,,harper',s 8,,tell ,,me ,,how0 ,,books ,a ,new ,series ,,harper',s ,,gasoline ,,engine ,,book ,,harper',s ,,aircraft ,,book ,,harper',s ,,wireless ,,book ,,harper',s ,,beginning ,,electricity ,,harper',s ,,every-,,day ,,electricity ,illustrated4 ,crown #hvo4 ----- ,,harper',s ,,practical ,,books ,,harper',s ,,book ,,for ,,young ,,gardeners ,,harper',s ,,book ,,for ,,young ,,naturalists ,,harper',s ,,how ,,to ,,understand ,,electrical ,,work ,,harper',s ,,electricity ,,book ,,for ,,boys ,,harper',s ,,boating ,,book ,,for ,,boys ,,harper',s ,,camping ,,and ,,scouting ,,harper',s ,,outdoor ,,book ,,for ,,boys ,,harper',s ,,indoor ,,book ,,for ,,boys ,,harper',s ,,machinery ,,book ,,for ,,boys ,,harper',s ,,handy ,,book ,,for ,,girls ,illustrated4 ,crown #hvo4 ----- ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,great ,,inventions ,uniform in appearance with above4 ,,motor ,,boating ,,for ,,boys ,illustrated4 ,crown #hvo4 ----- ,,harper ,,brothers1 ,,new ,,york ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa--;,a ,,single-,,tree ,,hut ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,harper',s ,,outdoor ,,book ,,for ,,boys ,,by ,,joseph ,h4 ,,adams ,,with ,,contributions ,,by ,,kirk ,,munroe1 ,,tappan ,,adney ,,capt4 ,,howard ,,patterson ,,leroy ,,milton ,,yale ,,and ,,others ,,with ,,many ,,illustrations ,illustration ,,harper ,,brothers ,,publishers ,,new ,,york ,,and ,,london ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,copyright1 #aijg1 by ,,harper ,,brothers4 ,,printed ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,of ,,america ,b-,w ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,contents ,part ,i ,,in ,,bounds ,,page ,,chapter ,i4--,,back-,,yard ,,pleasures #c ,a ,,wigwam ,a ,,square ,,tepee ,a ,,ridge-,,pole ,,tepee ,a ,,fountain ,,an ,,aquarium ,,how ,,to ,,manage ,,an ,,aquarium ,a ,,merry-,,go-,,round ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,pet ,,shelters #bi ,,martin ,,boxes ,,bird ,,shelters ,,pigeon-,,cotes ,,dog-,,kennels ,,guinea-,,pig ,,houses ,,chicken-,,coops ,,rabbit-,,hutches ,,squirrel ,,cages ,,reptile ,,pens ,,chapter ,,iii4--,,summer-,,houses ,,and ,,pergolas #eb ,a ,,simple ,,summer-,,house ,a ,,back-,,yard ,,pergola ,a ,,toadstool ,,tree ,,canopy ,a ,,rustic ,,pergola ,a ,,circular ,,pergola ,a ,,summer ,,shelter ,,chapter ,,iv4--,,weather-,,vanes ,,and ,,windmills #ei ,a ,,pinion-,,wheel ,,weather-,,vane ,a ,,wind-,,speeder ,,the ,,arrow ,,weather-,,vane ,,wooden ,,vanes ,a ,,wind-,,pennant ,a ,,basket-,,ball ,,vane ,a ,,merry-,,go-,,round ,a ,,wind ,,turbine ,a ,,barrel-,,hoop ,,pinion-,,wheel ,a ,,pumping ,,windmill ,a ,,windmill ,,and ,,tower ,,chapter ,v4--,a,,rial ,,toys #ha ,,the ,,elastic ,,flying-,,machine ,,self-,,acting ,a,,rial ,,car ,a,,rial ,,boat-,,sailing ,a 8,,high-,,flyer0 ,part ,,ii ,,afield ,,chapter ,,vi4--,,coasters1 ,,skees1 ,,and ,,snow-,,shoes #aja ,,toboggans ,a ,,rocker-,,coaster ,a ,,single-,,runner ,,coaster ,a ,,bob-,,sled ,,skees ,,snow-,,shoes ,,chapter ,,vii4--,,sail-,,skating ,,and ,,snowball ,,artillery #aae ,a ,,skating-,,sail ,a ,,square-,,rigged ,,ice-,,sail ,a ,,snowball ,,mortar ,,chapter ,,viii4--,,kites ,,and ,,aeroplanes #abj ,,the ,,ship ,,kite ,,the ,,chinese-,,junk ,,kite ,,the ,,schooner ,,kite ,a ,,balloon ,,kite ,,an ,,air-,,ship ,,kite ,,bat-,,wing ,,and ,,crown-,,top ,,kites ,,sandwich ,,islands ,,bird ,,kite ,,box ,,kites ,,the ,,flying-,,wedge ,,and ,,double-,,plane ,,kite ,,kite-,,reels ,,chapter ,,ix4--,,fishing-,,tackle #add ,,choice ,,of ,,tackle ,,bait-,,rods ,,and ,,fly-,,rods ,,repairs1 ,,knots1 ,,and ,,splices ,,aids ,,for ,,young ,,anglers ,,baits1 ,,and ,,where ,,to ,,find ,,them ,a ,,trap ,,for ,,small ,,fish ,a ,,water-,,turtle ,,trap ,,an ,,eel-,,pot ,a ,,scap-,,net ,a ,,hook ,,drop-,,net ,,chapter ,x4--,,land-,,yachts ,,and ,,pushmobiles #agg ,a ,,land-,,yacht ,a ,,sail-,,wagon ,a ,,pushmobile ,,chapter ,,xi4--,,fire-,,engines ,,and ,,trucks #aia ,,the ,,engine ,,the ,,hose-,,carriage ,,the ,,hook-,,and-,,ladder ,,truck ,,chapter ,,xii4--,,water-,,wheels #bja ,a ,,simple ,,paddle-,,wheel ,a ,,wagon ,,wheel ,a ,,barrel-,,wheel ,,an ,,undershot-,,wheel ,a ,,power-,,wheel ,a ,,wheel-,,race ,part ,,iii ,,afloat ,,chapter ,,xiii4--,,boats #baa ,,punt ,,and ,,scow ,a ,,sharpy ,a ,,dory ,a ,,sailing ,,sharpy ,a ,,centre-,,board ,,sharpy ,a ,,proa ,a ,,lark ,a ,,power-,,boat ,,chapter ,,xiv4--,,catamarans #bci ,a ,,rowing ,,catamaran ,a ,,sailing ,,catamaran ,a ,,side-,,wheel ,,catamaran ,,chapter ,,xv4--,,ice-,,boats #bdi ,a ,,sloop-,,rigged ,,ice-,,yacht ,a ,,twin-,,mast ,,ice-,,boat ,,scoots ,,and ,,scooters ,a ,,wind-,,runner ,,chapter ,,xvi4--,,house-,,boats ,,and ,,rafts #bfa ,a ,,house-,,punt ,a ,,house-,,raft ,a ,,float ,,chapter ,,xvii4--,,marline-,,spike ,,seamanship #bhj ,,splices ,,knots ,,bends ,,hitches ,part ,,iv ,,in ,,the ,,woods ,,chapter ,,xviii4--,,camps ,,and ,,camping #bie ,a ,,tent ,,of ,,medium ,,size ,a ,,large ,,camping-,,tent ,,flies ,,and ,,canopies ,a ,,house-,,tent ,,the ,,new ,,tent ,,canvas ,,cots ,,and ,,hammocks ,,tables ,,and ,,benches ,,camping ,,equipment ,,lockers ,,and ,,mess-,,kits ,a ,,stone ,,stove ,,and ,,camp-,,fires ,,camp-,,cooking ,,the ,,care ,,of ,a ,,gun ,,chapter ,,xix4--,,traps ,,and ,,trapping #ccd ,,snares ,,and ,,deadfalls ,,chapter ,,xx4--,,tree ,,huts ,,and ,,brush-,,houses #cej ,a ,,low ,,twin-,,tree ,,hut ,a ,,high ,,twin-,,tree ,,hut ,a ,,single-,,tree ,,hut ,a ,,low ,,single-,,tree ,,hut ,a ,,brush-,,house ,a ,,brush 8,,lean-,,to0 ,,chapter ,,xxi4--,,walking-,,sticks #cfg ,,how ,,to ,,grow ,,them ,,for ,,pleasure ,,and ,,profit ,,introduction 8,how to do it10 might very well be the title of this new handy-book for ,american boys4 ,it is first and last a practical guide1 based upon the experience of those who have done what they describe4 ,results are wanted1 not theories in a book of this kind1 and careful tests have been applied to secure working results and the certainty that everything will come out all right4 ,another point1 which has had the most careful attention of a board of editors1 is that of selection4 ,it would be easy to include a quantity of sports and games1 and also plans for elaborate contrivances neither particularly amusing nor necessary when done4 ,but the object of this book is to show boys how to do accurately things which are quite within their powers1 and things also which will be a satisfaction when they are done4 ,the plan followed is to develop a boy's ingenuity and mechanical ability along lines which will reward him4 ,in short1 the book is intended to help a boy to think and act for himself and to have fun in doing it4 ,the plan of arrangement which is followed is the natural one--to begin at home4 ,the back yard lies immediately at hand4 ,let us see what can be done there4 ,the aquarium1 pet shelters1 windmills1 and many other contrivances are identified with the home4 ,going farther afield we learn the making of coasters and skees1 ice-boats and snow cannon1 and all that enters into winter sports4 ,there is the air1 also1 with its invitation to kites and aeroplanes1 and there is water1 with all the chances for the use of water-power and sport4 ,fishing itself is something best learned by experience1 but the choice and management of tackle afford a most instructive theme4 ,and water naturally has an importance which requires an entire division of the book wherein boat-building and boat-management of all kinds are thoroughly and practically explained4 ,camping out1 which appeals to every healthy boy1 is treated from every point of view in the fourth division of the book1 which includes also trapping1 taxidermy1 and tree huts and brush houses4 ,in all these general divisions the aim of the editors and author has been to show in the simplest and most accurate way how to do things which are amusing to do and valuable when done4 ,the principal contributor to this book is an amateur carpenter1 boat-builder1 and mechanician as well as an artist and writer4 ,one editor has had a wide practical experience in almost everything that has to do with out-door amusements4 ,another has camped and fished in the four corners of our country and in ,canada4 ,all their experience has been combined to prepare a convenient out-door handy-book free from unnecessary words and details1 and filled with the latest and best methods1 which will be indispensable to every ,american boy who likes the fun of doing things for himself4 ,part ,i ,,in ,,bounds ,,out-,,door ,,book ,,for ,,boys ,chapter ,i ,,back-,,yard ,,pleasures ,since home is the natural centre of life1 it will be most helpful if we find out what we can do just outside the house4 ,in large cities there is usually no front yard1 and even where such space exists its use as a play-ground is apt to be undesirable4 ,but the back yard even in cities often affords some chances not only for gardening on a small scale but also for making and using a variety of things which will furnish constant amusement4 ,a ,wigwam ,for boys who like to 8play ,injun0 in the back yard1 here are some ideas for tepees and wigwams that may easily be followed cut at a very small cost for the poles and canvas4 ,canvas can be bought at a dry-goods or country store1 and poles may be cut in the woods2 or one-and-one-half-inch-square spruce sticks may be purchased at a lumber-yard and dressed round with a draw-knife and plane4 ,when cutting poles for a wigwam it is necessary to select very straight ones1 preferably of pine1 for crooked or knotty poles are unsightly and make an uneven exterior4 ,the real ,indian tepee is made from buckskin or other strong hides lashed together with rawhide thongs2 but as this covering is beyond the reach of the average boy1 the next best thing to use will be heavy twilled canvas or stout unbleached muslin that can be had for about ten cents a yard4 ,the regulation wigwam is perhaps the most satisfactory kind of a tent1 for it is roomy1 will shed water1 and it is about the only tent in which a fire may be built without smoking out the occupants4 ,the tepee will not blow over if properly set up and stayed with an anchor-rope1 and it is easily taken down and moved from place to place4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,fig4 #d ,a ,,wigwam ,for a party of three or four boys the wigwam shown in ,fig4 #a will afford ample room1 and it is not so large as to be unhandy4 ,select thirteen straight poles1 not more than two inches thick at the bottom1 and clear them from knots and projecting twigs4 ,they should be ten feet long and pointed at the bottom so as to stick into the ground for a few inches4 ,tie three of them together eighteen inches from the top1 and form a tripod on a circle five feet and six inches in diameter4 ,place the other poles against this tripod to form a cone1 as shown in ,fig4 #b1 and lash them fast at the top with a piece of clothes-line4 ,from unbleached muslin or sail-cloth 7light weight7 make a cover as shown in the diagram ,fig4 #c4 ,lay out a sixteen-foot circle on a barn floor1 or the grass1 with chalk1 and indicate an eighteen-inch circle at the middle4 ,around the outer circle or periphery measure off nineteen feet and chalk-mark the space4 ,from these marks to the centre of the circle draw straight lines1 and within these limits the area of the wigwam cover will be shown4 ,it should correspond with the plan drawing in ,fig4 #c4 ,the muslin should be three feet wide and with it this area can be covered in any direction1 sewing the strips together to make the large sheet2 or the muslin may be cut in strips three feet wide at one end and tapering to a few inches at the other1 as shown in ,fig4 #d1 the seams running up and down the canvas instead of across it4 ,the outer edge of the canvas cover should be bound with clothes-line or cotton rope1 sewed securely with waxed white string2 then thirteen short ropes should be passed over this rope so that the canvas may be lashed fast to the foot of each pole to hold the cover in place4 ,the doorway flaps are formed by stopping the lacings three feet up from the ground4 ,with short ropes and rings sewed to the cover the flaps may be tied back1 as shown in ,fig4 #a4 ,the real ,indian wigwams are decorated with all sorts of emblems1 for even the uncivilized red men had their crests and totems1 and the boys who make these tepees can easily invent some mark which will distinguish their tent abode from all others4 ,the ornamentation should be done with paint and should be carried out before the canvas covering is stretched over the poles4 ,a ,square ,tepee ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e ,fig4 #f ,a square tepee1 as shown in the illustration ,fig4 #e1 is another form of rear-yard tent that is easily made4 ,twelve poles are selected and four of them are lashed fast and spread apart on a square of six feet4 ,two poles are added to each side and all are lashed together at the head4 ,four pieces of canvas or heavy unbleached muslin are cut and made on the plan as shown in ,fig4 #f1 the strips being cut from goods a yard wide4 ,these pieces are six feet long1 one foot wide at the head1 and six feet at the foot4 ,the seam through the middle of one piece is left open for three feet to form the doorway flaps1 then the four sides are securely sewed together with waxed white string4 ,this cover is slipped about the pole frame1 tied at the front1 and held down by means of short ropes that are lashed fast to the foot of each pole4 ,the cover is decorated with paint to give it the ,indian appearance1 and when the flaps are tied back it is easy to go into and come out of the tepee4 ,a ,ridge-pole ,tepee ,a ridge-pole tepee is shown in ,fig4 #g1 and is a very easy and simple one to make1 for it is of one piece of canvas with two flaps sewed at each side to form the ends4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h ,one ridge and two upright poles make the framework1 and they are held in place by the canvas1 which is drawn and lashed fast to stakes driven in the ground1 as may be seen in the drawing4 ,the ridge-pole is eight feet long1 one and a half inches thick1 and four inches wide4 ,two inches from either end a half-inch hole is bored to receive the iron pins that are driven in the ends of the uprights as shown at ,fig4 #h ,a and ,b4 ,the upright poles are eight feet long1 and when set one foot of the lower end should be embedded in the ground4 ,the sides are in one piece of muslin made by sewing widths of it together4 ,the sheet measures seventeen feet long and eight feet wide2 and when stretched over the ridge-pole and fastened down at both sides an inverted shape will be the result4 ,it is ten feet across at the bottom1 seven feet high1 and eight feet long at each side4 ,for the back it will be necessary to make a triangular piece of canvas the right size to fit the opening1 or two flaps may be cut1 divided at the middle1 and tied back1 or laced1 to close the tent4 ,the apron or part enclosure at the front is formed from pieces of canvas two feet wide sewed along the edges and caught together at the middle over the opening4 ,ten pegs eighteen inches long and two inches wide are cut from hard-wood as shown at ,fig4 #h ,c4 ,these are driven in the ground at an angle and ropes attached to the lower edges of the canvas sidings are lashed fast to them4 ,this tepee is long enough to swing a hammock from pole to pole1 and on a warm summer night makes an ideal place for sleeping out-of-doors4 ,the covering1 like that of the other wigwams1 may be decorated with ,indian emblems1 and if a party of boys are going to camp in the back yard their tepees can be inscribed with different crests and totems to indicate individual ownership4 ,a ,fountain ,a practicable rear-yard fountain may be made with a brick or concrete basin1 an underground pipe-line and an overflow1 thus insuring a continuous flow and discharge4 ,in ,fig4 #i the basin1 pipe1 and trap are shown with the inlet pipe fitted for a hose connection4 ,three plates of different sizes are used for the traps1 and if care is taken in drilling the holes an opening may be made in the bottom of each plate so that it will slip over the stand-pipe4 ,tin or enamelled iron plates will answer the purpose very well for a while1 but the tin plates would soon rust unless frequently painted4 ,the white earthern-ware plates will present the best appearance and will last indefinitely4 ,dig a circular hole thirty inches across and twelve inches deep1 and with cement and sand make a hard bottom or bed4 ,use a trowel and smooth the cement so that the top surface is smooth4 ,with some bricks form a circle1 as shown at ,fig4 #aj4 ,with a cold-chisel and mallet cut away the edges of two bricks so that the overflow pipe will pass between them1 as shown at ,a in ,fig4 #aj4 ,the pipe should be half or three-quarter inch galvanized water-pipe1 and it may be purchased at a plumber's shop for a few cents a foot4 ,the supply-pipe is three-eighths-inch galvanized water-pipe1 and should be set in place under the concrete bottom of the basin before the cement is poured in4 ,the upright1 or stand-pipe1 is thirty-six inches high from the elbow1 ,b 7,fig4 #aj71 in the ground4 ,the cross-pipe leading out is eighteen or twenty inches long1 and the short upright that comes to the surface outside the basin is fifteen inches long and is to be provided with a hose connection so that a garden hose may be attached to it4 ,the stand-pipe in the basin and the cross-piece should be embedded in the cement concrete1 and when it is dry and hardens around the pipes it will hold them securely in place4 ,when the circle of bricks is complete1 fill in the crevices with equal parts of cement and sand mixed into a mortar4 ,this will lock the bricks together2 then plaster the cement all around the inside of the circle and some at the outside so as to make a water-tight basin4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i ,fig4 #aj ,fig4 #aa ,fig4 #ab ,fig4 #ac ,earth is to be put back into the hole outside the circle of bricks and the sod replaced1 so that grass will grow right up to the edge of the basin rim1 which should project an inch or two above the surface of the ground4 ,from a plumber or gas-fitter obtain some old pieces of brass tubing an inch in diameter1 cut one of them fourteen inches long1 and slip it down over the stand-pipe4 ,the lowest and largest plate rests on this4 ,next cut a piece of tubing nine inches long and slip it over the pipe4 ,the second plate rests on this and the top plate is supported by a piece of the tubing cut six inches in length and slipped over the pipe4 ,if porcelain dishes are used1 make the first hole in them as follows3 ,obtain a stout1 three-inch steel wire nail1 a block of wood about three inches square1 having an inch hole bored at one end1 and a small hard-wood mallet4 ,place a plate on the block of wood1 inverted so that its centre will be exactly over the hole4 ,place the point of the nail on the plate1 taking care to get it in the centre2 then give it a sharp1 quick blow with the mallet4 ,if this is properly done a small piece of the porcelain will be driven out1 but remember that if the blow is not properly centred it will break the plate4 ,for this reason it is best to practise first on a broken plate2 or if the porcelain seems to be impossible1 the painted tin or enamelled plates will have to answer4 ,a perforated porcelain plate is shown in ,fig4 #aa ,a4 ,the ragged hole can be smoothed out or chafed away with an old rat-tail or half-round file4 ,a brass reducer and a gas pillar should be screwed fast to the top of the stand-pipe so that a jet of water about a quarter of an inch in diameter will shoot above the pipe4 ,if a little wooden ball is to dance at the top of the jet1 a half-circular basket will be necessary to catch the ball when it falls1 so that the stream of water can pick it up again4 ,this is made from brass or galvanized wire1 and where the wires cross bind the joint with fine copper wire and solder the joints so as to make them rigid4 ,a small brass ferrule or short piece of pipe should be soldered to the bottom of this basket1 so as to hold it in place when slipped over the pillar or nozzle4 ,this basket and its shape is more clearly shown in ,fig4 #aa ,b4 ,it should be six or eight inches in diameter and three inches deep1 with the wires close enough together to prevent the ball from falling through4 ,if it is not possible to get the bricks of which to form the basin1 a concrete wall can be made instead4 ,dig the hole as before described2 then construct a cylinder of wood twenty-four inches in diameter and eight inches thick4 ,floor over the bottom of the hole with concrete1 after the stand-pipe is in place1 and around the edge of the concrete floor and outside the cylinder embed some small stones so that the filling will hold fast4 ,this is shown at c c in ,fig4 #ab4 ,slip the wooden cylinder over the stand-pipe so that it will occupy the position as shown in ,fig4 #ab4 ,make a mixture of coarse sand or gravel and cement1 half and half1 and add a shovel or two of small stones1 preferably cracked1 such as are used for the under-dressing to macadam roads4 ,tamp this down in the opening in the ground so as to fill up the ditch or moat as shown at ,fig4 #ac4 ,the outside of the cylinder should be thoroughly coated with lard or some heavy grease before the concrete is poured in1 so that the wood will not absorb the moisture from the concrete and cause it to bind in the hole4 ,as a precaution it would be well to make the bottom of the cylinder an inch smaller in diameter than the top1 so that it may draw out easily after the concrete has set4 ,the two slots shown in the top of the cylinder are hand holes to grasp it by4 ,with nearly clear cement1 having but a small portion of sand added1 finish the inside of the basin and the rim with a trowel so as to give it a smooth and even surface4 ,the force of water may be regulated with a faucet4 ,an ,aquarium ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad ,fig4 #ae ,fig4 #af ,there is nothing difficult in the construction of a glass-and-wood aquarium like the one shown in ,fig4 #ad1 and the boy who is handy with tools and careful in joining wood-work accurately will be able to knock it together in short order4 ,the best size will be twenty-four inches long1 fifteen wide1 and ten inches high4 ,this will be generous enough in proportions to accommodate a dozen or so of small fish1 some baby eels1 crawfish1 a turtle or two1 and some water-lizards4 ,from a carpenter obtain a piece of white-wood twenty-seven inches long1 seventeen inches wide1 and one and a half inches in thickness4 ,this must be of selected stock1 hard and free from knots or sappy places4 ,cut four battens of hard-wood two inches wide1 an inch thick1 and fifteen inches long1 and with brass screws attach them securely to the underside of the board to prevent its warping from the action of the water4 ,obtain a stick one inch and a half square and four feet long2 cut this into lengths of eleven inches each and also prepare one eight feet long1 two inches wide1 and seven-eighths of an inch thick4 ,with a groove-plane having a quarter-inch blade cut into the square stick on two sides as shown in ,fig4 #ae ,a4 ,the edge of the stick between the two grooves may then be planed off so that an end view of the stick will appear as shown at ,fig4 #ae ,b4 ,a groove should be cut at one side of the long stick three-eighths of an inch from one edge so that when turned groove side down an end will appear as shown at ,c in ,fig4 #ae4 ,this stick is to be cut in lengths fifteen and twenty-four inches respectively for top rails4 ,in the four corners of the white-wood board cut a hole with bit and chisel three-quarters of an inch square as shown at ,fig4 #af4 ,saw the bottom of each square stick so as to cut away about a quarter of an inch of wood on each side as shown at the lower part of ,a in ,fig4 #ae4 ,this is made so that the uprights will fit snugly into the holes and the shoulder formed by the saw-cuts will rest on the top of the base board4 ,with straight rule and pencil mark parallel lines connecting each hole as shown at ,d ,d in ,fig4 #af4 ,these lines should correspond in position with the grooves cut in the posts2 then remove the posts and with grooving-plane or chisel and mallet cut the grooves about three-eighths of an inch in depth4 ,the glass sides fit into these grooves1 and the top rails made from the long stick cap the upper edges of the glass sides4 ,the ends should be lapped and screwed down to the top of the corner-posts to bind the glass and wood-work in one compact framework4 ,before any of the wood-work is put together give it three successive thin coats of black asphaltum varnish1 which can be purchased at a paint or hardware store4 ,each hole and the plug ends of the corner-posts are to be coated with thick asphaltum varnish1 and when wet with the varnish the posts are to be driven into the holes4 ,screws passed in through the sides of the base board will hold them securely in place4 ,from a glazier or hardware store purchase two panes of double-thick glass ten by fourteen inches1 and two measuring ten by twenty-two inches4 ,give the grooves a thick coat of the asphaltum varnish1 slide the glass down into the grooves1 and screw the top rails in place4 ,when the glass is in place and before the top rails are put on1 the glass should stand a quarter of an inch above the top of the corner-posts4 ,when the rails are laid in place the top edge of the glass should be caught by the groove in the rails1 otherwise the glass1 having no support at the top1 would bow out on account of the pressure of water1 and either cause the glass to break or the joints to leak4 ,press the glass sides against the outer edges of the grooves and lightly insert some wooden wedges into the grooves to hold the glass in place temporarily for a day or two or until the varnish sets4 ,then fill the open spaces in the grooves with a putty made from whiting and asphaltum varnish4 ,this you will have to make yourself with a putty-knife on a plate of glass1 marble1 or slate1 for you cannot purchase it4 ,common putty is not hard enough and will not dry for months1 while the special putty will set quickly and dry hard in a few days4 ,when all the work is completed about the aquarium allow it to stand for at least a week1 in which time the putty and varnish will harden4 ,at a paint store purchase some marine paint1 also known as 8copper paint10 and give the wood-work two or three thin successive coats1 allowing it to dry for a few days between each coat4 ,scrape the paint from the glass where it may have been smeared1 and the complete aquarium is ready for water and stock4 ,another way in which to construct the framework is to take a curtain-pole one and a half inches in diameter1 and at a planing-mill have a quarter section sawed out1 as shown at ,fig4 #ag1 so that an end rim will appear as shown at ,b4 ,the part of the wood-work the buzz-saw cuts away will correspond with the grooves cut in the square sticks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag ,fig4 #ah ,fig4 #ai ,fig4 #bj ,fig4 #ba ,fig4 #bb ,four holes one and a half inches in diameter1 or the same size as the stick1 are bored half-way-through the bottom-board of the aquarium and ,v-shaped channels are cut in the board connecting the holes 7,fig4 #ah74 ,the wood-work is treated in a manner similar to that already described1 and the corner-posts are held in place by long brass screws driven up through the bottom and into the lower ends of the posts4 ,the top rail is made the same as shown in ,fig4 #ae ,c1 and the glass is set as described4 ,at the corner-posts the lap is well smeared with asphaltum varnish and putty and the angle strips are screwed fast to the posts as indicated at ,a in ,fig4 #ag4 ,while this is somewhat easier to make it is not quite so substantial for large tanks as the square post and channels4 ,when catching the stock for the aquarium it is best to use a drop-net4 ,this is made of two iron hoops fifteen or twenty inches in diameter and held one below the other with cord as shown at ,fig4 #ai4 ,mosquito-netting is drawn across the lower hoop and sewed fast2 then a band of it is sewed about both hoops to close in the sides1 to form a cylinder open at the top only4 ,some bait is placed in the bottom of the net1 and then it is lowered into the water so that the top hoop drops down and the whole net lies flat on the bottom of a pond4 ,when a number of fish are around the bait a quick haul will raise the upper ring2 then pull the net up with the fish captives within the cylinder4 ,you can quickly select the ones you want1 and these may be placed in a pail partly filled with water4 ,for turtles1 crawfish1 and lizards a scap-net will be necessary4 ,this may be made from stout wire1 a broom-handle1 and some netting4 ,the ring may be almost any size1 from six to twelve inches in diameter1 the ends being sharpened with a file and turned so that they may be driven into the end of the stick1 which should first be bound with wire to prevent it from splitting4 ,the bag of mosquito-netting is made on the hoop and sewed fast1 as shown at ,fig4 #bj4 ,when changing the water in the aquarium it is not necessary to empty it all out4 ,a siphon made of a small rubber tube will answer very well to drain off a portion4 ,the part of the tube in the tank should be held close to the bottom so as to suck up any dirt or sediment that may be there4 ,good ventilation1 light1 healthy aquatic plants1 clean sand1 and a proper proportion of fish to the volume of water are absolutely necessary to the successful aquarium4 ,a few tadpoles and snails are advantageous in an aquarium1 as they consume decaying vegetable matter and help to prevent the formation of alg on the glass4 ,for the aquarium large enough to contain them1 some artificial rockeries may be made from cement1 gravel1 and stones1 as shown in the illustrations of the concrete rockeries ,figs4 #ba and #bb4 ,they should be made with openings beneath for the fish to swim through1 and pockets should be made at the top to hold sand and the roots of aquatic plants4 ,the rockeries should have a good flat base so as to rest securely on the bottom of the aquarium4 ,always have plenty of pebbles and river-sand at the bottom of the aquarium to make the fishes feel at home4 ,how to ,manage an ,aquarium ,it is generally supposed that it is necessary to change the water in an aquarium at least once a day2 but that is not the case4 ,the true principle on which an aquarium should be conducted is not to change the water at all1 but so to arate and refresh the original supply as to maintain it always in a pure and perfect state4 ,there are several means by which this may be done4 ,the healthy growth of plants is very important1 and active and brisk contact with the air of the atmosphere will greatly freshen the water4 ,motion in the water is absolutely necessary4 ,in large aquaria this is obtained by an arrangement of tanks into which the water is pumped1 and from which it flows rapidly1 circulating through the tanks where the fish live4 ,in its passage through the air it absorbs considerable oxygen1 without which no fish can live4 ,fish placed in water that has been boiled die in a very few minutes4 ,the first thing to be done in the formation of a fresh-water aquarium is to start your plants in proper soil at the bottom of your tank1 fill the tank with water1 and leave it undisturbed until the plants begin to grow and the little bubbles of oxygen are to be seen rising to the surface of the water4 ,choose your plants from such as you may collect from rivers or brooks or ponds anywhere in the country4 ,plant them1 and then cover the surface of the soil with pebbles and small bits of rock1 or anything that is suitable and in keeping with the rest of your arrangements4 ,never put sea-shells into a fresh-water aquarium4 ,now fill your tank with water poured through a siphon or funnel1 being very careful not to disturb the soil or the roots of the plants4 ,you should have some clean river-sand in the bottom of your tank1 and your pieces of rock should be so arranged as to form little caves and hiding-places for your fish4 ,it will take perhaps two weeks to get your tank into a proper condition for fish to live in4 ,every bit of dead or decaying vegetation should be carefully removed4 ,keep your tank shaded from the heat of the sun1 and expose it to the bright light only once in a while4 ,in order to manage your aquarium properly you will require a few simple tools4 ,a little hand-net that can be bought for a few cents1 or made for even less out of a bit of wire and a small piece of mosquito-netting1 is useful for catching the fish or shells without putting your hands into the water4 ,a pair of wooden forceps1 like a glove-stretcher1 will be found most convenient for nipping off bits of decaying plants or for catching objects that may have accidentally fallen into the water4 ,glass tubes of various sizes are also useful4 ,if you want to catch any small object in the water with the tube1 place the tube in the water with your finger over the hole in the top4 ,until your finger is removed the tube will remain full of air4 ,place it over the bit of refuse or whatever it is you want to catch1 remove your finger1 and the water will rush in1 carrying the object with it into the tube1 which should then be closed at the upper end by placing your finger over it as before4 ,a glass or hard-rubber syringe is necessary with which to arate the water thoroughly at least once a day1 and oftener if possible4 ,fill the syringe1 hold it high above the tank1 and then squirt the water back again4 ,if a green film begins to gather on the side of the tank that is most exposed to the light1 it should be cleaned away every day1 and the sides of the glass polished carefully4 ,a small piece of clean sponge tied on the end of a stick will answer the purpose very well1 and1 if used daily1 you can keep the glass clear with very little trouble2 but if the scum is neglected and left to accumulate1 you will find it almost impossible to remove it from the glass even by hard scouring4 ,it is best to have only small fish in your aquarium1 and for this reason trout are not desirable4 ,although very beautiful and intelligent1 they grow so rapidly that they are likely to become in a short time too unwieldy for your tank4 ,goldfish and minnows are very good1 and the common little sunfish or 8pumpkin-seed0 is excellent4 ,you must keep careful watch over the fish in your aquarium1 and if any one of them appears to be sick he should be removed at once1 very gently1 with the hand-net1 and placed in fresh water1 where he will often recover4 ,if1 however1 the little sufferer is doomed to die1 it is better not to run the risk of his doing so among his healthy companions4 ,it is best always to have a hospital for your sickly pets1 and as soon as one of them1 whether a fish or a bird or any animal1 shows signs of ill health1 he should be taken away from the others and placed by himself4 ,certain varieties of snails live well in fresh water1 and will be found useful in clearing away the green film that is almost certain to collect on the side of the glass2 but you must be careful or they will devour your plants as well2 and if your tank is very small it is hardly worth while to try to keep them4 ,water-beetles and water-spiders also thrive well1 and their habits are most interesting to watch2 but water-beetles fly by night1 and unless you are careful to cover your tank you are likely to discover some morning that a number of your tenants have taken ,french leave4 ,you must be careful not to overstock your aquarium1 for your fish will not thrive if they are overcrowded4 ,remember1 also1 that heat and dust are fatal to your pets4 ,the water must be kept clean and cool at all times1 and all foreign matter and every particle of decaying vegetation should be removed immediately4 ,to manage an aquarium successfully1 no matter on how small a scale1 requires a good deal of care and time1 but you will find it time well spent1 and the pleasure and knowledge the study of your pets will give you will be an ample return for the time you spend on them4 ,a ,merry-go-round ,a great deal of fun may be had with a merry-go-round in the rear yard1 and while it may not be run by an engine or its motion accompanied by an organ1 hand power will turn the table and music can be made with an old accordion or concertina4 ,the only difficult thing about the whole affair is the bevelled gear1 the shaft and crank2 but if an old reaper can be found at a blacksmith-shop the difficulty is solved1 for a pair of bevelled gears are on every reaping-machine4 ,of course a machine-shop or foundry would contain gearing of various sizes1 and a five and twelve inch gear wheel will answer the purpose very well4 ,in the practical back-yard merry-go-round shown in ,fig4 #bc the revolving post is four inches square and may be of spruce or white-wood planed on all sides and provided with a ferrule at both ends4 ,these may be taken from old buggy-wheels1 and will prevent the wood from splitting when the pins are driven in4 ,the lower cross-beams a a in ,fig4 #bd are of spruce1 eight feet long and two by three inches4 ,the beams b b are six feet and six inches long1 and on these four the cross-plates are made fast that hold the top or deck planks4 ,the six cross-timbers are of spruce1 one by four inches1 and are from two to eight feet in length1 according to their location4 ,the beam plan 7,fig4 #bd7 shows quite clearly how these supporting beams are arranged4 ,they are held together with steel wire-nails driven down from the upper beams diagonally into the lower ones4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc ,fig4 #bd ,fig4 #be ,fig4 #bf ,fig4 #bg ,fig4 #bh ,a ,,merry-,,go-,,round ,the longest beams are securely spiked to the revolving shaft1 and in securing them in place take care to see that they are perfectly true1 so that the outer edge of the platform will not dip and rise as it revolves4 ,drive a three-quarter-inch rod in the top of the shaft and another one in the bottom having a bevelled point as shown at ,fig4 #be4 ,at the lower end of the shaft arrange the larger gear wheel and pin it fast so that it is fixed to the shaft and will not move4 ,an iron base-plate with an upright arm welded to it will hold the shaft and the smaller gear1 which is to be arranged the right height to lock in with the teeth of the large gear4 ,this plate is shown in ,fig4 #bf2 and through the four holes at the corners long screws are passed to bolt the plate securely to a wooden base1 which last is set in the ground as shown at ,a in ,fig4 #bg4 ,the shaft ,b1 to the end of which the small gear wheel is made fast1 extends out beyond one of the upright posts1 and at the outer end a crank and handle ,c are made fast1 so that by hand-power the platform and shaft may be revolved4 ,construct an overhead framework of six by two inch spruce beams twelve feet long1 and set them in the ground twelve feet apart1 bracing the uprights well1 braced at both sides with angle beams as shown in ,fig4 #bc4 ,the top bar should be well braced also with one or two angle brackets1 to prevent the frame from rocking4 ,if the ground props are not strong enough to properly brace the frame1 attach heavy wires to the corners and carry them out in both directions1 making the ends fast to stout pieces of joist embedded in the ground4 ,at the middle of the top cross-bar arrange a plate of wood eighteen inches long with a groove cut in it in which the pin at the top of the square shaft may revolve4 ,this plate should be attached to the bar with lag screws1 so that it can be removed when it is necessary to unstep the shaft and platform4 ,the outer line of deck planking is shown in the deck plan 7,fig4 #bh71 and inside of these boards as many others can be laid down as desired2 or the entire frame may be all decked over1 leaving a small space near the middle so as to reach the gear and lower pin in order to grease them4 ,where the shaft passes one of the uprights of the supporting frame an iron strap will hold it in place against the wood1 and this bearing will require lubrication from time to time4 ,four stout wire guys must be drawn from the top of the shaft and fastened at the outer edge of the platform to one of the beam ends4 ,the anchorage should be made with very stout1 strong screw-eyes1 and to make it easier to draw the wires taut four small turn-buckles should be purchased at a hardware store and made fast to the lower ends of the wires1 the hook on the buckle being caught in the large screw-eyes4 ,seats may be made from boxes and nailed to the deck1 and as a safeguard to prevent falling from the turn-table ropes should be attached to the stanchion wires and to the shaft as shown in ,fig4 #bc4 ,it would be well to paint all the wood-work in order to give it a good appearance1 and all the iron parts should be coated with asphaltum varnish to prevent rusting4 ,if the gears are properly adjusted and there is no friction at the bearings1 it will not be a difficult matter to move the table with several children occupying the seats4 ,the bevelled point bearing at the bottom rests in a drilled depression in the plate1 and the friction there is reduced to a minimum1 while at the top the friction will be slight if the weight is properly distributed on the turn-table4 ,chapter ,,ii ,,pet ,,shelters ,most boys are interested in pet animals1 and at one time or another possess them4 ,cats and dogs are domesticated and will always stay about the house if they are properly cared for and treated kindly1 but rabbits1 guinea-pigs1 squirrels1 monkeys1 and reptiles often forget where they belong and will wander away and neglect to come back4 ,for this reason it will be necessary to build houses and hutches for them1 and so safeguard the doorways and screenings that they cannot escape4 ,it is not possible1 of course1 to give a lengthy description of pet shelters1 since there are so many different kinds in use by boys all over the world2 but the illustrations on these pages will give some ideas for the ,american and ,english boys to follow in making houses1 hutches1 and retreats to shelter their pet animals1 birds1 and reptiles4 ,in speaking of reptiles1 that does not necessarily mean snakes1 for under this classification come the horned-toads1 lizards1 turtles1 and many of the beautiful tropical creeping and crawling things that in warm countries take the place of the white mice1 rabbits1 guinea-pigs1 and canary-birds of our northern climes4 ,some boys have a natural aptitude for carpenter-work1 but there may be ideas in these illustrations and the accompanying descriptions that will be helpful both to them1 and to the boy who has as yet to make his first kennel or pigeon-cote4 ,martin ,boxes ,in the early spring1 when the birds return to the north1 the martins are among the first to appear1 and long before the swallows1 whom they closely resemble1 begin to nest they have hatched their young and have taken their departure from the southland4 ,they are cold-weather birds1 fly rapidly1 and do not stay long in one place4 ,they seldom build their nests in the branches of trees1 but prefer to find a hole in a tree-trunk1 and there build a nest safe from the wind and storm4 ,the sand-martin burrows a hole in the side of a bank1 but never builds a nest in the chimneys as do his brother and sister swallows4 ,the martin1 when sitting on her eggs1 likes a dark and sheltered place1 and for that reason she takes kindly to a martin box in which a hole is made sufficiently large for her to fly in and out of4 ,in ,fig4 #a a small keg is supported at the top of a post and braced at the bottom with two bracket pieces4 ,a hole two inches and a half in diameter is made at each end of the keg1 through which the martins can enter1 and the post to which the keg is fastened is cut away at the upper end as shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,in one side of the bilge of the keg a hole is cut as large as the post is square or round1 and at the other side a corresponding hole is cut the size of the upper part of the post4 ,the keg is then dropped down over the post so that the shoulder1 formed by cutting away the wood1 will rest under the upper side of the keg1 in which the smaller square hole has been cut4 ,if a round post is employed1 the upper part should be cut square so as to prevent the wind from blowing the keg round the post4 ,a cross-stick fastened at the top of the post will form a perch on which the birds may alight4 ,a box with a peaked roof and three divisions1 intended to accommodate three families of the birds1 is shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,an ordinary box may be cut and rearranged with a pitched roof1 an inner floor1 and the three divisions4 ,a small hole is bored at each side of the box and a round stick passed through it1 so that six or eight inches of the wood will project at either side to serve as perches4 ,another perch can be arranged at the top of the box1 and this bird-house is then securely fastened to the upper end of a post and braced there with bracket-pieces nailed both to the bottom of the box and to the post4 ,the divisions in the box should be not less than six inches square and six or eight inches high4 ,if the box used be square it will probably be an easier job to divide it into four divisions for as many families4 ,each compartment1 of course1 must be provided with its separate hole for ingress and egress4 ,bird ,shelters ,birds do not always seek the shelter of trees in a storm2 they will often gather about the house and under barn eaves and piazza sheds1 where they are protected from the rain and the drippings from wet leaves4 ,they like a dry shelter1 and structures suitable for their needs can be knocked together from very simple material4 ,in the illustration of a bird shelter 7,fig4 #d71 a canvas or heavy muslin roof is supported on two uprights1 and under it five perches are arranged from side to side1 upon which a great many birds can rest4 ,the uprights are one and a half by three inches1 and the strips forming the ,y braces are two inches wide and seven-eighths of an inch thick4 ,the perches are three-quarter-inch dowels three feet long4 ,if they cannot be had at a carpenter's shop or a hardware store1 some small scantling may be planed nearly round to answer the same purpose4 ,where the perches are attached to the uprights and ,y pieces1 holes are bored half-way through the wood4 ,into these the ends of the perches are driven and nailed fast4 ,in ,fig4 #e the canvas is left off from one side so that the constructional parts of the upright1 braces1 and roof strips may be seen4 ,when the wood-work is put together the roof should be covered with canvas1 heavy unbleached muslin1 or a piece of oil-cloth1 and tacked all around the edges4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d ,fig4 #e ,fig4 #f ,to make the barrel-hoop shelter1 shown in ,fig4 #f1 a flat barrel-hoop is loosely covered with canvas or muslin tacked all around the edge4 ,in the top of a post a wooden peg is driven1 and over this the middle of the canvas disk is slipped1 having first made a hole in the fabric through which the peg can pass4 ,four wires are attached to the hoop at equal distances apart1 and the lower ends caught through staples or screw-eyes driven in the post a foot or two from the top4 ,two or three holes should be made through the post in which round perches may be driven4 ,a shelter for the side of a house or barn can be made from a piece of board1 two bracket strips1 and three dowels or round sticks to act as perches4 ,the board should be three feet long and fifteen inches wide4 ,where it is attached to the house or barn a strip is first attached1 and the inner edge of the board is then nailed fast to the strip4 ,the two bracket strips that support the roof at the outer edge should be twenty-four inches long1 one inch thick1 and two inches wide4 ,three or four sets of holes are bored in the strips to receive the ends of the dowels or perches4 ,pigeon-cotes ,for the ordinary pigeons that fly about the house and barn some open cotes are shown in ,fig4 #g and ,fig4 #h1 but for the more valuable pigeons a large wire enclosure should be made and the lodges placed within them1 unless the birds are very tame and will not leave the premises4 ,in ,fig4 #g ,a1 a cote with three holes is shown that is easily made from thin boards4 ,it should measure thirty inches long1 nine inches wide1 and twelve inches high at the back1 while at the front the board with the holes cut in it should be nine inches wide1 with the holes five inches high and four inches wide4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g ,fig4 #h ,fig4 #i ,fig4 #aj ,fig4 #aa ,the wood is put together as shown in ,fig4 #i1 and the roof boards overhang the ends and front for an inch or two4 ,the upper ends of the two divisions need not extend beyond the height of the front board1 and this open space will insure good ventilation4 ,sticks an inch square are made fast under the ends of the cote1 and on the projecting ends a ledge three inches wide is fastened upon which the pigeons may alight4 ,the cote shown in ,fig4 #g ,b is made from a shoe-case divided as shown in ,fig4 #aj2 on each floor the entrances are alternated from front to sides4 ,outside each entrance a ledge three inches wide is supported on brackets1 and under the pitched roof the ninth compartment is arranged4 ,the large pigeon-cote 7,fig4 #h7 is a more pretentious affair to make and will tax the young carpenter's skill4 ,this cote can be made a very attractive pigeon shelter if it is carefully put together and nicely painted4 ,it is thirty-two inches long1 twenty-four high to the eaves or thirty-four to the peak1 and twelve inches deep4 ,it is divided as shown in ,fig4 #aa1 and the ledges are supported with brackets cut from half-inch wood with a compass saw4 ,from the eaves to the peak the front of the cote may be shingled1 and above the peak a perch is erected4 ,this cote may be attached to the side of a barn or supported on stout uprights embedded securely in the ground4 ,dog-kennels ,when building a dog-kennel the important features to bear in mind are to make it strong1 weather-proof1 and large enough for a good-sized dog to turn around in comfortably4 ,a poorly built kennel soon falls apart1 and if it is not weather-proof rain will get in on the dog1 and dogs do not like to get wet while sleeping any more than boys4 ,moreover1 if the kennel is not large enough it is cramped and stuffy1 and1 while the dog cannot say so1 he resents it1 and in his own dog way of reasoning feels that he is imposed upon in being housed in such small quarters4 ,the dimensions of a kennel must be naturally governed by the size of the dog who is to inhabit it2 but for one of medium size1 such as a setter or collie1 a kennel with a peaked roof1 similar to the one shown in ,fig4 #ab1 should be three feet long1 two feet wide1 two feet high at the sides1 and three feet high from the ground to the peak or ridge-pole4 ,the floor frame is the first thing in constructing a kennel1 and it should be made of two by three inch spruce1 thirty-four inches long and twenty-two inches wide1 with lap joints at the corners as shown in ,fig4 #ac4 ,on this the flooring of tongue and grooved boards is laid and nailed down4 ,from three matched boards eight inches wide make the front and back to the kennel as shown in ,fig4 #ad4 ,the lower ends of the boards are nailed to the floor frame1 and where they are sawed off to form the peak a batten is placed at the inside and made fast with clinch nails driven into it from the outside through the boards4 ,the nail heads in the front of ,fig4 #ad will show the location of one batten1 and the other can clearly be seen at the inside of the back1 where the clinched nail ends are shown4 ,beginning at the bottom and working up1 the sides are laid on4 ,always place the tongue up and the groove down when using matched boards in a horizontal position1 as otherwise the rain and moisture will work into the groove and cause the wood to decay4 ,a ridge-pole is nailed between the front and back at the peak1 and to this the upper ends of the roof boards are fastened4 ,in the front a hole large enough for a dog to pass through is cut with a compass saw1 and above it1 near the peak1 one large and three smaller holes are bored1 as shown in ,fig4 #ad1 and the wood cut away between the holes1 as shown in ,fig4 #ab4 ,this is for ventilation1 for dogs as well as human beings require plenty of fresh air4 ,another hole at the top of the back board will allow free circulation of air across the top of the kennel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab ,fig4 #ac ,fig4 #ad ,fig4 #ae ,two or three good coats of paint will finish the wood-work1 and with the addition of a chain fastened to a staple-plate this dog-kennel will be ready for occupancy4 ,this dog-hut in ,fig #ae is built against the side of a house or barn1 and is forty inches long1 twenty-four wide1 and twenty-eight inches high at the outer side1 and thirty-six inches high next the house or barn4 ,the floor frame is thirty-eight inches long1 twenty-two inches wide1 and made like ,fig4 #ac4 ,stakes are driven in the ground1 one under each corner1 and to these the floor frame is spiked fast4 ,when constructed against a building a strip is fastened to the siding of the building on which to nail the roof boards and to the upper edges of the front1 back1 and side boards battens are made fast to strengthen the hut4 ,the wall or side of the building may1 in such a 8lean-to10 be used as a fourth side of the dog-hut4 ,a ventilator is cut in the upper corner of the back and at the front a swinging door can be hung in the doorway or opening4 ,this is a weather-door and is made an inch narrower on each side than the width of the doorway4 ,it is hung on screw-eyes and staples so that it will act as a flap and can be pushed in or out by the dog when entering or leaving the hut4 ,in the winter-time1 and when it is raining1 this door will keep out snow and water and also protect a dog from strong winds4 ,guinea-pig ,houses ,when making houses or huts for guinea-pigs it will be necessary to make at least one-third of the coop dark1 or nearly so1 as the little pigs like darkened places in which to spend a portion of their time4 ,the illustration of the guinea-pig house in ,fig4 #af shows how this can be done by partitioning off a portion of the house and making ventilating holes or small windows near the top4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af ,fig4 #ag ,a substantial double-decked house1 similar to the one shown in the illustration1 should be thirty-six inches long1 twenty-four inches wide1 twenty-four inches high to the roof eaves and thirty-two inches to the peak4 ,a small dry-goods case can be adapted to this use1 and the floor nailed in midway between the top and bottom4 ,the darkened compartment is fourteen inches wide and extends up on both floors4 ,holes three by four inches made in the sidings will permit the pigs to have access to the open and closed compartments4 ,a door at one side is made high enough to open into both upper and lower compartments2 this is swung on hinges1 and for safety it may be provided with a hasp and padlock4 ,the open compartments are to be screened with square-mesh galvanized wire cloth substantially heavy to prevent the pigs escaping or dogs from entering and molesting them4 ,this wire cloth can be purchased at a hardware store and attached to the wood with galvanized wire staples4 ,a guinea-pig house should not be placed on the ground1 but attached to the tops of posts from twenty-four to thirty-six inches above the ground4 ,locust posts about four inches in diameter are the best for this purpose as they are tough and will not decay in the ground as quickly as other wood4 ,the guinea-pig hut shown in ,fig4 #ag has but one floor and it is much longer than the house1 the floor plan being forty-two inches long and eighteen inches wide4 ,the ends are fifteen inches high at the front1 twelve at the back1 and eighteen at the peak4 ,the dark compartment is fifteen inches wide and the door at the front is six by eight inches1 hung on hinges and fastened with a hasp and padlock4 ,at the front the roof extends over for six inches to shade the open compartment1 and at both ends and the back it overhangs about two inches4 ,this hut is held up on sticks implanted in the ground1 and braced so that the wind will not blow it over4 ,chicken-coops ,in the spring-time when little chickens are hatched1 and it is not possible to let the hen wander about at random to scratch up the garden or the flower beds1 some small coops and shelters should be constructed and placed in a corner of the back yard1 or in some other vacant space1 where the little chicks can run without being molested by the larger fowls1 as they would be if put in the big chicken-coop or runway4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah ,fig4 #ai ,the easiest coop to make is shown in the illustration of the young chicken shelter 7,fig4 #ah74 ,it consists of a pitched roof mounted on three boards six inches high4 ,this shelter may be three feet wide and two feet deep1 and from the ground to the peak the distance is twenty-four inches4 ,slats are nailed across the front to prevent the hen from getting out1 although not so close as to prevent the chicks from squeezing through4 ,a coat or two of paint will improve the appearance of this shelter1 and each mother-hen should be provided with a separate coop for her family4 ,in the illustration of the young chicken coop 7,fig4 #ai7 a little more care is taken with the construction1 and a canopy fly is arranged at the front to keep off rain and to shade the interior of the coop4 ,this coop is three feet long1 two feet wide1 and thirty inches high at the front1 but at the back it need not be more than twenty-four inches high4 ,it may be constructed from boards with matched edges1 or perhaps from a dry-goods case1 and if it is raised from the ground an inch or two1 and a few holes bored in the bottom1 it will insure a dry floor4 ,the cross rail at the bottom to which the upright slats are nailed is three inches above the floor2 and if made two inches wide and the slats one inch and a half in width1 they will be heavy enough to resist dogs and cats1 if they should try to disturb mother-hen and her brood4 ,outriggers may be nailed at each end so that about fifteen inches of the wood projects beyond the sides4 ,a strip of lath should be fastened between the ends1 and light canvas or muslin may then be tacked fast to the roof and to the strip to serve as an awning4 ,rabbit-hutches ,among animal