,,on ,,naval ,,timber4 ,,on ,,naval ,,timber ,,and ,,arboriculture2 ,,with ,,critical ,,notes ,,on ,,authors ,,who ,,have ,,recently ,,treated ,,the ,,subject ,,of ,,planting4 ,,by ,,patrick ,,matthew4 ,,london3 ,,longman1 ,,rees1 ,,orme1 ,,brown1 ,,and ,,green2 ,,and ,,adam ,,black1 ,,edinburgh4 ,,mdcccxxxi4 ,,neill ,,co4 ,,printers1 ,old ,fishmarket1 ,edinburgh4 v ,,preface4 ,it may be thought presumptuous in a person who has never had the curiosity to peruse the ,british classic authors on planting and timber--,,evelyn1 ,,hanbury1 ,,marshall1 ,,miller1 ,,pontey--to make experiment of the public sufferance4 ,the author does not1 however1 think any apology necessary2 as1 if the public lose time unprofitably over his pages1 he considers the blame attachable to them1 not to him4 ,a writer does not obtrude as a speaker does1 but merely places his thoughts within reach4 ,as the subject1 notwithstanding its great importance1 might1 per se1 be felt dry and vi insipid by the general reader1 accustomed to the luxuries of modern literature1 the author has not scrupled to mix with it such collateral matter as he thought might serve to correct the aridity4 ,the very great interest of the question regarding species1 variety1 habit1 has perhaps led him a little too wide4 ,there is one advantage in taking a subject of this kind1 that few professional 7literary7 critics can meddle with it1 further than as regards style and language1 without exposing their own ignorance4 ,yet will the author experience the highest pleasure in being instructed and corrected1 wherever his knowledge may be found defective1 or when speculation or misconception of facts have led him into error4 ,knowledge and truth1 is mental strength and health2 ignorance and error1 weakness and vii disease3 the man who pursues science for its own sake1 and not for the pride of possession1 will feel more gratitude towards the surgeon who dislodges a cataract from the mind's eye1 than towards the one who repairs the defect of the bodily organ4 ,,gourdie-,,hill ,,by ,,errol1 ,sept4 #aj1 #ahcj4 ix ,,contents4 ,,introduction1 4 4 4 ,page #a ,,part ,i4--,,structure ,,of ,,vessels4 ,,section ,i4--,,plank4 ,figure1 dimensions1 and quality of timber suitable1 4 4 4 #e ,british trees suited for plank1 4 4 4 #g ,directions for training and pruning plank timber1 4 4 4 #h ,,section ,,ii4--,,timbers1 4 4 4 #ad ,most suitable dimensions1 4 4 4 #ah ,figures of bends and crooks1 4 4 4 #ai ,british trees suited for timbers1 4 4 4 #ba ,,part ,,ii4--,,british ,,forest ,,trees ,,suited ,,for ,,naval ,,purposes4 ,oak--,quercus1 4 4 4 #ca ,spanish ,chestnut--,castanea vulgaris1 4 4 4 #db ,beech-tree--,fagus sylvatica1 4 4 4 #dh ,scotch ,elm--,ulmus montana1 4 4 4 #ej ,english ,elm--,ulmus campestris1 4 4 4 #ed ,red-wood ,willow--,salix fragilis1 4 4 4 #eh ,red-wood ,pine--,pinus1 4 4 4 #fc ,white ,larch--,larix communis1 pyramidalis1 4 4 4 #ge ,investigation of the causes of the rot in larch1 4 4 4 #gh ,soils and subsoils most suited for larch1 4 4 4 #hb ,soils and subsoils where larch generally takes rot1 4 4 4 #hf ,remarks on open draining1 4 4 4 #hh ,bending and kneeing larch1 4 4 4 #ij ,new plan of forming larch roots advantageously into knees1 4 4 4 #id ,uses of larch1 and value as a naval timber1 4 4 4 #ig ,,part ,,iii4--,,miscellaneous ,,matter ,,connected ,,with ,,naval ,,timber4 ,,nurseries1 4 4 4 #ajf ,infinite variety existing in what is called species1 4 4 4 ib4 ,injurious effect from selecting the seed of the inferior varieties for sowing1 4 4 4 #ajg ,injurious effect from kiln-drying fir cones1 4 4 4 ib4 ,a principle of selection existing in nature of the strongest varieties for reproduction1 4 4 4 #ajh ,injurious effect from the plants spindling in the seed-bed and nursery line1 4 4 4 #aji ,injurious effect from cutting the roots and from pruning1 4 4 4 #aaa ,a light soil and open situation best suited for a nursery1 4 4 4 ib4 ,wide diverging root-leaders necessary to the large extension of a tree1 4 4 4 #aab ,,planting1 4 4 4 #aad ,further observations on pruning1 4 4 4 #aag ,observations on timber1 4 4 4 #abb ,table of the number of sap-growths of different kinds of timber1 4 4 4 #abd ,remarks on laburnum1 4 4 4 #abf ,height to which trees may be trained of clear stem1 4 4 4 #abh ,,concerning ,,our ,,marine1 4 4 4 #acj ,causes which befit ,britain for being the first naval power1 and the emporium of the world1 4 4 4 #aca ,utility of a system of universal free trade1 4 4 4 #acc ,absolute necessity of abolishing every monopoly and restriction on trade in ,britain1 4 4 4 #acd ,our marine not represented in ,parliament1 and the consequences1 4 4 4 #ace ,insane duty on the importation of naval timber and hemp1 4 4 4 #acf ,,part ,,iv4--,,notices ,,of ,,authors ,,who ,,treat ,,of ,,arboriculture4 ,utility of a general review of these authors1 4 4 4 #ach ,i4--,,forester',s ,,guide1 ,,by ,,mr ,,monteath1 4 4 4 #adj ,advantage of converting our coppice oak into forest1 and of saving our home oak in time of peace1 4 4 4 #adj ,plan1 by ,mr ,monteath1 of preparing peat soils for planting1 4 4 4 #adb ---------- of covering bare rocky ground with timber1 4 4 4 #adc ---------- of raising oak-forest or copse by layers1 4 4 4 #add ,influence of our vernal eastern breeze on vegetation1 4 4 4 #adf ,cause why the trees of narrow belts seldom grow to large timber1 4 4 4 #adh ,observations on pruning and thinning1 4 4 4 #aej ,observations on the age at which the valuable part of oak bark is thickest1 4 4 4 #aed ,observations on the prevention of dry-rot1 4 4 4 #aeg ,,ii4--,,nicol',s ,,planter',s ,,calendar1 4 4 4 #afc ,different influence of transplanting on herbaceous and woody vegetables1 4 4 4 #afd ,cutting the roots close in1 injurious to some trees and not to others1 4 4 4 #afe ,mr ,sang's plan of raising forest from the seed in situ1 4 4 4 #afg ,reasons which render the planting of young trees preferable to sowing in situ1 4 4 4 #afh ,mr ,sang's directions for nursery practice2 sowing the different kinds of forest trees in the seed-bed2 removing the seedlings to the nursery line1 and from thence to the field1 4 4 4 #agj ,remarks on transplanting1 4 4 4 #agh ,,iii4--,,billington ,,on ,,planting1 4 4 4 #aha ,an account of the management of the ,royal ,forests1 4 4 4 ib4 ,reasons why government should rather purchase than raise timber1 and that they should sell off the ,royal ,forests1 4 4 4 #ahb ,the ,billingtonian system of pruning1 4 4 4 #ahe ,remarks on planting soils not easily permeable by water1 4 4 4 #ahg ,mr ,billington's directions for planting these soils1 4 4 4 #ahh ---------- ---------- for clearing away weeds1 and for cutting in or pruning the points of the branches1 4 4 4 #ahi ,,iv4--,,forsyth ,,on ,,fruit ,,and ,,forest ,,trees1 4 4 4 #aib ,mr ,forsyth's surgery of trees1 and the value of his composition-salve1 4 4 4 ib4 ,manner in which a tree can be transformed from disease and rottenness to health and soundness1 4 4 4 #aic ,v4--,,mr ,,withers1 4 4 4 #aih ,discomfiture of our ,scottish ,knights by ,mr ,withers1 4 4 4 ib4 ,account of a number of facts and experiments by the writer1 on the comparative strength of quick and slow grown timber--on the influence of circumstance and age in modifying the quality of the timber--on the difference in the quality of different varieties of the same species1 and of different parts of the same tree1 4 4 4 #aii ,oak timber1 moderately fast grown1 so that it may be of sufficient size1 and still retain the toughness of youth1 best suited for naval use1 4 4 4 #bad ,mr ,withers1 his literary friends and ,sir ,henry ,steuart equally imperfectly acquainted with the subject in dispute between them1 4 4 4 #bae ,the ,withers' system neither necessary nor economically suited for the greater part of ,scotland1 4 4 4 #bag ,fallacy of experiments on the strength of timber1 from not taking into account the difference of tension of the different annual layers1 and their position1 whether flat1 perpendicular1 c41 4 4 4 #bba ,,vi4--,,steuart',s ,,planter',s ,,guide ,,and ,,sir ,,walter ,,scott',s ,,critique1 4 4 4 #bbf ,importance of whatever may serve to amuse the second childhood of the wealthy1 4 4 4 #bbg ,the subject--the art of moving about large trees in general1 merely a pandering to our wilfulness and impatience1 4 4 4 #bbg ,intolerable dulness of the park and smooth lawn1 4 4 4 #bbh ,delightful sympathies with the objects and varied scenery of our peopled subalpine country1 4 4 4 #bbi ,sir ,walter ,scott's curious effort to give consequence to the art of moving about large trees1 4 4 4 #bca ,paroxysm of admiration of ,sir ,walter1 at ,sir ,henry's discoveries1 with his hyperbolic figures of comparison1 4 4 4 #bcc ,account of the writer's practice in moving trees of considerable size1 4 4 4 #bce ,taste of ,sir ,walter ,scott for 8home-keeping squires10 practisers of the ,allanton system1 4 4 4 #bde ,what a ,british gentleman should be1 4 4 4 #bdf ,the ,allanton practice described1 4 4 4 #bdi ,quotation from ,sir ,henry ,steuart's volume1 in which the philosophy of his practice is described1 4 4 4 #bed ,summary of ,sir ,henry's discoveries1 4 4 4 #bfd ,consideration of the accuracy of some of ,sir ,henry's assertions regarding the desiccated epidermis of trees1 and the elongation of the shoots of plants1 4 4 4 #bfe ,sir ,henry's assertion that quick-grown timber is inferior to slow-grown1 and that culture necessarily renders it softer1 less solid1 and less durable1 not correct1 4 4 4 #bhb ,the present climate of ,scotland1 and of the ,orkneys and ,shetlands1 inferior to a former1 4 4 4 #bhg ,that this may have been owing to these islands having once been a portion of the continent1 4 4 4 #bhh ,the recent advance and recession of the ,german ,ocean1 render a former junction with the continent not improbable1 4 4 4 #bhi ,mr ,loudon's statement1 of the effect produced by pruning on the quality and quantity of the timber1 that trees produce the best timber in their natural locality1 not supported by facts1 4 4 4 #cje ,the apparent use of the infinite seedling varieties of plants1 4 4 4 #cjg ,,vii4--,,cruickshank',s ,,practical ,,planter1 4 4 4 #cji ,advantages of laying ground under timber1 stated rather too high by ,mr ,cruickshank1 4 4 4 ib4 ,mr ,cruickshank's account of the superior fertilizing influence of forest upon the soil1 4 4 4 #caj ,facts which in many cases lead to an opposite conclusion1 4 4 4 #caf ,an examination into the causes which promote or retard the formation1 or which tend to dissipate the earth's covering of vegetable mould1 4 4 4 #caf ,account of an uncommon system of fallowing once practised in the ,carse of ,gowrie1 4 4 4 #cbd ,high manuring quality of old clay walls1 4 4 4 #cbe ,formation of nitre the probable cause of the fertilizing quality of these walls1 4 4 4 ib4 ,the fertilizing influence of summer fallow may in part be owing to the formation of nitre and other salts1 4 4 4 ib4 ,that there is a deficiency of these salts in some places of the world1 and an excess in others1 4 4 4 #cbf ,ignorance of ,mr ,cruickshank regarding the location of certain kinds of trees1 4 4 4 #cbg ,mr ,cruickshank's reprehension of the practice of covering fir seeds half an inch deep in ,england1 and of forcing suitable earth for nurseries where awanting1 4 4 4 #ccj ,best method of transplanting seedlings in the nursery row1 4 4 4 #cca ,quotation worthy the attention of planters1 4 4 4 ib4 ,error of authors on the location of trees1 in inculcating a determinate character of soil as generally necessary for each kind of tree1 4 4 4 #ccd ,further errors of ,mr ,cruickshank on the location of trees1 4 4 4 #cce ,adaptation of ,scots fir to moist soils1 even to peat-moss1 4 4 4 #cch ,an account by ,mr ,cruickshank of the most economical and successful mode of planting moors and bleak mountains1 4 4 4 #cdj ,method of planting by the flat dibble or single notch1 4 4 4 #cdc ---------- ---------- by the double notch or cross-slitting1 4 4 4 #cdd ,expense and comparative merits of each1 4 4 4 #cde ,these methods of planting best adapted for a sterile country1 where the weeds are small1 4 4 4 #cdf ,practice by the writer of cultivating young plantation by the plough1 suited for rich soil1 4 4 4 #cdg ,best season for planting moist soils1 4 4 4 #cdh ,manner in which frost throws up the young plant from the soil1 4 4 4 #cdi ,mr ,cruickshank's plan of raising oak forest in situ from the seed1 4 4 4 #cea ,that although the bare plan given by our author1 of sowing in situ1 under the shelter of nurses1 is good1 his directions for executing it are not very judicious1 4 4 4 #ceb ,advantages of this plan which ,mr ,cruickshank has not noticed1 4 4 4 #cec ,that the power of ripening seed is not increased by shelter in proportion to the power of growing1 4 4 4 #cef ,that the line of seed ripening1 and not the line of growing1 regulates the natural distribution of plants in respect to climate1 4 4 4 #ceg ,that oaks1 under this plan of sowing in situ under shelter1 can be extended to a climate inferior to the natural1 4 4 4 ib4 ,that oaks grown in the low country1 and best climate of ,scotland1 appear not to ripen the seed sufficiently4 ,thence the probability that oak now would not even keep its present locality in the low country of ,scotland1 although it may 8be taught to rise in our0 alpine country1 4 4 4 #ceh ,,appendix4 ,,note ,a4--,that universal empire is practicable only under naval power1 4 4 4 #cfc ,,note ,b4 ,on hereditary nobility and entail1 4 4 4 #cfd ,,note ,c4 ,instinct or habit of breed1 4 4 4 #cfi ,nautical and roving disposition of the superior breed which has spread westward over the maritime provinces of ,britain1 and over nearly the whole continent of ,north ,america1 4 4 4 #cgj ,influence of change of place1 4 4 4 #cga ,influence of civilization and confinement upon the complexion1 4 4 4 #cgb ,difference of character between the population of the northern and southern maritime provinces of ,britain1 4 4 4 #cgc ,that the middle and southern portion of the ,north ,temperate ,zone is not so favourable to human existence as the northern portion1 4 4 4 #cge ,,note ,d4 ,use of the selfish passions1 4 4 4 #cgf ,,note ,e4 ,injudicious measurement law of the tonnage of vessels1 rendering our mercantile marine of defective proportions1 4 4 4 #cgg ,,note ,f4 ,on the mud depositions or alluvium on the eastern coast of ,britain1 4 4 4 #cgh ,probability that a delta of this alluvium1 a continuation of ,holland1 had at one time occupied the entire ,german ,ocean1 4 4 4 #cgi ,accommodation of organized life to circumstance1 by diverging ramifications1 4 4 4 #cha ,retrospective glance at our pages1 4 4 4 #chh #a ,,introduction4 ,,navigation is of the first importance to the improvement and perfecting of the species1 in spreading1 by emigration1 the superior varieties of man1 and diffusing the arts and sciences over the world2 in promoting industry1 by facilitating the transfer of commodity through numberless channels from where it is not1 to where it is required2 and in healing the products of those most fertile but unwholesome portions of the earth1 to others more congenial to the existence of the varieties of man susceptible of high improvement3 ,water being the general medium of action1--fluidity or conveyance by water1 almost as necessary to civilized life as it is to organic life1 in bearing the molecules forward in their vital courses1 and in floating the pabulum 7the raw material7 from the soil through the living canals to the manufactories of assimilized matter1 and thence to the points of adaptation4 #b ,as civilization progresses under the influence of navigation1 and the earth exchanges her straggling hordes of savages for enlightened densely-peopled nations1 every climate and country will be more set apart to its appropriate production1 and the utility of the great conduit1 the ,,ocean1 will more and more be developed1 and become the grand theatre of contested dominion--superiority there being almost synonymous with ,universal ,empire--dry land only the footstool of the ,mistress of the ,seas#a4 ,in the still hour which has followed the cannon roar of our victories1 we seem disposed to sleep secure1 almost in forgetfulness1 that we possess this superiority1 that we stand forth the ,champion of the ,world1 and must give battle to every aspirant to the possession of the trident sceptre4 ,as soon as the recent principles of naval motion and new projectiles1 conjoined to shot-proof vessels1 shall have been brought to use in naval warfare1 marine will have acquired a great comparative preponderance over land batteries1 and every shore be still more at the mercy of the ,lords of ,ocean4 ,when we consider the tendency of luxurious peace1 the effeminacy thence flowing in upon many of our wealthier population1--when we view1 on the #c one hand1 an entailed aristocracy#b1 whose founders had been gradually thrown uppermost in more stirring times1 the boldest and the wisest1 but whose progeny1 8in a calm world0 entailed to listless satiety1 have little left of hope or fear to awaken in them the dormant energies of their ancestors1 or even to preserve these energies from entirely sinking2 and1 on the other hand1 an overflowing population1 chained1 from the state of society1 to incessant toil1 the scope of their mental energies narrowed to a few objects from the division of labour1 all tending to that mechanical order and tameness incompatible with liberty2 thus1 perhaps1 equally in danger of deteriorating and sinking into caste1 both classes yielding to the natural law of restricted adaptation to condition3--when we reflect on this1 the conclusion is irresistibly forced upon us1 that the periodical return of war is indispensable to the heroic chivalrous character and love of freedom which we have so long maintained1 and which 7,britain being the first in name and power in the family of nations7 must be so influential on the morale of the civilized world4 ,it is by the jar and struggle of the conflict that the baser alloy and rust of our manners and institutions must be removed and rubbed away3 it is by the #d ennobling excitement of danger and of hardship that our generous passions must be cherished1 and our youth led to emulate the ,roman in patriotic thirst for glory--the ,spartan in devotion--their own ancestor1 the more daring ,scandinavian sea-king or rover#c1 in adventurous valour4 ,without1 however1 seeking the fight1 yet in preparation for the perhaps not distant time1 when we shall face another foe1 it behoves us1 without any sickly sentimentality1 to cherish our warlike virtues--above all things to attend to what must constitute 8the field of our fame10 ,our ,,marine1 and the material of its construction1 ,naval ,timber4 ,,endnotes ,,to ,,the ,,introduction4 #a ,see ,app4 ,a4 #b ,see ,app4 ,b4 #c ,see ,app4 ,c4 #e ,,part ,i4 ,,structure ,,of ,,vessels4 ,vessels are constructed of wood under two forms1 ,plank and ,timbers2 ,plank1 the out and inside skin of the vessel--,timbers1 the ribs or frame which support the plank4 ,,section ,i4 ,,plank4 ,trees intended for plank ought to be reared in close forest1 or protected situation1 drawn tall and straight1 or what is preferable for a part1 with a gentle regular bend1 technically sny1 ,figs4 v and x1 7next page74 ,it requires to be of clean solid texture1 from #ab to #dj feet in length1 and at least #h inches in diameter at small end1 or any greater thickness4 ,for the conveniency of transport1 oak plank timber is generally squared or planked where grown1 and is cut out from #b #a_/b to #g inches in thickness1 and from #f to #ah inches in breadth4 ,plank is needed of such various dimensions1 that any oak tree of clean timber1 nearly straight one way1 and straight1 or with a gentle regular bending1 the other1 may safely be cut into plank1 the section to be in the plane of the #f curve4 ,figs4 v1 x1 y1 z1 represent the most advantageous forms of logs for cutting into plank4 ,the dotted lines shew the section of the saw in planking3 the straighter the log is in the plane of the saw1 it is the more suitable1 as the planks bend sufficiently side-way by steaming2 ,fig4 v1 of considerable bend and taper1 where the planks1 when cut1 have a bend edge-way1 is the most valuable3 this form requires to be very free of knots4 ,in straight planks1 ,fig4 z1 cleanness from knots is not such a desideratum4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 z1 y1 of any length--best long2 x1 from #be to #ce feet2 v1 v1 from #ab to #bd feet4 ,in the above cut1 for distinctness1 the saw is drawn entering the butt4 ,in practice it enters the top4 ,when planks are cut out where grown1 they are sawn from the round log immediately after it is #g felled and barked1 which not only prevents injury from drought-cracks1 but produces also a considerable saving of timber and labour1 as the wood is softer when green2 and the centre planks can thus be had much broader than after squaring the log4 ,the outer part of the matured or red wood1 which is partly cut away in squaring1 is also the cleanest for bending4 ,the sap or not sufficiently matured wood1 when left on the side of the plank in the vessel1 wherever it is not always soaking in water1 is only useful to the shipwright1 as it decays in two or three years1 and demands an expensive repair4 ,when plank timber is squared1 it is for the conveniency of carriage and stowage1 and where timber is of little value4 ,of ,british trees suited for plank1 the most valuable are oak1 ,spanish chesnut1 larch1 red wood pine1 and sometimes beech#d1 elm1 plane 7,acer pseudo-platanus7 under water4 ,as no timber decays under water for a considerable length of time1 when put in fresh1 unless it be devoured by the sea-worm1 beech or any other hard tough wood is nearly equally good as oak for outside plank under light water-mark1 provided the timber be hastened out of the bush into the vessel1 or be kept in pools1 either in log or #h plank1 till used1 or be planked1 and the plank kept dry under cover4 ,one summer on the ground will generally render a beech log in the bark useless4 ,,directions#e ,,for ,,training ,,plank ,,timber4 ,illustration ,divide all branches into leaders and feeders2 leaders1 the main or superior shoots which tend to become stems1 ,a1 a1 a2 feeders1 the inferior branches1 ,b1 b1 b1 b4 #i ,should more than one leader appear from the time of planting the tree till it attain the required height for the plank1 shorten all but the most promising one down to the condition of feeders1 making the section immediately above a twig1 preferring one which takes a lateral or horizontal direction4 ,vide dotted line crossing a1 a4 ,should any feeder1 below the required height1 become enlarged beyond its compeers1 such as ,b1 reduce it to equality 7vide dotted line71 or prune it close off1 if this should be necessary to the symmetry of the tree4 ,cut off1 close by the trunk1 all shoots which rise at a very acute angle with the main stem1 such as ,c4 ,there is a triple reason for this3 they rise up and interfere with the more regular horizontal feeders1 tending also to become leaders2 they do not form a proper junction with the stem1 by reason of the wood1 as it swells1 not being able to throw up the bark out of the narrow angle2 thence the bark of both stem and branch is enclosed in the confined breek1 and the wood never unites#f1 thence disease is #aj liable to be generated between them1 or the branches are subject to be torn down by the wind2 and should they ultimately come to be removed1 being then of considerable size1 and the section from their perpendicular position being partly horizontal1 as the sides of the wound swell up1 the rain lodges in the centre1 and generates rot4 ,these nearly perpendicular branches generally originate from improper pruning1 springing out where a large branch has been cut away4 ,lop off all branches1 which1 by taking an irregular direction1 incline to rub upon the more regular2 also remove all splintered1 twisted1 and diseased branches4 ,do not cut away any of the lower branches 7feeders7 till they become sickly or dead4 ,by pruning these prematurely1 you destroy the fine balance of nature1 and throw too much vigour into the top1 which in consequence puts forth a number of leaders4 ,you also diminish the growth of the tree by the loss of healthy feeders2 the timber of the tree increasing in proportion to the quantity of healthy branches and foliage 7the foliage being the stomach and lungs #aa of the plant74 ,you also1 by diminishing the number of feeders1 increase the comparative size of those remaining1 which throws the upper part of the stem into large knots1 improper for plank1 and renders then future excision dangerous1 as large feeders1 when circumstance or decay require their removal1 or1 when they are rifted off by winds or snow1 leave wounds which often carry corruption into the core of the tree4 ,after the tree has acquired a sufficient height of bole for plank1 say from #bj to #fj feet1 according to circumstance of exposure1 climate1 c41 and also as many branches above this height as may be thought necessary to carry on advantageously the vital functions1 as the superior head will now sustain small injury by being thrown out into large branches and plurality of leaders1 7if it be oak it will become more valuable by affording a number of small crooks and knees72 it will then be proper1 in order to have timber as clean as possible1 and regularly flexible1 to lop clean off all the branches on the stem as far up as this required height4 ,from the early attention to procure very numerous feeders1 and to prevent any from attaining large size1 the wounds will very soon be closed over1 leaving no external scar1 and as little as possible of internal knot or breaking off of #ab fibre4 ,there are many salves1 panace1 and pigments in use for covering over the section of removed branches1 which in ordinary cases may occasion no injury1 but they are unsightly4 ,in wounds of beech trees where the cut tubes are so prone to die downward a considerable way into the stem and to generate rot1 an antiseptic quickly-drying pigment might be beneficial4 ,this and the time of the season for pruning1 at which the cut tubes or fibres are least liable to die inward1 deserve attention4 ,we consider the spring the least dangerous time4 ,should a number of small shoots spring out in consequence of this last pruning1 they may be swept down if good plank be desired2 if not1 they may remain1 as their presence will not greatly injure the plank1 and they occasion the stem to thicken considerably faster where they grow3 yet it is probable that1 in doing this1 by obstructing the flow of the sap downwards1 they may interfere with the natural enlargement of the roots1 and ultimately be injurious4 ,some varieties1 or rather some individuals of oak1 are much more prone to this sprouting upon the bole after pruning than others2 where the disposition exists in a great degree it ought to be encouraged1 and the tree set apart for the construction of cabinet work4 #ac ,this system of pruning--encouraging numerous feeders and one leader while the tree is young1 and of allowing or rather inducing the branches1 after the tree has acquired sufficient height1 to spread out into a horizontal top1 is in harmony with1 and only humouring the natural disposition of trees1 and is therefore both seemly and of easy practice#g4 ,the perfection of naval forest economy would consist in superadding 7according to instructions to be given on training of timbers7 a top of which every branch is a valuable bend or knee1 though in consequence of the situation the timber will be fragile1 and of light porous texture4 ,in pruning and educating for plank timber1 the whole art consists in training the tree as much as possible1 and with as little loss of branch as possible1 to one leader and numerous feeders1 and to the regular cone figure which the pine tribe naturally assumes4 ,this can be best and most easily performed by timely attention--checking every over-luxuriant1 overshadowing branch and wayward shoot on its first appearance2 so that none of the feeders which spring forth at first may be smothered1 till #ad they in turn become lowermost2 and by the influence of rather close plantation1 which of itself will perform in a natural manner all that we have been teaching by art1 and will perform it well4 ,this closeness must1 however1 be very guardedly employed1 and timeously prevented from proceeding too far1 otherwise the complete ruin of the forest1 by premature decay or winds1 may ensue1 especially when it consists of pines4 ,of course all kinds of pines require no other attention than this 7well-timed thinning71 and to have their sickly moss covered under branches swept clean down4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,,timbers4 ,timbers1 as before stated1 are the ribs of the vessel1 spreading out and upward 7excepting at the bow and stern7 at right angles to the keel and keelson1 two large straight logs which form a double spinal support or backbone4 ,the ribs or compass timbers in great public building establishments are sometimes bent by machinery1 after being softened by steam or hot liquids#h2 and for this purpose the #ae cleanest straightest wood is requisite4 ,we1 however1 do not believe that pieces of great diameter1 bent artificially1 can have equal strength and resilience as when grown bent--the fibre must in some degree be crippled4 ,we admit that timbers and frames may be built of separate bended pieces of no great thickness1 and have all the strength and resilience of natural bend3 the strongest and most elastic mode of forming vessels would be to compose them of different layers of plank over each other in diagonal fashion1 or at an angle #fj1 but the labour and inconveniency of these modes would be great4 ,we will not admit that an experiment between the strength of a piece of coarse cross-grained timber1 half naturally bent1 half cut out of the solid1 and that of a piece of clean timber artificially bent1 is any proof on the subject4 ,let us produce a clean natural bend1 exactly fitted to its place1 without any section of fibre1 and make experiment with it4 ,but at any rate1 as this plan 7bending of timbers7 has never been adopted to any extent in our private building-yards1 we must doubt its economy1--either #af that the practice is of no considerable advantage1 or that the requisite machinery is too expensive for private establishments1 and conclude that fine bent timber still continues a necessary in the formation of at least our mercantile marine4 ,of the very ingenious innovations in the structure of vessels contrived by ,sir ,r4 ,,seppings1 by which knees and crooked timber might nearly be superseded1 we can only say1 the practice is not followed1 and1 at least in private building-yards1 not likely to be so2--that the demand for fine crooked timber1 comparatively1 is1 and will continue to be1 as great as ever4 ,should our war navy1 from the introduction of steam impulse and bomb cannon1 be reduced to fleets of strong gun-boats1 the demand for crooked timber1 instead of lessening1 will greatly increase1--the building of frames of straight timber being more expensive1 and less suitable1 in small than in large vessels2 and should war occur1 in the hurry of the formation of a new war navy under a different principle1 the speediest and simplest mode of construction will be followed4 ,nearly two-thirds of the timbers of a vessel consist of the curves and bends a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 f2 the other third is of straighter timber1 and easily obtained4 #ag ,all timbers require to be straight in one way--in the plane of their side1 and the sides generally to be square4 ,the under measures embrace timbers of appropriate size for vessels from #ej to #ejj tons register2 it is seldom that merchantmen are required under or above this size4 ,of course1 large war-vessels require timbers of larger dimension4 ,the corresponding timbers of vessels of different size are nearly similar figures1 and the length of their respective lines not far from being in the ratio of the cube root of the tonnage--a little deeper and thicker in the smaller vessels4 ,when timbers are formed of larch or pine1 they require to be a little more in diameter than when of oak4 #ah ,illustration3 ,fig4 a1 ,flat floor1 from #i #a_/b to #ah feet long 7that is1 #i #a_/b for a vessel of #ej tons1 and #ah for one of #ejj71 and from #i to #af inches deep at middle2 thickness #a_/dth less than depth1 the diameter increasing in proportion to the length4 ,when fillings such as s are used1 flat floors are cut from straight logs4 b1 ,rising floor shorter1 and same depth and thickness as former4 c1 c1 ,high rising floors1 from #d to #h feet in length of wing1 and a little deeper1 and same thickness as former4 ,from the difficulty of procuring this bend1 the wings are often used of unequal length1 according as the timber turns out1 the shorter wing to exceed #c feet1 and more when of considerable diameter4 ,floors are of every rise from a to c1 being flattest at midships1 and rising gradually as they approach the bow and stern4 ,in all timbers1 it is necessary1 for strength1 that the fibre of the wood extend from one end to the other without much cross grain4 ,see lines on high rising floor1 c4 d1 ,first foot-hook1 from #g to #ac feet long1 and from #g to #ad inches deep2 thickness #a_/eth less than depth4 e1 ,second foot-hook1 from #f to #aj feet long1 and from #f to #ac inches deep1 thickness #a_/fth less than depth4 ,this curve1 when of great size1 is valuable as1 breast-hooks--curved timbers stretching horizontally within and at right angles to the bow-timbers1 to support the bow4 f1 f1 f1 ,knees1 the one wing nearly at right angles to the other2 from #b to #i feet in length of wing2 depth at middle as much as possible2 thickness from #d to #ab inches1--generally required about #c #a_/b feet in length of wing1 and from #f to #h inches thick4 ,knees1 when large1 suit for high rising floors4 ,fig4 h is a valuable piece1 and easily procured by bending the young plant2 when cut1 it forms two second foot-hooks4 ,figs4 a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 are suitable1 though the part cut off by the dotted line be awanting4 ,in good work1 this plan is often followed1 and a cross-chock put on4 7,vid4 s1 left side of the cross-section of a vessel thus timbered1 page #bj74 ,by this #ai mode of building1 vessels can be constructed from much straighter timber1 and the vessels are superior1 from being more elastic2 but from the nicety and expense of the work and waste of timber1 the practice is not much in use4 #bj ,illustration3 ,cross-section of a ,vessel at midships--knees not inserted4 ,a first foot-hook alternates with each floor1 and second foot-hook1 alongside1 extending from o to q2 and a top-timber1 or third foot-hook1 alternates alongside of each second foot-hook1 and chock extending from q to a4 ,these timbers are bolted together1 and constitute a frame or double rib2 and the skeleton is composed of a series of double ribs 7several inches separate1 of course wider above than lower down1 as the timbers decrease in thickness71 to within a little of the bow and stern1 where the timbers are usually placed singly1 without framing4 #ba ,in large vessels a fourth futtock is used2 thence straighter timber is suitable4 ,the knees occupy the position at x1 stretching horizontally along the inside of the vessel and end of the beams4 ,of ,british trees1 timbers are formed of oak1 ,spanish chestnut1 larch1 red-wood pine1 red-wood willow 7the stags-head ozier1 ,salix fragilis71 and sometimes the broad-leafed elm 7,ulmus montana7 under water4 ,in ,britain1 crooked oak for timbers is found chiefly in hedge-rows and open forests1 where the winds1 casual injury1 or overhanging superior branches1 have thrown the tree1 while young1 from its natural balance2 or1 by the tree1 from open situation1 or excision of lower branches1 parting early into several leaders1 which1 in receding from each other1 form curves and angular bends4 ,on the ,continent of ,europe1 in the natural forest1 it is chiefly the tops of old lofty trees which afford the crooks2 in consequence1 those we import are1 for the most part1 of a free1 light1 insufficient quality#i4 #bb ,to procure a sufficiency of excellent crooks1 every person who has the charge of young plantations of timber intended for naval purposes1 ought1 in the more exposed situations not favourable to the growth of plank timber1 or timber for bending1 when the plants are from #c to #ae feet high1 to mark out the most healthy1 suitably formed plants1 sufficiently close to fill the ground when of the proper size1 say #f yards apart1 and to bend these1 as the under figures will illustrate4 ,the dotted portion is the growth after being bent4 #bc ,illustration3 ,fig4 f4 ,the bend of floors requiring to be at the middle1 and of angular bend1 see ,fig4 f1 young trees of one-half the required length1 should have the earth removed from the bulb of the root1 from one or both sides1 according to circumstances1 and the tree and stool partially upset to windward1 that is1 generally south-west2 7the operator1 in effecting this1 may be assisted by a strong pronged instrument72 then fixed in this inclined position1 and the earth filled in4 ,this inclination may be given at planting1 when the plants are tall4 ,the best mode of securing the larger plants in their bent position1 is by rods1 forked or hooked at one end1 the other end nailed to a ground-stake2--the upper end1 if forked1 firmly tied to the bent plant by mat or straw rope4 ,smaller plants may be secured to the notched tops of stakes by ligatures2 and the smallest1 particularly larch1 pinned down by small stakes with hooked tops4 ,advantage may also be taken of an adjacent tree of small value1 and which would ultimately be required to be thinned out1 to tie the bended standard down to the most convenient part of its top or stem1 lopping off all above the ligature1 if it interfere with the standard1 and barking it near the ground1 to prevent much future growth4 ,when the workmen comprehend #bd the required bends1 they will fall upon methods of fixing the plants in the most suitable position1 better adapted to the locality than any directions can teach4 ,the plants will require to be fixed down at least two years1 and bent a little more than what is requisite1 as in their after-growth they have generally a tendency to become straighter1 from depositing the thickest layers in the hollow of the bend4 ,a fine regular curve may be obtained by bending the plant for several successive years1 a little lower every year2 this gradual lowering does not so much check the growth of the leader1 nor tend so much to cause the feeders upon the upper side to push as leaders4 ,when oaks are bent1 great attention must be paid to cut away any ground-shoots1 and to cut off or twist down any strong feeders that stand perpendicular on the upper side of the tree2 and also for several years afterwards1 to look over the trees twice a-year1 correcting any exuberant feeder1 and destroying root-shoots4 ,the forester ought to keep in mind that his pupils are proverbially pliant1 and that1 should his growing timber not be of the most valuable and most appropriate figure1 he must rank either with the negligent or the incapable4 ,ship timbers being generally required of greater depth than thickness1 that is1 broadest in the plane #be of the curve1 hedge-row is better adapted to growing them than the forest1 especially when the trees are close in the row4 ,the bend generally takes place across the row2 and the bole of the tree acquires a greater diameter in that direction than in the line of the row4 ,if the figure of the top of a tree be very elliptical in the horizontal plane1 the cross section of the bole1 instead of being circular1 will also be elliptical 7cake-grown74 ,the lateral spread of the roots in thick planted rows being greater than the longitudinal1 also tends to give elliptic bole1 the stem swelling most on the sides where the strongest roots enter1 which1 of course1 always occurs on the sides affording most nourishment4 ,forests intended for ship timbers might be planted and kept in rows a considerable distance apart1 with the plants close in the row1 and thus acquire the elliptic bole4 ,this would also facilitate the bending2 by being turned a little right and left alternately1 they would spontaneously1 from the weight of the top1 and their inclination to avoid the shade of each other1 increase the original bias4 ,were forests planted in close double rows1 the plants thick in the row1 with wide avenues or glades between1 many of the trees would acquire crooked boles1 and the crooked might be retained when thinning4 ,avenues of this description #bf would form agreeable diversity from the monotonous irregularity of the forest1 and be highly picturesque4 ,were close triple rows planted with wide glades between1 having spruce1 larch1 birch1 or other trees of more rapid growth than the oak in the mid row1 and oak in the side rows1 the greater part of the oak would be thrown out into fine curves by the overshadowing top of the superior tree4 ,after the oak had received a sufficient side bias1 the central row1 which of those kinds comes soon to be of value1 might be removed4 ,the easiest way to procure good oak knees is to look out in hedge-row and open forest for plants which divide into two or four leaders1 from #c to #aj feet above ground2 and should the leaders not diverge sufficiently1 to train them as horizontally as possible for several feet1 by rods stretching across the top1 or by fixing them down by stakes2 see following figures4 ,figs4 a1 b1 f1 are drawn to a smaller scale than c1 d2 of course1 a stem1 after dividing1 never extends in length below the division4 #bg ,illustration ,when grown1 the main stem1 either used whole1 sawn in two1 or quartered1 will form one wing of the knee1 and the bent branch the other2 see figs4 c1 d4 ,the dotted lines shew the saw section4 ,particular attention must be paid to prevent oaks from separating into more than four leaders1 and also to train up these leaders a considerable height1 without allowing them to divide again1 retaining always numerous feeders2 thus1 when the tree acquires size1 #bh many valuable crooks g1 h1 i1 will be formed above the knees4 ,it is necessary1 however1 to guard against training the branches to too great a height1 as1 when so1 they run much risk of being twisted and torn by high winds4 ,knees may also be obtained by cropping the top from plants that have side branches similar to f1 and training these branches for leaders as above directed4 ,in this case1 the section1 where the top is cut off1 must not be too large1 and the branches1 either two or four1 well knotted to the trunk1 or the situation sheltered1 otherwise the trunk at the section may be split down by the strain of the wind on the new leaders4 ,also1 in healthy growing trees of considerable size1 which have spreading tops1 and which are not to be cut down for a considerable time1 the forester1 if he have a good eye1 may1 by lopping off a few branches here and there throughout the top1 throw the greater part of the boughs into condition to become knees1 or valuable crooks1 when of size4 ,this is of most material consequence to the ultimate value of half-grown oak trees1 in open situations1 and ought to be particularly studied by the superintendent1 as1 when allowed to run into very numerous stemmy branches1 without direction or curtailment1 the top1 instead of being ultimately of #bi considerable value as timber1 is of none4 ,directions in writing will scarcely suffice to teach a forester this part of his business2 he must consider attentively the knee figures and bends we have furnished1 fix them in his memory1 and use every eligible means to obtain them4 ,knees1 of all descriptions of oak timber are in the greatest request4 ,we have known them purchased at #gs4 per computed solid foot1 which1 from the plan of measuring1 is as much as #ajs4 per real solid foot4 ,the prevailing inattention to judicious training will continue to occasion the supply of knees to be short of the demand1 and thence the price high1 provided some change does not take place in the structure of vessels1 or iron knees be adopted1 which are now sometimes used1 or vessels1 with the exception of the deck and rigging1 be formed of iron altogether1 which we have seen do very well in inland navigation4 ,as crooked round oak timber of the natural length is extremely unmanageable1 and its distant transport very expensive1 it is desirable that it be squared and cut in lengths suited to its ultimate use1 where grown4 ,this requires a thorough knowledge of the necessary curves1 to which the figs4 p4 #ai1 will afford considerable assistance4 ,however1 the superintendent of any extensive fall of naval timber either should be #cj a shipwright who has had practice in lining off timbers1 or should have passed several months in a dock-yard during the timbering of vessels1 observing every piece that is put to use4 ,as most part of the timbers of a vessel have their sides squared1 the cutter cannot err much in hewing away the sides in the plane of1 and at right angles to1 the curves1 at least as deep as the sap-wood reaches1 thus leaving only a little sap-wood on the angles2 the sap-wood1 in all cases 7except in those small craft used in carrying lime1 which preserves from rot71 being worse than useless2 by its decay not only weakening the vessel from the want of entireness of the timbers1 but also acting as a ferment to further corruption4 ,in our directions for obtaining curved and angular bent timbers1 we may be thought to have been a little too minute with the dimensions and figures3 under the hand of the shipwright1 or person of skill1 a tree of almost any possible bend cuts out to valuable purpose3 what is wanted is crooked timber1 free of large knots2--first and second foot-hooks and knees are1 however1 most in demand4 ,,endnotes ,,to ,,part ,i4 #d ,beech1 suited for plank1 is sometimes of more value when straight and of considerable length for the purposes of keel-pieces2 for this the log requires to be from #cj to #gj feet in length1 and at least of sufficient thickness at the small end to square a foot4 #e ,these directions are generally applicable--as well for what may be required for being bent for compass-timbers1 and for what may be used for land purposes1 as for plank4 #f ,there are several valuable varieties of apple-trees of acute branch angle1 which do not throw up the hark of the breeks2 this either occasions the branches to split down when loaded with fruit1 or1 if they escape this for a few years1 the confined bark becomes putrid1 and produces canker1 which generally ruins the tree4 ,we have remedied this by a little attention in assisting the rising of the bark with the knife4 ,nature must not be charged with the malformation of these varieties2 at least1 had she formed them1 as soon as she saw her error she would have blotted out her work4 #g ,commencing by times1 the greater part of training and pruning for plank1 excepting in the case of dead branches1 fractures1 and last pruning1 may be performed by a small knife4 #h ,we are not in possession of sufficient facts to judge of the effect to hasten or deter decay occasioned by the timber having been softened in hot liquids of #bab or upwards1 and not raised so high as to generate pyrolignous acid2 but we think it must impair the elasticity4 #i ,as excellent plank can be obtained by importation1 the grower of naval timber ought to regard the production of crooks as a more patriotic occupation than the production of plank4 ,it will generally pay better4 #ca ,,part ,,ii4 ,,british ,,forest ,,trees ,,used ,,as ,,naval ,,timber4 ,,oak--,quercus4 ,oak appears to be the most prevalent tree about the middle of the north temperate zone1 growing1 naturally1 upon almost every soil1 excepting some of the sterile sandy hats4 ,with the exception of the pines1 it is by far the most useful kind of tree1 almost balancing the accommodating figure of stem1 and manageable quality of the pine timber1 by its greater strength and durability1 and excelling the pines in value of bark4 ,it is not easy to determine whether there be distinct ,british species in the genus ,quercus2 but1 at least1 there are several breeds1 or families1 or grouped resemblances1 which1 though the individuals may slightly vary1 and though a gradation1 or connection1 may be traced among these families themselves1 yet possess general character sufficiently marked to support names4 ,botanists1 who are so prompt and so well prepared with their classes1 #cb orders1 genera1 species1 varieties1 long before they acquire much knowledge of what they are so ready to classify1 or be able to distinguish between species and variety1 or know if species and variety be really distinct1 divide the oak of this country into two species1 ,quercus ,robur and ,q4 sessiliflora1 the former with long fruit-stalks1 and hard1 strong1 durable timber1 the late leafing old kind once so prevalent in the island3 the latter an earlier leafing1 faster growing kind1 timber inferior1 leaves petiolate1 fruit sessile1 not common1 but supposed native4 ,we consider there is no foundation for this specific distinction2 we have met with oaks with various lengths of fruit-stalks3 ,besides1 short and long fruit-stalks is a very common difference among seedling varieties4 ,the families or breeds which we have observed in the indigenous oak resemble what are found among almost every kind of vegetable1 and graduate into each other1--those farthest removed in appearance1 no doubt having power to commix by the pollen4 ,the most remarkable distinction we have observed is in the colour of the bark1 whether inclining to white or black4 ,the variety or breed with grey white bark1 often very smooth and shining1 and sometimes beautifully clouded with green1 has also a different form of leaf and figure of top from those with #cc blackish bark1 and we have no doubt will also afford a different quality of timber4 ,those with blackish dingy bark vary considerably from each other1 some being of very luxuriant growth and heavy foliage1 with thick fleshy bark1 affording much tannin2 others1 though in favourable situation1 of stunted growth1 thin dry bark1 and delicate constitution1 often being nipped in the twigs by the frost3 some having a round easy figure of top1 even with pendulous branching1 others extremely stiff and angular in the branching2 some with the most elegant foliage1 deeply sinuated and finely waved1 others with the clumsiest1 most misshapen foliage1 almost as if opposite principles had presided at their forming4 ,we have observed the earlier kinds1 with the dark bark1 to have generally the easiest figure of top2 the angular branching and stiffness of figure of top being greatest in those sooty-barked late kinds1 most disposed to take two growths in the season1 the spring and autumnal1 which1 from the proneness of these kinds to be affected in the terminal bud by monstrosities1 and sometimes also to be nipped in the point of the unripened autumn shoot by the frost1 are generally thrown out in different directions1 the tree1 from these causes1 growing awkwardly and irregularly1 and by fits and starts4 ,besides the indigenous ,quercus ,robur1 we have #cd a number of kinds1 termed distinct species1 growing in ,britain1 of foreign derivation--the ,turkish oak1 ,quercus ,cerris2 the ,lucombe oak1 ,q4 sempervirens2 the scarlet-leaved ,american1 ,q4 coccinea2 the evergreen1 ,q4 ,ilex1 and several others4 ,the ,turkish and ,lucombe resemble each other1 but the latter generally continues green till the spring1 when the old leaves wither1 a little before the young appear3 ,botanists make them varieties4 ,we consider the ,turkish oak the most valuable and elegant of these foreign kinds4 ,the leaves are generally very long and slender1 deeply and widely sinuated1 and the teeth or salient angles sometimes undulated1 having a curled appearance2 yet there are some individuals with broad1 short1 flat leaves1 not differing in figure from those of the common oak1 but the tree in other respects not different from the ,turkish1 being easily distinguished from the common oak by the reddish hairy appearance of the developing shoot1 the scales of the bud having a hair-like extension1 visible in each leaf axilla4 ,the acorns are also bristled like echini1 with this scaly prolongation4 ,the timber is tough and clean1 resembling the white ,american1 and suitable for staves4 ,the stem and branches are generally very straight1 as the terminal bud seldom fails1 and the growing proceeds steadily1 without much autumnal shoot4 #ce ,as oaks run more hazard in transplanting than most other kinds of trees1 the greater care is necessary in procuring well-rooted1 short1 vigorous plants2 in having the soil free of stagnating water1 in timing and executing the work in a proper manner1 and in hoeing around the plant1 keeping the ground clean and friable on the surface during the first two or three seasons4 ,as young oaks grow much more vigorously under considerable closeness and shelter1 and as the plants are expensive1 it is proper to plant1 along with them1 a mixture of cheaper plants1 larches or other pines1 which also sooner come to be of a little value1 to be removed gradually as the young wood thickens up4 ,in bleak exposed situations1 it is well to plant the ground first with pines1 and when these attain a height of #f or #h feet1 to cut out a number1 not in lines1 but irregularly1 and plant the oaks in their stead1 gradually pruning and thinning away the remaining firs as the oaks rise4 ,in general1 pitting is preferable to slitting2 but when the plants are very small1 and the ground wet-bottomed 7with close subsoil71 liable to become honeycomby with frost1 slitting secures the plant better from being thrown out4 ,oak is by far the best adapted tree for hedge-row1 or for being grown by the sides of arable fields1 both #cf with respect to its own qualities1 and to the growth of the adjacent crops or hedge4 ,the bark is much thicker1 and more valuable in proportion to its bulk here1 than in close forest1 and the timber more crooked1 which is desiderated in oak1 but which unfits most other trees for much else than firewood4 ,the oak is1 besides1 as generally suited for the variety of soils which lines crossing a country in all directions must embrace3 this is matter of consideration1 as few planters have skill to locate a number of kinds properly4 ,it will also be thought1 by reason of ,british feeling1 the most interesting and ornamental2 nor is it to be overlooked1 that1 by the roots taking a more downward direction than other trees1 the plough has greater liberty to proceed around1 and the moisture and pabulum necessary to evaporation and growth are not drawn from the ground so superficially2 thence the minor plants adjacent do not suffer so much4 ,we have observed1 too1 that1 when all cause of injury by root suction was cut off by a deep ditch1 the undergrowth seemed less injured by shade of oak than of some other trees4 ,the apple and the pear only1 appear to be as little detrimental to the surrounding crop as the oak4 ,the ash1 the elm1 the beech1 in ,scotland the most general hedge-row trees1 are the most improperly located2 the ash and the #cg elm as being the most pernicious to the crops1 and the beech as being of little or no value grown in hedge-row4 ,in clays1 most kinds of trees1 particularly those whose roots spread superficially1 are more detrimental to the crop around than in the more friable earths1 owing to the roots in clays foraging at less depth1 and to the clay being a worse conductor of moisture than other earths4 ,the disadvantages attending the planting of hedge-row with oaks are1 that their removal is not in general so successful as that of other trees1 especially to this exposed dry situation1 and that the progress of the plant1 for a number of years1 is but slow2 and thus for a longer time liable to injury from cattle4 ,fair success may1 however1 be commanded1 by previously preparing the roots1 should the plants be of good size2 transplanting them when the ground is neither too moist nor too dry1 and in autumn1 as soon as the leaves have dropped or become brown1 particularly in dry ground2 performing the operation with the utmost care not to fracture the roots1 and to retain a considerable ball2 opening pits of considerable size for their reception1 much deeper than the roots1 and should a little water lurk in the bottom of the pit1 it will be highly beneficial1 provided none stagnate so high as the roots2 firming the earth well around the roots #ch after it is carefully shaken in among the fibres2 and1 especially1 keeping the surface of the ground1 within four feet of the plant1 friable and free from weeds1 by repeated hoeings during the first two or three summers4 ,of course1 if you suffer the plant to waver with the wind1 or to be rubbed and bruised by cattle1 or by the appendages of the plough1 it is folly to expect success4 ,on this account1 stout plants1 from #h to #ab feet high1 the branches more out of the way of injury1 may1 in sheltered situations1 under careful management1 be the most proper size4 ,much also depends on procuring sturdy plants from exposed situations4 ,we have experienced better success with hardy plants from the exposed side of a hill1 having unfibred carrot roots much injured by removal1 than with others from a sheltered morass1 having the most numerously fibred1 well extricated roots4 ,in cases1 where1 from the moistness and coldness of the ground in early summer1 there was a torpor of root suction1 and1 in consequence1 the developing leaves withering up under an arid atmosphere1 we have attempted to stimulate the root action by application of warm water1 covering up the surface of the ground with dry litter to confine the heat2 we have also endeavoured to encourage the root action by increasing the temperature of cold light-coloured soils1 by strewing soot #ci on the surface for a yard or two around the plant1 and by nearly covering a like distance by pieces of black trap rock1 from three to six inches in diameter4 ,the success from the pieces of trap appeared greatest2 they diminished the evaporation from the ground1 thence less loss of heat and of necessary moisture2 and being at once very receptive of radiant caloric1 and a good conductor1 they quickly raised the temperature of the soil in the first half of the summer1 when bodies1 from the increasing power of the sun1 are receiving much more heat by radiation than they are giving out by radiation4 ,the oak should never be pruned severely1 and this rule should be particularly observed when the tree is young4 ,we have known several of the most intelligent gardener-foresters in ,scotland err greatly in this2 and1 by exclusively pruning the oak plants1 from misdirected care1 throw them far behind the other kinds of timber with which they were mixed in planting4 ,there is no other broad-leaved tree which we have seen suffer so much injury in its growth1 by severe pruning1 as the oak4 ,the cause of this may be something of nervous susceptibility1 or connected life1 all the parts participating when one is injured2 it may be owing to the tendency to putrescency of the sap-wood1 or rather of the sap1 the part around the section often decaying1 especially #dj when the plant is not vigorous2 or it may arise from some torpor or restricted connection of the roots1 which1 when robbed of their affiliated branch1 do not readily forage or give their foraging to the support of the nearest remaining branch1 or to the general top of the tree1 but throw out a brush of twigs near the section4 ,although the oak often lingers in the growth while young1 yet1 after it attains to six inches or a foot in diameter1 its progress is generally faster than most other kinds of hard wood1 not appearing to suffer so much as others from excessive fruit-bearing4 ,the value of the timber1 and also of the bark1 and the slight comparative injury occasioned to the under crop1 whether of copse1 grass1 corn1 or roots1 independently of any patriotic motives1 or religious reverence lingering in our sensorium from the time of the ,druids1 should give a preference to this tree for planting1 wherever the soil and climate are suitable1 over every other kind1 with the exception of larch and willow1 which1 in particular soils1 will pay better4 ,the planter of oak should throw in a considerable proportion of ,turkish oak into the more favourable soils and situations4 ,the beautiful clustered1 fretted foliage of this species gives a richness1 and1 in winter1 when it retains the withered leaf1 a warmth of colouring to our young plantations beyond any other #da of our hardy trees and shrubs4 ,we have had this kind1 eighteen years old1 equal in size to larches of the same age in the same ground4 ,we cut down several of these oaks of about #h inches in diameter1 and compared the timber and bark with those of common oak of the same age4 ,the timber was clean1 very tough and flexible1 with much flash1 and we should suppose might suit for plank when matured2 at any rate1 from the splendid shew of the lamin 7flash71 it would form beautiful pannelling and furniture4 ,it shrunk1 however1 extremely while drying1 which must have been partly owing to the quick growing and youngness1 it thence consisting almost entirely of sap-wood1 and this sap-wood almost entirely of sap2 and1 when left in the sun in the round state1 after peeling1 rent nearly to splinters1--much more than the common oak under the same exposure4 ,the bark was about double the thickness and weight of that of the common oak of equal size1 and1 in proportion to its weight1 consisted much more of that cellular or granular substance most productive of tannin4 ,the varieties of common oak with thick bark are generally of inferior quality of timber2 but they are by far the finest1 most luxuriant growing trees1 with rich heavy foliage1 and appear as giants standing in the same row with #db the thin barked varieties1 though planted at the same time4 ,to the naturalist the oak is an object of peculiar interest1 from the curious phenomena connected with the economy of numerous insects who depend upon it for existence4 ,it would be tedious to describe the different apples1 galls1 excrescences1 tufts1 and other monstrosities which appear upon the oak4 ,it is something like enchantment6 ,these insects1 merely by a puncture and the deposition of an egg1 or drop of fluid1 turning ,nature from her law1 and compelling the ,genius of the ,oak to construct of living organized oak matter1 instead of leaves and twigs1 fairy domes and temples1 in which their embryo young may lie for a time enshrined4 ,,spanish ,,chestnut--,castanea vulgaris1 7,fagus ,castanea1 ,l47 ,spanish or sweet ,chestnut1 sometimes named ,chestnut ,oak1 sometimes included in the genus ,fagus1 seems at least a connecting link between ,quercus and ,fagus4 ,this valuable timber tree1 the largest growing1 and1 in many places1 also the most common in the south of ,europe1 and which was once so #dc abundant in ,england that many of the largest of our ancient piles are wooded of it1 has been for several ages much on the decrease in this country2 owing1 probably1 to a slight refrigeration of climate1 which1 during this period1 appears to have taken place1 preventing the ripening of the seed1 or1 in more rigorous winters1 following damp1 cold summers1 destroying all the young plants 7at least the part above ground71 whose succulent unripened shoots and more delicate general constitution1 from immatured annual round of life1 or imperfect concoction of juices1 have not power to withstand the severe cold sometimes occurring near the surface of the earth4 ,a very general destruction of the young plants of this kind of tree has occurred more than once within our memory from severe frost2 but as the climate1 a few years back1 rather improved1 and the spirit of planting became more general1 a considerable number of plants of this tree have attained height and hardihood to withstand the cold1 excepting in the points of the annual shoot1 which we notice are again nipped 7year #ahcj74 ,this may give encouragement to more extended planting1 as the tree is handsome1 and1 in most places1 where water does not abound nor stagnate1 acquires great size in comparatively short time4 ,it is said to prefer a gravelly or stone #dd rubble subsoil1 but we have seen it in rich clay1 in row with large beeches1 even exceed them in size4 ,we should prefer for it any deep friable dry soil4 ,there is one circumstance connected with this timber in this country1 at least in ,scotland1 which must prevent its general use in ship plank1 and be of material injury to it for ship timbers2 this is1 that few trees of it of size are found without the timber being shaky or split1 some to such a degree that the annual rings or concentric growths have separated from each other4 ,this appears to be owing to our climate being colder than what is suitable to the nature of the plant2 the sap in the stem possibly freezing in severe weather and splitting1 or severing the growths of the timber1 but more probably occasioned by the season being too short1 and too moist and cold1 to ripen or fill up with dense matter1 sufficiently1 the frame of the annual growths2 thence1 as each ring of sap-wood1 prematurely hastened by the torpor of moisture and cold1 turns to red or matured wood1 and1 in so doing1 dries considerably within the other rings of moist sap-wood1 the contractile force may be sufficient to separate this growth from the next external sap growth1 the cohesion existing between the tissue or fabric of the growth being much stronger than the cohesion between one #de growth and another4 ,the uncommon dryness of the matured wood1 and moistness of the sap-wood of this tree1 and smallness of the number of sap-wood rings1 commonly only from #b to #f in this country1 incline us to believe that this is the cause of the insufficiency or defect2 and that1 in a milder1 drier climate1 the sap-wood rings will be found to be more numerous1 and thus1 independent of a better first ripening1 affording a longer time for their cells to be more filled up with an unctuous matter 7which prevents the shrinking7 gradually deposited while they convey the sap1 the sap-wood rings being the part of the timber through which the sap circulates4 ,as proof of this unctuous deposit or filling up1 we observe that dry sap-wood imbibes moisture much quicker1 and in greater quantity1 than dry mature4 ,we think this premature maturity 7if we may so term it7 of timber in cold countries1 a general law4 ,our larch1 originally from the ,apennine1 has not more than one-third of the number of sap-rings of our ,scots fir1 indigenous in ,mar and ,rannoch mountains2 and our narrow-leafed1 or ,english elm1 said to have been introduced from the ,holy ,land in time of the ,crusades1 has not more than one-half of the number of our indigenous broad-leafed1 or ,scots elm4 ,from the sap-growths of ,laburnum1 #df scarcely exceeding in number those of the ,spanish chestnut1 we should suppose that it has been moved northward1 or that the proper climate has left it4 ,we have observed that moist1 or water-soaked ground1 has influence1 as well as climate1 to deprive the alburnum vessels sooner of their living functions1 inducing that torpor of tubes1 or semi-vital condition1 in which they only serve to support the more active parts1 and constitute what is called ,mature ,timber4 ,it is a general opinion that ,spanish chestnut soon takes rot in situations where the roots come in contact with water4 ,this appears to result from moist soil inducing the too early maturing of the timber already alluded to1 and occasioning shaky insufficient fabric1 which soon corrupts4 ,we have observed oaks which had fewer layers of sap-wood1 from growing in damp situations1 have the timber of inferior quality1 and sometimes of a shaky1 brownish description1 when cut across1 throwing out a dirty brownish liquid or stain4 ,from the use of the ,spanish chestnut in the ,spanish navy1 both in planking and timbering1 and from the roofing beams and ornamental work of ,westminster ,hall being also of this wood1 we should suppose it was not so liable to this defect of rents in #dg the timber in milder climates4 ,chestnut timber is a good deal similar to oak1 though not quite so reedy and elastic1 but is destitute of the large lamin or plates 7flash71 which1 radiating from the pith to the outside1 become so prominent to view in the oak when the longitudinal section is perpendicular to the outside1 in the plane of the lamin4 ,it is1 we should think1 as capable of supporting weight1 when stretching as a beam1 as the oak1 and is equally1 if not more durable1 many beams of it existing in very old buildings undecayed3 it is said even to have been taken out fresh where it had stood #fjj years as lintels4 ,earth stakes of it are also very durable4 ,it possesses one advantage over oak1 which must recommend it for ship-building1 that is1 having much less proportion of sap-wood2 and1 from the matured wood containing much less sap or moisture1 we should suppose it not so liable to dry rot1 or that more simple means1 or shorter period1 would suffice for seasoning it1 so as to be proof against this evil4 ,spanish chestnut is as yet little known among ,british shipwrights2 but were a quantity of it in the market free of the unsoundness we have alluded to1 its merits would soon become known4 ,the bark is used by tanners1 but is said not to equal that of oak4 #dh ,,beech-,,tree--,fagus sylvatica4 ,this hardy tree occupies fully as wide a range1 both of soil and climate1 as the oak1 and is generally the fastest growing1 most vigorous of all our hard-wood kinds1 prospering on all soils1 on the dry and moist1 the aluminous1 the calcareous1 the siliceous1 provided water does not stagnate4 ,it combines magnificence with beauty1 being at once the ,hercules and ,adonis of our ,sylva4 ,the timber of our beech1 while green1 is by far the hardest of our large growing trees1 and1 in the ,american forest1 the members of the beechen family match better than those of any other1 with the perseverance of the ruthless ,yankee2 the roots retaining the hardness deeper in the earth than those of any other tree1 and being so plaited and netted throughout the ground for a considerable space around the bulb1 that it is next to impossible to trench or dig over the soil till they have decayed4 ,as we have before stated1 the timber of the beech-tree soon corrupts if it is not speedily dried1 or kept in water after being cut down1 and is equally liable to corruption in the tree when deprived of life by wounds or other injury4 ,beech has a matured and sap wood1 although they are not very distinguishable1 being nearly of one colour4 ,the former has #di considerable durability when kept dry1 the latter is speedily consumed by worming4 ,the planter of beech should procure the kind#aj with yellow-coloured wood1 termed by joiners ,yellow ,beech1 in opposition to the kind with white wood1 called ,white ,beech4 ,the yellow grows faster and straighter1 and is cleaner and freer of black knots1 and also more pleasantly worked than the white1 but it corrupts much sooner in the bark when cut down4 ,this variety of beech1 when properly trained1 is probably the most profitable hard-wood that we can raise2 when planked1 it bends pleasantly under the shipwright to the curvature of the vessel's side4 ,the tree is also much superior in size and grace of outline to the white4 ,there are few planters who need be put in mind that beech of small size1 or of short or crooked stem1 is the least valuable of all timber4 ,whoever plants with a view to profit will1 therefore1 throw in only as many beech plants as may ultimately be required for standards1 and these in the bosom of plantations2 as it is seldom that beech attains to much value in hedge-row or on the outskirts of woods1 #ej from its proneness when so situated to ramify and grow crooked4 ,it is1 however1 quite possible1 with a little early attention1 to rear beech as straight and clean as to be valuable1 on the outskirts1 where it forms a beautiful fringe to the plantation1 and affords excellent shelter4 ,,elm--,ulmus4--,,broad-,,leaved1 ,,or ,,scotch1 or ,,wych ,,elm--,ulmus montana4 ,this beautiful and most graceful tree1 whose favourite locality is the damp1 deep1 accumulated soil1 free of stagnant water1 at the bottom of declivities1 is1 together with its sister1 the small-leaved kind1 the ,english elm1 when so situated1 the fastest growing of our hard-wood trees4 ,both delight in easy or gravelly soils1 though the small-leaved will also prosper in the more adhesive1 the alluvial and diluvial clays4 ,there are a number of kinds of elm growing in this country1 differing rather more from the common run of ,u4 montana and ,u4 campestris1 than what occurs among seedling varieties of untamed plants2 but as these have very probably a power of mingling by the pollen1 thence not specifically different1 we leave to #ea botanists to explain their nice peculiarities1 and think it sufficient to rank the whole under montana and campestris1 especially as the timber seems to range into two kinds--,montana1 with large leaves1 heavy annual shoots1 somewhat zig-zag1 thick towards the point1 thence drooping a little from gravity2 having much sap-wood1 and timber of great longitudinal toughness1 but1 from the great quantity of sap-wood1 and want of lateral adhesion1 it splits considerably in drying2--,campestris1 with smaller leaves1 more numerous straight annual shoots1 which are small towards the point1 thence more erect1 has but little sap-wood1 and the timber also possessing greater lateral adhesion1 and less longitudinal1 it does not crack much in drying4 ,we have noticed one broad leaved kind or variety1 whose annual twigs often spring out in tufts or knots from one point2 this seems to arise from the shoot of the preceding year sometimes dying1 probably nipped by frost1 and the tuft of shoots springing out from the knot at the lower extremity of the dead twig4 ,from this cause1 it has not the graceful easy spread of branches of the ,u4 montana1 but assumes a more angular1 stiff1 upright figure4 ,we have heard this named ,dutch ,elm1 but it does not quite correspond with the elm in the parks at ,london said to be ,dutch4 ,we consider it a kind #eb not very nearly allied to ,u4 montana1 yet the above peculiarity of appearance may only arise from individual tenderness1 and may not be accompanied by other difference of character4 ,the elm1 more especially the broad-leaved ,scotch elm1 has a peculiar fan-like sloping-to-one-side spread of branches1 most perceptible while young2 hence the tree when grown up1 has generally a slight bending in the stem1 which renders it very fitting for floor-timbers of vessels1 the only part of a ship1 excepting bottom plank1 to which it is applicable1 as it soon decays above water4 ,its great toughness and strength1 however1 render it good floors4 ,there are some kinds of foreign elm which deserve attention4 ,some time ago we planted several of these1 and lately cut down one of about six inches diameter1 which we found a great deal harder and stronger timber than our ,u4 montana4 ,we had this kind under the name of the ,broad-leaved ,american4 ,the bark was rather lighter in colour1 and smoother1 than ,u4 montana2 the leaves were rough and large1 and the annual shoots extremely luxuriant2 but1 probably owing to climate1 or difference of circumstance1 the exposed situation where we had it growing being very unlike the close ,american forest1 it did not carry up its vigour of growing into #ec the top1 although the top was healthy1 but continued throwing out numerous annual shoots1 five or six feet long1 from the bulb and side of stem1 which disposition we did not succeed in correcting by pruning4 ,this did not seem to arise from grafting1 as some of the shoots broke out higher up than the graft must have been1 and there was no difference between the lower and upper shoots4 ,u4 montana1 when come to some size1 on the primary branches being lopped off1 like the oak1 often throws out a brush of twigs from the stem1 and these twigs impeding the transit of the sap1 the brush increases1 and the stem thickens considerably1 in consequence of a warty-like deposit of wood forming at the root of the twigs4 ,this excrescence1 when of size1 after being carefully seasoned in some cool moist place1 such as the north re-entering angle of a building1 exposed to the chipping from the roof1 forms a richer veneer for cabinet-work than any other timber4 ,this disposition to form brush and excrescence might be given by art to almost any kind of tree1 excepting the conifer and beech1 and might be made a source of considerable profit4 ,this could easily be effected by slitting1 pricking1 and bruising the bark at certain periods of the season4 ,a very beautiful waved timber might also be formed by #ed twisting the stems of trees tight up with round ropes1 the screw circles of the rope not being quite close to each other2 the ropes to remain several seasons1 then to be kept off for a season or two1 and again applied4 ,the practice of forming warty excrescences might be combined with that of forming wavy fibres1 with the finest effect4 ,of course1 those trees with timber of rich colour1 and susceptible of high polish1 would be the most suitable for undergoing this process4 ,u4 campestris also throws out a brush1 but from the great inferiority of the timber in beauty1 and from its unfitness for cabinet-work1 it would be useless to encourage it by art4 ,some plants of montana1 not covered with brush1 have a curious unevenness 7laced appearance7 of the timber in the stem1 which renders it a beautiful cabinet plank4 ,,narrow-,,leaved ,,or ,,english ,,elm--,ulmus campestris4 ,there are few ,scotchmen1 as they migrate southward1 who have failed to remark the tame subdued appearance of the landscape of the middle and south of ,england1 where a number of straggling tufted-headed poles1 along with windmill towers1 occupy #ee the horizon4 ,these straggling1 tall1 tufted poles1 stuck in1 perpendicular to the flat surface1 are composed of living narrow-leaved elm-trees1 which the perseverance of the peasantry in quest of billets1 has reduced to this condition4 ,some varieties of this elm1 however1 when uncurtailed in lateral expansion1 attain the grandest development1 stretching forth a hundred giant arms aloft1 supporting masses of foliage1 fantastically magnificent4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,london1 this tree is attacked by an insect1 which1 running along the outside of the timber1 within the bark1 in a few seasons deprives the individual of life1 the bark peeling off in large girdles1 threatening to bereave this capital of the finest ornaments of its parks4 ,we have observed1 in different kinds of growing trees1 such as the apple and oak1 the roads of insects traversing between the rhind and wood1 although the individual thus affected appeared to suffer little or no injury2 and we consider the agency of the insect in the destruction of the ,english elm around ,london to be merely sequent to disease--perhaps a taint of corruption1 or slight putrescency of the sap1 occasioned by the impurities of the ,london air1 assisted by the hard beaten state of the ground#aa above the roots4 ,should #ef any one examine the inside of the bark of a cut tree1 when corruption has just begun with the bark1 and see how thoroughly it is undermined by insects1 he will1 we think1 admit the strong probability1 that the insect is only subordinate in the destruction of those fine old elms around ,london4 ,we do not wonder at the condition of the trees--it would not surprise us if the human race in ,london were swept off by some similar secondary cause4 ,the small-leaved elm has great disposition to spread by suckers from the roots1 and thus extended has become very prevalent throughout most parts of ,england1 in the broad wastes 7termed fences71 which1 from the indolent husbandry1 consequent to tithes and the want of leases1 generally surround the pasture and corn fields1 but which are so necessary to these unvaried plains1 as some prominent object1 or characteristic land-mark1 on which the amor patri of the population may perch2 the finest remembrances and associations of youth being mixed up with these bushy flower-covered enclosures4 ,it is with country as with society1 strong lasting #eg attachment occurs only where there is individuality of character to give distinctness of image4 8,oh6 how should ,i my true love know1 ,from many other one80 ,there is design and utility in this fascination of peculiarity4 ,if individual distinction be but strongly marked1 it signifies little of what character4 ,love of country often hangs upon features of the harshest and most fearful description1 with which the associations and feelings become entwisted1 as attachment to individual is often rivetted by fierce1 austere1 or even morose qualities4 ,the narrow-leaved elm is valuable for forming the blocks and dead-eyes#ab1 and other wooden furniture of rigging1 being particularly suitable for these purposes1 from its hard and adhesive nature1 and indisposition to crack or split1 when exposed to sun and weather4 ,we have observed many minor distinctions1 perhaps individual1 in the above kinds of elm1 in figure1 size and smoothness of leaf1 in colour and roughness #eh of bark1 c4 ,some varieties or individuals of the ,english elm have the bark of the young twigs and branches covered with corky ridges3 others want this excrescence4 ,,redwood ,,willow1 or ,,stag',s ,,head ,,ozier1--,salix fragilis#ac4 ,this kind of willow1 once very common in the alluvial parts of ,scotland1 before the introduction of ,salix alba1 ,s4 ,russelliana1 c41 is probably the most profitable timber that can be planted in such soils4 ,it was our district's maxim1 that 8the willow will purchase the horse before any other timber purchase the saddle10 on account of its very quick growth1 and the value of its timber4 ,it delights in #ei the rich easy clay by the sides of our pows 7the old ,scottish term for those sluggish natural drains of our alluvial districts71 throwing out its fibril roots in matted-like abundance under the water3 it also flourishes in the more sandy and gravelly alluvion1 by the sides of rivers and streams1 which does not become too dry in summer4 ,this tree1 similar to some others which1 like it1 are continued by cuttings or layers1 is1 in certain seasons1 especially when of considerable size1 subject to a derangement in the sap-concoction1 which leads to the death of some of its more recent parts1 particularly the uppermost branches2 whence its withered top sometimes assumes the appearance of a stag's head of horns1 which1 from the indestructibility of these dead branches1 it retains for many years2 new branches springing out from the sides1 of much luxuriance4 ,this disease1 similar to canker in the genus ,pyrus1 is generally concentrated to certain places of the bark and alburnum1 the portion of branch above these places thence withering1 the connection with the root being cut off2 though sometimes the points of the twigs appear to be nipped1 without any previous disease4 ,from these affections1 and also on account of the branches and stem being often rifted by the winds1 the tree is frequently found with rot #fj in the stem1 when it has stood long4 ,it agrees in this with the larch1 that1 though its timber1 when cut down1 or withered and dried1 as on the top of the tree1 is little liable to corruption1 yet it is very subject to it1 as part of the stem of the living tree1 perhaps under certain circumstances of semi-vitality4 ,to determine whether this tree1 raised from seed1 would be liable to these disorders1 the same as when continued by slips1 would be an interesting1 though tedious1 experiment4 ,we never have seen any young seed-plants rise around old trees4 ,the use of the red wood willow1 as timbers of vessels1 has been of long standing in this part of ,scotland1 and has proved its long endurance1 and excellent adaptation4 ,by reason of its lightness1 pliancy1 elasticity1 and toughness1 it is1 we think1 the best1 without exception1 for the formation of small fast-sailing war-vessels4 ,we are pretty certain that our ,navy ,board would not have cause to regret trial of it in a long1 low1 sharp schooner1 of sufficient breadth to stand up under great press of sail1 moulded as much as possible to combine great stability with small resistance from the water1 and when in quick motion to be buoyant--especially not to dip forward1--provided it could be procured not too old1 and free from rot1 large knots1 and cross-grain2 a very #fa little attention in the cultivation would afford it of the finest bends1 and clean and fresh4 ,our ,navy ,board have received some slight teaching from our transatlantic brethren1 of the superior sailing of fir-constructed vessels1 to those of oak1 the result of their superior lightness1 pliancy1 and elasticity4 ,the writer of this has also had experience of two vessels1 one of oak1 and the other of larch1 on the same voyages1 at the same time1 and has found the latter superior in sailing to the former1 in a degree greater than the difference of build could account for4 ,from the superior elasticity and lightness of the willow1 even to larch1 the lightest and most elastic of the fir-tribe1 we should expect that vessels of it would outstrip those of fir1 at least of ,scots or red pine1 as much as the latter do those of oak2 and that1 from this greater elasticity and lightness1 they would move through the water1 yielding to the resistance and percussions of the waves1 compared to those of oak1 as a thing of life to a dead block4 ,for vessel-timbers1 this wood requires to be used alone2 as1 when mixed with other kinds less pliant or elastic1 the latter have to withstand nearly all the impetus or strain1 and are thence liable to be broken1 or from the vessel yielding more at one place than another1 she is apt to strain and become leaky4 #fb ,some years ago1 when demolishing an old building which had stood fully a century1 the writer found the large frames of the building1 or ground couples1 which1 from their situation1 could not have been renewed1 to consist of this timber2 and1 with the exception of the outside1 which was so much decayed1 for about half an inch in depth1 as the finger could pick it away1 the body of the wood was as fresh as at first1 still fit for any purpose1 and of a beautiful pink or salmon colour4 ,when we observed the mouldering exterior of these pieces1 we laid one of the smallest hollow over a log1 and struck it with a large wooden mallet1 not doubting that it would go to fragments2 such1 however1 was the resilience1 that the mallet rebounded so greatly as almost to leap from our hands4 ,for country purposes1 red-wood willow is employed in the construction of mill water-wheels1 of the body or hoarding of carts1 especially of lining of carts employed in the carriage of stones1 or of any utensil requiring strong1 tough1 light1 durable boarding4 ,formerly1 before the introduction of iron-hoops for cart-wheels1 the external rim or felloe was made of willow2 when new1 the cart or wain was driven along a road covered with hard small gravel 7in preference1 gravel somewhat angular71 by which means #fc the felloe shod itself with stone1 and thus became capable of enduring the friction of the road for a long time1 the toughness and elasticity of the willow retaining the gravel till the stone was worn away4 ,under much exposure to blows and friction1 this willow outlasts every other home timber4 ,when recently cut1 the matured wood is slightly reddish1 and the sap-wood white4 ,when exposed to the air and gradually dried1 both are of salmon colour1 and scarcely distinguishable from each other4 ,willow-bark is used in tanning2 it also contains a bitter1 said to be febrifuge4 ,,red-,,wood ,,pine--,pinus4 ,this tribe of the order ,conifer1 at once the most useful1 and the most plentifully and widely extended over the ,north temperate zone--that portion of the earth more congenial to man1 and which contains about four-fifths of his numbers1 has a similitude of character and qualities more distinguishable by one glance of the eye than by laboured description4 ,it consists of a number of kinds1 which again divide into families and individuals perceptibly different from each other4 ,the following are those whose timber is best known to us3 #fd ,scots fir1 or ,norway pine1 ,pinus sylvestris4 ,pinaster1 ,pinus ,pinaster4 ,canadian red ,pine#ad 7foreign71 99 99 99 99 ,pitch pine 7foreign71 99 99 99 99 ,and1 though a little more distinct1 ,yellow ,american1 or ,weymouth ,pine1 ,pinus ,strobus4 ,very little observation will distinguish these from the next useful great tribe of the ,conifer with white wood1 the ,spruces and ,silver ,firs--,abies4 ,there are a number of foreign kinds of pine1 some of great promise1 recently introduced into ,britain1 but of whose adaptation for ship-building we cannot speak4 ,samples of the timber of ,p4 laricio1 ,p4 tda1 ,p4 cembra1 ,p4 maritima1 ,p4 rigida1 c4 of ,british growth1 may1 however1 soon be had of sufficient size for experiment4 ,the common ,scots fir is the only pine of ,british growth which has been employed as a naval timber2 for which purpose1 however1 since the last peace1 and the introduction of our larch1 it is in very little demand4 ,an acute botanist1 ,mr ,g4 ,don of ,forfar1 a number of years ago1 gave a description of the varieties of cultivated ,scots fir which had come under his notice4 ,the following is an abstract of his observations3 #fe 8,varieties of ,pinus sylvestris4 8,var4 #ast4 ,the common variety1 well known by its branches forming a pyramidal head1 the leaves marginated1 of dark-green colour1 but little glaucous underneath1 the cones being considerably elongated and tapering to the point1 and the bark of the trunk very rugged4 ,this variety seems short-lived1 becoming soon stunted in appearance4 8,var4 #b;d1 ,distinguishable from the former by disposition of branches1 which are remarkable for horizontal disposition and tendency to bend downwards close to the trunk4 ,the leaves are broader than var4 #ast1 and serrulated1 not marginated2 leaves are distinguishable at a distance by their much lighter and beautiful glaucous colour1 the bark not so rugged as var4 #ast1 and the cones thicker and not so much pointed1 and also smoother4 ,this tree seems a hardy plant1 growing freely in many soils3 this variety may be named ,pinus horizontalis4 ,var4 #ast1 much more general than var4 #b;d1 and also sooner comes to seed1 which is also easier gathered from the position of the branches4 8,var4 #c;d1 ,is of a still lighter colour than var4 #b;d1 being of a light glaucous hue1 approaching to a silvery tint2 its branches form1 like var4 #ast1 a pyramidal head1 but it differs remarkably in its cones from #ff both the former varieties2 the cones of this seem beset with blunt prickles bent backwards1 the leaves serrulated4 ,this variety is rather more common than var4 #b;d2 like it1 it is a good tree4 8,var4 #dth1 ,the leaves somewhat curled or rather twisted1 and much shorter than the others3 this variety is very rare40 ,our observation does not go to confirm these subdivisions4 ,we think they are little more distinct than the fair1 the red#ae1 the black haired1 the fair1 the sallow1 the brown complexioned1 the tall1 the short1 of the same community or even family of men4 ,there is variation and individuality more or less strongly marked in all kinds of organized beings3 at least those vegetables which have exposed fructification possess it2 many whose fructification is secluded also possess it2 and the others of more constant character1 such as some of the ,gramine1 with a little art 7removing their anthers before the pollen bursts forth1 and applying the pollen of others as near to them in the chain of life as can be found to be different1 or changing the circumstances by culture71 can also be rendered equally #fg variable4 ,these minor distinctions or individualities of vegetables become more perceptible as our observation closes in upon the object4 ,we have never yet found one individual apple plant1 raised from seed1 to be the counterpart of another2 but differing even in every part and habit1 in bud1 leaf1 flower1 fruit1 seed1 bark1 wood1 root2 in luxuriance of growth2 in hardihood2 in being suited for different soils and climates1 some thriving in the very moist1 others only in the dry2 in the disposition of the branches1 erect1 pendulous1 horizontal2 in earliness and comparative earliness of leaf1 of flower1 of fruit4 ,we hope the above remarks will not be lost on those who have the management of the sowing1 planting1 and thinning of woods1 and that they will always have selection in view4 ,although numerous varieties are derived from the seed of one tree1 yet if that tree be of a good breed1 the chances are greatly in favour of this progeny being also good4 ,scots fir of good variety will thrive and reach considerable size and age1 in almost any soil which is not very moist1 or very arid and barren 7such as our sand and gravel flats much impregnated with iron or other deleterious mineral71 provided the plants from their earliest years have room to throw out and retain a sufficiency of side branches4 ,this is especially necessary to their health where the soil is #fh ungenial1 the resulting vigour often overcoming the disadvantages4 ,from the pine being found chiefly in the light sandy districts on the continent of ,europe1 and in the sandy pine barrens of ,america1 an idea has gone abroad that these barren districts are more congenial to it than the more clayey1 the more rocky1 or the richer vegetable mould2 but its natural location in the barren sandy districts results from its being more powerful in this soil than any other plant of the country1 not from preference of this soil4 ,should any one doubt of this1 let him take a summer excursion to ,mar ,forest1 where no other tree having been in competition with ,pinus sylvestris1 and where it is spread over the hill and the dale1 he will observe that it prospers best in good timber soil1 and though comparatively preferring an easy soil1 and having superior adaptation to thin or rocky ground1 that its taste does not differ very materially from that of the plane or the elm1 the oak or the ash4 ,in ,mar ,forest he will also observe 7if they be not now all cut down7 several well marked individuals of the splatch pine1 esteemed a very valuable and hardy kind2 and with the right which a botanist has in a plant sown by nature1 he may bear off some of the seeds1 and endeavour to spread this rare indigenous kind throughout the island4 ,should he be unsuccessful in finding these at ,mar1 he may return #fi by ,kenmore1 where1 on the side of the hill on the right bank of the ,tay1 near the confluence of the ,lyon1 he will find several trees1 we think five1 of this kind of pine1 of considerable size1 growing at one place1 apparently planted3 we were told the plants had been brought down from the natural forest farther up on the mountains4 ,these are sufficiently distinct in character from the common ,scots fir growing around1 having a horizontal1 straggling disposition of branches1 the leaves being of a much lighter1 different shade of green1 and more tufted1 and the bark of a yellower red1 so as to merit a distinct name2 and we should consider ,pinus horizontalis as descriptive as any other1 if it shall not appear to be only a sub-species of ,p4 sylvestris4 ,the descriptive name splatch fir1 is from the prominences of the rugged bark not being in longitudinal ridges or flutes1 but in detached flat oblong lumps1 such as soft clay or mud takes when cast with force upon a wall4 ,we1 however1 do not think this the same as ,mr ,,don's var4 #b;d1 at least we have noticed in our lowland woods raised by planting1 such as ,mr ,,don examined1 individuals here and there having less or more resemblance to his described varieties1 but none of them approaching the distinctness of this alpine ,scots fir4 ,the proprietors of this kind of pine will confer a benefit on the public by causing the timber #gj be examined and compared with that of trees of equal size of the common ,scots fir growing near1 and making a public report of the number and size of annual growths1 the number of these of matured and of sap wood1 the comparative strength1 density1 quantity of resinous deposit1 hardness1 c4 ,the ,pinaster is a valuable kind of red-wood pine1 with strong resinous timber1 and from not having one-half the number of sap-wood layers of the common ,scots fir1 we should consider it deserving attention as a naval timber2 but perhaps the small number of sap-layers is from want of climate3 owing to the branches being larger1 and1 in proportion to their size1 being joined to the stem with a larger swell than those of ,p4 sylvestris1 the timber is rougher with larger knots4 ,in the very barren sand and gravel district near ,christchurch1 scarcely affording sustenance to lichens1 and where even heaths will not grow1 we have observed this tree make considerable progress1 and outstrip the ,scots fir in growth4 ,the ,canadian ,red ,pine has been employed to a considerable extent in this country1 both as planking and spars4 ,it is inferior in strength and durability to the ,baltic red pine1 and would seldom make its appearance on this side the ,atlantic while the ,baltic was open to us1 did not a very ill advised #ga duty obstruct the supply of the better article4 ,this timber is sometimes supplied with a good character by the shipwright1 as it is soft1 pliant1 and easily worked4 ,the ,canadian red pine has a greater number of layers of sap-wood than any other red pine we are acquainted with2 we have repeatedly counted #ajj sap-wood layers4 ,we have never seen this kind of pine growing in ,britain4 ,the most common ,american pine1 with yellow timber1 ,pinus strobus1 has been introduced for a long time back into ,britain1 it is said first by the ,earl of ,weymouth1 thence sometimes named ,weymouth ,pine4 ,this rather elegant tree requires a warm sheltered situation1 as it is easily torn down by wind1 from the weakness of the timber1 which is inferior in hardness and strength to any other pine we are acquainted with2 and from its slender needle leaf not having substance to withstand the evaporation of much exposure4 ,altogether1 the kind appears rather out of climate in ,britain1 and1 though the monarch of the pines in ,canada1 holds here but a very subordinate place4 ,although extremely tender and light1 the matured timber does not soon decay when cut out thin and exposed to wind and weather1 nor worm when kept dry in houses2 but when employed in shipbuilding1--remaining always between the moist #gb and dry1 the condition most favourable to putrefaction1 and surrounded by a close1 warm1 putrid atmosphere1--it very soon1 especially in masses1 becomes corrupted4 ,it requires more time to season or dry in the deal than any other wood1 owing to the fineness of fibre1 smallness of pores1 and want of density4 ,from this quality of parting with its moisture with extreme slowness1 it forms convenient deck-planking for vessels on tropical stations1 or when employed in carriage of unslacked lime1 as the plank does not readily shrink and become leaky under the great evaporation occasioned by the heat and arid air4 ,yellow pine has generally about #dj growths of sap-wood4 ,we have had no acquaintance with ,american pitch pine as a growing tree4 ,as a timber1 it is superior in several respects to all the others1 having a great deal more resinous matter1 so much1 as often to render it semitranslucent4 ,it is strong and weighty1 and is used as a naval timber for most of the purposes to which other pine timber is applied4 ,it forms the very best bottom planking4 ,the shipwrights of the docks at ,devonport will attest its quality1 as the bottom planking of the ,gibraltar of #hj guns3 this vessel carried home to ,england from the ,mediterranean1 a piece of coral rock of about ten tons weight sticking in her bottom1 her preservation #gc in all probability resulting from the adhesive quality of this timber4 ,its great weight is1 however1 a considerable inconveniency attending its use as spars1 and the abundance of resin1 we should think1 would unfit it for tree-nails2 resinous tree-nails1--probably from some derangement of the structure or disposition to chemical change produced in the resin by the very great pressure of the hard driving1--soon corrupting and infecting the adjacent wood4 ,in some cases we have also known very resinous ,baltic plank decay soon in vessels4 ,the pitch pine1 from the quantity of resin1 contracts little in drying1 at least for a long time1 till the resin itself begins to dry up4 ,it forms the best house-floors we have seen1 being strong and durable1 continuing close at joinings1 and the fibre not readily taking in moisture when washed4 ,our red-wood pine1 when come to some age1 is in wet ground attacked by rot1 which commences in the bulb and adjacent roots and stem1 in a manner very similar to the rot in larch4 ,the red-wood also approaches nearer to the outside where this rot exists1 and on the side of the tree where the rot is greatest4 ,most of our planted red pine forest1 especially in poor wet tills1 and in all flat sandy moorish ground of close subsoil1 fall by decay at from #cj to #fj years old4 ,this decay is gradual1 owing to the #gd difference in strength of constitution of the individuals4 ,closeness of rearing and consequent tall nakedness of stem1 and disproportion of leaves to stem1 would alone induce this in a few years longer even in good soil1 excepting perhaps in protected narrow dells2 but the decay commences much sooner when the soil is unfavourable1 and is no doubt accelerated by the mode of extracting the seeds by kiln-drying the cones1 and by using a weak variety of the plant4 ,the approach of this decay may often be noticed1 several years previous1 in the saw-cross section of the stem mid-way up the tree--an irregular portion of the section appearing of a different shade1 from breaking off free and irregular before the teeth of the saw1 and not having so much fibrous cover as the healthy part4 ,when ,scots fir rises naturally1 it is not nearly so subject to this decay even in very inferior soils3 the plants having generally much more room from the first1 do not rise so tall1 have more branch in proportion to stem1 thence are more vigorous4 ,the cones not being injured by kiln-drying1 may also account for this4 ,the fact that the red pine in ,scotland has fewer sap-wood layers than the red pine of ,memel or of ,north ,america1 and also the fact that1 in most situations in ,scotland1 the red pine soon #ge decays--soonest in the places where the trees have fewest sap-wood layers1 and where the timber has been planted1 that is1 where the cones have been kiln-dried--is worthy of notice4 ,scots red pine has generally from #ae to #dj layers1 ,memel from #dj to #ej1 ,canadian often #ajj4 ,we consider the long moist open winter and cold ungenial spring in ,scotland1 and the till bottoms soaking with water1 perhaps aided by the transplanting1 and the kiln-drying of the cones1 to be the cause of this early loss of vitality or change of sap-wood into matured4 ,in ,poland and ,prussia1 the earth does not remain so long cold and moist as in ,scotland1 but is either frozen or sufficiently warm and dry2--this occurs even to a greater degree in ,canada#af1 and neither the ,memel nor ,canadian have any chance of being planted or kiln-dried4 ,,white ,,larch--,larix communis1 7,l4 pyramidalis74 ,white ,larch is a timber tree combining so many advantages1 its properties so imperfectly known1 of #gf so recent introduction1 and of such general culture1 7about #aj1jjj1jjj plants being sold annually from the nurseries of the valley of the ,tay alone71 that any accurate notice of its history1 its habitudes1 and uses1 must possess an interest sufficient to arrest the attention of every one1 from the statesman and economist down to the mere lord and the squire4 ,we shall therefore devote to it a little more of our attention than we have bestowed on those already treated of4 ,larch is scattered over a considerable part of the northern hemisphere1 inhabiting nearly the same regions with the other ,conifer4 ,white larch1 the kind#ag common in ,britain1 is found growing extensively on the alpine districts of the south of ,europe1 in ,italy1 ,switzerland1 ,sardinia2 this may be termed the ,european temperate species4 ,another1 native to the country around ,archangel1 and extending from #gg ,norway eastward through ,russia and ,siberia1 of inferior size1 may be styled the ,european ,hyperborean4 ,north ,america1 like the old world1 is said to possess a temperate and hyperborean species4 ,the first1 ,black ,larch 7,l4 pendula71 more generally extending along the longitudinal parallel of the ,united ,states2 the other1 ,red ,larch 7,l4 microcarpa71 along that of ,lower ,canada and ,labrador4 ,we have seen the ,american temperate attain #ah inches in diameter in ,scotland1 but it is much inferior in figure and growth1 and also cleanness of timber1 to the ,appenine or ,european temperate1 being covered with knots and protuberances4 ,though rough1 the timber is said to be of excellent quality4 ,it is now upwards of #hj years since the larch1 so common in ,britain1 was brought from the ,appenines to ,strath-,tay4 ,the rapidity of its growth and striking novelty of appearance1 assisted by the influence of the family of ,athole 7to a female of which some say we owe its first introduction71 soon attracted general attention3 it quickly spread over the neighbouring country1 and was planted in every variety of soil and situation1 from the unfitness of which1 in most places of the low country1 it is already fast decaying4 ,about #dj years ago it began to be planted in many parts of ,britain4 ,it is now introduced into almost every new plantation in the two islands1 and #gh the space of country covered by its shade is extending with a rapidity unparalleled in the history of any other ligneous plant4 ,larch is generally conceived to be an alpine#ah plant1 and its decay in the low country attributed to situation or climate4 ,this idea seems to have arisen from its locality in ,italy1 and from observing it succeed so well in our alpine districts1 not taking into account that the soil is different1--that it may be the soil of these districts which conduces to the prosperity of the larch1 and not the altitude4 ,throughout ,scotland1 wherever we have observed the decay1 it appeared to have resulted almost solely from unsuitableness of soil4 ,we have witnessed it as much diseased on our highest trap hills1 #ajjj feet in altitude1 as on a similar soil at the base4 ,yet the freeness from putrescency or miasma of the pure air of the mountain1 #gi and deficiency of putrescent matter in the ground1 or other more obscure agencies connected with primitive ranges1 may have some influence to counterbalance unsuitableness of soil4 ,it is not probable that the coolness and moisture of altitude would be necessary in ,scotland to the healthy growth of a vegetable which flourishes under ,italian suns1 on the general level of the ,appenine and on the ,sardinian hills4 ,the rot1 so general in growing larch1 though sometimes originating in the bulb or lower part of the stem1 seems to have its commencement most frequently in the roots4 ,thence the corruption proceeds upwards along the connecting tubes or fibres into the bulb1 and gradually mounts the stem1 which1 when much diseased1 swells considerably for a few feet above the ground1 evidently from the new layers of sap-wood forming thicker to afford necessary space for the fluids to pass upward and downward--the matured wood through which there is no circulation approaching at this place within one or two annual layers of the outside4 ,in a majority of cases1 the rot commences in the roots which have struck down deepest into the earth1 especially those under the stool2 these having been thrown to a considerable depth by the young plant1 as the tree enlarges1 are shut out from aration1 c4 by the #hj superior increasing stool and hard-pressed earth underneath it2 this earth at the same time becoming exhausted of the particular pabulum of the plant4 ,it is1 therefore1 quite probable1 from these parts of the roots being the weakest1 that they will be most susceptible of injury from being soaked in stagnant water in the flat tills#ai1 starved during droughts in light sand1 tainted by the putrid vapours of rich vegetable mould1 or poisoned by the corrosive action of pernicious minerals4 ,it may also be supposed that these smothered sickly roots1 not possessing sufficient power or means of suction 7endosmose71 will be left out in the general economy of vegetation of the plant1 thence lose vitality1 and become corrupt4 ,but this affords no explanation why the larch roots1 under these circumstances1 are more liable to corruption than those of other trees1 or how the bulb itself should become contaminated4 #ha ,we have cut off the top1 where the diameter of the section was about three inches1 from sound young larch trees1 and found a similar rot proceed downwards in a few months from the section1 as rises from the diseased roots in improper soil4 ,there is something favourable to the quick progress of this rot in the motion of the sap1 or vitality of the tree2 as1 under no common circumstances1 would the wood of a cut larch tree become tainted in so short a time4 ,the rot1 though most general in trees which are chilled in wet cold tills1 or starved in dry sand1 or sickly from any other cause1 is also often found to take place in the most luxuriant growing plants in open situations1 branched to the ground1 and growing in deep soil free from stagnating water4 ,there must1 therefore1 be some constitutional tendency to corruption in the larch1 which is excited by a combination of circumstances2 and we must limit our knowledge for the present to the fact1 that certain soils1 perhaps slightly modified by other circumstances1 produce sound1 and others unsound larch1 without admitting any general influence from altitude1 excepting in so far as its antiseptic influence may go4 ,the fitness of soil for larch seems to depend more especially upon the ability the soil possesses of affording an equable supply of moisture2 that is1 upon its #hb mechanical division1 or its powers of absorption or retention of moisture2 and its chemical composition would seem only efficacious as conducive to this4 ,soils and subsoils#bj may be divided into two classes4 ,the first1 where larch will acquire a size of from #cj to #cjj solid feet1 and is generally free of rot2 the second1 where it reaches only from #f to #bj feet solid1 and in most cases becomes tainted with rot before #cj years of age4 ,,class ,i4 ,,soils ,,and ,,subsoils ,,for ,,larch4 ,sound rock1 with a covering of firm loam1 particularly when the rock is jagged or cloven1 or much dirupted and mixed with the earth4--,in such cases1 a very slight covering or admixture of earth will suffice4 ,we would give the preference to primitive rock1 especially micaceous schist and mountain limestone4 ,larch seldom succeeds well on sandstone or on trap1 except on steep slopes1 where the rock is quite sound and the soil firm4 #hc ,fully the one half of ,scotland1 comprehending nearly all the alpine part1 consists of primary rock1 chiefly micaceous schist and gneiss4 ,these rocks are generally less decayed at the surface1 better drained1 and fuller of clefts and fissures containing excellent earth 7especially on slopes71 into which the roots of trees penetrate and receive healthy nourishment1 than the other primitive and transition rocks1 granite1 porphyry1 trap1 or the secondary and tertiary formations of nearly horizontal strata1 red and white sandstone1 c4 ,primary strata are generally well adapted for larch1 except where the surface has acquired a covering of peat-moss1 or received a flat diluvial bed of close wet till or soft moorish sand1 or occupies a too elevated or exposed situation--the two latter exceptions only preventing the growth1 not inducing rot4 ,gravel1 not too ferruginous1 and in which water does not stagnate in winter1 even though nearly bare of vegetable mould1 especially on steep slopes1 and where the air is not too arid1 is favourable to the growth of larch4 ,it seems to prefer the coarser gravel1 though many of the stones exceed a yard solid4 ,the straths or valleys of our larger rivers1 in their passage through the alpine country1 are generally #hd occupied1 for several hundred feet of perpendicular altitude up the slope1 by gravel1 which covers the primitive strata to considerable depth1 especially in the eddies of the salient angles of the hill4 ,every description of tree grows more luxuriantly here than in any other situation of the country2 the causes of this are1 #ast1 ,the open bottom allowing the roots to penetrate deep1 without being injured by stagnant moisture2 #b;d1 ,the percolation of water down through the gravel from the superior hill2 #c;d1 ,the dryness of the surface not producing cold by evaporation1 thence the ground soon heating in the spring2 #dth1 ,the moist air of the hill refreshing and nourishing the plant during the summer heats1 and compensating for the dryness of the soil2 #eth1 ,the reverberating of the sun's rays1 between the sides of the narrow valley1 thus rendering the soil comparatively warmer than the incumbent air1 which is cooled by the oblique currents of the higher strata of air1 occasioned by the unequal surface of the ground4 ,this comparatively greater warmth of the ground1 when aided by moisture1 either in the soil or atmosphere1 is greatly conducive to the luxuriancy of vegetation4 ,firm dry clays and sound brown loam4--,soils well adapted for wheat and red clover1 not too rich1 #he and which will bear cattle in winter1 are generally congenial to the larch4 ,all very rough ground1 particularly ravines1 where the soil is neither soft sand nor too wet2 also the sides of the channels of rapid rivulets4--,the roots of most trees luxuriate in living or flowing water2 and1 where it is of salubrious quality1 especially when containing a slight solution of lime1 will throw themselves out a considerable distance under the stream4 ,the reason why steep slopes1 and hills whose strata are nearly perpendicular to the horizon1 are so much affected by larch and other trees1 is1 because the moisture in such situations is in motion1 and often continues dripping through the fissures throughout the whole summer4 ,the desideratum of situation for larch1 is where the roots will neither be drowned in stagnant water in winter1 nor parched by drought in summer1 and where the soil is free from any corrosive mineral or corrupting mouldiness4 ,larch1 in suitable soil1 sixty years planted1 and seasonably thinned1 will have produced double the value of what almost any other timber would have done2 and from its general adaptation both for sea and land purposes1 it will always command a ready sale4 #hf ,,class ,,ii4 ,,soils ,,and ,,subsoils ,,where ,,larch ,,takes ,,dry ,,rot4 ,situations 7steep slopes excepted7 with cold till subsoil1 nearly impervious to water4--,the larch succeeds worst when moorish dead sand alone1 or with admixture of peat1 occupies the surface of these retentive bottoms4 ,where the whole soil and subsoil is one uniform1 retentive1 firm till1 it will often reach considerable size before being attacked by the rot4 ,when this heavy till occupies a steep slope1 the larch will sometimes succeed well1 owing to the more equable supply of moisture1 and the water in the soil not stagnating1 but gliding down the declivity4 ,in general1 soils whose surface assumes the appearance of honeycomb in time of frost1 owing to the great quantity of water imbibed by the soil1 will not produce large sound larch4 ,more than half the low country of ,scotland is soil of this description4 ,soft sand soil and subsoil4--,sand is still less adapted for growing larch than the tills1 the plants being often destroyed by the summer's drought before they attain size for any useful purpose3 the rot also attacks earlier here than in the tills4 ,it appears that #hg light sand1 sloping considerably on moist back-lying alpine situations1 covered towards the south by steep hill1 will sometimes produce sound larch2 whereas did the same sand occupy a dry front or lowland situation1 the larch would not succeed in it4 ,the same moist back situation that conduces to produce sound larch in light dry soils1 may probably tend to promote rot in the wet4 ,the moisture and the less evaporation of altitude diminishing the tendency to rot in dry light sand1 and increasing it in wet till4 ,larch will sometimes succeed well in sharp dry alluvial sand left by rivulets4 ,soils incumbent on brittle dry trap1 or broken slaty sandstone4--,although soil1 the debris of trap1 be generally much better adapted for the production of herbaceous vegetables than that of sandstone or freestone1 yet larch does not seem to succeed much better on the former than the latter4 ,the deeper superior soils1 generally incumbent on the recent dark red sandstone1 are better suited for larch than the shallow inferior soils incumbent on the old grey and red sandstone4 ,ground having a subsoil of dry rotten rock1 and which sounds hollow to the foot in time of drought4 ,rich deaf earth1 or vegetable #hh mould4--,independently of receiving ultimate contamination from the putrid juices or exhalations of this soil1 the larch does not seem1 even while remaining sound1 to make so much comparative progress of growth1 as some of the hard wood trees1 as elm1 ash1 plane4 ,black or grey moorish soils1 with admixture of peat-moss4 ,although the soils specified in this class will not afford fine large larch for naval use1 yet they may be very profitably employed in growing larch for farming purposes1 or for coal-mines1 where a slight taint of rot is of minor importance4 ,the lightness of larch1 especially when new cut 7about one-third less weight than the evergreen conifer71 gives a facility to the loading and carriage1 which enhances its value1 independent of its greater strength and durability4 ,those larches in which rot has commenced1 are fully as suitable for paling as the sound3 they have fewer circles of sap-wood1 and more of red or matured4 ,when the rot has commenced1 the maturing or reddening of the circles does not proceed regularly1 reaching nearest the bark on the side where the rot has advanced farthest4 ,a great amelioration of our climate and of our soil1 and considerable addition to the beauty and salubrity of the country1 might be attained by #hi landholders of skill and spirit1 did they carry off the noxious moisture1 by sufficient use of open drainage1 from their extensive wastes of mossy moors and wet tills1 which are only productive of the black heath1 the most dismal robe#ba of the earth1 or rather the funeral pall with which ,nature has shrouded her undecayed remains4 ,this miserable portion of our country1 so dreary when spread out in wide continuous flats1 and so offensive to the eye of the traveller1 unless his mind is attuned to gloom and desolation1 lies a disgrace to the possessor4 ,were a proper system of superficial draining executed on these districts1 and kept in repair1 most of our conifers1 particularly spruce and ,scots fir1 with oak1 beech1 birch1 alder1 and1 in the sounder situations1 larch1 would thrive and come to maturity1 ultimately enhancing the value of the district an hundred fold4 ,this could be done by fluting the ground1 opening large ditches every #cj1 #ej1 or #ajj yards1 according to the wetness or closeness of the subsoil--the deeper1 the more serviceable both in efficacy and distance of drainage4 ,these flutes should stretch across the slope with just sufficient declivity to allow the #ij water to flow off easily1 ,the excavated matter should be thrown to the lower side2 and when the whole1 or any part1 of the excavation consists of earth or gravel1 it ought to be spread over the whole mossy surface1 whether the field be morass or drier hill-peat3 this would be useful in consolidating it1 and in preventing too great exhaustion of moisture in severe droughts1 from which vegetation in moss-soil suffers so much4 ,even though planting were not intended1 this fluting and top-dressing would facilitate the raising of the gramine4 ,these ditches1 when the ground is not too stoney1 or too moist1 or containing roots1 might be scooped out1 excepting a little help at the bottom1 by means of a scoop-sledge1 or levelling box1 worked by a man and two horses1 the surface being always loosened by the common plough3 one of these will remove earth as fast as twenty men with wheelbarrows4 ,,on ,,bending ,,and ,,kneeing ,,larch4 ,we cannot too forcibly inculcate the urgent necessity of attending to the bending of the larch3 for our country's interest1 we almost regret we cannot compel it4 ,in all larch plantations1 in proper #ia soil1 not too far advanced1 and in all that may hereafter be planted1 a proportion of those intended to remain as standards should be bended4 ,the most proper time for this would perhaps be ,may or ,june1 before the top-growth commences1 or has advanced far2 the best size is from three feet high and upwards4 ,the plants should be bent the first season to an angle of from #dj to #fj with the horizon1 and the next brought down to from #aj to #fj1 according to the size of the plant1 or the curve required1--the smallest plants to the lowest angle4 ,from experience we find that the roots of larch form the best of all knees2 they1 however1 might be much improved by culture#bb1 although it does not #ib seem as yet to have been attempted or thought of4 ,to form the roots properly into knees1 should the plants be pretty large1 the planter ought to select those plants which have four main roots springing out nearly at right angles1 the regularity of which he may improve a little by pruning1 and plant them out as standards in the thinnest dryest soil suited for larch1 carefully spreading the roots to equal distances and in a horizontal position4 ,to promote the regular square diverging of these four roots1 he should dig narrow ruts about a foot deep and three feet long out from the point of each root1 and fill them in with the richest of the neighbouring turf along with a little manure4 ,when the plants are small1 and the roots only a tuft of fibres1 he should dig two narrow ruts about eight feet long crossing each other at the middle at right angles1 fill these as above1 and put in the plant at the crossing3 the rich mould of the rotted turf and its softness from being dug1 will cause the plant to throw out its roots in the form of a cross along the trenches4 ,when the plants have reached five or six feet in height1 the earth may be removed a little from the root1 and1 if more than one stout root leader have run out into any of the four trenches1 or if any have entered the unstirred earth1 they ought all to be cut excepting one1 the stoutest #ic and most regular in each trench4 ,in a few years afterwards1 when the plants have acquired some strength1 the earth should be removed gradually1 baring the roots to from two to five feet distance from the stool1 or as far as the main spurs have kept straight1 cutting off any side-shoots within this distance1 should it be found that such late root-pruning does not induce rot4 ,this process of baring the roots will scarcely injure the growth of the trees1 as the roots draw the necessary pabulum from a considerable distance1 nor1 if done carefully1 will it endanger their upsetting2 and the roots1 from exposure to the air1 will swell to extraordinary size#bc1 so as to render them1 ere long1 the firmest rooted trees in the wood4 ,the labour of this not amounting to the value of sixpence each1 will be counterbalanced thrice #id over by the ease of grubbing the roots for knees2 and the whole brought to the shipwright will produce more than double the price that the straight tree alone would have done4 ,the forester should also examine and probe the roots of his growing larch1 even those of considerable size1 in sound ground2 and when several strong horizontal spurs1 not exceeding four1 are discovered nearly straight1 and from two to five feet long1 he ought to bare these roots to that distance1 that they may swell1 carefully pruning away any small side-roots1 and reserve these plants as valuable store1 taking good heed that no cart-wheel in passing1 or feet of large quadruped1 wound the bared roots4 ,in exposed situations the earth may be gradually removed from the roots4 ,the rot in larch taking place in the part appropriate to knees1 the forester cannot be too wary in selecting the situations where there is no risk of its attack1 for planting those destined for this purpose4 ,it is also desirable1 if possible1 to have the knee timber in ground free of stones or gravel1 as the grubbing in stoney ground is expensive1 and the roots often embrace stones which1 by the future swelling of the bulb1 are completely imbedded and shut up in the wood1 particularly in those places between the spurs #ie where the saw section has to divide them for knees4 ,were the roots carefully bared at an early period1 it would tend to prevent the gravel from becoming imbedded in the bulb4 ,nothing can be more annoying to the shipwright1 when he has bestowed his money1 ingenuity1 and labour1 upon an unwieldy root1 and brought his knees into figure at the cost of the destruction of his tools by the enveloped gravel1 to discover stains of incipient rot which renders it lumber4 ,this plan of baring the roots might be extended to oak trees for knees1 baring and pruning about a foot out from the bulb annually4 ,by exposure to the air1 the timber of the root would mature and become red wood of sufficient durability4 ,when covered with earth1 the root of the oak remains white or sap wood1 and soon decays after being dug up1 the matured wood of the stem scarcely extending at all underneath the surface of the ground4 ,the roots of the pine tribe are the reverse of this1 at least the bulb and the spurs near it1 are the best matured1 reddest1 toughest1 most resinous1 part of the tree4 ,it is probably unnecessary to observe1 that it would be folly to remove the earth from the bulb of trees in situations where water would stand for any length of time in the excavation4 #if ,larch knees are possessed of such strength and durability1 and are of such adaptation by their figure and toughness1 that were a sufficient quantity in the market1 and their qualities generally known1 we believe that none else would be used for vessels of any description of timber--even for our war-navy of oak4 ,in ,america1 where it is difficult to procure good oak knees in their close forest1 it is customary to use them of spruce roots even for their finest vessels4 ,the knees of vessels have a number of strong bolts1 generally of iron1 passing through them to secure the beam-ends to the sides of the ship4 ,larch knees are the more suited for this1 as they do not split in the driving of the bolts1 and contain a resinous gum which prevents the oxidation of the iron4 ,as the larch1 unlike the oak1 affords few or no crooks naturally1 excepting knees1 the artificial formation of larch crooks is of the utmost consequence to the interest of the holders of larch plantations now growing4 ,in order to obtain a good market for their straight timber1 it is absolutely necessary to have a supply of crooks ready as soon as possible to work the straight up4 ,this would increase the demand1 and thence enhance the price of the straight more than any one not belonging to the craft could #ig believe4 ,in good soil many of the crooks would be of sufficient size in twenty years to begin the supply1 if properly thinned out4 ,in a forest of larch containing many thousand loads1 and which had been untouched by any builder1 we have seen the greatest difficulty in procuring crooks for one small brig4 ,it is only on very steep ground1 and where the tree has been a little upset after planting1 that any good crooks are found4 ,from the rather greater diameter required of larch timbers1 and also from the nature of the fibre of the wood1 we should suppose that steam bending of larch timbers would scarcely be followed1 even as a dernier ressort4 ,larch1 from its great lateral toughness1 particularly the root1 and from its lightness1 seems better adapted for the construction of shot-proof vessels than any other timber2 and opposed end-way to shot in a layer1 arch fashion1 several feet deep around a vessel1 would sustain more battering than any other subject we are acquainted with1 metal excepted4 ,were the part above water of a strong steam-vessel1 having the paddles under cover1 a section of a spheroid or half egg cut longitudinally1 and covered all around with the root cuts of larch five or six feet deep with the hewn down bulb1 external2 well supported #ih inside1 having nothing exposed outside of this arch1 and only a few small holes for ventilators and eyes2 there is no shot in present naval use that would have much impression upon it4 ,had such a