,,what ,,nietzsche ,,taught ,by ,,willard ,,huntington ,,wright ,i am writing for a race of men which does not yet exist3 for the lords of the earth4 ,the ,will to ,power ,,new ,,york ,b4 ,w4 ,,huebsch #aiae ,,to ,h4 ,l4 ,,mencken the critic who has given the greatest impetus to the study of ,nietzsche in ,america ,,contents ,,portrait ,,bust ,,of ,,nietzsche ,,by ,,professor ,,karl ,,donndorf1 ,,stuttgart ,frontispiece ,,introduction ,i ,,biographical ,,sketch ,,ii ,,human1 ,,all-,,too-,,human1 ,,vols4 ,i ,,and ,,ii ,,iii ,,the ,,dawn ,,of ,,day ,,iv ,,the ,,joyful ,,wisdom ,v ,,thus ,,spake ,,zarathustra ,,vi ,,the ,,eternal ,,recurrence ,,vii ,,beyond ,,good ,,and ,,evil ,,viii ,,the ,,genealogy ,,of ,,morals ,,ix ,,the ,,twilight ,,of ,,the ,,idols ,x ,,the ,,antichrist ,,xi ,,the ,,will ,,to ,,power1 ,,vol4 ,i ,,xii ,,the ,,will ,,to ,,power1 ,,vol4 ,,ii ,,bibliography ,,introduction ,it is no longer possible to ignore the teachings of ,friedrich ,nietzsche1 or to consider the trend of modern thought without giving the philosopher of the superman a prominent place in the list of thinkers who contributed to the store of present-day knowledge4 ,his powerful and ruthless mind has had an influence on contemporary thought which even now1 in the face of all the scholarly books of appreciation he has called forth1 one is inclined to underestimate4 ,no philosopher since ,kant has left so undeniable an imprint on modern thought4 ,even ,schopenhauer1 whose influence coloured the greater part of ,europe1 made no such widespread impression4 ,nietzsche has penetrated into both ,england and ,america1 two countries strangely impervious to rigorous philosophic ideals4 ,not only in ethics and literature do we find the moulding hand of ,nietzsche at work1 invigorating and solidifying2 but in pedagogics and in art1 in politics and religion1 the influence of his doctrines is to be encountered4 ,the books and essays in ,german elucidating his philosophy constitute a miniature library4 ,nearly as many books and articles have appeared in ,france1 and the list of authors of these appreciations include many of the most noted modern scholars4 ,spain and ,italy1 likewise1 have contributed works to an inquiry into his teachings2 and in ,england and ,america numerous volumes dealing with the philosophy of the superman have appeared in recent years4 ,in ,m4 ,a4 ,mgge's excellent biography1 ,friedrich ,nietzsche3 ,his ,life and ,work1 there is appended a bibliography containing #hej titles1 and this list by no means includes all the books and articles devoted to a consideration of this philosopher's doctrines4 ,in this regard one should note that this interest is not the result of a temporary popularity1 such as that which has met the philosophical pieties of ,henri ,bergson4 ,to the contrary1 ,nietzsche's renown is gaining ground daily among serious-minded scholars1 and his adherents have already reached the dimensions of a small army4 ,but despite this appreciation there is still current an enormous amount of ignorance concerning his teachings4 ,the very manner in which he wrote tended to bring about misunderstandings4 ,viewed casually and without studious consideration1 his books offer many apparent contradictions4 ,his style1 always elliptic and aphoristic1 lends itself easily to quotation1 and because of the startling and revolutionary nature of his utterances1 many excerpts from his earlier works were widely circulated through the mediums of magazines and newspapers4 ,these quotations1 robbed of their context1 very often gave rise to immature and erroneous judgments1 with the result that the true meaning of his philosophy was often turned into false channels4 ,many of his best-known aphorisms have taken on strange and unearthly meanings1 and often the reverse of his gospel has gained currency and masqueraded as the original canon4 ,to a great extent this misunderstanding has been unavoidable4 ,systematisers1 ever eager to bend a philosopher's statements to their own ends1 have found in ,nietzsche's writings much material which1 when carefully isolated1 substantiated their own conclusions4 ,on the other hand1 the ,christian moralists1 sensing in ,nietzsche a powerful and effective opponent1 have attempted to disqualify his ethical system by presenting garbled portions of his attacks on ,christianity1 omitting all the qualifying passages4 ,it is impossible1 however1 to understand any of ,nietzsche's doctrines unless we consider them in their relation to the whole of his teachings4 ,contrary to the general belief1 ,nietzsche was not simply a destructive critic and a formulator of impossible and romantic concepts4 ,his doctrine of the superman1 which seems to be the principal stumbling block in the way of a rationalistic interpretation of his philosophy1 is no vague dream unrelated to present humanity4 ,nor was his chief concern with future generations4 ,nietzsche devoted his research to immediate conditions and to the origin of those conditions4 ,and--what is of greater importance--he left behind him a very positive and consistent system of ethics--a workable and entirely comprehensible code of conduct to meet present-day needs4 ,this system was not formulated with the precision which no doubt would have attached to it in its final form had he been able to complete the plans he had outlined4 ,yet there are few points in his code of ethics--and they are of minor importance--which cannot be found1 clearly conceived and concisely stated1 in the main body of his works4 ,this system of conduct embraces every stage of society2 and for the rulers to-day--the people for whom ,nietzsche directly voiced his teachings--he outlines a method of outer conduct and a set of inner ideals which meet with every modern condition4 ,his proposed ethical routine is not based on abstract reasoning and speculative conclusions4 ,it is a practical code which has its foundation implanted in the dominating instincts of the organic and inorganic world4 ,it is directly opposed to the prevailing code1 and has for its ideal the fulness of life itself--life intensified to the highest degree1 life charged with a maximum of beauty1 power1 enthusiasm1 virility1 wealth and intoxication4 ,it is the code of strength and courage4 ,its goal is a race which will possess the hardier virtues of strength1 confidence1 exuberance and affirmation4 ,this ideal has been the source of many misunderstandings1 and it is the errors which have arisen from the vicious and inept dissemination of his teachings1 that ,i have striven to rectify in the present book4 ,i have hoped to accomplish this by presenting the whole of ,nietzsche's philosophy1 as far as possible1 in his own words4 ,this has not been so difficult a matter4 ,his writings1 more than those of any other modern philosopher1 offer opportunities for such treatment4 ,there is no point in his entire system not susceptible to brief and clear quotation4 ,furthermore1 his thought developed consistently and logically in straight-away1 chronological order1 so that at the conclusion of each book we find ourselves just so much further along the route of his thinking4 ,beginning with ,human1 ,all-,too-,human1 his first destructive volume1 we can trace the gradual and concise pyramiding of his teachings1 down to the last statement of his cardinal doctrine of will as set forth in the notes which comprise the second volume of ,the ,will to ,power4 ,each one of the intervening books embodies new material3 it is a distinct1 yet co-ordinated1 division in the great structure of his life's work4 ,these books overlap one another in many instances1 and develop points raised speculatively in former books1 but they organise each other and lead one surely1 if at times circuitously1 to the crowning doctrines of his thought4 ,the majority of critics have chosen to systematise ,nietzsche's teachings by separating the ideas in his different books1 and by drawing together under specific captions 7such as religion1 the state1 education1 etc417 all the scattered material which relates to these different subjects4 ,in many cases they have succeeded in offering a very coherent and consistent rsum of his thought4 ,but ,nietzsche's doctrines were inherently opposed to such arbitrary dividing and arranging1 because beneath the various sociological points which fell under his consideration1 were two or three general motivating principles which unified the whole of his thought4 ,he did not work from modern institutions back to his doctrines2 but1 by analysing the conditions out of which these institutions grew1 he arrived at the conclusions which he afterward used in formulating new methods of operation4 ,it was the change in conditions and needs between ancient and modern times that made him voice the necessity of change between ancient and modern institutions4 ,in other words1 his advocacy of new methods for dealing with modern affairs was evolved from his researches into the origin and history of current methods4 ,for instance1 his remarks on religion1 society1 the state1 the individual1 etc41 were the outcome of fundamental postulates which he described and elucidated in terms of human institutions4 ,therefore an attempt to reach an explanation of the basic doctrines of his philosophy through his applied teachings unconsciously gives rise to the very errors which the serious critics have sought to overcome3 this method focuses attention on the application of his doctrines rather than on the doctrines themselves4 ,therefore ,i have taken his writings chronologically1 beginning with his first purely philosophical work--,human1 ,all-,too-,human--and have set down1 in his own words1 every important conclusion throughout his entire works4 ,in this way one may follow ,nietzsche throughout every step in the development of his teachings--not only in his abstract theories but also in his application of them4 ,there is not a single important point in the entire sweep of his thought not contained in these pages4 ,naturally ,i have been unable to give any of the arguments which led to these conclusions4 ,the quotations are in every instance no longer than has been necessary to make clear the idea3 for the processes of thought by which these conclusions were reached the reader must go direct to the books from which the excerpts are made4 ,also ,i have omitted ,nietzsche's brilliant analogies and such desultory critical judgments1 literary and artistic1 as have no direct bearing on his philosophy2 and have contented myself with setting down only those bare1 unelaborated utterances which embody the positive points in his thought4 ,by thus letting ,nietzsche himself state his doctrines ,i have attempted to make it impossible for anybody who goes carefully through these pages to misunderstand those points which now seem clouded in error4 ,in order to facilitate further the research of the student and to make clear certain of the more obscure selections1 ,i have preceded each chapter with a short account of the book and its contents4 ,in these brief essays1 ,i have reviewed the entire contents of each book1 set down the circumstances under which it was written1 and attempted to weigh its individual importance in relation to the others4 ,furthermore1 ,i have attempted to state briefly certain of the doctrines which did not permit of entirely self-explanatory quotation4 ,and where ,nietzsche indulged in research1 such as in tracing the origin of certain motives1 or in explaining the steps which led to the acceptance of certain doctrines1 ,i have included in these essays an abridged exposition of his theories4 ,in short1 ,i have embodied in each chapter such critical material as ,i thought would assist the reader to a clear understanding of each book's contents and relative significance4 ,this book is frankly for the beginner--for the student who desires a survey of ,nietzsche's philosophy before entering upon a closer and more careful study of it4 ,in this respect it is meant also as a guide2 and ,i have given the exact location of every quotation so that the reader may refer at once to the main body of ,nietzsche's works and ascertain the premises and syllogisms which underlie the quoted conclusion4 ,in the opening biographical sketch ,i have refrained from going into ,nietzsche's personality and character1 adhering throughout to the external facts of his life4 ,his personality will be found in the racy1 vigorous and stimulating utterances ,i have chosen for quotation1 and no comments of mine could add colour to the impression thus received4 ,it is difficult to divorce ,nietzsche from his work3 the man and his teachings are inseparable4 ,his style1 as well as his philosophy1 is a direct outgrowth of his personality4 ,this is why his gospel is so personal and intimate a one1 and so closely bound up in the instincts of humanity4 ,there are several good biographies of ,nietzsche in existence1 and a brief account of the best ones in ,english will be found in the bibliography at the end of this volume4 ,it must not be thought that this book is intended as a final1 or even complete1 commentary on ,nietzsche's doctrines4 ,it was written and compiled for the purpose of supplying an introductory study1 and1 with that end in view1 ,i have refrained from all technical or purely philosophical nomenclature4 ,the object throughout has been to stimulate the reader to further study1 and if this book does not send the reader sooner or later to the original volumes from which these quotations have been made1 ,i shall feel that ,i have failed somewhat in my enterprise4 ,the volumes of ,nietzsche's philosophy from which the quotations in this book are taken1 comprise the first complete and authorised edition of the works of ,nietzsche in ,english4 ,to the courageous energy of ,dr4 ,oscar ,levy do we owe the fact that ,nietzsche's entire writings are now obtainable in ,english4 ,the translations of these books have1 in every instance1 been made by competent scholars1 and each volume is introduced by an illuminating preface4 ,as this edition now stands1 it is the most complete and voluminous translation of any foreign philosopher in the ,english language4 ,the edition is in eighteen volumes1 and is published in ,england by ,t4 ,n4 ,foulis1 and in ,america by the ,macmillan ,company4 ,the volumes and their contents are given below4 ,i4 ,the ,birth of ,tragedy1 translated by ,william ,a4 ,haussmann1 ,b4,a41 ,ph4,d41 with a biographical introduction by the author's sister2 a portrait of ,nietzsche1 and a facsimile of his manuscript4 ,,ii4 ,early ,greek ,philosophy and ,other ,essays1 translated by ,maximilian ,a4 ,mgge1 ,ph4,d4 ,contents3 ,the ,greek ,state1 ,the ,greek ,woman1 ,on ,music and ,words1 ,homer's ,contest1 ,the ,relation of ,schopenhauer's ,philosophy to a ,german ,culture1 ,philosophy ,during the ,tragic ,age of the ,greeks and ,on ,truth and ,falsity in ,their ,ultramoral ,sense4 ,,iii4 ,the ,future of ,our ,educational ,institutions1 translated by ,j4 ,m4 ,kennedy4 ,besides the titular essay1 this volume contains ,homer and ,classical ,philology4 ,,iv4 ,thoughts ,out of ,season1 ,vol4 ,i41 translated by ,anthony ,m4 ,ludovici4 ,contents3 ,david ,strauss1 the ,confessor and the ,writer and ,richard ,wagner in ,bayreuth4 ,v4 ,thoughts ,out of ,season1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 translated with introduction by ,adrian ,collins1 ,m4,a4 ,contents3 ,the ,use and ,abuse of ,history and ,schopenhauer as ,educator4 ,,vi4 ,human1 ,all-,too-,human1 ,vol4 ,i41 translated by ,helen ,zimmern1 with introduction by ,j4 ,m4 ,kennedy4 ,,vii4 ,human1 ,all-,too-,human1 ,vol4 ,,il1 translated1 with introduction1 by ,paul ,v4 ,cohn1 ,b4,a4 ,,viii4 ,the ,case of ,wagner1 translated by ,anthony ,m4 ,ludovici and ,j4 ,m4 ,kennedy1 with introductions by the translators4 ,contents3 ,the ,case of ,wagner1 ,nietzche contra ,wagner1 ,selected ,aphorisms and ,we ,philologists4 ,,ix4 ,the ,dawn of ,day1 translated1 with introduction1 by ,j4 ,m4 ,kennedy4 ,x4 ,the ,joyful ,wisdom1 translated1 with introduction1 by ,thomas ,common4 ,the poetry which appears in the appendix under the caption of ,songs of ,prince ,free-,as-,a-,bird1 is translated by ,paul ,v4 ,cohn and ,maude ,d4 ,petre4 ,,xi4 ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra1 revised introduction by ,thomas ,common1 with introduction by ,mrs4 ,frster-,nietzsche1 and commentary by ,a4 ,m4 ,ludovici4 ,,xii4 ,beyond ,good and ,evil1 translated by ,helen ,zimmern1 with introduction by ,thomas ,common4 ,,xiii4 ,the ,genealogy of ,morals1 translated by ,horace ,b4 ,samuel1 ,m4,a41 with introductory note4 ,people and ,countries1 an added section to this book1 is translated by ,j4 ,m4 ,kennedy with an editor's note by ,dr4 ,oscar ,levy4 ,,xiv4 ,the ,will to ,power1 ,vol4 ,i41 translated1 with an introduction1 by ,a4 ,m4 ,ludovici4 ,,xv4 ,the ,will to ,power1 ,vol4 ,,il1 translated1 with an introduction1 by ,a4 ,m4 ,ludovici4 ,,xvi4 ,the ,twilight of the ,idols1 translated1 with an introduction1 by ,a4 ,m4 ,ludovici4 ,contents3 ,the ,twilight of the ,idols1 ,the ,antichrist1 ,eternal ,recurrence1 and ,explanatory ,notes to ',thus ,spake ,zarathustra4' ,,xvii4 ,ecce ,homo1 translated by ,a4 ,m4 ,ludovici4 ,various poetry and epigrams translated by ,paul ,v4 ,cohn1 ,herman ,scheffauer1 ,francis ,bickley and ,dr4 ,g4 ,t4 ,wrench4 ,in addition this volume contains the music of ,nietzsche's ,hymn to ,life--words by ,lou ,salom--with an introduction by ,a4 ,m4 ,ludovici4 ,,xviii4 ,index to ,complete ,works1 compiled by ,robert ,guppy1 with vocabulary of foreign quotations occurring in the works of ,nietzsche translated by ,paul ,v4 ,cohn1 ,b4,a41 and an introductory essay1 ,the ,nietzsche ,movement in ,england 7,a ,retrospect--,a ,confession--,a ,prospect71 by ,dr4 ,oscar ,levy4 ,there are in the present volume no quotations from ,nietzsche's ,ecce ,homo or from the pamphlets dealing with ,wagner4 ,the former work is an autobiography which1 while it throws light on both ,nietzsche's character and his work1 is nevertheless outside his purely philosophical writings4 ,and the ,wagner documents1 though interesting1 have little to do with the ,nietzschean doctrines1 except as showing perhaps the result of their application4 ,i have therefore left them intact for the student who wishes to go more deeply into the philosopher's character than ,i have here attempted4 ,w4 ,h4 ,w4 ,,what ,,nietzsche ,,taught ,i ,biographical ,sketch ,nietzsche liked to believe that he was of ,polish descent4 ,he had a greater admiration for the ,poles than for the ,germans1 and went so far as to instigate an investigation by which he hoped to prove beyond a shadow of a doubt that he was not only ,polish but was descended from the ,polish nobility4 ,his efforts1 his sister tells us1 were not entirely successful1 although some evidence was turned up which pointed to the truth of this theory4 ,several of the dates in the report1 however1 did not accurately tally1 and since many of ,nietzsche's papers containing the results of his genealogical research were lost in ,turin after his breakdown1 the hypothesis of his ,polish descent consequently remains somewhat mythical4 ,nietzsche's theory was that his great-great-grandfather was a nobleman named ,nicki who fled from ,poland during the religious wars1 as a fugitive under sentence of death1 and took with him a young son who afterward changed his name to ,nietzsche4 ,there is a romance in this belief which appealed strongly to the philosopher4 ,he saw a genuine grandeur in the fact that his ancestor had become a fugitive for his religious and political opinions4 ,this belief in time became a conviction with him1 and in the later years of his life we find him definitely asserting the truth of this family tradition4 ,the matter1 however1 one way or the other1 is of little consequence1 for ,nietzsche's mind embodied universal traits3 it was uncommonly free from distinctly national characteristics4 ,all the important facts of his life and of his immediate ancestry are known to us4 ,he was born at ,rcken1 a little village in the ,prussian province of ,saxony1 on ,october #ae1 #ahdd4 ,the day was the anniversary of the birth of ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,,iv1 ,king of ,prussia1 and ,nietzsche was christened ,friedrich ,wilhelm in honour of the event4 ,the coincidence was all the more marked by the fact that ,nietzsche's father1 three years previous1 had been tutor to the ,altenburg ,princesses1 in which capacity he had met the sovereign and made so favourable an impression that it was by the royal favour he was living at ,rcken4 ,there were two other children in the ,nietzsche household--a girl born in #ahdf1 and a son born in #ahej4 ,the girl was named ,therese ,elizabeth ,alexandra after the ,duke of ,altenburg's three daughters who had come under her father's tutorship4 ,afterward she became the philosopher's closest companion and guardian and his most voluminous biographer4 ,the boy ,joseph1 named after the ,duke of ,altenburg himself1 did not survive his first year4 ,the longevity and hardiness which marked the stock of ,nietzsche's ancestors does away with the theory1 often advanced1 that his sickness and final mental breakdown were the outcome of hereditary causes4 ,out of his eight great-parents only two failed to reach the age of seventy-five1 while one reached the age of eighty-six and another did not die until ninety4 ,both of his grand-fathers attained to the age of seventy1 and his maternal grandmother lived until she was past eighty-two4 ,furthermore1 the ,nietzsche families for three generations had been very large and in every instance healthy and robust4 ,nietzsche's grandmother ,nietzsche had twelve children1 and his grandmother ,oehler had eleven children--both families being strong and free from sickness4 ,nietzsche himself1 so his sister tells us in her biography1 was strong and healthy from his earliest childhood until maturity4 ,he participated in outdoor sports such as swimming1 skating and ball playing1 and was characterised by a ruddy complexion which in his school days often called forth remarks concerning his evident splendid health4 ,it seems that only one physical defect marked the whole of his younger life--a myopia inherited from his father4 ,this impediment1 though slight at first1 became rapidly aggravated by the constant use to which he put his eyes in his sedulous application to study4 ,nietzsche1 the most terrible and devastating critic of ,christianity and its ideals1 was the culmination of two long collateral lines of theologians4 ,his grandfather ,nietzsche was a man of many scholarly attainments1 who1 because of his ecclesiastical writings1 had received the degree of ,doctor of ,divinity4 ,his second wife1 the mother of ,nietzsche's father1 came from a whole family of pastors by the name of ,krause4 ,her favourite brother was a preacher in the ,cathedral at ,naumburg2 and of the other two one was a ,doctor of ,divinity and one a country clergyman4 ,the father of ,nietzsche's mother was also a pastor by the name of ,oehler1 and had a parsonage in ,pobles4 ,likewise ,nietzsche's father1 ,karl-,ludwig ,nietzsche1 was a pastor in the ,lutheran church2 but he possessed a greater culture than we are wont to associate with the average country clergyman1 and was a man looked up to and revered by all those who knew him4 ,in fact1 his appointment to the post at ,rcken was an expression of appreciation paid his talents by the ,prussian ,king4 ,he was thirty-one years of age and had been married only a year when his son ,friedrich was born4 ,though in perfect health1 he was not destined to live more than five years after this event1 for in #ahdh he fell down a flight of stone stairs1 and died after a year's invalidism1 as a result of concussion of the brain4 ,the event cast a decided influence on the ,nietzsche household and altered completely its plans4 ,after lingering eight months at the parsonage1 the family left ,rcken and moved to ,naumburg-on-the-,saale1 there establishing a new domicile in the home of the pastor's mother4 ,the household was composed of the two children1 ,friedrich and ,elizabeth1 their mother1 then only twenty-four1 their grandmother ,nietzsche1 and two maiden sisters of the dead father4 ,this establishment was run on strict and puritanical lines4 ,all the women were of strong theological inclinations4 ,one of the maiden aunts1 ,rosalie1 devoted herself to ,christian benevolent institutions4 ,the other aunt1 ,augusta1 was not unlike the paternal grandmother--pious and ,god-fearing and constantly busied with her duties to others4 ,the widowed mother carried on the ,christian tradition of the family1 and never forgot that she was once the wife of a ,lutheran pastor4 ,daily prayers and ,biblical readings were fixed practices4 ,the young ,friedrich was the pet of the household1 and there were secret hopes held by all that he would grow up in the footsteps of his father and become an honoured and respected light in the church4 ,to the realisation of this hope1 all the efforts and influences of the four women were given4 ,such was the atmosphere in which the early youth of the author of ,the ,antichrist was nurtured4 ,soon after the family's arrival at ,naumburg1 ,friedrich1 then only six years old1 was sent to a local ,municipal ,boys' ,school1 in accordance with the educational theories of his grandmother1 who believed in gregarious education for the very young4 ,but she had failed to count upon the unusual character of her grandson1 and the attempt to educate him at a municipal institution resulted in failure4 ,his upbringing had made him somewhat priggish and hypersensitive4 ,he was ridiculed by the other boys who taunted him with the epithet of the little minister4 ,he refused to mingle with the riff-raff which composed the larger part of the pupils1 and held himself isolated and aloof4 ,consequently1 before the year was up1 he was withdrawn from the school and entered in a private educational institution which prepared the younger students for the ,cathedral ,grammar ,school4 ,here he was in more congenial surroundings4 ,he had for schoolmates two youths whose families were friends of the ,nietzsche household--young ,wilhelm ,pinder and ,gustav ,krug1 who later were to influence his youth4 ,nietzsche remained at this school for three years4 ,as a boy ,nietzsche was always thoughtful and studious4 ,he was a taciturn child and took long walks in the country alone1 preferring solitude to companionship4 ,he was sensitive to a marked degree1 polite1 solicitous of all about him1 and inclined to moodiness4 ,as soon as he could write he started a diary in which he included not only the external events of his life but his thoughts and ideas and opinions4 ,the pages of this diary1 partially preserved1 make unique and interesting reading4 ,at a very early age he began writing poetry4 ,his verses1 though conventional in both theme and metre1 reflected a knowledge of contemporary prosody unusual in a boy of his years4 ,he had ample opportunity in his home of hearing good music1 and he manifested a great love for it in very early youth4 ,he devoted much time to studying the piano1 and not infrequently tried his hand at composing4 ,later in his life we still find him writing music1 and also publishing it4 ,in deportment ,nietzsche was a model child4 ,he was thoroughly imbued with the religious atmosphere of his surroundings1 and was far more pious than the average youth of his own age4 ,for a long while he gave every indication of fulfilling the ecclesiastical hopes which his family harboured for him4 ,consequently there was no lack of encouragement on the part of his guardians toward his first literary efforts which reflected the piety of his nature4 ,after a few years in the ,naumburg school1 where he distinguished himself as a model student and incidentally impressed the visiting inspectors by his quickness and brilliance in answering test questions1 ,nietzsche took the entrance examinations for the well-known ,landes-,schule at ,pforta1 an institution then noted for its fostering and promotion of scientific studies4 ,the vacancy at ,pforta had been offered ,nietzsche's mother by the ,rector who had heard rumours concerning the intellectual gifts of the young ,fritz4 ,the examinations were passed successfully1 and in ,october1 #aheh1 after a tearful leave-taking1 he entered the ,lower ,fourth ,form4 ,pforta1 at that time1 was an institution of considerable eminence1 with a tradition attaching to it not unlike that of ,eton4 ,it was a hot-bed of academic culture1 and the professors were among the most learned in the country4 ,the school had been founded as a monastery in the twelfth century by the ,cistercian monks4 ,in the sixteenth century it had fallen under the rule of the ,duke ,moritz of ,saxony1 who turned it into a secular educational academy1 making way for the advance of the newer ideals4 ,the life at ,pforta in ,nietzsche's day was strict1 and we learn that the young philosopher chafed somewhat under the stringent discipline4 ,but in time he accustomed himself to the regulations1 and it was not long before we find him actively and interestedly participating in the school life4 ,however1 new ideas were fomenting4 ,if outwardly he acquiesced to the routine1 inwardly he was in a state of revolt4 ,he had already begun to indulge in original thinking1 and he felt the lack of freedom in communicating his ideas to others4 ,his only confidante during these days was his sister whom he always saw during the holidays and on brief leaves of absence4 ,his spare moments were devoted to music and literature other than that prescribed by the school curriculum4 ,he resented the fact that one had to think of particular themes at specified times1 and no doubt caused his good tutor1 ,professor ,buddensieg1 much uneasiness1 for1 to judge from his diary1 he did not keep to himself the resentment he felt toward the enforcement of the irksome and repressive calendar of studies4 ,this resentment doubtlessly had much to do with the inauguration of a society which was called the ,germania ,club4 ,wilhelm ,pinder and ,gustav ,krug1 ,nietzsche's former school companions at ,naumburg1 were participants in its formation2 and on the highest ledge of the watch tower1 overlooking the ,saale valley1 its object was discussed and its inception dedicated and solemnised with a bottle of red wine4 ,this society1 while bearing many of the ear-marks of mere youthful enthusiasm1 formed an important turning point in ,nietzsche's life4 ,it acted1 at a psychological moment1 as a safety-valve for the heretical ideas and aspirations which1 up to that time1 he had confided only to his sister and his diary4 ,the purpose of the club can best be stated in ,nietzsche's own words3 ,we resolved to found a kind of small club which would consist of ourselves and a few friends1 and the object of which would be to provide us with a stable and binding organisation1 directing and adding interest to our creative impulses in art and literature2 or to put it more plainly1 each of us would be pledged to present an original piece of work to the club once a month1 either a poem1 a treatise1 an architectural design1 or a musical composition1 upon which each of the others1 in a friendly spirit1 would have to pass free and unrestricted criticism4 ,we thus hoped by means of mutual correction to be able both to stimulate and to chasten our creative impulses4 ,it was during one of his lectures before this group of youthful individualists that ,nietzsche first expressed his true views on ,christianity--views1 which1 could they have been overheard by his devoted family1 would have brought sorrow to their pious hearts4 ,the list of ,nietzsche's contributions to this synod numbered thirty-four1 and included musical compositions1 poems1 political orations and various literary works4 ,nietzsche remained at ,pforta until #ahfd4 ,he had been confirmed at ,easter1 #ahfa1 and to all outward manifestations retained his religious principles4 ,his final report states that he showed an active and lively interest in the ,christian doctrine4 ,in religion he was given the grade of excellent4 ,during his later years at ,pforta he manifested an interest in the works of ,emerson and ,shakespeare and especially in the ,greek and ,latin authors4 ,his dislike for mathematics increased steadily1 and his love for ,sophocles1 schylus1 ,plato and the ,greek lyricists grew by leaps and bounds4 ,his final paper--the departing thesis which was compulsory for all graduating students--was a ,latin essay on ,theognis of ,megara1 ,de ,theognide ,megarensi ,between ,nietzsche and that ancient aristocrat1 with his fine contempt for democracy1 there existed many temperamental affinities2 and this final essay was no less than a foundation on which the young ,dionysian later built his philosophy of aristocracy4 ,on the #gth of ,september he left ,pforta4 ,after resting at ,naumburg until the middle of ,october1 ,nietzsche set forth for the ,university of ,bonn4 ,it was here that he came under the guidance of ,professor ,ritschl1 who later was to exert a great influence over him4 ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,ritschl was not only the foremost philologist of his time1 but a scholar deeply versed in classical literature and rhetoric4 ,it was he who founded the science of historical literary criticism as we know it to-day4 ,when he first met ,nietzsche his interest in the young man at once became very great1 and the relationship between them rapidly developed into the warmest of friendships4 ,to ,ritschl ,nietzsche owed many things4 ,it was at the former's house that he became acquainted with many of the leading learned men of the day4 ,and it would be unfair not to credit ,ritschl with much of the future philosopher's ardent and lasting interest in ancient cultures4 ,at ,bonn ,nietzsche entered the collegiate life with unusual zest4 ,he became a member of the ,franconia ,student ,corps1 and participated freely in the drinking bouts which1 from what we can learn from his letters home1 constituted one of the main duties attached to his membership4 ,but this phase of the student life was foreign to his tastes1 and after brief activities in the rle of good fellow1 he found a more spontaneous recreation in attending concerts and the better class theatres4 ,he privately studied ,schumann1 and during #ahfd and #ahfe his life bore a marked musical stamp4 ,it was during ,nietzsche's days at ,bonn that a decided change came over his religious views4 ,his critical studies in the literature and culture of the ancients had done much toward weaning him from the formal and almost literal theological beliefs of his family4 ,the first open breach between his newer ideals and the established prejudices of his mother came at ,easter-time about midway of his course at ,bonn4 ,he was home for the holidays1 and when the good people were preparing to attend communion1 he suddenly informed them of his decision not to accompany them4 ,arguments were unavailing4 ,an animated discussion arose in which he firmly defended his attitude2 and from that time on there was never a reconciliation between his religious standpoint and the one held by his family4 ,two learned ecclesiastics were called into consultation1 but they were unable to meet the disquieting arguments of the young heretic1 and his case was dismissed for the moment on his ,aunt ,rosalie's theory that even in the lives of the devoutest ,christians there often come periods of doubt1 and that during such periods it is best to leave the backslider to his own conscience4 ,nietzsche1 however1 never again entered the fold4 ,curiously enough it was at this same period that came his revulsion toward the dissipations of student life4 ,he went so far as to attempt an imposition of his moral theories on the members of the ,franconia1 but this attempt at reformation resulted only in his own unpopularity4 ,in his attitude toward duelling--a pastime somewhat over-emphasised at ,bonn--,nietzsche was consistent with his other beliefs4 ,the chivalrous side of it appealed to him1 although he detested the spirit of it from the standpoint of the student body4 ,however1 he took heroic1 if unconventional1 means to involve himself in a duel lest his position be misconstrued as cowardice4 ,he selected an adversary he thought worthy of him1 and pleasantly demanded a combat on the field of honour1 ending his request3 ,let us waive all the usual preliminaries4 ,the other agreed1 and the duel was fought4 ,but the incident merely resulted in emphasising ,nietzsche's disgust for student life4 ,says his sister1 ,the circumstances which above all aroused my brother's wrath was the detestable 'beer materialism' with which he met on all sides1 and owing to these early experiences in ,bonn he for ever retained a very deep dislike for smoking1 drinking1 and the whole of so-called 'beer-conviviality4' ,his decision to leave ,bonn and enter the ,university of ,leipzig was due to his fondness for ,ritschl4 ,in the dispute which arose between the two ,professors1 ,jahn and ,ritschl1 ,nietzsche's friendship for the latter made him a partisan1 although he held ,jahn in the highest respect2 and when ,ritschl decided to transfer himself to ,leipzig1 the young philosopher1 along with several of the other students1 followed him4 ,this was in the autumn of #ahfe4 ,nietzsche reached ,leipzig on the #agth of ,october1 and the next day he presented himself to the ,academic ,board4 ,it was the centennial anniversary of the day when ,goethe had entered his name on the register1 and the ,university was celebrating the event4 ,the coincidence delighted ,nietzsche greatly1 who regarded it as a good omen for his future at the new institution4 ,it was during his residence at ,leipzig that there came into his life two events which were to have a profound and lasting influence on his future4 ,one of these was his acquaintance with ,wagner--an acquaintance which several years later developed into the strongest friendship of his life4 ,the other event 7in many ways more important than the first7 was his discovery of ,schopenhauer4 ,this discovery is characteristically described in a letter to his sister3 ,one day ,i came across this book at old ,rohn's curiosity shop1 and taking it up very gingerly ,i turned over its pages4 ,i know not what demon whispered to me3 ',take this book home with thee4' ,at all events1 contrary to my habit not to be hasty in my purchase of books1 ,i took it home4 ,once in my room ,i threw myself into the corner of the sofa with my booty1 and began to allow that energetic and gloomy genius to work upon my mind4 ,in this book1 in which every line cried out renunciation1 denial1 and resignation1 ,i saw a mirror in which ,i espied the whole world1 life and my own mind depicted in frightful grandeur4 ,in this volume the full celestial eye of art gazed at me2 here ,i saw illness and recovery1 banishment and refuge1 heaven and hell4 ,the need of knowing myself1 yea1 even of gnawing at myself1 forcibly seized me4 ,this book went far in arousing the philosophic faculties of the young philologist1 and later he wrote many essays1 long and short1 both in praise and in refutation of the great pessimist4 ,that he should at first have subscribed to all of ,schopenhauer's teachings is natural4 ,nietzsche was vital and susceptible to enthusiasms4 ,it was in accord with his youthful nature1 full of courage and strength1 that he should have been seduced to pessimism4 ,at ,leipzig ,nietzsche accomplished an enormous amount of work3 and his nature developed in proportion4 ,the life was freer than it had been at ,pforta or at ,bonn4 ,far from being hampered in the voicings of his inner beliefs1 he found his environment particularly congenial to self-expression4 ,he made numerous friends1 principal among them being ,erwin ,rohde1 who crossed his later life at many points4 ,he showed a great interest in political1 as well as in literary and musical1 events2 and the war between ,prussia and ,austria fanned his youthful ardour to an almost extravagant degree4 ,twice he offered himself to the authorities1 hoping to be permitted to serve as a soldier1 but was rejected both times on account of his shortsightedness4 ,his interest in his studies1 however1 was in no wise diminished4 ,he read widely in ,english1 ,french1 ,greek and ,latin1 and devoted much scholarly research to ,theognis1 ,diogenes ,laertius1 and ,democritus4 ,his essay on the subject1 ,de ,fontibus ,diogenis ,laertii won the first university prize1 and was later published1 with other of his essays on philology1 in the ,rheinisches ,museum4 ,at this time the ,prussian army found itself in sore need of men1 and although ,nietzsche had been exempt from military duties and had failed to secure enlistment1 he suddenly found himself1 in the autumn of #ahfg1 called upon for compulsory training4 ,a new army regulation had just been passed requiring all young men1 if otherwise physically sound1 to enter military service even though their eyesight was partially impaired4 ,as a consequence ,nietzsche had to leave ,leipzig and go into training4 ,he made an effort to enlist in a ,berlin ,guard ,regiment1 but was finally compelled to join the horse artillery at ,naumburg4 ,although he had previously volunteered for service1 he now found that the life of a soldier was far more irksome and far less romantic than he had imagined4 ,he was unhappy and disconsolate1 and deplored the slavery attached to the life of a mounted artilleryman4 ,he was not destined1 however1 to fulfil his arduous military duties to the full term of his proscription4 ,barely a year had gone by when he was thrown from his horse and received what at first was thought a slight strain1 but what later turned out to be a serious injury4 ,the pommel of his saddle had compressed his chest1 and the inflammation which set in necessitated his permanent withdrawal from service4 ,for a long time ,nietzsche was under the care of the famous specialist1 ,volkmann1 to whom the military doctors had turned him over when they had begun to despair of his recovery4 ,during convalescence1 he busied himself with preparations for his coming university year and assisted in some intricate indexing for members of the faculty4 ,in ,october1 #ahfh1 he was able to return to ,leipzig and resume his work4 ,but another unexpected event--this one of an advantageous nature and destined to alter his whole future--came in the form of an inquiry from the ,university of ,bale in ,switzerland4 ,the members of that institution's educational board1 attracted by ,nietzsche's essays in the ,rheinisches ,museum1 wrote to ,ritschl for information regarding the young philologist4 ,ritschl replied that ,nietzsche was a genius and could do whatever he put his mind to4 ,thus it happened that1 although only #bd1 he was offered the vacant post of ,classical ,philology at ,ble1 without even being put through the formalities of an examination4 ,however1 he was straightway granted a ,doctor's degree by the ,university of ,leipzig1 and on the #acth of ,april1 #ahfi1 he left ,naumburg to assume the duties of his new appointment4 ,his departure marked the passing of the ,nietzsche household4 ,his grandmother and both the maiden aunts were dead1 and because1 no doubt1 of religious differences1 he and his mother became estranged4 ,of that intimately welded family circle1 only the deep friendship between ,nietzsche and his sister remained4 ,on ,may #bh1 ,nietzsche delivered his inaugural address at ,ble1 using the personality of ,homer as his subject4 ,the hall was crowded1 and the address made a decided impression on both students and faculty4 ,the lecture was an unusual one and well off the conventional track4 ,it created riot a little mild excitement among the professors at ,leipzig1 and the cut-and-dried philologists of that institution were frankly scandalised by its boldness4 ,the address1 however1 was an index to ,nietzsche's character1 and1 in looking back on it1 we can see that it unmistakably pointed the way along which the future development of his mind was to take place4 ,at ,ble1 the young philologist1 despite the people's kindly disposition toward him1 suffered from solitude4 ,his classes were small4 ,although he had made an impassioned plea for his particular science1 the interest in philology was slight1 and his morning lectures were attended by only eight students4 ,nietzsche was without a companion with whom he might exchange his ideas and personal thoughts4 ,his only diversion came in the form of occasional trips to neighbouring parts of the country2 and the letters he wrote to his sister and his former friends were tinged with melancholy4 ,but he was conscientious in his work1 and a year later he was given a professorship4 ,before he could accept this later appointment it had been necessary for him to become a naturalised subject of ,switzerland1 so that when the ,franco-,german ,war of #ahgj broke out1 he could not serve as a combatant--a fact which caused him keen disappointment4 ,he was able1 however1 to secure service as an ambulance attendant in the ,hospital ,corps1 and set forth upon his patriotic duties with a glad heart4 ,having been granted the leave he asked for at the ,university1 he went to ,erlangen1 where he entered for a course of surgery and medicine at the ,red ,cross ,society4 ,after a brief training as a nurse1 in which line of work he showed remarkable adaptability1 he was sent to the seat of war at the head of an ambulance corps4 ,he was untiring in his energies and laboured day and night in the midst of the battlefields4 ,but the overwork proved too much for him1 and he soon reached the limit of his endurance4 ,one day1 after long exposure in a cattle truck filled with severely wounded and diseased men1 he began to show signs of serious illness1 and when1 after great difficulty1 he managed to reach ,erlangen1 it was discovered that he was suffering from diphtheria and severe dysentery4 ,though he had seen but a few weeks' hospital service1 it was now necessary for him to discontinue his duties entirely4 ,his sister tells us that this illness greatly undermined his health1 and was the first cause of his subsequent condition4 ,to make matters worse1 the slight medical education which he had received in preparation for his ambulance service led him to pursue a fateful course of self-doctoring--a practice which he continued to his own detriment throughout the remainder of his life4 ,nietzsche did not even wait until he was well before resuming his duties at the ,university1 and this new strain imposed on his already depleted system had much to do with bringing on his final breakdown4 ,as a result of the ,philistinism which broke out all over ,germany at the end of the war1 ,nietzsche delivered a course of lectures at ,bonn1 which he entitled ,on the ,future of ,our ,educational ,institutions4 ,germany had insisted that her victory was due not only to physical bravery but also in a large measure to the superiority of ,germanic culture and ,teutonic ideals4 ,nietzsche beheld in this snobbish attitude a very grave danger for his country1 and endeavoured in a small way to rectify this attitude by a series of lectures4 ,he severely criticised the ,german educational institutions of the day and went so far as to deny them the great culture which they so ardently claimed4 ,while these lectures in no wise stemmed1 even locally1 the tide of ,philistinism at which they were aimed1 the criticisms contained in them are of the greatest importance in reviewing the development of the philosopher himself4 ,the lectures contained1 perhaps unconsciously but none the less clearly1 many of the elements of that philosophy which later was to have so tremendous an influence not only on ,germany but on the whole civilised world4 ,in the same year1 #ahgb1 ,nietzsche's first important book appeared4 ,this work1 dedicated to ,richard ,wagner1 had been begun in #ahfi1 and was first called ,the ,birth of ,tragedy from the ,spirit of ,music4 ,when the third edition appeared in #ahhf the title was changed to ,the ,birth of ,tragedy1 or ,hellenism and ,pessimism1 and a preface called ,an ,attempt at ,self-,criticism was added4 ,in a large measure this book was a tribute to ,wagner1 and was written by ,nietzsche in an effort to be of immediate benefit to the musician who at that time was passing through a period of despondency4 ,wagner was then living at ,tribschen1 not far from ,ble1 and ,nietzsche's visits to him were frequent4 ,it was during these years that the great friendship between the two men developed4 ,the ,birth of ,tragedy1 however1 was not well received by the public4 ,musicians were pleased with it1 but philologists in particular deplored its utterances4 ,they looked upon its author as a traitor to their science for having dared to venture beyond the narrow bounds of academic formalism4 ,one well-known philologist1 ,wilamowitz-,moellendorf1 attacked ,nietzsche in an ill-humoured pamphlet2 and although ,erwin ,rohde answered it adequately with another pamphlet1 the attack proved detrimental to ,nietzsche's standing at ,bale4 ,during the following winter term the young philologist was entirely without pupils4 ,his mind1 however1 was now undergoing decided and important changes4 ,he was becoming bolder and surer of himself4 ,new ideals were taking the place of old ones1 and in #ahgc he began a series of famous pamphlets which later were put into book form under the title of ,thoughts ,out of ,season4 ,his first attack was upon ,david ,strauss2 the second was directed towards the ,german historians of the day2 the third was aimed at ,schopenhauer2 and the fourth was the famous panegyric1 ,richard ,wagner in ,bayreuth4 ,these essays1 together with his work at ,ble1 occupied him until #ahgf4 ,nietzsche was now suffering severely from the malady he carried to his grave1 catarrh of the stomach4 ,this was accompanied by severe headaches1 and during his holidays he alternated between ,switzerland and ,italy in an endeavour to recover his health4 ,in the former place he was with ,wagner4 ,in ,italy1 at ,sorrento1 he met ,dr4 ,paul ,re1 who1 if we are to believe ,max ,nordau1 was the father of all ,nietzsche's ideas4 ,credence1 however1 cannot be given to this accusation1 for the nucleus of all of his later ideas was undeniably contained in his writings previous to his meeting with ,re4 ,that ,re influenced him to some small extent no one will deny1 for it was he who turned the young philosopher's attention to the latter day scientists of both ,england and ,france2 and it was shortly after this meeting that ,nietzsche began his first independent philosophical work1 ,human1 ,all-,too-,human4 ,it was in the year #ahgf that his famous friendship with ,wagner began to cool4 ,nietzsche had gone to ,bayreuth to witness the performance of ,der ,ring des ,nibelungen4 ,already he had begun to question his own high opinion of the composer1 and ,bayreuth solidified his doubts4 ,it had been two years since he had seen ,wagner1 and after a brief conversation1 ,nietzsche became bitter and disgusted4 ,when he finally went away his revulsion was complete1 and one of the greatest of historic friendships was at an end4 ,whatever were the individual merits in the quarrel between these two great contemporaneous men1 ,nietzsche's attitude was at least consistent with his innermost ideals4 ,he had admired in ,wagner certain definite1 revolutionary qualities1 and when he was convinced1 as he had every reason to be1 that ,wagner was compromising his art for the purpose of popularity1 the ideal was broken4 ,he could no longer remain true to himself and also to his friendship for the great composer4 ,parsifal was undoubtedly a decadent work1 viewed from the standpoint of ,wagner's previous performances4 ,decadence is simply the inability to create new tissue2 and when ,wagner forswore modern ideas and reverted to the past1 it attested to an entire change of mental attitude3 and no purely sthetic doctrine can controvert the fact4 ,had ,czanne in later life essayed the painting of conventionally posed saints--no matter what his technical means might have been--his art would have contained the elements of decadence1 for an artist's mental attitude cannot be dissevered from his product4 ,this1 ,i believe1 was ,nietzsche's theory in regard to ,wagner4 ,that the breaking off of this friendship was a great blow to the philosopher we know from his diary and from his letters4 ,in fact1 his affection for ,wagner1 the man1 was so great that it was not until ten years had passed that he could bring himself to write the essay which he had long had in mind1 ,the ,fall of ,wagner4 ,the year after the appearance of ,human1 ,all-,too-,human1 ,nietzsche's ill-health compelled him to resign his professorship at ,ble4 ,he had a small income which1 together with the three thousand francs retiring allowance granted him by the ,university1 permitted him now to travel moderately and to devote his entire time to his literary labours4 ,he first went to ,berne1 where he stayed a few weeks4 ,later he visited ,zrich and then ,st4 ,moritz4 ,it was a brief holiday1 but the change of locale1 coupled with the relaxation from work1 improved him both in physical health and in spirits4 ,the winter of #ahgi-hj he spent with his mother at ,naumburg1 his old home2 but the climate and the uncongenial surroundings dragged down his health once more1 and it was not until toward the following spring1 when he went to ,venice1 that he regained even a semblance of his normal condition4 ,here he was in company with ,paul ,re and his life-long friend and disciple1 ,heinrich ,kselitz1 commonly known as ,peter ,gast4 ,nietzsche stayed at ,venice until ,october1 when he went to ,genoa4 ,the following year appeared ,the ,dawn of ,day1 his first book of constructive thinking4 ,the remainder of ,nietzsche's life up to the time of his final breakdown in ,january1 #ahhi1 was spent in a fruitless endeavour to regain his undermined health4 ,for eight years1 during all of which time he was busily engaged in writing1 he sought a climate that would revive him4 ,his summers were spent for the most part in the quiet solitude of ,sils-,maria1 a little ,swiss village to which the tourist rarely ventured4 ,in #ahhb he visited ,genoa and1 with ,paul ,re as companion1 made a trip to ,monaco4 ,this journey ended disastrously for his health1 and by his physician's order he made a trip to ,messina4 ,soon after he settled at ,grunewald1 near ,berlin2 but the place depressed him1 and we find him later in ,tautenburg4 ,again ,genoa claimed him for several months1 and then1 addicted to chloral1 and despondent1 he sought relief at ,rome4 ,but he could not stand the hot weather1 and again he visited ,sils-,maria1 where1 it seems1 he was for the time greatly improved4 ,in #ahhd1 we find him again at ,naumburg1 and a little later at ,nice and ,venice4 ,in the autumn of the same year1 he spent several weeks travelling with his sister in ,germany1 but at the approach of winter1 he proceeded to ,mentone4 ,in #ahhe he again sought the company of ,peter ,gast at ,venice1 and spent the larger part of that year and the next at ,venice and ,nice4 ,the lonely philosopher then paid a short visit to ,leipzig to be once again with his old friend ,rohde4 ,but the years had estranged them2 their views were now at opposites4 ,another of his few friends thus lost to him1 he immediately returned to ,nice4 ,the year #ahhf found him at the ,riviera1 and in #ahhg he was again at ,sils-,maria4 ,here he laboured incessantly1 travelling to both ,venice and ,nice in the meantime4 ,in the spring of #ahhh he changed his plans and went to ,turin4 ,then after his usual summer visit to ,sils-,maria1 he returned to ,turin1 where he remained until the fatal winter of #ahhh-hi4 ,nietzsche was rarely happy during his travels4 ,he was constantly ill and for the most part alone1 and this perturbed and restless period of his life resolved itself into a continuous struggle against melancholy and physical suffering4 ,during these eight years of solitary labour and futile seeking for health1 ,nietzsche had written ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra1 ,the ,joyful ,wisdom1 ,beyond ,good and ,evil1 ,the ,genealogy of ,morals1 ,the ,case of ,wagner1 ,the ,twilight of the ,idols1 ,the ,antichrist1 ,ecce ,homo ,nietzsche contra ,wagner1 and an enormous number of notes which were to constitute his final and great philosophical work1 ,the ,will to ,power4 ,the cold reception with which his books met tended to discourage him and to retard his physical recovery4 ,his ,zarathustra was as greatly misunderstood by the critics as had been his earlier volumes4 ,with the exception of ,burckhardt and ,taine1 the critics were unfavourable to ,beyond ,good and ,evil4 ,the ,genealogy of ,morals met with scarcely more friendly a reception1 and ,the ,case of ,wagner1 while arousing the ire of the ,wagnerians1 caused no comment of any kind in any other quarter4 ,the ,twilight of the ,idols appeared about the time of his breakdown1 and ,the ,antichrist and ,ecce ,homo were not published until long after his death4 ,the notes on ,the ,will to ,power have only recently been put together and issued4 ,the events during this period of ,nietzsche's career were few4 ,perhaps the most important was his meeting with ,miss ,lou ,salom4 ,but even this episode had small bearing on his life1 and has been unduly emphasised by biographers because of its isolation in an existence outwardly drab and uneventful4 ,it was while ,nietzsche was at ,tautenburg that ,paul ,re and another friend1 ,malvida von ,mysenburg1 hearing that he was in need of a secretary1 sent to him ,miss ,salom1 a young ,russian ,jewess4 ,that it would have been difficult to find a person less suited to the philosopher's needs was borne out by subsequent events4 ,according to some accounts ,nietzsche fell mildly in love with her1 and was upset and irritated by her aloofness4 ,but such a hypothesis is substantiated only by the flimsiest of evidence1 and1 when we take into consideration the temperamental gulf between these two people1 it is highly incredible that ,nietzsche had any desire to form an alliance with his amanuensis4 ,the truth of the matter probably is that the philosopher was sadly disappointed in his secretary--if not indeed disgusted with her--and1 in showing his regret1 piqued her to retaliation4 ,in fact1 we have a letter from ,nietzsche to the young lady which bears out this contention4 ,in any event1 we know that their companionship lasted but a short time and that ,miss ,salom wrote a most inept and unreliable book on ,nietzsche1 ,friedrich ,nietzsche in seinen ,werken published in ,vienna in #ahid4 ,the affair had other painful results4 ,re defended his protege1 and he and ,nietzsche became bitter enemies4 ,nietzsche's sister also was dragged into the episode1 and quarrelled with both ,re and ,miss ,salom4 ,shortly after this unpleasant event1 ,nietzsche1 urged by his sister1 made a half-hearted attempt to secure a professorship at the ,university of ,leipzig1 but negotiations for the post fell through1 due largely to ,nietzsche's own indifference in the matter4 ,soon after this the philosopher became estranged from his sister because of her intention to marry ,dr4 ,frster4 ,nietzsche's opposition to the marriage--an opposition which was supported by his mother--was due to several reasons4 ,first1 it would necessitate his sister leaving him and accompanying her husband to ,paraguay4 ,secondly1 it had been rumoured that ,dr4 ,frster had severely criticised his books4 ,and thirdly1 ,nietzsche had small respect for ,dr4 ,frster himself1 who was an impractical idealist and an anti-,semite4 ,however1 despite all the family protestations1 the marriage took place4 ,nietzsche was disappointed and brooded over the event1 but a year later he became reconciled with his sister1 and she remained1 to the end of his life1 his closest friend and companion4 ,in ,january1 #ahhi1 an apoplectic fit1 which rendered ,nietzsche unconscious for two days1 marked the beginning of the end4 ,his manner suddenly became alarming4 ,he exhibited numerous eccentricities1 so grave as to mean but one thing3 his mind was seriously affected4 ,there has long been a theory extant that his insanity was of gradual growth4 ,nordau holds that he was unbalanced from birth4 ,but there is no evidence to substantiate these two theories4 ,for seven years ,nietzsche's physical condition had been improving1 and his mind up to the end of #ahhh was perfectly clear and gave no indication of what his end would be4 ,during this period his books were thought out in his most clarified manner2 in all his intercourse with his friends he was restrained and normal2 and his voluminous correspondence showed no change either in sentiment or in tone4 ,the theory advanced in some quarters that his books1 and especially his later ones1 were the work of a madman1 is entirely without foundation4 ,his insanity was sudden2 it came without warning2 and it is puerile to point to his state of mind during the last years of his life as a criticism of his work4 ,his books must stand or fall on internal evidence--and on nothing else4 ,judged from that standpoint they are scrupulously sane4 ,the direct cause of ,nietzsche's mental breakdown is not known4 ,as a matter of fact1 there was probably no direct cause4 ,it was due to a number of influences--his excessive use of chloral which he took for insomnia1 the tremendous strain to which he put his intellect1 his constant disappointments and deprivations1 his mental solitude1 his prolonged physical suffering4 ,we know little of his last days before he went insane4 ,he was living alone in ,turin and working desperately4 ,then suddenly to ,professor ,burckhardt at ,ble he wrote a letter which was obviously the work of a madman4 ,i am ,ferdinand de ,lesseps1 he wrote4 ,i am ,prado4 ,i am ,schambige4#a ,i have been buried twice this autumn4 ,this was the first indication of his insanity4 ,immediately after he wrote a similar letter to his old friend1 ,professor ,overbeck4 ,other of ,nietzsche's friends received disquieting and indecipherable notes4 ,to ,georg ,brandes he sent a letter signed ,the ,crucified4 ,to ,peter ,gast he wrote1 ,sing me a new song4 ,the world is clear and all the skies rejoice4 ,to ,cosima ,wagner3 ,ariadne1 ,i love you4 ,there was now no doubt of his condition4 ,overbeck went immediately to ,turin4 ,he found the philosopher playing wildly on the piano1 and crying blasphemies to the empty room4 ,nietzsche was taken back to ,ble1 and then placed in a private psychiatric institution at ,jena4 ,here he stayed until the following spring when he was permitted to be taken to the home of his mother at ,naumburg4 ,it was three years later that his sister returned from ,paraguay1 where her husband had died1 and ,nietzsche was sufficiently recovered to meet her when she arrived4 ,but though he lived for another seven years1 his mind was irretrievably ruined4 ,when his mother died in #ahig1 his sister removed him to a villa at ,weimar4 ,there on a great veranda1 overlooking the hills and the river valley1 he remained until the end1 receiving a few of his friends and taking his old delight in music4 ,his sister watched over him tenderly1 and though he was never strong enough to resume work1 he would often talk of his books4 ,when shown a portrait of ,wagner1 he said1 ,him ,i loved dearly4 ,he was all tenderness toward the end4 ,the mighty yea-sayer had become as a little child4 ,elizabeth1 he would say1 do not cry4 ,are we not happy8 ,nietzsche died on the #beth of ,august1 #aijj1 and was buried at ,rcken1 his native village4 ,footnote #a3 ,schambige and ,prado were two assassins whose exploits were then occupying the ,french journals4 ,,ii ,human1 ,all-,too-,human ,volumes ,i and ,,ii ,human1 ,all-,too-,human 7,menschliches ,allzu ,menschliches7 was first published in #ahgh4 ,previous to this time ,nietzsche had devoted himself to a sedulous study of the ,french philosophers--,pascal1 ,la ,rochefoucauld1 ,vanergues1 ,montaigne and others--and these men influenced him in his selection of the aphoristic style as a medium for his thoughts4 ,his serious illness at the time made it impossible for him to attempt any large and co-ordinated philosophical task which would have required sustained thinking and continual physical labour1 and the detached manner of writing employed by the ,french thinkers fitted in with the intermittent manner in which he was necessitated to work4 ,miscellaneous ,maxims and ,opinions1 the second part of ,human1 ,all-,too-,human1 appeared the following year2 and ,the ,wanderer and his ,shadow1 the third section1 was made public in #ahhj4 ,six years later these three parts were put together in two volumes under the caption of the original book1 and were subtitled ,a ,book of ,free ,spirits4 ,at that time ,nietzsche already had numerous writings to his credit4 ,the ,birth of ,tragedy 7,die ,geburt der ,tragdie7 was composed between #ahfi and #ahga1 and issued in ,january1 #ahgb4 ,it was a treatise on pessimism and ,hellenism1 and in it ,nietzsche endeavoured to ascertain the origin of ,greek tragedy4 ,in his research he passed over many of the lesser philological discussions which were then occupying the minds of his academic confrres1 and1 mild as was this first published work of his1 he suddenly found himself the centre of a discussion which augured ill for his future at the ,university of ,ble4 ,in this book he undertook to explain the constant conflict between the ,apollonian and ,dionysian ideals1 and defined the differences underlying these two great influences in ,greek art4 ,later in his writings we find him applying the theories stated in ,the ,birth of ,tragedy to all human transactions4 ,on the ,future of our ,educational ,institutions and ,homer and ,classical ,philology1 contained in one volume1 were addresses delivered during ,nietzsche's professorship of classical philology at ,ble ,university4 ,in these lectures he pointed out the necessity of protecting the man of genius1 and denied the existence of actual culture in the educational institutions of modern ,germany1 holding that true culture is only for the higher type of man4 ,he made a plea for an institution where genuine culture1 founded on the ideals of ancient ,greece1 would be harboured for the few who would devote their lives to it4 ,here unquestionably was the faint beginning of his conception of the superman4 ,while these lectures dealt only with the educational institutions of ,germany1 the criticisms in them may nevertheless be applied in a broader sense to the general principles underlying all schools4 ,this book is the first visible step in the development of his thought4 ,more evidences of what was to come later are found in a series of essays written during the early seventies1 which are now published under the general caption of ,early ,greek ,philosophy and ,other ,essays4 ,the seven essays contained in this volume are3 ,the ,greek ,state 7#ahga71 in which he attacked the modern conception of labour1 and advanced a brief for slavery based on the assumption that without it true culture cannot exist2 ,the ,greek ,woman 7#ahga71 an outline of ,nietzsche's ideal of woman2 ,on ,music and ,words 7#ahga71 an analysis of the origins of music and language and a statement of the functions of each2 ,homer's ,contest 7#ahgb71 a comparison of the ancient and modern individualistic strife1 in which was pointed out the necessity of competition in any successful commonwealth2 ,the ,relation of ,schopenhauer's ,philosophy to a ,german ,culture 7#ahgb71 a gay attack upon certain phases of ,german philistinism1 with the suggestion that ,schopenhauer's philosophy would prove an excellent counter-irritant2 ,philosophy ,during the ,tragic ,age of the ,greeks 7#ahgc71 a