pets rabbits seem to be general favorites all over the country1 perhaps because they are such beautiful and harmless little creatures and so prettily marked4 ,they are worthy of a comfortable home1 and the boy who is fortunate enough to have some good rabbits should take pleasure in building a substantial hutch in which they can live and thrive4 ,in ,fig4 #bj a double-floored rabbit-hutch is shown1 and if it is made large enough quite a family of rabbits can live in it1 the larger ones down-stairs and the smaller ones upstairs4 ,an inclined plane will make it possible for the friends and relatives to visit each other4 ,this hutch should be from four to five feet long1 twenty-four inches wide1 and twenty-four inches high4 ,the second floor is arranged so that it will be midway between the top and bottom1 and at the rear an opening five inches wide and ten inches long will receive an inclined board1 across which short sticks have been nailed to prevent the rabbits slipping when going up or coming down the stairs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj ,fig4 #ba ,at one end a compartment is made eighteen inches wide1 and provided with a door six inches wide hung on hinges and fastened with a hasp and lock4 ,openings five inches wide and six inches high are cut in the side of this compartment1 so that the rabbits may enter it from either floor4 ,a drop front1 on hinges1 will permit the hutch to be partially closed in very severe weather1 but when it is pleasant the front should be raised and propped up with a stick1 in the ends of which hooks are arranged that will fit into screw-eyes driven into the lid and along the side of the compartment1 as shown in the illustration4 ,in the end of the hutch1 opposite the bottom of the stairway1 a feeding-doorway six inches square should be cut with a compass saw1 and a door hung on hinges4 ,this hutch should be supported on stout sticks or posts embedded in the ground for at least two feet1 and it should be thirty to forty inches above the ground4 ,across the open runs1 galvanized wire cloth1 with half to three-quarter inch meshes1 is to be nailed fast with staples4 ,with a few coats of paint on the outside1 this hutch will present a very good appearance4 ,the rabbit-house 7,fig4 #ba7 is a large1 one-story structure1 in which a family of rabbits can live very comfortably4 ,it is thirty-six inches long1 twenty-four inches wide1 eighteen inches high at the back and twenty-two at the front4 ,at one side a compartment is made twelve inches wide1 and at the outer side a door seven by nine inches is hung and fastened with a lock4 ,this house is supported on four posts1 two or three feet above the ground1 and when painted it should look very homelike to a rabbit's eyes4 ,a house of this same description1 but larger1 may be made for a monkey1 a fox1 an opossum1 a raccoon1 or even for bear cubs4 ,for the latter1 bars will have to be used instead of the wire cloth1 for the bears would soon tear away the lighter material4 ,squirrel ,cages ,for squirrels1 chipmunks1 and white rats very good cages can be made from wire cloth1 tin boxes1 and wood1 and in the illustration of a squirrel cage 7,fig4 #bb7 a simple house is shown4 ,to make it1 a base-board is cut twenty-eight inches long1 fifteen inches wide1 and one inch and a quarter thick4 ,ten inches from one end the edges of the board are sawed off so that the end will be six inches wide4 ,eleven inches from the small end a square piece of wood is mounted on the base-board to form the back to the square compartment4 ,this is covered with tin on the inside1 so that the rodents cannot gnaw the wood away at the edges or about the hole that leads into the cylinder4 ,a wedge-shaped piece of wood1 six inches broad at the bottom and two inches at the top1 is attached to the small end of the base-board1 and from the top of this piece to the top of the back-board a connection strip is nailed fast4 ,from thick wire or quarter-inch iron rod a wicket is made and driven into holes at the wide end of the board4 ,it should be the same size as the back-board1 and is placed there to support the wire cloth of which the cage is made4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb ,fig4 #bc ,small holes are made in the base-board with an awl1 so that the ends of the wire cloth will slip into them4 ,when the edges of the cloth are tacked to the back-board and wired to the wicket1 the ends in the holes will remain in place4 ,a wire door made from the cloth can be hung on hinges1 which should be soldered to the galvanized cloth4 ,with straight wires or wire cloth an exercising cylinder can be made with wooden or tin ends4 ,it is supported between the back of the cage and the wedge-shaped upright4 ,tacks driven around the hole that leads into the cylinder will prevent the occupants from gnawing away the edges of the wood-work4 ,the squirrel house 7,fig4 #bc7 is constructed in the same manner as the cage1 but it has the advantage of a covered shelter at one end of the base-board4 ,this is made from a tin cracker-box with the lid removed1 and inverted so the bottom acts as the roof4 ,in one side an oval opening is cut and a wire screen is fastened to it at the inside4 ,the wire cylinder is seven inches in diameter and twelve inches long1 quite large enough for two squirrels to run a great race at the same time4 ,a piece of hair felt1 an old woollen cloth1 or some curled hair will be comfortable for the squirrels to lie on in the enclosed cage4 ,reptile ,pens ,in some parts of the country pets are made of reptiles1 and very interesting and tame ones are found among the lizard family4 ,when making a reptile pen1 care should be taken to get the joints tight and not have any small openings or cracks between boards1 for snakes can get through a very small space1 often much smaller than you would think it possible1 judging from the size of their bodies4 ,in ,fig4 #bd1 the design for a very substantial reptile pen is shown1 and instead of fine wire screening1 two heavy plates of glass may be used at the front of each compartment4 ,this is a double pen1 and one side can be used for snakes1 while the other may harbor some lizards or small land-turtles4 ,this pen is forty-eight inches long1 twenty-four deep1 and twenty-six high4 ,the bottom rail at the front is four inches wide1 and the top and upright ones are two inches wide4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd ,fig4 #be ,the wood from which the pen is made should be tongue-and-grooved1 and planed on both sides4 ,it may be from three-quarters to one inch and a quarter thick1 and narrow boards are preferable to wide ones4 ,in the lizard compartment an upper floor is fastened in1 having an opening at one side where an inclined board1 with cross sticks attached1 is arranged so that the animals may climb up and down4 ,the snake pen should have a portion of a small tree fastened at top and bottom1 on which the reptiles may climb and coil4 ,the more short branches it has1 the better1 for it will then give the snakes a more satisfactory perch to move about on4 ,at the bottom of each end a small trap doorway four inches high and six inches long is cut1 and protected by a stout wire-cloth door1 hinged and locked4 ,these trap-doors are for the purpose of removing refuse or for feeding the reptiles2 or a smaller opening at the back1 near the top1 and about two inches in diameter1 can be used as a food door4 ,a ventilator is cut in the roof twelve inches long and six inches wide1 so that each compartment gets the advantage of an opening about six inches square4 ,over this a roof is made three inches above the main roof1 and with stout wire cloth the opening is covered first at the under side4 ,then the strip of wire cloth1 four inches wide1 is tacked around the inside of the opening and to a board the same size as the hole1 or six by twelve inches1 attached to the under side of the cap4 ,this arrangement is more clearly shown in ,fig4 #be1 which is a sectional view1 ,a being the cap1 ,b the board to which the upper edge of the wire cloth is attached1 ,c the wire cloth1 and ,d the main roof to the pen4 ,the line ,e represents the wire cloth tacked to the under side of the opening1 to prevent the reptiles crawling up and over the partition4 ,at the lower end of the partition an opening four inches square may be made and fitted with a wire-netting door that can be raised and lowered by a rod that extends through the cap of the ventilator4 ,one or two staples driven over the rod at the inside of the reptile pen will prevent the rod from bending1 and the wire door should slide on runners provided with a rabbet at the inside1 so that it cannot be dislodged4 ,with this construction1 the reptiles may be allowed to mingle if they are peaceable1 but if the snakes molest the small lizards they must be driven into their own side and the trap-door closed4 ,with the outer doors at the bottom and the ventilator at the top1 a free circulation of air can be had2 and if the floor is kept well sanded and clean1 this reptile pen will make a comfortable home for a collection of such pets4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf ,the lizard run shown in ,fig4 #bf is made from a wooden shoe-case open at the front1 and on top of which a smaller box is mounted and connected with the lower one by means of an inclined board and an opening1 through which the lizards can crawl4 ,a ventilator is cut in the upper box and covered with wire netting2 and in the lower box1 at one end1 a doorway is made1 four by six inches1 and protected by a heavy wire screen door on hinges4 ,a raised platform and ladder is made at one end of the large box1 and in the open space one or two branches should be made fast on which the lizards can climb4 ,the top of the box should be enclosed with wire netting1 as shown in the illustration4 ,a doorway three inches square cut in the side of the upper box will allow access to this roof-garden4 ,a few coats of dark-green paint will finish these reptile pens on the outside1 and they should be enamelled cream color1 buff1 or light green on the inside1 so that the reptiles may be seen against the light background4 ,chapter ,,iii ,,summer-,,houses ,,and ,,pergolas ,a ,simple ,summer-house ,for the back yard1 or in the fields and woods near the house1 a summer-house or pergola will be found a comfortable nook in which to spend many pleasant hours4 ,a simple summer-house is shown in the illustration1 ,fig4 #a4 ,this is made of four posts1 has a shingled roof1 and is provided with seats on three sides4 ,obtain four spruce posts four inches square1 or four tree-trunks from four to six inches in diameter4 ,plant them in the ground1 forming a square of six feet4 ,the posts should be embedded for at least two feet1 and1 to insure them from decaying too quickly1 tar or pitch the bottoms1 or give them two or three good coats of asphaltum varnish4 ,the posts should stand seven feet above ground4 ,across the tops of the posts nail two-by-four-inch joist1 with lap joints as shown at ,a in ,fig4 #b4 ,with four more pieces of joist form the roof rafters1 cutting a notch in each joist where it fits over the corners at the head of the posts4 ,at the peak1 the joist are bevelled where they meet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,join two of the pieces at first2 then lap the remaining two on both sides of them1 nailing all the ends securely with steel wire nails4 ,put one middle rafter in on each side between eaves to the roof4 ,it would not look well to have to roof the corner ones2 then nail shingle lath or scantling on the four sides to receive the shingles4 ,the rafters should overhang the top frame about twelve inches1 so as to form the stop on a line with the posts4 ,begin at the bottom and at the middle of each side to shingle the roof1 working out to the corners and up through the middle to the peak4 ,to prevent the roof leaking at the corners1 bevel the shingles at one side1 then lap those on the other side over them and bevel the edges4 ,some builders lay a strip of tin flashing over the edges as well as in the valleys of a roof to insure a perfectly water-tight joint4 ,use galvanized nails4 ,to hide the rough rafters and shingle lath1 the inside of the roof may be lined with narrow1 matched boards2 then the wood-work may be given a coat or two of paint in some desirable color4 ,a ,back-yard ,pergola ,a back-yard pergola is constructed from two upright posts four inches square1 a cross beam two by six inches1 and eight joists laid across from the post bar to the top of the back fence4 ,this style of pergola is particularly adapted to city yards and those surrounded by a board fence4 ,in the event of there being no fence1 the ends of the joist or roofing beams may bear on a two-by-six-inch cross bar that rests on two more posts corresponding with the front ones4 ,the posts are four inches square1 of spruce or any other available wood1 and are planed on all four sides4 ,they are embedded in the ground for about two feet1 and1 to prevent them from sinking or shifting1 place a large1 flat stone in the hole on which the post will rest1 and around it pack earth and stones instead of earth only4 ,a lap cut in the front top end of the post will admit the two-by-six-inch cross beam4 ,the posts are seven feet apart1 and the cross beam ten feet long1 with the ends cut as shown in ,fig4 #c on page #ef4 ,the front end of each joist is rounded under as shown1 and to make a more secure anchorage a notch two inches long and an inch deep may be cut at the under side of each joist1 so that they will fit down over the upper edge of the cross beam4 ,make all the joints and laps fast with steel wire nails2 then give the wood-work a few coats of paint4 ,seats may be built in on two sides and supported with under braces or brackets to prop up the front edge1 and a back-board may be nailed fast to the posts and fence4 ,a ,toadstool ,tree ,canopy ,where there is a large tree on the place or near the house1 a toadstool canopy 7,fig4 #d7 may be constructed above a comfortable seat4 ,the framing of the canopy is shown in ,fig4 #e1 where the arrangement of corner rafters and braces can be clearly seen4 ,the tree end of each rafter is bevelled 7or cut on a slant7 and nailed fast with steel wire nails4 ,the under braces are keyed to the tree by cutting out a wedge of the bark1 so that the lower end or point of the bracket will fit into it4 ,these ends are to be well nailed to the tree-trunk1 as they are the main props to hold up the roof4 ,between the corner rafters let one rafter in on each side2 then nail shingle lath on the top of the rafters1 and to these the shingles are fastened4 ,a seat eighteen inches wide may be built about the foot of the trunk and supported by two-by-three-inch joist let into the ground a foot or eighteen inches4 ,instead of shingling this roof1 it may be thatched with salt hay arranged in flat tufts and nailed onto the lath4 ,begin at the lower edge to do this and thatch one line first2 then begin on the end of the line above it and arrange the tufts closely side by side1 and nail them fast4 ,the last line at the top should have tar paper under it1 closely fitted1 and nailed to the tree trunk with copper tacks and painted4 ,this will deflect the water and prevent it from running down the trunk and wetting the seat4 ,a ,rustic ,pergola ,a simple but effective and useful rustic pergola is shown in ,fig4 #f4 ,all the posts1 cross-pieces1 braces1 and stringers at the top are of undressed wood1 having the bark on4 ,the corner posts are from four to six inches in diameter1 and are embedded two feet in the ground4 ,they are seven feet above the ground1 and on top of two sets cross-stringers are made fast and braced with angle brackets4 ,a sharp hatchet1 a saw1 and a hammer will be the only tools required for this work2 and where an angle piece is attached to a post1 the bark and wood should be cut away on the post1 so that the bevelled edge of the bracket will lie snugly against it4 ,it should then be nailed fast with long steel wire nails4 ,this pergola can be made of almost any size1 but for one of moderate proportions it should measure eight feet square and seven feet high4 ,seats of smooth boards may be arranged on three sides between posts1 and wires may be run up and down and crosswise1 on which climbing vines may be supported4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c ,fig4 #d ,fig4 #e ,fig4 #f ,fig4 #g ,fig4 #h ,a ,circular ,pergola ,a circular pergola will present a pleasing appearance in any yard4 ,it is made from six rustic posts1 six supporting beams1 and eleven top rafters1 as shown in ,fig4 #g4 ,tree-trunks of the proper size and length may be cut in the woods1 or some locust posts can be purchased at a lumber-yard4 ,the bark is to be left on1 and the posts are to be planted two feet in the ground in a circle eight feet in diameter4 ,the tops of the posts should be sawed off so that they are all an equal distance from the ground4 ,on top of them nail six pieces of joist1 two by four inches1 with the narrower side resting on the posts4 ,the joist must be bevelled or mitred so that they will fit snugly at the posts4 ,spike them fast to each other and to the posts with large steel wire nails4 ,the top rafters should be of two-by-three or two-by-four inch spruce1 planed or left rough1 and arranged equal distances apart1 so that they will form a large circle on the supporting beams4 ,these are to be nailed fast and painted if desired4 ,vines may be planted close to the posts1 so that as they grow the thick mass of foliage will make a shady top to the pergola4 ,if desired1 a few seats may be arranged between the posts or columns1 but portable seats would be more in keeping with this style of pergola4 ,a ,summer ,shelter ,a design for a comfortable summer-house is shown in ,fig4 #h4 ,the posts are set on an oblong1 seven feet wide and twelve feet long4 ,seven or eight inch posts are planted in the ground1 and the top rails are arranged as shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,the rails can be of two-by-four-inch joist1 and should be cut and neatly lapped at the ends1 as shown at ,a in ,fig4 #b4 ,a ridge-pole forms the centre support to this roof1 and from it the rafters are run down to the top rails4 ,over these the shingle lath are nailed1 and then the thatching of salt hay or shingles may be laid on4 ,a wind-speeder and a weather-vane may be arranged at either end of the roof1 as shown in the drawing1 and seats may be built in between the end posts1 with a supporting rib at the middle and braces under the seats4 ,there is room enough under this roof to swing a hammock4 ,chapter ,,iv ,,weather-,,vanes ,,and ,,windmills ,from the time of the earliest habitation of the earth1 nature's great forces1 wind and water1 have been employed to furnish power for man's uses4 ,wind engines and mills for motive power have become almost obsolete in and about the great cities1 as they are so cumbersome and uncertain1 but in the country they are still used to a great extent for pumping water1 milling1 and operating light machinery4 ,windmills have been made in a number of shapes by the people of different nations1 and some of them are very picturesque1 especially the ,dutch wheels and those made in the eastern part of the ,united ,states a century or more ago1 many of which are still working4 ,windmills will never go out of use entirely1 no matter what cheap motive power will eventually run the world2 for when they are once set up properly they cost nothing to operate1 and if a wheel is well made it will last for years with but trifling cost for repairs4 ,windmills1 weather-vanes1 pinion-wheels1 and wind toys of all descriptions have been made by boys in every age1 and each generation goes on to invent or think of something new for the same old wind to play with that has toyed with the world's wheels for centuries4 ,the illustrations and descriptions on this and the following pages will be found helpful in the construction of wind machinery that shall be both novel and practicable4 ,a ,pinion-wheel ,weather-vane ,the easiest sort of a pinion-wheel and weather-vane to construct is shown in ,fig4 #a4 ,it consists of a piece of stout tin or sheet-iron1 a wooden shaft twenty inches long1 and a fan-tail twelve inches long and seven inches wide at the rear end4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,punch a small hole in the centre of a sheet of tin or iron not less than ten inches square1 and with a lead-pencil compass draw a circle ten inches in diameter4 ,half an inch inside of this draw another one nine inches in diameter1 as indicated by the light lines in ,fig4 #b4 ,one inch from the centre draw a third circle making it two inches in diameter2 then divide the disk into eight equal parts4 ,with a cold chisel cut on the lines1 as indicated in ,fig4 #b1 and bend the metal ears as shown in drawing ,no4 #a1 so that the corners will set back an inch from the rim4 ,with a stout pair of shears cut around the outside line and free the wheel from the sheet of metal4 ,at the front of the wheel fasten a spool with steel wire nails driven through the tin to act as a hub4 ,then give them both a coat or two of paint4 ,make a shaft from hard wood an inch square1 and cut it in from one end about ten inches1 as shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,at the other end bind the wood for an inch or two with linen line or fine wire to prevent its splitting1 and bore a hole in the end with an awl4 ,through the spool and disk1 and into the hole in the shaft1 drive a flat-headed steel wire nail or a screw1 three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter1 to act as the pinion on which the wheel may revolve4 ,from light wood1 three-eighths of an inch in thickness1 cut a fan-tail seven inches wide at one end and two at the other1 and1 having passed it through the cut in the shaft1 make it fast with small nails or screws4 ,balance the shaft and wheel on your finger to determine where to pierce the hole through which the upright shaft on the pole should pass2 then bore it out with bit and brace so that the shaft will fit snug but not tight4 ,to the top of the shaft1 over the hole1 attach another spool1 so as to form a longer bearing2 or a strap of metal may be tacked so that it will bridge up over the hole about two inches4 ,in this bridge a corresponding hole may be cut1 through which the vertical shaft or pin will pass4 ,this is to hold the vane steady on the long pin of quarter-inch round iron driven into the top of the pole1 and prevent it from dipping forward or backward4 ,place this vane on a shed1 the end of a barn roof1 or on a high pole where the wind has free access to it4 ,a ,wind-speeder ,wind-speeders may be constructed of metal or partly of wood1 but one that can easily be made by a boy consists of two sticks1 four ordinary tin funnels having their ends stopped up with a plug of wood1 and a pole1 into the end of which a long iron pin is driven and on which the hub revolves4 ,fig4 #d4 ,two hard-wood sticks thirty inches long and three-quarters of an inch square are cut at the middle so that they will lap1 and with steel nails they are attached to a hub three-quarters of an inch thick and three inches in diameter1 in the centre of which a quarter-inch hole is bored4 ,the end of each stick or arm is cut in to receive the funnels1 and they are held in place by straps of tin passed around each neck and tacked fast to the top and bottom of the cross sticks4 ,with a sharp-pointed awl or punch a small hole is made through the strap and neck1 and a long1 slim steel nail is driven through both into the end of the sticks to give the funnels an additional purchase4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d ,fig4 #e ,fig4 #f ,fig4 #g ,fig4 #h ,fig4 #i ,to reduce the friction and to prevent the wood from wearing away at the under side of the hub1 a large flat washer should be attached to the wood with copper tacks driven closely all around the outer edge4 ,before the speeder is slipped over the upright pin1 a short piece of small gas-pipe or tubing should be placed over it so it will rest between the hub and the top of the pole4 ,two coats of white or light-colored paint will improve the appearance of this speeder4 ,the ,arrow ,weather-vane ,of all the weather-vanes that have ever been made1 the balanced arrow is undoubtedly the oldest and most popular2 it is the universal type of its class1 and1 from the simple arrow that a boy can whittle from a shingle to the beautifully gilded vane that crowns the pinnacle of some great building1 it is everywhere in evidence4 ,fig4 #e4 ,the arrow-vane can be made any length to suit the height at which it may be placed1 but for the house1 barn1 flag-pole1 or tower not more than fifty or sixty feet high1 it should be from twenty-four to thirty-six inches long1 with the blade from five to six inches in width4 ,the most substantial vane is made in three pieces1 the point1 shaft1 and blade4 ,the shaft is made from hard wood1 three-quarters of an inch square1 in the ends of which cuts are made to receive a tin or sheet-metal point and blade4 ,these are held in place with steel nails driven through the wood and clinched on the opposite side4 ,the arrow is balanced and a hole is then made in the shaft through which the upright pin or rod will pass4 ,a ferule or ring is driven on the upright rod to hold the arrow in the proper place1 and below it two rods should be arranged at right angles1 at the ends of which the letters ,n1 ,e1 ,s1 ,w are soldered4 ,these rods may be of brass or wood1 and if the wood is used it should be of hickory or locust1 half an inch square or round1 and slit at the ends to receive the letters of tin or sheet metal4 ,these latter are held in place with slim steel wire nails driven through the wood and metal4 ,at the top of a flag-pole these arms should be mounted above a gilded ball1 and they should be1 if of brass or copper1 held securely in place with wire or solder4 ,if they are of iron1 it would be well to have a blacksmith weld them1 so that they will be rigid and stay in place4 ,wooden ,vanes ,in ,fig4 #f some suggestions for wooden vanes are shown that can be followed with the scroll saw and jackknife or a compass saw and carving chisels4 ,these vanes can be made in almost any size that will not be out of proportion to the building or pole they are to be mounted on4 ,the fish is cut from wood five-eighths of an inch thick1 and all around the edges the wood is bevelled so as to give the fish a rounded effect4 ,the fish is balanced on the edge of a piece of wood to determine where the rod will pass through it2 then with a quarter-inch bit the hole is carefully bored through from top to bottom4 ,the compass-point letters can be made from sheet tin and supported on two cross sticks and a stout wire hoop from twelve to fifteen inches in diameter4 ,the lady with the parasol is cut from wood half an inch in thickness4 ,she is fifteen inches high and twelve inches wide across the bottom of the skirt4 ,from the shoes to the hat1 a quarter-inch hole is bored entirely through the body1 but if this be found too difficult1 a staple at the top and bottom will answer instead4 ,through these staples the rod will pass4 ,the squirrel is made in the same manner as the lady1 and either balanced on the rod which passes through the body or by means of staples driven at one side4 ,a ring and washer should be provided on the rod for the bottom of the vane to rest on1 as there would be too much friction if the vane rested on the top end of the pole into which the rod is driven4 ,the bird vane is cut out and balanced the same as the fish1 and the modelling may be carved in the wood or painted1 to give shape and character to the vane4 ,otherwise it would be but a blank piece of thin board cut in the shape of the outline4 ,in all of these vanes it is necessary1 of course1 to have the greatest overhang on the side opposite to that facing the wind1 otherwise they would not indicate properly4 ,a ,wind-pennant ,an excellent and reliable wind indicator is shown in ,fig4 #g1 the illustration of the wind-pennant4 ,it consists of a metal hoop on which a funnel-shaped silk or cotton fabric pennant is sewed fast1 and when this latter is filled by a breeze it stands out1 as the illustration shows4 ,a pennant fifteen inches long should have a hoop five inches in diameter1 and it can be made either from wire rings bent as shown in ,fig4 #h ,a1 or from sheet metal1 as shown at ,fig4 #h ,b4 ,the sheet metal should be perforated with small holes all around one edge to pass the thread through1 when sewing the fabric fast1 and the edges should be smoothed so as not to cut the threads4 ,if the hoop is made of wire1 a ring should be formed at top and bottom for the upright rod to pass through2 but if it is of sheet metal a hole at the top and bottom will admit the rod4 ,this pennant is very useful at the mast-head of a boat1 and is much more satisfactory to watch than the perpetually bobbing flat pennant1 as it does not break or fall down unless it is calm1 and only shifts from side to side as the wind blows it4 ,on a flag-pole or staff above the pennant the compass points are arranged1 and if these are made from copper or brass1 the letters may be soldered fast to the ends of the arms4 ,where the arms cross1 they are to be flattened as shown in ,fig4 #i ,a1 and lapped together1 as shown in ,fig4 #i ,b4 ,after the hole is bored they should be bound to the upright rod with copper wire and soldered so they will remain in a fixed position that the wind cannot alter4 ,fig4 #i ,c4 ,sticks of hard wood may be substituted for the metal arms1 and the sheet-metal letters let into saw cuts made at the outer ends4 ,a ,basket-ball ,vane ,an odd wind indicator is shown in ,fig4 #aj1 illustrating a ball vane in a basket4 ,it consists of a flat basket1 with a rim six inches high1 made of wire cloth with square meshes2 inside of this a silk or cotton covered ball of wire is placed and blown by the wind from one side to the other of the basket4 ,of course1 the direction the wind is coming from is opposite to that taken by the ball4 ,the basket should be twenty-four inches in diameter1 six inches high1 and supported at the top of a pole by wires attached from the upper and lower edge of the outer rim1 and leading up and down to the pole1 the ends being made fast to staples or screw-eyes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj ,fig4 #aa ,fig4 #ab ,fig4 #ac ,the ball1 which is made of wire hoops and fastened together with fine wires1 should be from four to six inches in diameter4 ,it is covered with silk or thin muslin sewed on in the same manner in which a baseball is covered with leather4 ,the framework must be of light spring brass or copper wire1 and where the hoops cross it would be well to touch the unions with solder to insure a firm joint and make the ball rigid4 ,if the ball should blow out of the basket at any time1 it may be necessary to lace wires across the outer rim at the top1 so as to form a confining net-work4 ,above the basket the compass points can be arranged on wood or metal arms1 and when complete and mounted this weather-vane will present a most unique appearance4 ,a ,merry-go-round ,a merry-go-round like the one shown in ,fig4 #aa is an interesting wind toy and pleasing to watch1 as the boats keep sailing round and round4 ,it is made from a child's hoople properly braced with cross sticks and mounted on a hub4 ,four flat-boats are made and attached to the outer edge of the frame4 ,when rigged with sails and placed at the top of a post1 on a rod1 the boats will keep up a continual sailing so long as there is any breeze4 ,a hoople three feet in diameter is best for this purpose1 as it gives more space between the boats4 ,double sets of braces or cross strips are arranged inside the hoople1 and1 where they meet at the middle1 laps are cut in the sticks so that they will fit flush1 as shown in ,fig4 #ab4 ,the sticks are placed seven inches apart1 and are five-eighths of an inch square2 under the lap joints a plate of wood nine inches square is attached by means of screws or steel wire nails1 to strengthen the unions of the cross sticks as well as to make a platform1 at the under side of which the hub is arranged4 ,a plan of the hoople1 the cross sticks1 and the location of one boat is shown in ,fig4 #ac4 ,the boats are placed so that the outer edges of the bottoms rest on the top of the hoople4 ,the inner edges rest on two of the cross sticks1 where they are securely attached with long1 slim screws passed up through the sticks and hoople and into the bottoms of the boats4 ,a block of wood four or five inches square and six inches long is to be shaved down at one end so that it is round and about one inch and a half in diameter4 ,this is attached to the under side of the plate1 at the middle of the hoople frame1 so that the small end projects down2 and through it a half-inch hole is bored4 ,an iron pin half an inch in thickness and eighteen inches long is to be driven into the upper end of a post over which the hub and hoople frame will fit4 ,the upper end of the iron pin is threaded and provided with two nuts4 ,one of these should be screwed down tight on the other with a washer between to act as a lock-nut1 so that the revolution of the merry-go-round will not tighten or loosen them when once adjusted4 ,the boats are ten inches long and three inches wide at the middle1 but they taper fore and aft1 as shown in ,fig4 #ac ,a4 ,they are cut from pine or white-wood two inches thick1 and painted in gay colors4 ,the masts are fifteen inches high1 and the sails are provided with booms1 gaffs1 and jib-booms1 also with rings which hold the sails close to the masts4 ,the rigging is of copper wire1 as the constant motion would soon wear out string or line and the sails would fly loose4 ,each boat must be in good trim to keep the motion uniform1 and if the sails wear out too soon1 tin ones should be made or the muslin ones may be given a coat or two of white paint4 ,pennants at the tops of the masts will add to the effect4 ,a ,wind ,turbine ,the wind turbine shown in ,fig4 #ad1 on the following page1 is made of two hooples about thirty inches in diameter1 four cross sticks1 two wire hoops1 and eight ,v-shaped tin blades4 ,the cross sticks1 thirty inches long1 are cut and lapped at the middle and attached to the edge of each hoop with screws or nails4 ,the wire hoops are twenty-two inches in diameter1 and are fastened to the cross sticks with staples4 ,the plan of one hoople and the cross sticks1 the wire hoop and the location of the blades1 is shown in ,fig4 #ae4 ,the outer corners of each blade are tacked fast to both the upper and lower hoople1 while the inner corners are wired fast to the stout wire hoop4 ,the blades are made from tin or sheet iron twelve inches long and six inches wide1 and1 when bent in the shape of a ,v1 the width across the open end should be four inches4 ,the blades are depended upon to hold the upper and lower frames in place1 and when the turbine is on the top of a post with a rod running through the middle of the cross sticks1 around which it revolves1 the wind will keep it spinning at a high speed4 ,power can be developed with this turbine1 but only a very small percentage as compared with a windmill the entire surface of which is continually exposed to the breeze4 ,in the turbine only two or three of the blades are effective at any one time4 ,a ,barrel-hoop ,pinion-wheel ,from a flat hoop1 a few pieces of tin or sheet iron1 and some thin wood1 a barrel-hoop pinion-wheel may be made similar to the one shown in ,fig4 #af4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad ,fig4 #ae ,fig4 #af ,fig4 #ag ,the barrel-hoop will measure about twenty-one inches in diameter1 and the hub should be made five inches in diameter1 two inches thick1 and cut in1 as shown in ,fig4 #ag ,a1 with nine places to receive the small ends of the metal blades4 ,the hub revolves on a pin which is driven into a block of wood three inches square1 as shown at ,fig4 #ag ,b4 ,a hole is made in the block from top to bottom1 through which a half-inch rod will pass4 ,the rails that support the tail are let into each side of the block and are securely fastened with screws1 as shown also at ,fig4 #ag ,b4 ,the fan-tails are twenty-four inches long1 one inch and a half wide1 and half an inch thick1 made of ash or hickory that will bend easily1 so as to be drawn in against the blades forming the tail4 ,the tin blades are cut five inches wide at one end and one inch and a half at the other1 and fastened to both the hoop and hub with tacks1 as shown in the illustration4 ,the blades forming the fan are of half-inch wood1 one ,v-shaped piece and two end slats cut as shown in the illustration4 ,they are all held in position by the two rails that extend back from the pinion block and two that are set at right angles to them1 and which hold the upper and lower edge blades4 ,this wheel may be placed at the top of a post two or three inches square or round1 in which a half-inch iron rod or long pin has been driven1 leaving about six or eight inches of it projecting above the top of the post4 ,on this the block turns as the wind acts on the fan-tail4 ,a ,pumping ,windmill ,a simple wheel1 with spokes and sails1 that is commonly employed on canal-boats and barges1 and in a small way for raising water in a suction-pump1 is shown in the illustration of a pumping windmill4 ,fig4 #ah4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah ,it consists of a hub1 six spokes1 a fan-tail1 and a trunk or upright to which the wheel is attached4 ,the hub is a hexagon of six inches and six inches long1 so that one spoke can be driven into a hole made in each side1 as shown in ,fig4 #ai4 ,the spokes are three feet long1 three by one inch and a half at the hub end1 and one by one inch and a half at the outer end4 ,they are driven snugly into holes in the hub three inches long and one inch and a half wide1 and pinned to hold them in place4 ,the hub should be made of hard wood1 and it would be well to have a blacksmith put a thin iron band around each end to prevent it from splitting4 ,the holes may be cut with a mortise chisel and mallet1 and care must be taken to shape them evenly1 so that the spokes will line properly4 ,triangular pieces of twilled muslin sheeting are tacked to the face of each spoke1 and the loose corner of each is caught to the next spoke end with a rope and snap4 ,this makes an outlet between the leech and spoke of each space between spokes for the wind to pass through1 thereby causing the wheel to revolve4 ,the wheel is held in place to the head of the supporting post by a shaft which passes through the hub and is bolted fast at the front of it with a nut4 ,a blacksmith will make this shaft1 as it is somewhat beyond a boy's ability unless he has had some experience in blacksmithing4 ,it should be shaped as shown in ,fig4 #bj4 ,the shaft is an inch square where it passes through the hub1 and at the front end it is threaded and provided with a nut and washer4 ,at the end of the square part1 ,a1 where the rear of the hub will stop1 a shoulder1 ,b1 should be welded on to hold the hub in the proper place4 ,an inch beyond this square shoulder1 another one1 ,c1 is welded on the shaft1 which for the balance of its length is three-quarters of an inch in diameter4 ,just beyond the shoulder or collar1 ,c1 the crank is formed1 two inches wide and three inches out from the shaft4 ,beyond the crank another collar1 ,c ,c1 is welded on1 and beyond this the shaft should measure six inches in length4 ,the total length of the shaft is fifteen inches1 and all the collars and smooth surfaces should be dressed down with a file and then painted4 ,the head to which the fan-tail is attached is made of two blocks1 cut as shown in ,fig4 #ba1 and fastened five inches apart on the lower rails that support the long rails to which1 in turn1 the tail is attached4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai ,fig4 #bj ,fig4 #ba ,fig4 #bb ,fig4 #bc ,the upper ends of the blocks are cut out so as to admit the shaft4 ,the collars1 ,c1 and ,c ,c1 are at the inside of the blocks4 ,to hold the shaft in place1 straps of iron are screwed fast over the top of each block4 ,this head rests on the top of a trunk or hollow square post1 through which the rod passes that connects the crank with the piston-rod of a pump4 ,this trunk is of three-quarter-inch wood and seven inches square1 as shown in ,fig4 #bb ,a2 and at the top of it a flat iron collar1 ,b1 is screwed fast4 ,to hold the head on and keep it in the proper place1 four iron cleats 7,fig4 #bb ,c7 are screwed fast to the under corners of the head to grip the projecting edge of the collar4 ,this arrangement will hold the head stiff1 but will allow it to move about as impelled by the wind acting on the tail4 ,a little grease or vaseline should be placed on top of the collar1 so that the head will move on it easily4 ,the top of the connection rod should be attached to the crank1 as shown in ,fig4 #bb ,d1 where a strap of iron passes over the crank and is bolted to the top of the hard-wood rod4 ,the tail is attached to the head as shown in ,fig4 #bc1 which is a rear view of the head block and a portion of the forward part of the tail4 ,the tail is thirty-three inches long and twenty-four inches wide at the rear end1 and is made of boards three-quarters of an inch in thickness4 ,if the mill is to be placed over a pump1 a platform should be erected to which the trunk may be braced with props1 as shown in the illustration1 and on which the lower end of the trunk may rest4 ,guy rods or wires can also be carried from the upper part of the trunk down to pegs driven in the ground1 which will lend additional support and steadiness to the upright shaft4 ,to start the wheel1 snap the ends of the sheets to the spoke ends2 to stop it1 unsnap the ends and furl the sails around the spokes1 and tie them securely with a cotton cord4 ,a ,windmill and ,tower ,windmills1 of course1 can be put to many different uses and are generally of sufficient size to develop a considerable amount of power4 ,fig4 #bd shows a windmill and tower that any smart boy can make of wood1 an old buggy wheel1 and a few iron fittings that a blacksmith will make at a nominal cost4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd ,fig4 #be ,fig4 #bf ,the tower is the first thing to make1 and it should be constructed of four spruce sticks sixteen feet long and four inches square1 thirty inches square at the top and seventy-two inches square at the base4 ,the deck is thirty-six inches square1 and projects two inches over the top rails all around4 ,the rails and cross braces are of spruce or pine strips four inches wide and seven-eighths of an inch thick1 and are attached to the corner posts with steel wire nails4 ,the corner posts are embedded two feet in the ground1 leaving fourteen feet of tower above the surface4 ,the rail at the bottom1 attached to the four posts1 is three feet above the ground1 and1 midway between this and the top rail under the deck1 the middle rail is run around the posts4 ,the cross braces are bevelled at the ends1 so that they will fit snugly against the corner posts and in behind the rails where they are securely nailed to both posts and rails4 ,one of the posts with its binding of rails and cross brace is shown in ,fig4 #be1 and this clearly illustrates how the union is made4 ,the posts1 rails1 and braces are all to be planed1 so that they will present a good appearance when painted2 and at one side of the tower a ladder can be made of scantling1 and the lower end of it attached to a rail nailed to the corner posts a few inches above the ground4 ,across two of the rails half-way up the tower a board is nailed1 to which the lower end of a trunk is made fast1 if a wheel similar to the pumping-mill is to be used4 ,but if a wooden mill is desired1 it can be constructed from a buggy-wheel and six blades of wood1 to appear as shown in the illustration4 ,at a wagon-shop an old wheel can be had for little or nothing1 and with a little work it may be converted into the frame of a windmill4 ,each spoke is to be cut at an angle on one side so that the blades1 when attached to them1 will have the necessary pitch to make the wind act on them4 ,this can be seen in ,fig4 #bf1 which is an edge view of the wheel showing a top1 bottom1 and middle blade4 ,the blades are eighteen inches long1 twelve inches wide at the outer end1 and six inches in width next the hub4 ,they are three-quarters of an inch thick1 and are attached to the spokes with screws4 ,if it is found necessary1 a wire can be run from the outer end of each blade to the end of the next spoke1 to steady the blades1 as shown in the illustration4 ,the crank and shaft can be arranged as described for the pumping-mill1 and a fan-tail to keep the wheel up into the wind is made in proportion to the size of the mill4 ,all the wood-work should be painted to give it a good appearance4 ,a mill of this size will develop at least quarter of a horse-power in a fifteen-mile breeze4 ,chapter ,v ,a,,rial ,,toys ,the ,elastic ,flying-machine ,to have a flying-machine is the dream of every boy4 ,to build a large one is exceedingly difficult1 but a small one run by a rubber band can be easily constructed4 ,you will not be able to fly up to the roofs of houses and spires of churches1 but it will furnish you much amusement1 without the danger of a broken neck4 ,i will tell you exactly how ,i constructed one of these machines1 and then you can make one for yourself4 ,the backbone was a knitting-needle4 ,the wings1 or more properly aroplanes1 were light bamboo strips 7taken from a ,japanese fan7 and covered with the ,japanese paper which is used for napkins4 7,fig4 #a47 ,fig4 #b shows the backbone and its parts4 ,cut from thin brass or copper a piece shaped like ,no4 #a1 and bend the top over1 as shown at ,no4 #b4 ,brass suitable for this may be bought at any hardware-store1 or an old article made of proper metal may be cut up4 ,the shell of a metallic cartridge is excellent4 ,the brass should be as thin as possible1 to be light1 and so that it may be cut with an old pair of shears and bent easily4 ,first cut the piece out roughly with the shears1 and then trim it into shape with a small file4 ,scrape that part of the metal bright and clean which will form the inside of the roll1 and then bend it around the needle so that it will fit nicely and snugly4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,this must be fastened to the forward end of the backbone4 ,the best and lightest way is to braze it1 as the tinsmiths call it4 ,file the polish from the end of the needle1 and wet it with soldering fluid1 which may be bought at a tinner's1 or made by adding zinc to muriatic acid until no more is dissolved4 ,slip on the brass support just where you want it1 and lay on a piece of solder about half the size of a grain of wheat4 ,now hold this in the flame of a candle1 in the gas1 or near a hot stove1 until the solder melts4 ,take it away and let it cool1 and you will find that the solder has run into all the cracks and joined the pieces beautifully4 ,file off any excess of solder or rough ends1 and you will have a neat and workman-like joint1 as well as a very light one4 ,cut out the piece ,no4 #c1 and bend it into the shape shown at ,no4 #d4 ,in this case you will need to file the upper surface of the groove bright and clean4 ,take off the polish from the other end of the needle1 and then put the stern-post1 as it may be called1 in place1 and hold it there by twisting a fine wire around it and the needle4 ,be careful to get both supports turned the same way4 ,then braze and finish it as before4 ,make the piece ,no4 #e1 and form it into the shape ,no4 #f4 ,this is fastened by brazing to the backbone1 as shown in the lower diagram4 ,take a piece of another knitting-needle1 and make a shaft like ,no4 #g by heating red-hot and pounding the end into a hook with a small hammer4 ,put the straight end of this shaft through the hole in the stern-post which was formed by bending the metal1 and then make a shoulder on it1 as follows3 bend a piece of fine wire into a ring the size of the needle1 and braze this to the shaft about a quarter-inch from the stern-post4 ,this ring of wire keeps the shaft from slipping through the hole when the rubber is stretched4 ,file a flat point on the straight end of the shaft4 ,next make the wings4 ,for the ribs ,i used the thin bamboo strips taken from a ,japanese fan4 ,the paper is pulled or soaked off1 and the thin strips cut close to the handle4 ,the front of the wings is made as in the upper diagram of ,fig4 #c4 ,take one of the largest and stiffest strips of the bamboo1 find the exact middle1 and lay it evenly across the wing-support 7,no4 #f in ,fig4 #b71 which is already in place on the backbone4 ,lash it to the support with waxed sewing-silk4 ,over this piece lay two others of equal length1 making them come together 7but not lap over7 just above the backbone4 ,when well secured1 add three pieces of the same length above the two1 placing them in such a way that the joinings shall not come over the joinings of either of the other pieces1 and thus weaken the wings4 ,the ribs are made from the bamboo strips1 cut the proper length and lashed to the front edge4 ,the other ends are fastened to a cross-rib to make them take the same curvature4 ,the lower diagram of ,fig4 #c shows how the ribs are spaced4 ,cover the wings with thin1 strong paper4 ,the best is ,japanese paper1 such as is used in making napkins4 ,this is exceedingly light and very strong4 ,it should be sewed1 not gummed1 as the gum makes the paper tear easily1 and your sticky fingers spoil the whole cover very quickly4 ,the paper is tough enough to be sewed1 using a fine needle and white cotton1 and you will get a neater and much more satisfactory job4 ,make a triangle by lashing together three pieces of bamboo1 two being about two inches long1 and the third one inch4 ,this triangle is lashed to the backbone just behind the wings1 with the short side down2 its position may be seen by a glance at the picture of the finished machine4 ,it is kept rigid by running stays1 made of waxed sewing-silk1 from the lower corners to the stern-post1 from the right-hand corner to the middle of the left wing1 and from the left-hand corner to the middle of the right wing4 ,just in front of this triangle fasten a piece of the bamboo1 and make two small guiding vanes or rudders4 ,these are made in a similar manner to the wings4 ,tie threads to the lower corners of the wings1 and then to the triangle1 drawing them down until they have the proper angle4 ,the guiding-vanes should have a greater angle than the wings--that is1 they should be drawn farther down4 ,it only remains now to make the screw and attach the rubber band4 ,for the hub of the wheel you will need a small cork4 ,this cork must be kept from turning on the end of the shaft4 ,if the sharpened end of the shaft carrying the hook for the rudder was simply stuck into the cork1 it would soon wear loose and turn easily4 ,to make a firm hold for the shaft1 bore a hole through the cork about a quarter-inch from the large end1 and drive a plug of soft wood into this hole4 ,the flat-pointed end of the shaft can now pass into the cork and be forced into the wood1 being careful to have the end of the point parallel to the grain of the wood4 ,this will give a firm hold and prevent the screw slipping4 ,the blades of the screw are made of thin paper gummed on to short pieces of bamboo4 ,lay one of the bamboo spokes on a piece of thin1 stiff paper1 and then gum over it a small strip of the thin ,japanese paper before referred to4 ,when this is dry1 cut it down to the proper shape and sharpen the end of the spoke4 ,force these spokes into the cork so that all the blades will turn the same way1 as shown in the picture--i4 e41 so that when the screw is turned the blades will all strike the air in the same manner and tend to force the machine forward1 not so that some try to push it forward and some backward4 ,select a rubber band of the proper size--such a one as will stretch the length of the backbone easily and not be so strong that1 when stretched1 the backbone is bent into a bow4 ,tie this band to the forward support with a string1 and then draw it back and slip it over the hook on the shaft4 ,to wind up the machine1 hold it by the backbone and turn the screw the wrong way until the rubber is twisted tight4 ,then hold the machine up1 let go the screw1 and when it is revolving rapidly1 give it a gentle push forward4 ,if it pitches head-first1 draw down the wings2 if tail-first1 let up the wings or turn the screw the other way4 ,if the wheel does not revolve rapidly cut off part of the blades or use a stronger rubber4 ,some little adjustment of the kind is usually required before the thing moves properly4 ,a contrivance of this sort should be very light4 ,the one before me has wings two feet from tip to tip1 and it weighs when complete--backbone1 wings1 rubber1 screw1 etc4--only one-third of an ounce4 ,self-acting ,arial ,car ,here is an idea for a mechanical toy to be used either on a kite-string or a cord stretched from a flag-pole in the yard or a handy tree4 ,the only condition is that the lower end of the cord is directly against the wind4 ,the elevation at which the car can run will depend on the strength of the wind and sail area of the machine4 ,the only wood used is the lightest and driest pine that can be procured4 ,the carriage is made entirely of one-half by one-quarter inch wood1 and is composed of two strips1 fourteen inches long1 placed one inch apart4 ,the two guiders are two inches from each end1 and have a small screw-eye on the lower extremity1 through which the cord is passed4 ,on the upper side of the carriage1 exactly in the centre1 are screwed two eyes1 which should measure a little over a half-inch in diameter of the inside of their circle4 ,through these is passed the spar of the sail1 allowing enough space to insure easy turning1 as the spar acts as an axis on which the sail turns when on its downward trip4 ,this spar is at right angles with the carriage4 ,two upright sticks measuring twenty inches1 and the same dimensions as the material used for the construction of the carriage1 are next added4 ,these should be slightly pointed at both ends1 and a cross-bar at the top of these uprights securely fastened gives additional strength4 ,the balancing-bar is made of three-eighths by three-eighths inch pine1 tapering at the lower end1 and is ten inches in length1 and fastened to the carriage by two strips of wood--five by one-quarter by one-eighth inch4 ,the wheels are formed as follows3 ,take a piece of one-eighth inch pine1 which should be at least three inches wide4 ,on this place a strip of wood1 we will say1 for instance1 ten by one-quarter by one-half inch4 ,by driving a small wire nail through both pieces of wood1 and inserting a sharp knife-blade through the upper piece of wood1 and turning 7the upper piece7 slowly from left to right1 you will find you can cut a perfect circle in the lower piece of wood4 ,the wheels are formed by this process4 ,it takes four pieces of stiff card-board and two of wood to make the wheels for the carriage4 ,the diameter of the wooden wheel is one and one-half inches1 while the card-board disks are two and one-quarter inches4 ,the wheels in the draught are a trifle smaller1 but by experiments it is found that the above-sized wheel makes faster time4 ,you will see that after cutting out your disks the hole made by the wire nail is exactly in the centre4 ,run a small wire nail through the three disks1 placing the wooden disk in the centre and the card-board ones on each side 7this makes three disks for each wheel74 ,put some glue on touching surface1 and clinch the three together with pins or wire brads4 ,the place where these nails go is shown by the spots on side draught of the wheel4 ,the axle-tree is made of oak1 and at the extremities a piece of stout wire is inserted1 which extends one-eighth of an inch beyond the wood of the axle-tree4 ,the hardest axle-tree is one made from the shafts of an old clock4 ,take particular care that the wheels run very true1 as the success of the machine depends to a great extent upon this4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d ,from the lower extremity of the balancing-rod hangs a weight4 ,the easiest way to make this weight is to take a small bag1 and fill it with sand until the machine balances 7the sail in horizontal position74 ,having progressed thus far in the construction of the machine1 turn the sail in a horizontal position1 and attach a cord from one side of the cross-bar to a small grooved wheel at the aft end of the carriage4 ,from the screw-eye at lower extremity of the balancing-bar is attached a small rubber band2 when stretched it will reach within three-quarters of an inch of the small wheel at the aft end of the carriage4 ,it will be found1 after the cord and rubber band have been joined1 that upon letting go the perpendicular bars the sail will turn in a horizontal position4 ,at the forward end of the carriage is a catch1 to which is fastened a ring4 ,the catch comes in contact with a block 7previously placed three-quarters up the string74 ,the detail drawings show the formation and working of the catch4 ,fig4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e ,fig4 #f ,the sail is made of light muslin1 and extends in the form of a pair of wings1 the cloth only reaching from the outside of the uprights to the ends of the spar1 leaving a free space in the centre for the sail to pass through the carriage4 ,the parachute is a small ,chinese umbrella 7pick out one that opens easily71 and can be bought for a few cents4 ,a small weight is attached to the handle with a few feet of cord4 ,we will say that now you have completed the machine--you have a kite flying2 run the string through the two guiders1 place the two wheels of the carriage upon the kite-string1 set the sail perpendicular1 and fasten the catch with the cord4 ,a stop-block has been previously placed on the cord twenty feet from the kite2 now attach the parachute 7,chinese umbrella74 ,the force of the wind acting on the sail forces the machine up the incline of the kite-string at a rapid rate1 skyward1 until it reaches the block1 which throws off the catch4 ,the sail swings back to a horizontal position1 letting the parachute drop4 ,the sail being folded and presenting no resistance to the wind1 the force of gravitation acting on the weight of the machine causes it to descend the kite-cord quickly1 and return to the original starting-point of its flight4 ,see ,fig4 #e1 a side and end view1 and ,fig4 #f1 the