vessel a great impelling power1 and a very strong iron cutwater1 or short beak wedge-shaped 7in manner of the old ,grecian galleys71 projecting before the vessel under water1 well supported within by beams radiating back in all directions1 she might be wrought to split and sink a fleet of men-of-war lying becalmed1 in a few hours4 ,this could be done by running successively against each1 midships1 and on percussion immediately backing the engine1 at same time spouting forth missiles1 hot water1 or sulphuric acid from the bow to obstruct boarding2 but even though the external arch were covered with assailants like a swarm of bees1 they would be harmless1 or could be easily displaced4 ,to prevent combustion by red hot shot1 the larch blocks1 after drying1 might have their pores filled by pressure with alkali4 ,however1 the employment of bomb-cannon about to be introduced in naval warfare1 throwing explosive shot1 regulated with just sufficient force to penetrate without passing through the side of the opposed vessel1 will render any other than metallic defensive cover ineffectual2 but #ii this circumstance will1 at the same time1 completely revolutionize sea affairs1 laying on the shelf our huge men-of-war1 whose place will be occupied with numerous bomb-cannon boats1 whose small size will render them difficult to be hit1 and from which one single explosive shot taking effect low down in the large exposed side of a three decker will tear open a breach sufficient to sink her almost instantly4 ,for the construction of these boats1 larch1 especially were a proportion bent1 would be extremely suitable1 and thence larch will probably1 ere long1 become our naval stay4 ,larch has been used in the building-yards of the ,tay for #bj years back2 and there is now afloat several thousand tons of shipping constructed of it4 ,the ,athole ,frigate built of it nearly #ab years ago1 the ,larch1 a fine brig built by the ,duke of ,athole several years earlier1 and many other vessels built more recently1 prove that larch is as valuable for naval purposes as the most sanguine had anticipated4 ,the first instance we have heard of ,british larch being used in this manner1 was in a sloop repaired with it about #bb years back4 ,the person to whom it had belonged1 and who had sailed it himself1 stated to us immediately after its loss1 that this sloop had been built of oak about #cf years before2 that at #ah years #ajj old her upper timbers were so much decayed as to require renewal1 which was done with larch2 that #ah years after this repair this sloop went to pieces on the remains of the pier of ,methel1 ,fifeshire1 and the top timbers and second foot-hooks of larch were washed ashore as tough and sound as when first put into the vessel1 not one spot of decay appearing1 they having assumed the blue dark colour which some timber acquires in moist situations1 when it may be stiled cured2 being either no longer liable to the putrid change constituting dry rot1 or which forms timber into a proper soil for the growth of dry rot2 or1 from this blueness caused by the union of the tannin with iron acting as a poison on vegetation3 this blueness1 resulting from some alteration in the balance of affinities1 occurs chiefly in timber containing much of the tannin principle1 in which larch abounds4 ,the owner of a larch brig who had employed her for several years on tropical voyages1 also assures us that the timber will wear well in any climate1 and that he would prefer larch to any other kind of wood1 especially for small vessels2 he also states that the deck of this brig1 composed of larch plank1 stood the tropical heat well1 and that it did not warp or shrink as was apprehended4 ,from the softness of the fibre and want of #aja density of the larch1 we would not deem it suitable for planking vessels beyond the size of ordinary merchantmen1 say #ejj tons1 as in the straining of very large vessels1 when the greatest force comes upon the outward skin1 the fabric of the wood might crush before it1 along the edge of the plank1 and throw 7chew7 the oakum4 ,in ordinary sized vessels1 however1 larch plank retains the oakum better than oak1 from greater lateral elasticity4 ,for the purpose of timbers1 if root-cuts#bd1 and properly bent1 we would think larch suitable to the largest class of vessels2 as1 though light1 it is tough and quite free from knot1 crack1 or cross-grain1 which is so common in oak1 and which occasions dense old oak in large masses to give way at once1 before a shock or strain1 the hardness and unyielding nature of the fibre concentrating the whole dirupting impetus to one point4 ,larch may also be advantageously employed in the ceiling or inside skin of the part of war vessels above water3 shot bores it1 comparatively1 like an auger1--thence the structure will endure longer under fire1 and life be much economized4 ,in all places where larch has become known1 it has completely superseded other timber for #ajb clinker-built boats1 surpassing all others in strength1 lightness1 and durability4 ,for this purpose1 young trees of about #i inches diameter1 in root-cuts from #aj to #bj feet in length1 with a gentle bend at one end1 such as the larch often receives from the south-west wind1 are the most suitable4 ,the log should be kept in the bark till used1 and in dry weather the boards put upon the boat's side within two or three days from being sawn out1 as no timber we are acquainted with parts sooner with its moisture than larch2 and the boards do not work or bend pleasantly when dry4 ,when dried1 the thin larch board is at once strong1 tough1 durable1 and extremely light4 ,the tough strength1 almost equalling leather1 is owing to the woven or netted structure of the fibre of the wood1 entirely different from the pine1 whose reedy structure runs parallel with very slight connecting or diverging fibres4 ,it is very difficult to split larch even by wedges4 ,for rural purposes generally1 larch is incomparably the best adapted timber1 especially for rail or fence1 or out-door fabric exposed to wind and weather4 ,it is also getting into use for implements of husbandry1 such as harrows1 ploughs1 and carts4 ,we have seen a larch upright paling1 the timber of which1 with the exception of the large charred posts1 #ajc had only been eight years in growing1 standing a good fence1 sixteen years old1 decked out by moss and lichen in all the hoary garniture of time4 ,in the construction of buildings1 larch is valuable only for the grosser parts1 as beams1 lintels1 joists1 couples4 ,for the finer boarded part1 it is so much disposed to warp1 and so difficult to be worked1 as generally to preclude use4 ,it is1 however1 asserted that if larch be seasoned by standing two years with the bark stripped from the bole before being cut down1 that the timber becomes manageable for finer house work4 ,although larch timber be extremely durable in exposed situation1 yet it yields to the depredations of insects fully as soon as any pine timber in close houses4 ,we have proof of it in house-furniture about #ej years old1 but it is considerably moth-eaten by apparently a smaller insect than common4 ,larch stools also disappear in forests sooner than the stools of ,scots fir1 being eaten by a species of beetle2 and the sea-worm devours larch in preference to almost any other wood4 ,we have looked over some experiments conducted at ,woolwich1 in trial of the comparative strength of larch and other fir timber1 where the larch is stated inferior to ,riga and ,dantzic fir1 ,pitch pine1 #ajd and even ,yellow pine4 ,larch1 in the districts of ,scotland where it is grown and much in use1 is universally allowed to be considerably stronger than other fir2 and the sawyers of it have one-fourth more pay per stated measure4 ,we1 ourselves1 have had considerable experience of the strength of larch applied to many purposes1 and have found it in general much superior in strength to other fir4 ,we have known a crooked topmast of this timber1 to which the sailors bore a grudge1 defy their utmost ingenuity to get carried away4 ,we once had four double horse-carts1 made 7excepting the wheels7 of peeled young larch of rather slow growth1 for the carriage of large stones2 these1 by mistake1 were made very slight1 so light1 that1 without the wheels1 a man could have carried one of them away4 ,when we saw the first loading of stones nearly a ton weight each1 two in each cart1 and the timber yielding and creaking like a willow-basket1 we did not expect they would have supported the weight and jostlings of a rugged road many yards2 yet they withstood this coarse employment for a long time4 ,the timber of larch near the top of the tree is1 however1 very inferior and deficient in toughness2 and it is not improbable that the experiments above alluded to at ,woolwich had been made with larch #aje timber deficient in strength from being a top4 ,white larch has comparatively smaller and more numerous branches than any other of the ,conifer2 consequently the timber is freer of large knots1 and has more equable strength1 as well in small spars as when large and cut out into joists and beams1 provided the timber be not too far up the tree4 ,larch1 however1 compared with pines and firs1 has the timber much stronger when young1 and several inches or below a foot in diameter1 than when old and large3 this may partly be owing to its deficiency in resinous deposit4 ,,endnotes ,,to ,,part ,,ii4 #aj ,we have often preferred the terms kind1 breed1 family1 individual1 to genus1 species1 variety1 subvariety1 as the former seem less definite4 ,were nature true to the latter classification as employed by botanists1 it would be convenient4 #aa ,in those we observed1 we considered this last circumstance had a considerable share as a predisposing cause of the attack of the worm4 ,forests of ,pinus sylvestris are sometimes destroyed by insects under the bark1 in cases where it is difficult to decide whether external circumstances1 such as a dry warm season1 has been promotive of the increase of the insect itself1 or has induced some disorder in the plant1 rendering the juices more suitable aliment to the worm4 #ab ,some nautical or technical terms have unavoidably crept into this work2 we shall not presume to think any explanation necessary3 ,britannia would blush jusqu'au blanc des yeux1 to the tips of the fingers and toes1 did she think it were doubted that any of her sons1 not doomed to unceasing mechanical labour1 were unacquainted with these4 #ac ,it is termed by our professors ,salix fragilis1 or ,crack ,willow1 from the small branches breaking easily at the junction of the annual growth--or1 perhaps1 ,crack ,willow1 from the branches breaking with considerable report2 or from the wood1 while burning1 frequently detonating or crackling1 from the expansion of some arial fluid within the fibres4 ,though named by their sapience fragilis1 it is not weaker than other large growing willows1 but stronger and denser2 and1 being harder in the small branches1 they do not bend1 but break when their bark and alburnum is driest1 in winter4 ,the timber is superior to that of ,salix alba1 or of any other large growing willow we are acquainted with1 and is sufficiently pliant and tough4 #ad ,red ,canadian pine is generally termed ,pinus resinosa2 but as it is not so resinous as several other kinds1 we consider ,pinus rubra 7rubra from the colour of stem and also of timber71 which is sometimes used1 more suitable4 ,the pitch pine of the ,american ,united ,states should be ,pinus resinosa4 #ae ,we think that in mankind the variations of the children of the same parents do not soften entirely--there would seem to be certain types or nuclei both of appearance and temperament around which external and internal character vibrates4 #af ,the ,canadian red pine resembles ,p4 sylvestris or ,norway pine so much1 that it is usually styled ,norway pine by the settlers3 ,though different1 it is so nearly allied to ,p4 sylvestris1 that we consider the number of sap-growths may be referred to the climate and soil1 and not to the kind1--that is1 that1 were it grown in ,britain1 if it did not at first1 it would in the course of time come to have fewer sap-growths4 #ag ,our common larch1 like almost every other kind of tree1 consists of numberless varieties1 which differ considerably in quickness of growth1 ultimate size1 and value of timber4 ,this subject has been much neglected4 ,we are1 however1 on the eve of great improvements in arboriculture2 the qualities and habits of varieties are just beginning to be studied4 ,it is also found that the uniformity in each kind of wild growing plants called species1 may be broken down by art or culture1 and that when once a breach is made1 there is almost no limit to disorder2 the mele that ensues being nearly incapable of reduction4 #ah ,there is yet no sufficient data for the term alpine plant1 but with reference to latitude4 ,the influence on vegetables1 arising from rarefaction and diminution of pressure of atmosphere1 from difference of stimulus of solar ray--when the entire ray of light1 heat1 and chemical power1 though less intense1 is radiated fresh1 and not much broken or modified by refraction and reflection1 and heat communicated more in proportion by radiation than by contact of heated air2 or from difference of electric or galvanic or other meteoric impression connected with altitude or ranges of mountains1 or with primary rocks or more upright strata1 has not been made the subject of research1 at least has not been sufficiently investigated by any naturalist4 #ai ,when water is stationary1 either in the pores of the soil or by itself1 if the temperature be not very low1 a slight putrefaction generally commences1 aided by the dead vegetable or animal matter contained in the soil or the water2 and it is only the more robust aquatic vegetables whose juices are not corrupted1 from their roots being soaked in this tainted fluid4 ,it would appear1 too1 that the aqueous part of the atmosphere is also susceptible of the same putrid changes1 although in general the putrescency may have commenced before the evaporation4 ,this condition of the aqueous part of the atmosphere is a disposing cause to blight or mildew in vegetables1 and remittent1 intermittent1 and putrid fevers in man4 ,mill-ponds are notorious both for mildew and agues4 #bj ,we have had no experience of larch1 excepting very young1 growing on chalk and its affinities4 ,we are told there are a few instances where larch has reached #ej years in these calcareous soils1 some distance south of ,london4 ,this merits attention4 #ba 8,oh6 the bonny blooming heather40--8,man has spoken evil things of the sun1 of love1 and of life40 #bb ,as we held this plan of forming larch knees1 and of bending larch1 of considerable importance1 we some time ago presented it in manuscript1 along with some other matter1 to the ,highland ,society of ,scotland4 ,tiring1 however1 of the delay of examination1 perhaps unavoidable in their official departments1 and from some improvements occurring to us during the delay1 we requested it back4 ,we now present it under this more convenient form to the ,society1 and hope they will find the examination or perusal of it printed1 not quite so impracticable as when in manuscript4 ,it will afford us pleasure to know that this useful ,society approves1 and that the members who have opportunity are setting about following our directions4 ,we especially recommend to them to probe the roots of their growing larch1 and to lay bare those fitted for knees4 #bc ,the landlord agriculturist is sufficiently aware of the influence of the baring the upper part of the root of turnip1 while the plant is young1 in extending the future growth of the bulb1 and that a dry situation gives most root in proportion to stem4 ,these are general laws in vegetation4 ,there are few observers who have not remarked the very large size which roots have attained when the trees have originally been planted on dikes1 and the dike earth removed1 leaving the roots bare4 ,should any person examine the very great difference of thickness between the upper and lower part1 from the heart of a root near the bulb1 he will at once discover the influence of exposure to the air and freeness from pressure in promoting the swelling4 #bd ,as you ascend the tree the timber deteriorates greatly4 #ajf ,,part ,,iii4 ,,miscellaneous ,,matter ,,connected ,,with ,,naval ,,timber4 ,,nurseries4 ,much of the luxuriance and size of timber depending upon the particular variety of the species1 upon the treatment of the seed before sowing1 and upon the treatment of the young plant1 and as this fundamental subject is neither much attended to nor generally understood1 we shall take it up ab initio4 ,the consequences are now being developed of our deplorable ignorance of1 or inattention to1 one of the most evident traits of natural history1 that vegetables as well as animals are generally liable to an almost unlimited diversification1 regulated by climate1 soil1 nourishment1 and new commixture of already formed varieties4 ,in those with which man is most intimate1 and where his agency in throwing them from their natural locality and dispositions has brought out this power of diversification in stronger shades1 it has been forced upon his notice1 as in man himself1 in the dog1 horse1 cow1 sheep1 poultry1--in the apple1 #ajg pear1 plum1 gooseberry1 potato1 pea1 which sport in infinite varieties1 differing considerably in size1 colour1 taste1 firmness of texture1 period of growth1 almost in every recognisable quality4 ,in all these kinds man is influencial in preventing deterioration1 by careful selection of the largest or most valuable as breeders2 but in timber trees the opposite course has been pursued4 ,the large growing varieties being so long of coming to produce seed1 that many plantations are cut down before they reach this maturity1 the small growing and weakly varieties1 known by early and extreme seeding1 have been continually selected as reproductive stock1 from the ease and conveniency with which their seed could be procured2 and the husks of several kinds of these invariably kiln-dried#be1 in order that the seeds might be the more easily extracted6 ,may we1 then1 wonder that our plantations are occupied by a sickly short-lived puny race1 incapable of supporting existence in situations where their own kind had formerly flourished--particularly evinced in the genus #ajh ,pinus1 more particularly in the species ,scots fir2 so much inferior to those of ,nature's own rearing1 where only the stronger1 more hardy1 soil-suited varieties can struggle forward to maturity and reproduction8 ,we say that the rural economist should pay as much regard to the breed or particular variety of his forest trees1 as he does to that of his live stock of horses1 cows1 and sheep4 ,that nurserymen should attest the variety of their timber plants1 sowing no seeds but those gathered from the largest1 most healthy1 and luxuriant growing trees1 abstaining from the seed of the prematurely productive1 and also from that of the very aged and over-mature2 as they1 from animal analogy1 may be expected to give an infirm progeny1 subject to premature decay4 ,as1 from many facts1 a considerable influence is known to result in several vegetables from drying severely the seeds from whence they had sprung#bf1--;from exposure of these seeds to the sun and air1--from long keeping1 or from injury by mould or #aji impure air1 which all tend to shorten the life of the resulting individual1 to accelerate the period of its seeding1 and to increase its reproductiveness2 the nurseryman should pay the utmost attention to the seeds he makes use of1 procuring them as recent as possible1 and preserving them in well-aired lofts1 or under sheds1 and also retaining them in the husks till the time of sowing3 the superior germinating power of the seed thus treated will repay this attention4 ,from facts we are also assured1 that1 in some hard wood kinds1 and also in the ,conifer1 the hanging of the growth of the young plant1 the spindling up in the seed-bed1 or injudicious deterring treatment afterwards1 have a tendency to injure the constitution of the individual1 inducing premature seeding1 and diminutive old age2 and also1 that when plants1 especially of some size1 of these kinds of trees have their roots much broken1 the secondary or new roots often partake something of the nature of the infirm runners1 which1 in most kinds of trees1 are thrown out by layers1--the resulting tree1 as in the case of those from layers in fruit trees being dwarfish1 sooner exhausting itself by reproduction1 and sooner decaying4 ,for distinctness1 we shall recapitulate3 #aaj ,that the seed be from the largest1 hardiest variety of tree in luxuriant growth4 ,that the seed be recent1 and carefully preserved in husk till sowing1 and extracted from the husk or cone without artificial drying4 ,that the nursery be in an open1 rather exposed situation1--most eligible without shelter either of tree1 hedge or wall1 of rather light dry soil of ordinary quality1 of dry climate1 and1 in preference1 soil naturally good to that made so by high manuring4 ,that the plants be not too close1 nor remain too long in the seed-bed2 that they be extricated without much fracture of root1 and be replanted in wide rows1 with good space between the plants in the row1 keeping the roots as superficially extended as they will thrive1 and without doubling the main root up to the surface of the ground4 ,that the plant receive no pruning1 excepting in the case of more than one leader appearing1 or feeder unproportionally extended2 and no root-section1 in order to retard its growth1 or increase the number of root-fibres2 and that its ultimate removal be accomplished without much fracture of root or branch4 ,by exposed situation of nursery1 ordinary quality of soil1 and much room in the seed-bed and rows1 we #aaa shall have plants with firm fibre and hardy constitution1 with thick juicy bark1 thick stem at the surface of ground1 and numerous feeders all the way down the stem4 ,roots are most easily extricated from light soil1 and with least fracture4 ,they are large in proportion to stem in dry soil and climate1 and when they are situated near the surface of the ground4--,a healthy growing plant1 of firm fibre1 large root1 and sturdy short stem of one leader and numerous feeders1 is the great desideratum3 a large root is the more desirable1 as a considerable part of it is generally broken off in transplanting1 rendering it disproportioned to the top1 which1 in consequence1 either languishes1 or receives deterring cropping4 ,we consider1 that a tree grows more luxuriantly1 acquires larger size1 and is much longer of reaching senility1 when it is furnished with several large roots1 say one or two to each of the cardinal points1 extending horizontally out with bold leaders1 than when numerous small rootlets diverge in all directions from the bulb1 as is the case in some kinds when much fracture of root takes place from frequent removals1 or1 when the nursery is of moist or mossy soil1 the plants being removed when of considerable size4 ,we have cut down old stunted hard wood trees having extremely numerous crowded roots1 all #aab engrafted into a matted net throughout the soil near the bulb1 and without any strong extended leaders4 ,we attributed this crowded rooting to the plants having been of considerable size when put in1 and losing their natural leaders2 the situation1 an avenue exposed to cattle1 went to confirm the probability that the defect of the rooting had been owing to the largeness of the plants4 ,when a tree is supplied by numerous1 consequently small and not wide-extending roots1 as the tree acquires size1 the wide spreading branches and leafy top shed off the rain and dews from the space occupied by these roots1 very few of them extending beyond this shade2 at the same time1 this narrow space becomes soon exhausted of the more particular pabulum necessary to the kind of plant1 the exhaustion being accelerated by the dryness4 ,this dryness and exhaustion of the soil very soon show their effects aloft2 the living hark of the tree becomes covered from its connexion with the air1 and constricted by a thick hard dead crust1 which1 with the consequent very thin alburnum affording an inefficient communication between the supply and demand1 react to impair the general vigour1 and particularly to impede the descent of the proper sap necessary to the enlargement and further extension of the roots4 ,the buds #aac not receiving sufficient supply of root-moisture1 instead of pressing on to new formation of wood1 only find enough to burgeon out into flower-buds1 which the following season drain the tree by reproduction2 this fruit-bearing alternates with periods of exhaustion1 when the buds have not even supply sufficient to swell into the embryo of flower and seed1 but extend only into a few leaves2 and sometimes1 in the event of a benign season1 the buds may throw out a small extension of new shoots4 ,the tree progresses very slowly in thickness of bole all this time1 and generally soon falls a prey to disease4 ,on the other hand1 when the tree has its naturally fine large roots preserved1 and is situated in open forest1 and mixed with other kinds1 these large roots diverging widely from the tree and each other1 have a much larger less-sought space to forage in2 and the tree enjoying a long period of luxuriant growth before it fall much into seed-bearing1 acquires strength of constitution to thrive and increase for ages under this drain4 ,we are satisfied that cutting or fracture of the root-leaders1 especially near the bulb1 when they have acquired some size1 is injurious to the extension and longevity of the tree1 in pines and most kinds of hard wood2 and that branch-pruning1 as generally practised1 is not less pernicious1 first1 by the #aad derangement which the plant receives1 from the regular connexion between the rootlets and their affiliated twigs and leaves being destroyed by the section1 and afterwards from the distance between the manufacturing parts1 the leaves and the sources of supply in the ground being unnaturally extended1 especially when the stem is long1 slender1 and much denuded4 ,although we consider severe root fracture at planting pernicious to some hard wood and resinous trees1 yet there are kinds to which it is advantageous4 ,all plants which grow freely by cuttings1 strike better to have the roots pruned in near to the bulb4 ,many kinds of seedling-plants also strike sooner1 and throw out stronger new root-leaders1 when the long straggling fibres are cut in a little1 similar to the branches above1 which1 when over-numerous and slender1 throw out more vigorous shoots by being cropped at planting4 ,,planting4 ,in regard to planting1 soils divide into the dry and the moist2 the former require to have the plants put in as soon as possible after the leaves drop off--at any rate1 not to allow ,february to pass without completing the planting2 excepting evergreens1 #aae which should not be delayed beyond the middle of ,april4 ,in dry soils1 if the expense be not limited to a very low rate1 pit-planting should be adopted1 and the pits are better to be dug some months previous1 in order that the earth may be arated1 and the turf partly rotted4 ,the moist soils may be divided into those which are much disposed to throw the plant from the frosts and thaws1 and those which are not2 the former consisting of moory1 soft1 or spongy earth1 upon a retentive subsoil2 the latter1 of the firmer1 more equable loams1 clays1 and tills4 ,unless the plants are large1 they should always be slitted into the former soil1 and the work performed as soon as the ground becomes sadded in spring--as1 though the lateness of planting should preclude throwing of pitted plants the first season1 they will often be thrown the ensuing winter4 ,when plants are very small1 they may be put into the latter1 by slitting2 but if middle-sized1 or large1 they are better pitted4 ,it is of the greatest importance to these moist soils1 to have very deep1 open#bg drains executed previous to planting1 cutting off all the springs at their sources1 and1 if possible1 drying the subsoil to such a degree that water will not stand in the pits4 ,should this be #aaf accomplished1 it is highly advantageous to dig the pits in time for the excavated clay to have its cohesion broken by frost3 the planting should afterwards be performed exactly at the time when this frosted mould is sufficiently dry1 and no more1 to shake conveniently in among the fibres of the roots1 and not to knead into mortar1 by the necessary pressing of the feet4 ,after this pressure1 a little of the tenderest of the soil should be spread loose over the surface1 to exclude drought4 ,should this dryness of subsoil not be effected1 the pits must be dug in spring1 at the time the clay is most friable2 that is1 between the moist and dry2 and the plants put in immediately1 breaking the clay as fine as possible1 and closing it well around the roots4 ,it is better to delay planting even till ,may1 than to perform it too wet4 ,when planting is delayed late in spring1 the plants should be kept shoughed in the coldest situation that can be found1 at the top of a hill exposed to the north1 or in some cold1 damp1 back-lying place4 ,care should also be taken not to expose them much while planting1 as they1 especially if the buds be bursting1 very soon wither when root and stem are both exposed to the sun and dry air4 ,when late planted1 they ought always to be dipped as far up as the branches in a puddle of clay and water3 #aag should they be dipped over head in the puddle1 it will not injure them4 ,what is of most importance to the success of planting1 is to have the soil put very closely in contact with all the root-fibre1 and these fibres in due natural separation1 with a little tender mould on the surface2--not to have water stagnating around the root1 at any rate during the first spring2--to have the planting done in time1 to receive a good sadding by rain before the spring droughts commence2--to prevent rank weeds1 furze1 c4 from smothering the young plants2--and to exclude or destroy all bestial1 as cattle1 sheep1 rabbits1 hares1 mice1 c4 ,in keeping the latter in check1 a few families of foxes are very efficient4 ,,further ,,observations ,,on ,,pruning4 ,every forester is aware1 that when feeders are pruned off1 they should be cut away as close as possible to1 and without tearing the hole4 ,to perform this without danger of injury to the tree1 when feeders of considerable size are to be removed1 the branch should first be sawn over at about one foot beyond the intended section1 and a second section then performed at the proper place4 ,this #aah requires a little more time1 but not nearly so much as an inexperienced person would suppose1 as the section a foot out is made very quickly1 and the pruner generally takes as much time to reach the branch as to cut it off4 ,the neatness and advantage of this method will be acknowledged by those who have seen it practised1 to compensate for the longer time it requires4 ,we find the saw1 shears1 and knife1 the best instruments for pruning2 in some cases of difficult approach1 the long-handed pruning-iron may be resorted to4 ,when the lopping is performed by a percussion tool1 the wood and bark at the section is often shattered by the blow1 and thence is less likely to cicatrize soundly2 and even when executed in the best manner1 the surface of the section is smooth and hard1 consequently a good conductor of heat1 dries much1 and thence shrinks and cracks near the centre of the cut1 opening a deep crevice1 into which the rain penetrates1 and often rots deep into the stem4 ,when the section is made by the saw1 a slight fibrous clothing is left upon the place1 which in some measure protects the ends of the cut tubes from the frost and drying air1 and excludes the heat2 in consequence the wood at the section does not lose its vitality so far inward1 and is not so liable to shrink #aai and crack in the centre and receive rain4 ,the section can also generally be made much neater and closer by the saw than by any other instrument4 ,the common erroneous belief1 that a section by a sharp-edged instrument is less injurious than by the saw1 is merely hypothetical1 from wide analogy from animals4 ,the pernicious influence on the whole individual1 received and transmitted by the nerves from mangled section of animal fibre1 is probably entirely awanting in vegetables2 the whole process of life and of cicatrization is also totally different4 ,the forester should also be very wary in cutting off a considerable branch1 whose section would incline upwards1 as such a section1 when it has received a circle of new bark and wood1 forms a cup which receives and contains rain water1 which quickly corrupts the bottom of the cup1 and often rots the centre of the tree down to the ground4 ,it is better to crop such a branch several feet from the main stem1 close by some small feeder1 unless the branch be dead4 ,in pruning1 every considerable section should be as near as possible at right angles with the horizon1 or rather inclining inward below4 ,of naval timber1 the beech is by far the most likely to take rot by being pruned1 and should never have a large limb cut off1 as the divided fibres generally die #abj downward a number of feet below the section1 and soon afterward decay1 leaving a hole in the bole4 ,as nothing retards the growth of trees more than full flowering and seeding1 if pruning diminish this flowering and seeding1 so that the gain from the prevention of this exhaustion more than counterbalances the loss of the pruned-off part1 the pruning will of course accelerate the growth of the tree2 but the removal of lower branches1 although in the first place promotive of growing buds and extension of the top1 in a year or two longer only tends to throw the tree more into flowering and seeding4 ,the rich dryness1 or want of fluidity of the juices which occasions flower-buds1 is also induced by hot1 dry atmosphere1 and short supply of moisture from the roots during the preceding summer1 both of which disposing causes are increased by a long naked stem4 ,when the proportion of the part above ground of a tree to the roots is diminished1 growing buds result1 at least to a certain extent2 yet it would be very difficult to practise a proper system of pruning on this principle1 as the consequent lengthened stem is1 in the end1 promotive of flower-buds1 especially in dry seasons1 and the loss of feeders might greatly counterbalance the gain from not flowering1 did a succession of wet cold seasons follow4 #aba ,the season when pruning should be performed1 is something dependent upon the kinds1 whether they bleed when pruned in early spring or do not4 ,almost any convenient time will suit for pruning the latter1 but we rather prefer ,march1 ,april1 ,may1 ,june1 or autumn after the leaf has fallen4 ,the former1 sycamore1 maple1 birch1 c4 ought either to be pruned in autumn1 or after the buds are beginning to break in spring1 as they bleed and suffer considerable exhaustion when pruned in the latter part of winter or early spring4 ,from some facts1 we consider that pruning in winter1 especially in severe weather1 gives a check to the vigour of the tree2 others agree with this4 #abb ,,observations ,,on ,,timber4 ,the quantity of measurable wood of the various timber trees which a certain extent of adapted ground will carry1 when come to full maturity1 or when they may be most profitably felled1 and the quantity that may be thinned out during the maturing1 with the time requisite to bring to value1 with the relative selling price per foot1 and also whether the greatest quantity of timber can be grown of one kind or mixed1 are questions of more importance than might be judged1 from the attention paid to the subject4 ,of our common timber trees1 ,scots fir1 silver fir1 and spruce1 larch1 pinaster1 black ,italian poplar1 ,salix alba1 commonly called ,huntingdon willow1 red-wood willow1 beech1 ,spanish chestnut1 ash1 plane1 elm1 birch1 oak1 are here ranked nearly in the order of quantity of measure which adapted ground in this country will produce or support2 that is1 that an acre of close ,scots fir trees1 of whatever age1 will admeasure more timber than an acre covered with any other tree of the same size2 and a close acre of oaks less4 ,a little further south1 in the temperate zone1 the large-leaved deciduous trees1 particularly the #abc elms1 acquire thicker and longer stem1 in closer order1 in a given time4 ,in this country1 in rich warm situations1 this is visible in some degree1 both as regards quantity of timber and quickness of growth1 compared with pines4 ,it would be difficult to state the comparative quickness of growth of the various timber trees1 as so much depends on soil1 situation1 and treatment2 it also varies considerably at different stages of their growth4 ,it is well known1 that in proper soil1 black ,italian poplar1 ,salix alba1 and red wood willow1 exceed all others4 ,as1 for naval use1 it is not the quickness of growth and bulk of the timber altogether1 but of the matured timber alone1 which is of consequence--we give a view of the number of growths or annual circles of sap-wood 7the useless part71 which the main stems of several kinds of trees presented4 ,most of those we examined had a greater number of sap-layers near the top than at a few feet above ground1 and the vigorous branches had generally more than the stem immediately adjacent to them2 the branches with least vigour had fewest sap circles4 #abd ,of ,home ,growth4 ,common oak1 some trees #aj1 others #ad1 others #ah ,spanish chestnut1 #b1 #e1 #f ,scots elm1 ,u4 montana1 #af1 #be1 #cb ,english elm1 ,u4 campestris1 #j1 #aj1 #j ,red-wood willow1 #h1 #ad1 #j ,laburnum1 #c1 #e1 #j ,wild cherry1 ,prunus cerasus1 #af1 #bd1 #j ,black ,italian poplar1 #i1 #j1 #j ,scots fir1 #bj1 #cj1 #dj ,pinaster1 #j1 #aj1 #j ,white larch1 free of rot1 #e1 #ab1 #ah ,of ,foreign ,growth4 ,memel fir1 #j1 #dc1 #j ,red ,canadian pine1 #j1 #ajj1 #j ,yellow ,canadian pine1 #ch1 #dd1 #j ,the process of maturing in several did not proceed regularly1 some of the rings being reddened on one side and remaining white on the other3 this did not seem to be influenced by position to south or north4 ,in the larch1 particularly in those trees #abe where the rot is incipient1 this maturing is very irregular1 in the view of the cross section dashing out into angles and irregularities1 and being darker red than in the healthy plants3 in those where rot had made considerable progress1 the red-wood was within a circle or two of the bark4 ,this approach of red-wood to the outside is so regularly connected with rot1 that we needed no other indication of the roots being unfit for knees1 and therefore not worth grubbing1 than merely a slight notch by two cuts of a hatchet4 ,those kinds of timber whose matured wood assumes a brown or reddish colour1 are generally much less susceptible of change1 either by simple putrefaction or by attack of fungi1 or gnawing of insects1 than those whose matured wood remains of a whitish colour4 ,in many of the latter1 there does not even appear to be any particular change of constitution1 or greater capability of resisting corruption or insects1 between the alburnum and mature wood1 although the difference between the two is generally perceptible when the cross section is drying1 and immediate1 as in the brown or red2 there being no gradual change or softening in either between the mature and immature4 ,although the change in those which become brown and red does not much affect #abf the hardness or strength of the timber 7mature and immature being nearly equal in these when dried before corruption injures the latter71 yet it materially influences its nature or quality4 ,we have taken down ,laburnum trees in the round natural form from the roofing of an old building1 from which nearly the whole yellow or sap-wood was eaten away by insects1 although they had not made the least impression upon the brown#bh4 #abg ,whether timber be more lasting when cut at one time of the season than at another1 is not yet determined4 ,the matured wood does not seem to be much affected by the season1 continuing nearly equally moist throughout the year2 life or action in it1 though not quite1 being nearly extinct1 and little or no circulation remaining2 yet the matured wood of the stool of the pine throws out a little resin when the tree is cut down in summer1--perhaps only a mechanical effect of heat and drying4 ,steeping in water for a considerable time is of far more importance to the duration of timber than any thing depending on the time of the season when it is cut down2 steeping causes some acetous #abh change in the timber 7easily recognisable by the sense of smelling when any section of it is made71 which1 judging from the effect the acetous change has to preserve other vegetable matter from putrefaction1 is probably of considerable use in preserving the timber from decay1 either by rot or worming4 ,the time of cutting1 although of considerable importance to the quality and durability of the sap-wood1 appears to be of little or none to the matured4 ,the age at which timber may be cut down being uncertain1 the height to which it should be trained up of clear stem is not very determinable1--say that the trees are to be allowed to stand till nearly full grown1--as long as the timber continues to retain its strength and toughness when growing in proper soil1 that is for hard-wood trees #ajj years and upwards1 and for pines from two to three hundred4 ,on crowns of eminences and exposed bluffs1 particularly when the latitude or altitude is rather high1 the soil inferior1 or the climate arid1 from #ae to #cj feet of clear hole may be as much as can judiciously be attempted2 upon plains under common circumstances1 from #cj to #ej feet is an attainable stem2 in sheltered dales and valleys1 they may be trained clean1 and without branch1 from #ej to #gj feet in altitude2 and in cases where soil1 situation1 #abi and climate1 are all propitious1 and it is desired that nature's fullest1 grandest1 development should be displayed1 from #gj to #aej feet1 clear of branch1 maybe gained4 ,lewis and ,clarke describe a spruce1 in a sheltered dell on the river ,columbia1 which they measured1 lying upon the ground1 #cab feet long from root to top4 ,we have little belonging to earth more sublime1 or which bears home to man a deeper sense of his bodily insignificance1 and puny transient being1 than an ancient majestic forest1 whose luxuriant foliage on high1 seems of itself almost a firmament of verdure1 supported on lofty moss-covered columns1 and unnumbered branched arches1--a scene equally sublime1 whether we view it under the coloured and flickering lights and shadows of the summer eve and morning1 resounding to the song of the wild life which harbours there1--or under the scattered beams streaming downward at high noontide when all is still1--or in winter storms1 when the wild jarring commotion1 the frightful rending and lashing of the straining branches1 like the arms of primeval giants1 contending in their might1 bear accompaniment to the loud roar and bellow of the tempest1 forming a drone and chaunter to which demons might dance4 #acj ,,concerning ,,our ,,marine1 c4 ,can we consider the ,briton sane who speaks of bounding this country to her home resources8 ,can any one doubt that our name1 our wealth1 our power1 are not wholly attributable to our ,marine8 ,can any one be ignorant that the superiority of our marine is wholly dependant on our foreign trade1 particularly the bulkier part of it1 on foreign supply8 ,does any one dread the necessity of foreign supply1 from the foolish fear that it may be cut off by war8 ,keeping out of view the argument1 that ere the ,british pride would suffer other domination on the waters1 our numbers would be well thinned away1 they know little of the influence of circumstance on man1 who do not perceive that1 in the event of free trade1 and of the population of ,britain increasing beyond what the country1 under the best possible culture1 could support1 the very necessity of being mistress of the seas would make her so4 ,they know little of what ,britain is1 country and people1 who doubt of her continued supremacy1 should she not be ruined1 indeed1 by following the narrow selfish #aca views of a party--a party alike ungrateful#bi for the past1 and blind to1 or heedless of1 their own ultimate good4 ,the position of ,britain1--her stretch of sea-coast1 serrated with harbours1--her minerals1 the principle of mechanical motion1 so necessary in the arts1--her navy1 docks1 canals1 roads1 implements1 and machinery1 so superior to those of the whole world beside1--her fertile soil1--her capital1--her protection of property1--her insular situation1--her steady government and consequent ingress of capital from the continent on any commotion1--her habits of industry1--her knowledge of trade1--her sciences1--her arts1--her free press1--her #acb religion#cj1--;and the stamina and indomitable spirit of her people4 ,all these1 causes and effects combined1 brought into action under a climate the most favourable for developing the moral and physical energies of man1 where the extremes of temperature neither relax nor chill1 where the human muscle and human mind are more capable of continued strong exertion1 and machinery less influenced by hygrometric and calorific change1 than on any other spot of earth4 ,when all these are condensed into a nucleus of power of so small compass that one spirit1 one interest1 may pervade all1 but drawing support by ramifications from every nook of the habitable world1 should an infatuated party not render unavailable these unmatched advantages1 cowardice could not even dream of peril to the supremacy of ,british naval power4 ,let us continue to extend our foreign intercourse and home cultivation--let the merchant legislate in affairs of trade--the landholder in country matters2 each in that in which his judgment has been formed by experience1 acting always on the principle that the general prosperity of the country is the interest #acc of every class--that1 like the branch and the root1 their prosperity is indissolubly combined4 ,when we view the advantages of ,britain--almost to a wish1--when we view her able and ready to supply the necessities of man in every clime1 in exchange for his superfluities1 and to scatter science1 morality1 the arts of life1 all that conduces to happiness and improvement over the nations1--when we view all this1 being blasted by an exclusive system of monopoly1 of very doubtful advantage to one party of the nation1 and tyrannically oppressive upon all others1 can we refrain from execration8 ,we would desire the casuist to draw a distinction between the criminality of preventing the operative from exchanging the produce of his labour 7otherwise unsaleable7 for cheap food#ca1 when his family is famishing2 and compelling the labour of the ,negro 7whom you support with food7 with the whip4 ,men will be found of a virtue sufficiently easy to advocate either system4 ,we only wish that the supporters of #acd monopoly and their abettors were sent off to some separate quarter of the world with all their beloved restrictions1 duties1 tariffs1 passports1 revenue officers1 blockade men1 with the innumerable petty interfering vexatious regulations1 and all the contrivances which surely the devil has invented to repress industry and promote misery1 where they might form an ,elysium of their own4 ,there is nothing more certain1 should we by restrictions continue to banish knowledge1 capital1 and industry from our shores#cb1 than that the ,genius of ,improvement will fix upon some other place for the seat of her throne4 ,maritime dominion will follow in her train2 and on the first war1 all exportation of the products of our manufacturers being at an end1 unexampled misery will involve four-fifths of our population1 and an explosion will ensue1 from its origin and character of unparalleled fury1 which will sweep to destruction the insane authors of the calamity--tear to shreds the whole fabric of society--and give to the winds all the institutions which man has been accustomed to revere4 #ace 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is disgraceful that our ,,marine is not directly represented in the ,british ,parliament4 ,is it possible that every clown in ,england1 who is owner of a few acres or miserable hovel1 is carried to the poll1--and that our shipping interest1 and brave seamen1 to whom the rest of the nation is indebted 8for all they have1 and almost all they know10 are passed over--have not one direct representative--have not even one direct vote1 and that their interest is totally neglected#cc8 ,will it be credited that our most sage legislators1 as if on purpose to ruin our marine1 have laid on a tax of ,l4 #d per load 7above #as4 #g;d4 per solid foot7 on oak-plank1 and ,l4 #b1 #aes4 per load on rough oak-timber1 imported from other nations2 which1 as only a small part of what is 7not of what would be7 used1 is so derived1 at the same time that it raises the price of the whole#cd nearly #ajj per cent41 tends comparatively little to swell the revenue1--nearly the whole of the high monopoly price reverting to our landholders and our grateful ,canadian #acf colony8 ,as about a load 7#ej solid feet7 of timber is required for the construction of a ton of trading shipping1 this duty1 together with the high duty on hemp1 increases the cost of our vessels nearly ,l4 #d per register ton1 independent of the higher price of building and sailing them1 from other monopolies2 and it is only from the very superior skill1 honesty and industry of our seamen#ce1 that our shipping1 since the peace1 under this very great disadvantage1 has been at all enabled to compete with foreign4 ,at ,shields and ,newcastle a new merchant-vessel of oak1 rigged and ready for sea1 uncoppered1 can be purchased for ,l4 #aj per register ton4 ,were the price1 by the removal of monopoly1 reduced to ,l4 #f per ton1 scarcely a foreign bottom1 ,american excepted1 would compete with ,british1 in the carrying trade1 or would enter a ,british port4 ,can it be believed that our very liberal late minister 7,mr ,huskisson71 and our very non-liberal member for ,newark 7,mr ,sadler71 have both made a full expos of the distresses of our shipping interest1 and not once have adverted to the cause of this1 and of the comparative decline of our naval preponderance--the very high duty on the #acg material8 ,does our ,government perceive the rapid strides which our rival brothers in ,america are making to surpass us in marine--and will it be so besotted as continue laws to the speedy fulfilment of this8 ,may we hope that1 through the energy of ,,our ,,sailor ,,king1 ,britain will lead the van in the disenfranchisement of man from the old bondage of monopoly and restriction--that a more sane system of taxation 7a tax on property7 will be adopted1 as well as a necessary retrenchment--that the true interest of ,britain will be understood and followed1 and a new era begin4 ,we are sick of the drivelling nonsense of our closet economists about loss by colonies and foreign connexion4 ,bonaparte well knew the value of ,,ships1 ,,colonies and ,,commerce1 and dreaded the power which eventually wrought his fall4 ,the existence of ,china depends upon her ,agriculture1 and the sovereign devotes a part of his time annually to the plough4 ,the existence of ,britain depends upon her ,marine1 and the king should always be bred a sailor--the heir-apparent and presumptive being always sent to sea4 ,in the case of a female1 if she did not take kindly to the sea-service1 a dispensation might be allowed1 on her marrying a sailor1 and the foolish law prohibiting our ,royal ,family from marrying a ,briton be put aside4 ,,endnotes ,,to ,,part ,,iii4 #be ,if the heat and evaporation of a gardener's pocket for several days be sufficient to render the seeds of melons and gourds productive of plants of earlier maturity1 that is less disposed to extension and more to reproduction1--what may be expected from kiln-drying fir-cones8 #bf ,the full ripening of the seeds of some cultivated varieties of vegetables1 and also the drying of the seeds severely without artificial heat1 are found to have considerable influence upon the germination of the seeds1 and even some impression upon the character of the resulting plant4 #bg ,covered drains are not adapted for woods1 as the matted fibres of the roots1 especially of the semi-aquatic trees1 very soon enter them and form obstructions4 #bh ,laburnum 7,cytisus7 is the most valuable timber this country produces4 ,it is equally deep in colour1 and takes as fine a polish as rose-wood1 having also something slightly pellucid in the polished surface4 ,from its extreme hardness1 it is much better adapted for use than mahogany1 not being indented or injured by blows or rough treatment4 ,we are acquainted with no other timber of home produce so little liable to decay4 ,the large-leaved variety in rich warm soils acquires a diameter of a foot or a foot and a-half1 and grows rapidly till it fall into seed-bearing4 ,its usual very stunted growth is partly owing to less valuable faster growing trees overtopping it3 ,were it planted alone1 and trained to proper curve1 it might be profitably reared for the upper timbers 7the part where decay commences7 of small vessels3 it has the thinnest covering of sap wood of any of our timber trees4 ,the extreme beauty and richness of its clustered depending blossoms is a considerable injury to its growth1 as it is often broken and despoiled of the branches on this account4 ,the small-leaved ,laburnum1 though producing the most beautiful timber1 is of such puny growth as not to rank as a forest tree4 ,there is a peculiarity1 at least seldom occurring in other trees1 attending the growth of the small-leaved variety3 a branch frequently gives up feeding the connected trunk and roots1 drawing supply of nourishment from these upward1 without returning much or any of the digested matter downward4 ,this branch above the place of the stagnation of the bark vessels becomes enlarged1 running into numerous shoots1 which are generally unnaturally thick and unhealthy1 approaching to dropsical--often1 however1 beautifully pendant down to the ground1 from their weight and the smallness of the supporting branch4 ,we do not know whether this is an awkward effort towards increase--that these branches1 under the influence of a not entirely matured instinct or faculty1 droop in search of earth to root1 and extend by layers1 in conformity to a habit of some tribes of trees1 in which this mode of increase is efficient1 or that it is a disease unconnected with design or final cause4 ,these overgrown branches of the small-leaved laburnum are generally thrown out by trees1 which1 owing to circumstances1 are little disposed to seeding4 #bi ,let us compare the wealth of the ,british landholder with that of the like grade on the ,continent4 ,it is the unrivalled skill and industry of our manufacturers and traders which have laid every shore under contribution for the immense riches which has poured in upon our landholders1 and which1 from juxtaposition1 will continue to do so1 in a certain degree1 under the fullest freedom of trade4 ,it is now absurd to talk of duties on foreign products1 to counterbalance home taxation--taxation now bears lightly on home agricultural production1 more so than in many parts of the ,continent1 and our manufacturers1 under the same or greater taxation1 compete with and outstrip all the world in cheapness of production4 #cj ,the dread of change in ,catholic countries--the proscription of almost every new work treating of science--the complete submission of the mind to the religious authorities1 bearded men 8becoming little children0 even to the letter--the consequent general abandonment to sensual enjoyment--the immense number of holidays--and the shoals of meddling priests1 are a great bar to improvement--an insurmountable one to manufacturing pre-eminence4 ,we need not say that all this is subordinate to climate4 ,effect1 however1 soon turns to cause4 #ca ,our industrious operatives1 rendered trebly more productive by recent machinery improvements1 fabricate three times more commodity than our landed and other population can with their present habits consume4 ,few other nations can give else but food in exchange for this overplus2 our landholders have enacted laws to exclude food1 and our operatives are being starved down to the requisite number for home supply4 #cb ,the same polity under which ,britain has acquired supremacy1 will not now serve to continue it4 ,a knowledge of the interests of nations is abroad1 and if we will not suffer our country to be the emporium of the world1 another will4 #cc ,see ,app4 ,e4 #cd ,the price of any article raised at home1 when any part requires to be imported1 of course rises to the whole cost 7prime cost1 duty and freight7 of the foreign4 #ce ,the chance of loss by wreck1 damage from sea-water1 and pilfering1 being much less in ,british than in foreign bottoms1 enables the ,british to obtain a higher freight than the foreign4 #ach ,,part ,,iv4 ,,notices ,,of ,,authors ,,relative ,,to ,,timber4 ,after throwing together several of our own observations1 we bethought ourselves of examining into the ideas and experience of recent writers on the same subject4 ,having taken notes of the more prominent matter contained in their pages1 we believe we shall do the public a service by printing these notes1 accompanied by slight remarks4 ,this may be the more useful1 especially as almost every author has his own particular mania1 which few common readers have sufficient knowledge of the subject to discriminate from the saner matter3 and as1 from the nature of hobbies--from some shrewd enough guesses by the owner that they are his own undoubted property--and1 perhaps1 from some misgivings1 that what he advances on these is not perfectly self-evident1 he is thence the more disposed to expatiate upon them1 and embellish4 ,the #aci credulous and inexperienced1 partly from this1 and partly from the fascination of the very improbability1 rush at once into the snare2 bring the speculations or assertions to practical test2 get quickly disenchanted by realities1 and ever after are disposed to treat all written directions on material science with contempt4 ,we bring forward these authors in the order of perusal4 ,we have found several remarks similar to our own2 this was to be expected4 #adj ,i4 ,,the ,,forester',s ,,guide1 by ,mr ,monteath4 ,this volume is the work of a man of some experience1 and of considerable observation and ingenuity1 not much assisted by botanical or physiological science or literary attainment1 which he1 indeed1 disclaims4 ,his principal forte1 and what he seems to have been most engaged with1 is oak-coppice--his besetting sin1 cutting and cropping4 ,his directions on rearing and cutting coppice may be sensible2--those who wish to practise the sacrilege of destroying young oak-forest1 we refer to him1 as we have always had a horror at seeing a beautiful sapling untimeously cut down1 like an ,american bullock for its hide4 ,at present1 and while peace continues1 it is very easy to obtain plenty of foreign bark1 and also oak-timber1 for consumption1 at a very cheap rate1 for this reason--and also1 because1 in the event of war1 the price of these articles would be nearly doubled--we would request the holders of coppice1 and1 indeed1 of all growing oak-timber1 to pause in their operations of cutting1 and not to sacrifice their property so unprofitably1 to their own ultimate disadvantage1 and also to the detriment of #ada the national resources2 but immediately to set about converting their coppice-hags into oak-forest1 by careful thinning and selection4 ,for performing this1 we refer them to ,mr ,monteath in person1 who seems to comprehend the utility1 and to be pretty well versed in the practice1 of thinning2 only we would desire him1 in pruning1 to attend to the functions of the leaves2 that the more abundant the covering of healthy foliage1 the tree will progress the faster2 and that the repeated cutting down of a young plant1 year after year1 as he recommends1 even sometimes extending it to five years in succession1 will either destroy the plant altogether1 or be extremely injurious to its growth3 although1 if the plant be stunted1 cutting it down1 once1 as every body knows1 is the plan which should be adopted with all kinds of our common forest trees--the conifer1 beech1 and birch1 excepted4 ,mr ,monteath advises a naturalization of young plants1 after they are got from nurseries1 in a soil and climate similar to that which they are ultimately to occupy4 ,we see no necessity for this4 ,all that is required in a young plant1 is1 that it be of good variety1 of firm fibre1 in a healthy growing state2 with a stout stem1 in proportion to the height1 #adb with numerous side branches1 and with a root rather large in comparison to the part above ground4 ,our author's mode of preparation of turfy peat-moss soils for planting we think good1 but conveniently applicable in heathy moss ground1 only with the assistance of the late ,mr ,finlayson's ingenious device of the self-clearing plough4 ,at every seven feet of breadth1 ,mr ,monteath excavates a deep rut1 by means of a plough with three coulters and two mould-boards1--two of the coulters cutting1 each1 a side of the rut1 the other dividing it in the middle1 and the double mould-board turning out a furrow to each side4 ,he passes this plough twice along in forming the rut1 each time turning out from four to six inches in depth1 so that the whole depth of the rut is about ten inches4 ,these minor drains communicate with larger ones dug by the spade across the field4 ,the thrown up slices are then cut into lengths of eighteen inches1 and carefully dried1 by turning and by piling a few together1 as openly as possible1 that the wind may blow through4 ,a small pile1 about six in number1 is then burnt upon the intended site of each tree1 if necessary1 aided in the combustion by furze or other fuel2 taking care1 by proper regulation of the quantity of fuel1 or otherwise1 to prevent the combustion from proceeding too #adc far1 and the ashes from becoming white and light1 as in this case a considerable part of their virtues is dissipated4 ,this ploughing1 drying1 and burning1 being performed as early in the summer as the weather will permit1 the earth under the ashes is immediately dug over1 from two to four feet in breadth1 and mixed with the ashes1 and the following spring the planting is performed4 ,in situations where ,mr ,monteath's plough could not be worked to advantage1 these minor drains may be formed by the spade2 and in heathy peat soils1 not requiring drains1 the burning of the heathy turfs on the site of the plants might be efficacious in correcting the tannin1 and in reducing and enriching the soil within the immediate reach of the young plant1 which would thus acquire strength to subdue the more distant part1 and gradually reduce and form the whole into soil capable of affording healthy nourishment4 ,we also approve of the plan mentioned by ,mr ,monteath1 for covering with timber1 rocks or stony ground1 so bare of soil as not to admit of planting1 by means of placing seeds in the crevices1 or on the shelves of the rock1 and scraping together a little mould to cover them2 or1 when practicable1 placing the seeds in the middle of the mould4 ,here1 however1 we think he errs1 in recommending the #add cutting down of the young resulting shoot1 year after year1 that the plant may acquire long roots1 extended down the crevices1 to give the future stem stability and sufficient foraging4 ,we would never cut down but when the plant appeared stunted1 and not then in succession1 nearer than three or four years from the last cutting4 ,those who possess rocky precipices1 so steep or inaccessible that the above method of our author could not be practised with conveniency1 may cause a quantity of the cheapest seeds of trees be sown down over the top of the crags during the winter3 we would prefer the end of ,january1 as the mouldering effects of the frost and the rains would cover numbers of these1 so as they would come to vegetate4 ,mr ,monteath advises1 in rearing oak-forest or copse1 to put in only about thirty plants per acre1 and by layers from these to cover the interstices4 ,in order to recommend this practice1 he states the celerity with which these could be extended1 layer beyond layer1 making steps1 every second season1 of eight or nine feet1 by relaying