ,,women       ,women
 represent the   affective element in   
our   nature1 as philosophers   and     
people represent the   intellectual and 
practical   elements    ,in their       
action1 then1 upon society1 philosophers
 may hope for the  energetic support of 
the working classes4 ,but the           
regenerating movement  requires still   
the co-operation of a third element1 an 
element  indicated by our analysis of   
human nature1 and suggested also by     
historical study of the great crisis of 
modern times4    ,the moral constitution

 of man consists of something more than 
,intellect  and ,activity4 ,these are   
represented in the constitution of      
society by  the philosophic body and the
 proletariate4 ,but besides these there 
is  ,feeling1 which1 in the theory put  
forward in the first chapter of this    
work1 was shown to be the predominating 
principle1 the motive power  of our     
being1 the only basis on which the      
various parts of our nature  can be     
brought into unity4 ,now the alliance   
between philosophers and  working men1  
which has been just described1 however  
perfectly it may  be realized1 does not 
represent the element of ,feeling with  
sufficient  distinctness and prominence4
    ,certainly without ,social ,feeling1
 neither philosophers nor proletaries   
can exercise any real influence4 ,but in
 their case its source is not           
sufficiently pure nor deep to sustain   
them in the performance of their  duty4 
,a more spontaneous and more perennial  
spring of inspiration must  be found4   

,with the philosopher social sympathies 
will never be wanting in  coherence1    
since they will be connected with his   
whole system of  thought2 but this very 
scientific character will deaden their  
vigour1  unless they are revived by     
impulses in which reflection has no     
share4  ,roused as he will be by the    
consciousness of public duty to a degree
  of activity of which abstract thinkers
 can form no conception1 the  emotions  
of private life will yet be not less    
necessary for him than  for others4     
,intercourse with the working classes   
will be of the  greatest benefit to him2
 but even this is not enough to         
compensate the  defects of a life       
devoted to speculation4    ,the         
sympathies of the people again1 though  
stronger and more  spontaneous than     
those of the philosopher1 are1 in most  
cases1 less  pure and not so lasting4   
,from the pressure of daily necessities 
it is  difficult for them to maintain   
the same consistent and disinterested   

character4 ,great as are the moral      
advantages which will result from  the  
incorporation of the people in modern   
society1 they are not enough  by        
themselves to outweigh the force of     
self-interest aroused by the  precarious
 nature of their position4 ,emotions of 
a gentler and less  transient kind must 
be called into play4 ,philosophers may  
relieve the  working classes from the   
necessity of pressing their own claims  
and  grievances2 but the fact still     
remains1 that the instincts by which    
those claims are prompted are personal  
rather than social4    ,thus1 in the    
alliance which has been here proposed as
 necessary  for social reorganization1  
,feeling1 the most influential part of  
human nature1 has not been adequately   
represented4 ,an element is  wanting    
which shall have the same relation to   
the moral side of our  constitution1 as 
the philosophic body has with           
,intellect1 and the  people with        
,activity4 ,on this1 as well as on other

 grounds1 it is  indispensable that     
,women be associated in the work of     
regeneration  as soon as its tendencies 
and conditions can be explained to them4
  ,with the addition of this third      
element1 the constructive movement at   
last assumes its true character4 ,we may
 then feel confident that our           
intellectual and practical faculties    
will be kept in due subordination  to   
universal ,love4 ,the digressions of    
intellect1 and the subversive           
tendencies of our active powers will be 
as far as possible prevented4     ,women
 have stood aloof from   the modern     
movement1 because   of its anti-historic
 and   destructive character            
,indispensable to ,positivism as the    
co-operation of women is1 it  involves  
one essential condition4 ,modern        
progress must rise above its  present   
imperfect character1 before women can   
thoroughly sympathize  with it4    ,at  
present the general feeling amongst them
 is antipathy to the  ,revolution4 ,they

 dislike the destructive character which
 the ,revolution  necessarily exhibited 
in its first phase4 ,all their social   
sympathies  are given to the ,middle    
,ages4 ,and this is not merely due1 as  
is  supposed1 to the regret which they  
very naturally feel for the decline  of 
chivalry1 although they cannot but feel 
that the ,middle ,ages are  the only    
period in which the feeling of reverence
 for women has been  properly           
cultivated4 ,but the real ground of     
their predilection is  deeper and less  
interested4 ,it is that1 being morally  
the purest  portion of ,humanity1 they  
venerate ,catholicism1 as the only      
system  which has upheld the principle  
of subordinating ,politics to ,morals4  
,this1 ,i cannot doubt1 is the secret   
cause of most of the regret with  which 
women still regard the irrevocable decay
 of mediaeval society4    ,they do not  
disregard the progress which modern     
times have made in  various special     
directions4 ,but our erroneous          

tendencies towards  bringing back the   
old supremacy of ,politics over         
,morality1 are1 in  their eyes1 a       
retrograde movement so comprehensive in 
its character  that no partial          
improvements can compensate for it4     
,true1 we are  able to justify this     
deviation provisionally1 since the decay
 of  ,catholicism renders political     
dictatorship necessary4 ,but women1     
having  comparatively little to do with 
the practical business of life1 can     
hardly appreciate this necessity without
 a more satisfactory theory  of history 
than they at present possess4 ,it is a  
complete mistake  to charge women with  
being retrograde on account of these    
feelings  of regret which are most      
honourable to them4 ,they might retort  
the  charge with far better reason on   
the revolutionists1 for their blind     
admiration of ,greek and ,roman society1
 which they still persist in  asserting 
to be superior to ,catholic ,feudalism2 
a delusion1 the  continuance of which is

 principally due to our absurd system of
  classical education1 from which women 
are fortunately preserved4    ,however  
this may be1 the feelings of women upon 
these subjects are a  very plain and    
simple demonstration of the first       
condition of social  regeneration1 which
 is1 that ,politics must again be       
subordinated to  ,morality2 and this    
upon a more intelligible1 more          
comprehensive1 and  more permanent basis
 than ,catholicism could supply4 ,a     
system which  supplied such a basis     
would naturally involve reverence for   
women as  one of its characteristic     
results4 ,such1 then1 are the terms on  
which  women will cordially co-operate  
in the progressive movement4 ,nothing   
but incapacity to satisfy these terms   
could induce any thinkers to  condemn   
the conception as retrograde4    ,it is 
not1 then1 to the ,revolution itself    
that women feel antipathy1  but to the  
anti-historic spirit which prevailed in 
its first phase4  ,the blind abuse      

lavished on the ,middle ,ages wounds    
their strongest  sympathies4 ,they care 
little for metaphysical theories of     
society in  which human happiness is    
made to consist in a continual exercise 
of  political rights2 for political     
rights1 however attractively presented1 
will always fail to interest them4 ,but 
they give their cordial sympathy  to all
 reasonable claims of the people2 and   
these claims form the real  object of   
the revolutionary crisis4 ,they will    
wish all success to  philosophers and   
workmen when they see them endeavouring 
to transform  political disputes into   
social compacts1 and proving that they  
have  greater regard for duties than for
 rights4 ,if they regret the decline  of
 the gentle influence which they        
possessed in former times1 it is        
principally because they find it        
superseded by coarse and egotistic      
feelings1 which are now no longer       
counterbalanced by revolutionary        
enthusiasm4 ,instead of blaming their   

antipathies1 we should learn  from them 
the urgent necessity of putting an end  
to the moral and  intellectual anarchy  
of our times2 for this it is which gives
 a ground  of real justice to their     
reproaches4     ,but they will          
sympathize   with constructive          
tendencies2 and will   distinguish sound
 philosophy   from scientific           
specialities    ,women will gladly      
associate themselves with the           
,revolution as soon as  its work of     
reconstruction is fairly begun4 ,its    
negative phase must not  be prolonged   
too far4 ,it is difficult enough for    
them to understand how  such a phase    
could ever be necessary2 therefore they 
cannot be expected  to excuse its       
aberrations4 ,the true connexion of the 
,revolution  with the ,middle ,ages must
 be fairly stated4 ,history1 when       
rightly  interpreted1 will show them    
that its real object is1 while laying   
down a surer basis for ,morality1 to    
restore it to the old position of       

superiority over ,politics in which the 
mediaeval system first placed  it4      
,women will feel enthusiasm for the     
second phase of the ,revolution1  when  
they see republicanism in the light in  
which ,positivism presents  it1 modified
 by the spirit of ancient chivalry4     
,then1 and not till then1 will the      
movement of social regeneration be      
fairly begun4 ,the movement can have no 
great force until women give  cordial   
support to it2 for it is they who are   
the best representatives  of the        
fundamental principle on which          
,positivism rests1 the victory  of      
social over selfish affections4 ,on     
philosophers rests the duty  of giving  
logical coherence to this principle1 and
 saving it from  sophistical attacks4   
,its practical working depends upon the 
proletary  class1 without whose aid it  
would almost always be evaded4 ,but to  
maintain it in all its purity1 as an    
inspiration that needs neither  argument
 nor compulsion1 is the work of women   

only4 ,so constituted1 the  alliance of 
the three classes will be the           
foreshadowed image of the  normal state 
to which ,humanity is tending4 ,it will 
be the living type  of perfect human    
nature4    ,unless the new philosophy   
can obtain the support of women1 the    
attempt  to substitute it for theology  
in the regulation of social life had    
better be abandoned4 ,but if the theory 
stated in my first chapter be  true1    
,positivism will have even greater      
influence with women than with  the     
working classes4 ,in the principle which
 animates it1 in its manner  of         
regarding and of handling the great     
problem of human life1 it is but  a     
systematic development of what women    
have always felt instinctively4  ,to    
them1 as to the people1 it offers a     
noble career of social  usefulness1 and 
it holds out a sure prospect of         
improvement in their  own personal      
position4    ,nor is it surprising that 
the new philosophy should possess such  

qualities4 ,they follow naturally from  
the reality which is one of its  chief  
claims to acceptance2 in other words1   
from the exactness with  which it takes 
account of the facts of every subject   
that it deals  with4 ,strong as the     
prejudices of women are upon religious  
questions1  it cannot be long before    
they find out that ,positivism          
satisfies1 not  merely their            
intellectual1 but their moral and social
 wants better than  ,catholicism4 ,they 
will then have no further reason for    
clinging to  the old system1 of the     
decayed condition of which they are     
perfectly  aware4 ,at present they not  
unnaturally confound ,positivism with   
the  scientific specialities on which it
 is based4 ,scientific studies have1  as
 they see1 a hardening influence1 which 
they cannot suppose that the  new school
 of philosophers1 who insist so strongly
 upon the necessity  of studying        
science1 can have escaped4 ,closer      
acquaintance with the  subject will show

 them where their error lies4 ,they will
 see that the  moral danger of          
scientific studies arises almost        
entirely from want of  purpose and from 
irrational speciality1 which always     
alienate them from  the social point of 
view4 ,but for the ,positivist this     
danger does not  exist2 since1 however  
far he may carry these preliminary      
studies1 he  does so simply in order to 
gain a stronger grasp of social         
questions4  ,his one object is to       
concentrate all the powers of ,man upon 
the general  advancement of the race4   
,and so long as this object be kept in  
view1  women's good sense will readily  
distinguish between the training        
necessary for it1 and the puerilities of
 the learned societies4 ,the  general   
spirit of this work1 however1 makes     
further explanation  unnecessary4       
,women's position in   society4 ,like   
philosophers   and people1 their part is
   not to govern1 but to modify    ,the 
social mission of woman in the ,positive

 system follows as a natural            
consequence from the qualities peculiar 
to her nature4    ,in the most essential
 attribute of the human race1 the       
tendency to  place social above personal
 feeling1 she is undoubtedly superior to
  man4 ,morally1 therefore1 and apart   
from all material considerations1  she  
merits always our loving veneration1 as 
the purest and simplest  impersonation  
of ,humanity1 who can never be          
adequately represented in  any masculine
 form4 ,but these qualities do not      
involve the possession  of political    
power1 which some visionaries have      
claimed for women1  though without their
 own consent4 ,in that which is the     
great object  of human life1 they are   
superior to men2 but in the various     
means of  attaining that object they are
 undoubtedly inferior4 ,in all kinds of 
force1 whether physical1 intellectual1  
or practical1 it is certain that  ,man  
surpasses ,woman1 in accordance with a  
general law which prevails  throughout  

the animal kingdom4 ,now practical life 
is necessarily  governed by force rather
 than by affection1 because it requires 
unremitting and laborious activity4 ,if 
there were nothing else to do  but to   
love1 as in the ,christian utopia of a  
future life in which there  are no      
material wants1 ,women would be supreme4
 ,but life is surrounded  with          
difficulties1 which it needs all our    
thoughts and energies to  avoid2        
therefore ,man takes the command1       
notwithstanding his inferiority  in     
goodness4 ,success in all great efforts 
depends more upon energy and  talent    
than upon goodwill1 although this last  
condition reacts strongly  upon the     
others4    ,thus the three elements of  
our moral constitution do not act in    
perfect  harmony4 ,force is naturally   
supreme1 and all that women can do is   
to modify it by affection4 ,justly      
conscious of their superiority in       
strength of feeling1 they endeavour to  
assert their influence in a way  which  

is often attributed by superficial      
observers to the mere love  of power4   
,but experience always teaches them that
 in a world where  the simplest         
necessaries of life are scarce and      
difficult to procure1  power must belong
 to the strongest1 not to the most      
affectionate1 even  though the latter   
may deserve it best4 ,with all their    
efforts they can  never do more than    
modify the harshness with which men     
exercise their  authority4 ,and men     
submit more readily to this modifying   
influence1  from feeling that in the    
highest attributes of ,humanity women   
are their  superiors4 ,they see that    
their own supremacy is due principally  
to the  material necessities of life1   
provision for which calls into play the 
self-regarding rather than the social   
instincts4 ,hence we find it the  case  
in every phase of human society that    
women's life is essentially  domestic1  
public life being confined to men4      
,civilization1 so far from  effacing    

this natural distinction1 tends1 as ,i  
shall afterwards show1  to develop it1  
while remedying its abuses4    ,thus the
 social position of women is in this    
respect very similar to  that of        
philosophers and of the working classes4
 ,and we now see why  these three       
elements should be united4 ,it is their 
combined action  which constitutes the  
moral or modifying force of society4    
,philosophers are excluded from         
political power by the same fatality  as
 women1 although they are apt to think  
that their intellectual  eminence gives 
them a claim to it4 ,were our material  
wants more easily  satisfied1 the       
influence of intellect would be less    
impeded than it is  by the practical    
business of life4 ,but1 on this         
hypothesis1 women would  have a better  
claim to govern than philosophers4 ,for 
the reasoning  faculties would have     
remained almost inert had they not been 
needed to  guide our energies2 the      
constitution of the brain not being such

 as to  favour their spontaneous        
development4 ,whereas the affective     
principle  is dependent on no such      
external stimulus for its activity4 ,a  
life of  thought is a more evident      
disqualification for the government of  
the  world even than a life of feeling1 
although the pride of philosophers  is a
 greater obstacle to submission than the
 vanity of women4 ,with all  its        
pretensions1 intellectual force is not  
in itself more moral than  material     
force4 ,each is but an instrument2 the  
merit depends entirely  upon its right  
employment4 ,the only element of our    
nature which is  in itself moral is     
,love2 for ,love alone tends of itself  
towards the  preponderance of social    
feeling over self-interest4 ,and since  
even ,love  cannot govern1 what can be  
the claim of ,intellect8 ,in practical  
life  precedence must always depend upon
 superior energy4 ,reason1 even more    
than ,feeling1 must be restricted to the
 task of modifying4 ,philosophers       

therefore must be excluded from         
government1 at least as rigidly as      
women4 ,it is in vain for intellect to  
attempt to command2 it never  can do    
more than modify4 ,in fact1 the morality
 which it indirectly  possesses is due  
to this impossibility of exercising     
compulsory  power1 and would be ruined  
by the attainment of it1 supposing it   
were  possible4 ,intellect may do much  
to amend the natural order of things1   
provided that it does not attempt to    
subvert it4 ,what it can do is by  its  
power of systematic arrangement to      
effect the union of all the  classes who
 are likely to exert a beneficial       
influence on material  power4 ,it is    
with this view that every spiritual     
power has availed  itself of the aid of 
women1 as we see was the case in the    
,middle ,ages4    ,proceeding with our  
sociological analysis of moral force1 we
 shall find  an equally striking        
resemblance between the influence of    
,women and that  exercised by the       

,people4    ,in the first stage of      
progress1 there is no modifying power   
except what  springs from ,feeling2     
afterwards ,intellect combines with it1 
finding  itself unable to govern4 ,the  
only element now wanting is ,activity2  
and  this want1 which is indispensable1 
is supplied by the co-operation of  the 
people4 ,the fact is1 that although the 
people constitute the basis  on which   
all political power rests1 yet they have
 as little to do  directly with the     
administration of power as philosophers 
or women4    ,power1 in the strict sense
 of the word1 power1 that is1 which     
controls  action without persuading the 
will1 has two perfectly distinct        
sources1  numbers and wealth4 ,the force
 of numbers is usually considered the   
more  material of the two2 but in       
reality it is the more moral4 ,being    
created  by co-operation1 it involves   
some convergence of ideas and feelings1 
and therefore it does not give such free
 scope for the self-regarding  instincts

 as the more concentrated power of      
wealth4 ,but for this very  reason1 it  
is too indirect and precarious for the  
ordinary purposes  of government4 ,it   
can influence government morally1 but   
cannot take  an active part in it4 ,the 
same causes which exclude philosophers  
and  women apply in the case of the     
people4 ,our material necessities are so
  urgent1 that those who have the means 
of providing for them will always  be   
the possessors of power4 ,now the       
wealthy have these means2 they  hold in 
their hands the products of labour1 by  
which each generation  facilitates the  
existence and prepares the operations of
 its successor4  ,consequently the power
 of the capitalist is one of so         
concentrated a  kind1 that numbers can  
very seldom resist it successfully4     
,even in  military nations we find the  
same thing2 the influence of numbers1   
though more direct1 affects only the    
mode of acquiring wealth1 not  its      
tenure4 ,but in industrial states1 where

 wealth is acquired by  other ways than 
violence1 the law is evident4 ,and with 
the advance  of civilization it will    
operate not less1 but more strongly4    
,capital  is ever on the increase1 and  
consequently is ever creating means of  
subsistence for those who possess       
nothing4 ,in this sense1 but in no      
other1 the cynical maxim of ,antiquity1 
,paucis nascitur humanum genus1  will   
always bear a true meaning4 ,the few    
provide subsistence for the  many4 ,we  
come back1 then1 to the conclusion of   
the last chapter2 that  the working     
classes are not destined for political  
power1 but that they  tend to become a  
most important source of moral power4   
,the moral value  of their influence is 
even more indirect than that of         
philosophers1  and depends even more in 
their case upon subordination           
politically4  ,in the few cases where   
government passes for a time into the   
hands  of the masses1 wealth in its turn
 assumes a sort of moral influence      

foreign to its nature4 ,it moderates the
 violence with which government  is apt 
to be administered in such cases4 ,the  
high intellectual and  moral qualities  
belonging to the working classes are1 as
 we have seen1  in great part due to    
their social position4 ,they would be   
seriously  impaired if the political    
authority that belongs to wealth were   
habitually transferred to numbers4      
,the united action of   philosophers1   
women1 and   proletaries constitutes    
,moral ,force    ,such1 in outline1 is  
the ,positive theory of ,moral ,force4  
,by it the  despotism of material force 
may be in part controlled4 ,it rests    
upon  the union of the three elements in
 society who are excluded from the      
sphere of politics strictly so called4  
,in their combined action lies  our     
principal hope of solving1 so far as it 
can be solved1 the great  problem of    
man's nature1 the successful struggle of
 ,social ,feeling  against ,self-love4  
,each of the three elements supplies a  

quality  indispensable to the task4     
,without women this controlling power   
would  be deficient in purity and       
spontaneous impulse2 without            
philosophers1  in wisdom and coherence2 
without the people1 in energy and       
activity4  ,the philosophic element1    
although neither the most direct nor the
 most  efficient1 is yet the distinctive
 feature of this power1 because its     
function is to organize its constitution
 and direct its operations in           
accordance with the true laws of social 
life4 ,as being the systematic  organ of
 the spiritual power it has become      
identified with it in  name4 ,this1     
however1 may lead to an erroneous       
conception4 ,the moral  aspect of the   
spiritual power is more important than  
the intellectual4  ,while retaining the 
name as an historical tradition of real 
value1  ,positivists attach a somewhat  
different meaning to it4 ,it originated 
in  a time when theories of society were
 unknown1 and when ,intellect was       

considered as the central principle of  
human nature4    ,spiritual power1 as   
interpreted by ,positivism1 begins with 
the  influence of women in the family2  
it is afterwards moulded into a  system 
by thinkers1 while the people are the   
guarantees for its  political           
efficiency4 ,although it is the         
intellectual class that  institutes the 
union1 yet its own part in it1 as it    
should never  forget1 is less direct    
than that of women1 less practical than 
that of  the people4 ,the thinker is    
socially powerless except so far as he  
is  supported by feminine sympathy and  
popular energy4    ,thus the necessity  
of associating women in the movement of 
social  regeneration creates no obstacle
 whatever to the philosophy by which    
that movement is to be directed4 ,on the
 contrary1 it aids its progress1  by    
showing the true character of the moral 
force which is destined  to control all 
the other forces of man4 ,it involves as
 perfect an  inauguration of the normal 

state as our times of transition admit4 
,for the chief characteristic of that   
state will be a more complete  and more 
harmonious union of the same three      
classes to whom we are  now looking for 
the first impulse of reform4 ,already we
 can see how  perfectly adapted to the  
constitution of man this final condition
 of  ,humanity will be4 ,feeling1       
,reason1 ,activity1 whether viewed      
separately  or in combination1          
correspond exactly to the three elements
 of the  regenerative movement1 ,women1 
,philosophers1 and ,people4             
,verification of this theory may be     
found more or less distinctly in  every 
period of history4 ,each of the three   
classes referred to have  always borne  
out the biological law that the life of 
relation or animal  life1 is            
subordinated to the life of nutrition4  
,still more striking is  the application
 to this case of another general        
principle1 namely1 that  ,progress is   
the development of ,order2 a principle  

which1 as ,i showed in  the second      
chapter1 connects every dynamical       
question in ,sociology with  the        
corresponding statical conception4 ,for 
with the growth of society1  the        
modifying influence of moral force is   
always increasing1 both by  larger scope
 being given to each of its three       
elements specially1 and  also by the    
more perfect consolidation of their     
union4 ,robertson has  made an important
 remark on the gradual improvement in   
the condition  of women1 which is but a 
particular case of this sociological    
law4  ,the general principle on which   
progress in all three classes depends1  
is the biological law1 that the         
preponderance of vegetable life over    
animal life diminishes as the organism  
is higher in the scale and is  more     
perfectly developed4    ,during the     
various phases of ancient ,polytheism1  
the controlling  power consisted simply 
of the moral influence exerted by women 
in the  ,family4 ,in public life the    

influence of thinkers had not made      
itself  independent of the governmental 
authority1 of which it was sometimes    
the source1 sometimes the instrument4   
,mediaeval ,catholicism went a  step    
further1 and took the first step in     
systematizing moral force4  ,it created 
an independent spiritual authority to   
which political  governments were       
subordinated1 and this authority was    
always supported  by women4 ,but the    
complete organization of moral force was
 reserved  for modern times4 ,it is only
 recently that the working classes have 
begun to interfere actively in social   
questions2 and1 as ,i have shown  in the
 preceding chapter1 it is from their    
co-operation that the  new spiritual    
power will derive its practical         
efficiency4 ,limited  originally to the 
sphere of ,feeling1 and subsequently    
extended to the  intellectual sphere1 it
 henceforward embraces the sphere of    
,activity2  and this without losing its 
spiritual character1 since the          

influences  of which it consists are    
entirely distinct from the domain of    
practical  politics4 ,each of its three 
elements persuades1 advises1 judges2    
but except in isolated cases1 never     
commands4 ,the social mission of        
,positivism is to regulate and combine  
their spontaneous action1 by  directing 
each to the objects for which it is best
 adapted4    ,and this mission1 in spite
 of strong prejudices to the contrary1  
it  will be found well calculated to    
fulfil4 ,i have already shown its       
adaptation to the case of the people and
 of the philosophic body1  whether      
regarded separately or in combination3  
,i have now to show that  it is equally 
adapted to the case of women4    ,in    
proof of this ,i have but to refer to   
the principle on which1 as  stated in   
the first chapter1 the whole system of  
,positivism is based2  the preponderance
 of affection in our nature4 ,such a    
principle is of  itself an appeal to    
women to associate themselves with the  

system1 as  one of its essential        
elements4 ,in ,catholicism1 their       
co-operation1  though valuable1 was not 
of primary importance1 because          
,catholicism  claimed a divine origin   
independent of their assistance4 ,but to
  ,positivism they are indispensable1 as
 being the purest and simplest          
embodiment of its fundamental principle4
 ,it is not merely in the ,family  that 
their influence will be required4 ,their
 duty will often be to call             
philosophers and people back to that    
unity of purpose which originated  in   
the first place with themselves1 and    
which each of the other  elements is    
often disposed to violate4    ,all true 
philosophers will no doubt accept and be
 profoundly influenced  by the          
conviction1 that in all subjects of     
thought the social point  of view should
 be logically and scientifically        
preponderant4 ,they  will consequently  
admit the truth that the ,heart takes   
precedence  of the ,understanding4      

,still they require some more direct    
incentive  to universal ,love than these
 convictions can supply4 ,knowing1 as   
they do1 how slight is the practical    
result of purely intellectual           
considerations1 they will welcome so    
precious an incentive1 were it  only in 
the interest of their own mission4 ,i   
recognized its necessity  myself1 when  
,i wrote on the #aath of ,march1 #ahdf1 
to her who1 in  spite of death1 will    
always remain my constant companion#g3  
#8,i was  incomplete as a philosopher1  
until the experience of deep and pure   
passion has given me fuller insight into
 the emotional side of human  nature'4  
,strong affection exercises a marvellous
 influence upon mental  effort4 ,it     
elevates the intellect at once to the   
only point of view  which is really     
universal4 ,doubtless1 the method of    
pure science leads  up to it also2 but  
only by a long and toilsome process1    
which exhausts  the power of thought1   
and leaves little energy for following  

out the  new results to which this great
 principle gives rise4 ,the stimulation 
of affection under feminine influence is
 necessary1 therefore1 for  the         
acceptance of ,positivism1 not merely in
 those classes for whom a  long         
preliminary course of scientific study  
would be impossible4 ,it  is equally    
necessary for the systematic teachers of
 ,positivism1 in  whom it checks the    
tendency1 which is encouraged by habits 
of abstract  speculation1 to deviate    
into useless digressions2 these being   
always  easier to prosecute than        
researches of real value4               
,superiority of the new   spiritual     
power to the old4   ,self-regarding     
tendencies of   ,catholic doctrine      
,under this aspect the new spiritual    
system is obviously superior to  the    
old4 ,by the institution of celibacy1   
which was indispensable to              
,catholicism1 its priests were entirely 
removed from the beneficial  influence  
exercised by women4 ,only those could   

profit from it who  did not belong to   
the ecclesiastical body2 the members of 
that body1  as ,ariosto has remarked in 
his vigorous satire1 were excluded4 ,nor
  could the evil be remedied1 except in 
very rare cases1 by irregular           
attachment1 which inevitably corrupted  
the priest's character by  involving the
 necessity of perpetual hypocrisy4      
,and when we look at the difference of  
the spirit by which the two  systems are
 pervaded1 we shall find still more     
striking evidence that  the new system  
offers a far larger sphere of moral     
influence to women  than the old4       
,both are based upon the principle of   
affection2 but in ,positivism the       
affection inculcated is social1 in      
,catholicism it is essentially          
personal4 ,the object of ,catholic      
devotion is one of such stupendous      
magnitude1 that feelings which are      
unconnected with it are in danger  of   
being crushed4 ,the priesthood1 it is   
true1 wise interpreters in  this respect

 of a general instinct1 brought all the 
more important  social obligations      
within the compass of religion1 and held
 them out  as necessary for salvation4  
,indirectly1 the nobler feelings were   
thus called into action2 but at the same
 time they were rendered far  less      
spontaneous and pure4 ,there could be no
 perfectly disinterested  affection     
under a system which promised eternal   
rewards for all acts  of self-denial4   
,for it was impossible1 and indeed it   
would have  been thought sinful1 to keep
 the future out of sight2 and thus all  
spontaneous generosity was unavoidably  
tainted by self-interest4  ,catholicism 
gave rise to an ignoble theory of morals
 which became very  mischievous when it 
was adopted by the metaphysicians2      
because1 while  retaining the vicious   
principle1 they swept away the checks by
 which  the priesthood had controlled   
it4 ,but even when we look at the purest
  form in which the love of ,god was    
exhibited1 we cannot call it a social   

feeling1 except in so far as the same   
object of worship was held out          
simultaneously to all4 ,intrinsically1  
it is anti-social1 since1 when  attained
 in absolute perfection1 it implies the 
entire sacrifice of  all other love4    
,and in the best representatives of     
,christian thought  and feeling1 this   
tendency is very apparent4 ,no one has  
portrayed the  ,catholic ideal with such
 sublimity and pathos as the author of  
the  ,imitation1 a work which so well   
deserved the beautiful translation of   
,corneille4 ,and yet1 reading it as ,i  
do daily1 ,i cannot help remarking  how 
grievously the natural nobleness of     
,thomas ,a',kempis was impaired by  the 
,catholic system1 although in spite of  
all obstacles he rises at  times to the 
purest ardour4 ,certainly those of our  
feelings which are  purely unselfish    
must be far stronger and more           
spontaneous than ever  has yet been     
supposed1 since even the oppressive     
discipline of twelve  centuries could   

not prevent their growth4     ,the      
spirit of ,positivism1   on the         
contrary1 is   essentially social4 ,the 
,heart and the ,intellect   mutually    
strengthen each   other    ,positivism1 
from the fact of its conformity with the
 constitution of  our nature1 is the    
only system calculated to develop1 both 
in public  and in private life1 those   
high attributes of ,humanity which1 for 
want  of adequate systematic culture1   
are still in their rudimentary stage4   
,catholicism1 while appealing to the    
,heart1 crushed ,intellect1 and         
,intellect naturally struggled to throw 
off the yoke4 ,positivism1 on the       
contrary1 brings ,reason into complete  
harmony with ,feeling1 without          
impairing the activity of either4       
,scientific study of the relation which 
each individual bears to the  whole race
 is a continual stimulus to social      
sympathy4 ,without a  theory of society1
 it is impossible to keep this relation 
distinctly  and constantly in view4 ,it 

is only noticed in a few exceptional    
cases1  and unconnected impressions are 
soon effaced from the memory4 ,but the  
,positivist teacher1 taking the social  
point of view invariably1 will  make    
this notion far more familiar to us than
 it has ever been before4  ,he will show
 us the impossibility of understanding  
any individual  or society apart from   
the whole life of the race4 ,nothing but
 the  bewilderment caused by theological
 and metaphysical doctrines can  account
 for the shallow explanations of human  
affairs given by our  teachers1         
attributing as they do to ,man what is  
really due to ,humanity4  ,but with the 
sounder theory that we now possess1 we  
can see the truth  as it really stands4 
,we have but to look each of us at our  
own life  under its physical1           
intellectual1 or moral aspects1 to      
recognize what  it is that we owe to the
 combined action of our predecessors and
  contemporaries4 ,the man who dares to 
think himself independent of  others1   

either in feelings1 thoughts1 or        
actions1 cannot even put the            
blasphemous conception into words       
without immediate self-contradiction1   
since the very language he uses is not  
his own4 ,the profoundest  thinker      
cannot by himself form the simplest     
language2 it requires the  co-operation 
of a community for several generations4 
,without further  illustration1 the     
tendency of ,positive doctrine is       
evident4 ,it appeals  systematically to 
our social instincts1 by constantly     
impressing  upon us that only the ,whole
 is real2 that the ,parts exist only in 
abstraction4    ,but independently of   
the beneficial influence which1 in this 
final  state of ,humanity1 the mind will
 exercise upon the heart1 the direct    
culture of the heart itself will be more
 pure and more vigorous than  under any 
former system4 ,it offers us the only   
means of disengaging  our benevolent    
affections from all calculations of     
self-interest4 ,as  far as the          

imperfection of man's nature admits1    
these affections will  gradually become 
supreme1 since they give deeper         
satisfaction than all  others1 and are  
capable of fuller development4 ,setting 
the rewards and  punishments of theology
 aside1 we shall attain at last to that 
which is  the real happiness of man1    
pure and disinterested love4 ,this is   
truly  the ,sovereign ,good1 sought for 
so long by former systems of philosophy 
in vain4 ,that it surpasses all other   
good one fact will show1 known to  the  
tender-hearted from personal experience2
 that it is even better to  love than to
 be loved4 ,overstrained as this may    
seem to many1 it is yet  in harmony with
 a general truth1 that our nature is in 
a healthier  state when active than when
 passive4 ,in the happiness of being    
loved1  there is always some tinge of   
self-love2 it is impossible not to feel 
pride in the love of one whom we prefer 
to all others4 ,since1 then1  loving    
gives purer satisfaction than being     

loved1 the superiority  of perfectly    
disinterested affection is at once      
demonstrated4 ,it  is the fundamental   
defect of our nature1 that intrinsically
 these  affections are far weaker than  
the selfish propensities connected with 
the preservation of our own existence4  
,but when they have been once  aroused1 
even though the original stimulus may   
have been personal1  they have greater  
capacity of growth1 owing to the        
peculiar charm  inherent in them4       
,besides1 in the exercise of these      
feelings1 all of  us can co-operate with
 and encourage one another1 whereas the 
reverse  is the case with the selfish   
instincts4 ,there is1 therefore1 nothing
  unreasonable in supposing that        
,positivism1 by regulating and combining
  these natural tendencies1 may rouse   
our sympathetic instincts to a          
condition of permanent activity hitherto
 unknown4 ,when the heart is  no longer 
crushed by theological dogmas1 or       
hardened by metaphysical  theories1 we  

soon discover that real happiness1      
whether public or  private1 consists in 
the highest possible development of the 
social  instincts4 ,self-love comes to  
be regarded as an incurable infirmity1  
which is to be yielded to only so far as
 is absolutely necessary4  ,here lies   
the universal adaptability of           
,positivism to every type of  character 
and to all circumstances4 ,in the       
humblest relations of life1  as in the  
highest1 regenerate ,humanity will apply
 the obvious truth1 ,it  is better to   
give than to receive4    ,the ,heart    
thus aroused will in its turn react     
beneficially upon the  ,intellect2 and  
it is especially from women that this   
reaction will  proceed4 ,i have spoken  
of it so fully before1 that ,i need not 
describe  it further4 ,it is in ,feeling
 that ,i find the basis on which the    
whole  structure of ,positivism1        
intellectually as well as morally       
considered1  rests4 ,the only remark ,i 
have now to add is1 that by following   

out this  principle1 philosophical      
difficulties of the most formidable kind
 are  at once surmounted4 ,from moral   
considerations1 the intellect may be    
readily induced to submit to scientific 
restrictions1 the propriety of  which   
would remain for a long time matter of  
debate1 were philosophical  discussions 
the only means of indicating it4        
,attempt1 for instance1  to convince a  
pure mathematician1 however             
conscientious and talented1  that       
,sociology is both logically and        
scientifically superior to all  other   
studies4 ,he would not readily admit    
this2 and severe exertion  of the       
inductive and deductive faculties can   
alone convince him of  it4 ,but by the  
aid of ,feeling1 an artisan or a woman  
can1 without  education1 readily grasp  
this great encyclopdic principle1 and   
apply  it practically to the common     
affairs of life4 ,but for this1 the     
larger  conceptions of philosophy would 
have but a limited range1 and very  few 

would be capable of the course of study 
which is yet so important  on social    
grounds for all4 ,comprehensiveness of  
mind is no doubt  favourable to         
sympathy1 but is itself more actively   
stimulated by it4  ,when the ,positivist
 method of education is accepted1 moral 
excellence  will be very generally      
regarded as a guarantee of real         
intellectual  capacity4 ,the            
revolutionist leaders of the ,convention
 showed their  sense of this connexion  
by allowing1 as they did sometimes1     
republican  ardour to outweigh          
scientific attainment4 ,of course1 so   
long as men  remain without a systematic
 theory of morals1 such policy would be 
likely to fail of its object1 and indeed
 would become positively  mischievous4  
,but the reproach is usually that it was
 a retrograde  policy1 a reproach far   
more applicable to the present system1  
in which  the standard of fitness for   
any office is regulated exclusively by  
intellectual considerations1 the heart  

being altogether disregarded4           
,historically we can explain this       
practice by the fact that the  religious
 faith in which our moral nature has    
hitherto been trained  has been of a    
most oppressive character4 ,ever since  
the ,middle ,ages1  the intellect and   
the heart have been unavoidably at      
issue4 ,positivism  is the only system  
which can put an end to their           
antagonism1 because1  as ,i have before 
explained1 while subordinating ,reason  
to ,feeling1 it  does so in such a way  
as not to impair the development of     
either4 ,with  its present untenable    
claims to supremacy1 ,intellect is in   
reality the  principal source of social 
discord4 ,until it abdicates in favour  
of  the ,heart1 it can never be of real 
service in reconstruction4 ,but its     
abdication will be useless1 unless it is
 entirely voluntary4 ,now this  is      
precisely the result which ,positivism  
attains1 because it takes  up the very  
ground on which the claims of intellect 

are defended1  namely1 scientific       
demonstration1 a ground which the       
defenders of  intellect cannot repudiate
 without suspicion at once attaching to 
their  motives4 ,but theological or     
metaphysical remedies can only          
exasperate  the disease4 ,by oppressing 
the intellect they provoke it to fresh  
insurrection against the heart4         
,intellectual and moral   affinities of 
women with   ,positivism    ,for all    
these reasons1 women1 who are better    
judges of moral questions  than         
ourselves1 will admit that ,positivism1 
incontestably superior  as it is to     
other systems intellectually1 surpasses 
them yet more  in dealing with the      
affections4 ,their only objection arises
 from  confounding ,positive ,philosophy
 itself with its preliminary course of  
scientific study4    ,women's minds no  
doubt are less capable than ours of     
generalizing  very widely1 or of        
carrying on long processes of deduction4
 ,they are1  that is1 less capable than 

men of abstract intellectual exertion4  
,on  the other hand1 they are generally 
more alive to that combination of       
reality with utility which is one of the
 characteristics of ,positive           
speculation4 ,in this respect they have 
much in common intellectually  with the 
working classes2 and fortunately they   
have also the same  advantage of being  
untrammelled by the present absurd      
system of  education4 ,nor is their     
position far removed from what it should
 be  normally2 being less engaged than  
men in the business of life1 their      
contemplative faculties are called into 
activity more easily4 ,their  minds are 
neither preoccupied nor indifferent2 the
 most favourable  condition for the     
reception of philosophical truth4 ,they 
have far  more affinity intellectually  
with philosophers who truly deserve  the
 name1 than we find in the scientific   
men of the present day4                 
,comprehensiveness of thought they      
consider as important as positivity1    

whereas our savants care for nothing but
 the latter quality1 and even  that they
 understand imperfectly4 ,molire's      
remarkable expression1  des clarts de   
tout1 which ,i applied in the last      
chapter to popular  education1 was used 
by him in reference to women4           
,accordingly we find  that women took a 
vivid interest in the very first attempt
 made to  systematize ,positive         
speculation1 the ,cartesian philosophy4 
,no more  striking proof could be given 
of their philosophical affinities2 and  
the more so that in the ,cartesian      
system moral and social speculations    
were necessarily excluded4 ,surely1     
then1 we may expect them to receive     
,positivism far more favourably1 a      
system of which the principal  subject  
of speculation is the moral problem in  
which both sexes are  alike interested4 
,women1 therefore1 may1 like the people1
 be counted among the future  supporters
 of the new philosophy4 ,without their  
combined aid it could  never hope to    

surmount the strong repugnance to it    
which is felt by our  cultivated        
classes1 especially in ,france1 where   
the question of its  success has first  
to be decided4     ,catholicism purified
   love1 but did not directly           
strengthen it    ,but when women have   
sufficient acquaintance with            
,positivism1 to see its  superiority to 
,catholicism in questions of feeling1   
they will support  it from moral        
sympathy even more than from            
intellectual adhesion4 ,it  will be the 
heart even more than the mind which will
 incline them  to the only system of    
philosophy which has fully recognized   
the  preponderance of ,feeling4 ,they   
cannot fail to be drawn towards a system
  which regards women as the embodiment 
of this principle2 the unity  of human  
nature1 of which this principle is the  
basis1 being thus  entrusted to their   
special charge4 ,the only reason of     
their regret  for the past1 is that the 
present fails to satisfy their noblest  

social instincts4 ,not that ,catholicism
 ever really satisfied them2  indeed in 
its general character it is even less   
adapted to women than  to men1 since the
 dominant quality of woman's nature is  
in direct  contradiction with it4       
,christianity1 notwithstanding its      
claims to  moral perfection1 has always 
confounded the quality of tenderness    
with  that of purity4 ,and it is true   
that love cannot be deep unless it is   
also pure4 ,but ,catholicism1 although  
it purified love from the animal        
propensities which had been stimulated  
by ,polytheism1 did nothing  otherwise  
to strengthen it4 ,it has given us      
indeed too many instances  of purity1   
pushed to the extent of fanaticism1     
without tenderness4 ,and  this result is
 especially common now1 because the     
austerity of the  ,christian spirit is  
not corrected1 as it used to be1 by the 
inspiring  influences of ,chivalry4     
,polytheism1 deficient as it was in     
purity1  was really far more conducive  

than ,christianity1 to tenderness4 ,love
  of ,god1 the supreme affection round  
which ,catholicism endeavoured  to      
concentrate all other feelings1 was     
essentially a self-regarding  principle1
 and as such conflicted with woman's    
noblest instincts4 ,not  only did it    
encourage monastic isolation1 but if    
developed to the  full extent1 it became
 inconsistent with love for our fellow  
men4 ,it  was impiety for the knight to 
love his ,lady better than his ,god2 and
  thus the best feelings of his nature  
were repressed by his religious  faith4 
,women1 therefore1 are not really       
interested in perpetuating  the old     
system2 and the very instincts by which 
their nature is  characterized1 will    
soon incline them to abandon it4 ,they  
have only  been waiting until social    
life should assume a less material      
character2  so that morality1 for the   
preservation of which they justly       
consider  themselves responsible1 may   
not be compromised4 ,and on this head   

,positivism satisfies their heart no    
less than their understanding with  all 
the guarantees that they can require4   
,based as it is upon accurate  knowledge
 of our nature1 it can combine the      
simple affectionate spirit  of          
,polytheism with the exquisite purity of
 ,catholicism1 without fear  of taint   
from the subversive sophisms engendered 
by the spiritual  anarchy of our times4 
,not however that purity is to be placed
 on the  same level with tenderness4    
,tenderness is the more essential of the
  two qualities1 because more closely   
connected with the grand object  of all 
human effort1 the elevation of ,social  
,feeling over ,self-love4  ,in a woman  
without tenderness there is something   
even more monstrous  than in a man      
without courage4 ,whatever her talents  
and even her energy  may be1 they will  
in most cases prove mischievous both to 
herself and  to others1 unless indeed   
they should be nullified by the         
restraint of  theological discipline4   

,if she has force of character it will  
be wasted  in a struggle against all    
legitimate authority2 while her mental  
power  will be employed only in         
destructive sophisms4 ,too many cases of
 this  kind present themselves in the   
social anarchy of the present time4     
,such is the ,positivist theory on the  
subject of ,women4 ,it marks out  for   
them a noble field of social usefulness4
 ,it extends the scope  of their        
influence to public as well as private  
life1 and yet in a  way thoroughly in   
harmony with their nature4 ,without     
leaving the  family1 they will          
participate in the controlling power    
exercised by  philosophers and workmen1 
seeking even in their own domestic      
sphere  rather to modify than to govern4
 ,in a word1 as ,i shall show more fully
  in the last chapter of this           
introductory work1 ,woman is the        
spontaneous  priestess of ,humanity4    
,she personifies in the purest form the 
principle  of ,love upon which the unity

 of our nature depends2 and the culture 
of  that principle in others is her     
special function4     ,women's influence
 over the   working classes and their   
teachers    ,all classes1 therefore1    
must be brought under women's influence2
 for  all require to be reminded        
constantly of the great truth that      
,reason  and ,activity are subordinate  
to ,feeling4 ,of their influence upon   
philosophers ,i have spoken4 ,if they   
are men worthy of their mission1  they  
will be conscious of the tendency which 
their life has to harden  them and lead 
them into useless speculation2 and they 
will feel the  need of renewing the     
ardour of their social sympathy at its  
native  source4 ,feeling1 when it is    
pure and deep1 corrects its own errors1 
because they clash with the good to     
which it is ever tending4 ,but          
erroneous use of the intellectual or    
practical faculties1 cannot be  even    
recognized1 much less corrected1 without
 the aid of ,affection1  which is the   

only part of our nature that suffers    
directly from such  errors4 ,therefore  
whenever either the philosopher or the  
people  deviate from duty1 it will be   
the part of women to remonstrate with   
them gently1 and recall them to the true
 social principles which are  entrusted 
to their special charge4    ,with the   
working classes1 the special danger to  
be contended against  is their tendency 
to abuse their strength1 and to resort  
to force for  the attainment of their   
objects1 instead of persuasion4 ,but    
this danger  is after all less than that
 of the misuse of intellectual power to 
which philosophers are so liable4       
,thinkers who try to make reasoning  do 
the work of feeling can very seldom be  
convinced of their error4  ,popular     
excitement1 on the contrary1 has often  
yielded to feminine  influence1 exerted 
though it has been hitherto without any 
systematic  guidance4 ,the difference is
 no doubt partly owing to the fact that 
there are now few or none who deserve   

the name of philosophers4 ,for we       
cannot give that name to the superficial
 sophists and rhetoricians of  our time1
 whether psychologists or ideologists1  
men wholly incapable  of deep thought on
 any subject4 ,independently of this1   
however1 the  difference is explained by
 the character of the two classes4      
,women  will always find it harder to   
deal with intellectual pride than with  
popular violence4 ,appeals to social    
feeling are their only weapons2  and the
 social feelings of the workman are     
stronger than those of the  philosopher4
 ,sophistry is far more formidable to   
them than passion4 ,in  fact1 were it   
not that the working classes are even   
now so amenable  to female influence1   
society would be in extreme danger from 
the  disorder caused by intellectual    
anarchy4 ,there are many sophisms which 
maintain themselves in spite of         
scientific refutation1 and which would  
be destructive of all order1 were it not
 for our moral instincts4 ,of  this the 