brilliant account and exposition of those ,greek thinkers who preceded ,socrates2 and ,on ,truth and ,falsity in their ,ultramoral ,sense 7#ahgc71 a rhapsodic refutation of the theory of absolute truth1 in which we find many denials of the values attached to current conventions4 ,these denials we are constantly meeting in the major part of ,nietzsche's later work4 ,in ,volume ,i of ,thoughts ,out of ,season we find two essays3 ,david ,strauss1 the ,confessor and ,writer 7written in #ahgc71 and ,richard ,wagner at ,bayreuth 7written during the close of #ahge and at the beginning of #ahgf74 ,the first essay is an attack upon an ex-clerical who set up a philosopher's shop in ,nietzsche's day and succeeded in sufficiently inflaming the popular mind to secure for himself a wide and ardent following4 ,nietzsche1 angered by the effect that ,strauss's sophistries had upon the ,german mind1 undertook to answer them and show up their spuriousness4 ,in the essay on ,richard ,wagner1 ,nietzsche praised the composer in no uncertain terms1 hailing him as a saviour of mankind through the medium of the drama4 ,nietzsche thought he saw in ,wagner a kindred spirit1 a man free from the narrow dictates of his time1 one capable of establishing a new order of things in the realm of art4 ,subsequently the philosopher turned against ,wagner and denounced him bitterly for his anti-,hellenic tendencies4 ,volume ,,ii of ,thoughts out of ,season contains ,the ,use and ,abuse of ,history and ,schopenhauer as ,educator1 both written in #ahgd4 ,in the first of these essays ,nietzsche attacked the study of history which was then the foremost educational fad in ,germany4 ,he denied it a place in the curriculum of culture unless it had for its foundation a profound knowledge of the causes of history4 ,also in this essay he made a plea for the individualistic interpretation of history1 arguing that the events founded on the activities of majorities are useless to a true understanding of the fundamentals of racial development4 ,here again we encounter the foreshadowing of the philosophy of the superman4 ,nietzsche paid high tribute to ,schopenhauer in his essay ,schopenhauer as ,educator4 ,without subscribing unqualifiedly to all the doctrines of the great pessimist1 he nevertheless allied himself philosophically with ,schopenhauer's theory that all logic is an outgrowth of the law of self-preservation4 ,in the autumn of #ahgd ,nietzsche wrote a series of brief comments dealing with the subject of education4 ,these paragraphs contain about #bj1jjj words1 and were to have constituted1 when completed1 the fifth part of ,thoughts ,out of ,season4 ,he never finished them1 however1 and they were not published until after his death4 ,these fragments appear1 under the caption of ,we ,philologists1 at the end of the volume entitled ,the ,case of ,wagner4 ,we ,philologists is a protest against the manner in which classical culture was promulgated in the universities4 ,it offers a stinging criticism of those ,german professors1 the philologists1 to whom was entrusted the duty of disseminating ,greek cultural ideals1 and in addition presents a concise outline of what genuine ,hellenic culture should consist4 ,nietzsche protests against the filtering of pagan antiquity through ,christian doctrines--the method of teaching then in vogue--and insists that such a form of education entirely misses its aim4 ,although ,we ,philologists is comparatively of small value to the student of ,nietzsche's later philosophy1 it is interesting to note that as early as #ahgd1 his anti-,christian spirit was already well defined4 ,the four essays contained in the two volumes of ,thoughts out of ,season and ,we ,philologists were the first of an intended series of pamphlets to be called ,unzeitgemsse ,betrachtungen#a but the series was never finished4 ,however1 the ,nietzschean philosophical ideas had unquestionably begun to take definite form4 ,already there had been attempts at idealistic and moralistic valuations4 ,there had also been a considerable amount of that preliminary analysis which was to form a foundation for the destructive and constructive thoughts of later years4 ,in these essays ,nietzsche had already begun to strike his bearings1 and while they cannot be taken as a part of his philosophical scheme1 they nevertheless form an excellent introduction for those students who care to go behind the final expression of his ideas and behold them in embryo4 ,human1 ,all-,too-,human1 following two years later1 came as a distinct surprise even to ,nietzsche's most intimate friends3 ,wagner especially was horrified at the heresies contained in it4 ,there had not been sufficient indications in his earlier writings for one to predict so devastating an arraignment of modern life as was contained in this work4 ,it was a departure1 not only in thought but also in manner1 from all else he had written4 ,the conventional essay form had been set aside for an aphoristic style4 ,here we find a series of paragraphs varying in length from a few lines to a page or more1 each dealing with a separate and syllogistically detached idea4 ,the epigram1 which was to play such an important part in all of ,nietzsche's writings1 is also found in abundance4 ,the form in which these two volumes are cast gives the effect of a man felling a giant tree with a thousand blows of an axe1 as distinguished from the method of the man who saws it down gradually and continuously4 ,despite its muscular and incisive qualities1 the manner of this work is calm4 ,as a whole it is an excellent example of those writings which ,nietzsche himself has called ,apollonian4 ,at times one even feels a tentativeness in its utterances not unlike that which attaches to the steps a man takes in a region he knows to be full of quicksands4 ,in this regard it is interesting to note how a certain insecurity at the beginning of the work1 which manifests itself in ultra-obscure passages1 later gives way to a clarity and humour indicative of almost wanton temerity4 ,in this book ,nietzsche passes from the academician to the iconoclast4 ,he bridges the chasm from the doctor of philology to the independent thinker4 ,it is the record of the psychological transition of his mind2 and this record is evident in both his outlook and his habits of expression4 ,nietzsche1 at his birth as a thinker1 presents himself as an arch-nihilist4 ,he realised the necessity of destroying the universe before an understanding of it was possible1 and so the two volumes of ,human1 ,all-,too-,human are almost entirely destructive4 ,in this work we have ,nietzsche the trail-blazer1 the incendiary1 the idol-smasher1 the pessimist1 the devastator4 ,one by one the doctrines and tenets1 strengthened by the accumulative acceptance of centuries1 go down before his bludgeon4 ,piece by piece the universe of reality is neutralised by his analyses4 ,every human transaction1 every phase of human hope and aspiration1 is reduced to negation4 ,ancient and modern cultures are dissected unsparingly4 ,political systems are stripped of their integuments and their origins exposed4 ,new valuations are attached to the great artists and writers4 ,many of ,nietzsche's most famous definitions grow out of the ruthless inquests he makes in this work4 ,this uncompassionate clearing away of accepted values prepared the way for the books which were to come4 ,once having ascertained the foundation on which human actions are built1 the path was clear for reconstruction and reorganisation4 ,human1 ,all-,too-,human1 then1 was the first indirect voicing of ,nietzsche's philosophy4 ,all else had been mere skirmishing with ideas4 ,only vaguely and desultorily had his opinions been heretofore voiced4 ,his analysis of history1 his criticisms of ancient and modern thought1 had actually pried away the superficial manifestations of existence and given him that insight into the undercurrents of causation which was later to inspire him in his work4 ,for this reason we are more conscious of the man than of the philosopher when reading the series of aphorisms which constitute the main body of this document4 ,human1 ,all-,too-,human is in the main an inquiry into the fundamental reasons for human conduct4 ,nietzsche devotes his efforts to showing that ideals1 when pushed to their final analysis1 reveal a basis in human need4 ,especially does he concern himself with the causes underlying current moral doctrines4 ,he points out that there is no static and absolute morality1 but that all moral codes are systems of deportment founded on human conditions in accordance with the environmental needs of a people4 ,from this he states the corollary that all morality is subject to alteration1 amendment and abrogation4 ,he asserts the relativity of the terms good and evil1 and denies the justice of any final criticism of right and wrong as applied to any human action4 ,from this ,nietzsche deduces the formula which is at the bottom of all individualistic philosophy1 namely3 that what is immoral for one man is moral for another1 and that the application of any moral code is undesirable for the reason that no system of conduct can apply alike to all men4 ,thus any attempt on the part of any one man to direct the actions of any other man is in itself an immorality1 because it is an attempt to hinder and retard the development of the individual4 ,it must not be thought that ,nietzsche's arrival at this conclusion is a direct and simple affair based on superficial observation4 ,nor is it in itself the end for which he strives4 ,to the contrary1 the conclusion is stated mainly by inference4 ,the work he lays out for himself is one of analysis1 and under his critical scalpel fall religions1 political institutions and nations1 as well as individuals4 ,wherever he finds a belief whose origin is considered divine1 he tears away its surface characteristics and inquires into it4 ,in every instance he finds a human ground for it4 ,going still further1 he points out that all institutions1 in order to meet the constantly fluctuating conditions of society1 must subject themselves to change4 ,a multiplicity of themes comes under ,nietzsche's observation in this work4 ,not only is there a great deal of abstract reasoning but also a vast amount of brilliant and penetrating criticism of men and art4 ,ancient and modern philosophers1 novelists1 poets1 musicians1 dramatists1 as well as theories of art1 literature and music1 here come under his careful and acute analysis4 ,there are passages of startling poetry interpolated between paragraphs of cynical and destructive research4 ,nietzsche reveals himself as a scholar1 the philologist1 the historian and the scientist1 as well as the thinker4 ,the amount of general knowledge he displays in nearly every line of human endeavour is astonishing4 ,in his most elaborate processes of ratiocination he is always capable of adhering to authenticated facts4 ,he never side-steps into the purely metaphysical or denies the existence of corporeality once it has been assumed as a hypothesis4 ,he breaks once and for all with the metaphysicians and word-jugglers4 ,denying all reason in the ,kantian sense1 he is always scrupulously reasonable4 ,although no direct philosophical doctrines are propounded in ,human1 ,all-,too-,human1 ,nietzsche had undoubtedly outlined in his mind the constructive works which were to come later4 ,however1 in reading this work one finds but little indication--and that only obscurely hinted at--of the transvaluation of values which was to follow the devaluation4 ,we have no hint1 for instance1 of the doctrine of the superman other than an implied ideal of an intellectual aristocracy which will permit of the highest development2 of the individual4 ,evolution beyond the present is mentioned but indirectly4 ,the future1 to this destructive ,nietzsche1 is non-existent4 ,his eyes are continually turned toward the past and they shift no further than the present4 ,only through implication is the ,hellenic ideal voiced1 and then it is with a certain degree of speculation as to its efficacy in meeting the demands of the modern man4 ,greek culture is used largely as a means of comparison1 or as an arbitrary premise of his dialectic4 ,the doctrine of eternal recurrence1 which was to form one of the bases of ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra1 is not even suggested4 ,the will to power1 the anti-,schopenhauerian doctrine1 which is the framework on which all of ,nietzsche's constructive thinking is hung1 was1 at the time of his writing ,human1 ,all-,too-,human1 a hypothesis1 vague and undeveloped4 ,human1 ,all-,too-,human is the first work of ,nietzsche one should read4 ,in reality it is an elaborate introduction to his later works4 ,in his following book1 ,the ,dawn of ,day1 comes the birth of his philosophy2 it is the first real battle in his righteous warfare1 the first great blasphemous assault upon the accepted order of things4 ,but it cannot be readily understood or appreciated unless we have prepared ourselves for it4 ,the selection of the passages from the present two volumes has been extremely difficult1 due to their multiplicity of themes and to the heterogeneity of their treatment4 ,it is impossible to create a convincing effect of a razed forest by presenting a picture of an occasional fallen tree4 ,herein has lain my chief difficulty4 ,i have been able to show only sections of the destruction of human values which ,nietzsche here accomplishes4 ,furthermore1 it has been impossible to give any very adequate idea of the vast amount of brilliant criticism of men and art which is to be encountered in these two volumes4 ,all this must be got direct4 ,it has been possible only to suggest it here4 ,those portions of the books which ,i have been able to comprehend in these excerpts are necessarily limited to ,nietzsche's more important destructive conclusions4 ,footnote #a3 ,inopportune ,speculations4 ,,excerpts ,,from ,,human1 ,,all-,,too-,,human ,everything essential in human development happened in pre-historic times1 long before those four thousand years which we know something of4444 #a1 #ae ,everything has evolved2 there are no eternal facts1 as there are likewise no absolute truths4 #a1 #ae ,it is probable that the objects of religious1 moral1 sthetic and logical sentiment likewise belong only to the surface of things1 while man willingly believes that here1 at least1 he has touched the heart of the world4444 #a1 #ag ,nothing could be said of the metaphysical world but that it would be a different condition1 a condition inaccessible and incomprehensible to us2 it would be a thing of negative qualities4 ,were the existence of such a world ever so well proved1 the fact would nevertheless remain that it would be precisely the most irrelevant of all forms of knowledge4444 #a1 #ba-bb ,belief in the freedom of the will is an original error of everything organic1 as old as the existence of the awakenings of logic in it2 the belief in unconditioned substances and similar things is equally a primordial as well as an old error of everything organic4 #a1 #cc ,a degree of culture1 and assuredly a very high one1 is attained when man rises above superstitious and religious notions and fears1 and1 for instance1 no longer believes in guardian angels or in original sin1 and has also ceased to talk of the salvation of his soul1--if he has attained to this degree of freedom1 he has still also to overcome metaphysics with the greatest exertion of his intelligence4 #a1 #ce ,away with those wearisomely hackneyed terms ,optimism and ,pessimism6444 ,we must get rid of both the calumniating and the glorifying conception of the world4 #a1 #dc-dd ,error has made man so deep1 sensitive1 and inventive that he has put forth such blossoms as religions and arts4 ,pure knowledge could not have been capable of it4 #a1 #dd-de ,the usual false conclusions of mankind are these3 a thing exists1 therefore it has a right to exist4 ,here there is inference from the ability to live to its suitability2 from its suitability to its rightfulness4 ,then3 an opinion brings happiness2 therefore it is the true opinion4 ,its effect is good2 therefore it is itself good and true4 #a1 #de ,every belief in the value and worthiness of life is based on vitiated thought2 it is only possible through the fact that sympathy for the general life and suffering of mankind is very weakly developed in the individual4 #a1 #dg-dh ,science 444 has no consideration for ultimate purposes1 any more than ,nature has1 but just as the latter occasionally achieves things of the greatest suitableness without intending to do so1 so also true science1 as the imitator of nature in ideas1 will occasionally and in many ways further the usefulness and welfare of man1--but also without intending to do so4 #a1 #eh ,all single actions are called good or bad without any regard to their motives1 but only on account of the useful or injurious consequences which result for the community4 ,but soon the origin of these distinctions is forgotten1 and it is deemed that the qualities good or bad are contained in the action itself without regard to its consequences4444 #a1 #ei ,the hierarchy of possessions 444 is not fixed and equal at all times2 if any one prefers vengeance to justice he is moral according to the standard of an earlier civilisation1 but immoral according to the present one4 #a1 #fc ,people who are cruel nowadays must be accounted for by us as the grades of earlier civilisations which have survived4444 #a1 #fc ,certainly we should exhibit pity1 but take good care not to feel it1 for the unfortunate are so stupid that to them the exhibition of pity is the greatest good in the world4 #a1 #fh ,the thirst for pity is the thirst for self-gratification4444 #a1 #fi ,there must be self-deception in order that this and that may produce great effects4 ,for men believe in the truth of everything that is visibly1 strongly believed in4 #a1 #ga ,one of the commonest mistakes is this3 because some one is truthful and honest towards us1 he must speak the truth4 #a1 #ga ,why do people mostly speak the truth in daily life8444 ,because 444 the path of compulsion and authority is surer than that of cunning4 #a1gb ,one may promise actions1 but no sentiments1 for these are involuntary4 #a1gf ,our crime against criminals lies in the fact that we treat them like rascals4 #a1gi ,every virtue has its privileges2 for example1 that of contributing its own little fagot to the scaffold of every condemned man4 #a1 #hj ,why do we over-estimate love to the disadvantage of justice1 and say the most beautiful things about it1 as if it were something very much higher than the latter8 ,is it not visibly more stupid than justice8 ,certainly1 but precisely for that reason all the pleasanter for every one4 #a1 #ha ,hope1--in reality 444 is the worst of all evils1 because it prolongs the torments of man4 #a1 #hb ,one will seldom go wrong if one attributes extreme actions to vanity1 average ones to habit1 and petty ones to fear4 #a1 #hc ,religion is rich in excuses to reply to the demand for suicide1 and thus it ingratiates itself with those who wish to cling to life4 #a1 #he-hf ,the injustice of the powerful1 which1 more than anything else1 rouses indignation in history1 is by no means so great as it appears4444 ,one unconsciously takes it for granted that doer and sufferer think and feel alike1 and according to this supposition we measure the guilt of the one by the pain of the other4 #a1 #hf-hg ,when virtue has slept1 it will arise again all the fresher4 #a1 #hg ,what a great deal of pleasure morality gives6 ,only think what a sea of pleasant tears has been shed over descriptions of noble and unselfish deeds6 ,this charm of life would vanish if the belief in absolute irresponsibility ,were to obtain supremacy4 #a1 #ij ,justice 7equity7 has its origin amongst powers which are fairly equal4444 ,the character of exchange is the primary character of justice4444 ,because man1 according to his intellectual custom1 has forgotten the original purpose of so-called just and reasonable actions1 and particularly because for hundreds of years children have been taught to admire and imitate such actions1 the idea has gradually arisen that such an action is un-egoistic2 upon this idea1 however1 is based the high estimation in which it is held4444 #a1 #ij-ia ,the feeling of pleasure on the basis of human relations generally makes man better2 joy in common1 pleasure enjoyed together is increased1 it gives the individual security1 makes him good-tempered1 and dispels mistrust and envy1 for we feel ourselves at ease and see others at ease4 ,similar manifestations of pleasure awaken the idea of the same sensations1 the feeling of being like something2 a like effect is produced by common sufferings1 the same bad weather1 dangers1 enemies4 ,upon this foundation is based the oldest alliance1 the object of which is the mutual obviating and averting of a threatening danger for the benefit of each individual4 ,and thus the social instinct grows out of pleasure4 #a1 #ig ,the aim of malice is not the suffering of others in itself1 but our own enjoyment4444 #a1 #ajb ,if self-defence is allowed to pass as moral1 then almost all manifestations of the so-called immoral egoism must also stand4444 #a1 #ajd ,he who is punished does not deserve the punishment1 he is only used as a means of henceforth warning away from certain actions2 equally so1 he who is rewarded does not merit this reward1 he could not act otherwise than he did4 #a1 #aje ,between good and evil actions there is no difference of species1 but at most of degree4 ,good actions are sublimated evil ones2 evil actions are vulgarised and stupefied good ones4 #a1 #ajh ,the religious cult is based upon the representations of sorcery between man and man4444 #a1 #aba ,christianity 444 oppressed man and crushed him utterly1 sinking him as if in deep mire2 then into the feeling of absolute depravity it suddenly threw the light of divine mercy1 so that the surprised man1 dazzled by forgiveness1 gave a cry of joy and for a moment believed that he bore all heaven within himself4 #a1 #abd ,people to whom their daily life appears too empty and monotonous easily grow religious2 this is comprehensible and excusable1 only they have no right to demand religious sentiments from those whose daily life is not empty and monotonous4 #a1 #abe ,no man ever did a thing which was done only for others and without any personal motive4444 #a1 #acd ,in every ascetic morality man worships one part of himself as a ,god1 and is obliged1 therefore1 to diabolise the other parts4 #a1 #adj ,what is it that we long for at the sight of beauty8 ,we long to be beautiful1 we fancy it must bring much happiness with it4 ,but that is a mistake4 #a1 #aef ,there is an art of the ugly soul side by side with the art of the beautiful soul4444 #a1 #aeg ,artists of representation are especially held to be possessed of genius1 but not scientific men4 ,in reality1 however1 the former valuation and the latter under-valuation are only puerilities of reason4 #a1 #aff-afg ,a good author possesses not only his own intellect1 but also that of his friends4 #a1 #agh ,to look upon writing as a regular profession should justly be regarded as a form of madness4 #a1 #aha ,a conversation with a friend will only bear good fruit of knowledge when both think only of the matter under consideration and forget that they are friends4 #a1 #ahc ,complete praise has a weakening effect4 #a1 #ahd ,there will always be a need of bad authors2 for they meet the taste of readers of an undeveloped1 immature age4444 #a1 #ahe ,the born aristocrats of the mind are not in too much of a hurry2 their creations appear and fall from the tree on some quiet autumn evening1 without being rashly desired1 instigated1 or pushed aside by new matter4 ,the unceasing desire to create is vulgar1 and betrays envy1 jealousy1 and ambition4 ,if a man is something1 it is not really necessary for him to do anything--and yet he does a great deal4 ,there is a human species higher even than the productive man4444 #a1 #ahi ,deviating natures are of the utmost importance wherever there is to be progress4 ,every wholesale progress must be preceded by a partial weakening4 ,the strongest natures retain the type1 the weaker ones help it to develop4 #a1 #bjh ,in the knowledge of truth1 what really matters is the possession of it1 not the impulse under which it was sought1 the way in which it was found4 #a1 #baj ,the fettered spirit does not take up his position from conviction1 but from habit2 he is a ,christian1 for instance1 not because he had a comprehension of different creeds and could take his choice2 he is an ,englishman1 not because he decided for ,england1 but he found ,christianity and ,england ready-made and accepted them without any reason1 just as one who is born in a wine-country becomes a wine-drinker4 #a1 #baa ,the restriction of views1 which habit has made instinct1 leads to what is called strength of character4 #a1 #bab-bac ,the highest intelligence and the warmest heart cannot exist together in one person1 and the wise man who passes judgment upon life looks beyond goodness and only regards it as something which is not without value in the general summing-up of life4 ,the wise man must oppose those digressive wishes of unintelligent goodness1 because he has an interest in the continuance of his type and in the eventual appearance of the highest intellect2 at least1 he will not advance the founding of the perfect ,state1 inasmuch as there is only room in it for wearied individuals4 #a1 #bah-bai ,interest in ,education will acquire great strength only from the moment when belief in a ,god and ,his care is renounced4444 ,an education that no longer believes in miracles must pay attention to three things3 first1 how much energy is inherited8 secondly1 by what means can new energy be aroused8 thirdly1 how can the individual be adapted to so many and manifold claims of culture without being disquieted and destroying his personality1--in short1 how can the individual be initiated into the counterpoint of private and public culture1 how can he lead the melody and at the same time accompany it4 #a1 #bbd-bbe ,a higher culture must give man a double brain1 two brain-chambers1 so to speak1 one to feel science and the other to feel non-science1 which can lie side by side1 without confusion1 divisible1 exclusive2 this is a necessity of health4 ,in one part lies the source of strength1 in the other lies the regulator2 it must be heated with illusions1 onesidednesses1 passions2 and the malicious and dangerous consequences of overheating must be averted by the help of conscious ,science4 #a1 #bcb ,simultaneous things hold together1 it is said4 ,a relative dies far away1 and at the same time we dream about him1--,consequently6 ,but countless relatives die and we do not dream about them4444 ,this species of superstition is found again in a refined form in historians and delineators of culture1 who usually have a kind of hydrophobic horror of all that senseless mixture1 in which individual and national life is so rich4 #a1 #bce ,it is true that in the spheres of higher culture there must always be a supremacy1 but henceforth this supremacy lies in the hands of the oligarchs of the mind4 ,in spite of local and political separation they form a cohesive society1 whose members recognise and acknowledge each other1 whatever public opinion and the verdicts of review and newspaper writers who influence the masses may circulate in favour of or against them4 ,mental superiority1 which formerly divided and embittered1 nowadays generally unites4 444 ,oligarchs are necessary to each other1 they are each other's best joy1 they understand their signs1 but each is nevertheless free1 he fights and conquers in his place and perishes rather than submit4 #a1 #bdc ,the greatest advance that men have made lies in their acquisition of the art to reason rightly4 #a1 #bdi-bej ,the strength and weakness of mental productiveness depend far less on inherited talents than on the accompanying amount of elasticity4 #a1 #bej ,whoever1 in the present day1 still derives his development from religious sentiments1 and perhaps lives for some length of time afterwards in metaphysics and art1 has assuredly gone back a considerable distance and begins his race with other modern men under unfavourable conditions2 he apparently loses time and space4 ,but because he stays in those domains where ardour and energy are liberated and force flows continuously as a volcanic stream out of an inexhaustible source1 he goes forward all the more quickly as soon as he has freed himself at the right moment from those dominators4444 #a1 #beb ,whoever wishes to reap happiness and comfort in life should always avoid higher culture4 #a1 #bee-bej ,all mankind is divided1 as it was at all times and is still1 into slaves and freemen2 for whoever has not two-thirds of his day for himself is a slave4444 #a1 #bei ,if idleness is really the beginning of all vice1 it finds itself1 therefore1 at least in near neighbourhood of all the virtues2 the idle man is still a better man than the active4 ,you do not suppose that in speaking of idleness and idlers ,i am alluding to you1 you sluggards8 #a1 #bfj ,i believe that every one must have his own opinion about everything concerning which opinions are possible1 because he himself is a peculiar1 unique thing1 which assumes towards all other things a new and never hitherto existing attitude4 #a1 #bfj-bfa ,whoever earnestly desires to be free will therewith and without any compulsion lose all inclination for faults and vices2 he will also be more rarely overcome by anger and vexation4 #a1 #bfa-bfb ,you must have loved religion and art as you loved mother and nurse1--otherwise you cannot be wise4 ,but you must be able to see beyond them1 to outgrow them2 if you remain under their ban you do not understand them4 #a1 #bfd ,the rage for equality may so manifest itself that we seek either to draw all others down to ourselves 7by belittling1 disregarding1 and tripping up71 or ourselves and all others upwards 7by recognition1 assistance1 and congratulation74 #a1 #bfh ,we set no special value on the possession of a virtue until we perceive that it is entirely lacking in our adversary4 #a1 #bfi ,we forget our pretensions when we are always conscious of being amongst meritorious people2 being alone implants presumption in us4 ,the young are pretentious1 for they associate with their equals1 who are all ciphers but would fain have a great significance4 #a1 #bga ,in warring against stupidity1 the most just and gentle of men at last become brutal4 ,they are thereby1 perhaps1 taking the proper course for defence2 for the most appropriate argument for a stupid brain is the clenched fist4 ,but because1 as has been said1 their character is just and gentle1 they suffer more by this means of protection than they injure their opponents by it4 #a1 #bhd ,the perfect woman is a higher type of humanity than the perfect man1 and also something much rarer4 #a1 #bie ,every one bears within him an image of woman1 inherited from his mother3 it determines his attitude towards woman as a whole1 whether to honour1 despise1 or remain generally indifferent to them4 #a1 #bie-bif ,mothers are readily jealous of the friends of sons who are particularly successful4 ,as a rule mother loves herself in her son more than the son4 #a1 #bif ,if married couples did not live together1 happy marriages would be more frequent4 #a1 #bih ,as a rule women love a distinguished man to the extent that they wish to possess him exclusively4 ,they would gladly keep him under lock and key1 if their vanity did not forbid1 but vanity demands that he should also appear distinguished before others4 #a1 #bii ,those girls who mean to trust exclusively to their youthful charms for their provision in life1 and whose cunning is further prompted by worldly mothers1 have just the same aims as courtesans1 only they are wiser and less honest4 #a1 #cjj ,for goodness' sake let us not give our classical education to girls6 #a1 #cja ,the intellect of woman manifests itself as perfect mastery1 presence of mind1 and utilisation of all advantages4 ,they transmit it as a fundamental quality to their children1 and the father adds thereto the darker background of the will4 ,his influence determines as it were the rhythm and harmony with which the new life is to be performed2 but its melody is derived from the mother4 ,for those who know how to put a thing properly3 women have intelligence1 men have character and passion4 ,this does not contradict the fact that men actually achieve so much more with their intelligence3 they have deeper and more powerful impulses2 and it is these which carry their understanding 7in itself something passive7 to such an extent4 ,women are often silently surprised at the great respect men pay to their character4 ,when1 therefore1 in the choice of a partner men seek specially for a being of deep and strong character1 and women for a being of intelligence1 brilliancy1 and presence of mind1 it is plain that at bottom men seek for the ideal man1 and women for the ideal woman1--consequently not for the complement but for the completion of their own excellence4 #a1 #cjb-cjc4 ,it is a sign of women's wisdom that they have almost always known how to get themselves supported1 like drones in a bee-hive4 ,let us just consider what this meant originally1 and why men do not depend upon women for their support4 ,of a truth it is because masculine vanity and reverence are greater than feminine wisdom2 for women have known how to secure for themselves by their subordination the greatest advantage1 in fact1 the upper hand4 ,even the care of children may originally have been used by the wisdom of women as an excuse for withdrawing themselves as much as possible from work4 ,and at present they still understand when they are really active 7as housekeepers1 for instance7 how to make a bewildering fuss about it1 so that the merit of their activity is usually ten times over-estimated by men4 #a1 #cjc ,marriage is a necessary institution for the twenties2 a useful1 but not necessary1 institution for the thirties2 for later life it is often harmful1 and promotes the mental deterioration of the man4 #a1 #cjh ,marriage regarded in its highest aspect1 as the spiritual friendship of two persons of opposite sexes1 and accordingly such as is hoped for in future1 contracted for the purpose of producing and educating a new generation1--such marriage1 which only makes use of the sensual1 so to speak1 as a rare and occasional means to a higher purpose1 will1 it is to be feared1 probably need a natural auxiliary1 namely1 concubinage4 ,for if1 on the grounds of his health1 the wife is also to serve1 for the sole satisfaction of the man's sexual needs1 a wrong perspective1 opposed to the aims indicated1 will have most influence in the choice of a wife4 ,the aims referred to3 the production of descendants1 will be accidental1 and their successful education highly improbable4 #a1 #cji ,we always lose through too familiar association with women and friends2 and sometimes we lose the pearl of of our life thereby4 #a1 #cab ,women always intrigue privately against the higher souls of their husbands2 they want to cheat them out of their future for the sake of a painless and comfortable present4 #a1 #cae ,it is laughable when a company of paupers decree the abolition of the right of inheritance1 and it is not less laughable when childless persons labour for the practical law-giving of a country3 they have not enough ballast in their ship to sail safely over the ocean of the future4 ,but it seems equally senseless if a man who has chosen for his mission the widest knowledge and estimation of universal existence1 burdens himself with personal considerations of a family1 with the support1 protection1 and care of wife and child1 and in front of his telescope hangs that gloomy veil through which hardly a ray from the distant firmament can penetrate4 ,thus #a1 too1 agree with the opinion that in matters of the highest philosophy all married men are to be suspected4 #a1 #caf ,a higher culture can only originate where there are two distinct castes of society3 that of the working class1 and that of the leisured class who are capable of true leisure2 or1 more strongly expressed1 the caste of compulsory labour and the caste of free labour4 #a1 #cai ,against war it may be said that it makes the victor stupid and the vanquished revengeful4 ,in favour of war it may be said that it barbarises in both its above-named results1 and thereby makes more natural2 it is the sleep or the winter period of culture2 man emerges from it with greater strength for good and for evil4 #a1 #cbb ,as regards ,socialism1 in the eyes of those who always consider higher utility1 if it is really a rising against their oppressors of those who for centuries have been oppressed and downtrodden1 there is no problem of right involved 7notwithstanding the ridiculous1 effeminate question1 ,how far ought we to grant its demands87 but only a problem of power 7,how far can we make use of its demands87 #a1 #cbb ,well may noble 7if not exactly very intelligent7 representatives of the governing classes asseverate3 ,we will treat men equally and grant them equal rights2 so far a socialistic mode of thought which is based on justice is possible2 but1 as has been said1 only within the ranks of the governing class1 which in this case practises justice with sacrifices and abnegations4 ,on the other hand1 to demand equality of rights1 as do the ,socialists of the subject caste1 is by no means the outcome of justice1 but of covetousness4 ,if you expose bloody pieces of flesh to a beast1 and withdraw them again1 until it finally begins to roar1 do you think that roaring implies justice8 #a1 #cbf-cbg ,when the ,socialists point out that the division of property at the present day is the consequence of countless deeds of injustice and violence1 and1 in summa1 repudiate obligation to anything with so unrighteous a basis1 they only perceive something isolated4 ,the entire past of ancient civilisation is built up on violence1 slavery1 deception1 and error2 we1 however1 cannot annul ourselves1 the heirs of all these conditions1 nay1 the concrescences of all this past1 and are not entitled to demand the withdrawal of a single fragment thereof4 #a1 #cbg ,those who are bent on revolutionising society may be divided into those who seek something for themselves thereby and those who seek something for their children and grandchildren4 ,the latter are the more dangerous1 for they have the belief and the good conscience of disinterestedness4 #a1 #cbi ,the fact that we regard the gratification of vanity as of more account than all other forms of well-being 7security1 position1 and pleasures of all sorts71 is shown to a ludicrous extent by every one wishing for the abolition of slavery and utterly abhorring to put any one into this position4444 ,we protest in the name of the dignity of man2 but1 expressed more simply1 that is just our darling vanity which feels non-equality1 and inferiority in public estimation1 to be the hardest lot of all4 #a1 #ccj ,in all institutions into which the sharp breeze of public criticism does not penetrate an innocent corruption grows up like a fungus 7for instance1 in learned bodies and senates74 #a1 #ccf ,the belief in a divine regulation of political affairs1 in a mystery in the existence of the ,state1 is of religious origin3 if religion disappears1 the ,state will inevitably lose its old veil of ,isis1 and will no longer arouse veneration4 ,the sovereignty of the people1 looked at closely1 serves also to dispel the final fascination and superstition in the realm of these sentiments2 modern democracy is the historical form of the decay of the ,state4 #a1 #cdb ,socialism is the fantastic younger brother of almost decrepit despotism1 which it wants to succeed2 its efforts are1 therefore1 in the deepest sense reactionary4 ,for it desires such an amount of ,state ,power as only despotism has possessed1--indeed1 it outdoes all the past1 in that it aims at the complete annihilation of the individual1 whom it deems an unauthorised luxury of nature1 which is to be improved by it into an appropriate organ of the general community4 ,owing to its relationship1 it always appears in proximity to excessive developments of power1 like the old typical socialist1 ,plato1 at the court of the ,sicilian tyrant2 it desires 7and under certain circumstances furthers7 the ,csarian despotism of this century1 because1 as has been said1 it would like to become its heir4 ,but even this inheritance would not suffice for its objects1 it requires the most submissive prostration of all citizens before the absolute ,state1 such as has never yet been realised1 and as it can no longer even count upon the old religious piety towards the ,state1 but must rather strive involuntarily and continuously for the abolition thereof1--because it strives for the abolition of all existing ,states1--it can only hope for existence occasionally1 here and there for short periods1 by means of the extremest terrorism4 ,it is therefore silently preparing itself for reigns of terror1 and drives the word justice like a nail into the heads of the half-cultured masses in order to deprive them completely of their understanding 7after they had already suffered seriously from the half-culture71 and to provide them with a good conscience for the bad game they are to play4 ,socialism may serve to teach1 very brutally and impressively1 the danger of all accumulations of ,state power1 and may serve so far to inspire distrust of the ,state itself4 #a1 #cdc-cdd ,it is nothing but fanaticism and beautiful soulism to expect very much 7or even1 much only7 from humanity when it has forgotten how to wage war4 #a1 #cdi ,wealth necessarily creates an aristocracy of race1 for it permits the choice of the most beautiful women and the engagement of the best teachers2 it allows a man cleanliness1 time for physical exercises1 and1 above all1 immunity from dulling physical labour4 #a1 #cea ,public opinion--private laziness4 #a1 #ced ,convictions are more dangerous enemies of truth than lies4 #a1 #cee ,the unreasonableness of a thing is no argument against its existence1 but rather a condition thereof4 #a1 #cfa ,people who talk about their importance to mankind have a feeble conscience for common bourgeois rectitude1 keeping of contracts1 promises1 etc4 #a1 #cfc ,the demand to be loved is the greatest of presumptions4 #a1 #cfc ,when a man roars with laughter he surpasses all the animals by his vulgarity4 #a1 #cfi ,the first opinion that occurs to us when we are suddenly asked about anything is not usually our own1 but only the current opinion belonging to our caste1 position1 or family2 our own opinions seldom float on the surface4 #a1 #cgb ,nobody talks more passionately of his rights than he who1 in the depths of his soul1 is doubtful about them4 #a1 #chj4 ,unconsciously we seek the principles and opinions which are suited to our temperament1 so that at last it seems as if these principles and opinions had formed our character and given it support and stability1 whereas exactly the contrary has taken place4 ,our thoughts and judgments are1 apparently1 to be taken subsequently as the causes of our nature1 but as a matter of fact our nature is the cause of our so thinking and judging4 #a1 #chd ,the man of unpleasant character1 full of distrust1 envious of the success of fellow-competitors and neighbours1 violent and enraged at divergent opinions1 shows that he belongs to an earlier grade of culture1 and is1 therefore1 an atavism2 for the way in which he behaves to people was right and suitable only for an age of club-law2 he is an atavist4 ,the man of a different character1 rich in sympathy1 winning friends everywhere1 finding all that is growing and becoming amiable1 rejoicing at the honours and successes of others and claiming no privilege of solely knowing the truth1 but full of a modest distrust1--he is a forerunner who presses upwards towards a higher human culture4 #a1 #chh ,he who has not passed through different phases of conviction1 but sticks to the faith in whose net he was first caught1 is1 under all circumstances1 just on account of this unchangeableness1 a representative of atavistic culture4444 #a1 #djj ,opinions evolve out of passions2 indolence of intellect allows those to congeal into convictions4 #a1 #djd ,he who has attained intellectual emancipation to any extent cannot1 for a long time1 regard himself otherwise than as a wanderer on the face of the earth--and not even as a traveller towards a final goal1 for there is no such thing4 #a1 #dje ,if we make it clear to any one that1 strictly1 he can never speak of truth1 but only of probability and of its degrees1 we generally discover1 from the undisguised joy of our pupil1 how greatly men prefer the uncertainty of their intellectual horizon1 and how in their heart of hearts they hate truth because of its definiteness4 #b1 #ae ,with all that enthusiasts say in favour of their gospel or their master they are defending themselves1 however much they comport themselves as the judges and not the accused3 because they are involuntarily reminded almost at every moment that they are exceptions and have to assert their legitimacy4 #b1 #ah ,the belief in truth begins with the doubt of all truths in which one has previously believed4 #b1 #bj ,philosophic brains will 444 be distinguished from others by their disbelief in the metaphysical significance of morality4 #b1 #bi ,you hold that sacrifice is the hallmark of moral action8--,just consider whether in every action that is done with deliberation1 in the best as in the worst1 there be not a sacrifice4 #b1 #cj ,it is more convenient to follow one's conscience than one's intelligence1 for at every failure conscience finds an excuse and an encouragement in itself4 ,that is why there are so many conscientious and so few intelligent people4 #b1 #cc ,all moralists are shy1 because they know they are confounded with spies and traitors1 so soon as their penchant is noticed4 ,besides1 they are generally conscious of being impotent in action1 for in the midst of work the motives of their activity almost withdraw their attention from the work4 #b1 #db ,no one accuses without an underlying notion of punishment and revenge1 even when he accuses his fate or himself4 ,all complaint is accusation1 all self-congratulation is praise4 ,whether we do one or the other1 we always make some one responsible4 #b1 #dd ,we must know how to emerge cleaner from unclean conditions1 and1 if necessary1 how to wash ourselves even with dirty water4 #b1 #dd ,the origin of morality may be traced to two ideas3 ,the community is of more value than the individual1 and ,the permanent interest is to be preferred to the temporary4 ,the conclusion drawn is that the permanent interest of the community is unconditionally to be set above the temporary interest of the individual1 especially his momentary well-being1 but also his permanent interest and even the prolongation of his existence4 #b1 #df-dg ,we should not shrink from treading the road to a virtue1 even when we see clearly that nothing but egotism1 and accordingly utility1 personal comfort1 fear1 considerations of health1 reputation1 or glory1 are the impelling motives4 ,these motives are styled ignoble and selfish4 ,very well1 but if they stimulate us to some virtue--for example1 self-denial1 dutifulness1 order1 thrift1 measure1 and moderation--let us listen to them1 whatever their epithets may be6 #b1 #dh ,the tendency of a talent towards moral subjects1 characters1 motives1 towards the beautiful soul of the work of art1 is often only a glass eye put on by the artist who lacks a beautiful soul4 #b1 #gh ,art is above all and meant to embellish life1 to make us ourselves endurable and if possible agreeable in the eyes of others4 ,with this task in view1 art moderates us and holds us in restraint1 creates forms of intercourse1 binds over the uneducated to laws of decency1 cleanliness1 politeness1 well-timed speech and silence4 ,hence art must conceal or transfigure everything that is ugly--the painful1 terrible1 and disgusting elements which in spite of every effort will always break out afresh in accordance with the very origin of human nature4 ,art has to perform this duty especially in regard to the passions and spiritual agonies and anxieties1 and to cause the significant factor to shine through unavoidable or unconquerable ugliness4 ,to this great1 super-great task the so-called art proper1 that of works of art1 is a mere accessory4 ,a man who feels within himself a surplus of such powers of embellishment1 concealment1 and transfiguration will finally seek to unburden himself of this surplus in works of art4 ,the same holds good1 under special circumstances1 of a whole nation4 #b1 #ja-ib ,on great minds is bestowed the terrifying all-too-human of their natures1 their blindnesses1 deformities1 and extravagances1 so that their more powerful1 easily all-too-powerful influence may be continually held within bounds through the distrust aroused by such qualities4 #b1 #ajj ,original minds are distinguished not by being the first to see a new thing1 but by seeing the old1 well-known thing1 which is seen and overlooked by every one1 as something new4 ,the first discoverer is usually that quite ordinary and unintellectual visionary--chance4 #b1 #aje ,the obvious satisfaction of the individual with his own form excites imitation and gradually creates the form of the many--that is1 fashion4 #b1 #ajg ,who of us could dare to call himself a free spirit if he could not render homage after his fashion1 by taking on his own shoulders a portion of that burden of public dislike and abuse1 to men to whom this name is attached as a reproach8 #b1 #ajh ,immediate self-observation is not enough1 by a long way1 to enable us to learn to know ourselves4 ,we need history1 for the past continues to flow through us in a hundred channels4 ,we ourselves are1 after all1 nothing but our own sensation at every moment of this continued flow4 #b1 #aag ,to young and fresh barbarian nations 444 ,christianity is a poison4 #b1 #abj ,faith1 indeed1 has up to the present not been able to move real mountains1 although ,i do not know who assumed that it could4 ,but it can put mountains where there was none4 #b1 #aba ,among travellers we may distinguish five grades4 ,the first and lowest grade is of those who travel and are seen--they become really travelled and are1 as it were1 blind4 ,next come those who really see the world4 ,the third class experience the results of their seeing4 ,the fourth weave their experience into their life and carry it with them henceforth4 ,lastly1 there are some men of the highest strength who1 as soon as they have returned home1 must finally and necessarily work out in their lives and productions all the things seen that they have experienced and incorporated in themselves4--,like these five species of travellers1 all mankind goes through the whole pilgrimage of life1 the lowest as purely passive1 the highest as those who act and live out their lives without keeping back any residue of inner experiences4 #b1 #abe ,to treat all men with equal good-humour1 and to be kind without distinctions of persons1 may arise as much from a profound contempt for mankind as from an in-grained love of humanity4 #b1 #abg ,towards science women and self-seeking artists entertain a feeling that is composed of envy and sentimentality4 #b1 #acd ,the intellectual strength of a woman is best proved by the fact that she offers her own intellect as a sacrifice out of love for a man and his intellect1 and that nevertheless in the new domain1 which was previously foreign to her nature1 a second intellect at once arises as an aftergrowth1 to which the man's mind impels her4 #b1 #acf ,by women ,nature shows how far she has hitherto achieved her task of fashioning humanity1 by man she shows what she has had overcome1 and what she still proposes to do for humanity4 #b1 #acg ,whence arises the sudden passion of a man for a woman1 a passion so deep1 so vital8 ,least of all from sensuality only3 but when a man finds weakness1 need of help1 and high spirits united in the same creature1 he suffers a sort of overflowing of soul1 and is touched and offended at the same moment4 ,at this point arises the source of great love4 #b1 #adj ,profundity of thought belongs to youth1 clarity of thought to old age4 #b1 #adj ,the only remedy against ,socialism that still lies in your power is to avoid provoking ,socialism--in other words1 to live in moderation and contentment1 to prevent as far as possible all lavish display1 and to aid the ,state as far as possible in its taxing of all superfluities and luxuries4 #b1 #ade ,only a man of intellect should hold property3 otherwise property is dangerous to the community4 ,for the owner1 not knowing how to make use of the leisure which his possessions might secure to him1 will continue to strive after more property4444 ,it excites envy in the poor and uncultured--who at bottom always envy culture and see no mask in the mask--and gradually paves the way for a social revolution4 #b1 #adg-adh ,only up to a certain point does possession make men feel freer and more independent2 one step farther1 and possession becomes lord1 the possessor a slave4 #b1 #adi ,the governments of the great ,states have two instruments for keeping the people independent1 in fear and obedience3 a coarser1 the army1 and a more refined1 the school4 #b1 #aeb ,to call a thing good not a day longer than it appears to us good1 and above all not a day earlier--that is the only way to keep joy pure4 #b1 #aeh ,to honour and acknowledge even the bad1 when it pleases one1 and to have no conception of how one could be ashamed of being pleased thereat1 is the mark of sovereignty in things great and small4 #b1 #aeh-aei ,when life has treated us in true robber fashion1 and has taken away all that it could of honour1 joys1 connections1 health1 and property of every kind1 we perhaps discover in the end1 after the first shock1 that we are richer than before4 ,for now we know for the first time what is so peculiarly ours that no robber hand can touch it1 and perhaps1 after all the plunder and devastation1 we come forward with the airs of a mighty real estate owner4 #b1 #afb ,you rank far below others when you try to establish the exception and they the rule4 #b1 #afg ,the most senile thought ever conceived about men lies in the famous saying1 ,the ego is always hateful1 the most childish in the still more famous saying1 ,love thy neighbour as thyself4--,with the one knowledge of men has ceased1 with the other it has not yet begun4 #b1 #agb ,you find your burden of life too heavy8 ,then you must increase the burden of your life4 #b1 #agf ,that the world is not the abstract essence of an eternal reasonableness is sufficiently proved by the fact that that bit of the world which we know--,i mean our human reason--is none too reasonable4 ,and if this is not eternally and wholly wise and reasonable1 the rest of the world will not be so either4 #b1 #ahd ,there exists a simulated contempt for all things that mankind actually holds most important1 for all everyday matters4 ,for instance1 we say we only eat to live--an abominable lie1 like that which speaks of the procreation of children as the real purpose of all sexual pleasure4 ,conversely1 the reverence for the most important things is hardly ever quite genuine4 #b1 #ahe ,the doctrine of free will is an invention of the ruling classes4 #b1 #aij ,if a ,god created the world1 he created man to be his ape1 as a perpetual source of amusement in the midst of his rather tedious eternities4 #b1 #aic ,the robber and the man of power who promises to protect a community from robbers are perhaps at bottom beings of the same mould1 save that the latter attains his ends by other means than the former--that is to say1 through regular imposts paid to him by the community1 and no longer through forced contributions4 #b1 #bjj ,the sting of conscience1 like the gnawing of a dog at a stone1 is mere foolishness4 #b1 #bag ,rights may be traced to traditions1 traditions to momentary agreements4 #b1 #bag ,morality is primarily a means of preserving the community and saving it from destruction4 ,next it is a means of maintaining the community on a certain plane and in a certain degree of benevolence4 ,its motives are fear and hope1 and these in a more coarse1 rough1 and powerful form1 the more the propensity towards the perverse1 one-sided1 and personal still persists4 #b1 #bba ,moral prohibitions1 like those of the ,decalogue1 are only suited to ages when reason lies vanquished4 #b1 #bbc ,it is difficult to explain why pity is so highly prized1 just as we need to explain why the unselfish man1 who is originally despised or feared as being artful1 is praised4 #b1 #bbd ,the sum-total of our conscience is all that has regularly been demanded of us1 without reason1 in the days of our childhood1 by people whom we respected or feared4 #b1 #bbd ,every word is a preconceived judgment4 #b1 #bbe ,the fatalism of the ,turk has this fundamental defect1 that it contrasts man and fate as two distinct things4 ,man1 says this doctrine1 may struggle against fate and try to baffle it1 but in the end fate will always gain the victory4 ,hence the most rational course is to resign oneself or to live as one pleases4 ,as a matter of fact1 every man is himself a piece of fate4 ,when he thinks that he is struggling against fate in this way1 fate is accomplishing its ends even in that struggle4 ,the combat is a fantasy1 but so is the resignation in fate--all these fantasies are included in fate4--,the fear felt by most people of the doctrine that denies the freedom of the will is a fear of the fatalism of the ,turk4 ,they imagine that man will become weakly resigned and will stand before the future with folded hands1 because he cannot alter anything of the future4 ,or that he will give a free rein to his caprices1 because the predestined cannot be made worse by that course4 ,the follies of men are as much a piece of fate as are his wise actions1 and even that fear of belief in fate is a fatality4 ,you yourself1 you poor timid creature1 are that indomitable ,moira1 which rules even the ,gods2 whatever may happen1 you are a curse or a blessing1 and in any case the fetters wherein the strongest lies bound3 in you the whole future of the human world is predestined1 and it is no use for you to be frightened of yourself4 #b1 #bbh-bbi ,in the first era of the higher humanity courage is accounted the most noble virtue1 in the next justice1 in the third temperance1 in the fourth wisdom4 #b1 #bcj ,superficial1 inexact observation sees contrasts everywhere in nature 7for instance1 hot and cold71 where there are no contrasts1 only differences of degree4 #b1 #bca ,on two hypotheses alone is there any sense in prayer1 that not quite extinct custom of olden times4 ,it would have to be possible either to fix or alter the will of the godhead1 and the devotee would have to know best himself what he needs and should really desire4 ,both hypotheses1 axiomatic and traditional in all other religions1 are denied by ,christianity4 #b1 #bce-bcc ,distrust is the touchstone for the gold of certainty4 #b1 #bff ,wrath and punishment are our inheritance from the animals4 ,man does not become of age until he has restored to the animals this gift of the cradle4--,herein lies buried one of the mightiest ideas that men can have1 the idea of a progress of all progresses4--,let us go forward together a few millenniums1 my friends6 ,there is still reserved for mankind a great deal of joy1 the very scent of which has not yet been wafted to the men of our day6 ,indeed1 we may promise ourselves this joy1 nay summon and conjure it up as a necessary thing1 so long as the development of human reason does not stand still4 ,some day we shall no longer be reconciled to the logical sin that lurks in all wrath and punishment1 whether exercised by the individual or by society--some day1 when head and heart have learnt to live as near together as they now are far apart4 ,that they no longer stand so far apart as they did originally is fairly palpable from a glance at the whole course of humanity4 ,the individual who can review a life of introspective work will become conscious of the rapprochement arrived at1 with a proud delight at the distance he has bridged1 in order that he may thereupon venture upon more ample hopes4 #b1 #bhd-bhe ,natural death is independent of all reason and is really an irrational death1 in which the pitiable substance of the shell determines how long the kernel is to exist4444 #b1 #bhf ,the more fully and thoroughly we live1 the more ready we are to sacrifice life for a single pleasurable emotion4 #b1 #bhh ,all intellectual movements whereby the great may hope to rob and the small to save1 are sure to prosper4 #b1 #caa-cab ,the desire for victory and pre-eminence is an ineradicable trait of human nature1 older and more primitive than any respect of or joy in equality4 #b1 #cab ,if all alms were given only out of compassion1 the whole tribe of beggars would long since have died of starvation4444 ,the greatest of almsgivers is cowardice4 #b1 #cag ,the exertion of power is laborious and demands courage4 ,that is why so many do not assert their most valid rights1 because their rights are a kind of power1 and they are too lazy or too cowardly to exercise them4 ,indulgence and patience are the names given to the virtues that cloak these faults4 #b1 #cai-cbj ,stupid as a man1 say the women2 ,cowardly as a woman1 say the men4 ,stupidity in a woman is unfeminine4 #b1 #cbh ,all political work1 even with great statesmen1 is an improvisation that trusts to luck4 #b1 #ccb ,the so-called armed peace that prevails at present in all countries is a sign of a bellicose disposition1 of a disposition that trusts neither itself nor its neighbour1 and1 partly from hate1 partly from fear1 refuses to lay down its weapons4 ,better to perish than to hate and fear1 and twice as far better to perish than to make oneself hated and feared--this must some day become the supreme maxim of every political community6444 #b1 #bcf ,in order that property may henceforth inspire more confidence and become more moral1 we should keep open all the paths of work for small fortunes1 but should prevent the effortless and sudden acquisition of wealth4 ,accordingly1 we should take all the branches of transport and trade which favour the accumulation of large fortunes--especially1 therefore1 the money market--out of the hands of private persons or private companies1 and look upon those who own too much1 just as upon those who own nothing1 as types fraught with danger to the community4 #b1 #cdj ,if we try to determine the value of labour by the amount of time1 industry1 good or bad will1 constraint1 inventiveness or laziness1 honesty or make-believe bestowed upon it1 the valuation can never be a just one4 ,for the whole personality would have to be thrown into the scale1 and this is impossible4 #b1 #cdj ,the exploitation of the worker was1 as we now understand1 a piece of folly1 a robbery at the expense of the future1 a jeopardisation of society4 ,we almost have the war now1 and in any case the expense of maintaining peace1 of concluding treaties and winning confidence1 will henceforth be very great1 because the folly of the exploiters was very great and long-lasting4 #b1 #cda ,the masses are as far as possible removed from ,socialism as a doctrine of altering the acquisition of property4 ,if once they get the steering-wheel into their hands1 through great majorities in their ,parliaments1 they will attack with progressive taxation the whole dominant system of capitalists1 merchants1 and financiers1 and will in fact slowly create a middle class which may forget ,socialism like a disease that has been overcome4 #b1 #cdc ,the ,two ,principles of the ,new ,life4--,first ,principle3 to arrange one's life on the most secure and tangible basis1 not as hitherto upon the most distant1 undetermined1 and cloudy foundation4 ,second ,principle3 to establish the rank of the nearest and nearer things1 and of the more and less secure1 before one arranges one's life and directs it to a final end4 #b1 #cea ,through the certain prospect of death a precious1 fragrant drop of frivolity might be mixed with every day life--and now1 you singular druggist-souls1 you have made of death a drop of poison1 unpleasant to taste1 which makes the whole of life hideous4 #b1 #cee ,we speak of ,nature1 and1 in doing so1 forget ourselves3 we ourselves are ,nature1 quand mme4 #b1 #cef-ceg ,we should not let ourselves be burnt for our opinions--we are not so certain of them as all that4 ,but we might let ourselves be burnt for the right of possessing and changing our opinions4 #b1 #ceh ,man has been bound with many chains1 in order that he may forget to comport himself like an animal4 ,and indeed he has become more gentle1 more intellectual1 more joyous1 more meditative than any animal4 ,but now he still suffers from having carried his chains so long1 from having been so long without pure air and free movement--these chains1 however1 are1 as ,i repeat again and again1 the ponderous and significant errors of moral1 religious1 and metaphysical ideas4 ,only when the disease of chains is overcome is the first great goal reached--the separation of man from the brute4 #b1 #cfb-cfc ,,iii ,the ,dawn of ,day ,the first work to follow the transitional and preparatory criticism and comment of ,human1 ,all-,too-,human was ,the ,dawn of ,day 7,morgen-rte74 ,such a treatise dealing with ,nietzsche's constructive and analytical thinking1 was no doubt expected4 ,no man could so effectively rattle the bones of the older gods1 could so wantonly trample down the tenets strengthened by the teachings of centuries1 could so ruthlessly annihilate the accepted ethical standards and religious formul1 unless there existed back of his bludgeon a positivity of will which implied creation and construction4 ,nietzsche realised the significance of this new book1 and at its completion1 early in #ahha1 sent an urgent letter to his publisher requesting its immediate printing4 ,the publisher1 however1 failing to attach any importance to the document1 delayed its issuance until late in the summer1 at which time its appearance caused no excitement and but little comment4 ,the ,dawn of ,day nevertheless ranks among ,nietzsche's best works4 ,its title1 frankly symbolic1 reflects the nature of its contents4 ,it was the beginning of ,nietzsche's positive philosophy4 ,in it he begins his actual work of reconstruction4 ,many of its passages form the foundation of those later books wherein he augmented and developed his theories4 ,however1 there is here no radical change in his thought4 ,the passages are logical sequences to that simple nihilism of prevailing customs which occupied him in his former essays4 ,in his earliest beginnings we can see evidences of the direction his teachings were to take4 ,his books up to the last were mainly developments and elaborations of the thoughts which were in his mind from the first4 ,though often vaguely conceived and unco-ordinated1 these thoughts were the undeniable property of his own thinking4 ,although there have been many attempts to trace eclectic influences to the men of his time1 and especially to ,schopenhauer1 the results of such critical endeavours have been easily controverted by the plainest of internal evidence4 ,the philosophical ,nietzsche has his roots firmly implanted in the scholastic ,nietzsche2 and though in superficial and non-important phases of his thought he changed from time to time1 the most diligent research fails to reveal direct contradictions in any of his fundamental doctrines4 ,in ,the ,dawn of ,day ,nietzsche goes again into the origin of morality4 ,he carries his analyses further and supports them by additional enquiries and by more complicated processes of reasoning4 ,having ascertained the place which morals assume in the human scale and determined their relation to racial necessities1 he points out that their application as permanent and unalterable mandates works havoc in any environment save that in which they were conceived4 ,inasmuch as all morality is at bottom but an expression of expediency1 it follows that1 since the means of expediency change under varying conditions1 morality must change to meet the constantly metamorphosing conditions of society4 ,and since the conditions of life are never the same in all nations1 moral codes must likewise adapt themselves to geography in order to fulfil their function4 ,the existing code of morals1 namely3 the ,christian doctrine1 grew out of conditions which were not only different from those in which we live to-day1 but in many instances diametrically opposed to them4 ,nietzsche saw a grave danger in adhering to an ethical system which was not relative to the modern man1 and argues that the result of such a morality would produce effects which would have no intelligent bearing on the racial problems of the present day4 ,knowing the deep-rooted superstition in man regarding the divine origin of moral laws1 he undertakes the task of relating all ancient codes to the racial conditions existent at their inception1 thus constructing a human origin for them4 ,christianity1 being the greatest moral force of the day1 attracted ,nietzsche's attention the most1 and in ,the ,dawn of ,day much space is devoted to a consideration of it4 ,while in tone these paragraphs are milder than those which followed in ,the ,antichrist1 they nevertheless are among the profoundest criticisms which ,nietzsche made of ,nazarene morality4 ,though only a portion of the aphorisms contained in this work are devoted to an evaluation of theological modes of conduct1 stumbling blocks are thrown in the path of an acceptance of ,jewish ethics which the most sapient of modern ecclesiastics have been unable to remove4 ,out of certain aphorisms found here grew ,the ,antichrist which is the most terrible and effective excoriation that ,christianity has ever called forth4 ,beginning on page #ff of ,the ,dawn of ,day there appears one of ,nietzsche's most fundamental passages dealing with ,christianity4 ,it is called ,the ,first ,christian1 and is an analysis of the ,apostle ,paul4 ,no theological dialectician has been able to answer it4 ,here is an aphorism so illuminating1 so profound1 yet so brief1 as to dazzle completely the lay mind4 ,however1 ,christianity is but one of the subjects dealt with in ,the ,dawn of ,day4 ,the book covers the whole field of modern morality4 ,says ,nietzsche in his introduction2 ,in this book we find a 'subterrestrial' at work1 digging1 mining1 undermining4444 ,i went down into the deepest depths2 ,i tunnelled to the very bottom2 ,i started to investigate and unearth an old faith which for thousands of years we philosophers used to build on as the safest of all foundations4444 ,i began to undermine our faith in morals4 ,it is true that from the beginning of history there has existed a ruling scale of values determining the acts of humanity4 ,morality implies the domination of certain classes which1 in order to inspire reverence in arbitrary dictates1 have invested their codes with an authority other than a human one4 ,thus has criticism been stifled4 ,morality has had the means of intimidation on its side1 and has discouraged investigation by exercising severe penalties4 ,consequently morality has accumulated and grown1 gathered power and swept on without its thinkers1 its philosophers or its analysts4 ,of all the sciences1 the science of conduct has been the last to attract investigators4 ,the vogue of that style of philosophy which was founded on the tradition of speculation and honeycombed with presuppositions1 did not pass out until the advent of ,darwin's evolutionism4 ,but even the inauguration of biology and sociology did not entirely eliminate the metaphysical assumption from constructive thinking4 ,the scientists themselves1 not excluding ,darwin1 hesitated to acknowledge the laws of natural selection and of the survival of the fit4 ,neo-,lamarckism was but one of the reactions against this tough and unpleasant theory4 ,alfred ,russel ,wallace and1 to take an even more significant figure1 ,herbert ,spencer1 endeavoured to refute the possibility of a biological basis in thought and thus to avoid an acquiescence to the ,darwinian research4 ,john ,fiske1 an avowed evolutionist1 indirectly repudiated the scientific origin of philosophy2 and likewise most of the lesser thinkers1 following the exposition of ,darwin's theories1 refused to apply to man the biological laws governing the animal kingdom4 ,balfour and ,huxley sensed the incongruities and variances in this new mode of thinking1 and strove to bridge the chasm between natural science and human conduct1 and to construct a system of ethics which would possess a logical and naturalistic foundation4 ,but in both cases the question was begged4 ,we find ,balfour building up a moral system which1 while it did not deny ,darwinism1 had for its end the destruction1 or at least the alteration1 of natural laws4 ,and ,huxley defines human progress as an overcoming of biological principles4 ,thus1 even in the most materialistic of physio-psychologists1 the subjugation of natural laws was the primary thesis4 ,biology1 therefore1 instead of being used as a basis to further philosophy1 was considered an obstacle which philosophy had to overcome4 ,nietzsche saw that a science of conduct based on natural and physiological laws was a possible and logical thing4 ,and in him1 for the first time in the history of philosophical thought1 do we find a scholarly and at the same time an intellectual critic of authorised standards4 ,the biological point of view was never lost sight of by him4 ,if at times he seemed to abandon it1 it was but for a brief period2 he ever came back to it4 ,even his most abstract passages have their feet implanted in the fact that all phenomena are answerable to the law of vital fitness4 ,before the tribunal of biology ,nietzsche arraigns and tries every phase of his thought1 whether it deals with physical phenomena1 ethical conduct or with abstract reasoning4 ,philosophy1 for centuries divorced from science1 is here clothed in the garments of scientific experimentation2 a relationship is established between these two planes of rationalism and empiricism which have always been considered by other thinkers as detached and unrelated4 ,nor does ,nietzsche ally himself1 either consciously or unconsciously1 with such philosophers as ,bruno and ,plato 7who stood between the scientific thinkers on the one hand and the abstract dialecticians on the other71 and attempt a formulation of a system of thought founded on intuitive processes4 ,such poetic conceptions had no fascination for him except as they were directly applicable to the problem of the universe4 ,those men who busied themselves with the mere theory of knowledge he held as supererogatory cobweb-spinners2 and even in the realm of metaphysicians such as ,descartes1 ,spinoza and ,leibniz1 he dallied but casually4 ,his aim was to relate all thought to determinable values of life4 ,in his introduction ,nietzsche calls morality the ,circe of philosophies1 and adds3 ,for1 to what is it due that1 from ,plato onwards1 all the philosophic architects in ,europe have built in vain8 ,later beneath his analysis--which never assumes the negative qualities of the metaphysical--the moral phenomenon goes to pieces1 not by a few simple strokes1 nor yet by the effrontery of cynicism or pessimism1 but by the most careful and intricate surgery4 ,he points out the great heretics of history as examples of the men who1 looked at through the eyes of contemporaries1 were wicked men1 but who1 under different environmental circumstances1 were considered good4 ,he denies the static hypothesis on which morality is built1 and postulates the theory that immorality is not without its place in the development of the reason4 ,he is constantly attempting to translate the existing moral values into terms of their true nature1 not necessarily into immoralities1 but into natural unmoralities4 ,the accepted virtues1 such as pity1 honesty1 faith1 obedience1 service1 loyalty and self-sacrifice1 are questioned in their relation to racial needs2 and modern attitudes toward all human activities are traced to their causes and judged as to their influence4 ,the research work in the present book differs from that contained in previous volumes4 ,heretofore ,nietzsche indulged in inquiry without speculation2 he dealt mainly with generalities4 ,his analyses were along broad lines of human conduct4 ,he confined himself for the most part to principles4 ,but in ,the ,dawn of ,day these principles are balanced with existent morality4 ,specific modes of moral and ethical endeavour are weighed against expediency4 ,nietzsche presents a diagnosis of the fundamental nature of society to-day1 and discovers many contradictions and inconsistencies between modern social needs and those virtues held in the highest reverence4 ,he finds that deportmental means made use of by weak and subjugated peoples of ancient times to protect themselves against hostile invaders1 are retained and practised to-day by nations whose position has been reversed to one of domination4 ,in short1 he points out that certain moralities have1 by the alteration of national and racial conditions1 become irrelevancies4 ,consequently there is often a compromise between ethical beliefs and ethical practices--a compromise made necessary by the demands of social intercourse4 ,even when the practice of these ancient moralities is conscientiously indulged in1 ,nietzsche denies their adequacy in coping with modern conditions1 pointing out specific instances in which necessity and habit are constantly impinging4 ,for instance1 the softer virtues of a democratic and socialistic morality are shown to be desirable only in weakened nations where the hardier virtues of egotism1 cruelty1 efficiency1 hard-mindedness1 selfishness and retaliation would work directly against preservation4 ,out of these conclusions grows a plea for individualism1 and out of this individualism the superman can be seen rearing his head above the horizon of present-day humanity4 ,the qualities of this man of the future are defined1 and a finger is pointed along the necessary lines of racial culture4 ,nietzsche's first definite voicing of marriage ideals follows in the train of the superman's appearance1 and the first comments of this philosopher in his criticism of woman are set down4 ,in this latter regard ,nietzsche has been unfairly interpreted by those who have considered his attitude toward woman superficially or without relating it to his general theories4 ,it would be well therefore for the student to withhold judgment in this particular until the various elements of ,nietzsche's philosophical system have been co-ordinated and understood4 ,woman plays an important1 if small1 part in his writings1 and his passages dealing with women should be carefully weighed in conjunction with his theory of the superman4 ,in ,the ,dawn of ,day ,nietzsche's conception of class distinction is defined and related to his later teachings4 ,throughout his analyses runs a subtle undercurrent of his doctrine1 of social segregation which finds definite expression toward the end of the volume where modern socialism1 with its altruism and philanthropy1 is traced to its birth in ,nazarene morality4 ,in place of this present popular form of ethics ,nietzsche proposes a social rgime in which aristocratic culture will be set apart from mere utilitarian culture by very definite boundaries4 ,he argues that not only is this disassociation in accord with the instincts of mankind1 but that1 as a workable theorem1 it adequately answers the needs of present conditions4 ,the slave-morality and the master-morality which he develops in his later works are defined tentatively and suggested by inference in many of the aphorisms4 ,out of this conception grew his dominant principle of the will to power1 and in ,the ,dawn of ,day we find this principle set forth in adequate definition for the first time1 although the development of the idea is left till later4 ,however1 ,nietzsche makes clear its point of divergence from the ,schopenhauerian theory of the will to live as well as from the ,darwinian theory of the survival of the fittest4 ,but it is not alone abstract theory that occupies the pages of this book4 ,nietzsche is never the mere metaphysician battling in an unreal world4 ,there are few dark closets and secret passageways in his thought4 ,beyond a metaphysical hypothesis he does not go4 ,he adheres to demonstrable formulas1 and reasons along lines of strictest reality4 ,the practical man he holds in high esteem1 and constantly praises the advance of science4 ,he devotes pages to the blowing to pieces of metaphysical air-castles4 ,but1 as ,i have previously pointed out1 he is in no sense of the word a materialist2 nor is his assumption of the world that of the realists4 ,life to ,nietzsche is an eternal struggle toward--no goal4 ,the lessons the world has to teach are as so much false doctrine4 ,the meaning of life--the so-called absolute truth--is but a chimera4 ,intelligence is a process1 not an ultimatum4 ,the truth is mobile and dual1 dependent on varying causes4 ,in accepting the material world1 ,nietzsche does not grant it4 ,in assuming natural laws1 he denies them4 ,in his adherence to logic and to the processes of cause and effect1 he is accepting phantoms and inconsistencies1 and yet it is along these lines that the race progresses4 ,in ,the ,dawn of ,day ,nietzsche makes use of the same aphoristic style as that employed in ,human1 ,all-,too-,human4 7,this broken1 staccato form he uses throughout the remainder of his works1 except in certain parts of ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra47 ,each paragraph is captioned and deals with a specific phase of morality or with a definite critical attitude toward human conduct4 ,some of these paragraphs are scarcely a line in length--mere definitions or similes4 ,others extend over several pages4 ,but they always pertain to a single idea4 ,occasionally they are in the form of a brief conversation2 at other times they are short queries4 ,one of these aphorisms is entitled ,the ,battle ,dispensary of the ,soul1 and this is what follows3 ,what is the most efficacious remedy8 ,victory4 ,that is all--brief1 and perhaps1 on first reading1 inconsequent4 ,but study it a moment1 and you will find in it the nucleus of a great revolutionary doctrine4 ,on the other hand1 turn to aphorism #adb1 called ,sympathy1 and you will discover several pages of flashing commentary4 ,out of the chaos of his style springs a feeling of plastic form4 ,these brief paragraphs are not detached and desultory4 ,they are pyramided on one another1 and beneath them runs an undercurrent of unified thinking4 ,when the end of the book is reached we have a carefully fabricated edifice1 and we realise that each paragraph has been some necessary beam or decoration in its construction4 ,,excerpts ,,from ,,the ,,dawn ,,of ,,day ,morality is nothing else 7and1 above all1 nothing more7 than obedience to customs1 of whatsoever nature they may be4 ,but customs are simply the traditional way of acting and valuing4 ,where there is no tradition there is no morality2 and the less life is governed by tradition1 the narrower the circle of morality4 ,the free man is immoral1 because it is his will to depend upon himself and not upon tradition3 in all the primitive states of humanity evil is equivalent to individual1 free1 arbitrary1 unaccustomed1 unforeseen1 incalculable4 ,in such primitive conditions1 always measured by this standard1 any action performed--not because tradition commands it1 but for other reasons 7e4g41 on account of its individual utility71 even for the same reasons as had been formerly established by custom--is termed immoral1 and is felt to be so even by the very man who performs it1 for it has not been done out of obedience to tradition4 #ad-ae ,popular medicines and popular morals are closely related1 and should not be considered and valued1 as is still customary1 in so different a way3 both are most dangerous and make-believe sciences4 #ai ,all those superior men1 who felt themselves irresistibly urged on to throw off the yoke of some morality or other1 had no other resource--if they were not really mad--than to feign madness1 or actually to become insane4 ,and this holds good for innovators in every department of life1 and not only in religion and politics4 #ba ,every one who has hitherto overthrown a law of established morality has always at first been considered as a wicked man3 but when it was afterwards found impossible to re-establish the law1 and people gradually became accustomed to the change1 the epithet was changed by slow degrees4 ,history deals almost exclusively with these wicked men1 who later on came to be recognised as good men4 #bh ,a man who is under the influence of the morality of custom comes to despise causes first of all1 secondly consequences1 and thirdly reality1 and weaves all his higher feelings 7reverence1 sublimity1 pride1 gratitude1 love7 into an imaginary world3 the so-called higher world4 ,and even to-day we can see the consequences of this3 wherever1 and in whatever fashion1 man's feelings are raised1 that imaginary world is in evidence4 #dj ,the history of the moral feelings is entirely different from the history of moral conceptions4 ,the first-mentioned are powerful before the action1 and the latter especially after it1 in view of the necessity for making one's self clear in regard to them4 #da ,trusting in our feelings simply means obeying our grandfather and grandmother more than the gods within ourselves3 our reason and experience4 #da ,the same impulse1 under the impression of the blame cast upon it by custom1 develops into the painful feeling of cowardice1 or else the pleasurable feeling of humility1 in case a morality1 like that of ,christianity1 has taken it to its heart and called it good4 #dc ,the origin becomes of less significance in proportion as we acquire insight into it2 whilst things nearest to ourselves1 around and within us1 gradually begin to manifest their wealth of colours1 beauties1 enigmas1 and diversity of meaning1 of which earlier humanity never dreamed4 #eb ,only when man shall have acquired a knowledge of all things will he be able to know himself4 ,for things are but the boundaries of man4 #ec ,to whatever height mankind may have developed--and perhaps in the end it will not be so high as when they began6--there is as little prospect of their attaining to a higher order as there is for the ant and the earwig to enter into kinship with ,god and eternity at the end of their career on earth4 ,what is to come will drag behind it that which has passed3 why should any little star1 or even any little species on that star1 form an exception to that eternal drama8 ,away with such sentimentalities6 #ed ,those earnest1 able1 and just men of profound feelings1 who are still ,christians at heart1 owe it to themselves to make one attempt to live for a certain space of time without ,christianity6 ,they owe it to their faith that they should thus for once take up their abode in the wilderness--if for no other reason than that of being able to pronounce on the question as to whether ,christianity is needful4 #fc ,christianity has the instinct of a hunter for finding out all those who may by hook or by crook be driven to despair--only a very small number of men can be brought to this despair4 ,christianity lies in wait for such as those1 and pursues them4 #fe ,the demon ,eros becomes an object of greater interest to mankind than all the angels and saints put together1 thanks to the mysterious ,mumbo-,jumboism of the ,church in all things erotic3 it is due to the ,church that love stories1 even in our own time1 have become the one common interest which appeals to all classes of people--with an exaggeration which would be incomprehensible to antiquity1 and which will not fail to provoke roars of laughter in coming generations4 #gh ,it is only those who never--or always--attend church that underestimate the dishonesty with which this subject is still dealt in ,protestant pulpits2 in what a clumsy fashion the preacher takes advantage of his security from interruption2 how the ,bible is pinched and squeezed2 and how the people are made acquainted with every form of the art of false reading4 #he ,christianity wants blindness and frenzy and an eternal swan-song above the waves under which reason has been drowned6444 #ij ,what if ,god were not exactly truth1 and if this were proved8 ,and if he were instead of vanity1 the desire for power1 the ambitious1 the fear1 and the enraptured and terrified folly of mankind8444 #ic ,one ,becomes ,moral--but not because one is moral6 ,submission to morals may be due to slavishness or vanity1 egoism or resignation1 dismal fanaticism or thoughtlessness4 ,it may1 again1 be an act of despair1 such as submission to the authority of a ruler2 but there is nothing moral about it per se4 #ig ,morals are constantly undergoing changes and transformations1 occasioned by successful crimes4 #ig ,i deny morality in the same way as ,i deny alchemy1 i4e41 ,i deny its hypotheses2 but ,i do not deny that there have been alchemists who believed in these hypotheses and based their actions upon them4 ,i also deny immorality--not that innumerable people feel immoral1 but that there is any true reason why they should feel so1 should not1 of course1 deny--unless ,i were a fool--that many actions which are called immoral should be avoided and resisted2 and in the same way that many which are called moral should be performed and encouraged2 but ,i hold that in both cases these actions should be performed from motives other than those which have prevailed up to the present time4 ,we must learn anew in order that at last1 perhaps very late in the day1 we may be able to do something more3 feel anew4 #ajj ,it is a prejudice to think that morality is more favourable to the development of the reason than immorality4 ,it is erroneous to suppose that the unconscious aim in the development of every conscious being 7namely1 animal1 man1 humanity1 etc47 is its great happiness2 on the contrary1 there is a particular and incomparable happiness to be attained at every stage of our development1 one that is neither high nor low1 but quite an individual happiness4 ,evolution does not make happiness its goal2 it aims merely at evolution1 and nothing else4 ,it is only if humanity had a universally recognised goal that we could propose to do this or that3 for the time being there is no such goal4 ,it follows that the pretensions of morality should not be brought into any relationship with mankind3 this would be merely childish and irrational4 ,it is quite another thing to recommend a goal to mankind3 this goal would then be something that would depend upon our own will and pleasure4 ,provided that mankind in general agreed to adopt such a goal1 it could then impose a moral law upon itself1 a law which would1 at all events1 be imposed by their own free will4 #aje ,our duties are the claims which others have upon us4 ,how did they acquire these claims8 ,by the fact that they considered us as capable of making and holding agreements and contracts1 by assuming that we were their like and equals1 and by consequently entrusting something to us1 bringing us up1 educating us1 and supporting us4 #aaj ,my rights consist of that part of my power which others have not only conceded to me1 but which they wish to maintain for me4 #aaa ,the desire for distinction is the desire to subject one's neighbor4444 #aac ,on this mirror--and our intellect is a mirror--something is going on that indicates regularity3 a certain thing is each time followed by another certain thing4 ,when we perceive this and wish to give it a name1 we call it cause and effect1--fools that we are6 as if in this we had understood or could understand anything6 ,for1 of course1 we have seen nothing but the images of causes and effects1 and it is just this figurativeness which renders it impossible for us to see a more substantial relation than that of sequence6444 #abi ,pity1 in so far as it actually gives rise to suffering--and this must be our only point of view here--is a weakness1 like every other indulgence in an injurious emotion4 ,it increases suffering throughout the world1 and although here and there a certain amount of suffering may be indirectly diminished or removed altogether as a consequence of pity1 we must not bring forward these occasional consequences1 which are on the whole insignificant1 to justify the nature of pity which1 as has already been stated1 is prejudicial4 ,supposing that it prevailed1 even if only for one day1 it would bring humanity to utter ruin4 ,in itself the nature of pity is no better than that of any other craving2 it is only where it is called for and praised--and this happens when people do not understand what is injurious in it1 but find in it a sort of joy--that a good conscience becomes attached to it2 it is only then that we willingly yield to it1 and do not shrink from acknowledging it4 ,in other circumstances where it is understood to be dangerous1 it is looked upon as a weakness2 or1 as in the case of the ,greeks1 as an unhealthy periodical emotion the danger of which might be removed by temporary and voluntary discharges4 #add-ade ,you say that the morality of pity is a higher morality than that of stoicism8 ,prove it6 ,but take care not to measure the higher and lower degrees of morality once more by moral yardsticks2 for there are no absolute morals4 ,so take your yardstick from somewhere else1 and be on your guard6444 #adi ,if1 in accordance with the present definition1 only those actions are moral which are done for the sake of others1 and for their sake only1 then there are no moral actions at all6 ,if1 in accordance with another definition1 only those actions are moral which spring from our own free will1 then there are no moral actions in this case either6 ,what is it1 then1 that we designate thus1 which certainly exists and wishes as a consequence to be explained8 ,it is the result of a few intellectual blunders2 and supposing that we were able to free ourselves from these errors1 what would then become of moral actions8 ,it is due to these errors that we have up to the present attributed to certain actions a value superior to what was theirs in reality3 we separated them from egoistic and non-free actions4 ,when we now set them once more in the latter categories1 as we must do1 we certainly reduce their value 7their own estimate of value7 even below its reasonable level1 because egoistic and non-free actions have up to the present been undervalued owing to that alleged profound and essential difference4 #aeh-aei ,if ,i were a god1 and a benevolent god1 the marriages of men would cause me more displeasure than anything else4 #afb ,we ought publicly to declare invalid the vows of lovers1 and to refuse them permission to marry3 and this because we should treat marriage itself much more seriously1 so that in cases where it is now contracted it would not usually be allowed in future6 ,are not the majority of marriages such that we should not care to have them witnessed by a third party8 ,and yet this third party is scarcely ever lacking--the child--and he is more than the witness2 he is the whipping-boy and scapegoat4 #afc ,shame6 ,you wish to form part of a system in which you must be a wheel1 fully and completely1 or risk being crushed by wheels6 where it is understood that each one will be that which his superiors make of him6 where the seeking for connections will form a part of one's natural duties6 where no one feels himself offended when he has his attention drawn to some one with the remark1 ,he may be useful to you some time2 where people do not feel ashamed of paying a visit to ask for somebody's intercession1 and where they do not even suspect that by such a voluntary submission to these morals1 they are once and for all stamped as the common pottery of nature1 which others can employ or break up of their free will without feeling in any way responsible for doing so1--just as if one were to say1 ,people of my type will never be lacking1 therefore1 do what you will with me6 ,do not stand on ceremony6 #afi ,in the glorification of work and the never-ceasing talk about the blessing of labour1 ,i see the same secret arrire-pense as ,i do in the praise bestowed on impersonal acts of a general interest1 viz41 a fear of everything individual4 #agf ,behind the principle of the present moral fashion3 ,moral actions are actions performed out of sympathy for others1 ,i see the social instinct of fear1 which thus assumes an intellectual disguise4444 #agg ,whatever may be the influence in high politics of utilitarianism and the vanity of individuals and nations1 the sharpest spur which urges them onwards is their need for the feeling of power--a need which rises not only in the souls of princes and rulers1 but also gushes forth from time to time from inexhaustible sources in the people4 #ahf ,as the aristocrat is able to preserve the appearance of being possessed of a superior physical force which never leaves him1 he likewise wishes by his aspect of constant serenity and civility of disposition1 even in the most trying circumstances1 to convey the impression that his mind and soul are equal to all dangers and surprises4444 ,this indisputable happiness of aristocratic culture1 based as it is on the feeling of superiority1 is now beginning to rise to ever higher levels2 for now1 thanks to the free spirits1 it is henceforth permissible and not dishonourable for people who have been born and reared in aristocratic circles to enter the domain of knowledge1 where they may secure more intellectual consecrations and learn chivalric services even higher than those of former times1 and where they may look up to that ideal of victorious wisdom which as yet no age has been able to set before itself with so good a conscience as the period which is about to dawn4 #bjc-bje ,what induces one man to use false weights1 another to set his house on fire after having insured it for more than its value1 a third to take part in counterfeiting1 while three-fourths of our upper classes indulge in legalised fraud1 and suffer from the pangs of conscience that follow speculation and dealings on the ,stock ,exchange3 what gives rise to all this8 ,it is not real want1--for their existence is by no means precarious2 perhaps they have even enough to eat and drink without worrying--but they are urged on day and night by a terrible impatience at seeing their wealth pile up so slowly1 and by an equally terrible longing and love for these heaps of gold4 ,in this impatience and love1 however1 we see re-appear once more that fanaticism of the desire for power which was stimulated in former times by the belief that we were in the possession of truth1 a fanaticism which bore such beautiful names that we could dare to be inhuman with a good conscience 7burning ,jews1 heretics1 and good books1 and exterminating entire cultures superior to ours1 such as those of ,peru and ,mexico74 ,the means of this desire for power are changed in our day1 but the same volcano is still smouldering1 impatience and intemperate love call for their victims1 and what was once done for the love of ,god is now done for the love of money1 i4e41 for the love of that which at present affords us the highest feeling of power and a good conscience4 #bji-baj ,enthusiastic sacrifice1 self-immolation--these are the catch-words of your morality4444 ,in reality 444 you only appear to sacrifice yourselves2 for your imagination turns you into gods and you enjoy yourselves as such4 #bbf-bbg ,ceremonies1 official robes and court dresses1 grave countenances1 solemn aspects1 the slow pace1 involved speech--everything1 in short1 known as dignity--are all pretences adopted by those who are timid at heart3 they wish to make themselves feared 7themselves or the things they represent74 ,the fearless 7i4e41 originally those who naturally inspire others with awe7 have no need of dignity and ceremonies4444 #bcj ,a strange thing1 this punishment of ours6 ,it does not purify the criminal2 it is not a form of expiation2 but1 on the contrary1 it is even more defiling than the crime itself4 #bce ,when a vigorous nature has not an inclination towards cruelty1 and is not always preoccupied with itself1 it involuntarily strives after gentleness--this is its distinctive characteristic4 ,weak natures1 on the other hand1 have a tendency towards harsh judgments4444 #bcf ,kindness has been best developed by the long dissimulation which endeavoured to appear as kindness3 wherever great power existed the necessity for dissimulation of this nature was recognised--it inspires security and confidence1 and multiplies the actual sum of our physical power4 ,falsehood1 if not actually the mother1 is at all events the nurse of kindness4 ,in the same way1 honesty has been brought to maturity by the need for a semblance of honesty and integrity3 in hereditary aristocracies4 ,the persistent exercise of such a dissimulation ends by bringing about the actual nature of the thing itself3 the dissimulation in the long run suppresses itself1 and organs and instincts are the unexpected fruits in this garden of hypocrisy4 #bdb ,neither necessity nor desire1 but the love of power1 is the demon of mankind4 ,you may give men everything possible--health1 food1 shelter1 enjoyment--but they are and remain unhappy and capricious1 for the demon waits and waits2 and must be satisfied4 #bdc ,it is probable that there are no pure races1 but only races which have become purified1 and even these are extremely rare4 #bec ,how many married men have some morning awakened to the fact that their young wife is dull1 although she thinks quite the contrary6 not to speak of those wives whose flesh is willing but whose intellect is weak6 #bee ,could there be anything more repugnant than the sentimentality which is shown to plants and animals--and this on the part of a creature who from the very beginning has made such ravages among them as their most ferocious enemy--and who ends by even claiming affectionate feelings from his weakened and mutilated victims6 ,before this kind of nature man must above all be serious1 if he is any sort of a thinking being4 #beh ,among cowards it is thought bad form to say anything against bravery1 for any expression of this kind would give rise to some contempt2 and unfeeling people are irritated when anything is said against pity4 #bei ,it is the most sensual men who find it necessary to avoid women and to torture their bodies4 #bfa ,a young man can be most surely corrupted when he is taught to value the like-minded more highly than the differently minded4 #bfb ,the general knowledge of mankind has been furthered to a greater extent by fear than by love4 #bfg ,the sum-total of those internal movements which come naturally to men1 and which they can consequently set in motion readily and gracefully1 is called the soul--men are looked upon as void of soul when they let it be seen that their inward emotions are difficult and painful to them4 #bfh ,all rules have this effect3 they distract our attention from the fundamental aim of the rule1 and make us more thoughtless4 #bgc ,we are most certain to find idealistic theories among unscrupulously practical men2 for such men stand in need of the lustre of these theories for the sake of their reputation4 ,they adopt them instinctively without by any means feeling hypocritical in doing so--no more hypocritical than ,englishmen with their ,christianity and their ,sabbath-keeping4 #bgg ,it is not sufficient to prove a case1 we must also tempt or raise men to it4 #bgh ,asceticism is the proper mode of thinking for those who must extirpate their carnal instincts1 because these are ferocious beasts1--but only for such people6 #bgh ,you refuse to be dissatisfied with yourselves or to suffer from yourselves1 and this you call your moral tendency6 ,very well2 another may perhaps call it your cowardice6 ,one thing1 however1 is certain1 and that is1 that you will never take a trip round the world 7and you yourselves are this world71 and you will always remain in yourselves an accident and a clod on the face of the earth6 #bhb ,the first effect of happiness is the feeling of power1 and this feeling longs to manifest itself1 whether towards ourselves or other men1 or towards ideas and imaginary beings4 ,its most common modes of manifestation are making presents1 derision1 and destruction--all three being due to a common fundamental instinct4 #bhf ,we approve of marriage in the first place because we are not yet acquainted with it1 in the second place because we have accustomed ourselves to it1 and in the third place because we have contracted it--that is to say1 in most cases4 ,and yet nothing has been proved thereby in favour of the value of marriage in general4 #bhg ,the criminal who has been found out does not suffer because of the crime he has committed1 but because of the shame and annoyance caused him either by some blunder which he has made or by being deprived of his habitual element4 #bhi ,where our deficiencies are1 there also is our enthusiasm4 ,the enthusiastic principle love your enemies had to be invented by the ,jews1 the best haters that ever existed2 and the finest glorifications of chastity have been written by those who in their youth led dissolute and licentious lives4 #bic ,women turn pale at the thought that their lover may not be worthy of them2 ,men turn pale at the thought that they may not be worthy of the women they love4 ,i speak of perfect women1 perfect men4 #cjj-cja ,you wish to bid farewell to your passion8 ,very well1 but do so without hatred against it6 ,otherwise you have a second passion4--,the soul of the ,christian who has freed himself from sin is generally ruined afterwards by the hatred for sin4 ,just look at the faces of the great ,christians6 they are the faces of great haters4 #cjb ,men have become suffering creatures in consequence of their morals1 and the sum-total of what they have obtained by those morals is simply the feeling that they are far too good and great for this world1 and that they are enjoying merely a transitory existence on it4 ,as yet the proud sufferer is the highest type of mankind4 #cji-caj ,rights can only be conferred by one who is in full possession of power4 #cag ,the rule always appears to me to be more interesting than the exception--whoever thinks thus has made considerable progress in knowledge1 and is one of the initiated4 #cai ,through our love we have become dire offenders against truth1 and even habitual dissimulators and thieves1 who give out more things as true than seem to us to be true4 #ccg-ccc ,all the great excellencies of ancient humanity owed their stability to the fact that man was standing side by side with man1 and that no woman was allowed to put forward the claim of being the nearest and highest1 nay even sole object of his love1 as the feeling of passion would teach4 #cea ,even if we were mad enough to consider all our opinions as truth1 we should nevertheless not wish them alone to exist4 ,i cannot see why we should ask for an autocracy and omnipotence of truth3 it is sufficient for me to know that it is a great power4 ,truth1 however1 must meet with opposition and be able to fight1 and we must be able to rest from it at times in falsehood--otherwise truth will grow tiresome1 powerless1 and insipid1 and will render us equally so4 #ceb-cec4 ,to hear every day what is said about us1 or even to endeavour to discover what people think about us1 will in the end kill even the strongest man4 ,our neighbours permit us to live only that they may exercise a daily claim upon us6 ,they certainly would not tolerate us if we wished to claim rights over them1 and still less if we wished to be right6 ,in short1 let us offer up a sacrifice to the general peace1 let us not listen when they speak of us1 when they praise us1 blame us1 wish for us1 or hope for us--nay1 let us not even think of it4 #ceg ,how many really individual actions are left undone merely because before performing them we perceive or suspect that they will be misunderstood6--those actions1 for example1 which have some intrinsic value1 both in good and evil4 ,the more highly an age or a nation values its individuals1 therefore1 and the more right and ascendency we accord them1 the more will actions of this kind venture to make themselves known1 #cei-cfj4 ,love wishes to spare the other to whom it devotes itself any feeling of strangeness3 as a consequence it is permeated with disguise and simulation2 it keeps on deceiving continuously1 and feigns an equality which in reality does not exist4 ,and all this is done so instinctively that women who love deny this simulation and constant tender trickery1 and have even the audacity to assert that love equalises 7in other words that it performs a miracle76 #cfa ,truth in itself is no power at all4444 ,truth must either attract power to its side1 or else side with power1 for otherwise it will perish again and again4 #cfc ,we should 444 take the greatest precautions in regard to everything connected with old age and its judgment upon life4444 ,the reverence which we feel for an old man1 especially if he is an old thinker and sage1 easily blinds us to the deterioration of his intellect4 #cfh ,we must not make passion an argument for truth4 #cgb ,have you experienced history within yourselves1 commotions1 earthquakes1 long and profound sadness1 and sudden flashes of happiness8 ,have you acted foolishly with great and little fools8 ,have you really undergone the delusions and woe of the good people8 and also the woe and the peculiar happiness of the most evil8 ,then you may speak to me of morality1 but not otherwise6 #cgf ,what do ,i matter8 is written over the door of the thinker of the future4 #cgi ,the great man ever remains invisible in the greatest thing that claims worship1 like some distant star3 his victory over power remains without witnesses1 and hence also without songs and singers4 ,the hierarchy of the great men in all the past history of the human race has not yet been determined4 #chj ,whether what we are looking forward to is a thought or a deed1 our relationship to every essential achievement is none other than that of pregnancy1 and all our vainglorious boasting about willing and creating should be cast to the winds6 ,true and ideal selfishness consists in always watching over and restraining the soul1 so that our productiveness may come to a beautiful termination4 444 ,still1 these pregnant ones are funny people6 ,let us therefore dare to be funny also1 and not reproach others if they must be the same4 #chd-che ,honest towards ourselves1 and to all and everything friendly to us2 brave in the face of our enemy2 generous towards the vanquished2 polite at all times3 such do the four cardinal virtues wish us to be4 #chg ,there is no eternal justice which requires that every fault shall be atoned and paid for1--the belief that such a justice existed was a terrible delusion1 and useful only to a limited extent2 just as it is also a delusion that everything is guilt which is felt as such4 ,it is not the things themselves1 but the opinions about things that do not exist1 which have been such a source of trouble to mankind4 #cia ,what is the most efficacious remedy8--,victory4 #cic ,the snake that cannot cast its skin perishes4 ,so too with those minds which are prevented from changing their views3 they cease to be minds4 #cid ,,iv ,the ,joyful ,wisdom ,in #ahhb ,nietzsche wrote and published ,the ,joyful ,wisdom 7,la ,gay a ,scienza74 ,although originally intended as a supplement to ,the ,dawn of ,day1 under which title it was to have been issued in a later edition of this earlier work1 it differs greatly1 not only from ,the ,dawn of ,day1 but from everything else ,nietzsche ever wrote4 ,the destructive spirit of ,human1 ,all-,too-,human is nowhere to be found in it4 ,the revolutionary doctrines of ,the ,dawn of ,day are but vaguely echoed4 ,it is a book which shows ,nietzsche in a unique and isolated mood--a mood which1 throughout his whole life did not return to him4 ,temperamentally ,the ,joyful ,wisdom comes nearer being a parallel to ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra than to any of his other writings4 ,but even this comparison goes to pieces when pushed beyond the most superficial aspects of the two books4 ,nietzsche was at ,naumburg at the time of writing this work4 ,a long-standing stomach malady had suddenly shown signs of leaving him1 and the period during which he wrote ,the ,joyful ,wisdom was one of the happiest of his life4 ,heretofore a sombre seriousness had marked both his thoughts and the expression of them4 ,in the two volumes of ,human1 ,all-,too-,human he had attempted a complete devastation of all codes and ideals4 ,in ,the ,dawn of ,day he waged a bitter and serious warfare on modern moral standards and made attempts at supplanting them with new dogma4 ,in ,the ,joyful ,wisdom he revealed an entirely new phase of his character--a lenient1 jovial1 almost buoyant attitude toward the world4 ,although ,the ,joyful ,wisdom may be considered in the light of an interpolation into ,nietzsche's philosophical works1 the book is nevertheless among the most interesting of his output--not so much because it gives us any additions to the sum of his thinking1 but because it throws a light on the philosopher himself4 ,it may be lifted bodily out of his works without leaving a gap in the development of his doctrines1 but it cannot be set aside without closing up a very important and significant facet in the man's nature4 ,unfortunately ,nietzsche is looked upon as a man who was entirely consumed with rancour and hatred--a man unconscious of the comic side of existence--a thinker with whom pessimism was chronic4 ,but this is only a half truth1 a conclusion founded on partial evidence4 ,nietzsche's very earnestness at times defeated his own ends4 ,the ,joyful ,wisdom is one of the most fundamentally hilarious books ever written4 ,it deals with life as a supreme bit of humour4 ,yet there is little in it to provoke laughter4 ,nietzsche's humour is deeper than the externals4 ,one finds no superficial jesting here1 no smartness1 no transient buffoonery4 ,the book is a glorification of that subtle joy which accompanies the experiencing of knowledge4 ,in order to catch its spirit it is necessary that one be familiar with the serious and formulating ,nietzsche1 for on his most serious doctrines is founded that attitude which makes ,the ,joyful ,wisdom hilarious4 ,once familiar with ,nietzsche's earlier writings one may read the present book with a feeling of exhilaration unlike that produced by his more manifestly solemn writings4 ,however1 despite the buoyancy of this document1 it is1 beneath the surface1 as serious as anything ,nietzsche has ever written4 ,his conception of the world and his assumption of the underlying aspects of existence are founded on deeply conceived formulas4 ,it must be borne in mind that ,nietzsche's thought is in a large measure personal1 that the development of his doctrines is due to very definite biographical causes and to the flux and reflux of his own emotions4 ,his system is not a spontaneous and complete conception1 the sudden fruit of his entire research given to the world in a unified body4 ,to the contrary1 it is an amassing of data1 a constant building up of ideas4 ,no one book contains his entire teachings1 logically thought out and carefully organised4 ,rather is his philosophy an intricate structure which begins with his earliest essays and does not reach completion until the end of ,the ,will to ,power4 ,each book has some specific place in his thought3 each book assumes a position relative to all the rest4 ,thus in ,the ,joyful ,wisdom we have the turning point between the denying and destructive ,nietzsche and the asserting and fashioning ,nietzsche4 ,says he in the fourth and most important section called ,sanctus ,januarius3 ,amor fati3#a let that henceforth be my love6 ,i do not want to wage war with the ugly4 ,i do not want to accuse1 ,i do not want even to accuse the accusers4 ,looking aside1 let that be my sole negation6 ,and all in all1 to sum up3 ,i wish to be at any time hereafter only a yea-sayer6 ,in ,the ,joyful ,wisdom begins ,nietzsche's almost fanatical joy in life4 ,here1 too1 we encounter for the first time the symbol of the dance4 ,nietzsche constantly makes use of this figure in his later writings4 ,especially in ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra does he exhort his readers to indulge themselves in dancing4 ,the blasphemies and hatreds characteristic of the philosopher in his more solemn moods are nowhere discernible in this new book4 ,it is therefore of considerable importance to the student in forming a just estimate of ,nietzsche4 ,here the hater has departed2 the idol-smasher has laid down his weapons2 the analyst has become the satyr2 the logician has turned poet2 the blasphemer has become the child4 ,only occasionally does the pendulum swing toward the sombre ,apollonian pole3 the ,dionysian ideal of joy is dominant4 ,the month of ,january inspired the book1 and ,nietzsche says in his ,ecce ,homo that it was the most wonderful month of ,january he had ever spent4 ,this spirit of gaiety was to remain with him in some degree throughout the remainder of his life4 ,he realised that his preparatory work was completed4 ,he saw his way clear to forge ahead as his doctrines led him2 and his exuberance no doubt grew out of the satisfaction he took in this prospect4 ,although the contents of ,the ,joyful ,wisdom are not inherently a part of ,nietzsche's philosophy1 but only detached applications of his theories--ideas which floated to the surface of his doctrines--the material encountered here is of wide and varied interest4 ,there are criticisms of ,german and ,southern culture2 valuations of modern authors2 views on the developments of art2 theories of music2 analyses of ,schopenhauer and an explanation of his vogue2 judgments of the ancient and the modern theatre2 excursions into philological fields2 arraignments of contemporary classicism2 doctrines of creative artistry2 personal paragraphs on mental culture1 politics and commerce4 444 ,the book is1 in fact1 more critical than philosophical4 ,nietzsche never entirely dissevered himself from his time and from the habits1 both of thought and action1 which characterised his contemporaries4 ,from his first academic essays to his last transvaluation of values1 he remained the patient and analytical observer of the life about him4 ,for this reason it has been argued among disciples of pure thinking that he was not1 in the strictest sense of the word1 a philosopher1 but rather a critically intellectual force4 ,this diagnosis might carry weight had not ,nietzsche avowedly built his philosophical structure on a repudiation of abstract thinking4 ,this misunderstanding of him arose from the adherents of rational thinking overlooking the fact that1 where the older philosophers had detached themselves from reality because of the instability of natural hypotheses1 ,nietzsche re-established human bases on which he founded his syllogisms4 ,therefore one should not attempt to divorce the purely critical from the purely philosophical in his writings4 ,even in a book so frankly critical as ,the ,joyful ,wisdom there is a directing force of theoretical unity4 ,this is especially true of the third section4 ,this division is made up almost entirely of comments on men and affairs1 short analyses of human attitudes1 desultory excursions into the sociological1 brief remarks on man's emotional nature1 apothegms dealing with human attributes1 bits of racy philosophical gossip1 religious and scientific maxims1 and the like4 ,sometimes these observations are cynical1 sometimes gracious1 sometimes bitter1 sometimes buoyant1 sometimes merely witty4 ,but all of them are welded together by a profound conception of humanity4 ,the most stimulating division of the book is the fourth1 in which ,nietzsche's good humour is at its height4 ,this section is a glorification of victory and of all those hardy qualities which go into the perfecting of the individual4 ,nietzsche reverses ,schiller's famous doctrine expressed in ,die ,braut von ,messina3 ,life is not of all good the highest4 ,he sees no good over and beyond that of human relationships4 ,the normal instincts to him are the ones which affirm life2 the abnormal instincts are those which deny it4 ,the former are summed up in the ethics of ,greece under the sway of ,dionysus2 the latter are epitomised in the ,christian religion4 ,the fifth book1 called ,we ,fearless ,ones1 and the appendix of ,songs of ,prince ,free-as-a-,bird were written four years later than the other material and added with an introduction in a later edition of the book4 ,these addenda1 while less specific and of a more dialectic nature than the preceding parts1 are in spirit manifestly the same as the rest of the book4 ,in ,the ,joyful ,wisdom we have again an aphoristic style of writing1 although it has become keener and more sure of itself since ,human1 ,all-,too-,human and ,the ,dawn of ,day4 ,in making selections from this book ,i have chosen those passages which are more general in tone4 ,the connection between the various aphorisms is here even slighter than is ,nietzsche's wont1 and for that reason no attempt has been made to present a continuous perception of the work4 ,however1 the excerpts which follow1 though of a less popular nature1 are more intimately related to his thoughts than the ones omitted1 and consequently are of more interest to the student4 ,footnote #a3 ,love of 7one's7 destiny4 ,,excerpts ,,from ,,the ,,joyful ,,wisdom ,whether ,i look with a good or an evil eye upon men1 ,i find them always at one problem1 each and all of them3 to do that which conduces to the conservation of the human species4 #ca ,to laugh at oneself as one would have to laugh in order to laugh out of the veriest truth1--to do this the best have not hitherto had enough of the sense of truth1 and the most endowed have had far too little genius6 ,there is perhaps still a future even for laughter6 #cb ,the ignoble nature is distinguished by the fact that it keeps its advantage steadily in view1 and that this thought of the end and advantage is even stronger than its strongest impulse3 not to be tempted to inexpedient activities by its impulses--that is its wisdom and inspiration4 ,in comparison with the ignoble nature the higher nature is more irrational3--for the noble1 magnanimous1 and self-sacrificing person succumbs in fact to his impulses1 and in his best moments his reason lapses altogether4 #cg ,the strongest and most evil spirits have hitherto advanced mankind the most3 they always rekindled the sleeping passions--all orderly arranged society lulls the passions to sleep4 #ci ,the lust of property and love3 what different associations each of these ideas evokes6--and yet it might be the same impulse twice named4 #ea ,the poison by which the weaker nature is destroyed is strengthening to the strong individual--and he does not call it poison4 #ef-eg ,the virtues of a man are called good1 not in respect of the results they have for himself1 but in respect of the results which we expect therefrom for ourselves and for society4444 ,the praise of the virtues is the praise of something which is privately injurious to the individual2 it is praise of impulses which deprive man of his noblest self-love1 and the power to take the best care of himself4444 ,the neighbour praises unselfishness because he profits by it6 ,if the neighbour were unselfishly disposed himself1 he would reject that destruction of power1 that injury for his advantage1 he would thwart such inclinations in their origin1 and above all he would manifest his unselfishness just by not giving it a good name6 #eh-fj ,living--that is to be cruel and inexorable towards all that becomes weak and old in ourselves1 and not only in ourselves4 #fh ,it is probable that the manufacturers and great magnates of commerce have hitherto lacked too much all those forms and attributes of a superior race1 which alone make persons interesting2 if they had had the nobility of the newly-born in their looks and bearing1 there would perhaps have been no socialism in the masses of the people4 ,for these are really ready for slavery of every kind1 provided that the superior class above them constantly shows itself legitimately superior1 and born to command--by its noble presence6 #gh ,when one continually prohibits the expression of the passions as something to be left to the vulgar1 to coarser1 bourgeois1 and peasant natures--that is1 when one does not want to suppress the passions themselves1 but only their language and demeanour1 one nevertheless realises therewith just what one does not want3 the suppression of the passions themselves1 or at least their weakening and alteration4444 #hc ,in magnanimity there is the same amount of egoism as in revenge4444 #hf-hg ,where bad eyesight can no longer see the evil impulse as such1 on account of its refinement1--there man sets up the kingdom of goodness4444 #hh ,to become the advocate of the rule--that may perhaps be the ultimate form and refinement in which nobility of character will reveal itself on earth4 #ij ,women are all skilful in exaggerating their weaknesses1 indeed they are inventive in weaknesses1 so as to seem quite fragile ornaments to which even a grain of dust does harm2 their existence is meant to bring home to man's mind his coarseness1 and to appeal to his conscience4 #aja ,there is something quite astonishing and extraordinary in the education of women of the higher class2 indeed1 there is perhaps nothing more paradoxical4 ,all the world is agreed to educate them with as much ignorance as possible in erotics1 and to inspire their soul with a profound shame of such things1 and the extremest impatience and horror at the suggestion of them4 ,it is really here only that all the honour of women is at stake2 what would one not forgive in them in other respects6 ,but here they are intended to remain ignorant to the very backbone3--they are intended to have neither eyes1 ears1 words1 nor thoughts for this1 their wickedness2 indeed knowledge here is already evil4 ,and then6 ,to be hurled as with an awful thunderbolt into reality and knowledge with marriage--and indeed by him whom they most love and esteem3 to have to encounter love and shame in contradiction1 yea1 to have to feel rapture1 abandonment1 duty1 sympathy1 and fright at the unexpected proximity of ,god and animal1 and whatever else besides6 all at once6--,there1 in fact1 a psychic entanglement has been effected which is quite unequalled6 ,even the sympathetic curiosity of the wisest discerner of men does not suffice to divine how this or that woman gets along with the solution of this enigma and the enigma of this solution2 what dreadful1 far-reaching suspicions must awaken thereby in the poor unhinged soul2 and forsooth1 how the ultimate philosophy and scepticism of the woman casts anchor at this point6--,afterwards the same profound silence as before3 and often even a silence to herself1 a shutting of her eyes to herself4--,young wives on that account make great efforts to appear superficial and thoughtless2 the most ingenious of them simulate a kind of impudence4--,wives easily feel their husbands as a question-mark to their honour1 and their children as an apology or atonement1--they require children1 and wish for them in quite another spirit than a husband wishes for them4--,in short1 one cannot be gentle enough towards women6 #ajd-aje ,of what consequence is all our art in artistic products1 if that higher art1 the art of the festival1 be lost by us8 #abd ,the best thing ,i could say in honour of ,shakespeare1 the man1 is that he believed in ,brutus and cast not a shadow of suspicion on the kind of virtue which ,brutus represents6 #aca ,we must rest from ourselves occasionally by contemplating and looking down upon ourselves1 and by laughing or weeping over ourselves from an artistic remoteness3 we must discover the hero1 and likewise the fool1 that is hidden in our passion for knowledge2 we must now and then be joyful in our folly1 that we may continue to be joyful in our wisdom6 ,and just because we are heavy and serious men in our ultimate depth1 and are rather weights than men1 there is nothing that does us so much good as the fool's cap and bells3 we need them in presence of ourselves--we need all arrogant1 soaring1 dancing1 mocking1 childish and blessed ,art1 in order not to lose the free dominion over things which our ideal demands of us4 #adf ,the general character of the world 444 is to all eternity chaos2 not by the absence of necessity1 but in the sense of the absence of order1 structure1 form1 beauty1 wisdom1 and whatever else our sthetic humanities are called4 ,judged by our reason1 the unlucky casts are far oftenest the rule1 the exceptions are not the secret purpose2 and the whole musical box repeats eternally its air1 which can never be called a melody1--and finally the very expression1 unlucky cast is already an anthropomorphising which involves blame4 ,but how could we presume to blame or praise the universe6 ,let us be on our guard against ascribing to it heartlessness and unreason1 or their opposites2 it is neither perfect1 nor beautiful1 nor noble2 nor does it seek to be anything of the kind1 it does not at all attempt to imitate man6 ,it is altogether unaffected by our sthetic and moral judgments6 ,neither has it any self-preservative instinct1 nor instinct at all2 it also knows no law4 ,let us be on our guard against saying that there are laws in nature4 ,there are only necessities3 there is no one who commands1 no one who obeys1 no one who transgresses4 ,when you know that there is no design1 you know also that there is no chance3 for it is only where there is a world of design that the word chance has a meaning4 ,let us be on our guard against saying that death is contrary to life4 ,the living being is only a species of dead being1 and a very rare species4--,let us be on our guard against thinking that the world eternally creates the new4 ,there are no eternally enduring substances2 matter is just another such error as the ,god of the ,eleatics4 #aeb-aec4 ,man has been reared by his errors3 firstly1 he saw himself always imperfect2 secondly1 he attributed to himself imaginary qualities2 thirdly1 he felt himself in a false position in relation to the animals and nature2 fourthly1 he always devised new tables of values1 and accepted them for a time as eternal and unconditioned1 so that at one time this1 and at another time that human impulse or state stood first1 and was ennobled in consequence4 ,when one has deducted the effect of these four errors1 one has also deducted humanity1 humaneness1 and human dignity4 #afj ,morality is the herd-instinct in the individual4 #afa ,there is no such thing as health in itself1 and all attempts to define a thing in that way have lamentably failed4 ,it is necessary to know thy aim1 thy horizon1 thy powers1 thy impulses1 thy errors1 and especially the ideals and fantasies of thy soul1 in order to determine what health implies even for thy body4 #afc ,mystical explanations are regarded as profound2 the truth is that they do not even go the length of being superficial4 #afi ,i set the following propositions against those of ,schopenhauer --,firstly1 in order that ,will may arise1 an idea of pleasure and pain is necessary4 ,secondly1 that a vigorous excitation may be felt as pleasure or pain1 is the affair of the interpreting intellect1 which1 to be sure1 operates thereby for the most part unconsciously to us1 and one and the same excitation may be interpreted as pleasure or pain4 ,thirdly1 it is only in an intellectual being that there is pleasure1 displeasure and ,will2 the immense majority of organisms have nothing of the kind4 #aga ,prayer has been devised for such men as have never any thoughts of their own1 and to whom an elevation of the soul is unknown1 or passes unnoticed4 #aga ,sin1 as it is at present felt wherever ,christianity prevails or has prevailed1 is a ,jewish feeling and a ,jewish invention4 #agd ,a ,jesus ,christ was only possible in a ,jewish landscape--,i mean in one over which the gloomy and sublime thunder-cloud of the angry ,jehovah hung continually4 #agf ,where there is ruling there are masses3 where there are masses there is need of slavery4 ,where there is slavery the individuals are but few1 and have the instincts and conscience of the herd opposed to them4 #ahc ,we love the grandeur of ,nature and have discovered it2 that is because human grandeur is lacking in our minds4 #ahf ,egoism is the perspective law of our sentiment1 according to which the near appears large and momentous1 while in the distance the magnitude and importance of all things diminish4 #ahg ,he who knows that he is profound strives for clearness2 he who would like to appear profound to the multitude strives for obscurity4 ,the multitude thinks everything profound of which it cannot see the bottom2 it is so timid and goes so unwillingly into the water4 #aij ,thoughts are the shadows of our sentiments--always1 however1 obscurer1 emptier1 and simpler4 #aib 9999,to laugh means to love mischief1 but with a good conscience4 #aif ,virtue gives happiness and a state of blessedness only to those who have a strong faith in their virtue3--not1 however1 to the more refined souls whose virtue consists of a profound distrust of themselves and of all virtue4 ,after all1 therefore1 it is faith that saves here also6--and be it well observed1 not virtue6 #aih ,although the most intelligent judges of the witches1 and even the witches themselves1 were convinced of the guilt of witchcraft1 the guilt1 nevertheless1 was not there4 ,so it is with all guilt4 #bje ,it makes me happy to see that men do not want to think at all of the idea of death6 ,i would fain do something to make the idea of life even a hundred times more worthy of their attention4 #bae-baf ,i greet all the signs indicating that a more manly and warlike age is commencing1 which will1 above all1 bring heroism again into honour6 ,for it has to prepare the way for a yet higher age1 and gather the force which the latter will one day require1--the age which will carry heroism into knowledge1 and wage war for the sake of ideas and their consequences4 #bah-bai ,they are disagreeable to me1 those men in whom every natural inclination forthwith becomes a disease1 something disfiguring1 or even disgraceful4 ,they have seduced us to the opinion that the inclinations and impulses of men are evil2 they are the cause of our great injustice to our own nature1 and to all nature6 ,there are enough of men who may yield to their impulses gracefully and carelessly3 but they do not do so1 for fear of that imaginary evil thing in nature6 ,that is the cause why there is so little nobility to be found among men3 the indication of which will always be to have no fear of oneself1 to expect nothing disgraceful from oneself1 to fly without hesitation whithersoever we are impelled--we free-born birds6 ,wherever we come1 there will always be freedom and sunshine around us4 #bbi ,every one knows at present that the ability to