the last layer's shoots1 and he affirms1 that a forest could be sooner1 and more economically raised by this means1 than by planting the whole at first4 ,this is sufficiently imaginative4 ,he seems not to be aware of the fact1 that life is #ade very languid1 and growth slow1 in any branch horizontally extended1 especially when upright stems from the same root are suffered to remain4 ,he also expects the layer-roots to become strong and capable to forage for large trees4 ,that they will1 in the oak1 ever become so1 we think very improbable4 ,examination of the roots which proceed from oak-layers would place this beyond dispute2 if they are1 as we presume1 fibrous and slender1 similar to those produced by apple-layers1 no tree or bush of any great size will result4 ,large trees1 generally1 cannot be procured by layers1 but only in those semiaquatic kinds which grow readily by slips4 ,whether it may be advantageous to fill up the vacancies of copse by layers1 in preference to seed-plants1 experience only can determine4 ,the bark of trees or bushes raised by layers or cuttings is generally thicker than that of those raised from seed3--this might balance some deficiency of the growth in the case of oak-coppice4 ,our author advises the cutting off the upper part of spruce-trees on the outside of plantations1 in order that their lower branches may extend the more1 and remain vigorous1--thence affording more adequate shelter to the within plantation4 ,perhaps it is quite unnecessary to guard any person from practising this piece of folly4 ,on the outside of woods1 spruce-firs #adf will retain the branches in vigour1 sufficiently low for all the purposes of shelter3 nothing could be more unseemly than the decapitated trees2 and in a few years most of them would become rotted in the stem1 die1 and fall down4 ,from observing1 on the western side of ,scotland1 thriving plantations exposed to south-west winds and sea-spray1 and also to north-east winds and sea-spray1 in woods extending along the western side of the salt lochs in ,argyllshire1 our author predicts1 that1 under his panacea of repeated cutting down1 trees would grow luxuriantly in exposed situations on the north-eastern margin of our island4 ,we do not desire to see ,mr ,monteath's sanguine hope turned to disappointment1 which a trial would certainly effect4 ,there is something peculiarly hard and cutting in our vernal north-eastern breeze fresh from ocean1 which withers up the tender spreading leaves of every plant raised from the ground1 and placed in its immediate draught4 ,this is occasioned as well by a cold moist1 as by a cold dry wind1 the new vegetable structure in the developing process1 when the tissues of tubes and cells are only in the state of pulp1 and all the molecular germs floating into figure1 under the direction of vital and chemical impulses and attractions1 being very susceptible #adg of derangement4 ,we attribute this effect on vegetables principally to the coldness and saline matter4 ,the depressing effect on the spirits or vital energy of man1 occasioned by the eastern breeze1 does not appear to be dependent on the same cause4 ,the great rivers1 the ,rhine1 the ,weser1 the ,elbe1 independent of the ,english rivers1 throw a great quantity of decaying vegetable matter into the lower part of the ,german sea1 which1 being there only a shallow muddy gulf1 may thence have its waters so far contaminated as to throw off pernicious exhalations4 ,or1 what is much more probable1 the eastern breeze1 sweeping along the swamps 7at this time in high evaporation1 of malaria7 which extend from ,holland upward1 and along the whole southern shore of the ,baltic1 and thence eastward nobody knows how far1 must bear these exhalations1 uncorrected1 over the narrow sea which intervenes between these flats and our shores4 ,it is even likely that a slight diffusion of saline matter from this gulf1 instead of correcting1 may have the opposite effect1 as a small quantity of salt tends to promote putrefaction4 ,it is evident that this miasma-atmosphere1 borne across the ,german sea1 is not pernicious to vegetables2 as1 when the breeze is not too cold1 or too violent1 they progress rapidly in growth1 #adh and acquire a deep green colour3 and1 on the north-eastern ,scotch coast1 where timber suffers most1 the breeze has little of that depressive influence on man1 although it may derange his respiratory and transpiratory organs2 while down on the shores of ,suffolk and ,essex1 where the malaria of the breeze is greatest to man1 the exposed trees receive less injury4 ,yet something may depend upon the electric state of this air1 or upon the greater pressure of the atmosphere1 which1 we believe1 are connected4 ,on the exposed east coast1 when it is desired to grow timber1 we must estimate the most enduring kind of tree1 perhaps sycamore plane1 and place it to seaward1 covering it as much as possible by wall1 and planting other kinds under its lee4 ,we have noticed several instances where timber throve well1 without shelter1 close by the sea1 on our north-east coast1 which we attributed to a diminished draught of the eastern breeze1 owing to the configuration of the adjacent higher country4 ,mr ,monteath ascribes the sickliness and decay which1 in many places1 is perceptible in the timber of narrow belts1 to the want of shelter1 and recommends to form belts wider4 ,there is some truth in this1 and the advice is good1 although he does not seem to be aware of the whole cause of the evil4 #adi ,trees in single rows thrive latterly much better than in narrow belts1 because1 from the planting1 they are habituated to open situation1 and acquire roots1 branches1 and stem1 suited to this3 whereas trees in narrow belts1 from being in a thicket while young1 acquire great length of stem1 and roots and tops unproportionably small2 and1 when thinned out1 and from the narrowness of the belt1 exposed nearly as much1 as1 though in single row1 they become sickly1 from delicacy of constitution unsuited to this exposure1 and from deficiency of roots to draw moisture commensurate to the increased evaporation4 ,to obviate this evil1 resulting from narrow belts1 timely thinning1 so as to retain numerous side-branches downward to the ground1 of course1 should be adopted4 ,in a drier climate1 or in high and exposed situation1 continued forest will have great effect in promoting the luxuriance and health of timber2 but in the southern part of ,scotland1 there are few situations1 keeping away from high elevation and the eastern coast1 where any of our common trees would prosper in forest1 which would not grow pretty well singly1 provided the plant be allowed from the first to accommodate its figure to the situation4 ,mr ,monteath's system of pruning severely while #aej the trees are young1 we think very prejudicial2 and his restricting pruning to trees under #ae or #bj feet in height1 equally erroneous4 ,about #ae years ago1 we selected a number of young trees several years planted1 and low and bushy1 in an open situation4 ,we treated one half of these in a manner similar to what our author inculcates1 pruning away most of the lower branches1 and also any irregular top ones3 and the other portion1 though very bushy1 we left to nature's own discretion1 merely correcting several which threw up more than one leader4 ,the result has been1 that those much pruned up have required constant attention to the top and repeated pruning1 they continuing to break forth into irregular branches and numerous leaders1 and thence have sustained considerable loss of growth2 while those let alone1 after hanging several years in bush fashion1 of their own accord have thrown up fine leaders1 which now form beautiful1 upright stems1 with sufficiency of regular lateral branches or feeders1 requiring little or no attention2 while the original bush at the ground1 from the size and overshadowing of the superior tree1 appears now so diminutive as to be unworthy of notice4 ,we do not mean to inculcate that pruning is superfluous2 on the contrary1 when judiciously executed1 under regulation of the purpose for which the #aea particular kind of timber may be required1 it is highly useful3 but the cutting off and diminishing the number of lower feeders1 thence deterring the growth of the tree1 and encouraging the superior feeders to push up as leaders2 or to increase in size so as to render their removal1 should it be necessary1 dangerous to the health of the tree1 and the upper part of the stem useless from large knots 7a practice which in nine cases out of ten is followed71 cannot be sufficiently reprobated4 ,in pruning1 every means should be taken to increase the number of feeders1 in order that none of them may become too large2 and no healthy regular feeder should be lopped off till the tree has reached the required height of stem1 and a sufficient top above this for the purpose of growth2 at which time the feeders upon the stem1 as far up as this necessary height1 may be removed#cf4 ,mr ,monteath states that ,scots fir should not be thinned to greater distance than #bj feet apart1 and larch #ae feet4 ,this shews very little consideration3 the distance apart necessary for these kinds of timber1 and of all other kinds1 must be relative to the soil1 situation and climate1 and the intentions of the owner1 whether he means to bring them soon to #aeb market1 or carry them forward to great timber4 ,when fir trees are intended to be early cut down1 or when disease in larch from unfitness of soil may be apprehended1 as it is thence of small consequence though their future ability to become great timber be destroyed by closeness1 the plants should be retained pretty near each other from the first1 that the timber may be tall1 straight1 and clean4 ,on the other hand1 when the soil is suitable and great timber intended1 early attention to thinning and great openness from the first is absolutely necessary1 as they 7the firs71 different from other trees1 can never repair the loss of their lower branches by throwing out new ones from the naked stem2 and double the distance stated by ,mr ,monteath at least for larch1 which1 instead of less1 needs more space than ,scots fir1 will be required4 ,we believe the decay of ,scots fir1 occurring so generally at about #dj years of age1 although also dependent on inferior variety and kiln-drying of cones1 arises principally from want of timely thinning2 that is1 that the infirm variety of ,scots fir in common use1 when supported by numerous feeders1 and not weakened by being drawn up into a tall slender stem1 will often have hardihood to continue growing1 and acquire considerable size in our cold1 wet1 moorish tills1 or even in our moorish #aec sandy flats4 ,many casualties will1 however1 occur among resinous trees#cg1 especially in unsuitable soil1 even when the plants rise from the seed naturally sown1 and have sufficient room for lateral expansion4 ,the same cause1 viz4 closeness or want of thinning1 induces early maturity1 old age and decay in larch1 although it does not seem to have any influence1 either as inducement to1 or prevention of1 the rot4 ,we have heard men1--even men reasonable on other subjects--speak of allowing a pine wood to thin itself3 as well might a farmer speak of allowing his turnip field to thin itself4 ,when woods are planted of various kinds of timber1 the stronger1 larger growing kinds will sometimes acquire room by overwhelming the smaller3 but when the forest is of one kind of tree1 and too close1 all suffer nearly alike1 and follow each other fast in decay1 as their various strength of constitution gives way2 unless1 from some negligence or defect in planting1 a portion of the plants have come away quickly1 and the others hung back sickly for several years1 so that #aed the former might master the latter3 or when some strong growing variety overtops its congeners4 ,in the natural forest of ,america1 when a clearance by any means is effected1 the young seedlings1 generally all of one kind1 spring up so numerous1 that1 choaking each other1 they all die together in a few years4 ,this close springing up and dying is sometimes repeated several times over2 different kinds of trees rising in succession1 till the seeds in the soil be so reduced as to throw up plants so far asunder as to afford better opportunity for the larger growing varieties to develope their strength2 and1 overpowering the less1 thus acquire spread of branches commensurate to the height1 and thence strength of constitution sufficient to bear them forward to large trees4 ,mr ,monteath1 apparently to encourage the destruction of young oak1 and keep his merciless hatchet agoing1 asserts that 8oak trees1 at the age of #bd or not exceeding #cj years1 have as thick a rind or fleshy part of bark1 as when they arrive at #ej40 ,if by this he means to say1 that the useful part of the oak bark of the stem of a tree at #ej years old is no thicker than that of one of #cj1 we say he is wrong1 widely wrong4 ,a thriving oak tree of #ajj years will still continue to increase the thickness of the valuable part of the bark on the stem1 although part of the #aee outer layers or cuticle may lose vitality1 and become corky4 ,we have taken down a luxuriant growing oak1 exceeding three feet in diameter1 the living bark of whose stem was about two inches in thickness1 resembling thick plank1 and which was considered by the tanners much stronger in quality than bark of younger growth4 ,has ,mr ,monteath seen any bark resembling this on #bd years old sproutings8 ,if1 by the above quotation1 our author means to say1 that the valuable part of the bark on the branches of a tree #cj years old1 is equal in thickness to that on the same sized branches of a tree at #ej1 we say he errs still2 that is1 provided the older tree be in a healthy thriving condition1 and growing equally open and exposed as the younger4 ,trees1 as they increase in years1 increase also in the thickness of the living bark1 from the root upwards to the smallest twig1 provided they have not begun to get dry and sickly from over maturity4 ,when this period arrives1 the living part of the bark upon the stem and larger branches becomes very thin1 with a great proportion of dead corky substance2 although1 on the twigs and smaller branches1 it still continues to thicken4 ,the age at which the external part of the bark begins to lose vitality1 is considerably dependant upon luxuriance of growth1 climate1 and exposure2 and the #aef period when this loss proceeds faster than the annual increase within1 is altogether dependent on the vigour of the tree1 not on the age1 and never takes place till the timber is ripe for the dock-yard4 ,we would warn the readers of ,mr ,monteath's volume1 that his calculations and statements regarding the worth of coppice and timber generally1 seem more suited to flatter the owner's wishes than to be useful to him as a merchant2 or to be adjusted to the value of money during the late war--not to the present value4 ,we also do not very well comprehend his re-establishment or resuscitation of life in dead trees4 ,we observe several other slight errors1 such as the duration of his paling1--and the affirmation that the sap-wood will not extend so as to cover over the section of a pruned branch which contains any red or matured wood4 ,most readers will be able to detect such errors as these4 ,in taking leave of ,mr ,monteath's volume1 we would offer our acknowledgment for the attention he has bestowed on the subject of the seasoning of timber1 by steaming with extract of wood 7pyroligneous acid7 and by scorching1 as prevention of dry rot4 ,the greatest objection we see to his plan is1 that all timber dried quickly is liable to crack and split1 and loses a considerable portion of its #aeg toughness and elasticity2 at least1 timber when dried slowly is harder and stronger than when dried quickly1 the dryness in both cases being carried to the same extent4 ,the comparative strength of timber scorched and timber not scorched1 after both are soaked in water1 as in the lower timbers and plank of vessels1 should be subjected to experiment4 ,our author's directions 7although the practice is also not new7 to season larch by peeling off the bark one or more years previous to cutting1 in order to prevent it from warping or twisting in framed housework2 and his hints recommending stripping off the bark from most kinds of timber a season previous to cutting1 are also deserving of notice4 ,we greatly wonder that something efficacious has not been done in regard to dry rot by our ,navy ,board1 and consider the subject of such importance1 that we think a rot-prevention officer or wood physician should be appointed to each war vessel from the time her first timber is laid down1 to be made in some shape accountable if rot to any extent should ever occur2 and that this officer should be regularly bred to his profession at an institution established for the study of this branch of science at the ,king's largest building yard4 ,perhaps it might be as well to endow several professors' chairs at the universities to follow #aeh out and lecture on this science1 as being of far more importance than many which are already endowed4 ,we think that steeping in fresh water pits for several years1 till a kind of acetous fermentation take place in the timber1 or till it become of a blue colour2 or in tan-pits2 or for a shorter period in strong brine pits2 or even salting the timber like herrings1 after it is blocked out2 or forcing pyroligneous acid1 or composition of chlorine1 or other solution1 antiseptic or obnoxious to life1 into the pores of the timber when dry1 by pressure2 or perhaps by charring the timbers after they are cleaned down on the stocks ready for the plank1 by playing on them a jet of flame from a flexible gas pipe1--might1 some of them1 be found preventive of the rot1 and at same time not to impair any of the valuable qualities of the timber4 ,we are a little shy in committing ourselves1 lest we should be impressed as a dry-rot physician or professor2 but if the following plan for preservation of vessels when unemployed has not already been tried1 we recommend it to the notice of our ,navy ,board4 ,let every part of the vessel be cleared out1 and every port-hole or external opening be made as air-tight as possible4 ,let a quantity of recent-burned limestone #aei 7lime-shells7 be spread thin over every inside deck or floor1 and over the whole bottom and sides of the vessel1 and every door or hatch in the main-deck be immediately closed down air-tight4 ,a number of rods or shreds of timber would require to be nailed slightly to the inside skin of the ship where the slope is considerable1 in order that the lime-shells may rest and not roll down4 ,as soon as it is found that the lime-shells are completely slaked--become hydrate of lime--let it be sold to the farmer or house-builder1 or be used in any government erection going forward at the time2 and let another quantity be laid in4 ,we would consider a sloop of #hj tons load of lime1 value1 prime cost and freight1 about ,l4#gj1 would suffice for covering the internal surface of a seventy-four gun ship4 ,when slaked to powder1 the lime might be disposed of at little loss4 ,it is impossible1 without trial1 to say how often the lime would require renewal1 but we think twice or thrice a-year would suffice to preserve the vessel dry and free of any corruption2 perhaps even once might be found effectual4 ,suppose that the lime was renewed every four months1 and that when slaked it only sold at two-thirds of the whole cost1 the preservation of a line-of-battle ship would be nearly as follows4 ,the price of the lime #afj and work is correct1 according to the rates in most of the harbours of ,scotland4 ,a quantity of rods or shreds of timber1 about three inches in diameter1 for nailing on the sloping sides of the vessel1 material and labour1 ,l4#bj #j #j ,eighty tons lime-shells #efj bolls1 at #as4 #g;d4 per boll1 prime cost1 #dd #f #h ,freight of #efj bolls1 at #as4 #bh #j #j ,the slaked lime is supposed to sell at #b-c;ds of the cost1 thence the whole loss on a year would equal the value of one cargo4 ,carrying three lime cargoes of shells aboard1 and spreading them1 #cj #j #j ,we allow here for the greater distance of carriage1 and spreading out of the cargo1 nearly thrice the sum requisite to remove lime-shells from a vessel into a cart4 ,removing the slaked lime of three cargoes1 #cj #j #j ,cost first year1 ,l4#aeb #f #h ,deduct rods1 #bj #j #j ,cost1 second1 and each following year1 ,l4#acb #f #h ,the complete efficacy of lime-shells in preventing dry-rot is already proved--the coasting small craft frequently employed in the carriage of lime-shells not being liable to it4 ,all that requires to be ascertained1 is the minimum quantity which will effect it2 and if the expense of this quantity will greatly exceed the average loss by dry-rot in our unemployed #afa shipping4 ,if the quantity necessary be not greater than what we have supposed--even ,mr ,hume himself would not consider the expense extravagant--the preservation of a line-of-battle ship not exceeding that of one of our numerous army captains while lying in ordinary4 ,lime is preventive of dry-rot in several ways1--when uncombined as an antiseptic1 simply by drying1 from its attraction for water2 by its causticity1 which remains for a number of months after it is slaked1 destroying organic life2 and by its absorbing putrescent gases4 ,it is not easy1 without trial1 to form a correct estimate of the quantity of moisture which would enter through the inside planking of a man-of-war2 but were the bottom of the vessel in good condition1 the pumps attended to1 and external air excluded1 we should consider that the moisture would not greatly exceed #fj tons of water yearly1 which would nearly be required to convert #bdj tons of lime-shells into dry hydrate of lime4 ,no very great injury or inconvenience would be produced by the opening of the seams of the ceiling 7the inside skin71 or of the inner decks or floors1 or by the warping of the plank1 resulting from the contraction of the timber by the dryness2 but the caulking of the main deck would require to be looked to4 #afb ,no danger from fire need be apprehended1 from the sudden slaking of a thin layer of shells1 even though a leak in the main deck should occur4 ,the thickness beyond which shells could not be suddenly slaked upon dry boards without danger of fire1 might be tried4 ,it is necessary to mention1 that1 though lime-shells1 or dry hydrate of lime1 when timber is so dry as to be liable to corruption by insects or by dry rot1 is1 by destroying life and increasing the dryness1 preventive of this corruption2 yet lime1 in contact with timber for a considerable time in very moist air1 from its great attraction to water1 draws so much moisture from the air as to become wet mortar or pulp1 which1 moistening the timber1 promotes its decay by the moist rot4 #afc ,,ii4--,,nicol',s ,,planter',s ,,calendar4 ,this volume1 which ought to have been named ,sang's ,nurseryman's ,calendar1 is a work of very considerable merit and usefulness1 where the craft of the common nurseryman is plainly and judiciously taught4 ,the editor1 ,mr ,sang1 admits that he was very little indebted to the notes of his friend 7the late ,mr ,nicol7 for the matter of the volume2 and the work itself bears evidence of this1 being principally devoted to the operations of the nursery1 the sowing and planting of hard-wood trees1 which are described with a judgment and accuracy attainable only by long experience in that line1 to which we understand ,mr ,sang belongs4 ,every person engaged with the sowing1 planting1 or rearing of timber1 if he be not too wise or too old to learn1 should forthwith procure this volume4 ,mr ,sang recommends sowing of forests in preference to planting1 which many before him have done1 we believe1 more from conjecture that nature's own process must be superior to any method of art1 than from any experience of the fact or accurate #afd knowledge of--at least without giving sufficient explanation of1 any cause rendering the tree of more puny growth in consequence of being transplanted4 ,in the case of simple herbaceous vegetables1 we find1 on the contrary1 that transplanting increases the size1 protracts the period of full development1 and retards the decay1 the individual suffering no lasting injury from root fracture1 or that injury being more than compensated by change to a new and more recently wrought soil2 or even the root fracture1 instead of being of prejudice to the growth1 by throwing the energy of the plant in this direction to repair the injury1 not only may do so1 but delaying the superior process towards reproduction#ch1 may also give a #afe new vigour to the soft fibrous rootlets1 and greater extension than they otherwise would have attained4 ,but in regard to some kinds of compound plants of perennial stem1 transplanting1 especially when the plant has attained some size1 by fracture1 throws the main wide diverging roots into numerous rootlets and slender matted fibres1 none of which has individual strength to extend as a leader far beyond the shade of the spreading top1 thence forage in a drier1 more exhausted soil1 and1 from consequent want of supply of moisture1 the sap of the tree stagnates into flower1 or merely leaf-buds1 instead of flowing out into new wood4 ,the fibrous softer rooting vegetables sustain no lasting injury from root-fracture and transplanting2 but the harder1 more woody1 larger growing roots1 losing their leader1 never entirely recover their original power of extention4 ,yet we think that one or two year old plants1 taken from the seed-bed1 would suffer little or no injury from removal1 as the tap-root1 which is ultimately of no consequence1 never constituting a leader1 but eventually #aff disappearing1 is the only part which suffers fracture in the woody state2 and the side shoots1 which become the grand root leaders1 are in the fibrous state1 which easily repairs small injury4 ,these observations refer only to certain kinds of timber trees4 ,the willows1 poplars1 and lindens1 succeed better when their roots are cropped in near the bulb when removed4 ,we planted a piece of trenched ground1 partly with poplar plants1 with good roots1 from a nursery1 and partly with poplar loppings1 about the same size as the plants1 stuck into the ground3 the loppings grew more luxuriantly than the nursery plants4 ,the same occurs with willows--with this difference1 that willow-loppings do better with the top entirely cropped1 without any twigs or external buds2 the poplar only pruned a little1 with a terminal bud left on every twig1 especially on the top shoot4 ,the superiority of the growth of those without roots1 results from their having fewer buds and twigs to exhaust the juices before the formation of new fibrils to draw from the ground1 these few buds thence continuing to push more strongly1 and from the roots growing more vigorously when sprung anew1 than when they are a continuation of the wounded deranged old ones4 ,new rootlets spring out much sooner and more #afg boldly from the thick vigorous green stem bark1 than from the delicate tender root bark1 and also more vigorously from the bark of the bulb than from the bark of the remote roots1 of those soft-wooded trees2 indeed1 it appears to be owing alone to the great strength of the vitality of the bark of the stem1 that those kinds are so capable of continuation by cuttings4 ,the roots have nearly the same delicacy of those of other kinds of trees1 and show no particular readiness to throw up sprouts when bared4 ,mr ,sang1 in furtherance of his advocated scheme of raising forests in situ from the seed1 sensible of the general impracticability of fallowing or working the ground all over previous to sowing1 gives directions for pitting or stirring the earth the previous spring and summer1 in spots about fourteen inches square1 and from six to nine feet separate1 burying the turf under the soil1 in order that it may be rotted1 and a fine friable mould obtained for reception of the seeds to be sown the following spring2 several seeds are then deposited in each spot1 equidistant2 these require to be hand-weeded the first season1 and the resulting plants hoed around for several successive years1 till they have mastered the weeds1 after which they are all plucked out but one 7the most promising7 in each spot4 ,this is all very well1 #afh if we could have patience and assiduity to proceed thus systematically2 and if the mice1 birds1 and other enemies1 would 8let them be20 but although this plan1 when a braird is obtained1 and the tufts cleaned1 and seasonably thinned1 is probably the best1 yet landlords1 in general incapable of exertion1 but under the excitement of a fresh thought1 are so infirm of purpose2 tenure of life and property are so precarious2 and trusted servants1 especially when the procedure has originated with another1 are so liable to be negligent1 that our amateurs ought to gratify their passion for improvement while it lasts1 and proceed at once by purchase of plants1 and pitting or slitting1 which procures them a forest immediately palpable to view4 ,there is no doubt1 however1 that wooing the soil to kindliness1 rearing the infant plant from the germ1 and superintending a principio the entire beautiful process of vegetable development1 will afford a deeper charm to a patient lover of nature2 and that the continued solicitude and attentions required during this process acting upon man's parental instinct1 will excite an interest hardly to be felt towards a child of adoption4 ,a nursery gives such facility to the rearing of the plants1 that1 taking into account the greater chance of failure by sowing in situ than by planting1 the #afi latter practice will be executed for one half the expense of the former4 ,supposing that the progress1 after twenty years' occupancy of the ground1 be equal in both cases1--at which period1 however1 we think the transplanted would still have the advantage1--it would require a considerable ultimate superior progress in those sown1 to outbalance the accumulating value of the extra expense4 ,it is probable a combination of both practices might be advantageously followed--sowing the soils and situations most suitable1 and transplanting the thinnings of these into the more exposed unpropitious places#ci4 ,the matter1 however1 must1 after all1 be left to the test of experiment in a variety of soils and situations4 ,this volume1 being principally a monthly detail of a nursery practice1 which has supported the test of competition1 has1 on this account1 a very different credit and value from much that has been published of landlords' practice1 theorists' conjectures1 or adventurers' quackery4 ,the burthen of our author's song1 which1 from the nature of the work1 falls to be repeated at several of the calendary periods1 and which perhaps cannot be too often repeated1 is nearly as follows4 ,procure good seed of the best varieties from large healthy trees1 and preserve these in husk in dry #agj well-aired places till sowing2 with the exception of ash keys1 haws1 holly-berries1 roans1 and yew-berries1 which require to be put in the rot-heap as soon as gathered4 ,the rot-heap consists of seed mixed with sandy earth formed into a layer not exceeding ten inches in thickness2 this is turned several times before midwinter1 when it is covered with a layer of earth about seven inches deep1 to exclude the frost4 ,after remaining in this heap one year--till ,september1 or the following ,february1 these seeds are sown out4 ,sow seeds of trees during the last half of ,february1 ,march1 or ,april1 on beds of high manured easy soil1 in very fine tilth1 and clear of weeds1 such as follows hoed green crop1 in distance and depth in proportion to the size of the seed1 or rather of the annual stem or braird4 ,to deposit the seed at an equable depth1 the upper friable mould is pushed 7cuffed7 off the bed to the interstices between by the reversed head of a rake1 as deep as necessary2 the seed is then deposited by the hand1 and rolled over by a very light roller to fix it1 that it may not suffer derangement by the return of the earth which is then evenly cuffed back from the sides1 and no harrowing or raking given4 ,watch most narrowly1 and ward off or destroy all #aga kinds of vermin1 mice1 snails1 birds1 till the time when the rising braird has disencumbered itself of the husk of the seed thrown up by the ascending stem1 and nip out every weed as soon as discernible by the naked eye4 ,in order to diminish the toil of watching1 the different kinds should be sown as near the same time as their nature renders prudent1 and the seed-beds be situated as near each other as circumstances will admit4 ,at the end of the first or second season1 according to size and closeness of plants1 remove the seedlings from the bed to nursery rows1 at any time when the leaf is off1 and the ground sufficiently dry not to poach2 before ,april for deciduous trees1 and during ,april for evergreens1 placing them in rather open order1 either by dibbling or laying1 according to the nature of the root1 firming the plants well in the ground2 in case of dibbling1 taking good heed to leave no vacuum of hole under the root1 and to work the tool so as to compress the earth more below than above4 ,keep the soil loose and friable on the surface1 and clear of weeds between the transplanted rows by repeated seasonable hoeings1 and let the plants rise with a single leader4 ,after the plants have stood one or two years in #agb the nursery-row1 remove them to their ultimate destination with as little fracture or exposure of root as possible1--the larger rooted by pitting1 and the smaller by slitting1 or as the nature of the soil may require2 paying most particular attention to plant the dry ground early after the leaf has dropped1 and the moister and more adhesive soils in succession1 as they become so dry in spring as not to adhere to the tools in working1 or poach in treading the plant firm in2 removing the evergreens earlier1 or later1 in ,april1 according to the dryness or moistness of the ground2 dipping the roots in a clay-puddle1 and endeavouring to seize the opportunity of planting before a shower1 should the spring be far advanced and dry1 especially in the more arid situations4 ,stout healthy seedlings1 one or two years old1 may be at once removed from the seed-bed to their place in the forest1 and will often succeed as well as when nursed in rows1 as above4------,we have preferred the pick of the seedlings to the common run of the transplanted1 as being probably stronger growing varieties4 ,in cases where it is practicable1 work over the new plantations for several years with crops of potatoes1 turnips1 lettuce1 c41 manuring the ground1 if #agc possible2 and then sow out with perennial rye-grass and white clover1 if the trees are not become a close cover1 making economical use of the grass as early in the season as it can be mowed with a short scythe4 ,for seeds that require to lie a season in the rot-heap1 such as ash keys1 haws1 c4 ,september-sowing is preferable to deferring it to the following spring1 as they are liable to chip in the heap4 ,if not sown in ,september1 they must be got in as soon in ,february as possible4 ,acorns1 ,spanish and ,horse ,chestnuts1 are best sown when they drop from the tree2 but when the seed is not procured till spring1 the sowing ought not to be deferred beyond ,february and ,march4 ,the best soil is a deep rich loam4 ,elm-seed may be sown in ,june1 when it is new from the tree1 or carefully dried and kept over season till next spring2 one-half may then be sown in ,march1 and the other in ,april1 as the ,march-sown is sometimes injured by late frosts4 ,the utmost care is required to prevent this seed from heating when newly gathered4 ,beech braird is also liable to be cut off by spring frost2 the seed should therefore be sown partly in ,march and partly in ,april1 to diminish the chance #agd of entire failure4 ,the soil requires to be rich1 and is benefited by a dressing of well-made manure previous to sowing4 ,sycamore ,plane braird also suffers by late frost1 and for greater security ought also to be sown partly in ,march and partly in ,april4 ,planes require dry1 poor1 rather exposed sandy soil1 for seed-bed2 as1 in rich damp soil1 the top of the annual shoot does not ripen3 the seed ought to be thinly sown4 ,birch and ,alder seeds require to be sown in ,march1 or beginning of ,april1 on very fine1 rich1 easy mould1 giving them very slight cover1 especially the birch4 ,the ,conifer1 ,scots ,fir1 ,spruce1 ,silver ,fir1 c4 should be sown in ,april1 on very rich easy soil4 ,the greatest care is required to deposit these different seeds at proper regular depth1 from an inch to the fourth of an inch1 in proportion to the size of the seed4 ,larch should also be sown in ,april2 it succeeds best on the clean mellow ground which has produced a crop of seedling ,scots fir4 ,it is worthy of remark1 that the larch seedlings and row-plants are liable to die under a putrescent disease1 when much recent manure is employed4--,we remark this accordance with its tendency to putrid disease in after life4 #age ,acorns1 ,chestnuts1 and other large seeds1 may be economically sown in drill3 where the soil contains much annual weed seed1 this admits of expeditious cleaning by the hoe4 ,ground which has borne a crop of potatoes the preceding season1 is unfit for seed-beds1 as the tubers and seed of the potato give much trouble4 ,these are the chief of ,mr ,sang's directions on raising timber-plants4 ,with the exception of kiln-drying of cones1 and being rather too prodigal of manure to the seed-beds 7perhaps necessary in a sale nursery71 we see nothing in the volume to censure4--,a premium should be offered for a convenient plan of distributing fir-seed suitably in the seed-bed1 without the aid of artificial drying4 ,it is perhaps unnecessary to state1 that1 in the culture of trees1 there are thousands of incidental circumstances to which general directions will not apply1 and which demand a discriminating judgment in the operator3 this acts as a school to the mental acumen2 and there is no class of operative men1 which has the faculties of attention1 activity1 discrimination1 and judgment1 more developed1 than nurserymen and gardeners1--whose diversified labours1 requiring1 at the same time1 constant mental and corporeal exertion1 keep up a proper balance of the human powers4 #agf ,we leave to the judgment of the operator to proportion the thickness of sowing of the different kinds of seed to the expected size of stem and leaf1 under regulation of soil1 season1 and quality of seed2 and to determine whether the plants may be continued more than one season in the seed-bed1 or be entirely or partly drawn the first1 which must depend on their luxuriance and closeness2 also to notice if all the seeds have vegetated the first season1 or if many of them still be inert2 in the latter case1 the seedlings must be picked out2 to facilitate which1 the earth may be gently raised by a three-pronged fork1 with as little superficial disturbance as possible4 ,in nurseries1 the great and general error is having the plants too close together1 particularly in the row4 ,every nursery-row plant should be of a regular cone figure1 with numerous side-branches down near to the root1 and gradually widening in the cone downwards4 ,these would1 indeed1 occupy more space of package1 and probably not please the ignorant purchaser1 who generally prefers a clean1 tall body2 but they would support the hardships of removal to the moor1 and be stately trees2 when the comely1 straight1 slender plants would either have died altogether1 or have become miserable1 unsightly skeletons1 or stunted bushes4 #agg ,in cases where plants are required of considerable size1 for hedge-rows or park-standards1 it is matter of doubt1 how far frequent removals in nursery1 or cutting of roots1 is profitable4 ,this occasions fibrous matted roots1 which tend much to the success of the ultimate removal1 and to the growth of the plant for several years after2 but1 by checking the disposition the roots naturally have to extend by several wide-diverging leaders1 probably unfit the plant for becoming a large tree4 ,mr ,sang remarks that sycamore planes and birch should not be pruned in the latter part of the winter1 as they bleed greatly at that season3 we have often noticed this as early as midwinter1 which also occurs to the maple tribe4 ,our author introduces the mountain-ash as a forest tree1 a rank it by no means merits1 at least for value as a timber tree4 ,when exceeding six inches in diameter1 it is generally rotted in the heart1 and is only valuable as a copse for affording pliant1 tough rods2 or twigs1 as a charm or fetiche against witchcraft6 ,it is1 however1 one of our most beautiful trees4 ,mr ,sang gives directions for kiln-drying fir cones previous to thrashing out1 or extracting the seeds4 ,we have before adverted to this1 and would #agh particularly reprehend the practice4 ,it is difficult to determine how far early fruitfulness and consequent infirmity of constitution1 diminutiveness of size at maturity1 and early decay1 may originate from kiln-drying the cones2 but1 from the same process of drying in a less degree having been ascertained to induce early seed-bearing in the case of other seeds1 we may infer almost to certainty1 that the conifer of this country1 not naturally planted1 are very materially injured by this practice4 ,it is of small consequence1 in reference to the tree itself1 at what season deciduous trees are planted1 provided they be naked of leaf1 and the ground not too dry1 as they are not liable to lose much by desiccation or evaporation by the bark alone1 before the roots strike anew in spring1 and draw freely from the soil2 and the skin of the bulb1 although the small rootlets be broken1 sucks up moisture from the damp soil to repair the loss by superior evaporation3 but evergreens--firs1 hollies1 laurels1 yews1 sometimes suffer by removal at a time when the roots do not immediately strike1 as in winter1 owing to the torpor from cold4 ,we have often seen their juices exhausted1 and their leaves entirely withered1 by a continuation of dry northerly winds1 the manifest cause of which #agi was the great superficial exposure of the leaves evaporating faster than the fractured torpid roots afforded supply4 ,therefore1 although winter planting seldom fails1 yet it is perhaps better to seize the exact time in spring1 immediately before the roots commence to strike anew1 before there is any new top-growth1 and while the soil and air remain somewhat moist and cold1 that the evaporation may not be too great4 ,in this climate1 ,april is a good season for removing evergreens to the field1 although1 to throw the work from the busy season1 it is often practised in the nursery in ,september1 when their annual growths are completed1 and while there is yet warmth to enable the roots to strike anew2 this1 however1 is only advisable where the soil for their reception is in the most favourable state1 friable1 and inclining to moist1 or when there is great indication of rain1 and the air near the dew point4 ,of course they require to be planted as soon as extracted4 ,in winter or spring1 when it happens that evergreens must lie in the shough1 the most protected situation1 where the air is moist and still1 ought to be chosen1 and the earth carefully closed to their roots1 which is best done by watering1 if rain be not expected2 the stems and branches should also lie as close to the ground as possible4 #ahj ,there is appended to this valuable ,planter's ,calendar a treatise on the ,formation and ,management of ,osier ,plantations4 ,as this will not bear compression well1 we refer our reader to the volume itself4 #aha ,,iii4 ,,billington ,,on ,,planting4 ,we have perused ,billington's account of the management of the ,royal ,forests with much profit2 it affords us an excellent series of experiments1 shewing how much conduct and integrity may exist in ,government establishments1 even although the strictest watch be not kept over their motions by the nation itself4 ,words are awanting to express our admiration of every thing connected with the management of our misnamed ,royal ,wastes4 ,we scarcely could have hoped to find such pervading judgment and skill of calling1 as have been displayed by the ,commissioners1 and ,surveyors ,general and ,particular2 but it is true1 the noble salaries attached to these situations must induce men of the very first ability and knowledge of the subject1 to accept of the office4 ,our author1 ,mr ,billington1 proceeds with great naivet to relate how they sowed and resowed acorns--how they planted and replanted trees1 persevering even to the fifth time1 sometimes covering the roots1 and sometimes not1 8but all would not avail10 nothing would do2 the seeds did not vegetate1 and the #ahb plants refused to grow1 excepting in some rare spots1 and a few general stragglers4 ,then how the natural richness of the soil threw up such a flush of vegetation--of grass1 and herbs1 and shrubs1 that most of these plants were buried under this luxuriance2 and how the mice and the emmets1 and other wayfarers1 hearing1 by the bruit of fame1 of the wise men who had the governing of ,dean1 assembled from the uttermost ends of the island1 expecting a millennium in the forest1 and ate up almost every plant which had survived the smothering4 ,now1 this is well2 we rejoice over the natural justice of the native and legitimate inhabitants of the ,royal ,domain1 the weeds mastering the invaders the plants1 who1 year after year1 to the amount of many millions1 made hostile entrance into the forest4 ,we only deplore the cruel doom of the mice1 on whose heads a price was laid1 and of the emmets1 who1 acting as allies of the native powers1 merited a better fate than indiscriminate slaughter4 ,may we hope that our ,government will no longer persist in unprofitable endeavours to turn cultivator1 or to raise its own supply8 ,we laugh at the ,pasha of ,egypt becoming cotton-planter and merchant himself1 in a country where the exertions of a man enlightened beyond his subjects1 who has influence #ahc to introduce intelligent cultivators1 possessing the knowledge of more favoured nations1 may be necessary to teach and stimulate the ignorant ,copt to raise a new production3 ,and here1 where discovery in every branch of knowledge almost exceeds the progressive--here1 where so many public and government fixtures stand out1 as if left on purpose to indicate the recent march of mind1 contrasting so strongly with private and individual attainment in science and art1--with every thing the reverse of what affects the ,egyptian's conduct2 or1 at least1 with no excuse beyond affording a cover for a wasteful expenditure of the public money2--will our ,government continue the system1 heedless of reason or ridicule8 or will they not at once end these practices1 and immediately commence sales of every acre of ground to which the ,crown has claim1 excepting what is necessary for the use of royalty1 abolishing ,woods and ,forest ,generals1 ,rangers--every one who has taken rank under ,jacques' ,greek1 or the devil's own invocation1 and pay off a part of the debt which is crushing the energies of the first of nations8 ,yet it is not of individuals that we complain2 perhaps nobody could have had a stronger desire to do his duty1 than the late ,surveyor-,general4 ,it is the system that is naught2 where1 to the lowest #ahd labourer1 none have individual interest in the success of their work2 and where the efforts of the really honest1 intelligent1 and industrious are1 by directions and trammels1 rendered unavailing2 or even through misrepresentation by those of a contrary character1 7as would seem in the case of ,mr ,billington71 are the cause of dismissal4 ,we can only predicate of the future from the past4 ,in spite of all our ,parliamentary acts respecting these forests1 and the clamour that for ages has been made about them1 they1 with little exception1 have existed only as cover for sinecure expenditure1 or for display of tyro ignorance and incapacity1 and subject for pillage1 thieving1 and frauds of every description#dj2 7vide ,parliamentary ,reports74 ,we could easily--by a very simple incantation1 requiring a rod neither tipped with silver nor with gold1 but merely a plain cane or sword--bring forth a sufficient quantity of large growing oaks to meet any emergency4 ,our charm would be to give the title of ,prince to the ,duke who should possess1 and have at the command of ,government at a fair price1 a certain #ahe number of oaks above a certain size1 and a step of elevation to every titled person1 and the title of ,baronet to every private gentleman1 who should possess a given number1 diminishing the number requisite to give a step as the title became lower4 ,we should conceive this law would not render nobility of less estimation4 ,perhaps the clause might be added1 that one tree raised on waste ground should count two4 ,as a treatise on the rearing1 or rather prevention of the rearing1 of young planting1 ,mr ,billington's small volume possesses some real merit2 and simplicity and useful and sagacious remark are so blended together1 as to afford to the reader at once amusement and information4 ,we are something at a loss to account for this incongruity4 ,has the seclusion of a forest life given a cast of the naturel to his mental product2 or has ,jaques of ,arden really been in ,dean with his celebrated invocation8 ,mr ,billington's directions on pruning and training are generally good2 but he distances common sense when on his hobby of shortening of side branches1 in recommending to extend this practice to pines4 ,his breeding as a gardener1 and consequent taste for espalier and wall-training1 where every shoot must be under especial direction1 seem to have #ahf unfitted his mind to expand to the comprehension of nature's own process of action1 and disqualified him from walking hand in hand with her4 ,we also consider that no good1 but rather evil1 would result from continued cutting in1 and lopping off the points of the branches of all kinds of trees1 excepting when the plants were stunted1 or much covered with flower-buds4 ,even a very slight clipping greatly retards the growth of hedges2 and the labour and attention requisite would be very great3 besides1 the poor things1 the trees1 trimmed to the ,billingtonian standard1 would1 amongst the unrestrained beauties of the forest1 be ready to sink into the earth for very shame of their formal deformity4 ,he errs1 too1 in recommending not to plant sycamore plane1 as being of little value while young4 ,we have sold young planes1 six or seven inches in diameter1 at a higher price per foot than large oak4 ,they will generally find a good market wherever machinery abounds1 and will probably become every year in greater request4 ,mr ,billington is particularly solicitous to render his instructions as plain as possible1 in describing the mode of pruning young oaks in formation of knee timber1 as he confesses to bring it down to the comprehension of gentlemen2 but he is not very happy in his figures of oak trees trained to this use1 from #ahg want of acquaintance with the cutting out of naval crooks4 ,he remarks that 8larches are more liable to die in wet ground by their roots being soaked in water during winter1 than oak and some other kinds20 but ground that is at all pervious to water1 ought not to be planted till it be drained in such a manner that water will soon disappear from shallow holes2 and where1 from the plastic closeness of the clay1 draining is not quite effectual1 the planting should take place as late in the spring as the breaking of the buds will permit2 and principally by slitting1 which1 by not breaking the natural coherence or turfiness of the soil1 affords less opening for water to stagnate around the roots1 and does not occasion the soil to sink down into the mortary consistence consequent to pitting2 there is also less destruction of the vegetables growing in the soil1 hence less putrescent matter to taint the water that may stagnate round the roots2 pure water1 or water in motion1 not being detrimental to the roots for a considerable time3 also1 when the plants are put in late in spring1 there is seldom long stagnation of water that season1 and by next winter the ground has become so firmed around the roots as to allow very little space for water1 and has also acquired a certain granular arrangement akin to polarization or crystallization1 which #ahh allows the water gradually to percolate2 it is also bored by the earth-worm1 and other insects1 and the plant itself1 after the roots have struck anew and the fractures healed1 possesses a vitality which better enables it to withstand the exclusion of air from the roots1 and chilling by the water the ensuing winter1 and either prevents absorption of the stagnant fluid1 or counteracts its putrid tendency4 ,planting succeeds best in soil of this description when the ground has been under grass for some period1 at least the new planted tree1 in this case1 is less liable to the root-rot2 and trenching or digging previous to planting is of more utility1 as the turfiness prevents the clay from sinking down into impervious mortar1 and allows the water to percolate to the drains4 ,mr ,billington is very earnest in recommending to drain well at first1 and to keep the drains 7open drains7 in repair2 he also directs1 where the ground is very impervious and wet1 to take large square sods1 about #ah inches square and #i inches thick1 from the drains while digging in early winter1 and place one of these1 the grassy side undermost1 in the site which each plant is to occupy4 ,in the spring1 by the time of planting1 the sod has become firmly fixed1 and the two swards rotting afford an excellent nourishment to the plant1 which is inserted in the #ahi centre of the sod1 with the roots as deep as the original surface2 the drains1 being necessarily numerous1 afford turf sufficient for all the plants4 ,this is good4 ,he also gives sensible directions to beat down1 hoe1 or cut away all weeds1 shrubs1 and grass1 from the young plants1 and to remove all rough herbage and thickets of shrubs1 that form harbour for the short-tailed mouse1 which is exceedingly destructive1 in the case both of planting and sowing2 in the former1 by nibbling the bark from the stem1 and biting off the twigs of the young trees1 7from which our author may have taken the hint of cutting in1 as mankind took that of pruning from the browsing of the ass71 and gnawing their roots immediately below the surface of the ground2 and in the latter1 by devouring the seed in the ground1 and cutting down the seedling annual shoot4 ,he also instructs to keep the tree to one leader1 shortening all straggling large branches2 but his assertion1 that plants which had the tops of the straggling branches pinched off in the first part of summer1 grew much larger in consequence1 looks rather absurd2 although we have known a part of a hedge1 clipped a week or two after the growth had commenced in spring1 grow more luxuriantly than the part which had been pruned in the same manner before the growth had #aij commenced4 ,this was owing to the check by the late clipping1 throwing the period of growth into warm moist ,july2 what was earlier clipped performed its growth in dry ,june1 and was considerably injured by the manna blight which the latter escaped#da4 ,the same cause operates to induce late sown grain and wheat1 which has been thrown late by much injury of spring frost1 to acquire a larger1 more luxuriant bulk1 than that of earlier growth4 ,it would appear to us that ,mr ,billington1 from ignorance of the value of larch1 and of the soil proper for maturing it1 has done more injury to the parts of the royal forests where a growth of timber was obtained1 by cutting out the thriving larch1 than will be compensated by his pruning and training of the sickly stunted oak which remained1 as described by him1 scarcely visible1 when the larches were of size for country use2 but we forget2 no blame can attach to him--his orders were1 that every thing should give place to oak4 #aia ,in parting with our author1 it is but just to state1 that we consider many may profit by a perusal of his pages3 that notwithstanding the simplicity to which we have alluded1 there is often something sterling in his remarks and reflections1 the result of much experience1 resembling the original freshness of our writers before writing became so much of a trade4 ,in some places1 indeed1 his narrative is so simply1 naturally descriptive1 and speaks so eloquently1 of ignorance of climate1 season1 soil1 circumstance--of all the unknown dangers and difficulties incident to their new employment--and of the wonderful contrivances and inventions hit upon to remedy them--that1 when perusing it1 we could scarcely persuade ourselves we were not engaged with ,robinson ,crusoe4 #aib ,,iv4--,,forsyth ,,on ,,fruit ,,and ,,forest ,,trees4 ,the surgery of trees1 which this author has the great merit of almost perfecting1 is the only important matter in this volume4 ,his composition salve1 on the merits of which he expatiates so much1 and for the discovery of which he received a premium from the collective wisdom of the nation assembled in ,parliament1 is1 however1 a piece of mere quackery2 and all the virtue of his practice lies in the cutting out of the dead and diseased parts of the tree1 thus effecting for vegetables by excision1 what nature herself performs for animals by suppuration1 exfoliation1 and absorption4 ,mr ,forsyth's surgery is of slight importance to timber trees in respect of economy1 as with them as with man1 it is generally easier to raise up anew than cure the diseased4 ,yet it is well that the rationale of this practice be understood by foresters1 more in regard to prevention than cure2 an occasion will however sometimes occur where a tree may economically be benefited by surgical aid3 and in cases where the #aic ,dryades acquire lasting attachment to particular objects1 the science is invaluable1 as the object of their love may be thus continued flourishing to the end of time1 or as long as the inamorata chooses to pay the surgeon4 ,mr ,forsyth presents us with numerous models of knives1 irons1 and gouges1 suited to the operation of removing the dead parts of his patients4 ,where the gangrene occurs in the outside1 he hews and scrapes away with these till every portion in which the vital principle is extinct be detached1 and the surface all regular and smooth1 so scooped out as to afford no hollow where water may rest4 ,he then gives a coating of his composition salve to all the space operated on1 wherever the cuticle of the bark has been broken1 which prevents the drought1 rain or air1 from injuring the bared parts till the bark spread over it4 ,in cases where the removal of all the dead part at once would endanger the stability of the tree1 he first removes it along the borders of the decayed part all round1 close to the sound bark1 of such a breadth as to give full room for the bark to spread over in one season1 and covers this with his pigment1 annually repeating the cutting out1 and painting around the rim or edge of the new-formed bark1 till the whole of the dead part be cleared away4 #aid ,under this treatment1 the excavation is gradually filled up with the new wood forming under the spreading bark1 and the wound becomes cleanly cicatrized4 ,mr ,forsyth has effected complete renovation1 where the sound vital part consisted only of a narrow stripe of bark and alburnum upon one side of the stem1 and where two cart loads of the diseased trunk had been scooped out4 ,when the heart of the tree is decayed1 he makes a section longitudinally in the side of the tree1 as far up and down as the rot extends1 and of sufficient width to admit the working out the diseased part2 and managed as above1 the bark and wood gradually extend from the two sides of the section into the vacuity1 and fill it up entirely with new sound timber4 ,when the tree is of considerable diameter1 the opening formed in the side of the stem must be wide1 nearly extending to half the circumference1 otherwise the sides of the section would meet before the bark extended over all the inside4 ,when the bark from the two sides approaches to touch in the bottom of the hollow1 he pares off the cuticle from each side where they join1 in order that they may unite thoroughly4 ,should any of the roots be diseased1 he removes the earth1 and pares away the corrupting parts2 and if the top be stunted or #aie sickly1 he crops it at the joints where the smaller branches separate1 whence numerous fine strong shoots spring forth1 whose new vigour of vegetation1 and absence of drain by seeding for several years1 generally renovate the whole plant1 and occasion the filling up of the wounds 7should the trunk be under cure7 to proceed rapidly4 ,need we mention1 that it is only in the cases where the partial death or decay has resulted from casualty1 or something not connected with the general system of the plant1 or with the soil1 or other external circumstances 7unless these can be changed71 that renovation by clearing away the decayed or sickly parts is attainable8 ,where the plant is sinking from mere old age1 a source of decay of which in some kinds at least we have doubts1 or from the soil being improper or exhausted for the particular kind of plant by long occupancy1 or from any circumstance not admitting of remedy1 the attempt to heal up the wounds caused by cutting out the diseased parts1 or to induce new vigour by cropping the top1 must be abortive1 or only attended with partial or temporary success4 ,our author1 who is a practical man1 apparently very little disposed to throw away time upon inquiring into causes1 does not attempt even to guess at #aif the mode by which his composition performs the wonders for which he gives it credit4 ,it is impossible1 by any salve1 to promote discharge from the bare alburnum1 though cut into the vital part1 to form1 or assist in the formation1 of bark2 and the sum of the resulting advantages consists in preventing the vitality from becoming extinct far inward from the section 7as under the best management to a certain extent it will become so71 by an antiseptic cover from the drought and moisture1 heat and cold2 in promoting the spread of the juices from the edge of the bark over the bared part by exclusion of drought1 and by forming a defence against insects4 ,we have found a paste of pure clay1 wrought up with some fibrous matter1 as chaff or short hay1 an excellent cover for tree wounds1 applied in spring or early summer1 when dry weather followed the application2 but in autumn or winter1 and when moist weather followed1 the clay1 by remaining wet1 only served to induce corruption4 ,we think this clay paste 7probably benefited by a powdering of charcoal on the inside7 the best application when applied in spring4 ,we have seen a terminal cross section1 of about one inch diameter1 of a long branch1 covered quite over in two months with bark when clayed2 and a tree of three inches in diameter1 from #aig which a dog had torn off the bark from one half of the circumference of the stem1 entirely renew the lost bark in one season1 when immediately clayed over4 ,resins1 oils1 bitumen1 paints and composts without number1 have been used with more or less success1 depending upon the period of the year1 weather1 kind of tree1 individual health1 and other circumstances2 but these salves should1 as in flesh-wound salves1 be considered only as protections1 or slightly auxiliary to the restorative energy of nature1 not as cures4 #aih ,v4--,,mr ,,withers4 ,having by chance glanced over a pamphlet by an ,englishman1 a ,mr ,withers1 we find there has been jousting between that gentleman and our ,scottish knights1 backed by their squire the ,edinburgh ,reviewer1 in which the discomfiture of the knights has been wrought by simple hands4 ,it seems ,sir ,henry ,steuart1 forgetful that his own bright fame1 which rivals that of the discoverers of steam-power and gas#db1 though of comparatively quick growth1 will endure for ages2 and led astray1 probably1 by the foolish adage1 8soon ripe1 soon rotten10 had stated unqualifiedly1 that 8fast grown timber will sooner decay1 and is of opener weaker texture than slow grown of the same kind20 and on these false premises concluded1 that all culture or application of manure to further the growth of timber is improper--winding up with some patriotic flourish about danger to our war navy1 from ,mr ,withers #aii rendering the ,british oak of such exceedingly rapid