,communists offer a striking example1 in
 avoiding1 with that  admirable         
inconsistency to which ,i have already  
called attention1 the  extension of     
their principle to the ,family4         
,surrounded by the wildest  theories1   
such as1 if they were put in practice1  
would utterly destroy  or paralyse      
society1 we see large numbers of working
 men showing in  their daily life a     
degree of affection and respect for     
women1 which  is unequalled by any other
 class4 ,it is well to reflect on facts 
like  these1 not only because they lead 
us to judge the ,communist school with  
more justice1 but because1 occurring as 
they do in the midst of social  anarchy1
 they show what powerful agencies for   
good will be at our  disposal in more   
settled times4 ,certainly they cannot be
 attributed to  theological teaching1   
which has rather had the effect of      
strengthening  the errors which it      
attacks by the absurdity of its         
refutations4 ,they  are simply the      

result of the influence which women have
 spontaneously  exercised on the nobler 
feelings of the people4 ,in ,protestant 
countries  where their influence is     
less1 the mischievous effects of        
,communistic  theories have been far    
greater4 ,we owe it to women that the   
,family has  been so little injured by  
the retrograde spirit of those          
republican  reformers1 whose ideal of   
modern society is to absorb the ,family 
into  the ,state1 as was done by a few  
small tribes in ancient ,greece4    ,the
 readiness shown by women in applying   
practical remedies to  erroneous        
theories of morality is shown in other  
cases where the  attractiveness of the  
error would seem irresistible to the    
coarser  nature of men4 ,the evils      
consequent on divorce1 which has been   
authorized in ,germany for three        
centuries1 have been much lessened by   
women's instinctive repugnance to it4   
,the same may be said of recent  attacks
 upon marriage1 which are still more    

serious because the anarchy  of modern  
life revives all the extravagances of   
the metaphysical spirit  in ancient     
times4 ,in no one case has a scheme of  
society hostile to  marriage met with   
any real favour from women1 plausible as
 many of them  seemed4 ,unable in their 
ignorance of social science to see the  
fallacy  of such schemes themselves1 our
 revolutionary writers cannot conceive  
that women will not be convinced by     
them4 ,but happily women1 like the      
people1 judge in these matters by the   
heart rather than by the head4 ,in  the 
absence of any guiding principle to     
direct the understanding and  prevent   
the deviations to which it is always    
exposed1 the heart is a  far safer      
guide4    ,there is no need at present  
of pursuing these remarks farther4 ,it  
is  abundantly clear that women are in  
every respect adapted for rectifying    
the moral deviations to which every     
element in the social organism is       
liable4 ,and if we already feel the     

value of their influence1 springing  as 
it does from the unaided inspirations of
 the heart1 we may be sure  it will     
become far more consolidated and will be
 far more widely felt1  when it rests on
 the basis of a sound philosophical     
system1 capable of  refuting sophisms   
and exposing fallacies from which their 
unassisted  instinct is insufficient to 
preserve us4     ,their social influence
 in   the salon    ,thus the part to be 
played by women in public life is not   
merely  passive4 ,not only will they    
give their sanction individually  and   
collectively to the verdicts of public  
opinion as formed by  philosophers and  
by the people2 but they will themselves 
interfere  actively in moral questions4 
,it will be their part to maintain the  
primary principle of ,positivism1 which 
originated with themselves1 and  of     
which they will always be the most      
natural representatives4    ,but1 how1  
it may be asked1 can this be reconciled 
with my previous  remark that women's   

life should still be essentially        
domestic8    ,for the ancients1 and for 
the greater part of the human race at   
the  present time1 it would be          
irreconcilable4 ,but in ,western ,europe
 the  solution has long ago been found4 
,from the time when women acquired1  as 
they did in the ,middle ,ages1 a fair   
measure of domestic freedom1            
opportunities for social intercourse    
arose1 which combined most happily  the 
advantages of private and of public     
life1 and in these women  presided4 ,the
 practice afterwards extended1          
especially in ,france1 and  these       
meetings became the laboratories of     
public opinion4 ,it seems now  as if    
they had died out1 or had lost their    
character4 ,the intellectual  and moral 
anarchy of our times is most            
unfavourable to free interchange  of    
thoughts and feelings4 ,but a custom so 
social1 and which did such  good service
 in the philosophical movement preceding
 the ,revolution1 is  assuredly not     

destined to perish4 ,in the more perfect
 social state to  which we are tending1 
it will be developed more fully than    
ever1 when  men's minds and hearts have 
accepted the rallying point offered by  
the  new philosophy4    ,this is1 then1 
the mode in which women can with        
propriety participate  in public life4  
,here all classes will recognize their  
authority as  paramount4 ,under the new 
system these meetings will entirely lose
  their old aristocratic character1     
which is now simply obstructive4  ,the  
,positivist salon will complete the     
series of social meetings1 in  which the
 three elements of the spiritual power  
will be able to act  in concert4 ,first1
 there is the religious assemblage in   
the ,temple of  ,humanity4 ,here the    
philosopher will naturally preside1 the 
other two  classes taking on a secondary
 part4 ,in the ,club again it is the    
people  who will take the active part2  
women and philosophers would support    
them by their presence1 but without     

joining in the debate4 ,lastly1  women  
in their salons will promote active and 
friendly intercourse  between all three 
classes2 and here all who may be        
qualified to take a  leading part will  
find their influence cordially accepted4
 ,gently and  without effort a moral    
control will thus be established1 by    
which acts  of violence or folly may be 
checked in their source4 ,kind advice1  
given  indirectly but earnestly1 will   
often save the philosopher from being   
blinded by ambition1 or from deviating1 
through intellectual pride1  into       
useless digressions4 ,working men at    
these meetings will learn  to repress   
the spirit of violence or envy that     
frequently arises in  them1 recognizing 
the sacredness of the care thus         
manifested for their  interests4 ,and   
the great and the wealthy will be taught
 from the manner  in which praise and   
blame is given by those whose opinion is
 most  valued1 that the only justifiable
 use of power or talent is to devote  it

 to the service of the weak4     ,but   
the ,family is their   principal sphere 
of action    ,but1 however important the
 public duties that women will          
ultimately  be called upon to perform1  
the ,family is after all their highest  
and  most distinctive sphere of work4   
,it was in allusion to their domestic   
influence that ,i spoke of them as the  
originators of spiritual power4  ,now   
the ,family1 although it is the basis of
 all human society1 has  never been     
satisfactorily defended by any received 
system of society4  ,all the corrosive  
power of metaphysical analysis has been 
employed  upon it2 and of many of the   
sophisms put forward no rational        
refutation  has been given4 ,on the     
other hand1 the protection of the       
theologians  is no less injurious4 ,for 
they still persist in connecting the    
institutions of the ,family with their  
obsolete dogmas1 which1 however  useful 
they may have been formerly1 are now    
simply dangerous4 ,from the  close of   

the ,middle ,ages the priesthood has    
been powerless1 as the  licentious songs
 of the troubadours prove1 to protect   
the sanctity of  marriage against the   
shallow but mischievous attacks which   
even then  were made against it4 ,and   
afterwards1 when these false principles 
became more generally prevalent1 and    
even royal courts disgraced  themselves 
by giving public approval to them1 the  
weakness of the  priests became still   
more manifest4 ,thus nothing can be more
 monstrous  than these ignorant         
assertions that theological doctrines   
have been the  safeguard of the ,family4
 ,they have done nothing to preserve it 
from the  most subversive attacks1 under
 which it must have succumbed1 but for  
the better instincts of society1        
especially of the female portion of  it4
 ,with the exception of a foolish       
fiction about the origin of ,woman1     
theology has put forward no systematic  
defence of marriage2 and as  soon as    
theological authority itself fell into  

discredit1 the feeble  sanction which it
 gave to domestic morality became       
utterly powerless  against sophistical  
attacks4 ,but now that the ,family can  
be shown on  ,positive principles to    
rest on scientific laws of human nature 
or  of society1 the danger of           
metaphysical controversy and theological
  feebleness is past4 ,these principles 
will be discussed systematically  in the
 second volume of the larger ,treatise  
to which this work is the               
,introduction4 ,but the few remarks to  
which ,i must at present limit  myself1 
will1 ,i hope1 at least satisfy the     
reader as to the capability  of         
,positivism to re-establish morality    
upon a firm basis4     ,woman's mission 
as a wife4   ,conjugal love an education
   for universal sympathy    ,according 
to the lower views of the subject1 such 
as those coarsely  expressed by the     
great hero of reaction1 ,napoleon1      
procreation and  maternity are the only 
social functions of ,woman4 ,indeed many

 theorists  object even to her rearing  
her children1 and think it preferable   
to leave them to the abstract           
benevolence of the ,state4 ,but in the  
,positivist theory of marriage1 the     
principal function of ,woman is one     
quite unconnected with procreation4 ,it 
is a function dependent on the  highest 
attributes of our nature4    ,vast as is
 the moral importance of maternity1 yet 
the position of  wife has always been   
considered even more characteristic of  
woman's  nature2 as shown by the fact   
that the words woman and wife are in    
many  languages synonymous4 ,marriage is
 not always followed by children2 and   
besides this1 a bad wife is very seldom 
indeed a good mother4 ,the first  aspect
 then1 under which ,positivism considers
 ,woman1 is simply as the  companion of 
,man1 irrespective of her maternal      
duties4    ,viewed thus1 ,marriage is   
the most elementary and yet the most    
perfect  mode of social life4 ,it is the
 only association in which entire       

identity of interests is possible4 ,in  
this union1 to the moral  completeness  
of which the language of all civilized  
nations bears  testimony1 the noblest   
aim of human life is realized1 as far as
 it  ever can be4 ,for the object of    
human existence1 as shown in the second 
chapter1 is progress of every kind2     
progress in morality1 that is to  say in
 the subjection of ,self-interest to    
,social ,feeling1 holding the  first    
rank4 ,now this unquestionable principle
 leads us by a very sure  and direct    
path to the true theory of marriage4    
,different as the two sexes are by      
nature1 and increased as that           
difference is by the diversity which    
happily exists in their social          
position1 each is consequently necessary
 to the moral development  of the other4
 ,in practical energy and in the mental 
capacity which  usually accompanies it1 
,man is evidently superior to ,woman4   
,woman's  strength1 on the other hand1  
lies in ,feeling4 ,she excels ,man in   

love1  as ,man excels her in force4 ,it 
is impossible to conceive of a closer   
union than that which binds these two   
beings to the mutual service and        
perfection of each other1 saving them   
from all danger of rivalry4 ,the        
voluntary character too of this union   
gives it a still further charm1  when   
the choice has been on both sides a     
happy one4 ,in the ,positive  theory1   
then1 of marriage1 its principal object 
is considered to be  that of completing 
and confirming the education of the     
heart by calling  out the purest and    
strongest of human sympathies4    ,it is
 true that sexual instinct1 which1 in   
man's case at all events1  was the      
origin of conjugal attachment1 is a     
feeling purely selfish4 ,it  is also    
true that its absence would in the      
majority of cases1 diminish  the energy 
of affection4 ,but woman with her more  
loving heart1 has  usually far less need
 of this coarse stimulus than man4 ,the 
influence  of her purity reacts on man1 

and ennobles his affection4 ,and        
affection  is in itself so sweet1 that  
when once it has been aroused by        
whatever  agency1 its own charm is      
sufficient to maintain it in activity4  
,when  this is the case1 conjugal union 
becomes a perfect ideal of friendship2  
yet still more beautiful than           
friendship1 because each possesses and  
is  possessed by the other4 ,for perfect
 friendship1 difference of sex is       
essential1 as excluding the possibility 
of rivalry4 ,no other voluntary  tie can
 admit of such full and unrestrained    
confidence4 ,it is the  source of the   
most unalloyed happiness that man can   
enjoy2 for there  can be no greater     
happiness than to live for another4     
,but independently of the intrinsic     
value of this sacred union1 we have  to 
consider its importance from the social 
point of view4 ,it is the  first stage  
in our progress towards that which is   
the final object of  moral education1   
namely1 universal love4 ,many writers of

 the so-called  socialist school1 look  
upon conjugal love and universal        
benevolence1  the two extreme terms in  
the scale of affections1 as opposed to  
each  other4 ,in the second chapter1 ,i 
pointed out the falseness and danger  of
 this view4 ,the man who is incapable of
 deep affection for one  whom he has    
chosen as his partner in the most       
intimate relations of  life1 can hardly 
expect to be believed when he professes 
devotion to  a mass of human beings of  
whom he knows nothing4 ,the heart cannot
  throw off its original selfishness1   
without the aid of some complete  and   
enduring affection4 ,and conjugal love1 
concentrated as it is upon  one object  
exclusively1 is more enduring and       
complete than any other4  ,from personal
 experience of strong love we rise by   
degrees to sincere  affection for all   
mankind2 although1 as the scope of      
feeling widens1  its energy must        
decrease4 ,the connexion of these two   
states of feeling  is instinctively     

recognized by all2 and it is clearly    
indicated by the  ,positive theory of   
human nature1 which has now placed it   
beyond the  reach of metaphysical       
attacks4 ,when the moral empire of      
,woman has been  more firmly established
 by the diffusion of ,positivist        
principles1 men  will see that the      
common practice of looking to the       
private life of a  statesman as the best
 guarantee of his public conduct had    
deep wisdom  in it4 ,one of the         
strongest symptoms of the general laxity
 of morals to  which mental anarchy has 
brought us1 is that disgraceful law     
passed  in ,france thirty years ago1 and
 not yet repealed2 the avowed object  of
 which was to surround men's lives with 
a #8wall' of privacy2 a law  introduced 
by psychologist politicians who no doubt
 needed such a  wall4#h     ,conditions 
of marriage4   ,indissoluble monogamy   
,the purpose of marriage once clearly   
understood1 it becomes easy to  define  
its conditions4 ,the intervention of    

society is necessary2 but  its only     
object is to confirm and to develop the 
order of things which  exists naturally4
    ,it is essential in the first place 
to the high purposes for which  marriage
 has been instituted1 that the union    
shall be both exclusive  and            
indissoluble4 ,so essential indeed are  
both conditions1 that we  frequently    
find them even when the connexion is    
illegal4 ,that any one  should have     
ventured to propound the doctrine that  
human happiness is  to be secured by    
levity and inconsistency in love1 is a  
fact which  nothing but the utter       
deficiency of social and moral          
principles can  explain4 ,love cannot be
 deep unless it remains constant to a   
fixed  object4 ,the very possibility of 
change is a temptation to it4 ,so       
differently constituted as man and woman
 are1 is their short life too  much for 
perfect knowledge and love of one       
another8 ,yet the versatility  to which 
most human affection is liable makes the

 intervention of  society necessary4    
,without some check upon indecision and 
caprice1 life  might degenerate into a  
miserable series of experiments1 each   
ending  in failure and degradation4     
,sexual love may become a powerful      
engine  for good3 but only on the       
condition of placing it under rigorous  
and  permanent discipline4 ,those who   
doubt the necessity for this1 have only 
to cast a glance beyond ,western ,europe
 at the countries where no such         
discipline has been established4 ,it has
 been said that the adoption or         
rejection of monogamy is a simple       
question of climate4 ,but for this      
hypothesis there is no ground whatever4 
,it is as contrary to common            
observation as to philosophic theory4   
,marriage1 like every other human       
institution1 has always been improving4 
,beginning in all countries with        
unrestricted polygamy1 it tends in all  
to the purest monogamy4 ,tracing  back  
the history of ,northern ,europe1 we    

find polygamy there as well as  in the  
,south2 and ,southern nations1 like     
,northern1 adopt polygamy as  their     
social life advances4 ,we see the       
tendency to it in those parts of  the   
,east which come into contact with      
,western civilization4    ,monogamy1    
then1 is one of the most precious gifts 
which the ,middle ,ages  have bequeathed
 to ,western ,europe4 ,the striking     
superiority of social  life in the ,west
 is probably due to it more than to any 
other cause4  ,protestant countries have
 seriously impaired its value by their  
laws of  divorce4 ,but this aberration  
will hardly be permanent4 ,it is alien  
to  the purer feelings of women and of  
the people1 and the mischief done by  it
 is limited to the privileged classes4  
,france is now threatened with  a       
revival of the metaphysical delusions of
 the ,revolution1 and it is  feared by  
some that the disastrous example of     
,germany in this respect  will be       
imitated4 ,but all such tendencies1     

being utterly inconsistent  with the    
habits of modern life1 will soon be     
checked by the sounder  philosophical   
principles which have now arisen4 ,the  
mode of resistance  to these errors     
which ,positivism adopts will render the
 struggle most  useful in hastening the 
adoption of the true theory of marriage4
 ,the  spirit of ,positivism being      
always relative1 concessions may be made
  to meet exceptional cases1 without    
weakening or contradicting the          
principle2 whereas the absolute         
character of theological doctrine was   
incompatible with concession4 ,the rules
 of morality should be general  and     
comprehensive2 but in their practical   
application exceptions have  often to be
 made4 ,by no philosophy but the        
,positive can these two  conditions be  
reconciled4     ,perpetual widowhood    
,to the spirit of anarchy1 however1     
,positivism yields nothing4 ,the unity  
essential to marriage1 it renders more  
complete than ever4 ,it develops  the   

principle of monogamy1 by inculcating1  
not as a legal institution1  but as     
moral duty1 the perpetuity of widowhood4
 ,affection so firmly  concentrated has 
always been regarded with respect even  
on man's side4  ,but hitherto no        
religion has had sufficient purity or   
influence to  secure its adoption4      
,positivism1 however1 from the          
completeness of its  synthesis1 and from
 the fact that its rules are invariably 
based on the  laws of nature1 will gain 
such influence1 and we find little      
difficulty  in inducing all natures of  
delicate feeling to accept this         
additional  obligation4 ,it follows from
 the very principle which to the        
,positivist  is the object of all       
marriage1 the raising and purifying of  
the heart4  ,unity of the tie which is  
already recognized as necessary in life1
 is  not less so in death4 ,constancy in
 widowhood was once common among  women2
 and if its moral beauty is less        
appreciated now1 it is because  all     

systematic morality has been forgotten4 
,but it is none the less1  as careful   
study of human nature will show1 a most 
precious source of  moral good1 and one 
which is not beyond the reach of nobler 
natures1  even in their youth4          
,voluntary widowhood1 while it offers   
all the  advantages which chastity can  
confer on the intellectual and physical 
as well as on the moral nature1 is yet  
free from the moral dangers  of         
celibacy4 ,constant adoration of one    
whom ,death has implanted  more visibly 
and deeply on the memory1 leads all high
 natures1 and  especially philosophers1 
to give themselves more unreservedly to 
the  service of ,humanity2 and thus     
their public life is animated by the    
ennobling influence of their innermost  
feelings4 ,alike from a sense of  their 
own truest happiness and from devotion  
to public duty1 they will  be led to    
this result4    ,deep as is the         
satisfaction in this prolongation of the
 sacredness  of marriage1 it may be     

carried by those who recognize its value
 yet  further4 ,as the death of one did 
not destroy the bond1 so neither  should
 the death of both4 ,let1 then1 those   
whom death could not divide  be laid in 
the same grave together4 ,a promise of  
this solemn act of  perpetuation might  
be given beforehand1 when the organs of 
public  opinion judged it merited4 ,a   
man would find a new motive for public  
exertion1 if it were felt to be a pledge
 that the memory of her whom he  loved  
should be for ever coupled with his own4
 ,we have a few instances  where this   
union of memories has taken place       
spontaneously1 as in  the case of ,laura
 and ,petrarch1 and of ,dante and       
,beatrice4 ,yet these  instances are so 
exceptional1 that they hardly help us to
 realize  the full value of the         
institution proposed4 ,there is no      
reason for  limiting it to cases of     
extraordinary genius4 ,in the more      
healthy state  of society to which we   
are tending1 where private and public   

life  will be far more closely connected
 than they have been hitherto1 this     
recompense of service may be given to   
all who have deserved it1 by  those who 
have come within their circle of        
influence4    ,such1 then1 are the      
consolations which ,positivist sympathy 
can  give4 ,they leave no cause to      
regret the visionary hopes held out by  
,christianity1 hopes which now are as   
enfeebling to the heart as to  the      
intellect4 ,here1 as in all other       
respects1 the moral superiority  of     
,positivism is shown1 for the comfort   
which it gives to the bereaved  implies 
a strengthening of the tie4 ,christian  
consolation1 of which  so much has been 
said1 rather encourages a second union4 
,by so doing  it seriously impairs the  
value of the institution2 for a division
 of  affection arises1 which indeed     
seems hardly compatible with the vague  
utopia of a future life4 ,the           
institutions of perpetual widowhood and 
of  union in the tomb have found no     

place in any previous system1 though    
both were wanting to make monogamy      
complete4 ,here1 as elsewhere1 the  best
 reply which the new philosophy can give
 to ignorant prejudice  or malignant    
calumny1 is to take new steps forward in
 the moral  advancement of ,man4        
,thus the theory of marriage1 as set    
forward by the ,positivist1 becomes     
totally independent of any physical     
motive4 ,it is regarded by him as  the  
most powerful instrument of moral       
education2 and therefore as the  basis  
of public or individual welfare4 ,it is 
no overstrained enthusiasm  which leads 
us to elevate the moral purity of       
marriage4 ,we do so  from rigorous      
examination of the facts of human       
nature4 ,all the best  results1 whether 
personal or social1 of marriage may     
follow1 when the  union1 though more    
impassioned1 is as chaste as that of    
brother and  sister4 ,the sexual        
instinct has no doubt something to do in
 most cases  with the first formation of

 the passion2 but it is not necessary in
  all cases to gratify the instinct4    
,abstinence1 in cases where there is    
real ground for it on both sides1 will  
but serve to strengthen mutual          
affection4     ,woman's mission as a    
mother    ,we have examined the position
 of ,woman as a wife1 without supposing 
her  to be a mother4 ,we shall find that
 maternity1 while it extends her  sphere
 of moral influence1 does not alter its 
nature4    ,as a mother1 no less than as
 a wife1 her position will be improved  
by ,positivism4 ,she will have1 almost  
exclusively1 the direction of  household
 education4 ,public education given     
subsequently1 will be  little but a     
systematic development of that which has
 been previously  given at home4        
,education of children   belongs to     
mothers4   ,they only can guide the     
development of character    ,for it is a
 fundamental principle that education1  
in the normal  condition of society1    
must be entrusted to the spiritual      

power2 and  in the family the spiritual 
power is represented by ,woman4 ,there  
are  strong prejudices against          
entrusting the education of children to 
mothers3 prejudices springing from the  
revolutionary spirit of modern  times4  
,since the close of the ,middle ,ages1  
the tendency has been to  place the     
intellect above the heart4 ,we have     
neglected the moral side  of education1 
and ,i have given undue importance to   
its intellectual  side4 ,but ,positivism
 having superseded this revolutionary   
phase by  demonstrating the             
preponderance of the heart over the     
intellect1 moral  education will resume 
its proper place4 ,certainly the present
 mode of  instruction is not adopted for
 ,woman's teaching4 ,but their influence
  over the education of the future will 
be even greater than it was in  the     
,middle ,ages4 ,for in the first place1 
in every part of it1 moral              
considerations will be paramount2 and   
moreover1 until puberty1 nothing  will  

be studied continuously except ,art and 
,poetry4 ,the knights of old  times were
 usually brought up in this way under   
feminine guidance1 and  on them most    
assuredly it had no enervating          
influence4 ,the training can  hardly be 
supposed less adapted to a pacific than 
to a warlike state of  society4 ,for    
instruction1 theoretical and practical1 
as distinguished  from education1       
masters are no doubt necessary4 ,but    
moral education  will be left entirely  
to women1 until the time arrives for    
systematic  teaching of moral science in
 the years immediately preceding        
majority4  ,here the philosopher is     
necessary4 ,but the chief duties of the 
philosopher lie with adults2 his aim    
being to recall them1 individually  or  
collectively1 to principles impressed on
 them in childhood1 and to  enforce the 
right application of these principles to
 special cases as  they may arise4 ,that
 part of education which has the        
greatest influence  on life1 what may be

 called the spontaneous training of the 
feelings1  belongs entirely to the      
mother4 ,hence it is1 as ,i have already
  observed1 of the greatest importance  
to allow the pupil to remain with  his  
family1 and to do away with the monastic
 seclusion of our public  schools4      
,the peculiar fitness of women for      
inculcating these elementary  principles
 of morality is a truth which every true
 philosopher will  fully recognize4     
,women1 having stronger sympathies than 
men1 must  be better able to call out   
sympathies in others4 ,men of good sense
  have always felt it more important to 
train the heart than the head2  and this
 is the view adopted by ,positive       
,philosophy4 ,there is a  danger of     
exaggerating the importance of system   
and of forgetting  the conditions on    
which its utility depends2 but the      
,positivist is  preserved from this     
danger by the peculiar reality of his   
philosophy4  ,in morals1 even more than 
in other subjects1 we can only          

systematize  what has existed previously
 without system4 ,the feelings must     
first  be stimulated to free and direct 
action1 before we attempt to bring  them
 under philosophic discipline4 ,and this
 process1 which begins with  birth1 and 
lasts during the whole period of        
physical growth1 should  be left for    
women to superintend4 ,so specially are 
they adapted for  it1 that failing the  
mother1 a female friend1 if well chosen1
 and if  she can make herself           
sufficiently a member of the family1    
will in most  cases do better than the  
father himself4 ,the importance of the  
subject  can only be appreciated by     
minds dominated1 as women's minds are1  
by  feeling4 ,women can see1 what men   
can seldom see1 that most actions1 and  
certainly the actions of youth and      
childhood1 ought not to be judged  in   
themselves so much as by the tendencies 
which they show or by the  habits to    
which they lead4 ,viewed with reference 
to their influence  on character1 no    

actions are indifferent4 ,the simplest  
events in a  child's life may serve as  
an occasion for enforcing the           
fundamental  principle by which the     
early as well as later stages of        
,positivist  education should be        
directed2 the strengthening of ,social  
,feeling1  the weakening of ,self-love4 
,in fact1 actions of an unimportant kind
  are precisely those in which it is    
easiest to appreciate the feelings      
which prompted them2 since the mind of  
the observer1 not being occupied  with  
the consequences of such actions1 is    
more free to examine their  source4     
,moreover1 it is only by teaching the   
child to do right in small  things that 
he can be trained for the hard inward   
struggle that lies  before him in life2 
the struggle to bring the selfish       
instincts more  and more completely     
under the control of his higher         
sympathies4 ,in  these respects the best
 tutor1 however sympathetic his nature1 
will be  always far inferior to a good  

mother4 ,a mother may often not be able 
to  explain the reason of the principle 
on which she acts1 but the wisdom  of   
her plans will generally show itself in 
the end4 ,without formal  teaching1 she 
will take every opportunity of showing  
her children1 as  no other instructor   
could show them1 the joy that springs   
from generous  feelings1 and the misery 
of yielding to selfishness4    ,from the
 relation of mother we return by a      
natural transition to  ,woman's position
 as a wife4 ,the mother1 though her     
authority of course  tends to decrease1 
continues to superintend the growth of  
character  until the ordinary age of    
marriage4 ,up to that time feminine     
influence  over ,man has been           
involuntary on his part4 ,by marriage he
 enters into  a voluntary engagement of 
subordination to ,woman for the rest of 
his  life4 ,thus he completes his moral 
education4 ,destined himself for        
action1 he finds his highest happiness  
in honourable submission to one  in whom

 the dominant principle is affection4   
,positivism holds out to woman a most   
important sphere of public and  private 
duty4 ,this sphere1 as we may now see1  
is nothing but a larger  and more       
systematic development of the qualities 
by which she is  characterized4 ,her    
mission is so uniform in its nature and 
so clearly  defined1 that there seems   
hardly room for much uncertainty as to  
her  proper social position4 ,it is a   
striking instance of the rule which     
applies universally to all human effort2
 namely1 that the order of  things      
instituted by man ought to be simply a  
consolidation and  improvement of the   
natural order4     ,modern sophisms     
about   ,women's rights4 ,the           
domesticity of her life   follows from  
the principle   of ,separation of       
,powers    ,in all ages of transition1  
as in our own1 there have been false and
  sophistical views of the social       
position of ,woman4 ,but we find it  to 
be a natural law that ,woman should pass

 the greater part of her  life in the   
family2 and this law has never been     
affected to any  important extent4 ,it  
has always been accepted instinctively1 
though  the sophistical arguments       
against it have never yet been          
adequately  refuted4 ,the institution of
 the family has survived the subtle     
attacks  of ,greek metaphysics1 which   
then were in all the vigour of their    
youth1 and which were acting on minds   
that had no systematic principles  to   
oppose to them4 ,therefore1 profound as 
the intellectual anarchy of  the present
 day may be1 we need not be seriously   
alarmed when we see  that nothing worse 
comes of it than shallow plagiarisms    
from ancient  utopias1 against which the
 vigorous satire of ,aristophanes was   
quite  enough to rouse general          
indignation4 ,true1 there is a more     
complete  absence of social principles  
now1 than when the world was passing    
from ,polytheism to ,monotheism2 but our
 intellectual powers are more  developed

 than they were then1 and in moral      
culture our superiority  is even        
greater4 ,women in those times were too 
degraded to offer  even the opposition  
of their silence to the pedants who     
professed  to be taking up their cause2 
the only resistance offered was of a    
purely intellectual kind4 ,but happily  
in modern times the women of  the ,west 
have been free2 and have consequently   
been able to manifest  such unmistakable
 aversion for these ideas1 and for the  
want of moral  discipline which gives   
rise to them1 that1 though still        
unrefuted  philosophically1 their       
mischievous effects have been           
neutralized4  ,nothing but women's      
antipathy has prevented the practical   
outrages  which seem logically to follow
 from these subversive principles4      
,among  our privileged classes the      
danger is aggravated by indolence2      
moreover1  the possession of wealth has 
a bad influence on women's moral nature4
  ,yet even here the evil is not really 

very deep or widely spread4 ,men  have  
never been seriously perverted1 and     
women still less so1 by  flattery of    
their bad propensities4 ,the really     
formidable temptations  are those which 
act upon our better instincts1 and give 
them a wrong  direction4 ,schemes which 
are utterly offensive to female delicacy
 will  never really be adopted1 even by 
the wealthier classes1 who are less     
averse to them than others4 ,the        
repugnance shown to them by the people1 
with whom the mischief that they would  
cause would be irreparable1 is  far more
 decided4 ,the life which working people
 lead makes it very  clear to both sexes
 what the proper position of each should
 be4 ,thus  it will be in the very class
 where the preservation of the          
institution  of the family is of the    
greatest importance1 that ,positivists  
will  find the least difficulty in      
establishing their theory of the social 
position of women1 as consequent on the 
sphere of public and private  duty which

 has been here assigned to them4        
,looking at the relation of this theory 
to other parts of the ,positive  system1
 we shall see that it follows from the  
great principle which  dominates every  
other social problem1 the principle of  
separating  spiritual and temporal      
power4 ,that ,woman's life should be    
concentrated  in her family1 and that   
even there her influence should be that 
of persuasion rather than that of       
command1 is but an extension of  the    
principle which excludes the spiritual  
power from political  administration4   
,women1 as the purest and most          
spontaneous of the moral  forces of     
society1 are bound to fulfil with       
rigorous exactness all the  conditions  
which the exercise of moral force       
demands4 ,effectually to  perform their 
mission of controlling and guiding our  
affections1 they  must abstain          
altogether from the practical pursuits  
of the stronger  sex4 ,such abstinence1 
even when the arrangements of society   

may leave  it optional1 is still more   
desirable in their case than in the case
 of  philosophers4 ,active life1        
incompatible as it is with the clearness
 and  breadth of philosophic            
speculation1 is even more injurious to  
delicacy  of feeling1 which is women's  
highest claim to our respect and the    
true  secret of their influence4 ,the   
philosophic spirit is incompatible with 
a position of practical authority1      
because such a position occupies  the   
mind with questions of detail4 ,but to  
purity of feeling it is  even more      
dangerous1 because it strengthens the   
instincts of power  and of gain4 ,and   
for women it would be harder to avoid   
the danger of  such a position than for 
men4 ,abounding as they do in sympathy1 
they  are generally deficient in energy1
 and are therefore less able to         
withstand corrupting influences4 ,the   
more we examine this important  subject1
 the clearer it becomes that the present
 condition of women  does not hamper    

them in their true work2 that1 on the   
contrary1 it is  well calculated to     
develop and even improve their highest  
qualities4  ,the natural arrangements of
 society in this as in other respects   
are  far less faulty than certain blind 
declaimers would have us believe4  ,but 
for the existence of strong material    
forces1 moral force would  soon         
deteriorate1 because its distinctive    
purpose would be gone4  ,philosophers   
and proletaries would soon lose their   
intellectual and  moral superiority by  
the acquisition of power4 ,on women its 
effect  would be still more disastrous4 
,from instances in the upper classes  of
 society1 where wealth gives them       
independence1 and sometimes             
unfortunately even power1 we see but too
 clearly what the consequences  would   
be4 ,and this is why we have to look to 
the poorer classes for the  highest type
 of womanly perfection4 ,with the people
 sympathy is better  cultivated1 and has
 a greater influence upon life4 ,wealth 

has more to  do with the moral          
degradation of women among the          
privileged classes  than even idleness  
and dissipation4     ,the position of   
the sexes   tends to differentiation    
rather than identity    ,progress1 in   
this respect as in every other1 is only 
a more complete  development of the     
pre-existing ,order4 ,equality in the   
position of the  two sexes is contrary  
to their nature1 and no tendency to it  
has at  any time been exhibited4 ,all   
history assures us that with the growth 
of society the peculiar features of each
 sex have become not less but  more     
distinct4 ,by ,catholic ,feudalism the  
social condition of women in  ,western  
,europe was raised to a far higher      
level4 ,but it took away from  them the 
priestly functions which they had held  
under ,polytheism2 a  religion in which 
the priesthood was more occupied with   
,art than with  ,science4 ,so too with  
the gradual decline of the principle of 
,caste1  women have been excluded more  

and more rigidly from royalty and from  
every other kind of political authority4
 ,again1 there is a visible  tendency   
towards the removal of women from all   
industrial occupations1  even from those
 which might seem best suited to them4  
,and thus female  life1 instead of      
becoming independent of the ,family1 is 
being more and  more concentrated in it2
 while at the same time their proper    
sphere of  moral influence is constantly
 extending4 ,the two tendencies so far  
from  being opposed1 are inseparably    
connected4    ,without discussing the   
absurd and retrograde schemes which have
  been recently put forward on the      
subject1 there is one remark which  may 
serve to illustrate the value of the    
order which now exists4  ,if women were 
to obtain that equality in the affairs  
of life which  their so-called champions
 are claiming for them without their    
wish1  not only would they suffer       
morally1 but their social position would
  be endangered4 ,they would be subject 

in almost every occupation to  a degree 
of competition which they would not be  
able to sustain4  ,moreover1 by rivalry 
in the pursuits of life1 mutual         
affection between  the sexes would be   
corrupted at its source4     ,woman to  
be maintained by   ,man    ,leaving     
these subversive dreams1 we find a      
natural principle which1 by  determining
 the practical obligations of the       
,active to the ,sympathetic  sex1 averts
 this danger4 ,it is a principle which  
no philosophy but  ,positivism has been 
sufficiently real and practical to bring
 forward  systematically for general    
acceptance4 ,it is no new invention1    
however1  but a universal tendency1     
confirmed by careful study of the whole 
past history of ,man4 ,the principle is1
 that ,man should provide for  ,woman4  
,it is a natural law of the human race2 
a law connected with  the essentially   
domestic character of female life4 ,we  
find it in the  rudest forms of social  
life2 and with every step in the        

progress of  society its adoption       
becomes more extensive and complete4 ,a 
still  larger application of this       
fundamental principle will meet all the 
material difficulties under which women 
are now labouring4 ,all social          
relations1 and especially the question  
of wages1 will be affected by  it4 ,the 
tendency to it is spontaneous2 but it   
also follows from the  high position    
which ,positivism has assigned to ,woman
 as the sympathetic  element in the     
spiritual power4 ,the intellectual      
class1 in the same  way1 has to be      
supported by the practical class1 in    
order to have its  whole time available 
for the special duties imposed upon it4 
,but in the  case of women1 the         
obligation of the other sex is still    
more sacred1  because the sphere of duty
 in which protection for them is        
required1  is the home4 ,the obligation 
to provide for the intellectual class1  
affects society as a whole2 but the     
maintenance of women is1 with few       

exceptions1 a personal obligation4 ,each
 individual should consider  himself    
bound to maintain the woman he has      
chosen to be his partner  in life4      
,there are cases1 however1 in which men 
should be considered  collectively      
responsible for the support of the other
 sex4 ,women who  are without husband or
 parents should have their maintenance  
guaranteed  by society2 and this not    
merely from compassion for their        
dependent  position1 but with the view  
of enabling them to render public       
service  of the greatest moral value4   
,the direction1 then1 of progress in the
 social condition of woman is  this3 to 
render her life more and more domestic2 
to diminish as far  as possible the     
burden of out-door labour2 and so to fit
 her more  completely for her special   
office of educating our moral nature4   
,among the privileged classes it is     
already a recognized rule that  women   
should be spared all laborious exertion4
 ,it is the one point  in the relations 

of the sexes in which the working       
classes would do  well to imitate the   
habits of their employers4 ,in every    
other respect  the people of ,western   
,europe have a higher sense of their    
duties  to women than the upper classes4
 ,indeed there are few of them who      
would not be ashamed of the barbarity of
 subjecting women to their  present     
burdensome occupations1 if the present  
state of our industrial  system allowed 
of its abolition4 ,but it is chiefly    
among the higher  and wealthier classes 
that we find those degrading and very   
often  fraudulent bargains1 connected   
with unscrupulous interference of       
parents in the question of marriage1    
which are so humiliating to one  sex and
 so corrupting to the other4 ,among the 
working classes the  practice of giving 
dowries is almost extinct2 and as       
women's true  mission becomes more      
recognized1 and as choice in marriage   
becomes less  restricted1 this relic of 
barbarism1 with all its debasing        

results1  will rapidly die out4 ,with   
this view the application of our theory 
should be carried one step further4     
,women should not be allowed to         
inherit4 ,if inheritance be allowed1 the
 prohibition of dowries would  be evaded
 in a very obvious manner by discounting
 the reversionary  interest4 ,since     
women are to be exempt from the labour  
of production1  capital1 that is to say1
 the instruments of labour produced by  
each  generation for the benefit of the 
next1 should revert to men4 ,this view  
of inheritance1 so far from making men a
 privileged class1 places them  under   
heavy responsibilities4 ,it is not from 
women that any serious  opposition to it
 will proceed4 ,wise education will show
 them its value  to themselves          
personally1 as a safeguard against      
unworthy suitors4 ,but1  important as   
the rule is1 it should not be legally   
enforced until it  has become           
established on its own merits as a      
general custom1 which  every one has    

felt to conduce to the healthy          
organization of the ,family  as here    
described4     ,the education of women  
should be identical with   that of men  
,coming now to the subject of female    
education1 we have only to make a       
further application of the theory which 
has guided us hitherto4    ,since the   
vocation assigned by our theory to women
 is that of educating  others1 it is    
clear that the educational system which 
we have proposed  in the last chapter   
for the working classes1 applies to them
 as well  as to the other sex with very 
slight alterations4 ,unencumbered as it 
is with specialities1 it will be found1 
even in its more scientific  parts1 as  
suitable to the sympathetic element of  
the moderating  power1 as to the        
synergic element4 ,we have spoken of the
 necessity  of diffusing sound          
historical views among the working      
classes2 and  the same necessity applies
 to women2 for social sympathy can never
 be  perfectly developed1 without a     

sense of the continuity of the ,past1   
as well as of the solidarity of the     
,present4 ,since1 then1 both sexes      
alike need historical instruction as a  
basis for the systematization of  moral 
truth1 both should alike pass through   
the scientific training  which prepares 
the way for social studies1 and which   
moreover has as  intrinsic a value for  
women as for men4 ,again1 since the     
first or  spontaneous stage of education
 is entirely to be left to women1 it is 
most desirable that they should         
themselves have passed through the      
second or systematic stage4 ,the only   
department with which they need  not    
concern themselves1 is what is called   
professional education4  ,but this1 as  
,i have before observed1 is not         
susceptible of regular  organization4   
,professional skill can only be acquired
 by careful  practice and experience1   
resting upon a sound basis of theory4   
,in all  other respects women1          
philosophers1 and working men will      

receive the  same education4    ,but    
while ,i would place the sexes on a     
level in this respect1 ,i do  not take  
the view of my eminent predecessor      
,condorcet1 that they  should be taught 
together4 ,on moral grounds1 which of   
course are the  most important          
consideration1 it is obvious that such a
 plan would be  equally prejudicial to  
both4 ,in the church1 in the club1 in   
the salon1  they may associate freely at
 every period of life4 ,but at school   
such  intercourse would be premature2 it
 would check the natural development  of
 character1 not to say that it would    
obviously have an unsettling  influence 
upon study4 ,until the feelings on both 
sides are sufficiently  matured1 it is  
of the greatest importance that the     
relations of the two  sexes should not  
be too intimate1 and that they should be
 superintended  by the watchful eye of  
their mothers4    ,as1 however1 the     
subjects of study are to be the same for
 both1 the  necessity of separating the 

sexes does not imply that there should  
be  special teachers for women4 ,not to 
speak of the increased expenditure  that
 would thus be incurred1 it would       
inevitably lower the standard  of female
 education4 ,it would always be presumed
 that their teachers  were men of       
inferior attainments4 ,to ensure that   
the instruction given  is the same for  
both sexes1 the instructors must be the 
same1 and must  give their lectures     
alternately to each sex4 ,these         
conditions are  perfectly compatible    
with the scheme described in the last   
chapter4 ,it  was there mentioned that  
each philosopher would be expected to   
give  one1 or1 in some cases1 two       
lectures every week4 ,now supposing this
  were doubled1 it would still come far 
short of the intolerable burdens  which 
are imposed upon teachers in the present
 day4 ,moreover1 as the  ,positivist    
educator will pass successively through 
the seven stages of  scientific         
instruction1 he will be able so to      

regulate his work as to  avoid wearisome
 repetition of the same lectures in each
 year4 ,besides1  the distinguished men 
to whom our educational system will be  
entrusted  will soon discover that their
 two audiences require some difference  
in  the manner of teaching1 and that    
this may be done without in any way     
lowering the uniform standard which     
their method and their doctrines        
require4    ,but independently of the   
importance to female education of this  
identity of teachers1 it will react     
beneficially on the intellectual  and   
moral character of the philosopher who  
teaches4 ,it will preclude  him from    
entering into useless details1 and will 
keep him involuntarily  to the broad    
principles of his subject4 ,by coming   
into contact  simultaneously with two   
natures1 in one of which thought1 and in
 the  other emotion1 is predominant1 he 
will gain clearer insight into the      
great principle of subordinating the    
intellect to the heart4 ,the  obligation

 of teaching both sexes will complete   
that universality  of mind which is to  
be required of the new school of        
philosophers4  ,to treat with equal     
ability of all the various orders of    
scientific  conceptions1 and to interest
 two audiences of so different a        
character1  is a task which will demand 
the highest personal qualifications4    
,however1 as the number required by the 
conditions is not excessive1  it will   
not be impossible to find men fit for   
the purpose1 as soon as  the proper     
means are taken to procure their        
services1 and to guarantee  their       
material subsistence4 ,it must be borne 
in mind1 too1 that the  corporation of  
teachers is not to be recruited from any
 one nation for  itself1 but from the   
whole of ,western ,europe2 so that the  
,positivist  educator will change his   
residence1 when required1 even more     
frequently  than the priests of the     
,middle ,ages4 ,putting these           
considerations  together1 we shall find 

that ,positivist education for both     
sexes may be  organized on a sufficient 
scale for the whole of ,western ,europe1
 with  less than the useless1 or worse  
than useless1 expenditure incurred by   
the clergy of the ,anglican church4     
,this would give each functionary  an   
adequate maintenance1 though none of    
them would be degraded by  wealth4 ,a   
body of twenty thousand philosophers    
would be enough now1  and probably would
 always suffice1 for the spiritual wants
 of the five  ,western nations4 ,this   
would imply the establishment of the    
septennial  system of instruction in two
 thousand stations4 ,the influence of   
women  and of working men will never    
become so systematic as to enable them  
to dispense with philosophic assistance 
altogether4 ,but in proportion  as they 
become more effectually incorporated as 
elements of the  spiritual power1 the   
necessity of enlarging the purely       
speculative  class will diminish4 ,under
 theological systems it has been far too

  numerous4 ,the privilege of living in 
comfort without productive labour  will 
be ultimately so rare and so dearly     
earned1 that no rational  ground of     
objection to it will be left4 ,it will  
be generally felt  that the cost of     
maintaining these philosophic teachers1 
like that of  maintaining women1 is no  
real burden to the productive classes2  
on the  contrary1 that it conduces to   
their highest interest1 by ensuring the 
performance of intellectual and moral   
functions which are the noblest         
characteristics of ,humanity4    ,it    
appears1 then1 that the primary         
principle laid down at the  beginning of
 this chapter enables us to solve all   
the problems that  offer themselves on  
the subject of ,woman4 ,her function in 
society is  determined by the           
constitution of her nature4 ,she is     
spontaneously  the organ of ,feeling1 on
 which the unity of human nature        
entirely  depends4 ,and she constitutes 
the purest and most natural element of  

