,,secrets ,,of ,,earth ,,and ,,sea      
,illustration3 ,,dimetrodon ,,gigas1    
,,an ,,extinct ,,lizard1 ,,seven ,,feet 
,,long            ,,secrets ,,of ,,earth
    ,,and ,,sea      ,,by      ,,sir    
,,ray ,,lankester    ,k4,c4,b41         
,f4,r4,s4      ,,with ,,numerous        
,,illustrations        ,,new ,,york     
,,the ,,macmillan ,,company    #aibj    
,,preface      ,the present volume is1  
like its predecessors1 ,science from an 
,easy  ,chair 7,series ,i and ,series   
,,ii7 and ,diversions of a              
,naturalist--mainly  a revision and     
reprint-with considerable additions-of  
articles  published in daily or weekly  
journals4 ,the first chapter appeared   
originally in ,the ,field4 ,the         
,chapters ,,vi1 ,,xx1 ,,xxi1 and ,,xxii 
were  published in the ,illustrated     
,london ,news1 under the title ,about a 
,number of ,things4 ,the rest are some  
of the articles which1 as ,science  from
 an ,easy ,chair1 ,i contributed1 during
 seven years1 to the ,daily  ,telegraph4

 ,that1 to me very happy1 conjunction   
was1 like so many other  happy things1  
necessarily interrupted by the ,great   
,war4    ,one result of that terrible   
cataclysm is that not a few thoughtful  
writers have been led to deny the       
existence of what they call  ,progress1 
meaning by that word the development of 
mankind from a  less to a more complete 
attainment of moral and physical        
well-being4  ,the question raised is    
obscured by the arbitrary use of the    
word  progress1 since by it any movement
 from point to point-whether            
advantageous and desirable or the       
reverse-is described1 as1 for  instance1
 in the familiar titles given by ,bunyan
 to his book ,the  ,pilgrim's ,progress 
and by ,hogarth to his pictures ,the    
,rake's  ,progress4 ,those who to-day   
despair of man's future limit their     
outlook on the past to the conventional 
history of some three or four  thousand 
years4 ,the only solid ground upon which
 we can base the  supposition that      

mankind has moved from a less to a more 
complete  attainment of moral and       
physical well-being and will continue to
 do so1  exists in the ascertained facts
 of the past history of living things   
on this ,earth1 and of man since his    
earliest emergence from among the       
man-like apes made known to us by his   
stone-implements and fossilized  bones4 
,that there has been a development from 
lower1 simpler structure  to higher1    
more complex1 more efficient structure  
is demonstrable1  and so is the         
proposition that there has been in the  
human race a  continuous development in 
the direction of increased adaptation to
 the  conditions of social life and an  
increased control by man of those       
natural agencies which he can either    
favour when conducive to his            
prosperity1 or on the other hand can    
arrest when inimical to it4 ,the        
continuous weakening of selfishness and 
the continuous strengthening  of        
sympathy 7to adopt the words of the     

,american philosopher1 ,fiske7  are1 in 
spite of numerous lapses and outbursts  
of savagery1 patent  features of the    
long history of mankind4 ,we have no    
reason to doubt  their continuation1    
whilst at the same time we must be      
prepared for  and accept1 without       
desponding1 the ups and the downs1 the  
disasters  as well as the triumphs1     
which inevitably characterize the       
natural  process of evolution4 ,one     
thing1 above all others1 we as          
conscious1  reasoning beings can do     
which must tend to the further          
development and  security of human      
well-being3 we can ascertain ever more  
and more of  the truth1 or in other     
words1 that which is4 ,we can discover  
the  actual conditions of natural law1  
under which we exist and promote the    
knowledge of that truth among our       
fellows4 ,to do that which is right1  we
 must know that which is true4 ,to act  
rightly1 we must know truly4    ,we     
possess1 a vast heritage of knowledge   

handed on to us in tradition  and in    
writings from our father-man in the     
past4 ,but there are yet  immense fields
 of knowledge to be explored and yet a  
greater task to  be accomplished in     
spreading the knowledge which we        
possess1 and in  persuading all men that
 it is their right and their duty to    
acquire it  and to enjoy the power and  
the pleasure which it gives4 ,all must  
also  help1 directly or indirectly1 in  
the making of new knowledge4 ,whilst    
mankind is still so backward in         
knowledge and the worship of wisdom1 it 
is idle to indulge in despair of the    
future4 ,a chief way to increased       
welfare is still open and untrodden4    
,these are big speculations and problems
 with which to preface a small  book4   
,but ,i am content to offer the small   
book as a contribution1  however        
restricted1 to the spread of a desire   
for further knowledge of  the things    
about which it tells-a possible         
incitement to serious study  of some one

 or other among them4                   
,e4 ,,ray ,,lankester      ,june #bnd1  
#aibj          ,,contents        ,,chap4
                                        
,,page          ,i4 ,,the ,,earliest    
,,picture ,,in ,,the ,,world            
#a         ,,ii4 ,,portraits ,,of       
,,mammoths ,,by ,,men ,,who ,,saw ,,them
                   #bf        ,,iii4    
,,the ,,art ,,of ,,prehistoric ,,men    
#ce         ,,iv4 ,,vesuvius ,,in       
,,eruption                              
#ee          ,v4 ,,blue ,,water         
#gd         ,,vi4 ,,the ,,biggest       
,,beast                                 
#hd        ,,vii4 ,,what ,,is ,,meant   
,,by ,a ,,species8                      
#ib       ,,viii4 ,,more ,,about        
,,species                               
#ajj         ,,ix4 ,,species ,,in ,,the 
,,making                                
#ajh          ,x4 ,,some ,,specific     
,,characters                            
#aah         ,,xi4 ,,hybrids            
#aca        ,,xii4 ,,the                

,,cross-,,breeding ,,of ,,races         
#aci       ,,xiii4 ,,wheel ,,animalcules
                                        
#aeg        ,,xiv4 ,,more ,,about       
,,wheel ,,animalcules                   
#afe         ,,xv4 ,,suspended          
,,animation                             
#agc        ,,xvi4 ,,more ,,about       
,,suspended ,,animation                 
#ahb       ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,swastika     
#aia      ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of  
,,the ,,swastika                        
#bjj        ,,xix4 ,,the ,,tomoye ,,and 
,,the ,,swastika                        
#bji         ,,xx4 ,,coal               
#bag        ,,xxi4 ,,boring ,,for ,,oil 
#bbc       ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,story ,,of   
,,lime-,,juice ,,and ,,scurvy           
#bbi             ,,index                
#bci          ,,explanation ,,of ,,the  
,,frontispiece      ,this plate shows   
the restoration of the extinct lizard1  
,dimetrodon  gigas 7,cope71 lately made 
by ,mr4 ,charles ,w4 ,gilmore of the    
,united  ,states ,national ,museum1 by  

whose kind permission it is here        
reproduced  from the ,proceedings of the
 ,u4,s4 ,national ,museum1 vol4 #ef1    
#aiai4 ,it is  based upon the study of a
 very fine skeleton and some hundred    
bones of  allied species1 collected by  
,mr4 ,sternberg from the ,permian       
formation  exposed in the vicinity of   
,seymour1 ,texas1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,it is      
selected for  illustration here because 
its most striking feature-the high      
dorsal  fin-like crest along the middle 
of the back formed by the elongation  of
 the neural spines of the vertebr-is a  
puzzle to the conscientious  ,darwinian4
 ,professor ,case says of it3 ,the      
elongate spines were  useless1 so far as
 ,i can imagine1 and ,i have been       
puzzling over them  for several years4  
,it is impossible to conceive of them as
 useful  either for defence or          
concealment1 or in any other way than as
 a great  burden to the creatures       
7terrestrial non-aquatic animals7 that  
bore  them4 ,they must have been a      

nuisance in getting through the         
vegetation1  and a great drain upon the 
creature's vitality1 both to develop    
them  and keep them in repair4 ,the     
reader is referred to pp4 #abg1 #abh1   
where a brief discussion of such        
exuberant growths will be found4 ,the   
excessive growth of the median fins in  
the fish ,pteraclis allied to the       
,dolphin which displays changing floods 
of surface colour as it dies-and  in the
 ,australian ,blenny called ,patcus-both
 figured on p4 #acj-should  be compared 
with that of the strange crest of the   
grotesque ,dimetrodon4          ,,list  
,,of ,,illustrations        ,,dimetrodon
                                        
,frontispiece      ,,figs4              
,,page       #a1 #b4  ,,engraved        
,,cylinder ,,of ,,red-,,deer',s         
,,antler1 ,,from ,,the ,,azilian        
7,,elapho-,,tarandian7 ,,horizon ,,of   
,,the ,,cavern ,,of ,,lortet        #a  
#c4 ,a4 ,,perforated ,,harpoon ,,of     
,,the ,,azilian ,,or ,,red-,,deer       

,,period4             ,b4 ,,and ,c4     
,,imperforate ,,harpoons ,,or ,,lance   
,,heads          #c       #d4 ,,rolled  
,,impression ,,or ,,development ,,of    
,,the ,,engraving ,,on ,,the            
,,lortet ,,antler                       
#ab       #e4 ,,restoration 7,,or       
,,completion7 ,,of ,,the ,,engraving    
,,on ,,the ,,lortet             ,,antler
                                        
#ac       #f4 ,,fragment ,,of ,a        
,,roughly-,,painted ,,vase ,,of ,,the   
,,dipylon ,,age             7,,circa    
#hjj ,b4,c47 ,,from ,,tiryns            
#bc       #g4 ,,engraving ,,of ,a       
,,mammoth ,,drawn ,,upon ,a ,,piece ,,of
 ,,mammoth ,,ivory     #bf       #h4    
,,outline ,,engravings ,,of ,,mammoths  
,,on ,,the ,,wall ,,of ,,the ,,cavern   
,,known ,,as ,,the ,,font ,,de ,,gaume1 
,,near ,,eyzies 7,,dordogne7      #cb   
#i4 ,,similar ,,engravings ,,from ,,the 
,,neighbouring ,,cave ,,of ,,combarelles
   #cb      #aj4 ,a1 ,,similar          
,,engraving ,,from ,,the ,,cave ,,of    

,,combarelles4 ,b1             ,,mammoth
 ,,enclosed ,,by ,,plank-,,like         
,,structure-,,supposed ,,to ,,be        
,,either ,a ,,cage ,,or ,a ,,trap       
#cc      #aa4 ,,horse 7,,wall           
,,engraving71 ,,cave ,,of ,,marsoulas1  
,,haute ,,garonne       #dc      #ab4   
,,horse 7,,wall ,,engraving7 ,,outline  
,,in ,,black1 ,,cave ,,of ,,niaux       
7,,ari,,ge7                             
#dc      #ac4 ,,horses3 ,a1 ,,wall      
,,engraving 7,,cave ,,of ,,hornos ,,de  
,,la ,p,,na74             ,b1 ,,wall    
,,engraving ,,from ,,cavern ,,of        
,,combarelles4 ,c1                      
,,engraved ,,on ,,reindeer ,,antler     
7,,mas ,d',,azil7                  #dc  
#ad4 ,,drawing 7,,of ,,the ,,actual     
,,size ,,of ,,the ,,original7 ,,of ,a   
,,flat             ,,carving ,,in       
,,shoulder-,,bone ,,of ,a ,,horse',s    
,,head1 ,,showing             ,,twisted 
,,rope-,,bridle ,,and ,,trappings       
#de      #ae4 ,,drawing 7,,of ,,the     
,,actual ,,size ,,of ,,the ,,original7  

,,of ,a ,,fully             ,,rounded   
,,carving ,,in ,,reindeer',s ,,antler   
,,of ,,the ,,head ,,of ,a               
,,neighing ,,horse                      
#de      #af4 ,,reindeer 7,,engraving   
,,on ,,schist7                          
#df      #ag4 ,,rhinoceros ,,in ,,red   
,,outline                               
#df      #ah4 ,,bison ,,from ,,the      
,,roof ,,of ,,the ,,cavern ,,of         
,,altamira                  #dh         
#ai4 ,,bison3 ,,wall ,,engravings       
#dh      #bj4 ,,bear3 ,,engraved ,,on   
,,stalagmite1 ,,from ,,the ,,cave ,,of  
,,teyjat ,,near             ,,eyzies    
#dh      #ba4 ,,bear3 ,,engraved ,,on   
,,stone1 ,,massol 7,,ari,,ge7           
#dh      #bb4 ,,wolf3 ,,engraved ,,on   
,,wall ,,of ,,the ,,cave ,,of           
,,combarelles              #dh      #bc4
 ,,wall ,,engraving ,,of ,a ,,cave      
,,lion 7,,combarelles7                  
#dh      #bd4 ,,goose3 ,,small          
,,engraving ,,on ,,reindeer ,,antler    
#di      #be4 ,,female ,,figure ,,carved

 ,,in ,,oolitic ,,limestone ,,from      
,,willendorf1             ,,near        
,,krems1 ,,lower ,,austria 7#aijh7      
#ej      #bf4 ,,drawing 7,,of ,,the     
,,actual ,,size ,,of ,,the ,,original7  
,,of ,,an ,,ivory             ,,carving 
7,,fully ,,rounded7 ,,of ,a ,,female    
,,head                  #ea      #bg4   
,,seated ,,figure ,,of ,a ,,woman       
,,holding ,a ,,bovine ,,horn ,,in ,,the 
,,right             ,,hand              
#ea      #bh4 ,,male ,,figure           
,,represented ,,in ,,the ,,act ,,of     
,,drawing ,a ,,bow ,,or                 
,,throwing ,a ,,spear                   
#ea      #bi4 ,a ,,piece ,,of ,,mammoth 
,,ivory ,,carved ,,with ,,spirals ,,and 
,,scrolls ,,from             ,,the      
,,cave ,,of ,,arudy 7,,hautes           
,,pyr,n,,es7                       #ed  
#cj4 ,,vesuvius ,,as ,,it ,,appeared    
,,before ,,the ,,eruption ,,of ,,august 
#bd1 ,a4,d4             #gi             
#eg      #ca4 ,,five ,,successive       
,,stages ,,in ,,the ,,change ,,of ,,form

 ,,of ,,vesuvius             7,,from    
,,phillips' ,,vesuvius1 #ahfi7          
#fa      #cb4 ,,the ,,upper-,,arm ,,bone
 ,,or ,,humerus ,,of ,,the ,,great      
,,reptile             7,,gigantosaurus7 
,,of ,,tendagoroo                       
#hh          ,,the ,,gigantic ,,reptile 
,,diplodocus ,,on ,,land                
#ia      #cc4 ,,the ,,rudimentary       
,,gill-,,plume ,,of ,a ,,crayfish ,,from
 ,,that ,,part ,,of             ,,the   
,,body-,,wall ,,to ,,which ,,the ,,first
 ,,pair ,,of ,,jaw-,,legs               
7,,maxillipedes7 ,,is ,,articulated     
#abb          ,,strangely-,,shaped      
,,fishes                                
#acj      #cd4 ,,diagram ,,of ,,rotifer 
,,vulgaris-,,the ,,common ,,wheel       
,,animalcule-,,one             ,,hundred
 ,,and ,,twenty ,,times ,,as ,,long ,,as
 ,,the ,,creature ,,itself  #aeh        
#ce4 ,,the ,,rotifer ,,pedalion         
,,mirum-,,seen ,,from ,,the ,,right     
,,side1             ,,magnified #ahj    
,,diameters                             

#afa      #cf4 ,,the ,,rotifer          
,,pedalion ,,mirum-,,seen ,,from ,,the  
,,ventral ,,surface    #afa      #cg4   
,,the ,,rotifer ,,noteus                
,,quadricornis-,,to ,,show ,,its        
,,curious             ,,four-,,horned   
,,carapace                              
#afc          ,,the ,,larval ,,or       
,,young ,,form ,,of ,,crustacea ,,known 
,,as ,,the ,,nauplius #afd      #cg     
7bis74 ,,three ,,tube-,,building ,,wheel
 ,,animacules                  #afi     
,,young ,,stages ,,of ,,growth ,,or     
,,veliger ,,larv ,,of ,,marine ,,snails 
#aha      #ch4 ,,the ,,swastika ,,in    
,,its ,,simplest ,,rectangular ,,form   
#aia      #ci4 ,,three ,,simple         
,,varieties ,,of ,,the ,,swastika       
#aib      #dj4 ,,footprint ,,of ,,the   
,,buddha                                
#aib      #da4 ,,vase ,,from ,,cyprus   
7,,myken,,an ,,age1 ,,circa #abjj       
,b4,c472 ,,painted             ,,with   
,,lotus1 ,,bird ,,and ,,four ,,swastikas
                      #aid      #db4    

,,terra-,,cotta ,,spindle-,,whorl       
,,marked ,,with ,,swastikas             
#aid      #dc4 ,,ornament ,,from ,,an   
,,archaic 7,,pre-,,hellenic7 ,b,,otian  
,,vase1 ,,showing             ,,several 
,,swastikas1 ,,greek ,,crosses ,,and    
,,two ,,serpents        #aie      #dc   
7bis74 ,,swastikas ,,in ,,bronze        
,,repouss                          #aie 
#dd4 ,,silver-,,plated ,,bronze ,,horse 
,,gear ,,from ,,scandinavia1 ,,showing  
,,two             ,,swastikas1 ,,and    
,,below ,a ,,complex ,,elaboration ,,of 
,a ,,swastika #aie      #de4            
,,anglo-,,saxon ,,urn ,,from ,,shropham1
 ,,norfolk1 ,,ornamented ,,by ,,twenty  
,,small ,,hand-,,made ,,swastikas       
,,stamped ,,into ,,the ,,clay           
#aie      #df4 ,,piece ,,of ,a          
,,ceremonial ,,bead-,,worked ,,garter1  
,,showing ,,star ,,and             ,,two
 ,,swastikas                            
#aig      #dg4 ,a ,,stone ,,slab ,,from 
,,the ,,ancient ,,city ,,of ,,mayapan   
7,,yucatan1             ,,central       

,,america71 ,,on ,,which 7,,right       
,,side7 ,a ,,curvilinear                
,,swastika ,,is ,,carved                
#aih      #dh4 ,,diagram ,,to ,,show    
,,the ,,derivation ,,of ,,the ,,swastika
 ,,from ,a ,,greek             ,,cross  
,,enclosed ,,by ,a ,,circle             
#aii      #di4 ,,the ,,greek ,,key      
,,pattern ,,in ,a ,,rectangular1 ,,and  
,b ,,curvilinear             ,,or       
,,current ,,form                        
#bjb      #ej4 ,,diagrams ,,of ,,the    
,,triskelion                            
#bjc      #ea4 ,,four ,,stages ,,in     
,,the ,,simplification ,,of ,a          
,,decorative ,,design-,,the             
,,alligator                             
#bje      #eb4 ,,simplification         
7,,grammatizing7 ,,of ,,decorative      
,,design            #bjf      #ec4      
,,spindle-,,whorl ,,from ,,troy         
7,,fourth ,,city71 ,,with ,,three       
,,swastikas   #bjf      #ed4 ,,the      
,,tomoye-,,the ,,japanese ,,badge ,,of  
,,triumph                    #bji       

#ee4 ,,symbols ,,of ,,the ,,history ,,of
 ,,the ,,universe ,,used ,,by ,,the     
,,ancient             ,,chinese         
,,philosopher ,,chu-,,hsi               
#bji      #ef4 ,,diagrams ,,to ,,show   
,,the ,,possible ,,derivation ,,of ,,the
 ,,swastika ,,from             ,,the    
,,inscription ,,of ,,two ,s-,,like      
,,lines 7,,or ,,ogees7 ,,within         
,a ,,circle ,,so ,,as ,,to ,,divide     
,,the ,,circle ,,into ,,four ,,bent     
,,cones #bji      #eg4 ,,terra-,,cotta  
,,cone ,,with ,a ,,seven-,,armed        
,,sun-,,like ,,figure           #baa    
#eh4 ,,scalloped ,,shell ,,disk1 ,,from 
,a ,,mound ,,near ,,nashville1          
,,tennessee1             ,,showing ,,in 
,,the ,,centre ,a ,,tetraskelion ,,with 
,,four ,,curved             ,,arms      
#baa      #ei4 ,,an ,,altar-,,stone ,,of
 ,,prehistoric ,,age                    
#bac      #fj4 ,,diagrams ,,of ,,arbeli 
#bad          ,,secrets ,,of ,,earth    
,,and ,,sea          ,,chapter ,i       
,,the ,,earliest ,,picture ,,in ,,the   

,,world      ,in ,figs4 #a and #b on the
 next page a cylindrical piece of the   
antler of  a red deer is represented of 
half the natural size4 ,on it are carved
  by in-sunk lines certain              
representations of animals4 ,it was     
found in  the cavern of ,lortet1 near   
,lourdes1 in the department of the      
,hautes  ,pyrnes1 in the south of       
,france1 together with many other       
remains of  prehistoric man4 ,this      
cavern was excavated and all its        
contents of  human origin carefully     
preserved by ,m4 ,edouard ,piette in    
#ahgc and the  following years4         
,drawings of this and other remarkable  
carved pieces  of bone and antler1 many 
in the form of harpoon heads1 and of    
small  chipped flint implements1 all    
found in this cave1 were published by   
him4#a ,he excavated also several other 
caverns with great care1 and  his       
collections were bequeathed by him on   
his death to the great ,museum  of      
,national ,archology at ,st4 ,germain1  

near ,paris1 where ,i have had the      
advantage of studying them4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4    ,,fig4 #b4 
,,figs4 #a ,,and #b4-;,engraved cylinder
 of red-deer's antler1 from the ,azilian
  7,elapho-,tarandian7 horizon of the   
cavern of ,lortet4 ,drawn of a little   
more than half the actual size of the   
specimen4    ,the age assigned to this  
carving is that called by ,piette       
,elapho-,tarandian4 ,at this period the 
reindeer 7,tarandus71 which  previously 
abounded1 is giving place to the red    
deer 7,elaphus74 ,the  layer in which   
this carving was found belongs to the   
latest of the  ,palolithic cave         
deposits1 and was followed by a warmer  
period1 in  which the red deer and the  
modern fauna entirely replaced the old  
fauna of the ,glacial period4 ,the      
deposits in ,pyrenean caves of the      
,elapho-,tarandian age are characterized
 by an abundance of large flat  harpoons
 serrated on both sides4 ,in this latest
 horizon of the ,reindeer  period the   

art of engraving in outline on bone and 
stone had attained  the highest pitch of
 excellence which it reached in the     
prehistoric  race of ,south-,west       
,europe4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#c4-;,a4 ,perforated harpoon of the     
,azilian or  ,red-,deer period1 made    
from antler of red deer1 found in       
quantity in the  upper layers of deposit
 in the cavern of the ,mas d',azil      
7,arrige74 ,b  and ,c4 ,imperforate     
harpoons or lance heads made from       
reindeer antler  of the ,magdalenian    
period 7,reindeer epoch74 ,b from       
,bruniquel ,cave  7,tarn-et-,garonne74  
,c from a cavern in the ,hautes ,pyrnes4
 ,same size  as the objects4    ,a very 
natural tendency among those who hear   
from time to time  something of what is 
being discovered about primitive man is 
to confuse  all the periods and races of
 prehistoric man together1 and so       
picture  to themselves one ideal        
primitive man4 ,my friend ,mr4 ,rudyard 
,kipling  does this1 although it would  

be no further from a true conception    
were he to blend his ancient ,britons1  
his ,phenicians1 his ,romans1  his      
,saxons1 his ,normans1 and a few        
,hindoos into one imaginary man  and    
represent him as taking a coloured      
photograph of the ,druids of            
,stonehenge on a piece of ,egyptian     
papyrus4 ,here is ,mr4 ,kipling's vision
  of primitive man3        ,once on a   
glittering icefield1 ages and ages ago1 
,ung1 a maker of pictures1 fashioned an 
image of snow4      ,later he pictured  
an aurochs1 later he pictured a bear-   
,pictured the sabre-tooth tiger dragging
 a man to his lair-      ,pictured the  
mountainous mammoth1 hairy1 abhorrent1  
alone-      ,out of the love that he    
bore them1 scribing them clearly on     
bone1      ,straight on the glittering  
icefield1 by the caves of the lost      
,dordogne1      ,ung1 a maker of        
pictures1 fell to his scribing on bone4 
,the fact is that several prehistoric   
races have succeeded one another  in    

,western ,europe during the immensely   
long period-amounting to  hundreds of   
thousands of years-during which man     
existed before the dawn  of history4    
,the lost or prehistoric ,dordogne was  
like the present  historic ,dordogne in 
regard to the fact that many races and  
dynasties  successively held possession 
of it and left their work in its soil   
and  caves4    ,passing back through the
 historic age of iron and the           
sub-historic  age of bronze1 we come to 
a time1 about four thousand years ago1  
when  there were no men in the west of  
,europe who made use of metals at all1  
although1 for a thousand or two years   
earlier1 men were using bronze  and     
copper in the ,east4 ,european races    
immediately before the first  use of    
metals made beautiful implements of     
stone 7chiefly flint71 and  finished    
them by grinding and polishing them4    
,these men are spoken of  as ,neolithic 
men1 or men of the ,neolithic period4   
,they had herds and  cultivated crops1  

and they built after a fashion rough    
houses in wood  and tombs and temples   
with great slabs of stone4 ,they made   
pottery  and woven cloth4 ,the animals  
and plants of ,europe were the same in  
those late prehistoric times as they are
 to-day4 ,the ,lake dwellings  of       
,switzerland belong to this epoch and   
yield us their remains  as evidence4    
,the men had very nearly the same set of
 domesticated  animals as we have       
to-day1 but they had no skill in carving
 outlines  of animals4 ,their only      
decorative work consisted of parallel   
lines1  straight or in zigzags or in    
circles1 graven on the great stone slabs
  which they erected4    ,we can trace  
them back to some seven thousand years  
,b4,c4 and then comes  a huge gap-we do 
not know how many thousand years-in our 
evidence as  to what was going on in    
this part of the world4 ,we find        
convincing  proof that before this      
interval the climate was much colder    
than it is  to-day1 and that the land   

surface of ,europe was in many respects 
very  different from what it became     
later4 ,britain was continuous with the 
,continent4 ,there were in that remote  
period human tribes spread over  the    
less frigid valleys of ,europe4 ,they   
had no fields1 no herds2 they  fed on   
the roasted flesh of the animals they   
chased and on the fish  they speared1   
and on wild fruits and roots4 ,they     
dwelt chiefly1 if not  wholly1 in caves1
 probably also in skin tents1 but they  
did not build  either in wood or in     
stone4 ,the age which we thus reach is  
called the  ,palolithic1 or ancient     
,stone age1 because men made use of     
stone1  which they chipped into shape1  
but1 unlike the ,neolithic people1 never
  polished it4 ,we find enormous numbers
 of these rough or ,palolithic  stone   
implements both in caves and in the     
gravels deposited in the  ancient beds  
of rivers4 ,they are so abundant as to  
prove the existence  of a very          
considerable human population in the    

remote ages when they  were fashioned   
and used4 ,the changes which have taken 
place and the  time involved since some 
of these ,palolithic implements were    
made and  used may be guessed at 7but   
cannot be definitely calculated7 from   
the  fact that the beds of the rivers   
which formed the gravel terraces in     
which they are found in ,england were1  
in many cases1 from one to six  hundred 
feet above the level of the present     
rivers4 ,the land surface  has risen and
 the rivers have simultaneously         
excavated deep and wide  valleys leaving
 terraces of gravel high up on their    
sides4 ,these show  where the rivers    
once flowed4 ,the vastness of the       
excavation of the  valley from the level
 of the old river bed #fjj ft4 up on the
 sloping  hill-side to its present      
low-lying bed in the floor of the       
valley-gives  us some measure of the    
time which has elapsed in the process4  
,no one can tell1 at present1 the limit 
in the past of ,palolithic man4  ,the   

period of time over which his existence 
extended1 as indicated  by the trimmed  
flints undoubtedly made by human        
workmanship1 is a  matter of hundreds of
 thousands of years4 ,in ,western       
,europe races came  and went1 succeeded 
one another and disappeared1 either     
migrating or  absorbed or more rarely   
destroyed by the later invaders4        
,naturally  enough1 in the later        
deposits of rivers and in the higher    
layers of  earth and limestone cake     
which fill many caves to the depth of   
#cj or #dj  ft4 we find the remains of  
man's workmanship more abundantly than  
in  the older deposits4    ,we can      
broadly distinguish in the ,palolithic  
epoch three 7perhaps  four7 periods1    
separated by the occurrence of great    
extensions of the  northern or arctic   
ice cap of such a volume as to cover    
,north ,europe  and ,north ,america1 and
 the simultaneous extension of the      
glaciers of  the mountains of ,europe4  
,this period of the alternating         

extension  and retreat of the great     
northern glaciers is known as the       
,glacial  period1 or ,ice ,age4 ,the    
latest ,palolithic men are subsequent to
  it-that is1 post-,glacial4 ,we can    
distinguish several successive ages  of 
these post-,glacial ,palolithic men1    
altogether distinct from and  anterior  
to the ,neolithic men4 ,in the earlier  
of these ages many of  the great animals
 of the ,glacial period-now extinct or  
withdrawn to  other regions-still       
survived in ,europe4 ,the mammoth       
survived1 but  was fast dying out in the
 south and centre of ,france1 and we    
find  its outline scratched on ivory and
 on bone by the early post-,glacial     
men4 ,the lion still survived in        
,europe1 also the hyena1 the bear and   
the rhinoceros4 ,the reindeer seems to  
have been especially abundant1  and to  
have been associated with the men of    
this period4 ,the horse  was very       
abundant1 and was largely eaten by the  
earlier post-,glacial  people4 ,from the

 first these men show extraordinary     
artistic skill1 and  have left in their 
caves many carvings on ivory1 bone and  
stone4 ,in  the oldest deposits of the  
post-,glacial age the carvings are      
complete  all-round sculptures of small 
size or carvings in low relief1 all  of 
rough primitive workmanship4 ,larger    
life-size sculptures in rock  are also  
found4 ,in later deposits we find better
 sculpture and also  engraving on flat  
pieces of bone and ivory1 and also on   
stone4 ,this  art persisted1 and        
attained its greatest perfection in the 
latest  deposits of all in which the    
work of ,palolithic man is found4 ,the  
reindeer persisted through this         
post-,glacial period 7hence often called
  the reindeer period7 until the gradual
 increase of temperature and  change of 
herbage and forest led to its migration 
northwards and to the  relative         
abundance of the red deer4 ,it is to    
this latest period-the                  
,elapho-,tarandian of ,piette-that the  

engraved antler figured here 7,figs4  #a
 and #b7 belongs4    ,at an earlier     
stage of the post-,glacial period men   
hunted the bison and  other large game  
in the north of ,spain and made coloured
 drawings of  them on the roofs and     
walls of their caves1 drawings which    
have been  copied and preserved3 whilst 
the mammoth1 the rhinoceros1 the cave   
lion and bear still inhabited south     
central ,france and are pictured on  the
 walls of caves in that region-as       
described in ,chapter ,,ii4 ,later we   
lose all trace of ,palolithic man and   
his wonderful artistic skill4 ,he  seems
 either to have migrated or to have been
 absorbed in the immigrant  ,neolithic  
race-a race singularly devoid of any    
tendency to artistic  sculpture or      
engraving4    ,the skeletons and skulls 
of the men of the ,reindeer period1 or  
post-,glacial ,palolithic men1 have been
 discovered here and there4  ,they      
indicate a fine1 tall people with       
well-shaped skulls and jaws1  comparable

 to the nobler modern races4 ,it is     
convenient to call them  ,cromagnards1  
since good skulls of the race have been 
described from  ,cromagnon1 in ,france4 
,there is evidence 7from skulls7 that   
another  race 7the negroid so called    
,aurignacians7 preceded and coexisted to
  some extent in ,western ,europe with  
them1 but we have1 at present1 no       
evidence as to whence or how the        
,neolithic race or the ,cromagnard race 
or any of their predecessors came upon  
the scene6    ,when we go farther back  
and reach the actual ,glacial period we 
find  a very different state of things4 
,the men who then existed in the        
caverns are called the ,neander men4    
,they were a short1 bandy-legged1       
long-armed1 low-browed people1 great    
workers of flints4 ,they had  the use of
 fire1 and contended with hyenas and    
bears and lions for  the occupation of  
their caverns4 ,in their day-the day of 
,european  glaciation-the mammoth was in
 full occupation of the pine forests on 

the edge of the glaciers4 ,but the      
,neander men made no sculptures1 or     
carving1 or engravings4 ,the gap between
 them and the ,cromagnon men  is much   
greater than that between an ,australian
 black fellow and an  average           
,englishman2 indeed1 the difference is  
properly expressed by  regarding the    
,neander man as a distinct species-,homo
 neanderthalensis4    ,passing again    
farther back over an immense period of  
time1 we find  ,europe warm again2 the  
glaciers have 7for a time7 gone or      
retreated  far up the mountains but are 
found in extension again at a still     
earlier date4 ,an inter-,glacial set of 
animals is now found living in a        
comparatively warm climate in ,western  
,europe4 ,another elephant 7,elephas    
antiquus7 is there 7not the mammoth71   
and another rhinoceros 7not  the woolly 
rhinoceros of the later ,glacial        
period72 the hippopotamus  flourished   
then in ,europe and swam in the ,thames 
and ,severn1 and there  too1 at last is 

the sabre-toothed tiger1 which did not  
exist at all at  a later period6 ,now   
was the time when a man1 if he could1   
might have  scribed the image of a      
sabre-toothed tiger on a piece of bone1 
but1  so far as we know1 he did not and 
could not4 ,this was ages before other  
succeeding men walked on glittering ice 
fields1 and they1 in turn1  were ages   
earlier than the artistic ,cromagnards  
of the ,reindeer period4    ,the        
presence of men in the warm             
inter-,glacial times in ,europe is      
proved  by the association of rough but 
undisputed flint implements with the    
inter-,glacial animals and by the       
discovery of a most interesting human   
jaw 7chinless1 like that of the ,neander
 men7 in what is held to be a           
pr-,glacial deposit at ,heidelberg4 ,we 
have very little knowledge of  ,glacial 
and pr-,glacial man except well         
characterized flint implements  and two 
skeletons1 some detached limb bones1    
four or five jaws1 and  as many         

skulls4#b ,but of post-,glacial         
,palolithic man we know the  skeletons  
of the ,cromagnard race1 their          
sepulture1 their decorative  necklaces1 
and their bone and ivory carvings and   
engravings1 and  the coloured rock      
paintings and other work of earlier     
races 7the  ,aurignacians1 and others7  
belonging to successive epochs or eras1 
which have been discovered in caves in  
,france1 ,spain1 ,belgium1 and          
,austria4 ,it was long after them that  
the ,neolithic people appeared4    ,the 
preceding remarks will have made it     
clear that the engraved antler  here    
figured was carved by a man who was not 
really at all primitive1  although he   
lived probably between twenty and fifty 
thousand years ago4  ,it will also have 
been made clear that hundreds of such   
engravings1  more or less fragmentary1  
are known4 ,some are very skilful works 
of art1 others of a much inferior       
quality4 ,many1 however1 show an        
astonishing familiarity with the animal 

drawn and a sureness of drawing  which  
is not surpassed by the work of modern  
artists 7see ,chapter ,,iii74  ,the     
interest of the particular engraved     
antler which ,i am describing  is that  
it is the only carving of its age as yet
 discovered which is  more than a       
drawing or sculpture of a single animal4
 ,it is a picture  in the sense of being
 a composition4 ,it is not1 it is true1 
painted-it  is engraved2 but being a    
composition it is entitled to be called 
the  earliest picture in the world4 ,let
 me describe it a little more fully     
with the help of the illustrations4     
,the engraving has been made on a long  
cylindrical piece of the red  deer's    
antler4 ,it can hardly be considered as 
decorative1 since the  figures of the   
animals do not show as such on the      
cylindrical surface  7,figs4 #a and #b74
 ,pieces of antler1 bone1 and ivory     
carved with  spiral scrolls and circles 
which are really decorative and         
effective  as decoration are found in   

these caves 7,fig4 #bi74 ,but often such
  pieces as the present are met with4   
,it has been discovered by ,french      
archologists that the true intent of    
such engravings may be rendered  evident
 by rolling the cylinder on a plastic   
substance 7soft wax or  similar         
material71 when the drawing is printed  
off or developed  as it is termed4 ,a   
great number of such line engravings    
have been  thus printed off or          
developed1 and plaster casts made from  
the flat  impressions are preserved in  
the museum of ,st4 ,germain1 the        
engraved  lines being rendered obvious  
by letting them fill with printing ink4 
,they often give us in this way a       
printed drawing of remarkable  accuracy 
and artistic quality4 ,the rolled-off   
print of our specimen is  shown in ,fig4
 #d4 ,the cylinder has been damaged by  
time1 but the print  shows1 more or less
 completely1 a vigorous outline drawing 
of three red  deer1 with six salmon-like
 fish placed in a decorative way above  

them  and between their legs4 ,two      
lozenge-shaped outlines 7above the      
larger  stag7 are held by good          
authorities to be the signature of the  
artist4  ,the group of deer is          
represented in movement4 ,the largest   
stag is on  the right2 his hindquarters 
are broken away by injury to the        
cylinder4  ,he is commencing to advance1
 and turns his head backwards to see    
what  is the thing which has alarmed him
 and his companions2 at the same time   
his mouth is open1 and he is blowing4   
,the second stag is a younger  and      
smaller animal1 and is retreating more  
rapidly4 ,the cylinder is  damaged so   
that1 although all the four legs of this
 second stag are  preserved1 the head   
and neck are gone1 though the points of 
the antlers  are preserved4 ,the same   
damage has removed all but the hind legs
 of the  still younger animal who heads 
the group4 ,the beauty of the drawing of
  these hind legs and the extraordinary 
impression of graceful1 rapid  movement 

given by their hanging pose1 side by    
side1 is not surpassed1  even if it be  
equalled1 by the work of any modern     
draughtsman4 ,it is  clear that the     
youngest and smallest member of the     
group is1 as is  natural1 the most      
timid1 and that he has sprung off with a
 sudden bound  on the occurrence of the 
alarm from the rear1 which is setting   
the  whole group into motion with       
increasing velocity as we pass from     
right  to left4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4
 #d4-,rolled impression or development  
of the  engraving on the ,lortet antler4
    ,illustration3 ,,fig4               
#e4-,restoration 7or completion7 of the 
engraving on  the ,lortet antler1 as now
 7#aiai7 suggested by the writer 7,e4   
,r4 ,l474    ,the printed-off1 or       
unrolled1 or developed picture given in 
,fig4  #c is an exact reproduction of a 
copy of the cast made and preserved  in 
the ,museum of ,national ,antiquities at
 ,st4 ,germain1 for which  ,i am        
indebted to my friend ,m4 ,salomon      

,reinach1 the distinguished  archologist
 who is the director of that museum4 ,it
 is reproduced  here1 a little larger   
than half the size of the original1 as  
are the  representations of the carved  
cylinder itself 7,figs4 #a and #b74 ,in 
,fig4  #d we have my attempt to restore 
the damaged portions of the design and  
to present it as it was when the        
,palolithic man completed it some       
#bj1jjj years ago4    ,i will return to 
the question of the correctness of this 
restoration1  but before doing so ,i    
wish to mention some extremely          
interesting  points as to the probable  
use of the cylinder of stag's antler and
  the purpose of the carving around its 
axis4 ,in the first place1 this  and a  
few other of the pieces of carving of   
the post-,glacial period  were certainly
 the work of highly gifted and practised
 artists4 ,it is  obvious that this work
 is far superior both in conception and 
execution  to the more or less clever1  
often grotesque1 carvings and paintings 

made by modern savages or simple        
pastoral folk4 ,there is no reason to   
suppose that the ,cromagnards1 or men of
 the post-,glacial or ,reindeer  period 
of ,west ,europe1 differed from modern  
races in being universally  gifted with 
artistic capacity4 ,this engraving of   
three stags is almost  certainly the    
work of a man who belonged to a family  
or guild of  picture-makers who had     
cultivated such work for centuries and  
handed  it on from master to apprentice4
 ,this design is probably one which  had
 been perfected by many succeeding      
observers and draughtsmen4 ,its         
sureness of line and vivacity of        
movement are not the outcome of the     
sudden inspiration of an untutored      
savage1 but are the result of the       
growth1 cultivation1 and development of 
artistic perception and the  power of   
artistic execution in successive        
generations4    ,it seems in the highest
 degree improbable1 if not impossible1  
that so  excellent a drawing as this    

should have been cut on the cylindrical 
piece of antler by an engraver who never
 saw the flat or rolled-off  impress of 
his design4 ,one is driven to the       
conclusion that he must1  as he worked  
on the bone1 have taken an impress of   
the growing picture  from time to time1 
using probably animal fat and charcoal  
as an ink  and printing on to a piece of
 prepared skin or on to a birch-bark    
cloth4 ,how otherwise could he have made
 his engraving so truly that  when1 ages
 afterwards1 we print it off the        
cylinder1 we are astonished  and        
delighted by its perfection of design   
and execution8 ,if this be  once        
admitted-namely1 that the artist tested 
and checked his work by  printing it off
 as he proceeded with it-we gain what   
appears to me  to be the probable       
solution of the question which has been 
largely  debated1 ,for what were these  
carved cylinders or rods used8 ,those   
which are simple cylindrical rods1 such 
as the present one1 must be             

distinguished from others which have one
 or more circular holes bored  in them  
and others which are curiously bent at  
an angle4 ,such specimens  are often    
carved with small unimportant ornament1 
not requiring  development or printing4 
,they as well as the present class have 
been  spoken of as wands of authority   
and sceptres2 some are considered  to be
 arrow straighteners2 others have been  
supposed to be divining  rods or rods of
 witchcraft2 whilst one of those        
discovered by ,m4  ,piette 7others      
similar to it are known7 has been       
regarded as a lance  thrower or         
propulsor 7such as modern primitive     
races use71 having  a notch at one end  
upon which the lance to be thrown is    
made to rest4  ,the latest suggestion as
 to these notch-and-hook-bearing rods1  
is that  they are large crochet hooks   
used in making nets4 ,it has also been  
suggested that some of these carved rods
 were used as fasteners of  the skins   
used as clothing4    ,i venture to      

suggest that the elaborately carved     
cylinder which we are  considering and  
others bearing similar carvings1 which  
only show up  when a printing of them is
 taken1 were used by the men who made   
them  for this very same printing as an 
end in itself4 ,the picture could be    
thus impressed on skins1 birch bark1 and
 other material4 ,this race was         
thoroughly familiar with the use of     
paint formed by mixing grease with      
charcoal 7to produce black71 red ochre  
7to produce red71 yellow ochre  7to     
produce yellow71 and some preparation of
 limestone or chalk 7to  produce white74
 ,coloured pictures representing animals
 of the chase1  coloured with red1      
yellow1 white1 and black and outlined by
 engraving1  have been discovered on the
 rock walls of the caves used by them4  
,such  pictures are found of relatively 
early as well as of late date within    
the post-,glacial ,palolithic period    
7see ,chapter ,,iii74 ,the rock picture 
of a single animal is usually from two  

to five feet long4 ,people who  could   
make those coloured designs and who     
could draw and compose so  admirably as 
the author of the ,three ,red ,deer     
would have desired to  roll off and to  
possess printings of their favourite    
representations  of animal life1 whilst 
we must admit that their skill and      
ingenuity was  assuredly equal to the   
task of so printing them4 ,if this      
carving of the  ,three ,red ,deer were  
never printed it could not have been    
executed in  the first place1 nor seen  
and admired when completed4 ,if even    
only half  a dozen or a dozen           
impressions were taken from it for      
ornamenting the  skins or other material
 used by a chief1 or a wizard1 or a     
woman1 its  production becomes          
intelligible4 ,it is true that there is 
nothing known  as to the use of such    
printing from a cylinder among existing 
primitive  people1 but it is known in   
very early times 7#dejj ,b4,c471 since  
cylindrical seals were used by the      

,babylonians4 ,elaborately grooved      
blocks used for printing on cloth are   
known from ,fiji and ,samoa1 and  the   
mere practice of printing on to a flat  
surface is common enough  among savage  
races in regard to the human hand1      
impressions or prints  of which obtained
 by the use of a greasy pigment are     
found upon rocks  or stones4 ,sometimes 
prints of the hand or fingers are taken 
in clay4    ,we must not1 however1      
forget that the primary purpose of      
savage and  primitive mankind in making 
images or engravings of animals is that 
of influencing the animals by witchcraft
 or magic1 as has been urged  by        
,reinach4 ,from such magic-working      
drawings the art of savages has         
gradually developed just as religious   
figures and designs have been the       
initial motive of historic ,european    
art4    ,it seems in any case fairly    
certain that the artist who engraved our
  picture of the three deer on to the   
stag's antler must have worked from  and

 copied a completed flat drawing1 and   
probably printed it in some  way on to  
the prepared antler before engraving its
 lines thereon and  also checked the    
work1 as he proceeded1 by successive    
trial printings  or proofs on to a flat 
surface4 ,it is possible though it does 
not  seem very probable1 that the       
drawing was thus committed to perpetual 
invisibility on a cylindrical rod-for   
the purpose of exercising magic  with   
that rod4 ,it seems to me that the      
,cromagnard owner of the rod  would have
 wished to see what the picture really  
looked like1 and so  would have on some 
occasion and more than once have printed
 it off or  as we say unrolled it4      
,leaving that question aside ,i have a  
few words to say as to the present      
attempted completion of the picture4 ,my
 difficulty has been in  realizing the  
suggestion of a free1 graceful bounding 
action given  by the pair of small hind 
legs which form all that remains of the 
smallest of the three deer4 ,i have     

tried various poses of the calf         
indicated by these legs-bucking and     
jumping1 and with fore legs closely     
bent to the horizontal or in a more open
 position4 ,the fact is there is  very  
little in existing drawings or          
photographs which can help us to a      
decision of the problem1 ,how did the   
prehistoric artist complete that        
exquisite little pair of hanging legs8  
,the problem is more obscure  even than 
that of the pose of the arms of the     
,venus of ,melos4 ,one feels  sure that 
the man who made this carving was an    
artist who must keep a  certain rhythm  
and flow in the action and form of the  
three successive  animals1 and it is    
clear that he was a wonderful observer  
of the phases  of the limbs in movement4
 ,it is1 perhaps1 a presumptuous thing  
to  attempt on such a basis to recall   
the thought of a man who died twenty    
thousand years ago1 but ,i set out to do
 so with the belief that there  is a    
necessary figure determined by those    

hind legs4    ,some years ago1 as a step
 towards a solution of the problem1 ,i  
published a restoration or completion of
 this picture in the  ,field 7,may      
#acth1 #aiaa71 and asked for criticisms 
and suggestions from  the readers of    
that journal4 ,i had no difficulty as to
 the completion  of the biggest stag by 
drawing in his haunches and hind-legs1  
but  the completion of the head and     
antlers of the smaller stag-and still   
more the calling into being of the      
entire calf as an inference from  his or
 her suspended hind-feet and hoofs      
alone-were not easy tasks4  ,i consulted
 many authorities and some instantaneous
 photographs1 but  ,i was not satisfied 
with the pose ,i finally suggested for  
the calf  nor with the points assigned  
by my draughtsman to the antlers of  the
 smaller stag4 ,some interesting        
suggestions were made in reply  to my   
appeal by readers of the ,field4 ,those 
which seemed to me of  conclusive weight
 and value were offered by ,mr4 ,walter 

,winans1 who  combines the              
qualifications of a great observer of   
big game with those  of a great artist4 
,in the restoration now given in ,fig4  
#e ,i have  profited by ,mr4 ,walter    
,winans' criticism and have been        
especially  glad to make use of the     
spirited sketch made by him for my      
benefit1  and published in the ,field of
 #aiaa1 of a red-deer calf when hopping 
along with all the feet together1 a     
movement known as buck-jumping4  ,of    
course1 writes ,mr4 ,winans1 this is    
quite different to the  bronco-pony's   
action when trying to get rid of a      
rider4 ,in the case  of this kind she   
does not come down with a jar-but as she
 lands  bends her knees and hocks       
simultaneously and then straightens     
them1  also simultaneously1 bounding in 
the air with bent back1 tail curled     
tight on back1 head thrown back1 and    
ears forward2 she never puts  her       
fore-legs1 either knee or fetlock1      
beyond her shoulder in this  action4    

,these words of ,mr4 ,winans and his    
outline sketch of the  buck-jumping calf
 precisely realize what the little      
hanging legs of  the rubbed-out calf had
 been1 as it were1 urging my tired brain
 to  recall and visualize4 ,i am        
convinced that ,mr4 ,winans' sketch     
gives the  completion of the picture as 
drawn by the artist of the ,lortet      
cavern1  and satisfies the demand made  
by the gracefully suspended limbs shown 
in the incompletely preserved original4 
,and so ,i have used it in my  final    
restoration here given in ,fig4 #e4     
,the following letter by ,mr4 ,winans1  
giving valuable comments on the  ,lortet
 picture1 was published in the ,field1  
and will assist others  in appreciating 
its significance3 it enabled me to get  
the middle  stag's antlers correctly    
drawn4 ,i have omitted a few lines      
referring to  defects in the original   
restoration-now corrected4              
,,sir1-,as ,sir ,ray ,lankester asks for
 criticism of this wonderful            

drawing of three deer1 perhaps the      
following may be of interest4       ,i  
have known deer all my life1 and lived  
amongst them the last       twelve      
years4 ,i agree that the picture is     
wonderful-better than       anything    
,landseer or ,rosa ,bonheur drew1       
because these latter were       only    
artists3 one can see by their pictures  
7full of faults as       to attitudes   
and actions7 that they knew nothing of  
deer4 ,for       instance1 ,landseer's  
stags were much too big in the body and 
their heads too small1 and even the     
shape of their horns was                
conventional4444         ,the ,lorthet  
drawings enable one to know all details 
about the       three deer 7looking at  
the original mutilated 'development'74  
,first1 the deer have 'got the wind' of 
an enemy1 have come a long       way1   
and are moving leisurely1 the big stag1 
as usual1 bringing up       the rear and
 taking a last look round before the    
herd goes out of       sight4 ,the      

second is the younger stag who generally
 accompanies       the big stag and acts
 as his sentinel when he is sleeping1 a 
stag       too small to give the big    
stag any jealousy as to his hinds4 ,the 
third is undoubtedly a calf 7,red deer  
are 'stags1' 'hinds1' and               
'calves1' not 'does' and 'fawns'2 the   
latter terms apply to ,fallow       deer
 and ,roe-deer74         ,the deer are  
typical ,red deer1 not ,wapiti1 except  
that the only       tail showing 7that  
of the middle deer7 is the short ,wapiti
 tail1       not the longer tail of the 
,red deer1 and the ears are shorter than
       those of any existing species of 
deer4         ,the horns of the big stag
 are those of typical park ,red deer1   
exactly like the ,warnham ,park big     
stag3 brow1 bay1 and tray1 with       a 
bunch on top1 and the horns are short   
and straight for their       thickness4 
,now as to the short tail4 ,i am trying1
 by crossing the ,wapiti1       ,red    
deer1 and ,altai to get back to the     

original deer before the       various  
species got separated1 and my           
'three-cross' deer show       these very
 characteristics1 as follows3 ,red deer 
or ,warnham       horns1 short ,wapiti  
tail1 and the rather ,roman nose which  
this       'development' print shows4   
,the only difference is the short ears4 
,is it not possible that1 as the artist 
is able to draw the horns       in      
perspective and show the anatomy and    
proportions so well1 that       the ears
 are meant to be drawn fore-shortened8  
,the stag's mouth is open because he is 
big and fat and is blowing       7not   
roaring or bellowing74 ,if it was the   
rutting season1 when       stags roar1  
the stag would be tucked up in the belly
 and have a       tuft of hair hanging  
under the middle of it4 ,he and the stag
 in       front are moving in the real  
action 7not the conventional action     
,rosa ,bonheur and ,landseer drew1 but  
what the ancient ,egyptians       drew  
sometimes7 of a slow1 easy canter4444   