parachute and the car on its return4 ,arial ,boat-sailing ,study with care the accompanying plans4 ,the materials are one-half by one-quarter-inch pine1 free from knots1 ten common brass rings three-quarters of an inch in diameter1 two round-headed brass screws one inch in length1 two flat-headed ones of the same dimensions1 two small screw-hooks1 and eight assorted brass screw-eyes1 there being two of each size4 ,now that we have the material for the frames1 we will begin with ,fig4 #g1 which shows the sail and sheer plan4 ,the frame is made of six pieces of wood4 ,the top piece is exactly two feet in length4 ,the two uprights which hold the wheels are each one foot and one inch long4 ,the two angle pieces are one foot nine inches each4 ,the lower horizontal strip measures two feet three and one-half inches1 and is joined to the two angle strips by means of a screw-eye and screw at each extremity4 ,now cut a strip of pine1 making it exactly three feet in length4 ,set it on the frame in an upright position1 allowing a half-inch clearance from the upper horizontal piece4 ,it should be eleven inches from one of the angle pieces at the lower end4 ,round the upper part above the horizontal strip2 it should be brought to a taper at the upper end4 ,this forms the mast4 ,the lower part is uniform1 and allows the weight to be moved up and down to insure a correct balance1 which is regulated according to the force of the wind4 ,the weight is made of one-and-a-half-inch lead pipe1 and is two inches in length4 ,a round plug of pine is driven in the centre of the lead pipe1 and a hole is bored in the centre of the plug to fit the balancing-bar4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g ,one of the screw-eyes is inserted through the piece of lead pipe1 and by this means the weight can be elevated or brought down the shaft and held firmly in the required place1 which will depend on the force of the wind4 ,in regard to the wheels1 ,fig4 #h shows the simplest constructed4 ,they are made in three parts4 ,take two of the largest-sized wooden button moulds and a piece of thin board 7cut in a circle7 smaller than the button moulds4 ,we will say1 for instance1 the button moulds are one and one-half inches in diameter1 and the centre piece of pine is one inch in diameter and one-eighth of an inch thick4 ,the way to get a true circle on this soft pine is to take the one-eighth-inch wood and measure on a separate piece of pine one-half inch1 drive in a small wire nail in one extreme of the previously measured strip1 and on the other extremity insert the point of a sharp knife4 ,place on the board used for centre of wheel1 and turn in a circle from right to left several times4 ,if the distance between the knife-blade and nail is one-half inch1 the wheel cut out will be exactly one inch in diameter4 ,insert a wire nail through the two button moulds1 and place the inch wheel in the centre1 gluing it at each contact surface4 ,this will give you the grooved wheel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h ,the drawing 7,fig4 #g7 indicates how this wheel is fastened to the frame4 ,the wheel can be made of two card-board disks two and one-half inches in diameter1 and one wooden wheel two inches in diameter placed between them4 ,they are joined by clinched pins1 shown by the circle of dots in ,fig4 #h4 ,the dimensions of the sail are as follows3 ,main-sail--hoist1 ten and one-half inches2 gaff1 eight and one-half inches2 leech1 nineteen and one-quarter inches2 boom1 fourteen and one-half inches4 ,jib--foot1 eleven inches2 hoist1 sixteen inches--on the stay1 twenty and one-quarter inches4 ,the jib carries a boom1 and the main-sail a gaff and boom4 ,the material used for the sails is light muslin with hemmed edges4 ,take a long chalk-line or heavy cord1 and stretch at right angles to the direction of the wind4 ,if the wind is from the north1 the cord must reach east and west4 ,each extremity of the cord must be the same height from the ground1 and can be attached from tree to tree1 or from an upper-story window to a house near by4 ,when the boat reaches the extremity of the cord the operator at that end of the cord turns it1 and starts it on the return journey4 ,if the cord is strung between two houses you will find the boat will sail back and forth1 except when the wind is dead ahead or a few points either way4 ,a 8,high-flyer0 ,to make the 8flyer0 you will need a piece of thin sheet tin1 zinc1 or iron1 that may be purchased from a tinsmith for a few cents2 and for the engine a linen-thread spool1 a piece of hard-wood stick1 and a few steel wire nails will be required4 ,to begin with1 obtain an empty linen-thread spool having a smooth hole through it1 and in one end drive four one-inch steel-wire nails at regular distances apart1 so as to form the corners of a perfect square2 drive the nails in half-way1 then file the heads off1 and the spool will appear like ,fig4 #i4 ,next get a round hard-wood stick seven inches long1 and around it1 two inches from one end1 make a deep cut with your knife4 ,from this cut to the end of the stick shave the wood away so it will look like ,fig4 #aa4 ,these two parts will complete the engine1 and the next thing to make will be the flyer4 ,thin sheet-zinc will be found the best to make it of2 and having obtained a piece1 mark on it with a compass a circle five inches in diameter2 mark two lines across this circle from edge to edge1 at right angles1 as shown by the dotted lines in ,fig4 #ad4 ,from a piece of stiff paper cut a pattern in the form of one of the ears shown in ,fig4 #ad4 ,lay this pattern on the zinc so that one of the lines will be in the centre of it1 and mark the shape on the zinc2 mark the other three ears in a similar manner1 and then with a stout pair of shears cut out the flyer4 ,in the centre of it make a hole large enough for the small end of the stick to pass through it1 and around it make four small holes at the centre of each ear1 to correspond with the pins on the spool4 ,the flyer will then fit over the stick and pins and lay flat on top of the spool2 bend its ears with your fingers so they appear like the propeller-blades of a steamboat1 or like a windmill1 and it will then be ready to fly4 ,fig4 #aj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i ,fig4 #aj ,fig4 #aa ,fig4 #ab ,fig4 #ac ,fig4 #ad ,a 8,,high-,,flyer0 ,when bending the ears they must be arranged so that the edge that catches the wind first will be inclined upward1 as otherwise the flyer1 instead of flying1 will hug the spool tightly4 ,another style of flyer is shown in ,fig4 #ab1 and is made of a circular disk of zinc four inches in diameter4 ,make the five holes in the centre fit over the stick and pins4 ,when all the places have been cut1 bend the ears down as shown in ,fig4 #ac1 and when flying it turn it upside-down1 letting the ears project upward4 ,to put the flyer in action1 take the stick in your left hand1 and over the small end of it place the spool1 against which put your thumb to keep it from slipping4 ,wind strong cord around the spool1 to the end of which a button is fastened to keep the cord from slipping through your fingers2 on top of the spool place the flyer1 and give the string a vigorous pull1 at the same time releasing the spool with your thumb1 and the centrifugal force will cause the flyer to revolve rapidly1 shoot upward1 and sail to a height of fifty or a hundred feet in the air1 slowly descending as the revolutions diminish4 ,larger flyers can be made in a similar manner2 and to make a very large one1 plant a post in the ground1 having its upper end reduced to form a shoulder1 as explained for the small stick4 ,get a round piece of wood several inches in diameter1 and arrange four very stout steel-wire nails in the top of it4 ,make a tin or iron flyer twelve or fifteen inches in diameter1 and use a piece of small clothes-line or cotton line to spin it with4 ,to operate it1 wind the spool with the rope1 and have some one under it to keep it from slipping4 ,when you are ready to pull the rope1 place the flyer on the pins1 and as the spool is released give the rope a quick1 strong pull1 and the flyer will rise4 ,part ,,ii ,,afield ,chapter ,,vi ,,coasters1 ,,skees1 ,,and ,,snow-,,shoes ,all real boys welcome the approach of the winter season with its glorious opportunities for sport on the snow and ice4 ,toboggans1 double-runners1 skees1 and snow-shoes--the very words make the blood tingle in one's veins1 and happy is the boy whose home is in the ,northern climes where there is real winter for at least four months out of the year4 ,nowadays it is possible to purchase almost everything for winter sports1 but the boy who is handy with tools and of an inventive turn of mind will take more pleasure in constructing his own things than in buying them out of a shop4 ,very few boys would care to make their own skates1 as the modern steel-clamp skates are superior in lightness and durability to anything he could construct2 but the various varieties of sleds1 coasters1 and snow-shoes are quite within the measure of his abilities1 and their making will fill most pleasurably the leisure hours after school and on ,saturdays4 ,all the cold-weather countries have their distinctive and peculiar forms of winter amusements4 ,tobogganing and snow-shoeing are particularly popular in ,canada2 skeeing is the national sport of ,norway4 ,but it is the ,american boy who has reduced coasting to an exact science1 and the ,yankee bob-sleds and 8jumper-coasters0 are now pre-eminent wherever the snow flies4 ,to take the best wherever we find it is the sportsman's motto4 ,toboggans ,there is no more enjoyable winter sport than tobogganing1 and in many parts of ,america1 notably ,montreal1 large and expensively constructed artificial slides are in constant use throughout the winter season4 ,for ordinary hill-coasting most ,american boys prefer bob-sleds and coasters1 but in the extreme ,northern ,states and throughout ,canada the plain toboggan is the favorite coaster4 ,a boy who is at all clever with tools can make a good toboggan from three or four thin hickory boards1 a few cross-battens1 and some rails4 ,for the bottom quarter-inch hickory should be employed1 as that is strong and will bend easily when steamed4 ,to make an eight-foot toboggan with a width of twenty inches1 obtain the hickory boards and batten them with three pieces of hard-wood two inches wide and three-quarters of an inch thick4 ,make the fastenings with brass screws or copper rivets having the heads countersunk in the bottom4 ,at the front ends rivet on a wood batten long enough to project two inches beyond the boards at each end4 ,from a curtain-pole cut six pieces two inches long and bore a quarter-inch hole through each one from end to end4 ,cut two hickory rails three-quarters of an inch square and plane off the sharp corners2 then with copper or iron rods1 to act as long rivets1 attach the rails to the toboggan so that they are separated from the battens by means of the wooden blocks1 as shown in the illustration of the plain toboggan4 ,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,fig4 #d ,fig4 #e ,at both ends of the rod-rivets place washers or burrs to rivet on1 as otherwise the rivet would pull through the wood1 tearing the hole larger and at the same time making the anchorage insecure4 ,cut notches in the projecting ends of the front stick as shown at the right side of ,fig4 #b1 so that ropes can be lashed fast to the stick as shown at the left side of ,fig4 #b4 ,steam the boards between the front end and the first batten1 or pour boiling hot water over both sides of the boards2 then bend the wood up and with the ropes as a help to hold the boards in place continue the wetting and bending until the proper curve has been gained1 as shown in the illustration4 ,lash the ropes fast1 and when the wood is dry sand-paper it smooth and give it several good coats of varnish4 ,a sled-toboggan 7,fig4 #c7 is made from two hickory boards eight feet long and a quarter of an inch in thickness4 ,if the toboggan is to be twenty-two inches wide each runner should be several inches wide4 ,three hard-wood bridges twenty-two inches long and four inches high are cut1 as shown in ,fig4 #d1 and attached to the runners with screws 7,fig4 #c74 ,they support a seat eight inches wide which is screwed down to the top of the bridges4 ,in front of the first bridge and behind the last one short bracket-braces are attached to prevent the bridges from rocking1 and these as well as the bridges can be cut from wood about an inch and a half in thickness4 ,the front ends of the boards are attached to a batten1 and by steaming the boards may be curved up as shown and held in place with a stanchion-rope lashed fast to the batten and to the front bridge4 ,a supporting bridge should be used to give it additional power4 ,fig4 #c4 ,when the varnish wears off the bottom give it another coat1 as the smooth1 hard finish helps the toboggan to slide easily over the snow4 ,a ,rocker-coaster ,a very good coasting-sled is shown in the illustration of a rocker-coaster 7,fig4 #e71 and for short hills a sled of this sort will prove very fast and easy to steer4 ,it is from four to five feet long1 twenty inches broad1 and seven inches high at the middle4 ,the lower edge of each runner is curved from end to end with a long1 sweeping line1 and it is grooved to receive a round runner of steel1 which a blacksmith will make and attach4 ,the frame of the coaster should be made of hard-wood five-eighths of an inch in thickness1 and the three cross-ribs are one inch and a half in width and one inch in thickness4 ,laps are cut in the top edges of the sides1 and the cross-ribs are let into them and made fast with screws4 ,wooden brackets or cleats are attached to the sides and to the under side of each cross-rib to strengthen the construction1 and at both ends a piece of round curtain-pole is made fast as shown in ,fig4 #e4 ,the ends of the poles are trimmed off so as to form dowel ends1 and these fit into holes made in the ends of the sides4 ,hand-holes are cut with a bit and compass-saw at the ends of the sides2 a deck of half-inch wood is laid over the ribs and held down with screws4 ,have the blacksmith flatten the ends of each runner and bend them over so they will lie on top at the end of each side4 ,a few good coats of paint will finish the wood-work nicely1 and the rocker-coaster will then be ready for use4 ,a ,single-runner ,coaster ,a few years ago the boys of ,new ,england invented a new kind of sled and called it a single-runner coaster or jumper-coaster4 ,they sit upon it1 keeping their balance with the feet1 and it is remarkable how rapidly and easily they go downhill on this queer-looking affair1 and without the slightest danger of toppling over4 ,fig4 #f4 ,the coaster is very simple in construction and any boy can make it from pine or hard-wood1 the latter being preferable as it has more body and is heavier4 ,the runner is forty-two inches long1 one inch and a half thick1 and four inches high1 curved at one end and cut at an angle at the other4 ,the upright is of wood the same thickness and width1 and eleven or twelve inches high1 so that with the top board or seat and the height of the runner the coaster is sixteen or seventeen inches high2 and for taller boys it can be made still higher4 ,the seat is ten inches long and seven inches wide1 and attached to the upright with screws1 as shown at ,fig4 #g4 ,the upright is cut from wood about ten inches wide1 so that1 with a compass-saw1 a broad foot may be shaped at the bottom which will give a better bearing on the runner than would a narrower one4 ,from wood two inches wide1 make two side-plates or braces to run from under the seat down half-way over the runner as shown in ,fig4 #g4 ,to steady the seat at the top of the uprights cut two angle-brackets and attach them as shown in the figure drawing4 ,a blacksmith will fashion a runner from quarter-round or thin tire iron and attach it as shown in the illustration4 ,the runners can be held on with flat-headed screws countersunk in the iron1 and after a few trips the surface of the metal will be worn bright and smooth1 insuring easy and rapid running4 ,a ,bob-sled ,every boy wants a double-runner of his own1 for there seems to be nothing quite like bobbing on a sled carrying from six to ten boys--enough to give it weight and a good impetus on its downward course4 ,a bob-sled is not at all difficult to construct1 and a very satisfactory and substantial one may be made from inexpensive materials and with the tools that nearly every boy possesses4 ,fig4 #h4 ,for the seat obtain a clear spruce plank ten feet long1 ten inches wide1 and one inch and a half thick1 planed on both sides and edges4 ,the front sled is thirty inches long and fourteen inches wide1 with the sides five inches high4 ,the rear sled is forty inches long from prow to end of runners1 and is the same width and height as the front one4 ,the sides are of hard-wood seven-eighths of an inch in thickness1 and braced with cross-pieces of hard-wood two inches wide and one inch and a half thick4 ,laps are cut in the top of the sides1 and with screws the ends of the braces are securely held in place4 ,under each cross-piece and at the sides brackets must be securely fastened with screws as shown at ,fig4 #i1 to strengthen the sides and take some of the strain from the cross-piece fastenings4 ,eight inches from the rear end a stout block is set in the runners through which the king-bolt passes that fastens the seat to the sled4 ,this is of hard-wood fourteen inches long1 two inches and a half wide1 and four inches high at the middle1 as shown in ,fig4 #i4 ,a similar block two inches high is attached to the under side of the plank and bears on the lower block4 ,between the two blocks and on the bolt1 two large1 flat iron washers are placed1 so that it will be an easy matter to turn the sled when there is a heavy weight on the plank4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f ,fig4 #g ,fig4 #h ,fig4 #i ,fig4 #aj ,fig4 #aa ,the head of the five-eighths-inch king-bolt should be embedded in the top of the block that is fast to the plank before it is attached1 and the bolt should be provided with two nuts for safety4 ,in the summer-time1 when the bob is stored away1 the forward sled can be removed by unscrewing the nuts from the lower end of the bolt under the sled4 ,to steer the bob a hard-wood cross-bar piece is let into the runners as shown in ,fig4 #i4 ,it projects six inches at each side1 and foot-notches are cut at the rear edge as shown in the illustration4 ,the rear sled is attached to the plank by means of a block and bolts4 ,two triangular hard-wood blocks one inch in thickness1 with the grain running vertically1 are screwed fast to the inside sides of the runners as shown in ,fig4 #aj1 and through holes in the upper end a long half-inch bolt is passed from side to side4 ,this bolt fits in a groove made at the under side of the block that is attached to the plank2 and across the groove in several places straps of iron are fastened as shown in the inverted block at ,fig4 #aa4 ,a hinge-joint is the result1 and to prevent the rear sled from dropping too far when jumping over a bump a rope should be passed under the forward cross-piece and attached to a staple driven at the under side of the plank4 ,the plank can be padded with hair from an old mattress and covered with a strip of carpet nailed all around the edges of the board4 ,cross-pieces screwed fast to the under side of the plank will serve as foot-rests1 and with a coat or two of paint this bob-sled will be ready for use4 ,skees ,skee running and jumping is one of the favorite winter sports in ,norway and ,sweden and is steadily growing in favor both in the ,northern ,united ,states and in ,canada4 ,on very steep hills it is a dangerous sport1 but it is perfectly safe to use the skees on either short hills or on long ones that are not too steep4 ,once you start you must go to the bottom1 and a good skee-jumper should be as agile as a cat1 for he must always land feet down when jumping4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab ,fig4 #ac ,a skee of the right proportions should be seven feet long and four inches wide4 ,hickory1 oak1 or other hard-wood three-quarters of an inch in thickness will be the best material from which to make the skees4 ,two or three grooves cut in a straight line along the entire bottom length will hold the skee slider on his course1 as the keel does a boat4 ,the skees are tapered and bent up at the front ends as shown in ,fig4 #ab4 ,this can be done by steaming and bending until the proper pitch is obtained2 but if a high curve is desired it would be well to attach a thong to the end and draw it back to the body of the skee as shown in ,fig4 #ab ,a4 ,at the middle of the skee a foot-block is attached and provided with a toe-strap as shown in ,fig4 #ac4 ,this strap fits under the block and can be removed if necessary as a lap is cut at the under side of the block4 ,a shorter and broader skee is shown in ,fig4 #ab ,b4 ,this is safer for smaller boys to use as it is five feet long and six inches wide4 ,many of the ,norwegian skees are beautifully carved and ornamented1 and the boy who has some decorative ability can embellish the tops of his skees and varnish them all over to improve their appearance and make them smooth1 so that they will slide easily4 ,a skee made from a hogshead or crockery-cask stave is shown in ,fig4 #ab ,c1 and a great deal of fun can be had with this makeshift on short hills4 ,snow-shoes ,for travelling over the snow the most widely known and useful appliance is the snow-shoe in one form or another4 ,the ,esquimau and the ,american ,indian do all their winter travelling on snow-shoes1 and through the ,alps and in the snow-bound parts of ,europe and ,asia they are commonly employed as a means of locomotion from place to place4 ,the long snow-shoe shown in ,fig4 #ad ,a is the one commonly used by the ,iroquois ,indians1 and it measures from three to four feet in length and from twelve to fifteen inches in width4 ,it is usually made from one long strip of hickory bent while green and dried in the desired shape1 then braced and interlaced with thongs of rawhide or deer-gut4 ,the rim is usually from three-quarters to seven-eighths of an inch square and is rounded on the outer edges4 ,the braces or spreaders are let into the inner edges of the rim as shown in ,fig4 #ae ,a1 and are held securely in place with a thong passed through a hole in the end of the piece and wrapped around the rim as shown in ,fig4 #ae ,b4 ,the spreaders are of seasoned hickory two inches wide and five-eighths of an inch thick4 ,the edges are bevelled slightly1 and near the centre line two rows of holes are made through which to lace the thongs4 ,two smaller sticks are arranged at each side of the broad spreaders1 and the lattice weaving is caught around them as shown in the illustration4 ,some of the thongs are caught over the rim while others are passed through holes made in the edge similar to the manner in which a tennis racket is laced4 ,foot-laces are fastened at the front spreader to which the shoe-toes are lashed1 for when travelling the heels should be free to lift while the ball of the foot and the entire snow-shoe remains flat on the snow4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad ,fig4 #ae ,,snow-,,shoes ,the shoe in the form of a tennis racket 7,fig4 #ad ,b7 is the shape commonly used by the ,esquimaux and is about thirty-four inches long and fifteen inches wide4 ,it is made somewhat similar to the ,iroquois shoe but the mesh is more open4 ,the oval shoe 7,fig4 #ad ,c7 is made from two ,u-shaped rims lashed together at the middle and provided with two spreaders4 ,two stout pieces of rawhide are laced in the ends1 and through the middle a lacing of thongs is woven across between the spreaders and sides of the rim4 ,these and many other forms of snow-shoes can be made by the boy who is interested in snow-shoe travelling4 ,the wood can be procured anywhere and the rawhide thongs may be purchased at a hardware store4 ,they are sold as belt-lacings for machinery1 but they can be easily split and so made available for snow-shoe use4 ,chapter ,,vii ,,sail-,,skating ,,and ,,snowball ,,artillery ,a ,skating-sail ,sail-skating is a very enjoyable means of getting over the ice1 and with properly constructed frames and sails a very respectable rate of speed can be maintained4 ,in using a sail the boy is the boat1 and by his manipulation of the sheets he can go where he pleases1 either before the wind or tacking1 as in a boat4 ,the skating-sail shown in ,fig4 #a is an improvement over the old style of attaching two diamond-shaped cloths to the ends of yard-arms4 ,to make the frame obtain two clear pine or white-wood sticks twelve feet long1 one inch and a quarter square1 and taper them slightly towards the ends with a plane4 ,at the same time round the corners at the top of one stick and bottom of the other as shown in ,fig4 #b ,c1 which represents a sawed-off section of both sticks4 ,with linen line wind the sticks for an inch or two for every nine or ten inches of their entire length to strengthen them4 ,paint these windings a dark color and then varnish the sticks or color them with a stain4 ,now procure two other sticks1 each five feet six inches long and seven-eighths of an inch square1 and plane them smooth1 at the same time tapering the ends slightly4 ,these are for the cross-arms1 and at the middle of each one lash fast a block five inches long and seven-eighths of an inch square having a pin driven in each end as shown in ,fig4 #b ,a4 ,these pins fit in small holes made at the inside of the yard-arms four feet and six inches from either end4 ,the yard-arms are lashed together at the ends1 then sprung apart at the middle so that the cross-arm blocks will fit between them4 ,to properly hold the arms in place a strap should be drawn around the sticks at the middle1 and to insure a good prop a block six inches long1 two inches wide1 and seven-eighths of an inch thick is to be cut and provided with two pins at each end as shown in ,fig4 #b ,c4 ,the pins will fit into small holes made in the long sticks1 and when the strap is buckled tight the block will be held securely in place4 ,a large flat hook should be lashed fast to this block1 and when sailing along before the wind this can be caught over a stout leather belt to help support the weight of the sail4 ,two twilled-cotton sails are made in the shape shown in the illustration and provided with snaps at the three outer ends so that they may catch into eyes lashed fast to the ends of the arms and to the long sticks as shown in ,fig4 #b ,b4 ,the sails should be drawn taut at the inner ends with rings and a strap or light rope4 ,if there should be too much sail-area for the wind that may be blowing the sail can be feathered--that is1 bent down or up so that it allows some of the wind to pass under it instead of pressing against the sails with its full force4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,fig4 #d ,fig4 #e ,fig4 #f ,a ,,skating-,,sail1 ,a ,,square-,,rigged ,,ice-,,sail1 ,,and ,a ,,snowball ,,mortar ,a ,square-rigged ,ice-sail ,in ,fig4 #c two square sails are supported at the ends of crossed yard-arms fourteen feet long4 ,four cross-sticks of equal length are made1 the same as those for the skating-sail first described1 and at the middle a long block is attached to two of them as shown in ,fig4 #b ,a4 ,pins in the ends of the blocks fit into holes in the long arms1 and when the ends of the long arms are bent in they grip the pins and blocks4 ,short blocks provided with a single pin are lashed to the outer cross-sticks eight inches in from the ends4 ,holes made in the outer ends of the long sticks will receive these pins1 the spring of the stick holding both inner and outer cross-sticks in place at the same time4 ,heavy sheeting or unbleached muslin sails may be stretched and bound to the cross-sticks and when detached they can be rolled up on the sticks4 ,this sail is handled the same as the skating-sail but is more powerful as the sheets are larger4 ,a ,snowball ,mortar ,for snowball fights a mortar is an effective weapon for it throws a shot upward into the air4 ,it may be mounted on a hand-sled4 ,make two triangles of boards as shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,the bottom strip should project far enough below the two legs to permit of screwing it firmly to the edge of the bottom board1 which is the width of the top of the sled and is attached to it by straps4 ,the pivot-bar or axle-tree rests in grooves cut in the points of the triangles4 ,the propulsion-bar 7,a7 is a stout piece of oak fastened securely to the pivot-bar and at right angles to it4 ,two uprights 7,,bb7 fastened to the bottom board by screws or nails driven from underneath and braced to the legs of the triangles support a cross-piece which keeps the propulsion-bar horizontal when the spring is attached4 ,a small tin basin is secured to the extreme forward end of the propulsion-bar4 ,to use the mortar place a snowball or other missile in the basin and strike the other end of the bar a hard blow with a long-handled wooden-mallet4 ,the range may be regulated by the force of the blow and by moving the sled to and fro and right and left4 ,dimensions of mortar shown in diagram3 ,length of bottom board1 three feet ten inches2 length of legs1 two feet six inches2 uprights1 two feet three inches2 propulsion-bar1 four feet two inches by two and one-half by four inches2 width of frame1 thirteen inches4 ,should the snow be too dry to make compact snowballs a small piece of sheep-skin or cotton-batting should be inserted in the breech of the gun or the basin of the mortar and tacked in place4 ,this will tend to prevent the snowballs from breaking4 ,fig4 #e is an end-view of the mortar and ,fig4 #f is the wooden mallet used in firing4 ,chapter ,,viii ,,kites ,,and ,,aeroplanes ,the ,ship ,kite ,the ship kite 7,fig4 #a7 is an odd shape for a wind-toy but a good sailer in any breeze4 ,it is quite easy to make and requires but one mast1 four yard-arms1 a keel1 some thin1 strong twine1 and the necessary covering materials4 ,the mast is thirty-six inches long1 the lowest spar twenty-four inches long1 the top one twelve1 and the two middle ones proportioned in length to the two side-strings tied at the ends of the top and bottom sticks--that is1 at ,a and ,b on both sides of ,fig4 #b4 ,the keel of the frame is made from a thin piece of hard-wood that will spring and keep its shape1 such as hickory1 oak1 or birch2 and after soaking it in boiling hot water for a few minutes lash it fast to the bottom of the mast and draw up the ends with the strings ,c1 ,c 7,fig4 #b71 and carry the ends up over two yard-arms so the pressure of the keel will not draw the lower yard-arm out of shape4 ,the sticks should be of good clear and tough white or ,north ,carolina pine1 spruce1 or white-wood1 three-eighths of an inch square for the mast and the same size but tapered at the ends for the yard-arms4 ,use strong cotton or linen twine for the connections between spars and mast and draw them taut but not so tight that they would spring the sticks out of shape4 ,from the ends of each yard-arm strings ,d ,d ,d are stretched and tied to the mast so as to make an opening at the bottom of each sail4 ,in kite-making it is found a much better plan to have a number of planes against which the wind can act instead of one large one that is often unwieldy and difficult to handle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,this frame should be covered with thin paper muslin1 sewed all around the edges over the string-ribs and to the frame-sticks with strong cotton thread4 ,do not have too much muslin overlap the edges1 and after going around the edges twice with the needle and fine cotton thread it would be well to cut away all the unnecessary material as it only adds weight with no benefit to the kite4 ,do not use paste or glue to fasten the fabric covering on a frame2 it only adds weight and does not stick well4 ,arrange the yoke as shown in the illustration of the ship kite 7,fig4 #a71 and to balance it make two funnel-drags or wind-anchors from thin wire or wood hoops1 nine inches in diameter1 the funnel proper being of paper muslin twelve inches deep4 ,use hickory or green birch for the hoops and lap the ends for three inches2 then bind them together with strong linen thread4 ,make the funnel-shaped bag of paper muslin and drop the hoop into it1 taking care to get an equal space all around from point of cone to edge of hoop4 ,then sew the bag fast to the hoop and cut away all surplus material4 ,the yoke is made of two strong1 thin cross-wires or strings and the drop-string is fastened where they cross1 as may be seen in ,fig4 #a4 ,the ,chinese-junk ,kite ,the ,chinese-junk kite 7,fig4 #c71 is made in a similar manner to the ship kite1 but there are two masts1 as the kite is broader and larger2 consequently the frame should be braced so that it will not rack in a strong breeze4 ,the masts are forty-two inches high1 the lowest yard-arm thirty-six inches long1 and the top one thirty inches in length4 ,the bottom of the hull is made from a piece of green hickory or birch sprung into place and lashed fast with linen line4 ,there are three inches of space between the hull and lower sail and from two to three inches of space between the other sails4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c ,fig4 #d ,,the ,,chinese-,,junk ,,kite ,the masts and spars may be of any light1 strong wood1 the masts half an inch square and the yard-arms three-eighths of an inch tapered towards the ends4 ,the spars and masts are bound securely with fine linen line as shown in the junk kite-frame 7,fig4 #d74 ,it would look well to cover the sail-frames of all these boat kites with white or very light-colored muslin and the hulls with dark-brown1 green1 or black goods so as to lend contrast and make the kites when in the air appear more like real boats4 ,arrange the yoke to this kite as shown in the drawing 7,fig4 #c71 and add as many funnel-drags as may be found necessary to steady this kite4 ,instead of placing these wind-anchors close to the foot of the kite it is often better to drop a cord five or ten feet with the funnel on the end of it4 ,while the funnel weighs but very little it is acted on by the wind and is better than a heavy tail4 ,as the wind blows stronger the funnel is forced back and holds the wind1 thereby dragging on the foot of the kite and automatically shifting it to different angles so that the wind will pass down along the planes and out through the spaces underneath4 ,the ,schooner ,kite ,the schooner kite 7,fig4 #e7 is an attractive one when sailing up in the wind1 and for a kite the shape is very close to a real schooner in proportions4 ,the frame is built on a deck-stick thirty-seven inches long1 and six inches below it is the keel-stick twenty inches long4 ,the main-mast or aft-stick is thirty-three inches long and the foremast is thirty inches from tip to tip4 ,the foremast is set in twelve inches from the bow end of the deck-stick and the main-mast is ten inches from this4 ,the gaffs are each nine inches long and are caught to both mast and a top-stick1 which is in turn lashed fast to the upper part of each mast4 ,strings are run from place to place on these sticks as shown at ,fig4 #f1 then the sails and hull are cut from muslin and sewed to the strings and spars4 ,the yoke is composed of three strings as shown in the drawing 7,fig4 #e71 and from the muslin cut two pennants and float them from the top of the masts4 ,when up in the air this schooner kite will have a very real appearance as the breeze will bulge the sails and give it the effect of tacking on the wind4 ,if the schooner is inclined to pitch or roll too much attach two wind-anchors1 one at the foot of each mast1 and pay them out about five or six feet4 ,a ,balloon ,kite ,from four sticks and a long hickory rib the balloon kite-frame 7,fig4 #g7 is made4 ,the cross-sticks are three feet and three inches long and the uprights are each four feet long4 ,the uprights are set apart six inches at the foot and eleven inches at the top1 while the cross-sticks are twelve inches apart at both sides of the frame4 ,where the sticks cross they are to be lashed and bound with linen twine2 then the hickory rib is sprung into position and lashed fast at the ends of the cross-sticks and upper ends of the vertical sticks4 ,a thong is to be bound to each end of the rib and drawn down to the foot of the frame so that the curve over the top formed by the hickory rib is even and symmetrical4 ,cover this frame with dark-gray or green paper muslin1 then make the car from a hoop fifteen inches in diameter and a muslin funnel twenty inches deep4 ,suspend the car on four strings attached to the foot of the kite1 and having arranged the yoke from the places where the sticks cross1 as shown in ,fig4 #h1 this interesting sky-scraper will be ready for an ascension4 ,an ,air-ship ,kite ,the air-ship kite 7,fig4 #i71 if large and well made1 will present a very realistic appearance when well up in the air4 ,the frame is made from dry spruce or pine sticks half an inch square for the long ones and a trifle smaller for the shorter ones4 ,the frame as shown in ,fig4 #aj is seven feet long from ,a to ,a1 and at the middle the balloon is twenty-eight inches--that is1 from ,b to ,b4 ,the middle upright stick is four feet long and the end sticks ,c ,c that support the car are forty-five inches long4 ,the middle upright ,b ,b is first lashed to the middle of the long stick ,a ,a4 ,the ends of the curved sticks are then brought together and lashed to ends ,a ,a1 and at the same time the unions are made with sticks ,c ,c4 ,after that the sticks between ,b and ,c are set in place and securely lashed fast4 ,the long sticks ,d ,d1 forming the top and bottom of the car1 are four feet and four inches long4 ,one is lashed to the lower ends of the three long drop-sticks and ten inches above that the top one is made fast4 ,with thin spring or hard brass wire bind the forms of the two occupants of the car and make them fast to sticks ,d ,d with string4 ,then cover the entire balloon and car as well as the men with dark-colored paper muslin4 ,make the yoke of linen thread so that the kite will balance well4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e ,fig4 #f ,fig4 #g ,fig4 #h ,fig4 #i ,fig4 #aj ,,the ,,schooner1 ,,balloon1 ,,and ,,an ,,air-,,ship ,,kite ,bat-wing and ,crown-top ,kites ,of the many odd shapes in which kites can be made perhaps the bat-wing and crown-top are the most unique4 ,the bat-wing 7,fig4 #aa7 is made up on a frame composed of half-inch square sticks for the longest ones and three-eighths-inch square ones for the cross-ribs4 ,the two long sticks 7,fig4 #ab1 ,a ,a7 are six feet and six inches1 slightly tapered at the ends and separated about eight inches4 ,the long uprights ,b ,b are four feet and three inches and are separated fifteen inches4 ,these two sets of sticks are lashed fast where they cross and the horizontal ones are bound at the outer ends with short sticks twelve inches in length4 ,fifteen inches up from the bottom a cross-stick1 ,c1 four feet long is lashed fast2 then the shape is described with stout cotton or linen cord4 ,this frame is to be covered with muslin and sewed at the edges1 and when ready to fly it arrange the yoke as shown in the illustration 7,fig4 #aa74 ,the crown-top kite 7,fig4 #ac7 is three feet and six inches wide1 three feet high1 and one foot across the bottom4 ,these sizes are for a kite of medium size2 if a larger one is desired it can be made five feet and three inches wide1 four feet and three inches high1 and eighteen inches across the foot4 ,the sticks are from a quarter to half an inch square and bound together with strong1 thin cord 7,fig4 #ad74 ,muslin is the proper covering for this frame1 but if thin1 strong paper is preferred it can be used to good advantage4 ,sandwich ,islands ,bird ,kite ,one afternoon in the village of ,paihiihi1 on ,maui1 one of the ,sandwich ,islands1 ,i saw1 at a considerable distance from me1 a curious object floating in the air and at first mistook it for a large bird4 ,it would glide about in graceful curves or dart suddenly towards the ground only to soar upward just as suddenly1 or poise motionless save for a slight flapping of its wings4 ,but my blissful ignorance was soon dispelled by the laughter of a friend who assured me that ,i was gazing at one of the kites of the cannibals--a name sportively applied to a number of natives of the ,gilbert ,islands who immigrated to ,maui some time since4 ,they are a more barbarous people than the ,hawaiians but seem to be amiable1 and ,i have never known them to eat anything worse than a shark4 ,wishing to see this new variety of kite1 ,i started immediately for the scene of action1 and was soon in the midst of a dozen or more men and women about half of whom had kites1 which were larger than ,i had supposed1 being from thirteen to fifteen feet wide and two to three feet high4 ,when ,i arrived several were floating high in the air almost directly over the men who held the strings--sometimes1 indeed1 sailing directly over them4 ,i watched for some time their graceful1 birdlike motion and then tried to buy one4 ,they seemed loath to part with them1 however1 and it was only after ,i had exhausted nearly all my persuasive powers and all the small change in my pockets that ,i succeeded in obtaining one4 ,my awkward endeavors to carry it away with me were greeted with much laughter until one of the cannibals showed me the proper way to handle it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa ,fig4 #ab ,fig4 #ac ,fig4 #ad ,fig4 #ae ,fig4 #af ,the drawings which ,i have made of one of these kites will enable any enterprising boy to make one4 ,as no tail is used great care must be taken to make it perfectly symmetrical4 ,it is also desirable to have the kite very light and yet as stiff as possible4 ,the proper construction of the frame is shown in ,fig4 #ae4 ,the total width of this kite is thirteen feet and the height at the middle is thirty-two inches4 ,first cut the middle stick ,c ,c thirty-two inches long and lay it on the floor of a barn where a few nails can be driven in temporarily to hold the sticks while bending them into the proper shapes4 ,cut sticks ,d ,d1 ,e ,e1 and ,f ,f1 and place them on the floor either side of the middle one4 ,the long1 straight stick ,a ,a is twelve feet in length1 of half-inch basswood or pine1 and slightly tapered with a plane at both ends4 ,lash this to each of the cross-sticks1 then with a long stick bend the bow around nails driven in the floor as indicated by the dots under the bow-piece in ,fig4 #ae4 ,this bow-piece is half an inch square and tapered with a plane at both ends4 ,it would be well to pour boiling water on this stick for a distance of three feet at both ends1 so as to make it easier to bend4 ,leave it in this position for a few hours until the water dries out and the wood is shaped1 then lash the top ends of the cross-sticks to the bow-piece4 ,while bending the bow the two lower sticks may be shaped at the same time4 ,they should be of hickory or birch and tapered at the outer ends4 ,these must be shaped over nails the same as the bow-piece1 then when they are dry they are to be lashed to all the cross-ribs and the ends of the bow with fine linen line4 ,the cross-sticks need not be more than three-eighths of an inch square1 but the middle and top sticks should be half an inch thick for strength4 ,draw cross-strings from the top and lower ends of sticks ,d ,d1 as shown in ,fig4 #ae1 to act as braces2 then cover the frame with thin1 strong paper or muslin1 sewing it fast to the ribs with linen thread4 ,the construction of the yoke is clearly shown in ,fig4 #af4 ,box ,kites ,high up in the air1 much too high for the boys on the ground to see the mechanical details1 several queer-looking but powerful kites1 or 8gigs10 were tugging at their strings in a stiff breeze4 ,when these flying-gigs were hauled down a big crowd of boys gathered to see them at close range1 and here are the pictures of them as well as the plan-drawings showing how they are made4 ,any bright boy can easily follow these plans and produce equally good and powerful kites4 ,the construction of the box kite is shown in ,fig4 #ag1 where the oblong measures thirty-six inches high and twenty-four inches wide4 ,these oblongs are held apart at the top and bottom by sticks ,a ,a which measure twelve inches in length4 ,at the middle of the framework the corner sticks ,b ,b are braced with two cross-sticks ,c1 which are notched at the ends1 so that the inside corners of the sticks ,b ,b will fit snugly and can be securely held with a slim steel-wire nail4 ,this frame is made of light pine sticks about three-eighths or half an inch square4 ,eight inches below the top of the frame tie a cord1 and nine inches below this tie another one to the front upright sticks as shown at ,d ,d4 ,cover the front1 sides1 and back of the frame with strong1 thin ,manila paper or light1 closely woven muslin1 having the top and bottom open1 also the space at the front between the strings ,d ,d4 ,a yoke caught at the top corner of the box1 as shown in ,fig4 #ah1 will be sufficient in a light breeze1 but for a strong wind add another from the side-sticks where the top or bottom cord ,d is tied2 this will steady the flying-box and prevent its pitching4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag ,fig4 #ah ,fig4 #ai ,fig4 #bj ,the 8paralleloplane0 is another powerful kite which is easily constructed according to the plan shown in ,fig4 #ai4 ,the front frame is thirty-six inches high and twenty-four inches wide and braced with cross-sticks ,h ,h4 ,the rear frame is forty-four inches long and fifteen inches wide and is held in place ten inches behind the large frame with sticks ,i ,i4 ,strings are tied to the top and bottom cross-sticks of the large frame1 and eight inches apart1 as shown at ,j ,j1 to which one end of the paper or muslin is made fast4 ,fig4 #bj will show the three fields covered with cloth or paper1 and when the paralleloplane is in the air the space between the front planes admits the wind to the rear plane with the extending tail1 which tips the kite to the proper angle4 ,if these kites need balancing in very strong breezes1 a yoke at the bottom of the kites from which a long string may be suspended will take some paper cross-bars1 as shown in ,fig4 #ba1 or the wind-anchors can be used4 ,one or two of them may be hung from the bottom on a long string or one at each lower end of the paralleloplane4 ,a messenger that will travel and travel fast is shown in ,fig4 #bb1 and as they are very easy to make a number of them should be prepared for use4 ,two thin sticks twelve inches long form the top and bottom yards for a strip of muslin or paper six inches wide4 ,from the four ends some thin wire such as florists use is connected with a cork about twelve inches in the rear of the sail1 where it is bound fast with a few wraps of the wire4 ,a pin is passed through the middle of the top yard to the sail and is bent over forming a hook1 and in the cork another one is arranged in a similar manner4 ,the messenger can be hung on the string1 and if there are no knots to intercept its progress it will quickly speed away to the kite4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba ,fig4 #bb ,the ,flying-wedge and ,double-plane ,kite ,flying-wedge or double-plane kites are made in several shapes and sizes with the planes arranged at different angles and in broken surfaces4 ,the flying-wedge is an interesting gig to make and hold when up1 for it is a strong puller4 ,its construction is shown in ,fig4 #bc1 and like the box kite the frame is made of half-inch pine sticks4 ,the front frame is forty inches high and twenty-four inches wide1 and the rear one two inches longer but the same width4 ,the frames are attached at the top but held apart at the bottom by the sticks ,e ,e1 which are eighteen inches long4 ,twelve inches below the top a cross-stick ,f is attached1 and from the side-sticks down to the centre of the bottom cross-stick the sticks ,g ,g are made fast4 ,strings may be substituted for these sticks but they will not brace the framework so well4 ,diagonally across the back frame and at the bottom strings are made fast to brace the frame1 while the back ones also help to relieve the strain of the wind on the paper or muslin drawn across the framework4 ,figure #bd will show the fields covered with paper or muslin1 which are arranged so the wind passing through the triangular opening in front presses against the back plane and out at the sides and bottom1 while some of it is forced up in the top behind the upper plane and helps in the lifting power4 ,small flags on sticks at the top add to the appearance of this flying-wedge which is an exceedingly unique sky-scraper4 ,the double-plane kite 7,fig4 #be7 is another form of the wedge4 ,the general plan and sizes for the frame of this wedge tally with those just given1 but the slight changes in the arrangement of sticks can be seen in ,fig4 #bf4 ,the plane at the front is just half the height of the kite1 and at the back it would be well to use two cross-sticks from corner to corner as braces rather than string as suggested for the flying-wedge4 ,use paper muslin for the covering and stretch it taut2 then sew it fast4 ,rig up two small flags on sticks for the top corners and arrange the yoke as shown in ,fig4 #be4 ,if the wedge is inclined to wobble or dive hang two wind-anchors on the corners1 preferably the front1 as the action will be better than if hung at the back4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc ,fig4 #bd ,fig4 #be ,fig4 #bf ,the wind strikes the front plane and upper part of rear bevelled plane1 also the outer edges of the rear plane1 and in this manner a double kite is made that will be found a strong and steady puller4 ,kite-reels ,kite-reels are always useful things to help haul in long lengths of string1 and particularly if the kite is a strong puller and in a stiff breeze4 ,a reel for kites with a good pull is shown in ,fig4 #bg1 and a boy with a hammer1 a saw1 and a few nails can quickly put it together from some box-boards sawed in two-inch strips4 ,the reel is made of two thin boards half an inch in thickness1 cut circular with a compass-saw1 and the hub is shaped from an old rolling-pin that perhaps has been discarded from the kitchen4 ,it is impossible to give exact sizes owing to the possible difference in the lengths of rolling-pins1 but the round sides should be at least six inches in diameter and placed twelve inches apart4 ,one end of the pin1 or the handle1 should be sawed and cut square so a crank may be cut and nailed to it as shown at ,a in ,fig4 #bh4 ,from wood seven-eighths of an inch thick cut the crank ,b1 and attach a handle to the outer end of it4 ,bore a hole with a bit in the end that fits over the axle1 and with a compass-saw or small chisel cut the hole square so that the axle will fit snugly into it4 ,the flanges are to be made fast to the ends of the rolling-pin hub with nails or screws1 and this revolving barrel is hung in the inverted ,v-shaped frame of the reel4 ,to hold this reel down when winding in a line make several hard-wood stakes as shown at ,c4 ,these are cut out with a saw2 and to protect the head and prevent it from splitting off1 bore two small holes through the head as indicated by the dotted lines and slip steel-wire nails through them4 ,place burrs over the pointed ends1 cut the ends off1 and with a light hammer rivet the nail-ends down on the burrs so as to bind the head securely4 ,this is much better than winding wire about the head1 since the nails act as pins and will prevent the head from splitting while the stake is being driven into the ground4 ,the overhanging end of the head laps on the end cross-plates forming the platform of the reel1 and two or three at the end opposite that at which the string is being hauled in will hold the reel securely to the ground4 ,another form of reel is shown in the illustration of a chest-reel 7,fig4 #cj74 ,this is made from two flat1 good barrel-hoops1 some braces1 and the reel and shaft as described in ,fig4 #bh ,a and ,b4 ,two good1 broad barrel-hoops are selected and cut so that they will measure eighteen inches on the segment or twelve inches across the line ,a ,a in ,fig4 #bi4 ,two out-riggers ,b ,b are cut from pine or white-wood ten inches long1 two inches wide1 and three-quarters of an inch thick2 these are bevelled at the end towards the hoop1 where they are made fast with screws4 ,the outer ends of these sticks are bound with the stick ,c1 and near the inner ends and close to the hoop a binder-piece ,d is fastened with screws4 ,the reel should be made first and clamped in place when the frame is put together4 ,the lower hoop is made fast to the short upright pieces ,c ,c1 shown in ,fig4 #cj1 and braced to the main out-riggers ,b ,b with bracket-strips4 ,all the unions are made with screws or long copper rivets securely fastened at the blunt end with burrs over which the copper end is beaten and riveted4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg ,fig4 #bh ,fig4 #bi ,fig4 #cj ,fig4 #ca ,fig4 #cb ,fig4 #cc ,near the hoop-ends holes are to be made with a bit through which stout cotton line can be passed and made fast so as to tie the reel to a boy's body 7,fig4 #cj74 ,the hoop-end should be bound with linen line at either side of the hole so as to prevent the hoop splitting and the lashing-thongs tearing away4 ,this is a very convenient form of portable reel and is easily carried about without having to touch it4 ,a friction-brake can be made from a piece of sole-leather that will bear against the edge of one large end of the reel so that when paying out cord it may be regulated as the kite draws on it4 ,leather or metal washers should be placed between the reel-ends and the frame that the axle is hung in so as to prevent friction and the consequent wearing of the wood4 ,fig4 #ca shows a simple1 home-made box-reel that will wind up a thousand feet of line in short order4 ,it consists of a box1 to which the cover is hinged1 and two sprocket-wheels from an old bicycle4 ,one large one has a handle for turning it1 the other1 a smaller wheel1 is fastened firmly to a spindle 7,fig4 #cb7 that runs through the box4 ,the box is of pine or white-wood fourteen inches long inside measure1 eight inches wide1 and ten inches deep4 ,the wood may be from one-half to seven-eighths of an inch thick1 and the points should be made with glue and nails or screws to hold them securely and prevent the box from racking4 ,find two old sprocket-wheels and a piece of bicycle chain and make the wheels fast to iron axles that will pass through holes made in the sides of the box4 ,the ends of these axles should be threaded and provided with a nut so as to hold the axles in place when run through the box4 ,the arrangement of these wheels and the chain is clearly shown in the illustration of a box-reel 7,fig4 #ca74 ,the large wheel should be attached to an axle and one of the pedal-cranks made fast to it4 ,instead of the pedal a wooden handle will slip on the pedal axle where it can be secured by the nut that held the pedal in place4 ,the relative positions of wheels1 axles1 and other parts of this reel can be seen at ,fig4 #cc4 ,a represents the crank1 handle1 and large wheel2 ,b the axle that passes through the box2 ,c the axle and flanges made fast to the small sprocket-wheel2 and ,d shows how the wooden roller-wheels are arranged over the slot in the box so that the string can be drawn in without its touching the edge of the slot4 ,the edges should be flared at the under side so that the cord will wind on a fat reel without touching the wood as shown at ,e4 ,two wooden flanges should be cut from thin wood and made fast to the axle ,c to prevent the cord winding on the axle close to the box and thereby clogging its action4 ,leather washers separate the flanges and the boxes so as to reduce the possibility of friction4 ,the slot cut in the top of the box should be as long as the available winding-space on the axle1 and protecting it at both sides are rollers cut from one-inch curtain-poles or broom-sticks4 ,steel-wire finishing-nails are driven in the end of each one1 taking care to get the nail exactly in the middle4 ,bend two ,l-pieces from stout sheet-iron1 and having punched or drilled holes in the right place through the upright ear1 make these bearings fast to the top of the box with screws as shown at ,d in ,fig4 #cc4 ,by turning the box slightly from side to side when winding in the string1 the incoming line will travel from end to end of the slot so that the coil on the shaft will be equally thick from flange to flange4 ,a leather trunk-handle may be made fast to one end of the box for convenience in carrying4 ,this form of direct gearing with sprocket-wheels and chain makes it impossible for the cord-shaft to slip as it will do in the grooved wheel and string or leather-belt connections4 ,it is simple and sure and quite as easy to pay out from as to wind in with4 ,chapter ,,ix ,,fishing-,,tackle ,choice of ,tackle ,every boy knows how to go a-fishing1 but an intelligent boy is not long in learning that the mere getting of a lot of fish is a small part of the pleasure4 ,that is why he prefers the rod to the seine1 one big fish to many smaller ones1 one cunning old trout or pickerel outwitted to a basket of stupid fish that contended for the bait4 ,presently he begins to desire more delicate tackle1 and understands that he is fishing for sport1 not fish4 ,i take it that the whole art and mystery of angling is how to get the most sport and enjoyment out of it4 ,but how8 ,to begin with1 no one will destroy a fish which is not dangerous to man1 nor will he fish just for amusement2 in other words1 he fishes only for desirable fish4 ,the chief things that make a fish desirable1 in the sense of a game or sport fish1 are that it shall be good food1 not too common and not too easily caught4 ,if1 besides1 it be beautiful and found in beautiful places so much the better4 ,it happens that by common consent certain fish--salmon and trout and their kindred--are in ,europe and ,america esteemed above all others1 and the opportunity to angle for them is not open to every one1 and most boys must get their sport with other less-esteemed kinds4 8,boys' fish0 they are sometimes slightingly called1 but they have lots of sport to give to the boy who knows how to get it1 and he will get more sport if he takes pains to make the fish better worth catching and better worth