growth as to be soft and perishable as mushrooms4 ,withers completely demolishes his literary and scientific adversaries1 but is1 withal1 so very imperfectly acquainted with the subject--himself1 and also his junto of experienced correspondents1 that we shall attempt a few lines in elucidation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we shall first state our facts1 accompanied with explanatory remarks4 ,no4 #a4 ,an ash tree of about #ah inches diameter1 and #fe years of age4 ,the first #ce years1 the annual growths were of middle size1 and the timber weighty and tough2 the following #ae years1 very small1 light1 porous1 and free2 the latter #ae of middle size1 and of fair quality4 ,this tree had been growing till about #di years of age in a grassy avenue1 of dry clay soil1 and close by a deep ditch4 ,about sixteen years back1 the ditch had been filled up1 and the ground ploughed and manured regularly till the tree was cut down4 ,after #ce years' growth1 the scorching roots of the ash had rendered the soil so dry1 that the tree had run entirely to reproduction3 ,nearly all the nourishment from the ground assimilated in the leaves being expended in forming seed1 no extension of the top had taken place1 and #bjj thence no thickening of the bole being necessary for support1 no wood proper had been deposited on the trunk save the annual rings of lineal tubes to convey the sap1 which constituted a brittle light wood1 of very slight lateral adhesion#dc4 ,after the ditch was filled up1 and the surrounding ground ploughed and manured1 the increased supply of moisture and nourishment had induced a considerable new extension of top 7which was quite visible in fine young healthy branches rising from a stunted base71 and consequent necessary thickening of stem by annual layers of proper dense wood1 along with the lineal annual tubes4 ,no4 #b4 ,a beautiful most luxuriant growing oak1 in one of the sweetest sunny spots of the sweetest valley of our ,highlands4 ,this tree1 of nearly two hundred solid feet of timber1 and #hj years of age1 was growing upon the bare shelf of a sound mica-schist rock4 ,from underneath this shelf1 several feet down in front1 a most exuberant spring welled out1 and the roots spread down over #bja the rock to the mouth of the crystal spring1 no doubt tracing inward the course of the limpid waters into the rocky chambers of the ,naiad4 ,we had much conjecture how this tree came to be growing on the bare shelf1 and finally concluded1 that the nymph of the spring1 while she sat there gazing on her beauties1 under the varying dimpling reflection of the living waters1 her rosy feet bathed by the glassy flood1 had been surprised by some rude ,celt1 and to effect escape from his rough embrace1 had been transformed by ,diana into a tree4 ,yet whether of natural or supernatural origin1 it was by the people of the glen held of miraculous virtue1 and the sickly children were brought to be dipped in the spring after being borne several times round the charm-tree4 ,when torn from its seat1 the tree1 though sound1 and having a level fall 7we saw it fall71 broke across about twenty feet up1 where the stem was about eight feet in circuit2 this was owing to the very soft tender nature of the wood1 which1 although consisting of very large annual growths1 was1 when sawn out1 the most porous insufficient ,scots oak we have ever seen4 ,as this fact may be ascribed to the supernatural1--the heart of the nymph beginning to soften towards the ,celt at the time ,diana interfered1 accounting well for #bjb the soft texture of the heart-wood of the tree1 we shall not press it as a proof on either side of the controversy4 ,perhaps sober reasoners may think this all phantasy1 and conclude1 that the tree1 from deficiency of substantial earthy food1 and subsisting principally on slops 7being mainly nourished by drinking of the delicious well71 would1 like an animal under similar circumstances1 be of soft flabby consistency4 ,the above fact is opposed to common opinion--a ,highlander always choosing his oaken staff from off a rock1 as being most to depend upon2 yet perhaps this preference is owing to some association with the hardness of the rock itself4 ,no4 #c4 ,we found a sycamore plane 7,acer pseudo-platanus7 in the same row with other sycamores1 and about the same size1 so exceeding hard that it could scarcely be cut down by mattock and hatchet1 whereas the others adjacent were comparatively of moderate hardness1 though differing considerably in hardness from each other2 the soil in this case was very equable1 being of ,carse clay4 ,the peculiar hardness of this tree could only be attributable to a harder variety4 ,indeed1 the difference of quality in timber depends chiefly on the infinite varieties existing in what is called ,species1 though soil and #bjc climate have no doubt considerable influence1 both in forming the variety1 and in modifying it while growing4 ,of varieties1 those which have the thinnest bark1 under equal exposure1 have the hardest wood4 ,no4 #d4 ,we have cut a number of large old ash trees1 and found1 with one or two exceptions1 of what is called thunder-struck trees 7which we consider only an obdurate variety71 that they were invariably of very free1 weak consistency1 more especially the latter formed growths1 but even the earlier growths had become frush from age4 ,this timber soon went to decay after being cut down3--one piece cut out into planks1 and these being laid down in the order they occupied in the log1 was in the course of some weeks rendered again entire by being agglutinated by ,jew's ears 7a species of fungus47 ,the workmen were greatly startled at the fact1 thinking the log bewitched4 ,when immediately dissevered by wedges1 the wood was so much decomposed1 that its fibre was tenderer than the ,jew's ears1 separating in a new course in most places1 in preference to the saw draught occupied by the ears4 ,we have found very old oaks have exactly the same friable character1 so much so1 as render their safe felling almost impossible2 yet this oak timber had not lost much in weight #bjd when compared after being dried with younger oak4 ,no4 #e4 ,we cut a row of ash trees1 about #ej years of age1 in dry ,carse clay1 by the side of a deep ditch1 and consequently of slow growth2 the timber was excellent1 hard1 strong1 and weighty1 rather most so where the size was smallest4 ,at one end1 where the row approached a brook1 and the soil became richer and moister1 several of the trees were of good size1 but rather inferior in quality of timber1 excepting one 7the largest1 though not the nearest to the brook71 which was of very hard1 strong1 and reedy fibre1 evidently a variety differing much from the others4 ,it is always easy to discriminate pretty accurately the quality of the wood1 by examination of the saw cross section of the trunk1 that is1 provided the same saw be employed1 and be kept equally sharp2 the best timber having the glossiest1 smoothest section4 ,no4 #f4 ,we have examined ,scots fir grown in many different situations2 by far the best quality1 of its age1 of any we know1 stands upon a very adhesive ,carse clay1 which1 from the proprietor's neglect1 is all winter and in wet weather soaking with water1 and the trees not of very luxuriant growth4 ,these1 till a few years ago1 stood in close order1 without the stem being #bje much exposed to parching or evaporation2 this exposure of the stem rendering fir timber much harder and more resinous4 ,every body who has touched larch must be convinced that the slow grown on poor tills1 especially with long naked stems in exposed situation1 is very much stronger and harder than the quick grown1 though often not so tough3 but much depends on the variety in larch1 those having the reddest matured wood being much harder than the paler coloured4 ,memel fir1 which is the largest growthed red pine we are acquainted with1 is very strong and durable1 probably next to the pitch pine of ,north ,america2 yet the very large growthed ,memel is generally weakest1 though we frequently find a log of small growthed1 mild and inferior in strength4 ,in old buildings we have often witnessed the beautiful small growthed red wood pine wormed1 when the larger growthed was sound1 but we are sensible that spontaneous decomposition and consumption by insects are very different2 much resin deters insects1 whereas1 in moist situations1 as in treenails of vessels1 it conduces to spontaneous decay2 yet is it preservative when the timber is exposed to the weather by excluding the rain4 #bjf ,the conifer differ much in the internal arrangement of their woody structure from the hard wood species1 having tissue of much larger cells1 and being generally destitute of the large lineal tubes1 which in hard wood constitute the more porous inner part of the annual layer4 ,when these tubes occur in the pines1 they also differ in position1 being in the outer part of the layer4 ,owing to the resin of the pines becoming fixed in the cells of the outer part of the annual layers1 inspissated1 we think1 by the summer's heat and drought 7others say congealed by the cold71 these cells are filled up1 and this part of the growth rendered much denser than the inner part of the layer1 being from solidity semi-transparent4 ,we would attribute the abundance of resin in the ,georgian pitch pine to the heat and long summer of that country1 probably in concert with damp richness of soil1 not only occasioning this deposit under these circumstances1 but perhaps inducing a disposition in this species to the formation of this product#dd4 ,the absence of the large tubes1 #bjg and the presence of oleaginous resin1 render pine timber1 when old and small growthed1 not so brittle1 nor so liable to decay1 as that of deciduous trees2 but it becomes very deficient in lateral adhesion4 ,from the same cause we find the external layers of matured pine timber comparatively superior to the quality of the inner layers3 in hard wood the exterior layers are generally much inferior to the inner4 ,boards of sap-wood of fast grown ,scots fir1 particularly of the outside layers are much better suited--stronger and more lasting1 for boxes used as carriage packages1 or for machinery or cart lining much exposed to blows and friction2 than boards of the best matured red wood of ,memel1 ,swedish1 or ,norway pine4 ,this is principally owing to the fast grown alburnum possessing much greater lateral adhesion than the matured wood of old pines4 ,to have these sap-wood boards in greatest perfection1 the tree must #bjh not lie in the bark after felling1 and the boards must be well dried soon after being cut out4 ,to expose the tree1 peeled1 either standing or felled1 to the sun and dry air for some time1 will considerably increase the strength of this alburnum4 ,the wood1 while in the state of sap-wood1 of many kinds of timber is as strong and much tougher than the same wood after being matured1 and would be equally valuable were any process discovered of rendering it equally durable2 its insufficiency often arises from partial decay having occurred while in the log4 ,the same sap-wood of oak1 which1 allowed to lie on the grass after being peeled in spring1 will be so much decomposed in autumn that it may be kicked off with one's heel2 if cut out and dried immediately on being felled1 it will be tougher than the matured1 and1 kept dry as cart-spokes1 and defended by paint from the worm1 will last and retain its toughness for an age4 ,the tilling up1 which to a certain extent occurs in maturing1 is most probably deposited to fill up tubes1 and may thus not greatly strengthen the mass2 a hollow cylinder being stronger than a solid cylinder when extending horizontally over a considerable stretch1 like a joist or beam2 the mass may also become a little more fragile by maturing3 besides a filling up is the result of some chemical change the #bji wood probably becoming slightly carbonized or approaching to that change which takes place when vegetables become peat4 ,it is rather difficult to speak of the strength of timber1 as different kinds of timber1 and different parts and qualities of the same kind of timber1 have different kinds of strength4 ,some kinds are stronger as beams or joists1 other kinds as boarding2 while1 again1 some kinds are better for enduring a regular pressure1 others for supporting a sudden jerk or blow1 either as beams or boards4 ,some kinds are also comparatively stronger1 moist2 others when dry--and some kinds retain their qualities of strength or toughness longer than others when moist1 and others longer when dry1 although no rot appear4 ,no4 #g4 ,purposely for experiment#de1 we selected three ash trees1 all growing in ,carse clay1 but differing the most in fastness of growth of any we could discover4 ,we cut these down on the same day2 two of them proved about #cf years planted1 and the third #ae2 this1 the youngest was of fast growth1 and had layers of more than double the size of one of the #baj former1 and about six times that of the other4 ,we cut a number of pieces of exactly equal length and thickness 7#ag inches long1 and nearly an inch on the side71 from each of these1 choosing them of clean straight fibre1 at equal distance from the ground1 and from the outside of the tree1 and having their growths nearly parallel to one side1 of course free of heart4 ,we proved one of each immediately on being cut out while full of sap1 with their growths on edge in horizontal position1 supported at each end with a weight suspended from the middle4 ,the smallest growthed1 and the largest1 weighed at the time of trial nearly equal2 the medium growthed one-thirtieth more4 ,the smallest growthed supported the weight about six minutes2 the medium and the largest about half that time2 the smallest growthed yielded the least before breaking1 and the largest yielded the most4 ,when completely dried1 the weight of the medium growthed still continued greatest1 surpassing the largest one-fourteenth1 and the smallest about one-thirtieth4 ,the smallest and medium supported nearly equal weight1 during equal time1 and outbore the largest about one-seventh#df2 when placed #baa with the growths on edge1 they were stronger than when placed with the growths flat4 ,after these rather lengthy references to facts1 we must allude to a circumstance which we are astonished has not been attended to by ,mr ,withers1 and his gentlemen correspondents connected with ,his ,majesty's docks1--the not taking into account the place of the tree whence the portion of wood for experimenting the strength had been taken1 and also how the annual layers stood1 whether horizontal or on edge1 or around a centre1 when the weight was applied4 ,the experienced and accurately practical ,mr ,withers presents two specimens of oak1 the one of faster and the other of slower growth1 to ,professor ,barlow1 of ,woolwich ,royal ,academy1 and the strength of these specimens is tested and reported upon1 without once alluding to what we have mentioned above4 ,now1 if this has not been attended to1 the experiment may be considered a test of something else than of the timber4 ,how much the strength is affected by the place of the tree1 any person may satisfy himself by proving one piece of timber taken from near the root1 another half way up the tree1 and a third near the top3 he will find that in a tall tree the comparative #bab strength will sometimes vary as much as #c1 #b1 #a2 that is1 a beam1 say #b inches square1 and #d feet long1 taken from near the root1 when horizontally placed1 and resting only at each end1 will support three times as much as a like beam in like position from near the top of the tree1 although both are equally clear of knots or cross section of grain4 ,this is particularly manifest in large fast-grown silver fir and old ash1 and the difference is always greatest in old trees4 ,he will also find that the position of the beam1 in respect to the layers being circular round the heart1 flat1 on edge1 or at an angle1 has considerable influence1 and1 should he inquire farther1 will perhaps notice1 that the timber from different sides of the tree is not always alike strong2 that one specimen of timber will be superior to another1 both being moist1 and inferior to it when both are dry1 and that also1 as in ,no4 #a1 the tree at the same height on the same side1 will contain timber differing in strength fully one half1 and not always diminishing in strength from the heart outwards1 even in hard wood4 ,we are well pleased with one gentleman of the ,navy ,dock-yard1 who naively admits1 that he is incompetent to decide on these subjects1 having been altogether devoted to the mathematical1 in estimating the strain and resistance timber suffers under #bac different combinations4 ,now we like this division of labour4 ,but to return to our subject4 ,the facts stated go to prove1 that the quality of timber depends much upon soil1 circumstance1 and more especially on variety2 and that in the early period of the growth of trees1 before much seeding1 and when the soil is not much exhausted of the particular pabulum necessary for the kind of plant1 that rather slow grown timber is superior in strength to quick grown1 especially when the quickness exceeds a certain degree2 when this degree is exceeded1 the timber is not so weighty1 and is well known not to be so durable4 ,however1 when timber is required of considerable scantling1 it is only in good soils1 where the tree increases moderately fast1 that timber will attain sufficient size for this1 at an age young enough to retain its toughness throughout1 or to continue forming firm dense wood on the exterior4 ,this is particularly so in the case of hard-wood timber1 more especially when oak grows upon a moist soil1 where the matured wood1 of brownish-red colour1 is often unsound1 and where decay commences at a comparatively early period4 ,in the pine1 owing to the oleaginous undrying nature of the sap 7resin71 the #bad timber retains its strength to a great age2 and the reedy closeness of slow growth1 for most purposes1 outbalances any loss from deficiency of lateral adhesion4 ,moderately fast grown timber is much more requisite for naval purposes than for other uses2 as1 besides the greater longitudinal strength when of large dimension1 it has greater adhesion laterally1 is far more pliant1 and therefore much better suited for the ribs of vessels1 where cross cutting a portion of the fibre1 from the inattention to training to proper bends1 is unavoidable2 and whence a disrupting shock 7which is rather to be withstood than fair pressure71 makes the unyielding splintering old wood fly like ice2 the rift commencing its run from the cut fibre4 ,for plank1 the lateral adhesion and pliancy of young moderately fast grown timber is equally valuable1 especially for those which are applied to the curvature of the bow and stern4 ,young timber also softens much better by steam1 therefore is more convenient for planking1 and for being bent for the compass timbers of large vessels4 ,the vessel constructed of it will besides1 from the general elasticity of the fibre1 be more lively in the water1 sail faster1 and1 though stronger to resist1 will #bae have less strain to endure#dg4 ,mr ,withers's corresponding friends1 especially those of his ,majesty's ,dock-yards1 with the good common sense of practical men1 are well acquainted with all this1 although they get a little out of element when they meddle with nature or causes4 ,mr ,withers is himself equally out of element when he expatiates on the mighty advantage of trenching and manuring at planting1 and when he talks of our ,scottish holes4 ,the ,knight1 too1 is still more at fault in dreading any great influence on the quickness of the growth of trees from this gentleman's new inventions1--and doubly at fault1 from conjecturing our navy would suffer from being constructed of the fastest grown ,british timber there is any chance of our shipwrights obtaining4 ,since we were in our teens1 we have almost every season trenched a portion of ground for planting1 and have manured highly at planting#dh1 #baf and for several years afterwards4 ,we have found1 when very adhesive subsoil was brought upward1 that the trees throve well while the ground continued under cultivation2 but when the labour ceased1 they were soon overtaken by those planted at the same time without trenching4 ,this comparative falling off was evidently owing to the surface being rendered more adhesive by the gluey plastic subsoil being mixed upward with the original small portion of surface-mould4 ,this new surface melted to a pulp by the winter rains1 when drought set in spring1 run together1 became indurated1 and parting into divisions1 admitted the drought down to the unstirred ground by numerous deep and wide cracks1 which rent the rootlets of the trees1 and rendered it impossible for any plant to thrive4 ,there are also many kinds of light subsoil1 which it would be folly to bring to the surface1 and where little profit would arise from deep stirring1 even though the surface were retained uppermost4 ,in cases where the plants were very small1 we have found deep trenching of no benefit1 but in certain #bag soils rather hurtful1 even during the first years2 but with larger plants1 such as are often used in ,england1 it invariably occasioned their roots to strike quickly1 by affording a regular supply of moisture1 and from being easily permeated by the rootlets1 expedited the growth1 yielding much early luxuriance when followed by skilful culture1 but latterly1 seldom to such a degree as would lead us to suppose much difference would be discernible at #cj years of age1 between the trenched and those planted by mere pitting1 slitting1 or sowing1--much more depending on proper draining1 on young1 thriving1 small sturdy plants1 of best variety1--on suiting the plant to the soil and climate1 and on timely thinning4 ,but even were a very superior ultimate progress of growth obtained by trenching1 manuring1 and culture of timber1 yet as capital and manure will probably be more advantageously employed in common agriculture1 which gives a comparatively quick return of both1 we shall leave to ,mr ,withers and his coterie of illuminati the whole advantage of his discovery4 ,economic philosophy is the queen of our ,scottish plants2 she will not admit any new system of nurture for her subjects without the #bah strictest scrutiny of its utility as applied to her domains1--she proceeds thus to weigh ,mr ,withers's practice3-- ,extra ,cost per ,acre4 ,twenty loads of putrescent manure1 at the average price at which thousands of tons are annually imported to the valley of the ,tay from ,england1 #is4 per load1 ,l4 #i #j #j ,carriage expenses of above1 at #cs4 per load1 #c #j #j ,twenty loads calcareous manure1 including carriage 7were marl not at hand1 lime would cost thrice as much71 #d #j #j ,trenching1 #i #j #j ,total first extra cost1 ,l4#be #j #j ,accumulation by #bh years' interest1 at #e per cent4 nearly1 ,l4#ajj #j #j ,would land under timber #bh years planted1 with growth accelerated by ,mr ,withers's practice1 in two-thirds of the available portion of ,scotland1 sell at more than ,l4 #ajj per ,english acre8 ,suppose that the thinnings previous to the #bhth year would cover the cost of planting1 and subsequent cultivation and attention which is necessary1 besides #bai the cost of the trenching and manuring 7in many cases they would not71 the entire value of the land would be lost4 ,it may be said that the common rules of utility do not apply in this case1--that the landlords will not be moved to any other improvement than planting1 and that otherwise their income would be dissipated entirely1 without any portion being applied to reproductive uses4 ,we grant all this2 but ,scottish landlords have very little taste for the ,withers' system1--to deface their beautiful wastes1 by burying all the fine turf and wildflowers under the red mortar 7the common subsoil71 or to scatter manure4 ,planting by pitting and slitting will prove far more attractive2 besides1 the means are entirely awanting to carry on such expensive proceedings to the necessary extent1 and the cultivation of one acre in this fashion would leave #ai untouched1 when the whole #bj might have been wooded1 in many cases to equal advantage1 by the money expended on one4 ,we have known planting executed by contract for one year's interest of the above stated first extra expenditure1 which we would match against planting raised by ,mr ,withers's process1 in the same situation4 ,there is also a very considerable proportion of ,scotland very suitable for #bbj timber where the stony nature of the surface entirely precludes trenching4 ,mr ,withers1 who appears to have no general knowledge of soils and climates1 would hold a different language with regard to ,scotland and ,scotsmen1 if he saw the beautiful thriving plantations now rising in that country1 planted by mere pitting and slitting1 where1 owing to the drought in early summer being less fierce than what occurs in the central1 eastern1 and southern counties of ,england1 and to the herbage being less luxuriant1 planting without trenching can always be depended upon4 ,mr ,withers would also have been sensible had he had much practice in rural affairs1 that twenty loads of putrid manure per acre at planting1 although of very considerable advantage for two or three seasons to the rising trees1 in promoting1 along with hoeing and digging1 an early start to luxuriance1 would cause little or no lasting amelioration of the soil2 ,that the vegetable mould naturally occupying the surface is generally by itself a much better defence against the summer's drought1 than when incorporated with the subsoil1 especially after cultivation ceases2 that lasting fertility of ground for timber1 though sometimes1 is often not increased by admixture of soil #bba and subsoil2 and that1 generally1 the luxuriance of the tree must ultimately depend on the natural depth and quality of the ground itself4 ,mr ,withers1 with that precise knowledge of the subject1 and clear conception of the nature of things1 which generally accompanies a partial acquaintance with facts1 makes a confident and rather imposing appearance as a wielder of language and a logician4 ,from his assumed superiority1 we especially wonder that he should possibly have envy of ,scotsmen1 which1 from the tenor of his letter1 we are constrained to believe4 ,need ,caledonia remind her noble sister1 ,england1 of their consanguinity1--that they are sisters whom nature hath twinned together8 ,is there another in all the earth1 with quadruple the advantages of ,scotland1 who can rank with her in science and literature1 arts and arms8 ,and is ,england not proud of her poorer sister8 ,or can they feel aught but mutual love8 99 99 99 99 99 ,since writing the above1 we have looked over some experiments by ,messrs ,barlow1 ,beaufoy1 ,couch1 and others1 on the strength of timber4 ,these show so much discrepancy of result1 as leads us to conclude1 #bbb that experimenters have not attended sufficiently to the structure and nature of the timber1 the position and quality of the different layers1 c4 ,take1 for example1 the stem of a tall tree1 #ajj years old3 ,at the cross section1 it is found to consist of a certain number of layers of matured timber1 and of sap timber4 ,these layers having been gradually formed1 the external1 after those more internal have partly dried1 and the internal and matured wood being also filled up to more solid consistency than the external1 the stem1 on being barked1 contracts in drying much more externally than internally4 ,as soon as the surface has dried1 the outer layers contracting laterally are not sufficient to surround the undried internal layers1 thence split in longitudinal rifts2 and as the drying proceeds inwards1 the cracks deepen till they reach nearly to the heart--these rifts1 when the timber is thoroughly dry1 being generally wider in the sap timber than in the matured1 more than in the proportion of the size of the respective circles4 ,this effect of drying is what every body is acquainted with4 ,besides lateral contraction1 there is also a disposition to contract longitudinally by drying1 much greater in the external than internal layers4 ,while the tree is undivided1 this greater contraction of the #bbc exterior layers is prevented1 by the adhesion to the drier more filled up central column 7which probably had contracted a little during the formation of the exterior sap-wood layers71 the contractile force of the exterior balancing equally around this central column4 ,should this balance be destroyed by the stem being cleft up the middle1 the longitudinal contraction will immediately take place1 and the two halves will bend outward1 from the outside layers contracting more than the inside layers4 ,we have seen an ash tree rend up the middle from the cross section above the bulb1 nearly to the top1 on being cut across in felling1 owing to the longitudinal contractile force of the exterior existing even before drying4 ,should the dried stem of a tree1 of considerable length1 be laid hollow1 supported at each end1 the outside layer being stretched almost to breaking by the longitudinal contraction being greatest in the outermost part1 a very small weight1 aided by a slight jerk or concussion1 may be sufficient to burst the outside layer on the lower side1 the outside layers on the upper side not standing out as a support above1 but combining their contractile force with gravity to rend the lower4 ,as the outer layer gives way1 the strain is thrown concentrated upon the next outermost1 which also gives way1 and the beam is broken #bbd across in detail4 ,in like manner1 when the direct longitudinal strength is tested1 the external circles being in greater tension than the internal1 the tightest parts of the log will give way in succession1 like a rope with strands of different degrees of tightness2 yet the lateral adhesion of the layers will have considerable effect in strengthening the mass4 ,the above explains the fallacy of estimating the longitudinal strength of a thick piece of timber from experiments with small shreds2 it likewise explains how a large unbuilt mast is so easily sprung2 wherefore a beam round as grown will be rendered stronger as a beam by being formed into a hollow cylinder1 by boring out the central part2 and also how a square log will be strengthened as a beam1 by cleaving it up the middle1 and placing the two pieces on edge1 with their outside or backs together4 ,in the latter case1 the middle1 by being turned outside1 and exposed to the air1 will contract more than what it would do shut up and covered by the exterior wood1 especially if resinous pine timber1 which continues to contract for many years1 owing to the resin1 when exposed to the air1 gradually drying or undergoing some change1 by which it is diminished in size1 and rendered similar to amber4 #bbe ,consideration of the difference of tension of the concentric layers1 from the difference of disposition to contract by drying1 modified by the difference of position in which these layers may stand1 when supporting weights and bearing strain1 with the various qualities of timber of the same kind of tree1 from variety1 age1 soil1 climate1 or from being taken from near the outside or heart1 or butt or top1 will1 we think1 account for the contrariety of results which unphilosophical experiments have afforded4 #bbf ,,vi4--,,stewards ,,planter',s ,,guide1 ,,and ,,sir ,,walter ,,scott',s ,,critique4 ,we have noticed that a sensation has been produced in a certain quarter1 particularly among persons of a certain age1 by a publication of ,sir ,henry ,steuart of ,allanton1 on removing large trees1 eked out by a very clever article in the ,london ,quarterly1 on ,landscape ,gardening1 ascribed to ,sir ,walter ,scott4 ,it may seem unnecessary to direct the attention of the public again either to this volume or its subject1 both of which have already engaged the public attention to a degree greatly beyond their value and importance2 but ,sir ,henry1 with all his foppery and parade of decorating parks1 approaches1 and lawns1 and all that sort of chateau millinery1 has now and then risen above his subject1 and not only given us several hints useful in rural economy1 but has also pretensions to have brought out some facts hitherto but imperfectly known1 and to have traced them to general principles4 #bbg ,it is curious to remark of how much greater importance the elder part of society--those upon whom wealth has at length devolved1 are generally held4 ,any device1 however trifling1 which can in any way divert the fancy1 pamper the lingering senses1 or patch up the body of our second childhood1 is infinitely more useful to the discoverer1 and meets with higher patronage and more eclat1 than what is of a thousand times more consequence to the young4 ,now1 if this were the fruit of filial love1 all would be very well--we would idolize the picture3 but when we see these discoveries only patronized by the old themselves1 in the merest egotism1 we blush for our patriarchs1 and wonder if time and suffering will be spent as unprofitably upon ourselves4 ,we wonder much what fascination can exist to a mind of so much ability and culture as that of ,sir ,henry ,steuart1 in decorating a few dull unprofitable acres1--causing a few bushes and bush-like trees to change place from one side of a dull green to the other6--laying digested plans of action1 embracing a great number of years1 to accomplish this very important feat1 which most probably the next heir will make the business of his life to undo1 by turning them back to their old quarters1 if he does not1 with more wisdom1 grub them out #bbh altogether as cumberers of the soil6 ,for ourselves1 we would rather baa with the silly sheep1 and nibble the turf1 than pass our time in acting over this most pitiful trifling1 or in publishing a memorial of our shame4 ,we know not how others are affected1 but there is no other place on earth where we have felt such oppression and weariness1 as in the extensive smoothed park and lawns around the country seat4 ,we sicken under the uniformity of the heavy-looking round-headed trees1--the dulness of the flat fat pasture1 undecorated by a single weed1--the quiet stupid physiognomy of the cattle1--the officiousness of the sleek orderly menial4 ,it may be we are very destitute of taste in this2 here every thing is experiencing satiety of sensual enjoyment1 is full to repletion2 every thing has been sedulously arranged to please1 and we ought certainly to admire2 but we have no sympathy with such a scene4 ,the solitariness1 the absence of men and of human interest1 is not compensated by any of the wild charms of nature4 ,there is small room here for the discovery of the habitat and native character of plants1 no chance of meeting with a rare species1 every thing is modelled to art4 ,the land-bailiff is an adept4 ,with his dirty composts and top-dressings1 he smothers the fog and the daisy2 the scythe #bbi sweeps down every idle weed1 every wild flower which escapes his large-mouthed oxen4 ,the live smooth bark of the lush fast-growing trees1 affords no footing for the various and beautiful tribes of mosses and lichens4 ,the fog-bee has lost its dwelling1 the humble-bee its flowers1 and they have flown away4 ,scarce an insect remains1 except the swollen earth-worm1 the obscene beetle1 and the bloated toad1 crawling among the rank grass4 ,there is a heavy dankness in the air itself4 ,the nervous fluid stagnates under it1--the muscles relax into lassitude1--inexpressible depression sinks upon the heart4 ,it is impossible to describe the relief we feel when we emerge again into varied nature beyond the ring-fence1--we have the hill and the furze1 the wild-violet and the thyme1 and all the sweet diversity of our subalpine flora4 ,we have the thatched1 patched hut1 the fine ragged children1 the blooming cottage-girl1--we have the corn-field1 where weeds of every dye1 the beautiful centaurea and scabiosa1 the elegant fumaria1 the gaudy cock-rose1 and the splendid chrysanthemum1 are contending for existence with the cereale4 ,look at the broken mound1 with its old picturesque trees and tangled bushes2 there is the ancient root where the throstle had its nestlings1 which are now at large on the leafy boughs1 and are #bcj tuning their yet unformed notes to melody4 ,now every twig has raised its new column of foliage to the sun2 and branch1 and root1 and stone1 embellished all over in the richest variety of cryptogamic beauty1 swarm of insect life4 ,this smooth path has been paved by the lightsome foot2 how superior to the gravel-walk on which the labourer has grudged his useless toil6 ,even the cart-ruts possess an interest1 which useful labour has worn4 ,after the smooth monotony of the park2 the turf-dykes1 the fluting of the ridges1 the different kinds of crops1 are most agreeable diversity4 ,the dunghil1 and chanticleer among his dames1 the toiled horse1 the lean milch-cow1 and the superhumanly-sagacious-looking shepherd-colley1--every thing we behold commands a sympathy1 draws forth a wish of benevolence4 99 99 99 99 99 ,as ,sir ,walter ,scott's ,critique came under our notice prior to ,sir ,henry's ,guide1 we shall proceed in the same order4 ,in the first half of this article1 ,sir ,walter gives the history1 and describes the varied character1 of ,landscape ,gardening1 in a very imaginative and felicitous manner1 which1 as depending on genius and literature alone1 was to be expected2 but1 in the latter part of the essay1 when he comes to treat of #bca action and facts1 and ,sir ,henry's discoveries1 the deficiency in practical knowledge and judgment1 only forms a contrast to the fancy1 elegance1 and erudition of what goes before4 ,sir ,walter1 apparently not quite unconscious of the ridicule attaching to the subject1--to this mighty scientific and historic parade in teaching country gentlemen to amuse themselves by transferring grown trees as they list1 from one place to another1 without entirely destroying the life of the transported subject1--makes a curious effort to sustain its consequence1 by pointing out the immense advantages to a district by the squire's residing in it2 insinuating1 that every thing which may amuse him at home1 and thus induce him to stay1 although of itself childish or infamous1 becomes of the highest importance1 being ennobled by the end4 ,the following courtly quotation is from ,sir ,walter's proemial observations3 8,a celebrated politician used to say1 he would willingly bring in a bill to make poaching felony1 another to encourage the breed of foxes1 and a third to revive the decayed amusements of cock-fighting and bull-baiting2 that he would make1 in short1 any sacrifice to the humours and prejudices of the country gentlemen1 in their most extravagant form1 providing only he could prevail on them to dwell in their #bcb own houses1 be the patrons of their own tenantry1 and the fathers of their own children40 ,sir ,walter does not attempt to describe or analyze the 8humours and prejudices0 necessary to render the above lures efficacious4 ,does he infer that such dishonourable power over their fellow men1 or that the opportunity of indulging in such low despicable practices1 would induce the country gentlemen to sojourn in their father-land8 ,it is impossible to say any thing more insultingly cutting4 ,but we are far from imputing to ,sir ,walter any intentional offence4 ,yet we cannot help being angry with the freakish favouritism of ,fortune1 although we are sensible it belongs instinctively to the female character1 often a necessary and very interesting trait2 how she dooms one man from his childhood to toil incessantly for a bare subsistence2 how she lavishes her favours upon another1 and surrounds him from the cradle with every delight2 the mind enlightened1 the taste cultivated1 the body trained to the most graceful exercises1 even whose very amusements are considered of so great importance as to throw a high interest upon an art of no earthly utility1 but1 on the contrary1 where the labour of many workmen is thrown uselessly away4 ,we are aware that ,sir ,walter and his ,senator only regard these pastimes #bcc of the country gentlemen1 thus highly1 through a reflected interest1 the latter in a political view2 and the ,baronet1 from the known warm benevolence of his heart 7a feeling generally associated with genius71 towards his poor countrymen1 to whom he supposes1 in the event of the country gentlemen being by any means induced to stay at home1 a part of the great land revenue so unjustly wrung from the poor man's labour would again devolve4 ,it is amusing to observe with what a flow of imagination ,sir ,walter shews off his friend's inventions--inventions which have been practised with less or more success1 in a manner very similar1 by almost every planter of note1 since the time of ,nero4 ,we quote again3 8,the existence of the wonders1--so we may call them1--which ,sir ,henry ,steuart has effected1 being thus supported by the unexceptionable evidence of competent judges 7a deputation by the ,highland ,society71 what lover of natural beauty can fail to be interested in his own detailed account of the mode by which he has been able to make wings for time80--8,but although we have found the system to be at once original1 effectual1 and attended with moderate expense1 we are not sanguine enough to hope that it will at once find #bcd general introduction4 ,the application of steam and gas to the important functions which they at present perform1 was slowly and reluctantly adopted1 after they had been opposed for many years by the prejudices of the public1--earlier or later this beautiful and rational system will be brought into general action1 when it will do more to advance the picturesque beauty of the country in five years1 than the slow methods hitherto adopted will in fifty4 ,it is now found we possess the art of changing the face of nature like the scenes in a theatre1 and that we can convert1 almost instantaneously1 a desert to an ,eden40 ,now1 this is admirable6 ,even were it granted1 that no planter before ,sir ,henry ,steuart's time1 or without his instructions1 had ever removed a tree of considerable size successfully 7though we believe he has nearly as much the merit of discovery in this as in the other curious invention ascribed to him by ,sir ,walter1 8making wings for time10 which must certainly have been performed by ,sir ,henry a long while ago1 as we remember time flying very well when we were a truant boy72 yet1 nevertheless1 ,sir ,walter1 now that his paroxysm of admiration has had time to moderate1 will surely help us to laugh #bce at the absurdity of his hyperbolic figures of comparison1 with steam1 and gas1 and scenic transformation1 which throw such ridicule upon his excellent friend4 ,we believe that ,sir ,henry ,steuart has been as successful as many others of his countrymen in transplanting grown trees4 ,we have had some little practice ourselves in this art1 but which1 had it not been for ,sir ,henry's discoveries1 we should not have thought of obtruding on the notice of the public4 ,the house we occupied was covered to the south and west by part of an old orchard of apple and pear trees1 which excluded the drying south-western breeze1 so necessary in a low damp situation4 ,we transplanted nearly an acre of these1 certainly with more success and economy than could have been effected by ,sir ,henry's practice1 the soil being so tenacious1 that it was impossible to remove the earth from the roots without fracturing all the smaller fibres4 ,the soil1 an adhesive brown ,carse clay1 contained a good deal of vegetable matter1 to the depth of about #ae inches1 when the subsoil1 a close hard yellow clay commenced1 into which very few of the roots penetrated4 ,this ground had been long under grass1 and the upper soil was much bound together by the grass and tree roots4 ,under these circumstances we adopted the following plan3--#bcf ,we first had a stout sledge made1 about four feet square1 of lumber pieces of wood1 the side pieces about five feet long1 on which it slid1 had a small bend1 and extended nearly a foot behind the cross bottom sheaths1 which were sparred over with three narrow boards4 ,the stout chain of a roller was affixed to this sledge1 when at use1 to drag it by4 ,in the autumn we prepared the site where we intended placing each tree1 by throwing out the earth on two sides about a foot deep1 and eight feet square1 and then dug over the bottom of this shallow pit one spit deep1 and sloped the two other sides1 to which the earth had not been thrown1 so that horses could walk across it2 we then took the opportunity of a slight shower1 when the ground was slippery above and hard below1 so that the sledge could easily be dragged1 and set the labourers to work to dig a narrow trench1 two feet deep1 and about three feet distant from the stem 7more or less according to the size of the tree71 around those trees we intended to remove1 paying no regard to the roots1 but cutting them right down where they interfered with the trench1 and where the roots in the central part 7the part surrounded by the trench7 were not immediately at the surface1 paring off the turf till the roots appeared4 ,this being done1 we caused them to #bcg under-dig and scrape out the clay all round1 nearly a foot inward below the roots1 and then to introduce two large ladders at one side as levers to upset the tree1 the strong end of the ladders being put into the trench1 and as far underneath the roots as to catch hold firmly1 the outer side of the trench being the fulcrum on which they rested to obtain a purchase1 the light end sloping upward about #ad feet high4 ,two men were then employed upon each ladder2 one of them pulled down by a rope attached to the top1 while the other guided the ladder1 and rocked it a little up and down2 and1 at the same time1 several men hung upon the opposite side of the tree1 either by a rope or the branches1 till their united force upset the tree with a large cake of clay bound together by the roots1 five or six feet square1 and perhaps fifteen inches thick1 standing up like a wall1 similar to what occurs when spruce or ,scots fir are upset by high winds1 in shallow wet-bottomed soil4 ,we then removed the ladders1 sloped the outer side of the trench where they had rested1 and pared away the clay from the upset root1 till we thought four horses could drag it1 one or two men in the mean time sitting in the top to prevent the tree righting4 ,after this we introduced the sledge1 pushing it as far back as possible2 if necessary1 cutting holes to #bch admit the ends of the side-pieces of the sledge through the lower edge of the upset root2 and if the tree were large1 placing several wet slippery boards under the sides of the sledge1 that it might be more easily drawn up the acclivity of the hole4 ,the men hanging or sitting on the top1 then let go their hold1 and the tree generally righted itself1 standing fair upon the sledge as it grew2 if it did not do this of itself1 they assisted its rising by lifting at the top4 ,the root was then secured firmly upon the sledge with ropes1 and the horses were attached1 who1 by pulling stoutly1 dragged the sledge with its load out of the hole up the slope1 and away to the prepared new situation1 one man walking at each side1 having hold of a rope attached to the top of the tree to guide and steady it when passing a furrow or other inequality of the road4 ,the horses were led across the new site1 and stopped when the sledge and tree were in the pit1 about a foot past the berth2 the ropes fixing the stool on the sledge were then untied1 and1 by pulling backward upon the ropes fixed to the top1 the tree was upset again upon its side from off the sledge1 and the sledge dragged forward4 ,the tree was then allowed or assisted to right itself again in its proper berth1 and friable earth packed well around and scattered over the stool1 and a little litter spread over #bci all4 ,the ground was then drained and trenched1 excepting the part around the tree1 which had been stirred in the planting4 ,if thought necessary1 a prop or two were placed to steady the tree during the winter1 as it might otherwise work a little back and forward with the wind while the clay was moist and soft4 ,after the earth had dried in the spring1 the props were removed4 ,when we look back on the description of this practice1 it seems tedious2 but much of the work is done sooner than described4 ,were it of sufficient importance1 trees might be grown in something like lazy beds1 with water always standing in the dividing trenches1 about fifteen inches lower than the surface1 which would procure roots very manageable by this practice4 ,we once had a small nursery of oaks so situated1 and the trees which were removed1 when of considerable size1 had roots uncommonly matted and fibrous1 and which carried with them a large mass of soil4 ,these succeeded very well when transplanted1 but we should consider that plants from a drier poorer soil1 with roots equally fibrous1 would be preferable1 could they be extracted with as much adhering earth1 which1 however1 could not be accomplished without preparation and considerable labour4 ,were it the only consideration to procure plants which would best #bdj support the transplanting when of considerable size1 this1 or the practice of cutting the roots1 and encouraging the rooting by manuring and thickening the earth around the stool1 would merit attention2 but as we have already stated1 we consider plants with these matted roots not so likely to grow to large timber as those with several unchecked large diverging root-leaders4 ,besides the above mentioned part of orchard1 we have1 by this practice1 removed successfully 7in some cases so much so as that no trace of the removal appeared71 a considerable number of trees1 where they were growing too close1 and think it simpler1 and much superior to ,sir ,henry's1 wherever the stool of the tree can be turned up with a large cake of earth1 as in cases where the greater part of the roots run out horizontally near the surface1 which always occurs in flat ground1 when the subsoil is soaking with moisture the greater part of the season4 ,whatever risk there may be of the tree not growing when it has been subjected to all ,sir ,henry's formal and tedious process1 assisted by costly machinery1 there is none here1 provided it is placed in drained trenched ground1 as a considerable number of the small fibres on which the suction of moisture for supply of the leaves depends1 remain untouched1 with this earth around them1 and #bda strike out immediately in the new moist soft soil2 and there is no laceration of the main roots1 which1 by ,sir ,henry's plan1 cannot altogether be avoided1 this laceration being much more pernicious1 and likely to occasion putrescency1 than simple cross section#di4 ,by the above sledging practice1 we have successfully removed fruit trees #b #a_/b feet in circumference1 at two feet from the ground1 and have had some #bj feet high1 make a new addition to their height of six inches the first summer1 where no shortening of the top had taken place4 ,we have also plucked fair loads of fruit1 both first and second season1 as large #bdb and well matured as any of the same kind produced by trees which had not been touched2 but it is generally prudent not to allow them to fruit the first two seasons4 ,as an experiment1 we cut most of the branches from the top of two of the trees--that is1 headed them down1 but found these did not grow so well as those which were only slightly pruned1 or not pruned at all4 ,pruning at planting should take place in cases where there are long annual shoots of the preceding season1 or much close spray as in old fruiting-trees2 the former should be cut in1 to five or six buds in length1 and the latter ought to be thinned1 to an extent1 which the kind of tree1 the largeness and safe state of the root1 soil1 exposure1 and climate1 must determine3 we request our readers to pay attention to this4 ,pruning the long annual shoots1 prevents a too early formation of leaves1 which often occurs in moist cold soil1 and which wither before the roots begin to strike4 ,in some cases1 where we found the earth too friable1 and not sufficiently bound together by the roots1 to rise up in a cake1 we first prepared the stool for upsetting1 and waited for hard frost#ej to bind #bdc the earth and roots into a firm body like a large millstone1 pouring some water upon it the evening previous to the commencement of the frost1 that it might become firmer2 we then proceeded with our sledging during the frost if the road was smooth2 and1 if rough1 we covered over the frozen root with straw to retain the frost2 and the first day of fresh1 when the ground was soft and slippery above1 and hard underneath1 we proceeded with our work1 taking care not to cover up the root with earth till it had thawed4 ,we have found 7contrary to general opinion71 that no injury is sustained by exposure of the roots of various kinds of trees to frost1 or as great cold as generally occurs at the surface of the ground in this climate4 ,we have succeeded equally well with pear-trees1 which had lain out on the exposed bare crown of a ridge for two months of winter1 without the smallest quantity of earth adhering to the roots1 or protection of any kind1 as with those immediately from the ground where they grew4 ,we have even thought that a certain exposure of the roots to cold increased their susceptibility to be stimulated to strike quicker by the warmth of the ground in spring1 and thus the root suction coming to act sooner than it usually does in transplanted trees without balls1 and nearer the time of the expansion #bdd of the leaves2 the check occasioned by the upper vegetation being too forward for the lower1 was not so great4 ,in some cases a slight degree of withering also appeared to have a good effect in deterring the development of the buds till the earth acquired a warmth sufficient for the root striking4 ,we succeeded to our wish with those we transplanted by sledging1 excepting a few which were placed among young trees obtained from a sale nursery4 ,these young plants brought along with them a number of the eggs of the common green caterpillar4 ,these eggs produced larv upon the young trees the following spring2 and these larv going down into the earth1 produced a small grey silvery moth in ,july4 ,the moths1 from the tallest plants being most opposed to them in their flight1 or from being guided by common parasitical instinct to choose the largest subjects1 deposited their eggs upon the removed old trees in preference to those on which they had been brought from the nursery1--a preference which did not seem to arise from any sickliness of the old1 as they were fully as vigorous the first summer after transplanting as the young4 ,these imported vermin prospering under the propitious dry warm summer of #ahbf1 rendered several of the old trees as bare of foliage the second and third ,june after #bde removal as they were in ,december2 they have now1 however1 recovered their vigour1 shaken off their parasites1 and have produced good loads of fruit4 ,we may be thought fastidious in our tastes1 and extravagant in our wishes1 but we desire and expect more of our country gentlemen than to be mere idlers1 or worse than idlers1--practisers of the ,allanton system4 ,when they turn their attention to forestry1 we would have them to sow1 or to plant from the nursery1 and not to disturb and torture the fine growing timber which their fathers had located1 and which generally suffers irreparable injury from removal1--a system to which ,sir ,henry ,steuart is so absurdly attached1 as to recommend its practice1 although only to turn the lee side of the tree round to the wind in the same spot4 ,nor have we much sympathy with ,sir ,walter ,scott's taste for home-keeping squires1--those ,shallows and ,slenders with whom our great dramatist has made himself so merry4 ,we would have our landed gentlemen to know that they are the countrymen1--many of them1 perhaps1 of the blood of the ,raleighs1 the ,drakes1 and the ,ansons4 ,let them1 like our ,wellington1 our ,nelson1 our ,cochrane1 ,wilson1 ,miller1 and many others1 continue to set before the world some little assurance of ,british manhood4 ,let them1 like our #bdf no less honourable ,penns1 and ,baltimore1 and ,selkirk1 lay foundations of future empires4 ,we would have our young men of fortune go abroad into the world as soon as their scholastic education is completed1--not to spend a few idle years in ,paris1 ,rome1 or other of the common enervating haunts1--they might as well remain in mother's drawingroom or father's stable2 but to view man and nature under every appearance4 ,let them acquire horsemanship on the ,pampas of ,la ,plata2 hunt the lion and the elephant1 and other game1 at the ,cape1 and study the botany and natural history of these prolific wilds4 ,let their ideas shoot while they recline under the lone magnificence of the primeval forest1 while they gallop over the unappropriated desert1 free as the ,bedouin1 or lie down composedly to sleep1 serenaded by the hyena and jackal's howl1 and lion's roar4 ,let them learn geology and mineralogy on the ,andes and ,himalaya1 and around every shore where the strata are denuded4 ,let them wind about among those abrupt rocks and craggy precipices1 where they may contemplate the sea-bird's household economy--the wild herbs of the cliff--the vegetation and shells and monsters of the ocean--the solitary white sail from distant land--the vestiges of olden time1 the exuvi of former worlds1 in the #bdg exposed strata--the abrasion of the rocky land by the continued battering of the numberless pebbles moved backward and forward by the heaving of the ceaseless wave4 ,let them study the currents1 and winds1 and meteorology on the ocean1 and enjoy the sublime feeling of riding over it in its wildest mood4 ,let them join the ranks of freedom in any quarter of the world where freedom is opposed to tyranny4 ,let them head the savage horde1 and introduce the morality and arts of ,britain among the ignorant barbarian2 or lead out colonies of our starved operatives to new lands of high agricultural capability1 where for centuries no population-preventive checks would be necessary4 ,no other employment of life could be so abounding in heart-stirring emotion1 as leading out the enthusiastic emigrants1 with their huddled groups of children1 whom you know you have rescued from the irksome unhealthy toil and wretchedness of the city manufactory2 no occupation could be more delightful than cherishing the new-born settlement during the privations and hardships of infancy2 in procuring a supply of food1 when through mistakes1 owing to ignorance of the climate and other circumstances1 success had not attended their industry2 and in leading them on to an effective self government4 ,one would gladly leave #bdh this old world1 whose surface is disfigured all over by man's patched drilled deformities1 and pass on to a new one1 where inviolated nature has produced and reared her own children after her own fashion1 where every plant occupies its own place and blossoms in its own time4 ,this order must afford intense delight to the naturalist1 independent of the novelty of every thing1 from the constellation in the sky to the lichen on the stone4 ,in such a place1 one should feel remorse to suffer the hatchet to work1 or the ploughshare to enter in4 ,we fear these amusements 7to which indeed1 the ,british seem more disposed than any other people71 would spoil all relish for the ,allanton system1 and that our travellers1 on their return1 would suffer the thriving trees planted by their fathers to remain at rest1 and rather incline to introduce into the park some of their hardy foreign favourites--the iron-wood evergreens of ,patagonia1 the valuable pines and other trees of ,new ,zealand and ,eastern ,asia4 ,we believe1 also1 that an acquaintance with the real world1 obtained in this way1 would be much better fitted1 than the following ,sir ,walter's recommendation1 to render our gentlemen in after life able and ready to direct at the nation's councils1 and to improve their estates1 and the condition of their dependents4 #bdi ,perhaps they would then disdain to hang on at ,st ,stephen's1 the contemptible retainers 7all but in livery7 of some intriguing member of the cabinet1 like hungry jackals 7call-jack71 for the pickings their master might leave them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,having now looked at the general bearing of our subject1 we shall approach it a little closer1 to examine the facts1 inductions1 and minuti of the practice4 ,when we first heard of ,sir ,henry ,steuart's celebrated discoveries and new system of moving about large live trees1 and read ,sir ,walter ,scott's declaration1 that ,birnam wood might now in reality come down living to ,dunsinane1 we were disposed to hold ,sir ,henry a magician1 and were not a little alarmed lest grown up trees might indeed acquire1 under his art1 the locomotive power1 and gallop about1 to the no small terror and danger of his ,majesty's subjects2 but1 on closer examination1 we find all ,sir ,henry's art resolve itself into transferring them from one hole into another1 by the labour of real men and horses1 without injuring the trees to such a degree as preclude hope of recovery under proper subsequent attention4 ,his mode of performing this may be stated shortly as follows3-- #ast1 ,procure sturdy subjects1 not drawn up tall #bej and delicate in close plantations1 but with short stem balanced all round with numerous compact branches1 and well and regularly rooted1 such as occur in open situation on level surface4 ,if you have not trees possessing these prerequisites ready at hand ,go prepare them4 ,thin out your young woods to double and triple distance1 according as you intend to transfer them to sheltered or exposed situations2 cut the roots of these trees1 and trench around them at a few feet distant from the bulb1 or lay down rich compost mould around them1 to encourage exuberance of rooting1 and in eight or ten years you will have fit subjects for removal6 #b;d1 ,prepare the site a year previous1 by trenching and manuring with compost1 carefully mixing and blending the whole 7the upper and lower earth of the soil and compost71 and adding mould when the soil is shallow2 attending to thicken and mix clay soil with sandy mould1 and sand soil with clayey mould1 also guarding against lodgment of water4 ,recent farm-yard dung1 peat-moss1 and quick-lime1 when well compounded together1 make an excellent compost manure4 #c;d1 ,commence extricating your trees by opening a deep trench at the extremities of the roots1 undermining a little inward1 and gradually severing the #bea earth from the rootlets1 by stirring1 scraping1 and shaking with a very light pick1 at the same time throwing the separated earth out of the hole1 and working inward with the shovel underneath the bared rootlets1 till the tree is so far loosened as to be upset by pulling on a rope fixed near the top1 the rootlets1 as extricated1 being bundled up so as to be as much out of the way of injury as possible4 ,now1 throw some earth into the hole2 re-elevate the tree upon this earth1 and upset it in the contrary direction2 continue to throw in earth1 elevate and upset in the contrary direction1 till the bottom of the root be nearly on a level with the surface of the ground4 ,procure a large two wheeled wood-drag1 and wheel it backward close to the standing tree4 ,elevate the pole of this drag1 and tie it firmly aloft to the stoutest and most convenient part of the top4 ,make the body of the tree near the root fast to the axle1 or to a beam raised a little above the axle1 a pad intervening between the axle or beam and body of the tree1 to prevent injury to the bark2 then by pulling down upon the top of the pole1 upset the tree upon the drag1 balancing as near as possible upon the axle4 ,all being now in readiness1 attach your horses to the reverse end of the drag1 where the root is swung1 and have your plant pulled #beb backward to its new berth1 and deposit it carefully there1 without any top-pruning1 having its heaviest branches towards the west1 that it may the better withstand our prevailing winds1 taking great care to divide and comb out all the rootlets1 and to pack in the fine prepared mould1 so as to separate them nearly in the order they formerly occupied4 ,then sad down the whole by beating or watering1 and mulch over all to exclude the drought4 #dth1 ,water every two or three days in dry weather1 during the early part of the first summer1 and continue for several years