the  moderating power2 which1 while     
avowing its own subordination to the    
material forces of society1 purposes to 
direct them to higher uses4 ,as  mother 
and as wife1 it is her office to conduct
 the moral education of  ,humanity4 ,in 
order the more perfectly to fulfil this 
mission1 her life  must be connected    
even more closely than it has been with 
the ,family4  ,at the same time she must
 participate1 to the full extent that is
  possible1 in the general system of    
instruction4     ,women's privileges4   
,their   mission is in itself a         
privilege    ,a few remarks on the      
privileges which the fulfilment of this 
vocation  will bring1 will complete this
 part of my subject4    ,women's mission
 is a striking illustration of the truth
 that happiness  consists in doing the  
work for which we are naturally fitted4 
,that  mission is always the same2 it is
 summed up in one word1 ,love4 ,but     
,love is a work in which there can never
 be too many workers2 it grows  by      

co-operation2 it has nothing to fear    
from competition4 ,women are  charged   
with the education of ,sympathy1 the    
source of human unity2  and their       
highest happiness is reached when they  
have the full  consciousness of their   
vocation1 and are free to follow it4 ,it
 is the  admirable feature of their     
social mission1 that it invites them to 
cultivate qualities which are natural to
 them2 to call into exercise  emotions  
which all allow to be the most          
pleasurable4 ,all that is  required for 
them in a better organization of society
 are certain  improvements in their     
external condition4 ,they must be       
relieved from  out-door labour2 and     
other means must be taken to prevent    
their moral  influence from being       
impaired4 ,both objects are contemplated
 in the  material1 intellectual1 and    
moral ameliorations which ,positivism is
  destined to effect in female life4    
,they will receive honour   and worship 
from men    ,but besides the pleasure   

inherent in their vocation1 ,positivism 
offers  a recompense for their services1
 which ,catholic ,feudalism foreshadowed
  but could not realize4 ,as men become 
more and more grateful for the  blessing
 of their moral influence1 they will    
give expression to this  feeling in a   
systematic form4 ,in a word the new     
doctrine will institute  the ,worship of
 ,woman1 publicly and privately1 in a   
far more perfect  way than has ever     
before been possible4 ,it is the first  
permanent step  towards the worship of  
,humanity2 which1 as the concluding     
chapter  of this introductory work will 
show1 is the central principle of       
,positivism1 viewed either as a         
,philosophy or as a ,polity4            
,development of mediaeval   chivalry    
,our ancestors in chivalrous times made 
noble efforts in this  direction1 which1
 except by women1 are now no longer     
appreciated4  ,but these efforts1       
however admirable1 were inadequate2     
partly owing  to the military spirit of 

society in those times1 partly because  
their religious doctrines had not a     
sufficiently social character4          
,nevertheless1 they have left memories  
which will not perish4 ,the  refinement 
of life in ,western ,europe is in great 
part due to them1  although much of it  
is already effaced by the anarchy of the
 present  time4    ,chivalry1 if we are 
to believe the negative philosophers of 
the last  century1 can never revive2    
because the religious beliefs with which
  it was connected have become obsolete4
 ,but the connexion was never  very     
profound1 and there is no reason        
whatever for its continuance4  ,far too 
much has been made of it by recent      
apologists for ,catholicism2  who1 while
 laying great stress on the sanction    
which ,theology gave  to ,chivalry1 have
 failed to appreciate the sympathies to 
which this  admirable institution is    
really due4 ,the real source of         
,chivalry lies  most unquestionably in  
the feudal spirit4 ,theological sanction

 for it  was afterwards sought for1 as  
the only systematic basis that offered  
itself at that time4 ,but the truth is  
that ,theology and ,chivalry were       
hardly compatible4 ,theology fixed men's
 thoughts upon a visionary  future2     
,chivalry concentrated his energies upon
 the world around him4  ,the knight of  
the ,middle ,ages had always to choose  
between his ,god and  his ,lady2 and    
could therefore never attain that       
concentrated unity of  purpose1 without 
which the full result of his mission1 so
 generously  undertaken1 could never be 
realized4    ,placed as we are now1 near
 the close of the revolutionary period1 
we  are beginning to see that ,chivalry 
is not destined to extinction2 that1  on
 the contrary1 when modern life has     
assumed its normal character1  its      
influence will be greater than ever1    
because it will operate on a  more      
pacific society1 and will be based on a 
more practical religion4  ,for ,chivalry
 satisfies an essential want of society1

 a want which  becomes more urgent as   
civilization advances2 it institutes a  
voluntary  combination of the strong for
 the protection of the weak4 ,the period
 of  transition from the offensive      
military system of ,rome to the         
defensive  system of ,feudalism1 was    
naturally the time of its first         
appearance1  and it received the        
sanction of the religion then dominant4 
,but society  is now entering upon a    
period of permanent peace2 and when     
this1 the  most striking political      
feature of modern times1 has become     
firmly  established1 the influence of   
,chivalry will be greater than ever4    
,its procedure will be different1       
because the modes of oppression are     
happily not now what they were formerly4
 ,the instruments of material  force are
 now not arms1 but riches4 ,it is no    
longer the person that is  attacked1 but
 his means of subsistence4 ,the         
advantages of the change  are obvious3  
the danger is less serious1 and         

protection from it is  easier and more  
effectual4 ,but it will always remain   
most desirable  that protectors should  
come forward1 and that they should form 
an  organized association4 ,the         
destructive instinct will always show   
itself  in various ways1 wherever there 
are the means of indulging it4 ,and     
therefore as an adjunct to the spiritual
 organization1 ,positivism will         
encourage a systematic manifestation of 
chivalrous feeling among the  leaders of
 industry4 ,those among them who feel   
animated with the noble  spirit of the  
heroes of the ,middle ,ages1 will devote
 not their sword1  but their wealth1    
their time1 and1 if need be1 their whole
 energies  to the defence of the        
oppressed in all classes4 ,the objects  
of their  generosity will principally be
 found1 as in the ,middle ,ages1 among  
the  classes specially exposed to       
material suffering1 that is to say1     
among  women1 philosophers1 and working 
men4 ,it would be strange indeed for a  

system like ,positivism1 the main object
 of which is to strengthen the  social  
spirit1 not to appropriate the          
institution which is the noblest        
product of that spirit4    ,so far1     
then1 the restoration of ,chivalry is   
merely a reconstruction  of the         
mediaeval institution in a shape adapted
 to the altered state  of ideas and     
feelings4 ,in modern as in mediaeval    
times1 devotion of  the strong to the   
weak follows as a natural consequence   
from the  subordination of ,politics to 
,morals4 ,now1 as then1 the spiritual   
power will be nobly seconded by members 
of the governing class in the  attempt  
to bring that class to a stricter sense 
of social duty4 ,but  besides this1     
,feudal ,chivalry had a deeper and more 
special purpose in  reference to women4 
,and in this respect the superiority of 
,positivism  is even more complete and  
obvious4    ,feudalism introduced for   
the first time the worship of ,woman4   
,but  in this it met with little support

 from ,catholicism1 and was in  many    
respects thwarted by it4 ,the habits of 
,christianity were in  themselves       
adverse to real tenderness of heart2    
they only strengthened  it indirectly1  
by promoting one of the indispensable   
conditions of  true affection1 purity of
 life4 ,in all other respects ,chivalry 
was  constantly opposed by the ,catholic
 system2 which was so austere and       
anti-social1 that it could not sanction 
marriage except as an infirmity  which  
it was necessary to tolerate1 but which 
was hazardous to personal  salvation4   
,even its rules of purity1 valuable as  
they were1 were often  weakened by      
interested motives which seriously      
impaired their value4  ,consequently1   
notwithstanding all the noble and       
long-continued efforts  of our mediaeval
 ancestors1 the institution of the      
worship of ,woman was  very imperfectly 
effected1 especially in its relation to 
public life4  ,whatever ,catholic       
apologists may say1 there is every      

reason to believe  that if ,feudalism   
could have arisen before the decline of 
,polytheism1  the influence of ,chivalry
 would have been greater4    ,it was    
reserved for the more comprehensive     
system of ,positivism1 in  which sound  
practice is always supported by sound   
theory1 to give full  expression to the 
feeling of veneration for women4 ,in the
 new religion1  tenderness of heart is  
looked upon as the first of ,woman's    
attributes4  ,but purity is not         
neglected4 ,on the contrary its true    
source and its  essential value1 as the 
first condition of happiness and of     
moral  growth1 are pointed out more     
distinctly than before4 ,the shallow and
  sophistical views of marriage         
maintained in these unsettled times by  
men of narrow minds and coarse feelings1
 will be easily refuted by  a more      
careful study of human nature4 ,even the
 obstacles presented  by scientific     
materialism will rapidly disappear      
before the spread  of ,positivist       

morality4 ,a physician of great         
sagacity1 ,hufeland1 has  remarked1 with
 truth1 that the well-known vigour of   
the knights of  old times was a         
sufficient answer to men who talked of  
the physical  dangers of continence4    
,positivism1 dealing with this question 
in all  its aspects1 teaches that while 
the primary reason for insisting on     
purity is that it is essential to depth 
of affection1 it has as close  a        
connexion with the physical and         
intellectual improvement of the         
individual and the race as with our     
moral progress4    ,positivism then1 as 
the whole tendency of this chapter      
indicates1  encourages1 on intellectual 
as well as on moral grounds1 full and   
systematic expression of the feeling of 
veneration for ,women1 in public  as    
well as in private life1 collectively as
 well as individually4  ,born to love   
and to be loved1 relieved from the      
burdens of practical  life1 free in the 
sacred retirement of their homes1 the   

women of the  ,west will receive from   
,positivists the tribute of deep and    
sincere  admiration which their life    
inspires4 ,they will feel no scruple in 
accepting their position as spontaneous 
priestesses of ,humanity2 they  will    
fear no longer the rivalry of a         
vindictive ,deity4 ,from childhood  each
 of us will be taught to regard their   
sex as the principal source  of human   
happiness and improvement1 whether in   
public life or in  private4    ,the     
treasures of affection which our        
ancestors wasted upon mystical  objects1
 and which these revolutionary times    
ignore1 will then  be carefully         
preserved and directed to their proper  
purpose4 ,the  enervating influence of  
chimerical beliefs will have passed     
away2 and  men in all the vigour of     
their energies1 feeling themselves the  
masters  of the known world1 will feel  
it their highest happiness to submit    
with  gratitude to the beneficent power 
of womanly sympathy4 ,in a word1 ,man   

will in those days kneel to ,woman1 and 
to ,woman alone4    ,the source from    
which these reverential feelings for the
 sympathetic  sex proceed1 is a clear   
appreciation in the other sex of        
benefits  received1 and a spirit of deep
 thankfulness for them4 ,the ,positivist
  will never forget that moral          
perfection1 the primary condition of    
public and private happiness1 is        
principally due to the influence of     
,woman over ,man1 first as mother1 then 
as wife4 ,such a conviction cannot  fail
 to arouse feelings of loving veneration
 for those with whom1  from their       
position in society1 he is in no danger 
of rivalry in the  affairs of life4     
,when the mission of woman is better    
understood1 and is  carried out more    
fully1 she will be regarded by ,man as  
the most perfect  impersonation of      
,humanity4     ,the practice of ,prayer1
 so   far from disappearing1 is         
purified and strengthened in   ,positive
 religion    ,originating in spontaneous

 feelings of gratitude1 the worship of  
,woman1  when it has assumed a more     
systematic shape1 will be valued for its
  own sake as a new instrument of       
happiness and moral growth4 ,inert as   
the tender sympathies are in ,man1 it is
 most desirable to strengthen  them by  
such exercise as the public and private 
institution of this  worship will       
afford4 ,and here it is that            
,positivists will find all the          
elevating influences which ,catholicism 
derived from ,prayer4    ,it is a common
 but very palpable error to imagine that
 ,prayer is  inseparable from the       
chimerical motives of self-interest in  
which it  first originated4 ,in         
,catholicism there was always a tendency
 to rise  above these motives1 so far at
 least as the principles of theology    
admitted4 ,from ,st4 ,augustine         
downwards1 all the nobler spirits have  
felt more and more strongly1            
notwithstanding the self-absorbing      
tendencies of ,christian doctrine1 that 

,prayer did not necessarily imply       
petition4 ,when sounder views of human  
nature have become prevalent1  the value
 of this important function will be more
 clearly appreciated2  and it will      
ultimately become of greater importance 
than ever1 because  founded on a truer  
principle4 ,in the normal state of      
,humanity1 the  moral efficacy of       
,prayer will no longer be impaired by   
thoughts of  personal recompense4 ,it   
will be simply a solemn out-pouring1    
whether  in private or in public1 of    
men's nobler feelings1 inspiring them   
with  larger and more comprehensive     
thoughts4 ,as a daily practice1 it is   
inculcated by ,positivism as the best   
preservative against the selfish  and   
narrow views which are so apt to arise  
in the ordinary avocations  of life4 ,to
 men its value is even greater than to  
women2 their life  being less favourable
 to large views and general sympathies1 
it is the  more important to revive them
 at regular periods4    ,but ,prayer    

would be of little value unless the mind
 could form a  clear conception of its  
object4 ,the worship of ,woman satisfies
 this  condition1 and is so far of      
greater efficacy than the worship of    
,god4 ,true1 the ultimate object of     
,positivist ,prayer1 as shown in  the   
concluding chapter of this volume1 is   
,humanity4 ,but some of its  best moral 
effects would hardly be realized1 if it 
were at once and  exclusively directed  
to an object so difficult to conceive   
clearly4  ,it is possible that ,women   
with their stronger sympathies may be   
able  to reach this stage without       
intermediate steps4 ,however this may   
be1  men certainly would not be able to 
do so2 even the intellectual class1     
with all its powers of generalization1  
would find it impossible4 ,the  worship 
of ,woman1 begun in private1 and        
afterwards publicly celebrated1  is     
necessary in man's case to prepare him  
for any effectual worship of  ,humanity4
    ,no one can be so unhappy as not to 

be able to find some woman worthy  of   
his peculiar love1 whether in the       
relation of wife or of mother2  some one
 who in his solitary prayer may be      
present to him as a fixed  object of    
devotion4 ,nor will such devotion1 as   
might be thought1  cease with death2    
rather1 when its object has been rightly
 chosen1  death strengthens it by making
 it more pure4 ,the principle upon which
  ,positivism insists so strongly1 the  
union of the ,present with the ,past1   
and even with the ,future1 is not       
limited to the life of ,society4 ,it is 
a doctrine which unites all individuals 
and all generations2 and when  it has   
become more familiar to us1 it will     
stimulate every one to call  his dearest
 memories to life2 the spirit of the    
system being that the  private life of  
the very humblest citizen has a close   
relation to his  public duty4 ,we all   
know how intellectual culture enables us
 to live  with our great predecessors of
 the ,middle ,ages and of ,antiquity1   

almost  as we should do with absent     
friends4 ,and if intellect can do so    
much1  will it not be far easier for the
 strong passion of ,love to effect  this
 ideal resurrection8 ,we have already   
many instances where whole  nations have
 shown strong sympathies or antipathies 
to great historical  names1 especially  
when their influence was still sensibly 
felt4 ,there  is no reason why a private
 life should not produce the same effect
  upon those who have been brought into 
contact with it4 ,moral culture  has    
been conducted hitherto on such         
unsatisfactory principles1 that  we can 
hardly form an adequate notion of its   
results when ,positivism  has           
regenerated it1 and has concentrated the
 affections as well as  the thoughts of 
,man upon human life4 ,to live with the 
dead is the  peculiar privilege of      
,humanity1 a privilege which will extend
 as our  conceptions widen and our      
thoughts become more pure4 ,under       
,positivism  the impulse to it will     

become far stronger1 and it will be     
recognized  as a systematic principle in
 private as well as in public life4     
,even  the ,future is not excluded from 
its application4 ,we may live with those
  who are not yet born2 a thing         
impossible only till a true theory of   
history had arisen1 of scope sufficient 
to embrace at one glance the  whole     
course of human destiny4 ,there are     
numberless instances to prove  that the 
heart of ,man is capable of emotions    
which have no outward  basis1 except    
what ,imagination has supplied4 ,the    
familiar spirits of  the ,polytheist1   
the mystical desires of the ,monotheist1
 all point to  a general tendency in the
 ,past1 which1 with our better          
principles1  we shall be able in the    
,future to direct to a nobler and more  
real  purpose4 ,and thus even those who 
may be so unfortunate as to have no     
special object of love need not1 on that
 account1 be precluded from  the act of 
worship3 they may choose from the women 

of the past some  type adapted to their 
own nature4 ,men of powerful imagination
 might  even form their own more perfect
 ideal1 and thus open out the path  of  
the future4 ,this1 indeed1 is what was  
often done by the knights  of chivalrous
 times1 simple and uninstructed as they 
were4 ,surely  then we1 with our fuller 
understanding and greater familiarity   
with  the ,past1 should be able to      
idealize more perfectly4 ,but whether   
the  choice lie in the ,past or in the  
,future1 its efficacy would be impaired 
unless it remained constant to one      
object2 and fixed principles1 such  as  
,positivism supplies1 are needed to     
check the natural tendency to           
versatility of feeling4     ,the worship
 of ,woman a   preparation for the      
worship   of ,humanity    ,i have dwelt 
at some length upon the personal        
adoration of ,woman under  its real or  
ideal aspects1 because upon it depends  
nearly all the moral  value of any      
public celebration4 ,public assemblage  

in the temples of  ,humanity may        
strengthen and stimulate feelings of    
devotion1 but cannot  originate them4   
,unless each worshipper has felt in his 
own person deep  and reverential love   
for those to whom our highest affections
 are due1  a public service in honour of
 women would be nothing but a repetition
  of unmeaning formulas4 ,but those     
whose daily custom it has been to  give 
expression to such feelings in secret1  
will gain1 by assembling  together1 all 
the benefit of more intense and more    
exalted sympathy4  ,in my last letter to
 her who is for ever mine1 ,i said3     
#8,amidst the  heaviest anxieties which 
,love can bring1 ,i have never ceased to
 feel  that the one thing essential to  
happiness is that the heart shall be    
always nobly occupied'4#i ,and now that 
we are separated by ,death1  daily      
experience confirms this truth1 which is
 moreover in exact  accordance with the 
,positive theory of human nature4       
,without personal  experience of ,love  

no public celebration of it can be      
sincere4    ,in its public celebration  
the superiority of the new ,religion is 
even  more manifest than in the private 
worship4 ,a system in which the social  
spirit is uniformly preponderant1 is    
peculiarly adapted to render  homage for
 the social services of the sympathetic 
sex4 ,when the knights  of the ,middle  
,ages met together1 they might give vent
 to their personal  feelings1 and       
express to one another the reverence    
which each felt for  his own mistress2  
but farther than this they could not go4
 ,and such  personal feelings will never
 cease to be necessary4 ,still the      
principal  object of public celebration 
is to express gratitude on the part of  
the people for the social blessings     
conferred by ,woman1 as the organ  of   
that element in our nature on which its 
unity depends1 and as the  original     
source of moral power4 ,in the ,middle  
,ages such considerations  were         
impossible1 for want of a rational      

theory embracing the whole  circle of   
social relations4 ,indeed the received  
faith was incompatible  with any such   
conception1 since ,god in that faith    
occupied the place  really due to       
,humanity4     ,exceptional women4 ,joan
 of   ,arc    ,there are women whose    
career has been altogether exceptional2 
and  these1 like the rest1 meet with    
their due tribute of praise in the      
,positive system4 ,the chief motive1    
doubtless1 for public and private       
veneration is the mission of sympathy1  
which is ,woman's peculiar  vocation4   
,but there have been remarkable         
instances of women whose  life has been 
one of speculation1 or even1 what is in 
most cases  still more foreign to their 
nature1 of political activity4 ,they    
have  rendered real service to          
,humanity1 and they should receive the  
honour  that is due to them4 ,theology1 
from its absolute character1 could not  
make such concessions2 they would have  
weakened the efficiency of its  most    

important social rules4 ,consequently1  
,catholicism was compelled1  though at  
first with sincere regret1 to leave some
 of the noblest  women without          
commemoration4 ,a signal instance is the
 ,maid of ,orleans1  whose heroism saved
 ,france in the fifteenth century4 ,our 
great king  ,louis ,,xi applied very    
properly to the ,pope for her           
canonization1 and  no objection was made
 to his request4 ,yet1 practically1 it  
was never  carried into effect4 ,it was 
gradually forgotten2 and the clergy soon
  came to feel a sort of dislike to her 
memory1 which reminded them  of nothing 
but their own social weakness4 ,it is   
easy to account for  this result2 nor is
 any one really to blame for it4 ,it was
 feared1  not without reason1 that to   
consider ,joan of ,arc as a saint might 
have the effect of spreading false and  
dangerous ideas of feminine  duty4 ,the 
difficulty was insuperable for any      
absolute system1 in  which to sanction  
the exception is to compromise the rule4

 ,but in a  relative system the case is 
different4 ,it is even more inconsistent
  with ,positive principles than it is  
with ,catholic1 for women to lead  a    
military life1 a life which of all      
others is the least compatible  with    
their proper functions4 ,and yet        
,positivists will be the first to  do   
justice to this extraordinary heroine1  
whom theologians have been  afraid to   
recognize1 and whom metaphysicians1 even
 in ,france1 have had  the hardihood to 
insult4 ,the anniversary of her glorious
 martyrdom will  be a solemn festival1  
not only for ,france1 but for ,western  
,europe4  ,for her work was not merely  
of national importance3 the enslavement 
of ,france would have involved the loss 
of all the influence which  ,france has 
exercised as the centre of the advanced 
nations of ,europe4  ,moreover1 as none 
of them are altogether clear from the   
disgrace of  detracting1 as ,voltaire   
has done1 from her character1 all should
 aid  in the reparation of it which     

,positivism proposes to institute4 ,so  
far  from her apotheosis having an      
injurious effect on female character1   
it will afford an opportunity of        
pointing out the anomalous nature of    
her career1 and the rarity of the       
conditions which alone could justify    
it4 ,it is a fresh proof of the         
advantages accruing to ,morality from   
the relative character of ,positivism1  
which enables it to appreciate          
exceptional cases without weakening the 
rules4    ,the subject of the worship of
 ,woman by ,man raises a question of    
much  delicacy2 how to satisfy the      
analogous feelings of devotion in the   
other sex4 ,we have seen its necessity  
for men as an intermediate step  towards
 the worship of ,humanity2 and women1   
stronger though their  sympathies are1  
stand1 it may be1 in need of similar    
preparation4  ,yet certainly the        
direction taken should be somewhat      
different4 ,what  is wanted is that each
 sex should strengthen the moral        

qualities in  which it is naturally     
deficient4 ,energy is a characteristic  
feature of  ,humanity as well as        
,sympathy2 as is well shown by the      
double meaning  of the word ,heart4 ,in 
,man ,sympathy is the weaker element1   
and it  requires constant exercise4     
,this he gains by expression of his     
feelings  of reverence for ,woman4 ,in  
,woman1 on the other hand1 the defective
  quality is ,energy2 so that1 should   
any special preparation for the  worship
 of ,humanity be needed1 it should be   
such as to strengthen  courage rather   
than sympathy4 ,but my sex renders me   
incompetent to  enter farther into the  
secret wants of ,woman's heart4 ,theory 
indicates  a blank hitherto unnoticed1  
but does not enable me to fill it4 ,it  
is a  problem for women themselves to   
solve2 and ,i had reserved it for my    
noble colleague1 for whose premature    
death ,i would fain hope that my  own   
grief may one day be shared by all4     
,throughout this chapter ,i have been   

keenly sensible of the philosophic  loss
 resulting from our objective           
separation4 ,true1 ,i have been able  to
 show that ,positivism is a matter of   
the deepest concern to women1  since it 
incorporates them in the progressive    
movement of modern  times4 ,i have      
proved that the part allotted to them in
 this movement  is one which satisfies  
their highest aspirations for the       
,family or  for ,society4 ,and yet ,i   
can hardly hope for much support from   
them  until some woman shall come       
forward to interpret what ,i have said  
into  language more adapted to their    
nature and habits of thought4 ,till     
then it will always be taken for granted
 that they are incapable even  of       
understanding the new philosophy1       
notwithstanding all the natural         
affinities for it which ,i have shown   
that they possess4    ,all these        
difficulties had been entirely removed  
by the noble and  loving friend to whom 
,i dedicate the treatise to which this  

work is  introductory4 ,the dedication  
is unusual in form1 and some may think  
it  overstrained4 ,but my own fear is   
rather1 now that five years have past1  
that my words were too weak for the deep
 gratitude which ,i now feel for  her   
elevating influence4 ,without it the    
moral aspects of ,positivism  would have
 lain very long latent4    ,clotilde de 
,vaux was gifted equally in mind and    
heart3 and she had  already begun to    
feel the power of the new philosophy to 
raise feminine  influence from the      
decline into which it had fallen1 under 
the  revolutionary influences of modern 
times4 ,misunderstood everywhere1  even 
by her own family1 her nature was far   
too noble for bitterness4  ,her sorrows 
were as exceptional as they were        
undeserved2 but her  purity was even    
more rare than her sorrow2 and it       
preserved her  unscathed from all       
sophistical attacks on marriage1 even   
before the  true theory of marriage had 
come before her4 ,in the only writing   

which she published#aj1 there is a      
beautiful remark1 which to those  who   
know the history of her life is deeply  
affecting3 #8,great natures  should     
always be above bringing their sorrows  
upon others'4 ,in this  charming story1 
written before she knew anything of     
,positivism1 she  expressed herself most
 characteristically on the subject of   
,woman's  vocation3 #8,surely the true  
sphere of ,woman is to provide ,man with
 the  comforts and delights of home1    
receiving in exchange from him the means
  of subsistence earned by his labours4 
,i would rather see the mother  of a    
poor family washing her children's      
linen1 than see her earning a           
livelihood by her talents away from     
home4 ,of course ,i do not speak of     
women of extraordinary powers whose     
genius leads them out of the sphere  of 
domestic duty4 ,such natures should have
 free scope given to them3  for great   
minds are kindled by the exhibition of  
their powers'4 ,these  words coming from

 a young lady distinguished no less for 
beauty than  for worth1 showed her      
antipathy to the subversive ideas so    
prevalent in  the present day4 ,but in a
 large work which she did not live to   
finish1  she had intended to refute the 
attacks upon marriage1 contained in  the
 works of ,george ,sand1 to whom she was
 intellectually no less than  morally   
superior4 ,her nature was of rare       
endowment1 moved by noble  impulse1 and 
yet allowing its due influence to       
reason4 ,when she was  beginning to     
study ,positivism she wrote to me3 #8,no
 one knows better  than myself how weak 
our nature is unless it has some lofty  
aim beyond  the reach of passion'4 ,a   
short time afterwards1 writing with all 
the  graceful freedom of friendship1 she
 let fall a phrase of deep meaning1     
almost unawares3 #8,our race is one     
which must have duties1 in order to     
form its feelings'4    ,with such a     
nature my ,saint ,clotilde was1 as may  
be supposed1 fully  conscious of the    

moral value of ,positivism1 though she  
had only one  year to give to its study4
 ,a few months before her death1 she    
wrote  to me3 #8,if ,i were a man1 ,i   
should be your enthusiastic disciple2 as
 a  woman1 ,i can but offer you my      
cordial admiration'4 ,in the same letter
  she explains the part which she       
proposed to take in diffusing the       
principles of the new philosophy3 #8,it 
is always well for a woman to  follow   
modestly behind the army of renovators1 
even at the risk of  losing a little of 
her own originality'4 ,she describes our
 intellectual  anarchy in this charming 
simile3 #8,we are all standing as yet   
with one  foot in the air over the      
threshold of truth'4     ,it is for     
women to   introduce ,positivism into   
the ,southern nations    ,with such a   
colleague1 combining as she did         
qualities hitherto shared  amongst the  
noblest types of womanhood1 it would    
have been easy to  induce her sex to    
co-operate in the regeneration of       

society4 ,for she  gave a perfect       
example of that normal reaction of      
,feeling upon ,reason  which has been   
here set forward as the highest aim of  
,woman's efforts4  ,when she had        
finished the important work on which she
 was engaged1 ,i  had marked out for her
 a definite yet spacious field of       
co-operation  in the ,positivist cause3 
a field which her intellect and         
character  were fully competent to      
occupy4 ,i mention it here1 to          
illustrate the  mode in which women may 
help to spread ,positivism through the  
,west2  giving thus the first example of
 the social influence which they will   
afterwards exert permanently4 ,what ,i  
say has special reference to ,italy  and
 to ,spain4 ,in other countries it only 
applies to individuals who1  though     
living in an atmosphere of free thought1
 have not themselves  ventured to think 
freely4 ,success in this latter case is 
so frequent1  as to make me confident   
that the agencies of which ,i am about  

to speak  may be applied collectively   
with the same favourable result4    ,the
 intellectual freedom of the ,west began
 in ,england and ,germany2  and it had  
all the dangers of original efforts for 
which at that time  no systematic basis 
could be found4 ,with the legal         
establishment of  ,protestantism1 the   
metaphysical movement stopped4          
,protestantism1 by  consolidating it1   
seriously impeded subsequent progress1  
and is still1  in the countries where it
 prevails1 the chief obstacle to all    
efficient  renovation4 ,happily ,france1
 the normal centre of ,western ,europe1 
was  spared this so-called ,reformation4
 ,she made up for the delay1 by  passing
 at one stride1 under the impulse given 
by ,voltaire1 to a state  of entire     
freedom of thought2 and thus resumed her
 natural place as  leader of the common 
movement of social regeneration4 ,but   
the ,french  while escaping the         
inconsistencies and oscillations of     
,protestantism1  have been exposed to   

all the dangers resulting from          
unqualified  acceptance of revolutionary
 metaphysics4 ,principles of systematic 
negation have now held their ground with
 us too long4 ,useful as they  once were
 in preparing the way for social        
reconstruction1 they are  now a         
hindrance to it4 ,it may be hoped that  
when the movement of free  thought      
extends1 as it assuredly will1 to the   
two ,southern nations1  where           
,catholicism has been more successful in
 resisting ,protestantism  and ,deism1  
it will be attended with less injurious 
consequences4  ,if ,france was spared   
the ,calvinistic stage1 there seems no  
reason  why ,italy and even ,spain      
should not be spared ,voltairianism4 ,as
 a  compensation for this apparent      
stagnation1 they might pass at once from
  ,catholicism to ,positivism1 without  
halting for any length of time at  the  
negative stage4 ,these countries could  
not have originated the new  philosophy1
 owing to their insufficient            

preparation2 but as soon as it  has     
taken root in ,france1 they will        
probably accept it with extreme         
rapidity4 ,direct attacks upon          
,catholicism will not be necessary4 ,the
  new religion will simply put itself   
into competition with the old by        
performing in a better way the same     
functions that ,catholicism fulfils     
now1 or has fulfilled in past times4    
,all evidence1 especially the evidence  
of the poets1 goes to prove  that before
 ,luther's time1 there was less belief  
in the ,south of  ,europe1 certainly    
less in ,italy1 than in the ,north4 ,and
 ,catholicism1  with all its resistance 
to the progress of thought1 has never   
been  able really to revive the belief  
in ,christianity4 ,we speak of ,italy   
and ,spain as less advanced2 but the    
truth is that they only cling to        
,catholicism because it satisfies their 
moral and social wants better  than any 
system with which they are acquainted4  
,morally they have more  affinity to    

,positivism than other nations2 because 
their feelings of  fraternity have not  
been weakened by the industrial         
development which  has done so much harm
 in ,protestant countries4              
,intellectually1 too1  they are less    
hostile to the primary principle of     
,positive ,polity2 the  separation of   
spiritual and temporal power4 ,and      
therefore they will  welcome ,positivism
 as soon as they see that in all        
essential features  it equals and       
surpasses the mediaeval church4 ,now as 
this question is  almost entirely a     
moral one1 their convictions in this    
respect will  depend far more upon      
,feeling than upon argument4            
,consequently1 the work  of converting  
them to ,positivism is one for which    
women are peculiarly  adapted4          
,positivism has been communicated to    
,england by men4 ,holland1  too1 which  
has been the vanguard of ,germany ever  
since the ,middle ,ages  has been       
initiated in the same way still more    

efficiently4 ,but its  introduction in  
,italy and ,spain will depend upon the  
women of those  countries2 and the      
appeal to them must come1 not from a    
,frenchman1 but  from a ,frenchwoman2   
for heart must speak to heart4 ,would   
that these few  words might enable      
others to appreciate the inestimable    
worth of the  colleague whom ,i had     
intended to write such an appeal2 and   
that they  might stimulate some one     
worthy to take her place6    ,already1  
then1 there is ground for encouragement4
 ,already we have one  striking instance
 of a woman ready to co-operate in the  
philosophical  movement1 which assigns  
to her sex a mission of the highest     
social  consequence as the prelude to   
the function for which in the normal    
state they are destined4 ,such an       
instance1 though it may seem now        
exceptional1 does but anticipate what   
will one day be universal4  ,highly     
gifted natures pass through the same    
phases as others2 only  they undergo    

them earlier1 and so become guides for  
the rest4 ,the  sacred friend of whom ,i
 speak had nothing that specially       
disposed her  to accept ,positivism1    
except the beauty of her mind and       
character1  prematurely ripened by      
sorrow4 ,had she been an untaught       
working woman1  it would perhaps have   
been still easier for her to grasp the  
general  spirit of the new philosophy   
and its social purpose4    ,the result  
of this chapter is to show the affinity 
of the systematic  element of the       
modifying power1 as represented by      
philosophers1 with  women who form its  
sympathetic element2 an affinity not    
less close  than that with the people1  
who constitute its synergic element4    
,the  organization of moral force is    
based on the alliance of philosophers   
with the people2 but the adhesion of    
women is necessary to its  completion4  
,with the union of all three1 the       
regeneration of society  begins1 and the
 revolution is brought to a close4 ,but 

more than this3  their union is at once 
an inauguration of the final order of   
society4  ,each of these three elements 
will be acting as it will be called     
upon to act in the normal state1 and    
will be occupying its permanent         
position relatively to the temporal     
power4 ,the philosophic class whose     
work it is to combine the action of the 
other two classes1 will find  valuable  
assistance from women in every family1  
as well as powerful  co-operation from  
the people in every city4    ,the result
 will be a union of all who are         
precluded from political                
administration1 instituted for the      
purpose of judging all practical        
measures by the fixed rules of universal
 morality4 ,exceptional cases  will     
arise when moral influence is           
insufficient3 in these it will be       
necessary for the people to interfere   
actively4 ,but philosophers and  women  
are dispensed from such interference4   
,direct action would be most  injurious 

to their powers of sympathy or of       
thought4 ,they can only  preserve these 
powers by keeping clear of all positions
 of political  authority4    ,but while 
the moral force resulting from the      
combined action of women  and of the    
people1 will be more efficient than that
 of the ,middle ,ages1  the systematic  
organs of that force will find their    
work one of great  difficulty4 ,high    
powers of intellect are required and a  
heart worthy of  such intellect4 ,to    
secure the support of women1 and the    
co-operation  of the people1 they must  
have the sympathy and purity of the     
first1  the energy and disinterestedness
 of the second4 ,such natures are rare2 
yet without them the new spiritual power
 cannot obtain that ascendancy  over    
society to which ,positivism aspires4   
,and with all the agencies1  physical or
 moral1 which can be brought to bear1 we
 shall have to  acknowledge that the    
exceeding imperfections of human nature 
form  an eternal obstacle to the object 

for which ,positivism strives1 the      
victory of social sympathy over         
self-love4          ,,chapter ,v        
,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,positivism ,,to 
,,art       ,positivism when complete   
is as favourable to   imagination1 as1  
when   incomplete1 it was   unfavourable
 to it    ,the essential principles and 
the social purpose of the only          
philosophy  by which the revolution can 
be brought to a close1 are now before   
us4  ,we have seen too that energetic   
support from the ,people and cordial    
sympathy from ,women are necessary to   
bring this philosophic movement to  a   
practical result4 ,one further condition
 yet remains4 ,the view here  taken of  
human life as regenerated by this       
combination of efforts1  would be       
incomplete if it did not include an     
additional element1  with which         
,positivism1 as ,i have now to show1 is 
no less competent  to deal4 ,we have    
spoken already of the place which       
,reason occupies  in our nature2 its    

function being to subordinate itself to 
,feeling  for the better guidance of the
 ,active powers4 ,but in the normal     
state  of our nature it has also another
 function2 that of regulating and       
stimulating ,imagination1 without       
yielding passive obedience to it4  ,the 
esthetic faculties are far too important
 to be disregarded in the  normal state 
of ,humanity2 therefore they must not be
 omitted from  the system which aims to 
introduce that state4 ,there is a strong
 but  groundless prejudice that in this 
respect at least ,positivism will be    
found wanting4 ,yet it furnishes1 as may
 readily be shown1 the only  true       
foundation of modern ,art1 which1 since 
the ,middle ,ages1 has been  cultivated 
without fixed principles or lofty       
purpose4    ,the reproach that          
,positivism is incompatible with ,art   
arises simply  from the fact that almost
 every one is in the habit of           
confounding the  philosophy itself with 
the scientific studies on which it is   

based4 ,the  charge only applies to the 
positive spirit in its preliminary phase
 of  disconnected specialities1 a phase 
which scientific men of the present  day
 are making such mischievous efforts to 
prolong4 ,nothing can be  more fatal to 
the fine arts than the narrow views1 the
 overstraining  of analysis1 the abuse  
of the reasoning faculty1 which         
characterize  the scientific            
investigation of the present day2 to say
 nothing of  their injurious effects    
upon moral progress1 the first condition
 of  esthetic development4 ,but all     
these defects necessarily disappear when
  the ,positive spirit becomes more     
comprehensive and systematic2 which is  
the case as soon as it embraces the     
higher subjects in the encyclopdic      
scale of sciences4 ,when it reaches the 
study of ,society1 which is  its true   
and ultimate sphere1 it has to deal with
 the conceptions of  ,poetry1 as well as
 with the operations of ,feeling3 since 
its object  must then be to give a      

faithful and complete representation of 
human  nature under its individual1 and 
still more under its social1 aspects4   
,hitherto ,positive science has avoided 
these two subjects3 but their  charm is 
such that1 when the study of them has   
been once begun1 it  cannot fail to be  
prosecuted with ardour2 and their proper
 place in the  constitution of ,man and 
of ,society will then be recognized4    
,reason has  been divorced for a long   
time from ,feeling and ,imagination4    
,but1 with  the more complete and       
systematic culture here proposed1 they  
will be  re-united4    ,to those who    
have studied the foregoing chapters with
 attention1  the view that the new      
philosophy is unfavourable to ,art1 will
 be  obviously unjust4 ,supposing even  
that there were no important functions  
specially assigned to the fine arts in  
the ,positive system1 yet  indirectly1  
the leading principles of the system1   
its social purpose1  and the influences 
by which it is propagated1 are all most 

conducive  to the interests of ,art4 ,to
 demonstrate1 as ,positivism alone of   
all  philosophies has done1 the         
subordination of the intellect to the   
heart1  and the dependence of the unity 
of human nature upon ,feeling1 is to    
stimulate the esthetic faculties1       
because ,feeling is their true source4  
,to propound a social doctrine by which 
the ,revolution is brought to a  close1 
is to remove the principal obstacle to  
the growth of ,art1 and  to open a wide 
field and a firm foundation for it1 by  
establishing  fixed principles and modes
 of life2 in the absence of which       
,poetry can  have nothing noble to      
narrate or to inspire4 ,to exhort the   
working  classes to seek happiness in   
calling their moral and mental powers   
into constant exercise1 and to give them
 an education1 the principal  basis of  
which is esthetic1 is to place ,art     
under the protection of its  natural    
patrons4    ,but one consideration is of
 itself sufficient for our purpose4 ,we 

have  but to look at the influence of   
,positivism upon ,women1 at its tendency
  to elevate the social dignity of their
 sex1 while at the same time            
strengthening all family ties4 ,now of  
all the elements of which society  is   
constituted1 ,woman certainly is the    
most esthetic1 alike from her  nature   
and her position2 and both her position 
and her nature are  raised and          
strengthened by ,positivism4 ,we receive
 from women1 not only  our first ideas  
of ,goodness1 but our first sense of    
,beauty2 for their  own sensibility to  
it is equalled by their power of        
imparting it to  others4 ,we see in them
 every kind of beauty combined2 beauty  
of mind  and character as well as of    
person4 ,all their actions1 even those  
which  are unconscious1 exhibit a       
spontaneous striving for ideal          
perfection4  ,and their life at home1   
when free from the necessity of         
labouring for  a livelihood1 favours    
this tendency4 ,living as they do for   

affection1  they cannot fail to feel    
aspirations for all that is highest1 in 
the  world around them first1 and then  
also in the world of imagination4  ,a   
doctrine1 then1 which regards women as  
the originators of moral  influence in  
society1 and which places the groundwork
 of education  under their charge1      
cannot be suspected of being            
unfavourable to ,art4    ,leaving these 
prejudices1 we may now examine the mode 
in which the  incorporation of ,art into
 the modern social system will be       
promoted by  ,positivism4 ,in the first 
place systematic principles of ,art will
 be  laid down1 and its proper function 
clearly defined4 ,the result of this    
will be to call out new and powerful    
means of expression1 and also new       
organs4 ,i may observe that the position
 which ,art will occupy in the  present 
movement of social regeneration is      
already an inauguration of  its final   
function2 as we saw in the analogous    
cases of the position of  women and of  

the working classes4     ,esthetic      
talent is for the   adornment of life1  
not for   its government    ,but before 
touching on this question it will be    
well to rectify a  prevalent            
misconception on the subject1 one of the
 many consequences  of our mental and   
moral anarchy4 ,i refer to the          
exaggeration of the  influence of ,art2 
an error which1 if uncorrected1 would   
vitiate all our  views with regard to   
it4    ,all poets of real genius1 from  
,homer to ,corneille1 have always       
considered their work to be that of     
beautifying human life1 and so far1  of 
elevating it4 ,government of human life 
they had never supposed to  fall within 
their province4 ,indeed no sane man     
would lay it down as a  proposition that
 ,imagination should control the other  
mental faculties4  ,it would imply that 
the normal condition of the intellect   
was insanity2  insanity being definable 
as that state of mind in which          
subjective  inspirations are stronger   

than objective judgments4 ,it is a      
static law  of our nature1 which has    
never been permanently suspended1 that  
the  faculties of ,representation and   
,expression should be subordinate to    
those of ,conception and ,co-ordination4
 ,even in cerebral disturbances  the law
 holds good4 ,the relation with the     
external world is perverted1  but the   
original correlation of the internal    
mental functions remains  unaffected4   
,the foolish vanity of the later poets  
of antiquity led some of them  into     
errors much resembling those which now  
prevail on this point4  ,still in       
,polytheistic society artists were at no
 time looked upon  as the leading class1
 notwithstanding the esthetic character 
of  ,greek and ,roman religion4 ,if     
proofs were necessary1 ,homer's poems1  
especially the ,odyssey1 would show how 
secondary the influence of  the fine    
arts was upon society1 even when the    
priesthood had ceased  to control them4 
,plato's ,utopia1 written when          

,polytheism was in its  decline1        
represented a state in which the        
interference of poets was               
systematically prevented4 ,mediaeval    
,monotheism was still less disposed  to 
overrate the importance of ,art1 though 
its true value was recognized  more     
generally than it had ever been before4 
,but with the decline  of ,catholicism1 
germs of errors showed themselves1 from 
which even  the extraordinary genius of 
,dante was not free4 ,the revolutionary 
influences of the last five centuries   
have developed these errors into  the   
delirium of self-conceit exhibited by   
the poets and literary men  of our time4
 ,theology having arrived at its extreme
 limits before  any true conception of  
the ,positive state could arise1 the    
negative  condition of the ,western     
,republic became aggravated to an       
unheard-of  extent4 ,rules and          
institutions1 which had formerly        
controlled the  most headstrong         
ambition1 fell rapidly into discredit4  

,and as the  principles of social order 
disappeared1 artists and especially     
poets1  the leading class among them1   
stimulated by the applause which they   
received from their uninstructed        
audience1 fell into the error of        
seeking political influence4            
,incompatible as all mere criticism must
  be with true poetry1 modern ,art since
 the fourteenth century has             
participated more and more actively in  
the destruction of the old  system4     
,until1 however1 ,negativism had        
received its distinct shape  and        
character from the revolutions of the   
sixteenth and seventeenth  centuries1   
the influence of ,art for destructive   
purposes was secondary  to that         
exercised by metaphysicians and legists4
 ,but in the eighteenth  century1 when  
negativism began to be propagated boldly
 in a systematic  form1 the case was    
changed1 and literary ambition asserted 
itself more  strongly4 ,the speculative 
thinkers who had hitherto formed the    

vanguard  of the destructive movement1  
were replaced by mere litterateurs1 men 
whose talents were of a poetical rather 
than philosophical kind1 but  who had1  
intellectually speaking1 no real        
vocation4 ,when the crisis  of the      
,revolution came1 this heterogeneous    
class took the lead in the  movement1   
and naturally stepped into all political
 offices2 a state of  things which will 
continue until there is a more direct   
and general  movement of reorganization4
     ,the political influence of        
literary men a deplorable   sign and    
source of anarchy    ,this is the       
historical explanation1 and at the same 
time the  refutation1 of the subversive 
schemes so prevalent in our time1 of    
which the object is to establish a sort 
of aristocracy of literary  pedants4    
,such day-dreams of unbridled           
self-conceit find favour only  with the 
metaphysical minds who cannot sanction  
exceptional cases  without making them  
into an absolute rule4 ,if philosophers 

are to be  excluded from political      
authority1 there is still greater reason
 for  excluding poets4 ,the mental and  
moral versatility which makes them  so  
apt in reflecting the thoughts and      
feelings of those around them1  utterly 
unfits them for being our guides4 ,their
 natural defects are  such as nothing   
but rigorous and systematic education   
can correct2 they  are1 therefore1      
certain to be peculiarly prominent in   
times like these  when deep convictions 
of any kind are so rare4 ,their real    
vocation is  to assist the spiritual    
power as accessory members2 and this    
involves  their renouncing all ideas of 
government1 even more strictly than     
philosophers themselves4 ,philosophers1 
though not themselves engaging  in      
politics1 are called upon to lay down   
the principles of political  action2 but
 the poet has very little to do with    
either4 ,his special  function is to    
idealize and to stimulate2 and to do    
this well1 he must  concentrate his     

energies exclusively upon it4 ,it is a  
large and noble  field1 amply sufficient
 to absorb men who have a real vocation 
for it4  ,accordingly1 in the great     
artist of former times we see           
comparatively  few traces of this       
extravagant ambition4 ,it comes before  
us in a  time when1 owing to the absence
 of regular habits of life and fixed    
convictions1 art of the highest order is
 impossible4 ,the poets of our  time    
either have not realized or have        
mistaken their vocation4 ,when  ,society
 is again brought under the influence of
 a universal doctrine1  real poetry will
 again become possible2 and such men as 
those we have  been speaking of will    
turn their energies in a different      
direction4  ,till then they will        
continue to waste their efforts or to   
ruin their  character in worthless      
political agitation1 a state of things  
in which  mediocrity shines and real    
genius is left in the background4    ,in
 the normal state of human nature1      