having after it is caught4 ,it is better worth having1 for instance1 if you have caught it from the cleanest water you have access to4 ,clean water makes sweet fish4 ,if a fish is to be kept kill it at once by a blow upon the back of the head where the backbone joins it4 ,this is not only more merciful but makes firmer meat4 ,if one is fishing from a boat or not moving about much the fish may be kept alive in a floating live-box or basket1 and at the end of the fishing the best may be chosen for keeping and the rest let go4 ,fish are sweeter1 too1 if cleaned as soon as possible2 besides1 the cleaning is done more easily if done early4 ,learn to do it well yourself1 and try to be at home in time to do it before supper4 ,cleaning fish by candle-light goes far to spoil the sport of a pleasant day4 ,do not clean fish with your pocket-knife4 ,have in your kit a stout one for the purpose which will also cut bait4 ,such knives made expressly are sold for a small sum1 but a veteran kitchen-knife or a broken table-knife if kept in order will do excellent service4 ,do not throw your fish in the dirt nor let them lie in the sun nor string them upon a twig or line if you wish them to be sweet4 ,have a basket with a cover1 even if the cover be no more than a newspaper4 ,wash this basket and dry and air it in the sunshine if you can after every using4 ,all these things you should do if you wish what you catch to be as good as it can be4 ,now1 how are you to increase the sport of the catching8 ,of course you want the largest fish and these are usually the oldest and the most wary4 ,this wariness you do not expect to change1 but you hope to defeat it4 ,study the habits of the fish1 where and when and upon what it feeds or what it seeks4 ,let your fishing be governed by your discoveries4 ,and while you are offering him what he wants and when and where he wants it1 remember these old fellows are fussy about their table-service4 ,they do not feel hungry if a boy throws his shadow across their table1 or shakes it by rushing up to it4 ,stalk your fish1 then1 as quietly as you are able1 and if you have alarmed it in any way stay out of sight and remain as quiet as possible for a long time until your clumsiness is forgotten1 and then let your lure1 whether bait or fly1 drift into the fish's sight as if you had nothing to do with it4 ,and remember that the finer your tackle the more likely this pretence will be to succeed4 ,you want also as good a fight as you can get4 ,remember that the fighting qualities of fish are as a rule best developed in those which live in rapid and turbulent water1 and in those which pursue their prey and catch it by their own nimbleness4 ,but any fish will fight better if you make the struggle more even by using delicate tackle4 ,you win then only by dexterity of handling1 which is one of the great charms of angling1 and about the only one1 as regards the mere catching of fish1 on which the experienced angler sets much value4 ,the secret of success with delicate tackle may be told in two words--care and coolness4 ,care in the preparation of the tackle1 coolness in handling it4 ,when you put your tackle together you will make it far safer if you consider it as one apparatus or machine from hook to reel and if you let the rod top1 or 8tip10 be the weakest point of all1 because by it you can best determine the strain upon the whole gear4 ,for instance1 a good line for fresh-water fishing will usually lift at least ten pounds1 a good snell at least three pounds if new1 the hook more than the snell1 while the top of an ordinary light rod will rarely bear more than two pounds of dead weight1 so that you may know by the strain upon the top joint just what the tackle is bearing2 and if the joint is safe the whole is likewise safe4 ,by testing your tackle you raise your fishing from a rough-and-ready guesswork to something like certainty1 the one point of doubt being always the security of the hook in the fish's mouth1 and even of this you soon acquire the power of judging4 ,but this testing is not done once for all4 ,good tackle which is put away wet to mildew1 or gut which is frayed or put in the sun to rot1 does not long remain sound4 ,therefore dry your line1 carefully unwinding it from the reel if you have one and winding it upon a chair-back1 for instance1 when you come home4 ,look over and test your tackle every time you are going fishing--yes1 and every time it gets caught on a stone or stump or in the bushes--if you wish to escape the loss of your best fish4 ,all this means that tackle to be safe must be sound--that is1 good all through4 ,a line1 for instance1 which is strong in one place and weak in another will give you more trouble than one which is not so strong but uniform4 ,the strain upon the tackle is equalized by the elasticity of the rod1 which to some extent makes up for want of dexterity4 ,but never have a rod so flexible that it will not control the tackle1 and1 above all1 avoid one which is weak in the middle4 ,lastly1 let the fish do the pulling if you wish to safely handle it4 ,no angling-tackle is as strong as a boy4 ,but if the rod be so held that its spring keeps the line taut and a gentle1 steady pull upon the fish the latter soon exhausts himself fighting this elasticity4 ,any excess of line not easily controlled by the rod alone should be at once taken up by the reel4 ,draw the tired fish out gently1 without 8yanking10 or if heavy lead it into the landing-net4 ,rods vary according to the kind of fishing1 and the 8all-round0 fisherman will probably have1 without being finicky1 as many rods as a golf-player has clubs4 ,but the boy for whom this is written must make his pocket-money go as far as possible1 and he will probably have but one4 ,rod-making is an interesting amusement1 but it would better be deferred until one knows fairly well the use of a rod and just what kind he wants4 ,the making of rods is not very economical1 since nowadays factories turn out really good ones at prices little above what one must pay for reliable rod-wood4 ,roughly speaking1 there are two kinds of rods1 bait-rods and fly-rods4 ,bait-rods are nearly always stiffer than fly-rods2 the latter must have sufficient flexibility and elasticity to throw a line quite a distance1 often several times the length of the rod4 ,but in choosing a bait-rod a different selection will be made according to the particular sort of fishing within reach4 ,thus if one fishes ponds or wide streams from the bank1 a rod a dozen feet long would not be too long2 but if from a boat1 a shorter rod not above ten feet will be more convenient4 ,still1 shorter rods are better if bait is to be cast long distances1 as is done in minnow-casting or some kinds of sea-fishing4 ,a jointed-rod is convenient for carrying1 but if one lives within walking or driving distance of his fishing a rod in one piece1 such as is easily made from a slender bamboo with an elastic tip of good wood spliced on1 is as good for bait-fishing as any4 ,if besides bait-fishing one desires to use the fly1 then the best rod is a rather stout fly-rod about ten feet in length1 because it can be used for bait-fishing1 while a bait-rod cannot be used to cast a fly4 ,beautiful and excellent rods are made of split bamboo1 and some of moderate cost1 but avoid very cheap ones4 ,but for beginners' use the writer prefers a solid-wood rod of good quality1 because it is less liable to injury and because of the greater ease with which it is repaired2 the boy himself may do it if he be handy4 ,whatever rod you have1 let the line-guides be of the sort known as 8standing-guides0 rather than rings1 if you have the choice4 ,lines should be sound and strong but not too heavy for the rod2 twisted lines are more easily found of good quality but braided lines kink less4 ,twenty yards are quite enough for any fishing of the kind we are considering and half as much would usually suffice4 ,in fly-fishing for large trout or bass the reel usually carries forty to fifty yards4 ,hooks should be of the best quality to be had4 ,good hooks are still practically all made in ,england4 ,shapes which have received names are many1 and most of them have advantages for particular kinds of fishing4 ,among the best are ,o',shaughnessy1 ,limerick1 ,sneckbend1 ,aberdeen1 and ,sproat4 ,the last-named we think will meet more kinds of need than any other one4 ,as to size it should be remembered that the hook is to fit the bait1 not the fish's mouth2 a very small fish can take any ordinary hook4 ,a reel is not so absolutely necessary as the rod1 line1 and hook1 but it is a prime convenience4 ,a well-made single-click reel is better than any multiplier except for the one matter of making long casts from the reel1 which a beginner is not likely to do4 ,for fly-casting a leader or casting-line of gut between the fly and the main line is necessary for making a light cast1 but for ordinary bait-fishing the gut-snells which are nowadays so generally sold attached to hook are bottom line enough4 ,if1 however1 you can get some white1 gray1 or cream-colored hairs from the tail of a young stallion you can make bottom lines or leaders for light fishing without expense4 ,a gaudy float is pretty sure to form part of the first angling outfit1 and it is useful to keep the bait out of the weeds and to notify the inexperienced angler that a fish is biting4 ,choose one that is slender in shape and not large4 ,a dry stick makes a good enough extemporaneous float1 and if fish are shy may be better than a more showy one4 ,for sinkers split shot ,b ,b size and buckshot or strips of thin lead1 such as comes from tea-chests1 wound around the line are as good as any and very easily gotten4 ,do not buy a bait-box4 ,it is not so good as a bag with a draw-string1 which will allow your hand to be inserted and will also close the aperture snugly4 ,the same string will serve to fasten the bag to your button-hole or creel-strap4 ,the bag is best made of flannel4 ,wash it after using4 ,worms are much better if dug a day or two before using and 8scoured0 by putting them into soft moss wrung out of water4 ,they become brighter and firmer by scouring and are more attractive to fish4 ,if live minnows or small fish are used for bait1 of course they must be kept in water1 which must be changed from time to time4 ,a pail is the most convenient vessel to carry them in4 ,a landing-net is convenient if you fish for game which is heavy in proportion to your tackle--say for fish upward of a pound in weight with a light rod4 ,very low-priced ones are now sold in the shops and sufficiently good ones can be made at home4 ,we give no details about flies as their name is legion4 ,a beginner would better have but few kinds and of moderate size2 a few hackles will probably be all he needs4 ,there are a multitude of things sold in the tackle-shops which are tempting but not at all necessary1 not to mention many which could have been devised only by a person who was no angler4 ,those already spoken of are all that seem essential4 ,bait-rods and ,fly-rods ,probably most boys are too sensible to fall into the error which seems to beset many adults--namely1 that the possession of tackle makes an angler4 ,it is necessary to know how to use it4 ,begin by putting your rod together properly2 put the tip into the middle first1 and then the middle into the butt4 ,see that the ferrules are well 8home0 and that the guides are all on the same side so that the line will run freely4 ,place the reel1 if you have one1 in the reel-seat and see that the reel-bands are snug and will not slip4 ,then lead off the lines through the rings and the tip-ring4 ,these details are the same whatever kind of fishing is in hand2 the others depend upon what is to be done4 ,let us suppose that you are to fish with bait and that bait a worm4 ,if you have a short gut line--two or three feet long--it will be well to fasten it to the end of the line and to the other end of the gut attach the snell of the hook4 ,but when seeking many fish which are not very shy1 the snell may be fastened directly to the line4 ,in fishing in a gently moving stream no lead may be needed2 if the current be quick a little will probably be required to keep the bait near the bottom4 ,in pond-fishing or reaches of a stream which are very quiet a float as well as lead may be convenient4 ,some veteran anglers still enjoy the bobbing of the float4 ,the hook may be put into the side of the worm as shown at ,a1 or into the head as at ,b 7,fig4 #a74 ,a is rather more attractive to the fish2 ,b more likely to be taken in such a way as to insure that the hook is in the fish's mouth4 ,when the worm is dead or has slipped down into a bunch at the bend of the hook no fish that you want will be likely to take it4 ,now1 do not make a splash when you put it into the water4 ,if you have to cast it out into still water do not use your rod and line as if it were a thresher's flail4 ,holding your rod nearly straight up1 give the line a gentle swing forward1 and when the bait has swung well out reach after it with the rod so that the bait 7and float1 too1 if there be one7 shall fall as lightly as possible4 ,do not be in too great a hurry to change its place4 ,if you are fishing in running water1 drop the bait quietly into the water and so manage the rod that it shall neither hasten nor hinder the movement of the bait1 which should travel as nearly as possible as it would if it were not upon a hook4 ,all the time you are to keep as much as possible out of sight4 ,when you feel the pluck of the fish drop the point of your rod and wait a second or two before you attempt to strike the hook into the flesh4 ,it sometimes happens that the place you wish to fish is so encumbered with bushes that it cannot be approached4 ,in such a case1 if you can find an opening in the bushes you may get at the water by shortening the line and winding what is left around and around the top of the rod4 ,then pass it through the opening1 and1 reaching out over the water1 roll the rod over and over in the hands until the line is unwound and the bait goes dropping down to the water1 as a spider lets himself down from his web4 ,if you have a bite1 give the fish time to make sure of the bait4 ,strike1 and1 when you can1 shorten your line still farther if necessary and draw your fish out4 ,on the other hand1 if in a fairly open place you wish to reach a point at some distance1 you may throw your bait out by pulling sufficient line from the reel1 and1 gathering it in coils upon the left hand1 swing the bait out with sufficient force to carry the coils of line after it and so reach the desired point4 ,to tell in a few words how to cast a fly is hardly practicable4 ,it is not done by force but by knack4 ,a cast consists of a back cast which carries the line upward and backward1 and a forward cast which propels it towards the desired spot4 ,the knack consists in giving with the wrist such a quick motion to the rod as shall set its elasticity to work1 and this carries the line4 ,one must not thrash with the rod4 ,as useful a way as any to help the reader will be to describe how the writer has tried to help lads who are learning to cast4 ,it is in this way3 ,the boy takes the rod1 fitted with its reel and line only1 to a water's-edge free of bushes or trees or to a lawn recently mowed4 ,if the grass is slightly damp all the better as it holds the line more nearly as does the water4 ,he pulls off from the reel enough line so that the free part shall be once and a half or twice the length of the rod4 ,this he throws out in front of him as well as he can4 ,he then is told to keep his elbow close against his side to prevent moving the arm above the elbow4 ,he then tries with a quick movement of the wrist1 and with as little movement of the forearm as possible1 to lift the line upward and backward until it straightens out behind him1 and then with another similar motion to make it go straight out before him4 ,the accompanying drawing 7,figs4 #b and #c7 show how the wrist and thumb really do all the work1 and how little the forearm really moves in good casting4 ,they show1 too1 what should be the limits of the motion in the butt of the rod4 ,if it goes farther back the back cast is apt to be low and the line if not the rod may get into trouble in bushes or grass4 ,if it goes farther forward the line is apt to go down with a splash4 ,after this restraint of motion has become habitual the rule of holding the elbow against the side may be relaxed a little1 especially in making long casts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,a ,fig4 #a ,b ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,,hook-,,baiting ,,and ,,fly-,,casting ,do not try to lift a sunken line suddenly from the water4 ,coax it to the surface1 as else the resistance of the line will probably snap your rod4 ,do not try to make the forward cast on just the same plane as the back cast for fear that the end of the line should snap like a whip-lash1 which if you were actually fishing would crack off your flies pretty certainly4 ,therefore make the lift of the back cast with a slight sweep 7generally inward towards the body is the more natural71 and deliver the forward cast straight out towards its destination4 ,but always aim about your own height above the spot on the water you mean to reach to insure the line falling lightly4 ,in all your practising remember that the key-note of good casting is in getting a good1 clean1 high back cast1 and in never sending the line forward until it is quite straight out behind and above you in the back cast4 ,if you have with you some one to guide you as to when it is straightened out it will be a great gain1 particularly as the time required for the straightening varies with the length of line that is used4 ,do not try to cast a long line until you have learned to cast a short one well2 and well means not only with a high back cast and straight forward1 but also accurately as to aim and delicately4 ,repairs1 ,knots1 and ,splices ,as has been said already it hardly pays nowadays to make one's own tackle1 at least for a beginner4 ,but a few things it is useful to know so that repairs and supplies of a sort can be made in an emergency4 ,but emergencies are to a great degree prevented by care--by cleaning and looking over the rod and the reel whenever you come home1 and keeping it safe4 ,the reel may need a drop of oil now and then1 and it should be always kept out of the dust1 in a box or drawer1 and above all from falls or blows4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d ,fig4 #e ,the repairs most commonly called for are the splicing of a broken rod1 the replacing a lost tip-ring or guide-ring1 the knotting of gut1 and the putting a hook to gut4 ,the repair-kit1 to use a cyclist's phrase1 consists of a piece of shoemaker's wax1 some moderately stout sewing-silk--number ,a being the best suited for quick work of all sorts--some bits of flexible brass wire1 and a pocket-knife4 ,as the method of wrapping used in all repairs is essentially the same let us begin with the simplest1 the putting the hook to gut4 ,first wax well a piece of silk half a yard or more in length4 ,choose your hook and the piece of gut 7or line if you do not use gut7 to which it is to be fastened4 ,take the bend of the hook firmly between the left thumb and forefinger and with the right take two or three turns of the silk about the other end of the shank 7,fig4 #d ,a74 ,then lay the gut on the under side of the hook1 reaching two-thirds down the shank1 and wind the silk snugly1 coil against coil1 over both hook and gut towards the bend of the hook ,b4 ,when the gut is nearly covered make a loop as at ,c1 but relatively larger than in the figure and keep on winding so that the part a covers in not only hook and gut but the part b1 clearing the silk from the bend of the hook at each turn4 ,when four or five turns have been taken draw on c and pull it snug4 7,d shows the loop not quite drawn down47 ,when snug cut off the end and you have the 8invisible knot0 or 8whip-finish0 universally used by fishermen4 ,the same whipping and finish are used for the other repairs mentioned above4 ,suppose that a joint of the rod has broken with a slanting break4 ,it may be that the surfaces can be fitted together neatly4 ,in this case they may be joined at once1 but if any part has been lost or broken away1 then the broken surfaces must be trimmed and smoothed with the knife until they do fit4 ,they are spliced thus3 ,rub the surfaces with your shoemaker's wax1 press them together1 and if you cannot easily hold them1 tie them temporarily with a piece of string1 or perhaps still better1 make open coils over the joined parts as at ,a in ,fig4 #d4 ,then wind back over these coils and the joined parts1 making close1 snug coils just as you did on the hook4 ,the whip-finish must be managed a little differently4 ,fig4 #e shows how this is done4 ,when ready to finish drop a loop and make four or five loose turns4 ,carry the end under the beginning of the loop1 wind down the loose coils firmly1 and pull the end through as before4 ,a lost tip-ring or guide-ring can be made good by a piece of wire bent into proper shape and whipped on with well waxed silk thread4 ,we need say but a few words about knots4 ,in order to knot your gut it must be first softened1 which is done by laying it in water2 it softens much more rapidly in lukewarm water than in cold4 ,two lengths of gut are joined together by lapping the end of one by the end of the other and making a knot in both together4 ,fig4 #f ,a shows this knot1 only the end is put through twice for greater security4 ,if the fishing is such as does not need strong tackle a single knot will suffice4 ,a loop at the end of a piece of gut is made by making the knot as at ,b1 which is the commonly used knot4 ,a better knot is that shown at ,c1 which looks complicated as drawn1 but really is not so1 as in tying it the two loops a and b are made1 the end c laid between them1 and then b is drawn through a4 ,d shows the ordinary simple method of fastening a line to the loop of a leader or of a snell4 ,it is the 8becket hitch0 of the seaman4 ,it explains itself4 ,its great advantage is that it cannot slip if drawn down snugly and can be instantly loosened by pushing the main line back a little way4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f ,aids for ,young ,anglers ,how often has it happened that on reaching a camping-ground1 hotel1 or boarding-house near river or lake where pickerel1 bass1 and large perch abounded no provision is found for the angler's sport but a boat--no lines1 sinkers1 or floats2 no nets for catching live bait1 and no bait but worms4 ,for sunfish1 catfish1 and small perch1 worms are very fair bait2 but for pickerel1 bass1 and large perch live bait is best4 ,here are some makeshifts and aids that may be gotten up at short notice and at small expense4 ,fig4 #g is an end-section of a mosquito-net seine for taking live bait4 ,the length of the seine is thirty-eight feet1 depth five feet4 ,the 8cork-line0 ,a ,a consists of a small-sized clothes-line4 ,corks not always being obtainable1 ,i have used pieces of thoroughly seasoned white pine three inches in length and one inch in diameter 7,c ,c ,c74 ,through these rounded pieces of wood holes are bored through which the clothes-line passes4 ,these floats are placed eight inches apart and are kept in position by the clothes-line fitting tightly in the holes4 ,at the bottom of the seine another clothes-line is sewed to the netting 7,b ,b74 ,this is called the 8lead line0 and is for the purpose of keeping the lower part of the seine close to the bottom of the water4 ,in the lead line pieces of sheet-lead one inch in length are fastened 7,h ,h ,h7 twenty-eight inches apart4 ,the 8staff0 ,d is a well-seasoned piece of hickory six feet long1 to the lower end of which sheet-lead is also fastened at ,e to keep it down4 ,to the staff is attached the staff line ,f ,f ,f1 thirty feet long1 which is for the purpose of drawing in the seine after it has been cast4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g ,fig4 #h ,a seine of this size is generally worked by two persons and two boats4 ,each person takes one of the staff lines in his boat1 and rowing towards the shore with the extended seine describes a semicircle between the boats4 ,as the shore is approached each boat closes in1 thereby causing the two staffs to meet and imprison all the fish that have come within the bounds of the seine4 ,when one person works the seine one of the staff lines is tied to a rock or stake on the shore and the other line is taken into a boat1 or the operator wades out and causes his end of the seine to describe a circle until the two shafts meet4 ,great care must be taken to keep the lead line close to the bottom otherwise the fish will escape4 ,in the selection of the seining-ground always avoid stony bottoms1 snags1 and brush1 which will cause the seine to 8roll up0 and tear4 ,the cost of the above-described seine ranges from three to four dollars1 and is capable of lasting two seasons if carefully handled and spread out on the grass to dry after using it4 ,a much superior article to mosquito-net is bobinet1 which will last several seasons4 ,fig4 #h is a bait-boat for keeping the bait alive4 ,it is towed behind or kept by the side when fishing4 ,the top and bottom pieces consist of half-inch pine2 in the centre of each piece square openings are cut2 that on the top is protected by a door made of wire-cloth or quarter-inch mesh fastened to two small staples which answer the purpose of hinges2 over the opening in the bottom piece wire-cloth is nailed to admit of a free circulation of water4 ,under the back end of the top piece a cleat is nailed1 also two cleats on the bottom piece as shown in the drawing4 ,at the bow of the boat an upright piece of wood is fastened to the top and bottom of the bait-boat by means of screws4 ,the sides of the boat consist of one piece of wire-cloth1 the ends of which meet at the upright piece of wood at the bow and are nailed with broad-headed galvanized nails4 ,the top and bottom of the wire-cloth are also fastened with nails to the edges of the top and bottom of the boat as shown in the drawing4 ,a tow-line is fastened to the bow and the boat is complete4 ,when handling the bait a small hand-net 7,fig4 #i7 is used1 consisting of a stout piece of wire as shown in the drawing4 ,the straight parts of the wire are bound together with fishing-line and constitute the handle2 to this frame netting is sewed to form the net-bag4 ,for a makeshift float nothing is better than a good-sized bottle-cork into which a cut has been made with a sharp knife or razor extending from the side to the centre of the cork4 ,into this cut the line is drawn as shown in ,fig4 #aj ,a4 ,sheet-lead is always a useful aid in makeshift fishing-tackle1 and for light lines makes excellent sinkers when bent and compressed around the line as shown at ,fig4 #aj ,b4 ,for cleaning out a boat a stiff whisk-broom made of fine birch twigs bound together with wire or fishing-line1 as shown at ,fig4 #aa1 will be found very useful4 ,fig4 #ab ,a and ,b are hand-made sinkers beaten and carved out of old lead pipe4 ,the carved one1 ,b1 is first roughed out with a jack-knife and finished up with fine emery or sand paper4 ,a is beaten into shape with a railroad spike on an anvil or smooth stone4 ,this beating and carving of lead is very pleasant work1 the lead being of such an easy and good-natured temper4 ,for a cheap and easy-obtainable bailer make use of an empty tomato or corned-beef can as shown in ,fig4 #ac4 ,a hole sufficiently large to admit of the handle is punched in the side of the can2 the inside of the handle is chamfered off so as to fit close to the inner side of the can4 ,through the can and into the end of the handle a stout nail is driven as at ,a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i ,fig4 #aj ,fig4 #aa ,fig4 #ab ,a ,fig4 #ab ,b ,fig4 #ac ,fig4 #ad ,,some ,,useful ,,hints ,a good bait for large fish is a strip cut from the under side of a small pickerel1 perch1 or sunfish1 which is placed on the hook as shown in ,fig4 #ad4 ,baits1 and ,where to ,find ,them ,as a rule1 the young fisherman naturally considers the angle-worm to be the only bait he need have when he goes fishing1 and1 taking a spade1 he seeks a moist1 loamy spot in the garden and proceeds to fill his box4 ,but there is a choice even in worms1 and those of a clear1 dark1 amber color are the best4 ,just at night1 and after a soft1 warm rain1 worms of the size of a lead-pencil will be found crawling over the ground4 ,these are excellent bait for bass1 chub1 perch1 and large trout early in the season4 ,if you step very lightly1 so as not to jar the ground1 you can easily pick up a box of these large fellows4 ,it is well enough to have worms with you on all occasions1 but there are many other baits4 ,frogs1 crabs1 grubs1 dobsons1 minnows1 ,june-bugs1 grasshoppers1 and crickets1 as well as artificial baits1 are more successful lures with certain fish4 ,a few words telling where to find these baits and the proper manner of keeping them fresh and lively may prove of value4 ,frogs are most plentiful on the shores of ponds or streams filled with plant growth1 and in low1 moist places in meadows4 ,in searching for them in grass1 wait till you see one jump1 then catch it in your hands4 ,they are not so easily gotten from the shores1 as they are apt to take to the water at the first alarm4 ,crabs are usually found under stones along the shores of a stream or pond1 and in some localities in low1 moist places in grass-lands4 ,seize the crab back of the pincers and it cannot nip you4 ,dobsons are only found under mossy stones in swift-running waters4 ,they are of a dark-gray color1 have many legs1 and when fully grown are about three inches long4 ,the head is shield-shaped and armed with good1 stout pincers1 so handle the dobson as you would a crab4 ,the best way to get a supply of dobsons is to have some one hold one edge of a fine-meshed net on the bottom of the stream while you turn over the stones above the net with a hoe4 ,the dobsons1 loosing their hold on the bottom1 will be carried by the current into the net4 ,put frogs1 crabs1 and dobsons into a pail with plenty of grass and some water4 ,if you are to keep them for some time change the water occasionally4 ,grubs are excellent bait for trout early in the season4 ,they are found in partially decayed tree-trunks1 stumps1 and old timbers left in moist places4 ,cut into the wood with an axe1 and if you find it full of holes of the size of a lead-pencil1 knock it to pieces and pick out the grubs4 ,put them in a tin bait-box with some of the rotten wood you found them in4 ,minnows of a size suitable for perch and bass fishing can usually be procured from a spring hole or the pools of a small stream4 ,take a rather baggy net with a small mesh1 and after setting it at one end of the pool drive the minnows into it by striking on the water with a pole and punching about on the bottom4 ,if you stir up the water the little fish will drive more easily4 ,if your supply must be procured from a lake or pond1 look among the shallows close inshore until you have found a school1 then draw a small seine around them4 ,large minnows for pickerel or pike fishing can be caught with a hook and line4 ,those you are to use for skittering had better be packed in salt4 ,the minnows you would keep alive should be put into the bait-pail as soon as caught4 ,bait-pails1 as usually made1 consist of one pail freely perforated with holes to be set into a tight outer pail4 ,by this arrangement the water can be changed frequently without inconveniencing the little fellows4 ,if the bait is to be carried some distance1 and there is no chance to change the water1 pack the space between the two pails loosely with grass4 ,the water trickling down through the grass will take up the air needed by the fish4 ,crickets are to be found under stones1 loose sods1 and old planks4 ,select the largest you can find4 ,june-bugs1 sometimes called ,may-bugs1 hide through the heat of the day among the leaves of the trees1 and sometimes by shaking a tree quite a number will fall to the ground4 ,grasshoppers are plentiful in meadow and pasture lands1 and may easily be caught in the hands4 ,put ,june-bugs1 crickets1 and grasshoppers in a wide-mouthed bottle loosely stuffed with grass4 ,do not cork the bottle tight4 ,i never esteemed artificial baits1 such as the rubber frog and crab1 very highly4 ,it is impossible to give the semblance of life to them in the water1 and most game fish prefer live food to dead4 ,the spoon-hook and the artificial fly1 however1 have proved their worth4 ,the spoon should be of a size in keeping with the size of the game fished for1 and it is well enough to have two--one bright1 for use early in the morning and late in the afternoon and on dark days1 the other dull-colored for use in the brightest part of the day4 ,it is an excellent plan to bait a spoon-hook with a large worm1 a minnow1 or a piece of meat2 then if the fish strikes and misses the hook it may get a portion of the bait and will strike again with truer aim4 ,there are many other things that can be used for bait1 which are to be found only in your locality4 ,what they are you can learn by observation and experiment4 ,one can always learn something4 ,only recently ,i discovered that bass were fond of darning-needles4 ,sometimes the fish have very fickle appetites1 and it is well to have as many kinds of bait as you can conveniently carry4 ,it is also a good plan to open the stomach of the first fish you catch1 and offer to its companions the same kind of food found inside of it4 ,a ,trap for ,small ,fish ,many of the boys and girls who live near the sea-side are interested in making and stocking aquariums1 and many1 no doubt1 have experienced the same difficulty which ,i did when ,i used to stock aquariums myself4 ,i always found that the scoop-net which we use to catch the fish with is good enough for certain kinds of minnows1 but there are others which are too lively or too shy to be caught in that way2 so ,i set to work to devise some plan for their capture4 ,i claim no originality for this trap--it is hundreds of years old2 but as it answered my purpose better than anything else1 ,i used it4 ,the way ,i made it was as follows3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae ,fig4 #af ,fig4 #ag ,i took a piece of wire-netting about three feet square and bent it so as to form a tube three feet long and about one foot in diameter 7,fig4 #ae74 ,i then took two other strips of wire-netting1 three feet long at the top1 one foot wide1 and two feet at the bottom 7,fig4 #af72 these ,i bent into funnel shape4 ,i sewed one funnel in about the middle of my cylinder and another in one end1 as shown in ,fig4 #ae1 strengthening them in their position with strings from the small ends to the sides of the cylinder4 ,the other end of the cylinder ,i closed with a piece of strong bagging so sewed on that there was a space left at one side which could be untied when ,i wished to empty the trap4 ,the manner of setting the trap is as simple as its manufacture4 ,a handful of clams or mussels1 crushed so that the minnows can get at the flesh1 is thrown in between the first and second funnels4 ,the fish1 little crabs1 small eels1 and the like1 go in1 and when they try to get out they find it much easier to swim through the second funnel than to find the small hole in the first4 ,i have had several of these traps1 or 8pots10 as the fishermen call them1 in operation at one time1 and have caught as many as half a bushel of small fish in one night4 ,the trap can be made by making a frame of hoops and lath and covering it with mosquito-netting1 but it is not so desirable as the fine wire1 being more easily torn4 ,a ,water-turtle ,trap ,some time ago1 while spending the summer in the country1 ,i began the pleasing amusement of making an aquarium4 ,i used various methods to procure the inmates of the great glass box which ,i had made for the purpose1 and was successful1 except that ,i could not get a water-turtle4 ,there they would lie on logs in the pond sunning themselves1 but the moment ,i came within reaching distance1 plump they would go into the water4 ,at last ,i took an old soap-box1 and after carefully removing one end ,i nailed on the cover4 ,i then fastened the end to the cover by hinges1 so that it would swing inward1 and after throwing in a few bones and scraps of meat1 ,i sunk the box in the pond close beside a big log where the turtles were accustomed to sun themselves4 ,i put a heavy stone on the box1 so as to keep it steady1 and awaited the next morning for developments4 ,fig4 #ag4 ,here ,i may say that this trap takes advantage of a peculiarity in the nature of the water-turtle--namely1 if there is a log or stone that he cannot get under1 that is just the place that he wants to get2 and ,i calculated that the slight resistance offered by my swinging door would be just enough to make the turtles determined to get into my box4 ,the next morning when ,i went to my trap ,i found several turtles of all sizes1 from one tiny1 yellow-spotted fellow1 or mud-turtle1 not larger than a half-dollar1 to an ugly1 great snapper as big as your hat1 and so ill-tempered that ,i let him go again1 glad enough at having got rid of so troublesome a visitor4 ,after that ,i set my trap several times and caught a number of turtles4 ,the smaller ones furnish a charming addition to an aquarium1 and the larger ones1 if properly dressed1 make a capital stew4 ,an ,eel-pot ,all along the ,atlantic coast eel-pots are made on the same general plan1 a bottle-shaped basket having a funnel fitted at the bottom and provided with a hat that is held on by two straps of green oak4 ,three forms are used on which to build up the basket-work4 ,the large form is usually ten inches in diameter and shaped down to eight inches at the top or neck4 ,this form is two feet long and has a round stick driven in the small end4 ,this in turn rests in a hole bored in a solid piece of plank1 so that it is held in an inverted position and revolves in the hole4 ,green oak is used for the ribs and bands4 ,this is cut as straight and free from knots as possible1 and is soaked in water for weeks before it is split and slivered4 ,green oak will sliver in an even and uniform manner if it is started right1 and from the trunk of an oak-tree six inches in diameter enough material can be had to make several dozen eel-pots4 ,the ribs are three-quarters of an inch wide and about one-eighth of an inch thick1 while the bands are a trifle thinner and wider4 ,a number of the ribs are tied around the form as shown in ,fig4 #ah1 and beginning at the bottom the bands are woven in and out around the form1 turning it as the work progresses so that the immediate parts are always in sight4 ,where the ends join they are shaved down thin so that one laps over the other2 then the weaving continues until the top is reached4 ,the ends of the ribs are then shaved thin and bent back and slipped under some of the straps4 ,a thin ribbon of the oak is sewed over and over around the edge to finish it4 ,the top or small end of the basket is finished in a similar manner4 ,the cone or funnel form is fifteen inches long1 nine inches in diameter at the large end1 and tapers down to two inches at the bottom as shown in ,fig4 #ai4 ,ribs are tied to this form the same as in the case of the large one1 and the weaving begins at the bottom and is carried to the top1 where the ends of the ribs are shaved and turned in as before described4 ,the bottom or small end of the funnel is the trap1 and here the long1 thin ends of the ribs are left1 so that the eel1 when he goes through the funnel and into the pot1 cannot get back again4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah ,fig4 #ai ,fig4 #bj ,fig4 #ba ,fig4 #bb ,fig4 #bc ,fig4 #bd ,the hat is woven the same as a basket by crossing the ribs and adding a half-rib from the centre anywhere on the circle1 so as to make an uneven number of ribs2 thus the weaving will not duplicate after the first turn around the circle4 ,this extra rib is shown at ,a in ,fig4 #bj4 ,a hat form1 shown in ,fig4 #ba1 is made of wood and mounted on a block so that it will revolve the same as the other forms4 ,when a part of the hat is woven it is placed on the form and two small nails driven through the ribs into the form to hold the weaving in place4 ,it is then shaped down over the rounded edges of the form and carried one or two inches below the form so the lower edges of the ribs can be shaved and bent easily4 ,a long strap of the green oak is passed under one of the ribs in the hat and caught under bands of the body as shown in the drawing of a complete eel-pot4 ,fig4 #bb4 ,the funnel is sewed to the bottom edge of the body with thin bands4 ,as soon as the pots are finished they should be sunk in shallow water to keep them wet and get them thoroughly water-soaked4 ,stakes or poles are to be driven or worked down into the bottom of the bay and the eel-pots made fast to them with ropes4 ,to bait an eel-pot crack some hard-shell crabs or shrimp or put some pieces of fresh1 raw meat within the pot and drop it overboard4 ,run the pots morning and night1 and remove the eels by unstrapping the cap and dumping them into a barrel which may be carried on the boat4 ,a ,scap-net ,a scap-net for crabbing or landing fish on a hook may be made from a ring of heavy galvanized iron driven into the end of a hard-wood stick4 ,scap-nets may be purchased in most any general store near a bay or pond1 but the ingenious boy can make one himself from a hoop and a ball of cotton twine4 ,hang long pieces of string over the ring and tie them fast with a square knot4 ,then tie one string with its next neighbor all around the circle4 ,begin lower down and tie them again1 and continue in this manner until the net resembles ,fig4 #bc4 ,when it is seven or eight inches deep begin to shape it in at the bottom by making the meshes or openings smaller so that it will have a rounded bottom4 ,the ends of the string should be tied together or over a small galvanized-iron sail-ring4 ,all the strings should be tied in square knots so that they will not become undone after the net has been used for a while4 ,a ,hoop ,drop-net ,a hoop drop-net such as shown at ,fig4 #bd may easily be made from three galvanized-wire rings and a mesh of tied string as described for the scap-net4 ,the hoops should be eighteen inches in diameter and separated ten inches1 thus making a net twenty inches deep4 ,a mesh is to be formed across the bottom1 and at the top six small ropes are tied and the ends brought together fifteen or twenty inches above the top ring4 ,place some crushed crab or any good bait in the bottom of the net and slowly lower it until the rings rest on the bottom of the bay or pond1 but keep the small ropes clear from the net4 ,watch through the water for visitors1 and when the right subject is at the bait and within the rings give a quick jerk and pull the net rapidly to the surface4 ,if fish are to be caught in this manner the hoops should be larger and one more added to the net1 making it thirty inches deep4 ,fish are cunning and swift1 and will often dart up and over the top hoop faster than you can haul it up4 ,chapter ,x ,,land-,,yachts ,,and ,,pushmobiles ,a ,land-yacht ,a few years ago the only kind of yacht known to the boys were those that sailed in the water1 but in this advanced time1 when many unheard-of things have been made possible1 the land-yacht has made its welcome appearance4 ,down on the ,southern coasts1 particularly ,florida and ,california1 where the sand packs fine and hard1 the land-yacht is an important feature both for pleasure and business1 and if properly handled in a good breeze it will run from ten to twenty miles an hour4 ,no end of fun can be had with a properly constructed boat1 and the ingenious boy may employ old baby-carriage or bicycle wheels for the running-gear4 ,a yacht of medium size can be made on the lines of ,fig4 #a at a comparatively small cost for the timbers and sail-cloth1 spars and hardware4 ,the leg-of-mutton sail is used in preference to the square sail1 as it has the greatest area close to the ground and is less liable to upset and much easier to handle4 ,to begin with1 obtain some spruce joist clear-grained and free from knots4 ,they should be two-by-four inches and twelve feet long4 ,cut one of them eight feet long and use it for the main cross-piece to which the front wheels are attached4 ,form a ,v of two twelve-foot joist1 and fasten them to the cross-piece as shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,about ten inches of each piece should project beyond the cross-piece4 ,the timbers are bolted fast and at the rear end they are bevelled and brought together1 then bolted through from side to side as shown in the plan 7,fig4 #b74 ,three feet back of the long cross-piece a shorter timber is set in between the ,v-shaped frame as shown at ,a4 ,at the middle of this timber a hole one inch and a half square is cut and into it a tenon on the butt-end of the bowsprit fits as shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,the bowsprit is seven feet long and is bolted fast to the long cross-piece4 ,where the end fits into the timber ,a two angle-blocks are nailed fast4 ,seat-planking is cut and screwed or nailed fast to the ,v-shaped frame as shown in both ,fig4 #a and ,fig4 #b4 ,the boards should be ten inches wide and cut to overhang the timbers an inch or two at both ends4 ,if the wheels from an old baby-carriage are to be used the axle should be cut in half with a hack-saw and each part clamped under an end of the cross-timber with ,u-shaped clamps having the ends threaded and provided with nuts and washers as shown at ,fig4 #d4 ,the rear or steering wheel is set in a fork that a blacksmith will make from strap-iron1 and a round piece of the same metal1 having a square-headed upper end1 will do for the rudder-post as shown at ,fig4 #e4 ,a short axle threaded at both ends and provided with nuts will hold the wheel in place1 and when the post is passed up through a hole made in the timbers a tiller can be slipped over the square shoulder and bolted fast so that it will stay in place4 ,the tiller is of hard-wood two inches broad at the rear end1 one inch in thickness1 and tapered so that it will be about an inch square with the corners rounded where it is grasped by the hand4 ,the handle part of it should be bound with linen cord to improve the grip4 ,give the deck wood-work and timbering a few coats of red1 buff1 or light-green paint4 ,the mast-step is rigged over the forward cross-timber4 ,two upright pieces of board twenty inches long and eight inches wide are attached to the outside edges of the frame-joist with screws4 ,on top of these a cross-piece is made fast so that the step presents the appearance of a bench4 ,two pieces of board six inches wide are fastened from the corners down to the bowsprit and cross-timber to brace the step as shown at ,fig4 #f4 ,an iron brace is made fast to the top of the step1 behind the mast1 and to the bowsprit1 as may be seen in the illustration4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,fig4 #d ,fig4 #e ,fig4 #f ,fig4 #g ,a hole three inches in diameter is cut at the middle of the step-board1 and through this the mast is slipped4 ,a half-inch round iron is driven into the bottom of the mast after a hole has been bored with a bit4 ,it should be long enough to project out about two inches4 ,this steps into a hole bored in the top of the bowsprit1 and with the three wire stays that are caught at the top of the mast and into the eye-bolts1 shown by the arrow-heads in ,fig4 #b1 the mast is held securely in place4 ,a round pole fourteen feet long may be used for the mast1 but if it is impossible to find one a very good mast can be dressed from a three-inch-square spruce stick that is free from large knots or cracks4 ,the dressing may be done with a draw-knife and plane1 and near the upper end it should be tapered4 ,the boom is sixteen feet long and two inches in diameter1 and if it is possible to get a long curtain-pole it will answer very well2 otherwise it will be necessary to cut it from a two-inch-square spruce stick4 ,the mast end of the boom is provided with a crotch made with two jaws as shown at ,fig #g4 ,they are cut from hard-wood with a draw-knife and compass-saw1 and held to the boom with carriage bolts or screws and string bound round the three parts4 ,the sail is made of heavy1 unbleached muslin that can be had at a dry-goods store for ten cents a yard4 ,it may be sewed by hand or on a machine1 and through the middle it would be well to take a lop so as to make a strengthening rib4 ,the sail measures ten feet on the mast1 fifteen feet on the boom1 and eighteen feet on the leach4 ,it is caught to the boom with stout cord and to the mast with wood or iron rings1 and with a halyard and pulley at mast-head the sail may be raised and lowered at will4 ,in localities where there are hard roads and where the wind has a good sweep these land-yachts have become very popular4 ,of course they are much safer than water-boats for there is no danger of drowning1 and it is quite impossible to capsize a land-yacht if the cross-timber is long enough to give the wheels a good spread4 ,wheels with rubber tires will make the running motion easier and so add to the owner's comfort4 ,a ,sail-wagon ,for level streets or sidewalks where trees do not interfere and where the walks are wide1 a sail-wagon will afford much amusement4 ,in the drawing 7,fig4 #h7 a sail-wagon of medium size and simple construction is shown4 ,obtain a pine1 white-wood1 or spruce plank fifteen inches wide and about one inch thick4 ,it should be planed on one or both sides and measure eight feet long4 ,round the ends with a compass-saw and build a bridge for the mast1 as shown in the drawing4 ,this bridge should be twelve inches high1 eighteen inches long1 and eight inches wide1 and should be braced underneath with angle-brackets4 ,in the middle of the top board cut a hole three inches in diameter1 and directly under it1 in the plank1 bore a half-inch hole for the mast-pin to step into4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h ,fig4 #i ,a ,,sail-,,wagon ,one foot back from the front end arrange an axle-bar three feet long and two by three inches thick4 ,make another bar the same size for the rear axle but do not bolt it fast4 ,this must be arranged on a king-bolt so that it can be turned by a post and tiller4 ,the king-bolt and post should be in one piece1 and this will have to be made by a blacksmith4 ,two round iron plates of metal one-eighth of an inch thick and five inches in diameter are provided with screw-holes at the outer edge and with round holes at the middle4 ,one of these plates is to be attached to the middle of the axle1 as shown at ,fig4 #i ,a1 and the other to the under side of the plank in the middle and about ten inches in from the end4 ,a hole is to be bored and cut three-quarters of an inch square in the axle-tree1 and the holes in both iron plates are also three-quarters of an inch in diameter4 ,have a blacksmith make an iron post eight inches long and three-quarters of an inch in diameter4 ,a piece of iron should be welded at the lower end so as to make it three-quarters of an inch square for a distance of three inches4 ,at the top form a square shoulder an inch long1 and above it have a short round shank threaded to take a nut as shown in ,fig4 #i ,b4 ,drive this shaft up through the square hole in the axle-tree1 and to prevent it from dropping nail a piece of wood or tin over the end of it and to the under side of the tree4 ,slip the round post up through the plate and board so that it extends several inches above the top of the board4 ,make a tiller of hard-wood fifteen inches long and three inches wide at the post-end and taper it to the handle4 ,cut a square hole in the broad end to fit over the square shoulder on the iron post1 then screw the nut on over a washer to hold the tiller in place4 ,to prevent the tiller from splitting near the hole it would be best to bind the wood at both ends of the hole with copper wire as shown in ,fig4 #i ,c4 ,when the wagon is in motion a turn of the handle will operate the axle and steer the moving vehicle easily4 ,the wheels should be all the same size1 but if they cannot be had and only a pair of large and small ones are available place the smaller ones at the rear4 ,the axle need not run the entire length of the axle-tree1 but shorter pieces may be bolted fast to the ends of the trees4 ,give the wagon two or three coats of paint and it will then be ready for use4 ,from spruce or pine cut a mast five feet long and three inches in diameter1 using a draw-knife and plane to shape it4 ,taper the stick at the top1 place an iron band about the bottom1 and drive a half-inch iron pin into a hole bored in the bottom so that two or three inches of it will project4 ,the foot of the mast is to be slipped through the hole in the bridge and the pin stepped into the hole made in the long board directly under it4 ,from two-inch spruce cut a sprit seven feet long and a boom seven feet long with a crotch formed at one end1 as described in the boat chapter4 ,the sprit acts as a gaff1 and at the same time it does away with halyards and makes it possible to use a shorter and stouter stick for the mast4 ,from unbleached muslin make a sail three feet and six inches on the mast1 six feet on the boom1 three feet at the head1 and seven feet on the leach4 ,a sail of this proportion will set properly1 and when the peak is jacked up with the sprit the boom will clear the boy on the deck when it swings over4 ,to stiffen the sail bind the outer edge with thin rope or cotton line a trifle smaller than clothes-line4 ,a ,pushmobile ,the pushmobile 7,fig4 #aj7 is another interesting road or sidewalk car and one with which two boys can share considerable fun4 ,in general appearance the pushmobile resembles something between an automobile and a buck-board1 as there is a long reach between the fore and aft wheels4 ,the body consists of a long board one inch and a quarter in thickness1 eighteen or twenty inches wide1 and seven feet long4 ,or two nine-inch planks may be fixed together with the battens that hold the axles and a shorter one under the seat4 ,at the front of the body a keg is mounted and held fast with iron straps which go over the top of the keg and are fastened to the sides of the large board as may be seen in ,fig4 #aj4 ,this keg will represent the engine cover1 and at either side of it and mounted on the board two tin cans arranged with glass at the front will serve as lamps4 ,by perforating the tops and sides of these cans a candle may be used or bicycle lamps may be substituted for them4 ,the glass is fitted to the cans by bending a piece of spring-wire in a circle and placing it within the can4 ,against this wire a circular piece of glass will rest1 and to hold it in place another wire may be slipped within the can4 ,if large baking-powder or coffee cans are used the greater portion of the cap may be cut away with a tin-shears1 leaving a rim and flange just wide enough to hold the glass in place4 ,the seat is made from a box eighteen inches wide and high and arranged with back and sides which can be built up six inches above the seat as shown in ,fig4 #aj4 ,this seat is to be securely attached to the board with long screws driven up through the under side of the board and into the lower part of the box4 ,the steering-shaft and wheel are arranged about one foot in front of the seat4 ,this is a shaft of hard-wood 7such as a curtain-pole or any good tough stick7 about one inch and a half square or in diameter4 ,it mounts on a block of wood which is screwed fast to the large board and provided with a hole through which the shaft will pass so that it will extend down through the large board4 ,a collar of wood or iron is slipped down over the shaft and screwed fast to it so as to prevent it from slipping down too far4 ,another collar is provided and made fast at the bottom to prevent the steering-cable from slipping off4 ,the arrangement of the collars and wire is shown at ,fig4 #aa ,a4 ,at the top of the shaft a small wooden wheel should be slipped on over a shank that may be cut down in size to fit the opening in the wheel2 and with a screw the wheel is to be made fast to the shaft so that it is held securely in place4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj ,fig4 #aa ,fig4 #ab ,the rear wheels are attached to an axle that in turn is bolted fast to a bar of wood eighteen inches long and two by three inches in thickness4 ,these wheels are held in a fixed position1 and the bar to which they are attached is located about a foot in from the end of the long board4 ,the front axle is bolted to a movable bar which is held to another bar by a king-bolt1 so that the lower axle-bar can turn in the same way as on a wagon4 ,the bar to which the axle and movable bar are attached is located about one foot from the front of the long board4 ,this arrangement can be seen at ,fig4 #ab1 which is a front view showing axle and fifth wheel1 as the turn-plate between the axle-tree and the body of the wagon is called4 ,the fifth wheel is made of two pieces of tire-iron1 one fastened to the under side of the fixed bar1 the other to the top of the axle-tree1 so that when greased the lower part will turn easily4 ,flexible wire-cable or very strong twine should be used for the steering-gear4 ,the ends are made fast to the axle-tree as shown at ,a in ,fig4 #ab4 ,several wraps of the wire or twine are taken about the lower end of the shaft1 and the wire passes through a hole to prevent it from slipping4 ,the wire should be attached first at one end of the tree1 carried to the shaft1 and given several turns1 then passed through the hole4 ,several more turns are to be made above the hole1 then the loose end should be attached to the other end of the axle-tree4 ,if a small turn-buckle can be had1 make it fast to the wire and axle at one end so as to draw the wire taut and hold it in place1 for the tighter the wire the better the shaft will act when turned by the wheel4 ,a brake is to be made fast at one side of the car as shown in ,fig4 #aj4 ,have a blacksmith turn a piece of one-inch thin tire-iron for you as shown at ,fig4 #aa ,b1 and bore two holes at the short end and two larger ones farther up as indicated in the drawing4 ,with screws attach a brake-block to the short end1 and with a square-headed lag-screw make this brake-bar fast to a block fastened at the under side of the long board so that the lever and brake-block will act on the tire of the wheel4 ,the hand-bar is of iron