,now as to the middle       stag's      
horns4 ,i should give him1 bearing in   
mind he is the small       sentry stag1 
brow1 tray1 and three on top-a          
ten-pointer1 the thin       points      
showing in the original drawing         
indicating that he had thin             
horns-in fact1 a three-year old4        
,in a ,scotch forest a ten-pointer is a 
comparatively old stag1 but       at    
,warnham and my place1 where the feeding
 is good 7and in my case       there is 
hand feeding all the year round71 a     
spike stag gets six       points and can
 almost be a royal the next year4       
,all this shows that the deer at the    
time this drawing was made       must   
have had very good feeding and come to  
maturity quickly1       like modern park
 deer4 ,the big stag would never have   
allowed a       ten-pointer in his herd 
if the latter had been an old stag4     
,as to the action of the leading hind4  
,i think she is a hind-calf       by her
 legs1 and is jumping with all four legs

 together1 the       way young deer do  
when playing1 and1 being young1 is      
paying no       attention to the danger 
behind1 but is full of life1 like a     
horse       playing about when he is    
fresh4 ,one often sees the calves of a  
herd playing like this if the herd is   
moving along steadily4444         ,from 
the position of the hind legs of the    
little calf ,i judge       that she is  
jumping with all four legs together 7the
 jump from       which the expression   
'buck jumping' comes72 her tail would be
       curled up tight over her back    
like a pug dog carries it1 only         
without the curl1 and her ears pricked  
forward4 ,the piece of horn       broken
 off would show the rest of the hinds   
and calves1 led by an       old 'yeld'  
7i4e41 barren7 hind1 who would be       
leading the herd       up wind with her 
nose and ears forward to 'get the wind' 
of any       danger ahead4         ,the 
day is a hot one in the middle of       
,august1 shown by the big       stag    

blowing and his being with the hinds1   
instead of with other       stags by    
themselves1 and by his not having 'run' 
yet1 though his       horns are clear of
 velvet4 ,he is most likely the stag on 
whose       horn this is engraved4 ,the 
length of the deer's feet shows that    
they live on ground which is soft and   
not many stones about to       wear down
 their toes4         ,maybe the fish    
indicate that the deer are crossing a   
shallow       ford1 and the salmon are  
getting frightened and jumping4 ,the    
right-hand-most fish is just in the     
attitude of a hooked salmon       trying
 to leap clear of the fly4444           
,the picture was most likely first drawn
 on some flat flexible       surface1   
skin or bark1 in a sticky medium1 and   
then transferred to       the horn by   
rolling it round the horn and then      
rubbing it4 ,this       would give a    
transfer1 which would guide the         
subsequent engraving1       otherwise it
 would be very difficult to engrave     

direct on the       horn1 and mistakes  
could not easily be corrected4          
,,walter ,,winans        ,,surrenden    
,,park1 ,,pluckley1 ,,kent    ,with     
regard to the six fishes in the picture 
of ,the ,three ,red ,deer1 ,i  think    
that there can be little doubt that they
 are put in in the same  spirit of      
exuberance which induced early ,italian 
masters to introduce  a cherub wherever 
a space for him could be found4 ,the    
fish represented  are the same in each  
case1 and are undeniably salmonids4     
,presumably  they are drawn on a larger 
scale than the deer4 ,their markings and
 the  form of the head are deserving of 
some criticism and comment by those  who
 are familiar with fish as seen by the  
fisherman4 ,probably the  artist's      
friends at ,lourdes captured fish in    
those days by spearing  them with       
serrated bone-headed fish spears or     
harpoons 7,fig4 #c74 ,no  fish hooks of 
bone have been found in the cave of     
,lortet or in others  of like age1      

although needles and whistles of bone   
and other useful  little instruments1 as
 well as serrated spear heads and       
harpoons have  been obtained in several 
of them4    ,the tool used by the       
prehistoric man in engraving the        
cylinder of  stag's antler was          
undoubtedly a suitable chipped-out piece
 of flint-a  flint graving tool1 in fact
 a burin1 such as are abundant in these 
caves4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4         
#f4-;,fragment of a roughly-painted vase
 of the  ,dipylon age 7circa #hjj       
,b4,c47 from ,tiryns1 figured by        
,schliemann and  cited by ,hrnes in his 
,history of ,pictorial ,art in ,europe4 
,compare  the fish between the horse's  
legs with the fish in the ,lortet       
picture  of the ,three ,deer2 also note 
the lozenge-shaped designs 7similar to  
the  pair above the big stag in the     
,lortet picture7 near the fish and near 
the man's head 7d72 and1 further1 the   
swastika 7s74    ,attention has been    
drawn by ,hrnes in his ,history of      

,pictorial ,art  in ,europe to the      
resemblance of the ,lortet picture to a 
fragment of  a roughly painted vase of  
the ,dipylon age 7circa #hjj ,b4,c47    
found at  ,tiryns and figured by        
,schliemann in his account of           
excavations made at  that ancient       
,mykenan fortress of the ,peloponese4   
,the fragment 7,fig4  #f7 shows very    
roughly drawn figures of a man and of a 
horse4 ,between  the fore and hind legs 
of the horse a large elaborately ornate 
fish  is represented1 reminding us of   
the fishes between the deer's legs in   
the ,lortet picture4 ,two other similar 
fragments of pottery1 showing  a fish in
 this position1 are recorded by         
,schliemann4 ,the drawing is            
conventional and careless4 ,it is of a  
debased decorative character1 and  is   
very far removed from the careful       
nature-true work of the ,lortet         
cave-man4 ,it is not possible to trace  
by any known line of transmission  a    
connection between the engraving        

executed #bj1jjj years ago in the  caves
 of the ,pyrnes and the figures rapidly 
knocked off in black  paint on the      
,tiryns vase some #ag1jjj years later by
 the local dealers  in cheap pottery4   
,yet we cannot avoid the suggestion that
 there is  some connection between the  
two designs4 ,for the ,tiryns painting  
shows  not only the curious upright fish
 between the horse's legs1 but also     
diamond-shaped figures-one marked d in  
,fig4 #f1 another near the  fish's tail1
 and another between the man's          
feet-closely resembling  the pair of    
diamond-shaped figures engraved above   
the neck of the big  stag in the ,lortet
 picture 7see ,figs4 #d and #e74 ,as we 
do not know what  these diamond-shaped  
figures or lozenges are intended to     
signify  in either case1 we do not get1 
at present1 beyond the bald fact of     
their coincidence4 ,the ,tiryns painting
 also shows 7at s in ,fig4 #f7  a       
swastika 7see ,chapter ,,xvii71 and     
below the man's arm a carelessly  drawn 

bit of the ancient wave-fret or         
key-pattern4 ,it is1 of course1         
possible that the tradition of an       
ancient design-even dating so far  back 
in origin as many thousands of years-may
 be preserved in the  use made in the   
,tiryns decoration of the fish and the  
diamond-shaped  lozenges1 though        
associated with the swastika and the bit
 of wave-fret  which are probably of    
later origin and are not known in the   
decorative  work of the cave-men4 ,the  
,mykenan decorative assimilation of     
geese to  the ship's barnacle exercised 
its influence over three thousand years 
and led to the medival belief in the    
hatching of young geese from  barnacles 
attached to floating timber1 and even   
from the buds of trees  7see my         
,diversions of a ,naturalist3 ,methuen1 
#aiae74 ,nevertheless it  must not be   
supposed that the connection of the     
,lortet engraving and  the vase-painting
 of ,tiryns is probable or more than a  
very remote  possibility4 ,the gap in   

time is too vast1 and our present       
ignorance  of what took place in that   
interval too complete1 to warrant us in 
regarding the resemblance as more than a
 coincidence4      ,,footnotes3    #a   
,l',age du ,renne1 a posthumous work1   
with one hundred coloured  quarto plates
 of objects in the ,piette collection1  
is published by  ,masson1 of ,paris1 and
 gives the complete list of ,piette's   
numerous  earlier papers1 issued as his 
excavations proceeded4    #b ,seven     
years ago the ape-like lower jaw and    
thick walled brain-case  called         
,eoanthropus were discovered in a sparse
 gravel near ,lewes in  ,sussex4 ,it is 
probably of older date than either the  
,neander men or  the ,heidelberg men4   
,see on this subject the chapters on    
,the ,missing  ,link in my ,diversions  
of a ,naturalist 7#aiae7 and those on   
,the ,most  ,ancient ,men and ,the      
,cave-men's ,skulls in ,science from an 
,easy  ,chair4 ,first ,series 7#aiaj74  
,,chapter ,,ii    ,,portraits ,,of      

,,mammoths ,,by ,,men ,,who ,,saw ,,them
      ,some fifty-five years ago pieces 
of reindeer's antler were discovered  in
 the cave known as ,la ,madeleine in the
 ,dordogne 7a department of  ,france    
some eighty miles east of ,bordeaux71   
upon which were engraved  the outlines  
of various animals such as reindeer and 
horses4 ,they and  the bone spear-heads 
and needles1 and the flint knives found 
with  them1 were the first revelation to
 later man of the existence of the      
prehistoric cave-men4 ,among the        
carvings was a piece of ivory which     
excited the profoundest interest4       
,partly hidden by a confused mass  of   
scratches it showed the well-drawn      
outline of the great extinct  elephant1 
thus scratched or engraved on a bit of  
its own tusk 7,fig4  #g74 ,the engraving
 was barely #e in4 long1 and has been   
reproduced in  many books4 ,the specimen
 is now in ,paris1 and was for long the 
only  known representation of the       
,mammoth by the ancient men who lived   

with  it in ,western ,europe4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4-;,engraving of
 a mammoth drawn upon a piece of        
mammoth's ivory1 found in the cave of   
,la ,madeleine in the ,dordogne1  in    
#ahfd4 ,the specimen is in the ,museum  
of ,natural ,history1 ,paris4 ,the      
engraving is here represented of the    
actual size4    ,during the last fifteen
 years1 however1 our knowledge of the   
works of  art executed by these ancient 
men has increased to an extraordinary   
extent1 chiefly owing to the energy and 
skill of the ,french explorers  of the  
caverns in the south central region of  
that country4 ,as long  ago as #ahgi a  
little girl1 the daughter of ,seor      
,sautuolo-a proud  woman she should be  
if alive to-day-when visiting the cavern
 of  ,altamira1 near ,santander1 in the 
north of ,spain1 with her father1  drew 
his attention to a number of pictures of
 animals1 painted on  the rocky vault or
 roof of the cave4 ,at first no one     
believed that  these pictures were more 

than a few hundred years old1 whilst    
some held  them to be modern and made   
with fraudulent purpose4 ,in #ahhg      
,piette1  the distinguished ,french     
investigator of the remains of human    
work in  the caverns of the ,french     
,pyrnes 7whose great illustrated book of
  carved and engraved portions of       
reindeer antler1 ivory1 and stones      
discovered by his excavations1 is a     
classic71 declared that in his  opinion 
the pictures of the ,altamira cave were 
of the same age as the  bone and ivory  
carvings of the ,madeleine cave-that is 
to say1 dated  from what prehistorians  
call the later ,palolithic age1 an age  
when  the mammoth1 the bison1 the cave  
lion1 and the reindeer still existed  in
 ,western ,europe1 and when the ,british
 ,isles were not yet separated by  sea  
from the ,continent4 ,the age indicated 
is probably from #be1jjj to  #ej1jjj    
years ago4 ,still1 the opinion prevailed
 that the wall-drawings  and            
roof-drawing of the ,altamira cave were 

either medival or modern  until the     
,french explorers discovered            
wall-paintings in some of the  caves of 
the ,dordogne4 ,then they proceeded to a
 careful investigation  of the ,altamira
 cave1 and discovered conclusive        
evidence of the great  age of the       
paintings by the removal of some of the 
undisturbed deposit  in the cave1 in    
which were found flint implements and   
small engravings  on bone1 proving the  
deposit to be of the late ,palolithic   
age4 ,when  this deposit was removed1   
pictures of animals1 partly engraved and
  partly completed in colour 7black1    
red1 yellow1 and white71 were  found on 
the wall of the cave previously covered 
up by the deposit4  ,m4 ,cartailhac1 who
 had been a leading opponent of the view
 that the  ,altamira wall-pictures were 
very ancient1 now renounced his former  
position and became an enthusiastic     
investigator and exponent of these      
pictures4 ,m4 ,breuil1 who had          
discovered wall-pictures1 including     

those  of the mammoth1 in ,french caves1
 and had been met by disbelief and  even
 suspicion1 now received due            
recognition1 and joined ,cartailhac  in 
preparing a complete account of the wall
 and roof pictures of the  ,altamira    
cave4 ,the ,prince of ,monaco1 who had  
carried out1 with the  aid of ,french   
experts1 an investigation of the caves  
on his property  at ,mentone1 on the    
,mediterranean ,riviera1 undertook the  
expense  of producing a splendid volume1
 giving coloured reproductions of  the  
,altamira pictures4 ,to him the world is
 indebted1 not only for  most important 
discoveries of human skeletons and      
objects of human  workmanship in the    
caves of ,mentone 7there are no         
wall-pictures  there71 but for the      
publication in illustrated form of the  
,mentone  discoveries and of those      
obtained in the ,altamira cave4 ,he has 
not  rested at this stage of            
accomplishment1 but has produced at his 
own  expense large volumes by ,,mm4     

,breuil1 ,capitan1 and ,peyrony1        
illustrating  and describing the        
discoveries made by them of             
wall-paintings and  engravings of       
animals in the cave known as the ,font  
de ,gaume1 in  the ,dordogne4 ,the      
,prince has also published a volume1 by 
,,mm4 ,breuil1  de ,rio1 and ,sierra1   
reproducing the drawings found in a     
whole series  of caves and rock-shelters
 in various parts of the ,spanish       
peninsula1  where the rock-painting race
 seems to have persisted to a somewhat  
later period and to have painted1 more  
frequently1 pictures of human  beings as
 well as of animals4 ,these1 whilst less
 artistic and truthful  than those of   
the ,north ,spanish and ,south ,french  
area1 yet have  surpassing interest1    
since they have special similarity to   
ancient  rock-paintings found in ,north 
,africa and to the rock-paintings of the
  ,bushmen of ,south ,africa4    ,the   
,prince of ,monaco has finally          
established the great study in which  he

 has played so valuable a part by       
founding in ,paris an ,institute of     
,human ,palontology2 that is1 of the    
study of prehistoric man1 which  he has 
endowed with a magnificent building1    
comprising laboratories  and residences 
for professors1 together with funds to  
pay for its  maintenance and the proper 
publication of results4 ,this he has    
done in  addition to founding entirely  
at his own expense a similarly complete 
,institute for the study of             
oceanography-the study of the living    
contents and history of the great seas4 
,the illustrations in this chapter are  
7with the exception of ,fig4 #g7        
copies1 greatly reduced in size1 of     
faithful representations of the  great  
hairy elephant or mammoth which still   
survived in southern ,france  in the    
days when the caves were occupied and   
decorated by men4 ,i am  indebted to the
 valuable little book ,repertoire de    
l',art ,quatermaire1  by ,m4 ,salomon   
,reinach1 for these outlines carefully  

drawn by him from  various large        
illustrations by the use of a tracing   
and reducing  instrument4 ,in the next  
chapter ,i have given examples from the 
same  source of similar drawings of     
other animals4    ,there are five kinds 
of artistic work of ,palolithic age     
found in the  caverns of ,france and    
,spain2 namely 7#a7 small solid carvings
 7complete  all round7 in bone1 ivory1  
or stone2 7#b7 small engravings in sunk 
outline on similar material1 rarely with
 relief of the outlined figure2  7#c7   
large stone statues1 #b ft4 to #f ft4   
across1 in high relief1 with  complete  
modelling of the visible surface2 7#d7  
rock engravings and  paintings on the   
walls and roofs of caverns or rock      
shelters1 often  partly outlined by     
engraving and scraping of the surface1  
and then  completed in black or red     
paint or in several colours 7black1 red1
  yellow1 white72 they are of large     
size1 from #b to #e ft4 in cross        
measurement2 7#e7 models in clay1 one   

side only shown1 the other resting  on  
rock2 a few incomplete clay models of   
this nature representing the  bison of  
about #b ft4 in length1 have recently   
been discovered in one  of the ,french  
caverns1 and are the only examples of   
modelling in clay  by the ,palolithic   
men yet discovered4    ,illustration3   
,,fig4 #h4-,outline engravings of       
mammoths on the wall of  the cavern     
known as the ,font de ,gaume1 near      
,eyzies 7,dordogne74 ,each  figure is   
about #b ft4 long4    ,our figures of   
the mammoth are 7excepting ,fig4 #g7 all
 of the  fourth class-namely1           
rock-paintings in one colour 7black or  
red7  partly engraved and scraped4 ,the 
originals are from #a ft4 to #b  ft4    
long4 ,the mammoths given in ,fig4 #h   
are carefully copied from  engravings   
discovered1 reproduced1 and described by
 ,m4 ,breuil and his  fellow-workers4   
,they are on the walls of the cavern    
known as the ,font  de ,gaume1 in the   
commune of ,tayac in the ,dordogne4     

,those copied in  ,fig4 #i and ,fig4    
#aj1 ,a1 were discovered on the walls of
 the cave of ,les  ,combarelles in the  
same district4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#i4-,similar engravings from the        
neighbouring cave of  ,combarelles4 ,the
 lower figure is an enlargement of the  
smaller of the  two above it4    ,fig4  
#aj1 ,b1 is from a cave at ,bernifal1   
near les ,eyzies1 in the  ,dordogne1 and
 shows a mammoth enclosed in a          
triangular design1 which is  believed to
 represent a trap1 or else a cage4 ,such
 triangular figures  with upright and   
also bent supports are found in various 
degrees of  elaboration on both small   
and large engravings of this period1 and
 are  generally accepted as representing
 huts or enclosures supported by  wooden
 poles4 ,they are called tectiforms by  
the ,french explorers4    ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #aj4-;,a1 similar engraving from
 the cave of  ,combarelles4 ,b1 ,mammoth
 enclosed by plank-like                 
structure-supposed to  be either a cage 

or a trap4 7,called tectiform           
structures1 and often  seen in these    
wall engravings47 ,from the cave of     
,bernifal1 five miles  from ,eyzies4    
,the bones and teeth of the mammoth are 
very common in the river  gravels and   
clays of ,western ,europe and ,england1 
and a complete skull1  with its tusks1  
dug up at ,ilford1 in the east of       
,london1 is in the  ,natural ,history   
,museum4 ,frozen carcasses of this      
animal are found in  ,northern ,siberia1
 and two showing much of the skin and   
hair are in  the museum of ,petrograd4  
,there is no tradition or knowledge of  
the  mammoth among living races of men4 
,the natives of ,siberia1 who have  from
 time immemorial done a large trade in  
the ivory1 regard the tusks  as horns1  
and have stories about the ghosts of the
 mammoth1 but no  tradition of it as a  
living beast4 ,the mammoth was closer to
 the ,indian  elephant of to-day than to
 the ,african one4 ,it had1 as these    
drawings  show1 a pelt of long hair4    

,indian elephants from upland regions   
often  have a good deal of hair all over
 the body3 and the newborn young of     
both the ,indian and ,african elephant  
has a complete coat of hair4 ,the       
drawings here reproduced are not only of
 thrilling interest because  they are   
the work of remotely ancient men who    
lived with and observed  mammoths in the
 south of ,france1 but also because they
 show an  extraordinary skill in        
sketching-in giving the essential lines 
of the  creature portrayed and in       
reproducing the artist's impression4    
,these  artists were impressionists-the 
earliest and most sincere-without       
self-consciousness or other purpose than
 that of making line and colour  truly  
register and indicate their vivid       
impressions4 ,it is interesting  to note
 that 7as in other works of art showing 
true artistic gift7  actual error in    
drawing 7for instance1 in the size and  
shape of  the eye and the placing of the
 two tusks on the same side of the      

trunk-possibly due to the unfinished    
state of the drawing7 sometimes         
accompanies the most penetrating        
observation and skilful delineation of  
the characteristic form and pose of the 
animal4 ,probably mammoths were  getting
 rare in the south of ,france when these
 drawings were made1 and  were not so   
familiar in all their details to the    
artist as were bison1  horse1 and deer4 
,,chapter ,,iii    ,,the ,,art ,,of     
,,prehistoric ,,men      ,the works of  
art produced by the cave-men are1 as we 
have already  seen1 of five kinds or    
classes-7#a7 ,all-round small           
statuettes1 or  high-relief carvings1 in
 ivory1 bone1 or stone 7examples of     
which are  shown in ,figs4 #ad1 #be1    
#bf1 #bg1 #bh of the present chapter72  
7#b7 small  engravings on bits of ivory1
 deer's antler1 bone1 or stone 7examples
  are shown in ,figs4 #ae1 #af1 #bj1 and
 #bd72 7#c7 large statues1 hewn in      
rock1 and left in place2 7#d7 drawings  
of large size-two to five feet in       

diameter 7partly engraved and partly    
coloured7 on the rocky walls and  vaults
 of limestone caverns 7shown in ,figs4  
#aa1 #ab1 #ac1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bc1  as  
well as in the figures of mammoths in   
the last chapter72 7#e7 models  7high   
relief7 worked in clay4 ,i give         
reproductions in the present  chapter of
 several samples of this art1 showing   
how skilfully these men  of #ej1jjj     
years ago could portray a variety of    
animals4    ,who were these men1 and why
 did they make these remarkable carvings
  and drawings8 ,first1 as to their age4
 ,we now know of a long succession  of  
human inhabitants of this part of the   
world1 namely1 ,western  ,europe4 ,the  
earliest reach back to an antiquity     
never dreamed of fifty  years ago4 ,we  
cannot fix with any certainty the number
 of thousands1  or hundreds of          
thousands1 of years which is represented
 by this  succession1 but we can place  
the different periods in order1 one     
later  than the other1 each             

distinguished chiefly by the character  
of the  workmanship belonging to it1    
though in a few instances we have also  
the actual limb-bones1 skulls1 and      
jaw-bones of the men themselves1  which 
differ in different periods4 ,it is     
practically certain that these          
prehistoric successive periods of       
humanity do not represent the steps  of 
growth and change of one single race    
belonging to this part of the  world1   
but that successive races have arrived  
on the scene of ,western  ,europe from  
other parts1 and it is usually very     
difficult even to guess  where they came
 from and where they went to6    ,it is 
convenient to divide the human epoch1   
the time which has elapsed  since man   
definitely took shape as                
man-characterized by his large  brain1  
small teeth1 upright carriage1 and large
 opposable thumb and  still larger and  
more peculiar non-opposable great       
toe-into the  historic and the          
prehistoric sections4 ,in this part of  

the world  7,europe7 the first use of   
metals 7first of all copper1 then       
bronze1  and then iron71 as the material
 for the fabrication of implements and  
tools of all kinds1 occurs just on the  
line between the historic and  the      
prehistoric sections2 that is to say1   
between those times of which  we know   
something by tradition and writing1 and 
those earlier times  of which we have no
 record and no tradition1 but concerning
 which we  have to make out what we can 
by searching the refuse heaps and ruins 
of man's dwelling-places and carefully  
collecting such of his works  as have   
not utterly perished1 whilst noting     
which lie deeper in the  ground1 which  
above and which below the others4       
,practically the men of the prehistoric 
ages in ,europe had not the use  of     
metals 7though our quasi-historical     
records go back to a less remote  time  
in many parts of ,europe than they do in
 ,greece1 ,assyria1 and  ,egypt74 ,the  
prehistoric peoples are spoken of as the

 men of the ,stone  ,age1 because they  
used stone1 chiefly flint1 as many      
savage races do  to-day1 as the material
 from which they fabricated by means of 
deftly  struck blows all sorts of       
implements4 ,undoubtedly they also1 by  
aid of  stone knives1 saws and planes1  
made weapons and other implements of    
wood and of the horns1 bones1 and teeth 
of animals4 ,but these latter           
substances are perishable1 and have only
 been preserved from decay  under       
special circumstances1 such as their    
inclusion in the deposits on  the floors
 of caverns4    ,the ,stone ,age is     
itself readily and obviously divisible  
into two  periods4 ,the latter is a     
comparatively very short and recent     
period1  when great skill in chipping   
flints and other stones was attained1   
and the implements so shaped were often 
rubbed on large stones of  very hard    
material 7siliceous grit71 so as to     
polish their surfaces4  ,this is the    
,neolithic1 or later ,stone1 period1 and

 extends back  in ,europe certainly to  
#gjjj ,b4,c41 and probably a few        
thousand years  further4 ,passing       
further back than this1 we leave what   
are called  recent deposits1 and come to
 those associated with great changes  of
 the earth's surface4 ,we enter upon    
geological time1 and vastly  changed    
climatic and geographical conditions4   
,we are in the older ,stone  period1    
called the ,palolithic period4 ,it is   
not really comparable  to the           
,neolithic1 since it comprises many     
successive ages of man1  and1 although  
called the ,palolithic or ancient ,stone
 period1 has  no unity1 but1 whilst     
readily divisible into several          
sub-periods or  epochs of comparatively 
late date1 stretches back into immense  
geologic  antiquity indicated by flint  
implements of special and diverse types1
  which are found in definitely         
ascertained geologic horizons4    ,the  
,pleistocene strata-the latest of the   
geologists' list-are the  river gravels 

of existing river valleys1 the deposits 
in many caves1  and the sands and clays 
piled up by ice action during the       
repeated  glacial extensions or epochs  
of glaciation which alternated with     
milder  climate for many thousands of   
years over north and middle ,europe4 ,it
  is identical with the ,palolithic     
period1 which1 however1 probably        
extends beyond it into the ,pliocene and
 even further back4 ,in the  later      
deposits of the ,pleistocene1 which     
necessarily have been less  frequently  
disturbed and re-deposited than the     
older ones1 we find  more numerous      
remains of man's handwork1 and in less  
disturbed order  of succession1 than in 
the older deposits4 ,lately we have     
obtained in  ,east ,anglia              
beautifully-worked flint implements-the 
rostro-carinate1 or  eagle's beaks-from 
below shelly marine deposits-the ,red   
,crag of ,suffolk  and the ,norwich     
,crag-the oldest beds of the            
,pleistocene4 ,they were made  by men   

who lived in the ,pliocene period1 and  
carry the ancient ,stone  period of man 
back to a much earlier period than was  
admitted nine  years ago4    ,the       
,pleistocene series or system of        
strata-also called the  ,quaternary to  
mark its distinction from the underlying
 long series  of ,tertiary strata-does  
not comprise the actual surface-deposits
  in which the remains of ,neolithic man
 are found4 ,it is usual1 though        
perhaps not altogether logical1 to      
separate these as ,recent and  to begin 
the long enumeration of geologic strata 
after a certain  interval when the      
relative levels of land and sea and the 
depth of  river-valleys were not        
precisely what they are to-day1 and the 
human  inhabitants of ,western ,europe  
were hunters using rough unpolished     
flint  implements-in fact1 when the     
,palolithic period of human culture had 
not given place to the ,neolithic1 which
 was after some ten thousand  years     
itself to be superseded by the age of   

metals4 ,prehistorians1  the students of
 prehistoric man-divide the ,pleistocene
 series of  deposits with a view to a   
systematic conception of the successive 
changes of man and his surroundings     
during the period occupied by  their    
deposition1 into an upper1 a middle and 
a lower group-and  further have         
distinguished certain successive        
horizons in these  groups-characterized 
by the remains of man and animals which 
they  contain4 ,they are exhibited in   
the tabular statement here given in  the
 ascertained order of their succession1 
and are represented in the  southern    
part of ,britain as well as in ,france4 
,,horizons ,,or ,,epochs ,,of ,,the     
,,pleistocene ,,or ,,quaternary ,,system
         ,a4 ,,upper ,,pleistocene      
7post-glacial2 also called epoch of the 
,reindeer74         #a4 ,the ,azilian3  
7,elapho-,tarandian of ,piette7 nearest 
to             the ,neolithic section of
 the ,recent ,period and more or less   
transitional to that period2 named after

 the cavern of the             ,mas     
d',azil in the department of the ,arige4
 ,the ,reindeer had             largely 
given place to the great ,red ,deer     
7,cervus elephus74         #b4 ,the     
,magdelenian3 named after the cave of   
,la ,madeleine in the                   
,dordogne4         #c4 ,the ,solutrian3 
after ,solutr near ,macon4         #d4  
,the ,aurignacian3 after the grotto of  
,aurignac in the ,haute                 
,garonne4           ,b4 ,,middle        
,,pleistocene 7period of the last great 
extension of       glaciers74           
#a4 ,the ,moustierian3 so named after   
the cave of ,le ,moustier in            
,dordogne2 the epoch of the ,neander    
men4 ,also called the             epoch 
of the ,mammoth1 whilst the upper       
,pleistocene is             called the  
epoch of the ,reindeer1 though the      
,mammoth still             survived then
 in reduced numbers4           ,c4      
,,lower ,,pleistocene 7inter-glacial and
 early glacial1 also             called 

period of the ,hippopotamus and of      
,elephas antiquus             and       
,rhinoceros ,merckii74         #a4 ,the 
,chellian3 named after ,chelles on the  
upper ,seine1 river             gravels 
and sands earlier than the ,moustierian4
 ,large             tongue-shaped flint 
implements1 flaked on both surfaces-the 
later and better-finished classed as    
,acheulan1 after ,st4                   
,acheul1 near ,amiens4         #b1 #c1  
#d 444 various fluviatile and lacustrine
 gravels1 sands and             clays   
divisible into separate successive      
horizons1 as well             as marine 
deposits1 some of glacial               
origin-including the                    
mid-glacial gravel1 the boulder clays   
and shelly ,red ,crag             and   
,norwich ,crag 7but not the underlying  
,coralline ,crag1             which must
 be classed with the ,pliocene74 ,the   
relations of             the marine     
deposits to the older river-gravels and 
fresh-water deposits1 and to the earlier

 periods of glacial                     
extension indicated by the glacial      
moraines of central             ,europe1
 have not been1 as yet1 satisfactorily  
determined4    ,the amount of the       
sedimentary deposits of the earth's     
crust belonging  to the ,pleistocene or 
,quaternary ,period-about #bej feet in  
thickness-is  exceedingly small1 and    
represents a surprisingly short space of
 time  as compared with that indicated  
by the vast thickness of underlying     
deposits4 ,it has nevertheless been     
possible to study and classify  the     
horizons of this latest very short      
period minutely because the  deposits   
are easily excavated1 and having been   
more recently laid  down have not       
suffered so much subsequent breaking up 
and destruction  as have the older      
strata2 and further1 because they embed 
at certain  levels and in favourable    
situations an abundance of              
well-preserved  bones and teeth of      
animals and the implements and carvings 

in stone and  bone made by man4 ,it is  
worth while to look at this matter a    
little  more exactly4    ,the total     
thickness of sedimentary deposits-that  
is1 deposit laid down  by the action of 
water on the earth's surface1 and now   
estimated by  the measurement of strata 
lying one over the other in various     
parts of  the globe-tilted and exposed  
to view so that we can trace out their  
order of super-position-is about        
#acj1jjj feet4 ,the lower half of this  
huge deposit contains no fossilized     
remains of the living things  which were
 present in the waters which laid it    
down2 they were soft1  probably         
shell-less and boneless1 and so no      
fossilized trace of them  is preserved4 
,thus we divide the sedimentary crust   
into #fe1jjj feet of  archaic           
non-fossiliferous deposit1 and an       
overlying #fe1jjj feet of               
fossil-containing deposits4    ,the     
earliest remains of living things known 
are not very different  from marine     

creatures of to-day2 they are the       
strange shrimp-like  ,trilobites and the
 ,lingula-shells found in the lower     
,cambrian rocks of  ,wales4 ,over them  
lie #fe1jjj feet of sedimentary deposit 
teaming with  fossils-the petrified     
remains of animals and plants4 ,the     
,trilobites  and the ,lingulas must have
 had a long series of ancestors leading 
up to  them from the simplest beginnings
 of life-for they are highly organized  
creatures4 ,but no trace of those       
ancestors is preserved in the #fe1jjj   
feet of sedimentary rock underlying the 
earliest fossils4    ,this great basal  
mass of non-fossiliferous deposit is    
called the  ,archan series4 ,the #fe1jjj
 feet of deposit above it are divided by
  geologists into three very unequal    
series4 ,the first and lowest is the    
,primary or ,palozoic series1 occupying 
the enormous thickness of #eb1jjj  feet2
 above these we have the ,secondary or  
,mesozoic series of #aj1jjj  feet1 and  
lastly1 bringing us to recent time1 we  

have the ,tertiary or  ,cainozoic of    
only #cjjj feet4 ,these three series    
amount in all to #fe1jjj  feet4 ,the    
,palozoic series is more than five times
 as thick as the  ,mesozoic1 and these  
two taken together are twenty times the 
thickness  of the ,tertiary4 ,each      
series is divided by geologists into a  
series  of systems1 distinguished by the
 fossils they contain1 which1 on the    
whole1 indicate animals of a higher     
degree of evolution as we ascend  the   
series4    ,the ,palozoic series include
 the vast thicknesses of the ,cambrian1 
the  ,ordovician1 the ,silurian1        
,devonian1 ,carboniferous and ,permian  
systems4  ,the first trilobite is found 
in the lowest ,cambrian rocks1 and the  
last or most recent existed in the      
,permian period-after #ej1jjj feet  of  
rock had been deposited4 ,none are known
 of later age4 ,the first  fossil       
remains of a vertebrate are found in the
 uppermost beds of  the ,silurian-in    
beds 7that is to say1 stratified rocks7 

which are  just half-way in position so 
far as the measurable thickness of the  
deposits are concerned1 between the     
earliest ,cambrian fossils and the      
sediments of the present day4 ,to put it
 another way1 #cd1jjj feet of           
fossiliferous rock precede the stratum  
7upper ,silurian7 in which the  earliest
 remains of vertebrates are found4      
,these first vertebrates to  appear     
7others soft and destructible preceded  
them7 are fishes-a group  which1 apart  
from this fact1 are shown by their      
structure to present  the ancestral form
 of all the vertebrate classes4 ,in     
later ,palozoic  beds we find the       
remains of four-legged creatures like   
our living newts  and salamanders4 ,the 
,secondary or ,mesozoic series is       
divided into the  ,triassic1 ,jurassic  
and ,cretaceous systems4 ,it ends with  
the familiar  chalk deposit of this part
 of the world1 and is often called the  
age  of ,reptiles1 because large        
reptiles abounded in this period4 ,the  

,tertiary or ,cainozoic series are      
divided into the ,eocene1 ,oligocene1   
,miocene1 ,pliocene and ,pleistocene    
systems4 ,the huge reptiles disappear   
and their place is taken by an endless  
variety of warm-blooded1 hairy          
animals-the ,mammals-small at first1 but
 in later beds often of great  size4 ,as
 we pass upwards from the ,eocene we can
 trace the ancestry of  our living      
,mammals such as the horse1 rhinoceros1 
pig and elephant in  successive forms4  
,complete skeletons are preserved in the
 rocks and  show a gradual transition   
from the more primitive ,eocene         
kinds-through  ,miocene and ,pliocene   
modifications-until in the ,pleistocene 
strata  many of the species now         
inhabiting the earth's surface are      
found4 ,a  number of horizons1          
characterized by the special mammalian  
and other  animal remains preserved in  
them1 are distinguished by geologists in
  each of the systems of sands1 clays   
and harder beds known as ,eocene1       

,oligocene1 ,miocene and ,pliocene4 ,at 
last we arrive at the latest  or most   
recent #bej feet of deposit1 consisting 
of sand1 clay and  gravel4 ,this is     
called ,pleistocene4 ,it is only a very 
small fraction  7_/th7 of the thickness 
of the whole fossil-bearing sedimentary 
crust of the earth-about the proportion 
of the thickness of a common            
paving-stone to the whole height of     
,shakespeare's cliff at ,dover4 ,this   
,pleistocene or post-glacial            
,tertiary-often now called              
,quaternary-has  been so carefully      
examined that we divide it as shown on  
page #ci into  upper1 middle and lower1 
and each of these divisions into        
successive  horizons 7only a few feet   
thick7 characterized by the remains of  
different species of animals and often  
by the differing implements and         
carvings as well as the bones of        
successive races of men4    ,when we are
 concerned with written history1 ancient
 ,egypt seems to  be of vast and almost 

appalling antiquity2 on the other hand1 
if we  study the cave-men1 ancient      
,egypt becomes relatively modern1 and   
the  first cold period and extension of 
glaciers1 which #ejj1jjj years ago      
marked the passage from ,pliocene to    
,pleistocene1 becomes our familiar      
example of something belonging to the   
remote past-beyond or below  which we   
rarely let our thoughts wander4 ,that is
 a natural result of  concentration on a
 special study4 ,but it has had the     
curious result1  in many cases1 of      
making students of ancient man unwilling
 to admit  the discovery of evidences of
 the existence of man at an earlier date
  than that which belongs to the        
deposits and remains to which their     
life-long studies have been confined and
 upon which their thought is            
concentrated4 ,the last #ejj1jjj years  
of the earth's vicissitudes1 which      
resulted in the #bej feet of            
,pleistocene deposit and the marvellous 
treasures of early humanity embedded in 

them1 form but a trivial  postscript to 
the great geological record which       
precedes it4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#aa4-;,horse 7wall engraving71 cave of  
,marsoulas1  ,haute ,garonne4 ,the      
drawing suggests the ,southern less     
heavy breed as  compared with ,figs4 #ab
 and #ac4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#ab4-;,horse 7wall engraving7 outlined  
in black1 cave  of ,niaux 7,arige74     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4-;,horses3 ,a1
 wall engraving 7cave of ,hornos de  la 
,pna74 ,b1 wall engraving from cavern of
 ,combarelles4 ,c1 engraved  on reindeer
 antler 7,mas d',azil74 ,note the halter
 in ,a and in ,c2  also note the heavy  
head and face of ,b like that of        
,prejalvski's  horse4    ,no estimate   
can be made of the time represented by  
the #fe1jjj feet  of fossiliferous      
strata known to us and the same         
thickness of  non-fossiliferous deposit 
which precedes them4 ,there are no facts
 known  upon which a calculation of the 
related lapse of time can be based4     

,but most geologists would agree that   
whilst we have good ground for          
assigning half a million years to the   
formation of the ,pleistocene  strata1  
it is not an unreasonable supposition   
that the period required  for the       
formation of the fossiliferous rocks    
which precede them in  time1 is not less
 and probably more than five hundred    
million years4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#ad4-;,drawing 7of the actual size of   
the original7  of a flat carving in     
shoulder-bone of a horse's head1 showing
 twisted  rope-bridle and trappings4 a  
appears to represent a flat ornamented  
band of wood or skin connecting the     
muzzling rope b with other pieces  c and
 d4 ,this specimen is from the cave of  
,st4 ,michel d',arudy1 and  is of the   
,reindeer period4 ,this1 and others like
 it are in the same  museum of ,st4     
,germain4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#ae4-;,drawing 7of the actual size of   
the original7 of  a fully rounded       
carving in reindeer's antler of the head

 of a neighing  horse4 ,the head        
resembles that of the ,mongolian horse4 
,this is one of  the most artistic of   
the cave-men's carvings yet discovered4 
,it is of  the ,palolithic age 7early   
,reindeer period71 probably not less    
than  #ej1jjj years old4 ,it was found  
in the cavern of ,mas d',azil1 ,arige1  
,france1 and is now in the museum of    
,st4 ,germain4    ,the pictures and     
carvings with which we are for the      
moment concerned  all belong to the     
later ,pleistocene or ,reindeer epoch4  
,none have been  found in the middle and
 earlier ,pleistocene1 though           
finely-chipped  flints of several       
successive types are found in those     
earlier beds4  ,so that it is clear that
 many successive ages of man had elapsed
  in ,western ,europe before these      
pictures-immensely ancient as they      
are-were executed4 ,the men who made    
these works of art had ages of          
humanity1 tradition1 and culture 7of a  
kind7 behind them4 ,yet they  were      

themselves tens of thousands of years   
earlier than the ancient  ,egyptians6   
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4-,reindeer    
engraving on schist1 small size  7cavern
 of ,laugerie basse74    ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #ag4-,rhinoceros in red outline  
7#b feet long71  drawn on the wall of   
the cavern of ,font de ,gaume4    ,our  
illustrations show a variety of drawings
 and carvings4 ,it appears  probable    
that the primitive intention of ancient 
man in depicting  animals was to work   
magic on those which he hunted4 ,this is
 the case  at the present day among many
 savage races4 ,the drawings of bisons  
in ,fig4 #ai are from the walls of the  
cavern of ,font de ,gaume1 in the       
,dordogne1 and are about #e ft4 long1   
partly engraved and scraped1 partly     
outlined in black1 and coloured4 ,the   
body is often coloured in red1  white   
and black1 so as to give a true         
representation of the masses  of hair   
and surface contours4 ,a specially well 
preserved painting of  this kind-from   

the cavern of ,altamira-is shown in     
,fig4 #ah1 where the  colours of the    
original-black1 red1 and brown1 and     
white are indicated  by the varied      
shading4 ,these drawings1 like those of 
the mammoths  figured in the last       
chapter1 are found in the recesses of   
caverns where  no daylight reaches them1
 and must have been executed and viewed 
by  aid of torch or lamp-light4 ,they   
probably were exhibited as part of a    
ceremony connected with witchcraft and  
magic4 ,these1 like the mammoths  and   
all the specimens figured here1 were    
executed in the ,reindeer1  or later    
,pleistocene period4 ,the exact horizon 
of each is1 as a  rule1 well            
ascertained1 but there is uncertainty as
 to whether some  specimens should be   
attributed to the ,aurignacian or to the
 ,magdalenian  horizon-and as to whether
 work by men of the ,magdalenian race is
 not  in some cases associated in the   
cave deposits with that by the earlier  
negroid ,aurignacians4    ,illustration3

 ,,fig4 #ah4-;,bison from the roof of   
the cavern of ,altamira3  engraved1 and 
also painted in three colours 7#e feet  
long74    ,illustration3 ,,fig4         
#ai4-;,bison3 wall engravings 7#e feet  
long7 filled in  with colour 7,font de  
,gaume74    ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#bj4-;,bear3 engraved on stalagmite1    
from the cave of  ,teyjat near ,eyzies4 
7,small size47    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 
#ba4-;,bear1 engraved on stone1 ,massol 
7,arige74    ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#bb4-,wolf1 engraved on wall of the cave
 of  ,combarelles4    ,illustration3    
,,fig4 #bc4-,wall engraving of a ,cave  
,lion 7,combarelles74    ,the horses    
shown are from various caves4 ,fig4 #ab 
is drawn in black on  the wall of a cave
 at ,niaux 7,arige71 and ,fig4 #aa is a 
similar drawing  from a cave in the     
,haute ,garonne4 ,both are remarkable   
for the exact  representation of natural
 poses of the horse4 ,figs4 #ac1 ,a and 
,b1 are  also from the walls of caves4  
,the latter is remarkable for the large 

head1 short mane1 and thick muzzle1     
which closely correspond with the  same 
parts in the existing wild horse of the 
,gobi desert in ,tartary 7to  be seen   
alive in the ,zoological ,gardens in    
,london74 ,the horse drawn in  ,fig4 #aa
 seems to belong to a distinct race1    
suggesting the ,southern  ,arab horse   
rather than the heavier and more clumsy 
horse of the ,gobi  desert4 ,fig4 #ac1  
,c1 is engraved of the size here given1 
on a piece of  reindeer's antler4 ,it is
 remarkable for the halter-like ring    
around the  muzzle4 ,a similar cord or  
rope is seen in ,fig4 #ab and in ,fig4  
#ac1 ,a4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#bd4-;,goose3 small engraving on        
reindeer antler  7,gourdan74    ,the    
most remarkable horses' heads obtained  
are those drawn 7of the  actual size of 
the carvings7 in ,figs4 #ad and #ae4    
,fig4 #ad is from the  cave of ,st4     
,michael d',arudy1 engraved on a flat   
piece of shoulder-bone4  ,it shows what 
can only be interpreted as some kind of 

halter1 made  apparently of twisted rope
 7b1 c1 d71 disposed about the animal's 
head1 whilst a broad1 flat piece        
ornamented with angular marks is        
attached at the regions marked a4 ,this 
and other drawings similar  to ,fig4    
#ac1 ,c 7of which there are many71 go   
far to prove that these  early men had  
mastered the horse and put a kind of    
bridle on his head4  ,fig4 #ae is a     
solid all-round carving in reindeer's   
antler from the  cave of ,mas d',azil1  
,arige 7,france74 ,the original is of   
this size1 and  is supposed to be one of
 the oldest and yet is the most artistic
 yet  discovered1 and worthy to compare 
with the horses of the ,parthenon4      
,in ,fig4 #bj we have a wonderful       
outline of a bear engraved on a piece   
of stone1 from the cave of ,teyjat1 in  
the ,dordogne2 ,fig4 #bb1 the head  of a
 wolf on the wall of the cave of        
,combarelles1 ,dordogne2 ,fig4  #bc1    
lion 7mane-less71 engraved on the wall  
of the same cave2 ,fig4  #ba1 small     

bear1 engraved on a pebble2 ,fig4 #bd1 a
 duck engraved on a  piece of reindeer's
 antler 7,gourdan1 ,haute ,garonne72    
,fig4 #ag1 the  square-mouthed1         
two-horned rhinoceros1 drawn in red     
7ochre7 outline on  the wall of the     
cavern of the ,font de ,gaume4 ,this    
drawing is #b ft4  long4 ,in successful 
characterization the bear 7,fig4 #bj71  
the wolf 7,fig4  #bb71 and the feline   
7,fig4 #bc7 far surpass any of the      
attempts at animal  drawing made by     
modern savages1 such as the ,bushmen of 
,south ,africa1  ,californian ,indians1 
and ,australian black fellows4          
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4-;,female     
figure carved in oolitic limestone from 
,willendorf near ,krems1 ,lower ,austria
 7#aijh74 ,half the size 7linear7 of    
the original4    ,fig4 #bg is an outline
 sketch of a rock-carved statue1 #ah in4
 high1  proved by the kind of flint     
implements found with it to be of       
,aurignacian age4 ,it was discovered on 
a rubble-covered face of a  rock-cliff  

at ,laussel1 in the ,dordogne1 by ,m4   
,lalanne4 ,the woman  holds a bovine    
horn in her right hand4 ,the face is    
obliterated by  weathering4 ,four other 
human statues were found in the same    
place1  one a male1 much broken1 but    
obviously standing in the position taken
  by 7,fig4 #bh7 a man throwing a spear 
or drawing a bow4#c ,near these  were   
found a frieze of life-sized horses     
carved in high relief on the  rock4     
,these are the only statues of any size1
 executed by the ,reindeer  men1 yet    
discovered4    ,the representations of  
men are rare among these earliest works 
of art1  and less successfully carried  
out than those of animals4 ,but several 
small statuettes of women in bone1      
ivory1 and stone of the early           
,aurignacian horizon are known4 ,they   
suggest1 by their form of body1         
affinity with the ,bushmen race of      
to-day 7,fig4 #be74 ,the all-round      
carving of a female head 7,fig4 #bf7    
also suggests ,ethiopian affinities  in 

the dressing of the hair4 ,some regard  
this hair-like head-dress as  a cap4    
,here and there badly executed outline  
engravings of men1 some  apparently     
wearing masks1 have been discovered4    
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4-;,drawing 7of
 the actual size of the original7  of an
 ivory carving 7fully rounded7 of a     
female head4 ,the specimen  was found in
 the cavern of ,brassempouy1 in the     
,landes4 ,it is of the  earliest        
,reindeer period1 and the arrangement of
 the hair or cap is  remarkable4    ,the
 fact that the ,reindeer men were       
skilful in devising decorative          
design-not representing actual natural  
objects-is shown by the carving  drawn  
in ,fig4 #bi and in many others like it4
    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4-,seated  
figure of a woman holding a bovine horn 
in the right hand2 high relief carved on
 a limestone rock2 about #ah  inches    
high4 ,discovered at ,laussel           
7,dordogne7 in a rock-shelter in  #aiaa1
 by ,m4 ,lalanne4    ,illustration3     

,,fig4 #bh4-,male figure represented in 
the act of drawing  a bow or throwing a 
spear4 ,carved on limestone rock2 about 
#af inches  high4 ,discovered by ,m4    
,lalanne with that drawn in ,fig4 #bg4  
,the later horizons of the ,reindeer    
period or ,upper ,pleistocene yield     
some beautiful outline engravings of red
 deer and reindeer 7,fig4 #af7  on      
antler-bone1 as well as of other        
animals4 ,one celebrated carving ,i     
have described in the first chapter of  
this book4 ,it is now regarded  as      
probable that whilst the art of the     
,aurignacians persisted and  developed  
in the ,south of ,france and            
,north-,west of ,spain until and  during
 the time of the ,magdalenian horizon1  
yet a distinct race1  with a different  
style of art1 spread through            
,south-,east ,spain  and also from      
,italy into that region1 and affected   
injuriously the  naturalistic           
,aurignacian art1 and superseded it in  
,azilian and  ,neolithic times4 ,we find

 late drawings 7,azilian age87 in some  
of the  east ,spanish caves of a very   
much simplified character1 small human  
figures armed with bow and arrow1 and   
others reduced to geometric or  mere    
symbolic lines derived from human and   
animal form 7see ,fig4 #eb1 p4  #bjf74  
,the latest studies of ,breuil on this  
subject tend to throw light  by aid of  
these simplified inartistic and symbolic
 drawings on the  migrations of very    
early races in the south and south-east 
of ,europe1  and to connect them perhaps
 with ,north ,african contemporary      
races4 ,the  subject is as difficult as 
it is fascinating4 ,those who wish to   
get to  the original sources of         
information should consult the last ten 
years'  issues of the invaluable ,french
 periodical called ,l',anthropologie1   
edited by ,professor ,marcelin ,boule4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4-;,a piece of 
mammoth ivory carved with spirals  and  
scrolls from the cave of ,arudy 7,hautes
 ,pyrnes74 ,same size as the  object4   

,,footnote3    #c ,m4 ,reinach relates  
7,repertoire de l',art ,quatermaire7    
that two of  these statues were in #aiab
 deliberately stolen by the ,german     
,verworn  professor of ,physiology in   
,bonn1 who repaid the hospitality of ,m4
  ,lalanne by bribing his workman and   
secretly carrying off these valuable    
specimens to ,germany1 where 7it is     
stated7 they were sold to the museum  of
 ,berlin for a large sum4               
,,chapter ,,iv    ,,vesuvius ,,in       
,,eruption      ,at intervals of ten to 
twenty years the best-known volcano in  
the  world-,vesuvius1 on the ,bay of    
,naples-has in the last two centuries   
burst into eruption1 and the probability
 of the recurrence of this  violent     
state of activity1 at no distant date1  
render some account of  my own          
acquaintance with that great and        
wonderful thing seasonable4  ,we        
inhabitants of the ,west of ,europe have
 little personal experience  of         
earthquakes1 and still less of          

volcanoes1 for there is not in the      
,british ,islands even an extinct       
volcanic cone to remind us of the       
terrible forces held down beneath our   
feet by the crust of the earth4  ,in    
regions as near as the ,auvergne of     
,central ,france and the ,eiffel1  close
 to the junction of the ,moselle with   
the ,rhine1 there are complete  volcanic
 craters whose fiery origin is          
recognized even by the local  peasantry4
 ,they are1 however1 regarded by these  
optimist folk as the  products of       
ancient fires long since burnt out4 ,the
 natives have as  little apprehension of
 a renewed activity of their volcanoes  
as we have  of the outburst of molten   
lava and devastating clouds of ashes and
  poisonous vapour from the top of      
,primrose ,hill4 ,nevertheless1 the hot 
springs and gas issuing from fissures in
 the ,auvergne show that the            
subterranean fires are not yet closed   
down1 and may at any day burst  again   
into violent activity4    ,such also was

 the happy indifference with which from 
time immemorial  the ,greek colonists   
and other earlier and later inhabitants 
of the  rich and beautiful shores of the
 ,neapolitan bay before the fateful year
  ,a4,d4 #gi1 had regarded the low      
crater-topped mountain called ,vesuvius 
or ,vesbius1 as well as the great       
circular forest-grown or lake-holding   
cups near ,cum and the ,cape ,misenum1  
at the northern end of the  bay-known   
to-day as the ,solfatara1 ,astroni1     
,monti ,grillo1 ,barbaro1 and           
,cigliano-and the lakes ,lucrino1       
,averno1 and ,agnano4 ,these together   
with  the ,monte ,nuovo-which suddenly  
rose from the sea near ,bai in #aech and
  as suddenly disappeared-constitute the
 ,phlegran fields4 ,vesuvius was        
loftier than any one of the ,phlegran   
craters1 and the gentle slope  by which 
it rose from the sea level to a height  
of nearly #cgjj ft4  had1 as now1 a     
circumference of ten miles4 ,it did not 
terminate in a  cone1 as in later ages1 

but in a depressed1 circular1           
forest-covered  area measuring a mile   
across1 which was the ancient crater4 ,a
 drawing  showing the shape of the      
mountain at this period is the work of  
the  late ,prof4 ,phillips of ,oxford   
7,fig4 #cj74 ,the soil formed around and
  upon the ancient lava-streams of      
,vesuvius appears to have been always   
especially fertile1 so that flourishing 
towns and villages occupied  its slopes1
 and the ports of ,herculaneum1         
,pompeii1 and ,stabi were  the seats of 
a busy and long-established population4 
,the existence of  active volcanoes at  
no great distance from ,vesuvius was1   
however1 well  known to the ancient     
,greeks and ,romans4 ,the great         
,sicilian mountain1  ,etna-more than    
#aj1jjj ft4 in height1 rising from a    
base of ninety  miles in                
circumference-and the ,lipari ,islands1 
such as ,stromboli and  ,volcano1 were  
for many centuries in intermittent      
activity before the  first recorded     

eruption of ,vesuvius-that of ,a4,d4    
#gi-;and great eruptions  are recorded  
as having occurred in the mountain mass 
of the island of  ,ischia1 close to the 
,bay of ,naples1 in the fifth1 third1   
and first  centuries ,b4,c4             
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4-,vesuvius as 
it appeared before the eruption of      
,august #bd1 ,a4,d4 #gi4 ,from a sketch 
by ,prof4 ,phillips1 ,f4,r4,s4          
,nevertheless1 the outburst of ,vesuvius
 in ,a4,d4 #gi and its re-entrance  into
 a state of activity came upon the      
unfortunate population around it  as an 
absolutely unexpected thing4 ,at least a
 thousand years-probably  several       
thousand years-had passed since         
,vesuvius had become extinct4  ,all     
tradition of its prehistoric activity   
had disappeared1 though  the learned    
,greek traveller ,strabo had pointed out
 the indications  it presented of having
 been once a seat of consuming fire4    
,from  ,a4,d4 #fc there were during     
sixteen years frequent earthquakes in   

its  neighbourhood1 which1 as we know by
 records and inscriptions1 caused       
serious damage to the towns around it1  
and then suddenly1 on the night  of     
,aug4 #bd1 ,a4,d4 #gi1 vast explosions  
burst from its summit4 ,a huge  black   
cloud of fine dust and cinders1 lasting 
for three days1 spread  from it for     
twenty miles around1 streams of boiling 
mud poured down  its sides1 and in a few
 hours covered the city of ,herculaneum1
 whilst  a dense shower of hot volcanic 
dust completely buried the gay little   
seaside resort known as ,pompeii4 ,many 
thousand persons perished1  choked by   
the vapours or overwhelmed by the hot   
cinders or engulfed in  the boiling mud4
    ,the great naturalist ,pliny was in 
command of the fleet at ,cape ,misenum1 
and went by ship across the bay to      
render assistance to the inhabitants  of
 the towns at the foot of ,vesuvius4    
,pliny's nephew wrote two letters  to   
the historian ,tacitus1 giving an       
account of these events and of  the     

remarkable courage and coolness of his  
uncle1 who1 after sleeping  the night at
 ,stabi1 was suffocated by the          
sulphurous vapours as he  advanced into 
the open country near the volcano4 ,the 
friends who were  with him left him to  
his fate and made their escape4 ,the    
younger ,pliny  had prudently remained1 
out of danger1 with his mother at       
,misenum4    ,the alternating periods of
 activity and of rest exhibited by      
volcanoes  seem to us capricious1 and   
even at the present day are not         
sufficiently  well understood to enable 
us to discern any order or regularity in
  their succession4 ,vesuvius is a      
thousand centuries old1 and we have     
only known it for thirty4 ,we cannot    
expect to get the time-table of its     
activities on so brief an acquaintance4 
,strangely enough1 ,vesuvius1  having1  
after immemorial silence1 spasmodically 
burst into eruption  and spread         
devastation around it1 resumed its      
slumber for many years4  ,there is no   

mention of its activity for #acj years  
after ,a4,d4 #gi4 ,then  it growled and 
sent forth steam and cinder-dust to an  
extent sufficient  to attract attention 
again2 its efforts were thereafter      
recorded once  or so in a century1      
though little1 if any1 harm was done by 
it4 ,in ,a4,d4  #aaci there was a great 
throwing-up of dust and stones1 with    
steam1  which reflected the light of    
molten lava within the crater1 and      
looked  like flames4 ,and then for close
 on #ejj years there was little1 if any1
  sign of activity4 ,the eruptions      
between that of ,a4,d4 #gi and that of  
,a4,d4 #aaci had been ejections of steam
 and cinders1 unaccompanied by  any flow
 or stream of lava4 ,then suddenly the  
whole business shut up  for #ejj years1 
and after that-also quite suddenly-in   
#afca1 a really big  eruption took      
place1 exceeding in volume the          
catastrophe of ,pliny's  date4 ,not only
 were columns of dust and vapour ejected
 to a height of  many miles1 but several

 streams of white-hot lava overflowed   
the edge  of the crater and reached the 
seacoast1 destroying towns and villages 
on the way4 ,some of these lava-streams 
were five miles broad1 and can  be      
studied at the present day4 ,as many as 
#ah1jjj persons were killed4    ,there  
were three more eruptions in the        
seventeenth century1 and from  that date
 there set in a period of far more      
frequent outbursts1 which  have         
continued to our own times4 ,in the     
eighteenth century there were           
twenty-three distinct eruptions1 lasting
 each from a few hours to two  or three 
days1 and of varying degrees of         
violence-a vast steam-jet  forcing up   
cinders and stones from the crater into 
the air1 usually  accompanied by the    
outflow of lava1 from cracks in sides of
 the crater1  in greater or less        
quantity4 ,in the nineteenth century    
there were  twenty-five distinct        
eruptions1 the most formidable of which 
were those  of #ahbb1 #ahcd1 and #ahgb4 