,imagination is subordinate to  ,reason 
as ,reason is to ,feeling4 ,any         
prolonged inversion of this natural     
order is both morally and intellectually
 dangerous4 ,the reign of  ,imagination 
would be still more disastrous than the 
reign of ,reason2  only that it is even 
more incompatible with the practical    
conditions  of human life4 ,but         
chimerical as it is1 the mere pursuit of
 it may do  much individual harm by     
substituting artificial excitement1 and 
in too  many cases affectation of       
feeling1 in the place of deep and       
spontaneous  emotion4 ,viewed           
politically1 nothing can be worse than  
this undue  preponderance of esthetic   
considerations caused by the            
uncontrolled  ambition of artists and   
litterateurs4 ,the true object of ,art1 
which is  to charm and elevate human    
life1 is gradually lost sight of4 ,by   
being  held out as the aim and object of
 existence1 it degrades the artist  and 
the public equally1 and is therefore    

certain to degenerate4 ,it  loses all   
its higher tendencies1 and is reduced   
either to a sensuous  pleasure1 or to a 
mere display of technical skill4        
,admiration for  the arts1 which1 when  
kept in its proper place1 has done so   
much for  modern life1 may become a     
deeply corrupting influence1 if it      
becomes  the paramount consideration4   
,it is notorious what an atrocious      
custom  prevailed in ,italy for several 
centuries1 simply for the sake of       
improving men's voices4 ,art1 the true  
purpose of which is to strengthen  our  
sympathies1 leads when thus degraded to 
a most abject form of  selfishness2 in  
which enjoyment of sounds or forms is   
held out as  the highest happiness1 and 
utter apathy prevails as to all         
questions  of social interest4 ,so      
dangerous is it intellectually1 and     
still more  so morally1 for individuals1
 and above all1 for societies to allow  
esthetic considerations to become unduly
 preponderant2 even when they  spring   

from a genuine impulse4 ,but the        
invariable consequence to which  this   
violation of the first principles of    
social order leads1 is the  success of  
mediocrities who acquire technical skill
 by long practice4    ,thus it is that  
we have gradually fallen under the      
discreditable  influence of men who were
 evidently not competent for any but    
subordinate positions1 and whose        
preponderance has proved as injurious   
to ,art as it has been to ,philosophy   
and ,morality4 ,a fatal facility of     
giving expression to what is neither    
believed nor felt1 gives temporary      
reputation to men who are as incapable  
of originality in ,art as they  are of  
grasping any new principle in science4  
,it is the most remarkable  of all the  
political anomalies caused by our       
revolutionary position2  and the moral  
results are most deplorable1 unless     
when1 as rarely  happens1 the possessor 
of these undeserved honours has a nature
 too  noble to be injured by them4      

,poets are more exposed to these dangers
  than other artists1 because their     
sphere is more general and gives  wider 
scope for ambition4 ,but in the special 
arts we find the same evil  in a still  
more degrading form2 that of avarice1 a 
vice by which so  much of our highest   
talent is now tainted4 ,another signal  
proof of the  childish vanity and       
uncontrolled ambition of the class is1  
that those  who are merely interpreters 
of other men's productions claim the    
same  title as those who have produced  
original works4    ,such are the results
 of the extravagant pretensions which   
artists and  literary men have gradually
 developed during the last five         
centuries4  ,i have dwelt upon them     
because they constitute at present      
serious  impediments to all sound views 
of the nature and purposes of ,art4 ,my 
strictures will not be thought too      
severe by really esthetic natures1  who 
know from personal experience how fatal 
the present system is to  all talent of 

a high order4 ,whatever the outcry of   
those personally  interested1 it is     
certain that in the true interest of    
,art the  suppression of mediocrity is  
at least as important as the            
encouragement  of talent4 ,true taste   
always implies distaste4 ,the very fact 
that the  object is to foster in us the 
sense of perfection1 implies that all   
true connoisseurs will feel a thorough  
dislike for feeble work4 ,happily  there
 is this privilege in all masterpieces1 
that the admiration  aroused by them    
endures in its full strength for all    
time2 so that  the plea which is often  
put forward of keeping up the public    
taste  by novelties which in reality    
injure it1 falls to the ground4 ,to     
mention my own experience1 ,i may say   
that for thirteen years ,i have  been   
induced alike from principle and from   
inclination1 to restrict my  reading    
almost entirely to the great ,occidental
 poets1 without feeling  the smallest   
curiosity for the works of the day which

 are brought out  in such mischievous   
abundance4     ,theory of ,art          
,guarding ourselves1 then1 against      
errors of this kind1 we may now  proceed
 to consider the esthetic character of  
,positivism4 ,in the first  place1 it   
furnishes us with a satisfactory theory 
of ,art2 a subject  which has never been
 systematically explained2 all previous 
attempts to  do so1 whatever their      
value1 having viewed the subject        
incompletely4  ,the theory here offered 
is based on the subjective principle of 
the new  philosophy1 on its objective   
dogma1 and on its social purpose2 as set
  forward in the two first chapters of  
this work4     ,art is the idealized    
representation of ,fact    ,art may be  
defined as an ideal representation of   
,fact2 and its object  is to cultivate  
our sense of perfection4 ,its sphere    
therefore is  co-extensive with that of 
,science4 ,both deal in their own way   
with  the world of ,fact2 the one       
explains it1 the other beautifies it4   

,the  contemplations of the artist and  
of the man of science follow the same   
encyclopdic law2 they begin with the    
simple objects of the external  world2  
they gradually rise to the complicated  
facts of human nature4 ,i  pointed out  
in the second chapter that the          
scientific scale1 the scale1  that is1  
of the ,true1 coincided with that of the
 ,good3 we now see that  it coincides   
with that of the ,beautiful4 ,thus      
between these three great  creations of 
,humanity1 ,philosophy1 ,polity1 and    
,poetry1 there is the  most perfect     
harmony4 ,the first elements of ,beauty1
 that is to say1  ,order and ,magnitude1
 are visible in the inorganic world1    
especially in  the heavens2 and they are
 there perceived with greater           
distinctness  than where the phenomena  
are more complex and less uniform4 ,the 
higher  degrees of ,beauty will hardly  
be recognized by those who are          
insensible  to this its simplest phase4 
,but as in ,philosophy we only study the

  inorganic world as a preliminary to   
the study of ,man2 so1 but to a  still  
greater extent1 is it with ,poetry4 ,in 
,polity the tendency is  similar but    
less apparent4 ,here we begin with      
material progress2 we  proceed to       
physical and subsequently to            
intellectual progress2 but it  is long  
before we arrive at the ultimate goal1  
moral progress4 ,poetry  passes more    
rapidly over the three preliminary      
stages1 and rises with  less difficulty 
to the contemplation of moral beauty4   
,feeling1 then1  is essentially the     
sphere of ,poetry4 ,and it supplies not 
the end  only1 but the means4 ,of all   
the phenomena which relate to man1 human
  affections are the most modifiable1   
and therefore the most susceptible  of  
idealization4 ,being more imperfect than
 any other1 by virtue of  their higher  
complexity1 they allow greater scope for
 improvement4  ,now the act of          
expression1 however imperfect1 reacts   
powerfully upon  these functions1 which 

from their nature are always seeking    
some  external vent4 ,every one         
recognizes the influence of language    
upon  thoughts3 and surely it cannot be 
less upon feelings1 since in them  the  
need of expression is greater4          
,consequently all esthetic study1  even 
if purely imitative1 may become a useful
 moral exercise1 by  calling sympathies 
and antipathies into healthy play4 ,the 
effect is far  greater when the         
representation1 passing the limits of   
strict accuracy1  is suitably idealized4
 ,this indeed is the characteristic     
mission of  ,art4 ,its function is to   
construct types of the noblest kind1 by 
the  contemplation of which our feelings
 and thoughts may be elevated4 ,that    
the portraiture should be exaggerated   
follows from the definition of  ,art2 it
 should surpass realities so as to      
stimulate us to amend them4  ,great as  
the influence is of these poetic        
emotions on individuals1 they  are far  
more efficacious when brought to bear   

upon public life3 not  only from the    
greater importance of the subject       
matter1 but because  each individual    
impression is rendered more intense by  
combination4     ,poetry is intermediate
   between ,philosophy and   ,polity    
,thus ,positivism explains and confirms 
the view ordinarily taken of  ,poetry1  
by placing it midway between ,philosophy
 and ,polity2 issuing  from the first1  
and preparing the way for the second4   
,even ,feeling itself1 the highest      
principle of our existence1 accepts  the
 objective dogma of ,philosophy1 that   
,humanity is subject to the  order of   
the external world4 ,and ,imagination on
 still stronger grounds  must accept the
 same law4 ,the ideal must always be    
subordinate to the  real2 otherwise     
feebleness as well as extravagance is   
the consequence4  ,the statesman who    
endeavours to improve the existing      
order1 must first  study it as it       
exists4 ,and the poet1 although his     
improvements are  but imagined1 and are 

not supposed capable of realization1    
must do  likewise4 ,true in his fictions
 he will transcend the limits of the    
possible1 while the statesman will keep 
within those limits2 but both  have the 
same point of departure2 both begin by  
studying the actual  facts with which   
they deal4 ,in our artificial           
improvements we should  never aim at    
anything more than wise modification of 
the natural  order2 we should never     
attempt to subvert it4 ,and though      
,imagination  has a wider range for its 
pictures1 they are yet subject to the   
same  fundamental law1 imposed by       
,philosophy upon ,polity and ,poetry    
alike4  ,even in the most poetic ages   
this law has always been recognized1    
only  the external world was interpreted
 then in a way very differently from    
now4 ,we see the same thing every day in
 the mental growth of the child4  ,as   
his notions of fact change1 his fictions
 are modified in conformity  with these 
changes4    ,but while ,poetry depends  

upon ,philosophy for the principles on  
which  its types are constructed1 it    
influences ,polity by the direction     
which  it gives to those types4 ,in     
every operation that man undertakes1 he 
must imagine before he executes1 as he  
must observe before he imagines4  ,he   
can never produce a result which he has 
not conceived first in  his own mind4   
,in the simplest application of         
mechanics or geometry  he finds it      
necessary to form a mental type1 which  
is always more  perfect than the reality
 which it precedes and prepares4 ,now   
none  but those who confound poetry with
 verse-making can fail to see that  this
 conception of a type is the same thing 
as esthetic imagination1  under its     
simplest and most general aspect4 ,its  
application to social  phenomena1 which 
constitute the chief sphere both of ,art
 and of  ,science1 is very imperfectly  
understood as yet1 and can hardly be    
said  to have begun1 owing to the want  
of any true theory of society4 ,the     

real object of so applying it is1 that  
it should regulate the formation  of    
social ,utopias2 subordinating them to  
the laws of social development  as      
revealed by history4 ,utopias are to the
 ,art of social life what  geometrical  
and mechanical types are to their       
respective arts4 ,in these  their       
necessity is universally recognized2 and
 surely the necessity  cannot be less in
 problems of such far greater intricacy4
 ,accordingly  we see that1             
notwithstanding the empirical condition 
in which political  art has hitherto    
existed1 every great change has been    
ushered in1 one  or two centuries       
beforehand1 by an ,utopia bearing some  
analogy to it4  ,it was the product of  
the esthetic genius of ,humanity working
 under an  imperfect sense of its       
conditions and requirements4            
,positivism1 far  from laying an        
interdict on ,utopias1 tends rather to  
facilitate their  employment and their  
influence1 as a normal element in       

society4 ,only1  as in the case of all  
other products of imagination1 they must
 always  remain subordinated to the     
actual laws of social existence4 ,and   
thus by  giving a systematic sanction to
 this the ,poetry1 as it may be called1 
of ,politics1 most of the dangers which 
now surround it will disappear4  ,its   
present extravagances arise simply from 
the absence of some  philosophical      
principle to control it1 and therefore  
there is no reason  for regarding them  
with great severity4    ,the whole of   
this theory may be summed up in the     
double meaning of  the word so admirably
 chosen to designate our esthetic       
functions4 ,the  word ,art is a         
remarkable instance of the popular      
instinct from which  language proceeds1 
and which is far more enlightened than  
educated  persons are apt to suppose4   
,it indicates1 however vaguely1 a sense 
of  the true position of ,poetry1 midway
 between ,philosophy and ,polity1  but  
with a closer relation to the latter4   

,true1 in the case of the  technical    
arts the improvements proposed are      
practically realized1  while those of   
the fine arts remain imaginary4 ,poetry1
 however1 does  produce one result of an
 indirect but most essential kind2 it   
does  actually modify our moral nature4 
,if we include oratory1 which is  only  
,poetry in a simpler phase1 though often
 worthless enough1 we  find its         
influence exerted in a most difficult   
and critical task1  that of arousing or 
calming our passions2 and this not      
arbitrarily1  but in accordance with the
 fixed laws of their action4 ,here it   
has  always been recognized as a moral  
agency of great power4 ,on every        
ground1 then1 ,poetry seems more closely
 related to practical than to           
speculative life4 ,for its practical    
results are of the most important  and  
comprehensive nature4 ,whatever the     
utility of other arts1 material1        
physical1 or intellectual1 they are only
 subsidiary or preparatory  to that     

which in ,poetry is the direct aim1     
moral improvement4 ,in the  ,middle     
,ages it was common in all ,western     
languages to speak of it as  a ,science1
 the proper meaning of the word ,science
 being then very  imperfectly           
understood4 ,but as soon as both        
artistic and scientific  genius had     
become more fully developed1 their      
distinctive features were  more clearly 
recognized1 and finally the name of ,art
 was appropriated  to the whole class of
 poetic functions4 ,the fact is1 at all 
events1 an  argument in favour of the   
,positive theory of idealization1 as    
standing  midway between theoretical    
inquiry and practical result4     ,art  
calls each element of   our nature into 
harmonious   action    ,evidently1 then1
 it is in ,art that the unity of human  
natures finds its  most complete and    
most natural representation4 ,for ,art  
is in direct  relation with the three   
orders of phenomena by which human      
nature  is characterized2 ,feelings1    

,thoughts1 and ,actions4 ,it originates 
in  ,feeling2 the proof of this is even 
more obvious than in the case of        
,philosophy and ,polity4 ,it has its    
basis in ,thought1 and its end is       
,action4 ,hence its power of exerting an
 influence for good alike on  every     
phase of our existence1 whether personal
 or social4 ,hence too its  peculiar    
attribute of giving equal pleasure to   
all ranks and ages4 ,art  invites the   
thinker to leave his abstractions for   
the study of real  life2 it elevates the
 practical man into a region of thought 
where  self-love has no place4 ,by its  
intermediate position it promotes the   
mutual reaction of ,affection and       
,reason4 ,it stimulates feeling in those
  who are too much engrossed with       
intellectual questions3 it strengthens  
the contemplative faculty in natures    
where sympathy predominates4 ,it  has   
been said of ,art that its province is  
to hold a mirror to nature4  ,the saying
 is usually applied to social life where

 its truth is most  apparent4 ,but it is
 no less true of every aspect of our    
existence2 for  under every aspect it   
may be a source of ,art1 and may be     
represented  and modified by it4        
,turning to ,biology for the cause of   
this  sociological relation1 we find it 
in the relation of the muscular and     
nervous systems4 ,our motions1          
involuntary at first1 and then          
voluntary1  indicate internal           
impressions1 moral impressions more     
especially2 and  as they proceed from   
them1 so they react upon them4 ,here we 
find the  first germ of a true theory of
 ,art4 ,throughout the animal kingdom   
language is simply gesticulation of a   
more or less expressive kind4 ,and  with
 man esthetic development begins in the 
same spontaneous way4     ,three stages 
in the   esthetic process3 ,imitation1  
,idealization1 ,expression    ,with this
 primary principle we may now complete  
our statical theory  of ,art1 by        
indicating in it three distinct degrees 

or phases4 ,the  fine arts have been    
divided into imitative and inventive2   
but this  distinction has no real       
foundation4 ,art always imitates1 and   
always  idealizes4 ,true1 as the real is
 in every case the source of the ideal1 
,art begins at first with simple        
,imitation4 ,in the childhood1 whether  
of  men or of the race1 as also with the
 lower animals1 servile imitation1  and 
that of the most insignificant actions1 
is the only symptom of  esthetic        
capacity4 ,no representation1 however1  
has at present any claim  to the title  
of ,art 7although from motives of       
puerile vanity the name  is often given 
to it71 except so far as it is made more
 beautiful1 that  is to say1 more       
perfect4 ,the representation thus       
becomes in reality  more faithful1      
because the principal features are      
brought prominently  forward1 instead of
 being obscured by a mass of unmeaning  
detail4  ,this it is which constitutes  
,idealization2 and from the time of the 

great masterpieces of antiquity1 it has 
become more and more the  characteristic
 feature of esthetic productions4 ,but  
in recognizing the  superiority of      
,idealization as the second stage of    
,art1 we must not  forget the necessity 
of its first stage1 ,imitation4 ,without
 it neither  the origin nor the nature  
of ,art could be correctly understood4  
,in addition to the creative process1   
which is the chief characteristic  of   
,art1 there is a third function which1  
though not absolutely  necessary in its 
imitative stage1 becomes in its ideal   
stage4 ,i mean  the function of         
,expression strictly so called1 without 
which the  product of imagination could 
not be communicated to others4          
,language1  whether it be the ,language 
of sound or form1 is the last stage of  
the  esthetic operation1 and it does not
 always bear a due proportion to the    
inventive faculty4 ,when it is too      
defective1 the sublimest creations  may 
be ranked lower than they deserve1 owing

 to the failure of the poet  to         
communicate his thought completely4     
,great powers of style may1 on  the     
other hand1 confer unmerited reputation1
 which however does not  endure4 ,an    
instance of this is the preference that 
was given for so  long a time to ,racine
 over ,corneille4    ,so long as ,art is
 confined to ,imitation1 no special     
language is  required2 imitation is     
itself the substitute for language4 ,but
 as soon  as the representation has     
become idealized by heightening some    
features  and suppressing or altering   
others1 it corresponds to something     
which  exists only in the mind of the   
composer2 and its communication to the  
world requires additional labour devoted
 exclusively to ,expression4  ,in this  
final process so necessary to the       
complete success of his  work1 the poet 
moulds his signs upon his inward type2  
just as he began  at first by adapting  
them to external facts4 ,so far there is
 some  truth in ,grtry's principle that 

song is derived from speech by the      
intermediate stage of declamation4 ,the 
same principle has been applied  to all 
the special arts2 it might also be      
applied to ,poetry1 oratory  being the  
link between verse and prose4 ,these    
views1 however1 are  somewhat modified  
by the historical spirit of ,positive   
,philosophy4 ,we  must invert ,grtry's  
relation of cause and effect2 at least  
when we are  considering those primitive
 times1 when ,art and ,language first   
arose  together4    ,the origin of all  
our faculties of expression is          
invariably esthetic2  for we do not     
express till after we have felt         
strongly4 ,feeling had1  in primitive   
times at all events1 far more to do with
 these faculties  than ,thought1 being a
 far stronger stimulant to external     
demonstration4  ,even in the most highly
 wrought languages1 where1 in           
consequence of  social requirements1    
reason has to a great extent encroached 
upon  emotion1 we see evidence of this  

truth4 ,there is a musical element  in  
the most ordinary conversation4         
,listening carefully to a lecture  on   
the most abstruse mathematical problem1 
we shall hear intonations  which proceed
 obviously from the heart rather than   
the head1 and which  are indications of 
character even in the most unimpassioned
 speaker4  ,biology at once explains    
this law1 by teaching that the stimulus 
to  the muscles used in expression1     
whether vocal or gesticulatory1 comes   
principally from the affective region of
 the brain2 the specu-region  being too 
inert to produce muscular contraction   
for which there is  no absolute         
necessity4 ,accordingly1 ,sociology     
regards every language  as containing in
 its primitive elements all that is     
spontaneous and  universal in the       
esthetic development of ,humanity2      
enough1 that is1  to satisfy the general
 need of communicating emotion4 ,in this
 common  field the special arts         
commence1 and they ultimately widen it4 

,but the  operation is the same in its  
nature1 whether carried on by popular   
instinct or by individuals4 ,the final  
result is always more dependent  on     
feeling than on reason1 even in times   
like these1 when the intellect  has     
risen in revolt against the heart4      
,song1 therefore1 comes before  ,speech2
 ,painting before ,writing2 because the 
first things we express  are those which
 move our feelings most4 ,subsequently  
the necessities  of social life oblige  
us to employ more frequently1 and       
ultimately  to develop1 those elements  
in painting or in song1 which relate to 
our practical wants and to our          
speculative faculties so far as they    
are required for supplying them2 these  
forming the topics of ordinary          
communication4 ,thus the emotion from   
which the sign had originally  proceeded
 becomes gradually effaced2 the         
practical object is alone  thought of1  
and expression becomes more rapid and   
less emphatic4 ,the  process goes on    

until at last the sign is supposed to   
have originated  in arbitrary           
convention2 though1 if this were the    
case1 its universal  and spontaneous    
adoption would be inexplicable4 ,such1  
then1 is the  sociological theory of    
,language1 on which ,i shall afterwards 
dwell  more fully4 ,i connect it with   
the whole class of esthetic functions1  
from which in the lower animals it is   
not distinguished4 ,for no animal       
idealizes its song or gesture so far as 
to rise to anything that can  properly  
be called ,art4     ,classification of  
the   arts on the principle of          
decreasing generality1 and   increasing 
intensity    ,to complete our           
examination of the philosophy of ,art1  
statically  viewed1 we have now only to 
speak of the order in which the various 
arts should be classified4 ,placed as   
,art is1 midway between ,theory  and    
,practice1 it is classified on the same 
principle1 the principle1  that is of   
decreasing generality1 which ,i have    

long ago shown to be  applicable to all 
,positive classifications of whatever   
kind4 ,we have  already obtained from it
 a scale of the ,beautiful1 answering in
 most  points to that which was first   
laid down for the ,true1 and which  we  
applied afterwards to the ,good4 ,by    
following it in the present  instance1  
we shall be enabled to range the arts in
 the order of their  conception and     
succession1 as was done in my ,treatise 
on ,positive  ,philosophy for the       
various branches of ,science and        
,industry4    ,the arts1 then1 should be
 classified by the decreasing generality
 and  the increasing intensity1 which   
involves also increasing technicality1  
of their modes of expression4 ,in its   
highest term the esthetic scale         
connects itself with the scientific     
scale2 and in its lowest with the       
industrial scale4 ,this is in conformity
 with the position assigned  to ,art    
intermediate between ,philosophy and    
,practical life4 ,art never  becomes    

disconnected from human interests2 but  
as it becomes less  general and more    
technical1 its relation with our higher 
attributes  becomes less intimate1 and  
it is more dependent on inorganic       
,nature1 so  that at last the kind of   
beauty depicted by it is merely         
material4     ,poetry    ,on these      
principles of classification we must    
give the first place  to ,poetry        
properly so called1 as being the most   
general and least  technical of the     
arts1 and as being the basis on which   
all the rest  depend4 ,the impressions  
which it produces are less intense than 
those  of the rest1 but its sphere is   
evidently wider1 since it embraces      
every side of our existence1 whether    
individual1 domestic1 or social4        
,poetry1 like the special arts1 has a   
closer relation with actions  and       
impulses than with thoughts4 ,yet the   
most abstract conceptions  are not      
excluded from its sphere2 for not merely
 can it improve the  language in which  

they are expressed1 but it may add to   
their intrinsic  beauty4 ,it is1 on the 
whole1 the most popular of all the arts1
 both  on account of its wider scope1   
and also because1 its instruments of    
expression being taken directly from    
ordinary language1 it is more  generally
 intelligible than any other4 ,true1 in 
the highest kind of  poetry             
versification is necessary2 but this    
cannot be called a special  art4 ,the   
language of ,poetry1 although distinct  
in form1 is in reality  nothing but the 
language of common men more perfectly   
expressed4 ,the  only technical element 
in it1 prosody1 is easily acquired by a 
few  days' practice4 ,a proof of the    
identity of the language of ,poetry with
  that of common life1 is the fact that 
no poet has ever been able to  write    
with effect in a foreign or a dead      
language4 ,and not only is this  noblest
 of ,arts more comprehensive1 more      
spontaneous1 more popular than  the     
rest1 but it surpasses them in that     

which is the characteristic  feature of 
all art1 ,ideality4 ,poetry is the art  
which idealizes the  most1 and imitates 
the least4 ,for these reasons it has    
always held  the first place among the  
arts2 a view which will be strengthened 
in  proportion as we attach greater     
importance to idealization and less  to 
mere expression4 ,in expression it is   
inferior to the other arts1  which      
represent such subjects as fall within  
their compass with greater  intensity4  
,but it is from ,poetry that these      
subjects are usually  borrowed4         
,music    ,the first term of the series 
being thus determined1 the other arts   
may at once be ranked according to the  
degree of their affinity  with ,poetry4 
,let us begin by distinguishing the     
different senses to  which they appeal2 
and we shall find that our series       
proceeds on the  principle which        
biologists1 since ,gall's time1 have    
adopted for the  classification of the  
special senses1 the principle of        

decreasing  sociability4 ,there are only
 two senses which can be called         
esthetic2  namely1 ,sight and ,hearing3 
the others having no power of raising us
  to ,idealization4 ,the sense of smell 
can1 it is true1 enable us to  associate
 ideas2 but in man it exists too feebly 
for artistic effects4  ,hearing and     
,sight correspond to the two modes of   
natural language1  voice and gesture4   
,from the first arises the art of       
,music2 the second1  which however is   
less esthetic1 includes the three arts  
of form4 ,these  are more technical than
 ,music2 their field is not so wide1 and
 moreover  they stand at a greater      
distance from poetry2 whereas ,music    
remained  for a long time identified    
with it4 ,another distinction is that   
the  sense to which music appeals       
performs its function involuntarily2 and
  this is one reason why the emotions   
which it calls forth are more           
spontaneous and more deep1 though less  
definite1 than in the case  where it    

depends on the will whether we receive  
the impression or not4  ,again1 the     
difference between them answers to the  
distinction of ,time  and ,space4 ,the  
art of sound represents succession2 the 
arts of form1  co-existence4 ,on all    
these grounds music should certainly be 
ranked  before the other special arts1  
as the second term of the esthetic      
series4 ,its technical difficulties are 
exaggerated by pedants1 whose  interest 
it is to do so2 in reality1 special     
training is less needed  for its        
appreciation1 and even for its          
composition1 than in the case of  either
 painting or sculpture4 ,hence it is in 
every respect more popular  and more    
social4     ,painting    ,sculpture     
,architecture    ,of the three arts     
which appeal to the voluntary sense of  
sight1 and  which present simultaneous  
impressions1 ,painting1 on the same     
principle  of arrangement1 holds the    
first rank1 and ,architecture the last2 
,sculpture being placed between them4   

,painting alone employs all the  methods
 of visual expression1 combining the    
effects of colour with  those of form4  
,whether in public or private life1 its 
sphere is wider  than that of the other 
two4 ,more technical skill is required  
in it  than in music1 and it is harder  
to obtain2 but the difficulty is less   
than in ,sculpture or in ,architecture4 
,these latter idealize less1  and       
imitate more4 ,of the two1 ,architecture
 is the less esthetic4 ,it  is far more 
dependent on technical processes2 and   
indeed most of its  productions are     
rather works of industry than works of  
art4 ,it seldom  rises above material   
beauty3 moral beauty it can only        
represent by  artifices1 of which the   
meaning is often ambiguous4 ,but the    
impressions  conveyed by it are so      
powerful and so permanent1 that it will 
always  retain its place among the fine 
arts1 especially in the case of great   
public buildings1 which stand out as the
 most imposing record of  each          

successive phase of social development4 
,never has the power of  ,architecture  
been displayed to greater effect than in
 our magnificent  cathedrals1 in which  
the spirit of the ,middle ,ages has been
 idealized  and preserved for posterity4
 ,they exhibit in a most striking manner
 the  property which ,architecture      
possesses of bringing all the arts      
together  into a common centre4     ,the
 conditions favourable   to ,art have   
never yet been   combined    ,these     
brief remarks will illustrate the method
 adopted by the new  philosophy in      
investigating a systematic theory of    
,art under all its  statical aspects4   
,we have now to speak of its action upon
 social life1  whether in the final     
state of ,humanity1 or in the           
transitional movement  through which    
that state is to be reached4    ,the    
,positive theory of history shows us at 
once1 in spite of strong  prejudices to 
the contrary1 that up to the present    
time the progress  achieved by ,art has 

been1 like that of ,science and         
,industry1 only  preparatory2 the       
conditions essential to its full        
development never  having yet been      
combined4     ,neither in ,polytheism   
,too much has been made of the esthetic 
tendencies of the nations of  antiquity1
 owing to the free scope that was given 
to ,imagination in  constructing their  
doctrines4 ,in fact ,polytheism1 now    
that the belief  in its principles      
exists no longer1 has been regarded as  
simply a work  of art4 ,but the long    
duration of its principles would be     
sufficient  proof that they were not    
created by the poets1 but that they     
emanated  from the philosophic genius of
 ,humanity working spontaneously1 as    
explained in my theory of human         
development1 in the only way that was   
then possible4 ,all that ,art did for   
,polytheism was to perform its  proper  
function of clothing it in a more poetic
 form4 ,it is quite  true that the      
peculiar character of ,polytheistic     

philosophy gave  greater scope for the  
development of ,art than has been       
afforded by any  subsequent system4 ,it 
is to this portion of the theological   
period that  we must attribute the first
 steps of esthetic development1 whether 
in  society or in the individual4 ,yet  
,art was never really incorporated  into
 the ancient order4 ,its free growth was
 impossible so long as it  remained     
under the control of ,theocracy1 which  
made use of it as an  instrument1 but   
which1 from the stationary character of 
its dogmas1  shackled its operations4   
,moreover1 the social life of antiquity 
was  highly unfavourable to ,art4 ,the  
sphere of personal feelings and         
domestic affections was hardly open to  
it4 ,public life in ancient times  had  
certainly more vigorous and more        
permanent features1 and here  there was 
a wider field4 ,yet even in such a case 
as that of ,homer1 we  feel that he     
would hardly have spent his             
extraordinary powers upon  descriptions 

of military life1 had there been nobler 
subjects for his  genius4 ,the only     
grand aspect1 viewed socially1 that war 
could offer1  the system of             
incorporation instituted by ,rome after 
a succession  of conquests1 could not   
then be foreseen4 ,when that period     
arrived1  ancient history was drawing to
 a close1 and the only poetical tribute 
to this nobler policy was contained in a
 few beautiful lines of  ,virgil's neid1
 ending with the remarkable expression1 
,pacisque imponere morem1      7,impose 
the law of peace47     ,nor under the   
,mediaeval   system    ,mediaeval       
society1 notwithstanding irrational     
prejudices to the  contrary1 would have 
been far more favourable to the fine    
arts1 could  it have continued longer4  
,i do not speak1 indeed1 of its dogmas2 
which were so incompatible with ,art1 as
 to lead to the strange  inconsistency  
of giving a factitious sanction to      
,paganism in the midst  of              
,christianity4 ,by holding personal and 

chimerical objects before us  as the end
 of life1 ,monotheism discouraged all   
poetry1 except so far as  it related to 
our individual existence4 ,this1        
however1 was idealized by  the mystics1 
whose beautiful compositions penetrated 
into our inmost  emotions1 and wanted   
nothing but greater perfection of form4 
,all that  ,catholicism effected for    
,art in other respects was to secure a  
better  position for it1 as soon as the 
priesthood became strong enough to      
counteract the intellectual and moral   
defects of ,christian doctrine4  ,but   
the social life of the ,middle ,ages was
 far more esthetic than that  of        
antiquity4 ,war was still the prevailing
 occupation2 but by assuming  a         
defensive character1 it had become far  
more moral1 and therefore  more poetic4 
,woman had acquired a due measure of    
freedom2 and the free  development of   
home affections were thus no longer     
restricted4 ,there  was a consciousness 
of personal dignity hitherto unknown1   

and yet  quite compatible with social   
devotion1 which elevated individual life
  in all its aspects4 ,all these        
qualities were summed up in the noble   
institution of ,chivalry2 which gave a  
strong stimulus to ,art throughout      
,western ,europe1 and diffused it more  
largely than in any former period4      
,this movement was in reality1 though   
the fact is not recognized as it  should
 be1 the source of modern ,art4 ,the    
reason for its short duration  is to be 
found in the essentially transient and  
provisional character  of mediaeval     
society under all its aspects4 ,by the  
time that its  language and habits had  
become sufficiently stable for the      
esthetic  spirit to produce works of    
permanent value1 ,catholic ,feudalism   
was  already undermined by the growing  
force of the negative movement4 ,the    
beliefs and modes of life offered for   
idealization were seen to be  declining3
 and neither the poet nor his readers   
could feel those deep  convictions which

 the highest purposes of ,art require4  
,much less in modern times    ,during   
the decline of ,chivalry1 ,art received 
indirectly an additional  impulse from  
the movement of social decomposition    
which has been going  on rapidly for the
 last five centuries4 ,in this movement 
all mental and  social influences       
gradually participated4 ,negativism1 it 
is true1 is  not the proper province of 
,art2 but the dogmas of ,christianity   
were so  oppressive to it1 that its     
efforts to shake off the yoke were of   
great  service to the cause of general  
emancipation4 ,dante's incomparable     
work is a striking illustration of this 
anomalous combination of two            
contradictory influences4 ,it was a     
situation unfavourable for art1  because
 every aspect of life was rapidly       
changing and losing its  character      
before there was time to idealize it4   
,consequently the poet  had to create   
his own field artificially from ancient 
history1 which  supplied him with those 

fixed and definite modes of life which  
he  could not find around him4 ,thus it 
was that for several centuries the      
,classical system became the sole source
 of esthetic culture2 the result  being 
that ,art lost much of the originality  
and popularity which had  previously    
belonged to it4 ,that great masterpieces
 should have been  produced at all under
 such unfavourable circumstances is the 
best proof  of the spontaneous character
 of our esthetic faculties4 ,the value  
of  the ,classical system has been for  
some time entirely exhausted2 and now   
that the negative movement has reached  
its extreme limits there only  remained 
one service 7a service of great         
temporary importance7 for ,art  to      
render1 the idealization of ,doubt      
itself4 ,such a phase of course         
admitted of but short duration4 ,the    
best examples of it are the works  of   
,byron and ,goethe1 the principle value 
of which has been1 that they  have      
initiated ,protestant countries into the

 unrestricted freedom of  thought which 
emanated originally from ,french        
philosophy4    ,thus history shows that 
the esthetic development of ,humanity   
has  been the result of spontaneous     
tendencies rather than of systematic    
guidance4 ,the mental conditions most   
favourable to it have never  been       
fulfilled simultaneously with its social
 conditions4 ,at the  present time both 
are alike wanting4 ,yet there is no     
evidence that  our esthetic faculties   
are on the decline4 ,not only has the   
growth  of art proceeded in spite of    
every obstacle1 but it has become more  
thoroughly incorporated into the life of
 ordinary men4 ,in ancient times  it was
 cultivated only by a small class4 ,so  
little was it recognized  as a component
 part of social organization1 that it   
did not even enter  into men's imaginary
 visions of a future existence4 ,but in 
the ,middle  ,ages the simplest minds   
were encouraged to cultivate the sense  
of  beauty as one of the purest delights

 of human life2 and it was held  out as 
the principal occupation of the         
celestial state4 ,from that time  all   
classes of ,european society have taken 
an increasing interest in  these        
elevating pleasures1 beginning with     
poetry1 and thence passing  to the      
special arts1 especially music1 the most
 social of all4 ,the  influence of      
artists1 even when they had no real     
claim to the title1  has been on the    
increase2 until at last the anarchy of  
the present time  has introduced them to
 political power1 for which they are    
utterly  unqualified4     ,under        
,positivism the   conditions will all be
   favourable4 ,there will be   fixed   
principles1 and a   nobler moral culture
    ,all this would seem to show that   
the greatest epoch of ,art has yet to   
come4 ,in this respect1 as in every     
other1 the ,past has but supplied the   
necessary materials for future          
reconstruction4 ,what we have seen as   
yet  is but a spontaneous and immature  

prelude2 but in the manhood of our      
moral and mental powers1 the culture of 
,art will proceed on principles  as     
systematic as the culture of ,science   
and of ,industry1 both of which  at     
present are similarly devoid of         
organization4 ,the regeneration of      
society will be incomplete until ,art   
has been fully incorporated into  the   
modern order4 ,and to this result all   
our antecedents have been  tending4 ,to 
renew the esthetic movement so admirably
 begun in the  ,middle ,ages1 but       
interrupted by classical influences1    
will form a part  of the great work     
which ,positivism has undertaken1 the   
completion and  re-establishment of the 
,mediaeval structure upon a firmer      
intellectual  basis4 ,and when ,art is  
once restored to its proper place1 its  
future  progress will be unchecked1     
because1 as ,i shall now proceed to     
show1  all the influences of the final  
order1 spontaneous or systematic1 will  
be in every respect favourable to it4   

,if this can be made clear1 the  poetic 
capabilities of ,positive ,philosophy   
will require no further  proof4    ,as  
being the only rallying point now       
possible for fixed convictions1  without
 which life can have no definite or     
permanent character1  ,positivism is on 
this ground alone indispensable to all  
further  development of modern ,art4 ,if
 the poet and his readers are alike     
devoid of such convictions1 no          
idealization of life1 whether personal1 
domestic1 or social1 is in any true     
sense possible4 ,no emotions are  fit   
subjects for ,art unless they are felt  
deeply1 and unless they come            
spontaneously to all4 ,when society has 
no marked intellectual or moral         
feature1 ,art1 which is its mirror1 can 
have none either4 ,and although  the    
esthetic faculty is so innate in us that
 it never can remain  inactive1 yet its 
culture becomes in this case vague and  
objectless4  ,the fact therefore that   
,positivism terminates the ,revolution  

by  initiating the movement of organic  
growth is of itself enough to prove  its
 beneficial influence upon ,art4        
,art1 indeed1 would profit by any method
 of reorganization1 whatever its        
nature4 ,but the principle on which     
,positivism proposes to reconstruct  is 
peculiarly favourable to its growth4    
,the opinions and the modes of  life to 
which that principle conducts are       
precisely those which are  most         
essential to esthetic development4    ,a
 more esthetic system cannot be imagined
 than one which teaches  that ,feeling  
is the basis on which the unity of human
 nature rests2  and which assigns as the
 grand object of man's existence1       
progress  in every direction1 but       
especially moral progress4 ,it may seem 
at  first as if the tendency of the new 
philosophy was merely to make us  more  
systematic4 ,and systematization is     
assuredly indispensable2 but  the sole  
object of it is to increase our sympathy
 and our synergic  activity by supplying

 that fixity of principle which alone   
can lead  to energetic practice4 ,by    
teaching that the highest happiness is  
to  aid in the happiness of others1     
,positivism invites the poet to his     
noblest function1 the culture of        
generous sympathies1 a subject far  more
 poetic than the passions of hatred and 
oppression which hitherto  have been his
 ordinary theme4 ,a system which regards
 such culture as  the highest object    
cannot fail to incorporate ,poetry as   
one of its  essential elements1 and to  
give to it a far higher position than it
 has  ever held before4 ,science1       
although it be the source from which the
  ,positive system emanates1 will be    
restricted to its proper function  of   
supplying the objective basis for human 
prevision2 thus giving to  ,art and     
,industry1 which must always be the     
principal objects of our  attention1 the
 foundation they require4 ,positivism1  
substituting in  every subject the      
relative point of view for the absolute1

 regarding1  that is1 every subject in  
its relation to ,humanity1 would not    
prosecute  the study of the ,true beyond
 what is required for the development of
  the ,good and the ,beautiful4 ,beyond 
this point1 scientific culture is  a    
useless expenditure of time1 and a      
diversion from the great end for  which 
,man and ,society exist4 ,subordinate as
 the ideal must ever be to  the real1   
,art will yet exercise a most salutary  
influence upon ,science1  as soon as we 
cease to study ,science in an absolute  
spirit4 ,in the  very simplest          
phenomena1 after reaching the degree of 
exactness which  our wants require1     
there is always a certain margin of     
liberty for the  imagination2 and       
advantage may very well be taken of this
 to make our  conceptions more beautiful
 and so far more useful4 ,still more    
available  is this influence of the     
,beautiful on the ,true in the highest  
subjects1  those which directly concern 
,humanity4 ,minute accuracy being here  

more  difficult and at the same time    
less important1 more room is left for   
esthetic considerations4 ,in            
representing the great historical types1
  for instance1 ,art has its place as   
well as ,science4 ,a society which      
devotes all its powers to making every  
aspect of life as perfect as  possible1 
will naturally give preference to that  
kind of intellectual  culture which is  
of all others the best calculated to    
heighten our  sense of perfection4      
,predisposing influence of   ,education 
,the tendency of ,positivism to favour  
these the most energetic of our         
intellectual faculties and the most     
closely related to our moral  nature1 is
 apparent throughout its educational    
system4 ,the reader  will have seen in  
the third chapter that in ,positive     
education more  importance is attached  
to ,art than to ,science1 as the true   
theory  of human development requires4  
,science intervenes only to put into    
systematic shape what ,art1 operating   

under the direct influence of           
affection1 has spontaneously begun4 ,as 
in the history of mankind  esthetic     
development preceded scientific         
development1 so it will  be with the    
individual1 whose education on the      
,positive method is  but a reproduction 
of the education of the race4 ,the only 
rational  principle of our absurd       
classical system is its supposed        
tendency to  encourage poetical         
training4 ,the futility1 however1 of    
this profession  is but too evident3 the
 usual result of the system being to    
implant  erroneous notions of all the   
fine arts1 if not utter distaste for    
them4 ,a striking illustration of its   
worthlessness is the idolatry  with     
which for a whole century our ,french   
pedants regarded ,boileau2  a most      
skilful versifier1 but of all our poets 
perhaps the least  gifted with true     
poetic feeling4 ,positivist education   
will effect what  classical education   
has attempted so imperfectly4 ,it will  

familiarize  the humblest working man or
 woman from childhood with all the      
beauties  of the best poets2 not those  
of his own nation merely1 but of all the
  ,west4 ,to secure the genuineness and 
efficiency of esthetic development1     
attention must first be given to the    
poets who depict our own modern         
society4 ,afterwards1 as ,i have said1  
the young ,positivist will be  advised  
to complete his poetical course1 by     
studying the poets who  have idealized  
antiquity4 ,but his education will not  
be limited to  poetry1 it will embrace  
the special arts of sound and form1 by  
which  the principal effects of poetry  
are reproduced with greater intensity4  
,thus the contemplation and meditation  
suggested by ,art1 besides their  own   
intrinsic charm1 will prepare the way   
for the exercise of similar  faculties  
in ,science4 ,for with the individual1  
as with the species1  the combination of
 images will assist the combination of  
signs3 signs  in their origin being     

images which have lost their vividness4 
,as the  sphere of ,art includes every  
subject of human interest1 we shall     
become familiarized1 during the esthetic
 period of education1 with  the         
principal conceptions that are          
afterwards to be brought before us      
systematically in the scientific period4
 ,especially will this be true  of      
historical studies4 ,by the time that   
the pupil enters upon them1 he  will be 
already familiar with poetic            
descriptions of the various social      
phases1 and of the men who played a     
leading part in them4     ,relation of  
,art to ,religion    ,and if ,art is of 
such importance in the education of the 
young1 it is  no less important in the  
afterwork of education2 the work of     
recalling  men or classes of men to     
those high feelings and principles      
which1  in the daily business of life1  
are so apt to be forgotten4 ,in the     
solemnities1 private or public1         
appointed for this purpose1 ,positivism 

will rely far more on impressions such  
as poetry can inspire1 than  on         
scientific explanations4 ,indeed the    
preponderance of ,art over  ,science    
will be still greater than in education 
properly so called4  ,the scientific    
basis of human conduct having been      
already laid down1  it will not be      
necessary to do more than refer to it4  
,the philosophic  priesthood will in    
this case be less occupied with new     
conceptions1  than with the enforcement 
of truth already known1 which demands   
esthetic rather than scientific talent4 
,a vague presentiment of the proper     
function of ,art in regulating public   
festivals was shown empirically by the  
,revolutionists4 ,but all their         
attempts in this direction proved       
notorious failures2 a signal proof  that
 politicians should not usurp the office
 of spiritual guides4  ,the intention of
 a festival is to give public expression
 to deep and  genuine feeling2          
spontaneousness therefore is its first  