to work over the surface of the ground by repeated hoeing or otherwise1 till the tree has forgotten her rough treatment1 and has become reconciled to her new quarters4 ,now1 this is ,sir ,henry's practice4 ,what is there here meriting the name of discovery8 ,all the world knew long ago1 that trees drawn up tall and delicate1 in sheltered situations1 were unfit for an open exposure1 especially when of considerable size4 ,we have ourselves dug trenches round trees1 and picked the earth from the rootlets with pointed instruments1 preserving as far as possible every fibre entire4 ,we have often collected fine mould and composts upon the ground previous to planting1 and trenched over the soil2 we have carefully arranged the #bec rootlets1 and packed in our prepared mould2 we have noticed that mutilating the top of certain kinds of trees was very pernicious1 particularly of the beech and the oak2 we have invariably turned round the heaviest branches to the west2 we have mulched and watered the first summer1 and have hoed around the plants for years afterwards2 conveyance by a two-wheeled timber-drag has been long in use 7we have employed the axle and wheels of a common cart72 many1 before ,sir ,henry1 have prepared the roots by previous cutting2 what planter of experience is ignorant of all this8 ,we grant ,sir ,henry has done all this well2 much of it must have occurred to himself1 as it has done to us1 as it will do to any person of ordinary acuteness and observation1 but does this merit the name of discovery1 or comparison with steam and gas8 ,we shall now give some little attention to a subject on which we consider ,sir ,henry's claim to the rank of philosophic discoverer solely rests1 and which he introduces to our notice certainly with sufficient prefatory flourish1 under the designation of his 8new principle10 8his rational theory10 which he predicts will raise transplanting of trees of considerable size to the rank of a useful art1 it being thus founded on fixed principles4 ,in order to bring the matter fairly #bed before the mind of our readers1 we are under the necessity of having recourse to a long quotation4 ,we fear our readers will find ,sir ,henry's metaphysics not very intelligible2 but this may well be forgiven1 we are all too guilty of plunging about when we get into deep water1 and some of us have not always sense enough to swim with the stream4 ,we here introduce a quotation of our author3 8,but while every organic creation tends to full development1 that is1 to absolute energy1 or perfect life1 still we find1 that the organs of which it is composed are each reciprocally dependent on every other1 for the possibility and degree of their peculiar action4 ,at the same time1 as these internal conditions of animated existence are severally dependent on certain external conditions1 which1 again1 are not always fully and equally supplied2 so it follows1 that the life of every organized being is determined in its amount1 and in the direction of its development1 by the outward circumstances of its individual situation4 ,for this reason1 we see that every animal1 and every plant1 is dependent for its existence1 and also for its perfect existence1 on conditions both internal and external4 8,from this reasoning it may be conceived1 how the several parts of the living whole reciprocally act and react4 ,they are1 in fact1 cause and effect #bee mutually2 and no one can precede another1 either in the order of nature1 or of time4 ,thus1 in an animal1 the digestive1 and the absorbent1 the sanguineous1 the respiratory1 and the nervous systems are at once relative and correlative4 ,in like manner1 in a plant1 the same reciprocal proportion is found to hold between the roots and the stem1 the branches and the leaves3 ,each modifies and determines the existence of all the others1 and is equally affected by all in its turn4 ,and as their several parts1 by means of their union1 constitute the organic whole2 and as their functions1 by the same means1 realize the complement of life1 which the plant or animal exhibits2 it is evident1 that every living individual is a necessary system1 in which no one part can be affected1 without affecting the other parts1 and throughout which there reigns an intimate sympathy1 and a complete harmony of perfection and imperfection4 8,further2 ,the external conditions of this internal development of plants and animals1 are ,food1 ,air1 and ,heat2 while ,light seems to be a peculiar condition1 indispensably necessary to plants4 ,where any one of these conditions is not supplied1 the existence of life1 whether animal or vegetable1 becomes impossible2 where it is insufficiently supplied1 life is #bef proportionally enfeebled or repressed4 ,but1 to limit our consideration to the vegetable kingdom1 it may be observed1 that where a loose and deep soil affords an abundant supply of food1 where a genial climate diffuses warmth in an adequate degree1 and where a favourable exposure allows a competent access of light 7for air1 being fully and universally given1 may be thrown out of the case72 in these circumstances1 a plant1 if not mechanically injured1 will vigorously exercise its functions1 and attain the full development of its parts1 thus realizing the absolute complement of life1 to which it naturally tends4 ,in the same way1 when these conditions are stinted1 the luxuriance of the plant is checked1 in the ratio of that restraint1 and the deficiency of the supply4 ,where any one of the external conditions is partially or inadequately supplied1 the plant appears to make special1 and even forced efforts to secure as much of the beneficial influence as it can1 and to accommodate itself to the exigency of its situation4 ,thus1 where light is admitted only from a single point1 a plant concentrates all its powers1 in stretching towards the direction of the light4 ,where light is shed all around1 the plant throws out its branches on every side4 ,in conformity with this principle1 we find1 that1 in the interior of a wood1 where the ,trees #beg mutually impede the lateral admission of light1 the tendency of each is upwards2 and the consequence of this tendency is1 that the plant is thereby not developed in its natural and perfect proportions1 but is elongated1 or drawn up to an undue height4 ,it displays its ramification chiefly near the top2 while the imperfection of its life is manifested in the whole character of its vegetation4 ,in open exposures1 on the other hand1 the tree developes its existence1 in full health and luxuriance4 ,it reaches a height1 such as the soil and situation admit1 and sufficient to allow the branches1 which are thrown out on every side1 to expand their leaves freely to the sun4 ,not being compelled to concentrate its efforts1 in securing a scanty supply of one beneficial influence1 all its proportions are absolute and universal1 not relative and particular4 ,in such circumstances1 therefore1 it may be considered as in a full and natural state of perfection4 8,another condition of vegetable life appears to be an adequate degree of ,heat4 ,within a certain range of temperature1 vegetation is positively promoted3 ,below1 or above a certain point 7the degree differing in different species of plants71 vegetation is positively checked4 ,to speak only of the latter case1 which is briefly expressed by the term #beh ,cold1 it is either produced by absolute lowness of temperature1 or1 in particular circumstances1 by the generation of cold1 through the effect of wind1 and consequent evaporation from a moist surface2 for trees1 in themselves1 have but little self-generated heat1 above the surrounding temperature4 ,some they certainly possess1 otherwise they would be killed during severe frosts4 ,of the above accidents nature can modify the former1 by accommodating different species of plants to different latitudes and elevations3 ,against the latter she adopts the plan of affording suitable protection to the individual4 ,in the interior of woods1 where the free current of air is intercepted1 where stillness and serenity are maintained1 and where each tree affords shelter1 more or less1 to every other1 nature has little need to generate the provisions necessary to mitigate the injurious effects of evaporation4 ,but1 in open exposures1 and in the case of isolated trees1 this effect must be assuaged1 and is1 in fact1 to a certain extent alleviated1 by various provisions or properties1 bestowed upon the tree itself4 ,in the first place1 a thicker and closer ramification of the sides and top is supplied1 and a more abundant spray towards the stormy quarter1 thereby furnishing a kind of clothing of leaves1 in order to protect from cold both the #bei ascending and the descending sap-vessels3 ,and1 secondly1 a greater induration of the epidermis1 and thickness of the cortical layers of the bark are provided2 which1 forming a bad conductor of heat1 act as a still more effectual defence to the stem1 by preventing the immediate and powerful application of cold1 through the sudden subtraction of caloric1 from the proper vessels of the inner bark4 8,in this economy1 nature only follows the analogy which she displays in modifying the influence of cold upon the animal kingdom4 ,the quadrupeds1 which are destined to encounter the severity of an ,arctic winter1 are provided with thick and shaggy coats1 to enable them to withstand the intensity of the cold2 and all the richest furs1 which man employs to supply his natural1 or rather his artificial wants1 are always furnished by animals inhabiting the highest latitudes1 and killed during the severest frosts4 ,what is still more illustrative of the point under consideration is1 that the coats of animals1 of which the thin and short hair is familiar to us in the temperate climates1 such as the dog1 the fox1 and the ox1 are all remarkable1 under the polar regions1 for their close1 lengthened1 and almost impenetrable fibre1 as a secure barrier of non-conducting matter1 to prevent the escape of their vital heat4 #bfj 8,in like manner1 in all the other relations1 we see ,nature especially accommodating the character of each individual plant1 to the exigencies of its particular situation4 ,in the interior of woods1 the wind can exert a far less mechanical effect on individual trees2 and therefore1 while they are positively determined to push upwards towards the light1 they are negatively permitted to do so1 by the removal of any necessity to thicken their trunks1 for the sake of greater strength1 and to contract the height of them1 in order to afford the blast a shorter lever against the roots4 ,but1 with trees in an open situation1 all this is widely different4 ,there they are freely exposed to the wind1 and the large expansion of their branches1 gives every advantage to the violence of the storm4 ,nature1 accordingly1 bestows greater proportional thickness1 and less proportional elevation on trees1 which are isolated1 or nearly so2 while their system of root1 which1 by necessity1 is correlatively proportional to their system of top1 affords likewise heavier ballast1 and a stronger anchorage1 in order to counteract the greater spread of sail1 displayed in the wider expansion of the branches4 8,every individual tree is thus a beautiful system of qualities1 specially relative to the place which it holds in creation2 of provisions admirably #bfa accommodated to the peculiar circumstances of its case4 ,here every thing is necessary2 nothing is redundant4 ,in the words of a great philosopher1 who was an accurate observer of nature1 #8,where the necessity is obviated1 the remedy1 by consequence1 is withdrawn4' ,if these facts and reasonings be correctly stated1 the only rational theory of the removal of large trees consists1 in prospectively maintaining the same harmony between the existing provisions of the tree1 and the exigencies of its new situation1 as had previously subsisted between its relative properties and the circumstances of its former site40 8,in considering the characteristics of trees above mentioned1 we should always bear in mind1 that every production of nature is an end to itself1 and that every part of it is1 at once1 end and mean4 ,of trees in open exposures we find1 that their peculiar properties contribute1 in a remarkable manner1 to their health and prosperity4 ,in the first place1 their shortness and greater girth of stem1 in contradistinction to others in the interior of woods1 are obviously intended to give to the former greater strength to resist the winds1 and a shorter lever to act upon the roots2 ,secondly1 their larger heads1 with spreading branches1 in consequence of the free access of light1 are formed as plainly for the nourishment1 as well as #bfb the balancing of so large a trunk1 and also for furnishing a cover to shield it from the elements2 ,thirdly1 their superior thickness and induration of bark is1 in like manner1 bestowed for the protection of the sap-vessels that lie immediately under it1 and which1 without such defence from cold1 could not perform their functions2 ,fourthly1 their greater number and variety of roots are for the double purpose of nourishment and strength2 nourishment to support a mass of such magnitude1 and strength to contend with the fury of the blast40 8,on the other hand1 in the interior of woods1 a universal tendency1 for the reasons already stated1 is observable in trees1 to rise to the light1 to attain greater altitude1 to form far smaller heads1 and taller1 slenderer1 and more elegant stems4 ,here is found a milder and more genial climate2 in which1 by means of the calm generated by shelter1 vegetation is not checked by cold1 and1 at the same time1 is undisturbed by the external impediment of wind2 and nature has no need1 as in the case of exposures1 to generate provisions necessary to mitigate the effect of evaporation1 as has been above observed1 or to endue each individual tree with distinct and appropriate means of defence against the elements40 8,that1 as the four protecting properties1 #bfc already delineated1 as belonging to trees in open situations1 are essential and necessary to the vigorous development of their existence1 so they may be set down as indispensable prerequisites for those intended for transplantation1 which generally implies increased exposure2 and that soil and climate being equal1 such subjects will succeed the best as are endued in the greatest degree with those prerequisites or properties40 8,if we adopt this principle1 and follow it up with a judicious mode of execution1 it seems evident that the necessity of defacing or mutilating the fine tops of trees will be entirely superseded4 ,we shall obtain at once1 what the art1 as hitherto practised1 has not been able to obtain for us1 the ,immediate and ,full effect of ,wood1 that is1 ,trees complete and perfect in all their parts1 without the loss of the time required to replace the parts so defaced and mutilated40--8,and if such a mode of execution be superinduced upon it1 as shall furnish to the tree a competent supply of sap at the critical period of removal1 the art probably may be said to be established on fixed principles40 8,wind being1 in a great degree1 excluded in unthinned plantation1 and evaporation prevented1 heat is1 by consequence1 generated in an undue degree4 #bfd ,in the same way1 light is nearly shut out from such plantations1 except from the top1 and a disproportionate elongation of the stem is occasioned by the efforts which each individual makes to gain the light40 ,p4 #aia4 99 99 99 99 99 ,now1 what do we gather from all these discoveries which1 in continuation1 our author turns round and round1 and exhibits to us under every combination1 with admirable elegance1 it must be allowed1 like the objects in a kaleidoscope8--that trees grown in sheltered situation are not suited for exposed situation1 because their roots are proportionally too small1 and the stem too long for stability under the strain of high winds2 their exterior bark or epidermis1 dead and living1 too thin to afford protection to the sap-vessels from cold1 the effect of evaporation caused by the wind2 their spray and leaves too elevated and open to exclude the cold1 or wind generating cold1 from the stem and branches4 ,that the reverse coexistent conditions of trees in open situation--short stout stem1 thick bark dead and living1 strong rooting1 close cover of spray and leaves all around1 befitting the plant to withstand the tempest1 and affording shelter to the sap-vessels of the stem and branches--and these conditions being #bfe wanting when redundant in sheltered situation1 show the beautiful adaptation of means to end1 like warm fur of animals in cold countries3 ,that trees being formed to grow tall in close situation1 is a beneficent provision of ,providence for accommodating man with straight long clean deal and beams3 ,that trees shoot tall in close situation because they strain hard to reach the light3 ,that trees shoot tall in close situation from warmth3 ,that shelter and exposure is heat and cold3 ,that1 8to establish any just analogy between the transplanting of young and of old trees is utterly impossible30 ,that these conditions of trees being thus explained to mankind1 and followed up by judicious execution1 the thing is reduced to fixed principles1 and raised to the rank of an useful art1 and the necessity of defacing1 or mutilating1 the fine tops of trees1 when transplanted1 entirely superseded4 ,we shall now attempt to weigh some of these assertions and conclusions of ,sir ,henry1 and to pursue these inquiries a little farther4 ,it is known to every forester1 that trees growing in close order1 and drawn up tall1 will not continue healthy on being thinned out to very open arrangement1 but will often fall victims to the change of circumstances1 even though they withstand the gale4 ,who1 then1 would be guilty of the folly of expecting #bff they would bear exposure and the injuries of transplanting at the same time8 ,sir ,henry ,steuart mentions some particular facts as causes of this unsuitableness4 ,perhaps it would have been as well to ascribe it to general inaptitude and delicacy1 as there are several other circumstances not easily understood1 such as vital stamina1 habitude or acclimatizing1 and texture and configuration of vessels1 which must have influence4 ,we should also think simple evaporation of the fluids of the transplanted tree a much greater cause of its failure than the cold of this or of any other evaporation acting to numb the sap-vessels in the stem and branches4 ,the absorbing mouths of the rootlets1 excepting in the case of very large balls1 are generally destroyed by the operation of removal2 and the development of the leaves to a certain extent taking place before any new process of striking of the roots1 owing to the atmosphere and branches getting sooner heated in spring than the ground and roots1 the half-developed leaves shrivel up in the arid spring air1 from the evaporation of the juices and deficiency of root-suction2 and when the air gets moist1 showers fall1 and the earth becomes warm enough for the striking of the roots1 the vital principle is too far spent1 or the material substance too much changed1 for the #bfg recommencement of organic action4 ,we have found that trees which had remained months out of ground1 and were planted in ,march1 succeed better than trees removed immediately from their old site to their new1 both being planted with equal care in the same ground at the same time4 ,the latter acquired half developed leaves early in ,april1 which withered from deficiency of root-suction2 and it was only with attention that we succeeded in causing them to bud forth anew and acquire leaves about midsummer2 in several1 we stimulated the root-suction by application of heated water1 covering up with litter to retain the heat4 ,the former were several weeks more backward in leafing1 and when the buds burst1 the ground had become warm enough for root-striking1 and the vegetation proceeded without check4 ,sir ,henry will say1 that the check sustained by those which leafed early1 was owing to the numbing effect of the cold spring wind1 and of the cold of evaporation on the sap-vessels of the stem2 but we had caused several of them to be wrapped round the stem with soft straw-ropes1 and this did not prevent the shrivelling of the leaves1 although it certainly protected the sap-vessels from the cold4 ,this withering of the leaves of transplanted trees1 by which large transplanted trees so #bfh frequently perish1 is most prevalent in cold damp soils1 when the air is dry and the sun powerful1 and evidently results from the superior vegetation being in advance of the inferior2 torpor of the roots1 not torpor of the sap-vessels of the stem from cold4 ,it is also perfectly evident1 that trees with long naked stems will suffer most1 as their leaves are raised higher1 more in the current of the drying wind2 their root and top farther asunder1 therefore less liable to contemporaneous impulse2 the sap-vessels of the stem longer and more attenuated1 therefore the streams of fluids from the soil1 not only smaller1 but also more liable to obstruction1 or to flow slowly1 from the insufficiency of the vital impulse1 or of endosmose in the wounded sickly plant to impel to such a height4 ,our author's assertion1 that the rough epidermis generally covering the live bark of trees in open situations1 is necessary to the health of the tree1 in protecting the sap-vessels from cold1 is1 we think1 not quite correct4 ,some time ago we caused the dead epidermis be hewn down from several trees1 in a rather exposed situation4 ,this was done with considerable nicety1 and extending up along the branches4 ,we remember of one case1 of very thick indurated epidermis1 where a carpenter was employed more than a day in laying bare the live bark of one tree4 #bfi ,instead of suffering injury by this exposure of the sap-vessels to cold1 the trees rather acquired new vigour from the operation2 and the particular tree alluded to1 was unusually luxuriant the season following this flaying1 which was performed in winter4 ,now1 to apply ,sir ,henry's analogy of fur of animals1 would an arctic fox have been benefited by exposure to the winter's cold in like plight8 ,we also think ,sir ,henry will find the trees of dry climates have a much thicker coating of dead bark than in cold countries1 evidently a consequence of desiccation#ea1 and1 if ,sir ,henry must have animal analogy--similar to the desiccation and cracking of the skin of man in arid air4 #bgj ,it is a subject of considerable difficulty to explain the cause of slender lengthened shoots in sheltered situations1 and short stout shoots in exposed4 ,sir ,henry solves this 8excellently well0 in two ways1 first1 attributing it to shelter and exposure themselves1--8for shelter is heat1 and exposure cold10--and again1 to an instinctive straining in the sheltered to reach the light1 of which its neighbours deprive it every way but from above1 and would do so there too if it failed to exert itself4 ,we find that vegetables have long spindling shoots1 and wide spaces between the leaves or buds1 when growing in a damp1 still1 close atmosphere1 especially when the plant is sickly or weak from deficiency of nourishment1 and that this happens equally1 whether a trailing plant being supported aloft throws out depending shoots in opposition to the current of light2 whether a climbing#eb plant runs out horizontally along a branch or beam at right angles to the light1 or whether a self-supported mounting plant rises in direct opposition to gravity4 ,no doubt1 when the light comes from one direction1 #bga such as the aperture of a window1 the plant shoots forth towards the light1 possibly in consequence of the leaves inclining themselves to receive the ray on their superficies1 and thus leading the shoot in the direction of the light4 ,but this does not prove any straining or lengthening of the shoot to approach the light2 and we ask1 what do general opinion and ,sir ,henry found their belief upon1 of lengthening growth and straining to approach the light8 ,again1 with regard to heat1 we notice that plants1 particularly shoots from tubers1 left to sprout in cold1 damp1 confined cellars1 throw out very long stems1 with wide spaces between the buds or leaves1 and that very long shoots always occur in confined damp air--long in the ratio of the dampness and confinement1 whatever the degree of heat may be1 provided it exceed a little the vegetating point4 ,also on the north side of hills1 the trees have generally longer stems than on the sun-ward side1 although in the former case1 they are exposed to the northern blast1 while in the latter they bask in the sun4 ,has the same kind of plant1 in lower latitudes1 longer spaces between the leaves than in higher8 ,and if it has not1 is the cold1 from greater evaporation1 sufficient to balance the superior heat of the climate8 #bgb ,the above facts must lead1 we think1 to the conclusion1 that evaporation1 or non-evaporation1 of the fluids1 has1 directly1 a very considerable influence in causing a shorter or longer extension of the shoot between the buds or leaves1 and that the influence of the cold of this evaporation is at most but of a very secondary character4 ,we would compare the extending rudiments and matter of the young scion to the slow flowing of a gelatinous fluid4 ,in moist air1 the watery part is slowly evaporated1 and the drop extends into a long pendulous form4 ,in dry air1 the water of solution is quickly evaporated1 longitudinal extension ceases1 and the pendant is thicker and shorter4 ,the cold of evaporation may a little affect the fluidity1 but only in a very small degree#ec4 ,the causes of the elongation of vegetables are1 #bgc however1 not very plain4 ,we have noticed1 that the deeper the seed is placed in the ground1 the braird rises the higher above ground1 even when the seeds at the different depths have been equally moist4 ,this might admit of explanation1 but having already occupied too much space with this subject1 we shall only remark further1 that in close woods1 the trees elongate1 because they are precluded from extending laterally4 ,the top buds1 from receiving more of the stimulating or nourishing influence of the dew1 sun's rays1 fresh unvitiated air1 invigorating motion of the winds1 and perhaps of electricity#ed1 #bgd throw out a greater continuation of shoot than the under branches2 nearly the whole nourishment from the soil being on this account drawn up and consumed by these top shoots1 and the lower overshadowed twigs and branches languishing and dying from the absence of these advantages4 ,besides this extension of top shoots1 by the greater continuation of leaves1 or links of life1 occasioned by the above causes1 these shoots1 owing to the moist atmosphere of the wood1 also push out into longer spaces between the leaves4 ,however1 these top branches do not push sun-ward1 but merely in opposition to gravity4 ,sir ,henry states1 that 8trees certainly possess some heat1 otherwise they would be killed during severe frosts40 ,our belief of the vital heat of vegetables is placed on a much better foundation than #bge this otherwise2 otherwise our credence would be far from philosophic4 ,freezing cold affects many vegetables as well as some of the lower animals1 only by mechanical injury1 in rending the vessels by means of the expansion of the contained fluid4 ,now1 if these vessels are not quite full of fluid1 if the fluid be of such a nature as not to congeal into greater size1 or if the body be small1 and the vessels elastic1 to yield to expansion without fracture--the vegetable or animal will often resume vitality1 on being thawed from thorough congelation4 ,we have rendered potatoes1 turnips1 and fruits1 frost-proof1 at least unless the frost was intense1 by a slight desiccation caused by exposing them a short time to the air after being taken from the ground or tree#ee4 ,in the cases where fishes and reptiles have been found #bgf frozen so hard as to require a hatchet to dissect them1 and reviving on thawing1 it will be found that the fluids were principally oleaginous1 which do not expand in congealing2 and in the case of insects being frozen in masses during the night1 and resuming their liveliness next day in the sun1 we think1 if their fluids have congealed at all1 that either the vessels must have yielded1 being elastic 7which might more likely take place in a small body1 without general fracture and derangement71 or that the fluids had not extended by being congealed2 but it is very probable1 though frozen together in a mass of water and mud1 that their fluids1 from being of an acid nature1 had resisted the congelation4 ,with regard to trees1 we have heard that intense frost often splits the trunks of some of our indigenous kinds by congelation#ef2 but these trees retain vitality1 and only suffer from the consequences which may ensue from the fissures4 ,we have seen evergreens1 plants from milder climates1 and trees which had not thoroughly ripened their #bgg wood 7that is1 retained the vessels full of moisture71 injured in the extremities1 and even killed throughout by cold4 ,but this does not prove that these had any vegetable heat1 any more than those which suffered no injury from the same degree of cold1 prove that they had vegetable heat4 ,the juices of some kinds of plants do not congeal at the same point of temperature as others4 ,the vessels of some in winter are not so much distended with fluids as others2 and probably the vital principle of some is less susceptible of injury from cold than others4 ,these facts may account for the endurance of intense cold by some kinds of trees1 independent of vegetable heat4 ,our author1 speaking of the transplanting of fruit trees1 states1 that 8any gardener could have predicted the probability of fruit during the first season1 together with the certainty during the second of its not taking place40 ,our gardeners will be moonstruck at having the gift of prophecy attributed to them1 at least to predict in such a way4 ,we have thought ,sir ,henry sufficiently ready to impute ignorance to gardeners before we came to this remark2 but to represent a useful and intelligent class of men in so ludicrous a light1 is certainly using a very improper liberty4 #bgh ,every gardener is aware that trees will fruit the first season after transplanting1 just if they have had the rudiments of the fruit formed in the bud before transplanting1 and should the blossom not be injured by severe weather4 ,every gardener is aware1 though ,sir ,henry seems not1 that all fruit trees1 of any size1 form these rudiments the season after transplanting1 and that they invariably fruit the second season1 if the season suit the fruiting of the kind2 and every gardener of any experience is capable1 even without ,sir ,henry's instructions1 of removing a fruit tree of considerable size1 without injuring it so severely as to prevent it fruiting both first and second season1 which it will do1 and even mature fine fruit both years1 though during the first1 under very unfavourable circumstances1 it should scarcely be able to develope leaves #a-eth of the usual size1 and though these leaves wither and drop off long before the summer is ended1 while the fruit remains to ripen on the tree4 ,this is a direct consequence of evaporation4 ,the thin leaves shrivel up in the ardent sun from evaporation and want of sufficient supply by root-suction2 and the bulbs of the fruit1 from their massiveness1 contain sufficient moisture to resist withering till the night1 when they drink the dews1 and suck up some little moisture from the roots1 undiminished #bgi by evaporation in the transit1 to replenish the daily loss4 ,sir ,henry remarks1 that 8no man who knows any thing of wood1 will put down the oak or the elm on light sand or gravel1 as it is only on deep loam and clay that the oak1 in particular1 will really thrive and grow into timber40 ,no man who knows how much a suitable soil for any kind of plant is under regulation of the moistness or dryness of the atmosphere1 and other circumstances1 will refrain from smiling at ,sir ,henry's very superficial acquaintance with his own subject1 and at the manner he thus again brings forward mankind to testify in support of his own error4 ,our author will place the above quotation among the errata should he take a ride up ,strath-,tay from ,birnam to ,kenmore4 ,among other items of expense given by our author1 none of which seem to be overstated1 we feel grateful for the information1 that compost manure of lime1 farm-yard dung1 and moss1 can be obtained1 compounded1 fermented1 conveyed and applied1 at the rate of #f;d4 and #i;d4 per single and double load6 ,sir ,henry makes good his assertion1 that slow grown timber is always stronger1 denser1 and more durable than fast grown1 by a cloud of witnesses1--every forester1 gardener1 and carpenter of the #bhj country1 is ready to attest it of course6 ,there are few sublunary matters which admit of evidence more conclusive4 ,we quote his account of this uniform 8law of nature40 8,the same general law operates in a similar way on all woody plants1 but of course less rapidly1 owing to the less rapid growth of trees1 from the lowest bush to the oak of the forest4 ,in all these1 the culture of the soil tends to accelerate vegetation1 and by consequence to expand the fibre of the wood4 ,it necessarily renders it softer1 less solid1 and more liable to suffer by the action of the elements4 ,let us shortly give a few examples of the uniform effect of this law of nature4 8,every forester is aware how greatly easier it is to cut over thorns or furze that are trained in hedges1 than such as grow naturally wild1 and are exempt from culture4 ,gardeners experience the same thing in pruning or cutting over fruit trees or shrubs2 and1 the difference of the texture of the raspberry in its wild and in its cultivated state1 is as remarkable2 for although the stem in the latter state is nearly double the thickness of that in the former1 it is much more easily cut4 ,on comparing the common crab1 the father of our orchards1 with the cultivated #bha apple1 the greater softness of the wood of the latter will be found no less striking to every arboriculturist4 8,further1 the common oak in ,italy and ,spain1 where it grows faster than in ,britain1 is ascertained to be of shorter duration in those countries4 ,in the same way1 the oak in the ,highland districts of ,scotland or ,wales1 is of a much harder and closer grain1 and therefore more durable1 than what is found in ,england2 though in such mountains it seldom rises to the fifth part1 or less1 of the ,english tree4 ,every carpenter in ,scotland knows the extraordinary difference between the durability of ,highland oak and oak usually imported from ,england1 for the spokes of wheels4 ,every extensive timber-dealer is aware of the superior hardness of oak raised in ,cumberland and ,yorkshire1 over that of ,monmouthshire and ,herefordshire2 and such a dealer in selecting trees in the same woods1 in any district1 will always give the preference to oak of slow growth1 and found in cold and clayey soils1 and to ash on rocky cliffs1 which he knows to be the soils and climates natural to both4 ,if he take a cubic foot of park-oak1 and another of forest-oak1 and weigh the one against the other 7or if he do the like #bhb with ash and elm of the same description71 the latter will uniformly turn out the heavier of the two40 ,it is certainly the case1 that luxuriant growth increases the size of the sap-vessels and cells1 but with this increase of size1 there is often a proportional increase of thickness of the sides of these vessels and cells1 and a greater than proportional filling up of dense matter1 as the alburnum is better ripened in autumn1 or as the mature wood1 especially of hard wood in dry situations1 ripens more slowly in the course of years4 ,there is also in many kinds more of close tissue and cellular part1 in proportion to large sap-vessels1 when the tree is growing vigorously than when it is stunted4 7,see the facts in our notice of ,withers1 p4 #aii47 ,thence culture does not necessarily render the timber softer1 less solid1 and more liable to suffer by the action of the elements4 ,we are really angry with those smooth-tongued rogues who 8fool us to the top of our bent40 ,every artificer who has worked slow grown ash of considerable age1 that is1 when most of the timber has been deposited after the tree has been seeding strongly1 assures us that the timber is very inferior1 in all respects1 to that of quicker growth4 #bhc ,we consider the forester who has observed that thorns or furze trained in hedges are much easier cut from softness of timber than when growing in detached bushes1 a much better observer than ourselves2 and we would inquire whether he were certain that the greater efficiency of his blows was not owing to their being better directed1 from the conveniency of access1 owing to the training up1 than from the timber being softer8 ,the example of the raspberry we consider very irrelevant1 it being only a semi-herbaceous plant of biennial stem4 ,gardeners certainly experience the branches and roots of crab-apple to be harder than the varieties with thicker bark1 larger more downy leaves1 and larger fruit4 ,the largest growing apple varieties1 however1 are not the above mentioned mild varieties1 but those which have a pretty close approximation to the crab4 ,we have taken slips from some of the very largest of our pear-trees1 and having placed them close to the ground on young stocks1 have found they threw out spines and rectangular branching similar to crabs4 ,those most dissimilar to the crab have thick annual shoots1 without any lateral rectangular branching1 and very thick bark2 they have been gradually bred to this condition by repeated sowing1 always choosing the seed of those #bhd partaking most of these qualities for resowing1 their disposition to vary to mildness being at the same time influenced in some measure by culture and abundant moist nourishment2 but these mild varieties1 although they throw out a strong annual shoot while young1 seldom or never reach to any considerable size of tree1 unless they are nourished by crab roots1 their own roots being soft and fleshy1 and incapable of foraging at much depth or distance4 ,their branches and twigs as they get old1 are also very soft and friable1 covered with a thick bark1 but the timber of the stem is very little inferior in hardness to crab timber4 ,we ask1 if even the fact of these unnaturally tender varieties 7obtained by long-continued selection1 probably assisted by culture1 soil and climate1 and which1 without the cherishing of man1 would soon disappear71 being of rather more porous texture of wood1 goes any length to prove our author's assertion8 ,we have paid some attention to the fibre of the genus ,pyrus1 and find that the ,siberian crabs have by far the smallest vessels4 ,having grafted the large ,fulwood upon the smallest ,red ,siberian ,crab1 or ,cherry-apple1 the new wood layers above the junction swelled to triple the thickness of those below4 ,by ingrafting other kinds upon other #bhe stocks1 we have found the reverse to take place1 no doubt owing to those with largest vessels swelling the most1 there being the same number of vessels above and below the junction1 each corresponding1 or being a continuation of the other#eg4 ,but this small ,siberian crab1 when ingrafted upon a common crab1 grew fully as quickly during several years as the ,fulwood under the same circumstances2 and the timber1 though of much finer texture1 scarcely exceeded the other in hardness4 ,sir ,henry tells us1 that the oak is less durable in ,italy and ,spain than in ,england#eh4 ,we tell ,sir ,henry1 that the red-wood pitch-pine from ,georgia and the ,floridas1 on the confines of the torrid zone1 is more durable than the red-wood pine from ,archangel1 on the confines of the frigid zone4 ,but does this fact #bhf regarding the oak of the south of ,europe1 prove any thing regarding the oak of ,england1--that it will always he deteriorated by culture for several years after planting1 or that the quality may not suffer as much from slowness of growth as from fastness1 or from the climate being too cold as from being too warm8 ,the reason why ,highland ,scots oak spokes are superior to ,english1 is1 because the latter are generally split from out the refuse of the timber cut for naval purposes1--principally the branches and tops of large trees2 whereas1 those from the ,highlands of ,scotland are from the root cuts of copse4 ,we believe most carpenters of ,scotland are aware of this4 ,the oak from the ,highlands of ,scotland is1 however1 for the most part1 of excellent quality1 growing generally on dry gravel and rock1 not on cold moist clayey soils4 ,the hardest we have ever seen was from a steep1 dry gravel bank1 of south exposure1 in an open situation1 much exposed to the western breeze4 ,the ,highland oak from these soils is generally of a greyish colour1 and very dense2 whereas that from moist soils is often reddish-brown1 and defective4 ,should ,sir ,henry weigh portions of oak from these soils in a pair of material1 in place of mental scales1 we think his conclusions would be #bhg somewhat different4--,the strongest1 hardest ash we have seen1 was cut from a hard1 dry1 adhesive clay1 of course a young tree4 ,sir ,henry1 speaking of the ,western ,highlands and ,islands of ,scotland1 states that 8it is from a want of soil1 and not of climate1 that woods of any given extent cannot be got up in these unsheltered1 but romantic situations40 ,of many situations of these bleak districts1 this must be admitted1 but we cannot receive it as a general fact2 and even where it holds true1 the want of 7proper7 soil1 or formation of peat1 is a consequence of the want of climate1 although this may have reacted to increase the evil4 ,there must have been a greater warmth of climate1 at least in summer1 when the forests grew1 which lie buried in the mosses of the northern part of ,scotland1 and of the ,orkney and ,shetland ,islands1 as some kinds of timber are found in situations where such kinds1 by no circumstances of gradual shelter under the present climate1 could have grown4 ,there are several indications of a greater warmth having been general throughout ,britain1 and even farther eastward1 and that a slight refrigeration is still in progress4 ,we instance the once numerous vineyards of ,england1--the vestiges of aration so numerous upon many of our hills1 where it would now be considered fruitless to attempt raising grain1 even #bhh with the assistance of modern science2 and the report that the ,caspian is gradually overflowing her shores1 a probable consequence of diminished evaporation from decrease of heat4 ,that this is not wholly owing to the moisture and cold consequent to the moss formation1 or to any cover or want of cover to the earth1 of timber1 or of any other plants which might possibly have effect upon the temperature by shade1 evolution of vegetable heat1 electric or meteoric agency1 we think proved1 should the asserted fact be correct1 that1 in the small oes of ,shetland1 7so distant from any considerable portion of land as not to be under these influences1 and so small1 that the climate must be solely dependant upon the sea71 timber is found in the morasses1 although the climate will not now admit of timber growing1 being apparently equally deteriorated as that of the ,mainland4 ,it is not improbable that the superior former climate of the ,north of ,scotland and ,islands was owing to their having formed1 at one time1 an extensive country1 perhaps joined to the continent1 and thus partaking of the continental climate1 that is1 having a colder winter and warmer summer1 capable of producing considerable vigour of arboreous vegetation1 and not so favourable to the generating of that fixed vegetable incubus1 peat-moss1 who has crept over1 and folded #bhi in her chill embrace1 the once fair districts of northern ,scotland4 ,the fogs and more steady low temperature of insular situation1 which now prevail1 not only induce that chemical change in dead and dying vegetables which forms peat-moss1 and preserves this moss from decay1 but also being too cool for the vegetation of the gramine1 c4 tend only to promote the general spread of sphagni and other moss-generating plants1 which1 again1 are almost the only plants that can vegetate on acrid moss-flow1 as they draw little or nothing from below1 and are nourished directly by the moisture and other fluids of the atmosphere4 ,our eastern shore affords sufficient proof that the ocean has both receded and advanced recently--at least recently in comparison with the great changes which have occurred to modify the surface of the earth4 ,in proof of this recession1 we have the upper carses1 or deltas1 visible in every firth or creek where a river falls into the ,german ,sea4 ,these carses1 on the firths in ,ross-shire1 at ,dun near ,montrose1 around the upper end of the ,firths of ,tay and ,forth1 are all of nearly equal level1 about #bj feet above the highest stream-tides4 ,the gravel bar at ,montrose is considerably above the present sea-level4 ,a number of caves exist on this #bij eastern coast1 evidently worn into the rock by the action of the sea at the height where the waves have broken4 ,these caves have nearly one level1 corresponding in height with that of the carses4 ,there are also many places where the coast has been shorn away by the action of the waves1 and a shelf of rocks left extending out some hundred paces4 ,this abrasion1 which takes place nearly at1 or a little above1 low water-mark1 is effected by innumerable hard pebbles 7the most indurated parts of the rocks which give way being converted into battering material for further reduction71 being upborne and dashed against the rock by the continuous heaving and lashing of the waves4 ,wherever any breach commences from the feebler opposition of any softer part1 the action of the waves and battering train proceeds with increased impetus and concentration1 especially if the breach be wedge-shaped narrowing inward1 thence caves of considerable extent are hallowed out4 ,the rocks thus abraded and undermined1 tumble down and are ground into sand1 which is swept by the tides and motion of the waters into the depths of the ocean1 or borne along to the upper end of the bays1 or to some part of the coast where more sluggish lateral tides1 and particular motion of the waves leave it and throw it ashore to be blown up into #bia downs4 ,there are some former islands which have been altogether shorn down to this sea-level1 of which the ,bell-,rock1 extending nearly a mile of shelf1 affords a well known specimen4 ,in many places of the coast1 these shelves accord with the superior former level of the sea1 and with the floors of the caves4 ,in proof of the sea having advanced upon the land1 there are vestiges of submerged forests 7the stumps of the trees standing erect where they grew1 at or a little above the present lowest ebb7 existing at different places on the eastern coast1 both of ,england and ,scotland1 and these vestiges standing upon a former carse or alluvium of the rivers1 are visible in the same firths with the upper level of carse1 of course generally more to seaward than these higher carses1 as deposition of rivers occurs at what may be termed deposition point1 that is where the rivers1 from the stemming of the sea-water1 begin to widen--where the firths commence2 and the slowness of the motion of the water gives time for the subsidence of the floated mud4 ,by reason of the flux and reflux of the tide into the mouths of rivers1 this deposition takes place only at or near high water1 that is1 when the strength of the inward tide-flux ceases1 and before that of the reflux begins4 ,it is #bib most abundant at the windward shore1 or where there is least surf1 and among the tall gramina and other vegetation where there is least undulation and current2 the deposition which occurs at this time1 some distance below high water level1 is floated away by the current of the following flux and reflux1 unless some object afford a nucleus of formation4 ,hence deltas or carses usually form near the shore of firths1 generally soon rise to high-water level1 and have often steep1 or even abrupt1 banks1 collecting at one place1 and giving way before the waves and undermining current at another4 ,there is a deposition of another kind than river diluvium1 which also takes place at the bottom1 or further end1 of bays and firths1 and is sometimes mixed with the preceding3 ,this consists1 as mentioned above1 of the abrasion of the rocks1 or shores of the bay and neighbouring coast1 and also of molluscous exuvi1 borne along by the motion of the waters2 but this is generally rather an accumulation than a deposition1 occurring in greatest quantity where a heavy swell rolls dead in4 ,although we have pretty accurate proof that the present elevation of the ,german ,sea has remained nearly steady for several hundred years1 yet our new formation of carse1 at the present high-water level1 #bic bears a small proportion to the extent of the upper carse2 from which may be inferred1 either that the sea has remained a shorter time at the present level1 or that some general cause has more recently operated to diminish the deposition1 such as inferiority of present climate not producing so much littoral vegetation1--tides or higher winds preventing subsidence by greater undulation or current1 till the diffused mud be carried out to sea#ei4 ,the junction of the higher and present sea-level carses1 abrupt and always definite1 that is1 not gradually declining from the one to the other1 would seem to indicate a quick subsiding of the sea1 or rising of the land1 such as has been known to result from subterraneous derangement4 ,the very accurate level of these carses proves1 that this portion of the world has remained a very long time pretty free from these disturbances1 recently so prevalent in some other quarters2 and if the change of sea-level has been owing to such disturbance1 it follows1 from the extent and regularity of the upheaving or subsidence1 that the cause must have been very deep seated1 or of great magnitude4 ,we begin to think1 from our disposition to ramble from the ,allanton system1 that we tire of ,sir #bid ,henry2 and we believe1 should he follow us thus far1 that he will be tired of us4 ,on looking back on what we have written1 we are almost disposed to accuse ourselves of being splenetic2 but the truth is1 we regard the whole art as very unimportant1 if not positively pernicious1 at least in the way in which it has been exemplified by ,sir ,henry1 as a throwing away of valuable labour to no purpose1 if it ought not indeed to be considered as a mere pander to luxury and caprice4 ,we have no sympathy with the aristocratical object of the book1 and as little with the aristocratical tone in which it has been bepraised by ,sir ,walter ,scott4 ,we should also have no greater pleasure in the discovery of a royal road to virtue than we should have to the discovery of one to science1--the four cardinal virtues being1 as every body knows1 writing books1 building houses1 and raising trees and children1 but we should hope1 neither by proxy1 nor by the ,allanton ,system4 ,while1 however1 we thus state our opinions with freedom1 we do not hesitate to add1 that ,sir ,henry's volume has afforded us more information1 or1 at least1 more materials for reflection1 than any other of the works which we have brought under the notice of our readers4 #bie 99 99 99 99 99 ,we shall finish our remarks on ,sir ,henry's work1 by making some observations upon a quotation made by ,sir ,henry ,steuart1 from 8,a ,treatise on the ,forming and ,improving of ,country ,residences10 by the ,author of the ,encyclopdia of ,gardening1 c4--an author1 who combines talent1 successful industry1 and enlightened benevolence1 in no common degree4 ,we are sorry to appear before this author1 whom we have long esteemed1 in opposition2 yet we regret the less1 as we consider him one of the few who prefer accuracy and truth to an old opinion1 and whose name stands too high to be affected by a casual misconception4 8,the general effects of pruning10 says this author1 as quoted by ,sir ,henry ,steuart1 8is of a corresponding nature with culture1 that is1 to increase the quantity of timber-produce3 the particular manner in which it does this is by directing the greater part of the sap1 which generally spreads itself into side branches1 into the principal stem4 ,this must consequently enlarge the stem in a more than ordinary degree1 by increasing the annual circles of the wood4 ,now1 if the tree be in a worse soil and climate than those which are natural to it1 this will be of some advantage1 as the extra increase of #bif timber will still be of a quality not inferior to what would take place in its natural state2 or1 in other words1 it will correspond with that degree of quality and quantity of timber1 which the nature and species of the tree admit of being produced4 ,if the tree be in its natural state1 the annual increase of timber occasioned by pruning1 must necessarily injure its quality in a degree corresponding with the increased quantity4 ,if the tree be in a better climate and soil than that which is natural to it1 and at the same time the annual increase of wood be promoted by pruning1 it is evident that such wood must be of a very different quality from that produced in its natural state 7that is very inferior740--8,whatever tends to increase the wood in a greater degree than what is natural to the species when in its natural state1 must injure the quality of the timber4 ,pruning tends to increase this in a considerable degree1 and therefore it must be a pernicious practice40--8,mr ,knight has shown1 in a very striking manner1 that timber is produced1 or rather that the alburnum or sap-wood is rendered ligneous1 by the motion of the tree1 during the descent of the tree 7or proper7 sap4 ,it is also sufficiently known1 that the solid texture of the wood greatly depends upon the quantity of sap which must necessarily #big descend1 and also on the slowness of the descent4 ,now1 both these requisites are materially increased by side-branches1 which retain a large quantity of sap1 and1 by their junction with the stem1 occasion a contraction and twisted direction of the vessels1 which obstructs the progress of the 7proper7 sap4 ,of maple and birch1 those trees which have fewest side-branches bleed more freely than the other1 but during a much shorter space of time4 ,these hints1 therefore1 afford additional evidence against pruning1 and particularly against pruning fir trees1 which1 as ,mr ,knight justly observes1 have larger vessels than the others1 and therefore1 when in an improved soil and climate1 side-branches for the purposes above mentioned are essentially necessary to them1 if solid1 resinous1 and durable timber be the object in view4 8,from the foregoing remarks1 ,i think the following conclusions may be drawn4 8,first1 ,that trees should be planted as much as possible in soils1 situations1 and climates1 analogous to those of their natural state2 and that it is chiefly in this state1 or when there are some defects relative to it1 that pruning or culture can be exercised with advantage4 #bih 8,secondly1 ,that in proportion to the superiority of the soil1 c4 in which trees are placed1 over the natural soil of these trees1 in the same proportion pruning and cultivating the soil ought to be avoided1 and thinning encouraged4 8,thirdly1 ,that particular regard should be had to the soil and situation1 where either larches1 or any other of the pine tribe1 are planted1 to remain as the final crop4 ,for as the roots of these chiefly run along the surface1 and as in them the great current of the sap is chiefly confined to one channel1 that is the trunk1 consequently that tribe of trees is peculiarly liable to injury and change1 when subjected to unnatural agency4 8,fourthly1 ,that the only way in which oak timber of safe quality can be provided for the ,british navy1 is by enclosing1 preserving from cattle1 and properly managing1 those royal forests where oak is the natural produce of the soil4 7,alas6 there is reason to fear1 that on some future day the neglect of this advice will be regretted74 ,park oak is very frequently much inferior to forest oak in durability40 ,we differ from the author of the ,encyclopdia of ,gardening here1 even in limine1 in his #bii assumption1 that pruning is of a corresponding nature with culture1 in increasing the annual circles of the wood#fj4 ,culture1 if judiciously executed1 increases these annual circles2 but common pruning up 7which1 from the general bearing of the language1 we suppose is meant71 nine times out of ten diminishes them1 and merely tends to extend the stem in length1 by throwing all the new formation of branches to the top of the tree1 in place of partly to the sides4 ,thence the tree acquires a slenderer figure1 and more delicate constitution2 and from greater height1 and being without cover of side-branches1 loses more by evaporation1 and receives less moisture from the ground1 which is dried by the breeze passing along under the branches2 the principal process of vegetation1 assimilation by the leaves1 being reduced by the pruning1 and carried on at an unnatural height1 in a colder less genial atmosphere1 under a diminished supply of nourishment from the ground1 is consequently less productive of new assimilized #cjj matter2 and this smaller quantity requiring to be extended along a greater length of stem1 the annual rings are necessarily thinner4 ,we admit that a tree becomes more stemmy by being repeatedly pruned up2--we admit1 that1 on removal of the lower branches1 the upper part of the stem may have1 for a few seasons1 larger annual circles2 but the annual circles will be diminished in thickness in a much greater proportion on the lower part of the stem2--we admit1 that the timber1 from being deposited in a clean lengthened cylinder1 becomes far more useful1 there being less redundant matter than when scattered out into stemmy branches1 to which disposition1 trees in open situation sometimes incline1 especially if not transplanted very young1 but to which they are nevertheless much more disposed under the common mode of pruning in an early stage of their growth1 than when left to themselves2--we admit1 that trees1 by pruning1 raised to lengthened stem1 and thence performing less assimilation1 partly compensate for this less assimilation1 for some time1 by making more stem deposit in proportion to the other deposit1 which extends the parts more immediately necessary to new formation1--the roots and twigs2 but the deficiency of productory parts soon #cja reacts to diminish the amount of all the new products4 ,in tall trees1 this greater deposition on the stem1 in proportion to that on the roots1 twigs1 and leaves1 some will think instinctive2 some will refer it to an effort of nature to supply the necessary strength to enable the stem to resist the great strain of the winds upon the elevated top4 ,if it take place to a greater extent than what arises from the greater elongation of the necessary vessels of communication1 perhaps it is owing to the evaporation or stagnation of the sap on the tall exposed stem1 and to the considerable motion or waving of the stem by wind promoting deposition1 evincing one of the deep balancings of material cause and effect1 or circumstantial regulation1 which mocks the wisdom of the wise4 ,we admit1 also1 that pruning1 in the first place1 impedes formation of flower-buds1 and will sometimes thus prevent exhaustion of trees by seeding1 which is so prejudicial both to the quality and quantity of the new wood deposit2 but the consequent greater length of stem1 greater exposure to evaporation1 constriction of bark1 and slenderer connecting tubes between leaf and roots1 all tend subsequently to promote formation of flower-buds1 although the removal of the lower branches may for a few seasons serve to #cjb prevent this4 ,we therefore consider pruning1 excepting in a very slight degree1 to guide to one leader1 and to remove the sickly1 lower1 moss-covered branches a few seasons earlier than they would have dropped off in the common course of decay1 to be generally preventive of quantity of wood-deposit1 even of common marketable timber1 in any considerable number of years1 although pruning to a greater degree is often necessary where fine clean timber is required4 ,our author's next implied assumption1 that a tree produces best timber in a soil and climate natural to it 7we suppose by this is meant the soil and climate where the kind of tree is naturally found growing71 is1 we think1 at least exceedingly hypothetical2 and1 judging from our facts1 incorrect4 ,the natural soil and climate of a tree1 is often very far from being the soil and climate most suited to its growth1 and is only the situation where it has greater power of occupancy1 than any other plant whose germ is present4 ,the pines do not cover the pine barrens of ,america1 because they prefer such soil1 or grow most luxuriant in such soil2 they would thrive much better1 that is1 grow faster1 in the natural allotment of the oak and the walnut1 and also mature to a better wood in this deeper richer soil4 ,but the #cjc oak and the walnut banish them to inferior soil from greater power of occupancy in good soil1 as the pines1 in their turn1 banish other plants from inferior sands--some to still more sterile location1 by the same means of greater powers of occupancy in these sands4 ,one cause considerably affecting the natural location of certain kinds of plants is1 that only certain soils are suited to the preservation of certain seeds1 throughout the winter or wet season4 ,thus many plants1 different from those which naturally occupy the soil1 would feel themselves at home1 and would beat off intruders1 were they once seated4 ,we have had indubitable proof in this country1 that ,scots fir1 grown upon good deep loam1 and strong till 7what our author would call the natural soil of the oak71 is of much better quality1 and more resinous1 than fir grown on poor sand 7what he would call the natural soil of the ,scots fir71 although of more rapid growth on the loam than on the sand2 and the best ,scots fir we have ever seen1 of equal age and quickness of growth1 is growing upon ,carse land 7clayey alluvium74 ,the reason that ,scots fir is of better quality1 and more resinous1 on good loam and moist till1 than on poor siliceous ground1 may probably be1 that the loam contains more oleaginous matter1 and other #cjd vegetable products which bear a near relation to resinous1 and which1 transmitted upwards from the roots1 may occasion richer assimilated juices4 ,men fed upon whale or seal blubber1 if the digestion is good1 have much fatty deposit upon the body1 and the perspired fluid is oil4 ,it is a fact well known to every intelligent farmer1 that infield or croft land1 that is land1 which1 having been earliest cultivated1 was1 of course1 the best soil at first1 and which has also been long highly manured at the cost of the outfield1 and therefore containing much oleaginous and other matter1 products of organization1 produces grasses and other vegetables much more nutritive to cattle than the outfield1 even though these vegetables be of the same species1 and by reason of more careful culture of those of the outfield1 also of the same size of plant4 ,we have also considered that light1 poor sandy soil1 which throws up a considerable flush of vegetation in the spring1 partly because it has then sufficient moisture1 but which almost entirely gives over producing throughout the latter part of the summer1 partly because the winter's moisture is exhausted1 may throw out the frame or skeleton of a considerable growth1 or annual layer of wood1 in the early part of the season1 but may not afford sufficient matter for the filling up or #cje maturing the layer into good dense timber later in the season1 when the assimilated fluid or sap is believed to descend4 ,our author states1 that the timber of pruned trees must be inferior to that of trees with many side-branches1 because the consequent contracting and twisting of the vessels as they pass the junction of the branches and stem1 obstruct the descent of the sap1 thence the timber is better matured1 and in firs has more of resinous deposit4 ,we admit that the resinous deposition is more abundant in knots and in some of the parts adjacent2 but the timber is not better throughout4 ,worm-eating may be observed to commence generally in the neighbourhood of knots4 ,although one part of the wood1 in consequence of the obstruction of