endure contradiction is a high indication of culture4 ,some people even know that the higher man courts opposition1 and provokes it1 so as to get a cue to his hitherto unknown partiality4 ,but the ability to contradict1 the attainment of good conscience in hostility to the accustomed1 the traditional and the hallowed1--that is more than both the above-named abilities1 and is the really great1 new and astonishing thing in our culture1 the step of all steps of the emancipated intellect3 who knows that8 #bcb ,in the main all those moral systems are distasteful to me which say3 ,do not do this6 ,renounce6 ,overcome thyself6 ,on the other hand ,i am favourable to those moral systems which stimulate me to do something1 and to do it again from morning till evening1 and dream of it at night1 and think of nothing else but to do it well1 as well as it is possible for me alone6444 #bch ,in pain there is as much wisdom as in pleasure3 like the latter it is one of the best self-preservatives of a species4 ,were it not so1 pain would long ago have been done away with2 that it is hurtful is no argument against it1 for to be hurtful is its very essence4 #bdg ,one form of honesty has always been lacking among founders of religions and their kin3--they have never made their experiences a matter of the intellectual conscience4 444 ,but we who are different1 who are thirsty for reason1 want to look as carefully into our experiences1 as in the case of a scientific experiment1 hour by hour1 day by day6 ,we ourselves want to be our own experiments1 and our own subjects of experiment4 #bdh ,let us no longer think so much about punishing1 blaming1 improving6 ,we shall seldom be able to alter an individual1 and if we should succeed in doing so1 something else may also succeed1 perhaps unawares3 we may have been altered by him6 ,let us rather see to it that our own influence on all that is to come outweighs and overweighs his influence6 ,let us not struggle in direct conflict6--all blaming1 punishing1 and desire to improve comes under this category4 #bdi ,who could know how to laugh well and live well1 who did not first understand the full meaning of war and victory8 #bej ,that delightful animal1 man1 seems to lose his good-humour whenever he thinks well2 he becomes serious6 ,and where there is laughing and gaiety1 thinking cannot be worth anything3--so speaks the prejudice of this serious animal against all ,joyful ,wisdom4 #beb-bec ,if you had thought more acutely1 observed more accurately1 and had learned more1 you would no longer under all circumstances call this and that your duty and your conscience3 the knowledge how moral judgments have in general always originated1 would make you tired of these pathetic words4444 #bfa ,we would seek to become what we are1--the new1 the unique1 the incomparable1 making laws for ourselves and creating ourselves6 ,and for this purpose we must become the best students and discoverers of all the laws and necessities in the world4 ,we must be physicists in order to be creators in that sense1--whereas hitherto all appreciations and ideals have been based on ignorance of physics1 or in contradiction to it4 #bjc ,our benefactors lower our value and volition more than our enemies4 #bfe ,it is always a metaphysical belief on which our belief in science rests1--and that even we knowing ones of to-day1 the godless and anti-metaphysical1 still take our fire from the conflagration kindled by a belief a millennium old1 the ,christian belief1 which was also the belief of ,plato1 that ,god is truth1 that the truth is divine4 #bgi ,belief is always most desired1 most pressingly needed where there is a lack of will3 for the will1 as emotion of command1 is the distinguishing characteristic of sovereignty and power4 ,that is to say1 the less a person knows how to command1 the more urgent is his desire for one who commands1 who commands sternly1--a ,god1 a prince1 a caste1 a physician1 a confessor1 a dogma1 a party conscience4 #bhf ,to seek self-preservation merely1 is the expression of a state of distress1 or of limitation of the true1 fundamental instinct of life1 which aims at the extension of power1 and with this in view often enough calls in question self-preservation and sacrifices it4 #bhi ,the subtlety and strength of consciousness are always in proportion to the capacity for communication of a man 7or an animal71 the capacity for communication in its turn being in proportion to the necessity for communication4 444 ,consciousness generally has only been developed under the pressure of the necessity for communication1 --that from the first it has been necessary and useful only between man and man 7especially between those commanding and those obeying71 and has only developed in proportion to its utility4 #bif-big ,the ,church is under all circumstances a nobler institution than the ,state4 #cad ,it seems to me one of my most essential steps and advances that ,i have learned to distinguish the cause of the action generally from the cause of action in a particular manner1 say1 in this direction1 with this aim4 ,the first kind of cause is a quantum of stored-up force1 which waits to be used in some manner1 for some purpose2 the second kind of cause1 on the contrary1 is something quite unimportant in comparison with the first1 an insignificant hazard for the most part1 in conformity with which the quantum of force in question discharges itself in some unique and definite manner3 the lucifer-match in relation to the barrel of gunpowder4 #cag ,i will never admit that we should speak of equal rights in the love of man and woman3 there are no such equal rights4 ,the reason is that man and woman understand something different by the term love1--and it belongs to the conditions of love in both sexes that the one sex does not presuppose the same feeling1 the same conception of love1 in the other sex4 ,what woman understands by love is clear enough3 complete surrender 7not merely devotion7 of soul and body1 without any motive1 without any reservation1 rather with shame and terror at the thought of a devotion restricted by clauses or associated with conditions4 ,in this absence of conditions her love is precisely a faith3 woman has no other4--,man1 when he loves a woman1 wants precisely this love from her2 he is consequently1 as regards himself1 furthest removed from the prerequisites of feminine love2 granted1 however1 that there should also be men to whom on their side the demand for complete devotion is not unfamiliar1--well1 they are really--not men4 ,a man who loves like a woman becomes thereby a slave3 a woman1 however1 who loves like a woman becomes thereby a more perfect woman4444 ,woman wants to be taken and accepted as a possession1 she wishes to be merged in the conceptions of possession and possessed2 consequently she wants one who takes1 who does not offer and give himself away1 but who reversely is rather to be made richer in himself--by the increase of power1 happiness and faith which the woman herself gives to him4 ,woman gives herself1 man takes her4--,i do not think one will get over this natural contrast by any social contract1 or with the very best will to do justice1 however desirable it may be to avoid bringing the severe1 frightful1 enigmatical1 and unmoral elements of this antagonism constantly before our eyes4 ,for love1 regarded as complete1 great1 and full1 is nature1 and as nature1 is to all eternity something unmoral4--,fidelity is accordingly included in woman's love1 it follows from the definition thereof2 with man fidelity may readily result in consequence of his love1 perhaps as gratitude or idiosyncrasy of taste1 and so-called elective affinity1 but it does not belong to the essence of his love--and indeed so little1 that one might almost be entitled to speak of a natural opposition between love and fidelity in man1 whose love is just a desire to possess1 and not a renunciation and giving away2 the desire to possess1 however1 comes to an end every time with the possession4 #cba-cbc ,everything that is thought1 versified1 painted and composed1 yea1 even built and moulded1 belongs either to monologic art1 or to art before witnesses4 ,under the latter there is also to be included the apparently monologic art which involves the belief in ,god1 the whole lyric of prayer2 because for a pious man there is no solitude1--we1 the godless1 have been the first to devise this invention4 #cbh ,a scientific interpretation of the world as you understand it might consequently still be one of the stupidest1 that is to say1 the most destitute of significance1 of all possible world-interpretations4444 ,an essentially mechanical world would be an essentially meaningless ,world6 #cci-cdj ,we1 the new1 the nameless1 the hard-to-understand1 we firstlings of a yet untried future--we require for a new end also a new means1 namely1 a new healthiness1 stronger1 sharper1 tougher1 bolder and merrier than any healthiness hitherto4 #cea ,another ideal runs on before us1 a strange1 tempting ideal1 full of danger1 to which we should not like to persuade any one1 because we do not so readily acknowledge any one's right thereto3 the ideal of a spirit who plays naively 7that is to say involuntarily and from overflowing abundance and power7 with everything that has hitherto been called holy1 good1 inviolable1 divine2 to whom the loftiest conception which the people have reasonably made their measure of value1 would already imply danger1 ruin1 abasement1 or at least relaxation1 blindness1 or temporary self-forgetfulness2 the ideal of a humanly superhuman welfare and benevolence1 which may often enough appear inhuman4 444 #ceb-cec ,v ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra ,he student of ,nietzsche can well afford to leave the reading of ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra 7,also ,sprach ,zarathustra7 until he has prepared himself for the task by studying ,nietzsche's other and less obscure books4 ,in both its conception and execution it differs markedly from all the works which preceded and followed it4 ,it is written in an archaic and poetical style1 and in many places is purposely obscure4 ,nietzsche did not intend it for the general public1 and the fourth part was not published until seven years after its completion4 ,it would have been better had ,zarathustra been withheld from the presses until ,nietzsche's other works had gained a wider recognition1 for it unfortunately lays itself open to all manner of misunderstanding and misinterpretation4 ,in fact1 it is impossible to read ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra comprehendingly until several of the other books of this philosopher1 such as ,the ,dawn of ,day1 ,the ,genealogy of ,morals and ,beyond ,good and ,evil1 have been consumed and assimilated4 ,unfortunately this book1 because of the attractive medium of its style1 was one of the first to fall into the hands of ,english speaking people4 ,for many years it was the principal source of the many false accusations against ,nietzsche which gained wide circulation4 ,the figures of speech contained in it and the numerous parables which are used to set forth its ideas lend themselves all too easily to falsities of judgment and erroneous evaluations4 ,reading the book unpreparedly one may find what appear to be unexplainable contradictions and ethical sophistries4 ,above all1 one may wrongly sense the absence of that higher ethical virtue which is denied ,nietzsche in quarters where he is least understood1 but which every close student of his works knows to form the basis of his thought4 ,nietzsche began the writing of ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra early in the year #ahhc1 and he did not finish it until the middle of ,february1 #ahhe4 ,the actual conception of the book came much before this time even1 as far back as the summer of #ahha4 ,this is when the idea of eternal recurrence first took possession of him4 ,at once he began making notes1 using this idea as the basis of ,zarathustra's teachings4 ,at this time ,nietzsche was just recovering from a siege of ill health which had extended over many years1 and no doubt the buoyant and rhapsodic form in which he conceived this work was due to his sudden acquisition of bodily health4 ,the first part was written in ten days1 the second part a few months later1 and the third part in the autumn of the same year4 ,but it was not until after a lapse of eighteen months that the fourth and last section was completed4 ,because of this long interval we see a radical difference between the first three parts of the book and the last part4 ,the language remains very much the same throughout--spectacular1 poetic and symbolic--but the form is changed4 ,the epigrammatic and non-sequacious mandates give way to a long connected parable4 ,the psalmodie brevity of the utterances of the first three sections is supplanted by description and narrative4 ,a story runs through the entire fourth part2 and it is in the obscurities of this fable1 rather than in any specific statements1 that we must seek the gist of ,nietzsche's doctrines4 ,this would be an impossible task were we not more or less familiar with his other books4 ,yet1 once we understand the general trend of his thought1 we can penetrate at once to the meanings hidden in the fantastic divagations of his story and can understand the dithyrambic utterances of both ,zarathustra and the higher men in the cave4 ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra is unique for the reason that there are few points in ,nietzsche's system of ethic--and for the most part they are the unimportant ones--which we cannot find somewhere in its pages4 ,but do not think that one can grasp an idea of the sweep of his entire thought merely by reading this book4 ,even in the most simply worded and most lucidly phrased passages one would find difficulty in following the steps in his philosophy1 unless there had been considerable preparatory study4 ,to be sure1 there are numerous isolated epigrams and bits of observation which are easily understood1 but their mere isolation very often robs them of the true meaning they hold when related to the other precepts4 ,the very literalness with which these passages have been taken by those who have read ,zarathustra before studying any of the other works of ,nietzsche1 accounts in a large measure for the ignorance in which he is held even by those who profess to have read him and understood him4 ,a philosophy such as his1 the outposts of which are so far removed from the routine of our present social life1 is naturally hampered by the restricted connotation of current words--even those technical words used to express abstract and infinite things4 ,for this reason it is inevitable that false meanings should attach to many of his statements1 and that misunderstandings should arise in quarters where there does not exist a previous general knowledge of the co-ordinated structure of his teachings4 ,this general knowledge cannot be gained from ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra4 ,many of its pages are entirely without significance to the reader not already acquainted with ,nietzsche's thought4 ,and much of its nomenclature is meaningless without the explanations to be found in the main body of his work4 ,for the reader1 however1 who picks up this book after having equipped himself for an understanding of it1 there is much of fascination and stimulation4 ,nietzsche regarded it as his most intimate and personal1 and therefore his most important1 work4 ,he even had plans for two more parts which were to be included in it4 ,but these were never finished4 ,the indifference with which the book was received1 even by those on whose sympathy and understanding he had most counted1 reacted unfavourably upon him4 ,it is nevertheless1 just as it stands1 one of the most remarkable pieces of philosophic literature of modern times4 ,its form alone makes it unique4 ,instead of stating his beliefs directly and without circumlocution1 as was always his method both before and after the writing of this book1 ,nietzsche chose for his mouthpiece a poet and philosopher borrowed from the ,persians1 namely3 ,zoroaster4 ,this sage of the ancients was used as a symbol of the higher man4 ,into his mouth were put ,nietzsche's own ideas in the form of parables1 admonitions1 exhortations and discourses4 ,the wanderings and experiences of this ,zoroaster are chronicled1 and each event in his life embodies a meaning in direct accord with the ,nietzschean system of conduct4 ,because of the ,persian origin of ,zoroaster one might imagine that influences of ,persian philosophy would be discoverable in the teachings of this nomadic poet4 ,but with the name all similarity between the spokesman and his doctrines ends4 ,nietzsche's choice of ,zoroaster as his mouthpiece grew out of his early admiration for the ,persians who1 he declared1 were the first to take a broad and comprehensive view of history4 ,as we see ,zoroaster in this book we recognise him at once as none other than ,nietzsche himself2 and the experiences through which he goes in his wanderings are but picturesquely stated accounts of ,nietzsche's own sufferings1 raptures1 aspirations and disappointments4 ,to those familiar with ,nietzsche's life1 many of the characters introduced in the book will be recognised as portraitures of men whose lives crossed that of the philosopher4 ,likewise1 many of the parables and fables are thinly disguised accounts of the incidents in his own life4 ,in the last part of the book we find ,nietzsche creating a fantastic poet to represent ,wagner1 and holding him up to severe and uncompromising criticism4 ,zoroaster1 as he appears in this book1 is an itinerant law-giver and prophet who seeks the waste places of the earth1 the mountains1 plains and sea shores1 avoiding mankind and carrying with him two symbolic animals1 an eagle and a snake4 ,at the end of his wanderings he discovers a lion which is for him the sign that his journey is drawing to a close1 for this lion represents all that is best and most powerful in nature4 ,the book is comprised of the discourses and sermons which ,zoroaster delivers from day to day to the occasional disciples and unbelievers who cross the path of his wanderings4 ,there are conversations between him and his accompanying animals2 and in the last part of the book he gathers together in his cave a number of men representing types of the higher man and talks with them4 ,in all his discourses he makes use of a rhapsodic and poetic style1 not unlike that found in the ,psalms of ,david4 ,the text telling of ,zoroaster's wanderings and experiences is cast in the manner of the early religious books of the ,orientals4 ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra was the first book to follow ,human1 ,all-,too-,human1 ,the ,dawn of ,day and ,the ,joyful ,wisdom1 and many of ,nietzsche's constructive ideas are presented here for the first time4 ,part ,i is more lucid and can be more easily understood than the parts which follow4 ,in it ,nietzsche designates the classes of humanity and differentiates between them4 ,his three famous metamorphoses of the spirit--symbolised by the camel1 the lion and the child--are stated and explained4 ,here we find the philosopher's most widely quoted passages pertaining to marriage and child-bearing2 his doctrine of war and peace2 and those passages wherein he reverses the beatitudes4 ,the passions and preferences of the individual are criticised in their relation to the higher man1 and the more obvious instincts are analysed4 ,nietzsche outlines methods of conduct1 and dissects the actions and attitudes of his disciples1 praising them or blaming them in accordance with his own values4 ,he presents an illuminating analysis of charity1 and outlines in his chapter1 ,the ,bestowing ,virtue1 the conditions under which it may become a means to existence4 ,he poses the problem of relative morality1 and suggests the lines along which his thesis will be developed at a later date4 ,the superman is defined briefly but with a completeness sufficient for us to sense his relation to the philosophical scheme of which he is a part4 ,the conception of the superman was founded on ,darwin's doctrine of organic evolution1 and ,nietzsche seeks to bring this superman about by the application of the law of natural selection and by giving the law of the survival of the fittest an open field for operation4 ,here1 too1 we have the statement of ,nietzsche's racial ideal3 the highest exemplars of the race1 and not a standardized goal1 is the aim of his philosophy4 ,in ,part ,,ii the doctrine of the will to power is clearly set forth in its framework4 ,the chapter wherein this appears--,self-,surpassing--is merely a brief exposition founded on observation4 ,the development of this idea is not to be found until toward the end of ,nietzsche's life2 but that the theory was clearly conceived in his mind is evidenced by the fact that it is constantly being applied throughout the remainder of his works4 ,in its present form it is no more than a statement1 but so clearly is it presented that one is able to grasp its significance and to determine in just what manner it differed from the ,darwinian and ,spencerian doctrines4 ,in this same section are contained many personal chapters1 including an excoriation of his early critics1 a comparison between himself and ,schopenhauer1 an account of his early anti-scholastic warfare1 a criticism of modern scientific methods1 a reference to his friendship with ,wagner1 and an expression of regret at the misunderstanding which greeted his earlier works4 ,one of the final chapters offers a definition of profundity which goes deep into the very undercurrents of his philosophy4 ,the most important material to be found in the book is encountered in ,part ,,iii4 ,under the caption1 ,the ,old and the ,new ,tables1 we have an important summing up of the principal teachings in the ,nietzschean philosophical scheme4 ,here also we meet the doctrine of eternal recurrence which1 as ,i have said1 generated the conception of this book4 ,its present statement is limited to a few tentative speculations2 later on it was developed and set forth with greater force and certainty4 ,but despite the fact that in his autobiography ,nietzsche calls this speculative philosophic doctrine the highest of all possible formul of a ,yea-saying philosophy1 too much importance must not be attached to it in its relation to his writings4 ,in the first place it was by no means new with him3 he himself reconnoitred a bit in one of his early essays looking for its possible origin4 ,and in the second place it had little influence on his main doctrine of the superman4 ,although he spent considerable time and space in its elucidation1 it never became an integral part of any of his teachings4 ,rather was it something superimposed on his other formul--a condition introduced into the actualities of his conception of the universe4 ,i am inclined to think that he flirted with this idea of recurrence largely because it was the most disheartening obstacle he could conceive in the path of the superman2 and as no obstacle was too great to be faced triumphantly by this man of the future1 he imposed this condition of eternal recurrence upon him as an ultimate test of fortitude4 ,this idea would have added the final touch of futility to ambition1 and ,nietzsche could not conceive of true greatness in man unless futility was at the bottom of all ambitions4 ,however1 it is possible to eliminate the entire idea of eternal recurrence from ,nietzsche's work without altering fundamentally any of his main teachings1 for it is1 in his very conception of it1 a deputy condition of existence4 ,part ,,iv1 the narrative section1 answers the query often raised3 ,for whom is ,nietzsche's philosophy intended8 ,it does away once and for all with the assumption of certain critics that his writings were for all classes4 ,in fact1 this assumption1 constantly posited by scholars--even those who claim to possess an intimate knowledge of ,nietzsche's work--is nowhere borne out in his text4 ,as far back as ,thoughts out of ,season the reverse of this supposition was inferentially stated2 and in ,the ,antichrist and ,the ,will to ,power we have definite denials that his doctrines were intended for every one4 ,yet one is constantly encountering critical refutations of his philosophy based on the theory that he addressed his teachings to all men4 ,nothing could be further from the truth4 ,he held no vision of a race of supermen3 a millennium founded on the exertion of power was neither his aim nor his hope4 ,his philosophy was entirely aristocratic4 ,it was a system of ethics designed for the masters of the race2 and his books were gifts for the intelligent man alone4 ,locke1 ,rousseau and ,hume are often brought forward by critics as answers to his attempts at transvaluation2 but a close inspection of ,nietzsche's definition of slave-morality1 which was an important factor in his ethical scheme1 will show that it is possible to accept the philosophy of the superman without abrogating the softer ethics of these three other thinkers4 ,nietzsche's stand in regard to his audience is made obvious in the fable of ,zarathustra4 ,the poet-philosopher experiences the instinct for pity1 but on going out into the world1 he recognises this instinct as pertaining only to the higher men4 ,when he finds numerous of these men in danger from the ignorance of the populace and from the restrictions of environment1 he leads them to his cave1 and there1 isolated from the inferior man1 discourses with them on the problems of life and points out to them the course they must take in order to bring about the superman4 ,because of the nature of the book it is extremely difficult to select detached passages from it which will give an entirely adequate idea of its contents4 ,often a single philosophical point will be contained in a long parable1 and the only way to present that point in ,nietzsche's own words would have been to embody the whole parable in this chapter4 ,that1 of course1 would have been impossible4 ,therefore1 many of the ideas set forth in the book have not been included in the following excerpts4 ,part ,,iv does not lend itself at all to mutilation1 and ,i have been unable to take anything save a few general passages from this section4 ,however1 ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra is not a book to which one should go to become familiar with ,nietzsche's teachings4 ,when one sits down to read it1 my advice is that the notes of ,mr4 ,anthony ,m4 ,ludovici which are to be found in the appendix of the standard ,english edition1 be followed closely4 ,,excerpts ,,from ,,thus ,,spake ,,zarathustra ,i teach you the ,superman444 ,man is something that is to be surpassed4 #f ,what is the ape to man8 ,a laughing-stock1 a thing of shame4 ,and just the same shall man be to the ,superman3 a laughing-stock1 a thing of shame4 #f ,ye have made your way from the worm to man1 and much within you is still worm4 ,once were ye apes1 and even yet man is more of an ape than any of the apes4 #g ,i conjure you1 my brethren1 remain true to the earth4 and believe not those who speak unto you of super-earthly hopes6 ,poisoners are they1 whether they know it or not4 #g ,to blaspheme the earth is now the dreadfulest sin4444 #g ,man is a rope stretched between the animal and the ,superman--a rope over an abyss4 #i ,what is great in man is that he is a bridge and not a goal4444 #i ,i tell you3 one must still have chaos in one1 to give birth to a dancing star4444 #ab ,three metamorphoses of the spirit do ,i designate to you3 how the spirit becometh a camel1 the camel a lion1 and the lion at last a child4 ,many heavy things are there for the spirit1 the strong load-bearing spirit in which reverence dwelleth3 for the heavy and the heaviest longeth its strength4 ,what is heavy8 so asketh the load-bearing spirit2 then kneeleth it down like the camel1 and wanteth to be well laden4 ,what is the heaviest thing1 ye heroes8 asketh the load-bearing spirit1 that ,i may take it upon me and rejoice in my strength4 ,is it not this3 ,to humiliate oneself in order to mortify one's pride8 ,to exhibit one's folly in order to mock at one's wisdom8 ,or is it this3 ,to desert our cause when it celebrateth its triumph8 ,to ascend high mountains to tempt the tempter8 ,or is it this3 ,to feed on the acorns and grass of knowledge1 and for the sake of truth to suffer hunger of soul8 ,or is it this3 ,to be sick and dismiss comforters1 and make friends of the deaf1 who never hear thy requests8 ,or is it this3 ,to go into foul water when it is the water of truth1 and not disclaim cold frogs and hot toads8 ,or is it this3 ,to love those who despise us1 and give one's hand to the phantom when it is going to frighten us8 ,all these heaviest things the load-bearing spirit taketh upon itself3 and like the camel1 which1 when laden1 hasteneth into the wilderness1 so hasteneth the spirit into its wilderness4 ,but in the loneliest wilderness happeneth the second metamorphosis3 here the spirit becometh a lion2 freedom will it capture1 and lordship in its own wilderness4 ,its last ,lord it here seeketh3 hostile will it be to him1 and to its last ,god2 for victory will it struggle with the great dragon4 ,what is the great dragon which the spirit is no longer inclined to call ,lord and ,god8 ,thou shalt1 is the great dragon called4 ,but the spirit of the lion saith1 ,i will4 ,thou shalt1 lieth in its path1 sparkling with gold--a scale-covered beast2 and on every scale glittereth golden1 ,thou shalt6 ,the values of a thousand years glitter on those scales1 and thus speaketh the mightiest of all dragons3 ,all the values of things--glitter on me4 ,all values have already been created1 and all created values--do ,i represent4 ,verily1 there shall be no ',i will' any more4 ,thus speaketh the dragon4 ,my brethren1 wherefore is there need of the lion in the spirit8 ,why sufficeth not the beast of burden1 which renounceth and is reverent8 ,to create new values--that1 even the lion cannot yet accomplish3 but to create itself freedom for new creating--that can the might of the lion do4 ,to create itself freedom1 and give a holy ,nay even unto duty3 for that1 my brethren1 there is need of the lion4 ,to assume the right to new values--that is the most formidable assumption for a load-bearing and reverent spirit4 ,verily1 unto such a spirit it is preying1 and the work of a beast of prey4 ,as its holiest1 it once loved ,thou shalt3 now is it forced to find illusion and arbitrariness even in the holiest things1 that it may capture freedom from its love3 the lion is needed for this capture4 ,but tell me1 my brethren1 what the child can do1 which even the lion could not do8 ,why hath the preying lion still to become a child8 ,innocence is the child1 and forgetfulness1 a new beginning1 a game1 a self-rolling wheel1 a first movement1 a holy ,yea4 ,aye1 for the game of creating1 my brethren1 there is needed a holy ,yea unto life3 its own will1 willeth now the spirit2 his own world winneth the world's outcast4 ,three metamorphoses of the spirit have ,i designated to you3 how the spirit became a camel1 the camel a lion1 and the lion at last a child4 #be-bg ,a new pride 444 teach ,i unto men3 no longer to thrust the head into the sand of celestial things1 but to carry it freely1 a terrestrial head1 which giveth meaning to the earth6 ,a new will teach ,i unto men3 to choose that path which man hath followed blindly1 and to approve of it--and no longer to slink aside from it1 like the sick and perishing6 ,the sick and perishing--it was they who despised the body and the earth1 and invented the heavenly world1 and the redeeming blood-drops2 but even those sweet and sad poisons they borrowed from the body and the earth6 #cc-cd ,the awakened one1 the knowing one1 saith3 ,body am ,i entirely1 and nothing more2 and soul is only the name of something in the body4 #ce ,the body is a big sagacity1 a plurality with one sense1 a war and a peace1 a flock and a shepherd4 ,an instrument of thy body is also thy little sagacity1 my brother1 which thou callest spirit--a little instrument and plaything of thy big sagacity4 ,instruments and playthings are sense and spirit3 behind them there is still the ,self4 ,the ,self seeketh with the eyes of the senses1 it hearkeneth also with the ears of the spirit4 #cf ,behind thy thoughts and feelings1 my brother1 there is a mighty lord1 an unknown sage--it is called ,self2 it dwelleth in thy body1 it is thy body4 #cf ,when thou hast a virtue1 and it is thine own virtue1 thou hast it in common with no one4 #ch ,if thou be fortunate1 then wilt thou have one virtue and no more3 thus goest thou easier over the bridge4 #ci ,enemy shall ye say but not villain1 invalid shall ye say but not wretch1 fool shall ye say but not sinner4 #da ,of all that is written1 ,i love only what a person hath written with his blood4 ,write with blood1 and thou wilt find that blood is spirit4 #dc ,ye look aloft when ye long for exaltation2 and ,i look downward because ,i am exalted4 ,who among you can at the same time laugh and be exalted8 ,he who climbeth on the highest mountains1 laugheth at all tragic plays and tragic realities4 ,courageous1 unconcerned1 scornful1 coercive--so wisdom wisheth us2 she is a woman1 and ever loveth a warrior4 #dd ,it is true we love life2 not because we are wont to live1 but because we are wont to love4 #dd ,i should only believe in a ,god that would know how to dance4 #de ,not by wrath1 but by laughter1 do we slay4 ,come1 let us slay the spirit of gravity6 #de ,full is the earth of the superfluous2 marred is life by the many-too-many4 ,may they be decoyed out of this life by the life eternal6 #di ,ye are not great enough not to know of hatred and envy4 ,then be great enough not to be ashamed of them6 #ea ,ye shall love peace as a means to new wars--and the short peace more than the long4 ,you ,i advise not to work1 but to fight4 ,you1 ,i advise not to peace1 but to victory4 ,let your work be a fight1 let your peace be a victory6 #eb ,ye say it is the good cause which halloweth even war8 ,i say unto you3 it is the good war which halloweth every cause4 #eb ,what is good8 ye ask4 ,to be brave is good4 #eb ,ye shall only have enemies to be hated1 but not enemies to be despised4 ,ye must be proud of your enemies2 then1 the successes of your enemies are also your successes4 #ec ,a state is called the coldest of all cold monsters4 ,coldly lieth it also2 and this lie creepeth from its mouth3 ,i1 the state1 am the people4 #ed ,just see these superfluous ones6 ,they steal the works of the inventors and the treasures of the wise4 ,culture1 they call their theft--and everything becometh sickness and trouble unto them6 #ef ,around the devisers of new values revolveth the world3--invisibly it revolveth4 ,but around the actors revolve the people and the glory3 such is the course of things4 #eh ,would that ye were perfect--at least as animals6 ,but to animals belongeth innocence4 #fa ,chastity is a virtue with some1 but with many almost a vice4 #fa ,to whom chastity is difficult1 it is to be dissuaded3 lest it become the road to hell--to filth and lust of soul4 #fb ,if one would have a friend1 then must one also be willing to wage war for him3 and in order to wage war1 one must be capable of being an enemy4 #fc ,in one's friend one shall have one's best enemy4 ,thou shalt be closest unto him with thy heart when thou withstandest him4 #fc ,art thou a slave8 ,then thou canst not be a friend4 ,art thou a tyrant8 ,then thou canst not have friends4 ,far too long hath there been a slave and a tyrant concealed in woman4 ,on that account woman is not yet capable of friendship3 she knoweth only love4 ,in woman's love there is injustice and blindness to all she doth not love4 ,and even in woman's conscious love1 there is still always surprise and lightning and night1 along with the light4 #fe ,values did man only assign to things in order to maintain himself--he created only the significance of things1 a human significance6 ,therefore1 calleth he himself man1 that is1 the valuator4 #fg ,a thousand goals have there been hitherto1 for a thousand peoples have there been4 ,only the fetter for the thousand necks is still lacking2 there is lacking the one goal4 ,as yet humanity hath not a goal4 #fi ,do ,i advise you to neighbour-love8 ,rather do ,i advise you to neighbour-flight and to furthest love6 ,higher than love to your neighbour is love to the furthest and future ones2 higher still than love to men1 is love to things and phantoms4 ,the phantom that runneth on before thee1 my brother1 is fairer than thou2 why dost thou not give unto it thy flesh and thy bones8444 #fi ,art thou one entitled to escape from a yoke8 ,many a one hath cast away his final worth when he hath cast away his servitude4 ,free from what8 ,what doth that matter to ,zarathustra6 ,clearly1 however1 shall thine eye show unto me3 free for what8 #ga ,everything in woman is a riddle1 and everything in woman hath one solution--it is called pregnancy4 ,man is for woman1 a means3 the purpose is always the child4 ,but what is woman for man8 ,two different things wanteth the true man3 danger and diversion4 ,therefore wanteth he woman1 as the most dangerous plaything4 ,man shall be trained for war1 and woman for the recreation of the warrior3 all else is folly4 ,two sweet fruits--these the warrior liketh not4 ,therefore liketh he woman2--bitter is ever the sweetest woman4 ,better than man doth woman understand children1 but man is more childish than woman4 ,in the true man there is a child hidden3 it wanteth to play4 ,up then1 ye women1 and discover the child in man6 ,a plaything let woman be1 pure and fine like the precious stone1 illumined with the virtues of a world not yet come4 ,let the beam of a star shine in your love6 ,let your hope say3 ,may ,i bear the ,superman6 ,in your love let there be valour6 ,with your love shall ye assail him who inspireth you with fear6 ,in your love be your honour6 ,little doth woman understand otherwise about honour4 ,but let this be your honour3 always to love more than ye are loved1 and never be the second4 ,let man fear woman when she loveth3 then maketh she every sacrifice1 and everything else she regardeth as worthless4 ,let man fear woman when she hateth3 for man in his innermost soul is merely evil2 woman1 however1 is mean4 ,whom hateth woman most8--,thus spake the iron to the loadstone3 ,i hate thee most1 because thou attractest1 but art too weak to draw unto thee4 ,the happiness of man is1 ,i will4 ,the happiness of woman is1 ,he will4 #gf ,thou goest to women8 ,do not forget thy whip6 #gg ,when 444 ye have an enemy1 then return him not good for evil3 for that would abash him4 ,but prove that he hath done something good to you4 ,and rather be angry than abash any one6 ,and when ye are cursed1 it pleaseth me not that ye should then desire to bless4 ,rather curse a little also6 #gh ,tell me3 where find we justice1 which is love with seeing eyes8 #gh ,thou art young1 and desirest child and marriage4 ,but ,i ask thee3 ,art thou a man entitled to desire a child8 ,art thou the victorious one1 the self-conqueror1 the ruler of thy passions1 the master of thy virtues8 ,thus do ,i ask thee4 ,or doth the animal speak in thy wish1 and necessity8 ,or isolation8 ,or discord in thee8 ,i would have thy victory and freedom long for a child4 ,living monuments shalt thou build to thy victory and emancipation4 ,beyond thyself shalt thou build4 ,but first of all must thou be built thyself1 rectangular in body and soul4 #gi ,marriage3 so call ,i the will of the twain to create the one that is more than those who created it4 #hj ,that which the many-too-many call marriage1 those superfluous ones--ah1 what shall ,i call it8 ,ah1 the poverty of soul in the twain6 ,ah1 the filth of soul in the twain6 ,ah1 the pitiable self-complacency in the twain6 ,marriage they call it all2 and they say their marriages are made in heaven4 ,well1 ,i do not like it1 that heaven of the superfluous2 ,no1 ,i do not like them1 those animals tangled in the heavenly toils6 ,far from me also be the ,god who limpeth thither to bless what he hath not matched6 ,laugh not at such marriages6 ,what child hath not had reason to weep over its parents8 #hj ,every one regardeth dying as a great matter3 but as yet death is not a festival4 ,not yet have people learned to inaugurate the finest festivals4 #hb ,my death1 praise ,i unto you1 the voluntary death1 which cometh unto me because ,i want it4 ,and when shall ,i want it8--,he that hath a goal and an heir1 wanteth death at the right time for the goal and the heir4 #hc ,it is your thirst to become sacrifices and gifts yourselves3 and therefore have ye the thirst to accumulate all riches in your soul4 ,insatiably striveth your soul for treasures and jewels1 because your virtue is insatiable in desiring to bestow4 ,ye constrain all things to flow towards you and into you1 so that they shall flow back again out of your fountain as the gifts of your love4 ,verily1 an appropriator of all values must such bestowing love become2 but healthy and holy1 call ,i this selfishness4 #hf ,when ye are exalted above praise and blame1 and your will would command all things1 as a loving one's will3 there is the origin of your virtue4 #hg ,remain true to the earth1 my brethren1 with the power of your virtue6 ,let your bestowing love and your knowledge be devoted to be the meaning of the earth6 ,thus do ,i pray and conjure you4 ,let it not fly away from the earthly and beat against eternal walls with its wings6 #hh ,the man of knowledge must be able not only to love his enemies1 but also to hate his friends4 #ij ,once did people say ,god1 when they looked out upon distant seas2 now1 however1 have ,i taught you to say1 ,superman4 #ih ,could ye conceive a ,god8--,but let this mean ,will to ,truth unto you1 that everything be transformed into the humanly conceivable1 the humanly visible1 the humanly sensible6 ,your own discernment shall ye follow out to the end6 #ii ,creating--that is the great salvation from suffering1 and life's alleviation4 ,but for the creator to appear1 suffering itself is needed1 and much transformation4 #ajj ,what would there be to create if there were--8 ,gods6 #aja ,man himself is to the discerning one3 the animal with red cheeks4 #ajb ,verily1 ,i like them not1 the merciful ones1 whose bliss is in their pity3 too destitute are they of bashfulness4 ,if ,i must be pitiful1 ,i dislike to be called so2 and if ,i be so1 it is preferably at a distance4 #ajb ,since humanity came into being1 man hath enjoyed himself too little3 that alone1 my brethren1 is our original sin6 #ajc ,great obligations do not make grateful1 but revengeful2 and when a small kindness is not forgotten1 it becometh a gnawing worm4 #ajc ,the sting of conscience teacheth one to sting4 #ajc ,ah1 where in the world have there been greater follies than with the pitiful8 ,and what in the world hath caused more suffering than the follies of the pitiful8 ,woe unto all loving ones who have not an elevation which is above their pity6 ,thus spake the devil unto me1 once a time3 ,even ,god hath his hell3 it is his love for man4 #aje ,all great love is above all its pity3 for it seeketh--to create what is loved6 ,myself do ,i offer unto my love1 and my neighbour as myself--such is the language of all creators4 #aje ,here are priests3 but although they are mine enemies1 pass them quietly and with sleeping swords6 ,even among them there are heroes2 many of them have suffered too much3--so they want to make others suffer4 ,bad enemies are they3 nothing is more revengeful than their meekness4 #ajf ,when a person goeth through fire for his teaching--what doth that prove6 ,it is more1 verily1 when out of one's own burning cometh one's own teaching6 #ajh ,that your very ,self be in your action1 as the mother is in the child3 let that be your formula of virtue6 #aab ,life is a well of delight2 but where the rabble also drink1 there all fountains are poisoned4 #aac ,ye who make the soul giddy1 ye preachers of equality6 ,tarantulas are ye unto me1 and secretly revengeful ones6 #aaf ,ye preachers of equality1 the tyrant-frenzy of impotence crieth thus in you for equality3 your most secret tyrant-longings disguise themselves thus in virtue-words6 ,fretted conceit and suppressed envy--perhaps your fathers' conceit and envy3 in you break they forth as flame and frenzy of vengeance4 #aag ,distrust all in whom the impulse to punish is powerful6 ,they are people of bad race and lineage2 out of their countenances peer the hangman and the sleuth-hound4 ,distrust all those who talk much of their justice6 ,verily1 in their souls not only honey is lacking4 ,and when they call themselves the good and just1 forget not1 that for them to be ,pharisees1 nothing is lacking but--power6 #aah ,with these preachers of equality will ,i not be mixed up and confounded4 ,for thus speaketh justice unto me3 ,men are not equal4 ,and neither shall they become so6 #aah ,good and evil1 and rich and poor1 and high and low1 and all names of values3 weapons shall they be1 and sounding signs1 that life must again and again surpass itself6 #aai ,steadfast and beautiful1 let us also be enemies1 my friends ,i ,divinely will we strive against one another6 #abj ,hungry1 fierce1 lonesome1 ,god-forsaken3 so doth the lion-will wish itself4 ,free from the happiness of slaves1 redeemed from ,deities and adorations1 fearless and fear-inspiring1 grand and lonesome3 so is the will of the conscientious4 #abb ,wherever ,i found a living thing1 there found ,i ,will to ,power2 and even in the will of the servant found ,i the will to be master4 ,that to the stronger the weaker shall serve--thereto persuadeth he his will who would be master over a still weaker one4 ,that delight alone he is unwilling to forego4 ,and as the lesser surrendereth himself to the greater that he may have delight and power over the least of all1 so doth even the greatest surrender himself1 and staketh--life1 for the sake of power4 ,it is the surrender of the greatest to run risk and danger1 and play dice for death4 #acf ,good and evil which would be everlasting--it doth not exist6 ,of its own accord must it ever surpass itself anew4 #acg ,he who hath to be a creator in good and evil--verily1 he hath first to be a destroyer1 and break values in pieces4 #ach ,ye tell me1 friends1 that there is to be no dispute about taste and tasting8 ,but all life is a dispute about taste and tasting4 ,taste3 that is weight at the same time1 and scales and weigher2 and alas for every living thing that would live without dispute about weight and scales and weigher6 #aci ,alien to me1 and a mockery1 are the present-day men1 to whom of late my heart impelled me2 and exiled am ,i from fatherlands and motherlands4 ,thus do ,i love only my children's land1 the undiscovered in the remotest sea3 for it do ,i bid my sails search and search4 ,unto my children will ,i make amends for being the child of my fathers3 and unto all the future--for this present-day6 #ade ,where is innocence8 ,where there is will to procreation4 ,and he who seeketh to create beyond himself1 hath for me the purest will4 ,where is beauty8 ,where ,i must will with my whole ,will2 where ,i will love and perish1 that an image may not remain merely an image4 ,loving and perishing3 these have rhymed from eternity4 ,will to love3 that is to be ready also for death4 #adg ,dare only to believe in yourselves--in yourselves and in your inward parts6 ,he who doth not believe in himself always lieth4 #adg ,all ,gods are poets-symbolisations1 poet-sophistications6 #aec ,freedom ye all roar most eagerly3 but ,i have unlearned the belief in great events1 when there is much roaring and smoke about them4 ,and believe me1 friend ,hollaballoo6 ,the greatest events--are not our noisiest1 but our stillest hours4 ,not around the inventors of new noise1 but around the inventors of new values1 doth the world revolve3 inaudibly it revolveth4 #aeh ,to redeem what is past1 and to transform every ,it was into ,thus would have it6--that only do ,i call redemption6 #afh ,the spirit of revenge3 my friends1 that hath hitherto been man's best contemplation2 and where there was suffering1 it was claimed there was always penalty4 ,penalty1 so calleth itself revenge4 ,with a lying word it feigneth a good conscience4 #afi ,this is my first manly prudence1 that ,i allow myself to be deceived1 so as not to be on my guard against deceivers4 #agb ,he who would not languish amongst men1 must learn to drink out of all glasses2 and he who would keep clean amongst men1 must know how to wash himself even with dirty water4 #agb ,verily1 there is still a future even for evil6 ,and the warmest south is still undiscovered by man4 ,how many things are now called the worst wickedness1 which are only twelve feet broad and three months long6 ,some day1 however1 will greater dragons come into the world4 ,for that the ,superman may not lack his dragon1 the superdragon that is worthy of him1 there must still much warm sun glow on moist virgin forests6 ,out of your wild cats must tigers have evolved1 and out of your poison-toads1 crocodiles3 for the good hunter shall have a good hunt6 ,and verily1 ye good and just6 ,in you there is much to be laughed at1 and especially your fear of what hath hitherto been called the devil6 ,so alien are ye in your souls to what is great1 that to you the ,superman would be frightful in his goodness6 ,and ye wise and knowing ones1 ye would flee from the solar-glow of the wisdom in which the ,superman joyfully batheth his nakedness6 ,ye highest men who have come within my ken6 this is my doubt of you1 and my secret laughter3 ,i suspect ye would call my ,superman--a devil6 ,ah1 ,i became tired of those highest and best ones3 from their height did ,i long to be up1 out1 and away to the ,superman6 ,a horror came over me when ,i saw those best ones naked3 then there grew for me the pinions to soar away into distant futures4 ,into more distant futures1 into more southern souths than ever artist dreamed of3 thither1 where ,gods are ashamed of all clothes6 ,but disguised do ,i want to see you1 ye neighbours and fellowmen1 and well-attired and vain and estimable1 as the good and just2-- ,and disguised will ,i myself sit amongst you--that ,i may mistake you and myself3 for that is my last manly prudence4 #agd-age ,he who would become a child must surmount even his youth4 #agh ,thou goest the way to thy greatness3 here shall no one steal after thee6 ,thy foot itself hath effaced the path behind thee1 and over it standeth written3 ,impossibility4 #ahd ,from the gateway1 ,this ,moment1 there runneth a long eternal lane backwards3 behind us lieth an eternity4 ,must not whatever can run its course of all things1 have already run along that lane8 ,must not whatever can happen of all things have already happened1 resulted1 and gone by8 ,and if everything have already existed1 what thinkest thou1 dwarf1 of ,this ,moment8 ,must not this gateway also--have already existed8 ,and are not all things closely bound together in such wise that ,this ,moment draweth all coming things after it8 ,consequently--itself also8 ,for whatever can run its course of all things1 also in this long lane outward--must it once more run6-- ,and this slow spider which creepeth in the moonlight1 and this moonlight itself1 and thou and ,i in this gateway whispering together1 whispering of eternal things--must we not all have already existed8 #ahf ,and must we not return and run in that other lane out before us1 that long weird lane--must we not eternally return8 #aij-aia ,all things are baptised at the font of eternity1 and beyond good and evil2 good and evil themselves1 however1 are but fugitive shadows and damp afflictions and passing clouds4 ,verily1 it is a blessing and not a blasphemy when ,i teach that above all things there standeth1 the heaven of chance1 the heaven of innocence1 the heaven of hazard1 the heaven of wantonness4 ,of ,hazard--that is the oldest nobility in the world2 that gave ,i back to all things2 ,i emancipated them from bondage under purpose4 ,this freedom and celestial serenity did ,i put like an azure bell above all things1 when ,i taught that over them and through them1 no eternal will--willeth4 ,this wantonness and folly did ,i put in place of that will1 when ,i taught that ,in everything there is one thing impossible--rationality6 #bja ,i pass through this people and keep mine eyes open3 they do not forgive me for not envying their virtues4 ,they bite at me1 because ,i say unto them that for small people1 small virtues are necessary--and because it is hard for me to understand that small people are necessary6 #bjc ,only he who is man enough1 will--save the woman in woman4 #bje ,so much kindness1 so much weakness do ,i see4 ,so much justice and pity1 so much weakness4 ,round1 fair1 and considerate are they to one another1 as grains of sand are round1 fair1 and considerate to grains of sand4 ,modestly to embrace a small happiness--that do they call submission6 and at the same time they peer modestly after a new small happiness4 ,in their hearts they want simply one thing most of all3 that no one hurt them4 ,thus do they anticipate every one's wishes and do well unto every one4 ,that1 however1 is cowardice1 though it be called virtue4 ,and when they chance to speak harshly1 those small people1 then do ,i hear therein only their hoarseness--every draught of air maketh them hoarse4 ,shrewd indeed are they1 their virtues have shrewd fingers4 ,but they lack fists3 their fingers do not know how to creep behind fists4 ,virtue for them is what maketh modest and tame3 therewith have they made the wolf a dog1 and man himself man's best domestic animal4 ,we set our chair in the midst--so saith their smirking unto me--and as far from dying gladiators as from satisfied swine4 ,that1 however1 is--mediocrity1 though it be called moderation4 #bjf ,those teachers of submission6 ,wherever there is aught puny1 or sickly1 or scabby1 there do they creep like lice2 and only my disgust preventeth me from cracking them4 #bjg ,too tender1 too yielding3 so is your soil6 ,but for a tree to become great1 it seeketh to twine hard roots around hard rocks6 #bjh ,do ever what ye will--but first be such as can will4 #bjh ,love ever your neighbour as yourselves--but first be such as love themselves4 #bjh ,out of love alone shall my contempt and my warning bird take wing2 but not out of the swamp6 #baf ,in indulging and pitying lay ever my greatest danger2 and all human hubbub wisheth to be indulged and tolerated4 #bbf ,he who liveth amongst the good--pity teacheth him to lie4 ,pity maketh stifling air for all free souls4 ,for the stupidity of the good is unfathomable4 #bbg ,voluptuousness3 to free hearts1 a thing innocent and free1 the garden-happiness of the earth1 all the future's thanks overflow to the present4 ,voluptuousness3 only to the withered a sweet poison2 to the lion-willed1 however1 the great cordial1 and the reverently saved wine of wines4 ,voluptuousness3 the great symbolic happiness of a higher happiness and highest hope4 ,for to many is marriage promised1 and more than marriage4 ,to many that are more unknown to each other than man and woman3--and who hath fully understood have unknown to each other are man and woman6 ,voluptuousness3--but ,i will have hedges around my thoughts1 and even around my words1 lest swine and libertine should break into my gardens6 #bcj ,passion for power3 the earthquake which breaketh and upbreaketh all that is rotten and hollow2 the rolling1 rumbling1 punitive demolisher of whited sepulchres2 the flashing interrogative-sign beside premature answers4 ,passion for power3 before whose glance man creepeth and croucheth and drudgeth1 and becometh lower than the serpent and the swine3--until at last great contempt crieth out of him1-- ,passion for power3 the terrible teacher of great contempt1 which preacheth to their face to cities and empires3 ,away with thee6--until a voice crieth out of themselves3 ,away with me6 ,passion for power3 which2 however1 mounteth alluringly even to the pure and lonesome1 and up to self-satisfied elevations1 glowing like a love that painteth purple felicities alluringly on earthly heavens4 ,passion for power3 but who would call it passion1 when the height longeth to stoop for power6 ,verily1 nothing sick or diseased is there in such longing and descending6 ,that the lonesome height may not for ever remain lonesome and self-sufficing3 that the mountains may come to the valleys and the winds of the heights to the plains3 ,oh1 who could find the right prenomen and honouring name for such longing6 ,bestowing virtue--thus did ,zarathustra once name the unnamable4 ,and then it happened also1--and verily1 it happened for the first time6--that his word blessed selfishness1 the wholesome1 healthy selfishness1 that springeth from the powerful soul3-- ,from the powerful soul1 to which the high body appertaineth1 the handsome1 triumphing1 refreshing body1 around which everything becometh a mirror3 ,the pliant1 persuasive body1 the dancer1 whose symbol and epitome is the self-enjoying soul4 ,of such bodies and souls the self-enjoyment calleth itself virtue4 #bcb ,he who wisheth to become light1 and be a bird1 must love himself3--thus do ,i teach4 ,not1 to be sure1 with the love of the sick and infected1 for with them stinketh even self-love6 ,one must learn to love oneself--thus do ,i teach--with a wholesome and healthy love3 that one may endure to be with oneself1 and not go roving about4 ,such roving about christeneth itself brotherly love2 with these words hath there hitherto been the best lying and dissembling1 and especially by those who have been burdensome to every one4 ,and verily1 it is no commandment for to-day and to-morrow to learn to love oneself4 ,rather is it of all arts the finest1 subtlest1 last and patientest4 #bce ,no one yet knoweth what is good and bad3--unless it be the creating one6 ,it is he however createth man's goal1 and giveth to the earth its meaning and its future3 he only effecteth it that aught is good and bad4 #bdj ,man is a bridge and not a goal4 #bda ,be not considerate of thy neighbour6 ,man is something that must be surpassed4 #bdc ,he who cannot command himself shall obey4 ,and many a one can command himself1 but still sorely lacketh self-obedience6 #bdc ,he who is of the populace wisheth to live gratuitously2 we others1 however1 to whom life hath given itself--we are ever considering what we can best give in return6 #bdc ,one should not wish to enjoy where one doth not contribute to the enjoyment4 ,and one should not wish to enjoy6 #bdc ,thou shalt not rob6 ,thou shalt not slay6--such precepts were once called holy2 before them did one bow the knee and the head1 and took off one's shoes4 ,but ,i ask you3 ,where have there ever been better robbers and slayers in the world than such holy precepts8 ,is there not even in all life--robbing and slaying8 ,and for such precepts to be called holy1 was not truth itself thereby--slain8 #bdf ,let it not be your honour henceforth whence ye come1 but whither ye go6 ,your ,will and your feet which seek to surpass you--let these be your new honour6 #bdh ,the best shall rule1 the best also willeth to rule6 ,and where the teaching is different1 there--the best is lacking4 #beg ,thus would ,i have man and woman3 fit for war1 the one1 fit for maternity1 the other2 both1 however1 fit for dancing with head and legs4 ,and lost be the day to us in which a measure hath not been danced4 ,and false be every truth which hath not had laughter along with it6 #beg ,the stupidity of the good is unfathomably wise4 ,the good must crucify him who deviseth his own virtue6 ,that is the truth6 ,the second one1 however1 who discovered their country--the country1 heart and soil of the good and just1--it was he who asked3 ,whom do they hate most8 ,the creator1 hate they most1 him who breaketh the tables and old values1 the breaker1--him they call the law-breaker4 ,for the good--they cannot create2 they are always the beginning of the end3-- ,they crucify him who writeth new values on new tables1 they sacrifice unto themselves the future--they crucify the whole human future6 #bfj ,this new table1 ,o my brethren1 put ,i up over you3 ,become hard6 #bfb ,everything goeth1 everything returneth2 eternally rolleth the wheel of existence4 ,everything dieth1 everything blossometh forth again2 eternally runneth on the year of existence4 ,everything breaketh1 everything is integrated anew2 eternally buildeth itself the same house of existence4 ,all things separate1 all things again greet one another2 eternally true to itself remaineth the ring of existence4 ,every moment beginneth existence1 around every ,here rolleth the ball ,there4 ,the middle is everywhere4 #bff ,for man his baddest is necessary for his best4 ,that all that is baddest is the best power1 and the hardest stone for the highest creator2 and that man must become better and badder3--#bfg ,the plexus of causes returneth in which ,i am intertwined1--it will again create me6 ,i myself pertain to the causes of the eternal return4 ,i come again with this sun1 with this earth1 with this eagle1 with this serpent--not to a new life1 or a better life1 or a similar life3 ,i come again eternally to this identical and selfsame life1 in its greatest and its smallest1 to teach again the eternal return of all things1-- ,to speak again the word of the great noontide of earth and man1 to announce again to man the ,superman4 #bgj-bga ,ye higher men1--so blinketh the populace--there are no higher men1 we are all equal2 man is man1 before ,god--we are all equal6 ,before ,god6--,now1 however1 this ,god hath died4 ,before the populace1 however1 we will not be equal4 ,ye higher men1 away from the market-place6 #cea ,have a good distrust to-day1 ye higher men1 ye enheartened ones6 ,ye open-hearted ones6 ,and keep your reasons secret6 ,for this to-day is that of the populace4 ,what the populace once learned to believe without reasons1 who could--refute it to them by means of reasons8 ,and on the market-place one convinceth with gestures4 ,but reasons make the populace distrustful4 ,and when truth hath once triumphed there1 then ask yourselves with good distrust3 ,what strong error hath fought for it8 #cee ,unlearn1 ,i pray you1 this for1 ye creating ones3 your very virtue wisheth you to have naught to do with for and on account of and because4 ,against these false little words shall ye stop your ears4 ,for one's neighbour1 is the virtue only of the petty people3 there it is said like and like and hand washeth hand3--they have neither the right nor the power for your self-seeking6 #cef-ceg ,what hath hitherto been the greatest sin here on earth8 ,was it not the word of him who said3 ,woe unto them that laugh now6 ,did he himself find no cause for laughter on the earth8 ,then he sought badly4 ,a child even findeth cause for it4 #cei-cfj ,,vi ,the ,eternal ,recurrence ,he following excerpts from ,nietzsche's notes relating to eternal recurrence are set down here merely as supplementary passages to ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra1 in which book this doctrine of the eternally recurring irrationality of all things first made its appearance4 ,nietzsche's notations on this subject were undoubtedly written in the latter part of #ahha1 when the idea of ,zarathustra first came to him4 ,they were not published1 however1 until years later1 and now form a section of ,volume ,,xvi of ,nietzsche's complete works in ,english1 along with ,the ,twilight of the ,idols1 ,the ,antichrist and some explanatory notes on ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra4 ,this is the only material in ,nietzsche's writings which ,i have not put in chronological order1 and my reason for placing these extracts here1 and not between ,the ,dawn of ,day and ,the ,joyful ,wisdom1 is due to the fact that after conceiving this doctrine and making notes pertaining to it1 ,nietzsche put the idea aside and wrote ,the ,joyful ,wisdom in which this doctrine was not embodied4 ,not until ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra appeared did he make use of this principle of recurrence1 and inasmuch as this was the first published statement of it1 ,i have placed that book first and have followed it with these explanatory notes4 ,another section of ,nietzsche's works also deals with eternal recurrence1 namely3 the last part of the second volume of ,the ,will to ,power4 ,but here too we find but fragmentary jottings which contain no material not found in the present quotations4 ,it is true that ,nietzsche intended to elaborate these notes1 but even had he done so ,i doubt if this doctrine would have assumed a different aspect from the one it at present possesses1 or would have become more closely allied with the main structure of his thought2 for1 even though it is not fully elucidated in its present form1 it at least is complete in its conclusions4 ,in my introduction to the quotations from ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra in the preceding chapter will be found a statement relating to this doctrine1 in which ,i have endeavoured to point out just what influence it had on ,nietzsche's philosophy1 and to offer an explanation for its appearance in his thought4 ,a reading of the following notes is not at all necessary for an understanding of the ,nietzschean ethic1 and ,i have placed these passages here solely for the student to whom every phase of ,nietzsche's philosophy is of interest4 ,,excerpts ,,from ,,the ,,eternal ,,recurrence ,the extent of universal energy is limited2 it is not infinite3 we should beware of such excesses in our concepts6 ,consequently the number of states1 changes1 combinations1 and evolutions of this energy1 although it may be enormous and practically incalculable1 is at any rate definite and not unlimited4 ,the time1 however1 in which this universal energy works its changes is infinite--that is to say1 energy remains eternally the same and is eternally active3--at this moment an infinity has already elapsed1 that is to say1 every possible evolution must already have taken place4 ,consequently the present process of evolution must be a repetition1 as was also the one before it1 as will also be the one which will follow4 ,and so on forwards and backwards6 ,inasmuch as the entire state of all forces continually returns1 everything has existed an infinite number of times4 #bcg ,energy remains constant and does not require to be infinite4 ,it is eternally active but it is no longer able eternally to create new forms1 it must repeat itself3 that is my conclusion4 #bch ,the energy of the universe can only have a given number of possible qualities4 #bch ,the assumption that the universe is an organism contradicts the very essence of the organic4 #bci ,we are forced to conclude3 7#a7 either that the universe began its activity at a given moment of time and will end in a similar fashion1--but the beginning of activity is absurd2 if a state of equilibrium had been reached it3 would have persisted to all eternity2 7#b7 or there is no such thing as an endless number of them which continually recurs3 activity is eternal1 the number of the products and states of energy is limited4 #bci ,the last physical state of energy which we can imagine must necessarily be the first also4 ,the absorption of energy in latent energy must be the cause of the production of the most vital energy4 ,for a highly positive state must follow a negative state4 ,space like matter is a subjective form1 time is not4 ,the notion of space first arose from the assumption that space could be empty4 ,but there is no such thing as empty space4 ,everything is energy4 #bdj ,anything like a static state of energy in general is impossible4 ,if stability were