,all of the eruptions of ,vesuvius in   
the last  #bhj years have been carefully
 described1 and most of them recorded   
in coloured pictures 7a favourite       
industry of the ,neapolitans71  showing 
the appearance of the active volcano    
both by day and night and  its change of
 shape in successive years4 ,sir        
,william ,hamilton1 the  ,british       
,ambassador at the ,court of ,naples at 
the end of the eighteenth  century 7of  
whose great folio volumes ,i am the     
fortunate possessor71  largely occupied 
himself in the study and description of 
,vesuvius1  and published illustrations 
of the kind mentioned above1 showing the
  appearance of the mountain at various 
epochs4 ,since his day there has  been  
no lack of descriptions of every        
succeeding eruption1 and now we  have   
the records of photography4    ,the     
crater or basin formed by a volcano     
starts with the opening  of a fissure in
 the earth's surface communicating by a 
pipe-like  passage with very            

deeply-seated molten matter and steam4  
,whether the  molten matter thus        
naturally tapped is only a local1 though
 vast1  accumulation1 or is universally 
distributed at a given depth below the  
earth's crust1 and at how many miles    
from the surface1 is not known4  ,it    
seems to be certain that the great      
pressure of the crust of the  earth     
7from five to twenty-five miles thick7  
must prevent the heated  matter below it
 from becoming either liquid or gaseous1
 whether the  heat of that mass be due  
to the cracking of the earth's crust and
 the  friction of the moving surfaces as
 the crust cools and shrinks1 or is  to 
be accounted for by the original high   
temperature of the entire mass  of the  
terrestrial globe4 ,it is only when the 
gigantic pressure is  relieved by the   
cracking or fissuring of the closed case
 called the  crust of the earth that the
 enclosed deep-lying matter of immensely
  high temperature liquefies1 or even   
vaporizes1 and rushes into the          

up-leading fissure4 ,steam and gas thus 
set free drive everything  before them1 
carrying solid masses along with them1  
tearing1 rending1  shaking the          
foundations of the hills1 and issuing in
 terrific  jets from the earth's        
surface1 as through a safety valve1 into
 the  astonished world above4 ,often in 
a few hours they choke their own path   
by the destruction they produce and the 
falling in of the walls of  their       
briefly-opened channels4 ,then there is 
a lull of hours1 days1  or even         
centuries1 and after that again1 a      
movement of the crust1 a  giving of the 
blockage of the deep1 vertical pipe1 and
 a renewed rush  and jet of expanding   
gas and liquefying rock4    ,the general
 scheme of this process and its         
relations to the structure  and         
properties of the outer crust and inner 
mass of the globe is  still a matter of 
discussion1 theory and verification2 but
 whatever  conclusions geologists may   
reach on these matters1 the main fact of

  importance is that steam and gases    
issue from these fissures with  enormous
 velocity and pressure1 and that a vent 
of this kind1  once established1        
continues1 as a rule1 to serve          
intermittently for  centuries1 and1     
indeed1 for vast periods to which we can
 assign no  definite limits4 ,the solid 
matter ejected becomes piled up around  
the vent as a mound1 its outline taking 
the graceful catenary curves  of rest   
and adjustment to which are due the     
great beauty of volcanic  cones4 ,the   
apex of the cone is blown away at       
intervals by the violent  blasts issuing
 from the vent1 and thus we have formed 
the crater1  varying in the area        
enclosed by its margin and in the depth 
and  appearance of the cup so produced4 
,at a rate depending on the amount  of  
solid matter ejected by the crater1 the 
mound will grow in the  course of time  
to be a mountain1 and often secondary   
craters or  temporary openings1         
connected at some depth with the main   

passage  leading to the central vent1   
will form on the sides of the mound or  
mountain4 ,sometimes the old crater will
 cease to grow in consequence  of the   
blocking of its central vent and the    
formation of one or more  subsidiary    
vents1 the activity of which may blast  
away or smother the  cup-like edge of   
the first crater4    ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #ca4-;,five successive stages in 
the change of form  of ,vesuvius 7after 
,phillips' ,vesuvius1 ,oxford1 #ahfi74  
,in the oldest  7lowest figure7 we see  
the mountain with its still earlier     
outline  completed by the cone drawn in 
dotted line4 ,within the period of      
historic record that cone had not been  
seen4 ,the mountain had1 so far  as men 
knew1 always been truncated as shown    
here and in ,fig4 #cj4 ,the  next figure
 above shows the further lowering of the
 mountain by the  first eruption on     
record-that which destroyed ,pompeii in 
,a4,d4 #gi4 ,the  commencing formation  
of a new ash-cone is indicated by a     

dotted line4  ,in the three upper       
figures we trace the gradual growth of  
the new cone  from #afca to #ahfh4 ,in  
#ahgb the top of the new ash-cone was   
blown away1  and the mountain reverted  
to the shape of #ahbb4 ,now 7#aibj7 the 
cone has  accumulated once more and is  
higher than it was in #ahfh4    ,such a 
history has been that of ,vesuvius shown
 in outline in ,fig4 #ca4  ,in geologic 
ages-perhaps some thousands of centuries
 ago-,vesuvius was  probably a perfect  
cone 7its outline is shown at the bottom
 of p4 #fb7  some #gjjj ft4 high1 rising
 by a characteristically accelerated    
upgrowth  from a circle of ten miles or 
more in diameter to its delicate central
  peak1 hollowed out at the summit by a 
small crater a couple of hundred  yards 
across4 ,its eruptions at that time were
 neither excessive nor  violent4 ,then  
came a period of greatly increased      
energy-the steam-jet  blew with such    
violence that it shattered and dispersed
 the cone1  lowering the mountain to    

#cgjj ft4 in height1 truncating it and  
leaving  a proportionately widened      
crater of a mile and a half in diameter4
  ,and then the mountain reposed for    
long centuries4 ,we do not know how     
long this period of extinction was1 for 
we do not know when it began1  but we   
know that this was the state of the     
mountain when in ,a4,d4 #gi  it once    
more burst into life4 ,in recent        
years-that is1 since the  seventeenth   
century ,a4,d41 a curious change took   
place in the mountain3  the vent or     
orifice of the conducting channel by    
which eruptive  matters were brought to 
the surface ceased to be in the centre  
of the  wide broken-down crater of      
,pliny's time1 and a vent was formed a  
few  hundred yards to the south of the  
centre of the old crater1 nearer to  the
 south side of the old crater's wall4   
,from this ashes or cinders  issued1 and
 were piled up to form a new cone1 which
 soon added #fjj ft4  to the height of  
the mountain and covered in the southern

 half of the  old crater's lip1 whilst  
leaving the northern half or semicircle 
free4  ,this latter uncovered part was  
called by the ,italians ,monte ,somma1  
and the new cone low down in the        
southern side of which the rest of  the 
old crater-lip could be traced1 was     
henceforth spoken of as the  ash-cone   
and sometimes misleadingly as the true  
,vesuvius4 ,clearly  it was not the true
 ,vesuvius since it was a new growth4   
,the original  old ,vesuvius was crowned
 by a crater formed by the cliffs of    
,monte  ,somma and their continuation   
round to the south side1 now more or    
less  completely concealed by the new   
ash-cone4    ,in the course of various  
eruptions during the last two centuries 
the  new ash-cone thus formed was blown 
away more or less completely1 and       
gradually grew up again4 ,during the    
nineteenth century it was a  permanent  
feature of the mountain1 though a good  
deal cut down in #ahbb1  and later grew 
so high as to give a total elevation    

from the sea-level  of #dcjj ft4 ,the   
crater at the top of the ash-cone has   
varied during  the past century in width
 and depth1 according to its building up
 or  blowing away by the central steam  
jet4 ,in #ahbb it is reported to have   
been funnel-like and #bjjj ft4 deep1    
tapering downwards to the narrow        
fissures which are the actual vent4 ,at 
other times it has been largely  filled 
by dbris1 and only #bjj ft4 deep4       
,molten lava has often issued  from     
fissures in the sides of the ash-cone1  
and even lower down on the  sides of the
 mountain1 and a very small secondary   
crater has sometimes  appeared on the   
side of the ash-cone #ajj ft4 or #bjj   
ft4 from the  terminal crater which     
finishes off the cone4    ,such was the 
condition of the mountain when ,i first 
saw it in the  autumn of #ahga4 ,six    
months later ,i witnessed the most      
violent eruption  of the nineteenth     
century4 ,vesuvius kept up a continuous 
roar like that  of a railway engine     

letting off steam when at rest in a     
covered station  only a thousandfold    
bigger4 ,its vibrations shook with a    
deep musical  note1 for twenty-four     
hours1 the house nine miles distant in  
,naples in  which ,i was staying4 ,my   
windows commanded a view of the         
mountain1 and  when the noise ceased and
 the huge steam-cloud cleared away1 ,i  
saw a  different ,vesuvius1 the higher  
part of the ash-cone was gone1 and a    
huge gap in it had been formed by the   
blowing away of its northern side4      
,in ,october #ahga1 when ,i joined my   
friend ,anton ,dohrn at ,naples in order
  to study the marine creatures of the  
beautiful bay1 ,vesuvius was in the     
proud possession of a splendid cone1    
completing its graceful outline4  ,a    
little steam-cloud hung about one side  
of the cone during the day1  and as     
night came on ,vesuvius used1 as we     
said1 to light his cigar4  ,in fact1 a  
very small quantity of molten lava was  
at that time flowing  from the side of  

the ash-cone1 about #ajj ft4 from its   
summit1 and this  gave a most           
picturesque effect as we watched it from
 our balcony high  up on ,pausilippo1   
when the sun set4 ,it was a friendly    
sort of beacon1  far away on the        
commanding mountain's top1 which was    
answered by the  lighting up of a       
thousand lamps along the coast1 and by  
innumerable  flaming faggots in the     
fishermen's boats moving across the bay1
 drawing  to their light strange fishes1
 to be impaled by the long tridents of  
the skilful spearmen4 ,that little      
beacon light on ,vesuvius increased  in 
volume in the course of three weeks1 and
 was supplemented by other  flaming     
streams and by showers of red-hot stones
 from the crater4 ,this  small eruption 
was the precursor by six months of the  
great eruption  of the end of ,april    
#ahgb1 and ,i spent a night on ,vesuvius
 during its  progress1 and looked into  
the crater from which the glowing masses
 of  rock were being belched forth4     

,not long before ,i went1 in #ahga1 to  
,naples ,i had spent some weeks in      
visiting the extinct volcanoes of the   
,auvergne and of the ,eiffel1 and  ,i   
was eager to examine the still living   
,vesuvius4 ,in the first week  of       
,october ,i made an excursion to the    
crater of ,vesuvius in company  with the
 son of a ,russian admiral1 whose name1 
,popoff1 was under the  circumstances   
unpleasantly suggestive4 ,we examined   
some black slaglike  masses of old      
lava-streams1 and struggled up the loose
 sandy ash-cone  7there was no funicular
 in those days71 and prodded with our   
sticks  the few yards of molten lava    
which emerged from the side of the cone 
about #ajj ft4 from the summit4 ,on     
,nov4 #a my friend ,anton ,dohrn 7who   
was  then negotiating with the ,naples  
,municipality for a site in the ,villa  
,nazionale on which to erect the great  
,zoological ,station and ,aquarium1  now
 so well known7 was with me and some    
,neapolitan acquaintances  looking at   

,vesuvius across the bay from           
,pausilippo1 where we had  established  
ourselves1 when we noticed that a long  
line of steam was  rising from the lower
 part of the ash-cone and that puffs of 
steam were  issuing at intervals from   
the crater4 ,dio mio6 ,dio di ,dio6     
cried the  ,neapolitans in terror1 and  
expressed their intention of leaving    
,naples  without an hour's delay4 ,as   
night fell a new glowing line of fire   
appeared far down near the base of the  
ash-cone1 whilst what looked  in the    
distance like sparks from a furnace1 but
 were really red-hot  stones-each as big
 as a ,gladstone bag-were thrown every  
two or three  minutes from the crater4  
,we hired a carriage1 drove to ,resina  
7built above buried ,herculaneum71  and 
walked up towards the ,observatory in   
order to spend the night  on the burning
 mountain4 ,we found that two white-hot 
streams1 each  about twenty yards broad 
at the free end1 were issuing from the  
base  of the cone4 ,the glowing stones  

thrown up by the crater were now        
separately visible2 a loud roar         
accompanied each spasmodic ejection4    
,the night was very clear1 and a white  
firmly-cut cloud1 due to the  steam     
ejected by the crater1 hung above it4   
,at intervals we heard a  milder        
detonation-that of thunder which        
accompanied the lightning which  played 
in the cloud1 giving it a greenish      
illumination by contrast with  the red  
flame colour reflected on to it by      
red-hot material within  the crater4    
,the flames attributed to volcanoes are 
generally of this  nature1 but actual   
flames do sometimes occur in volcanic   
eruptions by  the ignition of           
combustible gases4 ,the puffs of steam  
from the crater  were separated by      
intervals of about three minutes4 ,when 
an eruption  becomes violent they       
succeed one another at the rate of many 
in a  second1 and the force of the steam
 jet is gigantic1 driving a column  of  
transparent super-heated steam with such

 vigour that as it cools  into the      
condition of cloud an appearance like   
that of a gigantic  pine-tree seven     
miles high 7in the case of ,vesuvius7 is
 produced4    ,we made our way to the   
advancing end of one of the lava-streams
 7like  the snout of a glacier71 which  
was #bj ft4 high1 and moved forwards    
but slowly1 in successive jerks4 ,two   
hundred yards farther up1 where it      
issued from the sandy ashes1 the lava   
was white-hot and running like  water1  
but it was not in very great quantity   
and rapidly cooled on the  surface and  
became sticky4 ,a cooled skin of slag   
was formed in this  way1 which arrested 
the advancing stream of lava4 ,at       
intervals of a  few minutes this cooled 
crust was broken into innumerable       
clinkers by  the pressure of the stream1
 and there was a noise like the smashing
  of a gigantic store of crockery ware  
as the pieces or clinkers fell  over one
 another down the nearly vertical snout 
of the lava-stream1  whilst the red-hot 

molten material burst forward for a few 
feet1 but  immediately became again     
crusted over and stopped in its         
progress4  ,we watched the coming       
together and fusion of the two streams  
and the  overwhelming and burning up of 
several trees by the steadily1 though   
slowly1 advancing river of fire4 ,then  
we climbed up the ash-cone1  getting    
nearer and nearer to the rim of the     
crater1 from which showers  of glowing  
stones were being shot4 ,the deep roar  
of the mountain at  each effort was     
echoed from the cliffs of the ancient   
mother-crater1  ,monte ,somma1 and the  
ground shook under our feet as does a   
ship at  sea when struck by a wave4 ,the
 night was very still in the intervals4 
,the moon was shining1 and a weird      
melancholy ritornelle sung by  peasants 
far off in some village below us came to
 our ears with strange  distinctness4   
,it might have been the chorus of the   
imprisoned giants of  ,vulcan's forge as
 they blew the sparks with their bellows

 and shook the  mountains with the heavy
 blows of their hammers4    ,as we      
ascended the upper part of the cone the 
red-hot stones were  falling to our     
left1 and we determined to risk a rapid 
climb to the  edge of the crater on the 
right or southern side1 and to look into
 it4  ,we did so1 and as we peered into 
the great steaming pit a terrific  roar1
 accompanied by a shuddering of the     
whole mountain1 burst from it4          
,hundreds of red-hot stones rose in the 
air to a height of #djj ft41 and  fell1 
happily in accordance with our          
expectation1 to our left4 ,we ran       
quickly down the sandy side of the cone 
to a safe position1 about #cjj  ft4     
below the crater's lip1 and having lit  
our pipes from one of the  red-hot      
bombs1 rested for a while at a safe     
distance and waited for  the sunrise4 ,a
 vast horizontal layer of cloud had now 
formed below us1  and ,vesuvius and the 
hills around ,naples appeared as islands
 emerging  from a sea4 ,the brilliant   

sunlight was reassuring after this night
  of strange experiences4 ,the fields   
and lanes were deserted in the  early   
morning as we descended to the          
sea-level4 ,on our way we met a         
procession of weird figures clad in long
 white robes1 enveloping the  head      
closely but leaving apertures for the   
eyes4 ,they were a party of  the        
lay-brothers of the ,misericordia       
carrying a dead man to his grave4  ,then
 we found our carriage1 and drove       
quickly back to ,naples and sleep6      
,in the following ,march ,i acted as    
guide to my friend ,professor ,huxley   
in expeditions up ,vesuvius1 now        
quiescent1 and to the ,solfatara4 ,then 
suddenly1 in ,april1 the great eruption 
of #ahgb burst upon us4 ,on the  first  
day of the outbreak some imprudent      
visitors were killed by steam  and gas  
ejected by the lava-stream4 ,by the next
 day the violence of  the eruption was  
too great for any one to venture near   
it4 ,the crater  sent forth no          

intermittent puffs as in the preceding  
,november1 but  a continuously throbbing
 jet which produced a cloud five miles  
high1  like an enormous cauliflower in  
shape1 suspended above the mountain  and
 making it look by comparison like a    
mole-hill4 ,showers of fine  ashes1 as  
in the days of ,pompeii1 fell thickly   
around1 accumulating to  the depth of an
 inch in a few hours even at my house in
 ,pausilippo1  nine miles distant across
 the bay4 ,i was recovering at the time 
from an  attack of typhoid fever1 and   
lay in bed1 listening to the deep       
humming  sound and wondering at the     
darkness until my doctor came and told  
me  of the eruption4 ,i was able to get 
up and see from the window the  great   
cauliflower-like cloud and the vacant   
place where the ash-cone  was1 but      
whence it had how been scattered into   
the sky4 7,it has been  gradually       
re-formed by later eruptions1 of which  
the last of any size  was in #aijf47 ,i 
could also see steam rising like smoke  

from a long line  reaching six miles    
down the mountain into the flat country 
below4 ,it  was the great lava-stream   
which had destroyed two prosperous      
villages  in its course4    ,after ten  
days ,i was able to get about1 and drove
 over to one of these  villages and     
along its main street1 which was closely
 blocked at the  end by what looked like
 a railway embankment some #dj ft4 high4
 ,this  was the side of the great       
lava-stream now cooled and hardened on  
the  surface4 ,it had sharply cut the   
houses1 on each side of the street1  in 
half without setting them on fire1 so   
that the various rooms were  exposed in 
section-pictures hanging on the walls1  
and even chairs and  other furniture    
remaining in place on the unbroken      
portion of the  floor4 ,the villagers   
had provided ladders by which ,i        
ascended the steep  side of the         
embankment-like mass at the end of the  
street1 and there a  wonderful sight    
revealed itself4 ,one looked out on a   

great river seven  miles long1 narrow   
where it started from the broken-down   
crater1 but  widening to three miles    
where ,i stood1 and wider still farther 
on as  it descended4 ,this river1 with  
all its waves and ripples1 was turned   
to stone1 and greatly resembled a ,swiss
 glacier in appearance4 ,a foot  below  
the surface it was still red-hot1 and a 
stick pushed into a  crevice caught     
fire4 ,it was not safe to venture far on
 to the pie-crust  surface4 ,a couple of
 miles away the campanile of the church 
of a  village called ,massa di ,somma   
stood out1 leaning like that of ,pisa1  
from the petrified mass1 whilst the rest
 of the village was overwhelmed  and    
covered in by the great stream4    ,the 
curious resemblance of the lava-stream  
to a glacier arose from  the fact that  
it was almost completely covered by a   
white snow-like  powder4 ,this snow-like
 powder1 which often appears on         
freshly-run  lava1 is salt-common sea   
salt and other mineral salts dissolved  

in  the water ejected as steam mixed    
with the lava4 ,the steam condenses1  as
 the lava cools1 into water and         
evaporates slowly1 leaving the salt  as 
crystals4 ,often these are not white1   
but contain iron salt1 mixed  with the  
white sodium1 potassium1 and ammonium   
chlorides1 which gives  them a yellow or
 orange colour4 ,salts coloured in this 
way have the  appearance of sulphur1 and
 are often mistaken for it4 ,the whole  
of the  interior of the crater of       
,vesuvius when ,i revisited it in #ahge 
was thus  coloured yellow1 and ,i have a
 water-colour sketch of the scene made  
by a friend who came with me for the    
purpose4 ,as a matter of fact1  though  
small quantities of the choking gas     
called sulphurous acid  are among the   
vapours given off by ,vesuvius1 there is
 no deposit of  sulphur there4 ,some    
large volcanoes 7in ,mexico and ,japan7 
have made  deposits of sulphur1 which   
are dug for commercial purposes2 but the
  sulphur of ,sicily is not1 and has not

 been1 thrown out or volatilized  by    
,etna4 ,it occurs in rough masses and in
 splendid crystals in a  tertiary       
calcareous marine deposit1 and its      
deposition was probably due  to a       
chemical decomposition of constituents  
of the sea water brought  about by      
minute plants1 known as sulphur         
bacteria4 ,whether the  neighbouring    
great volcano had any share in the      
process seems to be  doubtful4    ,it is
 generally supposed that sea-water makes
 its way in large quantity  through     
fissures connected with volcanic        
channels1 and is one of the  agents of  
the explosions caused by the            
subterranean molten matter4  ,gaseous   
water1 hydrochloric acid1 carbonic acid1
 hydrofluoric acid1 and  even pure      
hydrogen and oxygen and argon are among 
the gases ejected by  volcanoes4    ,the
 molten matter forced up from the bowels
 of the earth and poured  out by        
volcanoes is made up of various chemical
 substances1 differing  in different    

localities1 and even in different       
eruptions of the same  volcano4 ,it     
consists largely of silicates of iron1  
lime1 magnesium1  aluminium1 and the    
alkali metals1 with possible admixture  
of nearly  every other element4 ,some   
volcanoes eject pitch or bitumen4 ,when 
the molten matter cools1 interesting    
crystals of various species  7i4e41 of  
various chemical composition7 usually   
form in the deeper  part of the mass4   
,the lavas of ,vesuvius frequently      
contain beautiful  opaque-white         
twelve-sided crystals of a siliceous    
mineral called  leucite4 ,i have        
collected in the lava of ,niedermendig1 
on the ,rhine1  specimens embedding     
bright blue transparent crystals 7a     
mineral called  ,haynite7 scattered in  
the grey porous rock4 ,the lava-streams1
 and  even the roots1 of extinct        
volcanoes which are of great geologic   
age1 sometimes become exposed by the    
change of the earth's surface1  and     
extensive sheets of volcanic rock of    

various kinds are thus laid  bare4      
,basalt is one of these rocks1 and it   
not unfrequently presents  itself as a  
mass of perpendicular six-sided columns1
 each column #aj  ft4 or more high1 and 
often a foot or more in diameter4 ,the  
,giant's  ,causeway1 in the ,north of   
,ireland1 and the ,pave des ,gants1 in  
the ,ardche of ,southern ,france1 are   
examples both of which ,i have  visited4
 ,it is not easy to explain how the     
molten basalt has come to  take this    
columnar structure on cooling4 ,it has  
nothing to do with  crystallization1 but
 is similar to the columnar formation   
shown by  commercial starch and         
occasionally by tabular flint4 ,a       
theoretical  explanation of its         
formation has been given by ,prof4 ,j4  
,thompson1  brother of the late ,lord   
,kelvin4    ,the varieties of volcanoes 
and their products make up a long       
story-too  long to be told here4 ,there 
are from #cjj to #djj active craters in 
,existence to-day-mostly not isolated1  

but grouped along certain great  lines1 
as1 for instance1 along the ,andean     
chain1 or in more irregular  tracks4 ,if
 we add to the list craters no longer   
active1 but still  recognizable1 we must
 multiply it by ten4 ,vesuvius is the   
only active  volcano on the mainland of 
,europe-,hecla1 ,etna1 ,stromboli1      
,volcano1  and the volcanoes of the     
,santorin group are on islands4 ,the    
biggest  volcanoes are in ,south        
,america1 ,mexico1 ,java1 and ,japan4   
,volcanoes and  the related earthquakes 
have been most carefully studied with a 
view  to the safety of the population in
 ,japan4 ,the graceful and well-beloved 
volcano1 ,fujiyama1 is more than #ab1jjj
 ft4 high1 but1 unlike others in  those 
islands1 it has been quiescent now for  
just #bjj years4 ,the most  violent     
volcanic eruptions of recent times1 with
 the largest output  of solid matter1   
are those of the ,soufrire of ,st4      
,vincent in #ahab1  of the ,mont ,pele  
of ,martinique in #aijb1 and of         

,krakatoa in #ahhc4 ,a  single moderate 
eruption of the great volcano ,mauna    
,loa1 in ,hawaii1  nearly #ad1jjj feet  
high1 throws out a greater quantity of  
solid matter  than ,vesuvius has ejected
 in all the years which have elapsed    
since the  destruction of ,pompeii4     
,many hundred millions of tons of solid 
matter  were ejected by ,mont ,pele in  
#aijb1 when also a peculiar heavy cloud 
descended from the mountain1 hot and    
acrid1 charged with incandescent  sand1 
and rolling along like a liquid rather  
than a vapour4 ,it burnt  up the town of
 ,st4 ,pierre and its inhabitants and   
the shipping in the  harbour4 ,in the   
eruption of the volcano of ,st4 ,vincent
 in #ahab three  million tons of ashes  
were projected on to the ,bahamas       
,islands1 #ajj  miles distant1 besides a
 larger quantity which fell elsewhere4  
,the  great explosion at ,krakatoa1     
lasting two days1 blew an island of     
#adjj  ft4 high1 into the air4 ,a good  
deal of it was projected as excessively 

fine needlelike particles of pumice with
 such force as to carry it up  thirty   
miles into the upper regions of the     
atmosphere1 where it was  carried by air
 currents all over the world1 causing   
the red sunsets  of the following year4 
,the sky over ,batavia1 #ajj miles      
distant1 was  darkened at midday so     
completely that lamps had to be used-as 
,i heard  from my brother who was there 
at the time4 ,the explosions were heard 
in ,mauritius1 #cjjj miles away4 ,a sea 
wave #ej ft4 high was set going by  the 
submarine disturbance1 and reaching     
,java and neighbouring islands          
inundated the land and destroyed #cf1jjj
 persons4 ,this wave travelled  in      
reduced size over a vast tract of the   
ocean1 and was observed and  recorded at
 ,cape ,horn1 #ghjj miles distant from  
its seat of origin4          ,,chapter  
,v    ,,blue ,,water      ,most people  
know and admire the splendid expanse of 
blue colour offered  by the clear sea   
water on many parts of our coasts1 and  

by that of  lakes at home and abroad4 ,i
 find that there is still a sort of a   
fixed  determination not to believe that
 this colour is due 7as it is7 to the   
actual blue colour of pure water4 ,pure1
 transparent water is blue4  ,those who 
think they know better will point to a  
glass of pure water1  hold it up to the 
light1 and affirm that it is colourless4
 ,but this  apparent colourlessness is  
due to the small breadth of water in the
  glass through which the light passes4 
,it is definitely ascertained that  if  
water as pure and as free from either   
dissolved or suspended matter  as it is 
possible to make it 7by distillation and
 the use of vessels  not acted upon by  
water7 be made to fill an opaque tube   
#ae ft4 long1  closed at each end by a  
transparent plate1 and then a beam of   
light be  made to traverse the length of
 the tube1 so that the eye receives the 
light after it has passed through this  
length of #ae ft4 of water1 the  colour 
of the light is a strong blue4 ,water is

 blue in virtue of its  own molecular   
character1 just as sulphate of copper   
is4 ,liquid oxygen1  prepared by the use
 of intense cold1 is also transparent   
blue1 and the  peculiar condensed form  
of oxygen known as ozone is1 when       
liquefied1  of a darker or stronger blue
 than oxygen4    ,at one time 7some     
thirty years ago7 there was still some  
doubt as to  whether water was          
self-coloured blue1 or whether its blue 
colour was  due to the action on light  
of excessively minute solid white       
particles  of chalk suspended in the    
water4 ,such fine suspended particles in
 some  cases act on the light which     
falls on to them so as to reflect the   
blue rays4 ,this occurs in certain      
natural objects which have a blue       
colour4 ,but these can be distinguished 
from transparent self-coloured  blue    
substances by the fact that whilst the  
light reflected from their  surface is  
blue1 the light which is made to        
traverse them 7when they  are held up to

 the light so that they come between    
one's eye and the  sun's rays7 is brown4
 ,this is the case with very hot smoke1 
and can be  well seen when a cigar is   
smoked in the sunlight4 ,the smoke which
 comes  off from the lighted end of the 
cigar is very hot1 and its particles    
are more minute than those of cooler    
smoke4 ,the hot smoke shows a  bright   
blue colour when the sunlight falls on  
it and is reflected1  but when you look 
through the smoke-cloud at a surface    
reflecting the  sunlight1 the cloud has 
a reddish-brown tint4 ,as the smoke     
cools its  particles adhere to one      
another and form larger particles1 and  
the  light reflected from the cloud is  
no longer blue but grey1 and even       
white4 ,thus the smoke which the smoker 
keeps for half a minute in his  mouth is
 cooled and condensed1 and reflects     
white light-is1 in fact1 a  white       
cloud-when he puffs it out1 and         
contrasts strongly with the blue  cloud 
coming off from the burning tobacco at  

the lighted end of the  cigar4 ,the blue
 colour of the sky is held by many      
physicists 7though  other views have    
been of late advanced7 to be due to the 
same action  on the part of the very    
finest particles of watery vapour1 which
 are  diffused through vast regions of  
our atmosphere above the condensed      
white-looking clouds consisting of      
larger floating particles of water4     
,vapours are given off by many liquids1 
and even by some solids1 varying  in    
their production according to the heat  
applied in different cases4  ,they are  
gases1 and quite transparent and        
invisible at the proper  temperature1   
like the atmospheric air4 ,thus water is
 always giving  off water-vapour1 which 
is quite invisible4 ,when water is      
heated to  the boiling point it is      
rapidly converted into transparent      
invisible  vapour4 ,steam1 as this      
vapour is called1 is invisible1 and we  
all  habitually make a misleading use of
 the word steam when we apply it  both  

to this and to the slightly cooled and  
condensed cloud which we  can see       
issuing from the spout of a kettle or   
from a railway engine4  ,it seems that  
the fault lies with the scientific      
writers1 who have  applied the word     
steam to the invisible water vapour or  
gas before it  has condensed to form a  
cloud4 ,the old ,english word steam     
certainly  means a visible cloudy       
emanation1 and not a transparent        
invisible  gas4 ,a cloud is not a       
vapour1 but is produced by the coming   
together  or condensation of the minute 
invisible particles of a vapour to form 
larger particles1 which float and hang  
together1 and reflect the light1  and   
thus are visible4    ,by the examination
 of other vapours or gases than that    
which is gaseous  water1 namely1 the    
vapours of bodies like chloroform and   
ether1 it has  been shown that cloud    
forms in a vapour not merely in         
consequence of  the cooling of the      
vapour1 but in consequence of the       

presence in the  air 7or in the tube in 
which the vapour is enclosed for        
observation7 of  very fine floating dust
 particles4 ,they act as centres of     
attraction  and condensation for the    
vapour particles4 ,when there are no    
dust  particles present clouds do not   
form readily in cooling vapours1 or     
only at lower temperatures1 and in      
larger mass4 ,tyndall made some         
beautiful experiments on this subject1  
obtaining clouds of great  tenuity in   
vapours enclosed in tubes1 which        
reflected the most vivid  blue tints    
when illuminated by the electric        
arc-lamp4 ,later ,aitken1  of           
,edinburgh1 showed that the fog which   
forms in smoke-ridden towns  is due to  
the condensation of previously invisible
 watery vapour as  cloud around the     
solid floating particles of carbon of   
the smoke4  ,aitken further used this   
property of solid floating particles1   
namely1  that they cause the formation  
of fog and cloud in vapours-to test the 

question as to whether the excessively  
minute odoriferous particles  which     
affect our noses as smell are distinct  
solid floating particles  as often      
supposed1 or are of the nature of gas   
and vapour4 ,he admitted  strong        
perfumes such as musk into tubes        
containing watery vapour1 at  such a    
temperature that the vapour was in a    
critical state-just ready  to condense  
and precipitate as cloud4 ,if he had    
admitted fine solid  particles such as a
 minute whiff of smoke1 or some dusty   
air-the  cloud would have formed4 ,but  
the admission of the perfume had no such
  effect ,therefore1 he concluded that  
the odoriferous emanations used by  him 
are not distinct particles like those of
 smoke or dust1 but are  gaseous4       
,the beautiful blue tint of the         
semi-transparent white of a boiled      
plover's egg is due to a fine-particled 
cloud dispersed in the clear  albumen4  
,london milk used to be sky-blue for a  
similar reason1  before the recent      

legislation against the adulteration of 
food4 ,the  blue eyes of our fair-haired
 race and of young foxes are not due to 
any pigment-that is to say1 a separable 
self-coloured substance-but  to a fine  
cloud floating in a transparent medium  
which reflects blue  rays of light as   
blue smoke does4 ,the iris of the eye   
can and often  does develop a pigment1  
but it is a brown one4 ,when present in 
small  quantity it produces a           
green-coloured iris1 the pale           
yellow-brown  being added to the blue   
cloud-caused colouring4 ,when present in
 larger  quantity the same pigment gives
 us brown and so-called black  eyes4    
,the blue colours in birds' feathers and
 insects' wings are  produced without   
blue pigment by special effects of      
reflection1 and  where green is the     
colour it is often due to the addition  
of a small  quantity of yellow pigment  
to what would otherwise look blue3      
though  some caterpillars and           
grasshoppers have a real green pigment  

in their  skin4 ,flowers1 on the other  
hand1 have true soluble blue pigments1  
and green ones too1 notably that called 
leaf-green or chlorophyll4  ,the little 
green tree frog has no blue or green    
pigment in its skin2  only a yellow     
pigment4 ,sometimes rare specimens are  
found in which  the yellow pigment is   
absent altogether1 and then the little  
frog is  turquoise-blue in colour4 ,but 
there is no blue pigment in the skin2   
only a finely-clouded translucent film  
overlying a dead-black deep  layer of   
the skin1 and the result is that the    
frog is of a wonderful  pure blue4      
,sometimes the commoner large edible    
frog is found with a  similar absence of
 yellow pigment 7,i found some in a     
garden near ,geneva  six years ago71 and
 then all the parts of its skin which   
usually are  green show as brilliant    
blue4    ,it is at first difficult to   
believe that such fine1 smoothly-spread 
turquoise blue as that of the blue frog 
is due merely to a reflection  effect1  

and that there is no blue pigment       
present which would show  as blue if    
light were transmitted through it1 or   
could be separated  and dissolved in    
some medium4 ,yet this is undoubtedly   
the case4 ,the  nearest experimental    
production of such a blue surface       
without blue  pigment is obtained by    
first varnishing a black board1 and when
 the  varnish is nearly dry passing a   
sponge wetted with water over it4  ,some
 of the varnish is precipitated from its
 solution in the spirit  7or it may be  
turpentine7 as a fine cloud1 and until  
the water has  evaporated it looks like 
blue paint1 as the poet ,goethe found   
when  cleaning a picture4 ,it would be  
interesting to know more precisely the  
precautions to be taken in order to get 
the blue colour in this way in  fullest 
degree4    ,it appears that when light  
is reflected from a cloud of fine       
colourless  particles so as to give a   
predominant blue colour1 the light so   
reflected is affected in that special   

way which physicists describe  as being 
polarized4 ,it is possible by the use of
 certain apparatus  7the polariscope7 to
 distinguish polarized from             
non-polarized light1  so that it should 
be possible to decide 7or at any rate to
 gain  evidence7 whether blue water-a   
sheet of blue water-owes its colour to  
fine particles suspended in it or to the
 self-colour of the water4 ,an          
admirable case for making this simple   
experiment is presented by the  great   
tanks-some #bj ft4 cube-which are used  
by the water companies  which draw their
 water supply from the chalk1 for the   
purpose of  precipitating the dissolved 
chalk-,clarking the water1 as it is     
called1 after the inventor of the       
process-and so getting rid of its       
excessive hardness4 ,such tanks are to  
be seen by the side of the  railway near
 ,caterham4 ,the water in these tanks is
 of such a brilliant  turquoise blue    
that many people suppose that copper has
 been added  to the water to free it    

from microbes6 ,such1 at any rate1 was  
the  conviction expressed by a friend in
 conversation with me only a few  weeks 
ago4 ,the water in these tanks1 when    
seen from the railway1 looks  like a    
magnificent blue dye1 and a very        
important point for those 7not  a few7  
who believe that the blue colour of seas
 and lakes is due to the  reflection of 
the blue colour of the sky overhead is  
that the water  in the tanks looks just 
as blue when the sky is overcast with   
cloud  as when there is blue sky4 ,the  
blue colour of water has1 as a rule1    
nothing to do with the reflection of the
 sky1 though it is the fact  that a     
shallow film of water may at a certain  
angle reflect the sky to  our eyes1 just
 as a mirror may4 ,the effect is quite  
unlike that due to  light passing       
through deep water when reflected from  
below it4 ,if we  examine the tanks in  
question we find that they have been    
filled with  water pumped from the      
chalk1 and that then lime has been added

 to the  water in order to combine with 
the carbonic acid dissolved in it and   
form chalk or carbonate of lime-which is
 insoluble in pure water and  falls as  
an excessively fine white powder to the 
bottom of the tank4  ,but the important 
fact is that water having carbonic acid 
dissolved  in it can dissolve carbonate 
of lime or chalk to a certain amount3   
and this water pumped from the chalk1   
having carbonic acid naturally          
dissolved in it1 has consequently also  
dissolved a quantity of chalk4  ,it is  
this which gives the chalk-spring water 
the objectionable  quality of hardness4 
,when lime is added to the chalk-spring 
water  as pumped into the tanks1 the    
carbonic acid in it is taken up by the  
lime1 and the chalk previously dissolved
 by the carbonic-acid-holding  water is1
 so to speak1 undissolved1 and thrown   
down as a very fine  white powder1      
together with the chalk newly formed by 
the union of the  lime and the carbonic 
acid4 ,these large tanks are used to    

allow the  fine powder of chalk to      
settle down and leave the water clear4  
,the  brilliantly white chalk sediment  
accumulates not only on the floor  of   
the tank1 but on its sides4 ,any light  
which falls on the tank is  refracted   
and reflected from side to floor and    
from floor to side1 and  eventually     
emerges from the tank1 a great deal of  
it having traversed  the #bj ft4 breadth
 and depth many times4 ,most of its red1
 yellow1 and  green rays are quenched by
 the many feet of blue water through    
which  it has passed1 and it issues as  
predominantly blue4 ,this is largely    
due to the fine reflecting surface      
furnished by the white-washed  or       
chalk-coated floor and sides and the    
great purity of the white  reflecting   
material-no yellow or brown matter being
 present to give a  greenish tinge to   
the result ,i remember being taken to   
see ,clark's  process in use1 and the   
splendid blue colour of the water in the
  softening tanks at ,plumstead1 when   

the process was first used by the       
,north ,kent ,water ,company1 sixty-four
 years ago4    ,it is1 ,i think1 still a
 possible question as to whether the    
fine  floating particles of             
precipitating chalk act in any way as a 
cloud-in short1 as the blue clouds of   
smoke1 egg-white1 milk1 and  varnish4   
,there is no evidence that they do1 but 
no one1 so far as ,i  know1 has ever    
taken the trouble to settle the         
question4 ,it could be  done by         
examining the blue light from the tanks 
with a polariscope1  and also by sinking
 a black tarpaulin into the tank to     
cover the white  floor and hanging      
others at the sides4 ,then if the blue  
colour were due  to light reflected from
 the white floor and sides traversing   
repeatedly  the clear self-coloured blue
 water1 the blue colour should no longer
  be visible1 for the reflecting        
surfaces would be covered by the black  
tarpaulin and little light sent up      
through the water4 ,but if it were  due 

to a cloud of greatest delicacy in the  
water-like fine smoke  reflecting the   
blue light rather than the other        
rays-then the colour  should be as      
intense or more intense when the black  
background is  introduced4 ,i am        
surprised that some inquirer1 younger   
and more active  than ,i am1 does not   
put the matter to the test of           
experiment4    ,on the whole1           
practically all the facts which we know 
about blue  water are consistent with   
the blue self-colour of water1 and not  
with  that of a blue cloud in the water4
 ,now that we have porcelain baths  of  
the purest white and of large size1 one 
may often see the strong  blue colour of
 water of great purity in the bath1     
especially where  waves or ripples send 
to our eyes those rays of light which   
have taken  a more or less horizontal   
course from side to side of the bath1   
and  have thus been through a large     
thickness of the pale-coloured fluid4   
,great masses of clear ice1 such as one 

may study in glaciers1 are  blue2 the   
crevasses which transmit light which has
 passed through  a considerable         
thickness of ice 7as1 for instance1 in  
an ice cave71  are deep blue2 there is  
no question of a reflection from        
suspended  particles4 ,the green colour 
which some glaciers show at a little    
distance is due to the yellow rust-iron 
oxide-blown on to the surface  of the   
ice and dissolved4 ,many glaciers or    
parts of glaciers are quite  free from  
it1 and of a splendid indigo blue in    
their deeper fissures4  ,so1 too1 as to 
the sea and lakes4 ,the ,blue ,grotto or
 ,cavern of the  island of ,capri1 near 
,naples1 is a case in point4 ,all the   
light which  enters it comes through the
 sea-water and is blue4 ,i was taken to 
it  in a boat rowed by two men4 ,as the 
boat enters the low mouth of the  cavern
 you have to bend down to avoid knocking
 your head against the  rock4 ,then you 
find yourself floating in a vast and    
lofty chamber the  white rocky floor of 

which is some twenty feet below the     
surface of the  clear water4 ,no light  
enters the cavern by the low part of the
 entrance  above water4 ,below the      
surface it widens and the strong        
,southern sun  shines through the clear 
water and its light is reflected up into
 the  cave from the bottom4 ,it is blue1
 and everything in the cave above as    
well as below the water is suffused with
 a blue glow-a truly wonderful  and     
fascinating spectacle4 ,in order to get 
the best effect you must  choose an hour
 when the sun is in a favourable        
position4 ,where there  is a white      
bottom at a depth of fifty or a hundred 
feet1 the sea has  a fine ultra-marine  
colour1 so long as it is clear4 ,it is  
often made  green by yellow-coloured    
impurities1 either fine iron-stained    
sediment  or by minute living things in 
the water4 ,the colour of the water of  
either sea or lakes1 when it is clear   
and overlying great depths 7#bjj        
fathoms and more71 tends to be dark     

indigo owing to the deficiency of       
reflected light4 ,but there are enough  
white particles as a rule to send  some 
of the light1 which penetrates the      
water1 upwards again4 ,even the  great  
ocean has a dark purplish-blue colour1  
but never the bright blue  of clear     
water in shallow seas with              
light-coloured or white bottom4    ,one 
of the most beautiful exhibitions of the
 colour of clear water in  various      
thicknesses which ,i know1 is at the    
entrance of the ,rhone into  the ,lake  
of ,geneva4 ,the thick pale-coloured    
brownish-white sediment  of the river   
shoots out for a quarter of a mile or   
more into the dark  blue waters of the  
deep lake1 and on a bright sunny day as 
it subsides  reflects the light upwards 
from different depths through the clear 
water4 ,where it has sunk but little the
 colour is green1 owing to the          
influence of the yellow mud4 ,farther on
 it is ultra-marine blue1 and  then1    
where it has sunk deeper1 we get full   

indigo tints4 ,the movement  of the     
water and its churning up by the        
steamers' paddles add to the  variety of
 effects1 since the foam of air-bubbles 
submerged throws  up the light through  
the water4 ,it is not possible to doubt 
as one  watches the admixture of the    
river and the lake1 and the eddies and  
hanging walls of sediment1 that one is  
floating over a vast depth  of          
magnificent blue self-coloured fluid    
which is traversed by the  sunlight in  
ways and degrees varying according to   
its depth and the  volume of the pale   
mud of the in-rushing ,rhone and the    
abundance of  fine air-bubbles churned  
into the water by the paddle-wheels of  
the  steamer4          ,,chapter ,,vi   
,,the ,,biggest ,,beast      ,there is a
 prevalent notion1 encouraged by the    
fanciful exaggerations  of newspaper    
gossips1 that the animals of past ages1 
whose bones are  from time to time dug  
out of rocks and sand quarries1 were    
many of  them much bigger than any at   

present existing1 and that we are living
  in an age of degeneracy4 ,it is true  
that the mammoth and the mastodon  were 
enormous creatures1 but they were not   
bigger than their living                
representatives1 the great elephants of 
,africa and ,india4 ,the ,african       
elephant often stands #aa ft4 high at   
the shoulder1 and occasionally  attains 
#ab ft4    ,some eighty years ago ,dr4  
,gideon ,mantell became celebrated by   
his  discovery of the bones of huge     
reptiles-far bigger than any existing   
crocodile or lizard-nearly as big as    
elephants1 in the ,wealden rocks of     
,tilgate ,forest in ,sussex4 ,he and    
,sir ,richard ,owen distinguished       
several  kinds-the ,iguanodon1 the      
,megalosaurus1 the ,hylosaurus1 and     
others4  ,models of these creatures as  
they appeared when clothed in flesh and 
hide were carefully made1 and placed    
picturesquely among the ponds and       
islands of the gardens of the ,crystal  
,palace at ,sydenham when it was  first 

opened to an enchanted public in the    
fifties4 ,as a small boy ,i1  at that   
time1 fell under their spell4    ,the   
passing years have brought to us more   
complete knowledge of these  strange    
beasts-now classed as the               
,dinosauria-and new kinds and  complete 
skeletons of those already known have   
been discovered in the  ,united ,states 
and in ,belgium4 ,the leg bones and     
vertebr of one of  the biggest were     
found near ,oxford1 and are in the      
,oxford ,museum2 it  received the name  
,cetiosaurus4 ,only a few years ago a   
very complete  skeleton of a creature   
closely allied to ,cetiosaurus was with 
great  labour and skill dug out of the  
,jurassic rocks of ,wyoming1 ,u4,s4,a41 
by  ,dr4 ,holland1 at the charges of    
,mr4 ,andrew ,carnegie4 ,it was known as
  ,diplodocus 7referring to certain     
bones in its tail71 and a wonderful     
cast of the completely reconstructed    
skeleton was presented to the  ,natural 
,history ,museum in ,london1 when ,i was

 ,director1 by ,mr4 ,carnegie4  ,the    
skeleton is #hd ft4 long2 but we must   
not be mis-led as to the  animal's      
actual bulk by this measurement1 for the
 tail is #df ft4 long  and whip-like1   
whilst the neck is #bc ft4 long and     
carries a small head  not bigger than   
that of a cart-horse4 ,the jaws were    
provided with  small peg-like teeth1    
showing that the beast fed on soft      
vegetable  matter4 ,the body1 apart from
 neck and tail1 was really only a little
  bigger than that of a large elephant1 
and the limb-bones longer in  the       
proportion of about six to five4        
,another reptile very similar to  these 
and also found in the mesozoic rocks of 
the ,u4,s4 ,america is  ,brontosaurus4  
,the fact is that1 if we wish to make an
 intelligent comparison of  the sizes of
 different animals1 we have carefully to
 ascertain not  merely the length       
measurements1 but the proportions of the
 various  parts1 and the actual bulk and
 probable weight of the beasts under    

consideration4 ,also 7and this is a very
 important and decisive matter7  we must
 know whether the beasts were           
terrestrial in habit1 walking with      
their bodies raised high on their legs1 
or whether they were aquatic  and swam  
in the lakes or seas1 their bodies      
buoyed up and supported by  the water4  
,by far the biggest animals of which we 
have any knowledge  are the various     
kinds of whales still flourishing in the
 sea4 ,a  mechanical limit is set to the
 size of land-walking animals1 and that 
limit has been reached by the elephant  
,flesh and blood1 and we may  add bone1 
cannot carry on dry land a greater bulk 
than his4 ,he is  always in danger of   
sinking by his own weight into soft     
earth and bog4  ,his legs have to be    
much thicker in proportion than those of
 smaller  animals-made of the same      
material-or they would bend and snap4   
,his feet  have to be padded with huge  
discs of fat and fibre to ease the local
  pressure1 and his legs are kept       

straight not bent at the joints1 when   
he stands 7a fact to which ,shakespeare 
makes ,ulysses refer71 so that  the vast
 weight of his body shall be supported  
by the stiff column  formed by the upper
 and lower half of the limb-bones kept  
upright in  one straight line4 ,a       
well-grown elephant weighs five tons4   
,compare his  weight and shape with that
 of a big whale-bone whale6 ,no extinct 
animal  known approaches the existing   
whale in bulk and weight4 ,he is #hj to 
#ij ft4 long1 and has no neck nor any   
length of tail4 ,his outline is         
egg-like1 narrower at the hinder end4   
,he weighs #bjj tons-forty times as     
much as a big elephant-and is perfectly 
supported without any strain on  his    
structure by the water in which he      
floats4 ,there is no such limit  to his 
possible size as there is in the case of
 land-walking animals4  ,but it seems   
probable that he too is limited in size 
by mechanical  conditions of another    
kind4 ,probably he cannot exceed some   