the knot1 be more dense and resinous1 another part1 immediately above or below the knot1 where the growths are extended to fill up the vacant space1 where the worming commences1 is less dense1 and of inferior durability1 and corruption begun1 extends4 ,the knotted timber1 of course1 is very inferior in strength and value to the clean4 ,we would refer the longer continued flow of sap from maple and birches1 which have many side-branches1 in part1 to the lower or side-branches commencing to vegetate sooner in the #cjf spring than the top of the tree2 this successive commencement of vegetation prolonging the bleeding4 ,again1 in larch1 we find that by far the hardest and most durable wood is grown upon poor1 hard1 thin tills 7that is1 thin of vegetable mould upon the diluvium71 even where the root-rot commences about thirty years of age4 ,now1 we ask1 is this the natural soil of larches8 ,we have not1 however1 found larch from rich loam1 of better quality than from poor sand1 as we have observed in ,scots fir4 ,we also consider larch1 grown on a proper larch soil--on sound soil and subsoil1 or sound rock1 common in acclivous situation--superior in quality to larch of equal quickness of growth1 raised on rich loam or sand1 though not equal to larch of slow growth from the above mentioned poor tills4 ,we would ask how our author is enabled to assume1 as an axiom1 that trees produce the best timber in their natural locality8 ,we would also desire some rational information to shew in what manner pruning up can in any way conduce generally1 to the increase of the timber1 or to the enlargement of one-stemmed vegetables4 ,a tree naturally rises in one stem4 ,it throws out its branches in the disposition most favourable to draw the fullest benefit from the light and air4 ,it of its own #cjg accord 7that is when man does not meddle71 gradually raises its pyramidal centre1 with proportional lateral spread1 as high as is befitting1 for the fullest expansion of the individual1 under the circumstances of its location4 ,man may mar this beautiful natural balance easier than decypher the proximate cause he may throw the new deposit of wood in greater proportion upon the upper part of the stem1 rendering his beam more suitable from equality of thickness1 and particularly in pines1 of cleaner1 smaller growthed1 more durable timber1 thence more valuable4 ,but the tree will neither produce the same quantity of measurable timber in a considerable number of years1 nor will it ultimately reach to nearly the same size1 nor continue life nearly so long1 as when left to itself4 ,man's interference is useful in removing competitors1 in giving it lateral room for extension1 in training it skilfully to one leader and subordinate equality of feeders1 should transplanting1 early pruning up1 or other cause1 destroy the natural regular pyramidal disposition--not in pruning it up1 thus reducing it to narrower compass1 and destroying its balance to the locality4 ,the use of the infinite seedling varieties in the families of plants1 even in those in a state of nature1 differing in luxuriance of growth and local adaptation1 #cjh seems to be to give one individual 7the strongest best circumstance-suited7 superiority over others of its kind around1 that it may1 by overtopping and smothering them1 procure room for full extension1 and thus affording1 at the same time1 a continual selection of the strongest1 best circumstance-suited1 for reproduction4 ,man's interference1 by preventing this natural process of selection among plants1 independent of the wider range of circumstances to which he introduces them1 has increased the difference in varieties1 particularly in the more domesticated kinds2 and even in man himself1 the greater uniformity1 and more general vigour among savage tribes1 is referrible to nearly similar selecting law--the weaker individual sinking under the ill treatment of the stronger1 or under the common hardship4 ,as our author's premises thus appear neither self-evident1 nor supported by facts1 it might seem unfair1 at least it would be superfluous1 to proceed to the consideration of his conclusions and corollaries4 #cji ,,vii4 ,,cruickshank',s ,,practical ,,planter4 ,after the preceding parts of this volume had gone to press1 we received a copy of ,cruickshank's ,practical ,planter4 ,we endeavour to give a short view of the contents4 ,the author commences with some general remarks on the expediency and profit of laying uncultivated ground under timber1 stating1 rather too strongly1 the very superior income derivable from forest than from heathy moors1 and its advantages to the soil4 ,no doubt1 a great portion of the higher and more rocky part of ,scotland is susceptible of little other improvement than planting2 and1 under timber1 would produce more than ten times the income that it does in pasture2 and the patriotic motive of embellishing his country1 and enriching his countrymen1 may excuse his having drawn the advantages of planting in rather high colours4 ,mr ,cruickshank's statement 7as he says1 designedly kept rather below the truth71 that an acre of moor1 of average quality1 covered with ,scotch fir1 sixty years #caj planted1 would contain #fjj trees1 value #ajs4 each1 differs considerably from what has come within our experience4 ,the timber of an acre of ,scotch fir1 sixty years planted in such waste ground as occurs in the valley of the ,tay1 will not average much more than one hundred pounds per acre on the spot1 and laid down on the quay at ,newcastle 7the place to which the greater part of the ,scotch fir on the east of ,scotland is carried71 would not produce ,l4 #cjj per acre4 ,in order the more to encourage planting1 ,mr ,cruickshank runs into a speculative statement of the fertilizing influence of planting upon the soil1 in rather a novel manner1 leaving out the particular facts1 which1 he says1 had come under his own observation1 and adducing one as proof1 furnished to him by another person unnamed4 ,we have often had occasion to see ground1 which had produced a crop of firs1 brought under tillage without any marked fertility beyond the adjacent fields which had been under proper rotation of cropping1 certainly inferior to what had lain for the same length of time in natural grass pasture4 ,there is a particular instance in a slight rising ground 7diluvial soil7 in the ,carse of ,gowrie1 where the fields1 since the rooting out of the fir-wood1 have not paid seed and labour in corn1 though #caa under regular manuring and rotation4 ,there are even varieties of pine1 such as the loblolly1 which are known to have an influence upon the soil where they grow poisonous to succeeding crops4 ,mr ,cruickshank himself adverts several times to ground which had produced a crop of timber1 being boss 7hollow7 from the roots remaining in the soil1 and owing to this hollowness being unsuited for replanting till the roots were removed or consumed4 ,we do not very well comprehend this hollowness1 and ascribe the unsuitableness for replanting immediately1 rather to exhaustion1 or to the formation of something inimical to vegetation1 than to any hollowness or manner of arrangement of the soil4 ,as the causes which promote or retard the formation1 or which tend to dissipate the earth's covering of vegetable mould--a covering1 on the richness or thickness of which the fertility of ground1 as well for most kinds of naval timber as for other products1 is so much dependent1 though of the greatest importance--have never1 that we are aware of1 been generally brought into view1 we shall devote some space to their consideration4 ,in the first place1 to give a fair specimen of our author1 we shall transcribe several pages where he #cab has treated this subject with some ingenuity1 and on which he appears to have bestowed considerable care4 8,those who have never had an opportunity of seeing old woodlands brought into cultivation1 will scarce credit what has now been advanced1 that the soil should be enriched by the production of wood1 when the experience of ages has proved that it is always exhausted by other crops40--8,trees draw their nourishment from a much greater depth than any of the grasses1 roots1 or different kinds of grain raised by the agriculturist4 ,most of the latter derive the whole of their subsistence from the part of the soil that lies within a few inches of the surface2 but the former1 from the superior strength and magnitude of their roots1 are enabled to penetrate much farther1 and extract food from the very rock which forms the substratum of a great portion1 both of our cultivated and uncultivated grounds4 ,this1 though it does not account for lands being positively enriched by wood1 makes it1 at the same time1 far less surprizing that trees should grow to a large size1 and yet not exhaust the upper part of the soil in so great a degree as most of the crops cultivated by the farmer4 8,there is another circumstance which gives ground in wood a great advantage over that in #cac tillage1 which is1 that the leaves of the trees are suffered to decay and rot where they fall1 and1 by this means1 an annual addition is made to the depth of the vegetable mould4 ,now1 the leaves of a tree may be considered as bearing the same proportion to the trunk and branches1 in respect to the nourishment which they require1 as the straw of corn bears to the grain4 ,but the manure which cultivated land receives1 is1 in general1 little more than the straw which grows on it after it has served for food or litter to cattle4 ,ground in wood1 then1 actually receives1 in the annual fall of the leaves1 as much enrichment as the farmer bestows on his land under tillage4 8,ground employed in agriculture is exposed at almost every season of the year to the full action of the atmosphere2 and in the drought and heat of summer1 much of its strength is evaporated4 ,in land covered with wood1 the case is entirely different1 as from the shade afforded by the leaves and branches1 very little evaporation takes place4 ,this1 then1 is another reason that serves in some measure1 at least1 to explain the seemingly paradoxical fact in question4 ,for1 that evaporation has a very powerful tendency to exhaust land1 by drawing off and dissipating the more volatile part of the matter which #cad assists in the process of vegetation1 there can be no doubt1 when we consider that any kind of dung may be deprived of the greater part of its strength by being long exposed to a dry atmosphere4 ,nor is it merely by preserving its own original substance that land in wood has the advantage of cultivated ground4 ,whatever is extracted from the latter in the form of vapour1 falls again1 when condensed1 in the shape of rain or dew2 but1 instead of descending wholly on the same spots from whence it rose1 it is1 of course1 diffused over the whole space which the clouds1 containing it1 may happen to cover1 and woods and moors have as good a chance of receiving it on its return to the earth1 as the ground in tillage4 ,the part of it which falls1 either on the cultivated fields or the naked wastes1 may be again evaporated before it has time to be productive of any benefit2 but the portion of it which the woodlands imbibe is retained to enrich the soil2 for1 the umbrage excluding the rays of the sun1 there is no possibility of its being extracted a second time4 ,land covered with trees1 therefore1 while it never loses any thing1 receives1 with every fall of rain1 or of dew1 a tribute from the riches of the cultivated part of the country4 ,the advantage derived from this source is greater than will be credited by those who are not aware how much #cae of the substances proper for vegetable nutriment are exhaled from the land in a gaseous state during the dry season of the year4 8,but the principal way in which wood becomes instrumental in enriching land still remains to be noticed4 ,when trees attain a certain size1 they attract multitudes of birds1 which build their nests and seek shelter among the branches4 ,the dung of these animals is the very richest kind of manure which can be applied to land1 and possesses1 at least1 three times the strength of that commonly used in agriculture4 ,the quantity of it produced during the long series of years which trees require to reach maturity is1 especially where large colonies of crows take up their abode1 very considerable1 and must have a powerful influence in improving and fertilizing the soil4 8,i ought not to omit here to mention1 among the causes why ground is improved by producing wood--the minuteness into which its particles are divided by the roots and their fibres4 ,on taking up a young tree1 or even a gooseberry bush1 and shaking the earth from its roots1 we find the mould that falls from it as completely reduced to powder1 as if it had been passed through a fine sieve4 ,now1 the fact #caf seems undoubted1 that land is much increased in fertility by being brought to this state40 ,whether a greater accumulation of vegetable mould or enriching of the soil1 would take place under a system of rotation of crops1 stirring of the ground1 and manuring1 or under ,nature's own system of management--whether1 under forest1 or under the rich leafy grasses depastured by cattle1 is a question of the greatest intricacy1 and only admits of local decision1 being dependent upon climate1 soil1 and circumstance4 ,from our author's statements1 it would appear that his mind had only ranged along the surface of the subject4 ,he has not taken into account the quantity of root which herbaceous vegetables annually leave in the ground--in some kinds little inferior in bulk to the portion above ground4 ,we have traced oat and wheat roots running down into clay five and six feet 7as deep as those of many kinds of trees71 extremely numerous1 and fine as human hair4 ,he seems not aware that the bulk of yearly vegetable produce is much increased by culture1 alternate cropping1 and extraneous manure1 such as lime1 mixture of earths1 sea-ware1 bones4 ,he has not considered that the annual dead roots within the soil1 and the vegetable and animal manure1 and the #cag sward and the stubble ploughed down1 conduce much more to enrich and thicken the soil than the tree leaves1 blown about by the winds1 and nearly dissipated into air1 before the residuum fixes as a part of the soil2 and also that ploughing is often beneficial to shallow soils1 by mixing the thin covering of mould with the pure earth of the subsoil1--the vegetable soil-matter1 from consequent deeper cover1 and more equable moisture1 not losing so much by evaporation1 and at the same time being more efficacious as nutriment to the vegetation4 ,he seems unacquainted with the fact1 that the matter of wood and tree-leaves1 especially of the resinous kinds1 and those containing much tannin1 if not actually pernicious1 have very little fertilizing effect--saw-dust has generally no manuring influence1 but turns into peat4 ,he also appears to be ignorant1 that some kinds of vegetables draw more from the air and water1 and others more from the earth2 and1 especially1 that vegetables in a moist climate1 depastured or cut before maturity1 exhaust the soil much less than when allowed to seed4 ,in ,britain1 soils1 particularly those of good quality1 become richer1 and thicken more under pasturage1 than under any other common vegetation4 ,this is owing to the manuring of the cattle--to the natural grasses not being what is termed scourging plants1 especially #cah when not allowed to seed--to the complete cover of the ground by the leaves--to the quantity of root which dies annually--and to the mould thrown up by the red earth-worm1 renovating the surface1 and partly covering the moss and decayed leaves and old bulbs4 ,it is a curious fact1 that1 under pasturage1 fertility should increase in ,britain and diminish in ,australia4 ,an uncropt deep cover of grass appears necessary to shelter the vegetable soil-matter during the arid heat1 and even to protect the roots from being burned out1 in the latter country4 ,and the manure of cattle1 instead of being covered by the luxuriant herbage before it is desiccated1 and enriching the soil as in ,england1 is1 in ,new ,south ,wales1 under the powerful sun and arid air1 quickly reduced to dust and dissipated4 ,the fertility of soils may also be quickly increased1 and the vegetable cover thickened almost to any extent under tillage1 by first rearing a quantity of large growing annual vegetables1 and when nearly full extended1 burying this green vegetable produce in drills1 resowing the ground immediately with another fast growing kind1 and proceeding thus continuedly4 ,the influence of birds in enriching forest soil1 is exceedingly limited1 and is chiefly perceptible1 not in continued forest1 but in some detached portions or #cai clumps of park trees1 which colonies of rooks or other large birds frequent4 ,of the natural grass which ,mr ,cruickshank states succeeds in woods to the original heaths1 and which he describes as affording such excellent tender food for cattle1 we can only say1 that either the woods must have been unprofitably thin1 and the trees naked1 or that he has completely mistaken the quality of the herbage4 ,the grass of woods is unhealthy food for cattle1 and generally not relished1 being rendered unpalatable and noxious by the resinous and bitter droppings from the tree leaves1 and by the bitter and nauseous juices generated in the soil by the roots of trees1 which the herbage roots draw up4 ,in dry soils1 there is sometimes an accumulation of whitish substance within the ground1 around the roots of trees1 which some refer to excrementitious deposit#fa1 but which1 we think1 is rather the produce of a subterraneous vegetable1 of the nature of a fungus or mould4 ,wherever this has increased to a considerable extent1 we believe old forest ground will be found of great fertility4 #cbj ,the friability and minute division of the soil to which ,mr ,cruickshanks refers1 existing around the bulbs of trees1 can only be of utility where the soil is too adhesive4 ,light soil is often injured by being cropped by plants which tend greatly to reduce adhesion--what the farmer styles being driven3 besides1 all luxuriant annual crops render adhesive soils friable2 and1 remaining for a time under natural grass1 gives what is termed a turfiness to soils1 which continues for several years1 and which renders both adhesive and light soils more productive1 preventing the adhesive from sinking down into mortar under cultivation1 and the light from losing all adhesion or granular arrangement4 ,there is1 no doubt1 a disposition to accumulate vegetable deposit in forests1 from the moistness1 coolness of the ground1 and shade1 not tending so much as the sunshine and exposure of open country to dissipate or volatilize the residuum of the decayed leaves and roots4 ,in a lower latitude1 beyond the line of peat formation1 this will have some influence to increase the depth and richness of the vegetable mould2 but1 in ,scotland1 where cold till bottom prevails1 more injury will result from forest tending to throw the debri of vegetation into combinations unfavourable to the nourishment of plants 7such as peat #cba and compounds in which iron forms a part71 than advantage1 from the dead vegetable matter not being so much dissipated by aration and exposure to the sun4 ,we have often observed the effect of remaining for a length of time in a state of considerable dryness1 dissipating the vegetable part of the soil1 in some of the old infield clays1 where the crown of the large ridges are raised up a foot or two above the original surface-level4 ,at the crown of the ridge1 the vegetable clay mould often only extends down about nine inches from the surface1 the subsoil immediately under being nearly void of vegetable matter1 and extremely close tenacious clay1--a solid foot of it1 though of equal moistness1 being nearly double the weight of the same bulk of the vegetable clay mould above it4 ,from this clay1 almost purely mineral1 being a little above the original surface-level1 there can be no doubt1 that at one time it consisted of the vegetable surface mould of the country1 heaped up by repeated ploughings1 and that it has gradually lost the vegetable part4 ,the depth of vegetable soil1 near the furrows of the ridges1 is generally found to be greater than at the ridge crown4 ,the same dissipation of vegetable matter takes place when a ditch has been dug in clay ground1 and #cbb the excavated earth thrown up to form a dike on one side4 ,on removal of the dike1 the original surface1 which no doubt1 at the time the dike was formed1 consisted of vegetable clay mould similar to the surface around1 is always found to be close1 heavy1 poor clay1 containing little or no carbonaceous or vegetable matter4 ,in this case1 from the draining effect of the ditch1 the original surface under the dike must have been drier than the subsoil of the crowns of the ridges4 ,the difference of depth and richness of vegetable mould1 may nearly always be referred to existing causes1 such as the original surface 7diluvium1 or decayed rock71 being a combination of earths favourable to vegetation2 occupying a genial situation2 being favourably placed with regard to moisture1 that is1 less or more moist1 according as the original surface has been clayey or sandy1 or open or close bottomed2 and is in no way connected with those flood torrents to which we owe the diluvium deposits themselves--tills1 sand and gravel1 in which we have never found any vegetable matter1 excepting in the coaly or mineralized state4 ,unless in the case of alluvium1 or of drift sand1 or where surface earth has been rolled down from #cbc heights1 or been forced by man#fb1 soil is seldom found to exceed #f feet in depth1 and that only in warm moist situations1 propitious to vegetation4 ,in ,scotland we never have seen it exceed #c or #d feet in depth where its accumulation had not been aided by the above causes4 ,the most common depth is from #f inches to #b feet2 but1 in many of our sterile districts1 the surface hardly deserves the name of mould1 containing very little vegetable matter1 or that matter being unavailable from the presence of tannin4 ,it is a well known fact1 that summer-fallowing always dissipates a portion of the vegetable matter in the soil1 although it may1 at the same time1 tend to fertility1 especially in adhesive soils1 and where the climate is not very arid and warm1 overbalancing the loss from dissipation by the advantage resulting from aration and absorption of gases and heat1 and the sun's rays2 by the mechanical disposition and comminution from being thoroughly dried and then moistened2 and1 probably1 by the formation of salts1 #cbd stimulative to vegetation2 or1 as it has been thought1 by the resting for a season4 ,in the case of any tannin or inert vegetable matter existing in the soil1 the heat and drying will tend to reduce these to a condition suitable for vegetable food4 ,in the ,west ,indies1 when a summer fallowing is resorted to in order to get clear of the weeds1 the fertility of the ground is considerably lessened1 from the evaporation or burning out of the putrescent or carbonaceous matter4 ,were the fallowing continued for several successive seasons1 there is no doubt that the whole matter1 which1 combined with earth1 forms mould1 would be dissipated4 ,about a century ago1 it was the practice1 in our neighbourhood 7an alluvial clay district71 to build up the soil of the fallow division1 furrow deep1 into thin dikes1 or walls1 about #e feet high4 ,this was done in early summer4 ,after being dried and arated by the summer's drought1 the dikes were levelled down in the autumn and sown with wheat4 ,this system was considered so fertilizing as to counterbalance the labour and the loss of a crop4 ,our own practice has proven that there is scarcely any manure more effective for one crop1 particularly of spring sowing1 than the clay of old mud walls of #cbe houses1 though applied in no larger quantity than is usually given of farm-yard manure1 and though the clay appear quite free from vegetable matter4 ,it is improbable that the resting of the clay from production could have any effect to occasion this fertility4 ,we considered it to arise chiefly from a quantity of nitre having been formed in1 or deposited about1 the walls from their long proximity to animal effluvia and to atmospheric air4 ,the fertilizing effect of the dike system of summer-fallow1 and even of the present system1 may also depend in part on the formation of nitre1 well known to be a powerful manure or stimulant in this country4 ,in dry seasons we have scraped together handfuls of salts1 partly nitre1 from the exposed surface of clay-banks4 ,should a considerable part of the fertilizing effect of fallowing arise from the formation of nitre1 the application of lime and putrescent manures to fallows1 in the early part of summer1 will be advantageous1 as the presence of both are favourable to the formation of nitre4 ,of course1 the utility of encouraging the formation#fc of #cbf nitre or other salts1 combinations of potassa or of soda1 will depend on the climate1 whether much or little rain falls1 and whether the rain water goes off by evaporation or by drainage4 ,in the case of little rain1 or the rain-water being nearly all evaporated1 nitre and other salts will accumulate in the soil1 so as1 from their excess1 to be injurious to vegetation2 whereas1 should much rain fall1 or the rain-water be chiefly carried off by drainage1 vegetation may languish from deficiency of these salts1 there being less deposition of the salts1 or the salts as they form being washed away4 ,the same will apply to the graminivorous animals4 ,sea-salt1 perhaps also nitre and other salts1 will be serviceable in a moist country1 or far from the sea1 where the plants and water contain little saline matter1 and probably pernicious in a dry climate1 where the plants and water generally contain much saline matter4 ,in the portion of the earth from the ,atlantic eastward1 through ,numidia1 ,libya1 ,egypt1 ,nubia1 ,arabia1 ,persia1 as far as the ,indus1 from the enormous ruins1 and other vestiges of dense population1 as well as from ancient records1 there must have #cbg existed a considerable depth of vegetable mould covering1 where now little is left but pure sand1 baked clay1 bare rock1 and saline encrustations4 ,from the footing which an industrious and brave nation has recently so honourably acquired in this territory1 may we not hope that the tide of arid sterility1 dissipating the vegetable covering1 will be turned1 and that through ,european enterprise and mechanical science1 by means of steam and wind power1 a system of irrigation will be introduced which will reanimate this dead portion of the earth--spreading forth again perpetual spring1 strewing the desert all over with herbs1 and fruits1 and flowers1 converting the sirocco into a breeze loaded with fragrance1 and reproducing1 in profusion1 all the delights of the gardens of ,hesperus8 ,from the carbonaceous or soil-matter being burned out1 and from the quantity of saline deposit1 a very considerable time will1 however1 elapse before production be generally extended1 and the desert so far circumscribed1 and the ground cooled so much1 as to condense a sufficiency of rain and dew1 that a new vegetable mould cover may be formed4 ,but to return from our wide exclusion1 we observe1 that ,mr ,cruickshank states1 page #be1 8that any land that is proper for ,scots fir will be found to answer well with the larch40 ,this observation1 with #cbh what he says of larch 8being heavier in proportion to its bulk0 than ,scots fir1 and that 8spruce is very easily wrought1 and tries the carpenter's tools less than any other kind of wood used in building10 would lead us to suspect that our author has had a very limited acquaintance with his subject4 ,a number of different soils will produce large ,scots fir where larches will be generally rotted and hollow in the heart1 by twenty years of age#fd4 ,this ignorance of our author is the more glaring1 as it is coupled with #cbi some severe strictures on planters in general for their ignorance of the proper location of trees4 ,he says1 8,scots fir1 on soils of a fertile character1 is short lived1 and the excellence of its timber is in proportion to the slowness of its growth40 ,this is erroneous4 ,we would rather say it is short-lived in bad soil3 ,memel fir 7,pinus sylvestris71 is of very superior quality1 very large growthed1 and of great age4 ,he also asserts 8elm prefers a strong clay soil1 and it is perhaps impossible to bring this tree to the utmost size it is capable of attaining in land of a different quality40 ,this is also erroneous4 ,we have seen very beautiful large ,scots elms grubbed out from a soil of pure gravel1 and we can show thousands of instances where ,scots elms do not thrive well in clay--in rich as well as poor clay4 ,we are aware that in every volume treating of numerous facts1 such as ,mr ,cruickshank's1 many inaccuracies may always be picked out1 but the above are rather too prominent4 ,mr ,cruickshank censures the practice of covering fir seeds one-half inch deep in ,england1 referring the #ccj demand there for ,scots plants to the seeds being thus buried in place of being sown1 and states that they should only be covered one-fourth of an inch1 as is the practice in ,aberdeenshire4 ,he also reprehends the author of the ,encyclopdia of ,gardening1 on account of some directions which this author has given1 to form1 by forcing1 a fine friable soil1 suitable for the delicate seeds of trees1 where this does not previously exist4 ,now1 we should consider that the difference of climate between the neighbourhood of ,london and ,aberdeen would require a difference of cover nearly equal to this2 and that forcing a friable earth for seed-beds was absolutely necessary1 in the very adhesive clays around ,london1 and so general in the more recent formations of the south and middle of ,england1 although superfluous in the north of ,scotland1 where sandy or light soil is sufficiently abundant4 ,seeds1 under a moist cloudy atmosphere1 will vegetate without cover at all2 but in situations where the air is arid in spring1 with much sunshine1 a covering of some depth is necessary1 and that covering1 where the rudiments of the plant spring out weak and delicate1 is required to be soft and friable1 a good absorber and retainer of moisture1 and not disposed to run together with rain1 or crack with drought4 ,mr ,cruickshank gives an account of our different #cca forest trees1 neither very accurate nor interesting1 but1 luckily1 not very tedious4 ,he then proceeds to treat of nursery1 sowing1 transplanting1 and choosing of plants1 where many sensible1 though some of them common-place1 observations occur1 of much use to the generality of planters4 ,his views1 however1 of the proper manner of planting seedlings in the nursery1 are defective4 ,the best method of planting these--neither by laying1 nor by dibbling--is first to stretch the line and make a furrow1 level in the bottom1 as broad as the roots may stretch1 with the inner side straight and steep4 ,one person then holds the plant erect in its berth1 from two to four inches from the perpendicular side1 according to the general size of the horizontal roots1 so that the fibres may be regularly spread2 and another person throws on the earth from the place of the next furrow2 the placer of the plants footing the earth to the roots as he proceeds1 or after the row is completed4 ,the following observations of ,mr ,cruickshank are worthy the attention of planters3 8,proprietors should not attempt to raise seedlings1 but purchase them from professional nurserymen1 and place them in a succession nursery of their own4 ,a proprietor may1 in general1 purchase seedlings much cheaper than he can raise them2 while the case #ccb is just the reverse with regard to plants of a greater age4 ,in raising seedlings1 much skill and attention is requisite1 which the professional man can always command at a much more reasonable rate than the proprietor4 ,in the treatment of plants after they are removed from the seed-bed1 the rent of the ground is the chief source of expense1 as any common gardener will be able to manage them40 8,a general1 and a very gross error1 in purchasing plants1 is to consider those as best which are the largest in proportion to their age4 ,this absurd principle of selection makes those nurseries most frequented by customers which least deserve to be so1 such1 namely1 as are situated in the richest soils1 surrounded by the closest shelter1 and stimulated by the greatest quantities of manure4 ,it is necessary1 no doubt1 that plants should be of a size to suit them to the situations for which they are intended2 but if they have attained this size sooner than the due time by being forced1 they are in the worst state imaginable for growing in a barren moor1 or on the bleak side of a mountain40 8,plants are often much injured1 though raised sufficiently hardy in other respects1 by being too much crowded in the nursery line40--8,the surest method that ,i know of enabling those who have little #ccc experience1 to ascertain whether plants1 in the seed-bed1 are too much crowded or not1 is to compare such as grow on the verge of the alley with those in the interior4 ,if the girt of the latter be equal1 or nearly so1 to that of the former1 the plants have sufficient room40--8,when plants have stood for several years in nursery lines1 if they are too much crowded1 many of their lower branches will be sickly or withered1 or the stems will be entirely devoid of branches1 excepting within a few inches of the top4 ,this is a mark so plain that no one can mistake4 8,care should be taken not to purchase plants which betray symptoms of disease4 ,when larches not more than three years old cast the whole1 or even the greater part1 of their leaves1 just when the winter commences1 it is a sure sign that they are in an unhealthy state1 and that many of them will die in the course of next season2 for1 under this age1 the larch should retain a considerable quantity of its old leaves till spring40--8,there is also a minute white insect1 which is fatal to the larch in plantations1 that sometimes attacks it in the nursery after it enters its second year2 on this account1 it is proper to examine the larch plants the summer previous to purchasing them40--8,scots fir maybe regarded as sickly1 when the points of the leaves become withered1 or #ccd when they change their naturally dark colours into a faint yellowish green4 ,any vestige of withering on the spruce or silver fir1 is a sure prognostication of approaching decay4 ,any kind of fir which has lost its leader may be considered useless4 8,when plants are packed up in mats for the conveniency of carriage1 strict orders should be given that those which carry their leaves in winter be taken up when they are entirely free from moisture4 ,if they be pulled wet1 they will heat and get mouldy in the packages4 ,in the course of a few days good plants are often spoiled in this manner40 ,mr ,cruickshank does not swerve from the common foolish system1 of inculcating a determinate character of soil as generally necessary for each kind of tree4 ,we are angry with the dulness of the writers on location of timber2 they will not comprehend that a tree has two ends1 by both of which it draws moisture1 though from different elements1 earth and air4 ,the dullest clown is sensible he requires to drink more under an arid sun than under a drizzling rain4 ,the same holds of trees2 if there be little evaporation of moisture from the leaves1 and if the leaves1 instead of exhaling1 can frequently even imbibe water1 from the plant occupying an elevated situation1 where the air the greater part of the season #cce is cool1 and nearly surcharged with moisture1 the most porous1 driest soil 7sufficiently damp in such a situation71 will generally be the most suitable2 and trees of every kind will prosper in sands1 in which1 under a dry atmosphere1 they would not have survived one summer2 whereas in arid1 warm1 low country1 the deepest1 dampest loams and clays are generally the best suited for timber1 provided water does not stagnate4 ,and1 besides1 we have found varieties of the same kind or species of tree1 some of them adapted to prosper in dry air and soil1 and others in moist air and soil4 ,although the above causes prevent a positive limitation of certain kinds of trees to certain soils1 yet there are some which have superior adaptation to moist soils and others to dry2 some whose roots1 from their fibrous soft character1 can only spread luxuriantly on light1 soft1 or mossy soils1 and others1 whose roots have power to permeate the stiffest and most obdurate4 ,the above explanations will account for much of the incongruity which we find in authors regarding the adaptation of certain kinds of timber to certain soils4 ,in describing the soils suitable for different kinds of trees1 ,mr ,cruickshank mentions1 that 8the ,scots fir will thrive in very barren situations1 provided the soil be dry4 ,dryness is1 in fact1 the #ccf most indispensable requisite in order to produce a good crop of ,scots fir1 and it is never advisable to plant this tree in very moist ground1 or where draining is necessary to carry off the surface water40--8,stiff land seems decidedly hostile to its growth40--8,on a deep rich soil it grows very fast1 attains a large size1 and soon decays4 ,in these circumstances1 its wood is spongy1 and of inferior value40--8,the most important precept that can be delivered with regard to this tree1 is never to plant it either in wet or very stiff land40 8,the larch is also a very hardy plant1 and is sure to thrive on any land that will answer for the ,scots fir4 ,it is1 however1 less delicate in its choice of soil than the latter1 and will grow in a much greater degree of moisture40--8,this tree is one of the surest growers we have in barren soils40 8,the spruce is as partial to moist land as the ,scots fir is to dry2 and in this particular these two species stand directly opposed to one another40--8,spruce may indeed appear to thrive in a dry situation for a few years2 but by the time it reaches ten or twelve feet in height1 its lower branches will decay1 and after that period it will make little progress1 but remain even a cumberer of the soil40--8 ,spruce seems to be most partial to a cold stiff clay3 it is1 #ccg however1 a very hardy plant1 and not very nice in its choice of soil1 provided it have enough of sap40--8,i do not mean such as is deluged in winter with stagnant water4 ,this is incompatible with the growth of wood of every kind40--8,the silver fir and balm of ,gilead will answer in the same kinds of land as the spruce40--8,they1 together with the spruce1 are invaluable for where the soil is deep peat-moss1 as neither the ,scots fir nor the larch will thrive in it40 99 99 99 99 99 ,there is in the above quotations1 in common with many of our opinions 7formed hastily upon a too partial acquaintance with facts71 a considerable proportion both of truth and error4 ,such sweeping assertions will1 however1 generally command the assent and admiration of the reader4 ,from the enjoyment the mind has in forming clear conceptions and reaching conclusions1 from its love of order1 and from its disposition to cling to every thing like definite1 unfluctuating arrangement1 to assist its limited powers of comprehension1 we are led away by the author1 who reduces the character of natural phenomena to great simplicity1 although in reality exceedingly complicated4 ,scots fir1 it is true1 has rather a superior adaptation to dry1 sharp1 and rocky soils2 yet there are many #cch situations of poor wet till and clay1 and even peat-moss ground1 where it will be advantageous to plant ,scots fir in preference to any other kind of timber2 for this plain reason1 that no other kind will thrive so well in those cold moist moors4 ,both ,larix and ,abies have a much narrower range of adaptation than ,pinus sylvestris4 ,larch will not thrive in the dead sand nor till flats of the low country1 often not in the dead sand and till of rising grounds1 in both of which the ,scots fir1 if allowed sufficient room for side branching1 will reach good-sized timber4 ,there is a considerable formation of peat-moss near ,dunmore1 in which the ,scots fir has shown superior adaptation to the ,norway spruce4 ,we have also seen1 in the moss of ,balgowan1 ,perthshire1 fine thriving ,scots firs1 many of them two feet in diameter1 growing in very moist1 rich1 mossy loam1--so moist1 that although in a rather protected situation1 a number of the trees1 while young1 had been laid on their sides by the wind1 and were growing luxuriantly in the form of a quadrant of a circle1 with as much as six and eight feet of the stem upon the level ground1 affording a curve sufficient to reach from the keel of a vessel to the deck at midships4 ,we examined the timber of several of these1 and found it superior to the average of home ,p4 sylvestris4 ,the superior #cci quality of the timber may be ascribed to the richness and moisture of the soil1 and to the full branching of the trees from their rather open arrangement4 ,there is nothing which conduces so much to the good quality of ,scots fir as exposure4 ,under the great shelter of the close planted woods1 the timber is soft and porous1 without much resin2 but under great exposure1 especially to dry air1 the timber is hard1 close1 and resinous4 ,this is1 however1 considerably modified by the soil4 ,the quality of natural grown timber is considered superior to the planted4 ,is this occasioned by the former having generally more branches and leaves in proportion to the length of the stem1 and being more exposed than the latter8 ,can root fracture at transplanting1 or the kiln-drying of the cones1 have any influence to diminish the strength of the fibre or quantity of resinous deposit8 ,we have been told by several old people1 in the neighbourhood of ,dunsinane1 that ,scots fir plants1 brought more than half a century ago from ,mar ,forest to ,dunsinane ,wood1 succeeded much better than some which had been procured from nurseries1 and also produced better timber4 ,clay is assuredly not the proper soil for spruce and silver fir2 their exceedingly numerous1 soft1 fibrous1 moss-like rootlets1 require an easy damp soil4 #cdj ,we have tried a number of kinds of abies1 in both dry and moist clay1 and have found they did not grow so luxuriantly 7thrive so well7 as ,scots fir or larch4 ,the silver fir shewed superior adaptation to any of the other kinds of abies4 ,almost in every instance where we have seen the silver fir and ,norway spruce 7by far the best spruce for ,scotland7 growing together1 the former was the superior4 ,the timber1 in the lower part of the stem1 is harder than that of the spruce1 but freer and more porous in the upper part4 ,it is probable that the silver fir will not thrive in so elevated or so moist a situation as the spruce1 but in all favourable soils it merits a preference4 ,we now come to a very important part of our author's volume--an account of the most economical1 and1 as he says1 the most successful1 mode of planting moors and bleak exposed mountains1 but which is brought forward by him under no limitation to place4 ,to the invention of this method1 our author lays no claim2 he merely describes the practice in a clear and judicious manner4 8,the most proper time for removing firs from the nursery to waste land1 is when they are two years old40--8,the experience ,i have had enables me to say1 with as much confidence as ,i can speak on #cda any point whatever1 that the longer any fir is allowed to remain in the nursery after it has attained two years' growth1 so much the less chance is there of its success when removed to its final destination40--8,at this period 7two years' growth7 larches may be obtained transplanted1 as it is customary to put considerable numbers of them out into nursery-lines when they are one year old4 ,such plants have better roots than those that have remained in the seed-bed till they are of the same age2 but as their price is considerably higher than that of the latter1 it is somewhat doubtful whether they are so much superior in quality as to compensate for the greater expense4 ,at all events1 healthy larches from the seed-bed have never failed to give satisfaction when properly planted in soil suitable for them4 ,other species of fir are scarce ever transplanted in the nursery till they are two years old1 so of this age there is no choice left but to take them from the seed-bed40--8,birch1 alder1 and mountain ash1 succeed well when removed from the nursery in their second year40--8,beech and plane do not succeed well unless they have stood some time 7two years at least7 in nursery lines1 after having been removed from the seed-bed40 8,the pitting system of planting should be #cdb adopted in every instance in which the plants exceed two years old4 8,the expense of planting was much reduced by the introduction1 about a century ago1 of the notching system4 ,of this there are two varieties1 the oldest of which may be described as follows3--,one person makes a notch in the ground1 or rather two notches crossing each other1 with a common spade1 raising the sod by bending down the handle of the instrument1 till the notch become wide enough to receive the roots of the plant4 ,an assistant1 with a bundle of trees1 slips the root of one into the aperture thus made for its reception4 ,the spade is then withdrawn1 and the closing of the sod on the root is assisted by a smart blow of the heel of the planter4 ,in this way two persons1 well practised in the work1 will put into the ground between five hundred and a thousand per day4 8,this system was much simplified about fifty years ago1 and rendered so expeditious1 that it seems in vain to look for its receiving any further improvement4 ,instead of the spade1 an instrument of nearly the same shape1 but so small that it can be wrought with one hand as easily as a common garden-dibble1 was introduced1 and is now known by the name of the ,planting-iron4 ,with this1 a notch is made in #cdc the ground to receive the root2 and owing to the portability of the tool1 and its occupying but one of the hands1 the person that works it requires no assistant1 but1 carrying a parcel of plants in a wallet before him1 he singles out one with his left hand1 inserts it in the notch1 withdraws the implement1 fixes the plant with his heel1 and proceeds with as much apparent ease as if he were performing the operation in the soft ground of the nursery4 ,in this way of planting1 the workman goes forward in such a line as he can judge of by his eye2 and as it is extremely difficult to see the plants after they are put in1 especially if the heath is pretty long1 he sets up poles in the first line1 to enable him to keep the second a due distance from it2 and in planting the last mentioned1 he removes these poles into it as he comes opposite to them1 which then serve as his guide in planting the third2 and thus he proceeds till he cover the whole ground4 ,the lines thus formed are necessarily so zig-zag1 that when the trees grow up1 they do not seem to have been planted in rows4 8,in this way1 an expert workman will plant between three and four thousand young plants a-day1 and do it so perfectly1 that the fault will not be his if a single individual of the whole number fail to #cdd grow4 ,i have assisted in planting1 according to this plan1 upwards of three thousand acres in ,aberdeenshire2 and1 in all that extent1 ,i know not of a single instance of failure1 where the plants were in a healthy state when put into the ground1 of the proper age and varieties1 and suitable for the soil40 8,to plant well and expeditiously in this way1 requires considerable dexterity on the part of the workman2 and where raw hands are employed1 it will be necessary to have some person to teach and superintend them40 ,mr ,cruickshank disposes of the old cross system of slit planting by the spade1 with very little ceremony2 as it would almost seem1 without being able to appreciate its merits4 ,it is1 in fact1 a totally different mode of planting from that by the flat dibble-planter or planting-iron1 and is well adapted for all plants with horizontal roots1 and which have stood from one to three years in the nursery line4 ,by first striking the spade in perpendicularly1 as deep as the turf-soil1 by again striking it in at right angles to the end of the first cut1 in the form of a ,t1 and bending back the spade1 the turf-soil is raised from a horizontal bed1 and the first cut opened so wide as to admit the root1 which #cde inserted and drawn a little along by an experienced hand1 and well tramped down1 has its rootlets disposed over the horizontal bottom almost as regularly and well adjusted for growing1 as can be done by pit-planting4 ,this practice is sometimes performed singly1 a clever workman managing the spade with one hand and the plants with the other1 and inserting #ajjj each day4 ,the plants suited for this system are fully double the size of those suited for the flat-dibble system1 and are purchased at about one half more price1 thus enhancing the cost of planting to #a1 #ajs4 or #b per acre2 but in many situations1 especially where the herbage grows freely1 affording an earlier growth1 and more regular success1 sufficient to balance the greater expense ten times over4 ,although the cross-system of slitting is the best for commanding general success1 yet wherever the flat dibble planting can be depended on1 it merits a preference1 as from the smallness of the plants1 the roots receive less fracture and derangement in the woody state1 and the process comes nearer to raising from the seed in situ4 ,the expense of each system per acre1 will be nearly as follows3-- #cdf ,by ,cross-slitting1 or the ,double ,notch4 #cjjj larches and ,scots firs1 from one to three years transplanted1 at #es4 ,l4#j #ae #j #ejj hard wood1 from one to three years transplanted1 at #abs4 #j #f #j #d days of one superior planter1 or of two ordinary planters1 at #cs4 #j #ab #j ,l4#a #ac #j ,by the ,flat ,dibble1 or the ,single ,notch4 #djjj larches or ,scots firs1 from the seed-bed1 or one year transplanted1 at #bs4 #f;d4 ,l4#j #aj #j #ajjj hard-wood plants1 #j #g #j #a #a_/b day of a planter1 at #bs4 #j #c #j ,l4#a #j #j ,although our author speaks so confidently of the success of transplanting out firs at one and two years of age1 yet this must only be taken under limitation to the country in which his experience has lain1--the barren mountains and moors of ,scotland1 where the vegetation of the heaths is extremely slow1 and the herbage both thin and short4 ,were these small plants used in the superior climates of ,england and ,ireland1 where the vegetation of the grasses1 and #cdg other natural occupiers of the soil1 is very luxuriant1 there would scarcely be one in a hundred that would ever be seen after the first spring1 unless a very expensive cultivation to check the weeds were resorted to4 ,to effect economical planting in these soils1 it is necessary to have the plants sufficiently large1 not too close together1 and placed in rows1 that a mower may be able to distinguish them among the herbage while he cuts it down2 or what is much better1 that the spade or plough#fe culture may be #cdh practised1 and potatoes1 turnips1 or other green crop1 raised among them1 without the plants being overwhelmed4 ,in case of grass production1 the oftener during the season the young plantation is mown1 the more advantageous1 as well that the plants may be the more easily distinguished1 as that the lower branches may not be smothered1 nor the soil so much exhausted and dried by the blooming and seeding of the herbage2 of course1 a short scythe is required1 and also a very careful mower4 ,speaking of the best season for planting1 ,mr ,cruickshank states3-- 8,in wet and swampy soils1 as well as in land1 whether dry or moist1 whose surface is bare1 ,i would be inclined to prefer the spring4 ,wet land swells to such a degree1 that plants which have not had time to take a firm hold with their roots1 are almost #cdi inevitably thrown out40--8,these remarks have reference only to the system of planting by notching3 when the pitting system is adopted1 it fixes the plant so thoroughly1 as to render the utmost power of frost incapable of doing them any injury40--8,the utmost limits of the planting season may be estimated from the middle of ,october to the middle of ,march40--8,i am a decided advocate for thick planting1 and would advise that no fewer than #cjjj trees per acre be planted in good land1 nor a less number than #djjj when the soil is of a middling or inferior quality40 ,mr ,cruickshank must surely have had little acquaintance with soft1 spongy1 close-bottomed soils1 or he would not have asserted that pit-planted trees are not subject to be thrown4 ,if planted in the early part of winter or autumn1 trees of the usual size1 which have remained from one to three years in the nursery line1 are very frequently thrown from such soils4 ,this is caused by the freezing earth first catching fast hold of the plant at the surface1 and afterwards swelling underneath from the enlargement of the freezing water in its pores1 and from the open crystallized honeycomb arrangement which takes place by congelation4 ,as the stem is fast to #cej the ground at the surface1 and the earth subsequently enlarged underneath as far as the congelation proceeds1 the roots below the congelation must of necessity be drawn upwards to the distance which the ground has swelled after the stem was fixed to the surface4 ,the earth1 on thaw1 first loses hold of the plant at the surface1 and then falls away as it contracts4 ,each successive frost and thaw during winter thus raises the plant a certain space1 till by spring it often is so far extracted1 as to fall over on its side4 ,when the plant has stood a season1 there is generally a tuft of herbage around its stem1 which prevents the freezing in a considerable degree2 and the roots having fixed in the lower earth1 resist the pulling up so much1 that the hold which the frozen earth has of the stem at the surface gives way1 sometimes pulling off a portion of the bark1 and the earth rises around the stem in place of pulling the tree4 ,instead of the season for spring planting being over by the middle of ,march1 we think that1 in many of our wet moors1 it should then only be commencing1 especially under the pitting system4 ,however1 planting should never be deferred a day later in spring than what is absolutely necessary to render the ground sufficiently dry for the process4 #cea ,mr ,cruickshank's opinions regarding pruning and thinning are generally not very incorrect4 ,his commencing sentence on pruning1 that 8most deciduous trees1 if left to themselves1 have a tendency to grow with short trunks1 containing little timber1 and to waste their strength on large unwieldy tops10 would1 however1 lead us to form a different conclusion4 ,the very tall1 clean1 straight1 deciduous trees1 in the ,american forests1 give a sufficient answer to this4 ,we like his remark respecting thinning1 that 8it is only efficacious when applied as a preventive1 not as a cure40 ,mr ,cruickshank next brings forward his plan of raising oak forest1 which appears to have been his own invention1 although invented before4 ,whenever mice and other gnawers 7glires7 are not very abundant1 it1 if properly executed1 would seem to be the best method of raising oak forest2 and1 indeed1 in many situations1 the only practicable one4 ,mr ,cruickshank's method coincides nearly with ,mr ,sang's1 only he does not carry his system of protection so far as ,mr ,sang1 in first raising belts of the most hardy kinds of timber1 distributed to windward of1 and intersecting the place intended to be planted1 in such a manner as to afford the best possible shelter from the coldest most destructive #ceb winds4 ,mr ,cruickshank1 who has never carried his plan into execution1 except in an experiment embracing a few yards1 directs that the ground intended for oak forest should first be planted with ,scots fir and larch1 about #djjj to the acre1 by the single-notch process1 previously described1 which can be accomplished under ,l4 #a per acre4 ,as soon as these have risen to four feet in height1 he prepares patches about two feet square and ten feet distant in the interstices1 by digging the soil over1 and mixing a spadeful of slaked lime carefully with the mould1 taking out a tree whenever the interstices do not suit for the patches4 ,he then plants1 in the end of ,march or beginning of ,april1 five acorns in each patch1 about an inch deep1 one in the centre1 and the other four in the angles of a foot square1 and gives them no farther attention for two years1 except removing any overhanging low fir branch4 ,he then goes over the patches1 cutting out all the supernumerary plants1 a few inches below the surface1 leaving the most promising one on each patch1 being very careful not to disturb any of its roots in cutting out the others4 ,as these oak plants extend in size1 he gradually removes the fir4 ,excepting the bare plan itself1 which is certainly very plausible1 there is nothing in the description #cec of the practice--the preparation of the patches of ground to receive the seed and the subsequent management--which merits attention4 ,his very particular interdiction of the use of manure is1 to say the least of it1 injudicious--as if it signified to the plant whether it were forced by the use of lime1 or by a little putrescent manure1 both of which ,mr ,withers would consider very advantageous2 or as if there were much fear on our poor exposed wastes of erring on the side of rendering the plant delicate from over luxuriance2 its constitution1 on the contrary1 would rather be strengthened4 ,mr ,cruickshank1 in directing the removal of the fir nurses1 one thousand per acre to stand till they have reached twenty-five years1 fit for roofing of cottages1 and similar purposes2 and five hundred till they have reached thirty-five years2 his dividing a slaked boll of lime into five hundred spadefuls2 and his bestowing no hoeing or weeding upon his seedlings1 would show1 without his admitting it1 that he had never practised this mode of forming plantation4 ,prefacing this system of rearing oak forest1 ,mr ,cruickshank in rather a clever manner points out its advantages1 and also the disadvantages and consequent failures of planting young oak trees in exposed situations4 ,but after all his eulogy1 we think he has #ced left something unsaid4 ,the great disadvantage attending transplanting oaks to situations not very favourable to their growth1 is1 that the plant which1 under any circumstances1 receives irreparable and often mortal harm1 from the severe injuries of removal1 has to contend1 in this mutilated condition1 at the same time with the uninjured occupiers of the soil 7the nurses or the native weeds71 and with the unpropitious situation2 whereas1 when the plant springs up from the acorn a native1 especially when it is assisted at first by weeding or hoeing1 the part above ground being always in proportion to that below1 and receiving due nourishment1 it contends with the occupiers on more equal terms1 and encounters the sterility of the soil1 or the severity of the climate1 with all its natural powers unimpaired4 ,as it is the natural condition of the seedling to grow up under the shelter of the parent tree1 so also does it happen1 that it rises under this shelter with greater luxuriance and vigour than when exposed to the evaporation1 and parching sun1 and battering wind1 of the bare country4 ,we have admired the beautiful1 straight1 luxuriant1 shoots of the young hollies1 thrown out under shelter1 and have compared them with the dry stunted shoots of the young holly in the open country1 though in the former case their roots had to contend #cee with the roots of larger trees1 and in the latter they had the soil to themselves4 ,experience has proved1 that in exposed bleak situations1 shelter is necessary to young plants4 ,transplanted oaks among the roots of young trees1 so large as to afford sufficient shelter1 very frequently do not succeed1 at least without the utmost care in the transplanting1 and a considerable deal of labour to prevent the roots of the shelter trees from starving the transplanted ones1 unless a very propitious moist summer follow the transplanting4 ,raising from the seed1 which obviates all this1 seems therefore the only conveniently practicable way4 ,yet it must be owned1 that the system of raising forests in situ from the seed1 appears1 as yet1 much more successful on paper than on our hills and moors4 ,in endeavouring to confute the opinion1 that the oak will not grow throughout ,scotland1 but in the milder and more propitious situations1 ,mr ,cruickshank adduces the well-known fact1 that large oak timber is found in almost every peat-moss4 ,this is a fact worth tracing to its cause4 ,under ,nature's own conduct1 trees advance considerably further into elevated or cold inhospitable regions1 than they would otherwise do1 by means of the mutual shelter1 and of the more hardy kinds acting as an advance guard4 ,yet there is a limit to this1 as the #cef power of ripening seed is not increased by shelter in proportion to the power of growing--perhaps not at all2 we instance the ,spanish chestnut1 which has scarcely ever been known to ripen seed in ,scotland4 ,seed-grown trees will1 therefore1 under ,nature's arrangement1 not be found extending much beyond the line of seed ripening4 ,from nuts1 acorns1 and other seeds1 fully developed1 being found in elevated mosses in this country1 other causes than shelter appear to have existed4 ,before this country was so much overrun by men and oxen1 a great deal of timber had existed1 covering much of the superior land which is now under tillage4 ,this consisted chiefly of the oak1 ,scots fir1 birch1 hazel1 and alder1--the oak extending northward and to elevations1 and ripening seed1 and attaining to a size which it does not now do1 either wild or cultivated1 in the same latitude1 neither here nor in any other portion of the world2 which1 along with some other facts1 lead to the supposition1 that the climate has changed a little1--in part1 possibly1 as we have before stated1 from the gradual formation of peat1 to which1 overthrown oak forest1 from the abundance of the tannin principle1 has a great disposing influence1 even under a warmer climate than present ,scotland4 ,the highest latitude to which a tree1 or any other kind of plant1 reproducing by seed1 #ceg naturally extends1 depending on the ripening of the seed1 and also on the power of occupancy1 is however different from that where it will grow1 when ripe seeds are procured from the coldest place where they ripen1 and all the competitors removed2 and under the system of shelter belts1 hardy pine nurses1 and seeds from the nearest place where they ripen1 we have no doubt that oaks may be extended to a colder situation than ,nature herself would have placed them in4 ,for the higher more bleak portion of the country1 we would recommend acorns grown in ,scotland1 in preference to those imported from ,england4 ,we have several times observed wheat1 the seed of which had been imported from ,england1 sustain blight and other injuries in a cold moist autumn1 when a portion of the same field1 sown of ,scots seed1 at the same time as the other1 and under the very same circumstances1 was entirely free from injury4 ,english acorns are also frequently heated in the casks in which they are imported1 which must impair their vigour#ff4 #ceh ,the part of ,mr ,cruickshank's volume which we have analyzed1 does not extend much beyond the first half3 this portion is well worth a perusal4 ,we have merely glanced over the remainder3 it is a make-up scarce worth noticing4 ,the language1 on the whole1 is easy and plain2 and although the volume contains a considerable number of errors1 in the pointing out of which we have not been sparing1 yet will it form an excellent planter's assistant to people who have ground to plant1 and are ignorant of the process of planting4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we have now brought before the reader a pretty fair picture of the ,forestry of the present day4 ,some may wonder that the written science of arboriculture should be so imperfect and inaccurate2 but the knowledge of the art1 and the power of communicating that knowledge1 are of so different a #cei character1 it not unfrequently happens1 that those write who cannot act1 and those who can1 are incompetent to write--sometimes unwilling2 besides1 correct opinions on this subject1 as on most others1 