condition4  ,hence it is a matter with  
which political rulers are incompetent  
to  deal2 and even the spiritual power  
should only act as the systematic  organ
 of impulses which already exist4 ,since
 the decline of ,catholicism  we have   
had no festivals worthy of the name2 nor
 can we have them  until ,positivism has
 become generally accepted4 ,all that   
governments  could do at present is to  
exhibit unmeaning and undignified shows 
before discordant crowds1 who are       
themselves the only spectacles worth    
beholding4 ,indeed the usurpation of    
this function by government is  in many 
cases as tyrannical as it is irrational2
 arbitrary formulas  are often imposed1 
which answer to no pre-existing feeling 
whatever4  ,evidently the direction of  
festivals is a function which more than 
any other belongs exclusively to the    
spiritual power1 since it is the        
spiritual power which regulates the     
tendencies of which these festivals  are
 the manifestation4 ,here its work is   

essentially esthetic4 ,a  festival even 
in private1 and still more in public    
life1 is or should  be a work of art2   
its purpose being to express certain    
feelings by  voice or gesture1 and to   
idealize them4 ,it is the most esthetic 
of all  functions1 since it involves    
usually a complete combination of the   
four special arts1 under the presidence 
of the primary art1 ,poetry4 ,on  this  
ground governments have in most cases   
been willing to waive their  official   
authority in this matter1 and to be     
largely guided by artistic  counsel1    
accepting even the advice of painters   
and sculptors in the  default of poets  
of real merit4    ,the esthetic         
tendencies of ,positivism1 with regard  
to institutions of  this kind1 are      
sufficiently evident in the worship of  
,woman1 spoken  of in the preceding     
chapter1 and in the worship of          
,humanity1 of which  ,i shall speak more
 particularly afterwards4 ,from these1  
indeed1 most  ,positivist festivals1    

private or public1 will originate4 ,but 
this  subject has been already broached1
 and will be discussed in the next      
chapter with as much detail as the      
limits of this introductory work  allow4
    ,while the social value of ,art is  
thus enhanced by the importance of the  
work assigned to it1 new and extensive  
fields for its operations are  opened   
out by ,positivism4 ,chief amongst these
 is ,history1 regarded as a  continuous 
whole2 a domain at present almost       
untouched4     ,idealization of         
historical   types    ,modern poets1    
finding little to inspire them in their 
own times1 and  driven back into ancient
 life by the classical system1 have     
already  idealized some of the past     
phases of ,humanity4 ,our great         
,corneille1 for  instance1 is           
principally remembered for the series of
 dramas in which  he has so admirably   
depicted various periods of ,roman      
history4 ,in our  own times where the   
historical spirit has become stronger1  

novelists1  like ,scott and ,manzoni1   
have made similar though less perfect   
attempts  to idealize later periods4    
,such examples1 however1 are but        
spontaneous  and imperfect indications  
of the new field which ,positivism now  
offers  to the artist2 a field which    
extends over the whole region of the    
,past  and even of the ,future4 ,until  
this vast domain had been conceived of  
as a whole by the philosopher1 it would 
have been impossible to bring  it within
 the compass of poetry4 ,now theological
 and metaphysical  philosophers were    
prevented by the absolute spirit of     
their doctrines  from understanding     
history in all its phases1 and were     
totally  incapable of idealizing them as
 they deserved4 ,positivism1 on the     
contrary1 is always relative2 and its   
principal feature is a theory of        
history which enables us to appreciate  
and become familiar with every  mode in 
which human society has formed itself4  
,no sincere ,monotheist  can understand 

and represent with fairness the life of 
,polytheists or  ,fetichists4 ,but the  
,positivist poet1 accustomed to look    
upon all past  historical stages in     
their proper filiation1 will be able so 
thoroughly  to identify himself with    
all1 as to awaken our sympathies for    
them1 and  revive the traces which each 
individual may recognize of             
corresponding  phases in his own        
history4 ,thus we shall be able         
thoroughly to enter  into the esthetic  
beauty of the ,pagan creeds of ,greece  
and ,rome1  without any of the scruples 
which ,christians could not but feel    
when  engaged on the same subject4 ,in  
the ,art of the ,future all phases of   
the  ,past will be recalled to life with
 the same distinctness with which  some 
of them have been already idealized by  
,homer and ,corneille4 ,and  the value  
of this new source of inspiration is the
 greater that1 at  the same time that it
 is being opened out to the artist1 the 
public  is being prepared for its       

enjoyment4 ,an almost exhaustless series
 of  beautiful creations in epic or     
dramatic art may be produced1 which1 by 
rendering it more easy to comprehend and
 to glorify the ,past in all  its       
phases1 will form an essential element1 
on the one hand1 of our  educational    
system1 and on the other1 of the worship
 of ,humanity4     ,art requires the    
highest   education2 but little         
special instruction    ,lastly1 not only
 will the field for ,art become wider1  
but its organs  will be men of a higher 
stamp4 ,the present system1 in which the
 arts  are cultivated by special        
classes1 must be abolished1 as being    
wholly  alien to that synthetic spirit  
which always characterizes the highest  
poetic genius4    ,real talent for ,art 
cannot fail to be called out by the     
educational  system of ,positivism1     
which1 though intended for the working  
classes1  is equally applicable to all  
others4 ,we can only idealize and       
portray  what has become familiar to us2

 consequently poetry has always rested  
upon some system of belief1 capable of  
giving a fixed direction to our         
thoughts and feelings4 ,the greatest    
poets1 from ,homer to ,corneille1  have 
always participated largely in the best 
education of which their  times         
admitted4 ,the artist must have clear   
conceptions before he can  exhibit true 
pictures4 ,even in these anarchic times1
 when the system  of specialities is    
being carried to such an irrational     
extent1 the  so-called poets who imagine
 that they can themselves save the      
trouble  of philosophical training1 have
 in reality to borrow a basis of belief 
from some worn-out metaphysical or      
theological creed4 ,their special       
education1 if it can be called so1      
consists merely in cultivating the      
talent for expression1 and is equally   
injurious to their intellect  and their 
heart4 ,incompatible with deep          
conviction of any kind1 while  giving   
mechanical skill in the technical       

department of ,art1 it impairs  the far 
more important faculty of idealization4 
,hence it is that we are  at present so 
deplorably over-stocked with            
verse-makers and literary  men1 who are 
wholly devoid of real poetic feeling1   
and are fit for  nothing but to disturb 
society by their reckless ambition4 ,as 
for  the four special arts1 the training
 for them at present given1 being  still
 more technical1 is even more hurtful in
 every respect to the  student whose    
education does not extend beyond it4 ,on
 every ground1  then1 artists of        
whatever kind should begin their career 
with the same  education as the rest of 
society4 ,the necessity for such an     
education  in the case of women has been
 already recognized2 and it is certainly
  not less desirable for artists and    
poets4    ,indeed1 so esthetic is the   
spirit of ,positive education1 that no  
special training for ,art will be       
needed1 except that which is given      
spontaneously by practice4 ,there is no 

other profession which requires  so     
little direct instruction2 the tendency 
of it in ,art being to  destroy         
originality1 and to stifle the fire of  
genius with technical  erudition4 ,even 
for the special arts no professional    
education is  needed4 ,these1 like      
industrial arts1 should be acquired by  
careful  practice under the guidance of 
good masters4 ,the notorious failure of 
public institutions established for the 
purpose of forming musicians  and       
painters1 makes it unnecessary to dwell 
further upon this point4  ,not to speak 
of their injurious effects upon         
character1 they are a  positive         
impediment to true genius4 ,poets and   
artists1 then1 require  no education    
beyond that which is given to the       
public1 whose thoughts  and emotions it 
is their office to represent4 ,its want 
of speciality  makes it all the more fit
 to develop and bring forward real      
talent4 ,it  will strengthen the love of
 all the fine arts simultaneously2 for  

the  connexion between them is so       
intimate that those who make it a boast 
that their talent is for one of them    
exclusively will be strongly  suspected 
of having no real vocation for any4 ,all
 the greatest masters1  modern no less  
than ancient1 have shown this           
universality of taste4 ,its  absence in 
the present day is but a fresh proof    
that esthetic genius  does not and      
cannot exist in times like these1 when  
,art has no social  purpose and rests on
 no philosophic principles4 ,if even    
amateurs are  expected to enjoy ,art in 
all its forms1 is it likely that        
composers of  real genius will restrict 
their admiration to their own special   
mode of  idealization and expression8   
,artists as a class will   disappear4   
,their function   will be appropriated  
by the   philosophic priesthood         
,positivism1 then1 while infusing a     
profoundly esthetic spirit into  general
 education1 would suppress all special  
schools of ,art on the  ground that they

 impede its true growth1 and simply     
promote the  success of mediocrities4   
,when this principle is carried out to  
its  full length1 we shall no longer    
have any special class of artists4 ,the 
culture of ,art1 especially of poetry1  
will be a spontaneous addition to  the  
functions of the three classes which    
constitute the moral power of  society4 
,under theocracy1 the system by which   
the evolution of human society  was     
inaugurated1 the speculative class      
absorbed all functions except  those    
relating to the common business of life4
 ,no distinction was made  between      
esthetic and scientific talent4 ,their  
separation took place  afterwards3 and  
though it was indispensable to the full 
development of  both1 yet it forms no   
part of the permanent order of society1 
in which  the only well-marked division 
is that between ,theory and ,practice4  
,ultimately all theoretic faculties will
 be again combined even more  closely   
than in primitive times4 ,so long as    

they are dispersed1 their  full         
influence on practical life cannot be   
realized4 ,only it was  necessary that  
they should remain dispersed until each 
constituent  element had attained a     
sufficient degree of development4 ,for  
this  preliminary growth the long period
 of time that has elapsed since  the    
decline of theocracy was necessary4 ,art
 detached itself from the  theoretical  
system before ,science1 because its     
progress was more  rapid1 and from its  
nature it was more independent4 ,the    
priesthood had  lost its hold of ,art1  
as far back as the time of ,homer3 but  
it still  continued to be the depositary
 of science1 until it was superseded at 
first by philosophers strictly so       
called1 afterwards by mathematicians    
and astronomers4 ,so it was that ,art   
first1 and subsequently ,science1       
yielded to the specializing system      
which1 though normal for ,industry1  is 
in their case abnormal4 ,it stimulated  
the growth of our speculative  faculties

 at the time of their escape from the   
yoke of theocracy3 but  now that the    
need for it no longer exists1 it is the 
principal obstacle  to the final order1 
towards which all their partial         
developments have  been tending4 ,to    
recombine these special elements on new 
principles is  at present the primary   
condition of social regeneration4       
,looking at the two essential functions 
of the spiritual power1  education and  
counsel1 it is not difficult to see that
 what they  require is a combination of 
poetic feeling with scientific insight4 
,we  look for a measure of both these   
qualities in the public2 therefore  men 
who are devoid of either of them cannot 
be fit to be its spiritual  guides4     
,that they take the name of philosophers
 in preference to that  of poets1 is    
because their ordinary duties are more  
connected with  ,science than with ,art 
but they ought to be equally interested 
in  both4 ,science requires systematic  
teaching1 whereas ,art is cultivated    

spontaneously1 with the exception of the
 technical branches of the  special     
arts4 ,it must be remembered that the   
highest esthetic functions  are not such
 as can be performed continuously4 ,it  
is only works of  rare excellence which 
are in the highest sense useful3 these1 
once  produced1 supply an unfailing     
source of idealization and expression   
for  our emotions1 whether in public or 
in private4 ,it is enough1 if the       
interpreter of these works and his      
audience have been so educated as to    
appreciate what is perfect1 and reject  
mediocrity4 ,organs of unusual  power   
will arise occasionally1 as in former   
times1 from all sections of  society1   
whenever the need of representing new   
emotions may be felt4  ,but they will   
come more frequently from the           
philosophic class in whose  character1  
when it is fully developed1 ,sympathy   
will be as prominent a  feature as      
,system4     ,identity of esthetic and  
scientific genius    ,there is1 in      

truth1 no organic distinction between   
scientific and  poetic genius4 ,the     
difference lies merely in their         
combinations of  thought1 which are     
concrete and ideal in the one case1     
abstract and  real in the other4 ,both  
employ analysis at starting2 both alike 
aim  ultimately at synthesis4 ,the      
erroneous belief in their               
incompatibility  proceeds merely from   
the absolute spirit of metaphysical     
philosophy1  which so often leads us to 
mistake a transitory phase for the      
permanent  order4 ,if it is the fact1 as
 appears1 that they have never been     
actually combined in the same person1 it
 is merely because the two  functions   
cannot be called into action at the same
 moment4 ,a state of  society that calls
 for great philosophical efforts cannot 
be favourable  to poetry1 because it    
involves a new elaboration of first     
principles2  and it is essential to ,art
 that these should have been already    
fixed4 ,this is the reason why in       

history we find periods of esthetic     
growth succeeding periods of great      
philosophical change1 but never         
co-existing4 ,if we look at instances of
 great minds who were never able  to    
find their proper sphere1 we see at once
 that had they risen at some  other     
time1 they might have cultivated either 
poetry or philosophy1  as the case might
 be1 with equal success4 ,diderot would 
no doubt  have been a great poet in a   
time more favourable to art2 and        
,goethe1  under different political     
influences1 might have been an eminent  
philosopher4 ,all scientific discoverers
 in whom the inductive faculty  has been
 more active than the deductive1 have   
given manifest proof of  poetic         
capacity4 ,whether the powers of        
invention take an abstract or  a        
concrete direction1 whether they are    
employed in discovering truth  or in    
idealizing it1 the cerebral function is 
always essentially the  same4 ,the      
difference is merely in the objects     

aimed at2 and as these  alternate       
according to the circumstances of the   
time1 they cannot  both be pursued      
simultaneously4 ,the remarkably         
synthetic character of  ,buffon's genius
 may be looked on historically as an    
instance of fusion  of the scientific   
and esthetic spirit4 ,bossuet is even a 
more striking  instance of a mind       
equally capable of the deepest          
philosophy and of the  sublimest poetry1
 had the circumstances of his life given
 him a more  definite impulse in either 
direction4    ,it is then not           
unreasonable to expect1 notwithstanding 
the opinion  usually maintained1 that   
the philosophical class will furnish    
poets of  the highest rank when the time
 calls for them4 ,to pass from          
scientific  thought to esthetic thought 
will not be difficult for minds of the  
highest order2 for in such minds there  
is always a natural inclination  towards
 the work which is most urgently        
required by their age4 ,to  meet the    

technical conditions of the arts of     
sound and form1 it will  be necessary to
 provide a few special masters1 who1 in 
consideration  of the importance of     
their services to general education1    
will be  looked upon as accessory       
members of the new spiritual power4 ,but
 even  here the tendency to specialities
 will be materially restricted4 ,this   
exceptional position will only be given 
to men of sufficient esthetic  power to 
appreciate all the fine arts2 and they  
should be capable of  practising at     
least the three arts of form            
simultaneously1 as was done  by ,italian
 painters in the sixteenth century4     
,as an ordinary rule1 it is only by     
their appreciation and power of         
explaining ideal ,art in all its forms  
that our philosophers will  exhibit     
their esthetic faculty4 ,they will not  
be actively engaged in  esthetic        
functions1 except in the arrangement of 
public festivals4  ,but when the        
circumstances of the time are such as to

 call for great  epic or dramatic works1
 which implies the absence of any       
philosophical  question of the first    
importance1 the most powerful minds     
among them  will become poets in the    
common sense of the word4 ,as the work  
of  ,co-ordination and that of          
,idealization will for the future       
alternate  with greater rapidity1 we    
might conceive them1 were man's life    
longer1  performed by the same organ4   
,but the shortness of life1 and the     
necessity of youthful vigour for all    
great undertakings1 excludes this       
hypothesis4 ,i only mention it to       
illustrate the radical identity of two  
forms of mental activity which are often
 supposed incompatible4     ,women's    
poetry    ,an additional proof of the   
esthetic capacity of the moderating     
power  in works of less difficulty1 but 
admitting of greater frequency1  will be
 furnished by its feminine element4 ,in 
the special arts1 or  at least in the   
arts of form1 but little can be expected

 of them1  because these demand more    
technical knowledge than they can well  
acquire1 and1 moreover1 the slow process
 of training would spoil the            
spontaneousness which is so admirable in
 them4 ,but for all poetic  composition 
which does not require intense or       
prolonged effort1 women  of genius are  
better qualified than men4 ,this they   
should consider as  their proper        
department intellectually1 since their  
nature is not well  adapted for the     
discovery of scientific truth4 ,when    
women have become  more systematically  
associated with the general movement of 
society  under the influence of the new 
system of education1 they will do much  
to elevate that class of poetry which   
relates to personal feelings  and to    
domestic life4 ,women are already better
 judges of such poetry  than men2 and   
there is no reason why they should not  
excel them in  composing it4 ,for the   
power of appreciating and that of       
producing are  in reality identical2 the

 difference is in degree only1 and it   
depends  greatly upon culture4 ,the only
 kind of composition which seems to me  
to be beyond their power is epic or     
dramatic poetry in which public  life is
 depicted4 ,but in all its other        
branches1 poetry would seem  their      
natural field of study2 and one which1  
regarded always as an  exceptional      
occupation1 is quite in keeping with the
 social duties  assigned to them4 ,the  
affections of our home life cannot be   
better  portrayed than by those in whom 
they are found in their purest form1    
and who1 without training1 combine      
talent and expression with the  tendency
 to idealize4 ,under a more perfect     
organization1 then1 of the  esthetic    
world than prevails at present1 the     
larger portion of poetical  and perhaps 
also of musical productions1 will pass  
into the hands of  the more loving sex4 
,the advantage of this will be that the 
poetry of  private life will then rise  
to that high standard of moral purity of

  which it so peculiarly admits1 but    
which our coarser sex can never  attain 
without struggles which injure its      
spontaneity4 ,the simple grace  of      
,lafontaine and the delicate sweetness  
of ,petrarch will then be found  united 
with deeper and purer sympathies1 so as 
to raise lyrical poetry  to a degree of 
perfection that has never yet been      
attained4     ,people's poetry    ,the  
popular element of the spiritual power  
has not so well marked an  aptitude for 
art1 since the active nature of their   
occupations hardly  admits of the same  
degree of intellectual life4 ,but there 
is a minor  class of poems1 where energy
 of character and freedom from worldly  
cares are the chief sources of          
inspiration1 for which working men  are 
better adapted than women1 and far more 
so than philosophers4  ,when ,positivist
 education has extended sufficiently to 
the ,people of  the ,west1 poets and    
musicians will spontaneously arise1 as  
in many  cases they have already risen1 

to give expression to its own special   
aspirations4 ,but independently of what 
may be due to individual  efforts1 the  
,people as a whole has an indirect but  
most important  influence upon the      
,progress of ,art1 from the fact of     
being the  principal source of language4
    ,such1 then1 is the position which  
,art will finally assume in the         
,positive system4 ,there will be no     
class at present1 exclusively devoted   
to it1 with the exception of a few      
special masters4 ,but there will be  a  
general education1 enabling every class 
to appreciate all the modes  of         
idealization1 and encouraging their     
culture among the three elements  which 
constitute the moral force of society   
and which are excluded  from political  
government4 ,among these there will be a
 division of  esthetic labour4 ,poetry  
descriptive of public life will emanate 
from  the philosophic class4 ,the poetry
 of personal or domestic life will  be  
written by women or working men1        

according as affection or energy  may be
 the source of inspiration4 ,thus the   
form of mental activity  most           
appropriate to ,humanity will be more   
specially developed among  those classes
 in which the various features of our   
nature are most  prominently exhibited4 
,the only classes who cannot participate
 in  this pleasant task are those whose 
life is occupied by considerations  of  
power or wealth1 and whose enjoyment of 
,art1 though heightened by  the         
education which they in common with     
others will receive1 must  remain       
essentially passive4 ,our idealizing    
powers will henceforth be  directly     
concentrated on a work of the highest   
social importance1 the  purification of 
our moral nature4 ,the speciality by    
which so much of  the natural charm of  
,art was lost will cease1 and the moral 
dangers of  a life exclusively devoted  
to the faculty of expression1 will exist
 no  longer4     ,value of ,art in the  
present   crisis    ,i have now shown   

the position which ,art will occupy in  
the social  system as finally           
constituted4 ,i have yet to speak of its
 influence in  the actual movement of   
regeneration which ,positivism is       
inaugurating4  ,we have already seen    
that each of the three classes who      
participate  in this movement1 assumes  
functions similar to those for which it 
is  ultimately destined2 performing them
 in a more strenuous1 though less       
methodic way4 ,this is obviously true of
 the philosophic class who  head the    
movement2 nor is it less true of the    
proletariate1 from whom  it derives its 
vigour1 or of women1 whose support gives
 it a moral  sanction4 ,it is1          
therefore1 at first sight probable that 
the same  will hold good of the esthetic
 conditions which are necessary to the  
completeness of these three functions of
 the social organism4 ,on closer        
examination we shall find that this is  
the case4     ,construction of normal   
types on the basis furnished   by       

philosophy    ,the principal function of
 ,art is to construct types on the basis
  furnished by ,science4 ,now this is   
precisely what is required for          
inaugurating the new social system4     
,however perfectly its first  principles
 may be elaborated by thinkers1 they    
will still be not  sufficiently definite
 for the practical result4 ,systematic  
study of the  ,past can only reveal the 
,future in general outline4 ,even in the
 simpler  sciences perfect distinctness 
is impossible without overstepping the  
limits of actual proof4 ,still more1    
therefore1 in ,sociology will  the      
conclusions of ,science fall always far 
short of that degree of  precision and  
clearness1 without which no principle   
can be thoroughly  popularized4 ,but at 
the point where ,philosophy must always 
leave a  void1 ,poetry steps in and     
stimulates to practical action4 ,in the 
early  periods of ,polytheism1 ,poetry  
repaired the defects of the system      
viewed dogmatically4 ,its value will be 

even greater in idealizing a  system    
founded1 not upon imagination1 but upon 
observation of fact4  ,in the next      
chapter ,i shall dwell at greater length
 on the service  which ,poetry will     
render in representing the central      
conception of  ,positivism4 ,it will be 
easy to apply the same principle to     
other cases4     ,pictures of the       
,future of   ,man    ,in his efforts to 
accomplish this object1 the ,positivist 
poet will  naturally be led to form     
prophetic pictures of the regeneration  
of ,man1  viewed in every aspect that   
admits of being ideally represented4    
,and  this is the second service which  
,art will render to the cause of social 
renovation2 or rather it is an extension
 of the first4 ,systematic  formation of
 ,utopias will in fact become habitual2 
on the distinct  understanding that1 as 
in every other branch of art1 the ideal 
shall  be kept in subordination to the  
real4 ,the unlimited license which is   
apparently given to ,utopias by the     

unsettled character of the time  is in  
reality a bar to their practical        
influence1 since even the  wildest      
dreamers shrink from extravagance that  
oversteps the ordinary  conditions of   
mental sanity4 ,but when it is once     
understood that the  sphere of          
,imagination is simply that of          
explaining and giving life  to the      
conclusions of ,reason1 the severest    
thinkers will welcome its  influence2   
because so far from obscuring truth1 it 
will give greater  distinctness to it   
than could be given by ,science         
unassisted4 ,utopias  have1 then1 their 
legitimate purpose1 and ,positivism will
 strongly  encourage their formation4   
,they form a class of poetry which1     
under  sound sociological principles1   
will prove of material service in       
leading the people of the ,west towards 
the normal state4 ,each of the  five    
modes of ,art may participate in this   
salutary influence2 each in  its own way
 may give a foretaste of the beauty and 

greatness of the  new life that is now  
offered to the individual1 to the       
family1 and to  society4     ,contrasts 
with the past    ,from this second mode 
in which ,art assists the great work of 
reconstruction we pass naturally to a   
third1 which at the present  time is of 
equal importance4 ,to remove the spell  
under which the  ,western nations are   
still blinded to the ,future by the     
decayed  ruins of the ,past1 all that is
 necessary is to bring these ruins  into
 comparison with the prophetic pictures 
of which we have been  speaking4 ,since 
the decline of ,catholicism in the      
fourteenth century1  ,art has exhibited 
a critical spirit alien to its true     
nature1 which  is essentially synthetic4
 ,henceforth it is to be constructive   
rather  than critical2 yet this is not  
incompatible with the secondary object  
of contending against opinions1 and     
still more against modes of life1  which
 ought to have died out with the        
,catholic system1 or with the           

revolutionary period which followed it4 
,but resistance to some of the  most    
deeply-rooted errors of the ,past will  
not interfere with the  larger purpose  
of ,positivist ,art4 ,no direct         
criticism will be needed4  ,whether     
against theological or against          
metaphysical dogmas1 argument  is       
henceforth needless1 even in a          
philosophical treatise1 much more so  in
 poetry4 ,all that is needed is simple  
contrast1 which in most cases  would be 
implied rather than expressed1 of the   
procedure of ,positivism  and           
,catholicism in reference to similar    
social and moral problems4  ,the        
scientific basis of such a contrast1 is 
already furnished2 it is  for ,art to do
 the rest1 since the appeal should be to
 ,feeling rather  than to ,reason4 ,at  
the close of the last chapter ,i        
mentioned the  principal case in which  
this comparison would have been of      
service1 the  introduction1 namely1 of  
,positivism to the two ,southern        

nations4 ,it was  the task that ,i had  
marked out for my saintly fellow-worker1
 for it is  one in which the esthetic   
powers of women would be peculiarly     
available4    ,in this1 the third of its
 temporary functions1 ,positivist ,art  
approximates to its normal character4   
,we have spoken of its  idealization of 
the ,future1 but here it will idealize  
the ,past also4  ,positivism cannot be  
accepted until it has rendered the      
fullest  and most scrupulous justice to 
,catholicism4 ,our poets1 so far from   
detracting from the moral and political 
worth of the mediaeval system1  will    
begin by doing all the honour to it that
 is consistent with  philosophical      
truth1 as a prelude to the still higher 
beauty of the  system which supersedes  
it4 ,it will be the inauguration of     
their  permanent office of restoring the
 ,past to life4 ,for it is equally in   
the interest of systematic thought and  
of social sympathy that the  relation of
 the ,past to the ,future should be     

deeply impressed upon all4    ,but these
 three steps towards the incorporation  
of ,art into the  final order1 though   
not far distant1 cannot be taken        
immediately4  ,they presuppose a degree 
of intellectual preparation which is not
  yet reached either by the public or by
 its esthetic teachers4 ,the  present   
generation under which1 in ,france1 the 
great revolution is  now peacefully     
entering upon its second phase1 may     
diffuse ,positivism  largely1 not merely
 amongst qualified thinkers1 but among  
the people  of ,paris1 who are entrusted
 with the destinies of ,western ,europe1
 and  among women of nobler nature4 ,the
 next generation1 growing up in the     
midst of this movement1 may1 before the 
expiration of a century from  the date  
of the ,convention1 complete            
spontaneously the moral and mental      
inauguration of the new system1 by      
exhibiting the new esthetic features    
which ,humanity in her regenerate       
condition will assume4    ,let us now   

sum up the conclusions of this chapter4 
,we have found  ,positive ,philosophy   
peculiarly favourable to the continuous 
development  of all the fine arts4 ,a   
doctrine which encourages ,humanity to  
strive  for perfection of every kind1   
cannot but foster and assimilate that   
form of mental activity by which our    
sense of perfection is so highly        
stimulated4 ,it controls the ,ideal1    
indeed1 by systematic study of the      
,real2 but only in order to furnish it  
with an objective basis1 and so  to     
secure its coherence and its moral      
value4 ,placed on this footing1  our    
esthetic faculties are better adapted   
than the scientific1 both to  the nature
 and range of our understanding1 and    
also to that which is  the object of all
 intellectual effort1 the organization  
of human unity4  ,for they are more     
immediately connected with ,feeling1 on 
which the  unity of our nature must     
rest4 ,next to direct culture of the    
heart1 it  is in ideal ,art that we     

shall find the best assistance in our   
efforts  to become more loving and more 
noble4    ,logically1 ,art should have a
 salutary influence upon our            
intellectual  faculties1 because it     
familiarizes us from childhood with the 
features  by which all constructive     
efforts of man should be characterized4 
,science has for a long time preferred  
the analytic method1 whereas ,art1  even
 in these times of anarchy1 always aims 
at ,synthesis1 which is the  final goal 
of all intellectual activity4 ,even when
 ,art1 contrary to its  nature1         
undertakes to destroy1 it cannot do its 
work1 whatever it be1  without          
constructing4 ,thus1 by implanting a    
taste and faculty for ideal             
construction1 ,art enables us to build  
with greater effect than ever  upon the 
more stubborn soil of reality4    ,on   
all these grounds ,art1 in the ,positive
 system1 is made the primary  basis of  
general education4 ,in a subsequent     
stage education assumes  a more         

scientific character1 with the object of
 supplying systematic  notions of the   
external world4 ,but in after life ,art 
resumes its  original position4 ,there  
the ordinary functions of the spiritual 
power  will be esthetic rather than     
scientific4 ,the three elements of which
  the modifying power is composed will  
become spontaneously the organs  of     
idealization1 a function which will     
henceforth never be dissociated  from   
the power of philosophic synthesis4     
,such a combination implies that the new
 philosophers shall have a true  feeling
 for all the fine arts4 ,in ordinary    
times passive appreciation  of them will
 suffice2 but there will occasionally be
 periods where  philosophic effort      
ceases to be necessary1 and which call  
rather for  the vigour of the poet2 and 
at these times the more powerful minds  
among them should be capable of rising  
to the loftiest creative  efforts4      
,difficult as the condition may be1 it  
is essential to the  full degree of     

moral influence of which their office   
admits and which  their work requires4  
,the priest of ,humanity will not have  
attained his  full measure of           
superiority over the priest of ,god1    
until1 with the  intellect of the       
,philosopher1 he combines the enthusiasm
 of the ,poet1  as well as the          
tenderness of ,woman1 and the ,people's 
energy4          ,,chapter ,,vi         
,,conclusion4 ,,the ,,religion ,,of     
,,humanity       ,recapitulation of the 
results obtained    ,love1 then1 is our 
principle2 ,order our basis2 and        
,progress our  end4 ,such1 as the       
preceding chapters have shown1 is the   
essential  character of the system of   
life which ,positivism offers for the   
definite acceptance of society2 a system
 which regulates the whole  course of   
our private and public existence1 by    
bringing ,feeling1  ,reason1 and        
,activity into permanent harmony4 ,in   
this final synthesis1  all essential    
conditions are far more perfectly       

fulfilled than in any  other4 ,each     
special element of our nature is more   
fully developed1 and  at the same time  
the general working of the whole is more
 coherent4  ,greater distinctness is    
given to the truth that the affective   
element  predominates in our nature4    
,life in all its actions and thoughts is
  brought under the control and         
inspiring charm of ,social ,sympathy4   
,by the supremacy of the ,heart1 the    
,intellect1 so far from being  crushed1 
is elevated2 for all its powers are     
consecrated to the  service of the      
social instincts1 with the purpose of   
strengthening  their influence and      
directing their employment4 ,by         
accepting its  subordination to         
,feeling1 ,reason adds to its own       
authority4 ,to it we  look for the      
revelation of the laws of nature1 of the
 established ,order  which dictates the 
inevitable conditions of human life4    
,the objective  basis thus discovered   
for human effort reacts most            

beneficially on our  moral nature4      
,forced as we are to accept it1 it      
controls the fickleness  to which our   
affections are liable1 and acts as a    
direct stimulus to  social sympathy4    
,concentrated on so high an office1 the 
intellect will  be preserved from       
useless digression2 and will yet find a 
boundless  field for its operations in  
the study of all the natural laws by    
which  human destinies are affected1 and
 especially those which relate to the   
constitution of man or of society4 ,the 
fact that every subject is to be        
regarded from the sociological point of 
view1 so far from discouraging  even the
 most abstract order of speculations1   
adds to their logical  coherence as well
 as to their moral value1 by introducing
 the central  principle round which     
alone they can be co-ordinated into a   
whole4    ,and whilst ,reason is        
admitted to its due share of influence  
on human  life1 ,imagination is also    
strengthened and called into constant   

exercise4 ,henceforth it will assume its
 proper function1 the  idealization of  
truth4 ,for the objective basis of our  
conceptions  scientific investigation is
 necessary4 ,but this basis once        
obtained1  the constitution of our mind 
is far better adapted to esthetic than  
to  scientific study1 provided always   
that imagination never disregard the    
truths of science1 and degenerate into  
extravagance4 ,subject to this          
condition1 ,positivism gives every      
encouragement to esthetic studies1      
being1 as they are1 so closely related  
to its guiding principle and  to its    
practical aim1 to ,love namely1 and to  
,progress4 ,art will enter  largely into
 the social life of the ,future1 and    
will be regarded as the  most           
pleasurable and most salutary exercise  
of our intellectual powers1  because it 
leads them in the most direct manner to 
the culture and  improvement of our     
moral nature4    ,originating in the    
first instance from practical life1     

,positivism  will return thither with   
increased force1 now that its long      
period  of scientific preparation is    
accomplished1 and that it has occupied  
the field of moral truth1 which         
henceforth will be its principal        
domain4 ,its principle of sympathy1 so  
far from relaxing our efforts1  will    
stimulate all our faculties to universal
 activity by urging them  onwards       
towards perfection of every kind4       
,scientific study of the  natural ,order
 is inculcated solely with the view of  
directing all the  forces of ,man and of
 ,society to its improvement by         
artificial effort4  ,hitherto this aim  
has hardly been recognized1 even with   
regard to the  material world1 and but a
 very small proportion of our energies  
has  been spent upon it4 ,yet the aim is
 high1 provided always that the view    
taken of human progress extend beyond   
its lower and more material  stages4    
,our theoretical powers once            
concentrated on the moral problems      

which form their principal field1 our   
practical energies will not fail  to    
take the same direction1 devoting       
themselves to that portion of the       
natural ,order which is most imperfect1 
and at the time most modifiable4  ,with 
these larger and more systematic views  
of human life1 its best  efforts will be
 given to the improvement of the mind1  
and still more to  the improvement of   
the character and to the increase of    
affection and  courage4 ,public and     
private life are now brought into close 
relation  by the identity of their      
principal aim1 which1 being kept        
constantly  in sight1 ennobles every    
action in both4 ,practical questions    
must  ever continue to preponderate1 as 
before1 over questions of theory2  but  
this condition1 so far from being       
adverse to speculative power1           
concentrates it upon the most difficult 
of all problems1 the discovery  of moral
 and social laws1 our knowledge of which
 will never be fully  adequate to our   

practical requirements4 ,mental and     
practical activity  of this kind can    
never result in hardness of feeling4 ,on
 the contrary1  it impresses us more    
strongly with the conviction that       
,sympathy is not  merely our highest    
happiness1 but the most effectual of all
 our means  of improvement2 and that    
without it1 all other means can be of   
little  avail4    ,thus it is that in   
the ,positive system1 the ,heart1 the   
,intellect1 and  the ,character mutually
 strengthen and develop one another1    
because  each is systematically directed
 to the mode of action for which it is  
by nature adapted4 ,public and private  
life are brought into a far more        
harmonious relation than in any former  
time1 because the purpose to  which both
 are consecrated is identical2 the      
difference being merely  in the range of
 their activities4 ,the aim in both is  
to secure1 to the  utmost possible      
extent1 the victory of ,social feeling  
over ,self-love2  and to this aim all   

our powers1 whether of affection1       
thought1 or  action1 are in both        
unceasingly directed4    ,this1 then1 is
 the shape in which the great human     
problem comes  definitely before us4    
,its solution demands all the appliances
 of  ,social ,art4 ,the primary         
principle on which the solution rests1  
is  the separation of the two elementary
 powers of society2 the moral  power of 
counsel1 and the political powers of    
command4 ,the necessary  preponderance  
of the latter1 which rests upon material
 force1  corresponds to the fact that in
 our imperfect nature1 where the coarser
  wants are the most pressing and the   
most continuously felt1 the selfish     
instincts are naturally stronger than   
the unselfish4 ,in the absence  of all  
compulsory authority1 our action even as
 individuals would be  feeble and       
purposeless1 and social life still more 
certainly would lose  its character and 
its energy4 ,moral force1 therefore1 by 
which is meant  the force of conviction 

and persuasion1 is to be regarded simply
 as a  modifying influence1 not as a    
means of authoritative direction4       
,moral force originates in ,feeling and 
in ,reason4 ,it represents the  social  
side of our nature1 and to this its     
direct influence is limited4  ,indeed by
 the very fact that it is the expression
 of our highest  attributes1 it is      
precluded from that practical ascendancy
 which is  possessed by faculties of a  
lower but more energetic kind4 ,inferior
 to  material force in power1 though    
superior to it in dignity1 it contrasts 
and opposes its own classification of   
men according to the standard  of moral 
and intellectual worth1 to the          
classification by wealth and  worldly   
position which actually prevails4 ,true1
 the higher standard  will never be     
adopted practically1 but the effort to  
uphold it will  react beneficially on   
the natural order of society4 ,it will  
inspire  those larger views1 and        
reanimate that sense of duty1 which are 

so apt  to become obliterated in the    
ordinary current of life4    ,the means 
of effecting this important result1 the 
need of which is  so generally felt1    
will not be wanting1 when the moderating
 power  enters upon its characteristic  
function of preparing us for practical  
life by a rational system of education1 
throughout which1 even in its           
intellectual department1 moral          
considerations will predominate4 ,this  
power will therefore concentrate itself 
upon theoretical and moral  questions2  
and it can only maintain its position as
 the recognized  organ of social        
sympathy1 by invariable abstinence from 
political  action4 ,it will be its first
 duty to contend against the ambitious  
instincts of its own members4 ,true1    
such instincts1 in spite of the         
impurity of their source1 may be of use 
in those natures who are  really        
destined for the indispensable business 
of government4 ,but for  a spiritual    
power formal renunciation of wealth and 

rank is at the  very root of its        
influence2 it is the first of the       
conditions which  justify it in         
resisting the encroachments to which    
political power is  always tempted4     
,hence the classes to whose natural     
sympathies it looks  for support are    
those who1 like itself1 are excluded    
from political  administration4         
,women1 from their strongly sympathetic 
nature1 are the original source  of all 
moral influence2 and they are peculiarly
 qualified by the  passive character of 
their life to assist the action of the  
spiritual  power in the family4 ,in its 
essential function of education1 their  
co-operation is of the highest          
importance4 ,the education of young     
children is entrusted to their sole     
charge2 and the education of more       
advanced years simply consists in giving
 a more systematic shape to  what the   
mother has already inculcated in        
childhood4 ,as a wife1 too1  ,woman     
assumes still more distinctly the       

spiritual function of counsel2  she     
softens by persuasion where the         
philosopher can only influence by       
conviction4 ,in social meetings1 again1 
the only mode of public life in  which  
women can participate1 they assist the  
spiritual power in the  formation of    
,public ,opinion1 of which it is the    
systematic organ1 by  applying the      
principles which it inculcates to the   
case of particular  actions or persons4 
,in all these matters their influence   
will be far  more effectual1 when men   
have done their duty to women by setting
 them  free from the necessity of       
gaining their own livelihood2 and when  
women  on their side have renounced both
 power and wealth1 as we see1 so often  
exemplified among the working classes4  
,the affinity of the ,people with the   
philosophic power is less direct  and   
less pure2 but it will prove a vigorous 
ally in meeting the  obstacles which the
 temporal power will inevitably oppose4 
,the working  classes1 having but little

 spare time and small individual        
influence1  cannot1 except on rare      
occasions1 participate in the practical 
administration of government1 since all 
efficient government involves           
concentration of power4 ,moral force1 on
 the contrary1 created as it is  by free
 convergence of opinion1 admits of1 and 
indeed requires1 the  widest            
ramification4 ,working men1 owing to    
their freedom from practical            
responsibilities and their unconcern for
 personal aggrandisement1 are  better   
disposed than their employers to broad  
views and to generous  sympathies1 and  
will therefore naturally associate      
themselves with  the spiritual power4   
,it is they who will furnish the basis  
of a true  public opinion1 so soon as   
they are enabled by ,positive education1
  which is specially framed with a view 
to their case1 to give greater          
definiteness to their aspirations4      
,their wants and their sympathies  will 
alike induce them to support the        

philosophic priesthood as the           
systematic guardian of their interests  
against the governing classes4  ,in     
return for such protection they will    
bring the whole weight of their         
influence to assist the priesthood in   
its great social mission1 the           
subordination of ,politics to ,morals4  
,in those exceptional cases where  it   
becomes necessary for the moderating    
power to assume political  functions1   
the popular element will of itself      
suffice for the  emergency1 thus        
exempting the philosophic element from  
participating  in an anomaly from which 
its character could hardly fail to      
suffer1  as would be the case also in a 
still higher degree with the feminine   
character4    ,the direct influence of  
,reason over our imperfect nature is so 
feeble  that the new priesthood could   
not of itself ensure such respect for   
its theories as would bring them to any 
practical result4 ,but the  sympathies  
of women and of the people operating as 

they will in every  town and in every   
family1 will be sufficient to ensure its
 efficacy  in organizing that legitimate
 degree of moral pressure which the poor
  may bring to bear upon the rich4      
,moreover1 we may look1 as one of  the  
results of our common system of         
education1 for additional aid  in the   
ranks of the governing classes          
themselves2 for some of their  noblest  
members will volunteer their assistance 
to the spiritual  power1 forming1 so to 
speak1 a new order of chivalry4 ,and    
yet1 with  all this1 comprehensive as   
our organization of moral force may be1 
so  great is the innate strength of the 
selfish instincts1 that our success  in 
solving the great human problem will    
always fall short of what we  might     
legitimately desire4 ,to this conclusion
 we must come1 in whatever  way we      
regard the destiny of ,man2 but it      
should only encourage us to  combine our
 efforts still more strongly in order to
 ameliorate the  order of ,nature in its

 most important1 that is1 in its moral  
aspects1  these being at once the most  
modifiable and the most imperfect4      
,the highest progress of man and of     
society consists in gradual increase  of
 our mastery over all our defects1      
especially the defects of our  moral    
nature4 ,among the nations of antiquity 
the progress in this  direction was but 
small2 all that they could do was to    
prepare the  way for it by certain      
necessary phases of intellectual and    
social  development4 ,the whole tendency
 of ,greek and ,roman society was such  
as made it impossible to form a distinct
 conception of the great  problem of our
 moral nature4 ,in fact1 ,morals were   
with them invariably  subordinate to    
,politics4 ,nevertheless1 it is moral   
progress which alone  can satisfy our   
nature2 and in the ,middle ,ages it was 
recognized as the  highest aim of human 
effort1 notwithstanding that its        
intellectual and  social conditions were
 as yet very imperfectly realized4 ,the 

creeds  of the ,middle ,ages were too   
unreal and imperfect1 the character of  
society was too military and            
aristocratic1 to allow ,morals and      
,politics  to assume permanently their  
right relation4 ,the attempt was made1  
however2 and1 inadequate as it was1 it  
was enough to allow the people  of the  
,west to appreciate the fundamental     
principle involved in it1 a  principle  
destined to survive the opinions and the
 habits of life from  which it arose4   
,its full weight could never be felt    
until the ,positive  spirit had extended
 beyond the elementary subjects to which
 it had been  so long subjected1 to the 
sphere of social truth2 and had thus    
reached  the position at which a        
complete synthesis became possible4     
,equally  essential was it that in those
 countries which had been incorporated  
into the ,western ,empire1 and had      
passed from it into ,catholic           
,feudalism1 war should be definitely    
superseded by industrial activity4  ,in 

the long period of transition which has 
elapsed since the ,middle  ,ages1 both  
these conditions have been fulfilled1   
while at the same time  the old system  
has been gradually decomposed4 ,finally 
the great crisis  of the ,revolution has
 stimulated all advanced minds to       
reconsider1  with better intellectual   
and social principles1 the same problem 
that  ,christianity and ,chivalry had   
attempted4 ,the radical solution of it  
was  then begun1 and it is now          
completed1 and enunciated in a          
systematic  form by ,positivism4        
,humanity is the centre   to which every
 aspect of   ,positivism converges      
,all essential phases in the evolution  
of society answer to  corresponding     
phases in the growth of the individual1 
whether it has  proceeded spontaneously 
or under systematic guidance1 supposing 
always  that his development be         
complete4 ,but it is not enough to prove
 the  close connexion which exists      
between all modes and degrees of human  

regeneration4 ,we have yet to find a    
central point round which all will      
naturally meet4 ,in this point consists 
the unity of ,positivism as a  system of
 life4 ,unless it can be thus condensed1
 round one single  principle1 it will   
never wholly supersede the synthesis of 
,theology1  notwithstanding its         
superiority in the reality and stability
 of its  component parts1 and in their  
homogeneity and coherence as a whole4   
,there should be a central point in the 
system towards which ,feeling1  ,reason1
 and ,activity alike converge4 ,the     
proof that ,positivism  possesses such a
 central point will remove the last     
obstacles to its  complete acceptance1  
as the guide of private or of public    
life4    ,such a centre we find in the  
great conception of ,humanity1 towards  
which every aspect of ,positivism       
naturally converges4 ,by it the         
conception of ,god will be entirely     
superseded1 and a synthesis be  formed1 
more complete and permanent than that   

provisionally established  by the old   
religions4 ,through it the new doctrine 
becomes at once  accessible to men's    
hearts in its full extent and           
application4 ,from  their heart it will 
penetrate their minds1 and thus the     
immediate  necessity of beginning with a
 long and difficult course of study is  
avoided1 though this must of course be  
always indispensable to its  systematic 
teachers4    ,this central point of     
,positivism is even more moral than     
intellectual  in character3 it          
represents the principle of ,love upon  
which the whole  system rests4 ,it is   
the peculiar characteristic of the      
,great ,being  who is here set forth1 to
 be compounded of separable elements4   
,its  existence depends therefore       
entirely upon mutual ,love knitting     
together  its various parts4 ,the       
calculations of self-interest can never 
be  substituted as a combining influence
 for the sympathetic instincts4    ,yet 
the belief in ,humanity1 while          