#ij ft4 in  length and #bjj tons of bulk
 on account of the relatively great     
increase  of proportionate size and     
power in the heart required in order to 
propel the blood through such a vast    
mass of living tissue and keep  him     
going as a warm-blooded mammal4 ,the    
original pattern-the small  dog-like    
ancestor of the whale-cannot be         
indefinitely expanded as an  efficient  
working machine1 though its limit of    
growth is not determined  by the same   
mechanical causes as those which limit  
the bulk of the  terrestrial quadruped4 
,these considerations make it clear that
 we should compare as to  bigness       
terrestrial animals with other          
terrestrial animals1 and  aquatic       
animals with aquatic ones4 ,it seems    
probable that ,diplodocus  was an       
aquatic reptile1 and never raised       
himself on to his four legs  on dry land
 as the ,carnegie skeleton at the       
,natural ,history ,museum is  doing4    
,his legs and feet are quite unfitted to

 support his weight on a  land surface2 
on land he would have rested on his     
belly1 as a crocodile  does1 with much  
bent legs on each side4 ,but submerged  
in #bj ft4  depth of water1 he could    
have trotted along1 half-floating1 with 
his  feet touching the bottom and his   
head raised on its long neck to the     
surface1 slowly sucking the floating    
vegetation into his moderate-sized      
mouth4 7,see drawing on p4 #ia47        
,diplodocus and ,cetiosaurus have huge  
thigh-bones and upper-arm               
bones-respectively #e ft4 #i in4 and #c 
ft4 #b in4 in length-until lately  the  
biggest known limb-bones1 although the  
lower jaw-bone of a ,right  ,whale grows
 to be #ah ft4 in length4 ,but a        
thigh-bone 7femur7 of a  reptile similar
 to ,diplodocus has been found in       
,wyoming1 #f ft4 #b in4  in length4     
,this reptile was named ,atlantosaurus1 
and a cast of the  huge bone-the biggest
 known when it was placed there-stands  
in our  museum gallery4 ,however1 its   

glory has departed1 for we now know than
  this biggest bone1 a bigger still4    
,the bones of several individuals  of a 
huge reptile similar to ,diplodocus1 but
 actually twice as big in  linear       
dimensions1 were found by ,dr4 ,fraas at
 ,tendagoroo1 fifty miles  from the     
coast in ,german ,east ,africa1 and     
brought safely to ,berlin in  #aiab1    
though they have not yet been mounted as
 a complete specimen4  ,they were lying 
in a sandy deposit of the same geologic 
age as our  ,sussex ,wealden4 ,a special
 expedition of #ejj negroes was sent-not
 by  the ,government1 but by the ,berlin
 ,society of the ,friends of ,natural   
,history 7we need such a society in     
,england71 at a cost of #aj1jjj1  to    
fetch the bones4 ,they were of many     
individuals1 and had to be  skilfully   
dug out and packed4 ,dr4 ,fraas calls   
this biggest of all  quadrupeds         
,gigantosaurus4 ,a cast of the humerus1 
or upper-arm bone1  is now exhibited in 
the ,natural ,history ,museum4 ,it is   

over #g ft4 in  length4 ,the femur1 or  
thigh-bone1 was still bigger-it was over
 #aj ft4  in length4 ,alas for the glory
 of ,atlantosaurus6 ,this enormous      
creature  was1 of course1 like          
,diplodocus1 aquatic4 ,its bulk was much
 less than  that of a big whale1 but    
extinct aquatic reptiles may yet be     
found of  greater size4 ,ichthyosaurus1 
the extinct whale-like reptile1 does not
  exceed #cj ft4 in length4 ,our        
engraving 7,fig4 #cb7 shows the relative
  size of the humerus of man1 the       
elephant1#d and the ,gigantosaurus4 ,how
  puny is that human arm-bone6 ,and     
yet4446    ,when stretched on the shore1
 resting on the belly1 the body of the  
great lizard of ,tendagoroo bulked like 
a breakwater #ab ft4 high1 and  his tail
 like a huge serpent extended #hj ft4   
beyond it2 whilst his head  and neck    
reached #dj ft4 along the mud in front4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4-,the         
upper-arm bone or humerus of the great  
reptile 7,gigantosaurus7 of             

,tendagoroo-compared with that of man   
and of  an ,indian elephant4    ,an     
important limitation to great size in an
 animal is1 it must be  remembered1     
often imposed by the nature of the      
animal's food4 ,ten  individuals each   
weighing a hundredweight will more      
easily pick up  and swallow the amount  
of food required to nourish ten         
hundredweight  of the species than will 
one individual responsible for the whole
  bulk1 provided that the food is       
scattered and not ready to the mouth  in
 unlimited quantity4 ,a creature which  
has unlimited forest or grass  or       
seaweed as its food will be at no       
disadvantage owing to its size4  ,but a 
carnivor or a fish-eater or one         
depending on special fruits and  roots  
not offered to him by nature in mass has
 to search for1 and  sometimes to hunt1 
or at any rate to compete with others1  
for the  scattered and elusive bits of  
food4 ,so it is that we find that the   
fruit-eating apes are not very big1 and 

that terrestrial carnivors are  small1  
though powerful and swift1 as compared  
with cattle1 deer1 and  vegetarian      
beasts4 ,ten carnivors weighing each ten
 stone will with  their ten mouths pick 
up more prey than one carnivor weighing 
a  hundred stone and having only one    
mouth4 ,even the carnivorous ,dinosaurs 
such as ,megalosaurus and ,tyrannosaurus
 were much smaller than the  vegetarian 
,iguanodon1 ,diplodocus1 ,brontosaurus  
and ,triceratops on  which 7or on the   
like of which7 they preyed-just as a    
tiger is smaller  than a buffalo1 and a 
wolf smaller than a horse4 ,it is owing 
to causes  of this nature that the life 
of some animals1 and consequently their 
growth1 is limited in duration4         
,occasionally the common lobster lives  
to a great age1 and grows to be more    
than #b ft4 long4 ,but he is doomed  by 
his size2 the smaller lobsters go       
quickly around and get all  the food    
7carrion of the sea71 and the big fellow
 has to starve4 ,the  whale-bone whales1

 it is true1 take animal food2 but it   
occurs in the  form of minute sea-slugs 
and shrimps1 which fill the surface     
waters in  countless millions over      
hundreds of miles of ocean4 ,hence the  
whales of  this kind have only to swim  
along with their mouths open through an 
unlimited supply of luscious food4 ,the 
size of terrestrial animals is  also1 it
 appears1 definitely related to the     
natural water-supply4 ,there  are very  
few small quadrupeds in the interior of 
,africa4 ,on account of  frequent       
drought1 the mammals have often to run a
 hundred miles or  more in search of    
water4 ,only animals as big as the      
larger antelopes  and the zebra can     
cover the ground4 ,the smaller kinds die
 7and have1 in  fact1 died out in past  
ages7 in these regions of sudden        
drought4    ,illustration3 ,the gigantic
 reptile ,diplodocus on land4           
,,footnote3    #d ,the elephant1 the    
thigh-bone of which1 measuring nearly #c
 ft4 in  length1 is drawn in ,fig4 #cb1 

is a large ,indian one4 ,this species is
  exceeded in size by the ,african4 ,see
 ,science from an ,easy ,chair1  ,second
 series1 p4 #abc4-,the largest elephant 
the bones of which are  known is the    
,elephas antiquus of the ,pleistocene1  
bigger than either of  the living       
species and bigger than the mammoth1    
,elephas primigenius4  ,the arm-bone    
7humerus7 of one of this species        
7,elephas antiquus7 lately  dug up near 
,chatham and now in the ,natural        
,history ,museum1 is #d ft4 #c  in4 in  
length4          ,,chapter ,,vii        
,,what ,,is ,,meant ,,by ,a ,,species8  
,those who take an interest in natural  
history must find it necessary  to know 
what the naturalist means by a species  
of animal or plant4  ,what does he mean 
when he says3 ,this is not the same     
species as  that1 or ,this is a species 
closely allied to this other species1   
or ,this is a new species8 ,what are the
 species concerning the  origin of which
 ,darwin propounded his great theory8   

,there is really no  ,english word which
 can be exactly used in place of the    
word species4  ,i often have to use the 
word when writing about plants or       
animals1  and should like once for all  
to say what is meant by it4 ,one might  
suppose that a kind is the same thing as
 a species4 ,and so it often  is2 but1  
on the other hand1 by the word kind we  
often mean a group  including several   
species4 ,for instance1 we say the      
cat-kind or  the daisy-kind1 meaning the
 cat-like animals or the daisy-like     
plants4 ,the expression the cat-kind    
includes the common cat and the  wild   
cat1 and even leopards1 lions1 and      
tigers1 each of which is a  species of  
cat4 ,and by the daisy-kind we          
understand a group including  several   
species of daisies1 such as the common  
daisy1 the ox-eye daisy1  the camomile  
daisy1 the michaelmas daisy1 and others4
 ,hence we cannot  translate species    
simply by the word kind4 ,kind is the   
same word  as kin-a little more than kin

 and less than kind1 runs ,hamlet's     
bitter pun4 ,kind means a group held    
together by kinship1 and it may  be a   
larger or a smaller group held together 
by a close kinship or  by a more distant
 one4 ,sort1 again1 will not serve our  
purpose as  an ,english translation of  
species4 ,for1 although a sort implies  
a certain selection and similarity of   
the things included in the  sort1 the   
amount of similarity implied may be very
 great or it may be  indefinitely vague 
and remote4 ,hence naturalists have to  
stick to the  word species1 and to use  
it with a clear definition of what they 
mean  by it4    ,suppose we get together
 a large unsorted collection-many       
hundred  specimens or individuals-of the
 common butterflies of ,england4 ,then1 
if we look them over1 we shall find that
 we can pick out and arrange  the       
specimens into definite groups1         
according to their colour-pattern4  ,we 
find that the kinds which we readily    
distinguish are called in  ,english the 

swallow-tails1 the whites1 the sulphurs1
 the clouded  yellows1 the              
tortoise-shells1 the peacocks1 the red  
admirals1 the  painted ladies1 the      
gatekeepers1 the meadow browns1 the     
heaths1 the  coppers1 and the blues4    
,there might be others in such a        
collection1 but  that is enough for our 
purpose4 ,on examining the specimens    
closely1 we  find that the              
colour-markings and venation or network 
by which the  wings are marked and the  
shape of the wings1 body1 and legs of   
all the  specimens of the swallow-tails 
are almost exactly alike1 and unlike    
those of any of the others4 ,we shall   
find if we have a dozen or two          
specimens that there is a slight        
difference in the pattern1 size1 and    
colour of wing of some of the           
swallow-tails1 dividing them into two   
groups1 which we soon ascertain to be   
the males and females2 but this  is so  
small a difference that we may ignore   
it4 ,the swallow-tail is  obviously and 

at once distinguished from any of the   
other butterflies  in the collection by 
its colour-pattern and shape4 ,so also  
with the  others1 there will be many    
specimens in each case agreeing in      
colour  and pattern1 and recognizable   
and distinguishable from the rest by    
the colour-pattern and by the venation  
or nervures of the wings4  ,if we       
collect butterflies again in other years
 and in other parts of  the country1 we 
find the same set of shapes and patterns
 exactly1  corresponding to what we have
 learnt to call swallow-tails1 whites1  
sulphurs1 clouded yellows1              
tortoise-shells1 etc4 ,there are1 we    
thus  learn1 several distinct1          
unchanging kinds of butterfly1 which are
  common in this country1 and appear    
every year4 ,similarly we may go into  a
 meadow in spring1 and gather a number  
of flowers1 and a naturalist  will      
roughly arrange our bouquet into kinds2 
there will be the  buttercups1 the      
daisies1 the clovers1 the dead nettles1 

the poppies1  the roses1 the orchids1   
etc4    ,if1 now1 we look more carefully
 at our collection of butterflies1      
sorted out roughly into kinds or        
species1 we shall find that the  whites1
 although holding together by a close   
similarity in  having merely white wings
 edged and spotted with black1 yet      
differ  amongst themselves1 so that we  
distinguish a larger kind1 the large    
garden-white1 and a smaller1 commoner   
kind1 the smaller garden-white1  and we 
distinguish also the green-veined white1
 and possibly the  rare ,bath white1    
each of them differing a little in their
 spots as  well as their size4 ,these   
different sorts of whites can1 once our 
attention is drawn to the matter1 be    
readily distinguished from one  another1
 and constantly are found in our        
collections4 ,we thus arrive  at the    
conclusion that1 though the whites are  
much alike1 and are a  kind distinct    
from the other kinds of butterflies1 yet
 the whites  themselves can be divided  

into and arranged as several kinds      
distinct  from one another4 ,in fact1 we
 discover 7and an illustrated book on   
butterflies confirms us in the          
conclusion7 that there are several      
ultimate kinds of whites which cannot be
 further separated into  groups4 ,these 
are what are called species4 ,the whites
 are therefore  not a single species1 as
 are our ,british swallow-tails1 but a  
group of  species1 closely related to   
one another4 ,we find the same thing to 
be  true with regard to the blues4      
,though they are much alike1 agreeing in
  a variety of details of spotting and  
colour1 yet we can distinguish the      
chalk-hill blue1 the common blue1 the   
azure-blue1 the ,adonis blue1 and       
others1 as distinct species of blues4   
,then1 again1 when we carefully  examine
 our ,english specimens of              
tortoise-shells1 we find that there  are
 two distinct species-the greater and   
the smaller-differing not  only in size1
 but in pattern2 and when we compare    

with these the  painted lady and the    
peacock and the red admiral1 we find    
that there  is a certain agreement of   
wing-pattern 7venation and outline7 and 
details of shape among them all1        
although their tints and the shape of   
the spots and bands of colour differ4   
,these different species hold  together 
just as the whites do and just as the   
blues do4 ,naturalists  have met the    
need for expressing this similarity of a
 number of  distinct species to one     
another by introducing the term genus   
for  such a group4 ,in fact we arrange  
several species into a genus4  ,the     
genus is a kind1 but a more             
comprehensive kind1 than is a  species4 
,the species is an assemblage of        
individuals closely alike to  one       
another2 the genus is a group of species
 which are more like to  one another    
than any of them are to other species4  
,naturalists give to every genus a name1
 and also a name to each species  in the
 genus4 ,since we naturalists want to   

know what butterflies or  other species 
of animals and plants are found in other
 countries1 and  to be sure that we all 
7whatever our native language may be7   
mean the  same thing by a name1 ,latin  
names are given to the genera and the   
species1 and are necessarily used when  
one wishes to be sure that  one is      
understood4 ,the greatest trouble is    
taken to make certain  that the name    
used is applied only to the original    
species and the  original genus to which
 it was applied1 for only so can one be 
sure  that a writer in ,america or one  
in ,italy or ,france means the same     
thing by a name as we do here in        
,england4 ,this is rendered possible    
and is actually brought about by the    
preparation of catalogues in  which the 
species are described and figured1      
especially with regard to  obvious      
points of detail which are constant1 and
 are called specific  characters4 ,these
 are chosen for special description1 not
 haphazard1  but with a view to their   

being recognized with certainty by those
  who study other specimens4 ,another   
extremely important proceeding  in      
connection with this purpose of uniform 
naming1 which involves  vast labour and 
expense1 is the maintenance of great    
collections of  preserved animals and   
plants by the ,state in all civilized   
countries4  ,in these collections either
 the original specimens to which names  
were  given by recognized describers    
7called type-specimens or the type7  are
 preserved1 or else specimens which have
 been compared with those  original     
described specimens1 and authoritatively
 ascertained to be the  same as the     
type4 ,the maintenance of accuracy and  
agreement in regard  to the names of all
 the species of plants and animals is a 
big task4  ,it is now carried out by    
international councils1 in which the    
skilled  naturalists of the world are   
represented4 ,certain principles have   
been  agreed upon as to the method of   
determining the priority of one name    

over others which have been employed for
 one and the same species  by           
naturalists of different countries and  
at different times1 and a  general      
agreement as to what names are to be    
used has been arrived  at4 ,it is a     
matter which has involved a great deal  
of uncertainty  and dispute1 and still  
causes difficulty4 ,by the exercise of  
good  sense1 and in consequence of the  
existence of an urgent desire really  to
 understand one another1 there is now   
every year an increasing  uniformity and
 agreement among naturalists about the  
exact name to be  applied to every      
species of living thing4    ,returning  
to our collections of butterflies and   
meadow flowers1 we  may take the names  
of some of the species and genera as an 
example  of the system of naming in use 
by scientific naturalists4 ,the common  
swallow-tail is assigned to the genus   
,papilio4 ,its specific name is         
,machaon1 given to it by ,linnus1 hence 
it is spoken of as ,papilio  ,machaon4  

,it is found in various parts of ,europe
 as well as in ,england4  ,but in       
,central ,europe 7often seen in         
,switzerland7 there is also  another    
species of swallow-tail1 which only     
occurs as a rare accident  in ,england4 
,this is the pale swallow-tail1         
differing1 not only by its  paler colour
 but by definite spots and markings of  
the wings1 from the  ,english species4  
,its species name1 or specific name1 is 
,podalirius1  and so it is known as     
,papilio ,podalirius4 ,species of       
,papilio are found  all over the world2 
more than #ejj are known4 ,our two      
commonest whites  belong to the genus   
,pieris-they are called respectively    
,pieris brassic  7the larger7 and       
,pieris rap 7the smaller74 ,the         
green-veined white is  ,pieris napi4    
,each of these three is called after the
 plant1 cabbage1  rape1 or turnip1 on   
which its caterpillar feeds4 ,the rare  
,bath white is  ,pieris daplidice4 ,its 
caterpillar feeds on mignonette4 ,there 

are dozens  of species in other parts of
 the world allied to our whites1 which  
naturalists have carefully distinguished
 and characterized by their  marks4     
,several of our most beautiful species  
of ,english butterflies which are  much 
alike have been enrolled in one         
genus-the genus ,vanessa4 ,this  genus  
includes the great tortoise-shell1      
called ,vanessa polychloros2  the       
smaller tortoise-shell1 ,vanessa urtic2 
the peacock1 ,vanessa ,io2  the painted 
lady1 ,vanessa cardui2 the red admiral1 
,vanessa ,atalanta2  and the comma      
butterfly1 ,vanessa ,c-album4 ,there are
 other ,european1  ,asiatic1 and        
,american species of ,vanessa4    ,in   
the same way we find with our meadow    
plants that what we at  first thought   
was a single kind1 the buttercup really 
bears a  name applicable to a genus in  
which are several common species4 ,the  
genus is called ,ranunculus1 and there  
are several common ,english  species    
with yellow flowers1 but distinguished  

from one another by  definite           
characters4 ,they are ,ranunculus acris1
 ,ranunculus flammula1  ,ranunculus     
bulbosus1 ,ranunculus arvensis1         
,ranunculus ficaria 7the  lesser        
celandine74 ,and then there is the      
white-flowered ,ranunculus  aquatilis-a 
common pond plant4 ,clover1 again1 is by
 no means the name  for a single        
species4 ,the clovers form the genus    
,trifolium1 and in any  ,english meadow 
we may come across the white clover1    
,trifolium repens2  the red clover1     
,trifolium pratense2 the hop clover1    
,trifolium agrarium3  the strawberry    
clover1 ,trifolium fragiferum2 the      
haresfoot clover1  ,trifolium arvense4  
,so it is with the plants which at first
 sight we  distinguish merely as        
daisies4 ,there are several distinct    
genera of  daisies-,aster1 ,bellis1     
,chrysanthemum 7ox-eye71 ,anthemis      
7camomile71 and  others1 with several   
distinct species in each genus4         
,enough has been said to show the reader

 that the mere notion of kinds  does not
 carry the same meaning as species1 but 
that there are a  number of regularly   
occurring definite forms of both animals
 and plants  which can be arranged in   
groups consisting only of individuals   
which  are very nearly identical with   
one another4 ,a group of living things  
of  this degree of likeness is called a 
species1 and receives a name4 ,a  less  
degree of likeness holds together a     
number of species to form what  we call 
a genus1 and the name of the genus is   
cited together with the  name of the    
species when we wish to speak of the    
species with clearness  and certainty4  
,this system of double names we owe to  
the great ,swedish  naturalist of the   
eighteenth century1 ,linnus4 ,he        
proposed also that  the relationships of
 living things to one another should be 
further  expressed by grouping like     
genera into families1 then like families
  into orders1 and like orders into     
classes4 ,and since his day we go       

further and group classes into phyla or 
great stems of the animal  pedigree4 ,in
 this way a complete hierarchy or system
 of less and more  comprehensive groups 
has been established1 and is the means  
by which  we indicate the natural groups
 of the family-trees of plants and of   
animals1 what1 in fact1 is called the   
classification of each of these  great  
series of living things4 ,linnus        
compared his system of groups to  the   
subdivisions of two armies4 ,thus1 the  
one army represents the whole  animal   
series1 the other the whole vegetable   
series4 ,an army is divided  into 7#a7  
legions1 these into 7#b7 divisions1     
divisions into 7#c7  regiments1         
regiments into 7#d7 battalions1 and     
battalions consist of  7#e7 companies1  
consisting of individual soldiers4      
,according to ,linnus1  we may compare  
the legions to classes1 which are       
divided into orders1  comparable to     
divisions2 these into families1         
comparable to regiments2  these into    

genera1 comparable to battalions2 and   
these into species1  comparable to      
companies1 or ultimate groups of        
individual units or  soldiers4    ,just 
as the legions1 divisions1 regiments1   
battalions and companies  of an army    
have each their own name or at any rate 
a distinctive  numeral assigned to them 
in order that they may be cited and     
directed1 so are names given to each    
class1 order1 family1 genus and  species
 of the classification or enumeration of
 the kinds of animals  and plants4      
,here1 for instance1 are the names of   
the greater and  smaller groups in which
 our common white finds itself enrolled4
  ,class-,insects4 ,order-,lepidoptera4 
,family-,pierid4 ,genus-,pieris4        
,species-brassic4          ,,chapter    
,,viii    ,,more ,,about ,,species      
,i wrote in the last chapter of the     
recognition of that degree of  likeness 
or kinship in animals and plants which  
we point to by the  word species1 and of
 the grouping of several similar species

 to  form a genus1 and of several genera
 to form a family1 of families  to form 
orders1 and of orders to form           
classes-and of the giving of  names to  
all these groups4 ,whilst the making of 
this or that lot of  species into a     
distinct genus1 and giving it a new name
 is a mere  matter of convenience for   
the indication of more or less important
  agreements and divergences1 and is to 
a large extent arbitrary or an          
expression of opinion-it has always been
 recognized among naturalists  that the 
group called a species is not a mere    
convention1 but has  a real natural     
limitation4 ,it is true that the actual 
things which  we see in studying natural
 history are so many units or           
individuals4  ,but the possibility of   
arranging these by pattern1 colour and  
shape  into ultimate companies of which 
all the units are alike and differ  from
 all the units of another company1 has  
been regarded as a natural  fact of     
primary importance and not a mere       

convention or convenience4  ,the        
conception of the naturalness of a      
species depends really upon  a further  
qualification of great importance as to 
what we naturalists  understand by it4  
,we find by rearing plants from seed and
 by causing animals to breed  under     
actual observation that the individuals 
of a species pair  with one another1 and
 not with individuals of other species1 
and  further1 that the young which they 
produce are like the parents-show       
themselves1 in fact1 to be of the same  
species4 ,the species  continually year 
after year reproduces itself with little
 variation1  though some variation does 
occur4 ,the faculty of pairing only     
within  the group1 of never naturally   
breeding with members of other groups1  
has accordingly been adopted as a test  
of species4 ,hybrids between  two       
species do not occur1 except in very    
rare cases1 in the state of  nature4 ,it
 is not always the case that the members
 of two species  cannot possibly pair   

together1 but it is the fact that they  
do not do  so4 ,man sometimes brings    
about such crossing or hybridization1   
and  it is a curious fact that the      
hybrids are often infertile or give     
rise only to weakly offspring1 which    
could not survive in the natural        
struggle for existence4 ,sometimes1     
however1 when the two hybridized        
species happen to come from regions of  
the world remote from one  another1 the 
resulting hybrids establish a vigorous  
race4 ,there are  real obstacles 7of    
which ,i will say more below7 in natural
 conditions  to hybrid-breeding between 
any two species which occur naturally in
  the same territory4 ,thus the idea of 
a species is expanded so as to  be not  
merely a group of individuals of        
constant likeness in form  and          
characteristics1 but we add to that     
definition a living or  constitutional  
quality expressed by the words1 which   
produce fertile  offspring by pairing   
with one another1 but do not pair with  

the members  of other species4    ,this 
enables us to distinguish the conception
 of a species from that  of a variety or
 a race4 ,we find occasionally          
peculiarly-marked  examples of a species
 of plant or animal1 or even local races
 of  peculiar form2 but we do not regard
 them as distinct species if  we find   
that they breed as a rule with the      
ordinary members of the  species4 ,the  
decisive test is the breeding4 ,if the  
variety is found  not to breed with the 
regular species1 but to keep apart and  
breed  only with other individuals like 
itself1 then we say1 ,this is no mere   
variety6 ,it is a distinct species6     
,unfortunately we have vast series  of  
animals1 insects1 and others1 from all  
parts of the world1 collected  and      
preserved in our museums1 of which we   
know only the dead preserved  specimens4
 ,so that we cannot be sure in doubtful 
cases whether a series  of forms        
differing a little from the ordinary    
members of a species  indicate distinct 

species1 as defined and tested by       
breeding4 ,we have  in such a case to   
note the difference1 and record it      
either as a  variety or as a species by 
a guess at the probabilities one way or 
the  other4 ,naturalists really intend  
by the word species to designate  a form
 represented by numerous like           
individuals1 which1 in the  present     
natural conditions of the region they   
inhabit1 have attained  a certain       
stability of distinctive form and       
character 7not without  some variability
 within definite limits7 and constitute 
a more or less  widely distributed      
population1 the members of which        
inter-breed but do  not produce         
offspring with other allied species4    
,a good case by which to exhibit further
 our conception of a species is  that   
afforded by the species which are united
 in the genus ,equus-the  horse-genus4  
,there are living at the present day    
several wild kinds  of ,equus-namely1   
the wild horse1 or ,tarpan1 of the ,gobi

 desert of  ,mongolia1 called after the 
,russian explorer ,przewalski2 two kinds
 of  ,asiatic wild ass1 called the      
,kiang and the ,onegar2 the ,african    
wild  ass1 and two or three kinds of    
zebra4 ,there are1 besides1 many kinds  
of domesticated horses1 ranging from the
 ,shetland pony to the ,flemish  dray   
horse1 and from the ,shire horse to the 
,arab4 ,then there are many  kinds of   
fossil extinct horses known1 some of    
which clearly must be  placed in the    
genus ,equus with the living kinds2     
others which have to  be separated into 
special genera 7,hippidium1             
,onohippidium1 etc474 ,now1  as to the  
living forms or form-kinds of the genus 
,equus-which are we  to regard as true  
species1 and which are only varieties   
and races of  lower significance than   
species8 ,the answer is clear enough in 
regard  to several of them4 ,the wild   
,mongolian horse and all the            
domesticated  horses are varieties1     
races1 or breeds of one species1 judged 

not only  by such marks as the          
possession of callosities on both the   
hind and  the fore legs1 but also by the
 test of breeding4 ,they breed together 
and produce persisting races4 ,but the  
asses and the zebras1 though  they will 
form mules with the horse1 do not in a  
state of nature  freely breed with it4  
,when an ass or zebra is mated by man   
with the  horse it will produce hybrids1
 called ,mules1 but will not in a  state
 of nature establish a hybrid race4 ,the
 asses and the zebras  are distinct from
 the horse1 not only in markings and    
certain details  of shape and hair1 but 
in the fact that they cannot be fused   
into one  race with him4 ,there are no  
sufficient experiments on the aloofness 
of zebras and asses from one another in 
regard to breeding1 although  it seems  
that they cannot establish a mixed race1
 and are1 therefore1  distinct species  
judged by that test as well as by their 
form and  marking4 ,it is not known     
whether the so-called species of wild   

ass-the  ,asiatic and the ,african-would
 prove to produce fertile or infertile  
mules if intercrossed1 nor has the test 
been applied to the very                
differently-marked local races of the   
,african zebras-,grevy's zebra1         
,burchell's zebra1 and the mountain     
zebra4 ,it is likely enough that the    
three or more species distinguished     
among zebras on account of their  being 
differently striped1 and existing in    
different localities1 would  be found to
 breed freely together1 and prove       
themselves thus to be  entitled to be   
regarded as local varieties or races1   
but not as  fully-separated true        
species4    ,thus one sees how difficult
 it is to have knowledge of the breeding
  test1 even in regard to large animals4
 ,it is obvious that the  difficulty of 
obtaining it in regard to the thousands 
of kinds of  minute creatures is much   
greater4 ,yet when they say1 ,this is a 
distinct species1 naturalists do mean   
that it is not only marked  off from    

other animals or plants most like to it 
by a certain shape1  colour1 or other   
quality or qualities1 but that it breeds
 apart with  its own kind and does not  
naturally hybridize with those other    
forms  most like to it4    ,although the
 kind of naturalist called a systematist
 who makes  it his business to          
accurately describe and record and      
distinguish  from one another all the   
existing species of some one group-say1 
of  antelopes1 of mice1 of flowering    
plants1 of fishes1 or of fleas-has  only
 a knowledge in a few instances of the  
breeding of the organisms  which he     
describes as distinct species1 he yet   
does know1 in regard  to some one or    
more of his species in most groups1 the 
facts of pairing  and reproduction1 and 
what are the limits of variation in the 
markings  and other characteristics of  
at least one or two species definitely  
submitted to the breeding test1 that is 
to say1 ascertained to be  true         
physiological species1 kept apart by    

deep-seated chemical  differences in    
their blood and tissues4 ,hence it is   
legitimate for  him1 by careful         
balancing and consideration of all the  
facts1 to  determine-not absolutely1 but
 by analogy-the value to be assigned    
7whether as indicating true species or  
merely varieties capable  of pairing    
with the main stock7 to points of       
difference among the  specimens of a    
dead collection brought from some       
distant land or from  some position in  
which it would be impossible to make    
observations  with regard to pairing and
 breeding true4    ,some #djj species of
 fleas have been described1 and we are  
certain as  to the value of the         
characters relied on to distinguish     
those species1  owing to what we know of
 the breeding of some common species of 
fleas4  ,the flea of the domestic fowl1 
that of the domestic pigeon1 that from  
the house-martin1 and that from the     
sand-martin-used to be considered  as   
one species until they were carefully   

examined twenty years ago4 ,in  reality 
each of them has its own peculiar marks1
 and they do not mix  with one another4 
,the nests of the sand-martin yield only
 one species  of flea1 namely that      
peculiar to the sand-martin4 ,the       
hen-house1  the dove-cote1 and the nests
 of the house-martin yield each their   
flea maggots1 which can be reared and   
become in each case a distinct  species 
with definite recognizable characters4  
,on the other hand1  the flea of the    
rabbit gives an opportunity of studying 
the limits of  variation in a good      
species4 ,rabbit warrens swarm with the 
rabbit  flea1 and often a great number  
are found on one rabbit1 the individual 
fleas varying-differing from one another
 to a slight extent4 ,the  systematist  
thus gets to know what organs are       
variable within the  limits of an       
undoubted physiological species of flea1
 and what are  comparatively constant-so
 that he can form a reasonable opinion  
about  the claim of other specimens     

which he may receive without full       
history  of their habits1 to be regarded
 as true distinct species4    ,the fact 
that most important chemical differences
 of the blood and  digestive juices     
often accompany the small external      
differences  which enable us to         
distinguish one species of animal or    
plant from  another1 makes it obvious   
that the knowledge of species is a very 
valuable and necessary thing4 ,one      
species of flea1 the ,pulex ,cheopis1   
habitually carries the plague bacillus  
from animals to man1 and is  a cause of 
death2 other species1 extremely like it 
in appearance1  but distinguishable by a
 trained observer1 do not carry the     
plague  bacillus1 but if they swallow   
it1 destroy it by digestion4 ,one       
species  of gnat1 the common grey gnat1 
digests and destroys malaria germs when 
it sucks them up with blood2 in an      
allied species1 the spot-winged gnat  or
 ,anopheles1 the chemical juices of the 
gut allow the germ to live in  it and   

multiply1 and so to be carried to men by
 the gnat's bite4 ,so  with many other  
flies and parasites the recognition of  
the dangerous  species is of vital      
importance1 and that recognition often  
depends on  minute features of form and 
colour not at once obvious to an        
ordinary  observer4    ,but this        
recognition of distinct species is1 from
 the point of view of  the study of     
,nature1 only a preliminary to the      
question1 ,how did these  species come  
about8 ,how is it that there are so many
 species1 some very  like one another1  
forming genera1 and these genera grouped
 into related  families1 these into     
larger groups1 and so on1 like the      
branches of  a family tree8 ,the answer 
to these questions given by ,linnus was3
  ,there are just so many species as the
 ,infinite ,being created at the        
beginning of things1 and they have      
continued to propagate themselves       
unchanged ever since4 ,the answer which 
we give to-day is that the  appearance  

of a huge family tree which our         
classification of animals  takes is due 
to the simple fact that it really is    
neither more nor less  than a family    
tree or pedigree-the tree of life1 of   
which the green  leaves and buds are the
 existing species4 ,further1 we hold    
that the  existing species of a genus   
have come into existence by natural     
birth  from one ancestral species1 its  
offspring having slightly varied 7we    
are all familiar with this individual   
variation in our own species1 in  dogs1 
cats1 trees1 and shrubs71 and that the  
varieties have wandered  apart and      
become continuously emphasized and      
selected for survival by  their fitness 
or suitability to the changed conditions
 around each of  them4 ,meanwhile a     
natural destruction1 or failure of      
intermediate forms  to survive1 has gone
 on4          ,,chapter ,,ix            
,,species ,,in ,,the ,,making      ,a   
series of important conceptions are     
implied in the word species1 as  used by

 naturalists4 ,some of these we have    
noted in the last chapter4  ,there is   
first1 as a starting-point1 the         
conception that a species  is a number  
or company of individuals1 all closely  
and clearly alike  7though presenting   
some minor individual variations71 and  
capable of  sharp separation by certain 
characters from other similar groups or 
companies4 ,then follows the addition   
7#b7 that the species is constant  if   
the conditions of life are not changed1 
or but little changed1 and  that year   
after year it reproduces itself without 
change4 ,it has a  certain stability    
7but not permanent immutability7 greater
 in some  species than in others4 ,next 
we find 7#c7 that the species           
constitutes  a group of individuals     
which have descended by natural breeding
 from  common parents1 not differing    
greatly from the present individuals4   
,they are1 in fact1 one stock4 ,then    
7#d7 that the species is a group1  the  
individuals of which pair with one      

another in breeding1 but do not  pair   
with the individuals of another species1
 and that this is due to  various       
peculiar and inherent chemical1         
physiological and 7in higher  animals7  
psychological characteristics of the    
species4    ,we have now further to note
 that species have their special        
geographical centres of origin from     
which most spread only a small          
distance1 whilst others have a wonderful
 power of dispersal1 and  have become   
cosmopolitan4 ,moreover1 we find that   
some species are  numerically very      
abundant1 others very rare2 that rare   
and abundant  species have often invaded
 each other's territory1 and exist side 
by  side4    ,whilst we often find a    
number of species1 fifty or more1 so    
much alike  that we unite them in a     
single genus 7as1 for instance1 in the  
case  of the cats1 lions1 tigers1       
leopards1 which form the genus ,felis1  
and the hundred or more species of the  
hedge brambles or blackberries1  which  

form the genus ,rubus71 there are many  
species which to-day  have1 as it were1 
lost all their relatives and stand      
alone1 the  solitary species in a       
well-marked genus1 or have perhaps only 
one  other living co-species4 ,and      
sometimes 7curiously enough7 that one   
co-species is an inhabitant of a region 
very remote from that inhabited  by the 
other4 ,thus the two living mammals     
called tapirs 7genus ,tapirus7  inhabit1
 the one the ,malay region1 and the     
other ,central ,america4 ,this  is      
explained by the fact that tapirs       
formerly existed all over the           
land-surfaces of ,north ,europe1 ,north 
,asia1 and ,north ,america1 which       
connect these widely-separate spots4 ,we
 find the bones and teeth of  the       
extinct tapirs embedded in the ,tertiary
 deposits of the connecting  regions4   
,once we have gained the fundamental    
conceptions as to what is meant by  a   
species1 we are able intelligently to   
consider innumerable facts  of the most 

diverse kind as to their peculiar       
structure and colours1  their number1   
localities1 their interaction and       
dependence on other  living things1     
their modifications for special modes of
 life1 their  isolation or their        
ubiquity4 ,we can discuss their genetic 
relations  to one another1 and to       
extinct fossil species1 which have all  
been to  a very large extent accounted  
for or explained by ,mr4 ,darwin's      
theory of the origin of species by the  
natural selection of favoured  races in 
the struggle for existence4 ,but there  
is always more to be  made              
out-difficulties to be removed1 new     
instances to be studied4 ,the           
classification of the genera of plants  
and animals1 with their included        
species into larger groups1 helps us to 
state and to remember their  actual     
build and structure1 and to survey1 as  
it were1 the living  world1 from the    
animalcule to the man1 or from the      
microbe to the  magnolia tree4 ,every   

one interested in natural history should
 carry  in his mind as complete a scheme
 of the classification of animals and   
plants as possible4    ,the older       
naturalists held that species were      
suddenly created as  they exist1 and    
have propagated their like ever since4  
,darwin has  taught us that the present 
species have developed by a slow process
  of transformation from preceding      
species1 and these from other           
predecessors1 and so on to the remotest 
geologic ages and the dawn  of life4    
,the agents at work have been           
variation-that is to say1  the response 
to the never-ceasing variation of the   
surrounding world  or environment-and   
the survival in the struggle for        
existence of the  fittest varieties so  
produced4    ,there is nothing          
surprising or extraordinary in the      
existence of  variation4 ,the conditions
 of life and growth are never absolutely
  identical in two individuals1 and the 
wonder is not that species vary1  but   

that they vary so little4 ,the living   
substance of animals and  plants is an  
extremely complex chemical substance1   
ever decomposing and  ever being        
renewed4 ,it is the most labile as it is
 by far the most  elaborately built-up  
chemical body which chemists have ever  
ventured to  imagine4 ,it differs1      
chemically1 not only in every species   
but in every  individual and is         
incessantly acted upon-influenced as we 
may say-by  the ever-changing physical  
and chemical conditions around it4 ,at  
the  same time it has1 subject to the   
permanence of essential conditions1  a  
definite stability and limitation to its
 change or variation in  response to    
variations of its environment4 ,that    
part of the living  substance which in  
all but the lowest plants and animals is
 set aside  during growth to form the   
eggs and sperms by which they multiply  
or  reproduce themselves1 is called the 
germ-plasm1 and is peculiarly  sensitive
 to variations in 7that is a change in7 

the environment of  the plant or animal4
    ,new conditions of life 7locality   
and climate7-unusual food or            
reproductive activity-act often in a    
powerful way upon the germ-plasm  and   
cause it to vary-that is to say1 they   
alter some of its qualities1  though not
 necessarily disturbing in any way the  
general living  substance of the        
organism so far as to produce any       
important change  perceptible to the    
human eye4 ,in consequence1 the young   
produced after  such disturbance of the 
germ-plasm are found to differ more from
 their  parents than in cases where no  
such disturbance has been set up by the 
natural never-ceasing variation of the  
surrounding world4 ,this fact  is well  
known to horticulturists and breeders1  
and is made use of by  them4 ,when a    
gardener wishes to obtain variations of 
a plant from which  to select and       
establish a new breed1 he deliberately  
sets to work to  disturb-to shake up1 to
 act upon in a tentative1 experimental  

way-the  germ-plasm of one or more      
parent plants by change of soil1        
climate1  food and often by             
cross-fertilizing them with another     
breed or variety4  ,in this way he to   
some extent breaks the constitutional   
stability of  the germ-plasm of the     
plant and obtains abundant variations in
 the  offspring4 ,these are not         
precisely foreseen1 and show themselves 
in all  parts of the new generation4    
,but some of them are what the gardener 
wants1 and are selected by him for      
retention1 rearing and breeding4    ,the
 response of the germ-plasm of organisms
 to the stimulus of new  environmental  
conditions has been compared to that of 
the well-known  pattern-producing       
toy-the kaleidoscope4 ,the bits of      
glass1 beads and  silk which you see in 
a kaleidoscope1 forming by reflection in
 its  mirrors a beautiful and definite  
pattern1 are changed by a simple        
vibration caused by tapping the         
instrument into a very different        

pattern1 the coloured fragments being   
displaced and rearranged4 ,the  apparent
 change or variation is very great      
though produced by slight  mechanical   
disturbance1 and the new pattern is     
altogether without any  special         
significance-the fortuitous outcome of a
 small displacement  of the constituent 
coloured fragments4 ,we can imagine that
 similarly  slight disturbances of the  
organic molecules of the germ-plasm may 
produce considerable and important      
variations in it and the new growth  to 
which it gives rise3 and1 further1 that 
these variations may prove  to be either
 7#a7 injurious1 or 7#b7 of life-saving 
value1 or often  enough 7#c7 of no      
consequence whatever although bulking   
largely in our  human eyes and thereby  
misleading our judgment of them4        
,there is no reason to doubt that the   
same sequence of events occurs  in      
nature apart from man's interference4   
,changes occur in the earth's  surface1 
or the organism is transported by       

currents of water or  air into new      
conditions4 ,the germ-plasm is          
disturbed1 shaken  or shocked by those  
new conditions1 and a variation1 in     
several  structures and qualities of the
 offspring subsequently produced1       
follows4 ,then also follows the         
selection of one of the new varieties by
  survival of the fitter to the new     
conditions into which the organism  has 
been transported or have developed in   
the region where it was  previously     
established4    ,this process of        
germ-variation is obviously as necessary
 and constant  a feature of the living  
organism as is the variation in the     
contour  of land and sea and in the     
extent of the polar ice-cap-a necessary 
feature of the physical conditions of   
the terrestrial globe4 ,but it  is the  
fashion with a certain school of writers
 nowadays to declare  that variation in 
organisms is a mystery unsolved4        
,another very  common and almost        
universal error is to overlook the fact 

that  variation is constitutional and   
affects whole systems of organs and     
their deeply related parts1 and is not1 
as it is so frequently and  erroneously 
assumed to be1 a mere local affair of   
patches and scraps  visible on this or  
that part of the surface of an animal or
 plant4  ,these superficial marks1      
readily seen and noted by the collector1
  are rarely of any life-saving         
importance3 they are but the outward and
  visible signs of deep-lying           
physiological or constitutional change  
or  variation4 ,the varying organism    
has1 like ,hamlet1 that within which    
passeth show and the superficial        
variations 7like his inky cloak  and    
other customary features of mourning7   
are but the trappings and  the suits of 
a deep-lying change4 ,variation is not  
an inexplicable  mystery1 nor1 on the   
other hand1 are varieties sufficiently  
dealt  with and their nature appreciated
 when one or two surface peculiarities  
are enumerated by which the collector   

can recognize them4 ,a deeper  study of 
the varying organism is both possible   
and needed4    ,if the gradual formation
 of new species from ancestral species  
is a  true account of the matter1 we    
must expect to find1 at any rate here   
and there1 if not frequently1 traces of 
the process-for instance1  gradations1  
or series of intermediate forms1        
connecting new1  well-established       
species with the ancestral form or with 
one another4  ,we do find such          
gradations-sometimes more1 sometimes    
less1 completely  persisting over a wide
 tract of country1 or discoverable in   
the  fossiliferous deposits containing  
the remains of extinct animals4    ,for 
instance1 when we look at the           
butterflies of a much larger region     
than our little island-namely1 at those 
of a great continent like  ,africa or   
,south ,america-we find that there are  
species which show  gradations4 ,thus at
 a series of points1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1    
separated by some  hundreds of miles    

from each other1 we find a corresponding
 series of  butterflies which are       
apparently closely similar species of   
one genus1  differing by a few spots of 
colour1 or darker and lighter tint1 much
  as our ,large ,white1 ,garden ,white1 
and ,green-veined ,white differ4 ,but   
when the butterflies are caught which   
occur at points intermediate  between ,a
 and ,b1 ,b and ,c1 ,c and ,d1 we find  
intermediate varieties1 and1  in fact1  
if we get a very large number from      
intermediate regions1 we  can1 in some  
instances1 arrange them in line so that 
they constitute  a graduated series of  
forms1 each being scarcely              
distinguishable from  the one before or 
the one behind it1 yet differing clearly
 from one a  dozen places away4 ,in such
 cases there is often evidence to show  
that  the variety found at ,a breeds    
with that found at ,b1 that of ,b with  
that  of ,c1 of ,c with ,d1 so that they
 form an inter-breeding group1 though   
perhaps the varieties at ,d will not    

pair with those at ,a1 or even  with    
those at ,b4 ,then sometimes we find in 
such a series1 otherwise  complete1 a   
gap4 ,let us suppose it is between the  
butterflies of ,b and  ,c4 ,we find the 
series of gradations nearly complete1   
but some natural  condition-such as the 
encroachment of the sea1 or the slow    
elevation  of a mountain range1 or the  
climatic destruction of the necessary   
food-plant-has wiped out a few forms    
somewhere between those of ,b  and ,c4  
,they no longer exist4 ,the series is no
 longer connected by  inter-breeding    
forms2 those occurring from ,a to ,b and
 some distance  beyond are one species  
varying in the direction of the series  
,c  to ,d1 but abruptly broken off from 
the latter4 ,the series ,c to ,d is     
also a species with graduated varieties1
 but distinct2 it is cut  off from the  
lot once in continuity with it by the   
destruction of  the intermediate forms  
inhabiting an intermediate area4 ,thus  
the one  species becomes two1 and these 

may again break up1 and1 having become  
thus disconnected and stabilized1 they  
may spread over one another's           
territory-fly side by side and yet      
remain distinct forms which do not  pair
 together-although originally they were 
varieties spreading from a  common      
centre1 where the ancestral species     
lived and multiplied4    ,other similar 
gradational series of an interesting    
character have  been noticed in the case
 of fresh-water fossil snail-shells4 ,in
 the  layers of clay and marl exposed by
 digging a railway cutting or a  pit we 
may find that the successive layers     
represent a continuous  deposit of      
#ajj1jjj years or more1 and we find     
sometimes that a form of  snail-shell   
7not a species living to-day7 occurs in 
the lowest stratum  very different from 
that occurring in the highest           
stratum-the lowest  being short and     
spherical1 the highest elongated and of 
differing  texture4 ,in the intermediate
 layers1 each #f or #ab ins4 thick and  

occupying perhaps altogether #cj ft4 of 
vertical thickness1 we find a  graduated
 series of snail-shells leading almost  
imperceptibly from  the oldest lowest   
form to the latest uppermost form4 ,such
 cases are  known4 ,but it is an        
exceptional thing to find these         
graduated series  either spread over an 
area of the earth's surface1 or         
following one  another in successive    
strata4 ,when they came into existence  
they were  rapidly superseded and       
destroyed as a rule1 and have left only 
one  or two widely-separated examples of
 the intermediate forms4 ,this we       
should naturally expect by analogy from 
what we know of the successive  traces  
of human manufactures in the deposits on
 the site of some of the  great cities  
of the ancient world which have been    
carefully excavated  layer by layer4    
,but still we have the important fact   
that here and  there such gradational   
series have been found1 and we are      
justified  in considering a few isolated

 intermediate forms 7which often occur  
connecting two greatly-differing        
species7 as survivors of a former       
complete graduated series of            
intermediate forms1 which came into     
existence by slow modification of an    
ancestral stock1 and may1 when  the     
stock was widely spread over a          
continental area1 not merely have       
succeeded one another in time1 but      
actually coexisted in neighbouring      
regions4    ,there are many remarkable  
facts bearing upon the origin of        
species1  the description of which fills
 volumes written by such men as ,darwin1
  ,wallace1 ,poulton1 and others1 and   
become interesting to every one who  has
 gained a correct notion of what        
naturalists mean by a species4 ,i  will 
cite one in order to illustrate this4   
,the bird which we call the  red grouse1
 or nowadays simply grouse 7the old     
,scotch name for it  was muir-fowl71 is 
one of twenty-four birds 7among the #djj
 species  of birds which live in the    

,british ,islands71 including several   
kinds  of titmouse1 the goldfinch1      
bullfinch1 song-thrush1 stonechat1 jay1 
dipper1 and others which are very       
closely similar to species of birds     
living in ,continental ,europe1 yet show
 some definite and constant  marks1 such
 as small differences in the colour of a
 group of feathers1  enabling us to     
distinguish the ,british from the       
,continental forms4 ,are  these         
twenty-four ,british forms to be        
regarded as distinct species8    ,the   
red grouse is placed in a genus called  
,lagopus1 of which there  are several   
species in the northern hemisphere4 ,in 
,scotland the red  grouse1 which is     
distinguished as ,lagopus ,scoticus1 is 
accompanied by  a rarer species of      
,lagopus1 which lives in high1 bare     
regions4 ,this is  the bird called by   
the ,celtic name ptarmigan2 it differs  
in several  points from the red grouse1 
and acquires white plumage in the       
winter1  which the latter bird does not2

 it is called ,lagopus mutus4 ,now in   
,norway we find also two species of     
grouse or ,lagopus1 called ryp          
7pronounced reeper7 by the ,norwegians4 
,one is the same bird in every  respect 
as the ,scotch ptarmigan1 and is known  
as the mountain ryp4  ,the other is very
 close to our red grouse1 and is called 
the common  or bush ryp1 and by ,english
 naturalists the willow grouse1 and  by 
ornithologists ,lagopus salicetus4 ,it  
agrees in habits1 voice1  eggs1 and     
anatomical detail with our red grouse1  
but the back of the  cock-bird of the   
red grouse and the whole plumage of the 
hen-bird  have a darker colour4         
,moreover1 the willow grouse1 like the  
ptarmigan  or mountain ryp1 turns       
white-acquires a white plumage-in the   
winter  which the red grouse does not4  
,are the red grouse and the willow      
grouse  to be regarded as distinct      
species8 ,our ,british red grouse lives 
on  heather-grown moors2 the willow     
grouse prefers the shrubby growths of   

berry-bearing plants interspersed with  
willows1 whence its name4 ,their  food  
differs accordingly4 ,formerly the red  
grouse lived on the moors  of the ,south
 of ,england1 and when in ,pleistocene  
times ,england was a  part of the       
,continent of ,europe the willow grouse 
and the red grouse  were one undivided  
species inhabiting all the north-west of
 ,europe4 ,it  is probable1 though the  
experiment would be almost impossible to
 carry  out1 that were the eggs of a    
number of willow grouse now brought to  
,scotland and hatched on the moors1 they
 would tend to keep apart from  the     
native red grouse1 and not inter-breed  
with them1 in which case we  should say 
that the ,scotch form is a species on   
the make1 or1 even1  a completed and    
distinct species4 ,on the other hand1 it
 is possible  that the two forms would  
freely pair with another1 and that the  
colour  and winter coat of the one      
7probably that of the ,scotch form if   
the  experiment were tried in ,scotland7

 would predominate1 and after some      
generations no trace of the other strain
 would be observable4          ,,chapter
 ,x    ,,some ,,specific ,,characters   
,an interesting case1 showing that      
qualities which are life-preserving     
under certain severe conditions exist in
 some varieties of a species  and not in
 others1 was recorded some eight years  
ago4 ,after a very  severe blizzard #acf
 common sparrows were found benumbed on 
the ground  by ,professor ,bumpus at    
,providence1 ,united ,states4 ,they were
 brought  into a warm room and laid on  
the floor4 ,after a short time          
seventy-two  revived and sixty-four     
perished4 ,they were compared to see if 
the  survivors were distinguished by any
 measurable character from those  which 
died4 ,it was found that the survivors  
were smaller birds 7the  sexes and young
 birds being separately compared7 than  
those which died1  and were lighter in  
weight by one-twenty-fifth than the     
latter4 ,also1  the birds which survived

 had a decidedly longer breastbone than 
those  which died4    ,similarly1 the   
late ,professor ,weldon found that in   
the young of the  common shore-crab1    
taken in certain parts of ,plymouth     
harbour1 those  with a little           
peculiarity in the shape of the front of
 the shell  survived when those without 
this peculiarity died4 ,many thousands  
were  collected and measured in this    
experiment4 ,it is not necessary to     
suppose that the distinguishing mark of 
the survivors in such cases  is the     
cause of their survival4 ,such marks as 
the breadth of the  front part of the   
crab's shell and the length of a bird's 
breastbone  very probably are but the   
outward and visible signs of an inward  
and  7physiological7 grace4    ,the     
marks1 little peculiarities of colour   
and proportionate size1  or some        
peculiar knob or horn1 by which the     
student of species  distinguishes one   
constant form from another1 can rarely1 
if ever1 be  shown to have in themselves

 an active value in aiding or saving the
  life of the species of plant or       
animal4 ,the mark or character is an    
accompaniment of a chemical1            
nutritional1 physiological condition1   
and is in itself of no account4 ,it is  
what is called a correlated  character4 
,such1 for instance1 is the black colour
 of the skin  of pigs which in          
,virginia1 ,u4,s41 are found1 as stated 
by ,darwin1  not to be poisoned by a    
marsh plant 7the paint-root1            
,lachnanthes  tinctoria71 whilst all    
other coloured and colourless pigs are4 
,the pigs  which are not black develop a
 disease of their hoofs which rot and   
fall off1 causing their death when they 
eat this special plant the  paint-root4 
,the colour does not save the pig-it    
cannot correctly be  called the cause of
 the pig's survival-but is an           
accompaniment of the  physiological     
quality which enables the pig to resist 
the poisonous  herb4 ,so1 too1 with     
white-spotted animals4 ,they are known  

to breeders  as being liable to diseases
 from which others are free4 ,fantail   
pigeons  have extra vertebr in their    
tails1 and pouter pigeons have their    
vertebr increased in number and size4   
,but the vertebr were never  thought of 
and selected by the breeders4 ,they only
 wanted a fanlike  set of tail feathers 
in the one case1 and a longer body in   
the other4  ,some varieties of          
feathering maintained by pigeon breeders
 lead to the  growth of abundant        
feathers on the legs 7as in             
,cochin-,china fowls71 and  it is found 
that these feather-legged pigeons always
 have the two outer  toes connected by a
 web of skin4 ,if it were a stabilized  
wild form we  should separate it as a   
species on account of its webbed toes1  
yet the  real selection and survival in 
the hands of the breeder had nothing to 
do with the toes or their web1 but was  
simply caused by these pigeons  having  
feathers of survival or selection value 
in his judgment4 ,male  white cats with 

blue eyes are deaf4 ,if deafness were   
ever an advantage  7a difficult thing to
 imagine71 you would get a species of   
cat with  white hair and blue eyes1 and 
be led to distinguish the species by    
those characters1 not by the real cause 
of survival1 namely1 deafness4  ,not    
enough is yet known of this curious and 
very important subject  of correlation1 
but its bearing on the significance of  
specific  characters is sufficiently    
indicated by what ,i have said4    ,an  
interesting group of species1 three of  
which are to be purchased  alive through
 ,london fishmongers1 are the ,european 
crayfishes1 not to  be confused with the
 rock-lobster or ,langouste             
7,palinurus71 sometimes  called crawfish
 in ,london1 nor with the ,dublin prawn 
7,nephrops74  ,the little river         
crayfishes are like small lobsters1 and 
were placed  by older naturalists in one
 genus with the lobsters4 ,now we keep  
the  ,european species of crayfishes as 
the genus ,astacus1 and the common      

lobster and the ,american lobster have  
been put 7by ,h4 ,milne-,edwards7  into 
a separate genus 7,homarus74 ,you can   
buy in ,london the crevisses   pattes   
rouges of ,french and ,german rivers1   
which is called ,astacus  fluviatilis1  
and differs from that of the ,thames and
 other ,english and  ,european rivers   
7which you can also buy7 called ,a4     
pallipes 7pattes  blanches of the       
,french71 by the bright orange-red tips 
of its legs1  and by having the side    
teeth of the horn or beak at the front  
of the  head larger and more distinct4  
,the ,english crayfish grows to be      
nearly  as large as the pattes rouges in
 the ,avon at ,salisbury1 though it has 
nearly disappeared about ,oxford4 ,you  
can also sometimes buy in ,london  the  
big1 long-clawed ,astacus leptodactylus 
of ,east ,europe4 ,there are  two or    
three other species1 named and          
distinguished1 which do not come  into  
the ,london market4    ,crayfishes1     
lobsters and the like have groups of    

plume-like gills  7corresponding in the 
most ancient forms to the number of the 
legs  and jaw-legs7 overhung and hidden 
by the sides of the great shield or     
head of the animal4 ,the common lobsters
 and crayfishes retain most  of these in
 full size and activity1 but have lost  
in the course of  geologic ages the     
original complete number4 ,these        
plume-like gills-each  half an inch or  
so in length-are attached1 some to the  
bases of the  legs and some to the sides
 of the body above the legs4 ,in the    
ancestral  form there were thirty-two   
plumes on each side1 twenty-four        
attached  to the bases of the legs1 and 
eight placed each at some distance above
  the connection of one of the eight    
legs with the side of the body4 ,it  is 
those on the side of the body which have
 suffered most diminution  in the course
 of the development of modern crayfishes
 7and lobsters7  from the ancestral form
 provided with the full equipment of    
thirty-two  gill-plumes on each side4   