possible it would already have been reached4 #bda ,physics supposes that energy may be divided up3 but every one of its possibilities must first be adjusted to reality4 ,there can therefore be no question of dividing energy into equal parts2 in every one of its states it manifests a certain quality1 and qualities cannot be subdivided3 hence a state of equilibrium in energy is impossible4 #bda ,if equilibrium were possible it would already have been reached4--,and if this momentary state has already existed then that which bore it and the previous one also would likewise have existed and so on backwards1--and from this it follows that it has already existed not only twice but three times1--just as it will exist again not only twice but three times1--in fact an infinite number of times backwards and forwards4 ,that is to say1 the whole process of ,becoming consists of a repetition of a definite number of precisely similar states4 #bdb ,imaginic matter1 even though in most cases it may once have been organic1 can have stored up no experience as it is always without a past6 ,if the reverse were the case a repetition would be impossible--for then matter would for ever be producing new qualities with new pasts4 #bdg ,let us guard against believing that the universe has a tendency to attain to certain forms1 or that it aims at becoming more beautiful1 more perfect1 more complicated6 ,all that is anthropomorphism6 #bdh ,our whole world consists of the ashes of an incalculable number of living creatures3 and even if living matter is ever so little compared with the whole1 everything has already been transformed into life once before and thus the process goes on4 ,if we grant eternal time we must assume the eternal change of matter4 #bdi ,the world of energy suffers no diminution3 otherwise with eternal time it would have grown weak and finally have perished altogether4 ,the world of energy suffers no stationary state1 otherwise this would already have been reached1 and the clock of the universe would be at a standstill4 ,the world of energy does not therefore reach a state of equilibrium2 for no instant in its career has it had rest2 its energy and its movement have been the same for all time4 ,whatever state this world could have reached must ere now have been attained1 and not only once but an incalculable number of times4 #bdi ,my doctrine is3 ,live so that thou mayest desire to live again1--that is thy duty1--for in any case thou wilt live again6 ,he unto whom striving is the greatest happiness1 let him strive2 he unto whom peace is the greatest happiness1 let him rest2 he unto whom subordination1 following1 obedience1 is the greatest happiness1 let him obey4 #bea ,the mightiest of all thoughts absorbs a good deal1 of energy which formerly stood at the disposal of other aspirations1 and in this way it exercises a modifying influence2 it creates new laws of motion in energy1 though no new energy4 #beb ,ye fancy that ye will have a long rest ere your second birth takes place1--but do not deceive yourselves6 ',twixt your last moment of consciousness and the first ray of the dawn of your new life no time will elapse1--as a flash of lightning will the space go by1 even though living creatures think it is millions of years4444 #bec ,are ye now prepared8 ,ye must have experienced every form of scepticism and ye must have wallowed with voluptuousness in ice-cold baths1--otherwise ye have no right to this thought2 ,i wish to protect myself against those who gush over anything6 ,i would defend my doctrine in advance4 ,it must be the religion of the freest1 most cheerful and most sublime souls1 a delightful pastureland somewhere between golden ice and a pure heaven6 #bef ,,vii ,beyond ,good and ,evil ,double purpose animated ,nietzsche in his writing of ,beyond ,good and ,evil 7,jenseits von ,gut und ,bse74 ,it is at once an explanation and an elucidation of ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra1 and a preparatory book for his greatest and most important work1 ,the ,will to ,power4 ,in it ,nietzsche attempts to define the relative terms of good and evil1 and to draw a line of distinction between immorality and unmorality4 ,he saw the inconsistencies evolved in the attempt to harmonise an ancient moral code with the needs of modern life1 and recognised the compromises which were constantly being made between moral theory and social practice4 ,his object was to establish a relationship between morality and necessity1 and to formulate a workable basis for human conduct4 ,consequently ,beyond ,good and ,evil is one of his most important contributions to a new system of ethics1 and touches on many of the deepest principles of his philosophy4 ,as it stands1 it is by no means a complete expression of ,nietzsche's doctrines1 but it is sufficiently profound and suggestive to be of valuable service in an understanding of his later works4 ,the book was begun in the summer of #ahhe and finished the following winter4 ,again there was difficulty with publishers1 and finally the book was issued at the author's own expense in the autumn of #ahhf4 ,nietzsche opens ,beyond ,good and ,evil with a long chapter headed ,prejudices of ,philosophers1 in which he outlines the course to be taken by his dialectic4 ,the exposition is accomplished by two methods3 first1 by an analysis and a refutation of the systems of thinking made use of by antecedent doctrinaires1 and secondly1 by defining the hypotheses on which his own philosophy is built4 ,this chapter is a most important one1 setting forth1 as it does1 the rationale of his doctrine of the will to power4 ,it has been impossible to make extracts of any unified sequence from this chapter because of its intricate and compact reasoning1 and the student would do well to read it in its entirety4 ,it establishes ,nietzsche's philosophic position and presents a closely knit explanation of the course pursued in the following chapters4 ,the relativity of all truth--the hypothesis so often assumed in his previous work--,nietzsche here defends by analogy and argument4 ,using other leading forms of philosophy as a ground for exploration1 he questions the absolutism of truth and shows wherein lies the difficulty of a final definition4 ,here we become conscious of that plasticity of mind which was the dominating quality of his thinking4 ,it is not1 however1 that form of plasticity which on inspection resolves itself into amorphic and unstable reasoning1 but a logical1 almost scientific1 method of valuing4 ,the mercurial habits of the metaphysicians who deny absolutism are nowhere discernible in ,nietzsche's thought4 ,his mind is definite without being static4 ,the basis of his argumentation is what one might call floating4 ,it rises and falls with the human tide of causation2 yet the structure built upon it remains at all times upright and unchanged4 ,nietzsche points out that the numerous logical conclusions of philosophers have been for the most part a priori propositions1 the results of prejudices or desires1 and that the syllogistic structures reared to them came as explanations and defences1 rather than as dialectic preambles4 ,in their adopting a hypothetical truth as a premise1 he sees only the advocacy for a point of view1 arguing that in order to erect a system of logic the initial thesis must be proved4 ,therefore he questions the fundamental worth of certainty as opposed to uncertainty1 and of truth as opposed to falsity1 thus striking at the very foundations reared by those philosophers who have assumed1 without substantiation1 that only certainty and truth are valuable4 ,nietzsche calls these absolutists astute defenders of prejudices1 and characterises the verbalistic prestidigitation of ,kant as a highly developed form of prejudice-defending4 ,spinoza1 with his mathematical system of reasoning1 likewise falls in the category of those thinkers who first assume conclusions and then prepare explanations for them by a process of inverted reasoning4 ,nietzsche proceeds to pose the instinctive functions against conscious thinking4 ,he asserts that the channels taken by thought are defined by the thinker's nature1 and that even logic is influenced by physiological considerations4 ,the whole fabric of philosophic thought is held up to the light of immediate necessity4 ,going further1 he inquires into the impulse to knowledge4 ,he finds that a specific purpose has always been the actuating force of any philosophy1 and that consequently philosophy1 even in its most abstract form1 has had a residuum of autobiography in it4 ,in fine1 that philosophy1 far from being a search1 has been an aim toward a definite preconceived result4 ,the moral or ethical impulse1 being always imperious1 has not infrequently resulted in philosophising1 and in all such cases knowledge has been used as an instrument4 ,thus knowledge which led to a philosophical conclusion has been the outgrowth of a personal instinct4 ,in those cases where an impersonal impulse to knowledge may have existed1 it has led1 not into philosophical channels1 but into practical and often commercial activities4 ,the scholar has ever remained personal in his quest for philosophical formulas4 ,in ,kant's ,table of ,categories1 wherein that philosopher claimed to have found the faculty of synthetic judgment a priori1 ,nietzsche finds only a circle of reasoning which begins and ends in personal instinct4 ,and in ,kant's discovery of a new moral faculty1 ,nietzsche sees only sophistical invention1 and accounts for its widespread acceptance by the moral state of the ,germans at that period4 ,ignoring the possibility of synthetic judgments a priori1 ,nietzsche advances the query as to their necessity1 and lays stress on the impracticability of truth without belief4 ,the inherent falsity or truth of a proposition has no bearing on philosophical doctrines so long as a contrary belief is present1 a belief such as we exert toward the illusions of the world of reality when we make practical use of that world's perspective4 ,the schemes of personal philosophy1 such1 for instance1 as we find in ,schopenhauer1 are dealt with by ,nietzsche in a single paragraph3 ,when ,i analyse the process that is expressed in the sentence1 ',i think1' ,i find a whole series of daring assertions1 the argumentative proof of which would be difficult1 perhaps impossible3 for instance1 that it is ,i who think1 that there must necessarily be something that thinks1 that thinking is an activity and operation on the part of a being who is thought of as a cause1 that there is an 'ego1' and finally1 that it is already determined what is to be designated by thinking--that ,i know what thinking is4 ,for if ,i had not already decided within myself what it is1 by what standard could ,i determine whether that which is just happening is not perhaps 'willing' or 'feeling'8 ,in short1 the assertion ',i think1' assumes that ,i compare my state at the present moment with other states of myself which ,i know1 in order to determine what it is3 on account of this retrospective connection with further 'knowledge1' it has at any rate no immediate certainty for me4 ,thus the smug materialistic philosopher finds himself necessitated to fall back on purely metaphysical explanations for answers to the questions arising out of his definition of truth4 ,locke falls under a critical survey in this chapter4 ,in answer to this thinker's theory regarding the origin of ideas1 ,nietzsche names the great cycles of philosophical systems and calls attention to the similarity of processes in such cycles4 ,furthermore1 he shows that the foundations of all previous philosophies are discoverable in the new styles of contemporaneous thought4 ,and in those national schools of philosophy conceived in languages which stem from the same origin1 he finds an undeniable resemblance4 ,all of which leads to a conclusion incompatible with ,locke's theory4 ,nietzsche attacks the conclusions of the physicists1 denying them any place in philosophy because their research consists solely in interpretations of natural laws in accordance with their own prejudices and beliefs4 ,the theories which might be deduced from natural phenomena are not discoverable in their doctrines2 their activities have consisted in twisting natural events to suit preconceived valuations4 ,finally ,nietzsche inquires into the habits and practices of psychologists4 ,not even among these workers does he find a basis for philosophy4 ,psychology1 he argues1 has been guided1 not by a detached and lofty desire to ascertain truth in its relation to the human mind1 but by prejudices and fears grounded in moral considerations4 ,he finds a constant desire on the part of experimenters to account for good impulses as distinguished from bad ones4 ,and in this desire lies the superimposing of moral prejudices on a science which1 more than all others1 deals with problems farthest removed from moral influences4 ,these prejudices in psychology1 as well as in all branches of philosophy1 are the obstacles which stand in the way of any deep penetration into the motives beneath human conduct4 ,nietzsche1 in his analyses and criticisms1 is not solely destructive3 he is subterraneously constructing his own philosophical system founded on the will to power4 ,this phrase is used many times in the careful research of the first chapter4 ,as the book proceeds1 this doctrine develops4 ,nietzsche's best definition of what he calls the free spirit1 namely3 the thinking man1 the intellectual aristocrat1 the philosopher and ruler1 is contained in the twenty-six pages of the second chapter of ,beyond ,good and ,evil4 ,in a series of paragraphs--longer than is ,nietzsche's wont--the leading characteristics of this superior man are described4 ,the free spirit1 however1 must not be confused with the superman4 ,the former is the bridge which the present-day man must cross in the process of surpassing himself4 ,in the delineation and analysis of him1 as presented to us here1 we can glimpse his most salient mental features4 ,heretofore1 as in ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra1 he has been but partially and provisionally defined4 ,now his instincts and desires1 his habits and activities are outlined4 ,furthermore1 we are given an explanation of his relation to the inferior man and to the organisms of his environment4 ,the chapter is an important one1 for at many points it is a subtle elucidation of many of ,nietzsche's dominant philosophic principles4 ,by inference1 the differences of class distinction are strictly drawn4 ,the slave-morality 7sklavmoral7 and the master-morality 7herrenmoral71 though as yet undefined1 are balanced against each other2 and the deportmental standards of the masters and slaves are defined by way of differentiating between these two opposing human factions4 ,while the serving class is constantly manifesting its need of a guiding dogma1 the ruling class is constantly approaching the state wherein the arbitrary moral mandates are denied4 ,nietzsche sees a new order of philosophers appearing--men who will stand beyond good and evil1 who will be not only free spirits1 but something more1 higher1 greater1 and fundamentally different4 ,in describing these men of the future1 of which the present free men are the heralds and forerunners1 ,nietzsche establishes an individualistic ideal which he develops fully in later chapters4 ,a keen and far-reaching analysis of the various aspects assumed by religious faith constitutes a third section of ,beyond ,good and ,evil4 ,though touching upon various influences of ,christianity1 this section is more general in its religious scope than even ,the ,antichrist1 many indications of which are to be found here4 ,this chapter has to do with the numerous inner experiences of man1 which are directly or indirectly attributable to religious doctrines4 ,the origin of the instinct for faith itself is sought1 and the results of this faith are balanced against the needs of the individuals and of the race4 ,the relation between religious ecstasy and sensuality2 the attempt on the part of religious practitioners to arrive at a negation of the will2 the transition from religious gratitude to fear2 the psychology at the bottom of saint-worship2--to problems such as these ,nietzsche devotes his energies in his inquiry of the religious mood4 ,the geographical considerations which enter into the character and intensity of religious faith form an important basis for study2 and the differences between ,comte's sociology and ,sainte-,beuve's anti-,jesuit utterances are explained from a standpoint of national influences4 ,nietzsche examines the many phases of atheism and the principal anti-,christian tendencies of all philosophy since ,descartes4 ,there is an illuminating exposition of the important stages in religious cruelty and of the motives underlying the various forms of religious sacrifices4 ,again we run upon the doctrine of eternal recurrence1 but here1 as elsewhere1 it may be regarded1 not as a basic element in ,nietzsche's philosophical scheme1 but as a by-product of his thought4 ,nietzsche emphasises the necessity of idleness in all religious lives1 and shows how the adherence to the religious mood works against the activities1 both of mind and of body1 which make for the highest efficiency4 ,a very important phase of ,nietzsche's teaching is contained in this criticism of the religious life4 ,the detractors of the ,nietzschean doctrine1 almost without exception1 base their judgments on the assumption that the universal acceptation of his theories would result in social chaos4 ,as ,i have pointed out before1 ,nietzsche desired no such general adoption of his beliefs4 ,in his bitterest diatribes against ,christianity1 his object was not to shake the faith of the great majority of mankind in their idols4 ,he sought merely to free the strong men from the restrictions of a religion which fitted the needs of only the weaker members of society4 ,he neither hoped nor desired to wean the mass of humanity from ,christianity or any similar dogmatic comfort4 ,on the contrary1 he denounced those superficial atheists who endeavoured to weaken the foundations of religion4 ,he saw the positive necessity of such religions as a basis for his slave morality1 and in the present chapter he exhorts the rulers to preserve the religious faith of the serving classes1 and to use it as a means of government--as an instrument in the work of disciplining and educating4 ,in paragraph #fa he says3 ,the selecting and disciplining influence--destructive as well as creative and fashioning--which can be exercised by means of religion is manifold and varied1 according to the sort of people placed under its spell and protection4 ,not only is this an expression of the utilitarian value of religious formulas1 but a definite voicing of one of the main factors in his philosophy4 ,his entire system of ethics is built on the complete disseverance of the dominating class and the serving class2 and his doctrine of beyond good and evil should be considered only as it pertains to the superior man4 ,to apply it to all classes would be to reduce ,nietzsche's whole system of ethics to impracticability1 and therefore to an absurdity4 ,passing from a consideration of the religious mood1 ,nietzsche enters a broader sphere of ethical research1 and endeavours to trace the history and development of morals4 ,he accuses the philosophers of having avoided the real problem of morality1 namely3 the testing of the faith and motives which lie beneath moral beliefs4 ,this is the task he sets for himself1 and in his chapter1 ,the ,natural ,history of ,morals1 he makes an examination of moral origins--an examination which is extended into an exhaustive treatise in ,the ,genealogy of ,morals4 ,however1 his dissection here is carried out on a broader and far more general scale than in his previous books1 such as ,human1 ,all-,too-,human and ,the ,dawn of ,day4 ,heretofore he had confined himself to codes and systems1 to acts of morality and immorality1 to judgments of conducts4 ,in ,beyond ,good and ,evil he treats of moral prejudices as forces working hand in hand with human progress4 ,in addition1 there is a definite attitude of constructive thinking here which is absent from his earlier work4 ,he outlines the course to be taken by the men of the future1 and points to the results which have accrued from the moralities of modern nations4 ,he offers the will to power in place of the older will to belief1 and characterises the foundations of acceptance for all moral codes as fictions and premature hypotheses4 ,he defines the racial ideals which have grown up out of moral influences1 and1 applying them to the needs of the present day1 finds them inadequate and dangerous4 ,the conclusion to which his observations and analyses point is that1 unless the rulers of the race take a stand beyond the outposts of good and evil and govern on a basis of expediency divorced from all moral influences1 the individual is in constant danger of being lowered to the level of the gregarious conscience4 ,in the chapter1 ,we ,scholars1 ,nietzsche continues his definition of the philosopher1 whom he holds to be the highest type of man4 ,besides being a mere description of the intellectual traits of this free spirit1 the chapter is also an exposition of the shortcomings of those modern men who pose as philosophers4 ,in the path of these new thinkers ,nietzsche sees many difficulties both from within and from without1 and points out methods whereby these obstacles may be overcome4 ,also the man of science and the man of genius are analyzed and weighed as to their relative importance in the community4 ,in fact1 we have here ,nietzsche's most concise and complete definition of the individuals upon whom rests the burden of progress4 ,these valuations of the intellectual leaders are important to the student1 for by one's understanding them1 along with the reasons for such valuations1 a comprehension of the ensuing volumes is facilitated4 ,nietzsche hereby establishes the qualities of those entitled to the master-morality code2 and1 by thus drawing the line of demarcation in humanity1 he defines at the same time that class whose constitutions and predispositions demand the slave-morality4 ,in addition1 he affixes1 according to his philosophical formula1 a scale of values to such mental attributes as objectivity1 power to will1 scepticism1 positivity and constraint4 ,important material touching on many of the fundamental points of ,nietzsche's philosophy is embodied in the chapter entitled ,our ,virtues4 ,the more general inquiries into conduct and the research along the broader lines of ethics are supplanted by inquiries into specific moral attributes4 ,the current virtues are questioned1 and their historical significance is determined4 ,the value of such virtues is tested in their relation to different types of men4 ,sacrifice1 sympathy1 brotherly love1 service1 loyalty1 altruism and similar ideals of conduct are examined1 and the results of such virtues are shown to be incompatible with the demands of modern social intercourse4 ,nietzsche poses against these virtues the sterner and more rigid forms of conduct1 pointing out wherein they meet with the present requirements of human progress4 ,the chapter is a preparation for his establishment of a new morality and also an explanation of the dual ethical code which is one of the main pillars in his philosophical structure4 ,before presenting his precept of a dual morality1 ,nietzsche endeavours to determine woman's place in the political and social scheme1 and points out the necessity1 not only of individual feminine functioning1 but of the preservation of a distinct polarity in sexual relationship4 ,in the final chapter many of ,nietzsche's philosophical ideas take definite shape4 ,the doctrine of slave-morality and master-morality1 prepared for and partially defined in preceding chapters1 is here directly set forth1 and those virtues and attitudes which constitute the nobility of the master class are specifically defined4 ,nietzsche designates the duty of his aristocracy1 and segregates the human attributes according to the rank of individuals4 ,the ,dionysian ideal1 which underlies all the books that follow ,beyond ,good and ,evil1 receives its first direct exposition and application4 ,the hardier human traits such as egotism1 cruelty1 arrogance1 retaliation and appropriation are given ascendency over the softer virtues such as sympathy1 charity1 forgiveness1 loyalty and humility1 and are pronounced necessary constituents in the moral code of a natural aristocracy4 ,at this point is begun the transvaluation of values which was to have been completed in ,the ,will to ,power4 ,the student should read carefully this chapter1 for it is an introduction as well as an explanation for what follows1 and was written with that purpose in view4 ,,excerpts ,,from ,,beyond ,,good ,,and ,,evil ,to recognise untruth as a condition of life3 that is certainly to impugn the traditional ideas of value in a dangerous manner1 and a philosophy which ventures to do so1 has thereby alone placed itself beyond good and evil4 #i ,psychologists should bethink themselves before putting down the instinct of self-preservation as the cardinal instinct of an organic being4 ,a living thing seeks above all to discharge its strength--life itself is ,will to ,power2 self-preservation is only one of the indirect and most frequent results thereof4 #bj ,it is the business of the very few to be independent2 it is the privilege of the strong4 ,and whoever attempts it1 even with the best right1 but without being obliged to do so1 proves that he is probably not only strong1 but also daring beyond measure4 #dc ,the virtues of the common man would perhaps mean vice and weakness in a philosopher2 it might be possible for a highly developed man1 supposing him to degenerate and go to ruin1 to acquire qualities thereby alone1 for the sake of which he would have to be honoured as a saint in the lower world into which he had sunk4 #dd ,books for the general reader are always ill-smelling books1 the odour of paltry people clings to them4 ,where the populace eat and drink1 and even where they reverence1 it is accustomed to stink4 ,one should not go into churches if one wishes to breathe pure air4 #dd ,will can naturally only operate on will--and not on matter 7not on nerves1 for instance73 in short1 the hypothesis must be hazarded1 whether will does not operate on will wherever effects are recognised--and whether all mechanical action1 inasmuch as a power operates therein1 is not just the power of will1 the effect of will4 ,granted1 finally1 that we succeed in explaining our entire instinctive life as the development and ramification of one fundamental form of will--namely1 the ,will to ,power1 as my thesis puts it2 granted that all organic functions could be traced back to this ,will to ,power1 and that the solution of the problem of generation and nutrition--it is one problem--could also be found therein3 one would thus have acquired the right to define all active force unequivocally as ,will to ,power4 ,the world seen from within1 the world defined and designated according to its intelligible character--it would simply be ,will to ,power1 and nothing else4 #eb ,happiness and virtue are no arguments4 ,it is willingly forgotten1 however1 even on the part of thoughtful minds1 that to make unhappy and to make bad are just as little counter-arguments4 ,a thing could be true1 although it were in the highest degree injurious and dangerous2 indeed1 the fundamental constitution of existence might be such that one succumbed by a full knowledge of it--so that the strength of a mind might be measured by the amount of truth it could endure--or to speak more plainly1 by the extent to which it required truth attenuated1 veiled1 sweetened1 damped1 and falsified4 #ec-ed ,everything that is profound loves the mask2 the profoundest things have a hatred even of figure and likeness4 ,should not the contrary only be the right disguise for the shame of a ,god to go about in8 #ed-ee ,one must renounce the bad taste of wishing to agree with many people4 ,good is no longer good when one's neighbour takes it into his mouth4 ,and how could there be a common good4 ,the expression contradicts itself2 that which can be common is always of small value4 ,in the end things must be as they are and have always been--the great things remain for the great1 the abysses for the profound1 the delicacies and thrills for the refined1 and1 to sum up shortly1 everything rare for the rare4 #eg-eh ,in every country of ,europe1 and the same in ,america1 there is at present 444 a very narrow1 prepossessed1 enchained class of spirits4444 ,briefly and regrettably1 they belong to the levellers1 these wrongly named free spirits--as glib-tongued and scribe-fingered slaves of the democratic taste and its modern ideas2 all of them men without solitude1 without personal solitude1 blunt honest fellows to whom neither courage nor honourable conduct ought to be denied2 only1 they are not free1 and are ludicrously superficial1 especially in their innate partiality for seeing the cause of almost all human misery and failure in the old forms in which society has hitherto existed--a notion which happily inverts the truth entirely4 #ec-ei ,we believe that severity1 violence1 slavery1 danger in the street and in the heart1 secrecy1 stoicism1 tempter's art and revelry of every kind1--that everything wicked1 terrible1 tyrannical1 predatory1 and serpentine in man1 serves as well for the elevation of the human species as its opposite4444 #ei ,the ,christian faith from the beginning1 is sacrifice3 the sacrifice of all freedom1 all pride1 all self-confidence of spirit2 it is at the same time subjection1 self-derision1 and self-mutilation4 #fe ,the mightiest men have hitherto always bowed reverently before the saint1 as the enigma of self-subjugation and utter voluntary privation4--,why did they thus bow8 ,they divined in him--and as it were behind the questionableness of his frail and wretched appearance--the superior force which wished to test itself by such a subjugation2 the strength and love of power1 and knew how to honour it3 they honoured something in themselves when they honoured the saint4444 ,the mighty ones of the world learned to have a new fear before him1 they divined a new power1 a strange1 still unconquered enemy3--it was the ,will to ,power which obliged them to halt before the saint4 #gj-ga ,perhaps the most solemn conceptions that have caused the most fighting and suffering1 the conceptions ,god and sin1 will one day seem to us of no more importance than a child's plaything or a child's pain seems to an old man4444 #ge ,to love mankind for ,god's sake--this has so far been the noblest and remotest sentiment to which mankind has attained4 #gi ,for those who are strong and independent1 destined and trained to command1 in whom the judgment and skill of a ruling race is incorporated1 religion is an additional means for overcoming1 betraying and surrendering to the former the conscience of the latter1 their inmost heart1 which would fain escape obedience4 #hj ,asceticism and ,puritanism are almost indispensable means of educating and ennobling a race which seeks to rise above its hereditary baseness and work itself upward to future supremacy4 ,and finally1 to ordinary men1 to the majority of the people1 who exist for service and general utility1 and are only so far entitled to exist1 religion gives invaluable contentedness with their lot and condition1 peace of heart1 ennoblement of obedience1 additional social happiness and sympathy1 with something of transfiguration and embellishment1 something of justification of all the commonplaceness1 all the meanness1 all the semi-animal poverty of their souls4 #ha ,knowledge for its own sake--that is the last snare laid by morality3 we are thereby completely entangled in morals once more4 #he ,he who attains his ideal1 precisely thereby surpasses it4 #hf ,sympathy for all--would be harshness and tyranny for thee1 my good neighbour6 #hh ,to be ashamed of one's immorality is a step on the ladder at the end of which one is ashamed also of one's morality4 #hi ,a discerning one might easily regard himself at present as the animalisation of ,god4 #ij ,not their love of humanity1 but the impotence of their love1 prevents the ,christians of to-day--burning us4 #ia ,there is no such thing as moral phenomena1 but only a moral interpretation of phenomena4 #ia ,the criminal is often enough not equal to his deed3 he extenuates and maligns it4 #ia ,the great epochs of our life are at the points when we gain courage to rebaptise our badness as the best in us4 #ib ,it is a curious thing that ,god learned ,greek when he wished to turn author--and that he did not learn it better4 #ic ,even concubinage has been corrupted--by marriage4 #ic ,a nation is a detour of nature to arrive at six or seven great men--,yes1 and then to get round them4 #id ,from the senses originate all trustworthiness1 all good conscience1 all evidence of truth4 #ie ,our vanity would like what we do best to pass precisely for what is most difficult to us4--,concerning the origin of many systems of morals4 #if ,when a woman has scholarly inclinations there is generally something wrong with her sexual nature4 ,barrenness itself conduces to a certain virility of taste2 man1 indeed1 if ,i may say so1 is the barren animal4 #if ,that which an age considers evil is usually an unseasonable echo of what was formerly considered good--the atavism of an old ideal4 #ig ,what is done out of love always takes place beyond good and evil4 #ih ,objection1 evasion1 joyous distrust1 and love of irony are signs of health2 everything absolute belongs to pathology4 #ih ,the ,jews---a people born for slavery1 as ,tacitus and the whole ancient world say of them2 the chosen people among the nations1 as they themselves say and believe--the ,jews performed the miracle of the inversion of valuations1 by means of which life on earth obtained a new and dangerous charm for a couple of millenniums4 ,their prophets fused into one the expressions rich1 godless1 wicked1 violent1 sensual1 and for the first time coined the word world as a term of reproach4 ,in this inversion of valuations 7in which is also included the use of the word poor as synonymous with saint and friend7 the significance of the ,jewish people is to be found2 it is with them that the slave-insurrection in morals commences4 #aag ,the beast of prey and the man of prey 7for instance1 ,csar ,borgia7 are fundamentally misunderstood1 nature is misunderstood1 so long as one seeks a morbidness in the constitution of these healthiest of all tropical monsters and growths4444 #aah ,all the systems of morals which address themselves to individuals with a view to their happiness1 as it is called--what else are they but suggestions for behaviour adapted to the degree of danger from themselves in which the individuals live2 recipes for their passions1 their good and bad propensities in so far as such have the ,will to ,power and would like to play the master2 small and great expediencies and elaborations1 permeated with the musty odour of old family medicines and old-wife wisdom2 all of them grotesque and absurd in their form--because they address themselves to all1 because they generalise where generalisation is not authorised2 all of them speaking unconditionally1 and taking themselves unconditionally2 all of them flavoured not merely with one grain of salt1 but rather endurable only1 and sometimes even seductive1 when they are over-spiced and begin to smell dangerously1 especially of the other world4 #aah-aai ,in view 444 of the fact that obedience has been most practised and fostered among mankind hitherto1 one may reasonably suppose that1 generally speaking1 the need thereof is now innate in every one1 as a kind of formal conscience4444 #abj ,the history of the influence of ,napoleon is almost the history of the higher happiness to which the entire century has attained in its worthiest individuals and periods4 #aba ,as long as the utility which determines moral estimates is only gregarious utility1 as long as the preservation of the community is only kept in view1 and the immoral is sought precisely and exclusively in what seems dangerous to the maintenance of the community1 there can be no morality of love to one's neighbour4 #abc ,love of our neighbour1 is always a secondary matter1 partly conventional and arbitrarily manifested in relation to our fear of our neighbour4 #abc ,everything that elevates the individual above the herd1 and is a source of fear to the neighbour1 is henceforth called evil2 the tolerant1 unassuming1 self-adapting1 self-equalising disposition1 the mediocrity of desires1 attains to moral distinction and honour4 #abe ,the democratic movement is the inheritance of the ,christian movement4 #abg ,we1 who regard the democratic movement1 not only as a degenerating form of political organisation1 but as equivalent to a degenerating1 a waning type of man1 as involving his mediocrising and depreciation3 where have we to fix our hopes8 ,in new philosophers--there is no other alternative3 in minds strong and original enough to initiate opposite estimates of value1 to transvalue and invert eternal valuations2 in forerunners1 in men of the future1 who in the present shall fix the constraints and fasten the knots which will compel millenniums to take new paths4 ,to teach men the future of humanity as his will1 as depending on human will1 and to make preparation for vast hazardous enterprises and collective attempts in rearing and educating1 in order thereby to put an end to the frightful rule of folly and chance which has hitherto gone by the name of history 7the folly of the greatest number is only its last form7--for that purpose a new type of philosophers and commanders will some time or other be needed1 at the very idea of which everything that has existed in the way of occult1 terrible1 and benevolent beings might look pale and dwarfed4 #abh-abi ,the universal degeneracy of mankind to the level of the man of the future--as idealised by the socialistic fools and shallow-pates--this degeneracy and dwarfing of man to an absolutely gregarious animal 7or as they call it1 to a man of free society71 this brutalising of man into a pigmy with equal rights and claims1 is undoubtedly possible6 ,he who has thought out this possibility to its ultimate conclusion knows another loathing unknown to the rest of mankind--and perhaps also a new mission6 #acj-aca ,supposing 444 that in the picture of the philosophers of the future1 some trait suggests the question whether they must not perhaps be sceptics in the last-mentioned sense1 something in them would only be designated thereby--and not they themselves4 ,with equal right they might call themselves critics2 and assuredly they will be men of experiments4444 ,they will be sterner 7and perhaps not always towards themselves only7 444 they will not deal with the truth in order that it may please them1 or elevate and inspire them--they will rather have little faith in truth bringing with it such revels for the feelings4 ,they will smile1 those rigorous spirits1 when any one says in their presence3 that thought elevates me1 why should it not be true8 or2 that artist enlarges me1 why should he not be great8 ,perhaps they will not only have a smile1 but a genuine disgust for all that is thus rapturous1 idealistic1 feminine and hermaphroditic2 and if any one could look into their inmost heart1 he would not easily find therein the intention to reconcile ,christian sentiments with antique taste1 or even with modern parliamentarism 7the kind of reconciliation necessarily found even amongst philosophers in our very uncertain and consequently very conciliatory century74 ,critical discipline1 and every habit that conduces to purity and rigour in intellectual matters1 will not only be demanded from themselves by these philosophers of the future2 they may even make a display thereof as their special adornment--nevertheless they will not want to be called critics on that account4 ,it will seem to them no small indignity to philosophy to have it decreed1 as is so welcome nowadays1 that philosophy itself is criticism and critical science--and nothing else whatever6 #adi-aea ,the real philosophers 444 are commanders and law-givers2 they say3 ,thus shall it be4 ,they determine first the ,whither and the ,why of mankind1 and thereby set aside the previous labour of all philosophical workers1 and all subjugators of the past--they grasp at the future with a creative hand1 and whatever is and was1 becomes for them thereby a means1 an instrument1 and a hammer4 ,their knowing is creating1 their creating is a law-giving1 their will to truth is--,will to ,tower4444 #eb ,at present 444 when throughout ,europe the herding animal alone attains to honours1 and dispenses honours1 when equality of right can too readily be transformed into equality in wrong3 ,i mean to say into general war against everything rare1 strange1 and privileged1 against the higher man1 the higher soul1 the higher duty1 the higher responsibility1 the creative plenipotence and lordliness--at present it belongs to the conception of greatness to be noble1 to wish to be apart1 to be capable of being different1 to stand alone1 to have to live by personal initiative2 and the philosopher will betray something of his own ideal when he asserts3 ,he shall be the greatest who can be the most solitary1 the most concealed1 the most divergent1 the man beyond good and evil1 the master of his virtues1 and of superabundance of will2 precisely this shall be called greatness3 as diversified as can be entire1 as ample as can be full4 #aed-aee ,morality as attitude is opposed to our taste nowadays4 ,this is also an advance1 as it was an advance in our fathers that religion as an attitude finally became opposed to their taste4444 #afa ,the practice of judging and condemning morally is the favourite revenge of the intellectually shallow on those who are less so4444 #afb ,whoever has really offered sacrifice knows that he wanted and obtained something for it--perhaps something from himself for something from himself2 that he relinquished here in order to have more there1 perhaps in general to be more1 or even feel himself more4 #afd ,wherever sympathy 7fellow-suffering7 is preached nowadays 444 let the psychologist have his ears open3 through all the vanity1 through all the noise which is natural to these preachers 7as to all preachers71 he will hear a hoarse1 groaning1 genuine note of self-contempt4 #fe ,we are prepared as no other age has ever been for a carnival in the grand style1 for the most spiritual festival-laughter and arrogance1 for the transcendental height of supreme folly and ,aristophanic ridicule of the world4 ,perhaps we are still discovering the domain of our invention just here1 the domain where even we can still be original1 probably as parodists of the world's history and as ,god's ,merry-,andrews1--perhaps1 though nothing else of the present have a future1 our laughter itself may have a future6 #afh ,the discipline of suffering1 of great suffering--know ye not that it is only this discipline that has produced all the elevations of humanity hitherto8 #aga ,it is desirable that as few people as possible should reflect upon morals1 and consequently it is very desirable that morals should not some day become interesting6 #agd ,not one of those ponderous1 conscience-stricken herding-animals 7who undertake to advocate the cause of egoism as conducive to the general welfare7 wants to have any knowledge or inkling of the facts that the general welfare is no ideal1 no goal1 no notion that can be at all grasped1 but is only a nostrum1--that what is fair to one may not at all be fair to another1 that the requirement of one morality for all is really a detriment to higher men1 in short1 that there is a distinction of rank between man and man1 and consequently between morality and morality4 #age ,that which constitutes the painful delight of tragedy is cruelty2 that which operates agreeably in so-called tragic sympathy1 and at the basis even of everything sublime1 up to the highest and most delicate thrills of metaphysics1 obtains its sweetness solely from the intermingled ingredient of cruelty4 #agg ,enlightenment hitherto has fortunately been men's affair1 men's gift--we remained therewith among ourselves2 and in the end1 in view of all that women write about woman1 we may well have considerable doubt as to whether woman really desires enlightenment about herself--and can desire it4 ,if woman does not thereby seek a new ornament for herself--,i believe ornamentation belongs to the eternally feminine8--why1 then1 she wishes to make herself feared2 perhaps she thereby wishes to get the mastery4 ,but she does not want truth--what does woman care for truth4 ,from the very first nothing is more foreign1 more repugnant1 or more hostile to woman than truth--her great art is falsehood1 her chief concern is appearance and beauty4 #ahc ,it betrays corruption of the instincts--apart from the fact that it betrays bad taste--when a woman refers to ,madame ,roland1 or ,madame de ,stal1 or ,monsieur ,george ,sand1 as though something were proved thereby in favour of woman as she is4 ,among men1 these are the three comical women as they are--nothing more--and just the best involuntary counter-arguments against feminine emancipation and autonomy4 #ahd ,stupidity in the kitchen2 woman as cook2 the terrible thoughtlessness with which the feeding of the family and the master of the house is managed4 ,woman does not understand what food means1 and she insists on being cook4 ,if woman had been a thinking creature1 she should certainly1 as cook for thousands of years1 have discovered the most important physiological facts1 and should likewise have got possession of the healing art4 ,through bad female cooks--through the entire lack of reason in the kitchen--the development of mankind has been longest retarded and most interfered with4 #ahd-ahe ,to be mistaken in the fundamental problem of man and woman1 to deny here the profoundest antagonism and the necessity for an eternally hostile tension1 to dream here perhaps of equal rights1 equal training1 equal claims and obligations3 that is a typical sign of shallow-mindedness2 and a thinker who has proved himself shallow at this dangerous spot--shallow in instinct--may generally be regarded as suspicious1 nay more1 as betrayed1 as discovered3 he will probably prove too short for all fundamental questions of life1 future as well as present1 and will be unable to descend into any of the depths4 ,on the other hand1 a man who has depth of spirit as well as of desires1 and has also the depth of benevolence which is capable of severity and harshness1 and easily confounded with them1 can only think of woman as ,orientals do3 he must conceive of her as a possession1 as confinable property1 as a being predestined for service and accomplishing her mission therein4444 #ahf-ahg ,the weaker sex has in no previous age been treated with so much respect by men as at present--this belongs to the tendency and fundamental taste of democracy1 in the same way as disrespectfulness to old age--what wonder is it that abuse should be immediately made of this respect8 ,they want more1 they learn to make claims1 the tribute of respect is at last felt to be well-nigh galling4444 #ahg ,wherever the industrial spirit has triumphed over the military and aristocratic spirit1 woman strives for the economic and legal independence of a clerk3 woman as clerkess is inscribed on the portal of the modern society which is in course of formation4 ,while she thus appropriates new rights1 aspires to be master1 and inscribes progress of woman on her flags and banners1 the very opposite realises itself with terrible obviousness3 woman retrogrades4 ,since the ,french ,revolution the influence of woman in ,europe has declined in proportion as she has increased her rights and claims2 and the emancipation of woman1 in so far as it is desired and demanded by women themselves 7and not only by masculine shallow-pates71 thus proves to be a remarkable symptom of the increased weakening and deadening of the most womanly instincts4 ,there is stupidity in this movement1 an almost masculine stupidity1 of which a well-reared woman--who is always a sensible woman--might be heartily ashamed4 #ahg-ahh ,every elevation of the type man1 has hitherto been the work of an aristocratic society--and so will it always be--a society believing in a long scale of gradations of rank and differences of worth among human beings1 and requiring slavery in some form or other4 #bbc ,the essential thing 444 in a good and healthy aristocracy is that it should not regard itself as a function either of the kingship or the commonwealth1 but as the significance and highest justification thereof--that it should therefore accept with a good conscience the sacrifice of a legion of individuals1 who1 for its sake1 must be suppressed and reduced to imperfect men1 to slaves and instruments4 ,its fundamental belief must be precisely that society is not allowed to exist for its own sake1 but only as a foundation and scaffolding1 by means of which a select class of beings may be able to elevate themselves to their higher duties1 and in general to a higher existence4444 #bbe ,life itself is essentially appropriation1 injury1 conquest of the strange and weak1 suppression1 severity1 obtrusion of peculiar forms1 incorporation1 and at the least1 putting it mildest1 exploitation4444 #bbf ,people now rave everywhere1 even under the guise of science1 about coming conditions of society in which the exploiting character is to be absent3--that sounds to my ears as if they promised to invent a mode of life which should refrain from all organic functions4 ,exploitation does not belong to a depraved1 or imperfect and primitive society2 it belongs to the nature of the living being as a primary organic function2 it is a consequence of the intrinsic ,will to ,power1 which is precisely the ,will to ,life4 #bbf ,in a tour through the many finer and coarser moralities which have hitherto prevailed or still prevail on the earth1 ,i found certain traits recurring regularly together and connected with one another1 until finally two primary types revealed themselves to me1 and a radical distinction was brought to light4 ,there is master-morality and slave-morality2--,i would at once add1 however1 that in all higher and mixed civilisations1 there are also attempts at the reconciliation of the two moralities2 but one finds still oftener the confusion and mutual misunderstanding of them1 indeed1 sometimes their close juxtaposition--even in the same man1 within one soul4 #bbg ,the noble type of man regards himself as a determiner of values2 he does not require to be approved of2 he passes the judgment3 ,what is injurious to me is injurious in itself2 he knows that it is he himself only who confers honour on things2 he is a creator of values4 ,he honours whatever he recognises in himself3 such morality is self-glorification4 ,in the foreground there is the feeling of plenitude1 of power1 which seeks to overflow1 the happiness of high tension1 the conscientiousness of a wealth which would fain give and bestow3--the noble man also helps the unfortunate1 but not--or scarcely--out of pity1 but rather from an impulse generated by the superabundance of power4 ,the noble man honours in himself the powerful one1 him also who has power over himself1 who knows how to speak and how to keep silence1 who takes pleasure in subjecting himself to severity and hardness1 and has reverence for all that is severe and hard4 #bbi ,a morality of the ruling class 444 is 444 especially foreign and irritating to present-day taste in the sternness of its principle that one has duties only to one's equals2 that one may act towards beings of a lower rank1 towards all that is foreign1 just as seems good to one1 or as the heart desires1 and in any case beyond good and evil3 it is here that sympathy and similar sentiments can have a place4 ,the ability and obligation to exercise prolonged gratitude and prolonged revenge--both only within the circle of equals1--artfulness in retaliation1 raffinement of the idea in friendship1 a certain necessity to have enemies as outlets for the emotions of envy1 quarrelsomeness1 arrogance--in fact1 in order to be a good friend3 all these are typical characteristics of the noble morality4 #bbi-bcj ,slave-morality is essentially the morality of utility4 ,here is the seat of the origin of the famous antithesis good and evil3--power and dangerousness are assumed to reside in the evil1 a certain dreadfulness1 subtlety1 and strength1 which do not admit of being despised4 ,according to slave-morality1 therefore1 the evil man arouses fear2 according to master-morality1 it is precisely the good man who arouses fear and seeks to arouse it1 while the bad man is regarded as the despicable being4 ,the contrast attains its maximum when1 in accordance with the logical consequences of slave-morality1 a shade of depreciation--it may be slight and well-intentioned--at last attaches itself even to the good man of this morality2 because1 according to the servile mode of thought1 the good man must in any case be the safe man3 he is good-natured1 easily deceived1 perhaps a little stupid1 un bonhomme4 ,everywhere that slave-morality gains the ascendency1 language shows a tendency to approximate the significations of the words good and stupid4--,a last fundamental difference3 the desire for freedom1 the instinct for happiness and the refinements of the feeling of liberty belong as necessarily to slave-morals and morality1 as artifice and enthusiasm in reverence and devotion are the regular symptoms of an aristocratic mode of thinking and estimating4 #bca ,a species originates1 and a type becomes established and strong in the long struggle with essentially constant unfavourable conditions4 ,on the other hand1 it is known by the experience of breeders that species which receive superabundant nourishment1 and in general a surplus of protection and care1 immediately tend in the most marked way to develop variations1 and are fertile in prodigies and monstrosities 7also in monstrous vices74 #bcd ,i submit that egoism belongs to the essence of a noble soul1 ,i mean the unalterable belief that to a being such as we1 other beings must naturally be in subjection1 and have to sacrifice themselves4 #bdj ,woman would like to believe that love can do everything--it is the superstition peculiar to her4 ,alas1 he who knows the heart finds out how poor1 helpless1 pretentious1 and blundering even the best and deepest love is--he finds that it rather destroys than saves6 #bdf ,signs of nobility3 never to think of lowering our duties to the rank of duties for everybody2 to be unwilling to renounce or to share our responsibilities2 to count our prerogatives1 and the exercise of them1 among our duties4 #bdi ,a man strives after great things1 looks upon every one whom he encounters on his way either as a means of advance1 or a delay and hindrance--or as a temporary resting-place4 #bdi ,if one wishes to praise at all1 it is a delicate and at the same time a noble self-control1 to praise only where one does not agree4444 #bed ,all society makes one somehow1 somewhere1 or sometimes--commonplace4 #bed-bee ,the noble soul has reverence for itself4 #bef ,a man who can conduct a case1 carry out a resolution1 remain true to an opinion1 keep hold of a woman1 punish and overthrow insolence2 a man who has his indignation and his sword1 and to whom the weak1 the suffering1 the oppressed1 and even the animals willingly submit and naturally belong2 in short1 a man who is a master by nature--when such a man has sympathy1 well1 that sympathy has value6 #bei ,i would even allow myself to rank philosophers according to the quality of their laughing--up to those who are capable of golden laughter4 #bfj ,,viii ,the ,genealogy of ,morals 7,zur ,genealogie der ,moral7 was written by ,nietzsche primarily as an elaboration and elucidation of the philosophic points which were merely sketched in ,beyond ,good and ,evil4 ,this former work had met with small success1 and the critics1 failing to understand its doctrines1 read converse meanings in it4 ,one critic hailed ,nietzsche at once as an anarchist1 and this review went far in actuating him in drawing up the three essays which comprise the present book4 ,as will be remembered1 several of ,nietzsche's most important principles were stated and outlined in ,beyond ,good and ,evil1 especially his doctrine of slave-morality and master-morality4 ,now he undertakes to develop this proposition1 as well as many others which he set forth provisionally in his earlier work4 ,this new polemic may be looked upon both as a completing of former works and as a further preparation for ,the ,will to ,power4 ,the book1 a comparatively brief one 7it contains barely #dj1jjj words71 was written in a period of about two weeks during the early part of #ahhg4 ,in ,july the manuscript was sent to the publisher1 but was recalled for revisions and addenda2 and most of ,nietzsche's summer was devoted to correcting it4 ,later that same year the book appeared2 and thereby its author acquired another friendly reader1 ,georg ,brandes1 to whom1 more than to any other critic1 ,nietzsche owes his early recognition4 ,the style of ,the ,genealogy of ,morals is less aphoristic than any of the books which immediately preceded or followed it4 ,few new doctrines are propounded in it2 and since it was for the most part an analytic commentary on what had gone before1 its expositional needs were best met by ,nietzsche's earlier style of writing4 ,i have spoken before of the desultory and sporadic manner in which ,nietzsche was necessitated to present his philosophy4 ,nowhere is his method of work better exemplified than in this new work4 ,nearly every one of his books overlaps another4 ,propositions are sketchily stated in one essay1 which receive elucidation only in future volumes4 ,beyond ,good and ,evil was a commentary on ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra2 ,the ,genealogy of ,morals is a commentary on the newly propounded theses in ,beyond ,good and ,evil and is in addition an elaboration of many of the ideas which took birth as far back as ,human1 ,all-,too-,human4 ,out of ,the ,genealogy of ,morals in turn grew ,the ,antichrist which dealt specifically with the theological phase of the former's discussion of general morals4 ,and all of these books were but preparations for ,the ,will to ,power4 ,for this reason it is difficult to acquire a complete understanding of ,nietzsche's philosophy unless one follows it consecutively and chronologically4 ,the book at present under discussion is a most valuable one from an academic standpoint1 for1 while it may not set forth any new and important doctrines1 it goes deep into the origins and history of moral concepts1 and explains many of the important conclusions in ,nietzsche's moral code4 ,it brings more and more into prominence the main pillars of his ethical system and explains at length the steps in the syllogism which led to his doctrine of master-morality4 ,it ascertains the origin of the concept of sin1 and describes the racial deterioration which has followed in the train of ,christian ideals4 ,in many ways this book is the profoundest of all the writings ,nietzsche left us4 ,for the first time he separates theological and moral prejudices and traces them to different origins4 ,this is one of the most important steps taken by him4 ,by so doing he became an explorer of entirely new fields4 ,the moral historians and psychologists who preceded him had considered moral precepts and ,christian injunctions as stemming from the same source3 their genealogies had led them to the same common spring4 ,nietzsche entered the search with new methods4 ,he applied the philologie test to all moral values4 ,he brought to his task1 in addition to a historical sense1 what he calls an innate faculty of psychological discrimination par excellence4 ,he posed the following questions1 and endeavoured to answer them by inquiring into the minutest aspects of historical conditions3 ,under what conditions did ,man invent for himself those judgments of value1 'good' and 'evil'8 ,and what intrinsic value do they possess in themselves8 ,have they up to the present hindered or advanced human well-being8 ,are they a symptom of the distress1 impoverishment1 and degeneration of ,human ,life8 ,or1 conversely1 is it in them that is manifested the fulness1 the strength1 and the will of ,life1 its courage1 its self-confidence1 its future8 ,in his research1 ,nietzsche first questioned the value of pity4 ,he found it to be a symptom of modern civilisation--a quality held in contempt by the older philosophers1 even by such widely dissimilar minds as ,plato1 ,spinoza1 ,la ,rochefoucauld and ,kant--but a quality given high place by the more modern thinkers4 ,despite the seemingly apparent isolation of the problem of pity-morality1 ,nietzsche saw that in truth it was a question which underlay all other moral propositions2 and1 using it as a ground-work for his research1 he began to question the utility of all those values held as good1 to apply the qualities of the good man to the needs of civilisation1 and to inquire into the results left upon the race by the bad man4 ,so great was the misunderstanding which attached to his phrase1 beyond good and evil1 and so persistently was this phrase interpreted in its narrow sense of beyond good and bad1 that he felt the necessity of drawing the line of distinction between these two diametrically opposed conceptions and of explaining the origin of each4 ,his first essay in ,the ,genealogy of ,morals is devoted to this task4 ,at the outset he devotes considerable space criticising the methods and conclusions of former genealogists of morals1 especially of the ,english psychologists who attribute an intrinsic merit to altruism because at one time altruism possessed a utilitarian value4 ,herbert ,spencer's theory that good is the same as purposive brings from ,nietzsche a protest founded on the contention that because a thing was at one time useful1 and therefore good1 it does not follow that the thing is good in itself4 ,by the etymology of the descriptive words of morality1 ,nietzsche traces the history of modern moral attributes through class distinctions to their origin in the instincts of the nobles and the vulgarians4 ,he shows the relationship between the ,latin bonus and the warrior1 by deriving bonus from duonus4 ,bellum1 he shows1 equals duellum which equals duen-lum1 in which word duonus is contained4 ,likewise1 he points out the aristocratic origin of happiness--a quality arising from an abundance of energy and the consciousness of power4 ,good and evil1 according to ,nietzsche1 is a sign of slave-morality2 while good and bad represents the qualities in the master-morality4 ,the one stands for the adopted qualities of the subservient races2 the other embodies the natural functioning of dominating races4 ,the origin of the good in these two instances is by no means the same4 ,in the strong man good represented an entirely different condition than the good in the resentful and weak man2 and these two goods arose out of different causes4 ,the one was spontaneous and natural--inherent in the individual of strength3 the other was a manufactured condition1 an optional selection of qualities to soften and ameliorate the conditions of existence4 ,evil and bad1 by the same token1 became attributes originating in widely separated sources4 ,the evil of the weak man was any condition which worked against the manufactured ideals of goodness1 which brought about unhappiness--it was the beginning of the conception of a slave-morality1 a term applied to all enemies4 ,the bad of the strong man was the concept which grew directly out of his feeling for good1 and which had no application to another individual4 ,thus the ideas of good and bad are directly inherited from the nobles of the race1 and these ideas included within themselves the tendency toward establishing social distinctions4 ,the second section of ,the ,genealogy of ,morals1 called ',guilt1' ',bad ,conscience1' and the ,like1 is another important document1 the reading of which is almost imperative for the student who would understand the processes of thought which led to ,nietzsche's philosophic conclusions4 ,in this essay ,nietzsche traces the origin of sin to debt1 thereby disagreeing with all the genealogists of morals who preceded him4 ,he starts with the birth of memory in man and with the corresponding will to forgetfulness1 showing that out of these two mental qualities was born responsibility4 ,out of responsibility in turn grew the function of promising and the accepting of promises1 which at once made possible between individuals the relationship of debtor and creditor4 ,as soon as this relationship was established1 one man had rights over another4 ,the creditor could exact payment from the debtor1 either in the form of material equivalent or by inflicting an injury in which was contained the sensation of satisfaction4 ,thus the creditor had the right to punish in cases where actual repayment was impossible4 ,and in this idea of punishment began not only class distinction but primitive law4 ,later1 when the power to punish was transferred into the hands of the community1 the law of contract came into existence4 ,here1 says ,nietzsche1 we find the cradle of the whole moral world of the ideas of guilt1 conscience1 and duty2 and adds1 ,their commencement1 like the commencement of all great things in the world1 is thoroughly and continuously saturated in blood4 ,carrying out the principle underlying the relationship of debtor and creditor we arrive at the formation of the community4 ,in return for protection and for communal advantages the individual pledged his good behaviour4 ,when he violated this contract with the community1 the community1 in the guise of the defrauded creditor1 took its revenge1 or exacted its payment1 from the debtor1 the criminal4 ,and1 as was the case in early history1 the community deprived the violator of future advantages and protection4 ,the debtor was divested of all rights1 even of mercy1 for then there were no degrees in law-breaking4 ,primitive law was martial law4 ,says ,nietzsche1 ,this shows why war itself 7counting the sacrificial cult of war7 has produced all the forms under which punishment has manifested itself in history4 ,later1 as the community gathered strength1 the offences of the individual debtors were looked upon as less serious4 ,out of its security grew leniency toward the offender3 the penal code became mitigated1 and1 as in all powerful nations to-day1 the criminal was protected4 ,only when there was a consciousness of weakness in a community did the acts of individual offenders take on an exaggerated seriousness1 and under such conditions the law was consequently harshest4 ,thus1 justice and the infliction of legal penalties are direct outgrowths of the primitive relation of debt between individuals4 ,herein we have the origin of guilt4 ,nietzsche attempts an elaborate analysis of the history of punishment1 in an effort to ascertain its true meaning1 its relation to guilt and to the community1 and its final effects on both the individual and society4 ,it has been impossible to present the sequence of this analysis by direct excerpts from his own words1 due to the close1 synthetic manner in which he has made his research4 ,therefore ,i offer the following brief exposition of pages #hh to #ii inclusive1 in which he examines the causes and effects of punishment4 ,to begin with1 ,nietzsche disassociates the origin and the