twenty-four inches long and provided with a hole at the lower end and another one six inches above it4 ,the upper end of the bar is drawn out on the anvil so that a wooden handle can be slipped on it1 then it is bolted to a block attached to the lower front side of the seat as shown in the illustration4 ,a stout wire connects the lower end of the hand-bar with the top of the brake-bar1 so that when the handle is pulled back the wire and top end of the brake-bar is drawn forward and the block pressed against the wheel4 ,several coats of paint will give this pushmobile a good appearance and it will then be ready for use4 ,one boy on the seat steers the machine1 while another grasps the overhanging edges of the long board and pushes as he runs behind4 ,on level sidewalks or streets a good run and push will send the car along at a good speed and the pusher can then jump on behind4 ,when going downhill both boys can ride1 and if the driver has his hands full with the wheel and shaft the boy behind can reach forward and operate the brake4 ,if coasting is done on very steep hills or roads it would be well to have a brake to operate on both rear wheels1 for the momentum of a rapidly moving car will often drag a 8dead0 wheel if the other three are running easily2 whereas if both back wheels are 8dead0 the car can be brought to a quick stop4 ,chapter ,,xi ,,fire-,,engines ,,and ,,trucks ,the ,engine ,every boy is interested in fire-engines and fires1 and in the absence of the real thing there is a great deal of fun to be had in playing fire4 ,the regular steam apparatus is rather beyond a boy's constructive ability1 but the engine shown in the illustration 7,fig4 #a7 can easily be made from an oil or pork barrel1 a keg1 a pump1 and a set of old wagon wheels4 ,a box may be used for the seat and a small force-pump may be had at a hardware store for a nominal sum4 ,the pump should be fitted with a hose-coupling at both inlet and outlet1 so that a piece of garden hose can be used for the suction and force4 ,the construction of the body part of the engine is shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,two rails six inches wide1 seven-eighths of an inch thick1 and six feet long are set wide enough apart for the barrel 7representing the boiler7 to fit between4 ,these pieces are securely attached with stout screws to the barrel so that a foot of each rail will extend beyond the rear of the barrel4 ,at both ends a rail corresponding in width and thickness is cut and fitted between the ends of the rails as shown at ,a ,a4 ,these are to be held in position with long1 steel-wire nails or with screws1 which always make the best and most secure joints4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,to prevent the side-rails from spreading1 a cross-rib should be made fast to the under side of the side-rails about at the middle as shown at ,b ,b4 ,this is a precaution taken to prevent the rails spreading and letting the heavy barrel full of water drop4 ,in addition to the screws that are driven through the side-rails and into the barrel1 it would be well to screw a batten fast at each side over the rail as shown at ,c4 ,this lug will help the bearing and take the strain from the screws in the rails4 ,the truss which holds the keg1 or imitation dry-steam chest1 is made of strips four inches wide1 seven-eighths of an inch thick1 and built up so that the angle stands fifteen inches above the top of the side-rails as shown at ,d4 ,these trusses are securely bound at the angle with screws or clinch-nails1 then screwed fast to the inside of the rails as shown at ,e ,e4 ,cut a short piece of board and nail it fast between these truss-knees to act as a platform on which to stand the keg4 ,another small platform can be made between the truss and barrel on one or both sides of the apparatus to accommodate one or two pumps4 ,the smoke-pipe at the top of the barrel is cut from an old stove-pipe and is shaped as shown in ,fig4 #a4 ,with a tin-shears or snips the ears are cut at top and bottom4 ,those at the top are pointed and give a crown effect1 but if the plain-rim top is preferred do not cut the pipe4 ,at the bottom1 slits are cut in the pipe two inches in from the edge1 about three-quarters of an inch apart1 and with a flat-nosed pliers the ears are bent out so that they will lie flat on the barrel-top when the smoke-pipe is set in place4 ,a piece of tin or zinc is placed on the barrel-head under the smoke-pipe1 and with large tacks the pipe is then made fast4 ,when running to a fire some shavings1 chips1 or cotton on which some paraffine has been melted is put in this smoke-pipe and lit1 and as the engine is drawn along the sparks and smoke will shoot out from the top of the pipe in a very realistic manner4 ,the seat is made of a box on top of which a back and side-arms are arranged as shown in ,fig4 #a1 and when it is complete it is attached to the side-rails and truss4 ,the upper edges of the side-rails are decked over in front of the box so as to make a platform1 and at the front end of the frame a dash-board is arranged and held in position with battens4 ,a small1 water-tight keg is fastened to the platform between the knees of the truss by means of screws passed up through the bottom of the platform and into the under side of the keg4 ,one or two openings are made in the keg and a hose-coupling driven into them so that the long hose may be attached when at a fire4 ,short lengths of hose and couplings extend from the top of the pumps to the keg1 so that when the pumps are in action the water is forced into the keg and out through the openings4 ,there will always be a cushion of air above the water which is more or less elastic1 and when the water is forced in faster than it can escape through the nozzles the air-cushion will take care of the pressure automatically4 ,small carriage wheels and axles support the frame1 and at the front a fifth wheel is arranged so that the front wheels can be turned4 ,back of the barrel the frame is decked at the under side so as to make a fuel-box where more smoke and spark making materials can be stored4 ,it would be well to fasten a lid to this compartment so that sparks dropping from the smoke-pipe will not fall on and ignite the contents4 ,if it is possible to obtain a force-pump it can be mounted on one of the bases arranged at the side of the barrel4 ,the suction-hose should come from the under side of the barrel and be attached to the base of the pump4 ,the coupling to which the long hose is attached should be arranged at the side of the keg or it can be screwed directly on the outlet of the pump4 ,a short length of the hose--a coupling and nozzle--may be supported on hooks and a standing ,y as shown in ,fig4 #a4 ,the hook on the barrel is made from a piece of iron bent as shown at ,fig4 #c ,a1 with holes bored to receive screws4 ,if the iron is too hard to work a wooden bracket can be made1 as shown at ,b1 and screwed fast to the barrel4 ,the ,y may be made from strap-iron and a stick1 as shown at ,c and ,d 7,fig4 #c71 the iron being attached to the top of the stick which in turn is screwed fast to the truss4 ,a pole is made fast to the forward running-gear to drag the engine with1 and if several boys are to be members of the fire company a rope should be made fast to the axle at both ends or to the body frame1 and the boy nearest the engine can steer it with the pole4 ,all the wood-work should be painted red and the metal parts with asphaltum varnish1 which will give them a good appearance1 and as it is water-proof it will prevent the metal parts from rusting4 ,trip-gongs and signal-lamps should1 of course1 be provided1 for without these appurtenances the engine would be a flat failure4 ,the ,hose-carriage ,a hose-carriage 7,fig4 #d7 to accompany the engine is made of wood and constructed on the same lines as the engine4 ,the frame is made of boards six inches wide1 seven-eighths of an inch thick1 and is five feet long by two feet wide as shown at ,fig4 #e4 ,a dash-board is made and fastened to the front of the frame1 and between the dash-board and seat the side-rails are decked over to make a platform4 ,the remaining part of the frame may be left open4 ,across the under side of the frame fasten two cross-bars to which the axles are to be made fast4 ,baby-carriage or small wagon wheels are to be used for the hose-carriage1 and if the axles should not be long enough a blacksmith will weld in a piece at the middle so as to make them the required length4 ,the reel is made from a round piece of wood and two circular sides and arranged so as to revolve in a supporting frame4 ,one side of the frame is shown in ,fig4 #e4 ,it is made from wood three inches wide1 seven-eighths of an inch thick1 and the pieces are securely attached at the inside of the side-rails with screws and clinch-nails4 ,the sides of the reel are made from three pieces of matched boards and are twenty inches in diameter4 ,drive three pieces of board together and lay them flat4 ,with a pin1 a piece of string1 and a pencil describe a circle twenty inches in diameter using the centre of the middle board as a place to drive the pin4 ,after the circle is drawn1 separate the boards1 and with a compass-saw cut the wood on the lines4 ,then drive the boards together again and band the outer edge with a piece of box strap-iron1 driving the nails in about two inches apart all around the edge4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d ,fig4 #e ,fig4 #f ,fig4 #g ,fig4 #h ,fig4 #i ,,hose-,,carriage ,,and ,,hook-,,and-,,ladder ,,truck ,attach one end to the flat end of the hub4 ,the other piece should have a square hole cut in it so that it will fit over the square shoulder cut on the other end of the axle as shown at ,fig4 #f ,a4 ,attach both ends to the axle with long1 steel-wire nails1 then from a piece of hard-wood cut a crank and handle as shown at ,fig4 #f ,b4 ,the crank is ten inches long and at both sides of the square hole the wood should be bound with wire to prevent its splitting4 ,at the opposite end from the crank an iron pin half an inch in diameter is to be driven through the side and into the end of the hub through a half-inch hole bored with auger or bit and brace4 ,this is shown in the drawing of the complete reel4 ,fig4 #f ,c4 ,on the end of the hub and close to the square crank-shaft the hub is turned round for a distance of two inches4 ,this is the part that will fit in the bearing cut in the supporting frame4 ,to hold the reel in position at the top of the truss1 straps of iron1 as shown at ,fig4 #f ,d1 are screwed fast over the angle when the reel is in place4 ,with a coat or two of paint this hose-carriage will be ready for use4 ,the ,hook-and-,ladder ,truck ,to complete the outfit a hook-and-ladder truck 7,fig4 #g7 will be necessary1 on the racks of which four hooks1 three ladders1 six buckets1 and other paraphernalia can be accommodated4 ,the length of the truck will depend somewhat on the strength of the wheels that can be had1 also on the size of the boys in the fire company2 but for serviceable use for both small and large boys a truck eight feet long will be a very good size4 ,the frame or body is made of boards six inches wide1 seven-eighths of an inch thick1 and is eight feet long by thirty inches wide4 ,the frame should be braced across the bottom1 at the middle1 and near both ends to prevent it from racking4 ,two cross-timbers for the axles are made fast under the forward and rear ends1 and to the forward one the fifth-wheel bar is made fast so that the front wheels can be turned4 ,the ladder-rack is constructed from pieces of curtain-pole and side uprights1 six inches wide at the bottom and tapered to three inches at the top4 ,the uprights are attached to the inside of the body frame1 and the bars on which the ladders rest are let into holes in these uprights and keyed as shown at ,fig4 #h ,a4 ,the end of the bar is cut across with a saw1 and when this is passed through a hole in the upright a wedge-shaped key is driven in the cut to spread the end of the bar and expand it so that it will hold4 ,some glue on the wedge will cause it to stay in place after it has been driven in as far as it will go4 ,the ladders are made of two spruce rails three inches wide and one inch and a quarter thick4 ,the rungs are let into holes made in the middle of the rails and keyed fast with wedges as just described for the ladder-rails4 ,if a flat rung is preferred the rails may be cut in as shown at ,b in ,fig4 #h1 and flat strips are to be laid in these laps and nailed or screwed fast4 ,the sharp corners may be planed off so as to make the grip easier to the hands4 ,the ladders may vary from seven to twelve feet in length and from eighteen to twenty-four inches wide1 preferably the wider ones1 as they are safer and will not slide sidewise as a narrower ladder is apt to do4 ,the dash-board and forward deck are supported on two bracket-plates made fast to the forward part of the body frame1 and on the deck planking a box-seat with sides and back is to be made fast4 ,stout iron hooks are driven in along both sides of the body between forward and rear wheels1 and on them ordinary wooden pails or buckets may be hung4 ,two sets of hooks arranged at the outer side of the ladder supports will hold the long handles of fire-hooks1 and a scaling-ladder can be hung under the truck4 ,the goose-neck of a scaling-ladder should be made of tempered iron by a blacksmith1 and all the wood-work should be of hickory4 ,the plan for a scaling-ladder is shown in ,fig4 #i4 ,the stick is three by one and a half inches and the rungs are three-quarters by two inches1 driven through mortises cut in the stick twelve inches apart and held by a steel nail driven through the centre4 ,the goose-neck base is divided like the front-wheel fork of a bicycle and with corresponding holes bored in each side4 ,bolts should be passed through them and the head of the stick so as to hold the iron straps securely4 ,good1 strong hickory may be had from a wheelwright or wagon-builder1 and care should be taken to cut the mortises accurately so that the parts will fit snugly together4 ,ladder-building is different from ordinary carpentry1 and pains should be taken to have all the joints very tight so that they will not rack4 ,chapter ,,xii ,,water-,,wheels ,all boys like to play about the water1 and dams and water machinery afford an endless amount of amusement4 ,moreover1 the pastime has its useful side4 ,once you get a wheel in operation with a shaft and pulley attached1 it is then a simple matter to harness your power and make it do all sorts of things1 such as sawing wood1 churning milk1 operating a fan on hot days1 and even turning a grindstone or light wood-working machinery4 ,there are three kinds of wheels1 the overshot1 breast1 and undershot4 ,the overshot is the most powerful1 for it is not only moved by the weight of water that it holds but also by the force of the onrushing water from the sluice arranged to feed it4 ,the breast-wheel is the next in power and is used where the fall of water is not so great4 ,the undershot wheel is employed in a rapidly running brook or stream where there is no dam or body of headwater4 ,this form of wheel is the least powerful and the most unreliable1 for the height of the watercourse is liable to change according to seasons and storms4 ,while at one time it may be flushed up to the hub1 at another the water may hardly touch the blades of the wheel4 ,these forms of old-style wheels have become almost obsolete now as the modern turbine has superseded it as a means of employing water as a motive power4 ,less than one-quarter of the surface of the old-time wheels would be actively engaged at any one time1 and the waste of power was appalling as compared with the sluice-box and pen-stock of the modern turbine where every drop of water is lending its influence to the blades4 ,a turbine1 however1 is rather beyond the ability of the average boy to properly construct1 and so we do the best we can with the old-style wheels4 ,for a boy's purpose they will answer quite well enough4 ,in the accompanying drawings several ideas for water-wheels are shown1 and among them a boy should be able to find one that he can make from boards and sticks1 at a slight cost1 and which if properly rigged and adjusted will develop a considerable amount of power4 ,a ,simple ,paddle-wheel ,the simple paddle-wheel1 as shown at ,fig4 #a1 is made from an axle three inches square1 four spokes1 and four boards4 ,for a wheel of medium size that will develop about one-eighth of a horse-power the axle should be four feet long4 ,one end is rounded for a distance of four inches as shown at ,a1 and with bit and chisel two mortises are cut in opposite directions as shown at ,a4 ,these holes are one inch and a quarter wide and three inches long4 ,into them the spokes are driven and held with screws or iron pins4 ,another pair of holes are cut thirty inches from the first and two more spokes driven in them4 ,the spokes are thirty inches long1 thus leaving thirteen and a half inches of each one projecting beyond the axle or hub4 ,the paddle blades are boards thirty inches long1 ten inches wide1 and seven-eighths of an inch thick4 ,they are attached to the spokes with carriage-bolts and washers4 ,a rounded bearing two inches wide is cut in the axle beyond the spokes so as to correspond with the other end1 and beyond this the axle is left square4 ,bearings for this wheel are made in the edge of a stout plank notched as shown at ,b1 and held in place by iron straps as also depicted at ,b4 ,long screws or screw-bolts1 commonly known as lag-screws1 will hold the strap in place1 and from the square end of the shaft the connection is made for power4 ,in place of the iron strap another piece of wood may be cut and clamped down over the axle end as shown at ,c4 ,a ,wagon ,wheel ,another variety of water-wheel may be made from the hubs and spokes of two old wheels1 preferably those from a buggy or light wagon4 ,fig4 #b4 ,remove the iron boxes from the hubs by driving them out1 then cut a hole in each hub with a chisel and mallet1 as shown at ,a1 so they will be at least an inch and a half square4 ,from hickory or other hard-wood make an axle the size of the holes and arrange the hubs on it so they will be thirty inches apart4 ,one side of each spoke should be cut as shown at ,b in order that the blades may rest against a flat place instead of a rounded surface4 ,the blades should be from thirty to thirty-six inches long and ten or twelve inches wide1 and held to the spokes with carriage or tire bolts4 ,this wheel may be swung in bearings as described in ,fig4 #a1 and from the square end of the axle the power can be taken4 ,both of these wheels may be used as over or undershot but not as breast-wheels1 for a breast-wheel must have pockets to hold the water1 and the overshot-wheel should have them too if all the available force and weight of water is to be employed4 ,a ,barrel-wheel ,a very simple and efficient device is shown in the drawing of a barrel-wheel 7,fig4 #c74 ,this consists of an oil or pork barrel having tight ends and staves1 a number of blades1 and some siding-boards4 ,the blades are of hard-wood ten inches wide and the length of the barrel4 ,one edge of each blade is cut to conform with the bilge of the barrel as shown at ,a1 and with three or four long screws each blade is made fast to the barrel at the middle4 ,the ends of the barrel are replanked so as to build their surface even with the projecting edges of the staves1 then some matched boards are nailed or screwed to the heads to bind together the ends of the blades4 ,screws are passed through the boards and into the ends of the blades to make them secure1 and in this manner a hollow wheel is made with pockets around the outside4 ,a square hole should be cut in each end of the barrel and into them an axle is driven4 ,it is provided with rounded bearings and square end4 ,when swung in a carriage and connected a powerful wheel will be the result if the force of water is sufficient to drive it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,fig4 #d ,,water-,,wheels ,an ,undershot-wheel ,for a brook an undershot-wheel can be made with two round ends and ten or twelve blades according to the size of the wheel4 ,for an efficient one the wheel should be thirty-six or forty-eight inches in diameter and thirty inches wide4 ,two ends are made from matched boards held together with battens as shown in ,fig4 #d ,a4 ,these are arranged on a square axle and the blades are made fast between them with long screws or steel nails4 ,fig4 #d ,b4 ,a ,power-wheel ,to utilize the power from a rapidly running brook place two tree-trunks across the brook about six feet apart as shown in ,fig4 #e4 ,on top of these timbers attach two spruce beams eight or ten inches wide and two inches thick1 and anchor them well with spikes and check-blocks4 ,at the middle and on top of both timbers cut notches for the axle to fit in and provide them with metal straps to hold the axle in place4 ,a long axle leading to the land can be supported on a short timber attached to stout stakes driven in the ground1 and another bearing and strap will hold this from jumping with the rapid revolutions of the wheel4 ,a wooden pulley may be arranged at the end of this axle1 and from it the power can be taken off by means of belting or rope4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e ,fig4 #f ,,power-,,wheel ,,and ,,wheel-,,race ,another arrangement for this wheel will be to swing it in a cradle or frame so that one end of it may be lifted to reduce the speed or power of the wheel1 the other end being securely attached to a tree-trunk with hinges4 ,a ,wheel-race ,the water from a wide1 shallow brook may be directed so as to throw its full force against the blades of a wheel by digging it out at the middle and damming it at the sides as shown by the diagram of a modified brook 7,fig4 #f74 ,the dams should be solidly built and if possible cribbed to prevent their washing away4 ,part ,,iii ,,afloat ,chapter ,,xiii ,,boats ,of all the things that a boy is interested in there is nothing more fascinating than boats1 whether they are to row1 paddle1 or sail in1 and1 as many of the simple kinds are quite within the ability of a boy to make1 he can take a great deal of pleasure in their construction4 ,for the sea-shore and salt waterways the boats should be heavily constructed1 and as this is usually beyond the average boy's ability1 the sea-going dorys1 surf-boats1 and heavy sail-boats will be omitted1 and those described and illustrated will be for use in fresh water1 or on small enclosed salt waterways where the wind and tide are moderate4 ,in making a boat it is not only necessary to have it float1 but to construct it in such a manner that the joints will keep closed and the boards will not rip off if run on a snag or against a rocky shore4 ,these are essential points in the proper construction of boats1 and they might as well be learned by the amateur boat-builder when he is young1 instead of constructing something for fun and having to learn the right way all over again when he is older and more serious work begins4 ,in this chapter a few of the simpler forms of boats are shown1 and the warning must be given at the start that the young shipwright should use the greatest care in constructing a boat1 not only for the natural pride they will take in making a good one1 but for the still more important reason that the safety of all on board is dependent upon his skill and conscientious work4 ,punt and ,scow ,a punt with a flat bottom is about the easiest and safest boat for a boy to make and own1 for it is straight in construction and difficult to upset if not overloaded4 ,as both ends are the same it can be rowed or poled forward or backward1 and the overhanging ends allow plenty of seating room4 ,the punt shown in ,fig4 #d is fifteen feet long1 nineteen inches deep1 and four feet wide4 ,the ends cut under twenty inches1 and at one end a skag and rudder can be arranged as shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,the sides are made of two boards1 one of six and the other of a twelve-inch width1 and the added thickness of the bottom boards make the total depth of the sides nineteen inches4 ,the wider boards are the lower ones1 and they are fastened together near both ends and at the middle with battens as shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,the middle battens are six inches wide1 and into the upper ends of them the row-lock pins are driven4 ,the bottom planking should not be more than four or five inches wide1 and it is securely nailed to the edges of the sides and to an inner keel-strip running the entire length of the bottom as shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,fig4 #d ,,punt ,,and ,,scow ,the wood should be very dry so that it will not shrink afterwards and open the seams4 ,along the edges1 and before the planking is laid or nailed on1 smear white-lead1 and lay one or two thicknesses of lamp-wicking on the lead1 so that when the ends of the planking are driven down it makes a water-tight joint4 ,where the planks butt up against the other planking1 the joints are to be generously smeared with white-lead and laid with a string of the lamp-wicking4 ,begin at one end and work towards the other1 having first attached the end planks4 ,fig4 #c ,a4 ,the method of attaching the skag is also shown in ,fig4 #c1 and if the punt shows a tendency to swing around in the water and not mind the oars or rudder1 a keel three inches wide may be attached on the bottom of the punt to run from the forward end of the straight bottom back to the end of the skag4 ,the bottom planking is to be attached at both sides and to the inner keel-strip with galvanized nails4 ,do not use ordinary nails as they will rust in a short time1 and the only ones that are of use are the regular galvanized boat nails that can be had at most hardware stores1 and always at a ship-chandler's or from a boat-builder4 ,a rudder can be made and hung at one end of the boat as shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,a scow 7,fig4 #a7 will be found the easiest of all boats to construct1 but at the same time the hardest to row1 since both the ends are blunt and vertical4 ,a scow is for use in shallow water and is poled generally instead of being rowed4 ,it is built in a similar manner to the punt1 but the ends are not cut under4 ,a good size to make the scow for general use will be fourteen feet long1 eighteen inches deep1 and four feet wide4 ,it may be provided with two or three seats1 and when complete both the punt and scow should receive two or three good coats of paint4 ,a ,sharpy ,it is not a difficult matter to make a sharpy like the one shown in ,fig4 #e1 but care must be taken in its construction to insure good unions and tight joints4 ,cedar1 white-wood1 pine1 or cypress are the best woods of which to build small boats1 and wide boards can be had at almost any lumber-yard4 ,white cedar is somewhat more difficult to get than the other woods1 but if possible it should be used4 ,to make this sharpy the proper size for a boy's use1 obtain two boards fifteen or sixteen inches wide1 fourteen feet long1 and seven-eighths of an inch thick1 planed on both sides and as free from knots as possible4 ,if the boards cannot be had fifteen inches wide1 then batten two boards together with strips just as plain board doors are made4 ,before they are fastened1 however1 smear the joint edges with white-lead and embed a string of lamp-wicking through the middle4 ,use plenty of white-lead1 and after the boards are pressed together and fastened the surplus lead can be scraped from both sides of the joint and saved for other joints4 ,from a piece of hard-wood cut a stem eighteen inches long and four inches wide1 with bevelled planes1 as shown in ,fig4 #f4 ,a section or end view of this post will appear like ,fig4 #f ,a4 ,against the cut-in sides of this post the bow ends of the side boards are to be attached with screws or galvanized boat nails4 ,the long side boards are to be cut at bow and stern as shown at ,fig4 #g ,a and ,b4 ,the bow recedes three inches and the stern is cut under thirty-four inches4 ,attach the bow ends of the boards to the stem-piece or post so that the top of the sides will be seven-eighths of an inch below the flat top of the post4 ,if properly done you will then have a ,v-shaped affair resembling a snow-plough1 which must be bent and formed in the shape of a boat4 ,from a board seven-eighths of an inch thick cut a spreader ten inches wide1 forty-eight inches long at one side1 and forty-two inches at the other1 as shown in ,fig4 #h4 ,arrange this between the boards about midway from bow to stern1 so that the bottom of the spreader is flush with the bottom of the sides2 then draw in the rear ends of the boards and tie them temporarily with a piece of rope4 ,drive a nail into the edge of each board near the end1 to prevent the rope slipping off1 for if it should do so the boards would fly apart and might break away from the stem-piece4 ,in order to draw in the ends to the proper position1 insert a short stick between the ropes and twist it around until the rope is wound up2 then if the end is not in far enough1 slip another rope around the ends of the boards1 and after releasing the first rope insert the stick and continue the twisting until the ends of the side boards are twenty-one inches apart4 ,before this bending process is begun1 it would be well to pour a kettleful of boiling water over each side board to limber them1 for dry boards are stiff and will not bend easily without checking or cracking4 ,if it is possible to steam the boards they will yield still better to the bending process4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e ,fig4 #f ,fig4 #g ,fig4 #h ,fig4 #i ,fig4 #aj ,a ,,sharpy ,the stern-plank is cut in the same shape as the spreader1 but it is curved or crowned at the top1 where it is twenty-three inches long1 while at the bottom it measures twenty inches4 ,it is six inches wide at the ends and nine inches at the middle1 and is attached to the ends of the sides with boat nails while the tension-rope is still in place4 ,an inner keel is then cut six inches wide and pointed at the bow end1 where it is attached to the lower edges of the sides at the bow and flush with them4 ,the planking or bottom boards should fit snugly to it and to the edges of the sides4 ,a lap six inches long and seven-eighths of an inch deep is cut in the bottom of the spreader at the middle4 ,in this the inner keel will fit1 and after the first two or three bottom boards are nailed on at the bow end the frame of the sharpy will appear as shown in ,fig4 #i4 ,the spreader and stern-plank will give the sides a flare which will have a tendency also to curve the bottom of the boat slightly from bow to stern4 ,the bottom planks are four inches wide1 of clear wood1 and must not have tongue and grooved edges1 but should be plain so that the white-lead and lamp-wicking will make a tight joint when the planks are driven up snug to each other4 ,drive all nails carefully so as not to split the planking or sides1 and as a precaution a small bit or gimlet should be used to make the start for the nail-hole4 ,a seat ten inches wide is fastened at the middle of the boat1 over the spreader1 and seats may also be arranged at the bow and stern1 where they rest on cleats that are screwed fast to the sides4 ,a short keel or skag is fastened to the under side of the sharpy and extends from about under the middle seat aft to the stern-post4 ,a ,v-shaped piece is let in where the stern is cut under as shown in ,fig4 #aj4 ,this keel prevents the sharpy from turning about quickly and serves to steady her when rowing1 as well as making a deeper stern-post to which a rudder may be hung as shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,six inches to the rear of the middle seat plates of wood six inches wide are attached to the sides of the sharpy1 as shown in the illustration 7,fig4 #e71 and on the tops of these oar-locks or pins are inserted after the usual fashion4 ,at the outside of the sides and an inch below the top edge a gunwale-strip is made fast1 and with a ring in the bow for a painter and a pair of oars the sharpy is ready for use4 ,of course it should be thoroughly painted4 ,three or four successive coats of paint should be applied to a boat the first time it is painted1 and before using1 it should be launched1 half filled with water1 and allowed to stand for a few days so that the joints will swell and close properly4 ,a mast six or eight feet high and a leg-of-mutton sail will enable a boy to sail before the wind in a quiet breeze1 but rough-weather sailing should not be attempted in this style of open boat4 ,a ,dory ,a dory 7,fig4 #aa71 is somewhat similar to a sharpy but has higher sides and a narrower bottom1 therefore it draws more water than a wide1 flat-bottomed sharpy4 ,a boy can make a dory from twelve to sixteen feet long1 but a fourteen-foot dory will be quite large enough to hold from four to six boys comfortably and safely4 ,the sides should be twenty-four inches high and the bottom twenty-four inches across amidships4 ,the bottom is made from four six-inch planks battened across as shown in ,fig4 #ab4 ,the joints are leaded before the boards are brought together1 and the fastenings are of galvanized nails clinched at the inside4 ,the battens1 of course1 are on the inside1 but the nail-heads are on the outside or bottom of the boat4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa ,fig4 #ab ,fig4 #ac ,fig4 #ad ,a stem and stern-piece 7,fig4 #ac ,a and ,b7 are cut from hard-wood1 and to these the wooden sides are made fast at both ends4 ,the bow and stern of a dory have more of a rake than those of a sharpy as may be seen in ,fig4 #aa4 ,the top of the bow extends out beyond the bottom at least from fifteen to twenty inches1 while the stern overhangs the keel about twelve inches4 ,the sides flare out nine inches at both sides amidships1 so that the total width of beam is forty-two inches for a dory fourteen feet long4 ,planks sixteen feet long are necessary with which to make this dory1 for when they are sprung out at the sides they take up on the length4 ,they can be six inches wide1 and are made fast to ribs along the inside of the boat and attached with galvanized boat nails4 ,in ,fig4 #ad an amidships section of the dory is shown and the position of the seat is located4 ,along the top of the sides1 to cap them and the upper ends of the ribs1 rails two inches wide and three-quarters of an inch thick are made fast with boat nails4 ,these rails should be of hard-wood1 and they should be sprung into place and securely fastened4 ,a dory of this description makes an ideal fishing-boat where the water is rough1 since it can be rowed either forward or backward4 ,a ,sailing ,sharpy ,a rowing sharpy can be converted into a sail-boat by partially decking it over1 making a mast-step1 and providing it with a lee-board if a centre-board cannot be arranged in the middle of the hull4 ,fig4 #ah4 ,the half-deck will keep out the water that might splash over the sides or come over the bow and stern1 and the row-boat features need not be altered nor the seats removed1 as the rib and brace work for the deck can easily be fitted and fastened over the seats1 and so give additional strength to the deck4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae ,fig4 #ah ,a ,,sailing ,,sharpy ,just behind the front seat and at the forward edge of the back seat cross-ribs are made fast to the sides of the sharpy4 ,between these1 and eight inches from the sides of the boat1 additional braces are sprung into place and securely attached at the ends1 and provided with short cross-braces as shown in ,fig4 #ae4 ,the deck planking is nailed to these ribs and the seats under them give a substantial support to both the ribs and deck4 ,the opening or cockpit will be six feet long and varying in width1 as the side decks are eight inches wide and follow the line of the boat's sides4 ,amidships it should measure about twenty-eight inches4 ,the braces and ribs are made of three-quarter-inch spruce boards five or six inches wide1 and to bend them in the segment of a circle 7as they will have to be for the side-ribs7 pour hot water over two of them and place the ends on boxes with heavy stones at the middle to bend them down to the required curve4 ,allow them to remain in this position for several hours to dry in the sun2 they may then be cut and fitted to the boat4 ,the decking is done with narrow strips of pine1 cypress1 or cedar one inch and a half wide and three-quarters of an inch in thickness4 ,they are bent to conform to the side lines of the boat1 and if they are fitted nicely and leaded the deck should be water-tight after it receives varnish or paint4 ,if straight boards are employed in place of the narrow planking the deck can be covered with canvas and first given a coat of oil1 then several successive thin coats of paint4 ,the canvas should be tacked down over the outer edge of the boat and to the inner edge of the cockpit4 ,a gunwale-strip an inch square is to be nailed along the top edge on both sides of the boat1 and one inch below the top of the deck nail a guard rail along each side4 ,to finish the cockpit arrange a combing in place to project four inches above the deck1 and make the boards fast to the inner side of the ribs with screws as shown in the illustration of the hull of sailing sharpy4 ,fig4 #ae4 ,ten inches back from the bow-post bore a hole two inches and a half in diameter so that a mast will fit securely in place4 ,the hole should extend through the deck and front seat1 and a step-block with a hole in it to receive the foot of the mast must be nailed fast to the bottom of the boat4 ,the hole in this block is oblong1 and the foot of the mast should be cut on two sides so as to fit in the block as shown in ,fig4 #af4 ,spruce or clear pine sticks are to be dressed and planed for the mast and boom1 the mast measuring fourteen feet high by two inches and a half at the base1 and the boom thirteen feet long by two inches in diameter1 both tapering near the end4 ,the rudder is eighteen inches long1 including the post1 and ten inches high4 ,it is fastened to a post of hard-wood three inches wide and seven-eighths of an inch thick4 ,at the top of this an iron strap is fastened to hold the tiller as shown in ,fig4 #ag ,a4 ,the rudder is hung to the stern of the boat with pins and sockets1 as shown in ,fig4 #ag ,b1 so that if it becomes necessary the rudder may be unshipped by lifting it out of the sockets or eyes4 ,the rudder is fastened to the post with galvanized-iron pins ten inches long and three-eighths of an inch in diameter driven through snug holes bored in the wood as shown by the dotted lines in ,fig4 #ag ,b4 ,it is impossible to hold a boat on the wind without a centre-board1 but as this sharpy has none a lee-board will be required to keep her from drifting leeward4 ,fig4 #ah4 ,this board can be made five feet long1 thirty inches wide1 and hung over the lee side when running on the wind1 where ropes and cleats will hold it in place4 ,the board may be made of three planks banded together at the rear end with a batten1 and at the forward end it is strapped across with bands of iron as shown in ,fig4 #ah4 ,with a sail of twilled or heavy unbleached muslin this boat may be driven through the water at five or six miles an hour1 and two boys can have a great deal of fun out of her4 ,care should be exercised in handling the boat2 and be sure to reef the sail in case of a strong breeze4 ,a ,centre-board ,sharpy ,when making a sharpy to sail in1 a trunk and centre-board should be built when the keel is laid so that the cumbersome and unhandy lee-board may be done away with4 ,the centre-board is housed in the trunk1 through which it can be raised or lowered as occasion requires4 ,the arrangement of the trunk in the boat is shown in ,fig4 #ai1 and it is located so that the front of the trunk is three feet from the bow4 ,for a centre-board one inch and a quarter in thickness the trunk should be one inch and three-quarters wide between sides1 five feet long1 and eighteen inches high4 ,it is made of tongue-and-grooved boards one inch and one-eighth in thickness1 and these are attached by stout screws to posts one inch and three-quarters square at bow and stern4 ,the trunk is mounted on the keel1 set in white-lead1 and securely fastened with screws4 ,a slot is cut in the keel the same size as the inside opening of the trunk--that is1 two inches wide and about five feet long4 ,the bottom planking is butted against the sides of the trunk at the middle of the boat as shown in ,fig4 #bj4 ,an inner keel is laid over the bottom planking through the centre of the boat from stem to stern1 and where it fits around the trunk it is cut out4 ,both the inner and outer keels are six inches wide and the exposed edges are bevelled with a plane4 ,a sectional or end view of the trunk and its location in the keels is shown in ,fig4 #bj1 where the shading and lettering will designate each part4 ,the centre-board is four feet and nine inches long1 thirty inches wide at the back1 and twenty-four inches at the front4 ,it is attached to the trunk with a hard-wood pin located near the forward lower end1 and when it is drawn up it will appear as shown in ,fig4 #ba ,a1 but when lowered it will look like ,fig4 #ba ,b4 ,the centre-board is made of hard-wood1 several boards of which are pinned together with galvanized-iron rods three-eighths of an inch in diameter and driven through from edge to edge of the boards in snug holes made with a long bit or auger4 ,the rods are riveted at both ends over washers to prevent the boards from working apart4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af ,fig4 #ag ,fig4 #ai ,fig4 #bj ,fig4 #ba ,a ,,centre-,,board ,,sharpy ,it would be better to let a boat-builder or carpenter make this board the proper size and shape to fit the trunk1 for it is the most difficult thing to construct about a boat and somewhat beyond the ability of many boys4 ,a large galvanized eye and a rope made fast below the middle of the board at the rear edge will provide the means for raising and lowering the centre-board4 ,the deck ribs and the planking are put in the same as described for the sailing sharpy4 ,a ,proa ,in the ,south ,sea ,islands the natives dig out the trunk of a tree1 rig a lateen sail on a single stick1 and arrange a counter-balance on the end of two poles in the form of a catamaran4 ,with this rude contrivance they can outsail anything in the shape of a small boat such as our types of cat-boats and sharpies4 ,these queer craft are called proas1 and a modified type that a boy can make is shown in the illustration ,fig4 #bb4 ,this is a perfectly safe boat1 and as it lies close on the water a great deal of fun can be had with one in comparatively smooth waterways4 ,to make the hull get two ten-inch planks sixteen feet long and spring them five feet from either end so that they come together at both ends and are separated fifteen inches along the middle for five or six feet as shown in ,fig4 #bc4 ,between the sides place four or five spreaders1 two of which should be stout enough to receive the bolts that will hold the two cross-braces or outriggers4 ,set a step-block for the mast1 then plank the deck and bottom1 using plenty of white-lead and lamp-wicking between the joints4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb ,fig4 #bc ,a ,,proa ,the cross-braces or outriggers are of two-by-four-inch clear spruce six feet long1 and their outer ends are bolted to a solid spruce timber twelve feet long1 four inches wide1 and ten inches deep4 ,they should be sharpened at both ends with an adze1 draw-knife1 or a chisel and plane4 ,a mast twelve feet long and three inches in diameter is stepped seven feet from the bow1 and to it a lateen rig is lashed fast having the gaff eighteen feet long and the boom fifteen feet in length4 ,a block and tackle at the bow will pay off the angle and another at the stern will regulate the position of the sail4 ,cross-wires for braces may extend under the short decking to steady the outrigger and keep it from racking the braces1 and three or four narrow planks can be laid across the braces close to the large boat on which the boy and a friend or two may sit when sailing4 ,a rudder may be attached to the stern of the large boat1 as shown in ,fig4 #ag1 or an oar can be used to steer with4 ,paint the boats any desired color1 and for the first time give them at least three or four thin coats not less than two days apart1 so that one will dry thoroughly before the next one is laid on4 ,never put thick or gummy paint on a boat2 thin it down and apply two coats rather than one thick one4 ,a ,lark ,perhaps the safest kind of a sailing-craft next to a catamaran is a lark with a broad beam and flat at both bow and stern4 ,there are various forms of the half-rater1 but the one shown in ,fig4 #bd is easy to construct and requires less careful fitting and joining than the hulls with pointed bows and long1 overhanging sterns4 ,in general construction this hull is similar to the punt1 and when putting it together the description for the building of the punt must be borne in mind4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd ,obtain two clear cedar planks sixteen feet long and from fourteen to sixteen inches wide4 ,four feet from either end begin to round the lower edges of these side boards4 ,cut two spreaders five feet and six inches long and make them fast four feet from the ends of the sides as shown at ,fig4 #be4 ,between these spreaders attach an inner keel in the forward end of which an opening has been made4 ,the keel is of hard-wood eight inches wide and the opening is three inches and a half in width and four feet and eight inches long4 ,a centre-board trunk is made and fitted into this opening as described for the sailing sharpy4 ,then braces are fastened between the sides and trunk as shown at ,fig4 #bf4 ,two bevelled hard-wood bow and stern pieces are cut as shown at ,fig4 #bg4 ,the ends of the boards are sprung in and attached to the ends of these pieces1 and between them and the spreaders two more boards are fastened as indicated by the lines of nail-heads in ,fig4 #bf4 ,at the bow just ahead of the forward long cross-piece or spreader step the mast1 and at the stern make the rudder-post trunk1 taking care to use plenty of white-lead and lamp-wick so as to render the joints water-tight4 ,put a line of braces through the middle of the frame1 then begin at the bow and plank the bottom with boards not more than three or four inches wide4 ,with the planking on and the braces1 spreaders1 and trunk in position the frame will appear as shown in ,fig4 #bh4 ,the deck planking is of strips seven-eighths of an inch thick and three inches wide4 ,begin at the middle of the boat by laying down a strip six inches wide by one inch and a quarter in thickness4 ,drive the deck planking close to this and smear the points with white-lead in which the lamp-wicking is embedded4 ,make all the fastenings with galvanized boat nails and drive the heads well into the wood with a nail-punch so they can be puttied and covered from the action of the water4 ,an outer flat keel is laid along the bottom of the hull from the forward part of the cockpit or about under the mast4 ,this leads aft to where the stern begins to round up and there it is stopped4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be ,fig4 #bf ,fig4 #bg ,fig4 #bh ,fig4 #bi ,a ,,lark ,this keel is attached with galvanized or brass screws1 and a generous number are driven through the keel into the bottom edges of the centre-board trunk4 ,the rudder is made from galvanized sheet-iron as shown at ,fig4 #bi1 and is let into a one-and-a-quarter-inch round iron rudder-post and riveted fast4 ,just above the rudder-blade a collar of iron is welded to the post and this bears against the bottom of the boat4 ,to prevent the rudder from dropping down a pin is passed through a hole in the post close to the deck and a large washer made fast to the deck will prevent the pin from chafing the wood4 ,have the top of the post made with a square shank so that a tiller may fit over it and be held in position by a nut4 ,the rudder-blade should be twenty-six inches long and twelve inches wide4 ,the mast is fifteen feet long1 cut from a four-inch spruce stick with draw-knife and plane4 ,the boom is fifteen feet long1 cut from a two-and-one-half-inch spruce stick1 and the gaff is eleven feet long4 ,extending out from the mast and attached to the deck is a short bowsprit five feet and six inches long4 ,this is of two-by-three-inch spruce with the sharp corners rounded off beyond the end of the boat4 ,a wire forestay and two shrouds lead from mast-head to bowsprit and to both sides of the boat as shown in ,fig4 #bd4 ,the main-sheet is seven feet on the mast1 ten feet on the gaff1 fourteen feet at the foot or on the boom1 and eighteen feet on the leach4 ,the jib is eleven feet on the forestay1 five feet at the foot1 and ten feet on the leach4 ,the blocks are all of galvanized iron or wood1 and three-eighth-inch ,manila-rope should be used for the halyards and sheets4 ,this lark will ride well on the water1 and if properly rigged it should be a very speedy boat4 ,a ,power-boat ,a novel feature for the propulsion of a flat-bottom boat or punt is shown in ,fig4 #cj4 ,two small paddle-wheels attached to one shaft are hung out over the stern1 and by means of a sprocket on the shaft connected to another and larger one on the seat frame the wheels are turned by the boys who mount the seats and work the pedals4 ,the punt is fifteen feet long on the deck line and six feet wide4 ,the side boards are twelve inches wide1 and with the thickness of the deck and bottom planking it will make the total depth about fourteen inches4 ,through the middle a strengthening rib is run the same size and thickness as the outer sides as shown in ,fig4 #ca4 ,this gives an additional rib to nail the sheathing boards to and also an anchorage to which the uprights forming the seat frame can be made fast with bolts4 ,the outriggers that suspend the wheels are of spruce two inches thick and three inches wide4 ,they are bolted to the deck and at the outer end ,u-notches are cut for the axle of the wheels to fit into and capped with iron straps such as shown in ,fig4 #cb4 ,a blacksmith will make these for you from strap-iron an eighth of an inch thick and two inches wide4 ,they should be bolted on when the wheels are in position1 for they not only have to support the weight of the wheels but also stand the action of the water against them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj ,fig4 #ca ,fig4 #cb ,fig4 #cc ,the wheels are each twenty-four inches in diameter and two feet long1 and are made from wood seven-eighths of an inch in thickness4 ,seven blades eight inches wide are screwed fast to the sides or held in place with long1 galvanized boat nails4 ,the axle is of spruce two inches square1 and the wheel sides are provided with square holes through which the axle is driven as shown in ,fig4 #cc4 ,the ends of the axle are banded with iron1 or copper wire may be wound round them to prevent their splitting4 ,into the ends half-inch round iron pins are driven which revolve in the bearings4 ,the seat-frame is thirty inches high and made from spruce rails three inches wide and one inch and a half in thickness4 ,on the middle upright a large and small gear wheel are arranged on an axle with the cranks and pedals1 and on the front post a small wheel is attached so that tandem power may be used on the paddle-wheels or one boy alone can work the boat4 ,a rod and handle-bars may be arranged for the rear boy to grasp1 and with a socket and set-screw it can be raised or lowered at will4 ,the forward bars have a cross-piece of iron at the foot of the vertical rod4 ,this is two feet long1 and from the ends of it running aft wires connect with the ends of a tiller for operating the rudder4 ,the rudder is hung between the wheels on a skag which is the rear extension of a short keel that should be nailed fast to hold the punt steady on the water4 ,four canopy poles may be arranged to fit into sockets at the sides1 and an awning six by ten feet can be supported over the machinery of the boat to keep off sun and rain4 ,this is a genuine boy-power boat1 and as the wheels are substantially large and strong it can be driven over the water at quite a good speed4 ,while it takes two boys to properly run it1 that is not the boat's capacity1 for she will easily carry from four to six boys1 their lunch-baskets1 or a one-day camping outfit for a visit up the river or lake4 ,chapter ,,xiv ,,catamarans ,a ,rowing ,catamaran ,for safety on the water1 as nearly as safety can be assured1 there is nothing to compare with a catamaran1 for they are practically 8non-capsizable10 and if not damaged to the leaking-point one or the other of the two boats will float and hold up several persons4 ,fig4 #a gives a good idea for a rowing catamaran that any boy can make from some boards and light timbers4 ,it is provided with a seat and oar-locks so that the occupant may be seated above the water far enough to row easily4 ,the boats are fourteen feet long1 eighteen inches wide1 and fourteen inches deep1 including the bottom and deck4 ,pine1 white-wood1 cedar1 or cypress1 three-quarters of an inch thick and planed on both sides1 will be necessary from which to construct the boats4 ,at the bow the ends of the sides are attached to a stern-piece of hard-wood as shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,having poured boiling water on the forward ends1 they may be drawn around a spreader sixteen inches long and twelve inches wide provided with two ,u-cuts as shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,these are placed at the bottom1 so that any water may be run to one end of a boat where it can be pumped out4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,fig4 #d ,the first spreader is placed three feet from the bow1 and three or four more of them should be fastened between the sides as shown in ,fig4 #d1 the last one being three feet from the stern where the sides begin to curve up to the upper edge of the stern and to the deck4 ,the bottom is of three-inch pine or white-wood boards seven-eighths of an inch thick and well leaded in the joints and along the edges where the bottom and top boards join the sides4 ,before the top or deck is placed on1 the interior of the boats should have two or three good coats of paint4 ,three cross-stringers of spruce two and one-half by four inches and six feet long are securely attached to the boats1 and on these the deck of four-inch boards is made fast as the illustration will show4 ,between the middle and forward stringer1 at the ends1 two boards are attached on which the row-locks may be fastened4 ,these boards are eight or nine inches wide and cut away at the front so that they are not more than two or three inches wide4 ,the high ends are braced with round iron braces as shown in the illustration1 and where the oar-locks are mounted a short plate of wood is screwed fast to the inside of each piece4 ,near the front cross-piece a seat is built and braced with a board4 ,with another boy at the stern sitting on the deck this catamaran will be well balanced and will prove very seaworthy1 as well as a light boat to row4 ,a ,sailing ,catamaran ,it is almost impossible to upset a sailing catamaran even in a gale1 and for boys a boat of this kind affords a great deal of comparatively safe pleasure4 ,a catamaran is about the easiest sort of a boat to make1 and no matter in what locality one lives there is always material at hand from which to make one as the wood is similar to that used for house construction4 ,fig4 #e shows a side elevation of a safe catamaran1 and in ,fig4 #f the deck plan is shown4 ,in ,fig4 #g an elevation view of the stern shows the arrangement of the boats1 deck timbers1 and rudders4 ,the boats are fifteen feet long1 eighteen inches wide at the middle1 and two feet deep uniformly from bow to stern except for a short distance at the bow where the keel rounds up4 ,they are in the form of a ,v1 and at the ends the angle becomes more acute1 so that at the stem and stern the lines are vertical4 ,four feet from both ends the deck line begins to curve as shown in ,fig4 #f1 and in ,fig4 #h the cross-braces are shown4 ,they are cut in at the bottom to slip over the keel and to them the sheathing planks are made fast4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e ,in ,fig4 #h the curved stem-piece and one side of planking is shown1 and it indicates also where the curved stem-piece is joined to the keel1 which extends in a straight line to the stern of the boats4 ,the keel is of hard-wood one inch and a quarter thick and six inches wide4 ,the cross-braces or spreaders are of pine or other soft wood seven-eighths of an inch thick and made up of three pieces of wood with the grain running vertically4 ,the sheathing is of pine1 cedar1 or cypress three-quarters of an inch thick1 planed on both sides1 and three or four inches wide4 ,each board should be given a priming coat of paint before it is nailed to the braces1 and where the planks are edged together white-lead and lamp-wick should be employed for calking4 ,galvanized boat nails are to be used for all the fastenings1 but screws may be employed where it is necessary to have a very secure joint4 ,the cross-pieces that fasten the boats together are bolted fast by means of long bolts that pass through the timbers and deck and into stout pieces of wood that are nailed fast to the upper part of the spreaders as shown at ,a in ,fig4 #h4 ,the boats are decked over with the three-quarter-inch planking1 and to insure an absolutely tight deck the wood may be treated to a thick coat of paint and covered with canvas which is pressed down well into the paint and the edges tacked down over the sides of the boats4 ,the canvas is then given a coat or two of paint and allowed to dry thoroughly1 after which it can be sand-papered and finished with the desired shade of paint4 ,three spruce timbers eight feet long1 three inches thick1 and six inches wide are bored with holes at the ends where the bolts pass through them and into the boats4 ,running parallel to the boats three timbers are laid across the brace-timbers and on top of these the deck planking is nailed4 ,these pieces are two and one-half by four inches1 and ten feet long1 and are bolted down with long slim bolts4 ,the decking is formed of slats three-quarters of an inch thick and four inches wide nailed down to these stringers4 ,spaces half an inch wide are left between