stimulating ,sympathy1 at the same  time
 enlarges the scope and vigour of the   
,intellect4 ,for it requires  high      
powers of generalization to conceive    
clearly of this vast  organism1 as the  
result of spontaneous co-operation1     
abstraction made  of all partial        
antagonisms4 ,reason1 then1 has its part
 in this central  dogma as well as      
,love4 ,it enlarges and completes our   
conception of the  ,supreme ,being1 by  
revealing to us the external and        
internal conditions  of its existence4  
,lastly1 our active powers are          
stimulated by it no less than our       
feelings and our reason4 ,for since     
,humanity is so far more complex than   
any other organism1 it will react more  
strongly and more continuously  on its  
environment1 submitting to its influence
 and so modifying it4  ,hence results   
,progress which is simply the           
development of ,order1 under  the       
influence of ,love4    ,thus1 in the    
conception of ,humanity1 the three      

essential aspects of  ,positivism1 its  
subjective principle1 its objective     
dogma1 and its  practical object1 are   
united4 ,towards ,humanity1 who is for  
us the only  true ,great ,being1 we1 the
 conscious elements of whom she is      
composed1  shall henceforth direct every
 aspect of our life1 individual or      
collective4 ,our thoughts will be       
devoted to the knowledge of ,humanity1  
our affections to her love1 our actions 
to her service4    ,positivists then    
may1 more truly than theological        
believers of whatever  creed1 regard    
life as a continuous and earnest act of 
worship2 worship  which will elevate and
 purify our feelings1 enlarge and       
enlighten our  thoughts1 ennoble and    
invigorate our actions4 ,it supplies a  
direct  solution1 so far as a solution  
is possible1 of the great problem of the
  ,middle ,ages1 the subordination of   
,politics to ,morals4 ,for this follows 
at once from the consecration now given 
to the principle that social  sympathy  

should preponderate over self-love4     
,thus ,positivism becomes1 in the true  
sense of the word1 a ,religion2 the     
only religion which is real and         
complete2 destined therefore to replace 
all imperfect and provisional systems   
resting on the primitive basis of       
theology4    ,for even the synthesis    
established by the old theocracies of   
,egypt and  ,india was insufficient1    
because1 being based on purely          
subjective  principles it could never   
embrace practical life1 which must      
always  be subordinated to the objective
 realities of the external world4       
,theocracy was thus limited at the      
outset to the sphere of thought  and of 
feeling2 and part even of this field was
 soon lost when ,art  became emancipated
 from theocratical control1 showing a   
spontaneous  tendency to its natural    
vocation of idealizing real life4 ,of   
science  and of morality the priests    
were still left sole arbiters2 but here1
  too1 their influence materially       

diminished so soon as the discovery  of 
the simpler abstract truths of ,positive
 science gave birth to  ,greek          
,philosophy4 ,philosophy1 though as yet 
necessarily restricted  to the          
metaphysical stage1 yet already stood   
forward as the rival of  the sacerdotal 
system4 ,its attempts to construct were 
in themselves  fruitless2 but they      
overthrew ,polytheism1 and ultimately   
transformed it  into ,monotheism4 ,in   
this the last phase of theology1 the    
intellectual  authority of the priests  
was undermined no less deeply than the  
principle of their doctrine4 ,they lost 
their hold upon ,science1 as  long ago  
they had lost their hold upon ,art4 ,all
 that remained to them  was the moral   
guidance of society2 and even this was  
soon compromised  by the progress of    
free thought2 progress really due to the
 ,positive  spirit1 although its        
systematic exponents still belong to the
  metaphysical school4     ,with the    
discovery of   sociological laws1 a     

synthesis on the basis   of ,science    
becomes   possible1 science being now   
concentrated on the study of   ,humanity
    ,when ,science had expanded         
sufficiently to exist apart from        
,philosophy1  it showed a rapid tendency
 towards a synthesis of its own1 alike  
incompatible with metaphysics and with  
theology4 ,it was late in  appearing1   
because it required a long series of    
preliminary efforts3  but as it         
approached completion1 it gradually     
brought the ,positive  spirit to bear   
upon the organization of practical life1
 from which that  spirit had originally 
emanated4 ,but thoroughly to effect this
 result  was impossible until the       
science of ,sociology had been formed2  
and  this was done by my discovery of   
the law of historical development4      
,henceforth all true men of science will
 rise to the higher dignity  of         
philosophers1 and by so doing will      
necessarily assume something  of the    
sacerdotal character1 because the final 

result to which their  researches tend  
is the subordination of every subject of
 thought to the  moral principle2 a     
result which leads us at once to the    
acceptance of a  complete and           
homogeneous synthesis4 ,thus the        
philosophers of the future  become      
priests of ,humanity1 and their moral   
and intellectual influence  will be far 
wider and more deeply rooted than that  
of any former  priesthood4 ,the primary 
condition of their spiritual authority  
is  exclusion from political power1 as a
 guarantee that theory and practice     
shall be systematically kept apart4 ,a  
system in which the organs of  counsel  
and those of command are never identical
 cannot possibly  degenerate into any of
 the evils of theocracy4    ,by entirely
 renouncing wealth and worldly position1
 and that not as  individuals merely1   
but as a body1 the priests of ,humanity 
will occupy  a position of unparalleled 
dignity4 ,for with their moral influence
  they will combine what since the      

downfall of the old theocracies has     
always been separated from it1 the      
influence of superiority in art  and    
science4 ,reason1 ,imagination1 and     
,feeling will be brought into  unison3  
and so united will react strongly on the
 imperious conditions  of practical     
life2 bringing it into closer accordance
 with the laws  of universal morality1  
from which it is so prone to deviate4   
,and the  influence of this new         
modifying power will be the greater that
 the  synthesis on which it rests will  
have preceded and prepared the way for  
the social system of the future2 whereas
 theology could not arrive at  its      
central principle1 until the time of its
 decline was approaching4  ,all         
functions1 then1 that co-operate in the 
elevation of man will be  regenerated by
 the ,positive priesthood4 ,science1    
,poetry1 ,morality1 will  be devoted to 
the study1 the praise1 and the love of  
,humanity1 in order  that under their   
combined influence1 our political action

 may be more  unremittingly given to her
 service4    ,with such a mission1      
,science acquires a position of         
unparalleled  importance1 as the sole   
means through which we come to know the 
nature  and conditions of this ,great   
,being1 the worship of whom should be   
the distinctive feature of our whole    
life4 ,for this all-important           
knowledge1 the study of ,sociology would
 seem to suffice3 but ,sociology  itself
 depends upon preliminary study1 first  
of the outer world1 in  which the       
actions of ,humanity take place2 and    
secondly1 of ,man1 the  individual      
agent4    ,the object of ,positivist    
worship is not like that of theological 
believers an absolute1 isolated1        
incomprehensible ,being1 whose          
existence admits of no demonstration1 or
 comparison with anything real4  ,the   
evidence of the ,being here set forward 
is spontaneous1 and is  shrouded in no  
mystery4 ,before we can praise1 love1   
and serve ,humanity  as we ought1 we    

must know something of the laws which   
govern her  existence1 an existence more
 complicated than any other of which we 
are  cognizant4     ,statical ,aspects  
of   ,humanity    ,and by virtue of this
 complexity1 ,humanity possesses the    
attributes of  vitality in a higher     
degree than any other organization2 that
 is to  say1 there is at once more      
intimate harmony of the component       
elements1  and more complete            
subordination to the external world4    
,immense as is  the magnitude of this   
organism measured both in ,time and     
,space1 yet  each of its parts carefully
 examined will show the general         
consensus of  the whole4 ,at the same   
time it is more dependent than any other
 upon  the conditions of the outer      
world2 in other words1 upon the sum of  
the  laws that regulate inferior        
phenomena4 ,like other vital organisms1 
it submits to mathematical1             
astronomical1 physical1 chemical1 and   
biological conditions2 and1 in addition 

to these1 is subject to special  laws of
 ,sociology with which lower organisms  
are not concerned4 ,but as  a further   
result of its higher complexity it      
reacts upon the world more  powerfully2 
and is indeed in a true sense its chief4
 ,scientifically  defined1 then1 it is  
truly the ,supreme ,being3 the ,being   
who manifests  to the fullest extent all
 the highest attributes of life4    ,but
 there is yet another feature peculiar  
to ,humanity1 and one of  primary       
importance4 ,that feature is1 that the  
elements of which she is  composed must 
always have an independent existence4   
,in other organisms  the parts have no  
existence when severed from the whole2  
but this1  the greatest of all          
organisms1 is made up of lives which can
 really  be separated4 ,there is1 as we 
have seen1 harmony of parts as well as  
independence1 but the last of these     
conditions is as indispensable as  the  
first4 ,humanity would cease to be      
superior to other beings were it        

possible for her elements to become     
inseparable4 ,the two conditions are    
equally necessary3 but the difficulty of
 reconciling them is so great  as to    
account at once for the slowness with   
which this highest of all  organisms has
 been developed4 ,it must not1 however1 
be supposed that  the new ,supreme      
,being is1 like the old1 merely a       
subjective result of  our powers of     
abstraction4 ,its existence is revealed 
to us1 on the  contrary1 by close       
investigation of objective fact4 ,man   
indeed1 as an  individual1 cannot       
properly be said to exist1 except in the
 exaggerated  abstractions of modern    
metaphysicians4 ,existence in the true  
sense can  only be predicated of        
,humanity2 although the complexity of   
her nature  prevented men from forming a
 systematic conception of it1 until the 
necessary stages of scientific          
initiation had been passed4 ,bearing    
this  conclusion in mind1 we shall be   
able now to distinguish in ,humanity    

two distinct orders of functions3 those 
by which she acts upon the  world1 and  
those which bind together her component 
parts4 ,humanity  cannot herself act    
otherwise than by her separable members2
 but the  efficiency of these members   
depends upon their working in           
co-operation1  whether instinctively or 
with design4 ,we find1 then1 external   
functions  relating principally to the  
material existence of this organism2 and
  internal functions by which its       
movable elements are combined4 ,this    
distinction is but an application of the
 great theory1 due to ,bichat's  genius1
 of the distinction between the life of 
nutrition and the life  of relation     
which we find in the individual         
organism4 ,philosophically  it is the   
source from which we derive the great   
social principle  of separation of      
spiritual from temporal power4 ,the     
temporal power  governs3 it originates  
in the personal instincts1 and it       
stimulates  activity4 ,on it depends    

social ,order4 ,the spiritual power can 
only  moderate3 it is the exponent of   
our social instincts1 and it promotes   
co-operation1 which is the guarantee of 
,progress4 ,of these functions of       
,humanity the first corresponds to the  
function of nutrition1 the second  to   
that of innervation in the individual   
organism4     ,dynamical aspects        
,having now viewed our subject          
statically1 we may come to its dynamical
  aspect2 reserving more detailed       
discussion for the third volume  of this
 treatise1 which deals with my          
fundamental theory of human             
development4 ,the ,great ,being whom we 
worship is not immutable any  more than 
it is absolute4 ,its nature is relative2
 and1 as such1 is  eminently capable of 
growth4 ,in a word it is the most vital 
of all  living beings known to us4 ,it  
extends and becomes more complex by the 
continuous successions of generations4  
,but in its progressive changes  as well
 as in its permanent functions1 it is   

subject to invariable  laws4 ,and these 
laws considered1 as we may now consider 
them1 as a  whole1 form a more sublime  
object of contemplation than the solemn 
inaction of the old ,supreme ,being1    
whose existence was passive except  when
 interrupted by acts of arbitrary and   
unintelligible volition4 ,thus  it is   
only by ,positive science that we can   
appreciate this highest  of all         
destinies to which all the fatalities of
 individual life are  subordinate4 ,it  
is with this as with subjects of minor  
importance3  systematic study of the    
,past is necessary in order to determine
 the  ,future1 and so explain the       
tendencies of the ,present4 ,let us then
 pass  from the conception of ,humanity 
as fully developed1 to the history of   
its rise and progress2 a history in     
which all other modes of progress  are  
included4 ,in ancient times the         
conception was incompatible with the    
theological spirit and also with the    
military character of society1  which   

involved the slavery of the productive  
classes4 ,the feeling of  ,patriotism1  
restricted as it was at first1 was the  
only prelude then  possible to the      
recognition of ,humanity4 ,from this    
narrow nationality  there arose in the  
,middle ,ages the feeling of universal  
brotherhood1  as soon as military life  
had entered on its defensive phase1 and 
all  supernatural creeds had            
spontaneously merged into a monotheistic
 form  common to the whole ,west4 ,the  
growth of ,chivalry1 and the attempt    
made  to effect a permanent separation  
of the two social powers1 announced     
already the subordination of ,politics  
to ,morals1 and thus showed that  the   
conception of ,humanity was in direct   
course of preparation4 ,but the  unreal 
and anti-social nature of the mediaeval 
creed1 and the military  and            
aristocratic character of feudal        
society1 made it impossible to  go very 
far in this direction4 ,the abolition of
 personal slavery was  the most         

essential result of this important      
period4 ,society could  now assume its  
industrial character2 and feelings of   
fraternity were  encouraged by modes of 
life in which all classes alike         
participated4  ,meanwhile1 the growth of
 the ,positive spirit was proceeding1   
and  preparing the way for the          
establishment of ,social ,science1 by   
which  alone all other ,positive studies
 should be systematized4 ,this being    
done1 the conception of the ,great      
,being became possible4 ,it was with    
reference to subjects of a speculative  
and scientific nature that the          
conception first arose in a distinct    
shape4 ,as early as two centuries  ago1 
,pascal spoke of the human race as one  
,man4#aa ,amidst the  inevitable decline
 of the theological and military system1
 men became  conscious of the movement  
of society1 which had now advanced      
through  so many phases2 and the notion 
of ,progress as a distinctive feature   
of ,humanity became admitted4 ,still the

 conception of ,humanity as the  basis  
for a new synthesis was impossible until
 the crisis of the ,french  ,revolution4
 ,that crisis on the one hand proved the
 urgent necessity  for social           
regeneration1 and on the other gave     
birth to the only  philosophy capable of
 effecting it4 ,thus our consciousness  
of the new  ,great ,being has advanced  
co-extensively with its growth4 ,our    
present  conception of it is as much the
 measure of our social progress as it is
  the summary of ,positive knowledge4   
,inorganic and organic   sciences       
elevated by their   connexion with the  
supreme   science of ,humanity    ,in   
speaking of the dignity of ,science when
 regenerated by this lofty  application 
of it1 ,i do not refer solely to the    
special science of  ,social phenomena1  
but also to the preliminary studies of  
,life and  of the ,inorganic ,world1    
both of which form an essential portion 
of ,positive doctrine4 ,a social mission
 of high importance will be  recognized 

in the most elementary sciences1 whether
 it be for the  sake of their method or 
for the value of their scientific       
results4  ,true1 the religion of        
,humanity will lead to the entire       
abolition of  scientific ,academies1    
because their tendency1 especially in   
,france1 is  equally hurtful to science 
and morality4 ,they encourage           
mathematicians  to confine their        
attention exclusively to the first step 
in the  scientific scale2 and biologists
 to pursue their studies without any    
solid basis or definite purpose4        
,special studies carried on without     
regard for the encyclopdic principles   
which determine the relative  value of  
knowledge1 and its bearing on human     
life1 will be condemned  by all men of  
right feeling and good sense4 ,such men 
will feel the  necessity of resisting   
the morbid narrowness of mind and heart 
to which  the anarchy of our times      
inevitably leads4 ,but the abolition of 
the  ,academic system will only ensure a

 larger measure of respect for all      
scientific researches of real value1 on 
whatever subject4 ,the study  of        
,mathematics1 the value of which is at  
present negatived by its  hardening     
tendency1 will now manifest its latent  
moral efficacy1 as  the only sure basis 
for firm conviction2 a state of mind    
that can never  be perfectly attained in
 more complex subjects of thought1      
except by  those who have experienced it
 in the simpler subjects4 ,when the     
close  connexion of all scientific      
knowledge becomes more generally        
admitted1  ,humanity will reject        
political teachers who are ignorant of  
,geometry1  as well as geometricians who
 neglect ,sociology4 ,biology meanwhile 
will  lose its dangerous materialism1   
and will receive all the respect due to 
its close connexion with social science 
and its important bearing on  the       
essential doctrines of ,positivism4 ,to 
attempt to explain the life  of         
,humanity without first examining the   

lower forms of life1 would be  as       
serious an error as to study ,biology   
without regard to the social  purpose   
which ,biology is intended to serve4    
,science has now become  indispensable  
to the establishment of moral truth1 and
 at the same time  its subordination to 
the inspirations of the heart is fully  
recognized2  thus it takes its place    
henceforward among the most essential   
functions  of the priesthood of         
,humanity4 ,the supremacy of true       
,feeling will  strengthen ,reason1 and  
will receive in turn from ,reason a     
systematic  sanction4 ,natural          
philosophy1 besides its evident value in
 regulating  the spontaneous action of  
,humanity1 has a direct tendency to     
elevate  human nature2 it draws from the
 outer world that basis of fixed truth  
which is so necessary to control our    
various desires4    ,the study of       
,humanity therefore1 directly or        
indirectly1 is for the  future the      
permanent aim of ,science2 and ,science 

is now in a true sense  consecrated1 as 
the source from which the universal     
religion receives  its principles4 ,it  
reveals to us not merely the nature and 
conditions  of the ,great ,being1 but   
also its destiny and the successive     
phases of  its growth4 ,the aim is high 
and arduous2 it requires continuous and 
combined exertion of all our faculties2 
but it ennobles the simplest  processes 
of scientific investigation by          
connecting them permanently  with       
subjects of the deepest interest4 ,the  
scrupulous exactness  and rigorous      
caution of the ,positive method1 which  
when applied to  unimportant subjects   
seem almost puerile1 will be valued and 
insisted  on when seen to be necessary  
for the efficacy of efforts relating to 
our most essential wants4 ,rationalism1 
in the true sense of the word1  so far  
from being incompatible with right      
feeling1 strengthens and  develops it1  
by placing all the facts of the case1 in
 social questions  especially1 in their 

true light4     ,the new religion is    
even   more favourable to ,art than   to
 ,science    ,but1 however honourable   
the rank which ,science when regenerated
 will  hold in the new religion1 the    
sanction given to ,poetry will be even  
more direct and unqualified1 because the
 function assigned to it is  one which  
is more practical and which touches us  
more nearly4 ,its  function will be the 
praise of ,humanity4 ,all previous      
efforts of ,art  have been but the      
prelude to this1 its natural mission2 a 
prelude often  impatiently performed    
since ,art threw off the yoke of        
theocracy at an  earlier period than    
,science4 ,polytheism was the only      
religion under  which it had free scope3
 there it could idealize all the        
passions  of our nature1 no attempt     
being made to conceal the similarity of 
the gods to the human type4 ,the change 
from ,polytheism to ,monotheism  was    
unacceptable to ,art1 because it        
narrowed its field2 but towards  the    

close of the ,middle ,ages it began to  
shake off the influence of  obscure and 
chimerical beliefs1 and take possession 
of its proper  sphere4 ,the field that  
now lies before it in the religion of   
,humanity  is inexhaustible4 ,it is     
called upon to idealize the social life 
of  ,man1 which1 in the time of the     
nations of antiquity1 had not been      
sufficiently developed to inspire the   
highest order of poetry4     ,poetic    
portraiture of the   new ,supreme       
,being1 and   contrast with the old     
,in the first place it will be of the   
greatest service in enabling men  to    
realize the conception of ,humanity1    
subject only to the condition  of not   
overstepping the fundamental truths of  
,science4 ,science  unassisted cannot   
define the nature and destinies of this 
,great ,being  with sufficient          
clearness4 ,in our religion the object  
of worship must  be conceived           
distinctly1 in order to be ardently     
loved and zealously  served4 ,science1  

especially in subjects of this nature1  
is confined  within narrow limits2 it   
leaves inevitable deficiencies which    
esthetic  genius must supply4 ,and there
 are certain qualities in ,art as       
opposed  to ,science1 which specially   
qualify it for the representation of    
,humanity4 ,for ,humanity is            
distinguished from other forms of life  
by  the combination of independence with
 co-operation1 attributes which  also   
are natural to ,poetry4 ,for while      
,poetry is more sympathetic than        
,science1 its productions have far more 
individuality2 the genius of  their     
author is more strongly marked in them1 
and the debt to his  predecessors and   
contemporaries is less apparent4 ,thus  
the synthesis on  which the inauguration
 of the final religion depends1 is one  
in which  ,art will participate more    
than ,science1 ,science furnishing      
merely the  necessary basis4 ,its       
influence will be even greater than in  
the times  of ,polytheism2 for powerful 

as ,art appeared to be in those times1  
it  could in reality do nothing but     
embellish the fables to which the       
confused ideas of theocracy had given   
rise4 ,by its aid we shall for the      
first time rise at last to a really     
human point of view1 and be enabled     
distinctly to understand the essential  
attributes of the ,great ,being of  whom
 we are members4 ,the material power of 
,humanity and the successive  phases of 
her physical1 her intellectual1 and1    
above all1 her moral  progress1 will    
each in turn be depicted4 ,without the  
difficulties of  analytical study1 we   
shall gain a clear knowledge of her     
nature and her  conditions1 by the      
poet's description of her future        
destiny1 of her  constant struggle      
against painful fatalities1 which have  
at last become  a source of happiness   
and greatness1 of the slow growth of her
 infancy1  of her lofty hopes now so    
near fulfilment4 ,the history of        
universal  ,love1 the soul by which this

 ,great ,being is animated2 the history1
 that  is1 of the marvellous advance of 
man1 individually or socially1 from     
brutish appetite to pure unselfish      
sympathy1 is of itself an endless  theme
 for the poetry of the future4          
,comparisons1 too1 may be instituted1 in
 which the poet1 without  specially     
attacking the old religion1 will        
indicate the superiority  of the new4   
,the attributes of the new ,great ,being
 may be forcibly  illustrated1          
especially during the time of           
transition1 by contrast with  the       
inferiority of her various predecessors4
 ,all theological types are  absolute1  
indefinite1 and immutable2 consequently 
in none of them has  it been possible to
 combine to a satisfactory extent the   
attributes of  goodness1 wisdom1 and    
power4 ,nor can we conceive of their    
combination1  except in a ,being whose  
existence is a matter of certainty1 and 
who is  subject to invariable laws4 ,the
 gods of ,polytheism were endowed with  

energy and sympathy1 but possessed      
neither dignity nor morality4 ,they     
were superseded by the sublime deity of 
,monotheism1 who was sometimes          
represented as inert and passionless1   
sometimes as impenetrable and           
inflexible4 ,but the new ,supreme       
,being1 having a real existence1 an     
existence relative and modifiable1      
admits of being more distinctly         
conceived than the old2 and the         
influence of the conception will be     
equally strong and far more elevating4  
,each one of us will recognize  in it a 
power superior to his own1 a power on   
which the whole destiny  of his life    
depends1 since the life of the          
individual is in every  respect         
subordinate to the evolution of the     
race4 ,but the knowledge  of this power 
has not the crushing effect of the old  
conception of  omnipotence4 ,for every  
great or good man will feel that his own
 life  is an indispensable element in   
the great organism4 ,the supremacy of   

,humanity is but the result of          
individual co-operation2 her power is   
not  supreme1 it is only superior to    
that of all beings whom we know4 ,our   
love for her is tainted by no degrading 
fears1 yet it is always coupled  with   
the most sincere reverence4 ,perfection 
is in no wise claimed for  her2 we study
 her natural defects with care in order 
to remedy them as  far as possible4 ,the
 love we bear to her is a feeling as    
noble as it  is strong2 it calls for no 
degrading expressions of adulation1 but 
it  inspires us with unremitting zeal   
for moral improvement4 ,but these and   
other advantages of the new religion1   
though they can be indicated by  the    
philosopher1 need the poet to display   
them in their full light4  ,the moral   
grandeur of man when freed from the     
chimeras that oppress  him1 was foreseen
 by ,goethe1 and still more clearly by  
,byron4 ,but  the work of these men was 
one of destruction2 and their types     
could  only embody the spirit of revolt4

 ,poetry must rise above the negative   
stage in which1 owing to the            
circumstances of the time1 their genius 
was arrested1 and must embrace in the   
,positive spirit the system of          
sociological and other laws to which    
human development is subject1  before it
 can adequately portray the new ,man in 
his relation to the new  ,god4          
,organization of festivals1             
representing statical   and dynamical   
aspects of   humanity    ,there is yet  
another way in which ,art may serve the 
cause of religion2  that is1 in         
organizing the festivals1 whether       
private or public1 of  which1 to a great
 extent1 the worship of ,humanity will  
consist4 ,for  this purpose esthetic    
talent is far more required than        
scientific1 the  object in view being to
 reveal the nature of the great         
,organism more  clearly1 by presenting  
all aspects of its existence1 static or 
dynamic1  in idealized forms4    ,these 
festivals1 then1 should be of two kinds1

 corresponding to the two  essential    
aspects of ,humanity2 the first         
illustrating her existence1  the second 
her action4 ,thus we shall stimulate    
both the elements  of true social       
feeling2 the love of ,order1 namely1 and
 the love of  ,progress4 ,in our static 
festivals social ,order and the feeling 
of  ,solidarity1 will be illustrated2   
the dynamic festivals will explain      
social ,progress1 and inspire the sense 
of historical ,continuity4  ,taken      
together1 their periodic recurrence will
 form a continuation  of ,positive      
education4 ,they will develop and       
confirm the principles  instilled in    
youth4 ,but there will be nothing       
didactic in their form2  since it is of 
the essence of ,art not to instruct     
otherwise than by  giving pleasure4 ,of 
course the regular recurrence of these  
festivals  will not prevent any         
modifications which may be judged       
necessary to  adapt them to special     
incidents that may from time to time    

arise4    ,the festivals representing   
,order will necessarily take more       
abstract  and austere forms than those  
of ,progress4 ,it will be their object  
to  represent the statical relations by 
which the great ,organism preserves  its
 unity1 and the various aspects of its  
animating principle1 ,love4  ,the most  
universal and the most solemn of these  
festivals will be  the feast of         
,humanity1 which will be held throughout
 the ,west at the  beginning of the new 
year1 thus consecrating the only custom 
which  still remains in general use to  
relieve the prosaic dullness of modern  
life4 ,in this feast1 which celebrates  
the most comprehensiveness of  all      
unions1 every branch of the human race  
will at some future time  participate4  
,in the same month there might be three 
festivals of a  secondary order1        
representing the minor degrees of       
association1 the  ,nation1 the          
,province1 and the ,town4 ,giving this  
first month to the  direct celebration  

of the social tie1 we might devote the  
first days of  the four succeeding      
months to the four principal domestic   
relations1  ,connubial1 ,parental1      
,filial1 and ,fraternal4 ,in the sixth  
month1 the  honourable position of      
domestic service would receive its due  
measure  of respect4    ,these would be 
the static festivals2 taken together    
they would form  a representation of the
 true theory of our individual and      
social  nature1 together with the       
principles of moral duty to which that  
theory  gives rise4 ,no direct mention  
is made of the personal instincts1      
notwithstanding their preponderance1    
because it is the main object  of       
,positive worship to bring them under   
the control of the social  instincts4   
,personal virtues are by no means       
neglected in ,positive  education2 but  
to make them the objects of any special 
celebration1  would only stimulate      
egotistic feeling4 ,indirectly their    
value is  recognized in every part of   

our religious system1 in the reaction   
which  they exercise upon our generous  
sympathies4 ,their omission1 therefore1 
implies no real deficiency in this ideal
 portraiture of human faculties  and    
duties4 ,again1 no special announcement 
of the subordination of  ,humanity to   
the laws of the ,external ,world is     
needed4 ,the consciousness  of this     
external power pervades every part of   
the ,positive system2 it  controls our  
desires1 directs our speculations1      
stimulates our actions4  ,the simple    
fact of the recurrence of our ceremonies
 at fixed periods1  determined by the   
,earth's motion1 is enough to remind us 
of our  inevitable subjection to the    
fatalities of the ,external ,world4     
,as the static festivals represent      
,morality1 so the dynamic festivals1    
those of ,progress1 will represent      
,history4 ,in these the worship of      
,humanity assumes a more concrete and   
animated form2 as it will consist       
principally in rendering honour to the  

noblest types of each phase of  human   
development4 ,it is desirable1 however1 
that each of the more  important phases 
should be represented in itself1        
independently of the  greatness of any  
individual belonging to it4 ,of the     
months unoccupied  by static festivals1 
three might be given to the principal   
phases of  the ,past1 ,fetichism1       
,polytheism1 and ,monotheism2 and a     
fourth to the  celebration of the       
,future1 the normal state to which all  
these phases  have been tending4        
,forming thus the chain of historical   
succession1 we may consecrate  each     
month to some one of the types who best 
represent the various  stages4 ,i omit1 
however1 some explanations of detail    
given in the  first edition of this     
,general ,view1 written at the time when
 ,i had  not made the distinction       
between the abstract and concrete       
worship  sufficiently clear4 ,a few     
months after its publication1 in #ahdh1 
the circumstances of the time induced me

 to frame a complete system  of         
commemoration applicable to ,western    
,europe1 under the title of  ,positivist
 ,calendar#ab4 ,of this ,i shall speak  
more at length in the  fourth volume of 
the present treatise4 ,its success has  
fully justified  me in anticipating this
 part of my subject4 ,to it ,i now refer
 the  reader1 recommending him to       
familiarize himself with the provisional
  arrangement of the new ,western year  
then put forward and already  adopted by
 most ,positivists4     ,worship of the 
dead4   ,commemoration of their         
service    ,but the practice need not be
 restricted to names of ,european       
importance4 ,it is applicable in its    
degree to each separate province1  and  
even to private life4 ,catholicism      
offers two institutions in which  the   
religion of the family connects itself  
with public worship in  its most        
comprehensive sense4 ,there is a day    
appointed in ,catholic  countries in    
which all are in the habit of visiting  

the tombs of those  dear to them2       
finding consolation for their grief by  
sharing it with  others4 ,to this custom
 ,positivists devote the last day of the
 year4 ,the  working classes of ,paris  
give every year a noble proof that      
complete  freedom of thought is in no   
respect compatible with worship of the  
dead1 which in their case is unconnected
 with any system4 ,again there  is the  
institution of baptismal names1 which   
though little thought  of at present1   
will be maintained and improved by      
,positivism4 ,it is  an admirable mode  
of impressing on men the connexion of   
private with  public life1 by furnishing
 every one with a type for his own      
personal  imitation4 ,here the          
superiority of the new religion is very 
apparent2  since the choice of a name   
will not be limited to any time or      
country4  ,in this1 as in other cases1  
the absolute spirit of ,catholicism     
proved  fatal to its prospects of       
becoming universal4    ,these brief     

remarks will be enough to illustrate the
 two classes of  festivals instituted by
 ,positivism4 ,in every week of the year
 some new  aspect of ,order or of       
,progress will be held up to public     
veneration2  and in each the link       
connecting public and private worship   
will be  found in the adoration of      
,woman4 ,in this esthetic side of       
,positive  religion everything tends to 
strengthen its fundamental principle of 
,love4 ,all the resources of ,poetry1   
and of the other arts of sound and      
form1 will be invoked to give full and  
regular expression to it4 ,the  dominant
 feeling is always that of deep         
reverence proceeding from  sincere      
acknowledgment of benefits received4    
,our worship will be alike  free from   
mysticism and from affectation4 ,while  
striving to surpass our  ancestors1 we  
shall yet render due honour to all their
 services1 and  look with respect upon  
their systems of life4 ,influenced no   
longer by  chimeras which though        

comforting to former times are now      
degrading1 we  have now no obstacle to  
becoming as far as possible incorporate 
with  the ,great ,being whom we worship4
 ,by commemoration of past services we  
strengthen the desire inherent in all of
 us to prolong our existence  in the    
only way which is really in our power4  
,the fact that all human  affairs are   
subject to one fundamental law1 as soon 
as it becomes  familiarly known1 enables
 and encourages each one of us to live  
in  a true sense in the ,past and even  
in the ,future2 as those cannot do  who 
attribute the events of life to the     
agency of an arbitrary and  impenetrable
 ,will4 ,the praise given to our        
predecessors will stimulate  a noble    
rivalry2 inspiring all with the desire  
to become themselves  incorporate into  
this mighty ,being whose life endures   
through all time1  and who is formed of 
the dead far more than the living4 ,when
 the system  of commemoration is fully  
developed1 no worthy co-operator will be

  excluded1 however humble his sphere2  
whether limited to his family or  town1 
or extending to his country or to the   
whole ,west4 ,the education  of         
,positivists will soon convince them    
that such recompense for  honourable    
conduct is ample compensation for the   
imaginary hopes which  inspired their   
predecessors4    ,to live in others is1 
in the truest sense of the word1 life4  
,indeed the  best part of our own life  
is passed thus4 ,as yet this truth has  
not  been grasped firmly1 because the   
social point of view has never yet  been
 brought systematically before us4 ,but 
the religion of ,humanity1  by giving an
 esthetic form to the ,positivist       
synthesis1 will make it  intelligible to
 minds of every class3 and will enable  
us to enjoy the  untold charm springing 
from the sympathies of union and of     
continuity  when allowed free play4 ,to 
prolong our life indefinitely in the    
,past  and ,future1 so as to make it    
more perfect in the ,present1 is        

abundant  compensation for the illusions
 of our youth which have now passed away
  for ever4 ,science which deprived us  
of these imaginary comforts1 itself  in 
its maturity supplies the solid basis   
for consolation of a kind  unknown      
before2 the hope of becoming incorporate
 into the ,great ,being  whose static   
and dynamic laws it has revealed4 ,on   
this firm foundation  ,poetry raises the
 structure of public and private        
worship2 and thus  all are made active  
partakers of this universal life1 which 
minds  still fettered by theology cannot
 understand4 ,thus imagination1 while   
accepting the guidance of reason1 will  
exercise a far more efficient  and      
extensive influence than in the days of 
,polytheism4 ,for the priests  of       
,humanity the sole purpose of ,science  
is to prepare the field for  ,art1      
whether esthetic or industrial4 ,this   
object once attained1 poetic  study or  
composition will form the chief         
occupation of our speculative           

faculties4 ,the poet is now called to   
his true mission1 which is to give      
beauty and grandeur to human life1 by   
inspiring a deeper sense of our         
relation to ,humanity4 ,poetry will form
 the basis of the ceremonies in  which  
the new priesthood will solemnise more  
efficiently than the old1  the most     
important events of private life3       
especially ,birth1 ,marriage1  and      
,death2 so as to impress the family as  
well as the state with the  sense of    
this relation4 ,forced as we are        
henceforth to concentrate all  our hopes
 and efforts upon the real life around  
us1 we shall feel more  strongly than   
ever that all the powers of ,imagination
 as well as those  of ,reason1 ,feeling1
 and ,activity1 are required in its     
service4     ,all the arts may          
co-operate   in the service of religion 
,poetry once raised to its proper place1
 the arts of sound and form1  which     
render in a more vivid way the subjects 
which ,poetry has  suggested1 will soon 

follow4 ,their sphere1 like that of     
,poetry1 will be  the celebration of    
,humanity2 an exhaustless field1 leaving
 no cause to  regret the chimeras which1
 in the present empirical condition of  
these  arts1 are still considered       
indispensable4 ,music in modern times   
has  been limited almost entirely to the
 expression of individual emotions4     
,its full power has never been felt in  
public life1 except in the  solitary    
instance of the ,marseillaise1 in which 
the whole spirit of  our great          
,revolution stands recorded4 ,but in the
 worship of ,humanity1  based as it is  
on ,positive education1 and animated by 
the spirit of  ,poetry1 ,music1 as the  
most social of the special arts1 will   
aid in the  representation of the       
attributes and destinies of ,humanity1  
and in the  glorification of great      
historical types4 ,painting and         
,sculpture will  have the same object2  
they will enable us to realize the      
conception of  ,humanity with greater   

clearness and precision than would be   
possible  for ,poetry1 even with the aid
 of ,music4 ,the beautiful attempts of  
the  artists of the sixteenth century1  
men who had very little theological     
belief1 to embody the ,christian ideal  
of ,woman1 may be regarded as  an       
unconscious prelude to the              
representation of ,humanity1 in the     
form which of all others is most        
suitable4 ,under the impulse of  these  
feelings1 the sculptor will overcome the
 technical difficulties  of representing
 figures in groups1 and will adopt such 
subjects by  preference4 ,hitherto this 
has only been effected in bas-reliefs1  
works which stand midway between        
painting and sculpture4 ,there are1     
however1 some splendid exceptions from  
which we can imagine the scope  and     
grandeur of the latter art1 when raised 
to its true position4  ,statuesque      
groups1 whether the figures are joined  
or1 as is preferable1  separate1 will   
enable the sculptor to undertake many   

great subjects  from which he has been  
hitherto debarred4    ,in ,architecture 
the influence of ,positivism will be    
felt less rapidly2  but ultimately this 
art like the rest will be made available
 for the  new religion4 ,the buildings  
erected for the service of ,god may for 
a time suffice for the worship of       
,humanity1 in the same way that         
,christian worship was carried on at    
first in ,pagan temples as they  were   
gradually vacated4 ,but ultimately      
buildings will be required more         
specially adapted to a religion in which
 all the functions connected  with      
education and worship are so entirely   
different4 ,what these  buildings will  
be it would be useless at present to    
inquire4 ,it is  less easy to foresee   
the ,positivist ideal in ,architecture  
than in any  other arts4 ,and it must   
remain uncertain until the new          
principles  of education have been      
generally spread1 and until the         
,positivist  religion1 having received  

all the aid that ,poetry1 ,music1 and   
the arts  of ,form can give1 has become 
the accepted faith of ,western ,europe4 
,when the more advanced nations are     
heartily engaged in the cause1  the true
 temples of ,humanity will soon arise4  
,by that time mental  and moral         
regeneration will have advanced far     
enough to commence the  reconstruction  
of all political institutions4 ,until   
then the new  religion will avail itself
 of ,christian churches as these        
gradually  become vacant4               
,positivism is the successor   of       
,christianity1 and   surpasses it       
,art then1 as well as ,science1 partakes
 in the regenerating influence  which   
,positivism derives from its synthetic  
principle of ,love4 ,both  are called to
 their proper functions1 the one to     
contemplate1 the  other to glorify      
,humanity1 in order that we may love and
 serve her  more perfectly4 ,yet while  
the intellect is thus made the servant  
of  the heart1 far from being weakened  

by this subordinate position1 it  finds 
in it an exhaustless field1 in which the
 value of its labours  is amply         
recognized4 ,each of its faculties is   
called directly into  play1 and is      
supplied with its appropriate           
employment4 ,poetry  institutes the     
forms of the worship of ,humanity2      
,science supplies the  principles on    
which those forms are framed1 by        
connecting them with  the laws of the   
external world4 ,imagination1 while     
ceasing to usurp  the place of ,reason1 
yet enhances rather than diminishes its 
original  influence1 which the new      
philosophy shows to be as beneficial as 
it  is natural4 ,and thus human life at 
last attains that state of perfect      
harmony which has been so long sought   
for in vain1 and which consists  in the 
direction of all our faculties to one   
common purpose under  the supremacy of  
,affection4 ,at the same time all former
 efforts of  ,imagination and ,reason1  
even when they clashed with each other1 

are  fully appreciated2 because we see  
that they developed our powers1  that   
they taught us the conditions of their  
equilibrium1 and made it  manifest that 
nothing but that equilibrium was wanting
 to allow them to  work together for our
 welfare4 ,above all do we recognize the
 immense  value of the mediaeval attempt
 to form a complete synthesis1 although1
  notwithstanding all the results of    
,greek and ,roman civilization1 the     
time was not yet ripe for it4 ,to renew 
that attempt upon a sounder  basis1 and 
with surer prospects of success1 is the 
object of those  who found the religion 
of ,humanity4 ,widely different as are  
their  circumstances and the means they 
employ1 they desire to regard           
themselves as the successors of the     
great men who conducted the  progressive
 movement of ,catholicism4 ,for those   
alone are worthy to be  called          
successors1 who continue or carry into  
effect the undertakings  which former   
times have left unfinished2 the title is

 utterly unmerited  by blind followers  
of obsolete dogmas1 which have long     
ceased to bear  any relation to their   
original purpose1 and which their very  
authors1  if now living1 would disavow4 
,but while bearing in mind our debt to  
,catholicism1 we need not omit  to      
recognize how largely ,positivism gains 
by comparison with it4 ,full  justice   
will be done to the aims of             
,catholicism1 and to the excellence  of 
its results4 ,but the whole effect of   
,positivist worship will be  to make men
 feel clearly how far superior in every 
respect is the  synthesis founded on the
 ,love of ,humanity to that founded on  
the ,love  of ,god4    ,christianity    
satisfied no part of our nature fully1  
except the  affections4 ,it rejected    
,imagination1 it shrank from ,reason2   
and  therefore its power was always     
contested1 and could not last4 ,even  in
 its own sphere of affection1 its       
principles never lent themselves  to    
that social direction which the         

,catholic priesthood1 with such         
remarkable persistency1 endeavoured to  
give to them4 ,the aim which it  set    
before men1 being unreal and personal1  
was ill-suited to a life of  reality and
 of social sympathy4 ,it is true that   
the universality of  this supreme       
affection was indirectly a bond of      
union2 but only when  it was not at     
variance with true social feeling4 ,and 
from the nature  of the system1         
opposition between these two principles 
was the rule1  and harmony the          
exception2 since the ,love of ,god1 even
 as viewed by  the best ,catholic types1
 required in almost all cases the       
abandonment  of every other passion4    
,the moral value of such a synthesis    
consisted  solely in the discipline     
which it established2 discipline of     
whatever  kind being preferable to      
anarchy1 which would have given free    
scope  to all the lowest propensities4  
,but notwithstanding all the tender     
feeling of the best mystics1 the        

affection which to them was supreme     
admitted of no real reciprocity4        
,moreover1 the stupendous nature of  the
 rewards and penalties by which every   
precept in this arbitrary  system was   
enforced1 tended to weaken the character
 and to taint  our noblest impulses4    
,the essential merit of the system was  
that it  was the first attempt to       
exercise systematic control over our    
moral  nature4 ,the discipline of       
,polytheism was usually confined to     
actions3  sometimes it extended to      
habits2 but it never touched the        
affections  from which both habits and  
actions spring4 ,christianity took the  
best  means of effecting its purpose    
that were then available2 but it was    
not successful1 except so far as it gave
 indirect encouragement to  our higher  
feelings4 ,and so vague and absolute    
were its principles1  that even this    
would have been impossible1 but for the 
wisdom of the  priesthood1 who for a    
long time saved society from the dangers

 incident  to so arbitrary a system4    
,but at the close of the ,middle ,ages1 
when  the priesthood became retrograde1 
and lost at once their morality and     
their freedom1 the doctrine was left to 
its own impotence1 and rapidly          
degenerated till it became a chronic    
source of degradation and of  discord4  
,but the synthesis based upon ,love of  
,humanity has too deep a foundation  in 
,positive truth to be liable to similar 
decline2 and its influence  cannot but  
increase so long as the progress of our 
race endures4  ,the ,great ,being1 who  
is its object1 tolerates the most       
searching  inquiry1 and yet does not    
restrict the scope of ,imagination4 ,the
  laws which regulate her existence are 
now known to us2 and the more  deeply   
her nature is investigated1 the stronger
 is our consciousness  of her reality   
and of the greatness of her benefits4   
,the thought of  her stimulates all the 
powers of ,imagination1 and thus enables
 us to  participate in a measure in the 

universality of her life1 throughout    
the whole extent of ,time and ,space of 
which we have any real knowledge4  ,all 
our real intellectual results1 whether  
in art or science1 are  alike           
co-ordinated by the religion of         
,humanity2 for it furnishes the  sole   
bond of connexion by which permanent    
harmony can be established  between our 
thoughts and our feelings4 ,it is the   
only system which  without artifice and 
without arbitrary restriction1 can      
establish the  preponderance of         
,affection over ,thought and ,action4   
,it sets forth  social feeling as the   
first principle of morality2 without    
ignoring  the natural superiority in    
strength of the personal instincts4 ,to 
live  for others it holds to be the     
highest happiness4 ,to become           
incorporate  with ,humanity1 to         
sympathize with all her former phases1  
to foresee  her destinies in the future1
 and to do what lies in us to forward   
them2 this is what it puts before us as 

the constant aim of life4  ,self-love in
 the ,positive system is regarded as the
 great infirmity of  our nature3 an     
infirmity which unremitting discipline  
on the part of  each individual and of  
society may materially palliate1 but    
will never  radically cure4 ,the degree 
to which this mastery over our own      
nature is  attained is the truest       
standard of individual or social        
progress1 since  it has the closest     
relation to the existence of the ,great 
,being1 and to  the happiness of the    
elements that compose it4    ,inspired  
as it is by sincere gratitude1 which    
increases the more  carefully the       
grounds for it are examined1 the worship
 of ,humanity  raises ,prayer for the   
first time above the degrading influence
 of  self-interest4 ,we pray to the     
,supreme ,being2 but only to express our
  deep thankfulness for her present and 
past benefits1 which are an  earnest of 
still greater blessings in the future4  
,doubtless it is a  fact of human       

nature1 that habitual expression of such
 feelings reacts  beneficially on our   
moral nature2 and so far we1 too1 find  
in ,prayer  a noble recompense4 ,but it 
is one that can suggest to us no selfish
  thoughts1 since it cannot come at all 
unless it come spontaneously4  ,our     
highest happiness consists in ,love2 and
 we know that more than any  other      
feeling love may be strengthened by     
exercise2 that alone of all  feelings it
 admits of1 and increases with1         
simultaneous expansion in  all4         
,humanity will become more familiar to  
us than the old gods were to  the       
,polytheists1 yet without the loss of   
dignity which1 in their case1  resulted 
from familiarity4 ,her nature has in it 
nothing arbitrary1  yet she co-operates 
with us in the worship that we render1  
since in  honouring her we receive back 
#8grace for grace'4 ,homage accepted by 
the ,deity of former times laid him open
 to the charge of puerile  vanity4 ,but 
the new ,deity will accept praise only  

where it is deserved1  and will derive  
from it equal benefit with ourselves4   
,this perfect  reciprocity of affection 
and of influence is peculiar to         
,positive  religion1 because in it alone
 the object of worship is a ,being whose
  nature is relative1 modifiable1 and   
perfectible2 a ,being of whom her  own  
worshippers form a part1 and the laws of
 whose existence1 being  more clearly   
known than theirs1 allow her desires and
 her tendencies to  be more distinctly  
foreseen4     ,superiority of ,positive 
morality    ,the morality of ,positive  
religion combines all the advantages of 
spontaneousness with those of           
demonstration4 ,it is so thoroughly     
human in all its parts1 as to preclude  
all the subterfuges by which  repentance
 for transgression is so often stifled  
or evaded4 ,by pointing  out distinctly 
the way in which each individual action 
reacts upon  society1 it forces us to   
judge our own conduct without lowering  
our standard4 ,some might think it too  

gentle1 and not sufficiently  vigorous2 
yet the love by which it is inspired is 
no passive feeling1  but a principle    
which strongly stimulates our energies  
to the full  extent compatible with the 
attainment of that highest good to which
  it is ever tending4 ,accepting the    
truths of science1 it teaches that  we  
must look to our own unremitting        
activity for the only providence  by    
which the rigour of our destiny can be  
alleviated4 ,we know well  that the     
great ,organism1 superior though it be  
to all beings known  to us1 is yet under
 the dominion of inscrutable laws1 and  
is in no  respect either absolutely     
perfect or absolutely secure from       
danger4  ,every condition of our        
existence1 whether those of the external
 world  or those of our own nature1     
might at some time be compromised4 ,even
  our moral and intellectual faculties1 
on which our highest interests  depend1 
are no exception to this truth4 ,such   
contingencies are always  possible1 and 

yet they are not to prevent us from     
living nobly2 they  must not lessen our 
love1 our thought1 or our efforts for   
,humanity2  they must not overwhelm us  
with anxiety1 nor urge us to useless    
complaint4 ,but the very principles     
which demand this high standard of      
courage and resignation1 are themselves 
well calculated to maintain  it4 ,for by
 making us fully conscious of the       
greatness of man1 and by  setting us    
free from the degrading influences of   
fear1 they inspire  us with keen        
interest in our efforts1 inadequate     
though they be1  against the pressure of
 fatalities which are not always beyond 
our  power to modify4 ,and thus the     
reaction of these fatalities upon our   
character is turned at last to a most   
beneficial use4 ,it prevents  alike     
overweening anxiety for our own         
interests and dull indifference  to     
them2 whereas1 in theological and       
metaphysical systems1 even when         
inculcating self-denial1 there is always

 a dangerous tendency to  concentrate   
thought on personal considerations4     
,dignified reaction  where modification 
of them is possible2 such is the moral  
standard  which ,positivism puts forward
 for individuals and for society4       
,catholicism1 notwithstanding the       
radical defects of its doctrine1 has    
unconsciously been influenced by the    
modern spirit2 and at the close  of the 
,middle ,ages was tending in a direction
 similar to that here  described1       
although its principles were            
inconsistent with any formal            
recognition of it4 ,it is only in the   
countries that have been preserved  from
 ,protestantism that any traces are left
 of these faint efforts  of the         
priesthood to rise above their own      
theories4 ,the ,catholic ,god  would    
gradually change into a feeble and      
imperfect representation of  ,humanity1 
were not the clergy so degraded socially
 as to be unable  to participate in the 
spontaneous feelings of the community4  