end of punishment1 and regards them as two separate and distinct problems4 ,he argues that the final utility of a thing1 in the sense that revenge and deterrence are the final utilities of punishment1 is in all cases opposed to the origin of that thing2 that every force or principle is constantly being put to new purposes by forces greater than itself1 thus making it impossible to determine its inception by the end for which it is used4 ,therefore the function of punishing was not conceived with a view to punishing1 but may have been employed for any number of ends1 according as a will to power has overcome that function and made use of it for its own purpose3 in short2 punishment1 like any organ or custom or thing1 has passed through a series of new interpretations and adjustments and meanings--and is not a direct and logical progress as to an end4 ,having established this point1 ,nietzsche endeavours to determine the utilisation to which the custom of punishment has been put--to ascertain the meaning which has been interpreted into it4 ,he finds that even in modern times not one but many uses have been made of punishment1 and that in ancient times so diverse have been the utilisations of punishment that it is impossible to define them all4 ,in fact1 one cannot determine the precise reason for punishment4 ,to emphasise this point1 ,nietzsche gives a long list of possible meanings4 ,taking up the more popular supposed utilities of punishment at the present time--such as creating in the wrong-doer the consciousness of guilt1 which is supposed to evolve into conscience and remorse--he shows wherein punishment fails in its object4 ,against this theory of the creation of remorse1 he advances psychology and shows that1 to the contrary1 punishment numbs and hardens4 ,he argues also that punishment for the purpose of making the wrong-doer conscious of the intrinsic reprehensibility of his crime1 fails because the very act for which he is chastened is practised in the service of justice and is called good4 ,eliminating thus the supposed effects of punishment1 ,nietzsche arrives at the conclusion 7included in the excerpts at the end of this chapter7 that punishment makes only for caution and secrecy1 and is therefore detrimental4 ,in his analysis of the origin of the bad conscience1 ,nietzsche lends himself to quotation4 ,therefore ,i have been able to present in his own words a fair resume of the course pursued by him in his examination of the history of conscience4 ,this particular branch of his research is carried into the formation of the ,state which1 according to him1 grew out of a herd of blonde beasts4 ,the older theory of the state1 namely3 that it originated in the adoption of a contract1 is set aside as untenable when dealing with a peoples who possessed conquerors or masters4 ,these masters1 argues ,nietzsche1 had no need of contracts4 ,by using the bad conscience as a ground for inquiry1 the causes for the existence of altruism are shown to be included in the self-cruelty which followed in the wake of the instinct for freedom4 7,this last point is developed fully in the discussion of ascetic ideals which is found at the end of the book now under consideration47 ,nietzsche traces the birth of deities back along the lines of credit and debt4 ,first came the fear of ancestors4 ,then followed the obligation to ancestors4 ,at length the sacrifice to ancestors marked the beginning of a conception of duty 7debt7 to the supernatural4 ,the ancestors of powerful nations in time became heroes1 and finally evolved into gods4 ,later monotheism came as a natural consequence1 and ,god became the creditor4 ,in the expiation of sin1 as symbolised in the crucifixion of ,christianity1 we have this same relationship of debtor and creditor carried out into a more complex form through the avenues of self-torture4 ,the most important essay in ,the ,genealogy of ,morals is the last1 called ,what is the ,meaning of ,ascetic ,ideals8 ,nietzsche examines this question in relation to the artist1 to the philosopher1 to the priest1 and to the race generally4 ,in his examination of the problem in regard to artists he uses ,wagner as a basis of inquiry1 comparing the two phases of ,wagner's art--the ,parsifalian and the ante-,parsifalian4 ,artists1 asserts ,nietzsche1 need a support of constituted authority2 they are unable to stand alone--standing alone is opposed to their deepest instincts--and so they make use of asceticism as a rampart1 as building material1 to give their work authority4 ,in his application of the ascetic ideal to philosophers1 ,nietzsche presents the cases of ,schopenhauer and ,kant1 and concludes that asceticism in such instances is used as an escape from torture--a means to recreation and happiness4 ,with the philosopher the ideal of asceticism is not a denial of existence4 ,rather is it an affirmation of existence4 ,it permits him freedom of the intellect4 ,it relieves him of the numerous obligations of life4 ,furthermore1 the philosophic spirit1 in order to establish itself1 found it necessary to disguise itself as one of the previously fixed types of the contemplative man1 as a priest or soothsayer4 ,only in such a religious masquerade was philosophy taken with any seriousness or reverence4 ,the history of asceticism in the priest ,i have been able to set forth with a certain degree of completeness in ,nietzsche's own words4 ,the priest was the sick physician who administered to the needs of a sick populace4 ,his was the mission of mitigating suffering and of performing every kind of consolation4 ,wherein he failed1 says ,nietzsche1 was in not going to the source1 the cause1 of suffering1 but in dealing merely with its manifestations4 ,these manifestations were the result of physiological depressions which prevailed at intervals among portions of the population4 ,these depressions were the outgrowth of diverse causes1 such as long wars1 emigration to unsuitable climates1 wrong diet1 miscegenation on a large scale1 disease1 etc4 ,according to ,nietzsche the cure for such physiological phenomena can be found only in the realm of moral psychology1 for here the origin is considered and administered to by disciplinary systems grounded in true knowledge4 ,but the method employed by the priest was far from scientific4 ,he combated these depressions by reducing the consciousness of life itself to the lowest possible degree--that is1 by a doctrine of asceticism1 of self-abnegation1 equanimity1 self-hypnotism4 ,by thus minimising the consciousness of life1 these depressions took on more and more the aspect of normality4 ,the effects of this treatment1 however1 were transient1 for the starving of the physical desires and the abstinence from exercising the physical impulses paved the way for all manner of mental disorders1 excesses and insanity4 ,herein lies ,nietzsche's explanation for religious ecstasies1 hallucinations1 and sensual outbursts4 ,another form of treatment devised by the ascetic priests for a depressed people gave birth to the blessedness which1 under the ,christian code1 attaches to work4 ,these priests attempted to turn the attention of the people from their suffering by the establishment of mechanical activity1 namely3 work1 routine and obedience4 ,the sick man forgot himself in the labour which had received sanctification4 ,the priests also combated depression by permitting pleasure through the creation and production of joy4 ,that is1 they set men to helping and comforting each other1 by instilling in them the notion of brotherly love4 ,thereby the community mutually strengthened itself1 and at the same time it reaped the joy of service which had been sanctioned by the priests4 ,out of this last method sprang many of the ,christian virtues1 especially those which benefit others rather than oneself4 ,such methods as these--devitalisation1 labour1 brotherly love--are called by ,nietzsche the innocent prescriptions in the fight against depression4 ,the guilty ones are far different1 and are embodied in the one method3 the production of emotional excess4 ,this1 the priests understood1 was the most efficacious manner in overcoming protracted depression and pain4 ,confronted by the query3 ,by what means can this emotional excess be produced8 they made use of the whole pack of hounds that rage in the human kennel--rage1 fear1 lust1 revenge1 hope1 despair1 cruelty and the like4 ,and once these emotional excesses became established1 the priests1 when asked by the patients for a cause of their suffering1 declared it to be within the man himself1 in his own guiltiness4 ,thus was the sick man turned into a sinner4 ,here originated also the conception of suffering as a state of punishment1 the fear of retribution1 the iniquitous conscience1 and the hope of redemption4 ,nietzsche goes further1 and shows the racial and individual decadence which has followed in the train of this system of treatment4 ,dr4 ,oscar ,levy says with justice that this last essay1 considered in the light which it throws upon the attitude of the ecclesiast to the man of resentment and misfortune1 is one of the most valuable contributions to sacerdotal psychology4 ,,excerpts ,,from ,,the ,,genealogy ,,of ,,morals ,the pathos of nobility and distance1444 the chronic and despotic esprit de corps and fundamental instinct of a higher dominant race coming into association with a meaner race1 an under race1 this is the origin of the antitheses of good and bad4 #bj ,the knightly-aristocratic values are based on a careful cult of the physical1 on a flowering1 rich1 and even effervescing healthiness1 that goes considerably beyond what is necessary for maintaining life1 on war1 adventure1 the chase1 the dance1 the tourney--on everything1 in fact1 which is contained in strong1 free1 and joyous action4 ,the priestly aristocratic mode of valuation is--we have seen--based on other hypotheses3 it is bad enough for this class when it is a question of war6 ,yet the priests are1 as is notorious1 the worst enemies--why8 ,because they are the weakest4 #bi ,the slave-morality requires as the condition of its existence an external and objective world1 to employ physiological terminology1 it requires objective stimuli to be of action at all--its action is fundamentally a reaction4 ,the contrary is the case when we come to the aristocrat's system of values3 it acts and grows spontaneously1 it merely seeks its antithesis in order to pronounce a more grateful and exultant yes to its own self4444 #ce ,the aristocratic man conceives the root idea good spontaneously and straight away1 that is to say1 out of himself1 and from that material then creates for himself a concept of bad6 ,this bad of aristocratic origin and that evil out of the cauldron of unsatisfied hatred--the former an imitation1 an extra1 an additional nuance2 the latter1 on the other hand1 the original1 the beginning1 the essential act in the conception of a slave-morality--these two words bad and evil1 how great a difference do they mark in spite of the fact that they have an identical contrary in the idea good4 #ci ,it is impossible not to recognise at the core of all these aristocratic races the beast of prey2 the magnificent blonde brute1 avidly rampant for spoil and victory2 this hidden core needed an outlet from time to time1 the beast must get loose again1 must return into the wilderness--the ,roman1 ,arabic1 ,german1 and ,japanese nobility1 the ,homeric heroes1 the ,scandinavian ,vikings1 are all alike in this need4 ,it is the aristocratic races who have left the idea ,barbarian on all the tracks in which they have marched2 nay1 a consciousness of this very barbarianism1 and even a pride in it1 manifests itself even in their highest civilisation4 #dj ,what produces to-day our repulsion towards man8--for we suffer from man1 there is no doubt about it4 ,it is not fear2 it is rather that we have nothing more to fear from men2 it is that the worm man is in the foreground and pullulates2 it is that the tame man1 the wretched mediocre and unedifying creature1 has learnt to consider himself a goal and a pinnacle1 an inner meaning1 an historic principle1 a higher man4 444 #db-dc ,in the dwarfing and levelling of the ,european man lurks our greatest peril1 for it is this outlook which fatigues--we see to-day nothing which wishes to be greater1 we surmise that the process is always still backwards1 still backwards towards something more attenuated1 more inoffensive1 more cunning1 more comfortable1 more mediocre1 more indifferent1 more ,chinese1 more ,christian4 #dd ,to require of strength that it should not express itself as strength1 that it should not be a wish to overpower1 a wish to overthrow1 a wish to become master1 a thirst for enemies and antagonisms and triumphs1 is just as absurd as to require of weakness that it should express itself as strength4 ,a quantum of force is just such a quantum of movement1 will1 action4 #de ,the impotence which requites not1 is turned to goodness1 craven baseness to meekness1 submission to those whom one hates1 to obedience 7namely1 obedience to one of whom they say that he ordered this submission--they call him ,god74 ,the inoffensive character of the weak1 the very cowardice in which he is rich1 his standing at the door1 his forced necessity of waiting1 gain here fine names1 such as patience1 which is also called virtue2 not being able to avenge one's self1 is called not wishing to avenge one's self1 perhaps even forgiveness4 #dh ,they are miserable1 there is no doubt about it1 all these whisperers and counterfeiters in the corners1 although they try to get warm by crouching close to each other1 but they tell me that their misery is a favour and distinction given to them by ,god1 just as one beats the dogs one likes best2 that perhaps this misery is also a preparation1 a probation1 a training2 that perhaps it is still more something which will one day be compensated and paid back with a tremendous interest in gold1 nay in happiness4 ,this they call ,blessedness4 #de-di ,the two opposing values good and bad1 good and evil1 have fought a dreadful1 thousand-year fight in the world1 and though indubitably the second value has been for a long time in the preponderance1 there are not wanting places where the fortune of the fight is still undecisive4 ,it can almost be said that in the meanwhile the fight reaches a higher and higher level1 and that in the meanwhile it has become more and more intense1 and always more and more psychological2 so that nowadays there is perhaps no more decisive mark of the higher nature1 of the more psychological nature1 than to be in that sense self-contradictory1 and to be actually still a battle-ground for those two opposites4 ,the symbol of this fight1 written in a writing which has remained worthy of perusal throughout the course of history up to the present time1 is called ,rome against ,juda1 ,juda against ,rome4 ,hitherto there has been no greater event than that fight1 the putting of that question1 that deadly antagonism4 ,rome found in the ,jew the incarnation of the unnatural1 as though it were its diametrically opposed monstrosity1 and in ,rome the ,jew was held to be convicted of hatred of the whole human race3 and rightly so1 in so far as it is right to link the well-being and the future of the human race to the unconditional mastery of the aristocratic values1 of the ,roman values4 ,what1 conversely1 did the ,jews feel against ,rome8 ,one can surmise it from a thousand symptoms1 but it is sufficient to carry one's mind back to the ,johannian ,apocalypse1 that most obscene of all the written outbursts1 which has revenge on its conscience4 #ec-ed ,beyond ,good and ,evil--at any rate that is not the same as ,beyond ,good and ,bad4 #eg ,the proud knowledge of the extraordinary privilege of responsibility1 the consciousness of this rare freedom1 of this power over himself and over fate1 has sunk right down to his innermost depths1 and has become an instinct1 a dominating instinct--what name will he give to it1 to this dominating instinct if he needs to have a word for it8 ,but there is no doubt about it--the sovereign man calls it his conscience4 #fe ,have these current genealogists of morals ever allowed themselves to have even the vaguest notion1 for instance1 that the cardinal moral idea of ought originates from the very material idea of owe8 ,or that punishment developed as a retaliation absolutely independently of any preliminary hypothesis of the freedom or determination of the will8--,and this to such an extent1 that a high degree of civilisation was always first necessary for the animal man to begin to make those much more primitive distinctions of intentional1 negligent1 accidental1 responsible1 and their contraries1 and apply them in the assessing of punishment4 ,that idea--the wrong-doer deserves punishment because he might have acted otherwise1 in spite of the fact that it is nowadays so cheap1 obvious1 natural1 and inevitable1 and that it has had to serve as an illustration of the way in which the sentiment of justice appeared on earth is in point of fact an exceedingly late1 and even refined form of human judgment and inference2 the placing of this idea back at the beginning of the world is simply a clumsy violation of the principles of primitive psychology4 #fi ,the sight of suffering does one good1 the infliction of suffering does one more good--this is a hard maxim1 but none the less a fundamental maxim1 old1 powerful1 and human1 all-too-human2 one1 moreover1 to which perhaps even the apes as well would subscribe3 for it is said that in inventing bizarre cruelties they are giving abundant proof of their future humanity1 to which1 as it were1 they are playing the prelude4 ,without cruelty1 no feast3 so teaches the oldest and longest history of man--and in punishment too is there so much of the festive4 #ge ,the darkening of the heavens over man has always increased in proportion to the growth of man's shame before man4,the tired pessimistic outlook1 the mistrust of the riddle of life1 the icy negation of disgusted ennui1 all those are not the signs of the most evil age of the human race3 much rather do they come first to the light of day1 as the swamp-flowers1 which they are1 when the swamp to which they belong comes into existence--,i mean the diseased refinement and moralisation1 thanks to which the animal man has at last learnt to be ashamed of all his instincts4 #ge ,the curve of human sensibilities to pain seems indeed to sink in an extraordinary and almost sudden fashion1 as soon as one has passed the upper ten thousand or ten millions of over-civilised humanity1 and ,i personally have no doubt that1 by comparison with one painful night passed by one single hysterical chit of a cultured woman1 the suffering of all the animals taken together who have been put to the question of the knife1 so as to give scientific answers1 are simply negligible4 #gf-gg ,man 444 arrived at the great generalisation everything has its price1 all can be paid for1 the oldest and most nave moral canon of justice the beginning of all kindness1 of all equity1 of all goodwill1 of all objectivity in the world4 #hj ,the self-destruction of ,justice6 we know the pretty name it calls itself--,grace6 it remains1 as is obvious1 the privilege of the strongest1 better still1 their super-law4 #hc-hd ,the aggressive man has at all times enjoyed the stronger1 bolder1 more aristocratic1 and also freer outlook1 the better conscience4 ,on the other hand1 we already surmise who it really is that has on his conscience the invention of the bad conscience1--the resentful man6 #hf ,to talk of intrinsic right and intrinsic wrong is absolutely nonsensical2 intrinsically1 an injury1 an oppression1 an exploitation1 an annihilation can be nothing wrong1 inasmuch as life is essentially 7that is1 in its cardinal functions7 something which functions by injuring1 oppressing1 exploiting1 and annihilating1 and is absolutely inconceivable without such a character4 #hh ,evildoers have throughout thousands of years felt when overtaken by punishment exactly like ,spinoza1 on the subject of their offence3 here is something which went wrong contrary to my anticipation1 not ,i ought not to have done this4--,they submitted themselves to punishment1 just as one submits one's self to a disease1 to a misfortune1 or to death1 with that stubborn and resigned fatalism which gives the ,russians1 for instance1 even nowadays1 the advantage over us ,westerners1 in the handling of life4 ,if at that period there was a critique of action1 the criterion was prudence3 the real effect of punishment is unquestionably chiefly to be found in a sharpening of the sense of prudence1 in a lengthening of the memory1 in a will to adopt more of a policy of caution1 suspicion1 and secrecy2 in the recognition that there are many things which are unquestionably beyond one's capacity2 in a kind of improvement in self-criticism4 ,the broad effects which can be obtained by punishment in man and beast1 are the increase of fear1 the sharpening of the sense of cunning1 the mastery of the desires3 so it is that punishment tames man1 but does not make him better--it would be more correct even to go so far as to assert the contrary4 #ii ,all instincts which do not find a vent without1 turn inwards--this is what ,i mean by the growing internalisation of man3 consequently we have the first growth in man1 of what subsequently was called his soul4 ,the whole inner world1 originally as thin as if it had been stretched between two layers of skin1 burst apart and expanded proportionately1 and obtained depth1 breadth1 and height1 when man's external outlet became obstructed4 ,these terrible bulwarks1 with which the social organisation protected itself against the old instincts of freedom 7punishments belong pre-eminently to these bulwarks71 brought it about that all those instincts of wild1 free1 prowling man became turned backwards against man himself4 ,enmity1 cruelty1 the delight in persecution1 in surprises1 change1 destruction--the turning all these instincts against their own possessors3 this is the origin of the bad conscience4 ,it was man1 who1 lacking external enemies and obstacles1 and imprisoned as he was in the oppressive narrowness and monotony of custom1 in his own impatience lacerated1 persecuted1 gnawed1 frightened1 and ill-treated himself2 it was this animal in the hands of the tamer1 which beat itself against the bars of its cage2 it was this being who1 pining and yearning for that desert home of which it had been deprived1 was compelled to create out of its own self1 an adventure1 a torture-chamber1 a hazardous and perilous desert--it was this fool1 this homesick and desperate prisoner--who invented the bad conscience4 #ajj-aja ,a herd of blonde beasts of prey1 a race of conquerors and masters1 which with all its warlike organisation and all its organising power pounces with its terrible claws on a population1 in numbers possibly tremendously superior1 but as yet formless1 as yet nomad4 ,such is the origin of the ,state4 ,that fantastic theory that makes it begin with a contract is1 ,i think1 disposed of4 ,he who can command1 he who is a master by nature1 he who comes on the scene forceful in deed and gesture--what has he to do with contracts8 ,such beings defy calculation1 they come like fate1 without cause1 reason1 notice1 excuse1 they are there like the lightning is there1 too terrible1 too sudden1 too convincing1 too different1 to be personally even hated4 ,their work is an instinctive creating and impressing of forms1 they are the most involuntary1 unconscious artists that there are4444 #ajc ,it is only the bad conscience1 only the will for self-abuse1 that provides the necessary conditions for the existence of altruism as a value4 #aje ,the feeling of owing a debt to the deity has grown continuously for several centuries1 always in the same proportion in which the idea of ,god and the consciousness of ,god have grown and become exalted among mankind4 7,the whole history of ethnic fights1 victories1 reconciliations1 amalgamations1 everything1 in fact1 which precedes the eventual classing of all the social elements in each great race synthesis1 are mirrored in the hotch-potch genealogy of their gods1 in the legends of their fights1 victories1 and reconciliations1 ,progress towards universal empires invariably means progress towards universal deities2 despotism1 with its subjugation of the independent nobility1 always paves the way for some system or other of monotheism47 ,the appearance of the ,christian god1 as the record god up to this time1 has for that very reason brought equally into the world the record amount of guilt consciousness4 #aji ,this is a kind of madness of the will in the sphere of psychological cruelty which is absolutely unparalleled3--man's will to find himself guilty and blameworthy to the point of inexpiability1 his will to think of himself as punished1 without the punishment ever being able to balance the guilt1 his will to infect and to poison the fundamental basis of the universe with the problem of punishment and guilt1 in order to cut off once and for all any escape out of this labyrinth of fixed ideas1 his will for rearing an ideal--that of the holy ,god--face to face with which he can have tangible proof of his own unworthiness4 ,alas for this mad melancholy beast man6 #aab-aac ,what is the meaning of ascetic ideals8 ,in artists1 nothing1 or too much2 in philosophers and scholars1 a kind of flair and instinct for the conditions most favourable to advanced intellectualism2 in women1 at best an additional seductive fascination1 a little morbidezza on a fine piece of flesh1 the angelhood of a fat1 pretty animal2 in physiological failures and whiners 7in the majority of mortals71 an attempt to pose as too good for this world1 a holy form of debauchery1 their chief weapon1 in the battle with lingering pain and ennui2 in priests1 the actual priestly faith1 their best engine of power1 and also the supreme authority for power2 in saints1 finally a pretext for hibernation1 their novissima gloria cupido1 their peace in nothingness 7,god71 their form of madness4 #aba ,all good things were once bad things2 from every original sin has grown an original virtue4 ,marriage1 for example1 seemed for a long time a sin against the rights of the community2 a man formerly paid a fine for the insolence of claiming one woman to himself4 #add-ade ,the soft1 benevolent yielding1 sympathetic feelings--eventually valued so highly that they almost become intrinsic values1 were for a very long time actually despised by their possessors2 gentleness was then a subject for shame1 just as hardness is now4 #ade ,the ascetic ideal springs from the prophylactic and self-preservative instincts which mark a decadent life1 which seeks by every means in its power to maintain its position and fight for its existence2 it points to a partial physiological depression and exhaustion1 against which the most profound and intact life-instincts fight ceaselessly with new weapons and discoveries4 ,the ascetic ideal is such a weapon3 its position is consequently exactly the reverse of that which the worshippers of the ideal imagine--life struggles in it and through it with death and against death2 the ascetic ideal is a dodge for the preservation of life4 #aed ,the ascetic priest is the incarnate wish for an existence of another kind1 an existence on another plane1--he is1 in fact1 the highest point of this wish1 its official ecstasy and passion3 but it is the very power of this wish which is the fetter that binds him here2 it is just that which makes him into a tool that must labour to create more favourable conditions for earthly existence1 for existence on the human plane--it is with this very power that he keeps the whole herd of failures1 distortions1 abortions1 unfortunates1 sufferers from themselves of every kind1 fast to existence1 while he as the herdsman goes instinctively on in front4 #aed-aee ,the sick are the great danger of man1 not the evil1 not the beasts of prey4 ,they who are from the outset botched1 oppressed1 broken1 those are they1 the weakest are they1 who most undermine the life beneath the feet of man1 who instil the most dangerous venom and scepticism into our trust in life1 in man1 in ourselves4 #aeg ,preventing the sick making the healthy sick 444 this ought to be our supreme object in the world--but for this it is above all essential that the healthy should remain separated from the sick1 that they should even guard themselves from the look of the sick1 that they should not even associate with the sick4 ,or may it1 perchance1 be their mission to be nurses or doctors8 ,but they could not mistake or disown their mission more grossly--the higher must not degrade itself to be the tool of the lower1 the pathos of distance must to all eternity keep their missions also separate4 ,the right of the happy to existence1 the right of bells with a full tone over the discordant cracked bells1 is verily a thousand times greater3 they alone are the sureties of the future1 they alone are bound to man's future4 #afj-afa ,the ascetic priest must be accepted by us as the predestined saviour1 herdsman1 and champion of the sick herd3 thereby do we first understand his awful historic mission4 #afb ,i suffer3 it must be somebody's fault--so thinks every sick sheep4 ,but his herdsman1 the ascetic priest1 says to him1 ,quite so1 my sheep1 it must be the fault of some one2 but thou thyself art that some one1 it is all the fault of thyself alone--it is the fault of thyself alone against thyself3 that is bold enough1 false enough1 but one thing is at least attained2 thereby1 as ,i have said1 the course of resentment is--diverted4 #afe ,all sick and diseased people strive instinctively after a herd-organisation1 out of a desire to shake off their sense of oppressive discomfort and weakness2 the ascetic priest divines this instinct and promotes it2 wherever a herd exists it is the instinct of weakness which has wished for the herd1 and the cleverness of the priests which has organised it1 for1 mark this3 by an equally natural necessity the strong strive as much for isolation as the weak for union3 when the former bind themselves it is only with a view to an aggressive joint action and joint satisfaction of their ,will for ,power1 much against the wishes of their individual consciences2 the latter1 on the contrary1 range themselves together with positive delight in such a muster--their instincts are as much gratified thereby as the instincts of the born master 7that is the solitary beast-of-prey species of man7 are disturbed and wounded to the quick by organisation4 #agf-agg ,the keynote by which the ascetic priest was enabled to get every kind of agonising and ecstatic music to play on the fibres of the human soul--was1 as every one knows1 the exploitation of the feeling of guilt4 #ahb ,the ascetic ideal and its sublime moral cult1 this most ingenious1 reckless1 and perilous systmatisation of all methods of emotional excess1 is writ large in a dreadful and unforgettable fashion on the whole history of man1 and unfortunately not only on history4 ,i was scarcely able to put forward any other element which attacked the health and race efficiency of ,europeans with more destructive power than did this ideal2 it can be dubbed1 without exaggeration1 the real fatality in the history of the health of the ,european man4 #ahf-ahg ,the ascetic ideal has corrupted not only health and taste1 there are also third1 fourth1 fifth1 and sixth things which it has corrupted--,i shall take care not to go through the catalogue 7when should ,i get to the end874 #aij ,the periods in a nation in which the learned man comes into prominence2 they are the periods of exhaustion1 often of sunset1 of decay--the effervescing strength1 the confidence of life1 the confidence in the future are no more4 ,the preponderance of the mandarins never signifies any good1 any more than does the advent of democracy1 or arbitration instead of war1 equal rights for women1 the religion of pity1 and all the other symptoms of declining life4 #bjj ,the ascetic ideal simply means this3 that something was lacking1 that a tremendous void encircled man--he did not know how to justify himself1 to explain himself1 to affirm himself1 he suffered from the problem of his own meaning4 ,he suffered also in other ways1 he was in the main a diseased animal2 but his problem was not suffering itself1 but the lack of an answer to that crying question1 ,to what purpose do we suffer8 ,man1 the bravest animal and the one most inured to suffering1 does not repudiate suffering in itself3 he wills it1 he even seeks it out1 provided that he is shown a meaning for it1 a purpose of suffering was the curse which till then lay spread over humanity--and the ascetic ideal gave it a meaning6 ,it was up till then the only meaning2 but any meaning is better than no meaning2 the ascetic ideal was in that connection the faute de mieux par excellence that existed at that time4 ,in that ideal suffering found an explanation2 the tremendous gap seemed filled2 the door to all suicidal ,nihilism was closed4 ,the explanation--there is no doubt about it--brought in its train new suffering1 deeper1 more penetrating1 more venomous1 gnawing more brutally into life3 it brought all suffering under the perspective of guilt2 but in spite of all that--man was saved thereby1 he had a meaning1 and from henceforth was no more like a leaf in the wind1 a shuttlecock1 of chance1 of nonsense1 he could now will something--absolutely immaterial to what end1 to what purpose1 with that means he wished3 the will itself was saved4 ,it is absolutely impossible to disguise what in point of fact is made clear by every complete will that has taken its direction from the ascetic ideal3 this hate of the human1 and even more of the animal1 and more still of the material1 this horror of the senses1 of reason itself1 this fear of happiness and beauty1 this desire to get right away from all illusion1 change1 growth1 death1 wishing and even desiring--all this means--let us have the courage to grasp it--a will for ,nothingness1 a will opposed to life1 a repudiation of the most fundamental conditions of life1 but it is and remains a will6--and to say at the end that which ,i said at the beginning--man will wish ,nothingness rather than not wish at all4 #baj-baa ,,ix ,the ,twilight of the ,idols ,nietzsche followed ,the ,genealogy of ,morals with ,the ,case of ,wagner1 that famous pamphlet in which he excoriated the creator of ,parsifal4 ,immediately after the publication of this attack1 he began work on what was to be still another preparatory book for ,the ,will to ,power4 ,for its title he first chose ,idle ,hours of a ,psychologist4 ,the book1 a brief one1 was already on the presses when he changed the caption to ,gtzendmmerung--,the ,twilight of the ,idols--a titular parody on ,wagner's ,gtterdmmerung ,for a subtitle he appended a characteristically ,nietzschean phrase--,how to ,philosophise with the ,hammer4 ,the writing of this work was done with great rapidity3 it was accomplished in but a few days during ,august1 #ahhh4 ,in ,september it was sent to the publisher1 but during its printing ,nietzsche added a chapter headed ,what the ,germans ,lack1 and several aphorisms to the section called ,skirmishes in a ,war with the ,age4 ,in ,january1 #ahhi1 the book appeared4 ,nietzsche was then stricken with his fatal illness1 and this was the last book of his to appear during his lifetime4 ,the ,antichrist was already finished1 having been written in the fall of #ahhh immediately after the completion of ,the ,twilight of the ,idols4 ,ecce ,homo his autobiography1 was written in ,october1 #ahhh2 and during ,december ,nietzsche again gave his attention to ,wagner1 drafting ,nietzsche contra ,wagner1 a pamphlet made up entirely of excerpts from his earlier writings4 ,this work1 intended to supplement ,the ,case of ,wagner1 was not published until #ahie1 although it had been printed and corrected before the author's final breakdown4 ,the ,antichrist appeared at the same time as this second ,wagner document1 while ,ecce ,homo was withheld from publication until #aijh4 ,the ,twilight of the ,idols sold #i1jjj copies1 but ,nietzsche's mind was too clouded to know or care that at last he was coming into his own1 that the public which had denied him so long had finally begun to open its eyes to his greatness4 ,in many ways ,the ,twilight of the ,idols is one of ,nietzsche's most brilliant books4 ,being more compact1 it consequently possesses a greater degree of precision and clarity than is found in his more analytical writings4 ,it is not1 however1 a treatise to which one may go without considerable preparation4 ,with the exception of ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra1 it demands more on the part of the reader than any of ,nietzsche's other books4 ,it is1 for the most part1 composed of conclusions and comments which grow directly out of the laborious ethical research of his preceding volumes1 and presupposes in the student an enormous amount of reading1 not only of ,nietzsche's own writings but of philosophical works in general4 ,but once equipped with this preparation1 one will find more of contemporary interest in it than in the closely organised books such as ,beyond ,good and ,evil and ,the ,genealogy of ,morals4 ,there are few points in ,nietzsche's philosophy not found here4 ,for a compact expression of his entire teaching ,i know of no better book to which one might turn4 ,nietzsche himself1 to judge from a passage in his ,ecce ,homo intended this book as a statement of his whole ethical system4 ,he probably meant that it should present in toto the principal data of his foregoing studies1 in order that the reader might be familiar with all the steps in his philosophy before setting forth upon the formidable doctrines of ,the ,will to ,power4 ,obviously1 therefore1 it is not a book for beginners4 ,being expositional rather than argumentative1 it is open to misunderstanding and misinterpretation4 ,it contains apparent contradictions which might confuse the student who has not followed ,nietzsche in the successive points which led to his conclusions1 and who is unfamiliar with the exact definitions attached to certain words relating to human conduct4 ,other qualities of a misleading nature are to be encountered in this book4 ,many of the paragraphs have about them an air of mere cleverness1 although in reality they embody profound concepts4 ,the reader ignorant of the inner seriousness of ,nietzsche will accept these passages only at their surface value4 ,of the forty-four short epigrams which comprise the opening chapter1 ,i have appended but three1 for fear they would be judged solely by their superficial characteristics4 ,many of the other aphorisms throughout the book lend themselves all too easily to the same narrow judgment4 ,again1 ,the ,problem of ,socrates1 the second division of the book1 because of its profundity1 presents many difficulties to the unprepared student4 ,here is a criticism of the ,socratic ideals which requires1 in order that it be intelligently grasped1 not only a wide general knowledge1 but also a specific training in the uprooting of prejudices and of traditional ethical conceptions--such a training as can be acquired only by a close study of ,nietzsche's own destructive works4 ,the explanation of ,socrates's power1 the condemnation of that ancient philosopher's subtle glorification of the canaille1 the reasons for his secret fascination1 and the interpretation of his whole mental progress culminating in his death--all this is profound and categorical criticism which has its roots in the very fundamentals of ,nietzsche's philosophy4 ,but because it is so deep-rooted1 it therefore presents a wide and all-inclusive vista of that philosophy from which it stems4 ,furthermore1 this criticism of ,socrates poses a specific problem which can be answered only by resorting to the doctrines which underlie ,nietzsche's entire thought4 ,in like manner the chapter1 ,reason in ,philosophy1 is understandable only in the light of those investigations set forth in ,beyond ,good and ,evil4 ,under the caption1 ,the ,four ,great ,errors1 ,nietzsche uproots a series of correlated beliefs which have the accumulated impetus of centuries of acceptance behind them4 ,these errors1 as stated1 are 7#a7 the error of the confusion of cause and effect1 7#b7 the error of false causality1 7#c7 the error of imaginary causes1 and 7#d7 the error of free will4 ,the eradication of these errors is necessary for a complete acceptance of ,nietzsche's philosophy4 ,but unless one is familiar with the vast amount of criticism which has led up to the present discussion of them1 one will experience difficulty in following the subtly drawn arguments and analogies presented against them4 ,to demonstrate briefly the specific application of the first error1 namely3 the confusion of cause and effect1 ,i offer an analogy stated in the passage4 ,we know that ,christian morality teaches us that a people perish through vice and luxury--that is to say1 that these two conditions are causes of racial degeneration4 ,nietzsche's contention to the contrary is that when a nation is approaching physiological degeneration1 vice and luxury result in the guise of stimuli adopted by exhausted natures4 ,by this it can be seen how the ,christian conscience is developed by a misunderstanding of causes2 and it can also be seen how this error may affect the very foundation on which morality is built4 ,i am here stating merely the conclusion3 for the reasons leading up to this conclusion one must go to the book direct4 ,nietzsche denies the embodiment of the motive of an action in the inner facts of consciousness where1 so we have been taught by psychologists and physicists1 the responsibilities of conduct are contained4 ,the will itself1 he argues1 is not a motivating force2 rather is it an effect of other deeper causes4 ,this is what he discusses in his paragraphs dealing with the second error of false causality4 ,in his criticism of the third error relating to imaginary causes1 he points to the comfort we obtain by attributing a certain unexplained fact to a familiar cause--by tracing it to a commonplace source--thereby doing away with its seeming mystery4 ,thus ordinary maladies or afflictions1 or1 to carry the case into moral regions1 misfortunes and unaccountable strokes of fate1 are explained by finding trite and plausible reasons for their existence4 ,as a consequence the habit of postulating causes becomes a fixed mental habit4 ,in the great majority of cases1 and especially in the domain of morality and religion1 the causes are false1 inasmuch as the operation of finding them depends on the mental characteristics of the searcher4 ,the error of free will ,nietzsche attributes to the theologians' attempt to make mankind responsible for its acts and therefore amenable to punishment4 ,i have been able to present his own words in explanation of this error1 and they will be found at the end of this chapter--#da-db and #dc4 ,in ,skirmishes in a ,war with the ,age1 the longest section in the book1 ,nietzsche gives us much brilliant and incisive criticism of men1 art and human attributes4 ,he is here at his best1 both in clarity of mind and in his manner of expression4 ,this passage1 one of the last things to come from his pen1 contains the full ripeness of his nature1 and is a portion of his work which no student can afford to overlook4 ,it contains the whole of the ,nietzschean philosophy applied to the conditions of his age4 ,because it is not a direct voicing of his doctrines it does not lend itself to mutilation except where it touches on principles of conduct and abstract aspects of morality4 ,many of the most widely read passages of all of ,nietzsche's work are contained in it4 ,but here again1 as in the case of ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra1 one regrets that the surface brilliance of its style attracted readers in ,england and ,america before these nations were acquainted with the books which came before4 ,the casual reader1 unfamiliar with the principles underlying ,nietzsche's ethic1 will see only a bold and satanic flippancy in his definition of ,zola--the love of stinking1 or in his characterisation of ,george ,sand as the cow with plenty of beautiful milk1 or in his bracketing of tea-grocers1 ,christians1 cows1 women1 ,englishmen and other democrats4 ,yet it is significant that ,nietzsche did not venture upon these remarks until he had the great bulk of his life's work behind him4 ,in this chapter are discussions of ,renan1 ,sainte-,beuve1 ,george ,eliot1 ,george ,sand1 ,emerson1 ,carlyle1 ,darwin1 ,schopenhauer1 ,goethe and other famous men and women4 ,in the short essays devoted to these writers we have1 however1 more than mere detached valuations4 ,beneath all the criticisms is a rationale of judgment based on definite philosophical doctrines4 ,this same basis of appreciation is present in the discussion of art and artists1 to which subjects many pages are devoted4 ,in fact1 ,the ,twilight of the ,idols contains most of the art theories and sthetic doctrines which ,nietzsche advanced4 ,he defines the psychology of the artist1 and draws the line between the two concepts1 ,apollonian and ,dionysian1 as applied to art4 ,he analyses the meaning of beauty and ugliness1 and endeavours to show in what manner the conceptions of these qualities are related to the racial instincts4 ,he also inquires into the doctrine of l'art pour l'art and points out wherein it fails in its purpose4 ,a valuable explanation of genius is put forth in the theory that the accumulative power of generations breaks forth in the great men of a nation1 and that these great men mark the end of an age1 as in the case of the ,renaissance4 ,the most significant brief essay in this section is an answer made to certain critics who1 in reviewing ,beyond ,good and ,evil1 claimed a superiority for the present age over the older civilisations4 ,nietzsche calls this essay ,have ,we ,become ,moral8 and proceeds to make comparisons of contemporaneous virtues with those of the ancients4 ,he denies that to-day1 without our decrepit humanitarianism and our doctrines of weakness1 we would be able to withstand1 either nervously or muscularly1 the conditions that prevailed during the ,renaissance4 ,he points out that our morals are those of senility1 and that we have deteriorated1 physically as well as mentally1 as a result of an adherence to a code of morality invented to meet the needs of a weak and impoverished people4 ,our virtues1 he says1 are determined and stimulated by our weakness1 so that we have come to admire the moralities of the slave1 the most prominent among which is the doctrine of equality4 ,in the decline of all the positive forces of life ,nietzsche sees only racial decadence4 ,in this regard it is important to take note of one of the passages relative to the discussion of this decadence1 namely3 the one wherein he characterises the anarchist as the mouthpiece of the decaying strata of society4 ,the appellation of anarchist has not infrequently been applied to ,nietzsche himself by those who have read him superficially or whose acquaintance with him has been the result of distorted hearsay4 ,i know of no better analysis of anarchistic motives or of no keener dissection of anarchistic weakness than is set forth here4 ,nor do ,i know of any better answer to those critics who have accused ,nietzsche of anarchy1 than the criticism contained in this passage4 ,in a final chapter1 under the caption of ,things ,i ,owe to the ,ancients1 ,nietzsche outlines the inspirational source of many of his doctrines and literary habits4 ,this chapter is important only to the student who wishes to go to the remoter influences in ,nietzsche's writings1 and for that reason ,i have omitted from the following excerpts any quotation from it4 ,,excerpts ,,from ,,the ,,twilight ,,of ,,the ,,idols ,man thinks woman profound--why8 ,because he can never fathom her depths4 ,woman is not even shallow4 #e ,the trodden worm curls up4 ,this testifies to its caution4 ,it thus reduces its chances of being trodden upon again4 ,in the language of morality3 ,humility4 #e-f ,the ,church combats passion by means of excision of all kinds3 its practise1 its remedy1 is castration4 ,it never inquires how can a desire be spiritualised1 beautified1 deified8--,in all ages it has laid the weight of discipline in the process of extirpation 7the extirpation of sensuality1 pride1 lust of dominion1 lust of property1 and revenge74--,but to attack the passions at their roots1 means attacking life itself at its source3 the method of the ,church is hostile to life4 #bg ,only degenerates find radical methods indispensable3 weakness of will1 or more strictly speaking1 the inability not to react to a stimulus1 is in itself simply another form of degeneracy4 ,radical and mortal hostility to sensuality1 remains a suspicious symptom3 it justifies one in being suspicious of the general state of one who goes to such extremes4 #bg ,a man is productive only in so far as he is rich in contrasted instincts2 he can remain young only on condition that his soul does not begin to take things easy and to yearn for peace4 #bh-bi ,all naturalism is morality--that is to say1 every sound morality is ruled by a life instinct--any one of the laws of life is fulfilled by the definite canon thou shalt1 thou shalt not1 and any sort of obstacle or hostile element in the road of life is thus cleared away4 ,conversely1 the morality which is antagonistic to nature--that is to say1 almost every morality that has been taught1 honoured and preached hitherto1 is directed precisely against the life-instincts4444 #cj ,morality1 as it has been understood hitherto1 is the instinct of degeneration itself1 which converts itself into an imperative3 it says3 ,perish6 ,it is the death sentence of men who are already doomed4 #ca ,morality1 in so far it condemns per se1 and not out of any aim1 consideration or motive of life1 is a specific error1 for which no one should feel any mercy1 a degenerate idiosyncrasy1 that has done an unutterable amount of harm4 #cb ,every mistake is in every sense the sequel to degeneration of the instincts to disintegration of the will4 ,this is almost the definition of evil4 #ce ,morality and religion are completely and utterly parts of the psychology of error3 in every particular case cause and effect are confounded4 #da ,at present we no longer have any mercy upon the concept free-will3 we know only too well what it is--the most egregious theological trick that has ever existed for the purpose of making mankind responsible in a theological manner--that is to say1 to make mankind dependent upon theologians4 #da ,the doctrine of the will was invented principally for the purpose of punishment1--that is to say1 with the intention of tracing guilt4 ,the whole of ancient psychology1 or the psychology of the will1 is the outcome of the fact that its originators1 who were the priests at the head of ancient communities1 wanted to create for themselves a right to administer punishments--or the right for ,god to do so4 ,men were thought of as free in order that they might be held guilty4444 #db ,the fact that no one shall any longer be made responsible1 that the nature of existence may not be traced to a causa prima1 that the world is an entity neither as a sensorium nor as a spirit--this alone is the great deliverance1--thus alone is the innocence of ,becoming restored4 444 ,the concept ,god has been the greatest objection to existence hitherto4444 ,we deny ,god1 we deny responsibility in ,god3 thus alone do we save the world4 #dc ,moral judgment has this in common with the religious one1 that it believes in realities which are not real4 ,morality is only an interpretation of certain phenomena3 or more strictly speaking1 a misinterpretation of them4 ,moral judgment1 like the religious one1 belongs to a stage of ignorance in which even the concept of reality1 the distinction between real and imagined things1 is still lacking4444 #dd ,in the early years of the ,middle ,ages1 during which the ,church was most distinctly and above all a menagerie1 the most beautiful examples of the blond beast were hunted down in all directions1--the noble ,germans1 for instance1 were improved4 ,but what did this improved ,german1 who had been lured to the monastery look like after the process8 ,he looked like a caricature of man1 like an abortion3 he had become a sinner1 he was caged up1 he had been imprisoned behind a host of appalling notions4 ,he now lay there1 sick1 wretched1 malevolent even toward himself3 full of hate for the instincts of life1 full of suspicion in regard to all that is still strong and happy4 ,in short a ,christian4 ,in physiological terms3 in a fight with an animal1 the only way of making it weak may be to make it sick4 ,the ,church understood this3 it ruined man1 it made him weak1--but it laid claim to having improved him4 #de-df ,all means which have been used heretofore with the object of making man moral1 were through and through immoral4 #di ,my impossible people--,seneca1 or the toreador of virtue4--,rousseau1 or the return to nature1 in impuris naturalibus4--,schiller1 or the ,moral ,trumpeter of ,sckingen4--,dante1 or the hyna that writes poetry in tombs4--,kant1 or cant as an intelligible character4--,victor ,hugo1 or the lighthouse on the sea of nonsense4--,liszt1 or the school of racing--after women4--,george ,sand1 or lactea ubertas1 in plain ,english3 the cow with plenty beautiful milk4--,michelet1 or enthusiasm in its shirt sleeves4--,carlyle1 or ,pessimism after undigested meals4--,john ,stuart ,mill1 or offensive lucidity4--,the brothers ,goncourt1 or the two ,ajaxes fighting with ,homer4 ,music by ,offenbach4--,zola1 or the love of stinking4 #fj ,for art to be possible at all--that is to say1 in order that an sthetic mode of action and of observation may exist1 a certain preliminary physiological state is indispensable3 ecstasy4 ,this state of ecstasy must first have intensified the susceptibility of the whole machine3 otherwise1 no art is possible4 ,all kinds of ecstasy1 however differently produced1 have this power to create art1 and above all the state dependent upon sexual excitement--this most venerable and primitive form of ecstasy4 ,the same applies to that ecstasy which is the outcome of all great desires1 all strong passions2 the ecstasy of the feast1 of the arena1 of the act of bravery1 of victory1 of all extreme action2 the ecstasy of cruelty2 the ecstasy of destruction2 the ecstasy following upon certain meteorological influences1 as for instance that of springtime1 or upon the use of narcotics2 and finally the ecstasy of will1 that ecstasy which results from accumulated and surging will-power4 #fh-fh ,what is the meaning of the antithetical concepts ,apollonian and ,dionysian which ,i have introduced into the vocabulary of sthetic1 as representing two distinct modes of ecstasy8--,apollonian ecstasy acts above all as a force stimulating the eye1 so that it acquires the power of vision4 ,the painter1 the sculptor1 the epic poet are essentially visionaries4 ,in the ,dionysian state1 on the other hand1 the whole system of passions is stimulated and intensified1 so that it discharges itself by all the means of expression at once1 and vents all its power of representation1 of imitation1 of transfiguration1 of transformation1 together with every kind of mimicry and histrionic display at the same time4 #fg-fh ,as to the famous struggle for existence1 it seems to me1 for the present1 to be more of an assumption than a fact4 ,it does occur1 but as an exception4 ,the general condition of life is not one of want or famine1 but rather of riches1 of lavish luxuriance1 and even of absurd prodigality1--where there is a struggle1 it is a struggle for power4 #ga ,the most intellectual men1 provided they are also the most courageous1 experience the most excruciating tragedies3 but on that very account they honour life1 because it confronts them with its more formidable antagonism4 #gc ,when the anarchist1 as the mouthpiece of the decaying strata of society1 raises his voice in splendid indignation for right1 justice1 equal rights1 he is only groaning under the burden of his ignorance1 which cannot understand why he actually suffers1--what his poverty consists of--the poverty of life4 #hf ,to bewail one's lot is always despicable3 it is always the outcome of weakness4 ,whether one ascribes one's afflictions to others or to one's self1 it is all the same4 ,the socialist does the former1 the ,christian1 for instance1 does the latter4 ,that which is common to both attitudes1 or rather that which is equally ignoble in them both1 is the fact that somebody must be to blame if one suffers--in short that the sufferer drugs himself with the honey of revenge to allay his anguish4 #hf ,why a ,beyond1 if it be not a means of splashing mud over a ,here1 over this world8 #hg ,an altruistic morality1 a morality under which selfishness withers1 is in all circumstances a bad sign4 ,this is true of individuals and above all of nations4 ,the best are lacking when selfishness begins to be lacking4 ,instinctively to select that which is harmful to one1 to be lured by disinterested motives1--these things almost provide the formula for decadence4 ,not to have one's own interests at heart--this is simply a moral fig-leaf concealing a very different fact1 a physiological one1 to wit3--,i no longer know how to find what is to my interest4444 ,disintegration of the instincts6--,all is up with man when he becomes altruistic4 #hg ,one should die proudly when it is no longer possible to live proudly4 ,death should be chosen freely1--death at the right time1 faced clearly and joyfully and embraced while one is surrounded by one's children and other witnesses4 ,it should be affected in such a way that a proper farewell is still possible1 that he who is about to take leave of us is still himself1 and really capable not only of valuing what he has achieved and willed in life1 but also of summing-up the value of life itself4 ,everything precisely the opposite of the ghastly comedy which ,christianity has made of the hour of death4 ,we should never forgive ,christianity for having so abused the weakness of the dying man as to do violence to his conscience1 or for having used his manner of dying as a means of valuing both man and his past6--,in spite of all cowardly prejudices1 it is our duty1 in this respect1 above all to reinstate the proper--that is to say1 the physiological1 aspect of so-called natural death1 which after all is perfectly unnatural and nothing else than suicide4 ,one never perishes through anybody's fault but one's own4 ,the only thing is that the death which takes place in the most contemptible circumstances1 the death that is not free1 the death which occurs at the wrong time1 is the death of a coward4 ,out of the very love one bears to life1 one should wish death to be different from this--that is to say1 free1 deliberate1 and neither a matter of chance nor of surprise4 ,finally let me whisper a word of advice to our friends the pessimists and all other decadents4 ,we have not the power to prevent ourselves from being born3 but this error--for sometimes it is an error--can be rectified if we choose4 ,the man who does away with himself performs the most estimable of deeds3 he almost deserves to live for having done so4 #hh-hi ,the decline of the instincts of hostility and of those instincts that arouse suspicion1--for this if anything is what constitutes our progress--is only one of the results manifested by the general decline in vitality3 it requires a hundred times more trouble and caution to live such a dependent and senile existence4 ,in such circumstances everybody gives everybody else a helping hand1 and1 to a certain extent1 everybody is either an invalid or an invalid's attendant4 ,this is then called virtue3 among those men who knew a different life--that is to say1 a fuller1 more prodigal1 more superabundant sort of life1 it might have been called by another name1--possibly cowardice1 or vileness1 or old woman's morality4 #ia-ib ,ages should be measured according to their positive forces2--valued by this standard that prodigal and fateful age of the ,renaissance1 appears as the last great age1 while we moderns with our anxious care of ourselves and love of our neighbours1 with all our unassuming virtues of industry1 equity1 and scientific method--with our lust of collection1 of economy and of mechanism--represent a weak age4 #ic ,liberalism1 or1 in plain ,english1 the transformation of mankind into cattle4 #id ,freedom is the will to be responsible for ourselves4 ,it is to preserve the distance which separates us from other men4 ,to grow more indifferent to hardship1 to severity1 to privation1 and even to life itself4 ,to be ready to sacrifice men for one's cause1 one's self included4 ,freedom denotes that the virile instincts which rejoice in war and in victory1 prevail over other instincts2 for instance1 over the instincts of happiness4 ,the man who has won his freedom1 and how much more so1 therefore1 the spirit that has won his freedom1 tramples ruthlessly upon that contemptible kind of comfort which tea-grocers1 ,christians1 cows1 women1 ,englishmen and other democrats worship in their dreams4 ,the free man is a warrior4 #id-ie ,by showing ever more and more favour to love-marriages1 the very foundation of matrimony1 that which alone makes it an institution1 has been undermined4 ,no institution ever has been nor ever will be built upon an idiosyncrasy2 as ,i say1 marriage cannot be based upon love4 #ig-ih ,the mere fact that there is such a thing as the question of the working-man is due to stupidity1 or at bottom to degenerate instincts which are the cause of all the stupidity of modern times4 ,concerning certain things no questions ought to be put3 the first imperative principle of instinct4 ,for the life of me ,i cannot see what people want to do with the working-man of ,europe2 now that they have made a question of him4 ,he is far too comfortable to cease from questioning1 ever more and more1 and with ever less modesty4 ,after all1 he has the majority on his side4 ,there is now not the slightest hope that an unassuming and contented sort of man1 after the style of the ,chinaman1 will come into being in this quarter3 and this would have been the reasonable course1 it was even a dire necessity4 ,what has been done8 ,everything has been done with the view of nipping the very pre-requisite of this accomplishment in the bud1--with the most frivolous thoughtlessness those self-same instincts by means of which a working-class becomes possible1 and tolerable even to its members themselves1 have been destroyed root and branch4 ,the working-man has been declared fit for military service2 he has been granted the right of combination1 and of franchise3 can it be wondered at that he already regards his condition as one of distress 7expressed morally1 as an injustice78 ,but1 again ,i ask1 what do people want8 ,if they desire a certain end1 then they should desire the means thereto4 ,if they will have slaves1 then it is madness to educate them to be masters4 #ih-ii ,great men1 like great ages1 are explosive material1 in which a stupendous amount of power is accumulated2 the first conditions of their existence are always historical and physiological2 they are the outcome of the fact that for long ages energy has been collected1 hoarded up1 saved up and preserved for their use1 and that no explosion has taken place4 ,when the tension in the bulk has become sufficiently excessive1 the most fortuitous stimulus suffices in order to call genius1 great deeds1 and momentous fate into the world4 #aja-ajb ,the criminal type is the type of the strong man and unfavourable conditions1 a strong man made sick4 ,he lacks the wild and savage state1 a form of nature and existence which is freer and more dangerous1 in which everything that constitutes the shield and the sword in the instinct of the strong man1 takes a place by right4 ,society puts a ban upon his virtues2 the most spirited instincts inherent in him immediately become involved with the depressing passions1 with suspicion1 fear and dishonour4 ,but this is almost the recipe for physiological degeneration4 ,when a man has to do that which he is best suited to do1 which he is most fond of doing1 not only clandestinely1 but also with long suspense1 caution and ruse1 he becomes anmic2 and inasmuch as he is always having to pay for his instincts in the form of danger1 persecution and fatalities1 even his feelings begin to turn against these instincts--he begins to regard them as fatal4 ,it is society1 our tame1 mediocre1 castrated society1 in which an untutored son of nature who comes to us from his mountains or from his adventures at sea1 must necessarily degenerate into a criminal4 ,or almost necessarily3 for there are cases in which such a man shows himself to be stronger than society3 the ,corsican ,napoleon is the most celebrated case of this4 #ajc-ajd ,as long as the priest represented the highest type of man1 every valuable kind of man was depreciated4444 ,the time is coming--this ,i guarantee--when he will pass as the lowest type1 as our ,chandala1 as the falsest and most disreputable kind of man4 #aje ,everything good is an inheritance3 that which is not inherited is imperfect1 it is simply a beginning4 #ajg ,christianity with its contempt of the body is the greatest mishap that has ever befallen mankind4 #ajh ,i also speak of a return to nature1 although it is not a process of going back but of going up--up into lofty1 free and even terrible nature and naturalness2 such a nature as can play with great tasks and may play with them4 #ajh ,the doctrine of equality6444 ,but there is no more deadly poison than this for it seems to proceed from the very lips of justice1 whereas in reality it draws the curtain down on all justice4444 ,to equals equality1 to unequals inequality--that would be the real speech of justice and that which follows from it4 ,never make unequal things equal4 ,the fact that so much horror and blood are associated with this doctrine of equality1 has lent this modern idea par excellence such a halo of fire and glory1 that the ,revolution as a drama has misled even the most noble minds4 #ajh-aji ,x ,the ,antichrist 7,der ,antichrist7 was written in ,september1 #ahhh1 work evidently having been begun on it as soon as ,the ,twilight of the ,idols had been sent to the publisher4 ,its composition could not have occupied more than a few weeks at most1 for the former book was not despatched until ,september #g1 and the present work was completed before ,october4 ,at this time ,nietzsche was working at high pressure4 ,he must have had some presentiment of his impending breakdown for he filled in every available minute with ardent and rapid writing4 ,the fall of #ahhh was the most prolific period of his life4 ,no less than four books ,the ,twilight of the ,idols1 ,the ,antichrist1 ,nietzsche contra ,wagner and ,ecce ,homo--were completed by him between the late summer and the first of the year2 and in addition to this he made many notes for his future volumes and read and corrected a considerable amount of proofs4 ,the ,antichrist1 however1 though completed in #ahhh1 was not published until the end of #ahid1 six years after he had laid aside his work forever1 and at a time when his mind was too darkened to know or care about the circumstances of its issuance4 ,it appeared in ,vol4 ,,xiii of ,nietzsches ,werke which1 although published at the close of #ahid1 bore the date of the following year4 ,the ,antichrist which1 like ,beyond ,good and ,evil1 ,the ,genealogy of ,morals and ,the ,twilight of the ,idols1 forms a part of ,nietzsche's final