are only just beginning to be formed4 ,we have endeavoured to assist in disentangling the correct from the erroneous4 ,it is impossible for the most wary always to avoid misconception of facts1 but man merits the name of rational only1 when he evinces a readiness to break from those misconceptions1 to which the narrow-minded1 the proud1 the vain1 and the creature of habit and instinct1 cling so obstinately4 ,as a friend1 we have stood on no ceremony with our brother arboriculturists4 ,we have laid ourselves open to their criticism1 and we hope they will shew as little ceremony with us4 ,,endnotes ,,to ,,part ,,iv4 #cf ,this repetition of our directions on pruning is intentional--8,carthago est delenda40 #cg ,the conifer have a weaker or more connected vitality than most other trees--the whole individual participating in the injury of any part4 ,perhaps this arises from the liability of resinous juice to putrescency--any putrid affection in one spot of the more vital part of the tree spreading quickly over the whole4 #ch ,transplanting having an opposite influence on the young of herbaceous and woody vegetables1 in the former when not already rising into stem1 retarding1 and the latter accelerating or furthering development of the reproductory parts1 is a good lesson to reasoners from analogy4 ,the root-fractured herbaceous plants repairing the injury almost immediately1 and before the rudiments of the reproductory parts have time for expansion1 the greater quantity of moist nourishment afforded by the unsought newly stirred soil1 produces a flush of radical leaves1 which react to further the extension of the roots4 ,the new rootlets have again more connexion to promote the growth of the radical leaves1 and to induce offsets--tillering--from the sides of the bulb1 than to nourish or mature the core part1 from whence the stem arises--a certain comparative extension and maturity of the core being necessary to the rising of the stem4 ,thence seeding can be retarded1 and life in annuals be continued1 ad libitum4 ,on the contrary1 in woody vegetables of perennial stem1 the reparation of the root-injury takes place slowly1 and the evaporation from the stem and elevated branches and leaves exhausting the little moisture afforded by the inadequate root-suction during an entire season1 gives time and bias for the germs to pass into reproductory instead of productory organs even the first season4 #ci ,we rather think ,mr ,sang mentions this4 #dj ,they say a better management has lately been established4 ,this may be followed for a short time in the high stream of the agitation1 or while the present heads of management remain in power2 but the system1 we fear1 contains the seeds of evil1 which1 like the weeds1 will soon overwhelm the alien good4 #da ,the inferior growth of the part of a hedge which was pruned before the vegetation had begun1 may be ascribed to the vital action having been checked at the commencement by the destruction of the buds necessary to stimulate this action2 and being deprived of this first strong impulse1 life had remained languid throughout the season1 the roots never recovering their proper suction or foraging power2--when the pruning was later1 a sufficient stimulus had already been given4 #db ,vide ,sir ,walter ,scott4 #dc ,the want of the annual layers of cellular tissue of wood1 exterior to and separating the annual lineal tubes1 is so complete in some cases of slow growth1 that the timber seems only a light congeries of tubes1 without arrangement2 hence the age of the tree cannot be determined but by a section of the root-bulb1 where the growths are larger1 and the deposits regular4 #dd ,the climate of a country in regard to annual steadiness1 can be pretty accurately determined by the appearance of the annual layers of trees1 especially of the pine tribe2 and in a new settlement where great difference of size of layer1 and of resinous deposit is observed1 we may be pretty certain the seasons are not steady1 or that insect depredations or blights occur2 and a reserve of food ought always to be retained4 ,by careful inspection of the nature of the annual wood deposit1 or of the locality with regard to moisture1 it may be ascertained1 whether the irregularity has been owing to difference of temperature1 or of moisture4 ,in warm climates the irregularity will generally depend on drought and moisture1 and in cold climates on heat and cold2 though sometimes the depredations of insects1 such as locusts1 or of blights1 may be the cause4 #de ,though we give this experiment1 we admit that little dependence can be placed upon a single fact4 ,the trees must have been different in variety1 and probably in sex1 both of which may occasion a discrepancy4 #df ,the time the weight is in suspension1 must be attended to4 ,a beam will support a much greater weight during a minute than during an hour2 and two beams may be found1 the one capable of supporting the greatest weight during a minute1 and the other the greatest during an hour4 #dg ,we shall not here introduce the interminable discussion of dry-rot1 as it remains to be proved that moderately fast grown young timber is at all more liable to dry-rot than small-growthed old1 provided the sap-wood be entirely removed4 #dh ,in fairness1 it may be proper to explain1 that the greater part of the trees we have thus cultivated have been of ,pyrus1 although we commenced the practice with common forest trees--yet the pear and apple vary nothing from the oak and ash in the primary stage of life1 in as far as respects the extension--we can also profit fully as much by raising apple timber of proper fast grown variety1 as by any other timber2 and have it in our power to sell this timber to machine-makers at double the price of oak of the same size4 #di ,we think ,sir ,henry would find some of the failures of which he owns he cannot well ascertain the cause1 but occurring especially in beech and oak1 to be owing to a number of the lower roots1 which are by far the tenderest1 being bruised by the weight of the tree itself1 when he turns it repeatedly over from the one side to the other1 in order1 by throwing in earth beneath it1 to raise the root on a level with the surface of the field1 the whole weight of the incumbent mass resting upon these soft roots4 ,the oak1 and still more the beech1 are exceedingly susceptible to injury from cutting or bruises1 and die far inward from the laceration4 ,the wounded lower roots1 especially when any vacuity is left not filled close in with earth1 where mouldiness might generate in a dry situation1 or when soaking in moisture for a part of the season1 will become corrupted2 the putrefaction thence gradually extending upward into the bulb1 will contaminate the whole1 and the second or third year after planting1 the tree will be dead4 #ej ,we understand freezing the earth around the bulb is an old practice4 #ea ,we particularize the oak1 cork-tree of arid warm ,spain1 and much of the timber of ,new ,holland4 ,owing to the hot parching air in the latter place1 the epidermis becomes dried to such a degree1 that contracting by the drought1 and bursting by the swelling of the enveloped stem1 it peels off like the old skin of a serpent1 and is often seen hanging upon the tree in large shreds like tattered garments4 ,in several kinds of trees1 we have counted regular annual rings of desiccated bark2 in some kinds this appeared a growth or deposition1 in others1 mere parched exuvi4 ,trees attain some age before the exuvi commence2 the deposit begins the first season1 even in sheltered situations4 ,the cork-tree1 and the small-leaved elm1 shew the greatest annual deposit of dry bark4 ,the former does1 and the latter is said to belong to warm arid countries2 both form a better nonconductor of heat than any other dry bark we are acquainted with--infinitely better than the bark exuvi of trees which approach the polar regions4 #eb ,we do not pretend to explain how it is1 that one kind of climbing plant follows the sun in its convolutions1 and another traverses his course4 ,there surely cannot be any thing in a habit acquired in the southern hemisphere4 #ec ,in proceeding further on in ,sir ,henry's volume1 we have noticed an excellent observation quoted from ,du ,hamel3 8,the extension of the shoot is inversely as its induration1 rapid while it remains herbaceous1 but slow as it is converted into wood4 ,hence moisture and shade are the circumstances1 of all others1 the most favourable to elongation1 because they prevent induration or retard it40 ,although quoting this1 ,sir ,henry recurs to his old opinions1 and proceeds to observe1 8,trees so circumstanced1 push upward to the light2 and from the warmth which their situation affords1 their stems being thin and slender in proportion to their height1 they are destitute of strength to resist the winds40 #ed ,we do not mention temperature1 because we are not in possession of facts sufficient to lead us to form an opinion on the subject4 ,judging from animal analogy1 of which our author is so fond1 we notice1 that those animals exposed in open atmosphere1 have generally warmer blood than those who lurk in holes1--even than those of the same species who happen to live under shelter4 ,now evaporation takes place from animals as well as from vegetables1 and the consequent cold is more than balanced by the heat of what may be termed the vital fire1 which1 like most other fires1 burns brightest on exposure to a current of atmospheric air1 being increased either by the result of the new chemical combinations having less capacity for heat1 or by the stimulus of the fresh moving air exciting the vital action4 ,of the general influence of close forest on temperature1 we are also not very well assured2 but the few facts which observation has afforded1 lead to the opinion1 that to the northward of #ej deg4 ,lat4 forests have higher temperature than bare country2 that from about #ej to #cj degrees ,lat4 forests are cooler in winter and warmer in summer2 and that nearer the equator1 forests are generally cooler than bare country4 ,but the temperature is regulated so much by the position of seas and lakes1 in combination with the prevailing currents and strength of currents of the air--by the configuration of the country1--moisture and cloudiness of the atmosphere and quantity of rain1--by the composition1 arrangement1 and colour of the soil1--by the lower vegetable cover1 and even by the nature of the forest itself1 whether deciduous or evergreen1 that particular facts must be very carefully weighed to enable us to reach general conclusions4 ,it is generally understood1 that forests render the climate moister4 #ee ,our experiments have not yet been carried so far1 as to determine if1 by any arrangement of drying or exposure1 they may be seasoned to sustain intense frost1 which may affect them differently from moderate frost1 either by causing complete congelation of all their structure 7moderate freezing appearing only to congeal their fluids1 but not entirely the containing vessel1 at least only partly congealing the mass71 or by killing the vital principle itself through nervous affection4 ,the potatoes became green from the exposure to the light1 and we rather think acquired greater hardihood of constitution1 or greater vitality or excitability by the exposure1 thence greater power to resist the cold1 independent of the disposition they acquired by desiccation to endure it4 #ef ,is the rending of the stems of trees1 during intense frost1 internal only1 and occasioned by the alburnum expanding more by congelation than the drier mature wood8 or1 is it external1 and caused by the contractile effect of the dry air and cold on the alburnum rendering it insufficient to surround the mature wood1 which1 from dryness and want of living susceptibility1 may not contract so much4 #eg ,the fineness of vessel or fibre of the ,siberian crab1 may be induced by the arid warm air1 the continued radiation of heat and light upon the portion above ground1 and the coldness of the ground around the roots during the short summer in ,siberia1 where the air and surface of the ground is warm1 and vegetation progressive1 while the ground remains frozen at a small depth4 ,like all varieties of plants habituated to colder climate1 the ,siberian crab developes its leaves under less heat than varieties of the same kind which have been habituated to milder climate4 #eh ,we have not taken ,sir ,henry in the literal sense4 ,timber is well known to decay sooner in a warm than in a cold country1 cteris paribus4 #ei ,see ,appendix ,f4 #fj ,the preliminary sentence is very vaguely worded2 we suppose1 8increasing the annual circles10 means increasing them in thickness1 not general contents of length multiplied by thickness4 ,but even in the latter sense1 we hold pruning tends generally to diminish the annual circles4 #fa ,it is a theory of ,mr ,sheriff1 ,mungo's ,wells1 that all plants have excrementitious deposit from the roots1 the deposit from one kind affording a good manure to another kind4 ,thence the advantage of mixed grasses and legumes in pastures1 and of the rotation of different kinds of crops4 #fb ,vegetable soil is sometimes buried deep under volcanic mud1 sand1 and ashes1 or mixed with the subsoil by earthquakes4 ,in some districts of ,south ,america1 the country1 from being fertile1 has been recently reduced to sterility1 by the vegetable mould being so much scattered through the subsoil by repeated upheavings and tossings about by earthquakes1 as to be out of the reach of plants4 #fc ,there is a deposition from the atmosphere of saline matter going on at the surface of the earth1 either evaporated from the ocean1 and falling with the rain and dews1 or formed by gaseous combinations--most probably both4 ,in countries where the quantity of rain is insufficient to wash this saline accumulation away into the ocean as fast as it is formed1 it increases to such a degree as almost to prevent vegetation1 only a few of what are termed saline plants appearing4 ,this saline accumulation in warm dry countries1 bears considerable analogy to tannin deposit in cold countries4 #fd ,the matured timber of the larch1 in some cases1 remains for a considerable time stained before the rot proceeds rapidly2 in other cases1 the rot makes quick progress2 in this rapid decomposition1 certain kinds of fungi assist greatly4 ,when once seated1 they seem to form a putrid atmosphere or tainted circle around them1 either by their living exhalations1 or corrupt emanations when dead1 which is poisonous to the less vital parts of superior life1 and also expedites the commencement of decay in sound dead organic matter1 such as timber1 thus furthering the decomposition so far as to render it suitable food for their foul appetite1 and paving the way to their further progress4 ,how their seeds enter into the heart of a growing tree having no external rottenness1 is not very obvious1 unless they are inhaled or imbibed by the root tendrils3 from the resemblance which the growth of some of them has to fermentation1 it is not even very improbable that the animalcules of supposed molecular or inferior life1 have1 of themselves1 a disposition to unite into some of these aggregates without the presence of any disposing germ4 ,the modifications of material attractions1 by the varied germs of superior life--the fixity of some of these deposites after life is gone--the resolution of these into inferior animalcular1 or even molecular1 life--and the instrumentality of zoophytes of the lower order of organization1 in hastening this decomposition by the balancing of the attractions of this secondary life1 afford a wide field for investigation4 ,those uncouth sportings of nature quickly appear and disappear as material spectres1 feeding on corruption1 and mocking at primary life4 #fe ,we have raised crops among young trees 7as well timber as fruit trees71 not four yards apart1 by plough culture1 and have found the process1 after the ploughmen and horses were accustomed to it1 not much more expensive than common cultivation1 and the crop1 till the trees became too close1 scarcely inferior4 ,by means of a long muzzle to the plough standing out towards the left side1 and a driver to the horses beside the ploughman1 we succeeded in getting the two first furrows lapped a little over each other in the row of trees1 where the gathering of the ridge commenced 7we gathered up at every other row74 ,in the row of trees where the finishing of the ploughing of the ridge occurred1 we were obliged to leave a stripe of ground about two feet wide1 to be dug by the spade4 ,the horses required to be yoked in file1 and to drag by ropes 7traces7 rather than by chains1 as the bark of the trees was liable to be rubbed off by the latter4 ,the more to guard against rubbing1 we had the swingletree constructed so that the trace-ropes came out from a hole in the ends1 without any hook4 ,in harrowing the ground1 one man is required to lead the horses1 and another to direct the harrows4 ,in rich soil1 under cultivation of green crop1 in this manner1 trees progress very rapidly1 and from the open arrangement acquire very healthy constitutions4 ,of course1 when not conifer1 the plants require a little more attention to train to one leader and equality of feeders1 than when close planted4 ,we should consider plough cultivation of young woods1 provided ploughmen as expert and careful as the ,scots could be obtained1 much more worthy the attention of the ,english planter than the ,withers' system 7trenching74 ,need we mention1 that in green crop1 every thing depends upon plenty of manure and of well-timed plough and horse hoe labour8 ,excepting in the case of larch1 we should dread no injury to the trees or timber from plenty of manure4 #ff ,we are indebted to our friend ,mr ,gorrie1 ,annat ,garden1 for the fact1 that ,english acorns throw up a much more luxuriant stem than the ,scots2 they forming a step of several inches when planted next each other in the nursery line4 ,we should consider this to arise from the largeness of the rudiments of the plant1 and greater quantity of garnered nourishment in the ,english acorns1 which are nearly double the size of the ,scots1 our present climate being insufficient for the proper development4 ,this leads to the question1 will the greater luxuriance balance any tenderness from want of acclimatizing8 ,would the oak keep its present locality in ,scotland if left to nature8 ,a careful inspection of the most elevated peat mosses in which remains of timber exist1 and a comparison of the size of the seeds found there1 with that of those of the present day1 grown the nearest to this in situation1 would resolve the question of refrigeration4 ,,appendix4 #cfc ,,appendix4 ,,note ,a4 ,it is only on the ,ocean that ,universal ,empire is practicable--only by means of ,navigation that all the world can be subdued or retained under one dominion4 ,on land1 the greatest numbers1 and quantity of materiel1 are unavailable1 excepting around the spot where they are produced4 ,the most powerful army is crippled by advancing a few degrees in an enemy's territory1 unless when aided by some catching enthusiasm2 its resources get distant--communication is obstructed--subjection does not extend beyond the range of its guns1 and it quickly melts away4 ,the impossibility of dominion extending over a great space1 when communication is only by land1 has often been proved4 ,the rule of ,cyrus1 or ,alexander1 the ,csars1 the ,tartar conquerors#fg1 or ,bonaparte1 did not extend over a tithe of the earth2 and we may believe1 that1 by some of these chiefs1 dominion was #cfd extended as widely as under land communication could be effected--further than under it could be supported4 ,on the contrary1 when a powerful nation has her warlike strength afloat1 and possesses naval superiority1 independent of being unassailable herself1 every spot of the world1 wherever a wave can roll1 is accessible to her power and under her control4 ,in a very short time she can throw an irresistible force1 unexhausted by marches1 and with every resource1 upon any hostile point1 the point of attack being in her own choice1 and unknown to the enemy4 ,in case of her dependent dominions being scattered over the two hemispheres1 her means of communication1 and consequent power of defending these and supporting authority1 are more facile than what exists between the seat of government of any ordinary sized continental kingdom and its provinces4 ,were a popular system of colonial government adopted1 many islands and inferior states would find it their interest to become incorporated as part of the ,empire4 ,,note ,b4 ,there is a law universal in nature1 tending to render every reproductive being the best possibly suited to its condition that its kind1 or that organized matter1 is susceptible of1 which appears intended to model the physical and mental or instinctive powers1 to their highest perfection1 and to continue them so4 ,this law sustains the lion in his strength1 the hare in her swiftness1 and the #cfe fox in his wiles4 ,as ,nature1 in all her modifications of life1 has a power of increase far beyond what is needed to supply the place of what falls by ,time's decay1 those individuals who possess not the requisite strength1 swiftness1 hardihood1 or cunning1 fall prematurely without reproducing--either a prey to their natural devourers1 or sinking under disease1 generally induced by want of nourishment1 their place being occupied by the more perfect of their own kind1 who are pressing on the means of subsistence4 ,the law of entail1 necessary to hereditary nobility1 is an outrage on this law of nature which she will not pass unavenged--a law which has the most debasing influence upon the energies of a people1 and will sooner or later lead to general subversion1 more especially when the executive of a country remains for a considerable time efficient1 and no effort is needed on the part of the nobility to protect their own1 or no war to draw forth or preserve their powers by exertion4 ,it is all very well1 when1 in stormy times1 the baron has every faculty trained to its utmost ability in keeping his proud crest aloft4 ,how far hereditary nobility1 under effective government1 has operated to retard 8the march of intellect10 and deteriorate the species in modern ,europe1 is an interesting and important question4 ,we have seen it play its part in ,france2 we see exhibition of its influence throughout the ,iberian peninsula1 to the utmost degradation of its victims4 ,it has rendered the ,italian peninsula1 with its islands1 a blank in the political map of ,europe4 ,let the panegyrists of hereditary nobility1 primogeniture1 and entail1 say what these countries might not have been #cff but for the baneful influence of this unnatural custom4 ,it is an eastern proverb1 that no king is many removes from a shepherd4 ,most conquerors and founders of dynasties have followed the plough or the flock4 ,nobility1 to be in the highest perfection1 like the finer varieties of fruits1 independent of having its vigour excited by regular married alliance with wilder stocks1 would require stated complete renovation1 by selection anew1 from among the purest crab4 ,in some places1 this renovation would not be so soon requisite as in others1 and1 judging from facts1 we would instance ,britain as perhaps the soil where nobility will continue the longest untainted4 ,as we advance nearer to the equator1 renovation becomes sooner necessary1 excepting at high elevation--in many places1 every third generation1 at least with the ,caucasian breed1 although the finest stocks be regularly imported4 ,this renovation is required as well physically as morally4 ,it is chiefly in regard to the interval of time between the period of necessary feudal authority1 and that when the body of the population having acquired the power of self-government from the spread of knowledge1 claim a community of rights1 that we have adverted to the use of war4 ,the manufacturer1 the merchant1 the sailor1 the capitalist1 whose mind is not corrupted by the indolence induced under the law of entail1 are too much occupied to require any stimulant beyond what the game in the wide field of commercial adventure affords4 ,a great change in the circumstances of man is obviously at hand4 #cfg ,in the first step beyond the condition of the wandering savage1 while the lower classes from ignorance remained as helpless children1 mankind naturally fell into clans under paternal or feudal government2 but as children1 when grown up to maturity1 with the necessity for protection1 lose the subordination to parental authority1 so the great mass of the present population requiring no guidance from a particular class of feudal lords1 will not continue to tolerate any hereditary claims of authority of one portion of the population over their fellow-men2 nor any laws to keep up rank and wealth corresponding to this exclusive power4--,it would be wisdom in the noblesse of ,europe to abolish every claim or law which serves to point them out a separate class1 and1 as quickly as possible1 to merge themselves into the mass of the population4 ,it is a law manifest in nature1 that when the use of any thing is past1 its existence is no longer kept up4 ,although the necessity for the existence of feudal lords is past1 yet the same does not hold in respect to a hereditary head or ,king2 and the stability of this head of the government will1 in no way1 be lessened by such a change4 ,in the present state of ,european society1 perhaps no other rule can be so mild and efficient as that of a liberal benevolent monarch1 assisted by a popular representative ,parliament4 ,the poorest man looks up to his king as his own1 with affection and pride1 and considers him a protector2 while he only regards the antiquated feudal lord with contempt4 ,the influence of a respected hereditary family1 as head of a country1 is also of great utility in #cfh forming a principle of union to the different members1 and in giving unity and stability to the government4 ,in respect to our own great landholders themselves1 we would ask1 where is there that unnatural parent--that miserable victim of hereditary pride--who does not desire to see his domains equally divided among his own children8 ,the high paid sinecures in church and state will not much longer be a great motive for keeping up a powerful family head1 whose influence may burthen their fellow-citizens with the younger branches4 ,besides1 when a portion of land is so large1 that the owner cannot have an individual acquaintance and associations with every stream1 and bush1 and rock1 and knoll1 the deep enjoyment which the smaller native proprietor would have in the peculiar features1 is not called forth1 and is lost to man4 ,the abolition of the law of entail and primogeniture1 will1 in the present state of civilization1 not only add to the happiness of the proprietor1 heighten morality1 and give much greater stability to the social order1 but will also give a general stimulus to industry and improvement1 increasing the comforts and elevating the condition of the operative class4 ,in the new state of things which is near at hand1 the proprietor and the mercantile class will amalgamise1--employment in useful occupations will not continue to be held in scorn1--the merchant and manufacturer will no longer be barely tolerated to exist1 harassed at every turn by imposts and the interference of petty tyrants2--,government1 instead of forming an engine of oppression1 being simplified and based on morality and justice1 will #cfi become a cheap and efficient protection to person and property2 and the necessary taxation being levied from property alone1 every individual will purchase in the cheapest market1 and sell the produce of his industry in the dearest4 ,this period might1 perhaps1 be accelerated throughout ,europe1 did the merchants and capitalists only know their own strength4 ,let them1 as citizens of the world1 hold annual congress in some central place1 and deliberate on the interests of man1 which is their own1 and throw the whole of their influence to support liberal and just governments1 and to repress slavery1 crime1 bigotry--tyranny in all shapes4 ,a ,rothschild might earn an unstained fame1 as great as yet has been attained by man1 by organizing such a power1 and presiding at its councils4 ,,note ,c4 ,the influence of long continued impression1 constituting instinct or habit of breed1 is a curious phenomenon in the animal economy4 ,our population in the eastern maritime districts of ,britain1 descended principally from the ,scandinavian rover1 though devoted for a time to agricultural or mechanical occupation1 betake themselves1 when opportunity offers1 to their old element1 the ocean#fh1 #cgj and launch out upon the 8wintry wave0 with much of the same home-felt composure as does the white polar bear4 ,they roam over every sea and every shore1 from ,behring's ,straits to ,magellan's1 with as little solicitude as the ,kelt over his own misty hill1 overcoming1 in endurance1 the native of the torrid zone under his vertical sun1 and the native of the frigid among his polar snows4 ,to what may we ascribe the superiority of this portion of the ,caucasian breed1--may it arise in part from its repeated change of place under favourable circumstances8 ,other races have migrated1 but not like this1 always as conqueror4 ,the ,jew has been a stroller in his time2 but he has improved more in mental acumen and cunning--not so much in heroism and personal qualities3 his proscribed condition will account for this4 ,the ,caucasian in its progress1 will also have mingled slightly1 and1 judging from analogy1 perhaps advantageously1 with the finer portion of those whom it has overwhelmed4 ,this breed1 by its wide move across the ,atlantic1 does not seem at all to have lost vigour1 and retains the nautical and roving instinct unimpaired1 although the ,american climate is certainly inferior to the ,european4 ,it is there rapidly moving west1 and may soon have described one of the earth's circles4 ,a change of seed1 that is1 a change of place1 within certain limits of latitude1 is well known #cga to be indispensable to the more sturdy growth and health of many cultivated vegetables2 it is probable that this also holds true of the human race4 ,there are few countries where the old breed has not again and again sunk before the vigour of new immigration2 we even see the worn out breed1 chased from their homes to new location1 return1 after a time1 superior to their former vanquishers1 or gradually work their way back in peace1 by superior subsisting power3 this is visible in ,france1 where the aboriginal sallow ,kelt1 distinguished by high satyr-like feature1 deep-placed sparkling brown or grey eye1 narrowed lower part of the face1 short erect vertebral column1 great mental acuteness1 and restless vivacity1 has emerged from the holes of the earth1 the recesses of the forests and wastes1 into which it had been swept before the more powerful blue-eyed ,caucasian2 and being a smaller1 more easily subsisting animal1 has1 by starving and eating out1 been gradually undermining the breed of its former conquerors4 ,the changes which have been taking place in ,france1 and which1 in many places1 leave now scarcely a trace of the fine race which existed twenty centuries ago1 may1 however1 in part1 be accounted for by the admixture of the ,caucasian and ,keltic tending more to the character of the latter1 from the latter being a purer and more fixed variety1 and nearer the original type or medium standard of man2 and from the warm dry plains of ,france 7much drier from cultivation and the reduction of the forests71 having considerable influence to increase this bias3 ,in some of the south-eastern departments1 #cgb more immediately in the tide of the ingress of the ,caucasian1 where the purest current has latest flowed1 and the climate is more suitable1 and also in some of the maritime districts1 where the air is moister1 and to which they have been seaborn at a later period1 the ,caucasian character is still prominent4 ,something of this1 yet not so general1 is occurring in ,britain1 where the fair bright-blooded race is again giving place to the darker and more sallow4 ,this may1 however1 be partly occasioned by more of artificial heat and shelter and other consequences of higher civilization4 ,there seems to be something connected with confinement and sedentary life1 with morbid action of the liver1 or respiratory or transpiratory organs1 which tends to this change under dry and hot1 and especially confined atmosphere4 ,perhaps imagination is also a worker here2 and the colour most regarded1 as snow in cold countries1 black among colliers1 white among bleachers1 or even the dark colour of dress1 may produce its peculiar impression1 and our much looked-up-to ,calvinistic priesthood1 from the pulpit1 disseminate darkness as well as light4 ,our own ,kelt has indubitably improved much since1 par necessit1 he took to the mountain2 but1 though steadily enduring1 when there is mental excitement1 he has acquired a distaste to dull hopeless unceasing labour1 and would fare scantily and lie hard1 rather than submit to the monotonous industry of the city operative1 or the toil of the agricultural drudge4 ,though once a fugitive1 the ,kelt is now1 in moral courage and hardihood1 equal #cgc perhaps to any other1 yet he still trembles to put foot on ocean4 ,notwithstanding that change of place1 simply1 may have impression to improve the species1 yet is it more to circumstances connected with this change1 to which the chief part of the improvement must be referred4 ,in the agitation which accompanies emigration1 the ablest in mind and body--the most powerful varieties of the race will be thrown into their natural position as leaders1 impressing the stamp of their character on the people at large1 and constituting the more reproductive part2 while the feebler or more improvident varieties will generally sink under the incidental hardships4 ,when a swarm emigrates from a prosperous hive1 it also will generally consist of the more adventurous stirring spirits1 who1 with the right of conquerors1 will appropriate the finest of the indigen which they overrun2 their choice of these being regulated by personal qualities1 not by the adventitious circumstances of wealth or high birth--a regard to which certainly tends to deteriorate the species1 and is one of the causes which renders the noblesse of ,europe comparatively inferior to the ,asiatic1 or rather the ,christian noblesse to the ,mahometan4 ,it has been remarked1 that our finest1 most acute population1 exist in the neutral ground1 where the ,caucasian and ,keltic have mixed1 but this may arise from other causes than admixture4 ,our healthiest and poorest country borders the ,highlands1 and the population enjoy more of the open air4 ,our eastern population1 north of the #cgd natural division of ,flamboroughead1 are also harder and sharper featured1 and keener witted1 than those southward1 who may be styled our fen-bred4 ,there is no doubt more of ,keltic blood mingled with the north division2 but the sea-born breeds have also been different1 those more northerly being ,scandinavian1 and the more southerly consisting of the native of ,lower ,germany and the heavy ,fleming4 ,the placid-looking ,englishman1 more under the control of animal enjoyment1 though perhaps not so readily acute1 excels in the no less valuable qualities of constancy and bodily powers of exertion2 and when properly taught under high division of labour1 becomes a better operative in his particular employment1 and even will sometimes extend scientific discovery further1 than his more mercurial northern neighbour1 who1 from his quick wits being generally in advance of his manual practice1 seldom attains to the dexterity which results from the combination of continued bodily action and restricted mental application4 ,there exists1 however1 very considerable intellectual capacity in this ,english breed1 but it too frequently is crushed under the preponderance of the animal part1 affording that purest specimen of vulgarity1 the ,english clown4 ,but1 independently of climate and breed1 a great part of the low ,englander's obtuseness is referable to his being entailed lord of the soil1 under poor-rate law1 contravening a natural law 7see note ,b71 so that1 when unsuccessful or out of employment1 he1 without effort to obtain some new means of independent subsistence1 sinks into the parish #cge or work-house labourer4 ,on the contrary1 the ,scotsman1 with no resource but in himself1 with famine always in the vista1 as much in his view as a principle of action in material affairs as his strong perception of the right in moral1 and also under the stimulus of a high pride1 leaves no means untried at home2 and1 when fairly starved out of his native country1 among various resources1 often invades the territory of his more easy-minded southern neighbour1 where his acuteness seldom fails to find out a convenient occupation1 in which manual dexterity is second to economy and forethought--his success exciting the wonder and envy of the dull-witted native4 ,it would appear1 that the finest portion1 at least apparently so1 of the north temperate zone1 between the parallels of #cj and #dh latitude1 when nearly of the level of the ocean1 is not so favourable for human existence as the more northern part between #ej and #fj1 or even the torrid zone4 ,the native of the north of ,europe has a superior development of person1 and a much longer reproductory life than the native of the south1 which more than counterbalances the earlier maturity of the latter in power of increase4 ,independent of the great current of population setting south in the northern part of the temperate zone1 there seems even to be some tendency to a flux northward1 from the confines of the torrid2 but this arises rather from the unsteadiness of the seasons1 and consequent deficit of food1 at particular times1 than from a steady increase of population4 #cgf ,,note ,d1 p4 #d4 ,our milder moods1 benevolence1 gentleness1 contemplation--our refinement in sentiment--our 8lovely dreams of peace and joy10 have negative weight in the balance of national strength4 ,the rougher excitement of hatred1 ambition1 pride1 patriotism1 and the more selfish passions1 is necessary to the full and strong development of our active powers4 ,that ,britain is leaving the impress of her energy and morality on a considerable portion of the world1 is owing to her having first borne fire and sword over these countries3 the husbandman tears up the glebe1 with all its covering of weeds and flowers1 before he commit his good seed to the earth4 ,life and death--good and evil--pleasure and pain1 are the principles of impulse to the scheme or machine of nature1 as heat and cold are to the steam-engine1 thus moving in necessary alternate dependence4 ,our moral sense1 our perception and love of good1 could not exist without the knowledge of evil2 yet1 we shudder at the truth of evil being part and portion of nature4 ,,note ,e4 ,there cannot be a more striking proof of the necessity of a better representation of the marine interest1 than the fact1 that our trading vessels are constructed of an #cgg unsuitable figure1 owing to the improper manner of measuring the register tonnage4 ,in order to save a little trouble of calculation to the surveying officer in gauging the contents of the vessel1 the law directs him merely to take the length and breadth at the widest place1 and from these lines1 by a regular formula1 to compute the tonnage2 the vessel paying the charges for lights and harbours1 and other dues1 in proportion to this measurement4 ,the result is1 that1 in order to lessen these dues individually1 our vessels are constructed deep in proportion to breadth1 consequently are sluggish sailers1 and not nearly so safe and pleasant sea-boats as they otherwise would be--many a ship1 especially with light cargo1 getting on her beam-ends and foundering1 or not standing up under canvass to weather a lee shore4 ,the influence of this absurd measurement law is the more unlucky1 as the ship-owner1 from a deep vessel being1 in proportion to the capacity of the hold1 cheaper than one of shallower or longer dimensions1 is already more disposed to construct his vessel deeper than is consistent with the safety of the seamen and security of the ship and cargo1 the particular insurance of a deep vessel not being greater than that of one of safer proportions4 ,the injurious effect from vessels being constructed on the principles of avoiding tolls or dues1 rather than for sailing1 will occur to every one4 ,we need not say that all this flows from the ignorance or carelessness of the constructors of our ,parliamentary acts1 consequent to defective representation4 #cgh ,,note ,f4 ,in the case of the upper carse on the ,tay ,firth1 there is evidence1 both from its vestiges and from records1 that it had occupied1 at least1 the entire firth1 or sea-basin1 above ,broughty ,ferry1 and that about #ej square miles of this carse has been carried out into the ,german ,ocean by the strong sea-tide current1 a consequence of the lowering of the ,german ,ocean1 and of the deepening of the outlet of this sea-basin at ,broughty ,ferry1 apparently by this very rapid sea-tide current4 ,this carse appears to have been a general deposition at the bottom of a lake having only a narrow outlet communicating with the sea1 and probably did not rise much higher than the height of the bottom of the outlet at that time4 ,an increase of deposition of alluvium1 or prevention of decrease1 may1 in many cases1 be accomplished by artificial means4 ,the diminution of the carse of the ,tay was in rapid progress about sixty years ago1 the sea-bank being undermined by the waves of the basin1 the clay tumbling down1 becoming diffused in the water1 and being carried out to sea1 by every ebbing tide1 purer water returning from the ocean the next tide-flow4 ,this decrease was stopped by the adoption of stone embanking and dikes4 ,a small extension of the carses of present high-water level1 in the upper part of the firths of ,tay and ,forth1 has lately been effected1 by forming brushwood1 stone and mud dikes1 to promote the accumulation4 #cgi ,in doing this1 the whole art consists in placing obstructions to the current and waves1 so that whatever deposition takes place at high-water1 or at the beginning of the flood-tide1 when the water is nearly still1 may not again be raised and carried off4 ,notwithstanding this accumulation1 and also the prevention of further waste of the superior carse1 the deepening of the ,tay ,firth1 formerly carse1 and of the gorge at ,broughty ,ferry1 seems still in progress1 and could not1 without very considerable labour1 be prevented4 ,in the case1 however1 of the sea-basin of ,montrose1 a little labour1 from the narrowness of the gorges1 would put it in a condition to become gradually filled with mud4 ,not a great deal more expenditure than what has sufficed to erect the suspension-bridge over its largest outlet1 would have entirely filled up this outlet1 and the smaller outlet might have been also filled to within several feet of high-water1 and made of sufficient breadth only1 to emit the water of the river1 which flows into the basin4 ,the floated sand and mud of this river1 thus prevented from being carried out to sea1 would1 in the course of years1 completely fill up the basin4 ,from some vestiges of the upper carse1 as well as of the lower or submarine carse1 in situations where their formation cannot easily be traced to any local cause1 it seems not improbable that the basin of the ,german sea itself1 nearly as far north as the extent of ,scotland1 had at one time been occupied with a carse or delta1 a continuation of ,holland1 formed by the accumulation of the #chj diluvium of the rivers which flow into this basin1 together with the molluscous exuvi of the ,north ,sea1 and the abrasion of the ,norwegian coast and ,scottish islands1 borne downward by the heavy ,north ,sea swell4 ,in the case of the delta of ,holland having extended so far northward1 a subsidence of the land or rising of the sea1 so as to form a passage for the waters round ,britain1 must have occurred4 ,the derangement1 at several places1 of the fine wavy stratification of these carses1 and the confusedly heaped-up beds of broken sea-shells1 shew that some great rush of water had taken place1 probably when ,belgium was dissevered from ,england4 ,since the opening of the bottom of the gulf1 the accumulation may have been undergoing a gradual reduction1 by more diffused mud#fi being carried off from the ,german ,sea into the ,atlantic and ,north ,sea1 than what the former is receiving--the same process taking place here as has been occurring in the basin of the ,tay4 ,the large sand-banks on the ,dutch and ,english coast1--in some places1 such as the ,goodwin ,sands1 certainly the heavier1 less diffusible part of the former alluvial country1 and portions of these alluvial districts being retained by artificial means1--bear a striking resemblance to the #cha sand-banks of the sea basin of the ,tay--the less diffusible remains of the removed portion of the alluvium which had once occupied all that basin1 and to the remaining portion of the alluvium also retained by artificial means4 99 99 99 99 99 ,throughout this volume1 we have felt considerable inconvenience1 from the adopted dogmatical classification of plants1 and have all along been floundering between species and variety1 which certainly under culture soften into each other4 ,a particular conformity1 each after its own kind1 when in a state of nature1 termed species1 no doubt exists to a considerable degree4 ,this conformity has existed during the last forty centuries4 ,geologists discover a like particular conformity--fossil species--through the deep deposition of each great epoch1 but they also discover an almost complete difference to exist between the species or stamp of life1 of one epoch from that of every other4 ,we are therefore led to admit1 either of a repeated miraculous creation2 or of a power of change1 under a change of circumstances1 to belong to living organized matter1 or rather to the congeries of inferior life1 which appears to form superior4 ,the derangements and changes in organized existence1 induced by a change of circumstance from the interference of man1 affording us #chb proof of the plastic quality of superior life1 and the likelihood that circumstances have been very different in the different epochs1 though steady in each1 tend strongly to heighten the probability of the latter theory4 ,when we view the immense calcareous and bituminous formations1 principally from the waters and atmosphere1 and consider the oxidations and depositions which have taken place1 either gradually1 or during some of the great convulsions1 it appears at least probable1 that the liquid elements containing life have varied considerably at different times in composition and in weight2 that our atmosphere has contained a much greater proportion of carbonic acid or oxygen2 and our waters1 aided by excess of carbonic acid1 and greater heat resulting from greater density of atmosphere1 have contained a greater quantity of lime and other mineral solutions4 ,is the inference then unphilosophic1 that living things which are proved to have a circumstance-suiting power--a very slight change of circumstance by culture inducing a corresponding change of character--may have gradually accommodated themselves to the variations of the elements containing them1 and1 without new creation1 have presented the diverging changeable phenomena of past and present organized existence4 ,the destructive liquid currents1 before which the hardest mountains have been swept and comminuted into gravel1 sand1 and mud1 which intervened between and divided these epochs1 probably extending over the whole surface of the globe1 and destroying nearly all living #chc things1 must have reduced existence so much1 that an unoccupied field would be formed for new diverging ramifications of life1 which1 from the connected sexual system of vegetables1 and the natural instincts of animals to herd and combine with their own kind1 would fall into specific groups1 these remnants1 in the course of time1 moulding and accommodating their being anew to the change of circumstances1 and to every possible means of subsistence1 and the millions of ages of regularity which appear to have followed between the epochs1 probably after this accommodation was completed1 affording fossil deposit of regular specific character4 ,there are only two probable ways of change--the above1 and the still wider deviation from present occurrence1--of indestructible or molecular life 7which seems to resolve itself into powers of attraction and repulsion under mathematical figure and regulation1 bearing a slight systematic similitude to the great aggregations of matter71 gradually uniting and developing itself into new circumstance-suited living aggregates1 without the presence of any mould or germ of former aggregates1 but this scarcely differs from new creation1 only it forms a portion of a continued scheme or system4 ,in endeavouring to trace1 in the former way1 the principle of these changes of fashion which have taken place in the domiciles of life1 the following questions occur3 ,do they arise from admixture of species nearly allied producing intermediate species8 ,are they the diverging ramifications of the living principle under modification of #chd circumstance8 ,or have they resulted from the combined agency of both8 ,is there only one living principle8 ,does organized existence1 and perhaps all material existence1 consist of one ,proteus principle of life capable of gradual circumstance-suited modifications and aggregations1 without bound under the solvent or motion-giving principle1 heat or light8 ,there is more beauty and unity of design in this continual balancing of life to circumstance1 and greater conformity to those dispositions of nature which are manifest to us1 than in total destruction and new creation4 ,it is improbable that much of this diversification is owing to commixture of species nearly allied1 all change by this appears very limited1 and confined within the bounds of what is called ,species2 the progeny of the same parents1 under great difference of circumstance1 might1 in several generations1 even become distinct species1 incapable of co-reproduction4 ,the self-regulating adaptive disposition of organized life may1 in part1 be traced to the extreme fecundity of ,nature1 who1 as before stated1 has1 in all the varieties of her offspring1 a prolific power much beyond 7in many cases a thousandfold7 what is necessary to fill up the vacancies caused by senile decay4 ,as the field of existence is limited and pre-occupied1 it is only the hardier1 more robust1 better suited to circumstance individuals1 who are able to struggle forward to maturity1 these inhabiting only the situations to which they have superior adaptation and greater power of occupancy than any other kind2 the weaker1 less circumstance-suited1 being #che prematurely destroyed4 ,this principle is in constant action1 it regulates the colour1 the figure1 the capacities1 and instincts2 those individuals of each species1 whose colour and covering are best suited to concealment or protection from enemies1 or defence from vicissitude and inclemencies of climate1 whose figure is best accommodated to health1 strength1 defence1 and support2 whose capacities and instincts can best regulate the physical energies to self-advantage according to circumstances--in such immense waste of primary and youthful life1 those only come forward to maturity from the strict ordeal by which ,nature tests their adaptation to her standard of perfection and fitness to continue their kind by reproduction4 ,from the unremitting operation of this law acting in concert with the tendency which the progeny have to take the more particular qualities of the parents1 together with the connected sexual system in vegetables1 and instinctive limitation to its own kind in animals1 a considerable uniformity of figure1 colour1 and character1 is induced1 constituting species2 the breed gradually acquiring the very best possible adaptation of these to its condition which it is susceptible of1 and when alteration of circumstance occurs1 thus changing in character to suit these as far as its nature is susceptible of change4 ,this circumstance-adaptive law1 operating upon the slight but continued natural disposition to sport in the progeny 7seedling variety71 does not preclude the supposed influence which volition or sensation may have over the configuration of the body4 ,to examine into the #chf disposition to sport in the progeny1 even when there is only one parent1 as in many vegetables1 and to investigate how much variation is modified by the mind or nervous sensation of the parents1 or of the living thing itself during its progress to maturity2 how far it depends upon external circumstance1 and how far on the will1 irritability and muscular exertion1 is open to examination and experiment4 ,in the first place1 we ought to investigate its dependency upon the preceding links of the particular chain of life1 variety being often merely types or approximations of former parentage2 thence the variation of the family1 as well as of the individual1 must be embraced by our experiments4 ,this continuation of family type1 not broken by casual particular aberration1 is mental as well as corporeal1 and is exemplified in many of the dispositions or instincts of particular races of men4 ,these innate or continuous ideas or habits1 seem proportionally greater in the insect tribes1 those especially of shorter revolution2 and forming an abiding memory1 may resolve much of the enigma of instinct1 and the foreknowledge which these tribes have of what is necessary to completing their round of life1 reducing this to knowledge1 or impressions1 and habits1 acquired by a long experience4 ,this greater continuity of existence1 or rather continuity of perceptions and impressions1 in insects1 is highly probable2 it is even difficult in some to ascertain the particular stops when each individuality commences1 under the different phases of egg1 larva1 pupa1 or if much #chg consciousness of individuality exists4 ,the continuation of reproduction for several generations by the females alone in some of these tribes1 tends to the probability of the greater continuity of existence1 and the subdivisions of life by cuttings1 at any rate must stagger the advocate of individuality4 ,among the millions of specific varieties of living things which occupy the humid portion of the surface of our planet1 as far back as can be traced1 there does not appear1 with the exception of man1 to have been any particular engrossing race1 but a pretty fair balance of powers of occupancy1--or rather1 most wonderful variation of circumstance parallel to the nature of every species1 as if circumstance and species had grown up together4 ,there are indeed several races which have threatened ascendency in some particular regions1 but it is man alone from whom any general imminent danger to the existence of his brethren is to be dreaded4 ,as far back as history reaches1 man had already had considerable influence1 and had made encroachments upon his fellow denizens1 probably occasioning the destruction of many species1 and the production and continuation of a number of varieties or even species1 which he found more suited to supply his wants1 but which1 from the infirmity of their condition--not having undergone selection by the law of nature1 of which we have spoken1 cannot maintain their ground without his culture and protection4 ,it is1 however1 only in the present age that man has #chh begun to reap the fruits of his tedious education1 and has proven how much 8knowledge is power40 ,he has now acquired a dominion over the material world1 and a consequent power of increase1 so as to render it probable that the whole surface of the earth may soon be overrun by this engrossing anomaly1 to the annihilation of every wonderful and beautiful variety of animated existence1 which does not administer to his wants principally as laboratories of preparation to befit cruder elemental matter for assimilation by his organs4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in taking a retrospective glance at our pages from the press1 we notice some inaccuracy and roughness1 which a little more timely attention to training and pruning might have obviated2 the facts and induction may1 however1 outbalance these4 ,we observe that ,fig4 d1 p4 #bg1 from the want of proper shading1 and error in not marking the dotted lines1 does not serve well to illustrate our purpose4 ,this figure is intended to represent a tree of a short thick stem1 dividing into four branches1 springing out regularly in the manner of a cross1 nearly at right angles with the stem4 ,these branches cut over about three or four feet out from the division1 form each one wing of a knee1 and the stem1 quartered longitudinally through the heart1 forms the other wing4 ,it is of great advantage to have four branches rather than two or three1 as the stem1 divided into four1 by being twice cut down the middle1 forms the wings nearly square2 whereas1 when divided #chi into two1 the halves are broad and flat1 and a considerable loss of timber takes place2 besides1 the two branches afford a thicker wing than the flat half of the stem does when squared4 ,when the tree separates into three branches1 the stem does not saw out conveniently2 and when divided1 the cleft part is angular1 and much loss of timber also takes place in the squaring4 ,when the stem divides into four branches1 each of these branches coincides in thickness with the quartered stem1 and the knees are obtained equally thick throughout1 without any loss of timber4 ,the four branches1 at six or eight feet above the division1 may with a little attention be thrown into a rectangular bend1 and thus give eight knees from each tree4 ,knees are generally required of about eight inches in diameter1 and three and a half feet in length of wing2 but when they are to be had thicker and longer1 a foot or more in thickness1 and from four to ten feet in length of wing1 they are equally in request1 suiting for high rising floors or heel-knees4 ,the directions for forming larch roots into knees after the tree is grubbed1 are also not very explicit4 ,the stem of the tree is cut over nearly the same distance from the bulb as the length of the root spurs2 this quartered through the heart 7in the same manner as above71 forms one wing of the knee1 and the four spurs form the other wings4 ,the same advantage results from having four regular root-spurs in larch1 as in having four regular branches in oak3 the two processes are quite similar1 only the roots in the one case1 and the branches in the other1 form one wing of the knees4 #cij ,we have given no directions for the bending of plank timber4 ,in larch1 the wind generally gives the slight necessary bend to a sufficient proportion2 and in oak1 the trees frequently grow a little bent of their own accord4 ,a foot-note has been omitted1 stating1 that the plan of bending young trees1 by tying them to an adjacent tree1 intended to be soon removed1 belongs1 as we are informed1 to ,mr ,loudon4 ,we regret that our allusion to the lamented ,mr ,huskisson was printed off before we knew of his death4 99 99 99 99 99 ,since this volume went to press1 there has been some changes of scenery on the political ,european stage1 even rivalling what has ever been accomplished of sylvan metamorphosis on the face of nature by ,sir ,henry ,steuart4 ,the intense interest excited by these efforts towards the regeneration of man1 has completely thrown into shade our humbler subject--the regeneration of trees4 ,we have even forgot it ourselves in the hands of the printer1 while yet unborn4 ,these sudden transformations altering the political and moral relations of man1 also render a number of our observations not quite apposite1 and our speculations1 some of them1 rather 8prophetic of the past40 ,they1 by obliterating national distinctions1 and diminishing the occasions for going to war1 will1 it is hoped1 bring the ,european family closer into amity4 ,at any rate1 they have completely thrown out the #cia calculations of our politicians regarding the balance of power and international connection as natural allies and foes1 and bind the ,french and the ,british together by ties on the surest principle of friendly sympathy1 8idem velle atque nolle10 which no ,machiavellian policy of cabinets1 nor waywardness of political head1 will be able to sunder4 ,we had intended to bring out ,naval ,timber and ,arboriculture as a portion of a work embracing ,rural ,economy in general1 but this is not a time to think of rural affairs4 ,,endnotes ,,to ,,the ,,appendix4 #fg ,the very extended sway1 the state of civilization considered1 of the ,tartar1 was evidently the consequence of the great facility of communication from the plain open surface of the country1 and the equestrian habits of the people4 #fh ,the habit of breed is apparent in many places of the world4 ,where a fine river washes the walls of some of the internal towns of ,france1 scarce a boat is to be seen1 except the long tract-boats employed in the conveyance of fire-wood--nobody thinks of sailing for pleasure4 ,the ,esquimaux1 and the ,red ,indian of ,north ,america1 inhabiting the same country1 shew an entirely distinct habit of breed4 ,the ,black and the ,copper-coloured native of the ,australian ,islands1 are equally opposed in instinctive habit4 #fi ,the sea water from ,flamborough-head1 southward to the ,straits of ,dover1 is generally discoloured with mud2 and during every breeze takes up an addition from the bottom1 which is an alluvium so unstable and loose1 that no sea vegetation can hold in it4 ,from not producing herbage1 the general basis of animal life1 few fishes or shells can find support in it4 ,,finis4 ,,errata4 ,page #aj1 top line1 for they read the branches #ah1 line #ac4 from bottom1 for under read within #ah1 line #h4 from bottom1 for long read in length of wing #bb1 insert f at fig4 on right-hand side of wood cut4 #bf1 line #h4 from bottom1 for #e read #c #eg1 line #d4 from top1 for any read many #gh1 line #aa4 from top1 for latitude read altitude #hg1 line #i4 from top1 dele may also in some degree --1 line #aj4 from top1 for diminish read diminishing --1 line #aa4 from top1 for increase read increasing #bje1 line #ab4 from top1 dele generally esteemed #bjf1 bottom line1 for lineal read large #bah1 line #e4 from bottom1 for ground read portion #bbj1 line #g4 from bottom1 after soil insert a semicolon #bbb1 line #ad4 from top1 for latterly read laterally #bbc1 line #ac4 from top1 for falling read felling #bdb1 line #ab4 from top1 for into read in1 to #bhj1 line #ad4 from top1 for the read this #bhe1 top line1 after n insert o #cjj1 line #b4 from bottom1 dele of #cbg1 line #f4 from bottom1 for that dew1 read dew1 that #cca1 line #aj4 from bottom1 for root read row #cgb1 line #ad4 from top1 for tend read tends ,,transcriber',s ,,note4 ,original spelling and grammar have been generally retained1 with some exceptions noted below4 ,original printed page numbers are shown like this3 #eb4 ,original small caps are now uppercase4 ,italics look like this4 ,footnotes have been converted to endnotes labeled #a-fi1 and moved to the end of the appropriate book division--i4e4 ,introduction1 ,parts ,i-,,iv1 or ,appendix4 ,the transcriber produced the cover image and hereby assigns it to the public domain4 ,original page images are available from archive4org--search for 8onnavaltimberarb#jjmatt04 ,page iii4 ,changed 8,,edindurgh0 to 8,,edinburgh04 ,page xiv4 ,changed 8and and0 to 8and04 ,page #baf4 ,changed 8in in0 to 8in04 ,page #bah4 ,the phrase 8#cs4 per do40 was changed to 8#cs4 per load104 ,page #cben4 ,changed 8coutnries0 to 8countries04 ,page #cbf4 ,changed 8,eygpt0 to 8,egypt04 ,page #cdf4 ,ditto marks in the first table1 8do4 do40 were changed to 81 from one to three years transplanted104 ,page #cea4 ,changed 8unweildy0 to 8unwieldy04 ,page #chf4 ,changed 8mpressions0 to 8impressions04 ,page #cia1 ,,errata4 ,the errata have been applied to the text in the proper locations4 ,the correction for page #cbg l4#f from bottom had already been applied in the edition which is the basis for this transcription4 ,the correction for page #cca l4 #aj from bottom cannot be applied1 as there was no 8root0 or 8row0 on that line4 ,there was1 however1 a 8row0 on line #h from the bottom1 so perhaps the correction had already been applied4