,in fact1 only one well-grown           
gill-plume1  out of the eight which     
should exist on each side of the        
body-wall1  is to be found-and that is  
the one placed above the insertion of   
the  hindermost or eighth of the eight  
legs 7eight when we reckon the  three   
jaw-legs as legs as well as the five    
walking-legs74 ,in front  of this the   
side or wall of the body is bare of     
gill-plumes though  they are present in 
full size on the basal part of most of  
the legs4  ,nevertheless1 when one      
examines carefully with a lens the bare 
side  of the body overhung by the       
head-shield or carapace1 one finds in a 
specimen of the common ,english         
pale-footed crayfish a very minute      
gill-plume high above the articulation  
of the seventh leg and another  above   
the articulation of the sixth leg4 ,they
 are small dwindled  things1 as though  
on the way to extinction1 and are the   
mere vestiges  of what were once        
well-grown gill-plumes1 and still are so

 in the rock  lobster and some prawns4  
,in the red-footed crayfish of the      
,continent  7,astacus fluviatilis7 yet  
another minute vestige of a gill-plume  
is  found1 farther in front1 on the     
body-wall above the fifth leg on  each  
side of the animal4 ,this furnishes a   
definite mark or character  by which we 
can distinguish the red-footed crayfish 
from the common  ,english pale-footed   
one4 ,but these three rudimentary       
gill-plumes in the  red-foot species1   
and two in the pale-foot species are all
 that until  lately were recorded4 ,the 
region of the body-wall above the       
fourth1  third1 second1 and first of the
 legs was declared to be devoid even of 
a vestige of the branchial plumes which 
were there in ancestral forms1  and have
 been retained more or less in some     
exceptional prawn-like  creatures allied
 to the crayfish4    ,zoologists take a 
special interest in the crayfish because
 it is found  to be a most convenient   
type for the purpose of teaching the    

principles  of zoology to young         
students1 and with that end in view was 
made the  subject of a very beautiful   
little book by the great teacher        
,huxley4  ,the conclusions above stated 
in regard to the gills are set forth in 
that book with admirable illustrative   
drawings1 and the striking fact  of the 
dwindling and suppression of the various
 gill-plumes is clearly  explained4     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4-,the         
rudimentary gill-plume of a crayfish    
from that part of the body-wall to which
 the first pair of jaw-legs             
7maxillipedes7 is articulated4 ,found in
 the red-footed crayfish  7,astacus     
fluviatilis7 but in no other species of 
,astacus4 ,it is  one-fifteenth of an   
inch long4 ,drawn by ,miss ,margery     
,moseley in #aijd4  7,quart4 ,journal of
 ,microscopical ,science1 vol4 #bf      
7#aijd-e747    ,and now we come to an   
interesting discovery in this matter of 
the  gill-plumes of crayfishes4 ,some   
fifteen years ago the daughter of my    

friend and colleague-,professor         
,moseley-was a member of the class of   
,elementary ,biology at ,oxford4 ,she   
had to examine and identify these  and  
other points in the structure of the    
crayfish4 ,the class was  supplied with 
specimens of the ,french red-footed     
crayfish ,astacus  fluviatilis1 as it is
 more readily obtained from fishmongers 
than  our own pale-foot or ,astacus     
pallipes4 ,she found in her specimen    
far forward on each side of the head a  
very minute gill far away  from the     
others and previously unknown4 ,the     
demonstrator in charge of  the class    
refused even to look at her discovery4  
,so she confirmed it  by examining three
 other specimens-made drawings of the   
tiny branched  gill 7as shown in ,fig4  
#cc7 and their position1 and sent them  
to me  in ,london4 ,it was at once clear
 that she had discovered in this much   
studied little animal a very interesting
 pair of gills 7right and  left7-unknown
 to ,huxley and the rest of the         

zoological world4 ,she  proceeded to    
examine specimens of ,a4 fluviatilis    
from various rivers of  ,germany and    
,france and always found the new        
gill-plume4 ,she also showed  7,i       
supplied her with specimens at the      
,natural ,history ,museum7 that it  was1
 on the other hand1 absent from ,a4     
leptodactylus1 ,a4 pallipes1  and all   
the foreign species 7some from ,asia7   
which are known1 and she  published an  
illustrated account of it in the        
,quarterly ,journal of  ,microscopical  
,science4 ,this tiny gill-plume is      
placed very far forward  on each side of
 the body1 the farthest point forward at
 which any  gill-plume is found in any  
kind of prawn1 shrimp or lobster1 namely
  in the region where the first pair of 
jaw-legs is attached1 so that  there are
 three empty spaces between it and the  
rudimentary gill over  the fifth pair of
 legs1 already known in the red-footed  
crayfish4 ,it  is only two millimetres  
long-about one-fifteenth of an inch6    

,but its  presence serves very          
distinctly to separate the red-footed   
crayfish1  ,astacus fluviatilis of      
,french and ,german rivers1 thus        
discovered  to have four pairs of       
rudimentary gill-plumes1 from the       
,astacus  leptodactylus of the ,danube  
basin and ,east ,europe1 which has only 
three  pairs1 and still more to         
emphasize the difference between it and 
our  ,british species1 the white-foot or
 ,astacus pallipes1 which has only  two6
    ,this little history is noteworthy1 
firstly1 because it shows that a  young 
student may1 to use an appropriate term1
 wipe the eye of an  expert observer and
 rightly venerated teacher 7who would   
have delighted  in the little discovery 
had he been alive71 as well as the eyes 
of  tens of thousands of students and   
teachers 7including myself7 who have    
studied the red-foot crayfish year after
 year1 and missed the little  gill4 ,it 
is also interesting as showing us a good
 sample of a specific  mark or character

 which has no survival value2 that is1  
could not  advantage the crayfish in the
 struggle for life4 ,the fact is1 that  
this  one particular very minute forward
 pair of gill-plumes is like the  other 
rudimentary gills-a survival in a       
reduced condition of a pair of          
gill-plumes which were well-grown1      
useful plumes aerating the blood1  in   
the prawn-like ancestors of all         
crayfishes1 lobsters1 shrimps1 and      
prawns1 and is1 owing to circumstances  
of nutrition and growth which we  know  
nothing about but can vaguely imagine1  
retained by the red-foot  species of    
crayfish1 but lost by all other         
crayfishes1 lobsters1  common prawns and
 shrimps1 and1 in fact1 only retained   
besides by a  very few out-of-the-way   
kinds of marine prawns4 ,that is the    
sort of  thing which frequently has to  
serve as a specific character or mark1  
distinguishing one species from another4
    ,a more ample discussion of the     
origin of species is not within the     

scope of this book4 ,but ,i may say that
 until recently the conception  that    
every organ1 part and feature of a plant
 and animal must  be explained1 and can 
only be explained1 as being of          
life-saving  value to its possessor1 and
 accordingly selected and preserved in  
the struggle for existence1 was held by 
many ,darwinians in too  uncompromising 
a spirit4 ,this conception was1 really  
from the first1  qualified by the       
admission that the life-saving value and
 consequent  preservation of a structure
 must undoubtedly in some cases have    
been  in operation in ancestors of the  
existing species1 and is no longer      
operative in their descendants although 
they inherit the structure  which has   
now become useless4 ,moreover1 the      
operation of those subtle  laws of      
nutrition and of form which are spoken  
of as the correlation  of parts in      
growth and in variation 7mentioned on p4
 #aai7 was pointed  out by ,darwin      
himself as probably accounting for many 

remarkable  growths1 structures and     
colour-marks which we cannot imagine to 
be  now1 or ever to have been in past   
ancestry1 of a life-saving value4       
,nevertheless1 the old teleology1       
according to which1 in pre-,darwinian   
days1 it was held that every part and   
feature of an animal or plant has  been 
specially created to fulfil a definite  
pre-ordained function or  useful        
purpose1 still influenced the minds of  
many naturalists4 ,natural  selection   
and survival of the fittest were        
reconciled with the old  teleological   
scheme1 and it was held that we must as 
good ,darwinians  account for every     
structure and distinctive feature in    
every animal and  plant as due to its   
life-saving value4 ,herbert ,spencer's  
term1 the  survival of the fittest1     
conduced to the diffusion of this       
extreme  view3 ,darwin's equivalent     
term1 the preservation of favoured      
races1  did not raise the question of   
greater or less fitness4    ,the extreme

 view is now1 however1 giving place to  
the recognition  of the fact that the   
actual tendencies to                    
variation-accumulated in  the living    
substance of the various stocks or lines
 of descent and  handed on during an    
immense succession of ages of change by 
hereditary  transmission-counts for more
 in the production of new species and   
strange1 divergent1 even grotesque forms
 of both animals and plants  than had   
been supposed4    ,undoubtedly selection
 or survival of the fittest mainly      
accounts for  the colouring and adaptive
 shaping of living things1 and so for   
those  several great types of modelling 
which arrest the eye and have excited   
the interest of inquisitive man4 ,but   
there seems to be no justification  for 
the assumption that in all cases a      
variation-that is to say1 an  increase  
or a diminution of the volume of some   
existing structure in  proportion to    
other coexisting structures in the body 
of a living plant  or animal-must be    

either favourable1 that is1 conducive to
 survival1  or injurious1 that is1      
tending to the defeat and destruction of
 its  possessors or their race4 ,on the 
contrary1 it is the fact that there  are
 vast areas and conditions related to   
countless myriads of living  creatures  
in which variations of those creatures  
of large and imposing  kind and degree  
are neither advantageous nor            
disadvantageous1 but  matters of        
absolute indifference1 that is to say1  
without any effect  upon the            
preservation or survival of their race  
or stock4 ,nature is  far more tolerant 
than some of us were inclined to assume4
 ,in certain  restricted conditions of  
competition and in regard to some       
special  structures and components which
 are often so minute and obscure as  to 
be not yet detected by that recent      
arrival1 the investigating              
biologist-though sometimes1 fortunately 
for him1 large enough to  jump to his   
eyes-it is undeniable that there must be

 a survival or  favouring of individuals
 presenting a variation in increase1 or 
it  may be decreased1 of this or that   
special feature of its make-up or       
structural components4 ,but it is a more
 correct statement of the case  to say  
that natural selection or survival      
preserves not the fittest1  but the     
least fit possible under the            
circumstances-namely1 all those  which1 
however great their divagations and     
eccentricities of variation  in other   
respects1 yet at the same time attain to
 a minimum standard  of qualification in
 those structures 7or inner chemical    
qualities7  essential for success in the
 competition for safety1 food and mating
  determined by the particular          
conditions in which the competition is  
taking place4 ,consequently forms which 
are meaningless so far as  standards of 
utility or life-saving are concerned1   
and are rightly  described as grotesque1
 monstrous1 gigantic or                 
dwarfed-excessive 7as  compared with    

more familiar kinds7 in hypertrophy or  
atrophy of their  colouring and         
clothing1 or of out-growths such as     
leaves of plants and  limbs1 jaws or    
other regions of the body of animals-are
 found existing  in various degrees of  
eccentricity in every class of both     
plants and  animals4 ,among animals such
 tolerated exuberances of               
non-significant  growth are more        
striking than in plants4 ,the group of  
fishes seems  to be especially          
privileged in this way4 ,they are freely
 variable in  the position of the fins1 
the suppression or exaggeration of them1
 as  well as of the scales on the       
surface of the body 7e4g4 leather carp  
and mirror carp74 ,take1 for example1   
the mackerel and the salmon as          
standards of utilitarian adaptation of  
the body to an active life in  sea or   
river1 and then compare with theirs the 
astounding proportions  of the sun-fish 
7,orthagoriscus7 like a cherub all head 
and no body1  or the almost incredible  

,pteraclis-with its little body framed  
immovably between a huge dorsal and a   
huge ventral fin 7see figures  on p4    
#acj74 ,the fin-like crest of enormous  
size on the back of the  great extinct  
lizard ,dimetrodon of the ,permian age  
supported by long  bony spines is a     
similarly excessive and useless         
outgrowth4 7,this  astonishing creature 
is shown in our ,frontispiece47 ,such   
exuberant  products may be ascribed to  
an unrestrained momentum of growth      
which once set going by fortuitous      
variation has been tolerated  but not   
favoured by natural selection4 ,or 7as  
supposed by some7  their excessive      
development may be due to the           
persistence of some  nutritional        
condition which at first resulted in a  
moderate growth of  the fin-like crests 
in question as a serviceable structure1 
but has  persisted and increased long   
after the fin or crest has attained a   
sufficient size-simply because its      
increase though of no life-saving       

value-yet was not harmful and so did not
 bring its owner under the  guillotine  
of natural selection4 ,such             
disproportionate exuberance of  growth  
due to innate variability1 tolerated but
 not specially favoured  by natural     
selection1 will account for many strange
 and grotesque forms  of living things4 
,from time to time in the long process  
of change1 such  exuberances may        
suddenly become of service and be1 so to
 speak1 taken  in hand by natural       
selection1 or they may become dangerous 
and lead  to the extermination of the   
stock in which they have been previously
  tolerated4    ,before my reader       
turns-as ,i hope he or she will do-to   
some handbook of  zoology in which the  
genealogical tree or classification of  
the species  of animals and of plants is
 treated at length1 ,i will endeavour to
  give some estimate of the immense     
numbers of species which exist4 ,as  to 
mere individuals1 it is impossible to   
form any estimate1 but when  we reckon  

up the teaming population of a meadow or
 forest in ,england1  the hundreds of   
thousands of plants1 including the      
smallest mosses and  grasses1 as well as
 the larger flowers1 shrubs1 and trees1 
the still  greater number of insects1   
spiders1 snails1 and larger animals and 
birds1 feeding on and hiding among them1
 and when we remember that in  the      
ever-warm tropical regions of the earth 
life is ten or twenty  times more       
exuberant than with us1-then the        
immensity of the living  population of  
the land and water of the globe becomes 
as difficult to  realize as are the     
figures in which the astronomer tells of
 the number  and distances of the stars4
 ,on the other hand1 some idea of the   
number  of distinct species of animals  
and plants which have up to this date   
been recognized and described by        
naturalists as at present existing1  may
 be formed by a statement of those which
 have been described in  some of the    
more familiar groups4 ,about #aj1jjj    

species of mammals have  been described2
 about #ad1jjj of birds2 #gjjj of       
reptiles2 #ae1jjj of  fishes2 #ejj1jjj  
of six-legged insects2 #ad1jjj of       
crustacea 7shrimps1  lobsters1 crabs72  
#fb1jjj of molluscs 7snails1 mussels1   
etc472 #ae1jjj  of star-fishes and      
sea-urchins2 #ejjj of corals and polyps2
 #cjjj of  sponges2 and #fjjj of        
microscopic protozoa4 ,in all about     
#hjj1jjj species  of animals have been  
recorded1 and probably as many more     
remain yet to  be recognized and        
described4    ,the total number of      
described species of plants has never   
been  estimated1 but some idea of it may
 be formed from the fact that #ahfj     
species of flowering plants alone have  
been distinguished in ,britain1  #ag1jjj
 in ,british ,india1 and #bb1jjj in     
,brazil1 not to mention those of        
,africa and ,australia6 ,these figures  
do not include the vast numbers of      
flowerless plants1 the ferns1 mosses1   
sea-weeds1 mushrooms1 moulds1  lichens1 

and microscopic plants4    ,and then we 
have to add to these enumerations of    
living species the  extinct species of  
successive geological ages1 the remains 
of which are  sufficiently well         
preserved to admit of identification4   
,those which are  known are only a few  
thousands in number1 and a mere fragment
 of the  vast series of species which   
have existed in successive past ages of 
the earth4 ,they are a few samples of   
the predecessors of the existing        
species1 and some of them were the      
actual ancestors of those existing      
to-day4 ,the larger number of them have 
left no direct issue1 but  represent    
side branches of the tree of life which 
have died out ages  ago4                
,illustration3 ,,strangely-,,shaped     
,,fishes4-#a4 ,the ,coffer-fish         
7,ostracion72  #b4 ,pteraclis1 an       
oceanic fish allied to the so-called    
,dolphins2 #c4 ,the  ,sun-fish          
7,orthagoriscus72 #d4 ,an ,australian   
,blenny ,patcus4          ,,chapter ,,xi

    ,,hybrids      ,the subject treated 
in this and the next chapter is one of  
the most  interesting to mankind1 and is
 surrounded by extraordinary prejudice1 
sentiment1 and ignorance4 ,it is one    
upon which really trustworthy           
information is to a very large extent   
absent-and difficult to obtain4  ,i     
cannot profess to supply this           
deficiency1 but ,i can put the matter   
before the reader4    ,it is a          
well-established fact that the various  
kinds of animals and  of plants do not  
breed promiscuously with one another4   
,the individuals  of a species only     
breed with other individuals of that    
species4  ,they do not even1 as a habit1
 breed with the individuals of an allied
  species4 ,so nearly universal is this 
rule that it was for a long time  held  
by naturalists to be an absolute        
definition of a species1 that  it is a  
group of individuals capable of         
producing fertile young by  breeding    
with one another and incapable of       

producing fertile young by  mating with 
individuals of another such group1 which
 were1 therefore1  held to constitute a 
distinct species4 ,the practical        
importance of this  definition was that 
it could1 in a large number of instances
 among  animals1 and still more amongst 
plants1 be made use of as a test and    
decided by experiment4    ,it is a      
curious fact that popular belief amongst
 country-folk and  those who have       
opportunities of coming to a conclusion 
on so simple  and direct a question has 
never accepted this law of the          
limitation  of species in breeding as   
more than a general rule to which it has
  always been supposed that frequent    
exceptions occur4 ,i mention this  not  
in order to add that there is always    
some basis of truth in  these popular   
beliefs1 but on the contrary to point   
out that popular  beliefs on such       
matters are very frequently altogether  
erroneous1 and  though their origin can 
sometimes be explained1 it is rare to   

find  that they are due1 in however     
small a degree1 to true observation and 
inference4 ,where the subject under     
consideration has the obscurity  and    
strong fascination for the natural man  
which all that relates to  the processes
 of life1 growth1 and reproduction      
possess1 we find that  traditional      
fancies of the most unwarrantable kind  
are current1 and  hold their ground with
 tenacity even at the present day4 ,some
 #bej years  ago1 and earlier-in fact1  
before the commencement of that definite
  epoch of the ,new ,philosophy marked  
by the foundation of the ,royal         
,society of ,london-any queer-looking   
animal brought from remote lands1  and  
any misshapen monstrosity born of       
cattle1 sheep1 dogs1 or men1 was        
explained1 and confidently regarded as a
 hybrid1 the result of a  cross or      
irregular coupling of two distinct      
species of animals to  which the monster
 presented some fanciful resemblance4   
,whole books  were devoted to the       

description and picturing of such       
supposed examples  of mis-begotten      
progeny4    ,the belief in the existence
 of such extraordinary hybrids is still 
common among so-called well-educated    
people4 ,i have with difficulty  avoided
 causing annoyance and offence to a     
friend1 a celebrated  painter1 by       
refusing to admit that a deformed cat1  
of which he gave me  an account1 was a  
hybrid between a cat and a rabbit4 ,a   
very eminent  person whom ,i was        
conducting some years ago round the     
galleries of the  ,natural ,history     
,museum1 declared1 as we stood in front 
of the specimen  of the ,okapi of the   
,congo ,forest1 that it was clearly a   
hybrid between  the giraffe and the     
zebra4 ,he insisted that it was obvious 
that such  was its explanation1 and     
pointed to its striped haunches and     
legs1 and  its cloven hoofs and         
giraffe-like head4 ,i failed to change  
his opinion4    ,it is the              
fact-ascertained by careful observation 

of natural  occurrences and by          
experiment-that1 in spite of the almost 
absolute  law or general truth to the   
effect that the members of a species    
7whether of plant or animal7 only       
produce fertile offspring by mating     
with members of that same species1 yet  
there are rare instances  known in which
 individuals of two distinct but allied 
species have  mated and produced fertile
 offspring4 ,the cases in which such    
unions  have resulted in the production 
of offspring1 but in which the          
offspring so produced prove to be       
infertile-that is1 incapable of         
producing offspring in their turn-are   
much more numerous4 ,an important       
distinction has also to be made between 
cases of either fertile or  infertile   
hybrid-production which occur           
spontaneously in nature1 and  those in  
which man by separating the parent      
animals or plants from  their natural   
conditions of life1 or by bringing about
 impregnation 7as  in pollinating one   

flower with the pollen-dust of another7 
succeeds  in obtaining a cross or       
hybrid1 whether fertile or infertile1   
not  known to occur in wild 7that is1   
not humanly controlled7 nature4  ,the   
rarest case would be that of the        
production of fertile hybrids  in       
uncontrolled natural conditions4 ,such  
possibly occur in the case  of some     
fishes in which the fertilization of the
 eggs takes place in  water1 the        
fertilizing microscopic sperms passing  
from the males like  dust into the water
 and thus reaching the eggs laid by the 
females4  ,occasionally hybrids are thus
 produced between some common           
fresh-water  fishes-species of the same 
genus-and between species of flat-fish1 
such as the turbot and the brill1 though
 it is difficult to be sure  that the   
rare hybrids so produced are fertile    
even if they attain  to maturity4 ,the  
same is true as to certain small        
flowering plants  having distinct       
regions of natural distribution and     

occurrence4  ,at the confines of the    
regions proper to two such allied       
species1  insects passing from one to   
the other do sometimes effect a         
reciprocal  fertilization of the two    
species1 and a natural hybrid is the    
result4  ,here1 again1 it is difficult  
to follow the subsequent history of the 
hybrids1 but it is believed that in some
 instances they are fertile1  and that  
the hybrid race is only gradually merged
 by subsequent  crossing into one or    
other of the parent species4 ,not a     
single instance  is on record of the    
production of a natural hybrid 7that is 
to say1  one produced in natural        
conditions without man's interference71 
whether  fertile or infertile1 between  
two species of the larger animals 7such 
as between horse and ass or zebra and   
ass1 or between lion and tiger  or any  
of the species of cats1 or between      
species of bears7 or birds  7such as    
pheasants of various species1 including 
the jungle cock1 the  wild original of  

our domestic fowl1 or between various   
species of  ducks1 various species of   
geese1 or between various species of the
  grouse-birds74    ,nevertheless1 in   
conditions brought about by man-that is 
to say1  confinement in cages or        
paddocks1 or at any rate removal from   
their  native climate and home-all the  
groups of species just cited commonly   
and frequently produce hybrids inter se1
 that is1 one or more species  of the   
horse group thus inter-breed with one   
another1 so will certain  species of    
cats1 certain species of bears1 many    
species of pheasants1  also of ducks1 of
 geese1 and of grouse4 ,in nearly every 
case the  hybrids so produced are       
infertile2 they will not mate with a    
similar  hybrid1 and even when mated    
with one of the parent species rarely   
produce offspring1 though they sometimes
 do so4 ,the best cases of the          
production of fertile hybrids are       
between species of flowering plants     
brought to this country from widely     

separated regions4 ,the surprising  and 
instructive result has been obtained    
that a cross between two  allied species
 7that is1 of one and the same genus7   
which will fail  altogether or come to  
nothing as infertile hybrids-if the two 
species  crossed are from the same or   
contiguous regions-yet will yield       
readily  vigorous fertile hybrid        
offspring when the two species 7always1 
of  course1 of one and the same genus7  
have their native homes in widely       
separate parts of the world-as1 for     
instance1 the ,indian ,himalaya range   
and the ,south ,american ,andean range4 
,this has been found in crossing species
 of rhododendrons1 of orchids1  and of  
many other plants with which            
horticulturists occupy themselves  for  
commercial purposes4 ,it is in some ways
 the reverse of what one  might expect4 
,it would be reasonable to suppose that 
allied species  from the same climate   
and geographical region would have more 
affinity  and be more readily hybridized

 than species from widely remote and    
physically differing regions4 ,but the  
reverse is the case1 many  thriving     
hybrid stocks which duly fertilize and  
set their seed are now  in cultivation1 
having been produced by the union of    
parent species  from the opposite ends  
of the earth4    ,the consideration of  
this case throws some light on the      
significance  of the non-occurrence of  
natural hybrids and of the very         
remarkable  and curious fact that       
hybrids are so usually sterile4 ,when we
 come  to think of it1 the natural      
preliminary assumption should be 7as is 
that of unsophisticated humanity7 that  
any animal or plant might1 so  far as   
possibilities go1 breed with any other2 
and the questions to  be answered are3  
7#a7 ,what advantage to a species is it 
not to be able  to hybridize with other 
species1 and 7#b7 how-that is to say1 by
 what  structure or by what subtle      
chemical differences or other features  
in  their make-up and habit-are they    

prevented from so hybridizing8 ,then we 
come on further to the question1 ,why   
should a hybrid1 once produced1  fail to
 bear healthy eggs or sperms according  
to its sex1 although it  grows up to    
full size and is to all appearances     
mature8 ,and why should  hybrids between
 parents of origin locally remote from  
one another not  show this failure1 but 
behave like ordinary healthy organisms8 
,in the full solution of these inquiries
 we should get very near to some  of the
 most important secrets of the living   
body which have still to  be searched   
out4 ,but a reply to these questions    
which is probably in  large measure     
true1 and serves to help us in the      
further collection  and examination of  
facts1 is as follows3 ,first1 the       
production and  maintenance of species  
of plants and of animals by survival of 
favourable variations in the struggle   
for existence 7,darwin and  ,wallace's  
theory of the origin of species7        
requires the maintenance of  the purity 

of the favourable stock which survives  
in the struggle4 ,if  it were           
continually liable to hybridization by  
other species it would  never establish 
its own distinctive features4 ,it would 
deteriorate  by departing from those    
characteristics which have been         
naturally  selected and have rendered it
 a successful species4 ,thus the        
breeder1 when he has selected a stock   
for propagation which approaches  the   
standard at which he is aiming1 keeps it
 apart1 and does not allow  it to be    
crossed by other stock4 ,one of the     
qualities naturally  selected in the    
wild is the power of resistance to      
fertilization by  neighbouring species4 
,this power of resistance or immunity to
 fertilization by other species  may be 
attained by several different methods4  
,amongst these are 7#a7  a difference in
 the season of breeding or sexual       
ripening2 7#b7 the  production of       
secretions 7whether by plant or by      
animal7 which poison  or paralyse the   

fertilizing sperms of allied and locally
 associated  species1 but are harmless  
to those of the secreting species2 7#c7 
the  mechanical differences of size1    
etc41 which prevent the fertilizing     
material of a strange species from      
gaining access to the egg-cells2  7#d7  
psychical activities 7antipathies7 in   
the case of animals or mere  attraction 
and repulsion by odoriferous substances1
 which serve to  repel a strange        
species1 but are attractive to          
individuals of the same  species2 7#e7  
finally1 a chemical and physiological   
incompatibility  between the sperms of  
one species and the germs of another 7as
 distinct  from the attraction or       
repulsion of the entire living          
individual71  which1 even when all other
 difficulties are absent or have been   
overcome1 may be1 and frequently is1    
present1 so that the spermatozoon       
cannot penetrate the egg-cell even when 
resting upon it1 but may be  paralysed  
or repelled1 and in any case is not     

guided and drawn into the  aperture of  
the egg-covering1 called the micropyle1 
or little entry1  so as to fuse with and
 fertilize the egg4    ,the operation of
 these hindrances to hybrid             
fertilization and breeding  have been   
ascertained in several different        
instances4 ,it is not always  possible1 
and certainly not easy to ascertain1    
which is at work in  any and every case4
 ,but we can well conceive that one or  
other of  these agencies have been      
developed and accentuated by survival of
  the fittest1 so as to protect a       
species against fertilization by a      
neighbouring species1 and thus to enable
 it to maintain its own bundle  of      
characteristics free from the swamping  
effects of mixture 7that  is1           
hybridization7 with another species4 ,it
 is also thus intelligible  that an     
allied species from a distant land      
against which our native  species and   
its closer ancestry-struggling for      
purity of race-have had  no occasion or 

opportunity to develop a repelling      
protection-will have  no such difficulty
 in effecting the fertilization of the  
native species  as have those adjacent  
species against whose intrusions the    
latter is  specifically moulded and     
selected by long generations of severe  
natural  selection4    ,the failure of  
hybrids generally to ripen their ova and
 sperm so as to  reproduce themselves is
 a subject upon which1 considering its  
enormous  importance and significance1  
singularly little has been done in the  
way of investigation4 ,fifty years ago  
it was usually taught that the  mule1   
between the horse and the ass1 so       
largely produced under human            
superintendence for transport service1  
was unable to breed owing to  some      
deformity in the reproductive passages4 
,even now no adequate study  of the     
subject has been made1 but it appears   
that whilst a female mule  can be1 and  
sometimes is1 successfully mated to a   
horse or an ass1  giving birth to a     

foal1 the male mule does not produce    
fully-formed  spermatozoa4 ,what        
precisely is the nature of this failure1
 what the  ultimate microscopic         
condition of the sperm cells in         
infertile male  mules1 or in any other  
infertile male hybrids1 has not yet been
  properly worked out by modern         
cytological methods4 ,it would be a     
matter  of vast interest to determine   
what is the difference in the structure 
of the sperm-cells of a fertile and of  
an infertile male hybrid4 ,at  present1 
so far as ,i know1 this has not been    
done4    ,so far what ,i have written   
applies to hybridization-the            
inter-breeding  of distinct species4 ,a 
similar but by no means identical       
subject is  that of the inter-breeding  
of distinct races or varieties of one   
species1 and the production of mongrels4
 ,mongrels are to races what  hybrids   
are to species4 ,to this branch of the  
subject belongs the  study of the       
effects of intermarriage between        

distinct races of men4                  
,,chapter ,,xii    ,,the                
,,cross-,,breeding ,,of ,,races      ,we
 have seen that there is no simple rule 
as to the mating of  individuals of a   
species with individuals of another     
closely allied  but distinct species4   
,such mating very rarely comes about in 
natural  conditions1 but man by his     
interference sometimes succeeds in      
procuring  hybrids between allied       
species4 ,hybrids between species       
belonging to  groups so different as to 
be distinguished by zoologists as       
distinct  families or orders are quite  
unknown under any circumstances4  ,such 
remoteness of natural character and     
structure as is indicated by  the two   
great divisions of hoofed mammals-the   
even-toed 7including  sheep1 cattle1    
deer1 antelopes1 giraffes1 pigs and     
camels71 and the  odd-toed 7including   
tapirs1 rhinoceroses1 horses1 asses and 
zebras7  is an absolute bar to          
inter-breeding4 ,so1 too1 the carnivora 

7cats1  dogs1 bears and seals1 and      
smaller kinds7 are so remote in their   
nature  from the rabbits1 hares and     
rats-called the rodents-that no mating  
between members of the one and the other
 of these groups has ever been          
observed1 either in nature or under     
artificial conditions4    ,even when    
individuals of closely allied species   
mate with one another  it is a very rare
 occurrence that the hybrids so produced
 ripen their  ova and sperms so as to be
 capable of carrying on the hybrid race1
  though sometimes they do ripen them   
and breed4 ,the great naturalist        
,alfred ,wallace1 in his most valuable  
and readable book called  ,darwinism1   
expressed the opinion that the apparent 
failure of hybrid  races to perpetuate  
themselves by breeding was to a large   
extent due  to the small number of      
individuals used in experiments on this 
matter1  and the in-and-in breeding     
which was the consequence4 ,one of the  
great  generalizations established by   

,darwin is that in-and-in breeding is1  
as a rule1 resisted in all animals and  
plants1 and leads when it  occurs to a  
dying-out of the inbred race by         
resulting feebleness and  infertility4  
,a large part of ,darwin's work         
consisted in demonstrating  the devices 
existing in the natural structure and   
qualities of plants  and animals for    
securing cross-fertilization among      
individuals of the  same species but of 
different stock4 ,both extremes seem to 
be barred  in nature-namely1 the        
inter-breeding of stocks so diverse in  
structure  and quality as to be what we 
call distinct species1 and again the    
inter-breeding of individuals of the    
same immediate parentage or near        
cousinship4 ,what seems to be favoured  
by the natural structure and  qualities 
of the plant or the animal is that it   
shall only breed within  a certain      
group-the species-and shall within that 
group avoid constant  self-fertilization
 or fertilization by near cousins4 ,thus

 we find  numerous cases in which1      
though the same flower has both pollen  
and  ovules1 and might fertilize itself1
 the visits of insects 7specially  made 
use of by mechanisms in the flower7     
carry the pollen of one flower  to the  
ovules of another and to flowers on     
separate plants growing  at a distance4 
,it is necessary to note that there are1
 nevertheless1  self-fertilizing        
flowers1 and also self-fertilizing lower
 animals1  the special conditions of    
which require and have received careful 
examination and consideration1 upon     
which ,i cannot now enter4    ,in       
relation to the question of the         
possibility of establishing hybrids     
between various species experimentally1 
,i must 7before going on to the  cognate
 question of mongrels7 tell of an       
interesting suggestion made  to me by my
 friend ,professor ,alphonse            
,milne-,edwards not long before he      
died1 and never published by him4 ,he   
was director of the ,jardin des         

,plantes in ,paris1 where there is a    
menagerie of living beasts as well  as a
 botanic garden and great museum        
collections and laboratories4  ,he held 
it to be probable1 as many physiologists
 would agree1 that  the fertilization of
 the egg of one species by the sperm of 
another1  even a remotely related one1  
is ultimately prevented by a chemical   
incompatibility-chemical in the sense   
that the highly complex molecular       
constitution of such bodies as the      
anti-toxins and serums with which       
physiologists are beginning to deal is  
chemical-and that all the  other and    
secondary obstacles to fertilization can
 be overcome or  evaded in the course of
 experiment4 ,he proposed to inject one 
species  by serums extracted from the   
other1 in such a way as seemed most     
likely to bring the chemical state of   
their reproductive elements into        
harmony1 that is to say1 into a         
condition in which they should not  be  
actively antagonistic but admit of      

fusion and union4 ,he proposed1  by the 
exchange of living or highly organized  
fluids 7by means of  injection or       
transfusion7 between a male and female  
of separate  species1 to assimilate the 
chemical constitution of one to that of 
the  other1 and thus possibly so to     
affect their reproductive elements that 
the one could tolerate and fertilize the
 other4 ,the suggestion is not          
unreasonable1 but would require a long  
series of experiments in which  the     
possibility of producing such           
assimilation1 even to a small  extent   
and in respect of less complex processes
 than those ultimately  aimed at1 would 
have to be1 first of all1 established4  
,my friend did  not live to commence    
this investigation1 but it is possible  
that some  day we may see the obstacle  
to the union of ovum and sperm of       
species1  which are to some extent      
allied1 removed in this way by          
transfusion or  injection of important  
fluids from the one into the other4     

,we must not lose sight of the fact1 in 
the midst of these various  and         
diverging observations about the        
fertilization of the ova of one  species
 by sperms of another species1 that     
there is such a thing as                
parthenogenesis1 or virgin-birth4 ,in   
some of the insects and lower  forms of 
animals the egg-cell habitually and     
regularly develops and  gives rise to a 
new individual without being fertilized 
at all4 ,and in  other cases by special 
treatment1 such as rubbing with a brush1
 or in  the case of marine animals by   
addition of certain salts to the water  
in which the eggs are floating-or1      
again1 in the case of the eggs of  the  
common frog by gently scratching them   
with a needle-the eggs which  usually   
and regularly require to be penetrated  
by and fused with a  spermatozoon or    
sperm-filament before they will develop1
 proceed to  develop into complete new  
individuals without the action upon them
  of any spermatozoon4 ,in such marine  

animals as the sea-urchins or  sea-eggs 
it has been found that the eggs         
deposited in pure sea-water1  though    
they would die and decompose if left    
there alone1 can be made to  develop and
 proceed on their growth by the addition
 to the sea-water of  the sperm         
filaments of a star-fish 7the feather   
star or comatula74 ,the  spermatozoa or 
sperm-filaments do not1 however1 in this
 case fuse with  the egg-cells4 ,they   
mechanically pierce the egg-coat1 but   
contribute no  substance to the embryo  
into which the egg develops4 ,they have 
merely  served1 like the scratch of a   
needle on the frog's egg and the        
brushing  of insects' eggs1 to start the
 egg on its growth1 to stimulate it and 
set changes going4 ,it appears thus that
 the fertilizing sperm-filaments  of    
organisms generally have two separate   
and very important influences  upon the 
egg-cells with which they fuse4 ,the one
 is to stimulate  the egg and start the 
changes of embryonic growth2 the other  

is  to contribute some living material  
from the male parent to the new         
individual arising from the growth and  
shaping of the egg-cell4 ,the  first    
influence can be exercised without the  
second1 as is seen in  the case of the  
eggs of some sea-urchins stimulated to  
growth by the  spermatozoa of some      
star-fishes4 ,it happens that these     
marine animals  are convenient for study
 and experiment because their eggs are  
small  and transparent and that they and
 the spermatozoa are freely passed  into
 the sea-water at the breeding season1  
in which the fertilization  of the eggs 
takes place4    ,when these facts are   
considered we have to admit that in the 
mating  of two species which will not   
regularly and naturally breed together1 
there may be a limited action of the    
spermatic element which may  stimulate  
the egg to development without          
contributing by fusion in  the regular  
way to the actual substance of the young
 so produced1  or only contributing an  

amount insufficient to produce a full   
and  normal development of the hybrid   
young4 ,such cases not improbably       
sometimes occur in higher animals1      
though they have not been1 as yet1      
shown to exist except in the experiments
 with sea-urchins' eggs and             
feather-star's sperm4    ,in all animals
 and plants1 but especially in          
domesticated and  cultivated stocks or  
strains1 varieties arise which1 by      
natural or  artificial separation1 breed
 apart1 and give rise to what are called
  races4 ,such races in natural         
conditions may become species4 ,species 
are races or groups of individuals1     
which1 by long estrangement 7not        
necessarily local isolation7 from the   
parent stock and by adaptation  to      
special conditions of life1 have become 
more or less stable-that  is1 permanent 
and unchanging in the conditions to     
which they have  become adapted4 ,they  
acquire by one device or another the    
habit of  not breeding with the stock   

from which they originally diverged-a   
repugnance which may be overcome by     
human contrivance or by natural         
accident1 but is1 nevertheless1 an      
effective and real quality4  ,distinct  
forms1 which have not arrived at the    
stability and separation  characteristic
 of species1 are spoken of as races1 or 
varieties4  ,it is very generally the   
case that the races of one species can  
inter-breed freely with one another1 and
 with the original stock1 when  it still
 exists4 ,comparatively little is known 
as to the behaviour  of wild or         
naturally-produced races4 ,practically  
all our views on  the subject of races  
and their inter-breeding are derived    
from our  observation of the immense    
number and range of races and breeds    
produced by man-as farmer1 fancier1 and 
horticulturist4 ,it has been  generally 
received as a rule1 that the various    
races produced in the  farm or garden by
 breeding from a species1 will          
inter-breed freely1 and  produce        

offspring which are fertile4 ,a special 
and important series of  races1 in which
 human purpose and voluntary selection  
necessarily have  a leading part1 are   
the races of man4    ,the offspring of  
parents of two different races is called
 a mongrel1  whilst the term hybrid has 
been of late limited1 for the sake of   
convenience1 to the offspring of parents
 of two different species4  ,mongrels1  
it has been generally held1 are         
fertile-often more fertile  than        
pure-bred individuals whose parents are 
both of the same race1  whilst hybrids  
are contrasted with them1 in being      
infertile4 ,we have  seen that          
infertility is not an absolute rule in  
the case of hybrids1  and it appears    
that there is also a source of error in 
the observations  which lead to the     
notion that mongrels are always fertile4
 ,the fact  is that observations on this
 matter have nearly always been made    
with  domesticated animals and plants   
which are1 of course1 selected and  bred

 by man on account of their fertility1  
and thus are exceptionally              
characterized by fertility1 which is    
transmitted in an exceptional  degree to
 the races or varieties which are       
experimentally inter-bred1  and1        
consequently1 may be expected to produce
 fertile mongrels4 ,alfred  ,russel     
,wallace insisted upon this fact1 and   
pointed out that in a few  cases colour 
varieties of a given species of plant   
have been found to  be incapable of     
inter-breeding1 or only produce very few
 mongrels4  ,this has been established  
in the case of two dissimilarly-coloured
  varieties of mullein4 ,also the red   
and the blue pimpernel 7the poor  man's 
weather-glass1 ,anagallis71 which are   
classed by botanists as two  varieties  
of one species1 have been found after   
repeated trials to  be definitely       
incapable of inter-breeding4 ,wallace   
insists in regard  to crossing1 that    
some degree of difference favours       
fertility1 but a  little more tends to  

infertility4 ,we must remember that the 
fertility  of both plants and animals is
 very easily upset4 ,changed conditions 
of  life-such as domestication-may lead 
7we do not know why7 to complete  or    
nearly complete infertility2 and1 again1
 change of air1 or of  locality1 has an 
extraordinary and not-as-yet-explained  
effect on  fertility4        ,oh1 the   
little more and how much it is6         
,and the little less1 and what worlds   
away6    ,infertile horses sent from    
their native home to a different climate
  7as1 for instance1 from ,scotland to  
,newmarket7 become fertile4 ,a          
judicious crossing of varieties or races
 threatened with infertility  will often
 lead to increased vigour and fertility 
in the new  generation1 just as change  
of locality will produce such a result4 
,physiological processes which are not  
obvious and cannot be exactly  estimated
 or measured are then1 we must conclude1
 largely connected  with the question of
 sterility and fertility4 ,mr4 ,darwin  

has collected  facts which go far to    
prove that colour 7as in the case of the
 black  pigs of ,virginia1 which ,i     
cited in ,chapter ,x471 instead of being
  a trifling and unimportant character1 
as was supposed by the older            
naturalists1 is really one of great     
significance1 often correlated  with    
important constitutional differences4   
,it is pointed out by ,alfred  ,wallace 
that in all the recorded cases in which 
a decided infertility  occurs between   
varieties 7or races7 of the same species
 of plants 7such  as those just cited71 
those varieties are distinguished by a  
difference  of colour4 ,he gives reasons
 for thinking that the correlation of   
colour  with infertility which has been 
detected in several cases in plants may 
also extend to animals in a state of    
nature4 ,the constant preference  of    
animals-even mere varieties of dog1     
sheep1 horses1 and pigeons-for  their   
like1 has been well established by      
observation4 ,colour is one of  the     

readiest appeals to the eye in guiding  
animals in such selection  and          
association1 and is connected with      
deep-seated constitutional  qualities4  
,birds of a feather flock together is a 
popular statement  confirmed by the     
careful observation of naturalists4     
,thus we arrive at  some indication of  
features which may determine the        
inter-breeding1 or  the abstention from 
inter-breeding1 of diverse races sprung 
from one  original stock4 ,the colour   
bar is not merely the invention of human
  prejudice1 but already exists in wild 
plants and animals4    ,we now come to  
the questions1 the assertions1 the      
beliefs1 and the acts  concerning the   
inter-breeding of human races1 to the   
consideration of  which ,i have been    
preparing the way4 ,the dog-fancier has 
generally a  great contempt for         
mongrels4 ,breeders generally dislike   
accidental  crosses1 because they       
interfere with the purpose which the    
breeder  has in view of producing       

animals or plants of a quality1 form1   
and  character which he has determined  
on before-hand4 ,this interference  with
 his purpose seems to be the explanation
 of beliefs and statements1  to the     
prejudice of mongrels4 ,really1 as is   
well known to great  breeders and       
horticulturists1 a determined and       
selective crossing of  breeds is the    
very foundation of the breeder's art1   
and there is no  reason to suppose that 
a mongrel is necessarily1 or even       
probably1  inferior in vigour or in     
qualities which are advantageous in the 
struggle for life in natural-that is to 
say1 larger-conditions  of an animal's  
or plant's life2 not those limited      
conditions for  which the breeder       
intends his products4 ,indeed1 the very 
opposite  is the case4 ,in nature1 as   
,mr4 ,darwin showed1 there are          
innumerable  contrivances to ensure the 
cross-breeding of allied but distinct   
strains4 ,dog-owners who are not        
exclusively bent upon possessing a  dog 

which shows in a perfect way the points 
of a breed favoured by  the fashion of  
the moment1 or fitting it for some      
special employment1  know very well that
 a mongrel may often exhibit finer      
qualities  of intelligence1 or          
endurance1 than those exhibited by a dog
 of  pure-bred race4 ,and the very races
 which are spoken of to-day as          
pure-bred1 or thoroughbred1 have 7as is 
well known7 been produced  as           
mongrels-that is to say1 by crossing or 
mating individuals of                   
previously-existing distinct and pure   
breeds4 ,the history of many such       
mongrel breeds1 now spoken of as        
thoroughbred1 is well known4  ,the      
,english racehorse was gradually        
produced by the mongrelizing1  or       
cross-breeding1 of several breeds or    
races-the ,english warhorse1  the ,arab1
 the ,barb4 ,a very fine mongrel stock  
having at last been  obtained1 it was   
found1 or1 at any rate1 was considered  
to be  demonstrated1 that no further    

improvement 7for the purposes aimed  at1
 namely1 flat-racing7 could be effected 
by introducing the blood  of other      
stock4 ,the offspring of the mongrels   
,herod1 ,matchem1 and  ,eclipse         
accordingly became established as the   
,english racehorse1 and  thenceforward  
was mated only within its own race or   
stock1 and was kept  pure or            
thoroughbred4 ,another well-known       
mongrel breed which is now  kept pure1  
or nearly so1 is that of the ,st4       
,bernard's dog1 a blend of              
,newfoundland1 ,bloodhound1 and ,english
 ,mastiff4    ,often the word mongrel is
 limited in its use to signify an       
undesired or undesirable result of the  
cross-breeding of individuals  of       
established races4 ,but this is not     
quite fair to mongrels in  general1     
since1 as we have seen1 the name really 
refers only to the  fact they are       
crosses between two breeds4 ,when they  
happen to suit  some artificial and     
arbitrary requirement they are favoured1

 and made  the starting-point of a new  
breed1 and kept pure in their own line2 
but when they do not fit some capricious
 demand of the breeder they  are sneered
 at and condemned1 although they may be 
fine and capable  animals4 ,no doubt    
some mongrels between races differing   
greatly from  one another1 or having    
some peculiar mixture of incompatible   
qualities  the exact nature of which we 
have not ascertained1 are wanting in    
vigour1 and cannot be readily           
established as a new breed4 ,in nature  
the success of the mongrel depends on   
whether or not its mixture of  qualities
 makes it fitter than others to the     
actual conditions of its  life1 and able
 to survive in the competition for food 
and place4 ,in  man's breeding          
operations with varieties of            
domesticated animals and  cultivated    
plants1 the survival of the mongrel     
depends upon its  fitting some arbitrary
 standard applied by man1 who destroys  
those  which do not suit his fancy1 and 

selects for survival and continued      
breeding those which do4    ,what is    
called miscegenation1 or the            
inter-breeding of human races1  must be 
looked at from both these points of     
view4 ,we require to know  how far1 if  
at all1 the mixed or mongrel offspring  
of a human race ,a  with a human race ,b
 is really inferior to either of the    
original stocks  ,a and ,b1 judged by   
general capacity and life-preserving    
qualities in  the varied conditions of  
the great area of the habitable globe4  
,and  how far an arbitrary or fanciful  
standard is set up by human races1      
similar to that set up by the fancier or
 cultivator of breeds of  domestic      
animals4 ,the matter is complicated by  
the fact that what we  loosely speak of 
as races of man are of very various     
degrees of  consanguinity or nearness to
 one another in blood1 that is1 in stock
 or  in ultimate ancestry4 ,it is also  
complicated by the fact that we cannot  
place any reliance upon the antipathies 

or preferences shown by the  general    
sentiment of a race in this 7or other   
matters7 as necessarily  indicating what
 is beneficial for humanity in general  
or for the  immediate future of any     
section of it4 ,nor have we any         
assurance that  what is called sexual   
selection-the preference or taste in the
 matter  of choosing a mate-is among    
human beings necessarily anything of    
greater importance-so far as the        
prosperity of a race or of humanity in  
general is concerned-than a mere caprice
 or a meaningless persistence  of the   
human mind in favouring a choice which  
is habitual and  traditional4 ,i have   
referred to this point again in the last
 paragraph  of this chapter4    ,in     
regard to marriage between individuals  
of different ,european  nationalities1 a
 certain amount of unwillingness exists 
on the part of  both men and women which
 cannot be ascribed to any deep-seated  
inborn  antipathy1 but is due to a      
mistrust of the unknown foreigner1 which

  very readily disappears on            
acquaintance1 or may arise from dislike 
of the laws and customs of a foreign    
people4 ,english1 ,french1 ,dutch1      
,scandinavians1 ,germans1 ,russians1    
,greeks1 ,italians and ,spaniards have  
no deep-rooted prejudices on the        
subject1 and readily intermarry when    
circumstances bring them into           
association4 ,though the ,jews by their 
present traditional practice are opposed
 to marriage with those not  of their   
faith1 there is no effective aversion of
 a racial kind to  such unions1 and in  
early times they have been very         
frequent4 ,during  the captivity in     
,babylon and again after the dispersal  
by the  ,romans1 the original ,jewish   
race was practically swamped by mixture 
with cognate ,oriental races who adopted
 the ,jewish faith4 ,so far from  there 
being inborn prejudice against          
intermarriage of the peoples above      
cited1 it is very generally admitted    
that such miscegenation leads           

frequently to the foundation of families
 of fine quality4 ,the blend is         
successful1 as may be seen in the number
 of prominent ,englishmen who  have     
,huguenot1 ,german1 ,dutch1 or ,jewish  
blood in their veins4    ,but when we   
come to the intermarriage of members of 
the white race of  ,europe with members 
of either the negroid 7black7 race or of
 the yellow  and red mongoloid race1 a  
much greater and more deeply-rooted     
aversion  is found1 and this is extended
 even to members of the ,caucasian race 
who1 possibly by prehistoric mixture    
with negro-like races1 are very         
dark-skinned1 as is the case with the   
,aryan population in ,india and         
,polynesia4 ,it is a very difficult     
matter2 in fact1 it seems to me not     
possible in our present knowledge of the
 facts1 to decide whether  there is a   
natural inborn or congenital            
disinclination to the marriage  of the  
white race1 especially of the           
,anglo-,saxon branch of it1 with        

coloured people1 or whether the whole   
attitude 7as ,i am inclined to  think7  
is one of pride of race1 an attitude    
which can be defended  on the highest   
grounds1 though it may lead to erroneous
 beliefs as to  the immediate evil      
results of such unions1 and to an       
unreasonable and  cruel treatment both  
of the individuals so intermarrying and 
of their  offspring4 ,there is little or
 no evidence of objection to mixed      
unions  on the part of the coloured     
people with whites1 no evidence of      
physical  dislike to the white man or   
white woman1 but1 on the contrary1 ready
  acquiescence4    ,a curious aversion  
to marriages with whites on the part    
both of ,north  ,american ,indians and  
of negroes is1 however1 recorded from   
time to  time in the official reports of
 the ,united ,states ,government4       
,two beliefs about such unions are more 
or less prevalent among white  men in   
the regions where they not infrequently 
occur4 ,neither of these  beliefs is    

supported by anything like conclusive   
evidence4 ,the one  is that such unions 
lead to the production of relatively    
infertile  offspring2 the mixed breed or
 stock is said to die out after a few   
7some seven or eight7 generations4 ,it  
is1 however1 the fact that the          
circumstances under which this occurs   
suggest that it is not due to  a natural
 and necessary infertility4 ,the other  
assertion is that the  offspring of     
parents-one of white race and the other 
of black1 yellow  or brown-tend by some 
strange fatality to inherit the bad     
qualities of  both races and the good   
qualities of neither4 ,this is a case to
 which  must be applied the saying1     
,give a dog a bad name and hang him4    
,the white man in ,north ,america1 in   
,india1 and in ,new ,zealand desires    
the increase and prosperity of his own  
race4 ,like the fancier set on  the     
production of certain breeds of         
domesticated animals1 he has no         
toleration for a mongrel4 ,in so far as 

it is true that miscegenation  7marriage
 of white and coloured race7 produces a 
stock which rapidly  dies out-this is   
due to the adverse conditions1 the      
opposition and  hostility to which the  
mixed race is exposed by the attitude of
 the  dominant white race4 ,to the same 
cause is due the development of  ignoble
 and possibly dangerous characteristics 
in the unfortunate  offspring of these  
marriages more frequently than in those 
who find  their natural place and       
healthy up-bringing either in the white 
or  the coloured sections of the        
community4 ,the half-breed is in some   
countries inexorably rejected by the    
race of his or her white parent  and    
forced to take up an equivocal          
association with the coloured race4     
,that some1 at any rate1 of the evils   
attributed to miscegenation are  due to 
the baneful influence of pride of race  
is evident from the  fact that the      
,portuguese 7with the exception of a    
small aristocratic  class7 have not     

since the early days of the fourteenth  
century1  perhaps in consequence of     
established association with the        
,moorish  and other ,north ,african     
races1 shown that pride of race and     
aversion  to mixture with dark-skinned  
races which is so strong a feature in   
the ,anglo-,saxons1 their successors and
 rivals as colonists4 ,the              
long-standing admixture of black blood  
in the ,portuguese population  before   
the colonization of ,south ,america1 has
 led to a toleration on  the part of the
 ,portuguese colonists of miscegenation1
 both with  ,indians and the liberated  
descendants of imported negro slaves4   
,the  consequence is that in ,brazil    
there is no condemnation of black blood2
  children of mixed parentage and of    
coloured race attend the same  schools  
as those of ,european blood1 and freely 
associate with them4  ,there is no      
notion that that portion of the         
population which is of  mixed negro1    
,indian1 and white blood is less        

vigorous or fertile than  the unmixed1  
nor that vice and feebleness are the    
characteristics of  the former1 whilst  
virtue and capacity belong to the       
latter4    ,the determined hostility of 
the ,anglo-,saxon race in ,north        
,america and  in ,british ,india to     
miscegenation is in the case of the     
,united ,states  to be explained by the 
peculiar relation of a large slave      
population  in the ,southern ,states to 
a pure white slave-owning race3 whilst  
in  ,india we have a handful of white   
men temporarily stationed as rulers  of 
millions of natives1 but never accepting
 ,india as their home4 ,the  attitude of
 the ,anglo-,saxon race to the ,north   
,american ,indians1 and  also to the    
,maoris of ,new ,zealand1 has never been
 so extreme in the  matter of           
miscegenation as it has been to negroid 
people and to the  very different though
 dark-skinned people of the ,east4 ,in  
support of  that opinion may be cited   
the fact that some of the first families

 of  ,virginia are proud of their       
descent from ,pocahontes1 the ,algonkian
  ,princess who married the ,englishman 
,rolfe4 ,in ,new ,zealand there are     
many families of mixed ,anglo-,saxon and
 ,maori blood4 ,though they are not     
ostracized1 as are the half-breeds of   
negro blood in the ,united ,states1     
there is a firm tendency to relegate the
 half-breeds in ,new ,zealand  to the   
,maori section of the population1 which 
it must be remembered  includes some of 
the richest and most prosperous         
landowners in the  colony4    ,it may be
 questioned whether there is in this    
matter a greater pride  of race among   
,anglo-,saxons than among other         
,northern ,european peoples4  ,neither  
the ,french nor the ,germans have       
established great colonies  like the    
,english1 nor undertaken the            
administration of a huge ,eastern       
,empire1 and have1 therefore1 not shown 
what attitude they would adopt  under   
such circumstances4 ,the tolerance and  

easy-going humanitarianism  of the      
,french in relation to miscegenation in 
their dependencies in  past times has   
never had the significance or practical 
importance which  it would have         
possessed in the ,english ,colonies and 
in the great ,indian  ,empire4    ,there
 is1 on account of the sporadic and     
exceptional occurrence of  modern       
instances1 no information of any value  
as to the results of  mixture of other  
races of man4 ,in early times and among 
more primitive  or less civilized       
peoples there appears to have been1 when
 immigration  or conquest gave the      
opportunity1 no obstacle to a free      
intermixture of  an incoming race with  
the natives of an invaded territory4    
,the pride  of race has1 nevertheless1  
throughout historic time been a frequent
  factor in the adjustment of           
populations of diverse races1 and though
  colour has been a frequent test or    
symbol of the superior and  exclusive   
race1 it has not been the only          

characteristic exalted to such          
importance4 ,such pride of race has     
frequently excluded the members of  a   
closely allied but conquered racial     
group from intermarriage with the       
conquerors1 and has only disappeared    
after centuries of persistence4  ,the   
term blue blood is interesting in this  
connection4 ,it is the  saing d'azure of
 the ,gothic invaders1 the conquerors of
 the ,iberian  and ,moorish people of   
,spain4 ,it refers not to any blueness  
of the  blood itself1 such as           
distinguishes veinous from arterial     
blood1 but  to the blue colour of the   
veins as seen through the colourless    
skin of  a northern race 7the ,goths71  
as compared with the invisibility of the
  veins when the skin is rendered more  
or less opaque by a brown pigment1  as  
in the ,moors and the swarthy ,iberians4
    ,among the people of ,western       
,europe marriage has assumed more and   
more  a character which is almost       
unknown in the rest of the world4       