philosophic scheme1 was intended--to judge from the evidence contained in his notebooks--as the first division of a work to be entitled ,the ,trans valuation of ,all ,values 7,die ,umwertung ,aller ,werte74 ,in fact this title and also ,the ,will to ,power were considered alternately for his magnum opus which he intended writing after the completion of ,the ,transvaluation of ,all ,values4 ,he finally decided on the latter title for his great work1 although he used the former caption as a subtitle4 ,the complete outline for the volumes which were to be called ,the ,transvaluation of ,all ,values and which were to be incorporated in his final general plan1 is as follows3 #a4 ,the ,antichrist4 ,an ,attempted ,criticism of ,christianity4 7,der ,antichrist3 ,versuch einer ,kritik des ,christenthums47 #b4 ,the ,free ,spirit4 ,a ,criticism of ,philosophy as a ,nihilistic ,movement4 7,der freie ,geist3 ,kritik der ,philosophie als einer nihilistischen ,bewegung7 #c4 ,the ,immoralist4 ,a ,criticism of the ,most ,fatal ,species of ,ignorance1 ,morality4 7,der ,immoralist3 ,kritik der verhngnissvollsten ,art von ,unwissenheit1 der ,moral7 #d4 ,dionysus1 the ,philosophy of ,eternal ,recurrence4 7,dionysus1 ,philosophie der ewigen ,wiederkunft7 ,but ,nietzsche did not finish this task1 although ,the ,antichrist is in the form in which he intended it to be published4 ,nevertheless1 it must be considered merely as a fragment of a much more extensive plan4 ,though ,nietzsche was far from being the first1 he yet was the most effective critic who ever waged war against ,christianity4 ,this was due to the fact that he went about his destructive work from an entirely new angle4 ,before him there had been many competent anti-,christian writers and scientists4 ,even during his own time there was a large and loud school of atheists at work undermining the foundations of ,nazarene morality4 ,with the methods of his predecessors and contemporaries1 however1 he had nothing in common4 ,he saw that1 despite the scientific denial of the miracles of ,christianity and the biological opposition to the origin of ,christian history1 the theologian was always able to reply to the denial of ,christian truth with the counter-argument of ,christian practicability4 ,thus1 while the reasoning of such men as ,darwin1 ,huxley and ,spencer held good so far as the scientific aspects of ,christianity went1 the results of ,christianity were not involved4 ,the church1 meeting the onslaughts of the higher criticism1 denied the necessity of a literal belief in the ,gospels1 and asserted that1 while all the anti-,christian critics might be accurate in their purely scientific and logical conclusions1 ,christianity itself as a workable code was still efficient and deserving of consideration as the most perfect system of conduct the world had ever known4 ,nietzsche therefore did not go into the field already ploughed by ,voltaire1 ,hume1 ,huxley1 ,spencer1 ,paine and a host of lesser free thinkers4 ,the preliminary battles in the great warfare against ,christianity had already been won1 and he saw the futility of proceeding along historical and scientific lines4 ,consequently he turned his attention to a consideration of the effects of ,christian morality upon the race1 to an inquiry into the causes of pity-morality1 and to a comparison of moral codes in their relation to the needs of humanity4 ,whether or not the origins of ,christianity conformed to biological laws did not concern him1 although he assumed as his hypothesis the conclusions of the scientific investigators4 ,the only way of determining the merits and demerits of the ,christian code1 he argued1 was to ascertain the actual results of its application1 and to compare these with the results which had accrued from the application of hardier and healthier codes4 ,to this investigation ,nietzsche devotes practically the whole of ,the ,antichrist1 although there are a few analytical passages relating to the early dissemination of ,jewish ethics4 ,but with these passages the student need not seriously concern himself4 ,they are speculative and non-essential4 ,nietzsche's criticism of the effects of ,christian virtues1 however1 did not begin in ,the ,antichrist1 although this book is the final flowering of those anti-,christian ideas which cropped up continually throughout his entire work4 ,this religious antipathy was present even in his early academic essays1 and in ,human1 ,all-,too-,human we find him well launched upon his campaign4 ,no book of his1 with the exception of his unfinished pamphlet1 ,the ,eternal ,recurrence1 is free from this criticism4 ,but one will find all his earlier conclusions and arguments drawn together in a compact and complete whole in the present volume4 ,nietzsche's accusation against ,christianity1 reduced to a few words1 is that it works against the higher development of the individual2 that1 being a religion of weakness1 it fails to meet the requirements of the modern man2 in short1 that it is dangerous4 ,this conclusion is founded on the principle of biological monism4 ,nietzsche assumes ,darwin's law of the struggle for existence1 and argues that the ,christian virtues oppose not only this law but the law of natural selection as well4 ,by this opposition the race has been weakened1 for self-sacrifice1 the basis of ,christian morality1 detracts from the power of the individual and consequently lessens his chances for existence4 ,furthermore1 the ,christian ideal in itself is opposed to progress and all that progress entails1 such as science and research4 ,knowledge of any kind tends to make man more independent1 and thereby reduces his need for theological supervision4 ,as a result of the passing over of power from the strong to the weak1 in accordance with the morality of ,christianity1 the strength of the race as a whole is depleted4 ,furthermore1 such a procedure is in direct opposition to the laws of nature1 and so long as man lives in a natural environment the only way to insure progress is to conform to the conditions of that environment4 ,nietzsche therefore makes a plea for the adoption of other than ,christian standards--standards compatible with the laws of existence4 ,he points out that already the race has been almost irremediably weakened by its adherence to anti-natural doctrines1 that each day of ,christian activity is another step in the complete degeneration of man4 ,and he asserts that the only reason the race has maintained its power as long as it has is because the stronger members of society1 despite their voiced belief1 do not live up to the ,christian code1 but are continually compromising with it4 ,the problem of the origin of ,christianity interests ,nietzsche1 because he sees in it an explanation of the results which it wished to accomplish4 ,christianity1 says he1 can be understood only in relation to the soil out of which it grew4 ,when the ,jewish people1 subjugated and in a position of slavery1 were confronted with the danger of extermination at the hands of a stronger people1 they invented a system of conduct which would insure their continued existence4 ,they realised that the adherence to such virtues as retaliation1 aggressiveness1 initiative1 cruelty1 arrogance and the like would mean death2 the stronger nations would not have countenanced such qualities in a weak and depleted nation4 ,as a result the ,jews replaced retaliation with long suffering1 aggressiveness with peacefulness1 cruelty with kindness1 and arrogance with humility4 ,these negative virtues took the place of positive virtues1 and were turned into beatitudes4 ,by thus turning the other cheek and forgiving one's enemies1 instead of resenting persecution and attempting to avenge the wrongs perpetrated against them1 they were able to prolong life4 ,this system of conduct1 says ,nietzsche1 was a direct falsification of all natural conditions and a perversion of all healthy instincts4 ,it was the morality of an impoverished and subservient people1 and was adopted by the ,jews only when they had been stripped of their power4 ,nietzsche presents a psychological history of ,israel as an example of the process by which natural values were denaturalised4 ,the ,god of ,israel was ,jehovah4 ,he was the expression of the nation's consciousness of power1 of joy and of hope4 ,victory and salvation were expected from him3 he was the ,god of justice4 ,the ,assyrians and internal anarchy changed the conditions of ,israel4 ,jehovah was no longer able to bring victory to his people1 and consequently the nature of this ,god was changed4 ,in the hands of the priest he became a weapon1 and unhappiness was interpreted as punishment for sins4 ,jehovah became a moral dictator1 and consequently morality among the ,israelites ceased to be an expression of the conditions of life and became an abstract theory opposed to life4 ,nor did the ,jewish priesthood stop at this4 ,it interpreted the whole of history with a view to showing that all sin against ,jehovah led to punishment and that all pious worship of ,jehovah resulted in reward4 ,a moral order of the universe was thus substituted for a natural one4 ,to bolster up this theory a revelation became necessary4 ,accordingly a stupendous literary fraud was perpetrated1 and the holy scriptures were discovered and foisted upon the people4 ,the priests1 avid for power1 made themselves indispensable by attributing to the will of ,god all those acts they desired of the people4 ,repentance1 namely3 submission to the priests1 was inaugurated4 ,thus ,christianity1 hostile to all reality and power1 gained its footing4 ,the psychology of ,christ1 as set forth in ,the ,antichrist1 and the use made of his doctrines by those who directly followed him1 form an important part of ,nietzsche's argument against ,christian morality4 ,christ's doctrine1 according to ,nietzsche1 was one of immediacy4 ,it was a mode of conduct and not1 according to the present ,christian conception1 a preparation for a future world4 ,christ was a simple heretic in his rebellion against the existing political order4 ,he represented a reactionary mode of existence---a system of conduct which said ,nay to life1 a code of inaction and non-interference4 ,his death on the cross was meant as a supreme example and proof of this doctrine4 ,it remained for his disciples to attach other meanings to it4 ,loving ,christ as they did1 and consequently blinded by that love1 they were unable to forgive his execution at the hands of the ,state4 ,at the same time they were unprepared to follow his example and to give their own lives to the cause of his teachings4 ,a feeling of revenge sprang up in them1 and they endeavoured to find an excuse for his death4 ,to what was it attributable8 ,and the answer they found1 says ,nietzsche1 was dominant ,judaism1 its ruling class4 ,for the moment they failed to realise that the ,kingdom of ,god1 as preached by ,christ1 was an earthly thing1 something contained within the individual2 and after the crucifixion it was necessary for them either to follow ,christ's example or to interpret his death1 a voluntary one1 as a promise of future happiness1 that is1 to translate his practical doctrine into symbolic terms4 ,they unhesitatingly chose the latter4 ,in their search for an explanation as to how ,god could have allowed his son to be executed1 they fell upon the theory that ,christ's death was a sacrifice for their sins1 an expiation for their guilt4 ,from that time on1 says ,nietzsche1 there was gradually imported into the type of the ,saviour the doctrine of the ,last ,judgment1 and of the 'second coming1' the doctrine of sacrificial death1 and the doctrine of ,resurrection1 by means of which the whole concept 'blessedness1' the entire and only reality of the gospel1 is conjured away--in favour of a state after death4 ,st4 ,paul then rationalised the conception by introducing into it the doctrine of personal immortality by means of having ,christ rise from the dead2 and he preached this immortality as a reward for virtue4 ,thus1 asserts ,nietzsche1 ,christ's effort toward a ,buddhistic movement of peace1 toward real and not merely promised happiness on earth was controverted by his posterity4 ,nothing of ,christ's original doctrine remained1 once ,paul1 the forger1 set to work to twist it to his own ends4 ,paul went further and by changing and falsifying it turned all ,jewish history into a prophecy for his own teachings4 ,thus the whole doctrine of ,christ1 the true meaning of his death and the realities which he taught1 were altered and distorted4 ,in short1 ,christ's life was used as a means for furthering the religion of ,paul1 who gave to it the name of ,christianity4 ,a most important part of ,the ,antichrist is that passage wherein ,nietzsche defines his order of castes4 ,every healthy society1 says he1 falls naturally into three separate and distinct types4 ,these classes condition one another and gravitate differently in the psychological sense4 ,each type has its own work1 its own duties1 its own emotions1 its own compensations and mastership4 ,the first class1 comprising the rulers1 is distinguished by its intellectual superiority4 ,it devolves upon this class to represent happiness1 beauty and goodness on earth4 ,the members of this superior class are in the minority1 but they are nevertheless the creators of values4 ,their delight is self-mastery3 with them asceticism becomes a second nature1 a need1 an instinct4 ,they regard a difficult task as their privilege2 to play with burdens which crush their fellows is to them a recreation4 ,they are at once the most honourable1 cheerful and gracious of all men4 ,the second class is composed of those who relieve the first class of their duties and execute the will of the rulers4 ,they are the guardians of the law1 the merchants and professional men1 the warriors and the judges4 ,in brief1 they are the executors of the race4 ,the third class is made up of the workers1 the lowest order of man--those destined for menial and disagreeable tasks4 ,the fact1 says ,nietzsche1 that one is publicly useful1 a wheel1 a function1 presupposes a certain natural destiny3 it is not society1 but the only kind of happiness of which the great majority are capable1 that makes them intelligent machines4 ,for the mediocre it is a joy to be mediocre2 in them mastery in one thing1 a specialty1 is a natural instinct4 ,the conception of these classes contains the nucleus of ,nietzsche's doctrine4 ,it embodies his whole idea of a natural aristocracy as opposed to the spurious ,european aristocracy of the present day1 wherein the rulers are in reality merely members of the second class4 ,the charge is constantly brought against ,nietzsche by the ecclesiastic dialecticians that his criticism of ,christianity is fraught with the very nihilism against which he so eloquently argues4 ,there is perhaps a slight basis for such a contention if we confine ourselves strictly to those of his utterances against the ,jewish morality which appear in his previous books4 ,but in ,the ,antichrist this does not hold true even in the slightest manner4 ,nietzsche is constantly supplanting modes of action for every ,christian virtue he denies4 ,he is as constructive as he is destructive4 ,the ,antichrist contains1 not only a complete denial of all ,christian morality1 but a statement of a new and consistent system of ethics based on the research of all his works4 ,,excerpts ,,from ,,the ,,antichrist ,what is good8 ,all that enhances the feeling of power1 the ,will to ,power1 and power itself in man4 ,what is bad8--,all that proceeds from weakness4 ,what is happiness8--,the feeling that power is increasing1- that resistance has been overcome4 ,not contentment1 but more power2 not peace at any price1 but war2 not virtue1 but efficiency 7virtue in the ,renaissance sense1 virtu1 free from all moralic acid74 ,the weak and botched shall perish3 first principle of our humanity4 ,and they ought even to be helped to perish4 ,what is more harmful than any vice8--,practical sympathy with all the botched and the weak--,christianity4 #abh ,we must not deck out and adorn ,christianity3 it has waged a deadly war upon this higher type of man1 it has set a ban upon all the fundamental instincts of this type1 and has distilled evil and the devil himself out of these instincts3--the strong man as the typical pariah1 the villain4 ,christianity has sided with everything weak1 low1 and botched2 it has made an ideal out of antagonism against all the self-preservative instincts of strong life3 it has corrupted even the reason of the strongest intellects1 by teaching that the highest values of intellectuality are sinful1 misleading and full of temptations4 #acj ,i call an animal1 a species1 an individual corrupt1 when it loses its instincts1 when it selects and prefers that which is detrimental to it4 #aca ,life itself1 to my mind1 is nothing more nor less than the instinct of growth1 of permanence1 of accumulating forces1 of power3 where the will to power is lacking1 degeneration sets in4 #aca ,pity is opposed to the tonic passions which enhance the energy of the feeling of life3 its action is depressing4 ,a man loses power when he pities4 ,by means of pity the drain on strength which suffering itself already introduces into the world is multiplied a thousandfold4 #aca ,on the whole1 pity thwarts the law of development which is the law of selection4 ,it preserves that which is ripe for death1 it fights in favour of the disinherited and the condemned of life4 #aca-acb ,this depressing and infectious instinct thwarts those instincts which aim at the preservation and enhancement of the value of life3 by multiplying misery quite as much as by preserving all that is miserable1 it is the principal agent in promoting decadence4 #acb ,that which a theologian considers true1 must of necessity be false3 this furnishes almost the criterion of truth4 ,it is his most profound self-preservative instinct which forbids reality ever to attain to honour in any way1 or even to raise its voice4 ,whithersoever the influence of the theologian extends1 valuations are topsy-turvy1 and the concepts true and false have necessarily changed places3 that which is most deleterious to life1 is here called true1 that which enhances it1 elevates it1 says ,yea to it1 justifies it and renders it triumphant1 is called false4 #ace ,what is there that destroys a man more speedily than to work1 think1 feel1 as an automaton of duty1 without internal promptings1 without a profound personal predilection1 without joy8 ,this is the recipe par excellence of decadence and even of idiocy4 #acg ,in ,christianity1 neither morality nor religion comes in touch at all with reality4 ,nothing but imaginary causes 7,god1 the soul1 the ego1 spirit1 free will--or even non-free will72 nothing but imaginary effects 7sin1 salvation1 grace1 punishment1 forgiveness of sins74 ,imaginary beings are supposed to have intercourse 7,god1 spirits1 souls72 imaginary ,natural ,history 7anthropocentric3 total lack of the notion1 natural causes72 an imaginary psychology 7nothing but misunderstandings of self1 interpretations of pleasant or unpleasant general feelings2 for instance of the states of the nervus sympathicus1 with the help of the sign language of a religio-moral idiosyncrasy1--repentance1 pangs of conscience1 the temptation of the devil1 the presence of ,god72 an imaginary teleology 7the ,kingdom of ,god1 the ,last ,judgment1 ,everlasting ,life74 #ada-adb ,a proud people requires a ,god1 unto whom it can sacrifice things4444 ,religion1 when restricted to these principles1 is a form of gratitude4 ,a man is grateful for his own existence2 for this he must have a ,god4--,such a ,god must be able to profit and to injure him1 he must be able to act the friend and the foe4 ,he must be esteemed for his good as well as for his evil qualities4 #adc ,when a people is on the road to ruin2 when it feels its belief in a future1 its hope of freedom vanishing for ever2 when it becomes conscious of submission as the most useful quality1 and of the virtues of the submissive as self-preservative measures1 then its ,god must also modify himself4 ,he then becomes a tremulous and unassuming sneak2 he counsels peace of the soul1 the cessation of all hatred1 leniency and love even towards friend and foe4 ,he is for ever moralising1 he crawls into the heart of every private virtue1 becomes a ,god for everybody4 #adc ,the ,christian concept of ,god--,god as the deity of the sick1 ,god as a spider1 ,god as a spirit--is one of the most corrupt concepts of ,god that has ever been attained on earth4 ,maybe it represents the low-water mark in the evolutionary ebb of the godlike type4 ,god degenerated into the contradiction of life1 instead of being its transfiguration and eternal ,yea6 ,with ,god war is declared on life1 nature1 and the will to life6 ,god is the formula for every calumny of this world and for every lie concerning a beyond6 #adf ,christianity aims at mastering beasts of prey2 its expedient is to make them ill1--to render feeble is the ,christian recipe for taming1 for civilisation4 #aea ,if faith is above all necessary1 then reason1 knowledge1 and scientific research must be brought into evil repute3 the road to truth becomes the forbidden road4--,strong hope is a much greater stimulant of life than any single realised joy could be4 ,sufferers must be sustained by a hope which no actuality can contradict1--and which cannot ever be realised3 the hope of another world4 7,precisely on account of this power that hope has of making the unhappy linger on1 the ,greeks regarded it as the evil of evils1 as the most mischievous evil3 it remained behind in ,pandora's box47 ,in order that love may be possible1 ,god must be a person4 ,in order that the lowest instincts may also make their voices heard ,god must be young4 ,for the ardour of the women a beautiful saint1 and for the ardour of the men a ,virgin ,mary has to be pressed into the foreground4 ,all this on condition that ,christianity wishes to rule over a certain soil1 on which ,aphrodisiac or ,adonis cults had already determined the notion of a cult4 ,to insist upon chastity only intensifies the vehemence and profundity of the religious instinct--it makes the cult warmer1 more enthusiastic1 more soulful4--,love is the state in which man sees things most widely different from what they are4 ,the force of illusion reaches its zenith here1 as likewise the sweetening and transfiguring power4 ,when a man is in love he endures more than at other times2 he submits to everything4 ,the thing was to discover a religion in which it was possible to love3 by this means the worst in life is overcome--it is no longer even seen4--,so much for three ,christian virtues ,faith1 ,hope1 and ,charity3 ,i call them the three ,christian precautionary measures4 #aeb-aec ,what is ,jewish morality1 what is ,christian morality8 ,chance robbed of its innocence2 unhappiness polluted with the idea of sin2 well being interpreted as a danger1 as a temptation2 physiological indisposition poisoned by means of the cankerworm of conscience4 #aeg-aeh ,what does a moral order of the universe mean8 ,that once and for all there is such a thing as will of ,god which determines what man has to do and what he has to leave undone2 that the value of a people or of an individual is measured according to how much or how little the one or the other obeys the will of ,god2 that in the destinies of a people or of an individual1 the will of ,god shows itself dominant1 that is to say it punishes or rewards according to the degree of obedience4 ,in the place of this miserable falsehood reality says3 a parasitical type of man1 who can flourish only at the cost of all the healthy elements of life1 the priest abuses the name of ,god3 he calls that state of affairs in which the priest determines the value of things the ,kingdom of ,god2 he calls the means whereby such a state of affairs is attained or maintained1 the ,will of ,god2 with cold-blooded cynicism he measures peoples1 ages and individuals according to whether they favour or oppose the ascendency of the priesthood4 #aeh-aei ,i fail to see against whom was directed the insurrection of which rightly or wrongly ,jesus is understood to have been the promoter1 if it were not directed against the ,jewish church4 #afb ,this saintly anarchist who called the lowest of the low1 the outcasts and sinners1 the ,chandala of ,judaism1 to revolt against the established order of things 7and in language which1 if the gospels are to be trusted1 would get one sent to ,siberia even to-day7--this man was a political criminal in so far as political criminals were possible in a community so absurdly non-political4 ,this brought him to the cross3 the proof of this is the inscription found thereon4 ,he died for his sins--and no matter how often the contrary has been asserted there is absolutely nothing to show that he died for the sins of others4 #afb-afc ,the instinctive hatred of reality is the outcome of an extreme susceptibility to pain and to irritation1 which can no longer endure to be touched at all1 because every sensation strikes too deep4 ,the instinctive exclusion of all aversion1 of all hostility1 of all boundaries and distances in feeling1 is the outcome of an extreme susceptibility to pain and to irritation1 which regards all resistance1 all compulsory resistance as insufferable anguish7--that is to say1 as harmful1 as deprecated by the self-preservative instinct71 and which knows blessedness 7happiness7 only when it is no longer obliged to offer resistance to anybody1 either evil or detrimental1--love as the only ultimate possibility of life4444 ,these are the two physiological realities upon which and out of which the doctrine of salvation has grown4 #aff ,with a little terminological laxity ,jesus might be called a free spirit--he cares not a jot for anything that is established3 the word killeth1 everything fixed killeth4 ,the idea1 experience1 life as he alone knows it1 is1 according to him1 opposed to every kind of word1 formula1 law1 faith and dogma4 ,he speaks only of the innermost things3 life or truth or light1 is his expression for the innermost things1--everything else the whole of reality1 the whole of nature1 language even1 has only the value of a sign1 of a simile for him4 #afi-agj ,the whole psychology of the gospels lacks the concept of guilt and punishment1 as also that of reward4 ,sin1 any sort of aloofness between ,god and man1 is done away with1--this is precisely what constitutes the glad tidings4 ,eternal bliss is not promised1 it is not bound up with certain conditions2 it is the only reality--the rest consists only of signs wherewith to speak about it4444 ,the results of such a state project themselves into a new practice of life1 the actual evangelical practice4 ,it is not a faith which distinguishes himself by means of a different mode of action4444 #aga ,the life of the ,saviour was naught else than this practice1--neither was his death4 ,he no longer required any formul1 any rites for his relations with ,god--not even prayer4 ,he has done with all the ,jewish teaching of repentance and of atonement2 he alone knows the mode of life which makes one feel divine1 saved1 evangelical1 and at all times a child of ,god4 ,not repentance1 not prayer and forgiveness are the roads to ,god3 the evangelical mode of life alone leads to ,god1 it is ,god4--,that which the gospels abolished was the ,judaism of the concepts sin1 forgiveness of sin1 faith1 salvation through faith1--the whole doctrine of the ,jewish church was denied by the glad tidings4 ,the profound instinct of how one must live in order to feel in ,heaven1 in order to feel eternal1 while in every other respect one feels by no means in ,heaven3 this alone is the psychological reality of ,salvation4--,a new life and not a new faith4444 #aga-agb ,this messenger of glad tidings died as he lived and as he taught--not in order to save mankind1 but in order to show how one ought to live4 ,it was a mode of life that he bequeathed to mankind3 his behaviour before his judges1 his attitude towards his executioners1 his accusers1 and all kinds of calumny and scorn1--his demeanour on the cross4 #agd ,the history of ,christianity--from the death on the cross onwards--is the history of a gradual and ever coarser misunderstanding of an original symbolism4 #age ,the world to ,christianity means that a man is a soldier1 a judge1 a patriot1 that he defends himself1 that he values his honour1 that he desires his own advantage1 that he is proud4 444 ,the conduct of every moment1 every instinct1 every valuation that leads to a deed1 is at present anti-,christian3 what an abortion of falsehood modern man must be1 in order to be able without a blush still to call himself a ,christian6 #agh ,the very word ,christianity is a misunderstanding1--truth to tell1 there never was more than one ,christian1 and he died on the ,cross4 ,the gospel died on the cross4 ,that which thenceforward was called gospel was the reverse of that gospel that ,christ had lived3 it was evil tidings1 a dysangel4 ,it is false to the point of nonsense to see in faith1 in the faith in salvation through ,christ1 the distinguishing trait of the ,christian2 the only thing that is ,christian is the ,christian mode of existence1 a life such as he led who died on the ,cross4444 ,to this day a life of this kind is still possible2 for certain men1 it is even necessary3 genuine1 primitive ,christianity will be possible in all ages4444 ,not a faith1 but a course of action4 #agc-agi ,to regard a man like ,st4-,paul as honest 7a man whose home was the very headquarters of ,stoical enlightenment7 when he devises a proof of the continued existence of the ,saviour out of a hallucination2 or even to believe him when he declares that he had this hallucination1 would amount to foolishness on the part of a psychologist3 ,st4-,paul desired the end1 consequently he also desired the means4444 ,even what he himself did not believe1 was believed in by the idiots among whom he spread his doctrine4--,what he wanted was power2 with ,st4-,paul the priest again aspired to power4 #ahe ,when the centre of gravity of life is laid1 not in life1 but in a beyond--in nonentity1 life is utterly robbed of its balance4 ,the great lie of personal immortality destroys all reason1 all nature in the instincts1--everything in the instincts that is beneficent1 that promotes life and that is a guarantee of the future1 henceforward aroused suspicion4 ,the very meaning of life is now construed as the effort to live in such a way that life no longer has any point4444 ,why show any public spirit8 ,why be grateful for one's origin and one's forebears8 ,why collaborate with one's fellows1 and be confident8 ,why be concerned about the general weal or strive after it8444 ,all these things are merely so many temptations1 so many deviations from the straight path4 ,one thing only is necessary 444 that everybody1 as an immortal soul1 should have equal rank1 that in the totality of beings1 the salvation of each individual may lay claim to eternal importance1 that insignificant bigots and three-quarter-lunatics may have the right to suppose that the laws of nature may be persistently broken on their account1--any such magnification of every kind of selfishness to infinity1 to insolence1 cannot be branded with sufficient contempt4 ,and yet it is to this miserable flattery of personal vanity that ,christianity owed its triumph1--by this means it lured all the bungled and the botched1 all revolting and revolted people1 all abortions1 the whole of the refuse and offal of humanity1 over to its side4 #ahe-ahf ,with ,christianity1 the art of feeling holy lies1 which constitutes the whole of ,judaism1 reaches its final mastership1 thanks to many centuries of ,jewish and most thoroughly serious training and practice4 #ahh ,only read the gospels as books calculated to seduce by means of morality--morality is appropriated by these petty people1--they know what morality can do6 ,the best way of leading mankind by the nose is with morality6 ,the fact is that the most conscious conceit of people who believe themselves to be chosen1 here simulates modesty3 in this way they1 the ,christian community1 the good and the just place themselves once and for all on a certain side1 the side of ,truth--and the rest of mankind1 the world on the other4444 ,this was the most fatal kind of megalomania that had ever yet existed on earth2 insignificant little abortions of bigots and liars began to lay sole claim to the concepts ,god1 ,truth1 ,light1 ,spirit1 ,love1 ,wisdom1 ,life1 as if these things were1 so to speak1 synonyms of themselves1 in order to fence themselves off from the world2 little ultra-,jews1 ripe for every kind of madhouse1 twisted values round in order to suit themselves1 just as if the ,christian1 alone1 were the meaning1 the salt1 the standard and even the ultimate tribunal of all the rest of mankind4 #ahi-aij ,one does well to put on one's gloves when reading the ,new ,testament4 ,the proximity of so much pitch almost defiles one4 ,we should feel just as little inclined to hobnob with the first ,christians as with ,polish ,jews3 not that we need explain our objections4444 ,they simply smell bad4--,in vain have ,i sought for a single sympathetic feature in the ,new ,testament2 there is not a trace of freedom1 kindliness1 openheartedness and honesty to be found in it4 ,humaneness has not even made a start in this book1 while cleanly instincts are entirely absent from it4444 ,only evil instincts are to be found in the ,new ,testament1 it shows no sign of courage1 these people lack even the courage of these evil instincts4 ,all is cowardice1 all is a closing of one's eyes and self-deception4 ,every book becomes clean1 after one has just read the ,new ,testament4 #aic-aid ,in the whole of the ,new ,testament only one figure appears which we cannot help respecting4 ,pilate1 the ,roman ,governor4 ,to take a ,jewish quarrel seriously was a thing he could not get himself to do4 ,one ,jew more or less--what did it matter8444 ,the noble scorn of a ,roman1 in whose presence the word truth had been shamelessly abused1 has enriched the ,new ,testament with the only saying which is of value1--and this saying is not only the criticism1 but actually the shattering of that ,testament3 ,what is truth6 #aie-aif ,no one is either a philologist or a doctor1 who is not also an ,antichrist4 ,as a philologist1 for instance1 a man sees behind the holy books as a doctor he sees behind the physiological rottenness of the typical ,christian4 ,the ,doctor says incurable1 the philologist says forgery4 #aig ,the priest knows only one great danger1 and that is science1--the healthy concept of cause and effect4 ,but1 on the whole1 science flourishes only in happy conditions1--a man must have time1 he must also have superfluous mental energy in order to pursue knowledge4 444 ,consequently man must be made unhappy1--this has been the argument of the priest of all ages4--,you have already divined what1 in accordance with such a manner of arguing1 must first have come into the world3--sin4444 ,the notion of guilt and punishment1 the whole moral order of the universe1 was invented against science4 #aii ,the notion of guilt and punishment1 including the doctrine of grace1 of salvation and of forgiveness--all lies through and through without a shred of psychological reality--were invented in order to destroy man's sense of causality3 they are an attack with the fist1 with the knife1 with honesty in hate and love6 ,but one actuated by the most cowardly1 most crafty1 and most ignoble instincts6 ,a priest's attack6 ,a parasite's attack6 ,a vampyrism of pale subterranean leeches6 #bjj ,faith saveth2 therefore it is true4--,it might be objected here that it is precisely salvation which is not probed but only promised2 salvation is bound up with the condition faith1--one shall be saved1 because one has faith4444 ,but how prove that that which the priest promises to the faithful really will take place1 to wit3 the ,beyond which defies all demonstration8--,the assumed proof of power is at bottom once again only a belief in the fact that the effect which faith promises will not fail to take place4 ,in a formula3 ,i believe that faith saveth2--consequently it is true4--,but with this we are at the end of our tether4 #bja ,holiness in itself is simply a symptom of an impoverished1 enervated and incurably deteriorated body6 #bjc-bjd ,christianity is built upon the rancour of the sick2 its instinct is directed against the sound1 against health4 ,everything well-constituted1 proud1 high-spirited1 and beautiful is offensive to its ears and eyes4 #bjd ,faith simply means the refusal to know what is true4 #bje ,the conclusion which all idiots1 women and common people come to1 that there must be something in a cause for which some one lays down his life 7or which1 as in the case of primitive ,christianity1 provokes an epidemic of sacrifices71--this conclusion put a tremendous check upon all investigation1 upon the spirit of investigation and of caution4 ,martyrs have harmed the cause of truth4 #bjh ,convictions are prisons4 ,they never see far enough1 they do not look down from a sufficient height3 but in order to have any say in questions of value and non-value1 a man must see five hundred convictions beneath him--behind him4444 ,a spirit who desires great things1 and who also desires the means thereto1 is necessarily a sceptic4 ,freedom from every kind of conviction belongs to strength1 to the ability to open one's eyes freely4 #bji-baj ,whom do ,i hate most among the rabble1 the ,chandala apostles1 who undermine the working man's instinct1 his happiness and his feeling of contentedness with his insignificant existence1--who make him envious1 and who teach him revenge4444 ,the wrong never lies in unequal rights2 it lies in the claim to equal rights4 #bbj ,the ,christian and the anarchist are both decadents2 they are both incapable of acting in any other way than disintegratingly1 poisonously and witheringly1 like bloodsuckers2 they are both actuated by an instinct of mortal hatred of everything that stands erect1 that is great1 that is lasting1 and that is a guarantee of the future4 #bba-bbb ,christianity destroyed the harvest we might have reaped from the culture of antiquity1 later it also destroyed our harvest of the culture of ,islam4 ,the wonderful ,moorish world of ,spanish culture1 which in its essence is more closely related to us1 and which appeals more to our sense and taste than ,rome and ,greece1 was trampled to death7--,i do not say by what kind of feet71 why8--because it owed its origin to noble1 to manly instincts1 because it said yea to life1 even that life so full of the race1 and refined luxuries of the ,moors6 #bbf ,i condemn ,christianity and confront it with the most terrible accusation that an accuser has ever had in his mouth4 ,to my mind it is the greatest of all conceivable corruptions1 it has had the will to the last imaginable corruption4 ,the ,christian ,church allowed nothing to escape from its corruption2 it converted every value into its opposite1 every truth into a lie1 and every honest impulse into an ignominy of the soul4 ,let any one dare to speak to me of its humanitarian blessings6 ,to abolish any sort of distress was opposed to its profoundest interests2 its very existence depended on states of distress2 it created states of distress in order to make itself immortal4444 ,the cancer germ of sin1 for instance3 the ,church was the first to enrich mankind with this misery6--,the equality of souls before ,god1 this falsehood1 this pretext for the rancunes of all the base-minded1 this anarchist bomb of a concept1 which has ultimately become the revolution1 the modern idea1 the principle of decay of the whole of social order1--this is ,christian dynamite4444 ,the humanitarian blessings of ,christianity6 ,to breed a self-contradiction1 an art of self-profanation1 a will to lie at any price1 an aversion1 a contempt of all good and honest instincts out of humanitas6 ,is this what you call the blessings of ,christianity8--,parasitism as the only method of the ,church2 sucking all the blood1 all the love1 all the hope of life out of mankind with anmic and sacred ideals4 ,a ,beyond as the will to deny all reality2 the cross as the trade-mark of the most subterranean form of conspiracy that has ever existed1--against health1 beauty1 well-constitutedness1 bravery1 intellect1 kindliness of soul1 against ,life itself4444 ,this eternal accusation against ,christianity ,i would fain write on all walls1 wherever there are walls1--,i have letters with which ,i can make even the blind see4444 ,i call ,christianity the one great curse1 the one enormous and innermost perversion1 the one great instinct of revenge1 for which no means are too venomous1 too underhand1 too underground and too petty1--,i call it the one immortal blemish of mankind4444 #bcj-bca ,,xi ,the ,will to ,power ,volume ,i ,all the evidences of what was to be ,nietzsche's final and complete philosophical work in four volumes1 are contained in two volumes of desultory and often highly condensed notes which were recently issued under the single caption of ,the ,will to ,power 7,die ,wille zur ,macht74 ,on this culminating work ,nietzsche had laboured from #ahhc until his final breakdown4 ,he made two plans for ,the ,will to ,power--one in #ahhf and the other in #ahhg4 ,as the #ahhg plan was the one ultimately adhered to1 there seems no reason to hesitate about accepting it as the right one4 ,the titles of the four books which comprised this final work as it stands to-day are ,european ,nihilism1 ,a ,criticism of the ,highest ,values that ,have ,prevailed ,hitherto1 ,the ,principles of a ,new ,valuation and ,discipline and ,breeding4 ,these headings are according to the last plan made at ,nice in #ahhg1 and although1 as ,i stated in the preceding chapter1 there was some hesitation between the general title of ,the ,will to ,power and ,the ,transvaluation of ,all ,values1 ,the ,antichrist1 which fell under the latter heading1 must not be considered as forming a part of ,the ,will to ,power4 ,however1 ,the ,antichrist and also ,beyond ,good and ,evil1 ,the ,genealogy of ,morals and ,the ,twilight of the ,idols1 are closely related in thought to ,the ,will to ,power4 ,this fact is borne out not only by internal evidence1 by the manner in which the books overlap1 and by the constant redistribution of titles which sometimes prove the unity of the last phase of his thought1 but also by the testimony of those who had ,nietzsche's confidence and could watch him at close quarters4 ,nietzsche intended to embody in the four books of ,the ,will to ,power the entire sweep of his philosophical teachings4 ,this work was to be a summary1 not only in statement but also in analysis1 of his ethical system4 ,his preceding books had been replete in repetitions1 and lacked both organisation and sequence4 ,his health was such that he could work only sporadically and in short shifts1 with the result that he was constantly trying to crowd an enormous amount of material into a short space4 ,he was able to deal with but one point at a time1 and1 as his working period was frequently too short to develop that point as fully as he desired1 we find him constantly going back over old ground1 altering his syllogisms1 making addenda1 interpolating analogies1 and in numerous other ways changing and clarifying what he had previously written4 ,the ,will to ,power was to be1 then1 a colossal organisation of all his writings1 with every step intact1 and every conclusion in its place4 ,and throughout the four volumes emphasis was to be put on his motivating doctrine1 the will to power1 an oppositional theory to ,darwin's theory of struggle for mere existence4 ,but although we have two large volumes of notes1 these jottings lack in a large degree the co-ordination which would have characterised them had ,nietzsche been able to carry out his plan4 ,the notes of these two books are the work of many years1 and the putting together of them for publication has been done without any attempt to alter their original text4 ,they are just as ,nietzsche left them--in some cases completed and closely argued paragraphs1 in others mere notations and memoranda1 elliptic and unelaborated4 ,it is possible1 however1 to gain a very adequate idea of what was to be the contents of this final work1 due to the copiousness of the material at hand4 ,from the time of finishing ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra to #ahhi1 ,nietzsche was constantly making notes for his great work1 and there is no phase of his thought which is not touched upon in these two remaining volumes4 ,by following their pages closely1 in the light of his foregoing works1 one gets a very definite impression of the synthesis of his thoughts4 ,especially true is this of the second volume of ,the ,will to ,power1 for it is here that his cardinal doctrine is most strongly and consistently emphasised and its relationship to all human relationships most concisely drawn4 ,because of this fact ,i have chosen to consider the two volumes separately4 ,the first volume is full of material more or less familiar to those who have followed ,nietzsche in his earlier works4 ,the notes are1 in the majority of cases1 elaborations and explanations of doctrines contained in those books which followed ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra4 ,as such they are important4 ,the first volume is divided into two sections--,european ,nihilism and ,a ,criticism of the ,highest ,values that ,have ,prevailed ,hitherto4 ,two subdivisions are found under section one--,nihilism and ,concerning the ,history of ,european ,nihilism4 ,in this first subdivision ,nietzsche defines ,nihilism and attempts to trace its origin4 ,he states that it is an outcome of the valuations and interpretations of existence which have formerly prevailed1 namely3 the result of the doctrines of ,christianity4 ,for our adherence to ,christian morality1 ,nietzsche says1 we must pay dearly3 by this adherence we are losing our equilibrium and are on the verge of adopting opposite valuations--those consisting of ,nihilistic elements4 ,he defines the ,nihilistic movement as an expression of decadence1 and declares that this decadence is spreading throughout all our modern institutions4 ,under his second subdivision1 he explains that modern gloominess is a result of the slow advance and rise of the middle and lower classes1 and asserts that this gloominess is accompanied by moral hypocrisy and the decadent virtues of sympathy and pity4 ,in this connection he denies that the nineteenth century shows an improvement over the sixteenth4 ,no better analysis of the effects of ,christian morality on modern man is to be found in any of ,nietzsche's writings than in this treatise of ,nihilism2 and a close study of this analysis will greatly help one in grasping the full significance of the doctrine of the will to power4 ,although the notes in this book are the least satisfactory of all the portions of ,the ,will to ,power1 being both tentative and incomplete1 ,i have been able to select enough definite statements from them to give an adequate idea of both ,nietzsche's theories and conclusions in regard to ,nihilism4 ,in the second section of ,volume ,i1 ,a ,criticism of the ,highest ,values ,that ,have ,prevailed ,hitherto1 the notes are fuller and more closely organised4 ,this is due to the fact that the ground covered by them is in the main the same ground covered by ,the ,antichrist1 ,the ,genealogy of ,morals and ,beyond ,good and ,evil4 ,in fact1 there is in these notes much repetition of passages to be found in the three previous volumes4 ,the first subdivision of this second section is called ,criticism of ,religion1 and there is little material in it which does not appear in ,the ,antichrist4 ,even in the manner of expression there exists so strong a similarity that ,i am inclined to think ,nietzsche used these notes in composing his famous philippic against ,christianity4 ,consequently ,i have made but few quotations from this division1 choosing in each instance only such passages as do not possess a direct parallel in his earlier work4 ,we find here the same inquiry into the origin of religions1 the same analysis of ,christian ideals1 the same history of ,christian doctrines1 and the same argument against the dissemination of ,christian faiths as are contained in ,the ,antichrist4 ,however1 these present notes are sufficiently different from this previous book to interest the thorough student1 and there are occasional speculations advanced which are not to be encountered elsewhere in ,nietzsche's writings4 ,for the casual reader1 however1 there is little of new interest in this subdivision4 ,the same criticism holds true to a large extent when we come to the second subdivision of the second section ,a ,criticism of ,morality4 ,in ,the ,genealogy of ,morals we have a discussion of practically all the subjects considered in the present notes1 such as the origin of moral valuations1 the basis of conscience1 the influence of the herd1 the dominance of virtue1 the slander of the so-called evil man1 and the significance of such words as improving and elevating4 ,however1 there is sufficient new material in these notes to warrant a reading1 for although1 despite a few exceptions1 there are no new issues posed1 certain points which were put forth only in a speculative and abridged manner in earlier books1 are here enlarged upon4 ,this is especially true in regard to the doctrine of rank4 ,nietzsche has been accused of advocating only an individualistic morality4 ,but the truth is that he advanced two codes4 ,he preached a morality for the herd1 a definite system which suited the needs of the serving classes4 ,for the superior individuals1 on the other hand1 he taught another code1 one which fitted and met the needs of the rulers4 ,the herd morality has always sought to create and maintain a single type of mediocre man4 ,nietzsche preached the necessity of the superior1 as well as the inferior1 type of man2 and in his present notes he goes into this doctrine more fully than heretofore4 ,furthermore1 he makes clear his stand in regard to the weak4 ,on page #bia he states1 ,i have declared war against the anmic ,christian ideal 7together with what is closely related to it71 not because ,i want to annihilate it1 but only to put an end to its tyranny and clear the way for other ideals1 for more robust ideals4 ,it has been stated1 even in quarters where we have a right to look for more intelligent criticism1 that ,nietzsche favoured the complete elimination of the weak and incompetent4 ,no such advocacy is to be found in his teachings4 ,to the contrary1 as will be seen from the above quotation1 he preached only against the dominance of the weak4 ,he resented their supremacy over the intelligent man4 ,their existence1 he maintained1 was a most necessary thing4 ,this belief is insisted upon in many places1 and one should bear the point in mind when reading the criticisms of socialism to be found throughout the present volume4 ,another new point to be found in these notes relates to the immoral methods used by the disseminators of morals4 ,from the passages in which these new points are raised ,i have taken the quotations which follow at the end of this chapter4 ,in the third and last subdivision of this second section1 ,criticism of ,philosophy1 we have an extension of ,chapter ,i in ,beyond ,good and ,evil1 ,prejudices of ,philosophers1 and of the two chapters in ,the ,twilight of the ,idols--,the ,problem of ,socrates and ,reason in ,philosophy4 ,the notes 7excepting a few pages of general remarks7 occupy themselves with a criticism of ,greek philosophy and with an analysis of philosophical truths and errors4 ,these notes touch only indirectly on ,nietzsche's doctrines1 and may be looked upon as explanations of his intellectual methods4 ,despite their fragmentariness1 the notes in this volume1 as ,i have said1 permit one to gain an adequate idea of ,nietzsche's purpose4 ,in making my excerpts from this book1 ,i have chosen those passages which will throw new light upon his philosophy rather than those statements of conclusions which have been previously encountered4 ,,excerpts ,,from ,,the ,,will ,,to ,,power volume ,i ,what does ,nihilism mean8--,that the highest values are losing their value4 #h ,thorough ,nihilism is the conviction that life is absurd1 in the light of the highest values already discovered2 it also includes the view that we have not the smallest right to assume the existence of transcendental objects or things in themselves1 which would be either divine or morality incarnate4 ,this view is the result of fully developed truthfulness3 therefore a consequence of the belief in morality4 #h ,moral valuations are condemnations1 negations2 morality is the abdication of the will to live4 #ab ,all values with which we have tried1 hitherto1 to lend the world some worth1 from our point of view1 and with which we have therefore deprived it of all worth 7once these values have been shown to be inapplicable7--all these values1 are1 psychologically1 the results of certain views of utility1 established for the purpose of maintaining and increasing the dominion of certain communities3 but falsely projected into the nature of things4 ,it is always man's exaggerated ingenuousness to regard himself as the sense and measure of all things4 #ae ,every purely moral valuation 7as1 for instance1 the ,buddhistic7 terminates in ,nihilism3 ,europe must expect the same thing6 ,it is supposed that one can get along with a morality bereft of a religious background2 but in this direction the road to ,nihilism is opened4 #ai ,nihilism is not only a meditating over the in vain--not only the belief that everything deserves to perish2 but one actually puts one's shoulder to the plough2 one destroys4 #bb ,the time is coming when we shall have to pay for having been ,christians for two thousand years3 we are losing the equilibrium which enables us to live--for a long while we shall not know in what direction we are travelling4 ,we are hurling ourselves headlong into the opposite valuations1 with that degree of energy which could only have been engendered in man by an overvaluation of himself4 ,now1 everything is false from the root1 words and nothing but words1 confused1 feeble1 or overstrained4 #be ,modern ,pessimism is an expression of the uselessness only of the modern world1 not of the world and existence as such4 #bi ,the preponderance of pain over pleasure or the reverse 7,hedonism72 both of these doctrines are already signposts to ,nihilism4444 ,for here1 in both cases1 no other final purpose is sought than the phenomenon pleasure or pain4 #bi ,life is not worth living2 ,resignation2 what is the good of tears8--this is a feeble and sentimental attitude of mind4 #bi-cj ,people have not yet seen what is so terribly obvious--namely1 that ,pessimism is not a problem but a symptom1--that the term ought to be replaced by ,nihilism1--that the question1 to be or not to be1 is itself an illness1 a sign of degeneracy1 an idiosyncrasy4 ,the ,nihilistic movement is only an expression of physiological decadence4 #cb ,decay1 decline1 and waste1 are1 per se1 in no way open to objection2 they are the natural consequences of life and vital growth4 ,the phenomenon of decadence is just as necessary to life as advance or progress is3 we are not in a position which enables us to suppress it4 ,on the contrary1 reason would have it retain its rights4 ,it is disgraceful on the part of socialist-theorists to argue that circumstances and social combinations could be devised which would put an end to all vice1 illness1 crime1 prostitution1 and poverty4444 ,but that is tantamount to condemning ,life4 #cc ,decadence itself is not a thing that can be withstood3 it is absolutely necessary and is proper to all ages and all peoples4 ,that which must be withstood1 and by all means in our power1 is the spreading of the contagion among the sound parts of the organism4 #cc-cd ,all those things which heretofore have been regarded as the causes of degeneration1 are really its effects4 #cd ,if ,nature have no pity on the degenerate1 it is not therefore immoral3 the growth of physiological and moral evils in the human race1 is rather the result of morbid and unnatural morality4 #dd ,the whole of our sociology knows no other instinct than that of the herd1 i4e41 of a multitude of mere ciphers--of which every cipher has equal rights1 and where it is a virtue to be--naught4 #de ,nihilism is a sign that the botched and bungled have no longer any consolation1 that they destroy in order to be destroyed1 that1 having been deprived of morality1 they no longer have any reason to resign themselves1 that they take up their stand on the territory of the opposite principle1 and will also exercise power themselves1 by compelling the powerful to become their hangmen4 #eb ,our age1 with its indiscriminate endeavours to mitigate distress1 to honour it1 and to wage war in advance with unpleasant possibilities1 is an age of the poor4 #eg ,overwork1 curiosity and sympathy--our modern vices4 #fd ,christianity1 revolution1 the abolition of slavery1 equal rights1 philanthropy1 love of peace1 justice1 truth3 all these big words are only valuable in a struggle1 as banners3 not as realities1 but as showwords1 for something quite different 7yea1 even quite opposed to what they mean674 #fh ,the nineteenth century shows no advance whatever on the sixteenth3 and the ,german spirit of #ahhh is an example of a backward movement when compared with that of #aghh4444 ,mankind does not advance1 it does not even exist4 ,the aspect of the whole is much more like that of a huge experimenting workshop where some things in all ages succeed1 while an incalculable number of things fail2 where all order1 logic1 co-ordination1 and responsibility is lacking4 ,how dare we blink the fact that the rise of ,christianity is a decadent movement8--that the ,german ,reformation was a recrudescence of ,christian barbarism8--that the ,revolution destroyed the instinct for an organisation of society on a large scale8444 ,man is not an example of progress as compared with animals3 the tender son of culture is an abortion compared with the ,arab or the ,corsican2 the ,chinaman is a more successful type--that is to say1 richer in sustaining power than the ,european4 #gb-gc ,i know best why man is the only animal that laughs3 he alone suffers so excruciatingly that he was compelled to invent laughter4 ,the unhappiest and most melancholy animal is1 as might have been expected1 the most cheerful4 #gd ,socialism--or the tyranny of the meanest and the most brainless1--that is to say1 the superficial1 the envious1 and the mummers1 brought to its zenith1--is1 as a matter of fact1 the logical conclusion of modern ideas and their latent anarchy3 but in the genial atmosphere of democratic well-being the capacity for forming resolutions or even for coming to an end at all1 is paralysed4 ,men will follow--but no longer their reason4 ,that is why socialism is on the whole a hopelessly bitter affair3 and there is nothing more amusing than to observe the discord between the poisonous and desperate faces of present-day socialists--and what wretched and nonsensical feelings does not their style reveal to us6--and the childish lamblike happiness of their hopes and desires4 #ajb ,this is the teaching which life itself preaches to all living things3 the morality of ,development4 ,to have and to wish to have more1 in a word1 ,growth--that is life itself4 ,in the teaching of socialism a will to the denial of life is but poorly concealed3 botched men and races they must be who have devised a teaching of this sort4 #ajb ,spiritual enlightenment is an unfailing means of making men uncertain1 weak of will1 and needful of succour and support2 in short1 of developing the herding instincts in them4 #aje ,when the feeling of power suddenly seizes and overwhelms a man1--and this takes place in the case of all the great passions1--a doubt arises in him concerning his own person3 he dare not think himself the cause of this astonishing sensation--and thus he posits a stronger person1 a ,godhead as its cause1 #aad-aae ,religion has lowered the concept man2 its ultimate conclusion is that all goodness1 greatness1 and truth are superhuman1 and are only obtainable by the grace of ,god4 #aaf ,in short3 what is the price paid for the improvement supposed to be due to morality8--,the unhinging of reason1 the reduction of all motives to fear and hope 7punishment and reward72 dependence upon the tutelage of priests1 and upon a formulary exactitude which is supposed to express a divine will2 the implantation of a conscience which establishes a false science in the place of experience and experiment3 as though all one had to do or had not to do were predetermined--a kind of contraction of the seeking and striving spirit2--in short3 the worst mutilation of man that can be imagined1 and it is pretended that the good man is the result4 #abb-abc ,paganism is that which says yea to all that is natural1 it is innocence in being natural1 naturalness4 ,christianity is that which says no to all that is natural1 it is a certain lack of dignity in being natural2 hostility to ,nature4 #abg ,christianity is a degenerative movement1 consisting of all kinds of decaying and excremental elements3 it is not the expression of the downfall of a race1 it is1 from the root1 an agglomeration of all the morbid elements which are mutually attractive and which gravitate to one another4 ,it is therefore not a national religion1 not determined by race3 it appeals to the disinherited everywhere2 it consists of a foundation of resentment against all that is successful and dominant3 it is in need of a symbol which represents the damnation of everything successful and dominant4 ,it is opposed to every form of intellectual movement1 to all philosophy3 it takes up the cudgels for idiots1 and utters a curse upon all intellect4 ,resentment against those who are gifted1 learned1 intellectually independent3 in all these it suspects the element of success and domination4 #acj ,all ,christian truth1 is idle falsehood and deception1 and is precisely the reverse of that which was at the bottom of the first ,christian movement4 #acc ,to be really ,christian would mean to be absolutely indifferent to dogmas1 cults1 priests1 church1 and theology4 #acc ,a ,god who died for our sins1 salvation through faith1 resurrection after death--all these things are the counterfeit coins of real-,christianity1 for which that pernicious blockhead ,paul must be held responsible4 #ach ,christianity has1 from the first1 always transformed the symbolical into crude realities3 7#a7 ,the antitheses true life and false life were misunderstood and changed into life here and life beyond4 7#b7 ,the notion eternal life1 as opposed to the personal life which is ephemeral1 is translated into personal immortality2 7#c7 ,the process of fraternising by means of sharing the same food and drink1 after the ,hebrew-,arabian manner1 is interpreted as the miracle of transubstantiation4 7#d7 ,resurrection which was intended to mean the entrance to the true life1 in the sense of being intellectually born again1 becomes an historical contingency1 supposed to take place at some moment after death2 7#e7 ,the teaching of the ,son of man as the ,son of ,god1--that is to say1 the life-relationship between man and ,god1--becomes the second person of the ,trinity1 and thus the filial relationship of every man--even the lowest--to ,god1 is done away with2 7#f7 ,salvation through faith 7that is to say1 that there is no other way to this filial relationship to ,god save through the practice of life taught by ,christ7 becomes transformed into the belief that there is a miraculous way of atoning for all sin2 though not through our own endeavours1 but by means of ,christ3 ,for all these purposes1 ,christ on the ,cross had to be interpreted afresh4 ,the death itself would certainly not be the principal feature of the event 444 it was only another sign pointing to the way in which one should behave towards the authorities and the laws of the world --that one was not to defend oneself--this was the exemplary life4 #aci-adj ,the ,gospel is the announcement that the road to happiness lies open for the lowly and the poor--that all one has to do is to emancipate one's self from all institutions1 traditions1 and the tutelage of the higher classes4 ,thus ,christianity is no more than the typical teaching of ,socialists4 ,property1 acquisitions1 mother-country1 status and rank1 tribunals1 the police1 the ,state1 the ,church1 ,education1 ,art1 militarism3 all these are so many obstacles in the way of happiness1 so many mistakes1 snares1 and devil's artifices1 on which the ,gospel passes sentence--all this is typical of socialistic doctrines4 ,behind all this there is the outburst1 the explosion of a concentrated loathing of the masters--the instinct which discerns the happiness of freedom after such long oppression4 #agc-agd ,christianity is a denaturalisation of gregarious morality3 under the power of the most complete misapprehensions and self-deceptions4 ,democracy is a more natural form of it1 and less sown with falsehood4 ,it is a fact that the oppressed1 the low1 and whole mob of slaves and half-castes1 will prevail4 ,first step3 they make themselves free--they detach themselves1 at first in fancy only2 they recognise each other2 they make themselves paramount4 ,second step3 they enter the lists1 they demand acknowledgment1 equal rights1 ,justice4 ,third step3 they demand privileges 7they draw the representatives of power over to their side74 ,fourth step3 they alone want all power1 and they have it4 #agg ,when and where has any man1 of any note at all1 resembled the ,christian ideal8--at least in the eyes of those who are psychologists and triers of the heart and reins4 ,look at all ,plutarch's heroes6 #ahj ,the higher man distinguishes himself from the lower by his fearlessness and his readiness to challenge misfortune3 it is a sign of degeneration when eudemonistic values begin to prevail 7physiological fatigue and enfeeblement of will-power74 ,christianity1 with its prospect of blessedness1 is the typical attitude of mind of a suffering and impoverished species of man4 ,abundant strength will be active1 will suffer1 and will go under4 #ahb ,all ideals are dangerous2 because they lower and brand realities2 they are all poisons4 #ahc ,these conditions of salvation of which the ,christian is conscious are merely variations of the same diseased state--the interpretation of an attack of epilepsy by means of a particular formula which is provided1 not by science1 but by religious mania4 #aij ,a pang of conscience in a man is a sign that his character is not yet equal to his deed4 ,there is such a thing as a pang of conscience after good deeds3 in this case it is their unfamiliarity1 their incompatibility with an old environment4 #aib ,we immoralists prefer to disbelieve in faults4 ,we believe that all deeds1 of what kind soever1 are identically the same at root2 just as deeds which turn against us may be useful from an economical point of view1 and even generally desirable4 ,in certain individual cases1 we admit that we might well have been spared a given action2 the circumstances alone predisposed us in its favour4 ,which of us1 if favoured by circumstances1 would not already have committed every possible crime8 444 ,that is why1 one should never say3 ,thou shouldst never have done such and such a thing1 but only3 ,how strange it is that ,i have not done such and such a thing hundreds of times already6--,as a matter of fact1 only a very small number of acts are typical acts and real epitomes of a