,it is a  tendency too slightly marked  
to lead to any important result2 yet it 
is a striking proof of the new direction
 which men's minds and hearts  are      
unconsciously taking in countries which 
are often supposed to be  altogether    
left behind in the march of modern      
thought4 ,the clearest  indication of it
 is in their acceptance of the worship  
of ,woman1  which is the first step     
towards the worship of ,humanity4 ,since
 the  twelfth century1 the influence of 
the ,virgin1 especially in ,spain and   
,italy1 has been constantly on the      
increase4 ,the priesthood have often    
protested against it1 but without       
effect2 and sometimes they have  found  
it necessary to sanction it1 for the    
sake of preserving their  authority4    
,the special and privileged adoration   
which this beautiful  creation of       
,poetry has received1 could not but     
produce a marked change  in the spirit  
of ,catholicism4 ,it may serve as a     
connecting link between  the religion of

 our ancestors and that of our          
descendants1 the ,virgin  becoming      
gradually regarded as a personification 
of ,humanity4 ,little1  however1 will be
 done in this direction by the          
established priesthood1  whether in     
,italy or ,spain4 ,we must look to the  
purer agency of women1  who will be the 
means of introducing ,positivism among  
our ,southern  brethren4    ,all the    
points1 then1 in which the morality of  
,positive science excels  the morality  
of revealed religion are summed up in   
the substitution  of ,love of ,humanity 
for ,love of ,god4 ,it is a principle as
 adverse  to metaphysics as to theology1
 since it excludes all personal         
considerations1 and places happiness1   
whether for the individual or  for      
society1 in constant exercise of kindly 
feeling4 ,to love ,humanity  may be     
truly said to constitute the whole duty 
of ,man2 provided it  be clearly        
understood what such love really        
implies1 and what are  the conditions   

required for maintaining it4 ,the       
victory of ,social  ,feeling over our   
innate ,self-love is rendered possible  
only by a slow  and difficult training  
of the heart1 in which the intellect    
must  co-operate4 ,the most important   
part of this training consists in the   
mutual love of ,man and ,woman1 with all
 other family affections which  precede 
and follow it4 ,but every aspect of     
morality1 even the personal  virtues1   
are included in love of ,humanity4 ,it  
furnishes the best  measure of their    
relative importance1 and the surest     
method for laying  down incontestable   
rules of conduct4 ,and thus we find the 
principles  of systematic morality to be
 identical with those of spontaneous    
morality1 a result which renders        
,positive doctrine equally accessible   
to all4     ,rise of the new ,spiritual 
power    ,science1 therefore1 ,poetry1  
and ,morality1 will alike be regenerated
  by the new religion1 and will         
ultimately form one harmonious whole1   

on which the destinies of ,man will     
henceforth rest4 ,with women1 to  whom  
the first germs of spiritual power are  
due1 this consecration  of the rational 
and imaginative faculties to the source 
of feeling  has always existed          
spontaneously4 ,but to realize it in    
social life  it must be brought forward 
in a systematic form as part of a       
general  doctrine4 ,this is what the    
mediaeval system attempted upon the     
basis of  ,monotheism4 ,a moral power   
arose composed of the two elements      
essential  to such a power1 the         
sympathetic influence of women in the   
family1 the  systematic influence of the
 priesthood on public life4 ,as a       
preliminary  attempt the ,catholic      
system was most beneficial2 but it could
 not last1  because the synthesis on    
which it rested was imperfect and       
unstable4  ,the ,catholic doctrine and  
worship addressed themselves exclusively
  to our emotional nature1 and even from
 the moral point of view their          

principles were uncertain and arbitrary4
 ,the field of intellect1  whether in   
art or science1 as well as that of      
practical life1 would  have been left   
almost untouched but for the personal   
character of the  priests4 ,but with the
 loss of their political independence1  
which had  been always in danger from   
the military tendencies of the time1 the
  priesthood rapidly degenerated4 ,the  
system was in fact premature2  and even 
before the industrial era of modern     
times had set in1 the  esthetic and     
metaphysical growth of the times had    
already gone too  far for its feeble    
power of control2 and it then became as 
hostile  to progress as it had formerly 
been favourable to it4 ,moral qualities 
without intellectual superiority are not
 enough for a true spiritual  power2    
they will not enable it to modify to any
 appreciable extent the  strong         
preponderance of material               
considerations4 ,consequently it is the 
primary condition of social             

reorganization to put an end to the     
state  of utter revolt which the        
intellect maintains against the heart2 a
  state which has existed ever since the
 close of the ,middle ,ages and the     
source of which may be traced as far    
back as the ,greek ,metaphysicians4     
,positivism has at last overcome the    
immense difficulties of this task4  ,its
 solution consists in the foundation of 
social science on the basis  of the     
preliminary sciences1 so that at last   
there is unity of method  in our        
conceptions4 ,our active faculties have 
always been guided by  the ,positive    
spirit3 and by its extension to the     
sphere of ,feeling1 a  complete         
synthesis1 alike spontaneous and        
systematic in its nature1  is           
constructed2 and every part of our      
nature is brought under the             
regenerating influence of the worship of
 ,humanity4 ,thus a new spiritual  power
 will arise1 complete and homogeneous in
 structure1 coherent and  at the same   

time progressive2 and better calculated 
than ,catholicism  to engage the support
 of women which is so necessary to its  
efficient  action on society4           
,temporal power will always   be        
necessary1 but its action   will be     
modified by the   spiritual    ,were it 
not for the material necessities of     
human life1 nothing further  would be   
required for its guidance than a        
spiritual power such as is  here        
described4 ,we should have in that case 
no need for any laborious  exertion2 and
 universal benevolence would be looked  
upon as the  sovereign good1 and would  
become the direct object of all our     
efforts4  ,all that would be necessary  
would be to call our reasoning powers1  
and  still more1 our imagination into   
play1 in order to keep this object      
constantly in view4 ,purely fictitious  
as such an hypothesis may be1  it is yet
 an ideal limit1 to which our actual    
life should be more and  more nearly    
approximated4 ,as an ,utopia1 it is a   

fit subject for the  poet3 and in his   
hands it will supply the new religion   
with resources  far superior to any that
 ,christianity derived from vague and   
unreal  pictures of future bliss4 ,in it
 we may carry out a more perfect social 
classification1 in which men may be     
ranked by moral and intellectual  merit1
 irrespectively of wealth or position4  
,for the only standard by  which in such
 a state men could be tried would be    
their capacity to  love and to please   
,humanity4    ,such a standard will of  
course never be practically accepted1   
and  indeed the classification in       
question would be impossible to effect3 
yet it should always be present to our  
minds2 and should be contrasted         
dispassionately with the actual         
arrangements of social rank1 with  which
 power1 even where accidentally         
acquired1 has more to do than  worth4   
,the priests of ,humanity with the      
assistance of women will avail          
themselves largely of this contrast in  

modifying the existing order4           
,positivist education will fully explain
 its moral validity1 and in  our        
religious services appeal will          
frequently be made to it4 ,although  an 
ideal abstraction1 yet being based on   
reality1 except so far as  the          
necessities of daily life are concerned1
 it will be far more  efficacious than  
the vague and uncertain classification  
founded on the  theological doctrine of 
a future state4 ,when society learns to 
admit no  other ,providence than its    
own1 it will go so far in adopting this 
ideal  classification as to produce a   
strong effect on the classes who are the
  best aware of its impracticability4   
,but those who press this contrast  must
 be careful always to respect the       
natural laws which regulate  the        
distribution of wealth and rank4 ,they  
have a definite social  function1 and   
that function is not to be destroyed1   
but to be improved  and regulated4 ,in  
order1 therefore1 to reconcile these    

conditions1 we  must limit our ideal    
classification to individuals1 leaving  
the actual  subordination of office and 
position unaffected4 ,well-marked       
personal  superiority is not very       
common2 and society would be wasting its
 powers  in useless and interminable    
controversy if it undertook to give each
  function to its best organ1 thus      
dispossessing the former functionary    
without taking into account the         
conditions of practical experience4     
,even in the spiritual hierarchy1 where 
it is easier to judge of  merit1 such a 
course would be utterly subversive of   
discipline4 ,but  there would be no     
political danger1 and morally there     
would be great  advantage1 in pointing  
out all remarkable cases which          
illustrate the  difference between the  
order of rank and the order of merit4   
,respect  may be shown to be noblest    
without compromising the authority of   
the  strongest4 ,st ,bernard was        
esteemed more highly than any of the    

,popes of  his time2 yet he remained in 
the humble position of an abbot1 and    
never  failed to show the most perfect  
deference for the higher functionaries  
of the ,church4 ,a still more striking  
example was furnished by ,st ,paul  in  
recognizing the official superiority of 
,st ,peter1 of whose moral  and mental  
inferiority to himself he must have been
 well aware4 ,all  organized            
corporations1 civil or military1 can    
show instances on a less  important     
scale where the abstract order of merit 
has been adopted  consistently with the 
concrete order of rank4 ,where this is  
the case  the two may be contrasted     
without any subversive consequences4    
,the  contrast will be morally          
beneficial to all classes1 at the same  
time  that it proves the imperfection to
 which so complicated an organism as    
human society must be ever liable4      
,thus the religion of ,humanity creates 
an intellectual and moral power1  which1
 could human life be freed from the     

pressure of material wants1  would      
suffice for its guidance4 ,imperfect as 
our nature assuredly  is1 yet social    
sympathy has an intrinsic charm which   
would make it  paramount1 but for the   
imperious necessities by which the      
instincts of  self-preservation are     
stimulated4 ,so urgent are they1 that   
the greater  part of life is necessarily
 occupied with actions of a             
self-regarding  kind1 before which      
,reason1 ,imagination1 and even         
,feeling1 have to  give way4            
,consequently this moral power1 which   
seems so well adapted  for the direction
 of society1 must only attempt to act as
 a modifying  influence4 ,its           
sympathetic element1 in other words1    
women1 accept this  necessity without   
difficulty2 for true affection always   
takes the  right course of action1 as   
soon as it is clearly indicated4 ,but   
the  intellect is far more unwilling to 
take a subordinate position4 ,its  rash 
ambition is far more unsettling to the  

world than the ambition of  rank and    
wealth1 against which it so often       
inveighs4 ,it is the hardest  of social 
problems to regulate the exercise of the
 intellectual powers1  while securing   
them their due measure of influence2 the
 object being  that theoretical power   
should be able really to modify1 and yet
 should  never be permitted to govern4  
,for the nations of antiquity this      
problem  was insoluble2 with them the   
intellect was always either a tyrant or 
a slave4 ,the solution was attempted in 
the ,middle ,ages2 but without  success1
 owing to the military and theological  
character of the times4  ,positivism    
relies for solving it on the reality    
which is one of its  principal features1
 and on the fact that ,society has now  
entered on its  industrial phase4 ,based
 on accurate inquiry into the past and  
future  destinies of man1 its aim is so 
to regenerate our political action1  as 
to transform it ultimately into a       
practical worship of ,humanity2         

,morality being the worship rendered by 
the affections1 ,science and  ,poetry   
that rendered by the intellect4 ,such is
 the principal mission  of the          
,occidental priesthood1 a mission in    
which women and the working  classes    
will actively co-operate4               
,substitution of duties for   rights    
,the most important object of this      
regenerated polity will be the          
substitution of ,duties for ,rights2    
thus subordinating personal  to social  
considerations4 ,the word ,right should 
be excluded  from political language1 as
 the word ,cause from the language of   
philosophy4 ,both are theological and   
metaphysical conceptions2 and  the      
former is as immoral and subversive as  
the latter is unmeaning  and            
sophistical4 ,both are alike            
incompatible with the final state2  and 
their value during the revolutionary    
period of modern history  has simply    
consisted in their solvent action upon  
previous systems4  ,rights1 in the      

strict sense of the word1 are possible  
only so long  as power is considered as 
emanating from a superhuman will4       
,rights1  under all theological systems1
 were divine2 but in their opposition to
  theocracy1 the metaphysicians of the  
last five centuries introduced  what    
they called the rights of ,man2 a       
conception1 the value of which          
consisted simply in its destructive     
effects4 ,whenever it has been taken  as
 the basis of a constructive policy1 its
 anti-social character1 and  its        
tendency to strengthen individualism    
have always been apparent4  ,in the     
,positive state1 where no supernatural  
claims are admissible1  the idea of     
,right will entirely disappear4 ,every  
one has duties1  duties towards all2 but
 rights in the ordinary sense can be    
claimed by  none4 ,whatever security the
 individual may require is found in the 
general acknowledgment of reciprocal    
obligations2 and this gives a  moral    
equivalent for rights as hitherto       

claimed1 without the serious  political 
dangers which they involved4 ,in other  
words1 no one has  in any case any      
,right but that of doing his ,duty4 ,the
 adoption of  this principle is the one 
way of realizing the grand ideal of the 
,middle ,ages1 the subordination of     
,politics to ,morals4 ,in those times1  
however1 the vast bearings of the       
question were but very imperfectly      
apprehended2 its solution is            
incompatible with every form of         
theology1  and is only to be found in   
,positivism4    ,the solution consists  
in regarding our political and social   
action as  the service of ,humanity4    
,its object should be to assist by      
conscious  effort all functions1 whether
 relating to ,order or to ,progress1    
which  ,humanity has hitherto performed 
spontaneously4 ,this is the ultimate    
object of ,positive religion4 ,without  
it all other aspects of that  religion  
would be inadequate1 and would soon     
cease to have any value4  ,true         

affection does not stop short at desire 
for good2 it strains every  effort to   
attain it4 ,the elevation of soul       
arising from the act of  contemplating  
and adoring ,humanity is not the sole   
object of religious  worship4 ,above and
 beyond this there is the motive of     
becoming better  able to serve          
,humanity2 unceasing action on our part 
being necessary  for her preservation   
and development4 ,this indeed is the    
most  distinctive feature of ,positive  
religion4 ,the ,supreme ,being of former
  times had really little need of human 
services4 ,the consequence was1  that   
with all theological believers1 and with
 monotheists especially1  devotion      
always tended to degenerate into        
quietism4 ,the danger could  only be    
obviated when the priesthood had        
sufficient wisdom to take  advantage of 
the vagueness of these theories1 and to 
draw from them  motives for practical   
exertion4 ,nothing could be done in this
 direction  unless the priesthood       

retained their social independence4 ,as 
soon as  this was taken from them by the
 usurpation of the temporal power1 the  
more sincere amongst ,catholics lapsed  
into the quietistic spirit which  for a 
long time had been kept in check4 ,in   
,positivism1 on the contrary1  the      
doctrine itself1 irrespective of the    
character of its teachers1 is  a direct 
and continuous incentive to exertion of 
every kind4 ,the reason  for this is to 
be found in the relative and dependent  
nature of our  ,supreme ,being1 of whom 
her own worshippers form a part4        
,consensus of the social   organism     
,in this1 which is the essential service
 of ,humanity1 and which infuses  a     
religious spirit into every act of life1
 the feature most prominent  is         
co-operation of effort2 co-operation on 
so vast a scale that less  complicated  
organisms have nothing to compare with  
it4 ,the consensus  of the social       
organism extends to ,time as well as    
,space4 ,hence the  two distinct aspects

 of social sympathy3 the feeling of     
,solidarity1  or union with the         
,present2 and of ,continuity1 or union  
with the ,past4  ,careful investigation 
of any social phenomenon1 whether       
relating to  ,order or to ,progress1    
always proves convergence1 direct or    
indirect1  of all contemporaries and of 
all former generations1 within certain  
geographical and chronological limits2  
and those limits recede as the          
development of ,humanity advances4 ,in  
our thoughts and feelings such          
convergence is unquestionable2 and it   
should be still more evident  in our    
actions1 the efficacy of which depends  
on co-operations to  a still greater    
degree4 ,here we feel how false as well 
as immoral  is the notion of ,right1 a  
word which1 as commonly used1 implies   
absolute individuality4 ,the only       
principle on which ,politics can be     
subordinated to ,morals is1 that        
individuals should be regarded1 not as  
so many distinct beings1 but as organs  

of one ,supreme ,being4 ,indeed1  in all
 settled states of society1 the         
individual has always been  considered  
as a public functionary1 filling more or
 less efficiently a  definite post1     
whether formally appointed to it or not4
 ,so fundamental  a principle has ever  
been recognized instinctively up to the 
period  of revolutionary transition1    
which is now at length coming to an end2
  a period in which the obstructive and 
corrupt character of organized  society 
roused a spirit of anarchy which1 though
 at first favourable to  progress1 has  
now become an obstacle to it4           
,positivism1 however1 will  place this  
principle beyond reach of attack1 by    
giving a systematic  demonstration of   
it1 based on the sum of our scientific  
knowledge4     ,continuity of the past  
with   the present    ,and this         
demonstration will be the intellectual  
basis on which the  moral authority of  
the new priesthood will rest4 ,what they
 have to do  is to show the dependence  

of each important question1 as it       
arises1  upon social co-operation1 and  
by this means to indicate the right     
path of duty4 ,for this purpose all     
their scientific knowledge and  esthetic
 power will be needed1 otherwise social 
feeling could never be  developed       
sufficiently to produce any strong      
effect upon conduct4 ,it  would never1  
that is1 go further than the feelings of
 mere solidarity  with the ,present1    
which is only its incipient and         
rudimentary form4  ,we see this         
unfortunate narrowness of view too often
 in the best  socialists1 who1 leaving  
the present without roots in the past1  
would  carry us headlong towards a      
future of which they have no definite   
conception4 ,in all social phenomena1   
and especially in those of modern       
times1 the participation of our         
predecessors is greater than that of    
our contemporaries4 ,this truth is      
especially apparent in industrial       
undertakings1 for which the combination 

of efforts required is so  vast4 ,it is 
our filiation with the ,past1 even more 
than our connexion  with the ,present1  
which teaches us that the only real life
 is the  collective life of the race2   
that individual life has no existence   
except as an abstraction4 ,continuity is
 the feature which distinguishes  our   
race from all others4 ,many of the lower
 races are able to form  a union among  
their living members2 but it was        
reserved for ,man to  conceive and      
realize co-operation of successive      
generations1 the source  to which the   
gradual growth of civilization is to be 
traced4 ,social  sympathy is a barren   
and imperfect feeling1 and indeed it is 
a cause  of disturbance1 so long as it  
extends no further than the present     
time4 ,it is a disregard for historical 
,continuity which induces that  mistaken
 antipathy to all forms of inheritance  
which is now so common4  ,scientific    
study of history would soon convince    
those of our socialist  writers who are 

sincere of their radical error in this  
respect4 ,if  they were more familiar   
with the collective inheritance of      
society1  the value of which no one can 
seriously dispute1 they would feel less 
objection to inheritance in its         
application to individuals or families4 
,practical experience1 moreover1        
bringing them into contact with the     
facts of the case1 will gradually show  
them that without the sense of          
continuity with the ,past they cannot   
really understand their solidarity  with
 the ,present4 ,for1 in the first place1
 each individual in the  course of his  
growth passes spontaneously through     
phases corresponding  in a great measure
 to those of our historical development2
 and  therefore1 without some knowledge 
of the history of society1 he cannot    
understand the history of his own life4 
,again1 each of these successive  phases
 may be found amongst the less advanced 
nations who do not as  yet share in the 
general progress of ,humanity2 so that  

we cannot  properly sympathize with     
these nations1 if we ignore the         
successive  stages of development in    
,western ,europe4 ,the nobler socialists
 and  communists1 those especially who  
belong to the working classes1 will     
soon be alive to the error and danger of
 these inconsistencies1 and  will supply
 this deficiency in their education1    
which at present  vitiates their        
efforts4 ,with women1 the purest and    
most spontaneous  element of the        
moderating power1 the priests of        
,humanity will find it  less difficult  
to introduce the broad principles of    
historical science4  ,they are more     
inclined than any other class to        
recognize our continuity  with the      
,past1 being themselves its original    
source4     ,necessity of a spiritual   
power to study and teach   these truths1
 and thus to   govern men by persuasion1
   instead of by compulsion    ,without 
a scientific basis1 therefore1 a basis  
which must itself  rest on the whole sum

 of ,positive speculation1 it is        
impossible for  our social sympathies to
 develop themselves fully1 so as to     
extend  not to the ,present only1 but   
also and still more strongly to the     
,past4 ,and this is the first motive1 a 
motive founded alike on moral  and on   
intellectual considerations1 for the    
separation of temporal  from spiritual  
power in the final organization of      
society4 ,the more  vigorously we       
concentrate our efforts upon social     
progress1 the more  clearly shall we    
feel the impossibility of modifying     
social phenomena  without knowledge of  
the laws that regulate them4 ,this      
involves the  existence of an           
intellectual class specially devoted to 
the study of  social phenomena4 ,such a 
class will be invested with the         
consultative  authority for which their 
knowledge qualifies them1 and also with 
the  function of teaching necessary for 
the diffusion of their principles4  ,in 
the minor arts of life it is generally  

recognized that principles  should be   
investigated and taught by thinkers who 
are not concerned  in applying them4 ,in
 the art of ,social ,life1 so far more  
difficult  and important than any other1
 the separation of theory from practice 
is of far greater moment4 ,the wisdom of
 such a course is obvious1 and  all     
opposition to it will be overcome1 as   
soon as it becomes generally  recognized
 that social phenomena are subject to   
invariable laws2 laws  of so complicated
 a character and so dependent upon other
 sciences as  to make it doubly         
necessary that minds of the highest     
order should be  specially devoted to   
their interpretation4    ,but there is  
another aspect of the question of not   
less importance  in sound polity4       
,separation of temporal from spiritual  
power is as  necessary for free         
individual activity as for social       
co-operation4  ,humanity is             
characterized by the independence as    
well as by the  convergence of the      

individuals or families of which she is 
composed4  ,the latter condition1       
convergence1 is that which secures      
,order2 but the  former is no less      
essential to ,progress4 ,both are alike 
urgent3 yet in  ancient times they were 
incompatible1 for the reason that       
spiritual  and temporal power were      
always in the same hands2 in the hands  
of  the priests in some cases1 at other 
times in those of the military  chief4  
,as long as the ,state held together1   
the independence of the  individual was 
habitually sacrificed to the convergence
 of the body  politic4 ,this explains   
why the conception of ,progress never   
arose1 even  in the minds of the most   
visionary schemers4 ,the two conditions 
were  irreconcilable until the ,middle  
,ages1 when a remarkable attempt was    
made to separate the modifying power    
from the governing power1 and so  to    
make ,politics subordinate to ,morals4  
,co-operation of efforts was  now placed
 on a different footing4 ,it was the    

result of free assent  rendered by the  
heart and understanding to a religious  
system which  laid down general rules of
 conduct1 in which nothing was          
arbitrary1 and  which were applied to   
governors as strictly as to their       
subjects4 ,the  consequence was that    
,catholicism1 notwithstanding its       
extreme defects  intellectually and     
socially1 produced moral and political  
results of  very great value4 ,chivalry 
arose1 a type of life1 in which the most
  vigorous independence was combined    
with the most intense devotion to a     
common cause4 ,every class in ,western  
,society was elevated by this union  of 
personal dignity with universal         
brotherhood4 ,so well is human nature   
adapted for this combination1 that it   
arose under the first religious  system 
of which the principles were not        
incompatible with it4 ,with the         
necessary decay of that religion1 it    
became seriously impaired1 but  yet was 
preserved instinctively1 especially in  

countries untouched by  ,protestantism4 
,by it the mediaeval system prepared the
 way for the  conception of ,humanity2  
since it put an end to the fatal        
opposition  in which the two            
characteristic attributes of ,humanity1 
independence  and co-operation1 had     
hitherto existed4 ,catholicism brought  
unity into  theological religion1 and by
 doing so1 led to its decline2 but it   
paved  the way long beforehand for the  
more complete and more real principle   
of unity on which human society will be 
finally organized4    ,but meritorious  
and useful as this premature attempt    
was1 it was no  real solution of the    
problem4 ,the spirit and temper of the  
period  were not ripe for any definite  
solution4 ,theological belief and       
military life were alike inconsistent   
with any permanent separation  of       
theoretical and practical powers4 ,it   
was maintained only for a  few centuries
 precariously and inadequately1 by a    
sort of natural  balance or rather      

oscillation between imperialism and     
theocracy4  ,but the positive spirit and
 the industrial character of modern     
times  tend naturally to this division  
of power2 and when it is consciously    
recognized as a principle1 the          
difficulty of reconciling co-operation  
with independence will exist no longer4 
,for in the first place1 the  rules to  
which human conduct will be subjected1  
will rest1 as in  ,catholic times1 but  
to a still higher degree1 upon          
persuasion and  conviction1 instead of  
compulsion4 ,again1 the fact of the new 
faith  being always susceptible of      
demonstration1 renders the spiritual    
system based on it more elevating as    
well as more durable4 ,the rules  of    
,catholic morality were only saved from 
being arbitrary by the  introduction of 
a supernatural ,will as a substitute for
 mere human  authority4 ,the plan had   
undoubtedly many advantages2 but liberty
 in the  true sense was not secured by  
it1 since the rules remained as before  

without explanation2 it was only their  
source that was changed4 ,still  less   
successful was the subsequent attempt of
 metaphysicians to prove  that          
submission to government was the        
foundation of virtue4 ,it was  only a   
return to the old system of arbitrary   
wills1 stripped of the  theocratic      
sanction to which all its claims to     
respect and its freedom  from caprice   
had been due4 ,the only way to reconcile
 independence with  social union1 and   
thereby to reach true liberty1 lies in  
obedience to  the objective laws of the 
world and of human nature2 clearing     
these  as far as possible of all that is
 subjective1 and thus rendering them    
amenable to scientific demonstration4   
,of such immense consequence to  society
 will it be to extend the scientific    
method to the complex and  important    
phenomena of human nature4 ,man will no 
longer be the slave of  man2 he yields  
only to external ,law2 and to this those
 who demonstrate  it to him are as      

submissive as himself4 ,in such         
obedience there can be  no degradation  
even where the laws are inflexible4     
,but1 as ,positivism  shows us1 in most 
cases they are modifiable1 and this     
especially in the  case of our mental   
and moral constitution4 ,consequently   
our obedience  is here no longer passive
 obedience3 it implies the devotion of  
every  faculty of our nature to the     
improvement of a world of which we are  
in a true sense masters4 ,the natural   
laws to which we owe submission  furnish
 the basis for our intervention2 they   
direct our efforts and  give stability  
to our purpose4 ,the more perfectly they
 are known1 the  more free will our     
conduct become from arbitrary command or
 servile  obedience4 ,true1 our         
knowledge of these laws will very seldom
 attain  such precision as to enable us 
to do altogether without compulsory     
authority4 ,when the intellect is       
inadequate1 the heart must take its     
place4 ,there are certain rules of life 

for which it is difficult to  assign the
 exact ground1 and where affection must 
assist reason in  supplying motives for 
obedience4 ,wholly to dispense with     
arbitrary  authority is impossible2 nor 
will it degrade us to submit to it1     
provided that it be always regarded as  
secondary to the uniform  supremacy of  
external ,laws1 and that every step in  
the development  of our mental and moral
 powers shall restrict its employment4  
,both  conditions are evidently         
satisfied in the ,positive system of    
life4 ,the  tendency of modern industry 
and science is to make us less dependent
  on individual caprice1 as well as more
 assimilable to the universal           
,organism4 ,positivism therefore secures
 the liberty and dignity of  man by its 
demonstration that social phenomena1    
like all others1 are  subject to natural
 laws1 which1 within certain limits1 are
 modifiable  by wise action on the part 
of society4 ,totally contrary1 on the   
other  hand1 is the spirit of           

metaphysical schemes of polity1 in which
  society is supposed to have no        
spontaneous impulses1 and is handed     
over to the will of the legislator4 ,in 
these degrading and oppressive  schemes1
 union is purchased1 as in ancient      
times1 at the cost of  independence4    
,in these two ways1 then1 ,positive     
religion influences the practical  life 
of ,humanity1 in accordance with the    
natural laws that regulate her          
existence4 ,first1 the sense of         
,solidarity with the ,present is        
perfected  by adding to it the sense of 
,continuity with the ,past2 secondly1   
the  co-operation of her individual     
agents is rendered compatible with      
their independence4 ,not till this is   
done can ,politics become really        
subordinate to ,morals1 and the feeling 
of ,duty be substituted for that  of    
,right4 ,our active powers will be      
modified by the combined influence  of  
feeling and reason1 as expressed in     
indisputable rules which it will  be for

 the spiritual power to make known to   
us4 ,temporal government1  whoever its  
administrators may be1 will always be   
modified by morality4  ,whereas in all  
metaphysical systems of polity nothing  
is provided for  but the modes of access
 to government and the limits of its    
various  departments2 no principles are 
given to direct its application or to   
enable us to form a right judgment of   
it4     ,nutritive functions of         
,humanity1 performed by   ,capitalists1 
as the temporal   power    ,from this   
general view of the practical service of
 ,humanity1 we pass  now to the two     
leading divisions of the subject2 with  
the view of  completing our conception  
of the fundamental principle of         
,positive  ,polity1 the separation of   
temporal from spiritual power4    ,the  
action of ,humanity relates either to   
her external circumstances1  or to the  
facts of her own nature4 ,each of these 
two great functions  involves both      
,order and ,progress2 but the first     

relates more specially  to the          
preservation of her existence1 the      
second to her progressive  development4 
,humanity1 like every other organism1   
has to act  unceasingly on the          
surrounding world in order to maintain  
and extend  her material existence4     
,thus the chief object of her practical 
life is  to satisfy the wants of our    
physical nature1 wants which necessitate
  continual reproduction of materials in
 sufficient quantities4 ,this           
production soon comes to depend more on 
the co-operation of successive          
generations than on that of             
contemporaries4 ,even in these lower but
  indispensable functions1 we work      
principally for our successors1 and  the
 results that we enjoy are in great part
 due to those that have  gone before us4
 ,each generation produces more material
 wealth than is  required for its own   
wants2 and the use of the surplus is to 
facilitate  the labour and prepare the  
maintenance of the generation following4

 ,the  agents in this transmission of   
wealth naturally take the lead in the   
industrial movement2 since the          
possession of provisions and instruments
  of production gives an advantage which
 can only be lost by unusual            
incapacity4 ,and this will seldom       
happen1 because capital naturally  tends
 to accumulate with those who make a    
cautious and skilful use of  it4        
,capitalists then will be the temporal  
chiefs of modern society4 ,their  office
 is consecrated in ,positive religion as
 that of the nutritive  organs of       
,humanity2 organs which collect and     
prepare the materials  necessary for    
life1 and which also distribute them1   
subject always to  the influence of a   
modifying central organ4 ,the direct and
 palpable  importance of their functions
 is a stimulus to pride2 and in every   
respect they are strongly influenced by 
personal instincts1 which are  necessary
 to sustain the vigour of their         
energies4 ,consequently1 if  left to    

themselves1 they are apt to abuse their 
power1 and to govern  by the ignoble    
method of compulsion1 disregarding all  
appeals to reason  and to morality4     
,hence the need of a combination of     
moral forces to  exercise a constant    
check upon the hardness with which they 
are so apt  to use their authority4 ,and
 this leads us to the second of the two 
great functions of ,humanity4     ,these
 are modified by   the cerebral         
functions1   performed by the spiritual 
power    ,this function is analogous to 
that of ,innervation in individuals4    
,its object is the advancement of       
,humanity1 whether in physical or  still
 more in intellectual and moral aspects4
 ,it might seem at first  sight         
restricted1 as in lower organisms1 to   
the secondary office of  assisting the  
nutritive function4 ,soon1 however1 it  
develops qualities  peculiar to itself1 
qualities on which our highest happiness
 depends4  ,and thus we might imagine   
that life was to be entirely given up to

 the  free play of reason1 imagination1 
and feeling1 were we not constantly     
forced back by the necessities of our   
physical nature to less  delightful     
occupations4 ,therefore this            
intellectual and moral function1        
notwithstanding its eminence1 can never 
be supreme in our nature2 yet           
independently of its intrinsic charm1 it
 forms our principal means1  whether    
used consciously or otherwise1 in       
controlling the somewhat  blind action  
of the nutritive organs4 ,it is in      
women1 whose function is  analogous to  
that of the affective organs in the     
individual brain1 that  we find this    
modifying influence in its purest and   
most spontaneous  form4 ,but the full   
value of their influence is not realized
 until they  act in combination with the
 philosophic class2 which1 though its   
direct  energy is small1 is as          
indispensable to the collective         
,organism as the  speculative functions 
of the brain are to the individual4     

,besides these  two essential elements  
of moral power1 we find1 when ,humanity 
reaches  her maturity1 a third element  
which completes the constitution of     
this power and furnishes a basis for its
 political action4 ,this third  element 
is the working class1 whose influence   
may be regarded as the  active function 
in the innervation of the social        
,organism4    ,it is indeed to the      
working class that we look for the only 
possible  solution of the great human   
problem1 the victory of ,social feeling 
over  ,self-love4 ,their want of        
leisure1 and their poverty1 excludes    
them from  political power2 and yet     
wealth1 which is the basis of that      
power1  cannot be produced without them4
 ,they are allied to the spiritual      
power by the similarity of their tastes 
and of their circumstances4  ,moreover1 
they look to it for systematic          
education1 of the importance  of which  
not merely to their happiness1 but to   
their dignity and moral  culture1 they  

are deeply conscious4 ,the nature of    
their occupations1  though absorbing so 
large a portion of their time1 yet      
leaves the mind  for the most part free4
 ,finding little in the specialities of 
their  work to interest them1 they are  
the more inclined to rise to general    
principles1 provided always that such   
principles combine utility with         
reality4 ,being less occupied than other
 classes with considerations  of rank   
and wealth1 they are the more disposed  
to give free play to  generous feelings1
 the value and the charm of which is    
more strongly  impressed on them by     
their experience of life4 ,as their     
strength lies  in numbers1 they have a  
greater tendency to union than          
capitalists1  who1 having in their own  
hands a power which they are apt to     
suppose  resistless1 have no such motive
 for association4 ,they will give their 
energetic support to the priesthood in  
its efforts to control the  abuse of the
 power of wealth1 and in every respect  

they are prepared  to accept and enforce
 its moral influence4 ,being at once    
special  and general1 practical and     
speculative1 and at the same time always
  animated by strong sympathies1 they   
form an intermediate link between  the  
practical and theoretical powers2       
connected with the one by the  need of  
education and counsel1 and with the     
other by the necessities  of labour and 
subsistence4 ,the people represent the  
activity of the  ,supreme ,being1 as    
women represent its sympathy1 and       
philosophers its  intellect4    ,but in 
the organized action of these three     
organs of innervation upon  the organs  
of social nutrition1 it must be borne in
 mind that the  latter are not to be    
impeded in their functions4 ,the control
 exercised  is to be of a kind that will
 ennoble them by setting their          
importance  in its true light4 ,true1 we
 are not to encourage the foolish and   
immoral pride of modern capitalists1 who
 look upon themselves as the  creators  

and sole arbiters of their material     
power1 the foundations of  which are in 
reality due to the combined action of   
their predecessors  and contemporaries4 
,they ought to be regarded simply as    
public  functionaries1 responsible for  
the administration of capital and the   
direction of industrial enterprise4 ,but
 at the same time we must be  careful   
not to underrate the immense value of   
their function1 or  in any way obstruct 
its performance4 ,all this follows at   
once from  the policy of ,separation of 
,powers4 ,the responsibility under which
  it is here proposed to place          
capitalists is purely moral1 whereas    
metaphysicians of the revolutionary     
school have always been in favour  of   
political coercion4 ,in cases where the 
rich neglect their duty1 the  ,positive 
priesthood will resort in the first     
instance to every method  of conviction 
and persuasion that can be suggested by 
the education  which the rich have      
received in common with other classes4  

,should  this course fail1 there remains
 the resource of pronouncing formal     
condemnation of their conduct2 and      
supposing this to be ratified by the    
working men of every city1 and the women
 of every family1 its effect  would be  
difficult to withstand4 ,in very heinous
 cases it might be  necessary to proceed
 to the extreme length of social        
excommunication1  the efficacy of which1
 in cases where it deserved and received
 general  assent1 would be even greater 
than in the ,middle ,ages2 the          
organization  of the spiritual power in 
those times being very imperfect4 ,but  
even  in this case the means used for   
repression are of a purely moral kind4  
,the increasingly rare cases that call  
for political measures belong           
exclusively to the province of the      
temporal power4    ,hereditary          
transmission of wealth has been strongly
 condemned  by metaphysical writers4    
,but it is after all a natural mode of  
transmission1 and the moral discipline  

above described will be a  sufficient   
check upon its worst abuses4 ,when the  
sense of ,duty is  substituted for the  
sense of ,right1 it matters little who  
may be the  possessor of any given      
power1 provided it be well used4        
,inheritance1 as  ,positivism shows1 has
 great social advantages1 especially    
when applied  to functions which require
 no extraordinary capacity1 and which   
are  best learnt in the training of     
domestic life4 ,taking the moral point  
of  view1 we find that men who have been
 always accustomed to wealth are  more  
disposed to be generous than those who  
have amassed it gradually1  however     
honourable the means used4 ,inheritance 
was originally the  mode in which all   
functions were transmitted2 and in the  
case of  wealth there is no reason why  
it should not always continue1 since    
the mere preservation of wealth1 without
 reference to its employment1  requires 
but little special ability4 ,there is no
 guarantee that1 if  other guardians of 

capital were appointed1 the public would
 be better  served4 ,modern industry has
 long ago proved the administrative     
superiority of private enterprise in    
commercial transactions2 and all  social
 functions that admit of it will        
gradually pass into private  management1
 always excepting the great theoretic   
functions in which  combined action will
 ever be necessary4 ,declaim as the     
envious will  against hereditary wealth1
 its possessors1 when they have a good  
disposition moulded by a wise education 
and a healthy state of public  opinion1 
will in many cases rank amongst the most
 useful organs of  ,humanity4 ,it is not
 the class who constitute the moral     
force of  society1 that will give vent  
to these idle complaints1 or at least   
they  will be confined to those         
individuals among them who fail to      
understand  the dignity and value of    
their common mission of elevating man's 
affections1 intellect1 and energies4    
,women and priests to have   their      

material subsistence   guaranteed       
,the only cases in which the spiritual  
power has to interfere specially  for   
the protection of material interests    
fall under two principles1  which are   
very plainly indicated by the natural   
order of society4 ,the  first principle 
is1 that ,man should support ,woman2 the
 second1 that  the ,active class should 
support the ,speculative class4 ,the    
necessity  of both these conditions is  
evident2 without them the effective and 
speculative function of ,humanity cannot
 be adequately performed4  ,private and 
public welfare are so deeply involved in
 the influence  exercised by ,feeling   
over the intellectual and active powers1
 that we  shall do well to secure that  
influence1 even at the cost of removing 
one half of the race from industrial    
occupations4 ,even in the lowest  tribes
 of savages we find the stronger sex    
recognizing some obligations  towards   
the weaker2 and it is this which        
distinguishes human love1  even in its  

coarser forms1 from animal appetite4    
,with every step in  the progress of    
,humanity we find the obligation more   
distinctly  acknowledged1 and more fully
 satisfied4 ,in ,positive religion it   
becomes  a fundamental duty1 for which  
each individual1 or even society1 when  
it  may be necessary1 will be held      
responsible4 ,as to the second          
principle1  it is one which has been    
already admitted by former systems2 and1
  in spite of the anarchy in which we   
live1 it has never been wholly          
discarded1 at least in countries which  
have been unaffected by the             
individualist tendencies of             
,protestantism4 ,positivism1 however1   
while  adopting the principle as        
indispensable to the theoretic functions
 of  ,humanity1 will employ it far more 
sparingly than ,catholicism1 the decay  
of which was very much hastened by its  
excessive wealth4 ,if temporal  and     
spiritual power are really to be        
separated1 philosophers should  have as 

little to do with wealth as with        
government4 ,resembling women  in their 
exclusion from political power1 their   
position as to wealth  should be like   
that of the working classes1 proper     
regard being had to  the requirements of
 their office4 ,by following this       
course1 they may be  confident that the 
purity of their opinions and advice will
 never be  called in question4    ,these
 two conditions then1 ,capitalists1 as  
the normal administrators of  the common
 fund of wealth1 will be expected to    
satisfy4 ,they must1 that  is1 so       
regulate the distribution of wages1 that
 women shall be released  from work2 and
 they must see that proper remuneration 
is given for  intellectual labour4 ,to  
exact the performance of these          
conditions seems  no easy task2 yet     
until they are satisfied1 the           
equilibrium of our  social economy will 
remain unstable4 ,the institution of    
property can be  maintained no longer   
upon the untenable ground of personal   

right4 ,its  present possessors may     
probably decline to accept these        
principles4  ,in that case their        
functions will pass in one way or       
another to  new organs1 until ,humanity 
finds servants who will not shirk their 
fundamental duties1 but who will        
recognize them as the first condition   
of their tenure of power4 ,that power1  
subject to these limitations1  will then
 be regarded with the highest respect1  
for all will feel  that the existence of
 ,humanity depends on it4 ,alike on     
intellectual  and on moral grounds1     
society will repudiate the envious      
passions  and subversive views which are
 aroused at present by the unfounded    
claims of property1 and by its          
repudiation1 since the ,middle ,ages1 of
  every real moral obligation4 ,rich men
 will feel that principles like  these1 
leaving as they do so large a margin of 
voluntary action to  the individual1 are
 the only method of escaping from the   
political  oppression with which they   

are now threatened4 ,the free           
concentration  of capital will then be  
readily accepted as necessary to its    
social  usefulness2 for great duties    
imply great powers4     ,normal relation
 of priests1   people1 and capitalists  
,this1 then1 is the way in which the    
priests of ,humanity may hope to        
regenerate the material power of wealth1
 and bring the nutritive  functions of  
society into harmony with the other     
parts of the body  politic4 ,the        
contests for which as yet there are but 
too many motives  will then cease2 the  
,people without loss of dignity will    
give free  play to their natural        
instincts of respect1 and will be as    
willing to  accept the authority of     
their political rulers as to place      
confidence  in their spiritual guides4  
,they will feel that true happiness has 
no  necessary connexion with wealth2    
that it depends far more on free  play  
being given to their intellectual1      
moral1 and social qualities2  and that  