,whatever  the future may be in regard  
to this matter1 there is no doubt       
possible  that the place given to women 
in ,western ,europe by the ideals of    
chivalry and the practice of the        
northern race 7which has so largely     
displaced the traditions of the ,roman  
,empire7 has established a  relation of 
the sexes in which marriage and         
consequent parentage have  ceased to be 
regarded as a mere regularization of    
animal desire and  appetite4 ,the       
accepted1 but not always consciously    
recognized1 view  of marriage in        
,western ,europe is that the union so   
sanctioned and the  families thereby    
produced should be the result not of the
 mere physical  necessity of            
irresponsible victims of an impulse     
common to all animals1  but the outcome 
of the deliberate choice of man and     
woman attracted to  one another by      
sympathy1 understanding and reciprocal  
admiration1 based  upon knowledge of    
character1 mental gifts and aspirations1

 as well as  upon bodily charm4 ,a      
rarely-expressed but none the less      
deeply-seated  conviction exists that   
from such unions children of the finest 
nature1  nurtured in circumstances most 
likely to make them worthy members of   
the community1 will be born and reared4 
,it is this conviction which  leads to1 
or at any rate endorses1 the            
exclusiveness which is described  as    
pride of race4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon man   
and equally the ,anglo-,saxon  woman 7as
 well as the allied races of            
neighbouring nationalities7  recognize a
 responsibility1 a race duty1 resulting 
from accumulated  tradition1 the        
heirloom of long ages of family life1   
which causes the  man to be ashamed of1 
and the woman to shrink with instinctive
 horror  from1 union with an individual 
of a remote race with whom there can be 
no real sympathy1 no intimate           
understanding4 ,that seems to me to be  
the  explanation and the justification  
of the colour bar4    ,in relation to   

the probable effectiveness of sexual    
selection among  uncivilized peoples in 
favouring and maintaining a particular  
type or  form of features1 hair1 etc41  
characteristic of the race1             
independently  of the life-preserving   
value of such qualities1 ,i may mention1
 before  quitting this difficult but    
strangely fascinating subject1 a fact   
observed by a traveller in ,africa1 and 
related to me by him4 ,other  similar   
facts are on record4 ,among the negroes 
employed as porters  by my friend1 some 
thirty in number1 was one who had a     
narrow aquiline  nose and thin lips4 ,he
 was as black and as woolly-haired as   
any of  them1 but would if of fair      
complexion have been regarded by        
,europeans  as a very handsome1         
fine-featured man4 ,such cases are not  
uncommon  in parts of ,africa1 where    
probably an unrecognized mixture with   
,arab  or ,hamite blood has occurred4   
,my friend expected this man to be a    
favourite1 on account of what to him    

appeared to be good looks1 with  the    
girls of the villages at which he camped
 during a three months'  journey4 ,at   
every such village1 as they journeyed   
on1 the travellers  were received with  
joy and good nature4 ,the negro porters 
were fted  and made much of by the young
 women4 ,but one alone was unpopular and
  regarded with ridicule and dislike4   
,this was the handsome negro with  the  
fine1 well-modelled nose and beautiful  
,european lips4 ,the black  beauties    
turned their backs on him1 in spite of  
his amiable character  and kindly       
overtures4 ,they invariably and by open 
confession preferred  the men with the  
thickest lips1 the broadest noses1 and  
the most  thoroughly 7as we should say7 
degraded prognathous appearance and     
disgusting expression4 ,hence no doubt  
the young negresses were likely  to     
perpetuate in their offspring the       
features which are characteristic  of   
their race1 and hence it is probable    
that mere capricious sexual  selection  

of individuals most completely          
conforming to a preferred               
type-irrespective of the value of the   
features preferred-may have great       
effect in both the selection and the    
maintenance of the peculiarities  of the
 type4 ,dark skin may thus have been    
selected1 until it became  actually     
black2 a slight curling of the hair1    
until it became woolly2  thickish lips  
and broadish nose1 until they became    
excessive in  thickness and breadth4    
,,chapter ,,xiii    ,,wheel             
,,animalcules      ,two hundred years   
ago the ,dutch naturalist ,leuwenhoek1  
who made  many discoveries with the     
highly magnifying lenses which he       
himself  ground and mounted1 wrote to   
the ,royal ,society of ,london that he  
had  discovered several animalcula that 
protrude two wheels out of the  forepart
 of their body as they swim1 or go on   
the sides of the glass  jar in which    
they are living4 ,he says that the two  
wheels are thick  set with teeth as the 

wheel of a watch1 and he sent to the    
society  for publication drawings of    
these wonderful little creatures4 ,this 
was the first account of the ,wheel     
,animalcules4 ,since then they have     
been studied by many microscopists1     
especially by ,ehrenberg1 who  figured  
many in his great book on animalcules in
 #ahch4 ,fourteen years  later the      
delightful ,english naturalist1 ,p4 ,h4 
,gosse1 who studied  and illustrated the
 sea-anemones so ably-and1 by his       
example and  charming descriptions1 made
 the keeping of these beautiful things  
in  marine aquaria a favourite          
occupation among people of leisure1     
blessed  with a curiosity concerning the
 things of nature-published some        
microscopical studies on ,wheel         
,animalcules1 and continued throughout  
his life to make them a special subject 
of his investigation4    ,the microscope
 was greatly improved-in fact1 reached  
its present  state of perfection-during 
,mr4 ,gosse's lifetime1 and a wonderful 

amount was added to our knowledge not   
only as to the various kinds  of wheel  
animalcules 7which now number not less  
than #ijj species71  but also with      
regard to the minutest details of their 
structure1  their growth from the egg1  
and their habits4 ,another ,english     
lover  of these minute creatures1 ,dr4  
,c4 ,t4 ,hudson1 of ,clifton 7,bristol71
  began his observations a few years    
later1 and also discovered many         
wonderful kinds4 ,it was my good fortune
 to bring these two devotees of  the    
,rotifera1 or ,wheel ,animalcules1      
together1 and to induce them to  write a
 conjoint work on their                 
favourites-after1 as they say in their  
preface1 they had each continued their  
studies almost daily for thirty  years1 
and had made innumerable drawings from  
living specimens1 which  are reproduced 
in the many hundred 7mostly coloured7   
figures engraved  in the thirty-four    
quarto plates of their monumental book4 
,this was  published in #ahhi1 a year   

after ,mr4 ,gosse's death at the age of 
#gh4 ,my  friend1 ,mr4 ,edmund ,gosse1  
the distinguished man of letters1 is the
 son  of the naturalist2 the microscope1
 the aquarium1 and the rock-pools of    
the seashore were the familiar delights 
of his boyhood1 as of mine4    ,in ,fig4
 #cd ,i have sketched the common        
,rotifer or wheel animalcule4 ,it  is   
about the one-fortieth of an inch long4 
,the two specimens drawn  in ,figs4 #cd1
 ,a and ,b1 are seen to be clinging by  
the forked tail-end  of the body to a   
piece of weed 7drawn in dotted lines74  
,the body is  stretched in these        
specimens to its full length4 ,it can be
 shortened by  a telescoping or pulling 
in of either end1 so as to make the     
animal  a mere oval particle4 ,the four 
narrower joints or segments at the      
tail-end can be pulled in like the      
segments of a telescope1 whilst the  two
 wheels and adjacent parts can be drawn 
down into the body as shown  in ,fig4   
#cd1 ,c1 where the two wheels 7,w7 are  

seen showing through the  skin by       
transparency4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4  
#cd4-;,diagram of ,rotifer vulgaris-the 
common  wheel animalcule-one hundred and
 twenty times as long as the creature   
itself4 ,a1 front view4 ,b1 side view4  
,c1 head showing eyes ,s1  and retracted
 wheel apparatus ,w4 ,the letters in ,a 
and ,b have the  following              
signification3 ,m1 mouth4 ,w1 wheel or  
ciliated disc4 ,s1  eye spots on head4  
,t1 spur or tentacle4 ,g1 gizzard4 ,st1 
stomach4  ,int1 intestines4 ,v1 vent3   
aperture of intestine4    ,the common   
rotifer can walk like a looping         
caterpillar or a  leech-fixing itself by
 its tail1 then stretching out the head 
and  fixing that1 whilst letting go the 
tail and bringing it up by  telescoping 
it1 near to the head region4 ,the tail  
is forked1 and in  the side view 7,fig4 
#cd1 ,b7 it is seen to have a soft      
branched process1  which helps it to    
cling4 ,the letter ,v in ,fig4 #cd1 ,a1 
points to the vent  or opening of the   

gut at the fork of the tail4 ,the mouth1
 marked ,m1 is  seen between the two    
wheels4 ,the two wheels are really two  
discs1  the edges of which are beset by 
coarse cilia1 or vibrating hairs of     
protoplasm4#e ,these cilia lash and     
straighten again one after the  other1  
so that the optical illusion is produced
 of the toothed edge of  the disc being 
in movement like a wheel4 ,they may be  
focused with the  microscope so that the
 groups or bunches of them look like    
stiff1  motionless teeth1 although they 
are really1 all the time1 lashing and   
beating in regular rhythm4 ,when the    
animal is fixed by its tail1 the        
lashing of the cilia on the wheels      
causes currents in the water which  set 
with great strength to the mouth and    
bring floating food particles  to it4   
,it is thus that the ,rotifer feeds4    
,when the tail is not  grasping a       
support1 the movement of the cilia on   
the wheels causes the  animal to swim   
forward through the water1 so that it   

has two modes of  locomotion-the        
leech-like crawling method and the free 
swimming method4    ,the various        
internal organs of a ,rotifer are       
readily seen through its  transparent   
skin 7,fig4 #cd1 ,a74 ,it has a nervous 
system1 many bands of  contractile      
muscles and a pair of little tubular    
kidneys or nephridia1  besides          
reproductive germs 7the eggs74 ,i have  
here sketched only the  digestive canal4
 ,the mouth leads through a gullet to a 
very curious  organ called the gizzard1 
marked ,g4 ,all the wheel animalcules   
have  this gizzard1 but its teeth1 shown
 as two oval bodies in the drawing1     
differ a great deal in shape and        
complexity in the different kinds4      
,whilst the ,rotifer is feeding by      
bringing currents of water to its       
mouth1 the two halves of the gizzard are
 kept in rapid movement by  muscles1    
causing them to rub against one another 
and to grind up the  food particles     
which reach them through the gullet4    

,the gizzard 7,g7  is followed by the   
digestive stomach 7,st71 and that by the
 intestine  7,int71 which opens at the  
vent 7,v74 ,the side 7or three-quarter  
profile7  view of a similar specimen    
7,fig4 #cd1 ,b7 shows only the surface  
of  the little animal1 and is intended  
to show especially the snout-like       
head-lobe 7,s71 with its two eye-spots1 
which are red in colour4  ,standing out 
backwards from this is a finger-like    
process 7,t71 which is  called the spur1
 or tentacle4 ,it has hairs at its tip1 
and is a sensory  organ4                
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4-,the ,rotifer
 ,pedalion mirum-seen from the  right   
side1 magnified #ahj diameters4 w4a41   
wheel apparatus or  ciliated margin of  
the cephalic disc4 r4e41 right side     
eye-spot4  m41 mouth4 p41 tactile       
process4 d4l41 median dorsal limb 7as it
  is seen in profile1 only three of the 
fringed hairs at its extremity  are     
seen74 v4l41 the great ventral limb     
7only five of its fan of  eight fringed 

hairs are seen74 l4l4#a1 dorso-lateral1 
and l4l4#b1  ventro-lateral limbs of the
 right side3 they show the complete fans
 of  eight fringed hairs4 x41 the pair  
of posterior processes tipped with      
vibratile cilia1 better seen in ,fig4   
#cf4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4-,the 
,rotifer ,pedalion mirum-seen from the  
ventral surface4 ,letters as in ,fig4   
#ce4 ,the complete fan of eight  fringed
 hairs terminating the great ventral    
limb are seen1 and the  three spine-like
 processes on each side of it4 ,the     
fringed hairs of the  two ventro-lateral
 limbs1 l4l4#b1 are omitted2 they are   
fully shown  in ,fig4 #ce1 and are the  
same in number and disposition as those 
forming  the fan of the great ventral   
limb4 ,compare these hairs with those of
  the ,nauplius ,crustacean larva drawn 
as a tail-piece to ,chapter ,,xiii4     
,in some wheel animalcules there is a   
pair of these spurs1 and the very       
remarkable wheel animalcule drawn in    
,figs4 #ce and #cf has six large        

processes which1 though much bigger1    
appear to be of the same nature4  ,of   
these four are seen in ,fig4 #ce1       
namely1 d4l41 the dorsal limb1  v4l41   
the great ventral limb1 and l4l4#a and  
l4l4#b1 the two  lateral limbs of the   
right side1 all of them carrying fanlike
 groups  of fringed hairs4 ,they are    
moved by very powerful muscles1 and     
strike  the water with energetic        
strokes1 so as to cause the little owner
 to  dart through it4 ,this jumping or  
darting wheel animalcule is called      
,pedalion1 and was discovered and       
described by ,dr4 ,hudson4 ,it is so    
astonishing and wonderful a little      
beast1 that when ,dr4 ,hudson sent me   
some alive in a tube by post in #ahgb1  
soon after he had discovered  it1 ,i    
could not believe my eyes1 and thought  
,i must be dreaming4 ,it  is very like  
the young form of ,crustaceans known as 
a ,nauplius 7see  tail-piece to the     
present chapter7 in having 7what no     
other wheel  animalcule has7 great      

hollow paired limbs moved by striated   
muscular  fibre1 carrying fringed hairs 
only known before in ,crustaceans       
7crabs1  shrimps and water fleas71 and  
striking the water violently just as do 
those of the ,nauplius4 ,and yet all the
 while it has on its head a pair  of    
large ciliated wheels which serve it    
just as do those of the common          
,rotifer4 ,no ,crustacean1 young or old1
 has this wheel-apparatus nor  any      
vibratile cilia on the surface of its   
body4 ,pedalion possesses an  astounding
 blend of characters4 ,fig4 #ce shows1  
besides the paddles  or legs 7of which  
two on the other side of the animal are 
not seen71  the broad and large         
wheel-apparatus ,w 7within which the    
right eye-spot  r4e4 is seen71 and a    
little lobe 7p7 called the chin lying   
just  below the mouth 7m74 ,the big leg 
7v4l47 and the pair on each side        
7l4l4#a and l4l4#b71 of which that on   
the right side only is seen1  end in    
beautiful fringed hairs1 which are only 

seen elsewhere in the  ,crustacea       
7water-fleas and others74 ,those on the 
lateral limbs and the  great ventral    
limb 7,fig4 #cf7 are set in two groups  
of four on each side  of the free end of
 the limb1 whilst those on the dorsal   
leg 7d4l47  are apparently not so       
numerous4 ,i have corrected the         
drawings1 ,figs4  #ce and #cf1 by       
reference to actual specimens kindly    
given to me by ,mr4  ,rousselet4        
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4-,the ,rotifer
 ,noteus quadricornis-to show its       
curious four-horned carapace-from which 
the wheel apparatus1 wa1  emerges in    
front1 and the tail1 t1 behind2 somewhat
 as the head and  tail of a tortoise    
emerge from its protective box or       
carapace4 ,the  ridges on the horney    
covering of the ,rotifer recall the     
horney plates  of the tortoises and     
turtles4    ,the #ejj different species 
of ,wheel ,animalcules or ,rotifera     
differ from  one another in the exact   
shape of the wheel-apparatus1 in the    

jointing  of the body and its general   
shape1 and in the development1 in some1 
of a hard skin or shell like a turtle's 
or tortoise's shell 7,fig4 #cg7  over   
that broadest region of the body in     
which in our ,fig4 #cd1 ,a1  the stomach
 marked ,st is placed4 ,they differ also
 in the shape of  the gizzard's teeth1  
in the presence of paddles or legs 7in  
,pedalion  alone71 and in the presence  
in some of longer or shorter projecting 
movable rods or bristles in pairs or in 
bunches4 ,many build for  themselves    
tubular habitations of jelly or of hard 
cemented particles4  ,they are all      
minute 7from the _/ to the _/ in4 in    
length74 ,they  are divided into five   
principal groups1 which are 7#a7 the    
crawlers1  like the common ,rotifer     
7,fig4 #cd71 which can crawl like a     
leech and  also swim freely by aid of   
their wheel-apparatus2 7#b7 the naked   
free  swimmers1 which do not crawl1 but 
move only by swimming2 7#c7 the         
turtle-shelled free swimmers 7,fig4 #cg7

 like the last1 but provided with       
strong1 often faceted1 angular1 and     
spike-bearing shells or bucklers1  from 
which head and wheel-apparatus project  
in front and narrow tail  behind2 7#d7  
the rooted or fixed forms 7,figs4 #cg   
bis72 these never  swim when full grown1
 but each forms and inhabits a          
protective tube or  case2 7#e7 the      
skipping or darting forms4 ,of these    
there is only the  ,pedalion mirum      
7,figs4 #ce and #cf71 which is quite    
unlike all the other  wheel animalcules 
in having limbs like those of the minute
 water-fleas  7,nauplius1 ,cyclops7     
which strike the water and are fringed  
with  feather-like hairs4               
,illustration3 ,the larval or young form
 of ,crustacea known as the  ,nauplius4 
,this is the ,nauplius of a kind of     
,prawn4 ,the three pairs  of branched   
limbs are well seen4 ,much magnified4   
,,footnote3    #e ,for some account of  
cilia1 see ,science from an ,easy       
,chair1  ,figs4 #bi1 #cc1 #dj and the   

accompanying text4          ,,chapter   
,,xiv    ,,more ,,about ,,wheel         
,,animalcules      ,microscopic as the  
wheel animalcules are they yet have been
 watched  and examined by their admirers
 to as great a point of intimacy as that
  reached by the devotees of insects or 
of birds4 ,a remarkable fact  about them
 is that in about #acj different species
 7out of the #ejj  known7 it has been   
found that the males are diminutive     
creatures1 about  one-tenth the size of 
the females1 and devoid of digestive    
canal2 in  fact1 little more than minute
 swimming sacs full of spermatozoa4 ,in 
one group1 that of the crawling         
,rotifers1 to which the common wheel    
animalcule1 figured in the last chapter1
 belongs1 no male at all has  ever been 
discovered4 ,they are all females4 ,they
 are precisely those  wheel animalcules 
which are known to microscopists for    
their power of  surviving 7like the     
little water-bears or tardigrades and   
some other  minute animalcules7 the     

desiccation1 or drying-up of the water  
in  which they were living1 swimming1   
and crawling 7see ,chapters ,,xv4 and   
,,xvi474 ,and it is quite probable that 
this power of resistance to the  adverse
 conditions of changing seasons has1 in 
the crawling ,rotifers1  taken the place
 of the production of eggs fertilized by
 a male4 ,for1  as in the case of the   
crustacean water-fleas 7and of the      
terrestrial  plant-lice1 or aphides and 
gall-flies71 it is found that the female
  ,rotifers or wheel animalcules1 which 
hatch from fertilized eggs1 are         
themselves parthenogenetic1 and lay eggs
 which develop without  fertilization by
 males-that is to say1 are impaternate4 
,in the case  of the water-fleas these  
are called summer eggs1 and after one or
  more generations of such fatherless   
females a proportion of males are       
produced which fertilize the females    
hatched at the same period4 ,the  eggs  
so fertilized acquire a thick shell and 
are called winter eggs4  ,they remain   

dormant for some months and resist the  
injurious influences  of winter cold1   
or1 it may be1 of drying up and         
conversion of the  pond-mud into dust1  
but hatch out when warmer and wetter    
conditions  return4    ,this1 however1  
is just what the adult crawling kind of 
,rotifer can do  in the full-grown state
 by drawing up her body into the shape  
of a ball  and exuding a jelly-like or  
horny coat4 ,so that she has no need of 
winter eggs1 and the whole process of   
forming them and of males to  impregnate
 them has dropped out of the            
life-history of this special  kind of   
resistant ,rotifers4 ,the minute        
insignificant males and the  eventual   
disappearance of males altogether in    
some races is a subject  which may well 
occupy the attention of our human       
suffragettes4 ,that  the males are      
minute creatures1 less than the         
thousandth part of  the size of the     
females1 is a fact also ascertained in  
the case of  some curious marine worms  

7called ,bonellia and ,hamingia74 ,the  
only  other instance of such degradation
 of the male sex is in some of the      
barnacles 7discovered by ,darwin71 in   
which the big individuals are  of double
 sex 7hermaphrodite74 ,adhering to the  
shells of these are  found minute       
dot-like supplemental males4 ,it is to  
be observed that  these are instances   
where the inferiority of the male is an 
obvious  measurable fact4 ,in the       
mammals1 the group of vertebrate animals
 to  which man belongs1 the male        
possesses measurably greater activity   
and  size than does the female1 and is  
provided with more powerful natural     
weapons1 such as teeth and horns4 ,he   
entirely dominates and controls  the    
female1 or a whole company of females1  
and in no case is there  equality of the
 sexes1 or any approach to it1 still    
less inferiority of  the male4 ,it is1  
perhaps1 a question whether by taking   
thought this  natural inferiority of the
 mammalian female can be changed4       

,the survival of ,rotifers1 especially  
of a pink-coloured species  7called     
,philodina roseola71 after long drying  
or desiccation1 has  been experimentally
 studied4 ,it is found that if the water
 in which  some are swimming is placed  
in a watch-glass and allowed to dry up  
rapidly the ,rotifers are killed1 none  
reappear when after a few hours  fresh  
water is poured into the watch-glass4   
,but if a few grains of  sand or        
particles of moss are present from the  
first in the water the  final drying up 
takes place more slowly and the         
,rotifers find their  way between the   
sheltering fragments1 where the water   
remains long  enough to give them time  
to form a little gelatinous case1 each  
for  itself4 ,when thus encased they    
survive1 motionless1 for months4 ,the   
experiment has often been made1 and is  
not in doubt4 ,according to  trustworthy
 statements1 ,philodina can thus survive
 even for so long as  five years4 ,the  
processes of life are arrested1 but the 

drying has not  proceeded to the extent 
which is called chemical drying or      
dehydration4  ,the tiny ,rotifers are   
still of soft consistence3 the          
protoplasm is  not chemically destroyed4
 ,when one is watched with the          
microscope as  water is allowed to flow 
round it after several months of        
dust-like  aridity1 it is seen to emerge
 from its protective case and at once   
to commence swimming and searching for  
food by means of the currents  directed 
towards its mouth by its so-called      
wheel-apparatus4 ,i may  just say that  
in the case of the slime-mould called   
flowers of tan  the protoplasm dries to 
the consistency of hard wax1 and ,i have
 kept  it for years in that state and   
then revived it by moisture into full   
activity and growth4 ,i used also at one
 time to keep in my laboratory  a supply
 of the dried yellow lichen from        
apple-trees1 in which one  could always 
rely upon finding the animalcules called
 ,macrobiotus or  water-bears ready to  

be revived from a desiccated condition1 
after  three or four years passed in    
that condition4    ,many of the         
,rotifers carry their eggs when ripe    
extruded from the  body in two bunches  
or clusters1 as is the habit also of the
 little  microscopic shrimps known as   
,cyclops4 ,there is a whole group of    
,rotifers which fix themselves by the   
tail1 when full grown1 to some  solid   
support4 ,each then forms a protective  
tube or case around  itself1 from the   
mouth of which it puts forth its        
wheel-apparatus  and into which it can  
retire for protection4 ,some of the     
largest and  most beautiful of the wheel
 animalcules belong to this group of    
fixed  or sedentary ,rotifers4 ,the     
crown animalcule 7,stephanoceros7 is one
  of these1 having what are discs edged 
with vibrating hairs in the  common     
,rotifer-here drawn out into a circlet  
of tapering lobes like  the points of a 
coronet 7,fig4 #cg 7bis71 ,b74 ,another 
is the floscule  7,floscularia71 in     

which the wheel-apparatus has the form  
of five knobs  arranged on a pentagonal 
disc around the mouth 7,a in same       
figure74 ,each  knob has a bundle of    
excessively fine1 long1 stiff1          
motionless hairs  spreading out from it 
ready to entangle food particles which  
may drift  into contact with them4 ,i   
used to find the stems of the           
fresh-water  polyp 7,cordylophora7 of   
,victoria ,dock a sure source of supply 
of these  fine little creatures4 ,when  
seen under the microscope as brightly   
illuminated glassy florets on a black   
ground 7by what is called dark  ground  
illumination7 their strange delicacy and
 beauty cannot be  surpassed4 ,a rare   
species of floscule 7which ,i have never
 seen7 has  extra-long and fine         
filaments1 each of which shows a fine   
streaming  current in its substance1 and
 is1 in fact1 a naked filament of living
  protoplasm like one of the ray-like   
filaments of the sun-animalcules4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg 7bis74-,three 

tube-building wheel animalcules4  ,a1   
,floscularia campanulata4 ,b1           
,stephanoceros ,eichhornii4 ,c1         
,melicerta ringens4    ,the most curious
 of the tube-building ,rotifers are     
those which form  their tubes of little1
 equal-sized pellets of solid matter-as 
it were1  bricks-which they first form  
by compacting fine particles in a       
special pit on the head and then build  
them up and cement them together  in    
rows to form the tube1 adding row after 
row as the animal itself  increases in  
length 7,fig4 #cg 7bis71 ,c74 ,these are
 known as ,melicerta2  and1 though some 
kinds use any minute particles to make  
their bricks1  one kind is frequent     
which uses its own excrement for this   
purpose4  ,by feeding the little        
creatures first with food coloured with 
carmine  and then with blue-stained     
material1 one can obtain alternate rows 
of  pink and blue pellets1 carefully    
manufactured and laid in position  to   
build up the growing length of tube4    

,melicerta has certainly an             
extraordinary and economical way of     
disposing of that refuse which we       
larger creatures carefully remove from  
our habitations and should be  very     
unwilling to employ as building         
material4 ,the individuals of one  rare 
and interesting kind of the             
tube-builders1 after swimming freely  in
 the youngest stage1 settle down        
together and form their gelatinous      
transparent tubes side by side1 to the  
number of fifty or more1 in  such a way 
as to produce a perfect sphere1 a       
twentieth of an inch or  more in        
diameter1 built up of fused jelly-like  
tubes radiating from a  common centre4  
,the inhabitant of each tube is quite   
separate from and  independent of his   
neighbours1 but they all protrude their 
vibrating  wheel-apparatus              
simultaneously1 and cause the glass-like
 ball to rotate  and travel through the 
water4 ,many years ago ,i found this    
beautiful  little thing in a small      

moss-pool 7not more than #c ft4 wide71  
high up  the sloping-side of the        
north-west section of ,hampstead heath1 
above  the ,leg of ,mutton ,pond4 ,the  
well-meant care of the public guardians 
of the heath has now drained this       
region1 and my little moss-pools and    
the bog1 in which grew the ,drosera1 or 
,sun-dew1 and the ,bog-bean and  such   
plants1 have gone for ever4 ,but we must
 console ourselves with the  fact that  
the same progressive expansion of the   
great city has given  us electric       
railways1 tubes1 and tramways by which  
we can go farther  afield than          
,hampstead in a few minutes1 and still  
find moss-pools and  the undisturbed    
glories of ancient swamps and bog-land4 
,many of the ,rotifers have a pair of   
ruby-red eyes1 and in some of them      
there is a minute crystalline lens      
overlying the red sensitive spot1  which
 receives the fibres of the optic nerve 
coming from the brain-one  on each side4
 ,it is almost incredible that so minute

 a creature-often  only the one-fiftieth
 of an inch long when full grown-should 
have a  nervous system and special      
organs of touch 7sensory hairs7 as well 
as  eyes1 and on the other hand muscles 
running from one attachment to  another 
and called into activity by nerves      
connected with this same  central brain4
 ,the pair of branched tubes1 which end 
internally in  flickering flame-cells   
and open externally far back at the     
vent1 are  kidneys4 ,similar tubes      
called nephridia or little kidneys are  
found  in many of the smaller animals2  
the earthworm has a pair in each ring   
of its body4    ,there is little doubt  
that the wheel animalcules are related  
in  pedigree to the primitive ancestors 
of the marine segmented or annulate     
worms1 which also gave rise to the      
ringed leg-bearing jaw-footed  creatures
 with hard skin1 called ,crustacea1     
,arachnids and ,insects 7the            
,arthropods74 ,the wheel-apparatus or   
cilia-fringed discs of the ,rotifer  is 

seen in the young stages of many marine 
worms1 and also in the  young of marine 
snails1 known as the veliger-velum or   
sail being  the name given to the       
wheel-apparatus of the young snails 7see
 the  drawing on p4 #aha74 ,there are   
very minute marine annulate or segmented
  worms 7,dinophilus and others71 which 
come near to the ,rotifers in many      
features1 whilst the ringed or segmented
 character of the body is  obvious in   
the common wheel animalcule4    ,the    
,rotifers are so small that they are    
built up of very few cells  or nucleated
 units of protoplasm4 ,many of them are 
of smaller size  than some of the big   
infusorian animalcules1 which consist of
 a single  cell4 ,the ,rotifers are     
probably a dwindled pygmy race descended
 from  ancestors of ten or a hundred    
times their linear measurement4 ,it  is 
an important fact that in the possession
 of a toothed gizzard1  in the hard     
body-case or cuirass of some kinds1 and 
in ,pedalion's  rapidly-moving legs or  

paddles1 fringed with plumose hairs and 
moved  by that peculiar variety of      
muscular tissue which is called striped 
muscular tissue1 the wheel animalcules  
give evidence of relationship  to the   
,crustacea-that is to say1 it appears to
 be probable that they  were derived    
from the common ancestor of marine worms
 and ,crustacea  before those two lines 
of descent had diverged4    ,rotifera or
 wheel animalcules are found all over   
the world1 in the  tropics1 the         
temperate zones1 the ,arctic and        
,antarctic1 and many  species have a    
world-wide distribution4 ,they occur in 
fresh waters  and in the sea1 in great  
lakes1 in gutters which dry up1 in pools
 in  the polar regions and on high      
mountains which are solid ice for the   
greater part of the year4 ,a few are    
parasitic1 some living on the legs  of  
minute ,crustacea4 ,one which ,i        
discovered in #ahfh in the ,channel     
,islands lives in crowds on the skin of 
a remarkable sea-worm 7,synapta71  which

 burrows in the sand1 exposed at low    
tide4 ,it holds on 7as ,i found  and    
figured7 by a true sucker1 which        
replaces the forked tail of other       
commoner ,rotifers4 ,it was named       
,discopus by ,zelinka1 who searched for 
it in consequence of my description1 and
 gave a very detailed account  of it4   
,others are parasitic inside earthworms1
 and one is found inside  the globe     
animalcule ,volvox6 ,another causes the 
growth of warts or  galls in a curious  
kind of ,alga called ,vaucheria4        
,,chapter ,,xv    ,,suspended           
,,animation      ,our leading           
newspapers1 with rare exceptions1 never 
report the  discoveries announced at our
 scientific societies4 ,but they often  
seek to astonish their readers with     
silly stories of monsters said to  have 
been seen in tropical forests1 ghostly  
manifestations and such  rubbish        
transmitted to them at a high price by  
crafty newsmongers1  and do much harm to
 themselves and to the public thereby4  

,on the other  hand1 foreign newspapers 
do occasionally report the proceedings  
of  their local ,academies-and then our 
own correspondent telegraphs to  ,london
 with a flourish1 a confused report of  
what he has read and  ignorantly        
imagines to be a startling discovery    
because he knows  nothing whatever of   
the subject4 ,thus shortly before the   
recent  war-the confirmation by a       
,french experimenter of the fact1 long  
since  demonstrated1 that the seeds of  
plants can survive exposure to very low 
temperature1 was announced with         
ridiculous emphasis by one of these  fat
 boys of journalism pour pater le       
bourgeois4    ,a temperature very near  
to that of the total absence of that    
molecular  movement or vibration which  
we call heat1 can now be attained by the
  use of liquid hydrogen1 which enables 
us1 by its evaporation1 to come  within 
a few degrees 7actually three67 of that 
condition known as the  absolute zero4  
,we divide into one hundred equal steps 

or degrees the  column of liquid        
7mercury1 spirit1 or other liquid7 of a 
thermometer  as it expands from the     
shrunken bulk which it occupies when    
placed in  freezing water to the full   
length which it attains when the water  
is  heated to boiling point4 ,this is   
called the centigrade scale1 or scale   
of a hundred degrees4 ,but1 as we know  
by the records of travellers in  the    
,arctic regions and by the experiments  
made in laboratories1 there  are degrees
 of coldness or diminution of heat which
 are much below  that of freezing water1
 and can be measured by the further     
shrinking of  the column of liquid in   
the thermometer1 so that we record      
degrees  below zero centigrade1 each of 
the same length as those above it and   
corresponding to the same quantum of    
decrease or increment of heat4  ,as we  
pass from the temperature at which water
 is solid to that much  lower or        
diminished state of hotness at which    
mercury becomes solid1  the shrinking   

column of the thermometer 7in which a   
liquid is used not  rendered solid by   
this amount of cooling7 falls through   
#ci degrees of  the centigrade size1 so 
that we say that mercury freezes at     
minus #ci or  at #ci degrees below zero 
of the centigrade scale4 ,the conclusion
 has  now been reached that the absolute
 zero or cessation of all heat in a     
body is represented by a fall of no less
 than #bgc degrees below zero  on the   
centigrade scale4 ,hydrogen gas becomes 
a liquid at #beb degrees  below zero    
centigrade1 and a solid at #bfd degrees4
 ,if we start our  counting of those    
degrees or increments of heat1 of which 
there are  #ajj between the freezing and
 boiling points of water1 at the        
absolute  zero or condition of total    
absence of heat1 we must say that       
hydrogen  melts-that is1 passes from the
 solid to the liquid state-at #aa       
degrees 7absolute71 and boils at about  
#bj degrees 7absolute71 whilst  water   
does not melt until #bgc degrees        

7absolute7 of temperature are  reached1 
and boils at #cgc degrees above the     
absolute zero4    ,it is the fact that1 
from the year #ahfj onward1 numerous    
observers have  experimented on the     
influence of very low temperatures upon 
seeds1 and  have uniformly shown that   
the power of germination and healthy    
growth  of the seeds is not destroyed by
 exposure to very low temperatures4 ,the
  celebrated ,swiss botanist1 ,de       
,candolle1 published the first careful  
observations on this subject in         
conjunction with ,raoul ,pictet1 who had
  devised an apparatus for producing    
exceedingly low temperatures4 ,pictet   
in #ahic exposed various bacteria and   
also seeds to a temperature of  nearly  
#bjj degrees below zero centigrade      
without injury to them4 ,they  resumed  
their life when gradually restored to   
the normal temperature4  ,pictet        
concluded that since all chemical action
 of the kind which goes  on in living   
things requires a certain degree of     

temperature for its  occurrence1 and    
that this is demonstrably considerably  
higher than  minus #ajj degrees         
centigrade1 we must suppose that all    
chemical action  in living things 7as in
 nearly all other bodies7 is annihilated
 at #ajj  degrees below zero centigrade4
 ,accordingly he maintained that what we
  call life1 or living1 is a            
manifestation of chemical forces similar
  to those shown in other natural       
bodies1 and liable to interruption and  
resumption by the operation of          
unfavourable or favourable conditions   
as are other chemical processes4 ,in    
#ahig1 ,mr4 ,horace ,brown and ,mr4 ,f4 
,escombe published1 in the ,proceedings 
of the ,royal ,society of ,london1  an  
account of experiments in which they    
exposed seeds of twelve plants          
belonging to widely different natural   
orders to a temperature varying  from   
#ahc degrees to #aib degrees below zero 
centigrade for a period  of #aaj        
consecutive hours 7about four days and a

 half74 ,as a result  the germinative   
powers of the seeds showed no           
appreciable difference  from that of    
seed not subjected to cold1 and they    
produced healthy  plants4 ,the low      
temperature was obtained by the use of  
liquid air  in a vacuum-jacketed flask  
7like the well-known thermos flasks71   
into which the seeds were introduced in 
thin glass tubes4 ,professor            
,m',kendrick had previously shown that  
the putrescence of meat1 blood  and milk
 by bacteria infesting them was         
temporarily arrested1 but  not          
permanently so1 by exposing those       
substances for one hour to a            
temperature of #ahb degrees below zero  
centigrade4 ,it appeared that the       
putrefactive bacteria present in those  
substances were not destroyed  by that  
degree of cold1 but returned to a state 
of activity when the  normal temperature
 was restored4 ,professor ,m',kendrick  
also showed that  seeds would germinate 
after exposure to like treatment4       

,all this is ancient history1 twenty    
years and more in the past4 ,the        
experiments of a ,french observer1      
mentioned at the beginning of this      
chapter as foolishly trumpeted in a     
,london paper1 were of service as       
confirming the extensive and careful    
work of his predecessors4 ,it is  only  
when our old well-bottled discoveries   
have1 however tardily1 been  brought    
before the ,paris ,academy of ,sciences 
and sent back to us by  the ,paris      
correspondents of news agencies as      
startling novelties and  amazing        
discoveries 7twenty years old71 that any
 attempt is made to  mention them in the
 ,london daily ,press4 ,and then they   
are announced  without any reference to 
their true history4 ,this habit of      
culling  stale morsels of information   
from the proceedings of foreign         
academies  points to the fact that there
 is incompetence both in the purveyor   
and  publisher of such scraps4 ,if our  
newspaper editors must publish scraps   

about scientific novelties1 they should 
employ educated assistants  to see that 
they do not make themselves ridiculous4 
,the scraps which  come round to our    
newspapers from ,paris are usually      
plagiarized from a  ,french newspaper by
 some one who has a very imperfect      
knowledge of the  subject to which they 
refer1 and adds his own blunders to     
those of the  original reporter4    ,the
 action of extreme cold in arresting    
life in such minute organisms  as plant 
seeds and bacteria without destroying   
the possibility of  the resumption of   
those chemical and physical changes when
 warmth is  restored1 is dependent on   
the fact that those chemical changes can
  only proceed in and by the aid of     
liquid water4 ,when thoroughly frozen   
the chemical constituents of minute     
organisms and seeds-which until  frozen 
were living and undergoing continuous1  
though perhaps slow1  change-become     
solid1 and can no longer act on one     
another or be acted  on by surrounding  

chemical bodies equally reduced in      
temperature4  ,they may be compared to  
the solid dry constituents of a         
,seidlitz  powder-one an acid1 the other
 a carbonate4 ,so long as they are dry  
they remain-when mixed and shaken       
together-inert1 without action  on one  
another4 ,even if one is dissolved in   
water and then frozen  solid and mixed  
in a powdered state with the other at an
 equally low  temperature the mixture   
remains dry and inert4 ,nothing happens 
so long  as the low temperature is      
maintained4 ,but if we raise the        
temperature  above the freezing-point-so
 as to liquefy the solution-chemical    
action  will immediately ensue4 ,with   
much fizzing and escape of gas the two  
chemicals will unite4 ,the effect of    
cold on living matter is of this        
nature4 ,it is a real suspension of the 
changes which were-however  slowly and  
quietly-going on before complete        
solidification of the  protoplasm by    
freezing4 ,a frozen seed and frozen     

bacteria are in a  state of suspended   
animation4    ,it is not the fact that  
absolutely all chemical union and change
  whatsoever is prevented-that is to    
say1 arrested or suspended-by  extreme  
cold1 although the union with oxygen and
 other such changes of  the essential   
material of living things1 which we call
 protoplasm1  and most other chemical   
changes are thus arrested or suspended4 
,the  most striking exception is that of
 the most active of all elements1  the  
gas fluorine1 which becomes a liquid at 
#baj degrees below zero  centigrade1 and
 in that condition attacks turpentine if
 brought into  contact with it at the   
same low temperature with explosive     
force4 ,even  solid fluorine combines   
with liquid hydrogen with violent       
explosion4  ,it seems certain1 however1 
that elements or chemical compounds     
brought  into the solid 7not merely     
liquid7 condition by extreme cold cannot
 act  chemically upon other bodies in   
the same solid condition1 even when     

they would at normal temperatures so act
 with the greatest readiness1  because  
they are then either liquid or gaseous4 
,the conception of an arrest of the     
changes in organisms1 which we call     
life1 followed by their resumption after
 a greater or less interval of          
suspense1 was long ago suggested and    
discussed before we had knowledge  of   
the action of low temperatures4 ,the    
winter-sleep of some animals  and the   
comatose condition sometimes exhibited  
by human beings  had led to the notion  
of suspended animation4 ,but a careful  
study  of hybernating animals and of    
human instances of prolonged coma       
satisfied physiologists nearly #ajj     
years ago that the processes of         
life-the beating of the heart and the   
respiration-were not actually  and      
absolutely suspended in these cases1 but
 reduced to a minimum4 ,the  chemical   
processes connected with life were still
 very slowly carried  on4    ,again1 a  
great deal of interest and discussion   

was excited in the last  century by the 
drying up of delicate yet complex       
aquatic animalcules1  such as the       
,rotifers 7the wheel animalcules        
described in our last  chapter7 and     
,tardigrades 7bear animalcules71 and the
 fact that after  their preservation as 
mere dust for many months dried on a    
glass-slip  they could be revived and   
made to return to life by wetting them  
with a  minute drop of water1 whilst the
 whole process of revival was watched   
under the microscope4 ,letters were     
published in the ,times in the  fifties 
by the ,rev4 ,lord ,sydney ,godolphin   
,osborn1 describing his  observations   
and experiments on these animalcules4   
,the yellow slime-fungus called flowers 
of tan1 after creeping as  a naked      
network of protoplasm over the spent    
tan1 thrown out from  tan-pits1 will in 
dry weather gather itself into little   
knobs1 each  of which is as hard and    
brittle as a piece of sealing-wax4 ,yet 
7as ,i  have repeatedly experienced in  

using material given to me by the great 
botanist1 de ,bary7 a fragment of one of
 these hard pieces1 if carefully        
guarded in a dry pill-box for two or    
three years1 will when placed on  a film
 of water at summer-heat gradually      
absorb moisture and expand  itself into 
threads of creeping1 flowing protoplasm1
 nourish itself1  and grow and          
reproduce4 ,it was formerly suggested in
 regard to these  cases of resuscitation
 after drying1 as also in the case of   
seeds which  germinate after being kept 
in a dry condition for many years1 that 
really they were not thoroughly dried1  
but were sufficiently moist to  allow of
 very slow oxidation and gas exchange1  
which it was said was  so small in      
amount as to escape observation4 ,there 
was a plausible  comparison of the      
condition of these dried organisms to   
that of  hybernating mammals1 desiccated
 snails1 and comatose men4 ,it was held 
that here1 too1 the life-processes were 
not absolutely arrested1 but  reduced to

 an imperceptible minimum4    ,this view
 of the matter was connected1 no doubt1 
with a traditional  assumption that life
 was an entity-an anima animans-which   
entered a  living body1 kept it         
continually going or living1 and if     
driven  out from it could not return4   
,curiously enough1 ,mr4 ,herbert        
,spencer  seems to have been 7perhaps   
unconsciously7 affected by this         
traditional  view1 since he defined life
 as the continuous-that is the important
  word-adaptation of internal to        
external relations4 ,this definition    
prejudiced the view of some             
distinguished physiologists on the      
question  of suspended animation1 and ,i
 remember a very warm dinner-table      
discussion with ,michael ,foster and    
other friends1 some twenty-five  years  
ago1 when ,i put forward the view that  
so long as the intimate  structure-in   
fact1 the chemical structure-of the     
protoplasm of a living  thing is not    
destroyed1 it does not die though all   

chemical change in  it may be arrested4 
,i compared the dried seed and dried    
animalcule-as  ,i would now compare the 
frozen seed and the frozen bacteria-to a
 well  wound watch which is stopped by  
the intrusion of a needle between the   
spokes of its balance wheel1 or1 better1
 by the cooling on the wheel of  a tiny 
drop of soft wax so as to clog it4 ,the 
works of the watch are  rendered        
absolutely motionless1 but it is not    
dead4 ,as soon as the  needle is removed
 or the tiny speck of wax melted by a   
gentle warmth  it resumes its movement4 
,it is1 as we say1 alive again4 ,so1    
too1  the frozen or dried organism is   
absolutely motionless4 ,no chemical     
movements can go on in it4 ,they are    
stopped by the solidity set up by       
freezing1 or in the case of simple      
desiccation1 by the absence of the      
moisture necessary for bringing the     
chemical molecules into contact4  ,if   
protected from destructive agents1 the  
mechanism remains perfect  for just so  

many years or centuries as that         
protection lasts4 ,whenever  the frozen 
organism thaws or the dried organism    
becomes wet1 the  life-processes are    
resumed1 the seed germinates1 the       
bacteria grow and  multiply4    ,thus we
 see what are some of the points of     
interest and importance  raised by the  
old experiments of ,pictet1             
,m',kendrick1 and ,horace ,brown1  the  
results of which were the same as those 
announced as ,parisian  novelties4 ,i   
have yet to say a few words as to the   
reason why we cannot  produce suspended 
animation in higher organisms or in man 
by the  application to them of extreme  
cold4 ,further1 the influence of extreme
  cold on the possible passage1 through 
space1 of living germs from  other      
worlds to this earth-a possibility      
suggested by the late ,lord             
,kelvin-requires some consideration in  
connection with the striking            
experiments with phosphorescent bacteria
 described ten years ago by ,sir  ,james

 ,dewar4    ,illustration3 ,young stages
 of growth or ,veliger larv of marine   
snails1 showing the ciliated band or    
velum which is identical with the  wheel
 apparatus of the ,rotifers or ,wheel   
animalcules4          ,,chapter ,,xvi   
,,more ,,about ,,suspended ,,animation  
,i gave some account in the last chapter
 of the experiments made within  the    
last twenty years1 which have shown     
that1 in certain very simple  organisms 
and in seeds1 all chemical change can be
 stopped by the  application to them of 
methods of freezing4 ,the continuous    
changes  which go on in these living    
things under ordinary circumstances are 
arrested by the solidification of what  
was more or less moist  material4 ,water
 in the liquid state1 though it may be  
in extremely  minute quantity1 is       
necessary for the chemical combinations 
and  decompositions which go on in      
living things4 ,hence not only the      
solidification of all moisture1 in or   
having access to the living  bodies     

experimented on1 arrests those chemical 
combinations and  decompositions1 but   
very thorough drying also has this      
result4 ,yet  either on thawing the     
frozen liquid or supplying moisture to  
the dried  up organism1 the previously  
continuous chemical and physical changes
  are resumed as though no arrest or    
suspension of them had occurred4 ,no    
limit is known to the length of time    
during which this arrest may be         
continued1 and yet a resumption of      
living changes occur when the cause  of 
arrest-namely1 either solidification by 
cold or else dryness-is  removed4 ,the  
apparatus-the exact structure and the   
exact chemical  materials-of the seeds  
or the bacteria remains uninjured and   
unchanged  by either freezing or drying 
carefully applied4 ,it is1 of course1   
impossible to guarantee that no         
accident1 no unforeseen change in the   
surroundings1 shall take place and      
destroy in one way or another the       
experiment4 ,but the arrest of all      

change1 such as goes on in life1 has    
been1 in many experiments1 maintained   
under careful supervision and           
protection for several months1 and yet  
life has been resumed when the  cause   
arresting chemical change has been      
removed4 ,the presumption1  then1 is in 
favour of the possibility of the arrest 
being maintained  for an unlimited      
period1 and yet at any time being       
resumed when the  arresting cause 7cold 
or dryness7 is removed4    ,before what 
we may call the suspensory action of    
very low  temperatures had become       
generally known1 the question occurred  
as to  whether seeds kept in a dry      
condition for several months1 or even   
years1 and yet capable of germination   
when placed in moist earth1  are during 
their dry condition undergoing any      
chemical changes4 ,the  matter presented
 itself in this way4 ,the dry seeds can 
germinate when  sown1 therefore they are
 not dead1 but living4 ,according to    
various  physiologists and philosophers 