personality1 and seeing what a small number of people really are personalities1 a single act very rarely characterises a man4 ,acts are mostly dictated by circumstances2 they are superficial or merely reflex movements performed in response to a stimulus1 long before the depths of our beings are affected or consulted in the matter4 #aib-aic4 ,experience teaches us that1 in every case in which a man has elevated himself to any great extent above the average of his fellows1 every high degree of power always involves a corresponding degree of freedom from ,good and ,evil as also from true and false1 and cannot take into account what goodness dictates4 #bjj ,what is ,christian virtue and love of men1 if not precisely this mutual assistance with a view to survival1 this solidarity of the weak1 this thwarting of selection8 ,what is ,christian altruism1 if it is not the mob-egotism of the weak which divines that1 if everybody looks after everybody else1 every individual will be preserved for a longer period of time8444 ,he who does not consider this attitude of mind as immoral1 as a crime against life1 himself belongs to the sickly crowd1 and also shares their instincts4444 ,genuine love of mankind exacts sacrifice for the good of the species--it is hard1 full of self-control1 because it needs human sacrifices4 #bjc ,what deserves the most rigorous condemnation1 is the ambiguous and cowardly infirmity of purpose of a religion like ,christianity1--or rather like the ,church1--which1 instead of recommending death and self-destruction1 actually protects all the botched and bungled1 and encourages them to propagate their kind4 #bjd ,let us see what the genuine ,christian does of all the things which his instincts forbid him to do3--he covers beauty1 pride1 riches1 self-reliance1 brilliancy1 knowledge1 and power with suspicion and mud--in short1 all culture3 his object is to deprive the latter of its clean conscience4 #bjj ,what is it we combat in ,christianity8 ,that it aims at destroying the strong1 at breaking their spirit1 at exploiting their moments of weariness and debility1 at converting their proud assurance into anxiety and conscience-trouble2 that it knows how to poison the noblest instincts and to infect them with disease1 until their strength1 their will to power1 turns inwards1 against themselves--until the strong perish through their excessive self-contempt and self-immolation4 #bji ,all virtues should be looked upon as physiological conditions4 #bac ,formerly it was said of every form of morality1 ,ye shall know them by their fruits4 ,i say of every form of morality3 ,it is a fruit1 and from it ,i learn the ,soil out of which it grew4 #bad ,my leading doctrine is this3 there are no moral phenomena1 but only a moral interpretation of phenomena4 ,the origin of this interpretation itself lies beyond the pale of morality4 #bad ,the whole of morality of ,europe is based upon the values which are useful to the herd4 #bbh ,the herd regards the exception1 whether it be above or beneath its general level1 as something which is antagonistic and dangerous to itself4 ,their trick in dealing with the exceptions above them1 the strong1 the mighty1 the wise1 and the fruitful1 is to persuade them to become guardians1 herdsmen1 and watchmen--in fact1 to become their head-servants3 thus they convert a danger into a thing which is useful4 #bca ,my teaching is this1 that the herd seeks to maintain and preserve one type of man1 and that it defends itself on two sides--that is to say1 against those which are decadents from its ranks 7criminals1 etc471 and against those who rise superior to its dead level4 #bcf ,my philosophy aims at a new order of rank3 not at an individualistic morality4 ,the spirit of the herd should rule within the herd--but not beyond it3 the leaders of the herd require a fundamentally different valuation for their actions4 #bcg ,conscience condemns an action because that action has been condemned for a long period of time3 all conscience does is to imitate3 it does not create values4 ,that which first led to the condemnation of certain actions1 was not conscience3 but the knowledge of 7or the prejudice against7 its consequences4444 ,the approbation of conscience1 the feeling of well-being1 of inner peace1 is of the same order of emotions as the artist's joy over his work--it proves nothing4 #bdb ,by what means does a virtue attain to power8--,with precisely the same means as a political party3 slander1 suspicion1 the undermining of opposing virtues that happen to be already in power1 the changing of their names1 systematic persecution and scorn2 in short1 by means of acts of general immorality4 #beb ,cruelty has become transformed and elevated into tragic pity1 so that we no longer recognise it as such4 ,the same has happened to the love of the sexes which has become amour-passion2 the slavish attitude of mind appears as ,christian obedience2 wretchedness becomes humility2 the disease of the nervus sympathicus1 for instance1 is eulogised as ,pessimism1 ,pascalism1 or ,carlylism1 etc4 #bec ,the qualities which constitute the strength of an opposing race or class are declared to be the most evil and pernicious things it has3 for by means of them it may be harmful to us4 #bee ,i recognise virtue in that3 7#a7 it does not insist upon being recognised2 7#b7 it does not presuppose the existence of virtue everywhere1 but precisely something else2 7#c7 it does not suffer from the absence of virtue1 but regards it rather as a relation of perspective which throws virtue into relief3 it does not proclaim itself2 7#d7 it makes no propaganda2 7#e7 it allows no one to pose as judge because it is always a personal virtue2 7#f7 it does precisely what is generally forbidden3 virtue as ,i understand it is the actual vetitum within all gregarious legislation2 7#g7 in short1 ,i recognise virtue in that it is in the ,renaissance style--virtu--free from all moralic acid4 #beh ,lust of property1 lust of power1 laziness1 simplicity1 fear2 all these things are interested in virtue2 that is why it stands so securely4 #bfa ,vice is a somewhat arbitrary epitome of certain effects resulting from physiological degeneracy4 ,a general proposition such as that which ,christianity teaches1 namely1 ,man is evil1 would be justified provided one were justified in regarding a given type of degenerate man as normal4 ,but this may be an exaggeration4 ,of course1 wherever ,christianity prospers and prevails1 the proposition holds good3 for then the existence of an unhealthy soil--of a degenerate territory--is demonstrated4 #bfi ,it is difficult to have sufficient respect for man1 when one sees how he understands the art of fighting his way1 of enduring1 of turning circumstances to his own advantage1 and of overthrowing opponents2 but when he is seen in the light of his desires1 he is the most absurd of all animals4 #bfi ,as to the whole socialistic ideal3 it is nothing but a blockheaded misunderstanding of the ,christian moral ideal4 #bge ,an ideal which is striving to prevail or to assert itself endeavours to further its purpose 7a7 by laying claim to a spurious origin2 7b7 by assuming a relationship between itself and the powerful ideals already existing2 7c7 by means of the thrill produced by mystery1 as though an unquestionable power were manifesting itself2 7d7 by the slander of its opponents' ideals2 7e7 by a lying teaching of the advantages which follow in its wake1 for instance3 happiness1 spiritual peace1 general peace1 or even the assistance of a mighty ,god4 #bgh ,my view3 all the forces and instincts which are the source of life are lying beneath the ban of morality3 morality is the life-denying instinct4 ,morality must be annihilated if life is to be emancipated4 #bgh ,every one's desire is that there should be no other teaching and valuation of things than those by means of which he himself succeeds4 ,thus the fundamental tendency of the weak and mediocre of all times1 has been to enfeeble the strong and to reduce them to the level of the weak3 their chief weapon in this process was the moral principle4 ,the attitude of the strong towards the weak is branded as evil2 the highest states of the strong become bad bywords4 #bgi ,every small community 7or individual71 finding itself involved in a struggle1 strives to convince itself of this3 ,good taste1 good judgment1 and virtue are ours4 ,war urges people to this exaggerated self-esteem4 #bha ,whatever kind of eccentric ideal one may have 7whether as a ,christian1 a free-spirit1 an immoralist1 or a ,german ,imperialist71 one should try to avoid insisting upon its being the ideal2 for1 by so doing1 it is deprived of all its privileged nature4 ,one should have an ideal as a distinction2 one should not propagate it1 and thus level one's self down to the rest of mankind4 #bha ,real heroism consists1 not in fighting under the banner of self-sacrifice1 submission and disinterestedness1 but in not fighting at all4444 ,i am thus3 ,i will be thus--and you can go to the devil6 #bhb ,modest1 industrious1 benevolent1 and temperate3 thus you would that men were8--that good men were8 ,but such men ,i can only conceive as slaves1 the slaves of the future4 #bhi ,industry1 modesty1 benevolence1 temperance1 are just so many obstacles in the way of sovereign sentiments1 of great ingenuity1 of an heroic purpose1 of noble existence for one's self4 #bij ,i have declared war against the anmic ,christian ideal 7together with what is closely related to it71 not because ,i want to annihilate it1 but only to put an end to its tyranny and clear the way for other ideals1 for more robust ideals4 #bia ,if one does good merely out of pity1 it is one's self and not one's neighbour that one is succouring4 #bid ,one is continually promoting the interests of one's 'ego' at the cost of other people2 ,living consists in living at the cost of others--he who has not grasped this fact1 has not taken the first step towards truth to himself4 #bid ,a morality and a religion of love1 the curbing of the self-affirming spirit1 and a doctrine encouraging patience1 resignation1 helpfulness1 and co-operation in word and deed may be of the highest value within the confines of such classes1 even in the eyes of their rulers3 for it restrains the feelings of rivalry1 of resentment1 and of envy1--feelings which are only too natural in the bungled and the botched1--and it even deifies them under the ideal of humility1 of obedience1 of slave-life1 of being-ruled1 of poverty1 of illness1 and of lowliness4 ,this explains why the ruling classes 7or races7 and individuals of all ages have always upheld the cult of unselfishness1 the gospel of the lowly and of ,god on the ,cross4 #bif ,the hatred of egoism1 whether it be one's own 7as in the case of the ,socialists7 appears as a valuation reached under the predominance of revenge2 and also as an act of prudence on the part of the preservative instinct of the suffering1 in the form of an increase in their feelings of co-operation and unity4444 ,at bottom1 the discharge of resentment which takes place in the act of judging1 rejecting1 and punishing egoism 7one's own or that of others7 is still a self-preservative measure on the part of the bungled and the botched4 ,in short3 the cult of altruism is merely a particular form of egoism1 which regularly appears under certain definite physiological circumstances4 ,when the ,socialist1 with righteous indignation1 cries for justice1 rights1 equal rights1 it only shows that he is oppressed by his inadequate culture1 and is unable to understand why he suffers3 he also finds pleasure in crying2--if he were more at ease he would take jolly good care not to cry in that way3 in that case he would seek his pleasure elsewhere4 ,the same holds good of the ,christian3 he curses1 condemns1 and slanders the world--and does not even except himself4 ,but that is no reason for taking him seriously4 ,in both cases we are in the presence of invalids who feel better for crying1 and who find relief in slander4 #bih ,i value a man according to the quantum of power and fulness of his will2 not according to the enfeeblement and moribund state thereof4 ,i consider that a philosophy which teaches the denial of will is both defamatory and slanderous4444 ,i test the power of a will according to the amount of resistance it can offer and the amount of pain and torture it can endure and know how to turn to its own advantage2 ,i do not point to the evil and pain of existence with the finger of reproach1 but rather entertain the hope that life may one day be more evil and more full of suffering than it has ever been4 #cjd ,my ultimate conclusion is1 that the real man represents a much higher value than the desirable man of any ideal that has ever existed hitherto2 that all desiderata in regard to mankind have been absurd and dangerous dissipations by means of which a particular kind of man has sought to establish his measures of preservation and of growth as a law for all2 that every desideratum of this kind which has been made to dominate has reduced man's worth1 his strength1 and his trust in the future2 that the indigence and mediocre intellectuality of man becomes most apparent1 even to-day1 when he reveals a desire2 that man's ability to fix values has hitherto been developed too inadequately to do justice to the actual1 not merely to the desirable1 worth of man2 that1 up to the present1 ideals have really been the power which has most slandered man and power1 the poisonous fumes which have hung over reality1 and which have seduced men to yearn for nonentity4444 #caa ,one must be very immoral in order to make people moral by deeds4 ,the moralist's means are the most terrible that have ever been used2 he who has not the courage to be an immoralist in deeds may be fit for anything else1 but not for the duties of a moralist4 #cad ,the priests of all ages have always pretended that they wished to improve4444 ,but we1 of another persuasion1 would laugh if a lion-tamer ever wished to speak to us of his improved animals4 ,as a rule1 the taming of a beast is only achieved by deteriorating it3 even the moral man is not a better man2 he is rather a weaker member of his species4 #cai ,up to the present1 morality has developed at the cost of3 the ruling classes and their specific instincts1 the well-constituted and beautiful natures1 the independent and privileged classes in all respects4 ,morality1 then1 is a sort of counter-movement opposing ,nature's endeavours to arrive at a higher type4 ,its effects are3 mistrust of life in general 7in so far as its tendencies are felt to be immoral71--hostility towards the senses 7inasmuch as the highest values are felt to be opposed to the higher instincts74--,degeneration and self-destruction of higher natures1 because it is precisely in them that the conflict becomes conscious4#cba ,suppose the strong were masters in all respects1 even in valuing3 let us try and think what their attitude would be towards illness1 suffering1 and sacrifice4 ,self-contempt on the part of the weak would be the result3 they would do their utmost to disappear and to extirpate their kind4 ,and would this be desirable8--should we really like a world in which the subtlety1 the consideration1 the intellectuality1 the plasticity--in fact1 the whole influence of the weak--was lacking8 444 #cbc ,under ,spiritual freedom ,i understand something very definite3 it is a state in which one is a hundred times superior to philosophers and other disciples of truth in one's severity towards one's self1 in one's uprightness1 in one's courage1 and in one's absolute will to say nay even when it is dangerous to say nay4 ,i regard the philosophers that have appeared heretofore as contemptible libertines hiding behind the petticoats of the female ,truth4 #chd ,,xii ,the ,will to ,power ,volume ,,ii ,the second volume of ,the ,will to ,power1 even in its present fragmentary form1 is the most important of ,nietzsche's works4 ,it draws together under one cover many of the leading doctrines voiced in his principal constructive books1 and in addition states them in terms of his fundamental postulate--the will to power4 ,in ,volume ,i of this work we had the application of this doctrine to morality1 religion and philosophy4 ,in the present book it is applied to science1 nature1 society1 breeding and art4 ,the notes are more analytical than in the former volume2 and the subject-matter is in itself of greater importance1 being more directly concerned with the exposition of ,nietzsche's main theory4 ,volume ,,ii is also fuller and more homogeneous1 and contains much new material4 ,so compact is its organisation that one is able to gain a very adequate idea of the purpose which animated ,nietzsche at the time of making these notes4 ,the will to power1 the principle which ,nietzsche held to be the elementary expression of life1 must be understood in order for one to comprehend the ,nietzschean system of ethics4 ,throughout all the books which followed ,the ,joyful ,wisdom we have indirect references to it and conclusions based on its assumption as a hypothesis4 ,and1 although it was never definitely and finally defined until the publication of the notes comprising ,the ,will to ,power1 it nevertheless was the actuating motive in all ,nietzsche's constructive writings4 ,simply stated1 the will to power is the biological instinct to maintenance1 persistence and development4 ,nietzsche holds that ,darwin's universal law of the instinct to mere survival is a misinterpretation of the forces at work in life4 ,he points out that existence is a condition--a medium of action--and by no means an end4 ,it is true that only the fittest survive in nature as a result of the tendency to exist2 but this theory does not account for the activities which take place after existence has been assured4 ,in order to explain these activities ,nietzsche advances the theory of the will to power and tests all actions by it4 ,it will be seen that by this theory the universal law of ,darwin is by no means abrogated1 but rather is it explained and developed4 ,in the operation of ,darwin's biological law there are many forces at work4 ,that is to say1 once the fact of existence is established1 numerous forces can be found at work within the limits of existence4 ,we know that the forces of nature--acting within the medium of existence which is an a priori condition--are rarely unified and directed toward the same result4 ,in short1 they are not reciprocal4 ,to the contrary1 they work more often against each other--they are antagonistic4 ,immediately a war of forces takes place2 and it is this war that constitutes all action in nature4 ,a force in nature directed at another force calls forth a resistance and counter-force2 and this instinct to act and to resist is in itself a will to act4 ,otherwise1 inertia would be the condition of life1 once mere existence was assured by the fittest4 ,but life is not inert4 ,even when certain organisms have accomplished the victory for existence1 and are no longer moved by a necessity to struggle for mere being1 the will to action persists2 and this will to action1 according to ,nietzsche1 is the will for power1 for in every clash of forces1 there is an attempt on the part of each force to overcome and resist the antagonistic one4 ,the greater the action1 the greater the antagonism4 ,hence1 this tendency in all forces to persist is at bottom a tendency of self-assertion1 of overcoming counter-forces1 of augmenting individual power4 ,wherever this will to persist is found1 ,nietzsche argues that the will to act is present2 and there can be no will to act without a will to power1 because the very desire for existence and development is a desire for power4 ,this1 in brief1 is ,nietzsche's doctrine applied to the organic and inorganic world4 ,in its application to the ideological world1 the reasoning is not changed4 ,in ideas ,nietzsche finds this same will to power4 ,but in them it is the reflection of the principle inherent in the material world4 ,there is no will inherent in ideas4 ,this assumption of a reflected will to power in the ideological world is one of ,nietzsche's most important concepts1 for it makes all ideas the outgrowth of ourselves1 and therefore dependent on natural laws4 ,it does away with the conception of supernatural power and with the old philosophical belief that ideas are superior forces to those of the organic and inorganic world4 ,nietzsche once and for all disposes of the theory that there is anything more powerful than force1 and by thus doing away with this belief1 he rationalises all ideas and puts thought on a tangible and stable basis4 ,in the opening section of the present book where he applies the will to power to scientific research1 the whole of this new theory is made clear1 and ,i advise the student to read well this section1 for ,i have been unable to present as clear and complete an expositional statement of it in ,nietzsche's own words as ,i would have liked to do1 owing to the close and interrelated manner in which these notes were written4 ,volume ,,ii of ,the ,will to ,power is in two books4 ,the first is called ,the ,principles of a ,new ,valuation2 the second1 ,discipline and ,breeding4 ,the first book is divided into four sections--,the ,will to ,power in ,science1 ,the ,will to ,power in ,nature1 ,the ,will to ,power as ,exemplified in ,society and in the ,individual and ,the ,will to ,power in ,art4 ,the second book has three divisions--,the ,order of ,rank1 ,dionysus and ,eternal ,recurrence4 ,of the first section of ,book ,one1 ,the ,will to ,power in ,science1 ,i have already spoken4 ,in this section ,nietzsche shows how arbitrary a thing science is1 and how closely related are its conclusions to the instinct of the scientists1 namely3 the instinct of the will to power4 ,scientists1 he holds1 are confronted by the necessity of translating all phenomena into terms compatible with the struggle for persistence and maintenance4 ,a fact in nature unaccounted for is a danger1 an obstacle to the complete mastery of natural conditions4 ,consequently the scientist1 directed and influenced by his will to power1 invents explanations which will bring all facts under his jurisdiction and control1 and will thereby increase his feeling of power4 ,as a result1 the great facts of life are looked upon as of secondary importance to their explanations1 and science becomes1 not an intelligent search for knowledge1 but a system of interpretations tending to increase the feeling of mastery in the men directly connected with it4 ,thus the law of the will to power1 as manifest in the organic and inorganic world1 becomes the dominating instinct in the ideological world as well4 ,it is well to speak here of truth as ,nietzsche conceived it4 ,we have seen how he denied its absolutism and declared it to be relative4 ,but in his present work he goes further and contends that the feeling of the increase of power is the determining factor in truth4 ,if1 as we have seen1 the truths of science are merely those interpretations which grow out of the scientists' will to power1 then truth itself must be the outgrowth of this instinct4 ,that which makes for the growth and development of the individual--or in other words1 that which increases the feeling of strength--is necessarily the truth4 ,from this it is easy to deduce the conclusion that in many instances truth is a reversal of facts1 for preservation very often consists in an adherence to actual falsity4 ,thus1 the false causality of certain phenomena--the outcome of logic engendered by a will to power--has not infrequently masqueraded as truth4 ,nietzsche holds that this doctrine contains the only possible definition of truth2 and in this doctrine we find an explanation for many of the apparent paradoxes in his teachings when the matter of truth and falsity are under discussion4 ,the second part of the first book relates to the will to power in nature1 and contains the most complete and lucid explanation of ,nietzsche's basic theory to be found anywhere in his writings4 ,this section opens with an argument against a purely mechanical interpretation of the world1 and a refutation of the physicists' concept of energy4 ,the chemical and physical laws1 the atomic theory and the mechanical concept of movement1 he characterises as inventions on the part of scientists and researchers for the purpose of understanding natural phenomena and therefore of increasing their feeling of power4 ,the apparent sequence of phenomena which constitutes law is1 according to ,nietzsche1 only a relation of power between two or more forces--a matter of interdependence1 a process wherein the procession of moments do not determine each other after the manner of cause and effect4 ,in these observations we see the process of reasoning with which ,nietzsche refutes the current methods of ascertaining facts and the manner in which he introduces the principle of will to power into the phenomena of nature4 ,it is in this section that ,nietzsche discusses at length the points of divergence between his life principle and that of ,darwin4 ,and it is here also that he treats of the psychology of pleasure and pain in their relation to the will to power4 ,this latter statement is of great importance in an understanding of the instincts of life as he taught them1 for it denies both pleasure and pain a place in the determining of acts4 ,they are both1 according to him1 but accompanying factors1 never causes1 and are but second-rate valuations derived from a dominating value4 ,he denies that man struggles for happiness4 ,to the contrary1 he holds that all expansion and growth and resistance--in short1 all movement--is related to states of pain1 and that1 although the modern man is master of the forces of nature and of himself1 he is no happier than the primeval man4 ,why1 then1 does man struggle for knowledge and growth1 knowing that it does not bring happiness8 ,not for existence1 because existence is already assured him4 ,but for power1 for the feeling of increased mastery4 ,thus ,nietzsche answers the two common explanations of man's will to action--the need for being and the desire for happiness--by his doctrine of the will to power4 ,the entire teaching of ,nietzsche in regard to classes and to the necessity of divergent moral codes to meet the needs of higher and lower castes1 is contained in the third part of the first book4 ,here again he emphasises the need of two codes and makes clear his stand in relation to the superior individual4 ,as ,i have pointed out in preceding chapters1 ,nietzsche did not attempt to do away with the morality of the inferior classes4 ,he saw that some such religious belief as ,christianity was imperative for them4 ,his fight was against its application to all classes1 against its dominance4 ,i mention this point again because it is the basis of the greatest misunderstanding of ,nietzsche's philosophy4 ,part ,,iii is written for the higher man1 and if this viewpoint is assumed on the part of the reader1 there will be no confusion as to doctrines encountered4 ,the statements in this section are in effect similar to those to be found in ,nietzsche's previous works1 but in every instance in the present case they are directly related to the will to power4 ,because of this they possess a significance which does not attach to them in antecedent volumes4 ,the whole of ,nietzsche's art theories are to be found in ,part ,,iv1 ,the ,will to ,power in ,art4 ,it is not merely a system of sthetics that occupies the pages under this section1 for ,nietzsche never divorces art from life itself2 and the artist1 according to him1 is the superior type1 the creator of values4 ,the concepts of beauty and ugliness are the outgrowths of an overflow of ,dionysian power2 and it is to the great artists of the past1 the instinctive higher men1 that we owe our current concepts4 ,the principle here is the dominant one in ,nietzsche's philosophy in relation to valuing3--to the few individuals of the race are we indebted for the world of values4 ,to the student who wishes to go deeply into ,nietzsche's ideas of art and his conception of the artist1 and to know in just what manner the ,dionysian and ,apollonian figure in his theories1 ,i unhesitatingly recommend ,anthony ,m4 ,ludovici's book1 ,nietzsche and ,art4 ,the first section of the second book in this volume contains some of ,nietzsche's finest writing4 ,its title1 ,the ,order of ,rank1 explains in a large measure what material comprises it4 ,it is a description of the various degrees of man1 and a statement of the attributes which belong to each4 ,no better definition of the different classes of men is to be found anywhere in this philosopher's writings4 ,one part is devoted to a consideration of the strong and the weak1 and the way in which they react on one another2 another part deals with the noble man and contains 7in ,aphorism #idc7 a list of the characteristics of the noble man1 unfortunately too long a list to be quoted in the present chapter2 another part defines the lords of the earth2 another part delineates the great man1 and enumerates his specific qualities2 and still another part treats of the highest man as law-giver of the future4 ,this section1 however1 is not a mere series of detached and isolated definitions1 but an important summary of the ethical code which ,nietzsche advanced as a result of his application of the doctrine of the will to power to the order of individual rank4 ,the two remaining sections--,dionysus and ,eternal ,recurrence--are short1 and fail to touch on new ground4 ,there are a few robust and heroic passages in the former section which summarise ,nietzsche's definitions of ,apollonian and ,dionysian2 but in the latter section there is nothing not found in the pamphlet called ,the ,eternal ,recurrence and in ,thus ,spake ,zarathustra4 ,i do not doubt that ,nietzsche had every intention of elaborating this last section1 for he considered the principle of recurrence a most important one in his philosophy4 ,but1 as it stands1 it is but a few pages in length and in no way touches upon his other philosophical doctrines4 ,if importance it had in the philosophy of the superman1 that importance was never shown either by ,nietzsche or by his critics4 ,however1 let us not overlook the importance of the doctrine of the will to power either in its relation to ,nietzsche's writings or in its application to ourselves4 ,by this doctrine the philosopher wished to make mankind realise its great dormant power4 ,the insistence on the human basis of all things was no more than a call to arms--an attempt to instil courage in men who had attributed all great phenomena to supernatural forces and had therefore acquiesced before them instead of having endeavoured to conquer them4 ,nietzsche's object was to make man surer of himself1 to infuse him with pride1 to imbue him with more daring1 to awaken him to a full realisation of his possibilities4 ,this1 in brief1 is the teaching of the will to power reduced to its immediate influences4 ,in this doctrine is preached a new virility4 ,not the sedentary virility of compromise1 but the virility which is born of struggle and suffering1 which is a sign of one's great love of living4 ,nietzsche offered a new set of vital ideals to supplant the decadent ones which now govern us4 ,resolute faith1 the power of affirmation1 initiative1 pride1 courage and fearlessness--these are the rewards in the exercise of the will to power4 ,the strength of great love and the vitality of great deeds1 as well as the possibility of rare and vigorous growth1 lie within this doctrine of will4 ,its object is to give back to us the life we have lost--the life of beauty and plenitude1 of strength and exuberance4 ,,excerpts ,,from ,,the ,,will ,,to ,,power volume ,,ii ,for hundreds of years1 pleasure and pain have been represented as the motives for every action4 ,upon reflection1 however1 we are bound to concede that everything would have proceeded in exactly the same way1 according to precisely the same sequence of cause and effect1 if the states pleasure and pain had been entirely absent4 #h-i ,the measure of the desire for knowledge depends upon the extent to which the ,will to ,power grows in a certain species3 a species gets a grasp of a given amount of reality1 in order to master it1 in order to enlist that amount in its service4 #ab ,it is our needs that interpret the world2 our instincts and their impulses for and against4 ,every instinct is a sort of thirst for power4444 #ac ,that a belief1 however useful it may be for the preservation of a species1 has nothing to do with the truth1 may be seen from the fact that we must believe in time1 space1 and motion1 without feeling ourselves compelled to regard them as absolute realities4 #af ,truth is that hind of error without which a certain species of living being cannot exist4 #bj ,in the formation of reason1 logic1 and the categories1 it was a need in us that was the determining power3 not the need to know1 but to classify1 to schematise1 for the purpose of intelligibility and calculation4 #bi ,logic is the attempt on our part to understand the actual world according to a scheme of ,being devised by ourselves2 or1 more exactly1 it is our attempt at making the actual world more calculable and more susceptible to formulation1 for our own purposes4444 #cc ,truth is the will to be master over the manifold sensations that reach consciousness2 it is the will to classify phenomena according to definite categories4 ,in this way we start out with a belief in the true nature of things 7we regard phenomena as real74 ,the character of the world in the process of ,becoming is not susceptible of formulation2 it is false and contradicts itself4 ,knowledge and the process of evolution exclude each other4 ,consequently1 knowledge must be something else2 it must be preceded by a will to make things knowable1 a kind of ,becoming in itself must create the impression of ,being4 #cc-cd4 ,the chief error of psychologists3 they regard the indistinct idea as of a lower kind than the distinct2 but that which keeps at a distance from our consciousness and which is therefore obscure1 may on that very account be quite clear in itself4 ,the fact that a thing becomes obscure is a question of the perspective of consciousness4 #db ,the criterion of truth lies in the enhancement of the feeling of power4 #di ,logic was intended to be a method of facilitating thought3 a means of expression1--not truth4444 ,later on it got to act like truth4444 #ej ,in a world which was essentially false1 truthfulness would be an anti-natural tendency3 its only purpose would be to provide a means of attaining to a higher degree of falsity4 #ea ,we have absolutely no experience concerning cause2 viewed psychologically we derive the whole concept from the subjective conviction1 that we ourselves are causes4 #ee ,truth is not something which is present and which has to be found and discovered2 it is something which has to be created and which gives its name to a process1 or1 better still1 to the ,will to overpower1 which in itself has no purpose4444 #fj ,the absolute is even an absurd concept3 an absolute mode of existence is nonsense1 the concept being1 thing1 is always relative to us4 ,the trouble is that1 owing to the old antithesis apparent and real1 the correlative valuations little value and absolute value have been spread abroad4 #hc ,man seeks the truth3 a world that does not contradict itself1 that does not deceive1 that does not change1 a real world--a world in which there is no suffering3 contradiction1 deception1 variability--the causes of suffering4 ,he does not doubt that there is such a thing as a world as it ought to be2 he would fain find a road to it4444 ,obviously1 the will to truth is merely the longing for a stable world4 ,the senses deceive2 reason corrects the errors3 therefore1 it was concluded1 reason is the road to a static state2 the most spiritual ideas must be nearest to the real world4 #hh ,the degree of a man's will-power may be measured from the extent to which he can dispense with the meaning in things1 from the extent to which he is able to endure a world without meaning3 because he himself arranges a small portion of it4 #ij ,there is no such thing as an established fact1 everything fluctuates1 everything is intangible1 yielding2 after all1 the most lasting of all things are our opinions4 #ajc ,that the worth of the world lies in our interpretations 7that perhaps yet other interpretations are possible somewhere1 besides mankind's72 that the interpretations made hitherto were perspective valuations1 by means of which we were able to survive in life1 i4 e4 in the ,will to ,power and in the growth of power2 that every elevation of man involves the overcoming of narrower interpretations2 that every higher degree of strength or power attained1 brings new views in its train1 and teaches a belief in new horizons--these doctrines lie scattered through all my works4 #ajg ,the triumphant concept energy with which our physicists created ,god and the world1 needs yet to be completer3 it must be given an inner will which ,i characterise as the ,will to ,power--that is to say1 as an insatiable desire to manifest power2 or the application and exercise of power as a creative instinct1 etc4444 #aaj ,the unalterable sequence of certain phenomena does not prove any law1 but a relation of power between two or more forces4 #aae ,a quantum of power is characterised by the effect it produces and the influence it resists4 ,the adiaphoric state which would be thinkable in itself1 is entirely lacking4 ,it is essentially a will to violence and a will to defend one's self against violence4 ,it is not self-preservation3 every atom exercises its influence over the whole of existence--it is thought out of existence if one thinks this radiation of will-power away4 ,that is why ,i call it a quantum of ,will to ,power4 444 #aag-aah ,my idea is that every specific body strives to become master of all space1 and to extend its power 7its will to power71 and to thrust back everything that resists it4 ,but inasmuch as it is continually meeting the same endeavours on the part of other bodies1 it concludes by coming to terms with those 7by combining with those7 which are sufficiently related to it--and thus they conspire together for power4 ,and the process continues4 #aba ,the influence of environment is nonsensically over-rated in ,darwin3 the essential factor in the process of life is precisely the tremendous inner power to shape and to create forms1 which merely uses1 exploits environment4 #abg ,the feeling of being surcharged1 the feeling accompanying an increase in strength1 quite apart from the utility of the struggle1 is the actual progress3 from these feelings the will to war is first derived4 #abh ,a living thing seeks above all to discharge its strength3 self-preservation is only one of the results thereof4444 #abh ,the most fundamental and most primeval activity of a protoplasm cannot be ascribed to a will to self-preservation1 for it absorbs an amount of material which is absurdly out of proportion with the needs of its preservation3 and what is more1 it does not preserve itself in the process1 but actually falls to pieces 4444 ,the instinct which rules here1 must account for this total absence in the organism of a desire to preserve itself4 ,the will to power can manifest itself only against obstacles3 it therefore goes in search of what resists it--this is the primitive tendency of the protoplasm when it extends its pseudopodia and feels about it4 ,the act of appropriation and assimilation is1 above all1 the result of an additional building and rebuilding1 until at last the subjected creature has become completely a part of the superior creature's sphere of power1 and has increased the latter4444 #acj ,why is all activity1 even that of a sense1 associated with pleasure8 ,because1 before the activity was possible1 an obstacle or a burden was done away with4 ,or1 rather1 because all action is a process of overcoming1 of becoming master of1 and of increasing the feeling of power8 #ace ,man is not only an individual1 but the continuation of collective organic life in one definite line4 ,the fact that man survives1 proves that a certain species of interpretations 7even though it still be added to7 has also survived2 that1 as a system1 this method of interpreting has not changed4 #aeb ,the fundamental phenomena3 innumerable individuals are sacrificed for the sake of a few1 in order to make the few possible4--,one must not allow one's self to be deceived2 the case is the same with peoples and races3 they produce the body for the generation of isolated and valuable individuals1 who continue the great process4 #aec ,life is not the continuous adjustment of internal relations to external relations1 but will to power1 which1 proceeding from inside1 subjugates and incorporates an ever-increasing quantity of external phenomena4 #aec-aed ,man as a species is not progressing4 ,higher specimens are indeed attained2 but they do not survive4 ,the general level of the species is not raised4444 ,man as a species does not represent any sort of progress compared with any other animal4 #aeg ,the domestication 7culture7 of man does not sink very deep4 ,when it does sink far below the skin it immediately becomes degeneration 7type3 the ,christian74 ,the wild man 7or1 in moral terminology1 the evil man7 is a reversion to ,nature--and1 in a certain sense1 he represents a recovery1 a cure from the effects of culture4444 #aeh ,the strong always have to be upheld against the weak2 and the well-constituted against the ill-constituted1 the healthy against the sick and physiologically botched4 ,if we drew our morals from reality1 they would read thus3 the mediocre are more valuable than the exceptional creatures1 and the decadent than the mediocre2 the will to nonentity prevails over the will to life4444 #aei ,that species show an ascending tendency1 is the most nonsensical assertion that has ever been made3 until now they have only manifested a dead level4 ,there is nothing whatever to prove that the higher organisms have developed from the lower4 #afj ,man as he has appeared up to the present is the embryo of the man of the future2 all the formative powers which are to produce the latter1 already lie in the former3 and owing to the fact that they are enormous1 the more promising for the future the modern individual happens to be1 the more suffering falls to his lot4 #afa ,the will to power is the primitive motive force out of which all other motives have been derived4 #afb ,from a psychological point of view the idea of cause is our feeling of power in the act which is called willing--our concept effect is the superstition that this feeling of power is itself the force which moves things4444 #afc ,life as an individual case 7a hypothesis which may be applied to existence in general7 strives after the maximum feeling of power2 life is essentially a striving after more power2 striving itself is only a straining after more power2 the most fundamental and innermost thing of all is this will4 #afe ,man does not seek happiness and does not avoid unhappiness4 ,everybody knows the famous prejudices ,i here contradict4 ,pleasure and pain are mere results1 mere accompanying phenomena--that which every man1 which every tiny particle of a living organism will have1 is an increase of power4 ,in striving after this1 pleasure and pain are encountered2 it is owing to that will that the organism seeks opposition and requires that which stands in its way4444 ,pain as the hindrance of its will to power is therefore a normal feature1 a natural ingredient of every organic phenomenon2 man does not avoid it2 on the contrary1 he is constantly in need of it2 every triumph1 every feeling of pleasure1 every event presupposes an obstacle overcome4 #agb ,man is now master of the forces of nature1 and master too of his own wild and unbridled feelings 7the passions have followed suit1 and have learned to become useful7--in comparison with primeval man1 the man of to-day represents an enormous quantum of power1 but not an increase in happiness4 ,how can one maintain1 then1 that he has striven after happiness8 #agd ,god is the culminating moment3 life is an eternal process of deifying and undeifying4 ,but withal there is no zenith of values1 but only a zenith of power4 #aha ,man has one terrible and fundamental wish2 he desires power1 and this impulse1 which is called freedom1 must be the longest restrained4 ,hence ethics has instinctively aimed at such an education as shall restrain the desire for power2 thus our morality slanders the would-be tyrant1 and glorifies charity1 patriotism1 and the ambition of the herd4 #ahf ,when the instincts of a society ultimately make it give up war and renounce conquest1 it is decadent3 it is ripe for democracy and the rule of shopkeepers4 #ahi ,the maintenance of the military ,state is the last means of adhering to the great tradition of the past2 or1 where it has been lost1 to revive it4 ,by means of it the superior or strong type of man is preserved1 and all institutions and ideas which perpetuate enmity and order of rank in ,states such as national feeling1 protective tariffs1 etc41 may on that account seem justified4 #aij ,concerning the future of marriage4--,a supertax on inherited property1 a longer term of military service for bachelors of a certain minimum age within the community4 ,privileges of all sorts for fathers who lavish boys upon the world1 and perhaps plural votes as well4 ,a medical certificate as a condition of any marriage1 endorsed by the parochial authorities1 in which a series of questions addressed to the parties and the medical officers must be answered 7family histories74 ,as a counter-agent to prostitution1 or as its ennoblement1 ,i would recommend leasehold marriages 7to last for a term of years or months71 with adequate provision for the children4 ,every marriage to be warranted and sanctioned by a certain number of good men and true1 of the parish1 as a parochial obligation4 #aic ,society 444 should in many cases actually prevent the act of procreation1 and may1 without any regard for rank1 descent1 or intellect1 hold in readiness the most rigorous forms of compulsion and restriction1 and1 under certain circumstances1 have recourse to castration4 #aid ,the idea of punishment ought to be reduced to the concept of the suppression of revolt1 a weapon against the vanquished 7by means of long or short terms of imprisonment74 ,but punishment should not be associated in any way with contempt4 ,a criminal is at all events a man who has set his life1 his honour1 his freedom at stake2 he is therefore a man of courage4 ,neither should punishment be regarded as penance or retribution1 as though there were some recognised rate of exchange between crime and punishment4 ,punishment does not purify1 simply because crime does not sully4 #aih ,should not the punishment fit the crime8 #bjj ,the will to power is so loathed in democratic ages that the whole of the psychology of these ages seems directed towards its belittlement and slander4 #bje ,i am opposed to ,socialism because it dreams ingenuously of goodness1 truth1 beauty1 and equal rights 7anarchy pursues the same ideal1 but in a more brutal fashion74 ,i am opposed to parliamentary government and the power of the press1 because they are the means whereby cattle become masters4 #bjf ,the idea of a higher order of man is hated much more profoundly than monarchs themselves4 ,hatred of aristocracy always uses hatred of monarchy as a mask4 #bjg ,utility and pleasure are slave theories of life4 ,the blessing of work is an ennobling phrase for slaves4 ,incapacity for leisure4 #bjh ,there is no such thing as a right to live1 a right to work1 or a right to be happy3 in this respect man is no different from the meanest worm4 #bjh ,fundamental errors3 to regard the herd as an aim instead of the individual6 ,the herd is only a means and nothing more6 ,but nowadays people are trying to understand the herd as they would an individual1 and to confer higher rights upon it than upon isolated personalities4 ,in addition to this1 all that makes for gregariousness1 e4g41 sympathy1 is regarded as the more valuable side of our natures4 #bad-bae ,the will to power appears3-- 7a7 ,among the oppressed and slaves of all kinds1 in the form of will to freedom3 the mere fact of breaking loose from something seems to be an end in itself 7in a religio-moral sense3 ,one is only answerable to one's own conscience2 evangelical freedom1 etc41 etc474 7b7 ,in the case of a stronger species1 ascending to power1 in the form of the will to overpower4 ,if this fails1 then it shrinks to the will to justice--that is to say1 to the will to the same measure of rights as the ruling caste possesses4 7c7 ,in the case of the strongest1 richest1 most independent1 and most courageous1 in the form of love of humanity1 of love of the people1 of the gospel1 of truth1 of ,god1 of pity1 of self-sacrifice1 etc41 etc42 in the form of overpowering1 of deeds of capture1 of imposing service on some one1 of an instinctive reckoning of one's self as part of a great mass of power to which one attempts to give a direction3 the hero1 the prophet1 the ,csar1 the ,saviour1 the bell-wether4 #bbj-bba ,individualism is a modest and still unconscious form of will to power2 with it a single human unit seems to think it sufficient to free himself from the preponderating power of society 7or of the ,state or ,church74 ,he does not set himself up in opposition as a personality1 but merely as a unit2 he represents the rights of all other individuals as against the whole4 ,that is to say1 he instinctively places himself on a level with every other unit3 what he combats he does not combat as a person1 but as a representative of units against a mass4 #bbg ,there are no such things as moral actions3 they are purely imaginary4 ,not only is it impossible to demonstrate their existence 7a fact which ,kant and ,christianity1 for instance1 both acknowledge7--but they are not even possible4 ,owing to psychological misunderstanding1 man invented an opposite to the instinctive impulses of life1 and believed that a new species of instinct was thereby discovered3 a primum mobile was postulated which does not exist at all4 ,according to the valuation which gave rise to the antithesis moral and immoral1 one should say3 ,there is nothing else on earth but immoral intentions and actions4 ,the whole differentiation1 moral and immoral1 arises from the assumption that both moral and immoral actions are the result of a spontaneous will--in short1 that such a will exists2 or in other words1 that moral judgments can only hold good with regard to intuitions and actions that are free4 ,but this whole order of actions and intentions is purely imaginary3 the only world to which the moral standard could be applied does not exist at all3 there is no such thing as a moral or an immoral action4 #bcj-bca ,there are two conditions in which art manifests itself in man even as a force of nature1 and disposes of him whether he consent or not3 it may be as a constraint to visionary states1 or it may be an orgiastic impulse4 #bdj ,sexuality1 intoxication1 cruelty2 all these belong to the oldest festal joys of mankind1 they also preponderate in budding artists4 #bdc ,the desire for art and beauty is an indirect longing for the ecstasy of sexual desire1 which gets communicated to the brain4 #bdh ,all art works as a tonic2 it increases strength1 it kindles desire 7i4e41 the feeling of strength71 it excites all the more subtle recollections of intoxication4444 #beb ,the inartistic states are3 objectivity1 reflection1 suspension of the will4444 ,the inartistic states are3 those which impoverish1 which subtract1 which bleach1 under which life suffers--the ,christian4 #beg ,would any link be missing in the whole chain of science and art1 if woman1 if woman's work1 were excluded from it8 ,let us acknowledge the exception--it proves the rule--that woman is capable of perfection in everything which does not constitute a work3 in letters1 in memoirs1 in the most intricate handiwork--in short1 in everything which is not a craft4444 #bfj-bfa ,a man is an artist to the extent to which he regards everything that inartistic people call form as the actual substance1 as the principal thing4 #bfa ,the essential feature in art is its power of perfecting existence1 its production of perfection and plenitude2 art is essentially the affirmation1 the blessing1 and the deification of existence4444 #bfc ,the greatness of an artist is not to be measured by the beautiful feelings which he evokes3 let this belief be left to the girls4 ,it should be measured according to the extent to which he approaches the grand style1 according to the extent to which he is capable of the grand style4 ,this style and great passion have this in common--that they scorn to please2 that they forget to persuade3 that they command2 that they will4444 ,to become master of the chaos which is in one2 to compel one's inner chaos to assume form2 to become consistent1 simple1 unequivocal1 mathematical1 law--this is the great ambition here4 #bgg ,a preference for questionable and terrible things is a symptom of strength2 whereas the taste for pretty and charming trifles is characteristic of the weak and the delicate4 #bhg ,art is the great means of making life possible1 the great seducer to life1 the great stimulus of life4 ,art is the only superior counter-agent to all will to the denial of life2 it is par excellence the anti-,christian1 the anti-,buddhistic1 the anti-,nihilistic force4 #bij ,quanta of power alone determine rank and distinguish rank3 nothing else does4 #bie ,it is necessary for higher men to declare war upon the masses6 ,in all directions mediocre people are joining hands in order to make themselves masters4 ,everything that pampers1 that softens1 and that brings the people or woman to the front1 operates in favour of universal suffrage--that is to say1 the dominion of inferior men4 #big ,woman has always conspired with decadent types1--the priests1 for instance1--against the mighty1 against the strong1 against men4 ,women avail themselves of children for the cult of piety1 pity1 and love3--the mother stands as the symbol of convincing altruism4 #cjj ,it is necessary to show that a counter-movement is inevitably associated with any increasingly economical consumption of men and mankind1 and with an ever more closely involved machinery of interests and services4 ,i call this counter-movement the separation of the luxurious surplus of mankind3 by means of it a stronger kind1 a higher type1 must come to light1 which has other conditions for its origin and for its maintenance than the average man4 ,my concept1 my metaphor for this type is1 as you know1 the word ,superman4 #cje ,readers are beginning to see what ,i am combating--namely1 economic optimism3 as if the general welfare of everybody must necessarily increase with the growing self-sacrifice of everybody4 ,the very reverse seems to me to be the case1 the self-sacrifice of everybody amounts to a collective loss2 man becomes inferior--so that nobody knows what end this monstrous purpose has served4 #cjf-cjg ,the root of all evil3 that the slave morality of modesty1 chastity1 selfishness1 and absolute obedience should have triumphed4 ,dominating natures were thus condemned 7#a7 to hypocrisy1 7#b7 to qualms of conscience1--creative natures regarded themselves as rebels against ,god1 uncertain and hemmed in by eternal values4 #cji ,that which men of power and will are able to demand of themselves gives them the standard for what they may also allow themselves4 ,such natures are the very opposite of the vicious and the unbridled3 although under certain circumstances they may perpetrate deeds for which an inferior man would be convicted of vice and intemperance4 ,in this respect the concept1 all men are equal before ,god does an extraordinary amount of harm2 actions and attitudes of mind were forbidden which belonged to the prerogative of the strong alone1 just as if they were in themselves unworthy of man4 ,all the tendencies of strong men were brought into disrepute by the fact that the defensive weapons of the most weak 7even of those who were weakest towards themselves7 were established as a standard of valuation4 #caa ,the degeneration of the ruler and of the ruling classes has been the cause of all the great disorders in history6 #cab ,the solitary type should not be valued from the standpoint of the gregarious type1 or vice versa4 #cbj ,who would dare to disgust the mediocre of their mediocrity6 ,as you observe1 ,i do precisely the reverse3 every step away from mediocrity--thus do ,i teach--leads to immorality4 #cbd ,what ,i combat3 that an exceptional form should make war upon the rule--instead of understanding that the continued existence of the rule is the first condition of the value of the exception4 #cbe ,one should not suppose the mission of a higher species to be the leading of inferior men 7as ,comte does1 for instance72 but the inferior should be regarded as the foundation upon which a higher species may live their higher life--upon which alone they can stand4 #cbi ,my consolation is1 that the nature of man is evil1 and this guarantees his strength6 #ccb ,there is no true scholar who has not the instincts of a true soldier in his veins4 ,to be able to command and to be able to obey in a proud fashion2 to keep one's place in rank and file1 and yet to be ready at any moment to lead2 to prefer danger to comfort2 not to weigh what is permitted and what is forbidden in a tradesman's balance2 to be more hostile to pettiness1 slyness1 and parasitism than to wickedness4 ,what is it that one learns in a hard school8--to obey and to command4 #cce ,the means by which a strong species maintains itself3-- ,it grants itself the right of exceptional actions1 as a test of the power of self-control and of freedom4 ,it abandons itself to states in which a man is not allowed to be anything else than a barbarian4 ,it tries to acquire strength of will by every kind of asceticism4 ,it is not expansive2 it practises silence2 it is cautious in regard to all charms4 ,it learns to obey in such a way that obedience provides a test of self-maintenance4 ,casuistry is carried to its highest pitch in regard to points of honour4 ,it never argues1 ,what is sauce for the goose is sauce for the gander--but conversely6 it regards reward1 and the ability to repay1 as a privilege1 as a distinction4 ,it does not covet other people's virtues4 #cda ,the blind yielding to a passion1 whether it be generosity1 pity1 or hostility1 is the cause of the greatest evil4 ,greatness of character does not consist in not possessing these passions--on the contrary1 a man should possess them to a terrible degree3 but he should lead them by the bridle4444 #cdf ,education3 essentially a means of ruining exceptions in favour of the rule4 ,culture3 essentially the means of directing taste against the exceptions in favour of the mediocre4 #cdi ,what is noble8--,the fact that one is constantly forced to be playing a part4 ,that one is constantly searching for situations in which one is forced to put on airs4 ,that one leaves happiness to the greatest number3 the happiness which consists of inner peacefulness1 of virtue1 of comfort1 and of ,anglo-angelic-back-parlour-smugness1 la ,spencer4 ,that one instinctively seeks for heavy responsibilities4 ,that one knows how to create enemies everywhere1 at a pinch even in one's self4 ,that one contradicts the greatest number1 not in words at all1 but by continually behaving differently from them4 #ceg ,the first thing that must be done is to rear a new kind of man in whom the duration of the necessary will and the necessary instincts is guaranteed for many generations4 ,this must be a new kind of ruling species and caste--this ought to be quite as clear as the somewhat lengthy and not easily expressed consequences of this thought4 ,the aim should be to prepare a transvaluation of values for a particularly strong kind of man1 most highly gifted in intellect and will1 and1 to his end1 slowly and cautiously to liberate in him a whole host of slandered instincts hitherto held in check4444 #cfc-cfd ,the revolution1 confusion1 and distress of whole peoples is in my opinion of less importance than the misfortunes which attend great individuals in their development4 ,we must not allow ourselves to be deceived3 the many misfortunes of all these small folk do not together constitute a sum-total1 except in the feelings of mighty men4 #cfi ,the greatest men may also perhaps have great virtues1 but then they also have the opposites of these virtues4 ,i believe that it is precisely out of the presence of these opposites and of the feelings they suscitate1 that the great man arises1--for the great man is the broad arch which spans two banks lying far apart4 #cgj ,in great men we find the specific qualities of life in their highest manifestation3 injustice1 falsehood1 exploitation4 ,but inasmuch as their effect has always been overwhelming1 their essential nature has been most thoroughly misunderstood1 and interpreted as goodness4 #cgj-cga ,we must not make men better1 we must not talk to them about morality in any form as if morality in itself1 or an ideal kind of man in general1 could be taken for granted2 but we must create circumstances in which stronger men are necessary1 such as for their part will require a morality 7or1 better still3 a bodily and spiritual discipline7 which makes men strong1 and upon which they will consequently insist6 #cgi ,we must not separate greatness of soul from intellectual greatness4 ,for the former involves independence2 but without intellectual greatness independence should not be allowed2 all it does is to create disasters even in its lust of well-doing and of practising justice4 ,inferior spirits must obey1 consequently they cannot be possessed of greatness4 #chj ,i teach that there are higher and lower men1 and that a single individual may under certain circumstances justify whole millenniums of existence--that is to say1 a wealthier1 more gifted1 greater1 and more complete man1 as compared with innumerable imperfect and fragmentary men4 #chf ,he who determines values and leads the will of millenniums1 and does this by leading the highest natures--he is the highest man4 #chf ,we should attain to such a height1 to such a lofty eagle's ledge1 in our observation1 as to be able to understand that everything happens1 just as it ought to happen3 and that all imperfection1 and the pain it brings1 belong to all that which is most eminently desirable4 #chi ,pleasure appears with the feeling of power4 ,happiness means that power and triumph have entered into our consciousness4 ,progress is the strengthening of the type1 the ability to exercise great will-power3 everything else is a misunderstanding and a danger4 #djc ,man is a combination of the beast and the superbeast3 higher man a combination of the monster and the superman3 these opposites belong to each other4 ,with every degree of a man's growth towards greatness and loftiness1 he also grows downwards into the depths and into the terrible3444 #dje ,the word ,dionysian expresses3 a constraint to unity1 a soaring above personality1 the commonplace1 society1 reality1 and above the abyss of the ephemeral2 the passionately painful sensation of superabundance1 in darker1 fuller1 and more fluctuating conditions2 an ecstatic saying of yea to the collective character of existence1 as that which remains the same1 and equally mighty and blissful throughout all change2 the great pantheistic sympathy with pleasure and pain1 which declares even the most terrible and most questionable qualities of existence good1 and sanctifies them2 the eternal will to procreation1 to fruitfulness1 and to recurrence2 the feeling of unity in regard to the necessity of creating and annihilating4 #dae-daf ,at this point ,i set up the ,dionysus of the ,greeks3 the religious affirmation of ,life1 of the whole of ,life1 not of denied and partial ,life4444 #dbj ,god on the ,cross is a curse upon ,life1 a signpost directing people to deliver themselves from it2--,dionysus cut into pieces is a promise of ,life3 it will be for ever born anew1 and rise afresh from destruction4 #dba ,,bibliography ,in the following list no attempt has been made at completion4 ,i have set down only the important and more useful works concerning ,nietzsche and his philosophy1 and have further limited myself to such volumes as are in ,english4 ,i have omitted entirely the large number of essays on ,nietzsche which have appeared in magazines1 as well as those books which embody only the various ,nietzschean ideas4 ,,expositional ,,books ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,friedrich ,,nietzsche1 by ,h4 ,l4 ,mencken4 ,a brilliantly written and extensive exposition of ,nietzsche's thought1 including an account of the philosopher's life1 a discussion of his origins1 a reply to his critics1 and a chapter on how to study him4 ,mr4 ,mencken's book1 though untechnical1 is comprehensive1 concise and admirably conceived4 ,it constitutes one of the most valuable ,nietzschean commentaries in ,english4 ,,friedrich ,,nietzsche3 ,,his ,,life ,,and ,,work1 by ,m4 ,a4 ,mgge4 ,a large and scholarly treatise of special value to the philosophical student4 ,this work1 a pioneer one1 is somewhat ponderous and uninteresting1 but none the less exhaustive2 and contains a bibliography consisting of #hej titles4 ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,nietzsche1 by ,georges ,h4 ,chatterton-,hill4 ,a suggestive1 academic study of the main points in the ,nietzschean ethic4 ,this book is too technical in places to appeal strongly to the beginner1 but is invaluable as supplementary reading4 ,,the ,,quintessence ,,of ,,nietzsche1 by ,j4 ,m4 ,kennedy4 ,an interesting and unassuming survey of ,nietzsche's work1 abounding with quotations4 ,,nietzsche3 ,,his ,,life ,,and ,,works1 by ,anthony ,m4 ,ludovici4 ,mr4 ,ludovici is the translator of many of ,nietzsche's works into ,english1 and has contributed to ,dr4 ,levy's edition several prefaces and many explanatory notes4 ,his book is complete and authoritative4 ,other adequate commentaries are3 ,,the ,,gospel ,,of ,,superman1 by ,henri ,lichtenberger1 translated from the ,french by ,j4 ,m4 ,kennedy2 ,,friedrich ,,nietzsche1 by ,a4 ,r4 ,orage2 ,,nietzsche ,,as ,,critic1 ,,philosopher1 ,,poet ,,and ,,prophet1 by ,thomas ,common2 ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,friedrich ,,nietzsche1 by ,grace ,neal ,dolson2 and ,,friedrich ,,nietzsche1 by ,georg ,brandes1 translated by ,a4 ,g4 ,chater4 ,,biographies ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,nietzsche1 by ,frau ,frster-,nietzsche4 ,this work1 in two volumes1 is the standard biography of ,nietzsche1 written by his sister4 ,though elaborate in detail and replete in personal correspondence and papers1 it is not all that might be hoped for4 ,one's devoted sister does not always make the most penetrating biographer4 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,friedrich ,,nietzsche1 by ,daniel ,halvy1 translated from the ,french by ,j4 ,m4 ,hone4 ,m4 ,halvy has founded his work on that of ,frau ,frster-,nietzsche2 and while his version improves on its model at many points1 it is in places supposititious and over-drawn1 and is conceived in too ironical a vein4 ,unfortunately there is no adequate biography of ,nietzsche in existence4 ,nor is there likely to be one1 inasmuch as all the papers and data necessary for such an undertaking are in the possession of ,nietzsche's sister4 ,,books ,,of ,,selections ,,the ,,gist ,,of ,,nietzsche1 by ,h4 ,l4 ,mencken4 ,,nietzsche ,,in ,,outline ,,and ,,aphorism1 by ,a4 ,r4 ,orage4 ,,nietzsche3 ,,his ,,maxims1 by ,j4 ,m4 ,kennedy4