each one4 ,the bowsprit is of three-by-four-inch spruce left with its square corners for half its length but dressed round at the outer end4 ,it is caught under the middle cross-brace where the end is bolted1 and extending over the front piece it projects four or five feet beyond the bow ends of the boats4 ,with wire-cable the bowsprit end is stayed to the bow of each boat1 where turn-buckles can be caught into eyes in the stem-posts4 ,the mast is of spruce dressed from a four-inch spruce stick and slightly tapered at the top4 ,it is fifteen feet long and stepped at the middle of the front cross-piece and on top of the bowsprit where it is held in place with a collar and iron braces as shown in the illustration4 ,fig4 #e4 ,standing rigging of wire-cable stays the mast from the top to both ends of the front cross-piece as indicated by the dotted line in ,fig4 #g4 ,three short posts are made fast to the cross-pieces close to the decking1 and holes bored in the tops of them will hold a safety-rope around the deck4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f ,fig4 #g ,fig4 #h ,fig4 #i ,fig4 #aj ,a ,,sailing ,,catamaran ,the rudder-posts are of hard-wood one inch and a quarter thick and two inches and a half in width4 ,they are three feet long and to the upper end of each a strap of metal is arranged to receive the tiller as shown in ,fig4 #i4 ,the tillers are of hard-wood three feet long and their inner ends are connected with a hard-wood stick by means of which the steering is done and both rudders operated at the same time4 ,the rudders1 made from two sheets of galvanized iron1 are riveted fast to the rudder-posts and are twelve inches high and fifteen inches long4 ,pins on the posts fit into eyes attached to the stern-post of the boats1 and in ,fig4 #aj the arrangement of rudders1 tillers1 and connecting-rod is shown4 ,the main-sail is of twilled cotton that can be had at a dry-goods store for about ten cents a yard1 and a rib should be sewed through the middle of each breadth to strengthen the cloth4 ,the sail is nine feet and six inches on the mast1 six feet on the gaff1 thirteen feet on the boom1 and fifteen feet on the leach4 ,the jib1 also of twilled cotton1 is eleven feet and six inches on the forestay1 eight feet across the foot1 and eight feet and six inches on the leach4 ,the blocks can be of galvanized iron but patent sheave-wood blocks are preferable4 ,for the halyards ,manila-rope three-eighths of an inch in diameter will be the right size1 and a half-inch anchor-rope will be stout enough1 since a catamaran does not tug as heavily on an anchor as does a boat4 ,the wood-work of the boat and deck should be painted and the spars varnished4 ,a pretty effect will be to paint the boat a rich olive green1 with buff decks1 and all the cross-pieces and deck planking in ivory white4 ,the ordinary sailing rules will apply to the handling of a catamaran4 ,with these wedge-shaped boats you can sail quite close to the wind1 but if round-bottomed and shallower boats are used they will have to be provided with centre-boards4 ,a ,side-wheel ,catamaran ,the rowing catamaran can easily be converted into a side-wheel boat by removing the middle slat of the deck and making an opening through which a chain will lead to a cog or sprocket wheel on an axle4 ,at the outer side of each boat1 between the middle and rear cross-braces1 fasten two pieces of wood two inches wide and three inches high4 ,six or eight inches from the rear end make two ,u-cuts for a five-eighth-inch axle to fit into4 ,at a blacksmith's obtain two old carriage or buggy wheels1 and cut the spokes so that they will be fourteen inches long from the hub4 ,dress one side of each spoke flat1 so that a paddle may be attached to it with screws4 ,the paddles are of hard-wood1 eight inches wide at the outer end1 six at the inner end1 and six inches deep4 ,have a blacksmith heat the ends of an axle and pound them square1 then slip one hub over the iron1 and with hard-wood wedges make it fast4 ,the other wheel can be slipped on when the axle is in place and attached in a similar manner4 ,it would be best to remove the old iron boxes from the hubs1 so that a few screws can be driven through the hub and into the wedges to help in holding them securely in place4 ,in ,fig4 #aa1 which is a stern view of the rowing catamaran1 one of the paddle-wheels is shown in place1 and it also shows the location of the axle1 the sprocket-wheel1 and the chain that leads to the large sprocket-wheel by means of which the axle is turned4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa ,an old bicycle chain and sprockets1 together with the axle1 cranks1 and pedals1 can be arranged on a frame1 so that a saddle may be mounted the proper distance above the pedals4 ,this arrangement is clearly shown in the illustration1 which shows also the outrigger timbers at the stern1 to which a sheet-iron rudder may be made fast4 ,it is operated by a handle and bar1 which turns the rudder by means of flexible wire-rope run through two deck-pulleys at the outer rear ends of the deck planking4 ,the iron rod is held in place to the forward upright of the seat-frame with metal straps4 ,at its lower end a wooden wheel having a groove is made fast1 around which a wrap or two of the wire-cable is taken to hold the rudder steady4 ,chapter ,,xv ,,ice-,,boats ,a ,sloop-rigged ,ice-yacht ,for travelling over the ice there is nothing to beat an ice-yacht1 and some that have been constructed on the ,hudson ,river are of gigantic size and power4 ,boats of this kind1 and having the speed of an express-train1 are dangerous for boys to play with1 but the ordinary ice-boat that will go from ten to twenty miles an hour is within the ability of any well-grown boy to make and safely handle4 ,it is quite a simple matter to make a good ice-boat1 for it is but a framework properly put together and bolted1 on top of which a deck is nailed1 with a mast-step arranged at the front4 ,fig4 #a shows the elevation view of a moderately sized sloop-yacht2 and in ,fig4 #b the deck plan is shown1 the joints and deck boards being clearly indicated4 ,the triangular body of the boat is ten feet long and eight feet wide1 and the bowsprit projects out six feet beyond the timber ,a in ,fig4 #b4 ,the frame is made of clear spruce timbers six inches wide and two inches thick4 ,the timber ,a is eight feet long1 ,b ,b are eleven feet long1 ,c is five feet long1 and ,d ,d are each three feet long4 ,at the front corners and at the back the timbers are bevelled1 as shown in the plan drawing1 and they are joined with long bolts as indicated by the dotted lines4 ,timbers ,c and ,d ,d are set in place and securely fastened with long1 steel-wire spikes4 ,the bowsprit ,e is mounted against timber ,c and laid over timber ,a1 to which it is bolted fast4 ,a half-inch iron pin is driven in the butt end of the bowsprit1 and it fits into a hole made in timber ,c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,the bowsprit is cut from spruce two inches and a half by four inches1 and tapered at the outer end1 where a withe having three eyes is driven on4 ,the top eye receives the forestay and the side ones the bobstay cables that run to the corners of the boat1 where they are drawn taut with turn-buckles4 ,the shoe-blocks ,f ,f are twenty-four inches long and three inches square1 and are bolted to the timbers ,a and ,b as shown4 ,at the stern a triangular block is mounted between the ends of the timbers ,b ,b1 through which the rudder-post will pass4 ,the decking planks ,g are then attached to the frame with screws or steel nails4 ,the mast-step is made by attaching two twelve-inch pieces of plank eighteen inches long and an inch and a quarter thick to the inside sides of timbers ,d ,d4 ,across the top of them attach another plank1 and in the middle of it cut a hole three inches and a half in diameter1 or large enough to receive the mast4 ,in the bowsprit1 directly under the large hole1 make a small one to receive a three-quarter-inch pin4 ,this iron pin is to be driven in the bottom of the mast so that six inches of it projects beyond the bottom of the stick4 ,these will form the mast-step1 and when the mast is in place and held by the forestay and shrouds it cannot jump out4 ,iron stanchion-rods are attached to the top of the mast-plate and to the inside of timber ,a as shown in the illustration4 ,the shoes are of tire1 steel and will have to be made by a blacksmith4 ,the front ones are thirty inches long1 curved up at the front1 as shown in ,fig4 #c ,a1 and bevelled at the bottom so as to form a gripping or cutting edge4 ,when mounted the lower edge is at the outside of the boat4 ,shanks with bolt-tops and collars pass through the holes made in the shoe-blocks ,f ,f1 and are securely held with nuts screwed down on washers so as not to cut the wood4 ,the rudder 7,fig4 #c ,b7 is a chisel-edged piece of steel twelve inches long turned up at both ends and mounted at the foot of a shank ,c1 which is provided with a collar1 a square shoulder for the tiller ,d to fit on1 and a threaded top so that a nut will hold the tiller in place4 ,the shoes can only be made of steel or iron1 as wooden ones are useless4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,fig4 #f ,fig4 #g ,the mast is twelve feet high and three inches and a half or four inches in diameter1 slightly tapered near the top4 ,the gaff is six feet long and the boom twelve feet in length4 ,the main-sail measures eight feet on the mast1 five feet on the gaff1 eleven on the boom1 and the leach is thirteen feet long4 ,the jib is ten feet on the forestay1 six feet at the foot1 and eight feet on the leach4 ,this sail area will present a good surface to the wind1 and with an ordinary breeze the boat should make from eight to twelve miles an hour with two or three boys on the deck4 ,the rigging is done in the same manner in which boats are fitted out4 ,the spars should be varnished and the boat can be painted or varnished1 as a matter of choice4 ,all white wood-work with black metal parts1 or a red frame with cream-colored deck and black metal parts1 are pleasing combinations1 but a boy's own ideas can be carried out with the paint-pot and brush4 ,a ,twin-mast ,ice-boat ,the twin-mast ice-boat shown in ,fig4 #d is the same size as the other one1 and built in the same manner except that timbers ,d ,d in ,fig4 #b are omitted and a smaller deck is laid at the stern4 ,one foot back from the corners three-inch masts are stepped in holes made in timbers ,b ,b to receive half-inch iron pins driven in the foot of the masts4 ,the sticks are eleven feet long and lashed together at the top or bolted with several long1 thin bolts as shown in the illustration4 ,they pitch forward at a slight angle1 or so that the forestay is eleven feet long4 ,the gaff is sixteen feet long and the boom eighteen feet in length1 and the leach of the sail is fourteen feet4 ,the gaff is hauled up into the crotch formed by the masts1 and a set of blocks and tackle at the bottom of the sail on the boom and the deck will haul the sail into the proper position4 ,it then swings free between the masts1 and the jib and main-sail form one large sheet1 so that when the main-sheet goes to one side or the other the jib always takes the opposite position and the wind is playing on the entire sail at all times4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d ,this is a very easy rig to handle as it relieves the steersman from the bother of the jib-sheets which are annoying in a stiff breeze4 ,scoots and ,scooters ,scoots and scooters are the latest wrinkle in ice-boats4 ,down on the ,great ,south ,bay1 on the southern side of ,long ,island1 they speak of them in fun as 8ice-water boats40 ,the advantage in a boat of this kind lies in their ability to sail on poor ice or to go across water that is partly open and frozen as many of the bays along the coast are at times4 ,the scoot shown in ,fig4 #e is in the form of a sharpy1 but the bottom curves up at the bow so that if it is sailing on the water and comes to the edge of an ice-floe that is not too high out of the water the wind will blow the boat up on the ice and it will sail along on its runners at double its previous speed4 ,in the same manner when it comes to open water it will slip off the ice quite comfortably and become again a marine craft4 ,the model and descriptions of a centre-board sharpy may be taken for the construction of the boat1 except that there is no stem or bow-post and the bottom rounds up the same as the side boards curve in4 ,the bow is therefore nearly a point4 ,this construction is shown in ,fig4 #f 7page #beb71 which is a view of the sides and bottom only1 the deck planking being fastened down afterwards4 ,the boat should be calked with white-lead and lamp-wicking and as carefully made as a water-boat1 for it must be absolutely tight and water-proof4 ,the deck may be covered with canvas and painted1 or it may be of varnished or painted wood4 ,the hull should be from twelve to fifteen feet long and from four to five feet wide across the widest part4 ,it is fifteen inches deep1 and is provided with a centre-board and trunk the same as described for the sailing sharpy on page #bba4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e ,the mast is twelve feet long or about ten feet above the deck2 the gaff is seven feet and the boom eleven feet long4 ,the bowsprit is four feet long and is bolted to the forward deck1 and from the end of it to the top of the mast a light1 wire-cable forestay is made fast for the jib to run on4 ,the sails are made of twilled drill or very heavy unbleached muslin1 and in the main-sheet one or two sets of reef-points will be necessary4 ,the main-sail measures seven feet on the mast1 six feet and six inches on the gaff1 ten feet and six inches on the boom1 and thirteen feet on the leach4 ,the jib measures seven feet on the forestay1 four feet across the foot1 and six feet on the leach4 ,the sail-cloth should be ribbed to strengthen it and a light rope run around all the edges of both sails4 ,the shoes are made of light1 broad tire iron or steel twenty-four inches long and shaped so that the front part will bolt fast to the outside of the scooter sides and the rear ends will lie against the bottom of the boat where they can be bolted fast4 ,the shape of these shoes is shown in ,fig4 #g ,a 7page #beb71 and any blacksmith will make them for you at a nominal cost4 ,the rudder is of stout sheet-iron mounted in the end of a shank as shown at ,fig4 #g ,b 7page #beb74 ,its fan-tail permits it to swing the boat in the water and its lower edge will guide it on the ice4 ,the rudder-post should be attached to the skag which is arranged at the under side and rear of the boat1 and with a short iron tiller fastened as shown in ,fig4 #c ,c and ,d the rudder may be swung4 ,when sailing on the ice the centre-board should be hauled up as high as it will go1 for it is of use only when the boat is in the water4 ,a scoot is a cranky boat on the ice as the runners or fore-shoes are closer together than on an ice-boat with a triangular frame4 ,going before the wind it is all right1 but when sailing on or up into a stiff wind it will keep a boy moving to hold his balance and steady the boat4 ,the shovel-nosed scooter shown in ,fig4 #h is an easier boat to handle as it is broader than the sharpy1 but it is not quite so fast1 being slightly heavier4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h ,it is twelve feet long over all with a five-foot beam and fourteen inches high including deck and bottom4 ,the side boards are twelve inches wide1 curved up at the bow1 and bent in at the stern as shown in the illustration4 ,twin masts are stepped two feet from the bow and lashed together nine feet above the deck4 ,the rigging is the same as for the twin-mast ice-boat1 and the sail measures twelve feet on the gaff1 fourteen feet on the boom1 with the leach eleven feet in length4 ,a small centre-board mounted in a trunk will be necessary for water sailing1 and with several coats of paint the scooter will be ready for use4 ,a ,wind-runner ,an interesting boat for a boy to sail is a wind-runner like the one shown in ,fig4 #i4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i ,fig4 #aj ,two spruce planks twelve feet long and ten inches wide are attached to three battens and separated four inches4 ,the stern batten is four inches high and two inches wide1 and through a hole made in the middle the shank of the rudder-post extends1 from the top of which the tiller works4 ,the front ends of the planks are rounded and mounted on a triangular framework six feet across at the front and extending back about five feet from the ends of the planks4 ,a mast three inches in diameter and nine feet high is stepped through a collar and into a block attached to the back of the front cross-piece as shown in ,fig4 #aj4 ,an iron pin at the bottom of the mast drops into a hole made in the block and the backstays hold the mast in place4 ,a yard-arm eight feet long supports a square sail six feet wide1 which is caught at the lower ends to the outer ends of the triangle frame4 ,the shoes attached to the triangle frame with bolts are fifteen inches long and the rudder-blade is ten inches long4 ,this is a rapid sailer before the wind1 and with a little manuvring the runner can be made to sail on the wind1 though it will not run nearly as close to the wind as the ice-boats or scoots4 ,paint or varnish will give the wood-work a good finish1 and under a stiff breeze this wind-runner will carry four or five boys4 ,chapter ,,xvi ,,house-,,boats ,,and ,,rafts ,a ,house-punt ,a house-punt of very simple construction is shown in ,fig4 #a4 ,the punt is from sixteen to twenty-four feet long according to the size desired1 but for a party of four boys it should be twenty-four feet long1 eight feet wide1 and two feet deep with a cabin eight feet high4 ,the sides and middle rib should be of pine1 spruce1 or white-wood one inch and a quarter thick1 free from sappy places and knots4 ,if the boards cannot be had as long as twenty-four feet nor as wide as two feet1 use two boards twelve inches wide and make one joint at the middle of the lower board and two in the upper board as shown in the drawing of the side elevation 7,fig4 #b74 ,six inches down from the top at either end and thirty inches in at the bottom cut the sides as shown so that the punt will have a shovel-nose at both ends and can be poled or sailed in either direction4 ,make a third or middle rib the same size as the side board4 ,this is to be placed at the middle of the punt so as to receive the sheathing and deck planking4 ,the arrangement of this middle rib and the side boards is shown in ,fig4 #c and at ,a in ,fig4 #c4 ,a batten is shown to which the upper and lower boards of a side are nailed fast4 ,if the two boards are used it will be necessary to arrange these battens along the inside of each side about eighteen inches apart4 ,they should be of tough wood five or six inches wide1 an inch and a quarter thick1 and two feet long4 ,galvanized boat nails should be used1 and when driven in from the outside they should be clinched at the inside4 ,good boat nails are of malleable iron stiff enough to go through hard-wood but ductile enough to be turned over at the ends with a light hammer and quick1 sharp blows4 ,the sheathing and deck planking should be not less than four inches and not more than six inches in width1 and before it is put on it should be well sun-dried to take out all moisture4 ,it should then be given two good coats of paint on both sides to make it water-proof4 ,lay the sides and middle rib bottom up and begin to sheath from one end4 ,lumber sixteen feet long should be used1 and this1 when cut in half1 will make two pieces from each length4 ,if matched boards are used smear the edges with white-lead before the boards are driven together1 but if straight-edge lumber is employed it will be necessary to lead and wick the joints4 ,this is done by taking a piece of round iron one-quarter of an inch in diameter and eight inches long and bending it as shown at ,fig4 #d ,a4 ,lay this on the flat edge of each board at the middle and heat the iron so as to form a groove as shown at ,fig4 #d ,b4 ,the wood1 having been beaten in1 forms a gully in which a string of lamp-wick can be laid as shown in ,fig4 #d ,c4 ,the groove must not be cut with a chisel for then its effect would be lost4 ,the object of this treatment is that when the punt is in the water the joint swells forcing out the wood against the lamp-wick and making a water-tight joint4 ,the edges of the wood and the wicking must be well smeared with white-lead in order to properly calk the joint4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,fig4 #d ,fig4 #e ,fig4 #f ,fig4 #g ,a ,,house-,,punt ,between the middle rib and each side an inner keel should be arranged so that each plank can be nailed fast to it4 ,this will act as an additional brace to hold the sheathing planks in place and make the bottom more rigid4 ,this inner keel should extend from end to end of the punt1 and short pieces may be laid inside the bevelled ends to lend added strength4 ,at each end a spruce plank eight inches wide is made fast with long boat nails1 first leading all the joints to make them water-tight4 ,the deck planks are laid on the same as the sheathing1 and to brace them from underneath1 in the space between the middle rib and the sides1 two-by-three-inch spruce rails are propped on short sticks which are nailed to the inner keel and to the rails as shown at ,fig4 #e4 ,these under props should be arranged about eighteen inches apart1 the entire length of the punt4 ,groove the upper edges of the end and side planks with the iron1 then lay the lamp-wicking in1 lead1 and nail down the planking1 taking care to put the nails in straight and true4 ,when the punt is finished give it several good coats of copper paint on the bottom and sides and several coats of good marine paint on the deck4 ,to construct the cabin lay down the sill-joist of two-by-three-inch spruce1 making the plan fourteen feet long and seven feet and eight inches wide 7,fig4 #f74 ,to this nail the uprights and bracing timbers1 forming the sides and ends as shown in the drawings of the side and end elevation 7,fig4 #g74 ,the door spaces at the ends should be three feet wide and seven feet high1 so that when trimmed and the doors hung the actual size will be two feet and eight inches wide by six feet and ten inches high4 ,the window openings are two feet wide by two feet and six inches high1 and between all the uprights braces are nailed fast to prevent the frame from racking4 ,the arrangement of framing timbers is quite clearly shown in the drawings1 and in the deck plan 7,fig4 #f7 the arrangement of the bunks is indicated4 ,across the top of the framework one-and-a-half-by-six-inch beams are laid having their upper edge crowned as shown in the end elevation 7,fig4 #g74 ,over these the roofing boards are laid lengthwise1 and on top of them canvas is drawn and tacked down all around the edges with copper tacks4 ,the roofing boards may be of three-quarter-inch stuff planed on both sides and from two to four inches wide1 whichever is the easiest to obtain4 ,the boards should extend over the ends and sides for two or three inches so that a finishing moulding can be made fast under the boards4 ,give the top of the boards two good coats of paint1 then stretch oiled canvas over the top and tack it fast4 ,several coats of paint will finish the canvas and make it hard enough to walk on1 for in pleasant weather this upper deck will make a pleasant place to spend many hours under the shade of a canopy4 ,the cabin sheathing is of narrow matched boards planed on both sides and as free from knots and sappy places as it is possible to get them4 ,the boards must be thoroughly sun-dried before they are laid on and nailed fast1 and it would be well also to paint the matched edges so that moisture may not get in and swell them4 ,the inside and outside of the cabin is to be painted to protect the wood from moisture1 and if painted a light tint of any color1 or white1 it will be cooler in summer when the sun is shining than if coated with a dark color4 ,dark colors absorb light and heat while light ones reflect or shed them4 ,the window-sashes should be arranged on hinges so that they may be swung in and back against the inside of the cabin and hooked4 ,or1 by cutting away a part of the upright1 the sash may be arranged to slide4 ,wire screening may be tacked over the window-frame at the outer side to keep out flies and mosquitoes1 and screen doors can be made also for the front and rear doorways--to swing in1 as the wooden doors swing out4 ,over the rear deck a canopy is arranged on poles4 ,this is similar to a tent fly for camping1 and will shed the sun and rain from the deck when the cook is preparing meals4 ,a small cook-stove may be arranged inside the cabin1 but if it is not convenient to carry coal in a box on the deck an oil-stove will answer every purpose4 ,two bunks may be built in on each side1 one above the other1 and four wire springs may be arranged to rest on battens driven across the bunks at the head and foot4 ,a small hatch should be cut in the rear deck and another one through the cabin floor so that a few things may be stored in the hold4 ,the aft hatch should be provided with a suction-pump so that any water that leaks in can be readily pumped out4 ,rings1 cleats1 and ropes should be provided for the punt1 and two anchors would be better than one1 especially when near the shore or in shallow water1 to hold the punt from swinging1 which it is sure to do if there is any wind or waves4 ,always anchor it so that the wind is blowing on one end and not broadside as it is a strain on the anchors and ropes to hold a boat broadside on4 ,by erecting a spar fifteen or twenty feet high and four or five inches in diameter1 a square-sail can be rigged on yard-arms so that the house-punt can be sailed before the wind4 ,a long oar will be necessary to steer with1 or a portable rudder may be made and hung to the stern with pins and ropes4 ,a house-punt of this description will be a very great source of enjoyment to several boys in the summer-time1 and in the winter when not in use the punt can be hauled out on shore1 the windows boarded up1 and old canvas drawn over the decks to protect them from the sun4 ,a ,house-raft ,almost any boy can build a fairly good boat1 even if it is a flat-bottomed sharpy4 ,but to build a raft of the proper size1 and on it a house that may be comfortably occupied1 will require the aid of a good carpenter who understands construction1 and under whose direction several boys can work to good advantage4 ,for a party of four or five young fellows1 a very convenient and commodious house-raft at anchor is shown in ,fig4 #h4 ,the raft is about thirty-eight feet long and twelve feet wide1 while the house is twenty-three feet long and twelve feet wide by nine feet high from raft deck to top of house4 ,these dimensions will1 if necessary1 permit the raft to be taken through any canal1 and without mast and deck-rails it will pass under the road bridges that span the canals4 ,if the house-raft is to be used on canals only1 it will be better not to have the mast1 and the deck-rail may be arranged so that it can be removed quickly before passing under a low bridge4 ,the mast is for use on lakes1 bays1 or rivers only1 where a large square-sail can be hoisted on a yard-arm1 and by means of which the raft may be made to sail before the wind slowly1 so that its position may be changed from time to time4 ,the construction of a house-raft is quite simple1 and will not require the services of a boat-builder1 as the carpenter can build both the raft and the house on it4 ,to begin with1 it will be necessary to obtain four straight logs thirty-eight feet long1 as sound as possible1 and not wind-racked4 ,two of these logs are to be laid with the butt end at the stern1 and the other two with butts at the bow1 thus giving equal spaces between each along the entire length of the raft4 ,across the ends of these logs nail a temporary strip to keep them the proper distance apart2 then at right angles lay four-by-twelve-inch timbers on edge about two feet apart1 and spike them securely to the logs4 ,this part of the work should be done in shallow water1 where the logs can be near enough to shore for the workers to stand on bottom4 ,when laying these cross-timbers it is always well to place the first ones about five feet apart1 and stand a straight timber across from one to the other parallel to the logs1 so that as each succeeding timber is laid it can be levelled by either cutting slightly into the log or building up the bearing1 as it may require4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h ,fig4 #i ,fig4 #aj ,a ,,house-,,raft ,having timbered the logs the entire length1 begin to plank or deck the raft with one-inch-and-a-quarter spruce boards six inches wide1 laying the strips from bow to stern4 ,fig4 #i will show the position of the logs with cross-timbers above1 on top of which the planking may be seen4 ,to the under side of the cross-beams and midway between the logs1 planks should be fastened that will run the entire length of the raft4 ,these are to form a bearing against which the upper bilge of the barrels will rest4 ,fig4 #i shows the heads of three barrels1 each the end one of a number that are chained together and run all along under the raft to give it sufficient buoyancy to counteract the displacement that would be caused by the weight of the house and occupants4 ,fig4 #aj is a side view of those same barrels1 showing the position they occupy and the distance from one to the other4 ,oil-barrels are the best for this purpose1 and after being well bunged they should be treated to several good coats of copper paint before being drawn under the raft4 ,it would be well to leave a gallon of oil in each barrel1 as it keeps the glue sizing in good condition1 and prevents it from yielding to the dampness caused by the water1 the pressure of which might in time find its way through small cracks or openings4 ,a few yards of wrought-iron chain sufficiently heavy for the purpose can be obtained and cut into short lengths1 and each end should be fitted with an eye-plate with four holes in it1 which plates are to be fastened to the ends of the barrels with short1 fat screws1 having first thoroughly smeared the back of each with white-lead4 ,the barrels should be arranged about one foot apart1 and if the logs are from twenty-four to thirty inches in diameter at the butt end there should be just enough space to accommodate the three rows of barrels between the four logs as shown in ,fig4 #i4 ,across the logs at the bow and stern attach the planking1 to extend down a foot below the water-line1 and with short uprights against which to nail1 fasten weather-boards along the sides of the raft to cover the logs and come up flush with the deck line4 ,seven feet in from the ends of the raft lay cross-stringers1 three by six inches1 at distances of eighteen inches apart1 on which to place the floor of the house4 ,this flooring may be of narrow spruce boards1 planed on one side and having matched edges4 ,the uprights for the house construction are placed on the flooring beams and sills1 and securely pinned to them1 and the cross-beams at top of house should be placed the same distance apart as the floor beams to sustain the weight above1 as the top of the house or upper deck will be the open-air living-room4 ,the side elevation 7,fig4 #aa7 shows the position of windows that will be placed on both sides of the house1 and another illustration 7,fig4 #ab ,a and ,b7 shows both front and rear elevations of the house1 as well as the location of companionway and deck-rails4 ,the deck plan 7,fig4 #ac7 shows the arrangement of the house and how it is divided into the several compartments4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa ,fig4 #ab ,fig4 #ac ,,details ,,of ,a ,,house-,,raft ,in the front1 the dining and living saloon is a room measuring about eight feet in width and eleven feet in length4 ,at one end a couch is placed which1 if necessary1 can be used as a bed2 and close to it are two large windows--one overlooking the fore-deck1 the other giving a view from the side of the house4 ,at the other end of the room a neat china-cupboard is built into the corner1 and in the opposite corner the front door and a window are placed4 ,one of the illustrations is an interior view of this cabin1 showing how comfortable and attractive it can be made to appear4 ,as it is a sort of general mess-room and living-cabin1 it can be decorated and kept as such in a ship-shape manner4 ,fishing-rods1 guns1 and nets against the wall will take up little space1 while in the locker under the cupboard a variety of sporting paraphernalia can be stored4 ,leading aft from this saloon1 a passageway opens into the galley1 a room six feet and six inches wide by eleven feet long1 where all the cooking-utensils and stores are kept4 ,this galley should be painted a light gray or ivory white1 with several coats of paint mixed for outside use1 so the wood-work can all be wiped down with a damp cloth when necessary4 ,white is always the best color for a kitchen or galley1 and it has the appearance of cleanliness that no other color will give2 it will be found to keep a room much cooler also1 and for that reason it is recommended4 ,a rug or rag carpet will be an acceptable covering for the floor1 which should be treated to several coats of yellow-ochre paint4 ,between the dining-saloon and the galley two state-rooms are placed1 so the passageway runs between them1 and from which the doors open that lead into them4 ,these rooms are each about eight feet and six inches long by nearly five feet wide1 and two berths1 each three feet wide1 are built in the rooms4 ,both rooms have large windows1 and spaces for corner wash-stands2 and as the doors open against the ends of the berths1 there is no lost space nor wasted room4 ,rows of hooks will accommodate clothing1 and the lower berth should be at least twenty-two inches up from the floor to allow room to slide a trunk or two under it4 ,these rooms can be ceiled and papered1 or painted1 as a matter of choice1 but a few coats of varnish will render the wood-work in good shape and proof against dampness4 ,all the windows and doors in this boat can be of stock sizes1 so that the cost of special sizes can be avoided4 ,the sheathing may be of cedar shingles or of clapboards1 as the cost is about the same4 ,the clapboards should be painted1 and will look better than shingles1 although a very artistic effect is had by staining the shingles and painting the door and window casings in shades to match1 preferably in the brown and olive-green shades4 ,the flooring of the upper deck should be of regular flooring boards with matched edges and planed on one side4 ,over this flooring canvas should be stretched and tacked1 and afterwards given two or three coats of oil and varnish to make it water-proof1 and finally treated to a coat or two of lead-colored paint4 ,the seams should all be well laid down1 and fastened with copper or tinned tacks1 driven about two inches apart4 ,it would be well to give the boards two good thick coats of paint before the canvas is applied1 so that when the oil soaks through the canvas it will soften the paint somewhat1 and help to hold the canvas in its proper place4 ,leading from the fore-deck to the upper deck a stair or companionway is built1 and anchored securely in place to the front of the house4 ,the platform at the head of the staircase is braced over the front doorway by means of two iron rods that act as brackets1 and which are screwed securely both to the under side of the platform and to the door-casing4 ,this can be an open stairway composed of two side ways and eleven treads1 the ends of the treads being anchored in grooves cut in the ways1 and securely fastened with screws4 ,the rail around the deck is of common iron gas-pipe held in place by sockets and uprights4 ,if the piping cannot be had1 then hickory or hard-wood poles one inch and a half in diameter may be employed and held in place by uprights three inches wide and thirty inches high1 through which two holes have been bored to receive the poles4 ,around the fore and after decks a stringer three by six inches can be spiked down1 and to the sides near the bow and stern large cleats should be bolted fast1 by which the raft can be moored4 ,amidships at the bow a large post may be fastened1 around which to attach a tow-line if necessary1 and at the stern a rudder is arranged1 with the post projecting up through the deck for a distance of a foot or eighteen inches4 ,a mortise should be cut in the top of this post1 into which the end of a tiller can be inserted when steering the craft1 either when in tow or under sail4 ,a mast twenty-five or thirty feet long can be stepped amidships against the front of the house1 and strapped fast to the upper deck with a horseshoe band4 ,a step-block can be fastened to the deck into which the tenoned end of the mast will fit4 ,a yard-arm about twenty feet long1 or longer if desired1 can be arranged to hoist nearly to the top of the mast1 and from which a large square-sail may be rigged so the lower corners will fasten to outriggers four or five feet long that can be temporarily braced at the sides of the boat when sail is set4 ,this pole affords a good place from which to fly club or college colors1 and from which to suspend lines of colored and ,japanese lanterns to illuminate at night4 ,this mast should be six inches in diameter at the base1 and gradually taper near the top1 and if a sail is to be used frequently1 it would be a good plan to bobstay and shroud the stick with some standing rigging1 so as to relieve it from the entire strain of a large sail4 ,the top of the house affords a living-room twenty-three feet long and twelve feet wide1 and in that space a number of chairs1 a table1 hammocks1 and benches can be accommodated4 ,for lake1 river1 and bay use this deck can be covered by a large awning1 supported at the centre by a ridge-pole1 and at the sides by upright posts that hold a stout wire in place1 over which the striped awning canvas is caught4 ,drop-curtains at the sides will be convenient to ward off the bright sunlight1 and this deck-room will be found the most delightful place to spend the pleasant days and evenings4 ,along the inland waterways a raft of this description is a most desirable craft1 as it can be towed from place to place1 and for pleasure purposes its value cannot be overestimated1 as it is a base for hunting and fishing as well as a retreat from village life2 and the pleasure and comfort that can be had from a raft like this can well be appreciated when once tried4 ,to build a house-raft on these plans is not a difficult nor an expensive piece of work1 and outside of the cost of the lumber1 timber1 barrels1 and logs the amount is limited1 unless finish is contemplated4 ,with materials at hand and the help of three or four good workers1 it should not require more than a week to construct this raft and house1 and if fitted and painted in the manner described the cost should not exceed from two hundred to three hundred dollars1 including all labor and material1 according to the locality in which it is constructed4 ,a ,float ,in the spring1 when every one who owns a boat of any sort is painting and repairing his craft1 boat-houses1 and floats1 a few suggestions in regard to the floats will be found of practical value4 ,my chum and ,i own two canoes and a row-boat4 ,the first year we built a boat-house1 which exhausted our funds1 and we were obliged to wait till the next spring before we could consider the expense of making a float4 ,most floats are constructed of spars on logs1 with a mooring on top4 ,as we prepared to make the float ourselves1 we wanted to find the easiest and cheapest way of doing so4 ,the spars were costly1 and1 besides1 are clumsy1 and for a float of adequate size they would have to be so large that we could not move them alone4 ,as we lived in the city we could not get logs1 or1 if we could1 we should have had a big bill for cartage4 ,it was while we were painting the boat-house one afternoon that we saw an empty barrel go floating by4 ,my chum said he had an idea that we could make a float after all4 ,we went to one of the grocery stores and got four new flour-barrels1 with the heads1 at a cost of twenty-five cents apiece4 ,we took them1 two by two1 over to the boat-house1 and then went to a near-by lumber-yard and got three two-by-three sixteen-foot joists1 which cost us fifty-five cents1 and one hundred square feet of boards such as are sold at thirty dollars a thousand feet4 ,some nails and our tools1 and we were ready to begin work4 ,first we laid two barrels end to end about two feet apart2 then about twelve feet from them we laid the other two in the same way4 ,then we took two of the joists and laid them on each side of the barrels on edge4 ,taking the other1 we cut it in two pieces six feet long1 which left a waste space of four feet in length4 ,we then nailed the two sixteen-foot pieces and the two six-foot pieces together in the form of a rectangle as in ,fig4 #ad4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad ,fig4 #ae ,fig4 #af ,then1 having propped the barrels to keep them in place1 we lifted this hollow rectangle onto them so that it rested on their sides as in ,fig4 #ae4 ,cutting the four-foot joists into four one-foot pieces1 we utilized them as corner braces4 ,next we fastened the barrels to the frame1 and1 after painting them with a coat of thick paint to fill the cracks1 we launched the craft4 ,then we covered the frame with the boards1 laying them crosswise4 ,a ring-bolt in each corner and a roller in the middle1 and an old hose-pipe tacked around the edges1 completed the float as shown in ,fig4 #af4 ,this we found was a most excellent float1 and1 above all1 it was light1 could be hauled out on the bank easily1 or stored during the winter4 ,as it rose and fell with the tide there was no trouble in launching the boats at any time1 whereas with a dock the pleasures of launching at low-water are too well known to be described4 ,below is a table of expenditures3 ,barrels1 at #be cents each #a4jj ,joists1 at #bj per ,m 4#ee ,boards1 at #cj per ,m #c4jj ,nails1 at #d cents a pound 4#bj ,paint1 at #bj cents a can 4#bj ,rings1 at #bj cents each 4#hj ------ ,total #e4ge ,while the prices of these articles1 particularly the lumber1 have risen somewhat1 the cost of this float will remain extremely small4 ,chapter ,,xvii ,,marline-,,spike ,,seamanship ,ropes may be joined to one another either by knotting or by splicing4 ,if the rope belongs to the running rigging 7such as halyards1 sheets1 etc47 of the vessel1 it will be necessary to put a splice in it1 as a knot would refuse to render 7pass7 through the swallow 7opening7 in the block4 ,there are three kinds of splices in general use--namely1 the long1 the short1 and the eye-splice4 ,when joining running rigging a long splice is always employed1 as it does not increase the diameter of the rope1 and when neatly made cannot easily be detected4 ,the short splice is very bulging1 but it can be made quickly and is employed in all cases where the rope does not pass through blocks4 ,the eye-splice is used for making a permanent loop in the end of a rope1 such1 for instance1 as is seen in the hawsers by which steamboats are temporarily made fast to a dock1 the loop or eye being thrown over the spile on the pier4 ,let us first consider the making of the latter splice4 ,splices ,,the ,,eye-,,splice 7,fig4 #a74--,open the end of the rope and lay the strands #a1 #b1 #c upon the standing part as shown in ,a in ,fig4 #a2 now push strand #d through the rope as shown in ,b2 next thrust strand #e over the part through which the former was passed1 and last push the strand #f through on the opposite side4 ,repeat this once1 then cut off the remaining ends1 and the splice will appear as in ,c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,the ,,eye-,,splice ,,fig4 #b4 ,,the ,,short ,,splice ,,fig4 #c4 ,,the ,,long ,,splice ,,the ,,short ,,splice 7,fig4 #b74--;,hold the rope ,b 7,fig4 #b ,a7 in the left hand2 pass the strand #d over #a1 and having thrust it through under #c1 pull it taut2 take strand #e and pass it over #b and under #a2 pass strand #f over the first strand next to it and under the second4 ,shift the rope around and treat the other side in the same way1 and the result will be as shown in ,fig4 #b ,b4 ,this single tucking of the ends is not sufficient for strength1 so repeat the operation once1 then cut off the ends of the strands4 ,,the ,,long ,,splice 7,fig4 #c74--,unlay 7untwist7 the two ends to be joined some two or three feet1 and place the ends together in the same manner as explained for the short splice4 ,now take the strand #a and unlay it as far back as ,a1 and in the groove left in the rope wind the strand #b2 unlay the strand #c and in its place lay-up 7wind7 the strand #d4 ,at this stage the rope will represent the appearance of ,fig4 #c ,b4 ,the middle strands1 #e and #f1 will now be knotted with a simple overhand knot ,fig4 #c ,c1 care being observed that the knot is formed to follow the lay 7form7 of the rope4 ,next divide these two strands equally as shown in ,fig4 #c ,d1 and tuck them into the rope on the same principle as explained for the short and eye splice4 ,the remaining strands will be treated in the same manner1 after which stretch the rope well and cut off the ends4 ,knots ,,reef ,,knot 7,fig4 #d74--,this commonly used knot is also known as a flat knot and square knot1 and is one of the most valuable of the many employed4 ,as its name implies1 it is used to tie the reef points of a sail1 the stops 7short lengths of rope7 used to secure the jib to the bowsprit when the sail is lowered1 etc4 ,should a person find it necessary in order to affect an escape from a burning building to fashion a line by tearing sheets into lengths and tying them together1 this knot should be employed1 for it will not slip and the bulge where the strips are tied will afford good hold for the hands4 ,in order to make the knot1 simply tie an overhand knot1 then pass the ends so that they shall take the same lay 7form7 as the crossed parts beneath4 ,should the ends be passed 7crossed7 wrong1 an ,old ,granny knot 7,fig4 #e7 will be the result1 and this knot will capsize 7pull out of shape7 and slip as soon as a strain is put upon it4 ,,bowline ,,knot 7,fig4 #f74--,take the end 7#a7 of the rope in the right hand and the standing part 7#b7 in the left hand2 lay the end over the standing part and turn the left wrist so that the standing part forms a loop 7#d7 enclosing the end2 now lead the end back of the standing part and above the loop and bring the end down through the loop again as shown4 ,a bowline of this kind1 sometimes called a single bowline1 is employed in a variety of ways4 ,seamen sit in the bight 7#c7 of this shape to be hoisted aloft under certain circumstances1 and two towing hawsers are often made fast to each other by two bowlines1 the bight of one being passed through the bight of the other4 ,,bowline ,,on ,a ,,bight 7,fig4 #g74--;,double the rope1 and take the double end 7#a7 in the right hand1 the standing part 7#b7 of the rope in left hand2 lay the end over the standing part1 and by turning the left wrist form a loop 7#c71 having the end inside2 now pull up enough of the end 7#a7 to dip under the bight 7#d71 bringing the end towards the right and dipping it under the bight1 then passing it up to the left over the loop and hauling taut4 ,this knot is employed in the same way as explained for the single bowline1 and it may also be stated that it affords much amusement as a puzzle1 for if the standing part 7#b7 is held and the knot presented to be untied1 only those familiar with the way in which it is made will be apt to discover the secret of dipping the end 7#a7 back and undoing the knot by handling it in a reverse manner to that described for its manufacture4 ,,running ,,bowline 7,fig4 #h74--,the only difference between this knot and the one described under the head of 8,bowline0 is that the end 7#a7 of the rope is taken around the standing part 7#b71 and then a single bowline 7#c7 is tied on its own part4 ,as will be understood by reference to the diagram1 this forms a slipknot or lasso1 and in fact it is employed for the same purposes as the latter4 ,when a shark is hooked by sailors the great fish is hauled up until his head is out of water1 then a running bowline is made around the hook-line and allowed to fall down over the fins1 when it is hauled taut and the strain taken off the hook and line1 so that the danger of the fish escaping may be greatly lessened1 for the line is apt to break from the thrashing of the creature or the hook pull out4 ,,wall ,,knot 7,fig4 #i74--,unlay the end of the rope and whip 7tie7 it where shown1 and form a bight of strand #a1 and hold it down at the side represented by #b2 pass the end of #c around #a1 and the end of #d around #c and through the bight of #a1 then the knot will appear as shown in ,fig4 #aj2 now haul the parts taut and the knot will be formed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d ,fig4 #e ,fig4 #f ,fig4 #g ,fig4 #h ,fig4 #i ,fig4 #aj ,fig4 #aa ,fig4 #ab ,fig4 #ac ,fig4 #ad ,fig4 #ae ,fig4 #af ,fig4 #ag ,fig4 #ah ,fig4 #ai ,fig4 #bj ,fig4 #ba ,fig4 #bb ,fig4 #bc ,fig4 #bd ,,knots ,,crowned ,,wall ,,knot 7,fig4 #aa74--,over the top of the knot lay the strand #a1 then lay strand #b over #a1 and strand #c over #b1 and pass it through the bight of #a2 now haul taut the parts and the knot will take the shape shown in ,fig4 #ab4 ,,double ,,wall ,,and ,,double ,,crown ,,knot 7,fig4 #ac74--,this is made by allowing the strands to follow their respective parts round1 first walling1 then crowning1 as shown in the diagram4 ,this formation is also used as a ,stopper ,knot and a ,man ,rope ,knot1 although a proper ,stopper ,knot is shown in ,fig4 #ad4 ,it is a very beautiful knot when nicely made1 and as a fancy knot is common on yachts and naval vessels4 ,,matthew ,,walker ,,knot 7,fig4 #ae74--;,as its name implies1 this knot is named after the man who invented it4 ,it is exceedingly simple and easy to make1 and is in common use on board of all vessels4 ,unlay the strands for a short distance1 and pass the end #a around the rope and through its own bight2 next the strand #b underneath and through the bight of #a1 also its own bight2 last the strand #c underneath and through the bights of #a and #b4 ,when hauled taut the knot will appear as in ,fig4 #af4 ,,diamond ,,knot 7,fig4 #ag74--,unlay the strands as for a ,matthew ,walker ,knot1 and form three bights and then take strand #a over #b and through the bight of #c2 take strand #b over #c and through the bight of #a2 take strand #c over #a and through the bight of #b1 then haul the parts taut1 and lay up 7arrange7 the strands of the rope again1 and the knot will then appear as in ,fig4 #ah4 ,what is known as a ,double ,diamond ,knot 7,fig4 #ai7 may be made by leading the strands through two single bights1 having the ends come out at the top of the knot1 then leading the last strand through two double bights2 last lay the strands up as previously explained1 and the knot will show as in ,fig4 #ai4 ,,turk',s ,,head ,,knot 7,fig4 #bj74--,this is purely an ornamental knot1 and is used to beautify yoke lines for a rowing boat1 man ropes1 ridge ropes1 gangway ropes1 etc4 ,the material used in the construction of this knot is regulated according to the character of the article to be decorated1 ranging from twine to signal halyard stuff 7line74 ,to make this knot1 form a clove hitch1 and bring the bight of #a 7,fig4 #ba7 under the bight of #b1 then take the end up through it1 make another cross with the bights1 and take the end down4 ,fig4 #bb represents a ,turk's ,head of two lays1 but it may have any number of lays1 it being necessary only to follow the lead around according to the formation desired4 ,,rope ,,yarn ,,knot 7,fig4 #bc74--;,it is to be explained that a rope yarn is simply one of the several parts which make a strand of rope4 ,when a strand is untwisted1 its parts become rope yarns4 ,these yarns are used for a number of purposes1 such as for rough seizings1 etc4 ,when a considerable length of rope yarn is required1 it is necessary to knot it smoothly1 and this is effected in the following manner3 ,split in halves the two ends of the rope yarns1 and crotch and tie the two opposite ends1 then jam the tie and cut off the remaining ends4 ,,lark',s ,,head ,,knot 7,fig4 #bd74--,this knot is used on the same principle as explained for the ,slippery ,hitch2 when it is desired to undo it quickly1 simply pull out the wooden toggle #a4 ,the making of the knot will be fully understood by consulting the diagram4 ,ropes are temporarily fastened to one another1 or to a spar1 hook1 ring-bolt1 etc41 by bends and by hitches4 ,these are all more or less simple1 and a little practice and patience is all that is necessary for the young reader to become expert in their manufacture4 ,let us first consider the bends in general use4 ,bends ,,common ,,bend 7,fig4 #be74--,this is also known as a single bend1 and is used for making one rope fast to another in a hurry4 ,make a bight with one rope1 and hold it in the left hand2 pass the end of the other rope #a through the bight #b1 then back round the two parts #c1 over the rope #d1 under the rope #e1 and over the short end of the loop4 ,if the end #a is taken around once more and through the bight again1 as shown in ,fig4 #bf1 the bend will stand a greater strain and be less liable to jam4 ,the bend shown in ,fig4 #bf is known as a double bend4 ,,carrick ,,bend 7,fig4 #bg74--,this1 like the common bend1 is used for bending hawsers together1 but is a trifle more difficult to make4 ,make a bight with the end of one rope2 pass the end of the other rope through the bight and over the standing part of the first rope where marked #a1 then under the end #b1 and again through the bight and over the standing part #c4 ,,fisherman',s ,,bend 7,fig4 #bh74--;,first pass the rope twice round the spar or ring1 which act is understood by sailors as 8taking two round turns10 next take a half hitch round the standing part1 then thrust the end under the two turns1 and last half hitch the end round the standing part ,a4 ,when hauled taut the bend will appear as shown in ,fig4 #bi4 ,,sheet ,,bend 7,fig4 #cj74--,pass the end #a through the eye2 take two turns round1 observing in each case that the end passes under the standing part #b4 ,the greater the strain1 the more the standing part binds the two turns1 and insures them from slipping4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be ,fig4 #bf ,fig4 #bg ,fig4 #bh ,fig4 #bi ,fig4 #cj ,fig4 #ca ,fig4 #cb ,fig4 #cc ,hitches ,,two ,,half ,,hitches 7,fig4 #ca74--,this is an exceedingly simple way of fastening a rope1 and it has the double advantage of being proof against jamming4 ,take a turn around the object to which it is desired to fasten2 bring the end #a on top of the standing part #b1 then pass it under and bring it up through the bight2 repeat this process1 haul taut1 and the result will show as in ,fig4 #cb4 ,in case the hitch is to be subjected to a great strain1 lash the end of the rope to the standing part where marked #c in ,fig4 #cb4 ,,clove ,,hitch 7,fig4 #cc74--,this is another very useful hitch1 but is only employed when the strain upon it is temporary4 ,it is in general use for bending a heaving-line 7small rope7 to a hawser so that a coil of the former may be thrown from a vessel to the dock and1 after it is caught1 the hawser pulled ashore4 ,,slippery ,,hitch 7,fig4 #cd74--,this hitch is simply a turn around a spar or other object or through an eye1 the end carried across the standing part1 and a loop put through the bight1 the end #a being allowed to hang out4 ,when it is desired to separate the hitch1 pull out the loop by hauling on the end #a4 ,,blackwall ,,hitch 7,fig4 #ce74--,this is used in hoisting4 ,simply take a turn around the back of the hook1 crossing the parts of the rope in front as shown4 ,when a strain is put on the standing part of the rope1 the underneath part is jammed and slipping prevented4 ,,timber ,,hitch 7,fig4 #cf74--;,a hitch employed in towing spars and logs1 as it will not slip4 ,pass the end #a of the rope around the spar and lead it up and around the standing part #b1 then pass two or three turns with the end around its own part as shown in the illustration4 ,,rolling ,,hitch 7,fig4 #cg74--;,a very good method of clapping 7fastening7 a tail-block4 ,take a hitch with the tail #a2 take another hitch over the first2 pass the end under the standing part #b1 and twist the remainder of the tail round the rope1 following the lay4 ,a tail-block1 being portable1 is convenient to make fast anywhere about decks or the rigging1 and a rope being rove through this block1 a purchase1 called a 8whip10 is created4 ,,magnus ,,hitch 7,fig4 #ch74--,some people confuse this hitch with the rolling hitch just described1 but a comparison of the two will explain the difference between them4 ,with the end of the rope #a pass two turns over the spar2 carry the end in front of the standing part #b2 pass it again under the spar and bring it up through the bight4 ,the value of this hitch is its insurance against slipping in the direction represented by the arrow4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd ,fig4 #ce ,fig4 #cf ,fig4 #cg ,fig4 #ch ,fig4 #ci ,fig4 #dj ,fig4 #da ,fig4 #db ,fig4 #dc ,fig4 #dd ,,catspaw ,,hitch 7,fig4 #ci74--,like the ,blackwall ,hitch1 this one is used for making a rope fast to a hook for hoisting purposes4 ,seize the bight of the rope in your two hands1 and by turning the wrists form the two loops1 then hang these loops on the hook as in ,fig4 #dj4 ,,sheepshank ,,hitch 7,fig4 #da74--;,a quick way of shortening a rope without cutting it is to convert a portion of it into a shape known as a sheepshank4 ,gather up the spare rope and lay it in parallel lines as shown4 ,these parallel lines may be represented by any number1 according to the quantity of spare rope and the length of the sheepshank4 ,in the accompanying diagrams we show the smallest sheepshank that can be made1 consisting of three parallel lines4 ,after forming the rope as shown in ,fig4 #da1 take a half hitch with the standing part #a round the bight #d1 and repeat this at the other extremity with the standing part #b and the bight #c4 ,the result will be as shown in ,fig4 #db4 ,if it is desired to make this hitch doubly secure1 put a seizing 7fastening7 #g on the loops #e and standing