7e4g41 ,herbert ,spencer71 life is  a   
continuous adjustment of internal to    
external relations4 ,burdon  ,sanderson1
 the ,oxford professor of ,physiology1  
declared that life is  a state of       
ceaseless change4 ,if this is a correct 
conception1 and if  by living we mean1  
as the great ,oxford ,english           
,dictionary tells us1  manifesting the  
property called life1 then the seeds    
which1 though  dry1 are still living or 
alive or endowed with life1 should yield
  some evidence of the ceaseless change 
7by which is meant chemical  change7 of 
which1 as things not dead but living1   
they are supposed  to be the seat4 ,the 
late ,dr4 ,george ,romanes published in 
#ahic some  experiments on this matter4 
,we know that free oxygen is very       
generally  7though not universally7     
necessary for the continual chemical    
changes  which the minutest as well as  
the largest plants and animals carry on4
  ,romanes enclosed a quantity of dry   
seeds in glass tubes1 from which he     

pumped out all gas as completely as     
possible-that is to say1 all except     
one-millionth of the original volume4   
,he also expelled all oxygen by         
replacing it by other gases4 ,as a      
result of this treatment1 continued  for
 as much as fifteen months1 he found    
that neither a high vacuum nor          
subsequent exposure for twelve months in
 separate instances to oxygen  or to    
hydrogen1 or nitrogen1 or carbon        
monoxide1 or carbon dioxide1  or        
hydrogen sulphide1 or the vapour of     
ether or of chloroform1 had  any effect 
on the subsequent germinative power of  
the seeds employed4  ,these experiments 
proved that anything like respiration by
 ordinary  gaseous exchange with the    
atmosphere was not going on in the      
seeds1  and that if they are the seat of
 ceaseless change because not dead1  the
 changes must be chemical interactions  
of some kind or other within  their     
protoplasm4    ,the keeping of seeds and
 also of bacteria for days and even     

months-at  temperatures as low as #ajj  
degrees below zero centigrade-and their 
subsequent resumption of life1 has      
removed the possibility 7not  excluded  
by ,romanes7 of the occurrence of       
chemical interactions within  the       
substance of these organisms preserved  
during long periods of  time1 and yet   
not ceasing to be what is ordinarily    
called alive1  or endowed with life4 ,it
 is time that we should definitely      
abandon  ,herbert ,spencer's and ,burdon
 ,sanderson's definitions or verbal     
characterizations of life4 ,the word    
life is commonly and properly  used to  
designate the condition of a living     
thing or a thing which  is alive4 ,a    
thing which has lost life-that is1 which
 was living1 but  is so no more1 and    
cannot be restored to life or           
resuscitated-is1 in  correct ,english1  
said to have died1 or to be dead4 ,the  
motionless1  unchanging frozen seed or  
bacterium1 which resumes its living     
activities when carefully thawed1 has   

not died4 ,the mere fact that  it can be
 resuscitated justifies the application 
to it1 according to  correct ,english   
usage1 of the word alive-it is still    
alive4 ,it is  not possible to alter the
 significance of the words life1 living 
and alive1 so as to retain the          
definitions of ,herbert ,spencer and    
,burdon ,sanderson as correct4 ,they are
 incorrect4 ,life is not continuous  or 
ceaseless change4 ,it is a property of  
the more active substance of  plants and
 animals which has special structure and
 definite chemical  constituents4 ,the  
property is1 no doubt1 usually          
manifested under  normal conditions of  
temperature1 light1 moisture1 pressure1 
chemical  and electrical surroundings in
 a continuous series of changes1 both   
chemical and physical4 ,but at          
exceptionally low temperature1 and in   
other arresting circumstances these     
changes can1 in a few exceptional       
organisms1 be absolutely stopped1 though
 the organism in which the  changes     

cease is uninjured as a mechanism4 ,it  
still possesses the  property of life-is
 still alive although motionless and    
unchanging4  ,its life is in suspense1  
as is that of a clock with arrested     
pendulum4    ,the unjustified conception
 of life1 or living1 or being alive1    
and not dead1 as necessarily a state of 
incessant chemical and  other change1 is
 bound up with the old fancy that life  
is not to be  considered as a state or  
motion of a special and complex         
structure  called protoplasm1 but is a  
thing1 a spirit or an essence1 which    
takes  possession of organic bodies and 
makes them live4 ,according to ,sir     
,oliver ,lodge1 if chemists could build 
up the chemical materials which         
constitute protoplasm1 the protoplasm so
 made by them would not live4  ,it would
 7he stated at the meeting of the       
,british ,association in  ,birmingham in
 #aiab7 have to receive a charge or     
infusion1 as it were1  of this thing    
suggested by the word life4 ,it cannot  

live itself  7according to the          
suppositions of ,sir ,oliver71 but      
serves as the  vehicle1 the receptacle1 
for this supposed intangible entity     
life4 ,in  the same imaginative vein1   
our grandfathers used to say that heat  
was  due to the entity or fairy caloric 
which could be enticed into or  driven  
from material bodies1 making them hot by
 its presence and cold  by its greater  
or less exclusion4 ,the suspended       
animation of frozen  germs and their    
return to life when warmed could thus be
 represented  as an affection or        
affinity between the fairy ,vitalis and 
the fairy  ,caloric1 the former fleeing 
from the body and waiting near when the 
latter deserts his place1 but returning 
to happy union with ,caloric  when he   
again1 however feebly1 pervades once    
more the vehicle provided  for ,vitalis4
 ,such imaginary essences are not of any
 assistance to  us in arriving at a     
knowledge of the facts1 and so far from 
helping  us to a comprehension of the   

ultimate nature of things 7which we     
have no reason to suppose that it is    
possible for us to attain7  their       
introduction tends to the substitution  
of imaginary causes and  unverified     
assumptions for the carefully-tested and
 demonstrated  conclusions of science4  
,in #ahga ,lord ,kelvin1 when president 
of the ,british ,association1  suggested
 that the origin of life as we know it  
may have been  extra-terrestrial1 and   
due to the moss-grown fragments from the
  ruins of another world1 which reached 
the earth as meteorites4 ,it  was       
objected to this that the extreme       
cold-very near to the absolute          
zero-which prevails in interstellar     
space would be fatal to all germs  of   
life carried by such meteoric stones4   
,but twenty years later ,sir  ,james    
,dewar showed that this objection did   
not hold1 since at any  rate some forms 
of life-certain bacteria-could survive  
an exposure of  several days to a       
temperature approaching the absolute    

zero4 ,later ,sir  ,james made some very
 striking experiments by exposing       
cultivations of  phosphorescent bacteria
 to the temperature of liquid hydrogen  
7#beb  degrees below zero centigrade74  
,these bacteria may be obtained by      
selective cultivation from sea-water    
taken on the coast1 in which a few  are 
always scattered4 ,a rich growth of     
these bacteria in gelatine broth  gives 
off a brilliant greenish light when     
shaken with atmospheric air  or         
otherwise exposed to oxygen4 ,the light 
is so intense that a glass  flask       
holding a pint of the cultivation gives 
off sufficient light to  enable one to  
read in an otherwise dark room4 ,the    
emission of light  is dependent on the  
chemical activity of the living bacteria
 in the  presence of oxygen4 ,in the    
absence of free oxygen they cease to be 
luminous4 ,as soon as they are killed   
the light ceases4 ,when they are  frozen
 solid the light ceases1 even in the    
presence of free oxygen  gas4 ,when a   

film consisting of such a culture is    
frozen solid it will  remain inactive if
 the low temperature be maintained for  
months1 though  exposed to free oxygen  
gas1 and then1 as soon as it is         
liquefied by  a gentle rise in          
temperature1 the active changes         
recommence1 and the  phosphorescent     
light beams forth4 ,sir ,james ,dewar   
exposed such films  to the low          
temperature of liquid hydrogen for 7so  
far as ,i remember7  six months1 and    
obtained from them at once the evidence 
of their living  chemical activity1     
namely1 their phosphorescence1 as soon  
as they  were thawed4 ,in the frozen    
state1 at a temperature of minus #bej   
degrees  centigrade1 nothing1 it        
appeared1 could injure these            
phosphorescent  bacteria4 ,no chemical  
can get at them at that temperature1 the
 most  biting acid1 the most caustic    
alkali cannot touch them when1 like     
them1  it is in a hard1 solid condition4
 ,powdering the film by mechanical      

pressure has no effect on the bacteria4 
,they are too small to be  crushed by   
any mill4 ,such germs would1 it seemed1 
surely be able to  travel through       
interstellar space1 as suggested by     
,kelvin4    ,then it occurred to ,sir   
,james that light-the strangely active  
ultra-violet rays of light-might be able
 to disintegrate and destroy  the       
bacteria1 even when frozen solid at the 
lowest temperature4 ,he  exposed his    
frozen cultures to strong light1        
excluding any heat-giving  rays1 and    
found that the bacteria no longer       
recovered when subsequently  the culture
 was thawed4 ,light1 certain rays of    
light1 can1 it thus  appears1 penetrate 
and cause destructive vibrations in     
chemical bodies  protected from all     
other disintegrating agencies by the    
solidity  conferred by extreme cold4 ,i 
am not able to say1 at the moment1 how  
far this important matter has been      
pursued by further experiment1 nor      
whether what are called the chemically  

active rays of light and  other rays    
such as the ,rntgen rays can effect     
chemical change in  other bodies        
7besides living germs71 upon which they 
act at normal  temperatures1 but in     
regard to which they might be expected  
to be  inoperative when the bodies in   
question are brought into the peculiar  
state of inactivity produced by extreme 
cold4 ,since light is far more  intense 
outside our atmosphere than within it1  
it seemed1 at first1  that the          
demonstration of its destructive action 
on frozen germs puts  an end to         
,kelvin's theory of a meteoric origin of
 life4 ,it must1  however1 be remembered
 that minute living germs could         
conceivably be  protected from the      
access of light by being embedded in    
even very  small opaque particles of    
meteoric clay4 ,so ,lord ,kelvin's      
suggestion  as to the travelling of life
 on meteoric dust cannot be set aside as
  involving the supposition of the      
persistence of life in conditions  known

 to be destructive of it4    ,the great 
interest in former times in relation to 
suspended  animation has naturally been 
in relation to the occurrence of this   
condition in man and the possibility of 
producing it in man by this  or that    
treatment4 ,there is no doubt whatever1 
at the present day1  that death-like    
trances1 whether occurring naturally or 
after the  administration of drugs1 in  
the case of man and of higher animals1  
are not due to that complete suspension 
of living changes which we can  produce1
 as ,i have here related1 in certain    
lower forms of life4 ,these  death-like 
trances are merely cases of reduction of
 the living changes  to a very low      
degree4#f    ,the bodies of all but the 
simplest animals and plants are too     
large and  too complex to survive the   
bursting and disruptive action of       
extreme  cold1 due to the unequal       
distribution of water within them and   
its  irresistible expansion when frozen4
 ,their living mechanism is broken1     

mechanically destroyed by this          
expansion4 ,we cannot hope to apply     
cold to man so as to produce suspended  
animation4 ,it is true that  experiments
 are on record in which fish and even   
frogs have survived  enclosure within a 
solid mass of ice by the freezing of the
 water in  which they were living4 ,but 
careful experiments are wanting which   
would demonstrate that these animals    
were actually frozen through and        
through1 and that either fish or other  
cold-blooded animals can survive  a     
thorough solidification by freezing of  
their entire substance4 ,such  survival 
cannot be pronounced to be impossible1  
but it has not been  demonstrated in any
 cold-blooded animal-even shell-fish or 
worm or  polyp-let alone a warm-blooded 
mammal4 ,it appears that1 apart from    
disruptive effects1 the protoplasm of   
even very minute and simple  organisms1 
such as the ,protozoa1 does not in all  
kinds1 even if in any1  survive exposure
 to great cold4 ,the toleration of great

 cold and return  to living activity    
after thorough freezing is1 it appears1 
a special  quality attained by the      
living material of vegetable seeds and  
by many  kinds of bacteria4 ,a similar  
special toleration of high temperatures1
  a good deal short of the boiling      
point1 but high enough to kill most     
plants and animals1 is known to         
characterize certain bacteria and       
allied ,schizophyta found in hot        
springs4 ,it is a matter of common      
knowledge that many animals and plants  
are killed by a temperature  7whether   
too high or too low for them7 which     
allows others to flourish  and may be   
necessary for their life4 ,minute       
organisms 7flagellate  monads7 have been
 cultivated experimentally in a         
nourishing liquid1 the  temperature of  
which was raised daily by one or two    
degrees until the  liquid was so hot    
that the same species of organism was at
 once killed  by it when abruptly       
transferred to it from liquid at        

ordinary summer  temperature4    ,the   
true suspended animation of many        
vegetable seeds and of many  kinds of   
bacteria under the influence of cold is 
not an exhibition of  a general property
 of living things1 but is due to a      
special quality  of resistance gradually
 attained by natural selection of       
variations a  little more tolerant of   
cold or of drought than are the         
majority4 ,it is  of life-saving value  
and a cause of survival to the species  
of plants  and bacteria concerned4 ,no  
doubt there is need of further          
experiment on  the subject of the       
killing or destructive effect exerted by
 different  degrees of diminution of    
temperature upon the protoplasm of all  
kinds  of organisms1 and with the       
knowledge so obtained we shall be able  
to  frame a conception of the actual    
mechanical and chemical peculiarities   
of the protoplasm of those bacteria and 
of those vegetable seeds  which can be  
exposed to the extreme of cold for many 

months or for an  indefinite period and 
yet subsequently recover or live again4 
,probably  in order to survive freezing1
 protoplasm must be1 not absolutely dry1
  but free from all but a minimum of    
moisture4      ,,footnote3    #f ,see   
the chapter on ,sleep1 in my ,science   
from an ,easy ,chair1  ,methuen1 #aiji4 
,,chapter ,,xvii    ,,the ,,swastika    
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4-,the swastika
 in its simplest rectangular form4  ,it 
may turn to the right1 as here1 or to   
the left1 a less usual thing1  but      
without significance4    ,a good many   
people have never heard of the          
,swastika4 ,it is an emblem  or device  
such as is the ,cross or the ,crescent4 
,here it is 7,fig4 #ch7  in its most    
simple and most common form4 ,in ,india 
it is in common use  at the present day1
 and has been so for ages4 ,it is the   
emblem of good  luck4 ,the name         
,swastika1 by which it is widely known1 
is a ,sanskrit  word meaning good luck4 
,the word is composed of ,su1 the       

equivalent  of the ,greek eu1 signifying
 well or good1 and asti 7like the       
,greek esto71 signifying being1 whilst  
ka is a suffix completing  the word as a
 substantive4 ,the sign or emblem called
 ,swastika must  have existed and been  
largely used in decoration of temples1  
images1  swords1 banners1 utensils1 and 
personal trinkets of all sorts long     
before this name was given to it4 ,it   
has a name in many widely separate      
languages4 ,it is often referred to by  
,english writers as the fylfot1  the    
gammadion1 and the crux ansata1 also as 
the croix gamme4 ,it is  often found    
more roughly drawn 7on pottery or cloth7
 as shown in ,fig4  #ci4 ,often the arms
 of the cross are bent rigidly at right 
angles as  in ,fig4 #ch1 but they are   
often only curved as seen in ,fig4 #ci1 
,c1 or  curled spirally as in ,b1 when  
it is called an ogee4 ,the arms of the  
,swastika are sometimes bent to the     
right as in ,fig4 #ch1 and sometimes  to
 the left as in ,fig4 #ci4 ,this        

difference does not appear to have any  
symbolic significance1 but to depend on 
the fancy of the artist4                
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4-,three simple
 varieties of the swastika4  ,a1 the    
normal rectangular4 ,b1 the ogee variety
 7with spiral  extremities74 ,c1 the    
curvilinear or current variety4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4-;,footprint  
of the ,buddha1 from an ancient ,indian 
carving1 showing several swastikas4     
7,fergusson and ,schliemann47    ,in    
,figs4 #dj to #de a few examples are    
shown of the ,swastika from various     
places and ages4 ,it was in use in      
,japan in ancient times1 and is  still  
common there and in ,korea4 ,in ,china1 
where it is called wan1  it was at one  
time used1 when enclosed in a circle1 as
 a character  or pictograph to signify  
the sun4 ,it has been employed in ,china
 from  time immemorial to mark sacred or
 specially honoured works of art1       
buildings1 porcelain1 pictures1 robes1  
and is sometimes tattooed on  the hands1

 arms1 or breast4 ,in ,india it is      
widely used in decoration  by both      
,buddhists and ,brahmins2 children have 
it painted on their  shaven heads1 and  
it is introduced in various ceremonies4 
,the gigantic  carved footprints of     
,buddha from an ,indian temple drawn in 
,fig4 #dj show  several ,swastikas on   
the soles of the feet and on the toes4  
,in the  ,near ,east and in ,europe the 
,swastika is no longer in use3 it is    
not1  in fact1 popularly known4 ,but in 
ancient and very remote times it was  in
 constant use in these regions1         
especially by the ,mykenan people  and  
those who came under their influence1   
and also by the people of  the ,bronze  
,age-before the use of iron in ,europe4 
,fig4 #da shows a vase  of ,mykenan age 
7about #abjj years ,b4,c47 from ,cyprus 
ornamented with  ,swastikas4 ,hundreds  
of terra-cotta spindle-whorls like ,fig4
 #db were  found by ,schliemann in      
excavating ,hissarlik and the site of   
ancient  ,troy1 and some of them date   

from #cjjj ,b4,c4 in layers of different
 ages4  ,the vase on which is painted   
the ornament shown in ,fig4 #dc is from 
,botia1 and belongs to the same early   
period-the ,mykenan or gan  before that 
of the ,hellenes4 ,it still survives in 
the pottery of the  ,dipylon period     
7circa #hjj ,b4,c471 as is seen in the  
fragment drawn  in ,fig4 #f1 ,chapter   
,i4 ,the later ,greeks of the great     
classical period  7,hellenes7 did not   
use the ,swastika4 ,nor has it been     
found on the works  of art of the       
ancient ,egyptians1 nor in the remains  
of ,babylonia1  ,assyria or ,persia4    
,it1 in fact1 seems to have belonged    
especially to  that ancient ,minoan     
civilization1 the remains of which are  
found  in ,crete and the other ,greek   
islands4 ,the same culture and the same 
race is revealed to us by the           
discoveries of ,schliemann at ,myken and
  other spots in ,greece1 and at        
,hissarlik1 the seat of ancient ,troy4  
,the  ,mykenan art seems not to have    

been transmitted to the post-,homeric   
,greeks1 nor to ,egypt1 nor to          
,babylonia and ,assyria4 ,the ,swastika 
seems1  like the flying gallop of       
,mykenan art1 to have travelled in very 
ancient times by a north-eastern route  
to the ,far ,east4 ,i have given  some  
account of the latter1 with             
illustrations1 in ,science from an      
,easy ,chair1 ,second series4 ,like the 
representation of the galloping  horse1 
with both fore and hind legs stretched  
and the hoofs of the hind  legs turned  
upwards1 the ,swastika is found in the  
remarkable metal work  7,fig4 #dc bis7  
discovered in the necropolis of ,koban1 
in the ,caucasus1  dating from #ejj     
,b4,c4 ,the ,swastika and the flying    
gallop probably  travelled together     
across ,asia to ,china and the ,far     
,east1 and so  eventually to ,india on  
the one hand and ,japan on the other-the
 ,swastika  thus escaping altogether1 as
 does the pose of the flying gallop1 the
  ,near ,east and later ,greece4 ,this  

is a very remarkable and interesting    
association4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#da4-,vase from ,cyprus 7,mykenan ,age1 
circa #abjj  ,b4,c472 painted with      
lotus1 bird and four swastikas          
7,metropolitan  ,museum1 ,new ,york     
,city74    ,illustration3 ,,fig4        
#db4-,terra-cotta spindle-whorl marked  
with  swastikas4 ,troy1 #dth city       
7,schliemann74    ,the ,mykenans and    
their island relatives obtained the     
,swastika either  from the ancient      
,bronze-age people of ,europe or else   
gave it to them1  since it is very      
nearly as common as a decoration or     
symbol on the  bronze swords1           
spear-heads1 shields1 and other metal   
work of these  prehistoric people of the
 middle and north of ,europe 7also      
occurring  in the pottery of the ,swiss 
,lake dwellings71 as it is in the       
islands  and adjacent lands of the      
,eastern ,mediterranean4 ,the ,swastika 
is also  found abundantly on the early  
work of the ,etruscans1 but disappeared 

from general use in ,italy1 as it did   
from the rest of ,europe1 before        
historic times1 although occasionally   
used 7as in the decoration of  the walls
 of a house at ,pompeii74 ,all over     
,germany1 ,scandinavia1  ,france1 and   
,britain it is found 7,fig4 #dd7 on     
objects of the ,bronze  period-sometimes
 on stone as well as on bronze utensils1
 ornaments1  and weapons4 ,a few objects
 of ,anglo-,saxon age are ornamented    
with  it-especially remarkable is a     
piece of pottery of that age from       
,norfolk  7,fig4 #de74    ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #dc4-,ornament from an archaic  
7pre-,hellenic7 ,botian  vase1 showing  
several swastikas1 ,greek crosses and   
two serpents 7from  ,goodyear74         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4              
7bis74-,swastika in bronze repouss1 from
 the  necropolis of ,koban1 ,caucasus   
7after ,chantre ,le ,caucase71 about    
#ejj  ,b4,c4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#dd4-,silver-plated bronze horse-gear   
from  ,scandinavia1 showing two         

swastikas1 and below a complex          
elaboration of  a swastika4 7,bronze    
,age1 about #aejj ,b4,c47               
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#de4-;,anglo-,saxon urn from ,shropham1 
,norfolk1  ornamented by twenty small   
hand-made swastikas stamped into the    
clay4  7,british ,museum47    ,the      
history of the ,swastika would be       
remarkable enough if it ended  here with
 the disappearance of its use in ,europe
 in prehistoric times  and its continued
 use in the ,far ,east and ,india4 ,but 
the most curious  fact about it is that 
we find it as a very common and         
favourite  decoration and device among  
the native tribes in ,north ,america and
  ,mexico1 and exceptionally in ,brazil4
 ,it is found in use among the  ,indians
 of ,kansas and other tribes-as a device
 in pottery1 in bead-work  7,fig4 #df71 
patch-work1 quill-embroidery1 and other 
decorative fabrics4  ,the ,indians      
called ,sacs1 ,kickapoos1 and           
,pottawottamies1 who worship  the sun   

7which is associated with the ,swastika 
in ,china71 call it by  a native name   
signifying the luck4 ,it is also found  
as a decorative  design in the most     
ancient remains of man in ,america1     
dating 7so far as  can be guessed7 from 
a thousand years or more before         
,columbus 7,fig4 #dg74    ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #df4-,piece of a ceremonial     
bead-worked garter1  showing star and   
two swastikas made by the ,sac ,indians1
 ,cook ,county1  ,kansas4 7,modern47    
,it is generally held that the ,swastika
 must have been introduced into         
,america in prehistoric times by early  
redskin immigrants from ,asia4 ,the     
question has been raised as to whether  
this introduction was before or  after  
the worship of ,buddha in ,asia4 ,it is 
only amongst ,buddhists that  the       
,swastika has a religious or sacred     
character4 ,elsewhere it seems to  have 
been a mark or sign carrying good luck4 
,a representation of a  sitting human   
figure incised on shell has been found  

in a prehistoric  burial-mound in       
,tennessee1 which has remarkable        
resemblance to the  ,asiatic statues of 
the ,buddha4 ,shell ornaments have also 
been found  here decorated with         
sharply-cut ,swastikas1 and in a mound  
in ,ohio thin  plates of copper were    
found cut into simple ,swastika shapes  
like that  of ,fig4 #ch1 four inches    
across4 ,modern ,mexican ,indians make  
brooches of  gold and turquoise in the  
form of the ,swastika1 and it is a      
favourite  device among the ,indians of 
neighbouring territory4 ,swastikas occur
 as  decorations or lucky marks on the  
small terra-cotta fig-leaf1 which  was  
worn by the women of some of the        
aboriginal tribes of ,brazil1 and  have 
also been found on native pottery from  
the ,paraguay ,river4    ,some students 
of this subject have held the opinion   
that the ,swastika  has been invented   
independently at different times in     
different  parts of the world4 ,it is a 
fairly simple device1 it is true2 but   

the view which is accepted at present is
 that it has spread from  one           
centre-probably ,european in the late   
,stone period-through the  ,mykenans1   
across ,asia1 and so with early         
immigrants across the ,pacific  into the
 ,american continent4    ,illustration3 
,,fig4 #dg4-;,a stone slab from the     
ancient city of ,mayapan  7,yucatan1    
,central ,america71 on which 7right     
side7 a curvilinear  swastika is carved4
 7,from the ,american ,antiquarian      
,society1 #ahha47    ,apart from this   
problem1 there is an interesting        
question as to how  the device probably 
took its origin4 ,the ,swastika is      
sometimes  called the gammadion1 because
 it may be regarded as four individuals 
of the ,greek letter gamma 7which has   
this shape ,greek3 ,g7 joined  at right 
angles to one another4 ,the old ,english
 name for it1 dating  from ,anglo-,saxon
 times1 was fylfot-an old ,norse word of
 doubtful  meaning1 which has no        
currency at the present day4    ,a      

method of making the ,swastika by piling
 up sand or grain on a flat  surface1   
actually in use at the present time in  
,india1 is shown in ,fig4  #dh4 ,the    
artist makes first of all a circle with 
a cross drawn within it  7,a74 ,then the
 circle is rubbed out or cut away at    
four corresponding  points where the    
arms of the cross touch the circle1 and 
so we get  ,b4 ,then by the             
straightening of the curved pieces we   
get the correct  rectangular ,swastika1 
,c4 ,it is not probable that this is the
 way in  which the ,swastika was        
originally devised1 though it is not    
possible to  arrive at any certainty on 
the subject4    ,in these matters       
concerning the origin of simple         
ornamental patterns1  designs1 and      
symbols1 we always have to deal with    
certain natural  opposing tendencies on 
the part of the artist-draughtsman or   
designer1  one or other of which may be 
variously called into prominence by the 
softness or hardness or other quality of

 the material he has to use1  or by the 
individual fancy for elaboration or for 
simplification which  exists in him4 ,i 
will call four of these tendencies which
 concern us  in regard to the ,swastika3
 #a1 the rectilinear as opposed to #b1  
the  curvilinear1 and #c1 the           
grammatizing as opposed to #d1 the      
naturalizing  tendency1 and will show   
what bearing they may have on the origin
 of the  device known as the ,swastika4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4-;,diagram to 
show the derivation of the swastika     
from a ,greek cross enclosed by a       
circle4 ,in ,india the swastika is      
actually modelled in this way-in native 
ceremonies with rice-grain  spread on   
the ground4 ,the successive figures     
drawn above are produced  by moving the 
rice with the hand4          ,,chapter  
,,xviii    ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,the    
,,swastika      ,the ,swastika is1 we   
have seen1 a very early device or symbol
 in  use among ancient races in ,europe1
 ,asia and ,america4 ,though it has     

been found on an ingot of metal in      
,ashanti it was of late foreign         
introduction there1 and is not known in 
,africa1 nor in ,polynesia and          
,australia1 nor among the ,eskimos4 ,how
 did it as a mere matter of  shape and  
pattern come into existence8 ,one might 
suppose that such  combinations of lines
 as the simple cross and this modified  
cross1  with the arms bent each half-way
 along its length to form a right       
angle1 would be very natural things for 
a primitive man-or a child-to  make when
 trying to produce some ornamental      
effect by tracing simple  rectilinear   
and symmetrical figures4 ,no doubt such 
a playing with  lines is a common phase 
or stage of the human search for        
decorative  design4 ,it leads by gradual
 steps to very complex line-decoration  
in  early pottery and woven work1 which 
is sometimes called geometrical  design4
    ,it is1 however1 the fact1 and a    
very interesting one1 that the  tendency
 to make geometrical design is not so   

pronounced in the very  earliest        
examples of human drawing and ornament  
known to us1 as is  the tendency to copy
 natural objects4 ,and this would appear
 to be  especially the case where the   
drawing is to be a symbol or significant
  badge4 ,in the earliest art-work known
 to us-that of the cave-men of  the late
 ,pleistocene period in ,western ,europe
 7see ,chaps4 ,i41 ,,ii4  and           
,,iii47-the artists were busy with      
attempts 7often wonderfully  successful 
ones7 to present the outlines of        
familiar animals 7and  sometimes plants7
 by incised carving on bone or painting 
on the rock  walls of caves-preceded1 it
 is true1 by a period in which all-round
  sculpture in bone or stone or         
modelling in clay was the method        
employed4 ,the extensive use of         
lines-concentric or parallel1 like      
those on the finger-tips-as decoration  
of stone work is not known  until the   
later or ,neolithic period4#g ,on one at
 least of the incised  bone drawings of 

the ,palolithic cave-men two little     
diamond-shaped  lozenges are engraved4  
,they are seen in the cave-men's drawing
 of a  stag figured on pp4 #ab1 #ac of  
this book4 ,these lozenges are supposed 
to  be the signature of the artist1 and1
 if so1 are not only the first  examples
 of a geometrical rectilinear figure as 
ornament1 but the  earliest examples    
known of the use of a badge or symbol as
 a means of  identification4    ,when we
 compare the simpler decorative designs 
made use of by the  less cultivated     
races of men1 we find that there are    
certain distinct  and opposed tendencies
 the predominance of which is of        
importance  in helping us to explain the
 origin of the design4 ,the tendency to 
make straight lines and rectilinear     
angles1 which we may call the           
rectilinear habit1 is found in work     
executed on hard stone by a  graving    
tool1 and in work where square-cut      
stones are set together or  flat pieces 
of wood or straw are interlaced1 and in 

coarser kinds of  weaving1 bead-work1   
and basketwork4 ,the opposite tendency  
is found in  work executed with a brush 
and fluid paint on pottery or cloth1 or 
even  with a graver on soft clay or     
bone4    ,the contrast is well shown in 
the two renderings of one and the same  
pattern1 shown in ,a and ,b of ,fig4    
#di4 ,a is the rectilinear angular      
decorative design which is known as the 
,greek key pattern1 whilst the  scroll  
below it is the curvilinear treatment of
 the same subject4  ,the first takes its
 rectilinear character from a structure 
built up of  hard blocklike pieces2 the 
other is the flowing1 easily moving line
 of  a brush laying on paint1 or of a   
style moving over clay or soft wax4     
,the contrast is the same as that of the
 capital letters of the ,roman          
alphabet1 as used in print1 with their  
equivalents in copper-plate1  cursive   
handwriting4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#di4-,the ,greek ,key pattern in ,a     
rectangular1 and  ,b curvilinear or     

current form4    ,another pair of       
tendencies opposed to each other which  
have much  significance in the          
explanation of decorative design is the 
tendency  to convert the simple lines of
 an original design into a drawing      
representing some animal or plant shape4
 ,at the end of the last chapter  ,i    
distinguished this as the naturalizing  
tendency1 contrasting it  with the      
grammatizing or simplifying tendency4 ,a
 good example of it  is seen in ,fig4   
#ej4 ,in ,a of that figure we see a     
circle divided into  three cones by     
curved lines2 this is a known design4   
,it is called a  triskelion 7meaning a  
three-legged figure71 or is more        
correctly  termed a three-branched      
scroll4 ,the curves are converted into  
angles  and straight lines in ,b1 and   
then the stiff rectilinear triskelion   
is subsequently developed into three    
human legs1 as shown in ,c1 ,fig4  #ej4 
,it is naturalized4 ,were the change to 
proceed in the other way from  the three

 human legs to the simple lines1 we     
should have an example of  the opposed  
tendency1 namely1 that of converting    
drawings of natural  objects-by a       
degenerative or reducing process-to the 
simplest lines  representative of them4 
,this tendency1 which we call           
grammatizing  7from gramma1 the ,greek  
for a line71 is far commoner in early   
art than  the naturalizing tendency     
which sets in when the artist is        
exuberant1  self-confident1 and         
imaginative4 ,we see a naturalizing     
tendency  in the flamboyant and         
arabesque decorative work of the        
renascence1  but it is also found among 
the happy ,minoan1 or gan1 island folk  
who decorated great pots and basins in  
,cyprus and ,crete with forms  suggested
 by birds1 sea-creatures1 and climbing  
plants1 and worshipped  the great mother
 ,nature as ,aphrodite1 the sea-born    
goddess4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4       
#ej4-;,diagrams of the triskelion or    
figure formed  by the division of a     

circle into three equal bent cones as in
 ,a4 ,b  is the rectangular form derived
 from it4 ,c is a naturalized form      
derived from it1 namely1 the three      
conjoined legs used as the badge of     
,sicily and of the ,isle of ,man4       
,the triangular island of ,sicily       
7called also ,trinacria7 had in ancient 
times 7even as far back as #cjj ,b4,c47 
the conjoined three legs 7shown  in     
,fig4 #ej1 ,c7 as its badge or armorial 
emblem4 ,an ancient ,greek vase  found  
at ,girgenti has this badge painted on  
it4 ,ancient ,lycia had a  triskelion   
formed by three conjoined cocks' heads  
stamped on its coins4  ,though it has no
 direct connection with the ,swastika1  
the introduction  of the three legs as  
the armorial emblem of the ,isle of ,man
 is worth  relating1 as it is not known 
to most of those who are familiar with  
the device1 with its motto1 ,quocunque  
jeceris stabit on the copper  pence     
minted for that island up to as late a  
date as #ahfd1 and current  in ,great   

,britain4 ,king ,alexander ,,iii of     
,scotland expelled the ,norse  ,vikings 
from the ,isle of ,man in ,a4,d4 #abff1 
and substituted for their  armorial     
emblem in the island1 which was a ship  
under full sail1 the  three legs of     
,sicily4 ,frederick ,,ii1 ,king of      
,sicily1 married ,isabella1  the        
daughter of ,henry ,,iii of ,england4   
,alexander ,,iii of ,scotland married   
,margaret1 another daughter of ,henry1  
and ,henry's son1 ,edmund the           
,hunchback1 became ,king of ,sicily1 in 
succession to his brother-in-law        
,frederick4 ,alexander of ,scotland was 
thus brother-in-law both of  ,frederick 
,,ii and of ,edmund1 successive kings of
 ,sicily4 ,it was in this  way that he  
was led1 when he added the ,isle of ,man
 to his kingdom1 to  replace the former 
,norse emblem of the island by the      
picturesque and  striking device of that
 other island-,sicily-with which he had 
so close  a family connection4    ,the  
tendency for drawings of men and animals

 when used as decorative  designs to    
degenerate1 in the course of time and   
repetition1 into  more and more simple  
lines1 to become more and more          
grammatized  and simplified1 till at    
last their origin is hardly             
recognizable1  is both a very remarkable
 and a very usual thing4 ,the process of
  degeneration1 step by step1 can often 
be traced1 and curious remnants  of     
important parts of the original drawing 
are found surviving in the  final       
simplified design4 ,the paddles and     
other carvings of some of the  ,south   
,sea ,islanders show very curious       
degenerations of this kind4  ,a carved  
human head with open mouth becomes by   
repeated copying and  simplification a  
mere crescent or hook1 which is the     
vastly enlarged  mouth of the original  
face4 ,it alone survives1 and is of     
enormous  size1 when all other features 
and detail have been abandoned4 ,in some
  carvings of a face the tongue is shown
 projecting as an indication of         

defiance4 ,in course of simplification  
in successive reproductions the  face   
becomes a mere curved surface with a    
large pointed piece standing  out from  
it2 it is the tongue4 ,that one         
significant thing-suggesting            
defiance-alone persists4 ,the study of  
this process in human art  covers a very
 wide field1 including all races and all
 times4 ,an  excellent example is that  
given in ,fig4 #ea4 ,it shows the step  
by step  grammatizing of a favourite    
decorative drawing-that of an alligator1
  as painted by the ,chiriqui ,indians  
of ,panama on pottery4 ,we start in     
,fig4 #ea1 ,a1 with an alligator1       
already considerably schematized  or    
conventionalized4 ,the ,indians could do
 better than that1 but it  served for   
pottery decoration4 ,the figures ,b1 ,c1
 ,d show three stages  of further       
grammatizing of the design 7from        
different parts of  the surface of a    
pot7 till1 in ,d1 we get the alligator  
reduced to a  yoke-like line and a dot6 

,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4-;,four stages
 in the simplification of a  decorative 
design-the ,alligator-as painted on     
pottery by the ,chiriqui  ,indians4     
7,holmes47    ,familiar modern examples 
of this reduction of an animal figure to
 one  or two lines1 with                
mysterious-looking branches             
7representing limbs or  horns71 are seen
 in the scattered devices on the ,turkey
 carpets so  largely used at the present
 day4 ,a comparison of various examples 
of  such carpets of different age and   
locality reveals the true nature of     
these queer-looking patterns as         
representations of animals6 ,another    
familiar instance of the grammatizing of
 an animal form is that  shown in ,fig4 
#eb1 ,d1 which is the common symbol in  
modern ,european  art for a flying bird4
 ,fig4 #eb shows1 however1 some more    
important  simplifications of animal    
form4 ,the series marked ,e are a few   
examples  from hundreds painted on the  
walls of caves in ,cantabria 7,spain7 by

  prehistoric men4 ,they start with a   
clearly recognizable figure of  a       
man-many such1 an inch or two high1     
occur on some parts of the              
cave-walls-and then we have all sorts of
 simplifications and deviations  from   
the more naturalistic initial design1 as
 shown by the rest of the  series1      
ending in a ,t-a primitive symbol often 
arrived at by savage  decorative artists
 in various parts of the world by       
reducing and  grammatizing the human    
figure4 ,the letters of many alphabets  
have been  simplified in this way from  
original picture-like signs or          
pictographs4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#eb4-,simplification 7grammatizing7 of  
decorative  design4 ,a1 a stork walking4
 ,b1 a stag4 ,c1 a stork with wings     
spread for flying-resulting when fully  
grammatized in a curvilinear  swastika4 
,a1 ,b1 and ,c1 from spindle-whorls     
found at ,hissarlik4  ,d1 conventional  
representation of three flying birds4   
,e1  grammatized human figure from the  

walls of caverns in ,cantabria4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#ec4-,spindle-whorl from ,troy 7fourth  
city71 with  three swastikas-two        
resembling stylized storks 7see ,fig4   
#eb1 ,c74  7,schliemann47    ,the       
drawings lettered ,a1 ,b and ,c in ,fig4
 #eb represent accurately  figures      
scratched on the clay spindle-whorls    
7before baking71 so  abundant in the    
remains of the ancient cities on the    
hill of ,hissarlik  7,troy71 found by   
,schliemann 7see ,figs4 #db and #ec74   
,these heavy1  bun-like spindle-whorls  
have retained their use and shape since 
,neolithic times 7they are found in the 
,swiss lake-dwellings7 to the  present  
day4 ,similar whorls were made of modern
 porcelain1 variously  decorated1 in    
,france in the last century and sold to 
the peasants for  giving weight and     
rotatory stability to the spindle used  
in spinning1  and are still used        
wherever the spindle survives1 as among 
the ,indians  of ,central ,america4 ,a  

grammatized profile representation of a 
stork  7,fig4 #eb1 ,a7 is one of the    
designs on these ,hissarlik             
spindle-whorls1  and so is the linear   
representation of a stag 7,fig4 #eb1    
,b74 ,and now we  come back to the      
,swastika4 ,the four figures in a row1  
marked ,c in ,fig4  #eb1 are a few of   
the representations of flying storks on 
these same  spindle-whorls2 one so      
marked is drawn in ,fig4 #ec4 ,they are 
of various  degrees of simplification1  
and the last but one on the right hand  
side  is identical with a ,swastika6 ,it
 must be carefully remembered that      
these clay spindle-whorls from          
,hissarlik are very commonly inscribed  
with undoubted well-shaped ,swastikas1  
as shown in ,fig4 #db4 ,the ,swastika   
is quite a common and usual decorative  
lucky badge in the household art  of    
that locality and age4 ,hence it is not 
surprising that ,m4 ,solomon  ,reinach1 
of ,paris1 has suggested that the       
,swastika may have originated  thus-by  

the stylizing or grammatizing of a      
favourite and sacred  bird-the stork4   
,once thus suggested and drawn in the   
simple ,swastika  shape the emblem 7it  
would be supposed7 became fixed1 and    
made as  rectilinear and simple as      
possible4 ,thenceforward it was accepted
 as an  emblem of good luck1 which has  
been transmitted throughout the ancient 
world of ,europe1 ,asia and ,america4   
,this theory has a plausible aspect1    
but ,i understand from ,m4 ,reinach that
 he no longer attaches importance  to   
it4 ,i do not know what theory1 if any1 
of the origin of the ,swastika  now     
commends itself to him1 nor whether he  
thinks it has originated  independently 
in several times and places1 or holds   
that it has one  common origin4 ,i am   
inclined to favour the theory that the  
,swastika  has been started by the      
copying of the form of a natural object 
on the  part of a primitive race of men1
 and that this form has lent itself to  
the invention of other badges and       

symbols besides that known as the       
,swastika4 ,i will explain this in the  
next chapter4      ,,footnote3    #g    
,but spiral and leaf-like decorative    
designs engraved on bone 7see  ,fig4    
#bi1 p4 #ed7 are found in caves         
associated with other carvings made  by 
cave-men of the ,reindeer or late       
,palolithic period4          ,,chapter  
,,xix    ,,the ,,tomoye ,,and ,,the     
,,swastika      ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#ed4-,the ,tomoye-the ,japanese badge of
 triumph4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#ee4-,symbols of the history of the     
universe used by  the ancient ,chinese  
philosopher ,chu-,hsi4 ,a1 ,the original
 void4 ,b1  ,the great monad4 ,c1 ,the  
monad divides into two1 male and female4
 ,d1  ,the halves in rotatory movement1 
suggested by the ,s-like bending of the 
dividing line or diameter of the circle4
    ,illustration3 ,,fig4               
#ef4-;,diagrams to show the possible    
derivation of the  swastika from the    
inscription of two ,s-like lines 7or    

ogees7 within a  circle so as to divide 
the circle into four bent cones4 ,b and 
,c are  ogee and rectangular swastikas  
easily produced by modification of the  
encircled figure4    ,fig4 #ed          
represents a remarkable design which is 
a sort of national  emblem1 a           
universally accepted badge of triumph   
and honour in ,japan1  and is called    
,tomoye-meaning triumph4 ,the black and 
white portions  are in that country     
painted respectively red and yellow4 ,it
 is simply  a circle divided into two   
equal cone-like figures by the          
inscription  within it of a             
doubly-curved line like the letter ,s4  
,where and how did  the ,japanese get   
this badge8 ,who invented it1 or from   
what natural  object is it copied8 ,a   
modified ,tomoye with the cones         
dislocated is  used as the national flag
 of ,korea4 ,a single one of these      
curious1  tapering1 one-sided cones is  
closely similar to the cone-like figures
  sometimes called pines which one sees 

on ,indian shawls4 ,the origin  of these
 is sometimes said to be a copying of   
some fruit or vegetable  growth1 but is 
really not ascertained-and is possibly  
half of a ,tomoye6  ,a great circular   
altar-stone has been found in ,central  
,america1 #e ft4  across1 divided by a  
deep ,s-shaped groove into two equal    
one-sided  cones 7,fig4 #ei7 like the   
,tomoye4 ,the figure formed by an ,s    
within a  circle is found in the        
writings of the ancient ,chinese        
philosopher  ,chu-,hsi4 ,he gives a     
series of symbols representing          
7according to  him7 the history of the  
universe4 ,they are shown in ,fig4 #ee1 
and are  explained as follows4 ,the     
empty circle ,a represents the original 
void-the boundary line is conventional4 
,after untold ons the great  monad      
appeared4 ,it is represented by ,b4     
,then we get the division of  the great 
monad 7now called ,tai-,i7 into two1    
shown in ,c of our  ,fig4 #ee-singularly
 recalling the division of the nucleated

 cell or  protoplasmic unit of animal   
and vegetable structure4 ,the two       
halves1  however1 in this case represent
 the feminine called ,yin and the       
masculine called ,yang4 ,the last       
drawing1 ,d of ,fig4 #ee1 shows the     
,yin and the ,yang in rotatory motion4  
,this is indicated by the ,s-like       
bending of the diameter1 and the        
consequent formation of a figure like   
the ,tomoye4 ,by this motion the visible
 universe is supposed-by the            
philosopher ,chu-,hsi-to be produced4   
,the figure marked ,d is described  as a
 cosmological symbol4 ,it does not help 
us to the origin of the  figure showing 
the division of the circle as in the    
,tomoye1 for it  dates only from about  
the twelfth century of our era4    ,if  
we suppose the circle divided1 as in the
 ,tomoye1 to be a very  ancient badge or
 device1 dating from prehistoric man1   
then it is  probably derived from a     
natural object4 ,and this object was    
probably  a ground-down transverse      

section across a whelk-shell1 for if one
  makes such a section just above the   
mouth of the shell at right angles  to  
its length1 one gets two adjacent       
chambers of the spirally-coiled  shell  
separated by an ,s-like partition1 the  
resulting figure given  by the slice    
across the shell being that of the      
tomoye1 with its  paired1 one-sided1    
cone-like constituents4 ,shells are     
amongst the  chief ornaments used by    
prehistoric and modern savage man4      
,large  ones are ground down to make    
armlets4 ,the perception of the spiral  
as a decorative line is almost certainly
 due to the handling and  grinding-down 
of snail shells1 and1 indeed1 we find   
spirals and  reversed spiral scrolls    
engraved on bone by the ,pleistocene    
cave-men  7see ,fig4 #bi74              
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4-,terra-cotta 
cone with a seven-armed sun-like  figure
 engraving on it4 ,troy4 7,schliemann47 
,the gan people of the ,greek islands   
7of whom the ,mykenans are  a part7     

copied a variety of forms of marine     
animals in their  decorations of        
pottery1 and1 in fact1 natural shapes   
were the basis  of their decorative art4
 ,they simplified and grammatized their 
more  nature-true designs into badges   
and symbols4    ,illustration3 ,,fig4   
#eh4-,scalloped ,shell ,disk1 from a    
mound near  ,nashville1 ,tennessee1     
showing in the centre a tetraskelion    
with four  curved arms1 about four      
inches in diameter1 made of polished    
shell4  7,peabody ,museum47    ,we find 
in early work discovered in the ancient 
mounds of ,north ,america  decorative   
circles 7,fig4 #eh7 in which two ,s-like
 lines at right angles  to one another  
are inscribed as shown in ,fig4 #ef1 and
 we find also  that these curved rays   
may be prolonged as a marvellous        
enveloping  spiral coil or              
helix-especially in the painting of     
pottery4 ,when the  curved rays are many
 in number1 as in ,fig4 #eg1 the design 
has been  interpreted by some           

archologists as symbolizing the sun1 and
 it is  important to remember that the  
,swastika itself was used in ,china as  
the pictograph of the sun4 ,a single    
curved ,s-like line has been found  cut 
on a great circular slab1 an ancient    
altar-stone 7,fig4 #ei7 in  ,honduras   
7,copan7-so as to divide the circle as  
is done in the ,japanese  ,tomoye4 ,it  
is obvious that the exact geometric     
character of the ,s-like  division is of
 great significance in these designs and
 requires careful  study and            
explanation4 ,i have briefly discussed  
this matter at the  end of the chapter4 
,in the common ogee ,swastika1 ,fig4    
#ef1 ,b1 the  more or less elaborately  
helicoid arms are merely careless       
flourishes  of the painter's brush4 ,the
 simple four-rayed figure1 shown in     
,fig4  #ef1 ,a1 is often spoken of as a 
tetraskelion1 or four-legged scroll1    
and is associated with the three-legged 
figure or triskelion which ,i  wrote of 
in the last chapter4 ,if the curvilinear

 tetraskelion be  angularized-that is to
 say1 rectangles substituted for        
semicircles1  we get the correct fully  
developed ,swastika1 ,fig4 #ef1 ,c4 ,and
 if1  abandoning the circle1 the        
draughtsman rapidly drew with a brush or
 on  soft clay lines like an ,s crossing
 one another at right angles1 he        
produced what is common enough wherever 
the more formal rectangular  ,swastika  
is found1 namely1 the curvilinear or    
ogee ,swastika1 ,fig4 #ef1  ,b4    ,it  
is not possible with our present        
knowledge to penetrate into  the remote 
past and really ascertain the origin of 
the shape or  device called a ,swastika4
 ,but it is1 ,i think1 quite likely that
 in  manipulating the tomoye symbol     
7whether copied from a section of  shell
 or originating by more independent     
invention and trying  of lines and      
curves and circles71 very early man     
duplicated the  symmetrical ,s by which 
he had divided a circle and produced the
  tetraskelion seen in ,fig4 #ef1 ,a4   

,the conversion of this into the        
rectangular ,swastika and into varieties
 of the ogee and menander 7which  ,i    
have not found space to describe7 would 
be an easy and natural  sequence4       
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4-;,an         
altar-stone of prehistoric age4 ,the    
circular  surface is cut into by a      
trough of ,s-shape1 which divides it so 
as to  resemble the ,japanese ,tomoye4  
,from ,copan1 ,honduras4    ,at the same
 time1 ,i have no conviction that this  
is the real origin of  the ,swastika1   
and await further evidence4 ,the        
flying-stork theory1  which was put     
forward by ,reinach1 is very attractive4
 ,birds as badges  and totems are       
frequent among primitive mankind1 and   
certain species  are often regarded as  
sacred and bringing good luck4 ,the     
stork is one  of these4 ,if the artists 
who marked the very ancient clay-pottery
 of  ,hissarlik with the ,swastika and  
also with outlines of the flying stork1 
strongly resembling a ,swastika1 did not

 derive the ,swastika from the  stork1  
but had received it from some           
independent source1 then it is  probable
 that they purposely drew the flying    
stork1 so as to make it  resemble as    
much as possible a ,swastika4    ,when  
we take account of the apparently       
arbitrary passage of human  decorative  
design from the naturalistic to the     
linear1 and from the  linear to the     
naturalistic2 from the curvilinear to   
the rectilinear1  and from rectilinear  
to curvilinear2 when we also reflect    
that some  races and populations of men 
have been prone to seek for the forms   
of their decoration in the natural forms
 of plants and animals1  whilst others  
have made use of mere mechanical        
patterns of parallel  or interlacing    
lines1 we must conclude that by the     
appeal to one or  other of these various
 tendencies it is easy to invent a large
 variety  of more or less plausible     
theories as to the origin of the        
,swastika4  ,the truth of the matter can

 only be decided1 if ever1 by more      
direct  and conclusive evidence than we 
at present possess4 ,nevertheless1 it   
is a legitimate and fascinating thing to
 speculate on the origin of  this       
wonderful world-pervading emblem coming 
to us from the mists of  prehistoric    
ages1 and to endeavour to arrive1 if    
possible1 at possible  points of contact
 between it and other devices and       
symbols1 even  though they may be of    
equally obscure birth4#h                
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4    ,the      
accurate division of a circle into two  
equal comma-shaped areas  of the special
 shape presented by the ,tomoye of the  
,japanese 7,fig4  #ed7 and the rotating 
,great ,monad of ,chinese cosmogony     
7,fig4 #ee71  is effected by describing 
within a given circle two circles each  
having its diameter equal to a radius of
 the enclosing circle4 ,the  two        
inscribed circles touch one another at  
the centre of the latter1  but do not   
overlap4 ,the area of the enclosing     

circle is thus divided  into four areas1
 a1 b1 c and d 7see ,fig4 #fj1 ,a74 ,the
 areas  a1 b are the two inscribed      
circles4 ,each of the residual areas  c1
 d is called 7as ,sir ,thos4 ,heath1    
,f4,r4,s41 kindly informs me7 an        
arbelus by ancient ,greek               
geometricians-a name used for a rounded 
knife used by shoemakers4 ,the          
comma-shaped bent cone or pine is       
formed by the fusion of one of the two  
small circles with one of the  adjacent 
arbeli 7,fig4 #fj1 ,b74 ,the figure so  
formed which to-day is  loosely spoken  
of as a bent cone1 a pine1 or a comma1  
has never1  so far as ,i can ascertain1 
received a name in geometry1 nor in the 
language of decorative design or        
pattern-making4 ,nor has the ,s-like    
line made by the two semicircles        
separating the contiguous pines  or     
commas received any designation though  
vaguely indicated by  the word ogee4    
,the comma-like areas might conveniently
 be called  streptocones1 and their     