in this respect they are more favourably
 situated than those  above them4 ,they 
will cease to aspire to the enjoyments  
of wealth and  power1 leaving them to   
those whose political activity requires 
that  strong stimulus4 ,each man's      
ambition will be to do his work well2   
and  after it is over1 to perform his   
more general function of assisting the  
spiritual power1 and of taking part in  
the formation of ,public ,opinion1  by  
giving his best judgment upon passing   
events4 ,of the limits to be  observed  
by the spiritual power the ,people will 
be well aware2 and  they will accept    
none which does not subordinate the     
intellect to the  heart1 and guarantee  
the purity of its doctrine by strict    
abstinence  from political power4 ,by an
 appeal to the principles of ,positive  
,polity1 they will at once check any    
foolish yielding on the part of         
philosophers to political ambition1 and 
will restore the temporal  power to its 
proper place4 ,they will be aware that  

though the general  principles of       
practical life rest upon ,science1 it is
 not for ,science  to direct their      
application4 ,the incapacity of         
theorists to apply their  theories      
practically has long been recognized in 
minor matters1 and it  will now be      
recognized as equally applicable to     
political questions4  ,the province of  
the philosopher is education2 and as the
 result of  education1 counsel3 the     
province of the capitalist is action and
  authoritative direction4 ,this is the 
only right distribution of power2  and  
the people will insist on maintaining it
 in its integrity1 seeing1  as they     
will1 that without it the harmonious    
existence of ,humanity is  impossible4  
,we are not yet ripe for   the normal   
state4 ,but the   revolution of #ahdh is
 a step   towards it    ,from this view 
of the practical side of the religion of
 ,humanity  taken in connexion with its 
intellectual and moral side1 we may     
form a general conception of the final  

reorganization of political             
institutions1 by which alone the great  
,revolution can be brought to  a close4 
,but the time for effecting this        
reconstruction has not yet  come4 ,there
 must be a previous reconstruction of   
opinions and habits  of life upon the   
basis laid down by ,positivism2 and for 
this at least  one generation is        
required4 ,in the interval all political
 measures must  retain their provisional
 character1 although in framing them the
 final  state is always to be taken into
 account4 ,as yet nothing can be said to
  have been established1 except the     
moral principle on which ,positivism    
rests1 the subordination of ,politics to
 ,morals4 ,for this is in fact          
implicitly involved in the proclamation 
of a ,republic in ,france2 a step  which
 cannot now be recalled1 and which      
implies that each citizen is to  devote 
all his faculties to the service of     
,humanity4 ,but with regard to  the     
social organization1 by which alone this

 principle can be carried  into effect1 
although its basis has been laid down by
 ,positivism1 it  has not yet received  
the sanction of the ,public4 ,it may be 
hoped1  however1 that the motto which ,i
 have put forward as descriptive of the 
new political philosophy1 ,order and    
,progress1 will soon be adopted         
spontaneously4     ,first revolutionary 
motto1   ,liberty and ,equality    ,in  
the first or negative phase of the      
,revolution1 all that was done  was     
utterly to repudiate the old political  
system4 ,no indication  whatever was    
given of the state of things which was  
to succeed  it4 ,the motto of the time1 
,liberty and ,equality1 is an exact     
representation of this state of things1 
the conditions expressed in  it being   
utterly contradictory1 and incompatible 
with organization of  any kind4 ,for    
obviously1 ,liberty gives free scope to 
superiority of  all kinds1 and          
especially to moral and mental          
superiority2 so that  if a uniform level

 of ,equality is insisted on1 freedom of
 growth is  checked4 ,yet inconsistent  
as the motto was1 it was admirably      
adapted  to the destructive temper of   
the time2 a time when hatred of the     
,past compensated the lack of insight   
into the ,future4 ,it had1 too1 a       
progressive tendency1 which partly      
neutralized its subversive spirit4  ,it 
inspired the first attempt to derive    
true principles of polity from  general 
views of history2 the memorable though  
unsuccessful essay of  my great         
predecessor ,condorcet#ac4 ,thus the    
first intimation of the  future         
influence of the historical spirit was  
given at the very time  when the        
anti-historical spirit had reached its  
climax4    ,the long period of reaction 
which succeeded the first crisis gave   
rise to no political motto of any       
importance4 ,it was a period for  which 
men of any vigour of thought and        
character could not but feel  secret    
repugnance4 ,it produced1 however1 a    

universal conviction that  the          
metaphysical policy of the              
revolutionists was of no avail for      
constructive purposes4 ,and it gave rise
 to the historical works of the         
,neo-,catholic school1 which prepared   
the way for ,positivism by giving  the  
first fair appreciation of the ,middle  
,ages4     ,second motto1 ,liberty and  
,order    ,but the ,counter-revolution1 
begun by ,robespierre1 carried to its   
full  length by ,bonaparte1 and         
continued by the ,bourbons1 came to an  
end in  the memorable outbreak of #ahcj4
 ,a neutral period of eighteen years    
followed1 and a new motto1 ,liberty and 
,public ,order1 was temporarily         
adopted4 ,this motto was very expressive
 of the political condition  of the     
time2 and the more so that it arose     
spontaneously1 without  ever receiving  
any formal sanction4 ,it expressed the  
general feeling  of the public1 who1    
feeling that the secret of the political
 future  was possessed by none of the   

existing parties1 contented itself with 
pointing out the two conditions         
essential as a preparation for it4  ,it 
was an improvement on the first motto1  
because it indicated more  clearly that 
the ultimate purpose of the revolution  
was construction4  ,it got rid of the   
anti-social notion of ,equality4 ,all   
the moral  advantages of ,equality      
without its political danger existed    
already in  the feeling of ,fraternity1 
which1 since the ,middle ,ages1 has     
become  sufficiently diffused in        
,western ,europe to need no special     
formula4  ,again1 this motto introduced 
empirically the great conception of     
,order2  understanding it of course in  
the limited sense of material order at  
home and abroad4 ,no deeper meaning was 
likely to be attached to the  word in a 
time of such mental and moral anarchy4  
,third motto1 ,order and   ,progress    
,but with the adoption of the           
,republican principle in #ahdhad1 the   
utility of this provisional motto       

ceased4 ,for the ,revolution now        
entered upon its ,positive phase2 which 
indeed1 for all philosophical  minds1   
had been already inaugurated by my      
discovery of the laws of  ,social       
,science4 ,but the fact of its having   
fallen into disuse is no  reason for    
going back to the old motto1 ,liberty   
and ,equality1 which1  since the crisis 
of #aghi1 has ceased to be appropriate4 
,in the utter  absence of social        
convictions1 it has obtained a sort of  
official  resuscitation2 but this will  
not prevent men of good sense and right 
feeling from adopting spontaneously the 
motto ,order and ,progress1 as  the     
principle of all political action for   
the future4 ,in the second  chapter ,i  
dwelt at some length upon this motto1   
and pointed out its  political and      
philosophical meaning4 ,i have now only 
to show its  connexion with the other   
mottoes of which we have been speaking1 
and  the probability of its adoption4   
,each of them1 like all combinations1   

whether in the moral or physical world1 
is composed of two elements2  and the   
last has one of its elements in common  
with the second1 as the  second has in  
common with the first4 ,moreover1       
,liberty1 the element  common to the two
 first1 is in reality contained in the  
third2 since  all ,progress implies     
,liberty4 ,but ,order is put foremost1  
because the  word is here intended to   
cover the whole field that properly     
belongs  to it4 ,it includes things     
private as well as public1 theoretical  
as  well as practical1 moral as well as 
political4 ,progress is put next1 as    
the end for which ,order exists1 and as 
the mode in which it should be          
manifested4 ,this conception1 for which 
the crisis of #aghi prepared the  way1  
will be our guiding principle throughout
 the constructive phase  of the ,western
 ,revolution4 ,the reconciliation of    
,order and ,progress1  which had        
hitherto been impossible1 is now an     
accepted fact for all  advanced minds4  

,for the public this is not yet the     
case2 but since the  close of the       
,counter-revolution in #ahcj1 all minds 
have been tending  unconsciously in this
 direction4 ,the tendency becomes still 
more  striking by contrast with an      
opposite movement1 the increasing       
identity  of principles between the     
reactionary and the anarchist schools4  
,provisional policy for the   period of 
transition    ,but even if we suppose   
accomplished what is yet only in        
prospect1  even if the fundamental      
principle of our future polity were     
accepted  and publicly ratified by the  
adoption of this motto1 yet permanent   
reconstruction of political institutions
 would still be premature4  ,before this
 can be attempted1 the spiritual        
interregnum must be  terminated4 ,for   
this object1 in which all hearts and    
minds1 especially  among the working    
classes and among women1 must unite     
their efforts  with those of the        
philosophic priesthood1 at least one    

generation  is required4 ,during this   
period governmental policy should be    
avowedly provisional2 its one object    
should be to maintain what is so        
essential to our state of transition1   
,order1 at home and abroad4 ,here1  too1
 ,positivism suffices for the task2 by  
explaining on historical  principles the
 stage that we have left1 and that at   
which we shall  ultimately arrive1 it   
enables us to understand the character  
of the  intermediate stage4     ,popular
 dictatorship with   freedom of speech  
,the solution of the problem consists in
 a new revolutionary government1        
adapted to the ,positive phase of the   
,revolution1 as the admirable           
institutions of the ,convention were to 
its negative phase4 ,the  principal     
features of such a government would be  
perfect freedom of  speech and          
discussion1 and at the same time        
political preponderance  of the central 
authority with proper guarantees for its
 purity4 ,to  secure perfect freedom of 

discussion1 various measures would be   
taken4  ,all penalties and fines which  
at present hamper its action would be   
abolished1 the only check left being the
 obligation of signature4  ,again1 all  
difficulties in the way of criticizing  
the private character  of public men1   
due to the disgraceful legislation of   
the psychologists1  would be removed4   
,lastly1 all official grants to         
theological and  metaphysical           
institutions would be discontinued2 for 
while these  remain1 freedom of         
instruction in the true sense cannot be 
said to  exist4 ,with such substantial  
guarantees there will be little fear of 
reactionary tendencies on the part of   
the executive2 and consequently  no     
danger in allowing it to take that      
ascendency over the electoral  body     
which1 in the present state of mental   
and moral anarchy1 is  absolutely       
necessary for the maintenance of        
material order4 ,on this  plan the      
,french assembly would be reduced to    

about two hundred members2  and its duty
 only would be to vote the budget       
proposed by the finance  committee of   
government1 and to audit the accounts of
 the past year4  ,all executive or      
legislative measures would come within  
the province  of the central power2 the 
only condition being that they should   
first  be submitted to free discussion1 
whether by journals1 public meetings1   
or individual thinkers1 though such     
discussion should not bind the          
government legally4 ,the progressive    
character of the government thus        
guaranteed1 we have next to see that the
 men who compose it shall be  such as   
are likely to carry out the provisional 
and purely practical  purpose with which
 it is instituted4 ,on ,positive        
principles1 it is to  the working       
classes that we should look for the only
 statesmen worthy  of succeeding to the 
statesmen of the ,convention4 ,three of 
such men  would be required for the     
central government4 ,they would combine 

the  functions of a ministry with those 
of monarchy1 one of them taking the     
direction of ,foreign affairs1 another  
of ,home affairs1 the third of          
,finance4 ,they would convoke and       
dissolve the electoral power on their   
own responsibility4 ,of this body the   
majority would in a short time1  without
 any law to that effect1 consist of the 
larger capitalists2 for  the office     
would be gratuitous1 and the duties     
would be of a kind for  which their     
ordinary avocations fitted them4        
,changes would occasionally  be         
necessary in the central government2 but
 since it would consist of  three       
persons1 its continuity might be        
maintained1 and the traditions  of the  
previous generation1 as well as the     
tendencies of the future1  and the      
position actually existing1 might all be
 represented4    ,such a government1    
though of course retaining some         
revolutionary  features1 would come as  
near to the normal state as is at       

present  practicable4 ,for its province 
would be entirely limited to material   
questions1 and the only anomaly of      
importance would be the fact of         
choosing rulers from the working        
classes4 ,normally1 this class is       
excluded from political administration1 
which falls ultimately into the  hands  
of capitalists4 ,but the anomaly is so  
obviously dependent simply  on the      
present condition of affairs1 and will  
be so restricted in its  application1   
that the working classes are not likely 
to be seriously  demoralized by it4 ,the
 primary object being to infuse morality
 into  practical life1 it is clear that 
working men1 whose minds and hearts  are
 peculiarly accessible to moral         
influence1 are for the present best     
qualified for political power4 ,no check
 meantime is placed on the  action of   
the capitalists2 and this provisional   
policy prepares the  way for their      
ultimate accession to power1 by         
convincing them of the  urgent need of  

private and public regeneration1 without
 which they  can never be worthy of it4 
,by this course1 too1 it becomes easier 
to  bring the consultative influence of 
a spiritual power to bear upon  modern  
government4 ,at first such influence can
 only be exercised  spontaneously2 but  
it will become more and more systematic 
with every  new step in the great       
philosophical renovation on which the   
final  reorganization of society is     
based4    ,the propriety of the         
provisional policy here recommended is  
further  illustrated by the wide scope  
of its application4 ,although suggested 
by the difficulties peculiar to the     
position of ,france1 it is equally      
adapted to other nations who are        
sufficiently advanced to take part  in  
the great revolutionary crisis4 ,thus   
the second phase of the  ,revolution is 
at once distinguished from the first1 by
 having an  ,occidental1 as opposed to a
 purely ,national1 character4 ,and the  
fact  of the executive government being 

composed of working men1 points  in the 
same direction2 since of all classes    
working men are the most  free from     
local prejudices1 and have the strongest
 tendencies1 both  intellectually and   
morally1 to universal union4 ,even      
should this form  of government be      
limited for some years to ,france1 it   
would be enough  to remodel the old     
system of diplomacy throughout the      
,west4    ,such are the advantages which
 the second revolutionary government    
will derive from the possession of      
systematic principles2 whereas the      
government of the ,convention was left  
to its empirical instincts1 and  had    
nothing but its progressive instincts to
 guide it4    ,a special report was     
published in #ahdh by the ,positivist   
,society#ae1  in which the subject of   
provisional government will be found    
discussed  in greater detail4           
,positive ,committee for   ,western     
,europe    ,quiet at home and peace     
abroad being secured1 we shall be able1 

notwithstanding the continuance of      
mental and moral anarchy1 to  proceed   
actively with the vast work of social   
regeneration1 with the  certainty of    
full liberty of thought and expression4 
,for this purpose  it will be desirable 
to institute the philosophical and      
political  association to which ,i      
alluded in the last volume of my        
,positive  ,philosophy 7published in    
#ahdb71 under the title of ,positive    
,occidental ,committee#af4 ,its sittings
 would usually be held in  ,paris1 and  
it would consist1 in the first place1 of
 eight ,frenchmen1  seven ,englishmen1  
six ,germans1 five ,italians1 and four  
,spaniards4 ,this  would be enough to   
represent fairly the principal divisions
 of each  population4 ,germany1 for     
instance1 might send a ,dutchman1 a     
,prussian1  a ,swede1 a ,dane1 a        
,bavarian1 and an ,austrian4 ,so1 too1  
the ,italian  members might come        
respectively from ,piedmont1 ,lombardy1 
,tuscany1  the ,roman ,states1 and the  

two ,sicilies4 ,again1 ,catalonia1      
,castille1  ,andalusia1 and ,portugal   
would adequately represent the ,spanish 
,peninsula4    ,thus we should have a   
sort of permanent ,council of the new   
,church4  ,each of the three elements of
 the moderating power should be admitted
  into it2 and it might also contain    
such members of the governing  class as 
were sufficiently regenerated to be of  
use in forwarding  the general movement4
 ,there should be practical men in this 
council  as well as philosophers4 ,here1
 as elsewhere1 it will be principally   
from the working classes that such      
practical co-operation will come2  but  
no support1 if given sincerely1 will be 
rejected1 even should it  emanate from  
the classes who are destined to         
extinction4 ,it is also  most important 
for the purposes of this ,council that  
the third element  of the moderating    
power1 women1 should be included in it1 
so as to  represent the fundamental     
principle of the preponderance of the   

heart  over the understanding4 ,six     
ladies should be chosen in addition to  
the thirty members above mentioned3 of  
these1 two would be ,french1  and one   
from each of the other nations4 ,besides
 their ordinary sphere  of influence1 it
 will be their special duty to          
disseminate ,positivism  among our      
,southern brethren4 ,it is an office    
that ,i had reserved for  my saintly    
colleague1 who1 but for her premature   
death1 would have  rendered eminent     
service in such a ,council4    ,while   
material order is maintained by national
 governments1 the  members of the       
,council1 as pioneers of the final order
 of society1  will be carrying on the   
,european movement1 and gradually       
terminating  the spiritual interregnum  
which is now the sole obstacle to social
  regeneration4 ,they will forward the  
development and diffusion of            
,positivism1 and make practical         
application of its principles1 in all   
ways that are honourably open to them4  

,instruction of all kinds1 oral  or     
written1 popular or philosophic1 will   
fall within their province2  but their  
chief aim will be to inaugurate the     
worship of ,humanity so  far as that is 
possible4 ,and already a beginning is   
possible1 so far  at least as the system
 of commemoration is concerned4         
,politically they  may give a direct    
proof of the international character of 
the ,positive  system1 by bringing      
forward several measures1 the utility of
 which has  long been recognized1 but   
which have been neglected for want of   
some  central authority placed beyond   
the reach of national rivalry4          
,occidental navy    ,one of the most    
important of such measures would be the 
establishment  of a ,western naval      
force1 with the twofold object of       
protecting the  seas1 and of assisting  
geographical and scientific discovery4  
,it should  be recruited and supported  
by all five branches of the ,occidental 
family1 and would thus be a good        

substitute for the admirable            
institution of maritime ,chivalry which 
fell with ,catholicism4 ,on its  flag   
the ,positivist motto would naturally be
 inscribed1 and thus would  be for the  
first time publicly recognized4         
,international coinage    ,another      
measure1 conceived in the same spirit1  
would soon follow1  one which has long  
been desired1 but which1 owing to the   
anarchy  prevalent throughout the ,west 
since the decline of ,catholicism1  has 
never yet been carried out4 ,a common   
monetary standard will be  established1 
with the consent of the various         
governments1 by which  industrial       
transactions will be greatly            
facilitated4 ,three spheres made        
respectively of gold1 silver1 and       
platinum1 and each weighing fifty       
grammes1 would differ sufficiently in   
value for the purpose4 ,the sphere      
should have a small flattened base1 and 
on the great circle parallel to  it the 
,positivist motto would be inscribed4   

,at the pole would be the  image of the 
immortal ,charlemagne1 the founder of   
the ,western ,republic1  and round the  
image his name would be engraved1 in its
 ,latin form1  ,carolus2 that name1     
respected as it is by all nations of    
,europe alike1  would be the common     
appellation of the universal monetary   
standard4     ,occidental school    ,the
 adoption of such measures would soon   
bring the ,positivist ,committee  into  
favour4 ,many others might be suggested1
 relating directly to  its fundamental  
purpose1 which need not be specially    
mentioned  here4 ,i will only suggest   
the foundation1 by voluntary effort1 of 
an ,occidental ,school1 to serve as the 
nucleus of a true philosophic  class4   
,the students would ultimately enter the
 ,positivist priesthood2  they would in 
most instances come from the working    
class1 without1  however1 excluding real
 talent from whatever quarter4 ,by their
 agency  the septennial course of       
,positive teaching might be introduced  

in all  places disposed to receive it4  
,they would besides supply voluntary    
missionaries1 who would preach the      
doctrine everywhere1 even outside  the  
limits of ,western ,europe1 according to
 the plan hereafter to be  explained4   
,the travels of ,positivist workmen in  
the ordinary duties of  their calling1  
would greatly facilitate this work4     
,a more detailed view of this           
provisional system of instruction will  
be  found in the second edition of the  
,report on the ,subject of a ,positive  
,school1 published by the ,positivist   
,society in #ahdiag4     ,flag for the  
,western   ,republic    ,there is       
another step which might be taken1      
relating not merely to the  period of   
transition1 but also to the normal      
state4 ,a flag suitable to  the ,western
 ,republic might be adopted1 which1 with
 slight alterations1  would also be the 
flag for each nation4 ,the want of such 
a symbol is  already instinctively felt4
 ,what is wanted is a substitute for the

 old  retrograde symbols1 which yet     
shall avoid all subversive tendencies4  
,it  would be a suitable inauguration of
 the period of transition which we  are 
now entering1 if the colours and mottoes
 appropriate to the final  state were   
adopted at its outset4    ,to speak     
first of the banner to be used in       
religious services4 ,it  should be      
painted on canvas4 ,on one side the     
ground would be white2 on  it would be  
the symbol of ,humanity1 personified by 
a woman of thirty  years of age1 bearing
 her son in her arms4 ,the other side   
would bear  the religious formula of    
,positivists3 ,love is our ,principle1  
,order is  our ,basis1 ,progress our    
,end1 upon a ground of green1 the colour
 of  hope1 and therefore most suitable  
for emblems of the future4    ,green1   
too1 would be the colour of the         
political flag1 common to the  whole    
,west4 ,as it is intended to float      
freely1 it does not admit of  painting2 
but the carved image of ,humanity might 

be placed at the  banner-pole4 ,the     
principal motto of ,positivism will1 in 
this case1 be  divided into two1 both   
alike significant4 ,one side of the flag
 will  have the political and scientific
 motto1 ,order and ,progress3 the       
other1 the moral and esthetic motto1    
,live for ,others4 ,the first will  be  
preferred by men2 the other is more     
especially adapted to women1  who are   
thus invited to participate in these    
public manifestations of  social        
feeling4    ,this point settled1 the    
question of the various national flags  
becomes  easy4 ,in these the centre     
might be green1 and the national colours
  might be displayed on the border4     
,thus1 in ,france1 where the innovation 
will be first introduced1 the border    
would be tricolour1 with the  present   
arrangement of colours1 except that more
 space should be given  to the white1 in
 honour of our old royal flag4 ,in this 
way uniformity  would be combined with  
variety2 and1 moreover1 it would be     

shown that  the new feeling of          
,occidentality is perfectly compatible  
with respect  for the smallest          
nationalities4 ,each would retain the   
old signs in  combination with the      
common symbol4 ,the same principle would
 apply to  all emblems of minor         
importance4    ,the question of these   
symbols1 of which ,i have spoken during 
the  last two years in my weekly courses
 of lectures1 illustrates the  most     
immediate of the functions to which the 
,positive ,committee will  be called4 ,i
 mention it here1 as a type of its      
general action upon  ,european society4 
,without setting any limits to the      
gradual increase of the ,association1   
it is desirable that the central nucleus
 should always remain limited  to the   
original number of thirty-six1 with two 
additions1 which will  shortly be       
mentioned4 ,each member might institute 
a more numerous  association in his own 
country1 and this again might be the    
parent of  others4 ,associations thus   

affiliated may be developed to an       
unlimited  extent2 and thus we shall be 
able to maintain the unity and          
homogeneity  of the ,positive ,church1  
without impairing its coherence and     
vigour4 ,as  soon as ,positivism has    
gained in every country a sufficient    
number of  voluntary adherents to       
constitute the preponderating section of
 the  community1 the regeneration of    
society is secured4    ,the numbers     
assigned above for the different        
nations1 only represent  the order in   
which the advanced minds in each will   
co-operate in the  movement4 ,the order 
in which the great body of each nation  
will join  it1 will be1 as far as we can
 judge from their antecedents1 somewhat 
different4 ,the difference is1 that     
,italy here takes the second place1  and
 ,spain the third1 while ,england       
descends to the last4 ,the grounds  for 
this important modification are         
indicated in the third edition of  my   
,positive ,calendar4 ,they will be      

discussed in detail in the fourth       
volume of this ,treatise#ah4            
,colonial and foreign   ,associates of  
the ,committee1   the action of which   
will   ultimately extend to the   whole 
human race    ,from ,europe the movement
 will spread ultimately to the whole    
race4 ,but  the first step in its       
progress will naturally be to the       
inhabitants of  our colonies1 who1      
though politically independent of       
,western ,europe1  still retain their   
filiation with it4 ,twelve colonial     
members may be  added to the ,council2  
four for each ,american ,continent1 two 
for ,india1  two for the ,dutch and     
,spanish possessions in the ,indian     
,ocean4    ,this gives us forty-eight   
members4 ,to these twelve foreign       
associates  will gradually be added1 to 
represent the populations whose growth  
has been retarded2 and then the ,council
 will have received its full            
complement4 ,for every nation of the    
world is destined for the same  ultimate

 conditions of social regeneration as   
ourselves1 the only  difference being   
that ,western ,europe1 under the        
leadership of ,france1  takes the       
initiative4 ,it is of great importance  
not to attempt this  final extension too
 soon1 an error which would impair the  
precision  and vigour of the renovating 
movement4 ,at the same time it must     
never  be forgotten that the existence  
of the ,great ,being remains incomplete 
until all its members are brought into  
harmonious co-operation4  ,in ancient   
times social sympathy was restricted to 
the idea of  ,nationality2 between this 
and the final conception of ,humanity1  
the  ,middle ,ages introduced the       
intermediate conception of ,christendom1
  or ,occidentality2 the real bearing of
 which is at present but little         
appreciated4 ,it will be our first      
political duty to revive that           
conception1 and place it on a firmer    
basis1 by terminating the anarchy       
consequent on the extinction of         

,catholic ,feudalism4 ,while occupied in
  this task1 we shall become impressed  
with the conviction that the union  of  
,western ,europe is but a preliminary   
step to the union of ,humanity2  an     
instinctive presentiment of which has   
existed from the infancy  of our race1  
but which as long as theological belief 
and military  life were predominant1    
could never be carried out even in      
thought4  ,the primary laws of human    
development which form the philosophical
  basis of the ,positive system1 apply  
necessarily to all climates and  races  
whatsoever1 the only difference being in
 the rapidity with  which evolution     
takes place4 ,the inferiority of other  
nations in this  respect is not         
inexplicable2 and it will now be        
compensated by a growth  of greater     
regularity than ours1 and less          
interrupted by shocks and  oscillations4
 ,obviously in our case systematic      
guidance was impossible1  since it is   
only now that our growth is complete    

that we can learn  the general laws     
common to it and to other cases4 ,wise  
and generous  intervention of the ,west 
on behalf of our sister nations who are 
less  advanced1 will form a noble field 
for ,social ,art1 when based on sound   
scientific principles4 ,relative without
 being arbitrary1 zealous and  yet      
always temperate2 such should be the    
spirit of this intervention2  and thus  
conducted1 it will form a system of     
moral and political  action far nobler  
than the proselytism of theology or the 
extension  of military empire4 ,the time
 will come when it will engross the     
whole  attention of the ,positive       
,council2 but for the present it must   
remain  secondary to other subjects of  
greater urgency4    ,the first to join  
the ,western movement will necessarily  
be the  remaining portion of the ,white 
race3 which in all its branches is      
superior to the other two races4 ,there 
are two ,monotheist nations1  and one   
,polytheist1 which will be successively 

incorporated4 ,taken  together1 the     
three represent the propagation of      
,positivism in the ,east4    ,the vast  
population of the ,russian empire was   
left outside the pale  of ,catholic     
,feudalism4 ,by virtue of its           
,christianity1 however1  notwithstanding
 its entire confusion of temporal and   
spiritual power1  it holds the first    
place among the ,monotheistic nations of
 the ,east4  ,its initiation into the   
,western movement will be conducted by  
two  nations of intermediate position2  
,greece1 connected with ,russia by  the 
tie of religion2 and ,poland1 united    
with her politically4 ,though  neither  
of these nations is homogeneous in      
structure with ,russia1 it  would cause 
serious delay in the propagation of     
,positivism should the  connexion be    
altogether terminated4    ,the next step
 will be to ,mohammedan ,monotheism2    
first in ,turkey1  afterwards in        
,persia4 ,here ,positivism will find    
points of sympathy  of which            

,catholicism could not admit4 ,indeed   
these are already  perceptible4 ,arab   
civilization transmitted ,greek science 
to us3 and  this will always secure for 
it an honourable place among the        
essential  elements of the mediaeval    
system1 regarded as a preparation for   
,positivism4    ,lastly1 we come to the 
,polytheists of ,india2 and with them   
the  incorporation of the ,white race   
will be complete4 ,already we see some  
spontaneous tendencies in this          
direction4 ,although from exceptional   
causes ,theocracy has been preserved in 
,india1 there exist real points  of     
contact with ,positivism2 and in this   
respect the assistance of  ,persia will 
be of service4 ,it is the peculiar      
privilege of the ,positive  doctrine    
that1 taking so complete a view of human
 development1 it is  always able to     
appreciate the most ancient forms of    
social life at  their true worth4    ,in
 these three stages of ,positivist      
propagation1 the ,council will  have    

elected the first half of its foreign   
associates2 admitting  successively a   
,greek1 a ,russian1 an ,egyptian1 a     
,turk1 a ,persian and  finally1 a       
,hindoo4    ,the ,yellow race has       
adhered firmly to ,polytheism4 ,but it  
has been  considerably modified in all  
its branches by ,monotheism1 either in  
the  ,christian or ,mohammedan form4 ,to
 some extent1 therefore1 it is prepared 
for further change2 and a sufficient    
number of adherents may soon be         
obtained for ,tartary1 ,china1 ,japan1  
and ,malacca to be represented in  the  
,council4    ,with one last edition the 
organization of the ,council is         
complete4 ,the  black race has yet to be
 included4 ,it should send two          
representatives2  one from ,hayti1 which
 had the energy to shake off the        
iniquitous  yoke of slavery1 and the    
other from central ,africa1 which has   
never  yet been subjected to ,european  
influence4 ,european pride has looked   
with contempt on these ,african tribes1 

and imagines them destined to  hopeless 
stagnation4 ,but the very fact of their 
having been left to  themselves renders 
them better disposed to receive         
,positivism1 the  first system in which 
their ,fetichistic faith has been       
appreciated1 as  the origin from which  
the historic evolution of society has   
proceeded4    ,it is probable that the  
,council will have reached its limit of 
sixty  members1 before the spiritual    
interregnum in the central region of    
,humanity has been terminated4 ,but even
 if political reconstruction were  to   
proceed so rapidly in ,europe as to     
render all possible assistance  to this 
vast movement1 it is hardly conceivable 
that the five stages  of which it       
consists can be thoroughly effected     
within a period of two  centuries4 ,but 
however this may be1 the action of the  
,council will  become increasingly      
valuable1 not only for its direct       
influence on the  less advanced nations1
 but also and more especially1 because  

the proofs  it will furnish of the      
universality of the new religion will   
strengthen  its adherents in the        
,western family4     ,conclusion4       
,perfection of   the ,positivist ideal  
,but the time when ,positivism can be   
brought into direct contact with  these 
preliminary phases is far distant1 and  
we need not wait for it4  ,the features 
of the system stand out already with    
sufficient clearness  to enable us to   
begin at once the work of mental and    
social renovation  for which our        
revolutionary predecessors so           
energetically prepared  the way4 ,they  
however were blinded to the ,future by  
their hatred of  the ,past4 ,with us1 on
 the contrary1 social sympathy rests    
upon the  historical spirit1 and at the 
same time strengthens it4 ,solidarity   
with  our contemporaries is not enough  
for us1 unless we combine it with the   
sense of ,continuity with former times2 
and while we press on toward  the       
,future1 we lean upon the ,past1 every  

phase of which our religion  holds in   
honour4 ,so far from the energy of our  
progressive movement  being hampered by 
such feelings1 it is only by doing full 
justice to  the ,past1 as no system but 
ours can do consistently1 that we can   
obtain  perfect emancipation of thought2
 because we are thus saved from the     
necessity of making the slightest actual
 concession to systems which  we regard 
as obsolete4 ,understanding their nature
 and their purpose  better than the     
sectaries who still empirically adhere  
to them1 we can  see that each was in   
its time necessary as a preparatory step
 towards  the final system1 in which all
 their partial and imperfect services   
will be combined4    ,comparing it      
especially with the last synthesis by   
which the ,western  family of nations   
has been directed1 it is clear even from
 the  indications given in this         
prefatory work1 that the new synthesis  
is  more real1 more comprehensive1 and  
more stable4 ,all that we find to       

admire in the mediaeval system is       
developed and matured in ,positivism4   
,it is the only system which can induce 
the intellect to accept its due         
position of subordination to the heart4 
,we recognize the piety and  chivalry of
 our ancestors1 who made a noble        
application of the best  doctrine that  
was possible in their time4 ,we believe 
that were they  living now1 they would  
be found in our ranks4 ,they would      
acknowledge  the decay of their         
provisional phase of thought1 and would 
see that in  its present degenerate     
state it is only a symbol of reaction1  
and a  source of discord4    ,and now   
that the doctrine has been shown to rest
 on a central  principle1 a principle   
which appeals alike to instinct and to  
reason1 we may carry our comparison a   
step further1 and convince all          
clear-seeing and honest minds that it is
 as superior to former systems  in its  
influence over the emotions and the     
imagination1 as it is from  the         

practical and intellectual aspect4      
,under it1 ,life1 whether private  or   
public1 becomes in a still higher sense 
than under ,polytheism1 a  continuous   
act of worship performed under the      
inspiration of universal  ,love4 ,all   
our thoughts1 feelings1 and actions flow
 spontaneously to a  common centre in   
,humanity1 our ,supreme ,being2 a ,being
 who is real1  accessible1 and          
sympathetic1 because she is of the same 
nature as  her worshippers1 though far  
superior to any one of them4 ,the very  
conception of ,humanity is a            
condensation of the whole mental and    
social  history of man4 ,for it implies 
the irrevocable extinction of theology  
and of war2 both of which are           
incompatible with uniformity of belief  
and with co-operation of all the        
energies of the race4 ,the spontaneous  
morality of the emotions is restored to 
its due place2 and ,philosophy1         
,poetry1 and ,polity are thereby        
regenerated4 ,each is placed in its due 

relation to the others1 and is          
consecrated to the study1 the praise1   
and the service of ,humanity1 the most  
relative and the most perfectible  of   
all beings4 ,science passes from the    
analytic to the synthetic  state1 being 
entrusted with the high mission of      
founding an objective  basis for man's  
action on the laws of the external world
 and of man's  nature2 a basis which is 
indispensable to control the oscillation
 of  our opinions1 the versatility of   
our feelings1 and the instability of    
our purposes4 ,poetry assumes at last   
its true social function1 and will      
henceforth be preferred to all other    
studies4 ,by idealizing ,humanity  under
 every aspect1 it enables us to give fit
 expression to the  gratitude we owe to 
her1 both publicly and as individuals2  
and thus it  becomes a source of the    
highest spiritual benefit4    ,but      
amidst the pleasures that spring from   
the study and the praise of  ,humanity1 
it must be remembered that ,positivism  

is characterized always  by reality and 
utility1 and admits of no degeneration  
into asceticism  or quietism4 ,the ,love
 by which it is inspired is no passive  
principle2  while stimulating ,reason   
and ,imagination1 it does so only to    
give a  higher direction to our         
practical activity4 ,it was in practical
 life  that the ,positive spirit first  
arose1 extending thence to the sphere   
of thought1 and ultimately to the moral 
sphere4 ,the grand object of  human     
existence is the constant improvement of
 the natural ,order  that surrounds us3 
of our material condition first2        
subsequently of  our physical1          
intellectual1 and moral nature4 ,and the
 highest of  these objects is moral     
progress1 whether in the individual1 in 
the  family1 or in society4 ,it is on   
this that human happiness1 whether  in  
private or public life1 principally     
depends4 ,political art1 then1  when    
subordinated to morality1 becomes the   
most essential of all arts4  ,it        

consists in concentration of all human  
effort upon the service  of ,humanity in
 accordance with the natural laws which 
regulate her  existence4    ,the great  
merit of ancient systems of polity1 of  
the ,roman system  especially1 was that 
precedence was always given to public   
interests4  ,every citizen co-operated  
in the manner and degree suited to those
  early times4 ,but there were no means 
of providing proper regulation  for     
domestic life4 ,in the ,middle ,ages1   
when ,catholicism attempted to  form a  
complete system of morality1 private    
life was made the principal  object4    
,all our affections were subjected to a 
most beneficial course  of discipline1  
in which the inmost springs of vice and 
virtue were  reached4 ,but owing to the 
inadequacy of the doctrines on which the
  system rested1 the solution of the    
problem was incoherent4 ,the method  by 
which ,catholicism controlled the       
selfish propensities was one which      
turned men away from public life1 and   

concentrated them on interests  which   
were at once chimerical and personal4   
,the immediate value of this  great     
effort was1 that it brought about for   
the first time a separation  between    
moral and political power1 which in the 
systems of antiquity  had always been   
confounded4 ,but the separation was due 
rather to the  force of circumstances   
than to any conscious efforts2 and it   
could not  be fully carried out1 because
 it was incompatible with the spirit of 
the ,catholic doctrine and with the     
military character of society4 ,woman   
sympathized with ,catholicism1 but the  
people never supported it with          
enthusiasm1 and it soon sank under the  
encroachments of the temporal  power1   
and the degeneracy of the priesthood4   
,positivism is the only system which can
 renew this premature effort and  bring 
it to a satisfactory issue4 ,combining  
the spirit of antiquity  with that of   
,catholic ,feudalism1 it proposes to    
carry out the political  programme put  

forward by the ,convention4    ,positive
 religion brings before us in a definite
 shape the noblest of  human problems1  
the permanent preponderance of ,social  
feeling over  ,self-love4 ,as far as the
 exceeding imperfection of our nature   
enables  us to solve it1 it would be    
solved by calling our home affections   
into  continuous action2 affections     
which stand half-way between self-love  
and universal sympathy4 ,in order to    
consolidate and develop this  solution1 
,positivism lays down the philosophical 
and social principle  of separation of  
theoretical from practical power4       
,theoretical power is  consultative2 it 
directs education1 and supplies general 
principles4  ,practical power directs   
action by special and imperative rules4 
,all  the elements of society that are  
excluded from political government      
become guarantees for the preservation  
of this arrangement4 ,the  priests of   
,humanity1 who are the systematic organs
 of the moderating  power1 will always  

find themselves supported1 in their     
attempts to  modify the governing power1
 by women and by the people4 ,but to be 
so  supported1 they must be men who1 in 
addition to the intellectual power      
necessary for their mission1 have the   
moral qualities which are yet  more     
necessary2 who combine1 that is1 the    
tenderness of women with the  energy of 
the people4 ,the first guarantee for the
 possession of such  qualities is the   
sacrifice of political authority and    
even of wealth4  ,then we may at least  
hope to see the new religion taking the 
place  of the old1 because it will      
fulfil in a more perfect way the mental 
and social purposes for which the old   
religion existed4 ,monotheism  will     
lapse like ,polytheism and ,fetichism1  
into the domain of history2  and will1  
like them1 be incorporated into the     
system of universal  commemoration1 in  
which ,humanity will render due homage  
to all her  predecessors4               
,corruption of ,monotheism    ,it is    

not1 then1 merely on the ground of      
speculative truth that  ,positivists    
would urge all those who are still      
halting between two  opinions1 to choose
 between the absolute and the relative1 
between  the fruitless search for       
,causes and the solid study of ,laws1   
between  submission to arbitrary ,wills 
and submission to demonstrable          
,necessities4 ,it is for ,feeling still 
more than for ,reason to make the       
decision2 for upon it depends the       
establishment of a higher form of       
social life4    ,monotheism in ,western 
,europe is now as obsolete and as       
injurious as  ,polytheism was fifteen   
centuries ago4 ,the discipline in which 
its moral  value principally consisted  
has long since decayed2 and consequently
  the sole effect of its doctrine1 which
 has been so extravagantly  praised1 is 
to degrade the affections by unlimited  
desires1 and to  weaken the character by
 servile terrors4 ,it supplied no field 
for the  ,imagination1 and forced it    

back upon ,polytheism and ,fetichism1   
which1  under ,theology1 form the only  
possible foundation for poetry4 ,the    
pursuits of practical life were never   
sincerely promoted by it1 and  they     
advanced only by evading or resisting   
its influence4 ,the noblest  of all     
practical pursuits1 that of social      
regeneration1 is at the  present time in
 direct opposition to it4 ,for by its   
vague notion of  ,providence1 it        
prevents men from forming a true        
conception of ,law1 a  conception       
necessary for true prevision1 on which  
all wise intervention  must be based4   
,sincere believers in ,christianity will
 soon cease to interfere with the       
management of a world1 where they       
profess themselves to be pilgrims and   
strangers4 ,the new ,supreme ,being is  
no less jealous than the old1 and  will 
not accept the servants of two masters4 
,but the truth is1 that the  more       
zealous theological partisans1 whether  
royalists1 or aristocrats1  or          

democrats1 have now for a long time been
 insincere4 ,god to them  is but the    
nominal chief of a hypocritical         
conspiracy1 a conspiracy  which is even 
more contemptible than it is odious4    
,their object is to  keep the people    
from all great social improvements by   
assuring them  that they will find      
compensation for their miseries in an   
imaginary  future life4 ,the doctrine is
 already falling into discredit among   
the  working classes everywhere         
throughout the ,west1 especially in     
,paris4  ,all theological tendencies1   
whether ,catholic1 ,protestant1 or      
,deist1  really serve to prolong and    
aggravate our moral anarchy1 because    
they  hinder the diffusion of that      
social sympathy and breadth of view1    
without which we can never attain fixity
 of principle and regularity  of life4  
,every subversive scheme now afloat has 
either originated in  ,monotheism or has
 received its sanction4 ,even           
,catholicism has lost its  power of     

controlling revolutionary extravagance  
in some of its own most  distinguished  
members4    ,it is for the sake of      
,order therefore1 even more than of     
,progress1  that we call on all those   
who desire to rise above their present  
disastrous state of oscillation in      
feeling and opinion1 to make a  distinct
 choice between ,positivism and         
,theology4 ,for there are now but  two  
camps3 the camp of reaction and anarchy1
 which acknowledges more  or less       
distinctly the direction of ,god3 the   
camp of construction and  progress1     
which is wholly devoted to ,humanity4   
,the ,being upon whom all our thoughts  
are concentrated is one whose  existence
 is undoubted4 ,we recognize that       
existence not in the ,present  only1 but
 in the ,past1 and even in the ,future3 
and we find it always  subject to one   
fundamental ,law1 by which we are       
enabled to conceive  of it as a whole4  
,placing our highest happiness in       
universal ,love1 we  live1 as far as it 

is possible1 for others2 and this in    
public life  as well as in private2 for 
the two are closely linked together in  
our  religion2 a religion clothed in all
 the beauty of ,art1 and yet never      
inconsistent with ,science4 ,after      
having thus exercised our powers to  the
 full1 and having given a charm and     
sacredness to our temporary  life1 we   
shall at last be for ever incorporated  
into the ,supreme ,being1  of whose life
 all noble natures are necessarily      
partakers4 ,it is only  through the     
workers of ,humanity that we can feel   
the inward reality and  inexpressible   
sweetness of this incorporation4 ,it is 
unknown to those  who being still       
involved in theological belief1 have not
 been able to  form a clear conception  
of the ,future1 and have never          
experienced the  feeling of pure        
self-sacrifice4          ,,the ,,end    
,butler  ,tanner1 ,the ,selwood         
,printing ,works1 ,frome1 and ,london4  
,,footnotes      #a ,the establishment  

of this great principle is the most     
important  result of my ,system of      
,positive ,philosophy4 ,this work was   
published  #ahcj-ahdb1 with the title of
 ,course of ,positive ,philosophy1      
because  it was based upon a course of  
lectures delivered #ahbf-ahbi4 ,but     
since  that time ,i have always given it
 the more appropriate name of ,system4  
,should the work reach a second edition1
 the correction will be made  formally3 
meanwhile1 this will1 ,i hope1 remove   
all misconception on the  subject4    #b
 ,comte afterwards added a seventh      
science1 ,ethics1 7see vol4 ii of       
,system of ,positive ,polity74    #c    
,see ,cabanis1 ,rapports du physique et 
du moral de l'homme1 ,ve  memoire1 where
 he speaks of #8les restes de l'esprit  
de chevalerie1  fruit ridicule de       
l'odieuse fodalit4'    #d               
,philosophy--the love of wisdom4    #e  
,written in #ahdh4    #f ,on            
reconsideration1 ,comte saw fit to      
withdraw this proposal4 ,see  ,positive 

,polity1 vol4 iv1 ch4 #e1 p4 #cea4    #g
 ,clotilde de ,vaux1 see ,testament     
d',auguste ,comte1 p4 #eej4    #h ,this 
law was introduced by ,royer-,collard4  
,it forbids discussion of  the private  
affairs of public men4    #i ,testament 
d',auguste ,comte1 p4 #eef4    #aj ,this
 story ,lucie is republished in ,vol4 i 
of ,system of  ,positive ,polity4    #aa
 ,toute la suite des hommes1 pendant le 
cours de tant de sicles1  doit tre      
considre comme un mme homme qui subsiste
 toujours et qui  apprend               
continuellement4--,pascal1 ,penses1     
,part ,i1 ,art4 ,i4 ,the whole          
succession of men during the course of  
so many centuries should be  considered 
as one ,man ever living and constantly  
learning4    #ab ,see ,the ,positivist  
,calendar1 edited by ,h4 ,g4 ,jones 7,w4
 ,reeves1  #aije74    #ac ,tableau      
,historique des progrs de l',esprit     
,humain1 ,paris1 #aijj4    #ad ,the     
,republic of #ahdh4    #ae ,this report 
was republished in ,revue ,occidentale1 

,july #ahhi2  see also an article and a 
document published by ,m4 ,pierre       
,laffitte in  the same review in        
,january1 #ahij4    #af ,this committee 
was formed in #aijc4    #ag ,this report
 was republished in ,revue ,occidentale1
 ,september1  #ahhe4    #ah ,the        
relative position here assigned to      
,england and ,germany is  reversed in   
the fourth volume of the ,politique     
,positive4          ,transcriber's      
,notes      ,punctuation1 hyphenation1  
and spelling were made consistent when a
  predominant preference was found in   
this book2 otherwise they were not      
changed4    ,simple typographical errors
 were corrected2 occasional unbalanced  
quotation marks retained4    ,ambiguous 
hyphens at the ends of lines were       
retained4    ,page #cbj3 8the creative  
process0 was misprinted as 8the creature
  process02 changed here4    ,page #cii3
 8one of its principal features0 was    
misprinted as  8principle02 changed     
here4