parts #f 7,fig4 #dc74 ,,marling ,,hitch 7,fig4 #dd74--;,employed to make a running binding which can be put on and removed quickly4 ,part ,,iv ,,in ,,the ,,woods ,chapter ,,xviii ,,camps ,,and ,,camping ,camping in the mountains1 fields1 and forests is one of the most delightful features of life in the summer-time4 ,but a good deal of the fun depends upon doing things the right way4 ,to experienced campers many of the following ideas and descriptions may be familiar1 but among them there may be some suggestions that will be found of value4 ,the tent is the all-important thing1 and to make one large enough for two or three boys is not a difficult matter4 ,what the boy does not know on his first camping expedition1 necessity will teach him1 and much satisfaction may be had in constructing bunks and tables and the other varied paraphernalia of camp life4 ,a ,tent of ,medium ,size ,fig4 #a shows a serviceable and roomy tent and fly of medium size1 which measures eight feet wide1 ten feet long1 and seven feet high to the peak or ridge4 ,the side drops or aprons are thirty inches high1 and against them on both sides of the tent cots may rest on the ground as shown in the illustration4 ,the fly is ten feet wide and fifteen feet long1 and is an extra covering for the tent in case of a hard rain-storm2 while in clear weather and with another ridge-pole and upright1 it can be used to lengthen the tent by extending it out beyond the front1 where it is to be held fast with stakes and stanchion-ropes4 ,the plan shown in ,fig4 #b gives the dimensions of canvas1 and when the final sewing is done the edges ,c ,c at both ends of the tent are brought together and securely overcast with stout waxed cord4 ,the only openings are at front and back1 and they can be closed by means of tabs and button-holes at one side1 and large bone buttons made fast to the other edge in a corresponding position to the tabs4 ,where the iron pins of the uprights project through the canvas1 make a circular patch at least six inches in diameter with two or three thicknesses of the canvas1 and sew it fast both at the hole and around the outer edge4 ,this will strengthen the canvas at the most vital point1 and prevent it from tearing if a heavy wind should strain the tent4 ,twilled cotton sail-cloth is the proper material of which to make the tent1 but if this cannot be had1 then a stout quality of unbleached muslin will answer very well for clear weather2 but in wet weather it will not shed the water so well as the twilled duck4 ,the seams can be sewed on a machine1 but they will be much stronger if sewed by hand with white cotton cord well waxed4 ,all the edges of the cloth should be bound with rope about the size and strength of clothes-line1 so that any attachments made to the edges will be borne by the rope instead of all the strain coming on the canvas4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,fig4 #d ,fig4 #e ,fig4 #f ,a ,,tent ,,of ,,medium ,,size ,on the dotted lines ,d ,d in the plan1 which indicates the inner edges of the aprons1 one-inch harness-rings are to be sewed on the straps1 through which to reave the guy and stanchion ropes4 ,there should be four straps to this tent1 making five strips of canvas two feet wide2 and these strengthening straps are three-quarters of an inch in width1 and made by lapping the canvas over and sewing it along both edges as shown in the little diagram marked ,e below the plan in ,fig4 #b4 ,if a closed end is preferred instead of the flaps at the rear of the tent1 a back1 in one piece1 as shown in ,fig4 #c1 can be made and sewed all around the edges1 bringing the edges ,a ,a against the edge ,b1 and joining the vertical edges ,c ,c to the ends of the side aprons on the main sheet4 ,for ventilation1 a flap opening may be made at the top of this end as you can see in ,fig4 #c2 and with tabs and buttons this can be closed when necessary1 or tied back with strings1 either to the inside or outside of the tent1 where they should be caught to small harness-rings sewed to the canvas4 ,the fly is bound with rope all around the outer edge1 from which ropes extend out from each end1 so that in hot weather1 if the sun plays on the tent1 it may be kept cool by raising the outer ends of the fly and propping them up with poles at the four corners1 and perhaps one extra one at the middle of each side4 7,see the illustration for the canopy over the table and seats1 ,fig4 #aj74 ,the ridge-pole to hold up this tent is of pine or spruce1 ten feet long1 one inch and a half thick1 and four inches wide4 ,the uprights are two inches square1 with the sharp corners planed off1 making them octagonal in shape1 and they should be from seven to nine feet in length4 ,the upper ends of the uprights are bound with cord or an iron band to prevent them from splitting when the iron pin is driven in place4 ,they are to be bored to receive a half-inch pin1 so that eight inches of it will project above the top of the upright as shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,five-eighth-inch holes are bored in the ridge-pole one inch and a half from each end1 and through these the pins in the uprights will pass4 ,the stanchion-ropes are caught around the heads of long pegs or stakes1 twenty-four inches long1 two inches wide1 and one inch in thickness1 with a notch cut three inches from the top as shown in ,fig4 #e4 ,cleats four inches long1 two inches wide1 and seven-eighths of an inch thick are provided with two holes through which the stanchion-ropes pass1 and they are used to draw the ropes taut1 as shown in ,fig4 #e1 where the strain on the long rope pulls the short end down and chocks the rope4 ,the stakes are to be driven into the ground so that but five or six inches of them project4 ,the lower they are the better purchase they get in the ground and the more securely the tent is anchored4 ,the extra ridge-pole for the fly can be cut at one end so that it will lap in a corresponding manner on the front end of the tent ridge-pole as shown in ,fig4 #f4 ,for long tents1 where it is necessary to have the sticks in short lengths1 for convenience in carrying them1 the ridge-pole can be in two or three pieces1 lapped together at the ends as shown in the figure drawing1 so that the pin in the upright will complete the union4 ,when erecting the tent1 dig two holes for the uprights to rest in1 and embed them so that seven feet of pole will be above the ground1 on which the ridge-pole will rest1 and in turn the canvas covering4 ,the stakes are driven three feet out on either side of the aprons so that the stanchion-ropes will line with the pitch of the tent4 ,a ,large ,camping-tent ,for a company of boys numbering from four to eight a large camping-tent is shown in ,fig4 #g4 ,if it is made twenty feet long1 ten feet wide1 and eight feet high to the ridge-pole1 it will accommodate six cots and two hammocks swung from the ridge-pole4 ,a plan by which to cut the cloth and make the tent is shown in ,fig4 #h1 and in ,fig4 #i the plan for the back is given4 ,if an open back be preferred1 the flaps shown at the bottom of ,fig4 #h may be duplicated at the rear of the tent4 ,this tent1 when erected1 is twenty feet long and eight feet high from the ground to the ridge-pole1 with the aprons at the sides three feet high instead of thirty inches as in the smaller tent4 ,three uprights two inches and a half square support the ridge-pole1 which for convenience of transportation may be in two pieces and lapped at the middle as shown in ,fig4 #f4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g ,fig4 #h ,fig4 #i ,fig4 #aj ,fig4 #aa ,,tents ,,and ,,canopies ,this tent is made in the same manner as described for the smaller one1 and a fly twenty-two feet long and eighteen feet wide is supported over the tent where1 in clear weather1 it can be propped up at the outer edges as shown at the left side of the illustration4 ,the fly is drawn back at the right side to show how the guy and stanchion ropes are attached to the stakes1 so as to prevent the wind from blowing the tent backward and forward as well as from side to side4 ,a flag-pole four feet high may be erected on the middle upright by leaving the pin at the top longer1 so that it will extend up and into a hole bored in the lower end of the flag-pole4 ,the lower end of the pole must be bound with cord or wire to prevent splitting4 ,a small pulley at the top1 and a set of halyards1 will make it possible to raise a club flag or pennant4 ,all around the lower edge of the tent one-inch galvanized rings should be sewed fast about twelve inches apart4 ,through these the apron and ends may be tied fast to short stakes or wooden pins driven in the ground4 ,this will be quite necessary in the event of a storm or strong wind1 as otherwise the lower part of the tent will blow up and flap around in a disagreeable manner4 ,when erecting a tent of this size1 care should be taken to anchor it securely and brace it well with the stanchion and guy ropes1 for its size offers considerable resistance to a strong wind4 ,a little care and forethought will sometimes avert a catastrophe with a tent1 and when erecting one do not trust anything to luck1 but snug your tent and keep ropes taut4 ,if it is possible to get some boards and a few joist1 it would be well to make a flooring1 if you are to stay in one place for any length of time4 ,always select a level1 dry place for the tent1 and if possible erect it on ground that is slightly higher than that around it so as to drain the surface-water away4 ,flies and ,canopies ,every camping-tent should have a fly--that is1 an extra canvas roof--for no matter how good the canvas of which it is made1 it will become thoroughly soaked in a heavy rain2 but if protected by a fly the latter will lead the water off and receive the greater part of the wetting4 ,such a fly is shown clearly in the illustration of the large camping-tent4 ,fig4 #g4 ,the fly should always be a trifle wider than the tent is long1 and in length it should be long enough to cover the roof of the tent and extend a foot or eighteen inches beyond the sides1 where it rests on the stanchion-ropes and is lashed fast to pegs in the ground4 ,the overhang1 or extension1 leads the water out beyond the apron of the tent and prevents the ground from becoming wet close to the tent4 ,another use for this overhang is to prevent the rain driving against the aprons of the tent and wetting them close to the cots4 ,in fair weather1 when it is possible to dine outside the tent1 the fly can be used as a canopy1 if drawn over a ridge-pole and held up at the ends by means of poles and stanchion-ropes4 ,a canopy of this kind is shown in ,fig4 #aj1 where it is erected over a table and seats4 ,it is always well1 indeed1 to have two flies to a tent1 so that one can be used for a canopy or an auxiliary tent1 under which a fire can be built and meals cooked and eaten when it is raining4 ,for a small camp a fly or canopy1 twelve feet wide and eighteen feet long1 will prove very useful in many ways2 but for a larger camp it should measure fifteen by twenty-five feet4 ,under one of this size a party of ten or twelve people can be comfortably seated1 with plenty of room all around4 ,flies or canopies should be bound with rope all around the edges1 and at distances from twelve to eighteen inches apart three-quarter-inch galvanized rings should be made fast4 ,through these stanchion-ropes may be reared wherever it is necessary to attach the sheet to branches or poles set in the ground4 ,a ,house-tent ,one of the latest features in the modern camp is the house-tent1 in which the lower part is floored and boarded half-way up1 while the balance of the sides and the roof are of canvas4 ,this style of camp-tent has become very popular in ,california and through the ,southwest1 where at least six months of each year are spent out-of-doors4 ,for the boys who are about to build a permanent camp for several years' use1 a house-tent such as shown in ,figs4 #aa and #ab will prove very satisfactory1 and more desirable than the plain pitched tent4 ,fig4 #aa shows the house-tent closed in stormy weather or at night1 while in ,fig4 #ab the house is open for fair-weather living4 ,one wooden side is let down to form a piazza1 and the canvas side above it is propped out with poles so as to act as a canopy or sunshade4 ,the frame is twelve feet long1 eight feet wide1 and nine feet high from the roof to the peak4 ,the wood sides are three feet and six inches above the floor1 and out beyond the sides of the house the joist may extend to support one or both of the wooden sides1 which can be let down by means of hinges along the bottom4 ,when the sides are lowered they act as piazzas and nearly double the floor space of the house-tent2 while the canvas sides1 when propped out with long1 slim poles1 add equally to the roof area in the way of sunshades4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab ,fig4 #ac ,in ,fig4 #ac a clear idea is given for the framing1 which is of spruce planed on the four sides4 ,the uprights and rafters are of two-by-three-inch stock1 while for the under timbers two-by-four or preferably two-by-six rough stock can be used4 ,the joist or flooring beams rest on the ends of posts embedded two feet in the ground1 to which they are spiked with long1 steel-wire nails4 ,the flooring1 of four-inch matched boards1 is laid on the space within the four corner uprights1 and the same or wider boards may be employed for the sheathing4 ,if both sides are to let down1 a window can be set only at the back of this house-tent2 but if only one side lets down the window may be arranged at the enclosed side between uprights the same as the rear window is placed4 ,the triangular end-pieces of canvas are attached to the frame with copper or tinned tacks1 so that they will not rust1 and the roof and both sides are of one piece made by sewing together lengths of canvas or twilled sheeting4 ,at the front and back it is drawn over the edges of the end rails1 forming the roof1 and tacked to hold it in place4 ,at the front1 on either side of the doorway1 the canvas may be arranged to roll up in clear weather4 ,the rolls are held to the upper frame-bar with cord or straps as shown in ,fig4 #ab4 ,the front door is thirty inches wide and is made from boards and battens1 and provided with a knob lock by means of which it can be opened from either side4 ,the side that lets down to form the piazza is battened on the outside1 as may be seen in ,fig4 #aa where the house is closed4 ,when the side is down the battens drop in between the extended floor joist or beams4 ,folding-cots can be used in this house1 or bunks may be built in against the side and end--two at the side and one at the end under the window4 ,when the drop-side is up and fastened for the night1 another cot can be placed at that side1 while from corner to corner a hammock may be swung4 ,when camp is broken up in the fall the canvas is to be removed from the framework and kept for next season1 but the frame may be left standing4 ,it would be better to remove the door and sashes and slide them under the floor1 for they would offer too much resistance to the wind if left standing in place1 and might break or cause the framework of the house to rack and become rickety during the winter storms and high winds4 ,a coat or two of paint on the wood-work will improve its appearance greatly and preserve the wood1 if the house is to be used for a number of seasons4 ,the ,new ,tent ,one great drawback to the pitched or army tent is that in wet weather1 when one has to stay in-doors1 it is not a comfortable abode unless you sit down or keep close to the ground1 for there is little or no head room4 ,in the illustration of the new tent with ,french roof 7,fig4 #ad7 you can readily see the great advantage of this new method of construction1 for it affords a great deal of head room4 ,two uprights1 three ridge-poles1 and four angle-bars will be required for the frame1 and some long1 slim poles with crotched ends can be cut to prop the guy-ropes out from the tent as shown in the illustration4 ,for a party of three or four boys this tent should measure seven feet and six inches high1 six feet and six inches broad at the top1 eight feet at the bottom1 and ten or twelve feet deep4 ,the sides and top are in one piece1 twenty-one feet long and ten or twelve feet wide4 ,the rear end is made in one piece and sewed fast to the edges of the sides and top4 ,at the front two flaps are sewed to the top and sides4 ,they each measure seven feet and six inches long at the inner edge1 four feet across the bottom1 three feet and five inches at the top1 and seven feet long at the outer edge4 ,they are cut as shown in ,fig4 #ae ,a1 and when the tent is set up the canvas will appear as shown in ,fig4 #ae ,b4 ,the frame is composed of two uprights two inches square and nine feet long1 eighteen inches of which is set into the ground4 ,there are three ridge-poles two inches in diameter and ten feet long2 and four brace-bars two inches square1 four feet and three inches long1 bevelled at the lower ends to fit against the upright post as shown at ,fig4 #af ,a4 ,an iron pin 7,fig4 #af ,d7 is driven in the top of each upright and at the outer ends of the brace-bars over which the ridge-poles fit1 they having been provided with holes for the purpose4 ,angle-irons are screwed fast to the bevelled ends of the brace-bars1 and a collar of iron is made and screwed to the uprights so that the tongue end of the angle-irons will fit in them as shown at ,fig4 #af ,b4 ,stout screw-eyes and wire hold the braces in position at the top1 as shown at ,fig4 #af ,c1 and so prevent the outer ridge-poles from straining the canvas4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad ,fig4 #ae ,fig4 #af ,fig4 #ag ,,the ,,new ,,tent ,one of the best anchorages for the guy-ropes of a tent is made with the lock-stake and deadeye cleat shown at ,fig4 #ag ,a4 ,a stake with a notch to hold the rope is driven into the ground1 and another notched stake is driven in close to the head1 so that when in far enough the notch in the latter will hold the head of the former as shown at ,fig4 #ag ,b4 ,the deadeye cleat is cut from hard-wood seven-eighths of an inch thick1 and is two inches wide1 six inches long1 and provided with two holes three inches apart4 ,at one end a jaw is cut1 so that a rope may be caught in it as shown in ,fig4 #ag ,a4 ,steel wire nails are passed through the holes indicated by the dotted lines in ,fig4 #ag ,c1 and riveted at the point ends to strengthen the deadeyes4 ,the manner in which it is used is shown at ,fig4 #ag ,a1 and if the holes are made the same size as the diameter of the rope1 the harder you pull on the tent end of the rope1 the more securely the deadeye cleat holds1 and the loose end of the rope caught first in the jaw can be given a turn or two around the cleat to make it fast4 ,the double-peg anchorage is better than a single one1 and with this new rope-fastener it will be an easy matter to stay a tent to withstand any wind-storm4 ,canvas ,cots and ,hammocks ,cots are very necessary parts of the camping outfit1 and may be made either of canvas and poles or of boughs and leaves4 ,the canvas cot is1 of course1 much more comfortable than the one of boughs1 but sometimes it is not possible to transport them1 and then the bough bed must be resorted to4 ,a simple canvas cot is easily made from two pine or spruce sticks seven feet long1 two inches in diameter1 and free from knots or sappy places4 ,a piece of light canvas or twilled cotton duck fifty-four inches wide and seventy-two inches long is sewed together so as to form a cylindrical case thirty-six inches wide and seventy-two inches long4 ,lay it flat and crease it along the edges1 then run two or three lines of stitching along both sides four inches in from the edges4 ,this forms the sleeve through which the poles are to be passed4 ,crotched sticks are to be embedded in the ground to support the ends of the poles as shown in ,fig4 #ah4 ,these are to extend a foot or eighteen inches above the ground1 and should be three inches in diameter and quite strong1 so as to avoid breakage and a possible fall4 ,if a folding-cot with portable ends is desired1 it can be made to appear as shown in ,fig4 #ai by constructing two folding ends1 a middle pole1 and four iron brace-hooks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah ,fig4 #ai ,fig4 #bj ,fig4 #ba ,fig4 #bb ,to make the cot twenty-six inches wide1 procure the canvas and poles as directed for the first cot4 ,bind the ends of the poles with wire or have a blacksmith band them with iron ferrules1 then bore the ends and drive threaded pins in1 having nuts at the ends as shown at ,fig4 #bj ,a4 ,from maple or oak two inches wide and an inch thick cut four legs thirty-two inches long1 and bore holes at one end and midway between ends1 as shown in ,fig4 #bj ,b1 to receive the bolt ends in the poles4 ,bevel off the lower ends of the sticks and place them in opposite directions1 so that when opened1 in the form of an ,x1 the ends will lie flat on the ground as shown in ,fig4 #ai4 ,from pine or spruce cut a stick two inches square1 and provide the ends with bolts and nuts as shown in ,fig4 #bj ,c4 ,this is for the under brace1 and extends from end to end where the bolt passes through both legs1 and is attached with a nut and washer4 ,from iron an inch wide and less than a quarter of an inch in thickness have a blacksmith cut four hook-braces eighteen inches long with a hole at one end and a notch at the other4 ,with round-headed screws attach two of the braces near each end of the pole1 as shown in ,fig4 #bj ,c1 so that when the cot is set up the notches will hook over screws driven in the upper edge of each leg near the bottom as shown in ,fig4 #ai4 ,these will steady the cot1 and prevent it from rocking from end to end as it would do if not braced4 ,a hammock that can be swung between the uprights of a tent is made of canvas thirty inches wide and seventy-two inches long4 ,it is lapped over at the ends and sewed with several lines of stitching1 so as to receive a two-inch bar to which the three ropes are made fast as shown in ,fig4 #ba4 ,the end ropes should be twenty-four inches long and the middle one eighteen4 ,from the bars at each end they are brought together and bound to rings which slip over hooks made fast to the tent uprights1 or they can be lashed fast to the uprights4 ,any number of these hammocks may be made and easily carried1 as they roll up snugly and occupy very little room in a bedding-kit4 ,they are much easier to handle than a woven or braided hammock1 the strands of which are forever catching in everything and anything with which they come into contact4 ,when making a cot of boughs the most satisfactory and comfortable affair is the basket-woven or lattice mattress of small1 pliable saplings trimmed and interwoven as shown in ,fig4 #bb4 ,the long pieces should be alternated so that the large end of one stick will be next the small end of another1 and thus distribute the strain evenly over the lattice4 ,this arrangement applies also to the shorter or cross-pieces1 and when finished the mattress is laid on a pair of poles supported with crotched sticks1 as shown in ,fig4 #ah1 but without the canvas4 ,over this lattice short twigs with clusters of leaves are spread1 to make a soft mattress1 and on these in turn a blanket or two can be spread and tied down at the corners1 so that the leaves may not become dislodged4 ,tables and ,benches ,every boy should know how to make a table from some fence boards1 a rail or two1 and stakes for the legs4 ,the table shown in ,fig4 #bc is made from three boards about eight inches wide and five feet long battened together at the ends and across the under side of the middle4 ,a rail is nailed across two tree-trunks thirty-two inches from the ground1 to which one end of the boards are attached4 ,two stakes three inches thick are driven in the ground four feet from the trees1 and across the upper ends of them a rail is nailed fast to support the other ends of the boards4 ,a larger table is shown in ,fig4 #bd1 and like the smaller one it is built against two trees4 ,the boards1 three or four in number1 should be from six to eight feet long4 ,they are nailed fast to four or five inch rails attached to the tree-trunks and to stout posts embedded in the ground4 ,the middle of the table is supported by a batten1 or rail1 which is nailed fast to the top of a post embedded under the centre of the table4 ,chairs made for camp life from rustic wood and pieces of board need not be so well constructed that any great amount of time should be expended on them1 but they should be strong and serviceable4 ,a simple chair that any boy can make from branches or small tree-trunks1 two or three inches in diameter1 is shown in ,fig4 #be4 ,the seat is eighteen inches high1 sixteen inches square1 and the back posts are thirty-six inches high4 ,two pieces of wood1 eighteen inches long1 are cut as shown at ,fig4 #bf ,a1 and two more1 thirty-six inches long1 are cut as shown at ,b4 ,the laps are cut out with saw and chisel so as to receive the seat-rails1 the braces1 and the back board1 which are made fast with steel-wire nails as shown at ,c4 ,the seat is made of ordinary boards nailed to the top edges of the rails all around1 and if the edge is smoothed off there will be less liability to tear one's garments4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc ,fig4 #bd ,fig4 #be ,fig4 #bf ,fig4 #bg ,in the illustration of a canopy 7,fig4 #aj1 page #cja71 a table and benches are shown4 ,the table is thirty inches wide and five feet long1 and it can be built either detached or fast to the ground4 ,if the corner-posts are embedded a foot or eighteen inches in the ground it will make the table firmer and less liable to rack than if built loose or detached4 ,two benches running the length of the tables are made in a similar manner to the chairs1 but if the corner-posts or legs are to be embedded in the ground the side braces will not be necessary4 ,the seat should be eighteen inches high1 sixteen inches wide1 and from five to eight feet long1 as occasion requires1 and with a middle brace it will appear as shown in ,fig4 #bg4 ,camping ,equipment ,in fitting out for a camping expedition it is always best to make a memorandum of the things you will need some time before you start1 for so surely as you do not do this there will be some important things forgotten4 ,the stuff that will fill an ordinary clothes-basket should be enough for a company of four boys1 but for a greater number the supply must be increased accordingly4 ,in this list there must be included a kettle1 two pans1 tin or enamelled dishes1 a frying-pan or two1 a broiler1 a wooden pail for water1 and smaller tin pails2 a lantern1 candles1 matches in tin boxes1 hatchet or axe1 blankets1 knives and forks1 spoons1 and a few other culinary accessories4 ,the dry groceries will have to be taken from home1 unless they can be purchased near the camp or from some farm-house4 ,from the latter it is generally possible to obtain butter1 milk1 eggs1 a chicken or two1 and other food that you may stand in need of if hunting or fishing fail you4 ,in ,fig4 #bh1 showing a corner of the tent1 a portable table is supporting some of the things it would be well to have in camp1 and while a boy may think that he knows what is wanted1 it would be well for him to take his mother's or older sister's advice on the subject4 ,lockers and ,mess-kits ,lock-boxes with handles1 in which to store dry groceries and foods1 and mess-kits for the kitchen and dining ware1 are among the most important parts of the camping outfit4 ,they may be made from ordinary well-constructed boxes1 and provided with hinged lids1 a hasp and padlock1 and handles at either end by means of which they may be carried easily4 ,the lock-box shown in ,fig4 #bi ,a is eighteen inches wide1 twenty-four inches long1 and twelve inches deep1 and with two thin boards four compartments are made as shown in ,fig4 #bi ,a4 ,a lid is made of three boards and two battens1 and securely attached to the box with strap hinges4 ,a hasp and padlock as well as two handles can be purchased at a hardware store and screwed fast to the chest4 ,a mess-kit may be made of a box with both lid and bottom nailed on securely4 ,it is then sawed around three inches from one side1 dividing it so that quite a little of the wood is fast to both sides4 ,with hinges these are fastened together like a ,gladstone bag1 and on the inside1 pockets and straps can be arranged to accommodate cooking-utensils and food-stuffs4 ,fig4 #bi ,b shows this kit1 and with a trunk-strap and a rope it can be easily carried from place to place4 ,for knives1 forks1 spoons1 kettle-lids1 and other small paraphernalia of the camping outfit a nest of pockets may be made from denim or unbleached muslin1 like the one shown hanging on the wall in ,fig4 #bh4 ,the pockets are commodious and will accommodate many little things1 and the nest can be folded over and tied at the corners with stout cord4 ,a nest of this description should be three feet long1 thirty inches high1 and with three lines of pockets as shown in the illustration4 ,the sewing should be done by hand with heavy linen or carpet thread1 so that the stitching will not break4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh ,fig4 #bi ,fig4 #cj ,fig4 #ca ,a carry-all 7,fig4 #cj7 is made of denim or light sail-cloth1 and will be found the most convenient sort of a catch-all1 for it may be folded over and rolled up1 then bound with a shawl-strap to carry it easily4 ,a piece of denim a yard wide and forty-two inches long is folded at the dotted lines ,a ,a as shown in the plan 7,fig4 #ca74 ,the edges will then reach the lines ,b ,b4 ,sew the flaps at the two ends and divide the long pockets into smaller ones as shown in ,fig4 #cj4 ,knives1 forks1 spoons1 and a variety of small things can be kept in this nest of pockets1 and when in camp it may be hung from one end by rings1 so that the pockets occupy a horizontal position and the contents can be easily gotten at4 ,a ,stone ,stove and ,camp-fires ,the old-time tripod and kettle over an open fire of brush and logs is an unhandy means of cooking1 for a sudden gust of wind will blow the smoke and sparks in all directions and dissipate the heat as well4 ,the up-to-date campers will make a stone stove similar to the one shown in ,fig4 #cb4 ,this holds the fire within the stone enclosure1 and retains the greater part of the heat1 which in the open fire is blowing to the four winds and giving very little benefit to the pot4 ,flat stones should be used in the construction of this stove1 and if it is possible to get some clay from the bed of a brook it can be used in place of cement for sealing the joints4 ,this of course will make the fire burn better1 as the only draught will then enter at the bottom1 or doorway1 through which the sticks are fed to the fire4 ,these doorways or draught-holes should be made on two or three sides of the stove1 and when one is in use the others may be closed or left open1 according to the strength of the wind and the direction from which it is blowing4 ,the pot should be hung on the ridge-pole so that it touches the top of the stove and holds in the heat4 ,fish may be fried in a pan or broiled much better than over an open fire1 and water can be boiled quicker and coffee made easier4 ,this stove can be made either round or square1 and if bricks are available for use they will be better than stones as the joints are closer and they are not so ungainly to handle4 ,over the stove a ridge-pole or bar should be supported on a yoked stick at one end and a twin-stick tripod at the other4 ,the yoked or crotched stick is embedded in the ground1 or it can be the sawed-off stump of a small tree4 ,the lower ends of the twin sticks should be let into the ground for a foot or eighteen inches1 so that the ridge-bar can be removed without its supports falling over4 ,always build a fire or a stove in the shade1 for it will not burn so well if the sun plays on it4 ,in rainy weather a canopy over this stone stove will keep it dry and cause it to burn better than if exposed to the elements4 ,here are some other ideas for camp-fires proper4 ,let us suppose that the party is provided with the necessary utensils for camp-cooking--a camp-kettle1 coffee-pot1 frying-pan1 saucepan1 and some sort of baking-pan4 ,these should prove sufficient1 unless the party intends having quite elaborate menus4 ,if it is intended to remain at the camp only while cooking one or two meals1 make your fire in this manner3 ,cut two green poles about five or six inches thick and about two feet long4 ,in these cut notches about a foot apart4 ,level the ground where you intend to build your fire1 and lay these poles down with the notches up and about three feet apart4 ,now cut two or three poles about four feet long and lay them in these notches4 ,gather a good supply of dry wood1 grass1 bark1 or chips1 and make your fire on the ground between the poles4 ,the air will circulate under and through the fire1 and the poles will prove just right to set your cooking-utensils on4 ,do not pile on wood by the armful4 ,add a little at a time1 and you will find you can cook rapidly and well1 and not burn your face and hands while attending to your cooking4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb ,fig4 #cc ,fig4 #cd ,fig4 #ce ,if it is intended to remain several meals at the camp it will pay to put up a crane4 ,this is built in this manner3 ,cut two green posts two or more inches thick and three feet long1 having forks at one end4 ,drive these into the ground at each end of your fire4 ,cut another green pole the same diameter and long enough to reach between the forks4 ,flatten the ends so that they will set snug in the forks4 ,the poles should be driven into the ground so that when the bail of the kettle is slipped on the crane the bottom of the kettle will just clear the fire4 ,if the camp is to be of a permanent nature1 or it is expected to remain there for some days or weeks1 it will be well to arrange for a better kitchen that will not be affected by the winds1 the bte noire of camp-cooking4 ,dig a trench 7cutting the sides square7 as long as the distance between your uprights1 and about eighteen inches wide and a foot deep4 ,make your fire in this hole1 on the ground1 and you will find that the wind will not worry you one-half as much as before 7,fig4 #cc74 ,if you wish to take the trouble1 and the material is handy1 the plan in ,fig4 #ce is a most excellent one to follow4 ,wall up the sides of the trench with brick1 add a little chimney at one end1 and get several iron 8,s0 hooks from which to suspend your kettles4 ,this will save the lifting of the crane every time you wish to handle the kettles suspended over the fire4 ,by this method you will economize on fuel and save heat4 ,the plan used in the army for camp-cooking and described below is the best for all-around work4 ,to make this kitchen takes more time and a little more labor1 but in the end the laborers will be well paid for their work4 ,it is particularly adapted for clayey soil4 ,dig a hole about three feet square and two feet in depth1 generally in the slope of a hill4 ,on one side run a shaft laterally1 about one foot square and six feet in length1 and one foot from the surface of the ground4 ,at the extreme end sink a shaft vertically and form a chimney1 and at equidistances pierce holes of sufficient diameter to prevent the kettles from slipping through4 ,by this mode the kettles can be placed over the fire to boil1 or on the side to simmer1 with less difficulty than by any other means4 ,fig4 #cf ,a and ,b4 ,i want to tell the young camper how to bake his own bread in camp1 so if he camps far from a store or house where he can buy his bread he will not have to eat crackers1 or those indigestion-producers1 flapjacks1 that the youthful camper knows how to make1 or thinks he does4 ,i have eaten many a one in my young days before putting on the 8army blue10 but their weight in gold would not induce me to eat some that ,i swallowed as a boy and thought 8fine40 ,we will assume that before going into camp your dear mother has taught you how to mix a batch of dough or a pan of biscuit4 ,we will now make an oven in which to bake the bread or biscuit4 ,a bank from four to six feet is the best for the purpose4 ,dig down the bank to a vertical face1 and at the base excavate a hole1 say three to four feet horizontally1 care being taken to keep the entrance as small as possible4 ,hollow out the sides of the excavation and arch the roof1 till the floor of the oven is about two feet wide and the arch about sixteen inches at the centre4 ,fig4 #cg ,a and ,b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf ,fig4 #cg ,now carefully 8tap0 the back end for the chimney1 and insert a piece of stove-pipe if handy4 ,a hole from four to six inches will give a good draught4 ,wet the inside of the oven1 and smooth over the walls so that the mud presents a hard finish1 and leave to dry for a day4 ,when you are ready to bake1 build a good fire in the oven1 and when it is well heated remove the fire1 scrape out all ashes1 and place the pans of dough inside4 ,close up the entrance with a board1 and cover with mud so as to keep in all the heat4 ,with proper care this oven will last several weeks4 ,a bank may not be handy in which to build an oven of the kind described above2 if such proves the case1 it is not a difficult matter to construct a good oven on the level ground by following the method below4 ,if a flour-barrel is handy1 use it2 if not1 make use of willow twigs stuck in the ground and bent over so as to form a mould4 ,over the barrel or willow mould plaster a stiff mortar made of mud1 commencing at the base4 ,lay it on about six inches thick4 ,allow it to dry for a day or two1 and when nearly dry cut out a door at one end and the flue at the other4 ,a small mud chimney will increase the draught if a piece of stove-pipe is not at hand4 ,if a barrel has been used as the mould it may be burned out without danger to the oven4 ,carefully remove all dirt1 and keep up a fire for half a day before attempting to bake4 ,fig4 #cd4 7,see page #cba47 ,camp-cooking ,even the finest of camps is a dreary place unless the commissary department is well organized4 8,uncle ,harry10 who is an old and experienced camper-out1 gives some useful suggestions to his nephews1 and other boys will doubtless appreciate his lectures on things culinary4 8,let us suppose10 begins ,uncle ,harry1 8that you have gotten the camp into ship-shape order1 and after your hard day's work are ravenously hungry and very impatient for supper1 or rather dinner1 for the last meal of the day in camp is always the most important one4 ,we will appoint ,aleck as cook1 and while he is busy over the fire neither of the others shall interfere with him or his duties1 for no axiom is more true than that #8too many cooks spoil the broth4' 8,ben and ,bob must see that the cook is well supplied with water and has plenty of small-split firewood close at hand4 ,then ,bob will set the table1 while ,ben goes a-fishing and catches half a dozen trout or other small fry from the lake4 ,in the mean time ,aleck has pared and washed a dozen potatoes4 ,these are placed in a kettle nearly full of water1 and hung over the fire half an hour before supper-time4 ,he will keep them boiling furiously until he can run a sliver of wood easily through the largest one4 ,then the water must be drained from them1 and1 still in the kettle1 they must be set aside1 but near enough to the fire to keep hot until wanted4 8,ben's fish all weigh less than a pound1 and so are too small to do anything with but fry4 ,after they are cleaned1 ,aleck rolls them in corn-meal and lays them carefully in the frying-pan1 which is already on the stove1 and in which a small quantity of cotton-seed oil is sizzling merrily4 ,if you should have no oil1 pork fat will do nearly as well1 only have it boiling hot before placing the fish in it4 8,aleck has heard of half a dozen methods of making coffee1 and hesitates before deciding which to try4 ,he has been told to put his coffee in cold water and let it come to a boil1 and that the coffee must not see the water until it is boiling2 he has heard that coffee must never be boiled1 and that the only way to extract its strength is to boil it2 and so in thinking it all over he is much perplexed4 ,finally he remembers a method which his old uncle who is in the army has mentioned to him1 and decides to try it40 8,oh1 ,uncle ,harry1 you are not a bit old10 interrupts ,aleck4 8,in preparing coffee by his old uncle's method10 continues ,captain ,archer1 only noticing the interruption with a smile1 8,aleck fills the coffee-pot with water1 and sets it on the broiler wires1 which he has laid across from one log to the other of the stove4 ,while it is coming to a boil he measures out his coffee at the rate of a heaping table-spoonful for each cup to be made1 puts it into his tin cup1 pours in all the hot water it will hold1 and sets it in a warm place on the stove4 ,as soon as the water in the coffee-pot boils1 he pours off some1 so as to leave the pot about three-quarters full1 and empties in his cupful of soaked coffee4 ,setting the pot back1 he allows its contents to again come to a boil1 and then lifts it from the fire4 ,he pours out a tin cupful of the coffee1 and pours it slowly back into the pot1 throwing away the residue of grounds that remain in the cup4 ,for about a minute1 or while the rest of the dinner is being served1 the coffee-pot stands in a warm place near the fire1 and then its contents are ready for drinking4 8,if either of you had wanted tea1 ,aleck would have put in the pot a teaspoonful of tea leaves for each cup to be made1 poured boiling water over it1 let it stand in a warm place two or three minutes1 and it would have been ready for you4 8,here you have a plain1 easily cooked dinner of fried fish1 boiled potatoes1 and coffee1 to which you can add from your supplies bread and butter1 or crackers1 pickles1 condensed milk1 salt1 pepper1 and sugar4 ,i think you will find it enough for a first experiment4 8,for breakfast next morning you will have coffee1 fried potatoes and breakfast bacon1 and griddle-cakes40 8,oh1 ,uncle ,harry1 ,i can't make griddle-cakes10 exclaimed ,aleck4 8,i think you can1 if ,i tell you how1 and you try hard4 ,at any rate1 you had better try1 for they enter largely into the composition of camp meals4 ,to make the simplest flour griddle-cakes1 put into a pan a quart of your prepared flour1 a teaspoonful of salt1 a handful of corn-meal1 a table-spoonful of brown sugar1 two eggs1 if you have them1 and mix with cold water into a batter4 ,stir thoroughly until no lumps are left1 and then fry on a hot griddle4 ,in frying use as little grease as possible4 ,more griddle-cakes are spoiled by the use of too much grease in frying than in any other way4 ,a bit of pork rind or an oiled rag rubbed over the griddle is sufficient4 ,take turns in frying the cakes1 so that two of you can be eating them as fast as they are done4 ,they are only fit to eat when hot from the griddle4 8,the cold boiled potatoes left from dinner the night before may be cut up and fried with half a dozen slices of breakfast bacon1 and when all is ready you will have a breakfast to which ,i think three hungry boys will do ample justice4 8,when you become tired of fish1 catch frogs4 ,they are considered delicacies on first-class tables1 and add a pleasant variety to a woodman's fare4 ,catch them with a light rod1 short line1 and small hook baited with a bit of scarlet flannel1 or at night by use of a jack-light4 ,stupefied by its glare1 they will let you pick them up4 ,kill your frog by a tap on the head1 cut off his thighs and hind-legs1 skin them1 roll them in ,indian-meal1 and fry brown in hot oil or pork fat4 8,you will also probably have an opportunity of adding squirrels to your bill of fare4 ,when you have got your squirrel1 chop off his head1 feet1 and tail1 cut the skin crosswise of the back1 and strip it off in two parts1 fore and aft2 also cut the body crosswise into two parts4 ,throw them into a kettle1 and let the hind-quarters parboil until tender4 ,then fry them1 until of a rich brown1 in oil or pork fat1 hissing hot4 ,use the fore-quarters for a stew4 8,to make a stew use almost any kind of flesh or fowl4 ,the chief thing to be remembered in making a stew is to stew it enough4 ,an old camp jingle runs thus3 8#8,a stew that's too little stewed ,is understood to be no good4' 8,let your meat boil for more than an hour1 or until it begins to fall from the bones4 ,add potatoes1 pared and quartered1 an onion sliced1 salt1 pepper1 and a thickening made of flour and melted butter1 to be stirred in gradually4 8,in making a meat soup provide plenty of meat1 and do not be afraid to let it boil4 ,it is hard to boil it too much1 and three hours is not too long4 ,when nearly done1 scrape a potato into the soup for thickening1 and season with salt and pepper4 8,to cook rice1 let a cupful soak overnight4 ,in the morning pour off the water in which it has soaked1 place it in a kettle of cold water1 and boil it slowly1 without stirring1 until the kernels are soft4 ,remember to salt it4 ,rice is good with condensed milk1 sugar1 butter1 or syrup4 ,it is good to add to your soups and stews1 and it is particularly good when added to the batter from which you make your griddle-cakes4 8,to make mush stir corn-meal into boiling water2 season with salt4 ,eat hot with syrup4 ,save what is left over1 and fry it next morning4 ,the same rule applies to hominy4 8,these are the rudiments of camp-cookery4 ,not an extended bill of fare1 but ,i think you will find it appetizing and nourishing40 ,and the boys agreed with him4 ,the ,care of a ,gun ,aside from the pride and satisfaction which every sportsman should take in keeping his favorite weapon bright and free from spots1 inside and out1 it pays to keep a gun clean4 ,the residue left in the barrel after firing contains acids1 which will soon eat 8pits0 or spots in the metal1 and when once started1 it is almost impossible to prevent them increasing in size and number4 ,when badly pitted1 the recoil is increased by the roughness in the barrel4 ,a gun can be cleaned by the following directions3 ,the cleaning-rod should have at least three tools--a wool swab1 a wire scratch-brush1 and a wiper to run rags through4 ,have plenty of water at hand--warm if you have it1 if not cold will do nicely4 ,put a swab on the rod1 and some water in a tin basin or wooden pail4 ,by placing one end of the barrel in the water1 you can pump it up and down the barrel with the swab4 ,when it is discolored take fresh water1 squeeze out the swab in it1 and repeat the operation1 until the water comes from the barrel as clean as it went in4 ,if the gun has stood overnight1 or longer1 since using1 it is best to put on the scratch-brush after the first swabbing1 and a few passes with this will remove any hardened powder or leading4 ,the next step is to fill the wiper with woollen or cotton rags1 and dry the barrel thoroughly4 ,when one set becomes wet take another1 until they come from the barrel perfectly dry4 ,then stand the barrel on end on a heated stove1 changing it from end to end1 taking care that it does not become overheated4 ,by the time it is well warmed up1 the hot air from the stove will have dried out every particle of moisture left in the barrel4 ,if no stove is at hand1 the last set of drying rags used must be plied vigorously up and down the barrel until it becomes quite warm from the friction4 ,drying is the most important part of cleaning1 and if the least particle of moisture is left in the barrel it will be a rust spot the next time the gun is taken from its case4 ,the gun may now be oiled1 inside and out1 with sewing-machine oil or gun-grease1 which can be had in any gun store4 ,the woollen rags used for greasing soak up a great deal of oil1 and should be dropped into the gun-cover for future use4 ,in regard to the safe handling of guns1 almost all rules centre in that of always carrying the gun in such a way that if it should be accidentally discharged it would do no harm4 ,if this rule is borne in mind1 and strictly obeyed in the beginning1 it becomes a habit and is followed intuitively4 ,the gun may be carried safely on either shoulder1 or in the hollow of either arm1 with a sharp upward slant4 ,when momentarily expecting a bird to rise1 and obliged to have the gun cocked1 it should be carried across the breast with a sharp upward slope to the left4 ,this is the only way the gun should be carried cocked4 ,a breech-loader is so easily unloaded that there is no excuse for getting into a wagon or boat1 or going around a house1 without unloading4 ,never hand a loaded gun to any one who asks to look at it4 ,whenever you pick up any kind of a gun to examine it1 always open it to see if it is loaded1 and the habit will grow so that you will do this almost without knowing it4 ,it seems needless to say never pull a gun towards you by the muzzle through a fence or out of a boat or wagon1 yet the violation of this rule is the cause of more accidents than anything else4 ,never climb a fence with your gun cocked4 ,in learning the art of shooting on the wing--and this is the only way in which a shot-gun should be used--the following suggestions may be of some help1 but no amount of printed directions can teach you to shoot4 ,practice is the best teacher4 ,nine out of ten young sportsmen shoot too quickly4 ,a game bird rises with a startling whir of the wing 7and sometimes when least expected71 which gives the idea that he is making much greater speed than he really is4 ,beginners are apt to become excited1 and throw up the gun anywhere in that direction1 and blaze away with no definite aim4 ,for this reason it is best to begin with blackbirds1 rice-birds1 and rails4 ,in almost every shot it is necessary to hold ahead of the bird1 to allow for the time it takes to explode the cartridge and throw the shot to the bird4 ,even in this short space of time a cross-flying bird would be safely out of the shot circle if you aimed right at him4 ,if a bird flies straight away from you1 neither rising nor dropping1 you should aim right at it4 ,if flying straight across1 you should hold well ahead of it4 ,if quartering1 still hold ahead1 but less4 ,many will ask how far to hold ahead1 and this is a difficult question to answer accurately1 as we have no means of knowing just how far ahead we do hold4 ,one might say six feet and another six inches4 ,what might appear to be an inch at the muzzle of the gun might really be a foot in front of a bird forty yards away4 ,it must be learned by experience1 and when accustomed to it the aim will be taken almost instantly1 governed by the direction of flight1 the speed of the bird1 and the distance from the shooter4 ,it is best to ask permission of the owner to shoot over his land4 ,you will seldom be refused1 and will frequently be given permission to shoot over land which is posted 8,no ,shooting40 ,the land-owners know that it is the lawless hoodlums who do them damage4 ,every true sportsman strictly obeys the game laws1 and it is to his advantage to do so1 although in many ,states the laws are practically a dead letter4 ,shooting out of season has nearly killed the game in many localities1 when it would still be abundant if the game laws had been observed4 ,chapter ,,xix ,,traps ,,and ,,trapping ,snares and ,deadfalls ,the ways of trapping are as various as the ingenuity of savage or civilized man can devise4 ,i like best the traps that one can make4 ,they seem to give the animal a fairer show2 they develop our own constructive faculties2 and the nearer we can get to the savage way the more fun it always is4 ,steel traps have a place that wooden traps can never fill2 but give me something that ,i can make with my own hands1 with the simplest tools1 out of whatever materials the spot affords where the animal lives4 ,of all the animals in this country there is none that affords less harmful sport than the rabbit--more properly hare--of which there are several species4 ,its wonderful powers of increase enable it to hold its own1 as far too many of our best and most valuable animals do not4 ,furthermore1 rabbits are very easily trapped4 ,every one knows its little trail1 as broad as one's hand1 through the bushes or broom-hedge1 or its footprints as it hops over the clear snow4 ,here1 where the path goes under a fence-rail1 it has stopped to gnaw4 ,the rabbit follows this path in season and out1 though in the far ,north1 where the snows keep piling and piling up1 its little road may change with each successive snowfall4 ,trappers there put out a large number of snares1 setting them right in the middle of these paths4 ,in ,fig4 #a1 ,no4 #bj soft brass or copper wire is used--a piece say twenty inches long being bent into an oval or round noose some four inches through1 the end being twisted around a convenient limb or root1 or stick thrust into the snow over the path1 and the space on each side bushed in with evergreen twigs1 so that the rabbit will be sure to pass through the noose4 ,snares are easily taken up and set somewhere else after each snowfall4 ,the best way is to rig the noose to a spring-pole 7,fig4 #b74 ,the spring-pole that ,i have seen the ,indian trappers make is simply a pole lashed to the side of a convenient sapling1 the heavy end being high in the air1 while the short end is caught under a stake with a crotch or little limb sticking out1 driven into the ground at the side of the path4 ,a 8twitch-up0 is a sapling bent down1 but this generally needs to be held down in another way4 ,on each side of the path a stake is firmly driven into the ground4 ,about seven inches from the ground1 and on the sides which face1 a deep notch is cut into each stake1 and a stick flattened at each end is placed across1 like the letter ,h4 ,the sapling is bent down1 a strong cord fastened to the end1 and tied around the middle of the cross-piece4 ,the noose dangles below1 clearing the ground by two inches 7,fig4 #c74 ,if the pole is strong enough it lifts the game into the air out of reach of predatory animals4 ,all stakes bearing strain of pulling must be firmly driven into the ground1 or in wet weather they will pull out4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,fig4 #d ,rabbits1 as gardeners know1 are fond of carrots and other vegetables1 as well as apples4 ,there are many ways of rigging a snare with bait4 ,the trap is arranged so the rabbit puts its head through a noose1 and springs the trap as it touches the bait4 ,one of the best traps ,i know of this kind is called1 in northern ,vermont1 a 8,french twitch-up0 7,fig4 #d74 ,this trap can be made at home1 and carried and set wherever needed4 ,it is made as follows3 ,take a board about twenty inches long and ten inches wide4 ,measure off eight inches from one end1 and with a pair of dividers describe a circle five inches in diameter4 ,around this circle bore holes three-eighths of an inch in diameter an inch apart1 through the board1 and drive in pegs five inches high4 ,five inches from the other end bore a larger hole1 and set up a square peg 7or a round one with flat side7 seven inches high4 ,procure a half-inch stick long enough to reach from the centre of the circle of pegs to the upright and three inches beyond it4 ,screw this stick fast to the upright at a point two inches from the board--loosely1 so it will work up and down1 sharpening the end inside the pen1 and cutting a notch on the upper side at the other end as shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,cut another notch near the top of the upright post1 and fit into the two notches a half-inch stick with chisel-shaped ends4 ,this arrangement resembles very closely the figure #d4 ,a strong cord from the middle of this short stick leads to the spring-pole at a point about a foot from the end4 ,a noose of fine1 soft wire or plaited horse-hair is fastened to the end of the spring-pole1 and laid evenly around on the tops of the circle of pegs1 which must be of an equal height4 ,an apple or a carrot is speared upon the sharp end of the bait-stick4 ,the rabbit smells the bait1 puts its head over the fence and through the noose to take a nibble4 ,when it touches the bait-stick1 up goes the noose1 and it is caught4 ,but the snare on top of the little fence is likely to fall or be rubbed off1 so a deep1 sharp notch must be made into the top of every peg into which the noose fits4 ,this is undoubtedly a ,yankee improvement on a very old device4 ,formerly there was no pen and the noose was laid on the ground4 ,one of the very best traps for rabbits is a kind used in the ,south 7,fig4 #e74 ,how often on a frosty morning would one's heart thump as one came into view and looked to see if the trigger was up and the door was down6 ,it is made of rough boards twenty to twenty-four inches long1 one being an inch shorter1 and all at least six inches wide1 nailed into a long box4 ,the rear being closed up with a board1 and the top being an inch shorter1 there is room for a door which slides up and down4 ,two thin strips are nailed upright to the front of the side-pieces1 to keep the door from falling outward2 small cleats inside complete a channel1 in which the door slides easily up and down4 ,then with an auger or bit two holes are bored into the top five-eighths to one inch in diameter1 one hole being nine inches from the front1 the other nine inches to the rear of the first4 ,into the one next the door a stake is set up about ten inches high1 with a crotch at the top4 ,then a stick eight inches long and as thick as a lead-pencil is cut2 five inches from one end a cut is made half-way through1 and a deep notch taken out the short end4 ,this is dropped1 notch upward1 into the other hole4 ,a stiff stick eighteen inches long is then cut1 a string tied to each end1 and then balanced in the crotch4 ,the door is raised five inches1 and one string tied to a nail in the top4 ,the other string is tied to the upper end of the trigger1 the notch of which is caught on the under side of the top board4 ,the trap thus set is placed at right angles to the path1 not directly in it4 ,foolish ,bunny comes along4 ,a good hole is something a rabbit is ever on the lookout for4 ,here is a new one2 he will look into it and see what it is like4 ,it is not necessary to put even a carrot or an apple inside4 ,he crowds in1 butts his head against the trigger at the end1 up it goes1 down drops the door behind1 and he is fast4 ,the trigger must be set under the front edge of the hole1 otherwise the rabbit will not be able to push it from him4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e ,fig4 #f ,instead of a box1 a section of a hollow log1 called in the ,south a 8gum10 may be used1 two stakes being driven in front to hold the door4 ,fig4 #f4 ,the muskrat is an abundant animal about ponds1 ditches1 and the banks of sluggish streams4 ,it is easily trapped4 ,they remind one of little beavers1 and if their fur was not so very common it would be more highly prized1 for it is really soft and fine4 ,if one can find their runway 7a path eight or nine inches wide along which they travel from place to place7 one can always capture them by the same kind of trap that an ,indian sets for beaver and otter1 as well as for musquash4 ,he calls it the 8kilheg'n40 ,fig4 #g4 ,drive two stakes two feet or more high and at least an inch thick into the ground three inches apart at one side of the path4 ,opposite these two sticks drive in two more1 and lay a stick across between them1 pushing it down nearly level with the path for a bed-piece4 ,then get a pole of any length whatever1 lay the butt end across the path on top of the bed1 hewing the sides flat1 if necessary4 ,see that it rests evenly on the bed1 and keep the other end in place with a stake driven on each side4 ,this pole is called the 8fall40 ,lash each pair of stakes together at their tops with rope or tough bark or withe1 to prevent spreading1 and lay a stiff stick across4 ,cut a half-inch straight stick and lay it on top of the bed1 lashing one end loosely to the stake1 leaving the other end free to rise and fall4 ,this is the trigger4 ,now for the 8crooked stick40 ,it is a stick as long as from the bed to the cross-piece1 and has a sudden bend at the upper end4 ,often one can find a small sapling an inch through with just the right bend at the end4 ,notch it as shown in ,fig4 #h4 ,tie a stout cord or withe around the fall1 raise the same nine or ten inches1 lay the crooked stick over the cross-piece1 and tie the withe fast4 ,then bend the other end of the crooked stick towards the ground1 and catch the top of it behind the trigger1 which is raised just enough 7two inches7 for the purpose4 ,when the rat comes along it steps on the trigger1 freeing the crooked stick1 whereupon the fall drops and pins the creature there4 ,heavy weights should be piled upon the fall alongside the path1 and the sides should be brushed in to keep the animal from going around4 ,no bait is required for this trap4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g ,fig4 #h ,fig4 #i ,fig4 #aj ,,some ,,useful ,,traps ,alongside of their pond on a level spot contrive another trap 7,fig4 #i7 in the following manner3 ,take a flat stick1 about two inches wide1 lay it on the ground1 and close to one end drive an upright stake on each side4 ,let them stand some six inches high4 ,then1 beginning close to the two stakes1 lay a two-foot stick at right angles1 its end resting on the first one4 ,alongside of this lay another stick a little shorter1 continuing thus1 and making each successive stick shorter1 until the end of the sticks is reached1 thus forming a three-cornered platform1 which is then weighted with heavy stones4 ,construct a figure #d 7,fig4 #i ,a7 out of sticks as thick as one's finger1 making the bait-stick eighteen or twenty inches long4 ,set the figure #d under the platform at the very end of the stick1 the bait-stick passing between the upright stakes4 ,bait with a carrot1 a parsnip1 apple1 etc41 and a rat should be there in the morning4 ,if the trap does not lie flat on the ground place sticks under it4 ,this same trap1 baited with a fowl's head or a bird or meat1 is also useful as a skunk-trap1 being placed in the woods near their burrows4 ,the mink is another common animal1 and it is found by almost every brook-side4 ,it is a great traveller1 following the stream1 feeding upon fish1 and picking up a bird or mouse whenever opportunity affords4 ,for a trap ,i take two round poles six to eight feet long1 and about three inches thick at the butt4 ,on a level spot1 never more than a few feet away from the water1 ,i drive a stake firmly into the ground1 and lay the two poles1 butts together1 one on top of the other1 against the stake1 and drive two more stakes on the other side about six inches apart4 ,sometimes when the ground is soft two stakes 7,fig4 #aj7 should be driven in front instead of one4 ,a stick a foot long will serve equally well for the bed-piece4 ,then a pen or house is built of stakes1 or long chips1 or stones1 or pieces of board in the form of a ,v or 1 about nine inches tall1 eight inches deep1 and six inches wide4 ,then two sticks are prepared--one three inches long and half an inch thick1 called the 8standard0 7,fig4 #ab71 the other eight inches long1 and of the same thickness1 called the bait-stick1 one end being sharpened1 the other flattened4 ,the bait1 the head of a fowl or fish1 is tied to the sharp point of the bait-stick4 ,the fall is raised1 the standard set sideways on the flat end on the bait-stick1 and the fall lowered1 until it rests on top of the standard1 the bait-stick being inside the house4 ,as the sticks are arranged1 the mink1 entering over the bed and under the fall1 will have to give quite a pull before dislodging the standard on which the fall rests4 ,so take a peg1 cut a notch into it near the top deep enough to secure the bait-stick1 and drive it into the ground inside the pen and close to one side4 ,now the standard can be set much nearer the outer end of the bait-stick1 and the moment the bait is tugged at1 the bait-stick flies from under the notched peg1 and down comes the fall4 ,the bed may be hewn to an edge on top1 and the parts of the trap should work without a hitch4 ,a stone1 or board1 or sheet of bark1 or a handful of evergreen boughs should be laid over the house1 not only to keep the animal out1 but also the rain and snow from the triggers which may freeze up and stick fast4 ,two pegs driven into the ground at the end of the fall will hold it in place1 and1 like every deadfall1 it should be heavily weighted with logs as shown in ,figs4 #aj and #aa4 ,there are many different ways of building traps with this simple bait-stick and standard--a combination in general use in the fur countries4 ,some are made large for fishers1 and set on logs and high stumps for sable or marten4 ,in ,canada1 where the snow is very deep1 ,i have seen long lines of sable-traps on stumps seven feet from the ground1 the other end of the fall resting on another stump of the same height4 ,in such cases a tree is cut for the purpose1 and by a skilful way of chopping1 the stake in front of the trap is left standing as part of the stump1 and the chips are sharpened and driven into the top of the stump for the house4 ,again1 a hollow is chopped into a tree1 a stake driven in front1 and the bait-stick thrust inside4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa ,fig4 #ab ,fig4 #ac ,fig4 #ad ,fig4 #ae ,fig4 #af ,,deadfalls ,there are many other deadfalls in use4 ,among the most deadly is what may be called the 8wigwam40 ,it is thus constructed3 ,with a hatchet or an axe break some small sticks1 and driving them into the ground in the shape of a crescent build the bait-pen or house4 ,bring them together at the top as in ,fig4 #ac4 ,next cut a green stick about four inches in diameter and about eight feet long4 ,lay in front of the pen1 directly up against it4 ,peg it firmly there by driving wooden pins against it at the ends4 ,so much done4 ,now get another stick of the same length and lay it on top of the first pole4 ,fix it in position by driving pins against it as in ,fig4 #ad4 ,when this is finished take two small1 round sticks or twigs1 cut one about five inches in length1 and the other near ten inches1 or the depth of the bait-pen4 ,raise the top log and lay the longer of the little round twigs on it1 with the end on which the bait is to be placed on the inside4 ,the ends of the little twig must be round4 ,set it on end1 with the upper end resting on the upper log and the lower end resting on the first little stick as in ,fig4 #ae4 ,when an animal comes to get the bait he has to put his fore-legs into the pen1 and the minute he touches the bait the upper log falls1 catching him in the centre of the back4 ,skunks can be easily caught this way without the least smell4 ,spikes may be driven through the upper log for large game4 ,fig4 #af is a variation of the same idea4 ,woodchucks or ground-hogs will be attracted to a trap by baiting with their favorite food2 but they soon go into winter quarters1 from which they do not emerge until spring4 ,there are special traps for other animals and birds4 ,good judgment1 knowledge of the appearance and the food and habits of the bird or animal are necessary to success in trapping1 as well as an eye quick to recognize the signs of the game1 particularly their runways4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag ,traps in cold countries need not be visited oftener than once a week1 but if they are near home most boys like to go to them every day4 ,skinning can best be done at home4 ,the curing of skins is a matter of great importance if the fur is to be sold1 for dealers will only pay for good fur properly prepared4 ,it must be 8prime0--that is1 from ,november to the middle of ,april 7water fur a fortnight later7 the inside of the skin will be white and the fur thick and glossy2 at other times it becomes dark and thin and the fur poor4 ,muskrats1 mink1 sable1 foxes1 weasel1 opossum1 and skunk require to be cased--that is1 without any cut down the middle4 ,wolf1 badger1 raccoon1 bear1 beaver must be open4 ,the manner of preparing cased fur is to make a cut around the ankles1 then a slit down the back of the leg to the tail1 the skin to be peeled off the legs and the root of the tail to be put into the end of a split stick and the core pulled right out4 ,then the skin is pulled off over the head4 ,in the case of certain animals1 like the mink and muskrat1 there is a scent-bag near the tail which is liable to get cut1 with unpleasant consequences1 so the best trappers prefer to remove the hide by commencing at the lips and peeling it off through the opening of the mouth1 making no other cut in the skin save at the legs1 when the skin is opened by a cut from leg to tail as at the start4 ,the muskrat may be stretched on a pliant stick three feet long1 bent into a bow1 and the skin1 fur inward1 pulled over it4 ,the legs are slitted and caught over notches in the side1 and one end of the stick is bent squarely across and fastened either into the split top of the other or into a notch1 and the loose middles of the skin tied up to the cross-piece4 ,fig4 #ag b4 ,for mink1 etc41 never use a single board--it may tear the skin--but make a double stretcher 7,fig4 #ag a74 ,take a half-inch board of pine or cedar1 two feet long and three inches wide1 and taper it to two inches at one end and shave the outside almost to an edge4 ,the board is then split in half with a saw2 where no saw is at hand the two pieces are whittled out separately4 ,the stretchers are now put into the skin1 and the legs pulled out as far as they will go and tacked in place1 or a slit made in each and the leg hooked over a notch in the edge of the stretcher4 ,then a wedge two feet long1 an inch wide1 and tapering to a point is inserted between the stretcher1 and driven down until the skin is as tight as a drum-head4 ,the middles are then tacked fast1 and a square-pointed stick inserted into the tail4 ,if the boards threaten to collapse1 two short sticks with ends lashed together pushed over them will keep them flat4 ,the tail-piece 7,fig4 #ah7 shows a mink-skin properly stretched4 ,a fox-stretcher will be exactly twice the dimensions of the mink-stretcher2 others in proportion4 ,the raccoon1 bear1 etc41 is skinned by a cut from chin to tail1 cuts being made up the legs at right angles to the cut1 and stretched upon a square frame 7,fig4 #ag d7 by means of a lacing of cord or tough bark4 ,formerly all open skins were stretched on the hoop-stretcher 7,fig4 #ag c71 but now only the beaver is treated that way4 ,skins must never be dried in the sun nor by a hot fire4 ,nor should any preservatives whatever be applied1 not even salt1 until ready for tanning4 ,all fat should be removed1 taking care for knife-cuts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah ,chapter ,,xx ,,tree ,,huts ,,and ,,brush-,,houses ,the most delightful season in the woods1 throughout the northern and middle parts of the ,united ,states1 is during the summer months1 and in the ,south right up to ,christmas2 while in other parts of the country1 through southern ,texas and ,california1 the woods are attractive all through the year4 ,brush-houses1 sylvan retreats1 and tree huts of various kinds are made by boys all over the country1 and some very unique and original ones are often constructed from simple and inexpensive materials4 ,everything from the back-yard 8lean-to0 and the tent of sheets to the tree huts that are inaccessible when the rope-ladder is drawn up may be made by boys who are at all handy with tools1 and a well-built tree hut is an ideal place in which to spend one's vacation days4 ,the following ideas and suggestions may be of service1 and they have all been tested in practical experience4 ,a ,low ,twin-tree ,hut ,a very serviceable twin-tree hut is shown in ,fig4 #a1 and it can easily be constructed1 at a small cost1 from ordinary boards and timbers4 ,if it is built high up in the trees it is doubly secure from invasion1 for the ladder can be drawn up when the owners are at home and it will be a difficult matter for outsiders to enter4 ,to properly build this hut select a location between two trees six to eight feet apart4 ,the trees should have comparatively straight trunks at least fifteen inches in diameter1 and no cavities at the base nor indications of decay4 ,with an axe clear off the brush and small branches for twenty feet up from the ground at the inside of the trunks1 or where the hut is to be located4 ,from a lumber-yard obtain four or five pieces of spruce or other timber two inches thick1 eight inches wide1 and sixteen feet long4 ,saw off and nail two of these pieces to the trunks of the trees eight feet above the ground1 first cutting away some of the bark and wood of the trunk to afford a flat surface for the timbers to lie against on each side4 ,six-inch steel-wire nails will be required for these anchorages1 and under the timbers and lying flat against the tree-trunks bracket-blocks two-by-eight inches and fifteen inches long are securely spiked to lend additional support to the cross-timbers4 ,cut two timbers six feet long and two others the length of the distance between tree-trunks4 ,in the six-foot pieces cut notches at the under side as shown in ,fig4 #b ,c ,c4 ,into these the ends of bracket-timbers ,d ,d will fit4 ,cut the ends of the timbers forming the square frame so that they will dovetail as shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,spike the six-foot timbers to the tree-trunks so that they will rest on the first two timbers that were nailed to the trees1 and from the two-by-eight-inch wood cut four brackets ,d ,d1 and spike them fast under each cross-timber so each tree will appear as shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,place the remaining two timbers in position so that the ends will fit into those fastened to the trees1 and nail them fast as shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,fig4 #d ,fig4 #e ,fig4 #f ,in ,fig4 #e the first timbers can be seen spiked to the tree-trunks1 where they are supported by the fifteen-inch blocks nailed fast below them4 ,the cross-timbers are shown at ,a ,a1 and the last ones1 forming the frame that are let into dove-tailed joints at the ends1 are shown at ,b ,b4 ,cut two more timbers ,e ,e1 and lay them across the supporting timbers1 nailed to the tree1 so they will fit inside the front and back timbers ,b ,b1 where they are to be well secured with long nails4 ,the floor frame will then be complete4 ,from two-by-three-inch spruce construct a frame seven feet high at the front1 six feet at the back1 and spike the side timbers ,f ,f1 forming the top1 to the inside of the tree-trunks as shown in ,fig4 #e4 ,the bottom of the uprights are to be mounted on the corners of the floor frame as shown in ,fig4 #d1 where four long nails will hold them securely in place4 ,cut two timbers and arrange them in an upright position at the front thirty inches apart1 where the door will come1 then half-way between the floor and top of the framework run a timber all around except between the door timbers4 ,this will add a strengthening rib to which the sheathing boards can be nailed1 and will also make one more anchorage to the tree-trunks4 ,the side-rails should be spiked to the tree-trunks in a corresponding manner to that of the top or roof-strips4 ,from a lumber-yard obtain some four1 six1 or ten inch matched boards1 planed on both sides1 and use them for the floor and sheathing4 ,the roof may be made from the same kind of boards1 and over them a thickness or two of tarred paper is to be laid and fastened down at the edges and seams with small metal washers and nails that can be had where the paper is purchased4 ,this will make the roof water-tight1 for a season at least2 and if it is given one or two coats of paint it will preserve the paper so that it may last for several years4 ,two or three windows twenty-four inches square may be placed in the back and sides of the hut above the middle rib2 and a door of boards held together with battens1 as shown in the illustration1 is to be made and hung with long1 stout strap-hinges4 ,a knob lock or a hasp and padlock will keep the door closed when the hut is unoccupied4 ,when in use a wooden button will hold the door shut from the inside4 ,a ladder of hickory poles and cross-sticks should be made twenty inches wide and provided with loops at the top that will fit over large nails driven in the door-sill1 so as to keep it from slipping when it bends under the weight of a boy4 ,where the rungs join the side-rails of the ladder the union is made by lashing the cross-sticks fast with tarred rigging or stout cotton line4 ,if a flexible ladder is preferred ropes may be used in place of the side-rails to which the rungs are lashed fast4 ,when the owners are at home the ladder can be drawn up and hung on nails driven in the front edge of the roof4 ,if a rope-ladder is used it can be drawn in and rolled up4 ,inside of the hut1 at either end1 a seat eighteen inches wide should be built in about sixteen inches up from the floor4 ,these seats can be used as bunks if desired4 ,some narrow shelving should be arranged over the windows and fastened there with brackets1 on which small things may be kept4 ,a small table may be made from some ends of the sheathing boards and two-by-three-inch spruce sticks2 and boxes may be used for seats1 or small benches can easily be knocked together as shown in ,fig4 #f ,a4 ,under the table a ledge twelve inches wide is to be attached to the lower cross-rails that connect the legs as shown at ,fig4 #f ,b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g ,a ,,high ,,twin-,,tree ,,hut ,a wall-nest may be made from a shoe-case in which four or five shelves are arranged as shown in ,fig4 #f ,c4 ,a door made from the box-cover is attached with hinges1 and a catch or hasp will keep it closed4 ,a ,high ,twin-tree ,hut ,twelve or fifteen feet above the ground1 and built in between the trunks of two stout trees1 a high tree hut is shown in ,fig4 #g4 ,larger and more substantial trees must be selected to build this hut in than the ones for the low hut1 and as a rope-ladder will probably be used a landing-deck or piazza should be built at the front of the hut4 ,while this hut is built between two trees it is also built against them1 as the trunk of each tree can be partially enclosed in the hut4 ,the under cross-timbers that support the floor frame are to be attached to the trees the same as described for the low tree hut1 and on these the other timbers are laid and fastened as shown in ,fig4 #h4 ,the main timbers extend beyond the outside of the trunks1 and the supporting and floor timbers enclose each trunk4 ,at the front the frame is carried forward two feet more than at the back1 allowing this much for the width of the deck4 ,the uprights are arranged somewhat differently also1 as they are bound at the top to scantlings that butt into the trunks4 ,fig4 #h ,a ,a4 ,instead of a flat roof like the low hut1 this one is to have a pitched roof1 the supporting timbers of which are attached to the ridge-poles ,b ,b1 which are fastened to the tree-trunks in the same manner as the under cross-timbers4 ,this construction is clearly shown in ,fig4 #h1 where the location of each upright and cross-piece is indicated4 ,a rail is run along the front and one end of the deck1 and is fastened at the top of four uprights of two-by-three-inch spruce1 the lower ends of which are securely nailed to the front stringers as the illustration shows4 ,in place of the supporting brackets ,d ,d that are let into the timber ,c at ,fig4 #b1 longer brackets or props are caught under the floor timbers and braced at the lower end against the trunks1 where an additional anchorage or support is made by a stout block which is securely spiked to the trunk underneath each bracket end as shown in ,fig4 #h ,c ,c4 ,the frame is then enclosed as described for the low hut1 and windows and a door are mounted as shown4 ,a long1 stiff ladder may be used to climb up1 but a more interesting ladder can be made of rope and hickory rungs4 ,by means of a thin rope attached to the bottom rung the ladder can be hauled up to the deck so that it is out of the reach of other boys2 and being fastened at the top1 no one can remove it or pull it away as they could a stiff ladder4 ,a rope-ladder is made of stout clothes-line and hickory rungs lashed together securely with strong line as shown in ,fig4 #i4 ,the rungs are of straight hickory with or without the bark on1 one inch and a quarter thick and twenty-four inches long4 ,near the end of each rung a notch is cut on both sides for the rope to lie in1 as shown at the upper end of ,fig4 #i1 and each union is to be very securely bound with the line so as to prevent slipping4 ,the ladder is hung on stout wooden pegs driven into the deck through holes one inch and a half in diameter4 ,an extra rope is to be carried from the top rung up over the pegs and down again1 where a wrap is taken over one or two rungs2 then it is lashed fast to the other ropes with the stout line as shown in ,fig4 #aj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h ,fig4 #i ,fig4 #aj ,fig4 #ab ,bunks and furniture can be made for the interior1 and any other convenient accessories to the comfort and pleasure of the boy owners may be added as need arises4 ,a ,single-tree ,hut ,in the spreading branches of a large oak-tree a very snug roost can be made high above the ground as shown in ,fig4 #aa 7frontispiece74 ,this single-tree hut is twenty-five feet above the ground1 and below it is a landing from which the rope-ladder is dropped4 ,from this landing to the piazza or deck of the hut a stiff ladder is made fast both at top and bottom1 and an opening in the floor of the deck will allow room to climb up on the deck4 ,as very few trees are alike it would be difficult to give a plan for the floor timbers among the out-spreading branches2 but from the plans shown for the twin-tree hut some idea of the construction can be had for single-tree huts4 ,the main tree-trunk will1 of course1 have to project up through the hut1 and the location in the tree should be selected so that out-spreading branches will form a support to the lower edges of the floor frame as may be seen in ,fig4 #ab1 the plan of a low tree hut4 ,a peaked1 a mansard1 or a flat roof can be placed on the hut1 depending on the main trunk to give it support2 and if the space in the tree will permit1 a deck across the front and both sides will be found useful4 ,the floor timbers should be well braced to the main trunk of the tree with long and short bracket-pieces or props4 ,these will help greatly in making the hut steady in the tree1 and where the lower ends are attached to the trunk large spikes should be well driven in4 ,cleats or blocks can be nailed fast under the ends also1 as they will help to support and strengthen the anchorage4 ,water and food can be kept cool by suspending them in a shady place4 ,water in a porous jug or earthen pitcher will keep very cold if hung in the tree branches where the air can freely circulate around it4 ,keep fire away from the tree huts1 and do not light any matches nor burn candles1 for if once a fire is started nothing will save your hut4 ,it is too high to reach with a bucket1 and1 located as it is1 a perfect draught will fan a small flame into a raging fire in no time4 ,a ,low ,single-tree ,hut ,it is not always best to build a hut in high trees1 nor is it possible to do so in every case1 because there may not be any high1 large trees at hand strong enough to support a hut4 ,for younger boys a low tree hut is preferable1 so that if a possible misstep should result in a fall it would be less harmful than from a high tree4 ,an apple or maple tree often affords a good support for a low tree hut1 and if the trunk is substantially heavy a house similar to the one shown in ,fig4 #ab 7page #ceh7 can easily be constructed4 ,the tree should be large enough to bear the weight of the house without straining it1 particularly in a storm or high wind4 ,the general construction of the frame is shown in ,fig4 #ab4 ,the frame should be of two-by-three-inch spruce and the flooring beams can be of two-by-four-inch spruce or other timber4 ,one or two windows and a door may be arranged in the hut1 and tar-paper tacked on the roof will make it water-proof4 ,access to the hut can be had by means of a ladder made from two-by-three-inch spruce rails with hickory rungs1 or two-by-one-inch hard-wood sticks securely nailed to the rails4 ,a ,brush-house ,in nearly every part of the country where there is low ground one may generally find a high growth of plant life having a long stalk1 with the greatest number of leaves at or near the top4 ,artichokes1 cat-tail reeds1 wild sunflower1 and the stronger species of flag have stalks and reeds sufficiently strong from which to make the sides and roof of a hut or small house such as ,fig4 #ac depicts4 ,this growth is often ten feet high1 and will have a straight and uniform reed at least seven or eight feet up from the ground before the thick top foliage reduces it in size4 ,this last should be cut away and the smaller under branches and leaves trimmed off1 leaving a comparatively straight shaft from six to eight feet long4 ,this will be limber enough to be woven basket-fashion1 and quite stiff enough to hold the thatching of meadow-grass or cat-tail reeds4 ,to build a brush-house like the one shown in the illustration1 four sticks are to be set in the ground about six feet apart1 forming a square4 ,these should be eight feet long and sunk two feet into the ground1 the upper ends being bound together with rails two inches wide and an inch thick4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac ,fig4 #ad ,a ,,brush-,,house ,a pitch can be given to the roof by cutting off the rear posts six inches and leaving six inches more of the front posts out of the ground1 thereby allowing a pitch of one foot to the six-toot length of roof4 ,this slant is not necessary1 however1 and the roof may be flat if it is easier to make4 ,from the reeds a basket framework with eight-inch meshes is to be woven1 as the boys are doing in ,fig4 #ad4 ,three of these frames are to be made for the sides and rear of the hut1 and at the front1 above the doorway1 a smaller one is to be made to cover the space between the front posts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae ,fig4 #af ,fig4 #ag ,the ends of the cross-reeds are to be bent around the end upright reeds as shown in ,fig4 #ae1 where they can be bound with string or tied with grass4 ,the window openings in the side frames are made by cutting out a section of one or two uprights and turning the cross-reeds back and tying them4 ,at the doorway two upright sticks are driven into the ground and a rail nailed across their upper ends4 ,to this wooden frame the front reeds may be attached1 and the skeleton hut or house is then ready to be thatched with long1 dry grass or dried cat-tail reeds4 ,the thatching is done by interweaving long grasses or reeds between the cross-reeds in a vertical position as shown in ,fig4 #af4 ,the thatching material should be from eighteen to twenty-four inches long so that it can be interwoven between three cross-reeds as shown in ,fig4 #ag1 where a few strands of grasses are placed in position to give an idea of how to weave the grass4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah ,timothy or straw can be used to good advantage for thatching material1 and if it is employed it should be woven with the heads up and not too close together1 as the air should get through the thatching to keep the occupants of the hut cool4 ,of course a house may be made larger or smaller than the one described1 but the principle of good construction is the same4 ,never depend on the four sides to hold together without the corner-posts1 as the first good wind that happened along would blow it flat1 and perhaps beyond the possibility of repair4 ,the edges of each side are lashed fast to the corner-posts with grass or string1 and when the roof is made it should be lashed fast to the top of the sides and front with long reeds or grass4 ,the roof is woven the same as the sides but is thatched closer2 and about four inches of the roof should extend over the sides1 front1 and rear4 ,a ,brush 8,lean-to0 ,the general lines of a miniature barn are shown in the illustration of a brush 8lean-to0 7,fig4 #ah74 ,this is constructed in nearly the same manner as the brush-house1 and thatched with grass or reeds as shown in ,figs4 #af and #ag4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai ,the corner-posts are three feet high1 the ridge-pole seven feet and six inches above the ground1 and the hut may be from five to eight feet square or made oblong1 as a matter of choice4 ,a frame of scantling should be made for this lean-to the same as if a wooden structure were to be built1 and it must be nailed together well to stand the strain of the wind blowing hard against it4 ,in general construction the frame should appear like ,fig4 #ai2 and to the sticks the edges of the thatched framework of reeds is to be lashed fast with grass1 either before or after the thatching is done4 ,a brush-house or any hut built on or near the ground is not so cool to stay in as one in the trees1 but it is1 of course1 much easier to construct1 as the boy builders do not have to move about so carefully when at work1 and their materials can be picked up quickly4 ,brush huts and houses can be built on the plains where trees are scarce1 but in a country rich in woods and forests the boys prefer the tree huts1 not only for their cool location1 but on account of the romance involved in the climbing up to an inaccessible eyrie4 ,chapter ,,xxi ,,walking-,,sticks ,how to ,grow ,them for ,pleasure and ,profit ,here are some suggestions for an entirely new and fascinating out-of-doors occupation4 ,it has become a habit with me when walking in the woods to keep a sharp lookout for stocks for walking-sticks1 so that in the course of many years ,i have got together quite a unique collection4 ,to these a number have been added through exchanges with friends4 ,this hobby has borne other fruit than the mere gathering together of curious sticks4 ,for have ,i not learned the scientific and common names of most of our trees and shrubs1 their habits1 and their values1 their uses in the arts and sciences1 their medicinal qualities6 ,so you see1 my young reader1 what unthinking people would call a useless and eccentric occupation 7this gathering of old sticks7 has in reality proved to be an innocent and instructive pastime1 and ,i propose to continue to ride this walking-stick hobby just as diligently as ,i used to ride grandpa's walking-cane to 8,banbury ,cross0 when a child4 ,my first interesting cane capture consisted of a very curiously shaped natural stick as shown in ,fig4 #a4 ,it was of a young hickory sapling at whose roots grew a bitter-sweet vine1 which1 being of an ambitious turn of mind1 had taken many turns around the sapling in its eagerness to climb up in the world4 ,the sapling in the mean time extended its bark well over the leader of the tough and clinging bitter-sweet till but little of it was to be seen4 ,at last the sapling1 feeling unusually vigorous1 burst asunder the clinging bitter-sweet vine1 the result being a very unique walking-stick1 and a good illustration of the 8survival of the fittest40 ,the dead bitter-sweet vine was withdrawn from the hickory1 and from its root a handle was carved and bent4 ,on many occasions ,i have twisted vines of bitter-sweet and the fox-grape around saplings of oak1 hickory1 and chestnut1 and have obtained very satisfactory results4 ,where a vine is situated some distance from the sapling selected for a cane1 the vine can be 8piped0 7laid under the ground7 up to the sapling1 and then twisted around it and securely fastened at the top with wire1 from three to four feet above its root4 ,if the sapling is so situated that it obtains a bountiful supply of food and sunlight1 a unique cane of natural growth will be the result4 ,having taken a hint from nature in the case of the bitter-sweet vine and the hickory sapling1 ,i extended my experiments in many directions4 ,taking three cuttings 7slips7 of basket-willow1 ,i planted them close together as shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,after they had taken root and begun to push out branches1 ,i reduced the number of branches to one for each cutting1 always retaining the most vigorous branch4 ,as the three willow-trees increased in height the side branches were constantly cut off4 ,this treatment forced the growth of the willows upward1 so that when they had attained a height of five feet ,i bound them together with a living cat-brier vine1 which was planted at their base1 and in course of time obtained a light walking-stick of novel pattern as shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,another very interesting experiment was grafting three willow stocks together so that they formed a union1 and became as it were one tree4 ,this was done by carefully cutting away two slices from three young willows so as to form an obtuse angle as shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,the angles so formed were carefully and accurately fitted together as shown in the section ,fig4 #e4 ,to hold the willows closely together1 and to exclude all air1 ,i wrapped them tightly with strips of unbleached cotton-sheeting4 ,as soon as they showed signs of life at their tops by sending out young branches1 ,i felt certain that a union of their barks would form at the points indicated by the arrows in ,fig4 #e4 ,but it was not till several trials had been made that ,i was successful in this novel experiment of combining three willow saplings4 ,it very often occurs that after a tree has been cut down a number of canes or suckers will start up from the stump4 ,these suckers make excellent walking-sticks when properly cured and peeled4 ,for a lady's riding-whip ,i know of nothing better than three willow withes plaited together4 ,this plaiting must be done when the willow withes are young1 and when attached to the parent tree1 on which they are allowed to remain for a year after having been plaited together4 ,by this time they will have grown firmly together in consequence of the bark conforming to the bent strands of the plait4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,fig4 #b ,fig4 #c ,fig4 #d ,fig4 #e ,fig4 #f ,fig4 #g ,fig4 #h ,fig4 #i ,fig4 #aj ,fig4 #aa ,the following kinds of native woods are used for walking-sticks3 ,,holly4--,sticks of this wood are found growing out from the sides of older growths1 and shooting up in nearly a straight line4 ,occasionally they may be cut with a crutch-piece across the growing end1 or with a crook or knob4 ,these are the most valuable4 ,they may be found on a well-grown sapling in the deep woods4 ,this should be pulled or dug up for the sake of its roots4 ,saplings and hedge-sticks may often be found from three to four feet long1 and from three-eighths to a quarter of an inch in diameter4 ,these are not suitable for walking-sticks1 but they make excellent whip-handles4 ,the holly makes tough1 supple1 and moderately heavy walking-sticks1 and its close-grained wood admits of much skill in carving the knob formed by the root and its rootlets4 ,,ash4--,respectable sticks of this wood may sometimes be cut out of a hedge or pulled from the side of an old stump4 ,ash sticks must also be roughly trimmed and well seasoned before they are barked and polished4 ,the root knobs admit of excellent grotesque carving4 ,,oak4--,this of all sticks is the most reliable1 and stout oaken cudgels are esteemed by most persons as affording the best props for failing legs1 as well as the best weapons of self-defence against quarrelsome dogs1 ruffians1 and tramps4 ,straight sticks of sapling oak are not always easily obtained1 but copse-wood sticks pulled from the trunks of trees form excellent substitutes4 ,these should be selected for walking-sticks that taper from one inch below the knob or crutch to one inch at the ferrule end4 ,oak sticks split in drying when the bark has been stripped off or the knobs and branches cut too close1 or when the sticks are dried too rapidly in a very dry place4 ,they are then rendered useless for walking-sticks and cudgels4 ,,elm4--,from the roots of elm-trees saplings often shoot up to a height of some ten feet2 these furnish good walking-sticks of fancy styles1 the rough bark serving the purpose of ornamentation when the sticks are dried1 stained1 varnished1 and polished4 ,among fruit trees the cherry1 apple1 and pear furnish some very nice1 fancy walking-sticks1 being supple and of moderate strength4 ,when sticks are half dried--that is1 when the bark is shrunken1 has lost its sappy greenness1 and refuses to peel freely--they may be trimmed1 straightened1 or bent1 as required4 ,the wood and also the form of the knobs and roots will admit of much taste being displayed in grotesque and fancy carving4 ,i know of a young man in ,florida1 not yet twenty-one years of age1 who is paying his way through college by collecting and curing sticks of the wild orange1 on the handles of which he carves during his leisure time and vacations full-length figures of alligators as shown in ,fig4 #f4 ,i have examined several of these sticks1 and the entire work seems to be done with small chisels and a parting or ,v-tool4 ,these sticks are in constant demand with visitors and tourists in ,florida1 and have become known as 8orange-wood 'gator canes40 ,this fact may be suggestive to some of our ingenious farmer boys who are struggling to obtain a college course4 ,walking-sticks can be gathered at all seasons4 ,the sticks should be laid aside in a moderately dry and cool place1 and should not be worked or the bark taken off till they are half dry4 ,they are then most supple1 and may be bent or straightened without injury4 ,when laying by sticks to dry1 the knots and spurs should not be trimmed close2 it is best to trim them only roughly1 leaving the spurs of branches and roots on the stick fully an inch long4 ,to straighten or bend the sticks1 they should be steamed until they are supple1 or buried in hot1 wet sand until they become soft2 they must then1 while still hot1 be given the form they are intended to keep1 and kept in this form until they are cold4 ,straight sticks are tied firmly together in small bundles1 and wound with a coil of rope from end to end2 they are then suspended to a beam by their knob ends1 and a heavy weight is attached to the ferrule ends4 ,crooks may be turned by soaking the end in boiling water for half an hour1 then bending it to the desired form1 and retaining it in its position by means of a tourniquet 7as shown in ,fig4 #g7 until the stick is cold4 ,the bark may then be taken off with a sharp knife1 but care must be taken not to split or chip the wood4 ,knots may be trimmed at the same time1 and the root knobs turned into grotesque shapes4 ,there are no rules that can be given to guide one when carving the roots into handles1 since their forms are governed by the outlines of the roots1 these often being very suggestive of themselves4 ,the group of heads shown in ,figs4 #h1 #i1 #aj1 and #aa will illustrate what ,i mean4 ,figs4 #h and #i show the rough stick1 ,figs4 #aj and #aa the finished heads4 ,one or two points should receive considerable attention when designing the handles4 ,if the stick is to be a fancy one to be carried and swung in the hand1 the roots can be carved into grotesque or fancy forms4 ,but if for use1 the handle should be round and smooth1 so as to fit comfortably in the hand4 ,the head of a dog1 or a swan or goose1 forms an appropriate design for a stick that is to be held on the arm when lighting a match1 or when wishing to have both hands free4 ,the crutch and hook are also comfortable forms4 ,wooden handles are given touches of rich brown by applying a red-hot iron to the parts to be colored4 ,all sticks with the rough bark left on should be neatly trimmed naked around the neck of the handle1 and the whole lightly gone over with fine sand or emery paper4 ,the cane should then receive several dressings of boiled linseed-oil and be left to dry4 ,when dry1 a coat of shellac varnish is applied4 ,oak canes look best when carefully barked in hot water1 the loose bark being removed by rubbing with coarse canvas1 and the cane then dried1 dressed with boiled linseed-oil1 again dried1 then polished1 and varnished with shellac or furniture varnish1 and again polished4 ,dogwood and ,osage orange sticks can be stained black by brushing them over with a hot and strong decoction of logwood and nut gall4 ,when this is thoroughly dried1 brush them over with vinegar in which a few rusty nails have been steeped for two or three days4 ,some persons use ink for a black stain1 others introduce 8drop black0 in the varnish2 a brown or mahogany stain may be obtained by adding some 8dragon's-blood0 to the varnish4 ,the lower ends of the sticks should be guarded from excessive wear by a neat brass ferrule2 these are cheaper to purchase at a hardware store than to make1 though ,i have often used brass thimbles and tailors' steel thimbles as a substitute4 ,these can be fastened by means of hot shellac1 or with a brass pin driven into a hole in the thimble and passing through the wood of the stick4 ,for fastening carved or rustic heads or handles on sticks hot glue or thick shellac varnish is used4 ,a good-sized hole is first bored into the handle and a hole of similar size in the stick2 a dowel is driven into the hole in the stick 7using plenty of glue71 after which the handle is driven on to the dowel-pin4 ,handles may be made of horn1 which can be softened for bending by boiling in oil 7not kerosene7 or hot fat4 ,hard-woods that will take a polish1 and vegetable ivory1 which is very easy and pleasant to carve1 are good materials to use for handles4 ,for small sticks1 bone will be found an easy material to shape into handles4 ,all the manufacturers of walking-sticks and umbrella and parasol handles state that the demand for native woods suitable for canes and sticks is constant all the year round1 and that the sticks may be gathered at all seasons of the year and sent to market1 both straight and crooked sticks being salable1 also roots for handles4 99 99 99 99 99 ,with this we reach the end of our out-door handy book1 which we trust may become the daily and invaluable companion of all healthy1 active ,american boys4 ,the in-door handy book1 the book of electricity1 and the book of mechanics for boys1 which are to follow1 will form1 we believe1 the distinctive ,american boy's library of practical handy books4 ,,index ,arial toys1 #ha-ih2 elastic flying-machine1 #ha-hf2 self-acting aerial car1 #hf-ia2 aerial boat-sailing1 #ia-ie2 a 8high-flyer10 #ie-ih4 ,air-ship kite1 an1 #abf1 #abg1 #abh4 ,anglers1 aids for young1 #afj-afe4 ,aquarium1 an1 construction of1 #ad-ah2 stocking1 #ai1 #bb1 #bc1 #afi1 #aga1agb2 changing the water in1 ibid42 rockeries for1 #bj2 how to manage1 ibid42 plants for1 #ba2 arating1 #bb4 ,arrow weather-vane1 the1 #fd1 #fe4 ,artificial bait for fish1 #afh1 #afi4 ,badger1 curing the skin of1 #cdg4 ,bait1 box for1 #aej2 bag for1 ibid42 worms as1 #aea1 #afa1 #aff2 minnows as1 #aea1 #afa1 #aff1 #afg1 #afh2 seine for catching live1 #afa1 #afb1 #afc2 boat for1 #afb1 #afc2 for large fish1 #aff2 for chub1 ibid42 for bass1 #aff1 #afg2 for perch1 ibid42 for trout1 ibid42 where to find1 #aff-afi2 dobsons as1 #afg2 pails for1 #afh2 artificial1 #afh1 #afi2 darning-needles as1 #afi2 for eel-pots1 #age4 ,bait-rods1 #aea-aec4 ,basket-ball vane1 a1 #fg1 #fh1 #fi4 ,bat-wing kite1 the1 #abh4 ,bear1 curing the skin of1 #cdg1 #cdi4 ,beaver1 curing the skin of1 #cdg4 8,becket hitch10 the1 #afj4 ,bends3 the common1 #bhh1 #bhi2 the ,carrick1 ibid42 the fisherman's1 ibid42 the sheet1 #bhi2 diagrams showing1 ibid4 ,see also ,hitches and ,knots4 ,bird shelters1 #cb-cd2 martin-boxes1 #cj4 ,blackwall hitch1 the1 #bij1 #bia4 ,boats3 home-made1 #baa-bch2 a punt1 #bab-bad2 a scow1 #bad1 #bae2 a sharpy1 #bae-bah2 a dory1 #bai-bba2 a sailing sharpy1 #bba-bbe2 a centre-board sharpy1 #bbe-bbh2 a proa1 #bbh-bcj2 a lark1 #bcj-bce2 a power-boat1 #bce-bch2 a rowing catamaran1 #bci-bda2 a sailing catamaran1 #bda-bdg2 a side-wheel catamaran1 #bdg1 #bdh2 a house-punt1 #bfa-bfg2 a house-raft1 #bfg-bgg4 ,see also ,ice-boats4 ,bob-sled1 a1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aji4 ,boughs1 a cot of1 #caj1 #cac4 ,bowline knot1 the1 #bhc1 #bhe4 ,box kites1 #acb1 #acc4 ,brush-house1 a1 #cfa-cfd4 ,brush lean-to1 a1 #cfd-cff4 ,cages1 for squirrels1 #de-dg2 for chipmunks1 #de1 #df2 for white rats1 ibid4 ,camp-cooking1 #cbc1 #cbe-ccj4 ,camp-fires1 how to make1 #cbj1 #cba1 #cbb1 #cbc4 ,camping equipment1 #caf1 #cag1 #cah4 ,camps and camping1 #bie-ccc2 a tent of medium size1 #bie-cjj2 a large camping-tent1 #cjj-cjc2 flies and canopies1 #cjc1 #cjd2 a house-tent1 #cjd-cjg2 the new tent1 #cjg-caj2 canvas cots and hammocks1 #caj-cac2 tables and benches1 #cja1 #cac-cae2 camping equipment1 #caf1 #cag1 #cah2 lockers and mess-kits1 #caf-cai2 a stone stove1 #cai1 #cbj2 camp-fires1 #cbj1 #cba1 #cbb2 camp-cooking1 #cbc1 #cbe-ccj2 care of a gun1 #ccj-ccc4 ,canopy1 a toadstool tree1 #ed1 #ee4 ,canvas cot1 a1 #caj1 #caa2 a folding1 #caa1 #cab4 ,carriage1 a hose1 #aie-aih4 ,carrick bend1 the1 #bhh1 #bhi4 ,carry-all1 a1 for campers1 #cah1 #cai4 ,cased fur1 manner of preparing1 #cdg1 #cdh4 ,casting1 fly1 #aec-aef4 ,catamaran1 a rowing1 #bci-bda2 a sailing1 #bda-bdg2 a side-wheel1 #bdg1 #bdh4 ,catspaw hitch1 the1 #bia1 #bib4 ,chairs for camp life1 #cad1 #cae4 ,chest-reel1 a1 #aci1 #adj4 ,chicken-coops1 #da-dc4 ,chinese-junk kite1 the1 #abb1 #abc1 #abd4 ,clove hitch1 the1 #bhi1 #bij4 ,coasters1 skees1 and snow-shoes1 #aja-aad2 toboggans1 #ajb-ajd2 a rocker-coaster1 #ajc1 #aje2 a single-runner coaster1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #ajh2 a bob-sled1 #ajg-aji2 skees1 #aaj1 #aaa2 snow-shoes1 #aaa-aad4 ,common bend1 the1 #bhh1 #bhi4 ,coops for chickens1 #da-dc4 ,cot1 a canvas1 #caj1 #caa2 a folding1 #caa1 #cab2 of boughs1 #caj1 #cac4 ,cotes1 pigeon1 #cd-cf4 ,crowned wall knot1 the1 #bhd1 #bhe1 #bhf4 ,crown-top kite1 the1 #abh4 ,curing of skins1 the1 #cdf-cdi4 ,deadfalls1 for muskrat1 #cdj1 #cda1 #cdb2 for skunk1 #cdb1 #cdf2 the 8wigwam10 #cdd1 #cde1 #cdf4 ,diagrams1 showing splices1 #bha2 showing knots1 #bhe2 showing bends1 #bhi2 showing hitches1 #bhi1 #bia4 ,diamond knot1 the1 #bhe1 #bhf4 ,dog-kennels1 #cf-ci4 ,dory1 a1 how to make1 #bai-bba4 ,double-plane kite1 the1 #acf1 #acg1 #ach4 ,double wall and double crown knot1 the1 #bhe1 #bhf4 ,eel-pot1 a1 how to make1 #agb1 #agc1 #agd2 baiting1 #age4 ,elastic flying-machine1 #ha-hf4 ,engine1 a fire1 #aia-aie4 ,equipment for camping1 #caf1 #cag1 #cah4 ,fires1 camp1 how to make1 #cbj1 #cba1 #cbb1 #cbc4 ,fire-engine1 a1 #aia-aie4 ,fisherman's bend1 the1 #bhh1 #bhi4 ,fish1 for aquariums1 #ai1 #bj1 #bb1 #bc1 #afi2 cleaning1 #ade2 bait for1 #aea1 #afa1 #aff-afi2 trap for small1 #afi-aga4 ,fishing1 pleasure in1 #add2 secret of success in1 #adf4 ,fishing-tackle1 #add-aff2 testing1 #adg2 care of1 ibid42 rods1 #adh1 #adi1 #aeh2 lines1 #adi2 hooks1 #adi1 #aej1 #aeh2 reels1 #aej2 floats1 #aej1 #aeb1 #afd2 sinkers1 ibid42 landing-nets1 #aea2 flies1 ibid42 repairing1 #aef-afj4 ,float1 a1 #bgg-bgi4 ,floats1 fish1 #aej1 #aeb1 #afd4 ,flies for camping-tents1 #cjc1 #cjd4 ,fly-casting1 #aec-aef4 ,fly-rods1 #aec-aef4 ,flying-wedge kite1 the1 #ace1 #acf4 ,fountain1 a1 how made1 #i-ad4 ,fox1 curing the skin of1 #cdg2 stretcher1 #cdi4 ,ground-hogs1 how to trap1 #cdf4 ,grubs for fish bait1 #afg4 ,guinea-pig houses1 #ci-da4 ,gun1 the care of a1 #ccj1 #cca2 the handling of a1 #cca-ccc4 ,half hitches1 two1 #bhi1 #bij4 ,hammock1 a canvas1 #cab1 #cac4 ,handles for walking-sticks1 #cgd1 #cge4 8,high-flyer10 a1 #ie-ih4 ,hitches3 the 8,becket10 #afj2 two half1 #bhi1 #bij2 the clove1 ibid42 the slippery1 #bij1 #bia2 the ,blackwall1 ibid42 the timber1 ibid42 the rolling1 ibid42 the ,magnus1 #bia2 the catspaw1 #bia1 #bib2 the sheepshank1 ibid42 the marling1 ibid4 ,see also ,bends and ,knots4 ,hook-and-ladder truck1 a1 #aih-bjj4 ,hooks1 fish1 #adi1 #aej2 putting1 to gut1 #aeh4 ,hoop drop-net1 a1 how to make1 #agf4 ,hoop-stretcher1 a1 #cdg1 #cdi4 ,hose-carriage1 a1 #aie-aih4 ,house-boats1 #bfa-bgg2 a house-punt1 #bfa-bfg2 a house-raft1 #bfg-bgg4 ,houses for guinea-pigs1 #ci-da4 ,how to grow walking-sticks1 #cfg-cfi4 ,hut1 a low twin-tree1 #cej-cef2 a high twin-tree1 #cej-cef2 a single-tree1 #cei1 #cfj2 a low single-tree1 #cfj1 #cfa4 ,hutches for rabbits1 #dc-de4 ,ice-boats1 #bdi-bfj2 a sloop-rigged ice-yacht1 #bdi-bec2 a twin-mast ice-yacht1 #bec1 #bed2 scoots and scooters1 #bee-bei2 a wind-runner1 #bei1 #bfj4 ,ice-sail1 a square-rigged1 #aah4 ,ice-yacht1 a sloop-rigged1 how to make1 #bdi-bec2 a twin-mast1 #bec1 #bed4 8,invisible10 or 8whip-finish10 knot1 the1 #aeh1 #afj4 ,kennels for dogs1 #cf-ci4 ,kites3 the ship1 #abj-abb2 the ,chinese-junk1 #abb-abd2 the schooner1 #abd1 #abe2 a balloon1 #abe1 #abf2 an air-ship1 #abf1 #abg2 bat-wing1 #abh2 crown-top1 ibid42 ,sandwich ,island bird1 #abi-aca2 box1 #acb1 #acc2 the 8paralleloplane10 #acd1 #ace2 the flying-wedge1 #ace-ach2 the double-plane1 ibid42 reels1 #ach-adc4 ,knots3 the 8invisible10 or 8whip-finish10 #aeh1 #afj2 the reef1 #bhb1 #bhc1 #bhe2 the bowline1 #bhc1 #bhe2 the bowline on a bight1 #bhc1 #bhd1 #bhe2 the running bowline1 #bhd1 #bhe2 the wall1 ibid42 the crown wall1 #bhd1 #bhe1 #bhf2 diagrams showing1 #bhe2 the double wall and double crown1 #bhe1 #bhf2 a stopper1 ibid42 a man rope1 ibid42 the ,matthew ,walker1 ibid42 the diamond1 ibid42 the ,turk's head1 #bhe1 #bhg2 the rope yarn1 ibid42 the lark's head1 ibid4 ,see also ,bends and ,hitches4 ,knotting of gut1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afj4 ,landing-net1 a1 for fish1 #aea4 ,land-yacht1 a1 #agg-ahb4 ,lark1 a1 how to make1 #bcj-bce4 ,lark's head knot1 the1 #bhe1 #bhg4 ,lee-board1 a1 #bbe4 ,lines1 fish1 #adi4 ,lizards1 pens for1 #dg1 #dh1 #ej1 #ea4 ,lock-boxes for camping outfit1 #caf1 #cag1 #cah4 ,magnus hitch1 the1 #bia4 ,man rope knot1 a1 #bhe1 #bhf4 ,marling hitch1 the1 #bia1 #bib4 ,marten-trap1 a1 #cdd4 ,merry-go-round1 a1 construction of1 #bd-bh2 vane1 #fi1 #gj4 ,mink1 curing the skin of1 #cdg1 #cdh1 #cdi2 stretcher1 #cdi4 ,mink-trap1 a1 #cdb1 #cdc1 #cdd4 ,minnows for fish bait1 #aea1 #afa1 #aff1 #afg1 #afh4 ,mortar1 a snowball1 #aah1 #aai4 ,muskrat-trap1 a1 #cci1 #cdj1 #cda1 #cdb4 ,nest of pockets1 a1 for camping outfit1 #cag1 #cah4 ,oak walking-sticks1 #cga4 ,opossum1 curing the skin of1 #cdg4 ,ovens1 camp1 how to make1 #cbc1 #cbd1 #cbe4 ,paddle-wheels3 different kinds1 #bja2 the modern turbine1 #bjb2 a simple paddle-wheel1 #bjb1 #bjc2 a wagon wheel1 #bjc1 #bjd2 a barrel-wheel1 #bjd1 #bje2 an undershot-wheel1 #bjf2 a power-wheel1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #bjh4 ,pens for reptiles1 #dg-ea4 ,pet shelters1 #bi-ea2 for martins1 #cj-cb2 for birds1 #cb-cd2 for pigeons1 #cd-cf2 for dogs1 #cf-ci2 for guinea-pigs1 #ci-da2 for chickens1 #da-dc2 for rabbits1 #dc-de2 for squirrels1 #de-dg2 for chipmunks1 ibid42 for white rats1 ibid42 for reptiles1 #dg-ea4 ,pergola1 a back-yard1 #ec1 #ed2 a rustic1 #ee1 #ef1 #eg2 a circular1 #eg1 #eh4 ,pigeon-cotes1 #cd-cf4 ,pinion-wheel1 weather-vane1 a1 #fj-fb2 a barrel-hoop1 #gb4 ,pockets1 a nest of1 for camping outfit1 #cag1 #cah4 ,power-boat1 a1 how to make1 #bce-bch4 ,proa1 a1 how to make1 #bbh-bcj4 ,pumping windmill1 a1 #gc1 #gg4 ,punt1 a1 how to make1 #bab-bad2 a house1 #bfa4 ,pushmobile1 a1 #ahe-aij4 ,putting the hook to gut1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afj4 ,rabbit1 hutches1 #dc-de2 snares1 #cce1 #ccf1 #ccg1 #cch2 traps1 #cch1 #cci4 ,raccoon1 curing the skin of1 #cdg1 #cdi4 ,reef knot1 the1 #bhb1 #bhc1 #bhe4 ,reel1 a chest1 #aci1 #adj2 a box1 #ada1 #adb1 #adc4 ,reels1 kite1 #ach-adc2 fish1 #aej4 ,repairing fishing-tackle1 #aef-afj4 ,reptile pens1 #dg-ea4 ,rocker-coaster1 a1 #ajc1 #aje4 ,rods1 fishing1 elasticity of1 #adh2 bait1 #adh1 #aea2 fly1 #adh1 #adi1 #aec-aef2 split-bamboo1 #adi2 handling of1 #aea1 #aeb1 #aec2 repairing1 #aeg1 #aeh1 #aei4 ,rolling hitch1 the1 #bij1 #bia4 ,rope yarn knot1 the1 #bhe1 #bhg4 ,running bowline knot1 the1 #bhd1 #bhe4 ,sable1 trap for1 #cdd2 curing the skin of1 #cdg4 ,sail-skating and snowball artillery1 #aae-aai2 a skating sail1 #aae-aag2 a square-rigged ice-sail1 #aah2 a snowball mortar1 #aah1 #aai4 ,sail-wagon1 a1 #ahb-ahe4 ,sandwich ,island bird kite1 the1 #abi1 #acj1 #aca1 #acb4 ,scap-net1 how made1 #ai1 #age1 #agf4 ,scoots and scooters1 8ice-water boats10 #bee-bei4 ,scow1 a1 how to make1 #bad1 #bae4 ,seine for catching live bait1 #afa1 #afb1 #afc4 ,self-acting arial-car1 #hf-ia4 ,sharpy1 a1 how to make1 #bae-bah2 a sailing1 #bba-bbe2 a centre-board1 #bbe-bbh4 ,sheepshank hitch1 the1 #bia1 #bib4 ,sheet bend1 the1 #bhi4 ,shelters for pets1 #bi-ea2 for martins1 #cj-cb2 for birds1 #cb-cd2 for pigeons1 #cd-cf2 for dogs1 #cf-ci2 for guinea-pigs1 #ci-da2 for chickens1 #da-dc2 for rabbits1 #dc-de1 for squirrels1 #de-dg2 for chipmunks1 ibid42 for white rats1 ibid42 for reptiles1 #dg-ea4 ,ship kite1 the1 #abj1 #aba1 #abb4 ,single-runner coaster1 a1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #ajh4 ,sinkers1 fish1 #aej1 #aeb1 #afd4 ,skating-sail1 a1 #aae-aag4 ,skees1 ,norway1 #aaj1 #aaa4 ,skins1 animal1 how to cure1 #cdf-cdi4 ,skunks1 trap for1 #cdb1 #cdf2 curing the skin of1 #cdg4 ,sled-toboggan1 a1 #ajc1 #ajd4 ,slippery hitch1 the1 #bij1 #bia4 ,snails1 for aquariums1 #bj1 #bc4 ,snakes1 pens for1 #dg1 #dh1 #di4 ,snares1 #ccd2 for rabbits1 #cce1 #ccf1 #ccg1 #cch4 ,snowball mortar1 a1 #aah1 #aai4 ,snow-shoes1 the ,iroquois1 #aaa1 #aab2 the ,esquimaux1 #aab1 #aac2 oval1 #aad4 ,south ,sea ,island proa1 a1 how to make1 #bbh-bcj4 ,splices3 how made1 #aei2 different kinds1 #bhj2 the eye-splice1 #bhj1 #bha2 diagrams showing1 #bha2 the short splice1 #bha1 #bhb2 the long splice1 #bhb4 ,splicing a fishing-rod1 #aeg1 #aeh4 ,square-rigged ice-sail1 a1 #aah4 ,squirrel cages1 #de-dg4 ,stone stoves for campers1 #cai1 #cbj1 #cba4 ,stopper knot1 a1 #bhe1 #bhf4 ,stoves1 stone1 for campers1 #cai1 #cbj1 #cba4 ,stretchers for drying skins1 #cdg1 #cdh1 #cdi4 ,summer-house1 a simple1 #eb-ec1 #eh4 ,tables for camp life1 #cja1 #cac1 #cad1 #cae4 ,tadpoles for aquariums1 #bj4 ,tent1 for camping out1 #bie2 a medium-size1 #bie-cjj2 a large camping1 #cjj-cjc2 a house1 #cjd-cjg2 the new1 #cjg-caj4 ,tepees1 square1 #f1 #g2 ridge-pole1 #g1 #h1 #i4 ,timber hitch1 the1 #bij1 #bia4 ,toadstool tree canopy1 a1 #ed1 #ee4 ,toboggan1 an eight-foot1 #ajb1 #ajc2 a sled1 #ajc4 ,trap1 a1 for small fish1 #afi-aga2 for water-turtles1 #aga1 #agb4 ,traps and trapping1 #ccd-cdi2 rabbit-traps1 #cch1 #cci2 muskrat-traps1 #cci1 #cdj1 #cda1 #cdb2 mink-traps1 #cdb1 #cdc2 skunk-traps1 #cdb1 #cdf2 deadfalls1 #cdb1 #cdd1 #cde2 sable-traps1 #cdd2 martin-traps1 ibid42 woodchuck-traps1 #cdf2 ground-hog-traps1 ibid4 ,see also ,snares4 ,tree huts and brush-houses1 #cej-cff2 a low twin-tree hut1 #cej-cef2 a high twin-tree hut1 #cee-ceh2 a single-tree hut1 #cei1 #cfj2 a low single-tree hut1 #cfj1 #cfa2 a brush-house1 #cfa-cfd2 a brush 8lean-to10 #cfd-cff4 ,truck1 a hook-and-ladder1 #aih-bjj4 ,turk's head knot1 the1 #bhe1 #bhg4 ,turtles1 water1 a trap for1 #aga1 #agb4 8,twitch-up10 a1 for rabbits1 #cce1 #ccf2 a ,french1 #ccf1 #ccg1 #cch4 ,two half hitches1 #bhi1 #bij4 ,wagon1 a sail1 #ahb-ahe4 ,walker1 ,matthew1 knot1 the1 #bhe1 #bhf4 ,walking-sticks1 #cfg-cge2 how to grow1 #cfg-cfi2 holly1 #cgj1 #cga2 ash1 #cga2 oak1 ibid42 elm1 ibid42 from fruit trees1 #cga1 #cgb2 from wild orange1 #cgb2 method of treatment1 #cgb1 #cgc1 #cgd2 handles for1 #cgd2 demand for1 #cge4 ,wall knot1 the1 #bhd1 #bhe4 ,water in aquariums1 to arate1 #bb4 ,water-turtles1 a trap for1 #aga1 #agb4 ,water-wheels3 different kinds1 #bja2 the modern turbine1 #bjb2 a simple paddle-wheel1 #bjb1 #bjc2 a wagon wheel1 #bjc1 #bjd2 a barrel-wheel1 #bjd1 #bje2 an undershot-wheel1 #bjf2 a power-wheel1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #bjh4 ,weasel1 curing the skin of1 #cdg4 ,weather-vanes1 #ei-hj2 a pinion-wheel1 #fj-fb2 a wind-speeder1 #fb-fd2 the arrow1 #fd1 #fe2 wooden1 #fe1 #ff2 a wind-pennant1 #ff1 #fg2 a basket-ball1 #fg-fi2 a merry-go-round1 #fi-ga4 ,wheel-race1 a1 construction of1 #bjh4 ,wigwams1 ,indian1 #c-f4 ,windmills1 #ei-hj2 wind turbine1 #ga-gc2 pumping1 #gc-gg2 tower1 #gh-hj4 ,wind-pennant1 a1 #ff1 #fg4 ,wind-runner1 a1 how to make1 #bei1 #bfj4 ,wind-sails1 #aae1 #aaf1 #aag1 #aah4 ,wind-speeder1 a1 #fb1 #fc4 ,wind turbine1 a1 #ga-gc4 ,woodchucks1 how to trap1 #cdf4 ,wooden weather-vanes1 #fc1 #fe1 #ff4 ,wolf1 curing the skin of1 #cdg4 ,worms for fish bait1 #aej1 #aea1 #aeb1 #afa1 #aff4 ,yacht1 a land1 #agg-ahb4 ,,the ,,end ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,transcriber',s ,,note3 ,silently corrected obvious punctuation errors4 ,illustrations moved so as to not split paragraphs4 ,unless noted below1 spelling and hyphenation are retained as in the original4 ,other changes3 ,page ,,iv3 ,removed page reference from caption ,page #dj3 mi way midway ,page #ec3 to have the roof to have to roof ,page #fh3 ,the frame-work must be ,the framework must be ,page #gj3 pine or whitewood pine or white-wood ,page #abh3 ,fig4 #ab1 ,,aa ,fig4 #ab1 ,a ,a