,s-like boundary a hemicyclic sigmoid4  
,as  shown in ,fig4 #ef1 by drawing a   
second hemicyclic sigmoid of the same   
dimensions at right angles to the first1
 the circle is divided into  four       
smaller streptocones4 ,by using sigmoids
 or half-sigmoids of a  curvature of a  
different order from that of the        
hemicyclic one1 but  of a precisely     
defined nature1 the circle may be       
divided into three1  six1 eight or more 
equal streptocones of graceful          
proportions1 some  of which have been   
used either in series as borders in     
metal work  7for circular dishes and    
goblets7 or as detached or grouped      
elements  in pattern-designs 7stone-work
 tracery1 embroidery1 woven and printed 
fabrics74    ,apart from this           
development of the streptocone as an    
important  feature in decorative work1  
it is not without interest in connection
  with the probable importance and      
significance of the ,japanese double    
streptocone1 as we may call the ,tomoye1

 to note some of its geometrical        
features4 ,referring to the ,fig4 #fj1  
it is obvious that each of the  paired  
streptocones is equal in area to half   
the enclosing circle1  also that each of
 the two inscribed circles 7a1 b7 has an
 area of  one-fourth of that of the     
enclosing circle-and that each arbelus  
7c1  d7 has also an area one-fourth that
 of the enclosing circle and is  equal  
in area to each of the inscribed circles
 7a1 b74 ,each of the  two constituent  
streptocones is made up of a complete   
circle capped  by an arbelus equal in   
area to it 7namely1 one-quarter of that 
of  the big circle74 ,it is obvious that
 the area of the arbelus formed in  a   
semicircle by two enclosed semicircles  
which are contiguous and of  equal base 
as in ,fig4 #fj1 is equal to that of a  
circle the diameter  of which is the    
vertical line drawn from the apex of the
 arbelus to  the arc of the semicircle  
7,fig #fj74 ,this is true whether the   
enclosed  contiguous semicircles have   

chords of equal or unequal length 7,fig4
  #fj74 ,this fact was known to the     
,greek geometricians1 as ,i am informed 
by ,sir ,thos4 ,heath4      ,,footnote3 
#h ,i am indebted for the figures 7not  
the diagrams7 illustrating  ,chapters   
,,xvii41 ,,xviii41 ,,xix4 to the report 
by ,mr4 ,thomas ,wilson on the          
,swastika-in the ,smithsonian ,reports1 
#ahid4 ,those interested in this        
subject will find a vast store of       
information in that report4             
,,chapter ,,xx    ,,coal      ,coal is  
so much a matter of course in our daily 
life that most people  are only now1    
when its supply is becoming precarious1 
anxious to know  something of its nature
 and history4 ,by the word coal1 or     
coles1  our ancestors understood what we
 now distinguish as charcoal1  prepared 
from wood by the charcoal-burner1 or    
charbonnier1 as  the ,french call him4  
,what we now call coal was known to them
 as  sea-coal1 and1 later1 as black or  
stone cole1 to distinguish it  from     

brown coal1 known nowadays as lignite1  
though the name stone  coal is locally  
applied in ,england to that very hard   
kind of black  coal also called         
anthracite1 of which jet is only an     
extremely hard  and dense variety found 
in small quantities in the oolitic      
strata of  ,whitby1 ,spain1 and other   
localities4    ,it is on record that in 
the year #acjf a citizen of ,london was 
tried1  condemned1 and executed for     
burning sea-coal4 ,this severe treatment
  was held to be justified by the       
poisonous and otherwise injurious       
nature of the smoke produced by fires of
 sea-coal4 ,i have not met with  any    
records of the earliest digging for and 
trade in sea-coal1 but  presumably it   
was obtained near the coast in the      
,north of ,england and  brought to      
,london by ship-hence its name4 ,the    
coal-trade of ,newcastle  began in the  
thirteenth century1 but1 owing to an    
,act of ,parliament  in the reign of    
,edward ,i forbidding the use of        

sea-coal in ,london1  did not become    
important until the seventeenth century4
 ,it came very  gradually into use1 and 
we find that ,evelyn 7the diarist7 in   
#affa  noted the withering and bad      
condition of rose-bushes and other      
plants  in ,london gardens1 which he    
attributed to the pestilential action   
of the smoke given off by the newly     
introduced sea-coal which was           
increasingly used as fuel in ,london    
houses4 ,the sea-coal was not yet       
largely1 if at all1 used in the         
production of iron2 and ,evelyn as a    
forest-owner and lover of trees1 has    
much to say about the necessity  for    
attention to the cultivation of our     
forests in connection with the  iron    
industry which then flourished in the   
,weald of ,sussex2 charcoal  procured by
 the slow burning or roasting of wood   
being the fuel used  in the smelting    
furnaces1 whilst the ore was the        
orange-brown wealden  sand4 ,it was     
during the eighteenth century that what 

we now call simply  coal came rapidly   
into use-not only for domestic heating1 
but for  furnaces of all kinds employed 
in industrial enterprise1 and1 at a     
later date1 for the earlier and later   
forms of steam-engines4 ,the smoke  of  
the new coal was everywhere regarded as 
a terrible nuisance1 and  a source of   
injury to both animal and vegetable     
life4 ,the poisonous  action of         
coal-smoke is not due to the finely     
divided black particles  of carbon of   
which it largely consists1 but to the   
sulphuric acid  derived from the small  
quantities of sulphur present in coal4  
,it is  calculated that more than       
sixteen million tons of coal are        
annually  used in ,london alone for     
heating purposes1 and that #dhj1jjj tons
 of  black carbon powder are discharged 
over ,london by its chimneys every      
year1 together with very nearly the same
 weight of poisonous sulphuric  acid6   
,what1 then1 is this sea-coal or coal of
 our modern life8 ,we all  know its     

black1 glistening appearance1 and more  
or less friable  character4 ,its nature 
and origin are best conveyed by the     
statement  that it is very ancient peat1
 compressed and naturally changed by    
chemical action and retaining little or 
no trace of its original  structure4    
,peat1 as we know it from the low land  
of ,english and ,french  river valleys  
and the bogs of ,scotland and ,ireland1 
is formed by the  annual growth and     
death of mosses of several kinds and of 
other  accompanying vegetation4 ,it     
retains the woody forms of the vegetable
  growths which constitute it1 and they 
are often but loosely adherent to  one  
another4 ,peat may be merely a growth of
 the past five years1 but is  sometimes 
many thousand years old4 ,older than    
peat1 and more caked and  compressed1 is
 lignite1 or brown coal1 which occurs on
 the ,continent of  ,europe1 also in    
,south ,devon and elsewhere1 in         
geological strata newer  than those     
which yield our black coal4 ,then we    

have the most important  class of black 
coals which are known as bituminous     
coals1 because  they soften when heated 
and form hydrocarbons of both viscid and
  gaseous nature4 ,they are used for    
domestic purposes1 and wherever flame   
is desired4 ,they are1 in fact1 the     
lumps of coal familiar in our  scuttles4
 ,the bituminous coal with the greatest 
amount of hydrogen  in it is the cannel 
or candle coal1 so called from its      
bright flame  when burning4 ,this kind  
is especially valuable for gas-making1  
and of  smaller value as fuel4 ,the term
 anthracite is reserved for a hard1     
stone-like coal which is very nearly    
pure carbon 7ninety per cent74  ,this   
class of coal burns with a very small   
amount of flame1 gives  intense heat1   
and no smoke4 ,it is used in drying malt
 and hops4    ,like all woody matter1   
that from which peat is formed consists 
of a  combination of the elements       
carbon1 hydrogen and oxygen2 and these  
remain in somewhat changed chemical     

union in the brown coal1 bituminous     
coal1 and anthracite4 ,the carbon and a 
varying and small proportion of  the    
original hydrogen of the woody peat1 are
 the important elements in  coal2 and we
 may well ask how they come to be       
produced as a black or  dark brown mass 
from dead vegetable growths which are   
often bleached  and colourless4 ,it is  
true that vegetable refuse does not     
necessarily  blacken when left to       
itself4 ,we know that by roasting or    
charring wood  7or animals' flesh or    
bone7 we can drive off the elements     
oxygen and  hydrogen and nitrogen 7if   
there71 and obtain a black mass of      
carbon  7so-called charcoal74 ,that     
blackness is the actual true tint of    
carbon4  ,the dead weeds and leaves at  
the bottom of a stagnant pond break down
  and form a pitch-black mud4 ,they     
would not1 and do not1 go black  if     
exposed to the oxygen of the atmosphere2
 but at the bottom of a  stagnant pond  
or in a refuse heap they are excluded   

from the air1 and  a microbe-a bacterium
 which has been carefully studied1 and  
is of a  kind which can only flourish in
 the absence of free oxygen-attacks the 
dead weeds1 producing by change of their
 substance marsh-gas and black  carbon1 
the black mud emitting bubbles of gas   
which one may stir up  with a pole in   
such a pond4 ,this chemical attack by   
anarobic bacteria  goes on in the deeper
 layers of all marshes and stagnant     
pools1 remote  from the oxygen of the   
air2 and it is fairly certain that the  
black  coal which we find in strata of  
great geological age was so produced  by
 the action of special kinds of bacteria
 upon peat-like masses of  vegetable    
refuse4 ,indeed1 by studying microscopic
 sections of coal1  numerous forms of   
bacteria have been recognized which     
might be capable  of effecting such     
chemical changes4 ,on the other hand1 we
 must remember  that it is not possible 
to conclude by form alone as to what    
subtle  chemical work a bacterium or    

bacillus or micro-coccus may be1 or may 
have been1 carrying on4 ,the peat-like  
deposits which became carbonized  and so
 formed the coal were probably masses of
 alg1 mosses and soft  aquatic plants1  
which were brought down and accumulated 
in swampy1  forest-covered ground about 
the mouths of rivers1 the deposit being 
covered in owing to rapid oscillations  
of level by beds of sand or  clay1      
followed by new growth and deposit4     
,our ,british coal and a good deal of   
foreign coal is found in certain        
stratified rocks of the earth's crust   
known as the ,carboniferous  ,system1   
about #ab1jjj ft4 thick1 consisting     
chiefly of very dense  limestone4 ,the  
seams1 or stratified beds of coal1 occur
 in sandy  rock known as the ,coal      
,measures1 and vary in thickness from a 
mere  film to #dj ft4 ,above the        
,carboniferous ,system are later        
deposits1 some  #ad1jjj ft4 in          
thickness-the ,permian1 ,triassic1      
,jurassic1 ,cretaceous1  and ,tertiary  

strata4 ,below them we find stratified  
deposits containing  fossilized remains 
of plants and animals1 to a depth of    
another #dj1jjj  ft43 they are the      
,devonian1 ,silurian1 and ,cambrian     
systems or series  of strata4 ,coal of a
 workable nature is found in many parts 
of the  world in the beds or strata of  
later age than our ,coal                
,measures-namely1  those of ,jurassic1  
,cretaceous1 and ,tertiary age4    ,coal
 is so valuable and used in such vast   
quantities by modern man  that1 though  
procured at first from beds lying at or 
near the surface1  it has been found    
remunerative to mine far into the depths
 of the  earth's surface1 where its     
existence is ascertained1 in order to   
procure it4 ,a depth of #djjj ft4 is    
apparently the limit set to such  mining
 by the increase of temperature in mines
 which penetrate to  that extent below  
the surface4 ,in #aije the annual output
 of ,british  coal-mines was in round   
numbers #bcj1jjj1jjj tons4 ,it is       

certain that  there is a limit to this  
production1 but not possible to         
calculate what  that limit may be1 owing
 to the uncertainty as to the future    
working of  coal-fields as yet          
unexplored4    ,such questions have     
been1 and are being1 considered by      
experts on  behalf of the ,government4  
,a matter of interest of another kind is
  that in and associated with the coal  
seams of our ,coal ,measures1           
fossilized remains of peculiar fern-like
 trees1 ferns1 and other  strange       
plants1 and of very peculiar1 extinct   
newt-like animals 7as  large as         
crocodiles7 are found in great variety4 
,the notion that the  toads occasionally
 found embedded in the black mud of a   
coal-yard or  even in a fractured lump  
of coal are survivals from the time-many
  millions of years past-when the plants
 and animals of the ,coal ,measure      
swamps were living1 is a baseless fancy4
 ,the toads so found are of the  kind or
 species now living on the earth-totally

 different from those  whose bones occur
 in the ,coal ,measures1 and the        
presence of such modern  toads embedded 
in black slime1 in coal-heaps in        
store-yards1 or even in  coal-scuttles1 
is only what may be expected to occur   
and does occur in  damp quarries and    
other places where these familiar little
 beasts love  to hide4                  
,,chapter ,,xxi    ,,boring ,,for ,,oil 
,closely similar to coal in chemical    
matter-that is to say1 consisting       
chiefly of definite chemical compounds1 
called hydrocarbons1 built  up of only  
two elements1 carbon and hydrogen1 and  
of no other-is a  very remarkable class 
of mineral substances known to the      
ancients  as bitumen4 ,in its widest    
sense1 it includes natural gas1 the     
variously mixed liquids called petroleum
 and the solid asphalts4  ,in ancient   
times the more fluid kinds of petroleum 
issuing from the  ground in ,south      
,russia and ,persia were called naphtha1
 and that  name is still applied to the 

more volatile hydrocarbons obtained by  
the distillation of such substances as  
coal-tar 7the residue of the  extraction
 by heat of commercial gas from coal71  
bituminous shale1  petroleum1 wood and  
some other bodies which owe their       
existence to the  activity either of    
living or of long-extinct and fossilized
 plants  and animals4    ,the bitumens1 
together with coal1 present in their    
natural state a  very large variety of  
inflammable constituents-gaseous1       
liquid1 and  solid hydrocarbons2 but1   
when distilled at various temperatures  
and  under conditions determined by the 
manufacturing chemist1 they yield a     
still larger series of pure separable   
bodies1 which have been minutely        
studied and classified according to     
their chemical constitution4  ,they are 
produced in great chemical factories in 
large quantities  for use in the most   
diverse ways invented by human          
ingenuity4 ,thus  natural gas-superseded
 by distilled coal-gas-has served for   

fuel and  for illumination3 refined     
petroleum serves not only for those uses
  in general1 but as the special source 
of power in the engines of  motor-cars  
and aeroplanes4 ,a wonderful solid      
crystalline wax-like  substance1        
paraffin1 as white as snow1 is distilled
 in enormous  quantities 7nearly three  
million tons a year7 from bituminous    
shale or oil-shale in this country      
alone4 ,it can be obtained in  soft     
7vaseline7 and liquid forms1 and in fact
 the paraffin series  recognized by     
chemists starts from the gas methane1 or
 marsh-gas1  and comprises some thirty  
kinds1 leading from gas to volatile     
liquids1  thence to viscid liquids1 to  
butter-like solids1 and up to hard      
crystalline substances which melt only  
at the temperature of boiling  water4   
,endless chemical manufacturing         
industries-e4g41 those of  dye-stuffs   
and explosives-depend upon the chemical 
treatment of these  paraffins and of    
various bodies obtained as secondary    

products in their  preparation4 ,benzine
 and aniline are chiefly obtained from  
coal-tar4  ,the oils and waxes of       
quasi-mineral origin have a great       
advantage over  vegetable and animal    
oils in many uses1 since they are not   
liable to  become rancid2 that is to    
say1 to decompose owing to the action on
  them of bacteria4 ,a marked difference
 between the paraffins 7often           
distinguished1 together with the        
olefines1 as mineral oils7 and the  oils
 and fats found in living plants and    
animals is that they do not  saponify2  
that is to say1 they do not form those  
combinations with  alkalis and other    
bases which are called soaps1 nor can   
they serve as  food to man or any other 
animal4 ,they are not acted on by the   
digestive  juices4    ,from ancient     
times natural deposits or outpourings of
 bitumens  have been known and used by  
mankind4 ,the ,assyrians and other early
  peoples of the ,east used asphalt     
7translated by the word slime  in the   

,english version of the ,bible7 in place
 of calcareous mortar  in building2 and 
to this day it is used largely in this  
country as a  damp-course in walls built
 of brick4 ,great deposits of asphalt   
are  found in ,central ,america and some
 of the ,west ,indian islands1 and      
quarried for commercial purposes4 ,the  
great pitch-lake of ,trinidad  yields an
 abundant supply4 ,in the ,val de       
,travers1 in the ,canton of  ,neuchatel 
7,switzerland71 a rich deposit is worked
 which1 mixed with  earthy material1    
forms a road-making concrete1 largely   
used in ,london  and other cities1 and  
also for main roads in country          
districts4 ,the  ancient ,egyptians used
 asphalt for embalming the dead4 ,but   
the ancients  also knew natural springs 
of liquid bitumen-that which nowadays we
 call  petroleum-some of them freely    
flowing like water1 which would take    
fire and burn for long periods1 and were
 described as fountains of  burning     
water4 ,we find1 as we pass from the    

,middle ,ages to the days  of           
geographical exploration1 records of    
such springs of inflammable  oil and of 
natural inflammable gas in all parts of 
the world-,japan1  ,china1 ,burma1      
,persia1 ,galicia1 ,italy               
7,salsomaggiore71 ,central and ,north   
,america1 and of not a few in these     
islands-for instance1 in ,shropshire1   
,derbyshire1 ,sussex1 ,kimmeridge and   
various sites in the southern  counties4
 ,the oil was1 until the middle of the  
last century1 valued  chiefly as a      
medicinal application1 and ,seneca oil  
and ,american  medicinal oil were       
largely sold and used as an embrocation 
in the  ,united ,states4    ,we owe the 
introduction of the name petroleum to   
,professor ,silliman1  who in #ahee     
reported upon the rock oil or petroleum 
of ,venango  ,county1 ,pennsylvania4    
,the first attempt as a commercial      
enterprise  to obtain rock-oil or       
petroleum by boring into the strata in  
which  there was local evidence of its  

existence in greater or less quantity1  
was made in #ahed by the ,pennsylvania  
,rock ,oil ,company4 ,after some        
unsuccessful attempts1 when the drilling
 had been carried to a depth  of #fi ft4
 the tools suddenly dropped into a      
subterranean cavity1 and  on the        
following day the well was found to have
 struck oil1 and  twenty-five barrels a 
day were yielded by that well for some  
time4 ,from  here the industry spread   
over the ,states and ,canada1 and in    
#aijh the  year's yield was #de1jjj1jjj 
barrels4    ,since #ahgj the industry   
has spread all over the globe-,russia1  
,galicia1  ,rumania1 ,java1 ,borneo and 
,burma being prominent sources of the   
oil  supply of the world4 ,the raw      
petroleum of different localities       
differs  in each case in the amount of  
solid paraffins and olefines dissolved  
in the liquid paraffins4 ,other         
substances also are dissolved in it in  
variable amount-such as benzene1        
acetylene1 camphene and naphthalene4    

,the fact that the oil1 when reached by 
a boring1 is often found to be  under a 
considerable pressure1 so that it rises 
and flows from the  surface of the well1
 or even may shoot up as a great        
fountain1 is  an important feature in   
the oil-seeking industry1 though the    
supply  depends largely on pumping and  
not necessarily on natural flow4 ,the   
borings when made1 act like ,artesian   
wells1 and sometimes are carried  to a  
great depth4 ,those in ,pennsylvania    
vary in depth from #cjj ft4 to  #cgjj   
ft41 according to the distance below the
 surface at which the  oil-bearing      
strata 7usually a sandstone7 is situate4
 ,as in the case of  an ,artesian well1 
the boring is in the first instance an  
exploration  subject to uncertainty as  
to striking the desired liquid1 but  the
 uncertainty is greater in the case of  
the search for oil than  in that for    
water4 ,the water-well is also far less 
likely to give  out when once flowing   
than is that bored for oil1 which1 even 

if at  first successful1 may be soon    
exhausted owing to the small area of    
the oil-bearing strata tapped4 ,a cause 
of the high pressure in many  oil-wells 
is the gas which accompanies the oil4   
,the pressure may amount  to as much as 
#ajjj lb4 to the square inch4 ,in the   
,northern ,caucasus  spouting wells     
caused by the high pressure of gas in   
the boring are  frequent4 ,a famous     
fountain-well in that region1 which     
began to flow  in ,august #ahie1 threw  
up #d million gallons a day1 gradually  
diminishing during fifteen months until 
it became exhausted4 ,at first1  when   
boring was introduced1 such outbursts   
led to an enormous loss of  the oil1 for
 there was not sufficient means of      
storing or transporting  it4 ,ordinary  
cartage in barrels was the earlier      
method2 then followed  tanks on railway 
trains and canal boats2 and this has    
been supplemented  by the use of pipes  
along which the oil is pumped from the  
well to the  refinery4 ,in ,pennsylvania

 there are said to be no less than      
#be1jjj  miles of such pipes in use for 
the distribution of petroleum4    ,it   
will be obvious from what is here stated
 that the attempt to  discover an       
oil-supply in ,derbyshire must not be   
regarded1 at present1  as more than a   
praiseworthy and interesting enterprise4
 ,there is no  room for doubt that the  
best expert opinion has been brought to 
bear  on the matter4 ,a small quantity  
of petroleum has already been raised2   
but whether the flow will be sufficient 
to cover the expenses of the  boring1   
and how long the flow may last1 or how  
much it may amount  to1 are matters     
quite impossible to foretell4 ,in any   
case1 it is in  the highest degree      
improbable that such an abundance of oil
 will  be obtained as to count much1 if 
at all1 in the world's production  of   
petroleum4 ,it must also be remembered  
that products similar to  those yielded 
by petroleum are already extracted in   
quantity as a  remunerative industry by 

the distillation of oil-shales in       
various  parts of the ,united ,kingdom2 
and that there are oil-shales in this   
country still unworked4 ,so that we need
 not be in despair if we do  not tap an 
oil-spring of any importance close to   
hand4 ,the world's  supply is still open
 to ,british enterprise4 ,another       
reflection of some  importance is that  
these world-wide sources of rock-oil or 
petroleum  are likely to be exhausted by
 exploitation much sooner than are the  
coal-fields of the world4 ,we cannot    
rely on their long duration4            
,,chapter ,,xxii    ,,the ,,story ,,of  
,,lime-,,juice ,,and ,,scurvy      ,from
 medival times onward a serious         
constitutional disease-a morbid         
condition of the blood and tissues-has  
been known by the name scurvy1  and the 
word scorbutic has been coined from it4 
,it is to-day  practically unknown in   
the ordinary conditions of civilized    
life1 but  formerly was common1 and the 
cause of disablement and of frightful   

mortality in ships' crews1 beleaguered  
cities1 armies on campaign1 and         
war-stricken regions4 ,it begins with a 
certain failure of strength4            
,breathlessness1 exhaustion1 and mental 
depression follow4 ,the face  looks     
haggard1 sallow1 and dusky4 ,after some 
weeks the exhaustion  becomes extreme2  
the gums are livid1 ulcerated1 and      
bleeding2 the teeth  loosen and drop    
out2 purple spots appear on the skin2   
ulcers break out  on the limbs2         
effusions of blood-stained fluid take   
place in the great  cavities of the     
body2 profound exhaustion and coma      
follow2 and death  results from         
disorganization of the lungs1 kidneys1  
or digestive tract4  ,it was recognized 
in early times that the disease was     
dependent on the  character of the food 
of those attacked by it2 and not the    
least of  the horrors accompanying it   
was the terror caused by the            
well-founded  conviction that the       
appearance of a single case in a ship's 

crew or  other specially circumscribed  
community was an unfailing index1 and   
meant that all were likely within a few 
days-owing to the enforced  identity of 
their food and conditions of life-to    
develop the disease4  ,often1 in past   
centuries1 a half or two-thirds of a    
ship's company have  been carried off by
 it before a port could be reached and  
healthy food  and conditions of life    
obtained4 ,at the present moment in view
 of the  actual condition of ,europe1 it
 is a fact of very grave importance that
  scurvy is known to break out and cause
 a terrible mortality among civil       
communities in time of                  
scarcity-especially in prisons1         
workhouses1 and  other public           
institutions1 which are the first to    
suffer deprivations  when food is       
scarce4    ,three hundred years ago it  
was held that fresh vegetables and      
fruit-juices were both a cure for and a 
preventive of scurvy1 or                
anti-scorbutic4 ,but the fact was not   

appreciated by ,army and  ,admiralty    
officials that dried vegetables1 even of
 kinds which were  held to be especially
 anti-scorbutic1 would not serve in     
place of  fresh ones4 ,in #agbj1 dried  
anti-scorbutic herbs were supplied  to  
the ,austrian ,army when suffering from 
scurvy2 but they were of no  avail1 and 
thousands of the soldiers perished from 
the disease4 ,a  few years later1 the   
,british ,lords of the ,admiralty       
7actuated by a  spirit of blundering    
parsimony7 proposed to supply the ,navy 
with dried  spinach1 although it was    
well known that dried vegetables were   
useless  against scurvy4 ,in the        
,american ,civil ,war1 #ahfa-ahfe1 in   
spite of this  knowledge1 large rations 
of dried vegetables were supplied to the
  armies1 and failed to prevent         
outbreaks of scurvy4 ,even at the       
present  day so little attention has    
been given of late years to the subject1
  that many ignorant officials1 upon    
whose action the life of thousands      

depends1 regard dried vegetables as     
equivalent in value to fresh6    ,a     
great advance was made in the second    
half of the eighteenth century1  when   
the ,british ,admiralty became convinced
 by the repeated experience  of its     
officers that lime-juice is a specific  
remedy and preventive  for scurvy1 and1 
in spite of the great expense and       
difficulties  entailed1 adopted its use 
officially4 ,in those days of           
sailing-ships1  long voyages 7such as   
those of ,captain ,cook7 were safely    
carried  through without serious        
outbreak of scurvy so long as a ration  
of  so-called lime-juice 7about one     
ounce7 was swallowed each day by each   
sailor4 ,but it was not until the       
beginning of the nineteenth century     
that the disease was practically        
eliminated from the ,navy by the        
introduction 7after many foolish delays7
 of a general issue of what was  called 
lime-juice4    ,the complete control and
 elimination of scurvy by the use of    

so-called  lime-juice sufficed to carry 
us on until the introduction of steam   
navigation1 when it became superfluous  
owing to the fact that long  absence    
from land1 where fresh food could be    
obtained1 ceased to be  usual4          
,moreover1 after a mutiny on the part of
 our defrauded sailors1  better food and
 greater variety of it was secured for  
them1 and the  profits of murderous     
contractors were stopped4    ,the       
history of outbreaks of scurvy for the  
last century is practically  confined to
 the experiences of ,arctic ,expeditions
 and the campaigning  of troops in      
remote or devastated regions4 ,so little
 had scurvy been  investigated1 or any  
serious study made of the nature of the 
remedial  and preventive action of      
lime-juice1 that up to the year #aiad it
 was  regarded as a matter of course    
that the acid1 the citric acid1 of      
lime-juice was what gave to it its      
virtue1 and samples of lime-juice       
supplied by contractors were tested     

solely as to the percentage of that     
acid present4 ,eminent medical          
authorities proposed to use crystals of 
citric acid in place of the juice2      
others declared that vinegar would  do  
just as well2 others1 in spite of the   
overwhelming record as to the  value of 
lime-juice1 held that scurvy was due not
 to the absence of a  food              
constituent-supplied by fresh vegetables
 and fruit-juice-but to  a peculiar     
poison present in the salted and dried  
meat served out as  rations2 others     
again1 without any study of the disease1
 have expressed  the opinion that it is 
due to a bacterial micro-organism4    ,a
 blow to the easy-going belief of the   
,admiralty that they had mastered  and  
made an end of scurvy was struck when   
scurvy broke out 7#fj cases  among #abb 
men7 in the expedition to the ,north    
,pole which sailed in  ,may #ahge in the
 ,alert and the ,discovery1 under the   
command of ,sir  ,george ,nares4 ,the   
expedition had to return prematurely    

after seventeen  months' absence1 and a 
committee was appointed to inquire into 
the  cause of the outbreak4 ,the stores 
of food and of lime-juice were shown  to
 have been ample2 and the action of the 
leader in equipping his  sledging       
parties was in accordance with the      
judgment and experience  of successful  
explorers who gave evidence4 ,the cause 
of the outbreak  remained a mystery4    
,the firm belief in the anti-scorbutic  
powers of  lime-juice was shaken1 and   
this unfavourable opinion of its value  
has  been confirmed by medical officers 
who1 during the recent war1 have  been  
confronted by outbreaks of scurvy4      
,these outbreaks occurred among  troops 
who1 in military circumstances which    
rendered an adequate supply  of fresh   
meat and vegetables impossible1 were    
supplied with lime-juice  prepared from 
the ,west ,indian sour-lime4    ,under  
these circumstances1 an experimental    
study of scurvy has been  carried out   
during the last four years by a group of

 workers at the  ,lister ,institute1    
together with a historical inquiry as to
 the use  of lime-juice4 ,the reports of
 these investigators have very great    
practical value and far-reaching        
interest1 as showing what disastrous    
results may arise from inaccurate use of
 a word1 and the neglect to  ascertain  
the exact nature of the material thing  
upon which the issue  between life and  
death may depend4    ,here let me say   
that the staff of the ,lister ,institute
 for medical  research has done work in 
its laboratories in ,chelsea ,gardens of
 the  very greatest national importance 
during the war4 ,it was founded by      
public subscription1 and has now an     
endowment of some #aj1jjj a year4  ,sir 
,david ,bruce1 the chairman of its      
,council1 gives in the ,report of  the  
,governing ,body for #aiai a very       
striking summary of the work done  in   
the laboratories and by the staff of the
 ,institute4 ,the successful            
investigation of trench fever and of    

tetanus1 of the destruction of  lice1   
and of the effects of cold storage on   
food1 besides the study  of scurvy and  
other diseases due to deficiency of what
 are now called  accessory food factors1
 are1 we learn1 the chief matters in    
which the ,lister ,institute was engaged
 in the year #aiah-ai4 ,besides  this1  
however1 at its farm at ,elstree it has 
prepared and supplied  to the ,war      
,office1 the ,admiralty1 the ,overseas  
,forces1 and the ,local  ,government    
,board more than a million doses of     
anti-toxins 7diphtheria  and tetanus71  
bacterial vaccines 7cholera1 plague1    
influenza71 and  other similar curative 
fluids-requiring for their safe         
production the  highest skill and most  
complete knowledge of recent discovery4 
,and this  is only a sample of what the 
,lister ,institute has been doing for   
many  consecutive years4    ,now we     
return to the investigation of scurvy4  
,within the last ten  years the fact has
 been established 7which was more or    

less guessed  and acted upon by medical 
men of past days7 that1 in order to     
maintain health1 the diet of man and of 
many animals must contain  not merely   
the necessary quantities of meat or     
cheese-like bodies1  of fat and starch  
and sugar1 but also minute quantities of
 accessory  food-factors which it is    
convenient to term vitamines4 ,the name 
serves 7though its etymology is         
unsatisfactory7 to indicate certain     
proteids or highly complex nitrogenous  
compounds which are only to  be obtained
 from fresh and uncooked or slightly    
heated vegetables  and from some foods  
of animal origin4 ,these vitamines are  
destroyed  by heat and by desiccation4  
,they have not yet been isolated though 
in some cases extracted in a nearly pure
 state4 ,their presence or  absence is  
demonstrated by careful experiments in  
feeding animals1  such as guinea-pigs1  
with weighed quantities of different    
foods4  ,the vitamine is often found to 
be present only in one part of a  seed  

or fruit or special kind of fat liable  
to be rejected in food  preparation4 ,an
 important fact is that it may not      
amount to as much as  one-ten-thousandth
 of the weight of the food in which it  
occurs2 and  the part containing it may 
be overlooked and rejected1 or its value
  destroyed by heat or by desiccation4  
,a committee on these accessory         
food-factors is carrying on experiments 
at the ,lister ,institute4 ,dr4  ,f4 ,g4
 ,hopkins1 ,f4,r4,s41 who first         
discovered the importance of one of     
these factors in feeding young rats1 is 
the chairman1 and ,dr4 ,harriette       
,chick is the secretary4 ,three kinds of
 these vitamines1 or accessory          
food-factors1 have up to this date been 
recognized4 ,the first is the           
anti-neuritic or anti-beri-beri         
vitamine4 ,its principal sources are    
the seeds of plants and the eggs of     
animals-yeast-cells are a rich  source  
of it4 ,where polished rice1 as in the  
,far ,east1 is the staple  article of   

diet1 to the almost entire exclusion of 
other food-stuffs1  lassitude and severe
 pains like those of rheumatism set in1 
and a whole  colony or shipload of      
,chinese coolies may be disabled4 ,the  
disease  is called beri-beri1 and it can
 be cured by administering that part of 
the rice-grain 7the skin and germ7 which
 is removed by polishing1 and           
unfortunately is just that part which   
contains the needful vitamine4  ,it     
exists in very minute quantity1         
amounting to only one part in ten       
thousand by weight of rice-grain4 ,the  
second vitamine recognized is  the      
anti-rachitic factor 7studied by        
,hopkins71 which tends to promote       
growth and prevent rickets in young     
animals4 ,certain fats of animal  origin
 7milk7 and green leaves contain it in  
minute quantity1 and are  necessary for 
the life of young animals and for the   
health of adults4    ,the third vitamine
 recognized is the anti-scorbutic1 the  
factor which  prevents scurvy4 ,it is   

found in fresh vegetable tissues1 and to
 a  less extent in fresh animal tissues4
 ,its richest sources are cabbage1      
swedes1 turnips1 lettuce1 water-cress1  
and such fruits as lemons1  oranges1    
raspberries1 and tomatoes2 other        
vegetables have a less  value4 ,fresh   
milk and meat possess a definite but low
 anti-scorbutic  value4 ,this vitamine  
7,i am quoting the report of the        
,committee1 which  has been issued to   
our military1 naval1 and medical        
administrators  and                     
famine-relief-workers throughout the    
world7 suffers destruction  when the    
fresh food-stuffs containing it are     
subjected to heat1 or  drying1 as       
methods of preservation4 ,it is         
habitually destroyed and  wasted by     
stewing fresh vegetables with meat for  
two or three hours4  ,all dry           
food-stuffs1 such as cereals1 pulses1   
dried vegetables and  dried milk1 are   
deficient in anti-scorbutic properties2 
so also are  tinned vegetables and      

tinned meat-hence the disgust to which  
they  soon give rise6    ,the           
explanation of the mystery about        
lime-juice 7which a hundred years  ago  
was used with absolute success to       
prevent scurvy1 and in #ahge was  a dead
 failure7 is shown by the workers at the
 ,lister ,institute to  be this-namely1 
lime and lemon are in origin the same   
word1 and  have become applied in ways  
unrecognized by the ,admiralty and their
  medical advisers in various parts of  
the world to which the citron1 the      
lemon1 the sweet-lime and the           
sour-lime-all varieties of one species1 
,citrus medica of ,linnus-have been     
carried from their original home  of    
origin1 the south-east of ,asia4 ,the   
original effective and valuable         
lime-juice of the eighteenth century was
 lemon-juice1 carefully  prepared from  
lemons in ,sicily and ,italy1 and from  
#ahjd to #ahfj in  ,malta4 ,when the    
demand for it increased in the          
nineteenth century1  it was adulterated 

and made up from poor fruit1 as the     
commercial  enterprise of contractors   
and the fatuous incapacity of the naval 
authorities progressed hand in hand4    
,and then1 in the early fifties1  the   
,west ,indian growers of the small      
sour-lime 7,citrus medica var4  acida7  
in ,montserrat got the naval contracts1 
the honest intention  of ,sir ,william  
,burnett1 the chief medical officer of  
the ,navy1 being  to establish a        
permanent and first-rate supply4        
,strangely enough1  the naval lime-juice
 now really was lime-juice and no longer
  lemon-juice4 ,by a natural but fatal  
misconception1 the medical value  of the
 juice1 whether of lemon or of lime1 was
 by all authorities  attributed to the  
citric acid present2 and the only tests 
applied to it  were chemical ones1 and  
not therapeutic4 ,the ,lister ,institute
 ,committee  have shown by therapeutic  
experiment-the feeding of guinea-pigs1  
in  which scurvy can be produced and    
cured at will-that the anti-scorbutic   

vitamine remains active and unimpaired  
in lemon-juice from which all  the      
citric acid has been extracted4 ,and1   
further1 that the juice of  the ,west   
,indian sour-lime 7,citrus medica       
acida71 although very rich  in citric   
acid1 contains only one-fourth the      
anti-scorbutic vitamine  which the same 
quantity of the juice of the true lemon 
7,citrus medica  limonum7 contains4     
,this has been most carefully           
established by  prolonged series of     
feeding experiments4 ,it explains the   
failure of the  lime-juice in ,sir      
,george ,nares' ,polar ,expedition1 and 
restores the  confidence in lemon-juice 
based on the unanimous testimony of the 
early records of its use4    ,whilst    
lemon-juice is thus justified1 ,dr4     
,harriette ,chick has made a  discovery 
which will go far to remove it from     
supremacy4 ,she finds that  an          
anti-scorbutic food can be prepared1    
when fresh vegetables or fruit  are     
scarce1 by moistening any available     

seeds 7wheat1 barley1 rye1  peas1 beans1
 lentils7 and allowing them to          
germinate4 ,this sprouted  material     
possesses an anti-scorbutic value equal 
to that of many fresh  vegetables2 the  
unsprouted seeds have none4 ,probably   
this explains  the anti-scorbutic value 
of sweet-wort and of beers made from    
lightly  dried malt2 and the total      
failure in this respect of our modern   
beers  made from kiln-dried malt4 ,dr4  
,chick1 amongst many other interesting  
and important results published by      
members of the ,lister ,institute       
,committee1 states that the juice of raw
 swedes and of raw turnips  is a        
valuable anti-scorbutic 7to be added to 
milk for the use of  artificially       
nourished infants72 so1 she states1 is  
orange-juice4 ,but1  contrary to the    
usual opinion1 she finds that beetroot  
has little or no  anti-scorbutic value4 
,the whole subject is of extreme        
importance1 and  is necessarily in a    
tentative stage of pioneer experiment4  

,,index        ,ages1 successive1 of    
stone1 bronze1 and iron1 #d             
,aitken1 ,dr41 ,f4,r4,s41 on fog1 cloud1
 and odoriferous particles1 #gg         
,alligator1 simplification of1 in the   
decorative work of the ,chiriqui        
,indians1 #bje      ,altamira1 cave of1 
discovery of pictures in1 #bh           
,america 7,central71 stone slab from1   
with carved swastika1 #aih              
,american ,indians bead-work garter with
 two swastikas1 #aig      ,anglo-,saxon 
urn ornamented with swastikas1 #aif     
,aniline1 #bbd      ,animalcules1 wheel1
 #aeg-agb      ,animation1 suspended1   
#agc-aij      ,anthracite1 #bag1 #bai   
,anti-scorbutic value of germinating    
wheat1 barley1 peas1 beans1             
lentils1 discovered1 #bcg               
,anti-scorbutics1 no use when dried1    
#bcj      or preservatives against      
scurvy described1 #bce-bcf      studied 
at the ,lister ,institute1 #bcc         
,antler1 engraved1 from the cavern of   
,lortet1 #a      ,arbelus1 the1 of      

ancient ,greek geometers1 #bae          
,asphalt1 #bbc1 #bbe      ,aurignacian  
negroid race1 #h        ,bacteria1      
suspended animation of1 #agg1 #ahf1     
#ahg1 #ahh      ,bear engraved on       
stalagmite1 #dh      ,beer1 modern1 not 
so effective an anti-scorbutic          
7preserver from        scurvy7 as older 
sorts1 #bcg      ,benzine1 #bbd         
,bison1 pictures of1 from walls of      
caves1 #dg      ,bitumen1 #bbc1 #bbd    
,bituminous coal1 #bai      ,blue blood 
and pride of race1 #aed      colour of  
frogs1 #gh        of the ,lake of       
,geneva1 #hc        of water1 #gd-he    
,grotto of ,capri1 #hb      ,breeding   
and inter-breeding as a test1 #ajb1     
#ajd1 #aca      ,bridle seen in         
engravings of horse1 #dc1 #de           
,brown1 ,horace1 ,f4,r4,s41 his         
experiments with seeds at low           
temperatures1 #age      ,bruce1 ,sir    
,david1 his report of the work done by  
the ,lister        ,institute in #aiai1 
#bcc      ,buddha1 footprint of the1    

picture showing swastikas1 #aic         
,bumpus1 ,prof41 on variation in        
sparrows1 #aah      ,burnett1 ,sir      
,william1 by mistake introduces in the  
,navy juice of the        sour-lime in  
place of lemon-juice1 #bcf      ,burning
 water1 fountains of1 #bbe              
,butterflies of the genus ,vanessa1 #ig 
several different species of white and  
of blue1 #ig      several species united
 to form one larger kind-a genus1 #ie   
species of1 #id      the kinds of1 #id  
,caloric1 an assumed entity1 #ahf       
,cannel 7or candle7 coal1 #bai          
,carbon1 weight of1 annually discharged 
over ,london1 #bah      ,carboniferous  
system1 the1 #bba      ,cats1 male1 with
 blue eyes are deaf1 #abj      ,cause of
 survival in the struggle for life1     
#aah1 #aai      ,cave of ,altamira1 #bh1
 #dg      of ,brassempouy1 #ea      of  
,combarelles1 #cb      of ,font de      
,gaume1 #bi1 #cb      of ,laugerie      
basse1 #df      of ,lortet1 #a      of  
,marsoulas 7,haute ,garonne71 #dc       

of ,mas d',azil1 #dc      of ,niaux     
7,arige71 #dc      of ,st4 ,michel      
d',arudy1 #de      ,caves1 pictures on  
walls of1 #g      ,census of species of 
animals1 #abi      ,chick1 ,dr4         
,harriette1 secretary1 and ,dr4         
,hopkins1 ,f4,r4,s41 chairman1        of
 a committee investigating accessory    
food-factors1 #bcd      ,chinese great  
monad1 #baj      ,circle1 how to divide 
it so as to describe a ,tomoye1 #bad    
,citrus medica limonum1 the lemon1 #bcf 
acida1 the ,west ,indian sour-lime1 #bcf
      ,coal1 #bag-bbb      mines1 annual
 output of1 #bba      ,coal-tar1 #bbd   
,coffer-fish1 #acj      ,cold1 action of
 extreme1 in preventing chemical        
combination1 #agg      ,copan1 circular 
altar-stone from1 divided by an         
,s-shaped trough so as        to        
resemble the ,tomoye1 #bac              
,correlated characters or structures1   
#aai1 #abe      ,crab1 common shore1    
variations in1 #aah      ,crag1 the     
,red1 of ,suffolk1 #ch      the         

,norwich1 #ch      ,crayfish1 species   
of1 #abj      ,cromagnard race1 #h1 #i  
,cross-breeding of races1 #adj-aef      
,crystal ,palace1 the1 sixty years ago1 
#hd        ,decorative design1 #bjj-bjh 
,deer1 the picture of the ,three1 #ac   
,dewar1 ,sir ,james1 his important      
experiments on action of cold and of    
light on phosphorescent bacteria1 #ahh  
,diplodocus1 a gigantic reptile1 #he1   
#ia      ,discoveries falsely announced1
 and others misrepresented or           
unnoticed by newspapers1 #agc1 #agf     
,dolphins 7oceanic colour-changing      
fish71 #acj        ,equus the horse     
genus1 the history of1 #ajc             
,exuberances of non-significant growth1 
#abg1 #acj        ,fat boys of          
journalism1 #agc      ,fertilization1   
resistance to hybrid1 #acf1 #acg1 #ach  
,fish drawn between horse's legs1 #bc   
,fishes1 examples of strangely-shaped1  
#acj      ,fleas1 species of1 #aje      
,flowers of tan survive desiccation1    
#agi      ,food1 the accessory factors  

in1 #bcc      ,fylfot1 the1 #aia        
,gammadion1 the1 #aia      ,geometrical 
properties of the ,tomoye1 #baf         
,germ variation1 a constant process1    
#aab      ,gigantic reptiles1 #he1 #hg  
,gigantosaurus1 discovery of1 in        
,africa1 #hg      upper-arm bone of1    
compared with that of an elephant and of
 man1 #hh      ,gills of crayfishes1    
#aba      a new one discovered by a lady
 student at ,oxford1 #abc      ,glacial 
period1 #f      ,goose engraved on      
reindeer antler1 #di      ,grammatizing 
v4 naturalizing in decorative art1 #bjb1
 #bjc      ,grouse1 the red and allied  
species1 #aaf1 #aag        ,harpoons of 
,azilian and ,magdalenian period1 #c    
,horses1 cave-men's pictures of1 #dc1   
#de      ,horses' heads drawn with      
bridle or halter1 #dd1 #de              
,hybrids1 #aca-ach      among allied    
species of fish1 #acc1 #acd             
infertile and fertile1 #acd1 #ace       
,inter-,glacial climate and animals1 #i 
,kaleidoscope1 the living organism      

compared to a1 #aab      ,kelvin1 ,lord1
 on the origin of life1 #ahf            
,kipling1 ,mr4 ,rudyard1 on primitive   
man1 #d      ,koban necropolis1         
swastikas from1 #aif        ,lake       
dwellings of ,switzerland1 #d           
,lalanne1 ,m41 discovery by1 of human   
statuettes1 #ej      ,laussel1          
rock-shelter of1 human statuettes from1 
#ej      ,life-saving qualities not     
alone survive in nature1 #abg           
,lime-juice1 action of1 was not         
understood1 #bca      and scurvy1       
#bbi-bcg      on long voyages1 #bca     
shown to be effective when prepared from
 the true lemon1 #bcf      the original 
lime-juice was lemon-juice1 not the     
juice of the        sour-lime1 #bcf     
when prepared from ,west ,indian        
sour-lime not effective1 #bcb           
,linnus1 his method of naming and       
classifying animals and plants1 #ii     
,lion1 wall engraving of1 #dh           
,lister ,institute1 investigations      
carried on there1 #bcc      ,lodge1 ,sir

 ,oliver1 on life1 #ahe      ,lortet1   
cavern of1 #a        ,mammoth1 engraving
 of1 on ivory1 from the cave of ,la     
,madeleine1 #bf      ,mammoths1         
engravings of1 on walls of caves1 #cb1  
#cc      ,man1 ,isle of1 and the        
,sicilian three-legged emblem1 #bjc     
,mantell1 ,dr4 ,gideon1 discoverer of   
gigantic extinct reptiles1 #hd          
,marsh-gas1 #bbj      ,milne-,edwards1  
,alphonse1 his proposed experiment on   
cross-breeding of        races and      
species1 #ada      ,miscegenation or    
cross-breeding of human races1 #adh-aef 
,monaco1 ,prince of1 his researches and 
publications1 #bi      ,mongrels defined
 as distinct from hybrids1 #ach1 #ade   
may exhibit fine qualities1 #adg        
,monsters1 #acb      ,mules between     
horse and ass1 #ajc      ,mykenan age1  
swastikas of1 illustrated1 #aid1 #aie   
,neander men1 #h      ,negro with       
,european features disliked by other    
negroes1 #aee      ,neolithic people1   
#aj        ,ogee1 a vague term1 #bae    

swastika1 so-called1 #baj1 #bac         
,oil1 boring for1 #bbc      ,oil-boring 
industry1 #bbf      ,oil-shales1 #bbg   
,okapi of the ,congo ,forest1 not a     
hybrid1 #acc      ,olefines1 #bbd       
,osborn1 ,rev4 ,lord ,sydney ,godolphin1
 #agi        ,pairing as a test of      
species1 #aja1 #aca      ,palolithic or 
ancient ,stone ,age1 #e      ,papilio1  
the genus of swallow-tailed butterflies1
 #ig      ,paraffin series1 #bbd        
,peat1 #bai      ,pedalion1 the         
leg-bearing wheel animalcule1 #afa1 #afc
      to be compared with young of      
certain prawns1 #afd      ,petroleum1   
the name invented in #ahee by ,prof4    
,silliman1 #bbe      ,pictet and de     
,candolle on suspended animation1 #age  
,picture1 the earliest1 in the world1   
#a-be      of the ,three ,red ,deer1    
#ab1 #ac      ,piette1 ,edouard1 his    
excavations of caves1 #a      ,pigs and 
the paint-root1 #aai1 #ade              
,pimpernel1 red and blue1 will not      
inter-breed1 #ade      ,pine ornament of

 ,indian shawls1 #baj      ,pleistocene1
 a small fraction of earth's crust1 #db 
series or system1 #ch1 #ci      ,pliny  
the elder at ,vesuvius1 #eh             
,pocahontes1 the ,algonkian princess1   
#aec      ,prehistoric men1 art of1     
#ce-ed      successive ages of1 #cf-ci  
,printings from engraved cylinders1 #aa1
 #af1 #ag        ,race1 pride of1 #aej1 
#aeb1 #aec      ,racehorse1 ,english    
thoroughbred1 history of1 #adg          
,races1 nature of1 #adc      produce    
mongrels by cross-breeding1 #adj        
,reindeer1 cave-man's engraving of1 #df 
period1 #g      ,restoration of the     
,lortet picture of the ,three ,deer1 #ac
      ,rhinoceros drawn on wall of a    
cavern1 #df      ,rice1 polished1 the   
story of1 and the disease beri-beri1    
#bcd      ,rock-oil1 #bbe      ,romanes1
 ,dr4 ,george1 his experiments on the   
suspended animation of        seeds1    
#ahd      ,rotifer1 the common1 or wheel
 animalcule1 #aei        ,scandinavian  
silver work showing swastikas1 #aif     

,schliemann1 fragment of pottery found  
by1 in ,tiryns1 #bc      swastikas      
discovered by1 at ,hissarlik1 #aic      
,scurvy1 description of1 #bbi           
,seeds1 frozen1 survive1 #agg           
,simplification of decorative designs   
7figures of71 #bjf      ,smoke nuisance1
 ,london citizen executed for producing 
it in #acjf1 #bag      ,sparrows1       
variations in1 #aah      ,species1 an   
attempt to estimate their number1 #abi  
in the making1 #ajh      ,latin names   
for1 why used1 #if      not a           
convention1 but a naturally limited     
group of individuals1 #ajj      not the 
same as a variety or a race1 #aja       
of common ,english plants1 #ih      of  
crayfish1 #abj      types or            
type-specimens of1 #if      what the    
word means1 #ia-ii      ,specific       
characters1 #aah-acj      ,spencer1     
,herbert1 on life1 #ahc      ,spirals   
carved on mammoth ivory1 #ed            
,statuette of a man1 #ea      ,st4      
,germain1 museum of1 #a1 #aa1 #de       

,stork theory of the swastika1 #bjg     
,strata of the earth's crust1 thickness 
of1 #dj1 #da      ,streptocone1 the bent
 cone or comma-like figure forming half 
a        ,tomoye1 #bae1 #baf            
,sulphuric acid1 weight of poisonous1   
annually discharged over        ,london1
 #bah      ,sun-fish1 #acj              
,survival value1 #abd1 #abe             
,suspended animation1 #agc-aij          
,swastika1 mode of forming a1 in ,india1
 #aii      on a piece of painted pottery
 from ,tiryns1 figure of1 associated    
with horse and fish1 #bc      possible  
derivation from a doubled ,tomoye1 #baj 
related to the tetraskelion1 with four  
curved arms1 shown in         ,fig4 #eh1
 #bab      the1 #aia-bjh        ,tapirs1
 the two living species of1 #aji        
,temperature1 measurement of1 #agd      
,thoroughbred ,english racehorse a      
mongrel1 #adg      ,tiger1              
sabre-toothed1 #i      ,time1 estimate  
of1 in geology1 #dc      ,tinning of    
vegetables destroys their anti-scorbutic

 value1 #bce      ,tiryns1 fragment of  
pottery from 7date #hjj ,b4,c471 and    
having swastika        and horse and    
fish1 #bc      ,toads in coal1 #bba     
,toleration in nature1 #abh             
,tomoye1 the1 and its relation to the   
swastika1 #bjh-baf      ,triskelion of  
,sicily and the ,isle of ,man1 history  
of1 #bjc        ,variation in nature1   
#aaj      made use of by gardeners and  
breeders1 #aaa      ,varieties and      
gradational series in nature1 #aad1 #aae
      ,veliger1 young stage of marine   
snail1 drawing of1 to compare with a    
wheel animalcule1 #aha      ,vesuvius1  
#ee-gc      as it appeared in ,a4,d4    
#gj1 #eg      ascent of1 during         
eruption1 #ff      eruption of #ahgb    
witnessed1 #fh-gj      history of       
eruptions1 #fa-fd      ,vitamines or    
accessory food factors1 #bcc            
,volcanoes and eruptions1 #gb1 #gc      
,water1 blue colour of1 #gd-he          
,weldon1 ,prof41 on variation in the    
shore-crab1 #aah      ,wells1 spouting  

and fountain1 of rock-oil1 #bbg         
,whales1 their size and its limit1 #hf  
,wheel animalcule1 parasitic1 on the    
sea-worm ,synapta1 #agb                 
animalcules1 #aeg-agb        book on1 by
 ,mr4 ,gosse and ,dr4 ,hudson1 #aeh     
compared with the young stages of growth
 of marine        snails1 #aga1 #aha    
minute males of some1 #aff              
pictures of1 #aei1 #afa1 #afb1 #afc1    
#afi        some survive drying up of   
the water in which they live1 #aff1     
#afg1          #agh1 #agi               
,willendorf1 female statuette from1 #ej 
,winans1 ,mr4 ,walter1 on the picture of
 the ,three ,deer1 #ai-bb      ,wolf1   
engraving of head of1 #dh      ,women1  
carvings representing1 #ej1 #ea         
,zebras1 #ajc            ,,printed ,,by 
,,morrison ,,and ,,gibb ,,ltd4          
,,edinburgh                             
,transcriber's ,note3                   
,minor typographical errors have been   
corrected without note4                 
,ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines 

were retained4                          
,mid-paragraph illustrations have been  
moved between paragraphs         and    
some illustrations have been moved      
closer to the text that                 
references them4 ,the ,list of          
,illustrations and ,index paginations   
were changed accordingly4               
,footnotes were moved to the ends of    
chapters and numbered in one            
continuous sequence4                    
,italicized words are surrounded by     
underline characters1 like         this4
                                        
,use of a caret 77 indicates a          
superscript number4                     
,other corrections3                     
p4 #gb3 ,suffrire changed to ,soufrire  
7,soufrire of ,st4 ,vincent          in 
#ahab74                                 
pp4 #aec1 #bdb3 ,pocahontes changed to  
,pocahontas4